A Report of the
Committee on Water Quality Criteria
Environmental Studies Board
National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Washington, B.C., 1972
At the request of
and funded by
The Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C., 1972
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For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price: $12.80.
Stock Number 5501-00520
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EPA Review Notice
This report was prepared under a contract financed by the Environmental
Protection Agency and is approved by the Agency for publication as an important
contribution to the scientific literature, but not as the Agency's sole criteria for
standards setting purposes. Neither is it necessarily a reflection of the Agency's views
and policies. The mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for their use.
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NOTICE
The study reported herein was undertaken under the aegis of the National Re-
search Council with the express approval of the Governing Board of the NRG. Such
approval indicated that the Board considered that the problem is of national signifi-
cance, that elucidation or solution of the problem required scientific or technical
competence, and that the resources of NRG were particularly suitable to the conduct
of the project. The institutional responsibilities of the NRC were then discharged in
the following manner:
The members of the study committee were selected for their individual scholarly
competence and judgment with due consideration for the balance and breadth of
disciplines. Responsibility for all aspects of this report rests with the study committee,
to whom we express our sincere appreciation.
Although the reports of our study committees are not submitted for approval to
the Academy membership nor to the Council, each report is reviewed by a second
group of appropriately qualified individuals according to procedures established
and monitored by the Academy's Report Review Committee. Such reviews are in-
tended to determine, among other things, whether the major questions and relevant
points of view have been addressed and whether the reported findings, conclusions,
and recommendations arose from the available data and information. Distribution
of the report is approved, by the President, only after satisfactory completion of this
review process.
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July 22, 1972
THE HONORABLE WILLIAM D. RUCKELSHAUS
Administrator
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
DEAR MR. RUCKELSHAUS:
It is our pleasure to transmit to you the report Water Quality Criteria, 1972 pre-
pared by the National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering Com-
mittee on Water Quality Criteria.
This book is the successor to the Water Quality Criteria Report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior in 1968. The 1972
Report drew significantly on its 1968 predecessor; nevertheless the current study
represents a complete reexamination of the problems, and a critical review of all
the data included here. The conclusions offered reflect the best judgment of the
Academies' Committee.
The Report develops scientific criteria arranged in categories of major beneficial
use. We are certain that the information and conclusions contained in this Report
will be of use and value to the large number of people throughout the country who
are concerned with achieving a high level of water quality for the Nation.
It is our pleasure to note the substantial personal contributions of the members
of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria and its Panels and advisers. They have
contributed more than 2,000 man-days of effort for which they deserve our gratitude.
In less than a year and a half, they have collected a vast amount of scientific and
technical information and presented it in a way that we believe will be most helpful
to Federal and State officials as well as to the scientific community and the public.
Oversight responsibility for the document, of course, rests with the Committee on
Water Quality Criteria ably chaired by Dr. Gerard A. Rohlich of the University of
Texas at Austin.
We wish also to express our appreciation to the Environmental Protect ion Agency
which, without in any way attempting to influence the Committee'!: conclusions,
provided technical expertise and information as well as the resources to undertake
the study.
In the course of their work the Committee and Panels identified several scientific
and technical areas in which necessary data is insufficient or lacking. The Academies
find that a separate report is urgently required that specifies research needs to enable
an increasingly effective evaluation of water quality. We are currently preparing
such a report.
Sincerely yours,
PHILIP HANDLER CLARENCE H. LINDER
President President
National Academy of Sciences National Academy of Engineering
VI
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Environmental Studies Board
National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering
Dr. DAVID M. GATES, Chairman
Dr. WILLIAM C. ACKERMANN
Dr. HENDRIK W. BODE
Dr. REID A. BRYSON
Dr. ARTHUR D. HASLER
Dr. G. EVELYN HUTCHINSON
Dr. THOMAS F. MALONE
Dr. ROBERT S. MORISON
Dr. ROGER REVELLE
Dr. JOSEPH L. SAX
Dr. CHAUNCEY STARR
Dr. JOHN A. SWARTOUT
Dr. ALEXANDER ZUCKER, Executive Director
COMMITTEE ON WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
Dr. GERARD A. ROHLICH, University of Texas, Austin, Chairman
Dr. ALFRED M. BEETON, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
Dr. BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. CORNELIUS W. KRUSE, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. THURSTON E. LARSON, Illinois State Water Survey
Dr. EMILIO A. SAVINELLI, Drew Chemical Corporation
Dr. RAY L. SHIRLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville
Dr. CHARLES R. MALONE, Principal Staff Officer
Mr. CARLOS M. FETTEROLF, Scientific Coordinator
Mr. ROBERT C. ROONEY, Editor
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PANEL ON RECREATION AND AESTHETICS
Panel Members
Dr. CORNELIUS W. KRUSE, The Johns Hopkins University, Chairman
Dr. MICHAEL CHUBB, Michigan State University
Mr. MILO A. CHURCHILL, Tennessee Valley Authority
Mr. NORMAN E. JACKSON, Department of Environmental Services,
Washington, D.C.
Mr. WILLIAM L. KLEIN, Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission
Dr. P. H. McGAUHEY, University of California, Berkeley
Dr. ERIC W. MOOD, Yale University
Mr. RALPH FORCES, Delaware River Basin Commission
Dr. LESLIE M. REID, Texas A & M University
Dr. MICHAEL B. SONNEN, Water Resources Engineers, Inc.
Mr. ROBERT O. SYLVESTER, University of Washington
Mr. C. W. THREINEN, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Dr. RICHARD I. PIETZ, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Dr. W. N. BARNES, Tennessee Valley Authority
Mr. A. LEON BATES, Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. ERNEST BAY, University of Maryland
Dr. HARWOOD S. BELDING, University of Pittsburg
Dr. KENNETH K. CHEW, University of Washington
Dr. T. F. HALL, JR., Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. A. D. HESS, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Mr. ROBERT M. HOWES, Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. RAY B. KRONE, University of California, Davis
Mr. DAVID P. POLLISON, Delaware River Basin Commission
Dr. R. A. STANLEY, Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. EUGENE B. WELCH, University of Washington
Dr. IRA L. WHITMAN, Ohio Department of Health
EPA Liaisons
Mr. LOWELL E. KEUP
Mr. LELAND J. McCABE
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PANEL ON PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES
Panel Members
Dr. THURSTON E. LARSON, Illinois State Water Survey, Chairman
Dr. RUSSELL F. CHRISTMAN, University of Washington
Mr. PAUL D. HANEY, Black & Veatch, Consulting Engineers
Mr. ROBERT C. McWHINNIE, Board of Water Commissioners, Denver,
Colorado
Mr. HENRY J. ONGERTH, State Department of Public Health, California
Dr. RANARD J. PICKERING, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. J. K. G. SILVEY, North Texas State University
Dr. J. EDWARD SINGLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville
Dr. RICHARD L. WOODWARD, Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc.
Mr. WILLIAM ROBERTSON IV, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Dr. SAMUEL D. FAUST, Rutgers University
EPA Liaisons
Mr. EDWIN E. GELDREICH
Dr. MILTON W. LAMMERING, JR.
Dr. BENJAMIN H. PRINGLE
Mr. GORDON G. ROBECK
Dr. ROBERT G. TARDIFF
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PANEL ON FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
Panel Members
Dr. ALFRED M. BEETON, University of Wisconsin, Chairman
Dr. JOHN CAIRNS, JR., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Dr. CHARLES C. COUTANT, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Dr. ROLF HARTUNG, University of Michigan
Dr. HOWARD E. JOHNSON, Michigan State University
Dr. RUTH PATRICK, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
Dr- LLOYD L. SMITH, JR., University of Minnesota, St. Paul
Dr. JOHN B. SPRAGUE, University of Guelph
Mr. DONALD M. MARTIN, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Dr. IRA R. ADELMAN, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
Mr. YATES M. BARBER, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. F. H. BORMANN, Yale University
Dr. KENNETH L. DICKSON, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University
Dr. FRANK M. DTTRI, Michigan State University
Dr. TROY DORRIS, Oklahoma State University
Dr. PETER DOUDOROFF, Oregon State University
Dr. W. T. EDMONDSON, University of Washington
Dr. R. F. FOSTER, Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Dr. BLAKE GRANT, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. JOHN HOOPES, University of Wisconsin
Dr. PAUL H. KING, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Dr. ROBERT E. LENNON, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. GENE E. LIKENS, Cornell University
Dr. JOSEPH I. MIHURSKY, University of Maryland
Mr. MICHAEL E. NEWTON, Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Dr. JOHN C. PETERS, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. ANTHONY POLICASTRO, Argonne National Laboratory
Dr. DONALD PRITCHARD, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. LUIGI PROVAZOLI, Yale University
Dr. CHARLES RENN, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. RICHARD A. SCHOETTGER, U.S. Department of the Interior
Mr. DEAN L. SHUMWAY, Oregon State University
Dr. DAVID L. STALLING, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. RAY WEISS, Scripps Institute of Oceanography
EPA Liaisons
Mr. JOHN W. ARTHUR
Mr. KENNETH BIESINGER
Dr. GERALD R. BOUCK
Dr. WILLIAM A. BRUNGS
Mr. JOHN G. EATON
Dr. DONALD I. MOUNT
Dr. ALAN V. NEBEKER
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PANEL ON MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
Panel Members
Dr. BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Chairman
Dr. RICHARD T. BARBER, Duke University
Dr. JAMES CARPENTER, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. L. EUGENE CRONIN, University of Maryland
Dr. HOLGER W. JANNASCH, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. G. CARLETON RAY, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. THEODORE R. RICE, U.S. Department of Commerce
Dr. ROBERT W. RISEBROUGH, University of California, Berkeley
Dr. MICHAEL WALDICHUK, Fisheries Research Board of Canada
Mr. WILLIAM ROBERTSON IV, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Mr. CLARENCE CATOE, U.S. Coast Guard
Dr. GEORGE R. HARVEY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. THEODORE G. METCALF, University of New Hampshire
Dr. VICTOR NOSHKIN, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. DONALD J. O'CONNOR, Manhattan College
Dr. JOHN H. RYTHER, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. ALBERT J. SHERK, University of Maryland
Dr. RICHARD A. WADE, The Sport Fishing Institute
EPA Liaisons
Dr. THOMAS W. DUKE
Dr. C. S. HEGRE
Dr. GILLES LAROCHE
Dr. CLARENCE M. TARZWELL
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PANEL ON AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER
Panel Members
Dr. RAY L. SHIRLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville, Chairman
Dr. HENRY V. ATHERTON, The University of Vermont
Dr. R. D. BLACKBURN, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. PETER A. FRANK, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Mr. VICTOR L. HAUSER, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. CHARLES H. HILL, North Carolina State University
Dr. PHILIP C. KEARNEY, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. JESSE LUNIN, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. LEWIS B. NELSON, Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. OSCAR E. OLSON, South Dakota State University
Dr. PARKER F. PRATT, University of California, Riverside
Dr. G. B. VAN NESS, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. RICHARD I. PIETZ, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Dr. L. BOERSMA, Oregon State University
Dr. ROYCE J. EMERICK, South Dakota State University
Dr. HENRY FISCHBACH, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare
Dr. THOMAS D. HINESLY, University of Illinois
Dr. CLARENCE LANCE, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. J. M. LAWRENCE, Auburn University
Dr. R. A. PACKER, Iowa State University
Dr. IVAN THOMASON, University of California, Riverside
EPA Liaisons
Dr. H. PAIGE NICHOLSON
Mr. HURLON C. RAY
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PANEL ON INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES
Panel Members
Dr. EMILIO A. SAVINELLI, Drew Chemical Corporation, Chairman
Mr. I. B. DICK, Consulting Chemical Engineer
Mr. CHARLES C. DINKEL, Drew Chemical Corporation
Dr. MAURICE FUERSTENAU, South Dakota School of Mining and
Technology
Mr. ARTHUR W. FYNSK, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
Mr. GEORGE J. HANKS, JR., Union Carbide Corporation
Mr. WILLIAM A. KEILBAUGH, Cochrane Division, Crane Company
Dr. JAMES C. LAMB, III, University of North Carolina
Mr. JAMES K. RICE, Cyrus Wm. Rice Division, NUS Corporation
Mr. J. JAMES ROOSEN, The Detroit Edison Company
Mr. ROBERT H. STEWART, Hazen and Sawyer
Dr. SIDNEY SUSSMAN, Olin Corporation
Mr. CHARLES H. THORBORG, Gulf Degremont Inc.
Mr. BERNARD WACHTER, WAPORA, Inc.
Dr. WALTER J. WEBER, JR., The University of Michigan
Mr. DONALD M. MARTIN, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Mr. MAXEY BROOKE, Phillips Petroleum Company
Mr. ROY V. COMEAUX, SR., Esso Research and Engineering Company
Mr. HARRY V. MYERS, JR., The Detroit Edison Company
EPA Liaisons
Mr. JOHN M. FAIRALL
Mr. THOMAS J. POWERS
xm
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PREFACE
In 1971, at the request of the United States Environmental Protection Agency,
the National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering undertook the
revision of WATER QUALITY CRITERIA, the 1968 Report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee (NTAC) to the Secretary of the Interior. The Acad-
emies appointed a Committee on Water Quality Criteria and six Panels, and the
responsibility for overseeing their activities was assigned to the Environmental
Studies Board, a joint body of the Academies.
The guidelines for the Academies' Committee were similar to those followed by
the NTAC. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, as amended by the
Water Quality Act of 1965, authorized the states and the federal government to
establish water quality standards for interstate and coastal waters. Paragraph 3,
Section 10 of the 1965 Act reads as follows:
Standards of quality established pursuant to this subsection shall be
such as to protect the public health or welfare, enhance the quality of water
and serve the purposes of this Act. In establishing such standards the Secre-
tary, the Hearing Board, or the appropriate state authority shall take into
consideration their use and value for public water supplies, propagation of
fish and wildlife, recreational purposes, and agricultural, industrial, and
other legitimate uses.
Because of the vast amount of material that falls into the rubric of fish and wildlife,
the Academies established separate Panels for freshwater and marine aquatic life
and wildlife. Thus the Committee's six Panels were: (1) Recreation and Aesthetics,
(2) Public Water Supplies, (3) Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, (4) Marine
Aquatic Life and Wildlife, (5) Agricultural Uses of Water, and (6) Industrial Water
Supplies.
The members of the Committee and its Panels were scientists and engineers
expert and experienced in the various disciplines associated with the subject of water
quality. The Panels also drew upon special advisors for specific water quality con-
cerns, and in addition were aided by Environmental Protection Agency experts as
liaison at the Panel meetings. This arrangement with EPA facilitated the Panels'
access to EPA data on water quality. Thirty-nine meetings were held by the Com-
mittee and its Panels resulting in an interim report to the Academies and the Environ-
mental Studies Board on December 1, 1971. This was widely circulated, and com-
ments on it were solicited from many quarters. The commentaries were then considered
for inclusion by the Committee and the appropriate Panels. This volume, submitted
for publication in August 1972, within eighteen months of the inception of the task,
is the final version of the Committee's report.
The 1972 Report is vastly more than a revision of the NTAC Report. To begin
with, it is nearly four times longer. Many new subjects are discussed in detail, among
them: the recreational impact of boating, levels of use, disease vectors, nuisance
organisms, and aquatic vascular plants; viruses in relation to public water supplies;
effects of total dissolved gases on aquatic life; guidelines for toxicological research on
pesticides and uses of toxicants in fisheries management; disposal of solid wastes in
the ocean; use of waste water for irrigation; and industrial water treatment processes
xv
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and resultant wastes. Many toxic or potentially toxic substances not considered by
the NTAC are discussed including polychlorinated biphenyls, phthalate esters, nitrilo-
triacetate (NTA), numerous metals, and chlorine. The additional length also reflects
the greater current awareness of how various characteristics of water affect its quality
and use; and the expansion of the information base of the NTAG Report through
new data from recent research activities and the greater capabilities of information
processing, storage, and retrieval—especially evident in the three appendixes—have
made their impact on the increase in size. In spite of these additions, however, the
1972 Report differs from the NTAC Report in that its six Sections do not provide
summaries. The Committee agreed that an understanding of how the recommend-
ations should be interpreted and used can be gained only by a thorough reading of
the rationale and the evaluation of criteria preceding the recommendations.
Although each Section was prepared by its appropriate Panel, some discussions
reflect the joint effort of two or more Panels. These combined discussions attempt to
focus attention where desirable on such subjects as radioactivity, temperature,
nutrient enrichment, and growths of nuisance organisms. However, the majority of
topics were most effectively treated by individual Panel discussions, and the reader
is encouraged to make use of the Tables of Contents and the index in assessing the full
range of the Report's coverage of the many complex aspects of water quality.
Water quality science and its application have expanded rapidly, but much
work remains to be done. In the course of this revision, the Committee and its Panels
have identified many areas where further knowledge is needed, and these findings,
now in preparation, will be published separately by the National Academy of Sci-
ences-National Academy of Engineering as a report on research needs.
Social perspectives and policies for managing, enhancing, and preserving water
resources are undergoing rapid and pervasive change. Because of the stipulations of
the 1965 Water Quality Act, interstate water resources are currently categorized by
use designation, and standards to protect those uses are developed from criteria. It is
in this context that the Report of the NAS-NAE Committee, like that of the NTAC,
was prepared. Concepts of managing water resources are subject to social, economic,
and political decisions and will continue to evolve; but the Committee believes that
the criteria and recommendations in this Report will be of value in the context of
future as well as current approaches that might be taken to preserve and enhance
the quality of the nation's water resources.
GERARD A. ROHLICH
Chairman, Committee on Water Quality Citeria
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The NAS-NAE Committee on Water Quality Criteria and its Panels are grate-
ful for the assistance of many institutions, groups, and individuals. The Environmental
Studies Board provided guidance throughout all phases of the project, and the En-
vironmental Protection Agency cooperated in making available their technical and
informational resources. Many research organizations and individuals contributed
unpublished data for the Panels' examination and use in the Committee's Report.
Numerous groups and individuals provided reviews and comments, among
them several Federal agencies with staff expertise in water quality sciences, includ-
ing NOAA of the Department of Commerce, the Department of the Interior, the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Atomic Energy Commission,
the Department of Agriculture, and the Department of the Army; scientists from the
University of Wisconsin, especially Drs. Grant Cottam, G. Fred Lee, Richard B.
Corey, David Armstrong, Gordon Chesters, Mr. James Kerrigan; and many others
from academic, government, and private research institutions, including the National
Research Council.
Much useful information including data and literature references was provided
by the Water Resources Scientific Information Center of the U.S. Department of
the Interior, the National Referral Center of the Library of Congress, the Defense
Documentation Center of the U.S. Department of Defense, and the Library of the
National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering. We are indebted
to James L. Olsen, Jr. and Marilyn J. Urion of the Academies' Library and to
Robert R. Hume, National Academy of Sciences Publications Editor, for their
assistance.
Thanks are also due the many staff personnel of the Academies who assisted the
project, particularly Linda D. Jones, Patricia A. Sheret, Eva H. Galambos, and
Elizabeth A. Wilmoth. Mrs. Susan B. Taha was a tireless editorial assistant. The
comprehensive author and subject indexes were prepared by Mrs. Bev Anne Ross.
Finally, each Committee and Panel member is indebted to his home institution
and staff for their generous support of his efforts devoted to the Report of the Com-
mittee on Water Quality Criteria.
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GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTICE v
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL vi
MEMBERS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD vii
MEMBERS OF THE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA COMMITTEE,
NAS STAFF, AND PANEL MEMBERS, ADVISORS, AND CON-
TRIBUTORS viii
PREFACE xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
SECTION I RECREATION AND AESTHETICS 6
SECTION II PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES 48
SECTION III FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE... 106
SECTION IV MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE 214
SECTION V AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER 298
SECTION VI INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES 368
APPENDIX I (RECREATION AND AESTHETICS) 398
APPENDIX II (FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE). 402
APPENDIX III (MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE) 448
GLOSSARY 519
CONVERSION FACTORS 524
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
COMMITTEE AND THE PANEL MEMBERS 528
AUTHOR INDEX 535
SUBJECT INDEX 562
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The past decade has been a period of unprecedented
activity directed to man's concern for the quality of the
environment, but a look at history shows that this concern,
although currently intensified, is not new. The lessons of
history and the findings of archaeologists provide concrete
evidence that at least three thousand years before the birth
of Christ man was cognizant of the need to dispose of his
wastes and other refuse if he was to keep his environment
livable.1 For thousands of years the guidelines to quality
of the water resource apparently were based on the senses
of smell, sight, and taste. Whether or not these organoleptic
observations on the suitability of water for use would
match today's criteria is questionable in light of Reynolds'
reference to "the old woman in the Fens" who "spoke for
many besides herself when she asked of the new and pure
supply: Call ye that water? For she said, it has neither taste
nor smell"2', or in light of the more recent decision of a state
supreme court in 1904, which took the position that it is
"not necessary to weigh with tenderness and care the
testimony of experts ... an ordinary mortal knows whether
water is fit to drink and use."3
Although the concern for water quality is not new,
progress has been made in moving from sensory associations
as a means of control to the application of knowledge and
criteria gained from scientific advances in detection and
measurement, and in a greater understanding of the char-
acteristics of water. Essentially it has been the develop-
ments of the past century that have provided criteria for
and knowledge of water quality characteristics upon which
we base determinations of its suitability for particular uses.
Until recently, relatively few scientists and engineers had
been engaged in this field. The past decade, however, has
seen a tremendous increase in the number of workers de-
voted to the subject of water quality assessment. Con-
currently, an increasing awareness of the public has become
apparent. As Leopold states, "The outstanding discovery
of the twentieth century is not television, or radio, but
rather the complexity of the land organism"; and he points
out that "by land is meant all of the things on, over, or in
the earth."4 The growing public awareness of environ-
mental quality has helped to accelerate activity directed to
the solution of problems relating to water quality.
Forty centuries before the germ theory of disease had the
support of scientifically conducted experiments, some con-
trol measures to provide safe water supplies were in use.
Boiling, filtration through charcoal, and the practice of
siphoning off water clarified by sedimentation were among
the early methods used to improve water quality.6 The
regard of the Romans for high quality water is well known,
and their civil works in obtaining water by the construction
of aqueducts and the carrying away of waste waters in the
cloacae or sewers, and in particular the Cloaca Maxima,
are matters of common knowledge. The decline of sani-
tation through the Middle Ages and into the early part ot
the past century brought on the ravages of pestilence and
the scourges of cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery, which
led to the resurgence of public concern over water quality.
There were many experiments and suggestions regarding
filtration for purification as early as the 17th century. They
culminated in design of the first filters for municipal supplies
by Gibbs in Scotland in 1804 and in England in 1829 by
Simpson who is probably most renowned for his work in
constructing filters for the Chelsea Water Company to
supply water for London from the Thames River.
The relationship of water quality to disease was firmly
established by the report on the Broad Street Well in
London by Sir John Snow in 1849, and in Edwin Chad-
wick's report of 1842 "On an inquiry into the Sanitary
Condition of the Labouring Population of Gt. Britain."6
The greatest part of Chadwick's report developed four
major axioms that are still of relevance today. The first
axiom established the cause and effect relationship between
"insanitation, defective drainage, inadequate water supply,
and overcrowded housing" on the one hand, and "disease,
high mortality rates, and low expectation of life" on the
other. The second axiom discussed the economic cost of
ill health. The third dealt with the "social cost of squalor,"
and the fourth was concerned with the "inherent inefficiency
of existing legal and administrative machinery." Chad wick
argued that the "only hope of sanitary improvement lay
in radical administrative departures" which would call for
new institutional arrangements.
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2/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
It is evident from these few glimpses into the early years
of development of control that the basic approach, and
justifiably so, was to provide water suitable for human use.
A century ago the principal aim was to provide, by bac-
teriological examination, a scientific basis on which to
establish water quality practices for protection of the public
health. Increasingly, however, we have come to recognize
that a multitude of materials that may occur in water have
adverse effects on beneficial uses other than that for public
water supplies.
WATER QUALITY CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES
McKee and Wolf have provided an excellent historical
background to the development of water quality standards
and criteria and have summarized the water quality criteria
promulgated by federal, state, and interstate agencies up
to 1963.7 Since then, many federal and state acts have been
passed and modifications made in state administrative codes
designed to establish criteria and standards. Of particular
significance in this respect was the impact of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act of 19488 as amended by the
Water Quality Act of 1965.9 The latter required that the
states adopt:
• water quality criteria applicable to interstate waters;
and
• a plan for the implementation and enforcement of
the water quality criteria adopted.
The Act further noted that the criteria and plans would,
upon approval by the federal government, become the
applicable water quality standards. At that time the Fed-
eral Water Pollution Control Administration was in the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. In May
of 1966, the FWPCA was transferred to the Department of
the Interior, and in April, 1970 it was renamed The
Federal Water Quality Administration. In December, 1970,
interstate water quality and pollution control activities
became the concern of the Environmental Protection
Agency.
On April 1, 1968, the FWPCA published the report of
the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secre-
tary of the Interior entitled Water Quality Criteria.10 This
report, often referred to as the "Green Book," contains
recommendations on water quality criteria for various uses.
The present volume is a revision of that work with the
objective of compiling and interpreting the most recent
scientific data in order to establish what is known about
the materials present in water as related to specific uses.
MAJOR WATER USES AS AN ORGANIZING APPROACH
Although it is recognized that consideration must be
given to the multiple use requirements placed on our water
resources, this revision has followed the approach of the
1968 report in making recommendations in certain use
categories. Such an approach provides a convenient w,
of handling an otherwise unwieldy body of data. Neith
the approach itself nor the sequence in which the uses a
arranged in the Report imply any comment on the relati
importance of each use. Each water use plays its vital re
in the water systems concept discussed above, and politic;
economic, and social considerations that vary with h
torical periods and geographic locations have brought pz
ticular water uses to positions of preeminent Lmportanc
In contemporary terms, it is not difficult to argue t
primary importance of each water use considered in tl
Report: the recreational and aesthetic use of the Natioi
water resources involves 3.7 billion man-days a year;11 o
public water supply systems prepare 15 billion gallons p
day for the urban population alone ;12 commercial fishermt
harvested 166,430,000 pounds of fish from the natior
public inland freshwater bodies in 1969;13 our marii
waters yield five billion pounds of fish annually for hum;
use;14 agriculture consumes 123 billion gallons of water p
day in meeting its domestic, livestock, and irrigation needs
and our industries must have 84,000 billion gallons of wat
per year to maintain their operations.16
Clearly, the designation of one water use as more vit
than another is as impossible as it is unnecessary. Furthe
more, we must not even restrict our thinking to prese
concepts and designated uses. Those concerned with wat
quality must envisage future uses and values that may 1
assigned to our water resources and recognize that mar
activities in altering the landscape and utilizing water m;
one day have to be more vigorously controlled.
THE MEANING OF WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
In current practice, where multiple uses are required,
they will be in most situations, our guidelines to action w
be the more stringent criteria. Criteria represent attemj
to quantify water quality in terms of its physical, chemic;
biological, and aesthetic characteristics. Those who a
confronted with the problem of establishing or evaluati
criteria must do so within the limits of the objective ai
subjective measurements available to them. Obviously, t
quality of water as expressed by these measurements is t
product of many changes. From the moment of its conde
sation in the atmosphere, water accumulates substances,
solution and suspension, from the air, from contacts as
moves over and into the land resource, from biologic
processes, and from human activities. Man affects t
watershed as he alters the landscape by urbanization, 1
agricultural development, and by discharging municij:
and industrial residues into the water resource. Thus c
matic conditions, topography, geological formations, ai
human use and abuse of this vital resource significant
affect the characteristics of water, so that its quality vari
widely with location and the influencing factors.
To look ahead again, it should be stressed that if comii
generations expect to use future criteria established 1
-------
General Introduction/3
CRITERIA
Qualities and quantities, based
on scientific determinations,
which must be identified and
may have to be controlled.
Identification
pathway
for specific
uses in
Recreational and
Aesthetic Waters
Public Water Supplies
Fresh Waters
Marine Waters
Agricultural Waters
Industrial Water Supplies
IDENTIFICATION
Analytical methods (chemist,
biologist, engineer, recreational
specialists & others).
FEEDBACK
MONITORING
Deployment of measuring instru-
ments to provide criteria and
information for assessment and
control.
STANDARDS
Definition of acceptable quality
related to unique local situation
involving political, economic and
social factors and including plans
for implementation and ques-
tions of water use and manage-
ment.
(The operation needed for de-
tecting and measuring character-
istics of water.)
(The chronological and spatial
sampling operations needed.)
FIGURE 1—Conceptual Framework for Developing Standards from Criteria
-------
4/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
aquatic scientists, baseline areas must be preserved in which
the scientists can work. Limnologists, oceanographers, and
freshwater and marine biologists obtain baseline data from
studies of undisturbed aquatic ecosystems. Because all the
basic information has not yet been extracted from im-
portant study sites, it is essential that the natural condition
of these sites prevail.
The fundamental point of departure in evaluating cri-
teria for water quality in this Report is that the assignment
of a level of quality is relative to the use man makes of that
water. To evaluate the quality of water required for various
uses, it is essential to know the limits of quality that have a
detrimental effect on a designated use. As a corollary, in
deciding whether or not water will be of suitable quality,
one must determine whether or not the introduction into,
or presence of any material in the resource, interferes with,
alters, or destroys its intended use. Such decisions are sub-
ject to political, social, and economic considerations.
CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
The distinction between criteria and standards is important,
and the words are not interchangeable nor are they syno-
nyms for such commonly used terms as objectives or goals.
As a clarification of the distinction that must be recognize d
and the procedural steps to be followed in developing
standards from criteria, a conceptual framework based on
the report "Waste Management and Control" by the Com-
mittee on Pollution NAS-NRC17 is presented in Figure 1.
In this context, the definition of criteria as used in this
Report is "the scientific data evaluated to derive recommen-
dations for characteristics of water for specific uses."
As a first step in the development of standards it is es-
sential to establish scientifically based recommendations for
each assignable water use. Establishment of recommen-
dations implies access to practical methods for detecting
and measuring the specified physical, chemical, biological,
and aesthetic characteristics. In some cases, however, less
than satisfactory methods are available, and in other cases,
less than adequate methods or procedures are used. Moni-
toring the essential characteristics can be an operation
concurrent with the identification step. If adequate criteria
for recommendations are available, and the identification
and monitoring procedures are sound, the fundamentals
are available for the establishment of effective standards.
It is again at this step that political, social, and economic
factors enter into the decision-making process to establish
standards.
Although the Committee and its Panels recognize that
water quality, water quantity, water use, and waste water
disposal form a complex system that is further complicated
by the interchanges that occur among the land, air, and
water resources, this Report cannot be so broad in scope:
its explicit purpose is to recommend water quality char-
acteristics for designated uses in light of the scientific
information available at this time. We are aware that in
some areas the scientific information is lacking, inadequal
or possibly conflicting thus precluding the recommendati(
of specific numerical values. The need to refine the recot
mendations and to establish new ones will become increj
ingly important as additional field information and researi
results become available. Realistic standards are depende
on criteria, designated uses, and implementation, as well
identification and monitoring procedures; changes in the
factors may provide a basis for altering the standards.
Recommendations are usually presented, either as ri
merical values or in narrative form as summaries. In sor
instances in place of recommendations, conclusions bas<
on the preceding discussion are given. It is important th
each discussion be studied because it attempts to ma
clear the basis and logic used in arriving at the particul
recommendation. The Committee wishes to emphasize t
caveat so clearly stated in the introduction to the "Gre>
Book." The Committee "does not want to be dogrnati<
in making its recommendations. "They are meant as guid
lines only, to be used in conjunction with a thorough knov
edge of local conditions.1'18
REFERENCES
'Klein, Louis (1957) Aspects of water pollution. Academic Pre
Inc. New York.
2 Reynolds, Reginald (1946) Cleanliness and godliness. Doubled
and Company, Inc. Garden City, New York.
3 Malone, F. E. (1960) Legal viewpoint. Journal Americal Water Wo
Association 52:1180.
4 Leopold, A. (1953) Round river. Luna Leopold, ed. Oxford U
versity Press. New York.
'Baker, M. N. (1949) The quest ibr pure water. The American We
Works Association, New York.
'Flinn, D. W., ed. (1965) Report on the sanitary condition of 1
laboring population of Great Britain, 1842, by Edwin Chadwi
Edinburgh at The University Press.
7 McK.ee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf (1963) Water quality criteria, secc
edition. State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento, C.
fornia. Publication No. 3-A.
8 U.S. Congress. 1948. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Pul
Law 845, 62S., June 30, 1948, p. 1155.
9 U.S. Congress. 1965. Water Quality Act, Public Law 89-234, 7<
October 2, 1965, p. 903.
10 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Cont
Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of
National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of i
Interior (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.).
11 See page 9 of this Report.
12 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Economic Resear
13 U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atm
pheric Administration, Statistics and Market News Division.
"U.S. Department of Commerce (1971) Fisheries of the Unit
States. (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.)
16 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Economic Resean
16 See page 369 of this Report.
"NAS-NRC Committee on Pollution (1966) Waste managers
and control. Publication No. 1400 NAS-NRC, Washington, D.
18 U.S. Department of the Interior, op. cit. p. vii.
-------
Section I—RECREATION AND AESTHETICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page.
INTRODUCTION 8
THE ROLE OF WATER-ORIENTED RECREATION
AND AESTHETICS 8
SCOPE AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE 8
MAINTAINING AND RESTORING WATER QUALITY
FOR RECREATION AND AESTHETICS 10
APPLYING RECOMMENDATIONS 10
WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AES-
THETIC VALUES 11
MANAGEMENT FOR AESTHETICS 11
BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AESTHETIC
PURPOSES 11
Recommendations 12
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RECRE-
ATIONAL AND AESTHETIC VALUE OF
WATER 13
RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY 13
The Role of Regulation 14
Factors Affecting Recreational Carrying
Capacity 14
Conclusion 14
SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS 16
Effects on Water Quality 16
Recommendation 17
VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS 17
Conclusion 19
EUTROPHICATION AND NUTRIENTS 19
Defining Eutrophication and Nutrients . . 19
Effects of Eutrophication and Nutrients. . 20
Determination of Trophic Conditions 21
Summary of Measurement of Nutrient
Enrichment 23
Recommendations 23
AQUATIC VASCULAR PLANTS 23
Interrelationships With Water Quality. . . 24
Interrelationships With Other Biota 25
Effects on Recreation and Aesthetics 25
Control Considerations 26
Recommendation 27
P<
INTRODUCTION OF SPECIES
Extent and Types of Introductions.
Some Results of Introductions
Introductions by Official Agencies.
Recommendations
WATER QUALITY FOR GENERAL RECRE-
ATION, BATHING, AND SWIMMING
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL RECRE-
ATIONAL WATERS
Aesthetic Considerations
Recommendation
Microbiological Considerations
Conclusion
Chemical Considerations
Recommendations
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BATHING AND SWIM-
MING WATERS
Microbiological Considerations
Conclusion
Temperature Characteristics
Recommendation
pH Characteristics
Conclusion
Clarity Considerations
Conclusion
Chemical Considerations
Recommendation
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR
SPECIALIZED RECREATION
BOATING
Conclusion
AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE ,
Maintenance of Habitat
Variety of Aquatic: Life
Recommendations
SHELLFISH
Bacteriological Quality
Recommendation
-------
Page Page
Pesticides 37 WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR
Recommendation 37 WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE 39
Marine Biotoxins 37 WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS 39
Recommendation 38 WATER BODIES IN URBAN AREAS 39
Trace Metals 38 OTHER WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE 40
Recommendation 38 Conclusions 40
Radionuclides 38 LITERATURE CITED 41
-------
INTRODUCTION
This section considers water quality in the context of
recreation and aesthetics, on the basis of available scientific
data tempered by experience and judgment. In view of
today's burgeoning population in the United States, the
importance of water quality criteria to preserve and enhance
the recreational and aesthetic values of water resources is
manifest. The problems involved are both great and urgent.
Our urban centers bear the brunt of the growth of a popu-
lation that needs and demands water-oriented recreational
resources. But those resources, already overloaded, are de-
graded or rendered unfit for recreation by the effects of
man's activities. The quality of water can be assessed and
to some extent controlled, but the principal cause of water
pollution is what man does on the land. Water must be
protected from harmful land-water relationships, and man
must be protected from the consequences of degraded water
quality.
THE ROLE OF WATER-ORIENTED RECREATION AND
AESTHETICS
Recreation is an enigma: nearly everyone participates in
some type of recreation, but few are likely to agree on an
acceptable definition of it. Most persons who are not pro-
fessionally involved with recreation tend to define it nar-
rowly in terms of their own experiences. Many feel that
the term implies some form of strenuous physical activity;
to them, aesthetic appreciation and other leisure activities
that primarily involve the mind are not "recreation."
There is also a tendency for some to include only those
physical activities that are commonly identified as "recre-
ation" by public or quasi-public recreation agencies.
Charles E. Doell, an internationally known authority on
park and recreation planning and administration, defines
recreation as "the refreshment of the mind or body or both
through some means which is in itself pleasureful." He
states "almost any activity or mental process may be recre-
ation depending largely upon the attitude assumed in the
approach to the process itself (Doell 1963)4.* This concept
* Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
is supported by many others (Brightbill 196P, Butler 195!
Lehman 19656). If the attitude of the individual concern
is the key to whether or not an activity may be classed
"recreation," it follows thait one man's work may be a
other man's recreation; and an unwelcome social duty
one person may be a valuable recreational experience
another. Certain activities may be either recreational
part of the daily routine depending on the attitude of t
participant. Recreation is, therefore, an elusive conce
that can bear some relationship to any of the major co
cerns of living—work and education, social duty, or bodi
needs. Whether or not an individual's activity falls with
the psychological realm of recreation depends upon \
attitudes, goals, and life style at a point in time.
For the purposes of this report a broad view of recreatit
is adopted, and aesthetic appreciation is considered part
recreation. Thus the term "recreation" includes all typ
of intensive and extensive pleasurable activities rangii
from sedentary, purely aesthetic experiences to strenuo
activities that may involve a relatively small aesthei
component.
SCOPE AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
The scope and significance of water-related recreation
activities is not well documented quantitatively, but ;
impression of its importance in the lives of Americans c;
be obtained from such evidence as license registration ai
sales data, user surveys, economic impact studies, and nc
legislation programs and regulations.
License Registration and Sales Data In 1960,
million persons bought 23 million state fishing licens(
tags, permits, and stamps. Ten years later more than '.
million licenses, tags, permits, and stamps were held I
over 24.5 million purchasers, an increase of about 28 p
cent over 1960 (U.S. Department of the Interior 1961
197114). In 1970 sportsmen spent an estimated $287.7 m
lion on fishing tackle and equipment on which they pa
$14 million in federal excise taxes (Dingle-Johnson Ac1
They also added $90.9 million to state treasuries (Slat
1972),7 and in many cases these funds were matched wi
federal funds for use in fisheries improvement programs.
8
-------
Introduction/^
The number of recreational boats in use increased even
more substantially. It was estimated that there were almost
9 million boats of various types in use during 1970, an
increase of 9 per cent over 1966. More than $3 billion were
spent at the retail level on boating equipment, services,
insurance, fuel, mooring fees and memberships, a 22 per cent
increase over 1966 (The Boating Industry 1971)1. In 1970, an
estimated million pairs of water skis were sold, a 5 per cent
increase in domestic and export sales for that year (The
Boating Industry 1971)1.
Economic Impact Studies In fiscal 1969-70, the
Corps of Engineers spent $27.6 million to develop or expand
facilities for swimming, fishing, boating, and other water-
oriented activities (Stout personal communication 1971)18. The
state parks of the nation, the majority of which are water-
oriented, spent $125.8 million in 1970 on capital improve-
ments and $177 million on operations and maintenance
(Stout personal communication 1971)18.
Although public expenditures for water-oriented recre-
ational developments are large, expenditures in the private
and commercial sectors are of even greater magnitude. In
regions of the country where water bodies are reasonably
numerous, most seasonal homes are built on or adjacent to
water. In 1970, it was estimated that 150,000 seasonal
homes were built at a cost of $1.2 billion (Ragatz 1971)6.
Some waterfront locations have been extensively developed
for a variety of public, private, and commercial recreational
purposes. The lakes and lake frontage properties of the
Tennessee Valley Authority alone were-estimated to contain
water-based recreational equipment and facilities worth $77
million and land-based facilities and improvements valued
at $ 178 million in 1968 (Churchill personal communication
1972)16.
Expenditures for other goods and services associated with
water-oriented recreation are also a major factor in the
economy. Boaters, fishermen, campers, picnickers, and
others spend considerable sums on transportation, accommo-
dations, and supplies. For example, preliminary data show
that some 2.9 million waterfowl hunters spent an estimated
$245 million during 25 million recreation days in 1970
(Slater personal communication 1971)17. The Tennessee Valley
Authority estimated in 1967 that sports fishermen using its
reservoirs spent some $42 million in order to harvest 7,000
to 10,000 tons offish (Stroud and Martin 1968)8.
User Surveys Since World War II, per capita par-
ticipation in most types of recreational activities has in-
creased even more rapidly than the preceding data indicate.
Attendance at National Park Service areas rose from 133
million visits in 1966 to 172 million in 1970, an increase of
29 per cent. In the same period, visits to Corps of Engineers
reservoirs increased 42 per cent to a total of 276 million.
Comparable figures for the national forests were 151 million
in 1966, rising 14 per cent to 173 million in 1970 (Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation personal communication 1971)16. Most
of the recreation opportunities at Corps of Engineers areas
and a good proportion of those available on Park Service
lands and in national forests are water-based or water-
related. Similar growth rates and a predominance of water-
related recreational experiences characterize the use of
recreational lands managed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife, the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau
of Reclamation, and the Department of Defense.
The preeminent role of water resources in recreation was
emphasized by the President's Outdoor Recreation Re-
sources Review Commission in 1960. Extensive surveys
showed that most people seeking outdoor recreation (90
per cent of all Americans) sought it in association with
water, as indicated by the preliminary figures in Table 1-1,
a study made as part of the 1970 U.S. Census (Slater
1972)17. Although it is impossible to estimate what pro-
portion of the use reported by the survey was actually
associated with water for those activities that are not water-
based but are often water-related, the data nevertheless
emphasize the magnitude of current participation in water-
oriented recreation.
If no more than half the time spent on the frequently
water-related activities was in fact associated with water,
the total man days for water-based and water-related ac-
tivities in 1970 would be at least 3.7 billion man days.
Participation in water-based and water-oriented recre-
ation is likely to increase in the forseeable future. The
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1967)13 predicts that by the
year 2000 summertime participation in swimming will in-
crease over the year 1965 by 207 per cent, in fishing 78 per
cent, in boating 215 per cent, in waterskiing 363 percent,
and in such water-related activities as camping, picnicking,
and sightseeing 238, 127, and 156 per cent respectively.
Legislation, Regulations, and Programs The
importance of water-based and water-related recreation to
society is reflected in the increase in legislation and the
number of regulations and programs intended to increase
TABLE 1-1—Participation in Water-Oriented Recreation
Activities in 1970
Activity
Water-based
Swimming. .
Fishing
Boating
Total man days
Frequently water related
Pi tracking
Birdwatching
Camping .
Nature walks
Hunting
Wildlife photography . . .
Total man days
Percent of U.S. population
participating"
46
29
24
49
4
. . 21
18
.... 12
3
Billions of man days
U2
.56
.42
2./0
.54
.43
.40
.37
.22
.04
'i. 00
* For many activities, double counting will occur. (Slater 1972)7
-------
10/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
or protect opportunities for these activities. One example
is the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act U.S. Congress 1968)9
that authorized a national program to preserve free-flowing
rivers of exceptional natural or recreational value. The
Federal Power Commission has required the submission of
recreation and fish and wildlife development plans as inte-
gral parts of hydroelectric license applications. The Federal
Water Project Recreation Act (U.S. Congress 1965)10 en-
courages state and local participation in planning, financing,
and administering recreational features of federal water
development projects. The Estuary Protection Act (U.S.
Congress 1968)11 authorizes cooperative federal-state-local
cost sharing and management programs for estuaries, and
requires that federal agencies consult with the Secretary
of the Interior on all land and water development projects
with impacts on estuaries before submitting proposals to
Congress for authorization.
The Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture assists in the development of ponds that often
are used for recreational purposes and watering livestock.
Federal assistance for waterfront restoration and the preser-
vation of environmental values is available under the urban
renewal, open space, and urban beautification programs of
the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the
Land and Water Conservation Fund program of the Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation, and the historic preservation pro-
gram of the National Park Service.
MAINTAINING AND RESTORING WATER QUALITY
FOR RECREATION AND AESTHETICS
Although there have been instances of rapid water
quality deterioration with drastic effects on recreation,
typically the effect is a slow, insidious process. Changes
have come about incrementally as forests are cut, lam
cultivated, urban areas expanded, and industries developec
But the cumulative effect and the losses in recreation oppoi
tunities caused by degraded water quality in this countr
in the past 100 years have been great. In many urban areas
opportunities for virtually every type of water-based ac
tivity have been either severely curtailed or eliminated
The resource-based recreation frontier is being forcei
further into the hinterland, Aesthetic values of aquati
vistas are eliminated or depreciated by enchroachment c
residential, commercial, industrial, military, or transpor
tation facilities. Drainage of swamps to control insec
vectors of disease and channelization to control floods hav
a profound effect on water run-off characteristics. A loss ii
water quality and downstream aquatic environments ani
recreational opportunities is often the price paid for sue!
improvements.
The application of adequate local, state, and nationa
water quality criteria is only a partial solution to our wate
quality problems. A comprehensive national land use polk
program with effective methods of decision-making, imple
mentation, and enforcement is also needed.
APPLYING RECOMMENDATIONS
Throughout this report the recommendations given ar
to be applied in the context of local conditions. This cavea
cannot be over emphasized, because variabilities are en
countered in different parts of the country. Specific loca
recommendations can be developed now in many instance
and more will be developed as experience grows. Numerics
criteria pertaining to other beneficial water uses togethe
with the recommendations for recreational and aestheti
uses provide guidance for water quality management.
-------
WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AESTHETIC VALUES
Aesthetics is classically defined as the branch of philos-
ophy that provides a theory of the beautiful. In this Section
attention will be focused on the aesthetics of water in
natural and man-made environments and the extent to
which the beauty of that water can be preserved or en-
hanced by the establishment of water quality recommen-
dations.
Although perceptions of many forms of beauty are pro-
foundly subjective and experienced differently by each indi-
vidual, there is an apparent sameness in the human re-
sponse to the beauties of water. Aesthetically pleasing waters
add to the quality of human experience. Water may be
pleasant to look upon, to walk or rest beside, or simply to
contemplate. It may enhance the visual scene wherever it
appears, in cities or in the wilderness. It may enhance values
of adjoining properties, public or private. It may provide a
focal point of pride in the community. The perception of
beauty and ugliness cannot be strictly defined. Either
natural or man-made visual effects may add or detract,
depending on many variables such as distance from the
observer or the composition and texture of the surroundings.
As one writer has said when comparing recreational values
with aesthetics, "Of probably greater value is the relaxation
and mental well-being achieved by viewing and absorbing
the scenic grandeur of the great and restless Missouri.
Many people crowd the 'high-line' drives along the bluffs
to view this mighty river and achieve a certain restfulness
from the proximity of nature" (Forges et al. 1952)19.
Similarly, aesthetic experience can be enhanced or de-
stroyed by space relationships. Power boats on a two-acre
lake are likely to be more hazardous than fun, and the
water will be so choppy and turbid that people will hardly
enjoy swimming near the shore. On the other hand, a
sailboat on Lake Michigan can be viewed with pleasure.
If a designated scenic area is surrounded by a wire fence,
the naturalness is obviously tainted. If animals can only be
viewed in restricted pens, the enjoyment is likely to be less
than if they could be seen moving at will in their natural
habitat.
MANAGEMENT FOR AESTHETICS
The management of water for aesthetic purposes must be
planned and executed in the context of the uses of the land,
the shoreline, and the water surfaces. People must be the
ultimate consideration. Aesthetic values relate to accessi-
bility, perspective, space, human expectations, and the
opportunity to derive a pleasurable reaction from the senses.
Congress has affirmed and reaffirmed its determination
to enhance water quality in a series of actions strengthening
the federal role in water pollution control and federal sup-
port for water pollution control programs of state and local
governments and industry. In a number of states, political
leaders and voters have supported programs to protect or
even restore water quality with aesthetics as one of the
values.
The recognition, identification, and protection of the
aesthetic qualities of water should be an objective of all
water quality management programs. The retention of
suitable, aesthetic quality is more likely to be achieved
through strict control of discharges at the source than by
excessive dependence on assimilation by receiving waters.
Paradoxically, the values that aesthetically pleasing water
provide are most urgently needed where pollution problems
are most serious as in the urban areas and particularly in
the central portions of cities where population and industry
are likely to be heavily concentrated
Unfortunately, one of the greatest unknowns is the value
of aesthetics to people. No workable formula incorporating
a valid benefit-to-cost ratio has yet been devised to reflect
tangible and intangible benefits accruing to conflicting
uses or misuses and the cost of providing or avoiding them.
This dilemma could be circumvented by boldly stating that
aesthetic values are worth the cost of achieving them. The
present public reaction to water quality might well support
this position, but efforts in this area have not yet proceeded
far enough to produce values worthy of wide acceptance.
(See Appendix I.)
BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AESTHETIC
PURPOSES
All surface waters should be aesthetically pleasing. But
natural conditions vary widely, and because of this a series
of descriptive rather than numerical recommendations is
made. The descriptions are intended to provide, in general
terms, for the protection of surface waters from substances
or conditions arising from other than natural sources that
11
-------
12/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
might degrade or tend to degrade the aesthetic quality of
the water. Substances or conditions arising from natural
sources may affect water quality independently of human
activities. Human activities that augment degradation from
natural sources, such as accelerated erosion from surface
disturbances, are not considered natural. The recommen-
dations are also intended to cover degradation from "dis-
charges or waste," a phrase embracing undesirable inputs
from all sources attributable to human activities whether
surface flows, point discharges, or subsurface drainages.
The recommendations that follow are essentially finite
criteria. The absence of visible debris, oil, scum, and other
matter resulting from human activity is a strict requirement
for aesthetic acceptability. Similarly, recommended values
for objectionable color, odor, taste, and turbidity, although
less precise, must be measured as no significant increase
over background. Characteristics such as excessive nutrients
and temperature elevations that encourage objectionable
abundance of organisms, e.g., a bloom of blue-green algae
resulting from discharge of a waste with a high nutrient
content and an elevated temperature, must be considered.
These recommendations become finite when applied as
intended in the context of natural background conditions.
Specific numbers would add little to the usefulness of the
descriptive recommendations because of the varying acute-
ness of sensory perception and because of the variability o
substances and conditions so largely dependent on loca
conditions.
The phrase "virtually free" of an objectionable constituen
as used in the recommendations implies the concept c
freedom from the undesirable effects of the constituent bu
not necessarily freedom from the constituent itself. Thi
recognizes the practical impossibility of complete absenc
and the inevitability of the presence of potential pollutant
to some degree.
Recommendations
Surface waters will be aesthetically pleasing i
they are virtually free of substances attributabl
to discharges or waste as; follows:
• materials that will settle to form objectionabt
deposits;
• floating debris, oil, scum, and other matter;
• substances producing objectionable color, odoi
taste, or turbidity;
• substances and conditions or combination
thereof in concentrations which produce un
desirable aquatic life.
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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RECREATIONAL AND AESTHETIC VALUE OF WATER
The many factors that influence the recreational and
aesthetic value of water may be broadly grouped in two
imprecise and overlapping but useful categories: physical
and biological. Physical factors include geography, manage-
ment and land use practices, and carrying capacity. Bio-
logical factors involve the effects of nuisance organisms and
eutrophication, the role of aquatic plants, species diversity,
and the introduction of exotic species. In making water
quality recommendations that will maintain recreational
and aesthetic values of surface waters, it is necessary to
understand the interrelationships between these factors and
water quality. The discussions in this Section emphasize
those interrelationships, but additional useful detail can be
found in other Sections of this Report, i.e., Public Water
Supplies (II), Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (IV), and
Agriculture (V). Cross references direct the reader to other
sources at appropriate points in this Section.
Physical Factors Recommendations applicable to
water-related environmental goals may well define those
constraints that must be imposed on man's land-based ac-
tivities and upon his physical contact with water if the
quality of water is to be maintained at a level suited to
recreational use. This is especially true of aesthetic enjoy-
ment of water, because pleasurable aesthetic experiences
are related to water in its environmental setting and to its
changing appearance caused by wind, light, and other
natural phenomena.
Man-made impoundments have provided numerous op-
portunities for recreation that have not existed before, but
their operation in some instances presents a paradox for
recreational users. Often such reservoirs are located on the
upper reaches of rivers where the natural setting is itself
conducive to aesthetic recreational enjoyment; but because
they are often multipurpose projects, their operation for
water supply, seasonal provision of flood storage, daily
provision of hydroelectric power, or even seasonal fluctu-
ation for mosquito control will change the water surface
elevation, leave barren banks exposed, or cause noticeable
or transient disruptions of the otherwise natural appearing
setting. Where the impoundment specifically provides a
public water supply, concerned water works personnel,
fearing degradation of the quality of the water stored for
this purpose, may impose limitations on the scope of recre-
ational opportunities. Thus, the full potential for recre-
ational and aesthetic uses of water may well be curtailed
somewhat by the operational schedule of a water body
needed for other purposes, even if the quality of the stored
water meets the stipulated water quality criteria.
Control of turbidity represents another environment-
related problem, one that must often be dealt with in terms
of somewhat subjective local considerations. Recommen-
dations for turbidity limits are best expressed as percentage
increases over natural background conditions. The waste-
water treatment processes normally employed are intended
to control suspended particles and associated problems.
Steps can also be taken to minimize erosion of soil disturbed
by agriculture, construction, logging, and other human
activities. Turbidity from urban and rural areas can be
reduced by ponding or other sedimentation facilities.
Wherever possible, spoils from dredging of navigable waters
should be disposed of on land or at water sites in such a
way that environmental damage is minimized. If necessary
dredging for new construction or channel maintenance is
performed with caution, it will not have adverse effects on
water quality. (Effects of physical manipulation of the en-
vironment are discussed further in Section III on Fresh-
water Aqua ic Life and Wildlife.)
Biological Factors Two principal types of biological
factors influence the recreational and aesthetic value of
surface waters: those that endanger the health or physical
comfort of people and animals, and those that render water
aesthetically objectionable or unusable as a result of its
overfertilization. The former include vector and nuisance
organisms; the latter, aquatic growths of microscopic and
macroscopic plants.
The discussion turns next to the physical factors of recre-
ational carrying capacity and sediment and suspended
materials, and then to the biological factors.
RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY
In both artificial impoundments and natural bodies of
water the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of the water itself are not the only factors influencing water-
13
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1 ^/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
oriented recreation. Depreciation of the recreational value
of water caused by high levels of use is a growing problem
that can be solved only by management techniques that:
either create more extensive facilities or limit the types and
amounts of use to predetermined desirable levels or carrying
capacities.
The recreational resource carrying capacity concept is
not new. Recreation land managers have used carrying
capacity standards for decades, but such standards have
generally been developed intuitively rather than experi-
mentally. Dana (1957)24 called for empirical research in
this field to provide better guidelines for management of
recreation resources. The National Recreation and Parks
Association reported in 1969 that almost no research of this
type had been completed and that standards for water-
oriented recreational activities then in use exhibited a dis-
turbingly wide range of values (Chubb 1969)21. Among
investigations of the carrying capacity of water for recre-
ational boating currently being made are those at North
Carolina State University and Michigan State University
(Ashton and Chubb 1971).20 A comparative study of the
canoeing and trout fishing capacity of four rivers is taking
place in Michigan (Colburn, personal communication 1971)27.
Lucas (1964)25 reported on an on-going recreational carry-
ing, capacity study of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area.
Until a number of these investigations are completed,
the true nature and complexity of the factors involved in
recreational carrying capacity will not be known. However,
in the case of many water-oriented activities it is apparent
that social, psychological, and economic factors are in-
volved, as well as the physical characteristics of the water
body (Chubb and Ashton 1969)22. For example, boaters on
heavily used lakes in Southeast Michigan represent a broad
spectrum of behavioral patterns and attitudes. Fishermen
generally dislike high-density use and are particularly an-
noyed by speeding boats that create waves. They believe
such activities disturb the fish. Waterfront home and cottage
owners abhor the noise and litter generated by owners of
transient boats on trailers. On the other hand, many water
skiers enjoy relatively crowded conditions because of the
social aspects of the experience; and some cruiser and pon-
toon boat owners enjoy viewing the skiers from their boats.
Thus the boating carrying capacity of these waters involves
the relative proportions of the various kinds of uses taking
place and the life styles, recreational goals, and social
aspirations of the boaters. Carrying capacity becomes a
function of the levels of satisfaction achieved by the par-
ticipants (Ashton and Chubb 1971).20
Screw propellers of powerboats operating in shallow
waters create currents that often suspend sediments. Power-
boats can also produce wake waves that cause shore erosion
and result in water turbulence. Marl-bottomed lakes and
silty, relatively narrow rivers are especially susceptible to
prolonged turbidity generated by such disturbances. In
many cases, bank erosion has been so severe that speed
limitations and wake-wave: restrictions have had to 1
imposed.
The size and configuration of a water body influence
recreational use and carrying capacity. Large lakes with
low ratio of shoreline-to-surface area tend to be under-usi
in the middle; conversely, lakes with a high ratio of shor
line-to-surface area tend to sustain more recreational u
per acre.
The Role of Regulation
Rapid increases in recreational use have necessitati
regulations to protect the quality of the experiences o
tained by limiting use so that carrying capacity is n
exceeded. Examples are boat speed regulations, limitatio
on horsepower, number of boat launching sites, number
parking places, and zoning and time limitations on wat
skiing and high-speed boating. Motorized crafts are oft<
prohibited. Michigan is planning to use data from
current series of boating carrying capacity studies to «
tablish new criteria for its boating access site progra
(Ashton and Chubb 1971).20
The Michigan Department of Natural Resources (1970]
has proposed rationing recreation on stretches of the /
Sable, Manistee, Pine, and Pere Marquette Rivers 1
means of a canoe permit system to reduce conflicts betwe<
canoeists and trout fishermen. The proposed regulatio
would limit the release of Ccinoes to a specified number p
day for designated stretches of these rivers. Other regulatio
are intended to promote safety and reduce trespass, riv
bank damage, vandalism, and littering. The National Pa
Service has limited annual user days for river running <
the Colorado through the Grand Canyon (Cowgill 1971).2
Factors Affecting Recreational Carrying Capacity
The carrying capacity of a body of water for recreation
not a readily identifiable finite number. It is a range
values from which society can select the most acceptafc
limits as the controlling variables change.
The schematic diagram (Fig. 1-1) provides an impressi(
of the number of relationships involved in a typical wat
body recreation system. Recreational carrying capacity
water is basically dependent upon water quality but al
related to many other variables as shown in the modi
At the threshold level a relatively small decline in wat
quality may have a considerable effect on the system ai
result in a substantial decline in the annual yield of wate
oriented recreational opportunities at the sites affected.
Conclusion
No specific recommendation is made concernir
recreational carrying capacity. Agencies establisl
ing carrying capacities should be aware of tl
complex relationships of the interacting variabli
and of the constant need to review local establish*
values in light of prevailing conditions. Carryir
-------
Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/15
(broken box line indicates high probability of change)
WATERBODY RESOURCES
quantity, type, accessibility
WATER QUALITY
chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics
I Human \
I Activities i
L_ _,
Prevailing
Water Quality
SOCIAL FACTORS
ulation
Economic
Factors
|
Social
Customs
Mob
|
Cultural Factors I
recreation behavior, I
ownership, access, and '
Regulations '
REGIONAL SUPPLY OF
ALTERNATIVE WATER
RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
"Normal"patterns of
use for "n" waterbodies
Changing Patterns of Use:
relationship to supply-demand,
socio-economics, and
water quality
I
Excessive Use:
reduced water quality and
recreational value
Reduced Carrying
Capacity
FIGURE 1-1—Relationships Involved in a Water Resource Recreation System
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16/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
capacity was discussed in this Section to call at-
tention to its potential effects on water quality for
recreational use.
SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS
Weathering of the land surface and the transport of
particles such as sand, silt and clay by water, wind, and ice
are natural processes of geologic erosion that largely de-
termine the characteristics of our land, rivers, estuaries,
and lakes. Man, however, can drastically alter the amount
of material suspended in surface waters by accelerating
surface erosion through various land use and management
practices. Sources of these sediments and suspended ma-
terials such as erosion, mining, agriculture, and construction
areas are discussed in Section IV on Marine Aquatic Life
and Wildlife. In addition to causing siltation problems and
affecting biological productivity, sediments and suspended
materials affect the quality of surface waters used for
recreational and aesthetic enjoyment.
Effects on Water Quality
The importance of suspended particle composition and
concentrations to the recreational and aesthetic value of
surface water relates to its effects on the clarity, light
penetration, temperature, and dissolved constituents of
surface water, the adsorption of toxic materials, and the
composition, distribution, and rate of sedimentation of
materials. These in turn not only affect recreational and
aesthetic values directly, but they control or limit biological
productivity and the aquatic life the waters will sustain for
enjoyment by people (Buck 1956,28 Cairns 1968).29 Although
the qualitative effects of suspended particles on surface
waters are well recognized, quantitative knowledge and
understanding are limited. (Biological effects are discussed
in Sections III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic
Life.)
Appearance The appearance of water is relative to
the perspective of the viewer and his expectations. For
example, the surfaces of lakes, streams, or oceans viewed
from shore appear less turbid than they do viewed from
above or during immersion. The responses of people viewing
the spectacularly clear waters of Lake Tahoe or Crater
Lake are almost surely aesthetic in nature, and allowing
the clarity of such waters to decrease would certainly lower
their aesthetic appeal. On the other hand, the roaring
reaches and the placid stretches of the muddy Colorado
River and miles of the muddy Mississippi afford another
kind of aesthetic pleasure and recreation which many also
appreciate. People seem to adapt to and accept a wide
range of water turbidities as long as changes in turbidity
are part of natural processes. However, increases in tur-
bidity of water due to man's disturbance of the land surface,
discharge of wastes, or modification of the water-body bed
are subjectively regarded by many people as pollution,
and so in fact or in fancy they reduce aesthetic enjoyment.
Light Penetration The presence of suspended soli
materials in natural waters limits the penetration by sui
light. An example of the adverse effects of reduced availab
light is the inability of some fish to see their natural foe
or even the sport fisherman's lure (note the discussion i
Section III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, pj
126-129). In turbid, nutrient-rich waters, such as an est\
ary or lake where lack of light penetration limits algal repn
duction, a water management project that reduced sed
ment input to the water body could conceivably result i
increases of algal production to the nuisance level.
Temperature When suspended particles inhibit tl
penetration of water by sunlight, greater absorption i
solar energy occurs near the surface and warms the wate
there. With its density thus decreased, the water colum
stabilizes, and vertical mixing is inhibited. Lower oxyge
transfer from air to water also results from higher watt
surface temperature. Together with inhibited vertical mi)
ing, this reduces the downward rate of oxygen transfe
especially in still or slowly moving water. In combinatio
with the oxygen demand of benthic accumulations, an
reduction in downward transfer of oxygen hastens the d(
velopment of anaerobic conditions at the bed of shallo'
eutrophic ponds, and the result may be a loss of aestheti
quality.
Adsorption of Materials Clay minerals have irregi
lar, platy shapes and large surface areas with electrostati
charges. As a consequence, clay minerals sorb cation
anions, and organic compounds. Pesticides and heav
metals likewise sorb on suspended clay particles, and thos
that are strongly held are carried with the particles to the
eventual resting place.
Microorganisms are frequently sorbed on particular
material and incorporated into bottom sediments when tl"
material settles. Rising storm waters may resuspend tr
deposited material, thereby restoring the microorganisn
to the water column. Swimming or wading could st
bottom sediments containing bacteria, thereby effecting
rise in bacterial counts in the water (Van Donsel an
Geldreich 1971)33.
The capacity of minerals to hold dissolved toxic materia
is different for each material and type of clay. The sorptiv
phenomenon effectively lends a large assimilative capacit
to muddy waters. A reduction in suspended mineral solic
in surface waters can, therefore, cause an increase in tli
concentrations of dissolved toxic materials contributed b
existing waste discharges (see Section III on Freshwate
Aquatic Life).
Beach Zone Effects When typical river waters cor
taining dispersed clay minerals mix with ocean water i
estuaries to the extent of one part or more of ocean water t
33 parts river water, the dispersed clay and silt particlt
become cohesive, and aggregates are formed under th
prevailing hydraulic conditions (Krone 1962).30 Such aggr«
gates of material brought downstream by storms eithe
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/17
settle in the estuary, particularly in large shallow bays, or
are carried directly to sea where they often are distributed
over large areas of the sea floor. Those that settle in shallow
bays can be constantly resuspended by wind-generated
waves and held in suspension by waves while tidal currents
circulate the waters throughout the estuary and carry a
portion of the suspended material out to sea. Suspended
clay mineral particles are weakly cohesive in river waters
having either unusually low dissolved salt concentrations
or high proportions of multivalent cations in the dissolved
salts. When such rivers enter lakes and impoundments, the
fine particles aggregate and settle to the bed to form soft,
fluffy deposits.
On lakes, the natural wind waves maintain beaches and
sandy littoral zones when there is sufficient fetch. Wind-
driven movement of the water through wave action and
subsequent oscillation provides the minimum velocity of
0.5 feet per second to sort out the fine particles of mineral
soils and organic micelles and allow them to settle in the
depths. Wave action extends to depths of approximately
one-half of the wave length to sort bottom sediments. This
depth is on the order of 5 feet (1.5 m) for a one-mile (1.6
km) fetch. When the waters are deep enough to allow
settling, fine sediments which are suspended drop down
over the wave terrace leaving sorted sand behind. In shallow
water bodies where the orbital velocity of the water particles
of wave action is great enough to lift fine sediments, waters
may be kept in a state of turbidity (Shephard 1963).31
Waters without adequate wind-wave action and circulation
do not have appreciable sorting; and thereforeIsoft bottom
materials, undesirable at facilities like swimming beaches,
may build up in the shallows. These conditions reduce
clarity and not only affect the aesthetic value but also
present a hazard in swimming.
The natural phenomenon of beach maintenance, sup-
plying sand to beaches and littoral zones, is dependent in
part upon having ample sources of sand such as those pro-
vided by river transport and shore erosion. Impoundment
of rivers causes sand to settle behind dams and removes it
as a future source for beach maintenance. Man's protection
of shorelines from erosion also interrupts the supply of sand.
In the erosion process, sand is commonly moved along the
shore in response to the net positive direction of the wind-
wave forces, or it is carried into deep water to be deposited
on the edge of wave terraces. The location of man-made
structures can, therefore, influence the quality of beaches.
Piers and jetties can intercept the lateral movement of sand
and leave impoverished rocky or hardpan shores on the
up-current side. Such conditions are common along the
shores of the large Great Lakes and many coastal waters
(U.S. Army, Coastal Engineering Research Center 1966).w
Sediment-Aquatic Plant Relationships When
the sediment load exceeds the transport capacity of the
river, deposition results. The accumulation of sediments in
reservoirs and distribution systems has been a problem
since ancient times. The deposited materials may so alter
the original bed materials of surface waters that rooted
aquatic vascular plants are able to grow in the newly
available substrate, thus changing the aquatic environment.
Fine sediments are often rich in the nutrients required for
plant growths; and once the sediments are stabilized with
a few plants, extensive colonization may follow. (See the
discussion of Aquatic Vascular Plants in this Section.)
Recommendation
Clear waters are normally preferred for recre-
ation. Because sediment-laden water reduces water
clarity, inhibits the growth of plants, displaces
water volume as sediments settle, and contributes
to the fouling of the bottom, prevention of un-
natural quantities of suspended sediments or de-
posit of sediments is desirable. Individual waters
vary in the natural amounts of suspended sedi-
ments they carry; therefore, no fixed recommen-
dation can be made. Management decisions should
be developed with reference to historical base line
data concerning the individual body of water.
VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS
The impact of both aquatic vectors of diseases and
nuisance organisms on water-related recreational and aes-
thetic pursuits varies from the creation of minor nuisances
to the closing of large recreational areas (Mackenthun and
Ingram 1967).58 Organisms of concern are discussed by
Mackenthun (1969).67
Massive emergences of non-biting midges, phantom
midges, caddisflies, and mayflies cause serious nuisances in
shoreline communities, impeding road traffic, river navi-
gation, commercial enterprises and recreational pursuits
(Burks 1953,40 Fremling 1960a,46 1960b;47 Hunt and Bis-
choff I960;54 Provost 195860). Human respiratory allergic
reactions to aquatic insect bites have been recognized for
many years. They were reviewed by Henson (1966),49 who
reported the major causative groups to be the caddisflies,
mayflies, and midges.
Among common diseases transmitted by aquatic inverte-
brates are encephalitis, malaria, and schistosomiasis, in-
cluding swimmers' itch. The principal water-related arthro-
pod-borne viral disease of importance to public health in
the United States is encephalitis, transmitted by mosquitoes
(Hess and Holden 1958).61 Many polluted urban streams
are ideally suited to production of large numbers of Culex
Jatigans, a vector of St. Louis encephalitis in urban areas.
Although running waters ordinarily are not suitable for
mosquito breeding, puddles in drying stream beds and
floodplains are excellent breeding sites for this and other
species of Culex. If such pools contain polluted waters,
organic materials present may serve as an increased food
supply that will stimulate production (Hess 1956,5* U.S.
-------
IB/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
Department of the Interior, FWPCA 1967).65 Aquatic
plants also provide breeding sites for some mosquitoes and
other nuisance insects. This relationship is discussed else-
where in this Section (p. 25).
Other than mosquitoes, perhaps the most common nui-
sance insects associated with standing freshwater are chir-
onomid midges. These insects neither bite nor carry disease,
but their dense swarms can interfere with man's comfort
and activities. Nuisance populations have occurred in pro-
ductive natural lakes where the larvae thrive in the largely
organic bottom sediments (Provost 1958,60 Hunt and Bis-
choff I960,64 Hilsenhoff 1959).52 In poorly designed sewage
lagoons mosquitoes and midges may thrive (Beadle and
Harmstrom 1958,38 Kimerle and Enns 1968).66 Reservoirs
receiving inadequately treated municipal wastes are po-
tential sources for abundant mosquito and midge production
(U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA 1967).K In-
creased midge production may be associated with deterior-
ation in water quality, but this is not always the case. For
example, excessive production can occur in primary sewage
oxidation ponds as well as in reservoirs (Grodhaus 1963,48
Bay 196436); and in sequential oxidation pond treatment,
maximum midge production may sometimes occur in those
ponds furthest from the plant effluent where water quality
is highest (Bay et al. 1965).36
Abrupt changes in water quality such as dilution of sea-
water by freshwater, especially if accompanied by organic
loading, can precipitate extraordinarily high midge pro-
duction (Jamnback 1954).55 Sudden decline in oxygen
supply in organically overloaded ponds or drying lakes can
disrupt or destroy established faunal communities, thus
favoring midge larvae because they are tolerant to low
dissolved oxygen and are primarily detrital feeders (Bay
unpublished data).67
The physical characteristics of certain water bodies, as
much as their water quality characteristics, may sometimes
determine midge productivity (Bay et al. 1966).37 For
example, freshly filled reservoirs are quickly sedimented
with allocthanous detritus and airborne organic matter
that provide food for invading midge larvae. The rate of
sedimentation can depend on watershed characteristics and
basin percolation rate or, in the case of airborne sediment,
on the surrounding topography. Predators in these new
environments are few, and initial midge larval survival is
high. Thomas (1970)64 has also reported on the potential
of newly or periodically flooded areas to produce large
populations of midges and mosquitoes.
Midge production in permanent bodies of water is ex-
tremely variable. Attempts have been made (Hilsenhoff'
and Narf 1968,53 Florida State Board of Health unpublished
datam) to correlate factors of water quality with midge
productivity in neighboring lakes and in lakes with certain
identifiable characteristics, but the results have been incon-
clusive.
Organism response in organically polluted flowing wate
was discussed and illustrated by Bartsch and Ingran
(1959).34 As water quality and bottom materials change ii
streams recovering from organic waste discharges, largi
numbers of midges and other nuisance organisms may b
produced in select reaches.
Though blackfly larvae are common in unpollutec
streams, an increase in suspended organic food particle
may stimulate increased populations, and abnormally larg<
numbers of larvae have been found downstream from botl
municipal and industrial waste discharges (U.S. Depart
ment of the Interior, FWPCA 1967).65 The larvae feed 01
drifting organic material, and either municipal, agricultural
or certain industrial wastes can provide the base for ai
increased food supply. Bacteria from soils and sewage ma'
be important in outbreaks of blackflies (Fredeen 1964).45
Toxic wastes can also affect situations where nuisano
organisms are found in increased numbers. The mos
obvious mechanism is the destruction of more sensitiv
predators and competitors, leaving the food supply an<
space available for the more tolerant forms. Surber (1959)6
found increased numbers of a tolerant midge, Cncotopu
bicinctus, in waters polluted with chromium. Rotenon
treatment of waters has resulted in temporary massiv
increases in blackfly and midge populations (Cook an<
Moore 1969).41 Increased numbers of midge larvae wer
found in a stream reach six months after a gasoline spil
(Bugbee and Walter 1972).6S The reasons for this are no
clear but may be linked to the more ready invasion of ai
area by these highly mobile insects as compared to les
mobile competitors and predators.
Persons involved in water-based activities in many area
of the world are subject to bilharziasis (schistosomiasis),
debilitating and sometimes deadly disease (World Healt
Organization 1959).66 This is not a problem in the cont
nental United States and Hawaii because of the absence c
a vector snail, but schistosomiasis occurs in Puerto Ric
due to the discharge of human feces containing Schistosom
eggs into waters harboring vector snails, the most importar
species being Biomphalaria glabrata. B. glabrata can surviv
in a wide range of water quality, including facultativ
sewage lagoons; and people are exposed through conta<
with shallow water near the infected snails. Cercariae she
by the snail penetrate the skin of humans and enter th
bloodstream.
Of local concern in water-contact recreation in th
United States is schistosome dermatitis, or swimmers' itc
(Cort 1928,42 Mackenthun and Ingram 1967,58 Fettero
et al. 1970).44 A number of schistosome cercariae, noi
specific for humans, are able to enter the outer layers <
human skin. The reaction causes itching, and the severil
is related to the person's sensitivity and prior exposut
history (Oliver 1949).59 The most important of the derm;
titis-producing cercariae are duck parasites (Trichobilharzia
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/19
Snails serving as intermediate hosts include Lymnaea, Physa,
and Gyraulus (Cort 1950).43 Although swimmers' itch has
wide distribution, in the United States it is principally
endemic to the north central lake region. Occasional inci-
dence is reported in marine waters (Stunkard and Hinchliflfe
1952)."2
About 90 per cent of severe swimmers' itch outbreaks are
associated with Cercaria stagnicolae shed from varieties of the
snail Lymnaea emarginata. This relationship is promoted by
(1) clean, sandy beaches ideal for swimming and preferred
by the snail; (2) peak populations of the snail host that
develop in sandy-bottomed lakes of glacial origin; (3) the
greatest development of adult snails that do not die off
until toward the end of the bathing season; and (4) the
cycle of cercarial infection so timed that the greatest num-
bers of cercariae emerge during the hot weather in the
middle of the summer when the greatest amount of bathing
is done (Brackett 1941).89 Infected vector snails are also
found throughout the United States in swamps, muddy
ponds, and ditches; but dermatitis rarely results, because
humans seldom use these areas without protective clothing.
In some marine recreational waters jellyfish or sea nettles
are serious problems. Some species possess stinging mecha-
nisms whose cnidoblast filaments can penetrate human skin
causing painful, inflammed weals. The effects of water
quality on their abundance is not known, but Schultz and
Cargo (1971)61 reported that the summer sea nettle,
Chrysaora quinquecirrha, has been a problem in Chesapeake
Bay since colonial days. When these nettles are abundant,
swimming is practically eliminated and fishermen's nets
and traps are clogged.
Conclusion
The role of water quality in either limiting or
augmenting the production of vector and nuisance
organisms involves many interrelationships which
are not clearly understood. Since organic wastes
generally directly or indirectly increase biomass
production, there may be an attendant increase
in vector or nuisance organisms. Some wastes
favor their production by creating water quality
or habitat conditions that limit their predators
and competitors. Increased production of vector
and nuisance organisms may degrade a healthy
and desirable human environment and be ac-
companied by a lessening of recreational and aes-
thetic values (see the discussion of Aquatic Life
and Wildlife in this Section, p. 35.)
EUTROPHICATION AND NUTRIENTS
Man's recent concern with eutrophy relates primarily to
lakes, reservoirs, rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters that
have been or are being over-fertilized through society's
carelessness to a point where beneficial uses are impaired
or threatened. With increasing urbanization, industriali-
zation, artificial soil fertilization, and soil mantle disruption,
eutrophication has become a serious problem affecting the
aesthetic and recreational enjoyment of many of the nation's
waters.
Defining Eutrophication and Nutrients
Lakes have been classified in accordance with their
trophic level or bathymetry as eutrophic, oligotrophic,
mesotrophic, or dystrophic (National Academy of Sciences
1969,97 Russell-Hunter 1970,106 Warren 1971,114 Stewart
and Rohlich 1967).107 A typical eutrophic lake has a high
surface-to-volume ratio, and an abundance of nutrients
producing heavy growth of aquatic plants and other vege-
tation; it contains highly organic sediments, and may have
seasonal or continuous low dissolved-oxygen concentrations
in its deeper waters. A typical oligotrophic lake has a low
surface-to-volume ratio, a nutrient content that supports
only a low level of aquatic productivity, a high dissolved-
oxygen concentration extending to the deep waters, and
sediments largely inorganic in composition. The character-
istics of mesotrophic lakes lie between those of eutrophic
and oligotrophic lakes. A dystrophic lake has waters brown-
ish from humic materials, a relatively low pH, a reduced
rate of bacterial decomposition, bottom sediments usually
composed of partially decomposed vegetation, and low
aquatic biomass productivity. Dystrophication is a lake-
aging process different from that of eutrophication. Whereas
the senescent stage in eutrophication may be a productive
marsh or swamp, dystrophication leads to a peat bog rich
in humic materials but low in productivity.
Eutrophication refers to the addition of nutrients to
bodies of water and to the effects of those nutrients. The
theory that there is a natural, gradual, and steady increase
in external nutrient supply throughout the existence of a
lake is widely held, but there is no support for this idea of
natural eutrophication (Beeton and Edmondson 1972).74
The paleolimnological literature supports instead a concept
of trophic equilibrium such as that introduced by Hutchin-
son (1969).91 According to this concept the progressive
changes that occur as a lake ages constitute an ecological
succession effected in part by the change in the shape of the
basin brought about by its filling. As the basin fills and the
volume decreases, the resulting shallowness increases the
cycling of available nutrients and this usually increases
plant production.
There are many naturally eutrophic lakes of such recre-
ational value that extensive efforts have been made to con-
trol their overproduction of nuisance aquatic plants and
algae. In the past, man has often accepted as a natural
phenomenon the loss or decreased value of a resource
through eutrophication. He has drained shallow, senescent
lakes for agricultural purposes or filled them to form building
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20/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
sites. The increasing value of lakes for recreation, however,
will reorder man's priorities, and instead of accepting such
alternative uses of lakes, he will divert his reclamation
efforts to salvaging and renovating their recreational values.
Artificial or cultural eutrophication results from increased
nutrient supplies through human activity. Many aquatic
systems have suffered cultural eutrophication in the past
50 years as a consequence of continually increasing nutrient
loading from the wastes of society. Man-induced nutrients
come largely from the discharge of municipal and industrial
wastewaters and from the land runoff effects of agricultural
practices and disruption of the soil mantle and its vege-
tative cover in the course of land development and con-
struction. If eutrophication is not to become the future
major deterrent to the recreational and aesthetic enjoyment
of water, it is essential that unnatural additions of nutrients
be kept out of water bodies through improved wastewater
treatment and land management.
Effects of Eutrophication and Nutrients
Green Lake, a lowland lake with high recreation use in
Seattle, is an example of a natural eutrophic lake (Sylvester
and Anderson I960),109 formed some 25,000 years ago after
the retreat of the Vashon glacier. During the ensuing
years, about two-thirds of the original lake volume was
filled with inorganic and organic sediments. A core taken
near the center of the lake to a sediment depth of 20.5 feet
represented a sediment accumulation over a period of ap-
proximately 6,700 years. Organic, nutrient, and chlorophyll
analyses on samples from the different sediment depths
indicated a relatively constant rate of sedimentation, sug-
gesting that Green Lake has been in a natural state of
eutrophy for several thousands of years.
The recreational and aesthetic potential of the lake was
reduced for most users by littoral and emergent vegetation
and by heavy blooms of blue-green algae in late summer.
The aquatic weeds provided harborage for production of
mosquitoes and interfered with boating, swimming, fishing,
access to the beach, and model boat activities. The heavy,
blue-green algal blooms adhered to swimmers. The wind
blew the algal masses onto the shore where they decomposed
with a disagreeable odor. They dried like a blue-green paint
on objects along the shoreline, rendered boating and fishing
unattractive, and accentuated water line marks on boats.
Nevertheless, through the continuous addition of low-
nutrient dilution water by the City of Seattle (Oglesby
1969),98 Green lake has been reclaimed through a reversal
of the trophic development to mesotrophic and is now
recreationally and aesthetically acceptable.
Lake Washington is an example of a large, deep, oligo-
trophic-mesotrophic lake that turned eutrophic in about
35 years, primarily through the discharge of treated and
untreated domestic sewage. Even to laymen, the change
was rapid, dramatic, and spectacular. In the period of a
year, the apparent color of the lake water turned from
bluish-green to rust as a result of massive growths of th<
blue-green alga, Oscillatoria rubescens. This threat to aesthetii
and recreational enjoyment was a key factor in voter ap
proval of Metro, a metropolitan sewer district. Metro ha,
greatly reduced the nutrient content of the lake and conse
quent algal growth by diverting wastewater discharges ou
of the drainage basin (Edmondson 1969,82 1970).83
Lake Sammamish at the northern inlet of Lake Wash
ington appeared to be responding to the enrichment i
received from treated sewage and other nutrient waste
although it had not yet produced nuisance conditions tc
the extent found in Lake Washington (Edmondson 1970).8
However, subsequent diversion of that waste by Metro hai
resulted in little or no detectable recovery in three years, j
period that proved adequate for substantial recovery ir
Lake Washington (Emery et al. 1972).86 Lake Sebasticook
Maine, affords another example of undesirable enrichment
Although previously in an acceptable condition, it became
obnoxious during the 1960's in response to sewage and £
wide variety of industrial wastes (HEW 1966).112 The
nutrient income of Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire
has been studied to determine the cause of nuisance blooms
of blue-green algae (Edmondson 1969).82 The well-knowr
Jakes at Madison, Wisconsin, including Monona, Waubesa,
and Mendota, have been the object of detailed studies 01
nutrient sources and their deteriorating effect on water
quality (Sawyer 1947,106 Mackenthun et al. I960,95 Ed-
mondson 1961,80 1968).81
A desirable aspect of eutrophication is the ability ol
mesotrophic or slightly eutrophic lakes typically to produce
greater crops of fish than their oligotrophic or nutrient-pooi
counterparts. As long as nuisance blooms of algae anc
extensive aquatic weed beds do not hinder the growth o
desirable fish species or obstruct the mechanics and aes-
thetics of fishing or other beneficial uses, some enrichmen
may be desirable. Fertilization is a tool in commercial anc
sport fishery management used to produce greater crops o
fish. Many prairie lakes in the east slope foothills of the
Rocky Mountains would be classed as eutrophic according
to the characteristics discussed below, yet many of thes<
lakes are exceptional trout producers because of the higl
natural fertility of the prairie (Sunde et al. 1970).108 As at
example of an accepted eutrophic condition, their water
are dense with plankton, but few would consider reducing
the enrichment of these lakes.
Streams and estuaries, as well as lakes, show symptom:
of over-enrichment, but there is less opportunity for builduj
of nutrients because of the continual transport of water
Although aquatic growths can develop to nuisance pro
portions in streams and estuaries as a result of over-enrich
ment, manipulation of the nutrient input can modify tht
situation more rapidly than in lakes.
Man's fertilization of some: rivers, estuaries, and marine
embayments has produced undesirable aquatic growths o
algae, water weeds, and slime: organisms such as Cladophora
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/21
Ulva, Potamogeton, and Sphaerotilus. In addition to interfering
with other uses, as in clogging fishing nets with slime
(Lincoln and Foster 1943),94 the accompanying water-
quality changes in some instances upset the natural fauna
and flora and cause undesirable shifts in the species compo-
sition of the community.
Determination of Trophic Conditions
It should be emphasized that (a) eutrophication has a
significant relationship to the use of water for recreational
and aesthetic enjoyment as well as the other water uses
discussed in this book; (b) this relationship may be desirable
or undesirable, depending upon the type of recreational
and aesthetic enjoyment sought; and (c) the possible dis-
advantages or advantages of eutrophication may be viewed
subjectively as they relate to a particular water use. There
are no generally accepted guidelines for judging whether a
state of eutrophy exists or by what criteria it may be meas-
ured, such as production of biomass, rate of productivity,
appearance, or change in water quality. Ranges in primary
productivity and oxygen deficit have been suggested as
indicative of eutrophy, mesotrophy, and oligotrophy by
Edmondson (1970)83 and Rodhe (1969),104 but these ranges
have had no official recognition.
The trophic state and natural rate of eutrophication that
exists, or would exist, in the absence of man's activities is
the basis of reference in judging man-induced eutrophi-
cation. The determination of the natural state in many
water bodies will require the careful examination of past
data, referral to published historical accounts, recall by
"old-timers," and perhaps the examination of sediment
cores for indicator species and chemical composition. The
following guidelines are suggested in determining the refer-
ence trophic states of lakes or detecting changes in trophic
states. Determination of the reference trophic state ac-
companied by studies of the nutrient budget may reveal
''that the lake is already in an advanced state of eutrophy.
For temperate lakes, a significant change in indicator com-
munities or a significant increase in any of the other four
indices, detectable over a five-year period or less, is con-
sidered sufficient evidence that accelerated eutrophication
is occurring. An undetectable change over a shorter period
would not necessarily indicate a lack of accelerated eutrophi-
cation. A change detectable only after five years may still
indicate unnaturally accelerated eutrophication, but five
years is suggested as a realistic maximum for the average
monitoring endeavor. Where cultural eutrophication is sus-
pected and changes in indices are not observable, analysis
of sediment cores may be necessary to establish the natural
state. The dynamic characteristics and individuality of
lakes may produce exceptions to these guidelines. They are
not infallible indicators of interference with recreation, but
for now they may serve as a beginning, subject to modifi-
cation as more complete data on the range of trophic con-
ditions and their associated effects become available.
Primary Productivity Ranges in the photosynthetic
rate, measured by radioactive carbon assimilation, have
been suggested by Rodhe (1969)104 as indicative of trophic
conditions (Table 1-2).
Biomass Chlorophyll a is used as a versatile measure
of algal biomass. The ranges presented for mean summer
chlorophyll a concentration determined in epilim'netic water
supplies collected at least biweekly and analyzed according
to Standard Methods (American Public Health Assoc.,
American Water Works Assoc., and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation 1971)70 are indices of the trophic stage of a
lake: oligotrophic, 0-4 mg chlorophyll a/m3; eutrophic,
10-100 mg chlorophyll a/m3.
These ranges are suggested after reviewing data on
chlorophyll concentrations and other indicators of trophic
state in several lakes throughout the United States and
Canada. Of greatest significance are data from Lake Wash-
ington which show that during peak enrichment, mean
summer chlorophyll a content rose to about 27 mg/m3 and
that the lake was definitely eutrophic. The post nutrient
diversion summer mean declined to about 7 mg/m3, and
the lake is now more typically mesotrophic (Edmondson
1970;83 chlorophyll a values corrected to conform to recent
analytical techniques). Unenriched and relatively low pro-
ductive lakes at higher elevations in the Lake Washington
drainage basin show mean summer chlorophyll a contents
of 1 to 2 mg/m3. Moses Lake, which can be considered
hypereutrophic, shows a summer mean of 90 mg/m3
chlorophyll a (Bush and Welch 1972).76
Oxygen Deficit Criteria for rate of depletion of hy-
polimnetic oxygen in relation to trophic state were reported
by Mortimer (1941)96 as follows:
oligotrophic
<250 mg O2/m2/day
eutrophic
>550 mg O2/m2/day
This is the rate of depletion of hypolimnetic oxygen de-
termined by the change in mean concentration of hypolim-
netic oxygen per unit time multiplied by the mean depth
of the hypolimnion. The observed time interval should be
at least a month, preferably longer, during summer stratifi-
cation.
TABLE 1-2—Ranges in Photosynthetic Rate for Primary
Productivity Determinations*
Period
Oligotrophic
Eutrophic
Mean daily rates in a growing season, mgC/myday 30-100
Todl annual rates, gC/mVyear .. . 7-75
300-3000
75-700
« Measured by total carbon uptake per square meter of water surface per unit of time. Productivity estimates should
be determined from at least monthly measurements according to Standard Methods.
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Assot, and Water Pollution Control Federation
1971"; Rodbe IMS.™
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22/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
Indicator Communities The representation of cer-
tain species in a community grouping in fresh water en-
vironments is often a sensitive indicator of the trophic state.
Nutrient enrichment in streams causes changes in the size
of faunal and floral populations, kinds of species, and
numbers of species (Richardson 1928,103 Ellis 1937,84 Patrick
1949," Tarzwell and Gaufin 1953110). For example, in a
stream typical of the temperate zone in the eastern United
States degraded by organic pollution the following shifts
in aquatic communities are often found: in the zone of
rapid decomposition below a pollution source, bacterial
counts are increased; sludgeworms (Tubificidae), rattail
maggots (Eristalis tenax) and bloodworms (Chironomidae)
dominate the benthic fauna; and blue-green algae and the
sewage fungus (Sphaerohlus) become common (Patrick
1949," Tarzwell and Gaufin 1953,110 Patrick et al. 1967100).
Various blue-green algae such as Schizothrix calcicola, Micro-
coleus vaginatus, Microcystis aeruginosa, and Anabaena sp. are
commonly found in nutrient-rich waters, and blooms of
these and other algae frequently detract from the aesthetic
and recreational value of lakes. Diatoms such as Nitzschia
palea, Gomphonema parvulum, Navicula cryptocephala, Cyclotella
meneghiniana, and Melosira varians are al"O often abundant
in nutrient-rich water (Patrick and Reimer 1966).101 Midges,
leeches, blackfly larvae, Physa snails, and fingernail clams
are frequently abundant in the recovery zone.
Nutrients Chemicals necessary to the growth and
reproduction of rooted or floating flowering plants, ferns,
algae, fungi, or bacteria are considered to be nutrient
chemicals. All these chemicals are not yet known, but those
that have been identified are classified as macronutrients,
trace elements or micronutrients, and organic nutrients.
The macronutrients are calcium, potassium, magnesium,
sodium, sulfur, carbon and carbonates, nitrogen, and phos-
phorus. The micronutrients are silica, manganese, zinc,
copper, molybdenum, boron, titanium, chromium, cobalt,
and perhaps vanadium (Chu 1942,77 Arnon and Wessell
1953,72 Hansen et al. 1954).89 Examples of organic nutrients
are biotin, Bi2, thiamine, and glycylglycine (Droop 1962).79
Some of the amino acids and simple sugars have also been
shown to be nutrients for heterotrophs or partial hetero-
trophs.
Plants vary as to the amounts and kinds of nutrients they
require, and as a result one species or group of species of
algae or aquatic plants may gain dominance over another
group because of the variation in concentration of nutrient
chemicals. Even though all the nutrients necessary for
plant growth are present, growth will not take place unless
environmental factors such as light, temperature, and sub-
strate are suitable. Man's use of the watershed also in-
fluences the sediment load and nutrient levels in surface
waters (Leopold et al. 1964,93 Bormann and Likens 1967).75
Thomas (1953)111 found that the important factor in
artificial eutrophication was the high phosphorus content
of domestic wastes. Nitrogen became the limiting growth
factor if the algal demand for phosphorus was met. Nu-
merous studies have verified these conclusions (Americar
Society of Limnology and Oceanography 1972).71
Sawyer (1947)106 determined critical levels of inorganic
nitrogen (300 jug/1 N) and inorganic phosphorus (10 jug/
P) at the time of spring overturn in Wisconsin lakes. I
exceeded, these levels would probably produce nuisance
blooms of algae during the summer. Nutrient concentration;
should be maximum when measured at the spring overturr
and at the start of the growing season. Nutrient concen
trations during active growth periods may only indicate
the difference between amounts absorbed in biomass (sus
pended and settled) and the initial amount biologicall)
available. The values, therefore, would not be indicative
of potential algal production. Nutrient content should \x
determined at least monthly (including the time of spring
overturn) from the surface, mid-depth, and bottom. These
values can be related to water volume in each stratum, and
nutrient concentrations based on total lake volume can be
derived.
One of the most convincing relationships between maxi-
mum phosphate content at the time of lake overturn and
eutrophication as indicated by algal biomass has beer
shown in Lake Washington (Edmondson 1970).83 During
the years when algal densities progressed to nuisance levels.
mean winter PO4-P increased from 10-20 jug/1 to 57 jug/1.
Following diversion of the sewage mean PO4-P decreased
once again to the preenrichmerit level. Correlated with the
PO4-P reduction was mean summer chlorophyll a content.
which decreased from a mean of 27 jug/1 at peak enrichrnenl
10 less than 10 jug/1, six years, after diversion was initiated,
Although difficult to assess, the rate of nutrient inflow
more closely represents nutrient availability than does
nutrient concentration because of the dynamic character
of these nonconservative materials. Loading rates are usuall)
determined annually on the basis of monthly monitoring ol
water flow, nutrient concentration in natural surface and
groundwater, and wastewater inflows.
Vollenweider (1968)113 related nutrient loading to mear
depths for various well-know a lakes and identified trophic
states associated with induced eutrophication. These find-
ings showed shallow lakes to be clearly more sensitive tc
nutrient income per unit area than deep lakes, because
nutrient reuse to perpetuate nuisance growth of algae in-
creased as depth decreased. From this standpoint nutrient
loading was a more valid criterion than nutrient concen-
tration in judging trophic state, Examples of nutrient load-
ings which produced nuisance conditions were about 0.3
g/m2/yr P and 4 g/'m2/yr N for a lake with a mean depth
of 20 meters, and about 0.8 g/m2/yr P and 11 g/m2/yr N
for a lake with a mean depth of 100 meters.
These suggested criteria apply only if other requirements
of algal growth are met, such as available light and water
retention time. If these factors limit growth rate and the
increase of biomass, large amounts of nutrients may move
through the system unused, and nuisance conditions may
not occur (Welch 1969).115
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/23
Carbon (C) is required by all photosynthetic plants. It
may be in the form of COa in solution, HCO^, or COJ°.
Carbamine carboxylate, which may form by the complexing
of calcium or other carbonates and amino compounds in
alkaline water, is an efficient source of COa (Hutchinson
1967).90 Usually carbon is not a limiting factor in water
(Goldman et al. 1971).88 However, King (1970)92 estimated
that concentrations of CO2 less than 3 micromoles at equi-
librium favored blue-green algae, and concentrations greater
than this favored green algae.
Cations such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, and po-
tassium are required by algae and higher aquatic plants
for growth, but the optimum amounts and ratios vary.
Furthermore, few situations exist in which these would be
in such low supply as to be limiting to plants. Trace ele-
ments either singly or in combination are important for the
growth of algae (Goldman 1964).86 For example molyb-
denum has been demonstrated to be a limiting nutrient in
Castle Lake. Deficiencies in trace elements are more likely
to occur in oligotrophic than in eutrophic waters (Goldman
1972).87
The vitamins important in promoting optimum growth
in algae are biotin, thiamin, and Bi2. All major groups
require one or more of these vitamins, but particular species
may or may not require them. As Provasoli and D'Agostino
(1969)102 pointed out, little is known about the requirement
for these vitamins for growth of algae in polluted water.
Under natural conditions it is difficult to determine the
effect of change in concentrations of a single chemical on
the growth of organisms. The principal reasons are that
growth results from the interaction of many chemical,
physical, and biological factors on the functioning of an
organism; and that nutrients arise from a mixture of chemi-
cals from farm, industrial, and sanitary wastes, and runoff
from fields. However, the increase in amounts and types of
nutrients can be traced by shifts in species forming aquatic
communities. Such biotic shifts have occurred in western
Lake Erie (Beeton 1969).« Since 1900 the watershed of
western Lake Erie has changed with the rapidly increasing
human population and industrial development, as a result
of which the lake has received large quantities of sanitary,
industrial, and agricultural organic wastes. The lake has
become modified by increased concentrations of dissolved
solids, lower transparency, and low dissolved oxygen concen-
tration. Blooms of blue-green algae and shifts in inverte-
brate populations have markedly increased in the 1960's
(Davis 1964, "Beeton 1969).73
Summary of Measurement of Nutrient Enrichment
Several conditions can be used to measure nutrient en-
richment or its effects:
• a steady decrease over several years in the dissolved
oxygen content of the hypolimnion when measured
prior to fall overturn, and an increase in anaerobic
areas in the lower portion of the hypolimnion;
• an increase in dissolved materials, especially nu-
trients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and simple
carbohydrates;
• an increase in suspended solids, especially organic
materials;
• a shift in the structure of communities of aquatic
organisms involving a shift in kinds of species and
relative abundances of species and biomass;
• a steady though slow decrease in light penetration;
• an increase in organic materials and nutrients, es-
pecially phosphorus, in bottom deposits;
• increases in total phosphorus in the spr'ng of the
year.
Recommendations
The principal recommendations for aesthetic and
recreational uses of lakes, ponds, rivers, estuaries,
and near-shore coastal waters are that these uses
continue to be pleasing and undiminished by ef-
fects of cultural activities that increase plant nu-
trients. The trophic level and natural rate of
eutrophication that exists, or would exist, in these
waters in the absence of man's activities is con-
sidered the reference level and the commonly de-
sirable level to be maintained. Such water should
not have a demonstrable accelerated production
of algae growth in excess of rates normally ex-
pected for the same type of waterbody in nature
without man-made influences.
The concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen
mentioned in the text as leading to accelerated
eutrophication were developed from studies for
certain aquatic systems: maintenance of lower
concentrations may or may not prevent eutrophic
conditions. All the factors causing nuisance plant
growths and the level of each which should not be
exceeded are not known. However, nuisance
growths will be limited if the addition of all wastes
such as sewage, food processing, cannery, and in-
dustrial wastes containing nutrients, vitamins,
trace elements, and growth stimulants are care-
fully controlled and nothing is added that causes
a slow overall decrease of average dissolved oxygen
concentration in the hypolimnion and an increase
in the extent and duration of anaerobic conditions.
AQUATIC VASCULAR PLANTS
Aquatic vascular plants affect water quality, other aquatic
organisms, and the uses man makes of the water. Generally,
the effects are inversely proportional to the volume of the
water body and directly proportional to the use man wishes
to make of that water. Thus the impact is often most
significant in marshes, ponds, canals, irrigation ditches,
rivers, shallow lakes, estuaries and embayments, public
water supply sources, and man-made impoundments. Dense
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241'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
growths of aquatic vascular plants are not necessarily due
to human alteration of the environment. Where an ap-
propriate environment for plant growth occurs, it is ex-
tremely difficult to prevent the growth without changing
the environment. Addition of plant nutrients can cause
aquatic vascular plants to increase to nuisance proportions
in waters where natural fertility levels are insufficient to
maintain dense populations (Lind and Cottam 1969).147 In
other waters where artificial nutrient additions are not a
problem, natural fertility alone may support nuisance
growths (Frink 1967).186
Interrelationships With Water Quality
Through their metabolic processes, manner of growth,
and eventual decay, aquatic vascular plants can have sig-
nificant effects on such environmental factors as dissolved
oxygen and carbon dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate
alkalinity, pH, nutrient supplies, light penetration, evapo-
ration, water circulation, current velocity, and sediment
composition. The difficulty in understanding the inter-
relationships among plant growth and water quality is
described in part by Lathwell et al. (1969).144 Diurnal
oxygen rhythm with maximum concentrations in the after-
noon and minimums just before dawn is a universally-
recognized limnological phenomenon, and metabolic ac-
tivities of vascular plants can contribute to these rhythms.
The effect of aquatic plants on dissolved oxygen within a
reach of stream at a particular time of day is a function of
the plant density and distribution, plant species, light in-
tensity, water depth, turbidity, temperature, and ambient
dissolved oxygen. Oxygen production is proportional to
plant density only to a certain limit; when this limit is
exceeded, net oxygen production begins to decrease and,
with increasing density, the plants become net oxygen con-
sumers (Owens et al. 1969).16!) It is hypothesized that this
phenomenon occurs because the plants become so dense
that some are shaded by other overlying plants. Westlake
(1966)173 developed a model for predicting the effects of
aquatic vascular plant density and distribution on oxygen
balance which demonstrates that if the weeds are concen-
trated within a small area, the net effect of the weeds may
be to consume more oxygen than that produced, even
though the average density may be relatively low.
After reviewing the literature on the direct effects of
plants on the oxygen balance, Sculthorpe (1967)162 con-
cluded that the extent of oxygen enrichment at all sites
varies with changing light intensity, temperature, and plant
population density and distribution. On a cloudy, cool day
community respiration may exceed even the maximum
photosynthetic rate. Although vigorous oxygen production
occurs in the growing season, the plants eventually die and
decay, and the resulting oxygen consumption is spread over
the cooler seasons of the year.
Light penetration is significantly reduced by dense stands
of aquatic vascular plants, and this reduces photosynthetic
rates at shallow depths. Buscemi (1958)129 found that unde:
dense beds of Elodea the dissolved oxygen concentratioi
fell sharply with depth and marked stratification was pro
duced. Severe oxygen depletion under floating mats o
water hyacinth (Lynch et al. 1947),16° duckweed and wate
lettuce (Yount 1963)170 have occurred. Extensive covers o
floating or emergent plants shelter the surface from th<
wind, reduce turbulence and reaeration, hinder mixing
and promote thermal stratification. Dense growths of phyto
plankton may also shade-out submerged macrophytes, anc
this phenomenon is used to advantage in fisheries pone
culture. Fertilization of ponds to promote phytoplanktoi
growth is recommended as a means of reducing the standing
crop of submerged vascular plants (Swingle 1947,167 Surbei
1961166).
Interrelationships of plants with water chemistry were
reported by Straskraba (1965)16S when foliage of dens<
populations of Nuphar, Ceratophyllum, and Myriophyllum wen
aggregated on the surface. He found pronounced stratifi-
cation of temperature and chemical factors and reportec
that the variations of oxygen, pH, and alkalinity were
clearly dependent on the photosynthesis and respiration oi
the plants. Photosynthesis also involves carbon dioxide, and
Sculthorpe (1967)162 found thai: for every rise of 2 mg/1 ol
dissolved oxygen the total carbon dioxide should drop
2.75 mg/1 and be accompanied by a rise in the pH. A rise
in pH will allow greater concentrations of un-ionized am-
monia (see Freshwater Aquatic Life, p. 140).
Hannan and Anderson (1971)137 studied diurnal oxygen
balance, carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity and pH on a
seasonal basis in two Texas ponds less than 1 m deep which
supported dense growths of submerged rooted macrophytes.
One pond received seepage water containing free carbon
dioxide and supported a greater plant biomass. This pond
exhibited a diurnal dissolved-oxygen range in summer from
0.8 to 16.4 mg/1, and a winter range from 0.3 to 18.0 mg/1.
The other pond's summer diurnal dissolved-oxygen range
was 3.8 to 14.9 mg/1 and the winter range was 8.3 to 12.3
mg/1. They concluded that (a) when macrophytes use bi-
carbonate as a carbon source, they liberate carbonate and
hydroxyl ions, resulting in an increase in pH and a lowered
bicarbonate alkalinity; and (b) the pH of a macrophyte
community is a function of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-
carbonate ionization phenomena as altered by photosynthe-
sis and community respiration.
Dense colonies of aquatic macrophytes may occupy up
to 10 per cent of the total volume of a river and reduce the
maximum velocity of the current to less than 75 per cent
of that in uncolonized reaches (Hillebrand 1950,139 as re-
ported by Sculthorpe 1967162). This can increase sediment
deposition and lessen channel capacity by raising the sub-
strate, thus increasing the chance of flooding. Newly de-
posited silt may be quickly stabilized by aquatic plants,
further affecting flow.
Loss of water by transpiration varies between species and
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/25
growth forms. Otis (1914)168 showed that the rate of tran-
spiration of Nymphaea odorata was slightly less than the rate
of evaporation from a free water surface of equivalent area,
but that of several emergent species was up to three times
greater. Sculthorpe (1967)162 postulated that transpiration
from the leaves of free-floating rosettes could be at rates six
times greater than evaporation from an equivalent water
surface. Loss of water through water hyacinth was reported
by Das (1969)133 at 7.8 times that of open water.
Interrelationships With Other Biota
Aquatic macrophytes provide a direct or indirect source
of food for aquatic invertebrates and fish and for wildlife.
The plants provide increased substrate for colonization by
epiphytic algae, bacteria, and other microorganisms which
provide food for the larger invertebrates which, in turn,
provide food for fish. Sculthorpe (1967)162 presented a well-
documented summary of the importance of a wide variety
of aquatic macrophytes to fish, birds, and mammals. Sago
pondweed (Potamogeton pectmatus) illustrates the opposite
extreme in man's attitude toward aquatic macrophytes:
Timmons (1966)168 called it the most noxious plant in
irrigation and drainage ditches of the American west,
whereas Martin and Uhler (1939)166 considered it the most
important duck food plant in the United States.
Aquatic vegetation and flotage breaking the water surface
enhance mosquito production by protecting larvae from
wave action and aquatic predators and interfering with
mosquito control procedures. Two major vectors of malaria
in the United States are Anopheles quadnmaculatus east of the
Rocky Mountains, and A. freeborni to the west (Carpenter
and La Casse 1955).130 Anopheline mosquitoes are generally
recognized as permanent pool breeders. The more important
breeding sites of these two mosquitoes are freshwater lakes,
swamps, marshes, impoundment margins, ponds, and seep-
age areas (Carpenter and La Casse 1955).130 The role of
various aquatic plant types in relation to the production
and control of A. quadnmaculatus on artificial ponds and
reservoirs indicates that the greatest problems are created
by macrophytes that are (1) free-floating, (2) submersed
and anchored but which break the water surface, (3) floating
leaf anchored, and (4) emersed floating-mat anchored (U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service, and Tennessee Valley Authority 1947).169
In addition to vector mosquitoes, pestiferous mosquitoes
develop in association with plant parts in shoreline areas.
Jenkins (1964)142 provided an annotated list and bibli-
ography of papers dealing with aquatic vegetation and
mosquitoes.
Generally, submersed vascular plants have lower nutrient
requirements than filamentous algae or phytoplankton
(Mulligan and Baranowski 1969) ,157 Plants with root systems
in the substrate do not have to compete with phytoplankton,
periphyton, or non-rooted macrophytes for the phosphorus
in the sediments.
Boyd (1971b),126 relating his earlier work on emergent
species (Boyd 1969,122 1970a,123 197la125) to that of Stake
(1967,163 1968164) on submerged species, stated that in the
southern United States most of the total net nutrient ac-
cumulation by aquatic vascular plants occurs by midspring
before peak dry matter standing crop is reached, and that
nutrients stored during early spring growth are utilized for
growth later. Thus nutrients are removed from the environ-
ment early in the season, giving the vascular hydrophytes
a competitive advantage over phytoplankton. Boyd (1967)121
also reported that the quantity of phosphorus in aquatic
plants frequently exceeds that of the total water volume.
These phenomena may account for the high productivity
in terms of macrophytes which can occur in infertile waters.
However, if the dissolved phosphorus level is not a limiting
factor for the phytoplankton, the ability to utilize sediment
phosphorus is not a competitive advantage for rooted plants.
Further interaction between aquatic vascular plants and
phytoplankton has been demonstrated recently in studies
showing that concentrations of dissolved organic matter can
control plant growth in lakes by regulating the availability
of trace metals and other nutrients essential to plant photo-
synthesis. An array of organic-inorganic interactions shown
to suppress plant growth in hardwater lakes (Wetzel 1969,174
1971176) appear to operate in other lake types and streams
(Breger 1970,127 Malcolm et al. 1970,162 Allen 1971116).
Wetzel and Allen in press (1971)176 and Wetzel and Manny
(1972)177 showed that aquatic macrophytes near inlets of
lakes can influence phytoplankton growth by removing'
nutrients as they enter the lake while at the same time
producing dissolved organic compounds that complex with
other nutrients necessary to phytoplankton growth. Manny
(1971,153 1972154) showed several mechanisms by which
dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) compounds regulate
plant growth and rates of bacterial nutrient regeneration.
These control mechanisms can be disrupted by nutrients
from municipal and agricultural wastes and dissolved or-
ganic matter from inadequately treated wastes.
Effects on Recreation and Aesthetics
It is difficult to estimate the magnitude of the adverse
effects of aquatic macrophytes in terms of loss of recreational
opportunities or degree of interference with recreational
pursuits. For example, extensive growths of aquatic macro-
phytes interfere with boating of all kinds; but the extent of
interference depends, among other things, on the growth
form of the plants, the density of the colonization, the
fraction of the waterbody covered, and the purposes, atti-
tudes, and tolerance of the boaters. Extremes of opinion on
the degree of impact create difficulty in estimating a mone-
tary, physical, or psychological loss.
Dense growths of aquatic macrophytes are generally ob-
jectionable to the swimmer, diver, water skier, and scuba
enthusiast. Plants or plant parts can be at least a nuisance
to swimmers and, in extreme cases, can be a factor in
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26/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
drowning. Plants obstruct a diver's view of the bottom and
underwater hazards, and fronds can become entangled in
a scuba diver's gear. Water skiers' preparations in shallow
water are hampered by dense growths of plants, and fear
of falling into such growths while skiing detracts from en-
joyment of the sport.
Rafts of free-floating plants or attached plants which
have been dislodged from the substrate often drift onto
beaches or into swimming areas, and time and labor are
entailed in restoring their attractiveness. Drying and decay-
ing aquatic plants often produce objectionable odors and
provide breeding areas for a variety of insects.
Sport fishermen have mixed feelings about aquatic macro-
phytes. Fishing is often good around patches of lily pads,
over deeply-submerged plants, and on the edges of beds of
submerged weeds which rise near the surface. On the other
hand, dense growths may restrict the movement and feeding
of larger fish and limit the fishable area of a waterbody.
Aquatic plants entangle lures and baits and can prevent
fishermen from reaching desirable fishing areas.
Marshes and aquatic macrophytes in sparse or moderate
densities along watercourse and waterbody margins aug-
ment nature study and shoreline exploration and add to the
naturalistic value of camping and recreation sites. It is
only when the density of the growths, or their growth
forms, become a nuisance and interfere with man's ac-
tivities that he finds them objectionable. An indication of
how often that occurs is provided by McCarthy (1961),156
who reported that on the basis of a questionnaire sent to
all states in 1960, there were over 2,000 aquatic vegetation
control projects conducted annually, and that most states
considered excessive growth of aquatic vegetation a serious
and increasing problem.
The aesthetic value of aquatic macrophytes is in the
mind of the beholder. The age-old appeal of aquatic plants
is reflected in their importance as motifs in ancient archi-
tecture, art, and mythology. Aquatic gardens continue to
be popular tourist attractions and landscaping features,
and wild aquatic plant communities have strong appeal to
the artist, the photographer, and the public. To many,
these plants make a contribution of their own to the beauty
of man's environment.
Control Considerations
Aquatic vascular plants can be controlled by several
methods: chemical (Hall 1961,136 Little 1968148); biological
(Avault et al. 1968,117 Maddox et al. 1971,161 Blackburn
et al. 1971120); mechanical (Livermore and Wunderlich
1969149); and naturalistic environmental manipulation (Pen-
found 1953).160 General reviews of control techniques have
been made by Holm et al. (1969),141 Sculthorpe (1967),162
and Lawrence (1968).145
Harvesting aquatic vascular plants to reduce nutrients
as a means of eutrophication control has been investigated
by Boyd (1970b),124 Yount and Grossman (1970),171 an
Peterson (1971).161 Although many investigators have n
ported important nutrients in various aquatic plants, tr
high moisture content of the vegetation as it is harveste
has been an impediment to economic usefulness. Peterso
(1971)161 reported the cost per pound of phosphorus, n
trogen, and carbon removed from a large lake supportin
dense growths of aquatic vascular plants as $61.19, $8.2
and $0.61 respectively.
Nevertheless, improved methods of harvesting and proc
essing promise to reduce the costs of removing these bothei
some plants and reclaiming their nutrients for animal an
human rations or for soil enrichment. Investigation int
the nutritive value of various aquatic plants has frequentl
been an adjunct of research on the efficiency and econom
of harvesting and processing these plants in a a effort t
remove nuisance growth from lakes and streams. Extensiv
harvesting of aquatic vegetal ion from plant-clogged Cadd
Lake (Texas-Louisiana) was followed by plant analysi
and feeding trials. The dehydrated material was found to b
rich in protein and xanthophyll (Cregeretal. 1963,132 Couc
et al. 1963131). Bailey (1965)llfl reported an average of 38'
milligrams of xanthophyll per pound of vacuum oven-driei
aquatic plant material with about 19 per cent proteir
Hentges (1970),13S in cooperation with Bagnall (1970),'
in preliminary tests with cattle fed press-dehydrated aquati
forage, found that pelleted Hydrilla verticillata (Florid
elodea) could be fed satisfactorily as 75 per cent of a bal
anced ration. Bruhn et al. (1971)128 and Koegel et al
(1972)143 found 44 per cent mineral and 21 per cent protei
composition in the dry matter of the heat coagulum of th
expressed juice of Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllw
spicatum). The press residue, further reduced by cuttin
and pressing to 16 per cent of the original volume and 3
per cent of the original weight, could readily be spread fo
lawn or garden mulch.
Control measures are undertaken when plant growt
interferes with human activities beyond some ill-define-
point, but too little effort has been expended to determin
the causes of infestations and too little concern has bee
given the true nature of the biological problem (Boyi
1971b).126 Each aquatic macrophyte problem under con
sideration for control should be treated as unique, th
biology of the plant should tie well understood, and all th
local factors thoroughly investigated before a technique i
selected. Once aquatic macrophytes are killed, space fo
other plants becomes available. Nutrients contained in th
original plants are released for use by other species. Long
term control normally requires continued efforts. Herbi
cides may be directly toxic to fish, fish eggs, or invertebrate
important as fish food (Eipper 1959,134 Walker 1965,1'
Hiltibran 1967).140 (See the discussion of Pesticides, pp
182-186, in Section III.) C'n man-made lakes, reservoir
and ponds the potential for invasion by undesirable aquati
-------
Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/27
plants may be lessened by employing naturalistic methods
which limit the available habitat and requirements of par-
ticular species. It is difficult to predict what biotic form will
replace the species eliminated. Boyd (1971 b)126 states that
in some Florida lakes, herbicide applications have upset
the balance between rooted aquatics and phytoplankton,
resulting in nuisance phytoplankton blooms that were
sometimes more objectionable than the original situation.
Control of aquatic vascular plants can be a positive
factor in fisheries management (Leonard and Cain 1961) ;146
but when control projects are contemplated in multi-pur-
pose waters, consideration should be given to existing inter-
dependencies between man and the aquatic community.
For example: what biomass of aquatic vascular plants is
necessary to support waterfowl; what biomass will permit
boating; what is a tolerable condition for swimming; must
the shoreline be clear of plants for wading; will shore
erosion increase if the shoreline vegetation is removed? The
interference of aquatic vascular plant communities in human
activities should be controlled with methods that stop short
of attempted plant eradication.
Recommendation
The complex interrelationships among aquatic
vascular plants, associated biota, water quality,
and the activities of humans call for case-by-case
evaluation in assessing the need for management
programs. If management is undertaken, study of
its potential impacts on the aquatic ecosystem and
on various water uses should precede its imple-
mentation.
INTRODUCTION OF SPECIES
Extent and Types of Introductions
Purposeful or accidental introductions of foreign aquatic
organisms or transplantations of organisms from one drain-
age system to another can profoundly influence the aesthetic
appeal and the recreational or commercial potential of
affected waterbodies. The introduction of a single species
may alter an entire aquatic ecosystem (Lachner et al.
1970).188 An example of extreme alteration occurred with
the invasion of the Great Lakes by the sea lamprey (Petro-
myzon marinus) (Mofiett 1957,190 Smith 1964197). Introduced
and transplanted species account for about half of the fish
fauna of Connecticut (Whitworth et al. 1968),199 California
(Shapovalov et al. 1959),195 Arizona, and Utah (Miller
1961).189 The nature of the original aquatic fauna is ob-
scured in many cases, and some indigenous species have
been adversely affected through predation, competition,
hybridization, or alteration of habitat by the introduced
species. Exotics that have established reproducing popu-
lations in the United States (exclusive of the Hawaiian
Islands) include 25 species offish (Lachner et al. 1970),18g
more than 50 species of land and aquatic mollusks (Abbott
1950),178 and over 20 species of aquatic vascular plants
(Hotchkiss 1967)185 in addition to aquatic rodents, reptiles,
amphibians, insects, and crustaceans.
Growths of native aquatic vascular plants and a variety
of exotic species commonly interfere with recreation and
fishing activities (see p. 25) and a variety of other water
uses including industrial and agricultural use (Holm et al.
1969,184 Sculthorpe 1967).194 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) caused loss of almost $43 million through combined
deleterious effects in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and
Louisiana in 1956 (Wunderlich 1962).200 Penfound and
Earle (1948)m estimated that the annual loss caused by
water hyacinth in Louisiana before the growths were
brought under control averaged $5 million and in some
years reached $15 million. Water chestnut (Trapa natans)
produced beds covering 10,000 acres within ten years of its
introduction near Washington, D.C. (Rawls 1964).193 The
beds blocked navigation and provided breeding sites for
mosquitoes, and their hard spined seed cases on the shore-
lines and bottom were a serious nuisance to swimmers,
waders, and people walking the shores. Eurasian milfoil
(Myriophyllum spicatum) infested 100,000 acres in Chesapeake
Bay. The plants blocked navigation, prevented recreational
boating and swimming, interfered with seafood harvest,
increased siltation, and encouraged mosquitoes (Cronin
1967).182
Invertebrate introductions include the Asian clam (Cor-
bicula mamlensis), a serious pest in the clogging of industrial
and municipal raw water intake systems and irrigation
canals (Sinclair 1971),196 and an oriental oyster drill
(Tntonalia japonica) considered the most destructive drill in
the Puget Sound area (Korringa 1952).187
Some Results of Introductions
Some introductions of exotics, e.g., brown trout (Salmo
trutta), and some transplants, e.g., striped bass (Morone
saxatilis) from the Atlantic to the Pacific and coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) from the Pacific to the Great Lakes,
have been spectacularly successful in providing sport and
commercial fishing opportunities. Benefits of introductions
and transplantations of many species in a variety of aquatic
situations are discussed by several authors in A Century of
Fisheries in North America (Benson 1970).179
The success of other introductions has been questionable
or controversial. In the case of carp (Cyprinus carpis), the
introduction actually decreased aesthetic values because of
the increased turbidity caused by the habits of the carp.
The increased turbidity in turn decreased the biological
productivity of the waterbody. The presence of carp has
lowered the sportfishing potential of many waterbodies
because of a variety of ecological interactions. The grass
carp or white amur (Ctenopharyngodon idella), a recent impor-
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28/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
tation, has been reported from several major river systems
including the Mississippi as far north as Illinois (Lopinot
personal communication 1972).201 Pelzman (1971),191 in recom-
mending against introducing grass carp into California,
concluded that their impact on established game fish would
be detrimental and that they might become more trouble-
some than the common carp. This view was expressed
earlier by Lachner et al. (1970)188 in considering the impact
of establishment of the species in major river systems. The
walking catfish (Glorias batrachus), accidentally released from
outdoor, holding ponds of aquarium fish dealers in southern
Florida, quickly established reproducing populations in a
variety of habitats (Idyll 1969).186 Natural ponds have pro-
duced up to 3,000 pounds per acre of this species and there
is no current American market for its flesh. This aggressive
and omniverous species apparently reduces the entire fresh-
water community to walking catfish (Lachner et al. 1970).188
Introductions by Official Agencies
The objectives of introductions of new species by agencies
include pond culture; aquatic plant control; insect control;
forage; predation; and improvement of sport and com-
mercial fishing. Boating, swimming, and sport and com-
mercial fin and shellfishing are influenced by water quality
and the biotic community. Lachner et al. (1970),188 after
reviewing the history of exotic fish releases, concluded that
most official releases satisfy certain social wishes but have
not served effective biological purposes, and that some may
result in great biological damage. The guidelines of Craig-
head and Dasmann (1966)181 on introduction of exotic big
game species offer an excellent parallel to the considerations
that should precede the introduction of aquatic organisms.
Such guidelines call for (a) the establishment of the need
and determination of the predicted ecological, recreational,
and economic impact; (b) studies of the proposed release
area to determine that it is suitable, that a niche is vacant,
and that indigenous populations will not be reduced or
displaced; (c) life history studies of the organism to de-
termine possible disease interrelationships, hybridization
potential, and the availability of control technology; am
(d) experiments conducted under controlled conditions tha
indicate how to prevent escape of the organism.
The California Fish and Game Commission (Burn
j972)18" investigated introducing the pancora (Aegla laevi
laevis), a small freshwater crab, into streams as a foo<
for trout to increase natural trout production and spor
fishing potential. The plan was ultimately rejected, but th
on-site studies in Chile and the experimental work ii
California illustrate the breadth of consideration necessar
before any informed decision can be reached. Problem
associated with introductions of aquatic animals were th
subject of two recent symposia (Stroud 1969;198 Departmen
of Lands and Forests, Ottawa 1968183). Persons contem
plating introductions are referred for guidelines to th
Committee on Exotic Fishes and Other Aquatic Organism
of The American Fisheries Society. This committee ha
representation from the American Society of Ichthyologist
and Herpetologists and is currently expanding the scope c
its membership to include other disciplines.
Recommendations
Introduction or transplantation of aquatic orga
nisms are factors that can affect aesthetics, boat
ing, swimming, sport and commercial fin am
shellfishing, and a variety of other water uses
Thorough investigations of an organism's potentia
to alter water quality, affect biological relation
ships, or interfere with other water uses shoul(
precede any planned introductions or transplan
tations.
The deliberate introduction of non-indigenou
aquatic vascular plants, particularly in the warme
temperature or tropical regions, is cautione<
against because of the high potential of such plant
for impairing recreational and aesthetic values
Aquaculturists and others should use care to pre
vent the accidental release of foreign species fo
the same reasons.
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WATER QUALITY FOR GENERAL RECREATION, BATHING, AND SWIMMING
Historically, public health officials have been concerned
about the role of sewage-contaminated bathing water in
the transmission of infectious disease. In 1921, the Com-
mittee on Bathing Places, Sanitary Engineering Section,
American Public Health Association, conducted a study
"to determine the extent and prevalence of infections which
may be conveyed by means of swimming pools and other
bathing places" (Simons et al. 1922).226 The results of the
study, though inconclusive, suggested that contaminated
bathing water may transmit infectious agents to bathers.
The Committee attached special importance to the data
they collected on epidemics of conjunctivitis and other skin
diseases, middle ear infections, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and
nasal sinus infections caused by contaminated bathing
waters. However, the 1935 Report of the Committee (now
designated as the Joint Committee on Bathing Places of
the Public Health Engineering Section of the American
Public Health Association and the Conference of State
Sanitary Engineers) included the following statement: "The
summary of the replies in the 1921 report when considered
in the light of known epidemiological evidence, leaves this
committee unconvinced that bathing places are a major
public health problem even though bathing place sanitation,
because of the health considerations involved, should be
under careful surveillance of the public health authorities,
and proper sanitary control of bathing places should be
exercised" (Yearbook of APHA 1936).202
The suggested standards for design, equipment, and
operation of bathing places that were part of the 1935
report included a section entitled "Relative Classification
of Bathing Areas Recommended" (Yearbook of APHA
1936).202 This section reads, in part, as follows:
In passing on waters of outdoor bathing places, three
aides are available: (1) the results of chemical analyses
of the water; (2) the results of bacteriological analysis
of the water; and (3) information obtained by a sani-
tary survey of sources of pollution, flow currents, etc.—
It is not considered practicable or desirable to recom-
mend any absolute standards of safety for the waters
of outdoor bathing places on any of the three above
bases.
In 1939 (Yearbook of APHA 1940)203 and again in 1955
(Yearbook of APHA 1957),204 the Joint Committee surveyed
all state health departments for additional information on
reported cases of illness attributable to bathing places, but
these surveys uncovered little definite information. Con-
taminated bathing waters were suspected in cases of sleeping
sickness, sinus infections, intestinal upsets, eye inflammation,
"swimmers itch", ear infections, and leptospirosis.
Several outbreaks of human leptospirosis, which is pri-
marily an infection of rats and dogs, have been associated
with recreational waters contaminated by the urine of
infected animals (Diesch and McCulloch 1966).210 One
source of infection to man is wading or swimming in waters
contaminated by cattle wastes (Williams et al. 1956,231
Hovens et al. 1941216). Leptospirosis is prevalent among
"wet crop" agricultural workers, employees of abattoirs,
handlers of livestock, and those who swim in stock-watering
ponds. The organism is not ingested but enters the body
through breaks in the skin and through intact mucous
membrane, particularly the conjunctiva.
The most recent reports on disease associated with
swimming suggest that a free-living, benign, soil and water
amoeba of the Naegleria group (Acanthamoeba) may be a
primary pathogen of animals and man. Central nervous
system amoebiasis is usually considered a complication of
amoebic dysentery due to E. histolyhcal; however, recent
evidence proves that Naegleria gruben causes fulmenting
meningoencephalitis (Callicot 1968,208 Butt 1966,207
Fowler and Carter 1965,212 Patras and Andujar 1966224).
The amoeba may penetrate the mucous membrane. Free-
living amoebae and their cysts are rather ubiquitous in
their distribution on soil and in natural waters; and
identifiable disabilities from free-living amoebae, similar to
the situation with leptospirosis, occur so rarely as a result
of recreational swimming in the United States that both
may be considered epidemiological curiosities (Cerva
1971).209
In 1953, the Committee on Bathing Beach Contamination
of the Public Health Laboratory Service of England and
Wales began a five-year study of the risk to health from
29
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ection I—Recreation and Aesthetics
bathing in sewage-polluted sea water and considered "the
practicability of laying down bacteriological standards for
bathing beaches or grading them according to degree of
pollution to which they are exposed" (Moore 1959).222
This committee concluded in 1959 that "bathing in sewage-
polluted sea water carries only a negligible risk to health,
even on beaches that are aesthetically very unsatisfactory."
The consensus among persons who have studied the
relationship between bathing water quality and bathers'
illness appears to be that scientific proof of a direct relation-
ship is lacking, yet there is evidence to suggest that some
relationship exists. Some experts contend that outbreaks of
illness among bathers have not been studied thoroughly
with modern epidemiologic techniques, and that if such
occurrences were to be studied vigorously, specific knowl-
edge about the relationship of bathing water quality to
infectious disease would be established. In some studies
where bathing water was apparently implicated in the
transmission of disease agents, the water quality was rela-
tively poor, yet no attempts were made to define the specific
relationship.
Water quality requirements for recreational purposes
may be divided into two categories: (1) general require-
ments that pertain to all recreational waters, and (2) special
requirements, usually more restrictive, for selected recre-
ational use of water.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL RECREATIONAL
WATERS
Aesthetic Considerations
As has been stressed earlier in this Section (See Applying
Recommendations, p. 10), all waters should be aesthetically
pleasing, but the great variety of locales makes it impossible
to apply recommendations without considering the par-
ticular contexts. Color of swamp waters would hardly be
acceptable for clear mountain streams. Specific recommen-
dations should reflect adequate study of local background
quality and should consider fully the inherent variability
so that the designated values will be meaningful. Therefore,
specific local recommendations might better encompass
ranges, or a daily average further defined by a sampling
period, and possibly an absolute maximum or minimum as
appropriate. The best technical thought should be given to
establishment of such values rather than dependence on
administrative or judicial decision.
Recommendation
All recreational surface waters will be aestheti-
cally pleasing if they meet the recommendations
presented in the discussion of Water Quality for
Preserving Aesthetic Values in this Section, p. 12.
Microbiological Considerations
The hazard posed by pathogenic microorganisms i
recreational water not intended for bathing and swimmin
is obviously less than it would be if the waters were used fo
those purposes, but it is not piossible to state to what degret
Although there is a paucity -of epidemiological data o
illnesses caused by bathing and swimming, there appear t
be no data that analyze the relationship of the quality c
recreational waters not intended for bathing and swimmin
to the health of persons enjoying such waters. Criteri
concerning the presence of microorganisms in water fo
general recreation purposes ;ire not known.
Conclusion
No specific recommendation concerning th
microbiological qualities of general recreations
waters is presented. In most cases of gross micro
biological pollution of surface waters, there will b
concomitant foreign substance of such magnitud
as to cause the water to be aesthetically unac
ceptable.
Chemical Considerations
The human body is capable of tolerating greater concen
trations of most chemicals upon occasional contact with o
ingestion of small quantities of water than are most form
of aquatic life. Therefore, specific recommendations for th
chemical characteristics of a.ll recreational waters are nc
made since such recommendations probably would b
superseded by recommendations for the support of variou
forms of desirable aquatic life. (See Sections III and IV
Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.)
Recommendations
No specific recommendation concerning th
chemical characteristics of general recreations
waters is presented. However, the following genera
recommendations are applicable:
• recreational waters that contain chemicals ii
such concentrations as to be toxic to man i
small quantities are ingested should not be use
for recreation;
• recreational waters that contain chemicals ii
such concentrations as to be irritating to th
skin or mucous membranes of the human bod
upon brief immersion are undesirable.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BATHING AND
SWIMMING WATERS
Since bathing and swimming involve intimate huma
contact with water, special water quality requiremeni
apply to designated bathing and swimming areas. Thes
-------
Water Quality for General Recreation, Bathing, and Swimming/31
requirements are based on microbiological considerations,
temperature and pH, and clarity and chemical character-
istics. They are more precise than the requirements for
general recreational waters. If a body of water cannot meet
these specialized requirements, it should not be designated
a bathing and swimming area but may be designated for
a recreational use that does not involve planned immersion
of the body.
Microbiological Considerations
All recreational waters should be sufficiently free of
pathogenic bacteria so as not to pose hazards to health
through infections, but this is a particularly important
requirement for planned bathing and swimming areas.
Many bodies of water receive untreated or inadequately
treated human and animal wastes that are a potential focus
of human infection.
There have been several attempts to determine the spe-
c'fic hazard to health from swimming in sewage-contami-
nated water. Three related studies have been conducted
in this country, demonstrating that an appreciably higher
overall illness incidence may be expected among swimmers
than among nonswimmers, regardless of the quality of the
bathing water (Smith et al. 1951,229 Smith and Woolsey
1952,227 1961228). More than one half of the illnesses reported
were of the eye, ear, nose, and throat type; gastrointestinal
disturbances comprised up to one-fifth; skin irritations and
other illnesses made up the balance.
Specific correlation between incidence of illness and
bathing in waters of a particular bacterial quality was ob-
served in two of the studies. A statistically significant
increase in the incidence of illness was observed among
swimmers who used a Lake Michigan beach on three se-
lected days of poorest water quality when the mean total
coliform content was 2,300 per 100 ml. However, only the
data concerning these three days could be used in the
analysis and differences in illness were not noted in com-
parison with a control beach over the total season (Smith
et al. 1951).229 The second instance of positive correlation
was observed in an Ohio River study where it was shown
that, despite the relatively low incidence of gastrointestinal
disturbances, swimming in river water having a median
coliform density of 2,700 per 100 ml appears to have caused
a statistically significant increase in illnesses among swim-
mers (Smith and Woolsey 1952).227 No relationship between
illness and water quality was observed in the third study
conducted at salt water beaches on Long Island Sound
(Smith and Woolsey 1961).228
A study in England suggested that sea water carries only
a negligible risk to health even on beaches that were
aesthetically unsatisfactory (Moore 1959).222 The minimal
risk attending such bathing is probably associated with
chance contact with fecal material that may have come
from infected persons.
Neither the English nor the United States salt water
beach studies indicated a causal or associated relationship
between water quality and disease among swimmers and
bathers. While the two United States fresh water studies
suggested some presumptive relationship, the findings were
not definitive enough to establish specific values for micro-
biological water quality characteristics.
Tests using fecal coliform bacteria are more indicative
of the possible presence of enteric pathogenic microorga-
nisms from man or other warm-blooded animals than the
coliform group of organisms. The data for total coliform
levels of the Ohio River Study were reevaluated to de-
termine comparable levels of fecal coliform bacteria (Geld-
reich 1966).213 This reevaluation suggested that a density
of 400 fecal coliform organisms per 100 ml was the approxi-
mate equivalent of 2,700 total coliform organisms per 100
ml. Using these data as a basis, a geometric mean of 200
fecal coliform organisms per 100 ml has been recommended
previously as a limiting value that under normal circum-
stances should not be exceeded in water intended for bathing
and swimming (U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA
1968).230
There may be some merit to the fecal coliform index as an
adjunct in determining the acceptability of water intended
for bathing and swimming, but caution should be exercised
in using it. Current epidemiological data are not materially
more refined or definitive than those that were available in
1935. The principal value of a fecal coliform index is as an
indicator of possible fecal contamination from man or other
warm-blooded animals. A study of the occurrence of
Salmonella organisms in natural waters showed that when
the fecal coliform level was less than 200 organisms per 100
ml, this group of pathogenic bacteria was isolated less
frequently (Geldreich 1970).214 Salmonella organisms were
isolated in 28 per cent of the samples with a fecal coliform
density less than the 200 value, but they were isolated in
more than 85 per cent of the samples that exceeded the
index value of 200 fecal coliform per 100 ml, and in more
than 98 per cent of the samples with a fecal coliform
density greater than 2,000 organisms per 100 ml.
In evaluating microbiological indicators of recreational
water quality, it should be remembered that many of the
diseases that seem to be causally related to swimming and
bathing in polluted water are not enteric diseases or are
not caused by enteric organisms. Hence, the presence of
fecal coliform bacteria or of Salmonella sp. in recreational
waters is less meaningful than in drinking water. Indi-
cators other than coliform or fecal coliform have been sug-
gested from time to time as being more appropriate for
evaluating bathing water quality. This includes the staphylo-
cocci (Favero et al. 1964),211 streptococci and other entero-
cocci (Litsky et al. 1953).218 Recently Pseudomonas aerugmosa,
a common organism implicated in ear infection, has been
isolated from natural swimming waters (Hoadley 1968)216
-------
yi/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
and may prove to be an indicator of health hazards in
swimming water. Unfortunately, to date, none of the al-
ternative microbiological indicators have been supported
by epidemiological evidence.
When used to supplement other evaluative measurements,
the fecal coliform index may be of value in determining the
sanitary quality of recreational water intended for bathing
and swimming. The index is a measure of the "sanitary
cleanliness" of the water and may denote the possible
presence of untreated or inadequately treated human wastes.
But it is an index that should be used only in conjunction
with other evaluative parameters of water quality such as
sanitary surveys, other biological indices of pollution, and
chemical analyses of water. To use the fecal coliform index
as the sole measure of "sanitary cleanliness," it would be
necessary to know the maximum "acceptable" concentra-
tion of organisms; but there is no agreed-upon value that
divides "acceptability" from "unacceptability."* Thus, as
a measure of "sanitary cleanliness," an increasing value in
the fecal coliform index denotes simply a decrease in the
level of cleanliness of the water.
Conclusion
No specific recommendation is made concerning
the presence or concentrations of microorganisms
in bathing water because of the paucity of valid
epidemiological data.
Temperature Characteristics
The temperature of natural waters is an important factor
governing the character and extent of the recreational ac-
tivities, primarily in the warm months of the year. Persons
engaging in winter water recreation such as ice skating,
duck hunting, and fishing do so with the knowledge that
whole body immersion must be avoided. Accidental im-
mersion in water at or near freezing temperatures is dan-
gerous because the median lethal immersion time is less
than 30 minutes for children and most adults (Molnar
1946).220 Faddists swim in water that is near the freezing
temperature, but their immersion time is short, and they
have been conditioned for the exposure. As a result of
training, fat insulation, and increased body heat production,
some exceptional athletic individuals (Korean pearl divers
and swimmers of the English channel) can withstand pro-
longed immersion for as long as 17 hours in water at 16 C
(61 F), whereas children and some adults might not survive
beyond two hours (Kreider 1964).217
From one individual to another, there is considerable
variation in the rates of body cooling and the incidence of
TABLE 1-3—Life Expectancy in Water
(Expected duration in hows for adults wearing file vests and immersed in waters of varying temperature)
Duration
hours
0.5
I.*
2.0
3.0
4.0
32
0
M
L
L
L
I
41
5
M
M
L
L
L
50
10
M
L
L
Temperature of the water
59 61
15 20
Hr S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
M "I
78
25
S
S
S
S
86
30
S
S
S
S
S
95
35
S
S
S
S
S
104 P=
40 C°
M
L
L
L
L
* If an arbitrary value for the fecal coliform index is desired, con-
sideration may be given to a density value expressed as a geometric
mean of a series of samples collected during periods of normal seasonal
flow. A maximum value of 1,000 fecal coliform per 100 ml could be
considered.
L= Lethal, 100 per cent expectancy of death.
M= Marginal, 50 per cent expectancy of unconsciousness, probably drowning.
S=Sale, 100 per cent survival.
Adapated from tables by Pan American Airways and others.
survival in cold water. The variability is a function of bod
size, fat content, prior acclimatization, ability to exercise
and overall physical fitness. The ratio of body mass t
surface area is greater in large, heavy individuals, and the!
mass changes with temperature more slowly than that of
small child (Kreider 1964).217
With the exception of water temperatures affected b
thermal springs, ocean currents such as the Gulf Strean:
and man-made heat, the temperature of natural water i
the result of air temperature:, solar radiation, evaporatior
and wind movement. Many natural waters are undesirabl
cold for complete body immersion even during the summe
period. These include coastal waters subjected to cold cut
rents such as the Labrador Current on the northeaster
coastline or the California Current in the Pacific Ocea
(Meyers et al. 1969).219 In a.ddition, some deep lakes an
upwelling springs, and streams and lakes fed from meltin
snow may have summer surface temperatures too cold fc
prolonged swimming for children.
The most comfortable temperature range for instructions
and general recreational swimming where the metaboli
rate of heat production is not high—i.e., about 250 kil
calories/hr (1000 BTUs/hr) —appears to be about 29-30 (
(84—86 F). In sprint swimming when metabolic rates excee
500 kilo calories/hr (2,000 BTUs/hr), swimmers can pei
form comfortably in water temperatures in the range (
20-27 C (68-80 F) (Bullard and Rapp 1970).206
The safe upper limit of water temperature for recreatiom
immersion varies from individual to individual and seen
to depend on psychological rather than physiological cor
siderations. Unlike cold water, the mass/surface area rati
in warm water favors the child. Physiologically, neithe
adult nor child would experience thermal stress undc
modest metabolic heat production as long as the wate
temperature was lower than the normal skin temperatui
of 33 C (91 F) (Newburgh 1949).223 The rate at which hej
is conducted from the immersed human body is so rapi
that thermal balance for a 'body at rest in water can onl
be attained if the water temperature is about 34 C (92 J
(Beckman 1963).205 The survival of an individual submerge
-------
Water Quality for General Recreation, Bathing, and Swimming/ZZ
in water at a temperature above 34-35 C (93-95 F),
depends on his tolerance to the elevation of his internal
temperature, and there is a real risk of injury with prolonged
exposure (Table 1-3). Water ranging in temperature from
26-30 C (78-86 F) is comfortable to most swimmers
throughout prolonged periods of moderate physical exertion
(Bullard and Rapp 1970).206 Although data are limited,
natural surface waters do not often exceed skin temperature,
but water at 32 C (90 F) is not unusual for rivers and
estuaries (Public Works 1967).225
Recommendation
In recreational waters used for bathing and
swimming, the thermal characteristics should not
cause an appreciable increase or decrease in the
deep body temperature of bathers and swimmers.
One hour of continuous immersion in waters colder
than 15 C (59 F) may cause the death of some
swimmers and will be extremely stressful to all
swimmers who are not garbed in underwater pro-
tective cold-clothing. Scientific evidence suggests
that prolonged immersion in water warmer than
34-35 C (93-94 F) is hazardous. The degree of
hazard varies with water temperature, immersion
time, and metabolic rate of the swimmer.
pH Characteristics
Some chemicals affect the pH of water. Many saline,
naturally alkaline, or acidic fresh waters may cause eye
irritation because the pH of the water is unfavorable.
Therefore, special requirements concerning the pH of
recreational waters may be more restrictive than those
established for public water supplies.
The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a normal pH of
approximately 7.4 and a high buffering capacity due pri-
marily to the presence of complex organic buffering agents.
As is true of many organic buffering agents, those of the
lacrimal fluid are able to maintain the pH within a narrow
range until their buffering capacity is exhausted. When the
lacrimal fluid, through exhaustion of its buffering capacity,
is unable to adjust the immediate contact layer of another
fluid to a pH of 7.4, eye irritation results. A deviation of
no more than 0.1 unit from the normal pH of the eye may
result in discomfort, and appreciable deviation will cause
severe pain (Mood 1968).221
Ideally, the pH of swimming water should be approxi-
mately the same as that of the lacrimal fluid, i.e., 7.4.
However, since the lacrimal fluid has a high buffering
capacity, a range of pH values from 6.5 to 8.3 can be
tolerated under average conditions. If the water is rela-
tively free of dissolved solids and has a very low buffering
capacity, pH values from 5.0 to 9.0 may be acceptable to
most swimmers.
Conclusion
For most bathing and swimming waters, eye irri-
tation is minimized and recreational enjoyment
enhanced by maintaining the pH within the range
of 6.5 and 8.3 except for those waters with a low
buffer capacity where a range of pH between 5.0
and 9.0 may be tolerated.
Clarity Considerations
It is important that water at bathing and swimming
areas be clear enough for users to estimate depth, to see
subsurface hazards easily and clearly, and to detect the
submerged bodies of swimmers or divers who may be in
difficulty. Aside from the safety factor, clear water fosters
enjoyment of the aquatic environment. The clearer the
water, the more desirable the swimming area.
The natural turbidity of some bathing and swimming
waters is often so high that visibility through the water is
dangerously limited. If such areas are in conformance with
all other requirements, they may be used for bathing and
swimming, provided that subsurface hazards are removed
and the depth of the water is clearly indicated by signs that
are easily readable.
Conclusion
Safety and enhancement of aesthetic enjoyment
is fostered when the clarity of the water in desig-
nated bathing and swimming areas allows the de-
tection of subsurface hazards or submerged bodies.
Where such clarity is not attainable, clearly read-
able depth indicators are desirable.
Chemical Considerations
It is impossible to enumerate in specific terms all the
specialized requirements that pertain to the chemical quality
of bathing and swimming waters. In general, these require-
ments may be quantified by analyzing the conditions
stipulated by two kinds of human exposure, i.e., ingestion
and contact. A bather involuntarily swallows only a small
amount of water while swimming, although precise data
on this are lacking.
Recommendation
Prolonged whole body immersion in the water is
the principal activity that influences the required
chemical characteristics of recreational waters for
bathing and swimming.
The chemical characteristics of bathing and
swimming waters should be such that water is
nontoxic and nonirritating to the skin and the
mucous membranes of the human body. (See also
the Recommendations on p. 30.)
-------
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIALIZED RECREATION
The recreational enjoyment of water involves many ac-
tivities other than water contact sports. Some of these, such
as boating, may have an adverse effect on the quality of
water and require berthing and launching facilities that in
themselves may degrade the aesthetic enjoyment of the
water environment. Others, such as fishing, waterfowl
hunting, and shellfish harvesting, depend upon the quality
of water being suitable for the species of wildlife involved.
Because they are water-related and either require or are
limited by specific water-quality constituents for their con-
tinuance, these specialized types of recreation are given
individual attention.
BOATING
Boating is a water-based recreational activity that re-
quires aesthetically pleasing water for its full enjoyment.
Boats also make a contribution to the aesthetic and recre-
ational activity scene as the sailboat or canoe glides about
the water surface or the water skier performs. Boating
activity of all types has an element of scale with larger and
faster boats associated with larger waterbodies. Many of
the problems associated with boating are essentially vio-
lations of scale.
Boating activities also have an impact on water quality.
The magnitude of the impact is illustrated by recent esti-
mates that there are more than 12 million pleasure boats in
the United States (Outboard Boating Club 1971).236 More
than 8 million of these are equipped with engines, and
300,000 have sanitary facilities without pollution contro]
devices. Because of the large number of boats in use, many
bodies of water are now experiencing problems that ad-
versely affect other water uses, such as public water supply,
support of aquatic life, and other types of water-based
recreation.
The detrimental effect of boating on water quality comes
from three principal sources: waste disposal systems, engine
exhaust, and refuse thrown overboard. Discharges from
waste disposal systems on boats are individually a small
contribution to contamination and may not be reflected
in water-quality sampling, but they represent a potential
health hazard and an aesthetic nuisance that must be co
trolled in or near designated swimming areas. Pathoge
in human waste are probably the most important contan
nant in the discharges, because of their potential effect i
human health (see discussions on Special Requirements (
Bathing and Swimming Waters, p. 30, and Shellfish, p. 3f
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended soli
(SS) are also involved in the discharges, but the quantiti
are not likely to have any measurable effect on over:
water quality. In view of this, it would appear that prima
emphasis should be on the control of bacteria from sanita
systems.
The exhaust of internal combustion engines and the u
burned fuel of the combustion cycle affect aesthetic enjc
ment and may impart undesirable taste and odors to wat
supplies and off-flavors to aquatic life. Crankcase exhai
from the two-cycle engine can discharge as much as
per cent of the fuel to the water in an unburned sta
while 10 to 20 per cent is common (Muratori 1968).233 O
study showed that the use of 2.2-3.5 gal/acre-foot (usi
an oil:fuel mixture of 1:17) will cause some indication
fish flesh tainting, and about 6 gal/acre-foot result in seve
tainting (English et al. 1963).232 (For further discussions
the effects of oil on environments, see Sections III and ]
on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.)
The amount of lead emitted into the water from an 01
board motor burning leaded gasoline (0.7 grams of le
per liter) appears to be related to the size of the motor a
the speed of operation. A 10-hp engine operated at one-h
to three-fourths throttle was shown to emit into the wai
0.229 grams of lead per liter of fuel consumed, whereas
5.6-hp engine operated at full throttle emitted 0.121 grai
per liter (English et al. 1963).232
With respect to interference with other beneficial us
it has been reported that a large municipal water works
experiencing difficulties with oil on the clarification basil
The oil occurs subsequent to periods of extensive weeke
boating activity during the recreational season (Orsan
Quality Monitor 1969).234 Moreover, bottles, cans, plasti
and miscellaneous solid wastes commonly deface wati
where boaters are numerous, thereby degrading the e
vironment aesthetically.
34
-------
Water Quality Considerations for Specialized Recreation/35
Waste discharge including sanitary, litter, sullage, or
bilge from any water craft substantially reduces the water
quality of harbors and other congested areas. The practice
is aesthetically undesirable and may constitute a health
hazard. When engine emissions from boats spread an oily
film on water or interfere with beneficial uses, as in lowering
the value of fish and other edible aquatic organisms by im-
parting objectionable taste and odor to their flesh, restric-
tions should be devised to limit engine use or reduce the
emissions.
Floating or submerged objects affect boating safety, and
stray electrical currents increase corrosion as do corrosive
substances or low pH values. Growth of hull-fouling orga-
nisms is enhanced by the discharge of high-nutrient-bearing
wastewaters. These conditions represent either a hazard to
boating or an economic loss to the boat operator.
Conclusion
Water that meets the general recommendations
for aesthetic purposes is acceptable for boating.
(see Water Quality for Preserving Aesthetic Values,
pp. 11-12.)
Boats and the impact of boating on water quality
are factors affecting the recreational and aesthetic
aspects of water use and should be considered as
such.
AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
Fish, waterfowl, and other water-dependent wildlife are
an integral part of water-based recreation activities and
related aesthetic values. Wildlife enhances the aesthetic
quality of aquatic situations by adding animation and a
fascinating array of life forms to an otherwise largely static
scene. Observation of these life forms, whether for photo-
graphic, educational nature study, or purely recreational
purposes, is an aesthetically enriching experience. The
economic importance and popularity of recreation involving
the harvest offish, shellfish, waterfowl, and water-dependent
furbearers have been discussed earlier. Water-quality char-
acteristics recommended for the well-being of aquatic life
and associated wildlife are discussed in detail in Sections
III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and
Wildlife.
Maintenance of Habitat
Pressures placed on the aquatic environment by the in-
creasing human population are of major concern. They
often lead at least to disruption and occasionally to de-
struction of related life-support systems of desired species.
Examples of this are the complete elimination of aquatic
ecosystems by the filling of marshes or shallow waters for
commercial, residential, or industrial developments, or the
sometimes chronic, sometimes partial, and sometimes total
destruction of aquatic communities by society's wastes.
Effects of cultural encroachment are often insidious rather
than spectacular. Aesthetic values are gradually reduced,
as is recruitment of water-associated wildlife populations.
Maintenance of life-support systems for aquatic life and
water-related wildlife requires adequately oxygenated water,
virtual freedom from damaging materials and toxicants,
and the preservation of a general habitat for routine ac-
tivities, plus the critical habitat necessary for reproduction,
nursery areas, food production, and protection from preda-
tors. Each species has its specific life-support requirements
that, if not adequately met, lead to depauperate populations
or complete species elimination. The life-support systems
essential to the survival of desired aquatic life and wildlife
are required for man to enjoy the full scope of water-related
recreational and aesthetic benefits.
Man is often in direct competition for a given habitat
with many species of aquatic life and wildlife. In some
areas, the use of specific waters for recreation based on
aquatic life and wildlife may be undesirable for a number of
reasons, including potential conflicts with other recreational
activities. Limitations on the use of surface water capable
of providing recreational wildlife observation, hunting, and
fishing under practical management should not be imposed
by unsuitable water quality.
Variety of Aquatic Life
Natural surface waters support a variety of aquatic life,
and each species is of interest or importance to man for
various reasons. While water-based recreation often evokes
thoughts of fishing, there are a number of other important
recreational activities, such as skin diving, shell and insect
collecting, and photography, that also benefit from the
complex interrelationships that produce fish. A variety of
aquatic life is intrinsic to our aesthetic enjoyment of the
environment. Urban waterbodies may be the only local
sites where residents can still conveniently observe and
contemplate a complete web of life, from primary producers
through predators.
Reduction in the variety of aquatic life has long been
widely used as an indication of water-quality degradation.
The degree of reduction in species diversity often indicates
the intensity of pollution because, as a general rule, as
pollution increases, fewer species can tolerate the environ-
ment. Determining the extent of reduction can be ac-
complished by studying the entire ecosystem; but the phe-
nomenon is also reflected in the community structure of
subcomponents, e.g., bottom animals, plankton, attached
algae, or fish. Keup et al. (1967)236 compiled excerpts of
early studies of this type. Mackenthun (1969)237 presented
numerous case studies dealing with different types of pol-
lutants, and Wilhm and Dorris (1968)238 have reviewed
recent efforts to express diversity indices mathematically.
While most water quality recommendations in Sections
III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and
Wildlife are designed for specific and known hazards, it is
-------
Z§/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
impossible to make recommendations which will protect
all organisms from all hazards, including manipulation of
the physical environment. In similar habitats and under
similar environmental conditions, a reduction in variety of
aquatic life (species diversity) can be symptomatic of an
ecosystem's declining health and signal deterioration of
recreational or other beneficial uses. In addition to mainte-
nance of aquatic community structures, special protective
consideration should be given sport, commercial, and en-
dangered species of aquatic life and wildlife.
Recommendations
To maintain and protect aesthetic values and
recreational activities associated with aquatic life
and wildlife, it is recommended that the water
quality recommendations in the Freshwater and
Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife reports (Sections
III and IV) be applied.
Since changes in species diversity are often as-
sociated with changes in water quality and signal
probable changes in recreational and aesthetic
values, it is recommended that changes in species
diversity be employed as indications that corrective
action may be necessary. (See Section III on Fresh-
water Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and Appendix
II-B on Community Structure and Diversity
Indices.)
SHELLFISH
Shellfish* are a renewable, manageable natural resource
of considerable economic importance, and the water quality
essential to their protection in estuarine growing areas is
discussed by the panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Section IV). However, the impact of shellfish as related to
recreational and aesthetic enjoyment is also important, al-
though difficult to estimate in terms of time and money.
Furthermore, because contaminated shellfish may be har-
vested by the public, it is necessary to protect these people
and others who may eat the unsafe catch.
Clams and oysters are obtained from intertidal areas,
and these marine species have an unusual ability to act as
disease vectors and to accumulate hazardous materials from
the water. As more people are able to seek them in a sports
fishery, the problems of public health related to these
animals intensify.
Because the intent here is to protect persons engaged in
recreational shellfishing, consideration will be given to
numerous factors which affect shellfish and their growing
areas. These include bacteriological quality, pesticides,
marine biotoxins, trace metals, and radionuclides.
Recreational shellfishing should be limited to waters of
quality that allow harvesting for direct marketing. Epi-
* As used here, the term "shellfish" is limited to clams, oysters, arid
mussels.
demiological evidence accumulated through 46 years
operation under the federal-state cooperative Natior
Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) demonstrated reaso
able safety in taking shellfish from approved growing are;
The water quality criteria for determining an "approv
growing area" are the basis of the standards given in t
National Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Op<
ations, Part 1, Sanitation of Shellfish Growing Areas (PHS Pi
No. 33, 1965).261 The growing area may be designated
"approved" when:
(a) the sanitary survey indicates that pathogenic mici
organisms, radionuclides, or toxic wastes do not reach t
area in dangerous concentrations; and
(b) potentially dangerous concentrations are verified
laboratory findings whenever the sanitary survey indica
the need.
Bacteriological Quality
Clams and oysters, which are capable of concentrati
bacteria and viruses, are among the few animals eat
alive and raw by man. For these reasons, the consumpti
of raw shellfish harvested from unclean or polluted watt
is dangerous. Polluted water, especially that receivi
domestic sewage, may contain high numbers of bactei
normally carried in the feces of man and other anima
Although these bacteria may not themselves be harmf
the danger exists that pathogenic bacteria and viruses m
also be present (Lumsden et al. 1925,250 Old and G
1946,257 Mason and McLean 1962,251 Mosley 1964a,
1964b;255 Koff et al. 19G7).248 Shellfish are capable
pumping prodigious quantities of water in their feedi
and concentrating the suspended bacteria and viruses. T
rate of feeding in shellfish is temperature-dependent, w
the highest concentrating and feeding rate occurring
warm water above 50 F and almost no feeding occurri
when the water temperatures approach 32 F. Therefo
shellfish meat in the winter months will have a lov
bacterial concentration than in the summer months (G
bard et al., 1942) ,246 The National Shellfish Sanitati
Program determines the bacteriological quality of comm
cial shellfish harvesting areas in the following manner:
• examinations are conducted in accordance with 1
recommended procedures of the American Pul:
Health Association for the examination of seawa
and shellfish:
• there must be no direct discharges of inadequate
treated sewage;
• samples of water for bacteriological examination ;
collected under those conditions of time and t
which produce maximum concentrations of bacter
• the coliform median most probable number (MP
of the water does not exceed 70 per 100 ml, and i
more than 10 per cent of the samples ordinal
exceed an MPN of 230 per 100 ml for a five-tu
-------
Water Quality Considerations for Specialized Recreation/37
decimal dilution test (or 330 per 100 ml for a three-
tube decimal dilution test) in those portions of the
area most probably exposed to fecal contamination
during the more unfavorable hydrographic and pol-
lution conditions; and
• the reliability of nearby waste treatment plants is
considered before areas for direct harvesting are
approved.
Recommendation
Recreational harvesting of shellfish should be
limited to areas where water quality meets the
National Shellfish Sanitation Program Standards
for approved growing areas.
Pesticides
Pesticides reach estuarine waters from many sources in-
cluding sewage and industrial waste discharge, runoff from
land used for agriculture and forestry, and chemicals used
to control aquatic vegetation and shellfish predators. Once
pesticides are in the marine environment, they are rapidly
accumulated by shellfish, sometimes to toxic concentrations.
Organochlorine compounds are usually the most toxic and
frequently have a deleterious effect at concentrations near
0.1 /ig/1 in the ambient water (Butler 1966b).240 Lowe
(1965)249 observed that DDT at a concentration of 0.5 ng/l
in water was fatal to juvenile blue crabs (Callmectes sapidus)
in a few days.
The biological magnification of persistent pesticides by
mollusks in the marine environment may be very pro-
nounced. Butler (1966a)239 observed that DDT may be
concentrated to a level 25,000 times that found in sur-
rounding sea water within 10 days. In some instances, de-
pending upon water temperature, duration of exposure, and
concentration of DDT in the surrounding water, biological
magnification may be 70,000 times (Butler 1966b).240 Some
shellfish species, particularly blue mussel (Mytilus edulis),
appear to have a higher concentration factor than other
species (Modin 1969,253 Foehrenbach 1972).245
In 1966, a nationwide surveillance system was initiated
by the U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries to monitor
permanent mollusk populations and determine the extent
of pesticide pollution in North American estuaries. Butler
(1969)241 reported that sampling during the first three years
did not indicate any consistent trends in estuarine pesticide
pollution. Distinct seasonal and geographical differences in
pollution levels were apparent. Pesticides most commonly
detected in order of frequency were DDT (including its
metabolites), endrin, toxaphene, and mirex. The amounts
detected in North American estuaries varied. In Wash-
ington, less than 3 per cent of the sampled shellfish were
contaminated with DDT. Residues were always less than
0.05 mg/1. On the Atlantic Coast, DDT residues in oysters
varied from less than 0.05 mg/1 in marine estuaries to less
than 0.5 mg/1 in others. In a monitoring program for
TABLE 1-4—Recommended Guidelines for Pesticide Levels
in Shellfish
Pesticide
Aldrin"
BHC
Chlordane
DDT)
DDE) ANY ONE OR ALL, NOT TO EXCEED
ODD)
Dieldrin0
Endrin"
Heplachlofo
Heptachlor Eporide°
Lmdam .
Metho«ychlor
2,4-D
Concentration in shellfish
(ppm-dramed weight)
0.20
0.20
0.03
1.50
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.50
«It is recommended that if the combined values obtained for Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, and Heptachlor
Epoxide exceed 0.20 ppm, such values be considered as"alert" levels which indicate the need for increased samp'inf
until results indicate the levels are receding. It it further recommended that when the combined values tor the
above five pesticides reach the 0.25 ppm level, the areas be closed until it can be demonstrated that the levels an
receding.
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service 19!8.-3
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in estuarine organisms
in marine waters of Long Island, New York, Foehrenbach
(1972)245 found that residues of DDT, ODD, DDE, and
dieldrin in shellfish were well within the proposed limits of
the 6th National Shellfish Sanitation Workshop (1968)262
(see Table 1-4). For most cases, the levels detected were
10- to 20-fold less than the recommendations for DDT and
its metabolites, and in many instances concentrations in
the shellfish were lower by a factor of 100.
Although pesticide levels in many estuaries in the United
States are low, the marked ability of shellfish to concentrate
pesticides indicates that the levels approached in waters
may be considered significant in certain isolated instances
(Environmental Protection Agency 1971).244
Recommendation
Concentrations of pesticides in fresh and marine
waters that provide an adequate level of protection
to shellfish are recommended in the Freshwater
and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Reports,
Sections III and IV. Levels that protect the human
consumer of shellfish should be based on pesticide
concentrations in the edible portion of the shell-
fish. Recommended human health guidelines for
pesticide concentrations in shellfish have been sug-
gested by the 6th National Shellfish Sanitation
Workshop (1968)262, Table 1-4. They are recom-
mended here as interim guidelines.
Marine Biotoxins
Paralytic poisoning due to the ingestion of toxic shellfish,
while not a major public health problem, is a cause of
concern to health officials because of its extreme toxicity,
and because there is no known antidote. Up to 1962, more
-------
38/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
than 957 cases of paralytic shellfish poisoning are known
to have occurred, resulting in at least 222 deaths in the
United States (Halstead 1965).24
Paralytic shellfish poison is a non-protein, acid-stable,
alkali-labile biotoxin nearly 10,000 times as lethal as sodium
cyanide. The original source of the poison is a species of
unicellular marine dinoflagellates, genus Gonyaulax. Gony-
aulax cantenella, perhaps the best known of the toxic dino-
flagellates, is found on the Pacific Coast. Gonyaulax tamarensis
is the causative organism of paralytic shellfish poison on
the Atlantic Coast of Canada and the northern United
States. Other dinoflagellate species have been identified in
outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning outside the United
States (Halstead 1965).247
Mollusks and other seashore animals may become poison-
ous if they consume toxic planktonic algae. Mussels and
clams are the principal species of edible mollusks that
reach dangerous levels of toxicity. Although oysters can
also become toxic, their apparent uptake of toxin is usually
lower; and they are usually reared in areas free of toxin
(Dupuy and Sparks 1968).243
The level of toxicity of shellfish is proportional to the
number and poison content of Gonyaulax ingested. When
large numbers of Gonyaulax are present in the water, shellfish
toxicity may rise rapidly to dangerous levels (Prakash and
Medcof 1962).268 The extent of algal growth depends on
the combination of nutrients, salinity, sunlight, and temper-
ature. Massive blooms of algae are most likely to occur in
the warm summer months. In the absence of toxic algae,
the poison that had been stored in the shellfish is eliminated
by a purging action over a period of time (Sommer and
Meyer 1937).260
Although Gonyaulax only blooms in the warmer months,
shellfish are not necessarily free from toxin during the rest
of the year, as there is great variation in the rates of uptake
and elimination of the poison among the various species of
mollusks. It is possible for certain species to remain toxic
for a long period of time. Butter clams, for example, store
the toxin for a considerable length of time, especially under
cold climatic conditions (Chambers and Magnusson
1950).242
Cooking by boiling, steaming, or pan frying does not
remove the danger of intoxication, although it does reduce
the original poison content of the raw meat to some extent.
Pan frying seems to be more effective than other cooking
methods in reducing toxicity probably because higher
temperatures are involved. If the water in which shellfish
have been boiled is discarded, most of the toxin will be
removed (McFarren et al. 1965).252
A chemical method for the quantitative determination of
the poison has been devised, but the most generally used
laboratory technique for determining the toxicity of shellfish
is a bioassay using mice. The toxin extracted from shellfish
is injected into test mice and the length of time elapsii
from injection of the mice to the time of their death c;
be correlated with the amount of poison the shellfish co
tain. The quantity of paralytic shellfish poison produci
death is measured in mouse units.
Recommendation
Since there is no analytical measurement for tl
biotoxin in water, shellfish should not be harvest*
from any areas even if "approved" where analys
indicates a Gonyaulax shellfish toxin poison coi
tent of 80 micrograms or higher, or where
Ciguateria-like toxin reaches 20 mouse units p
100 grams of the edible portions of raw shellfii
meat.
Trace Metals
The hazard to humans oi" consuming shellfish containii
toxic trace metals has been dramatized by outbreaks
Minimata in Japan. Pringle et al. (1968)259 noted that t
capacity of shellfish to concentrate in vivo some metals
levels many hundred times greater than those in the e
vironment means that moliusks exposed to pollution m;
contain quantities sufficient to produce toxicities in t
human consumer.
Recommendation
Concentrations of metals in fresh and marii
waters that provide an adequate level of protectic
to shellfish are recommended in the Freshwat
and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Section
HI and IV. Recommendations to protect the hi
man consumer of shellfish should be based on trac
metal content of the edible portions of the she!
fish, but necessary data to support such recon
mendations are not currently available.
Radionuclides
Radioactive wastes entering water present a potent
hazard to humans who consume shellfish growing in su
water. Even though radioactive material may be discharg
into shellfish growing waters at levels not exceeding t
applicable standards, it is possible that accumulation
radionuclides in the aquatic food chain may make t
organisms used as food unsafe. The radionuclides Zn66 a
P32 (National Academy of Sciences 1957)256 are known
be concentrated in shellfish by five orders of magnitu
(105). Therefore, consideration must be given to radioacti
fallout or discharges of wastes from nuclear reactors ai
industry into shellfish growing areas. For further discussv
of this subject see Section IV, Marine Aquatic Life ai
Wildlife, p. 270.
-------
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE
WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS
There are still numerous watersheds in the United States
that are remote from population centers. Almost inaccessible
and apparently free from man's developmental influences,
these watersheds are conducive to mental as well as physical
relaxation in the naturalness of their surroundings. To as-
sure the preservation of such natural beauty, the Wild and
Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 established in part a national
system of wild and scenic rivers (U.S. Congress 1968).269
Eight rivers designated in the Act in whole or in part
constituted the original components of the system:
1. Clearwater, Middle Fork, Idaho
2. Eleven Point, Missouri
3. Feather, California
4. Rio Grande, New Mexico
5. Rogue, Oregon
6. Saint Croix, Minnesota and Wisconsin
7. Salmon, Middle Fork, Idaho
8. Wolf, Wisconsin
All or portions of 27 other rivers were mentioned specifi-
cally in the Act as being worthy of inclusion in the system
if studies to be conducted by several federal agencies showed
their inclusion to be feasible. Certainly there are many more
rivers in the nation worthy of preservation by state and
local agencies (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Outdoor Recreation, 1970).270 In Kentucky alone, it was
found that 500 streams and watersheds, near urban areas,
would serve purposes of outdoor recreation in natural en-
vironments (Dearinger 1968).264
Characteristically, such wild river areas are: (a) accessible
to man in only limited degrees; (b) enjoyed by relatively
few people who actually go to the site; (c) visited by scout
troops or other small groups rather than by lone indi-
viduals; and (d) productive of primarily intangible, aesthetic
benefits of real value though difficult to quantify (U.S.
Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission 1962.271
Sonnen et al. 1970267).
The quality of natural streams is generally good, pri-
marily because man's activities leading to waste discharges
are minimal or nonexistent in the area.* However, fecal
coliform concentrations in some natural waters have been
found to be quite high following surface runoff (Betson and
Buckingham unpublished report 1970;273 Kunkle and Meiman
1967266), indicating the possible presence of disease-causing
organisms in these waters. The sources of fecal coliforms in
natural waters are wild and domestic animals and birds,
as well as human beings who occasionally visit the area.
Barton (1969)263 has also reported that natural areas may
contribute significant loads of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
other nutrients to the streams that drain them. These
chemicals can lead to algal blooms and other naturally
occurring but aesthetically unpleasant problems. Barton
(1969)263 also points out the paradox that a significant
contributor to pollution of natural waters is the human
being who comes to enjoy the uniquely unpolluted environ-
ment. In addition to water-quality degradation, man also
contributes over one pound per day of solid wastes or refuse
in campgrounds and wilderness areas, a problem with which
the Forest Service and other agencies must now cope
(Spooner 1971).268
This discussion has concentrated on Wild and Scenic
rivers. However, similar consideration should be given to
the recognition and preservation of other wild stretches of
ocean shoreline, marshes, and unspoiled islands in fresh
and salt waters.
WATER BODIES IN URBAN AREAS
Many large water bodies are located near or in urban and
metropolitan areas. These waters include major coastal
estuaries and bays, portions of the Great Lakes, and the
largest inland rivers. Characteristically, these waters serve
a multiplicity of uses and are an economic advantage to the
* Some of the least mineralized natural waters are those in high
mountain areas fed 6y rainfall or snowmelt running across stable
rock formations. One such stream on the eastern slope of the Rocky
Mountains has been found to have total dissolved solids concentra-
tions often below 50 mg/1, coliform organism concentrations of 0
to 300/ml, and turbidities of less than 1 unit (Kunkle and Meiman
1967).a»
39
-------
40/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
region and to the nation as a whole. In addition to pro-
viding water supplies, they have pronounced effects on local
weather and make possible valuable aesthetic and recre-
ational pleasures, ranging from simple viewing to fishing
and boating.
Large urban waterways, because of their location in
densely populated areas, are heavily used commercially
and are also in great demand for recreational and aesthetic
purposes. Consequently, although swimming and other con-
tact activities cannot always be provided in all such waters,
quality levels supportive of these activities should be en-
couraged.
Water flow in the urban stream tends to be variable and
subject to higher and more frequent flood flows than under
"natural conditions," because storm water runoff from
buildings and hard-surfaced areas is so complete and rapid.
The impaired quality of the water may be due to storm water
runoff, upstream soil erosion, or sewage discharges and low
base flow. Whitman (1968)272 surveyed the sources of pol-
lution in the urban streams in Baltimore and Washington
and reported that sewer malfunctions, many of which might
be eliminated, were the largest causes of poor water quality.
In large metropolitan areas with either separate or com-
bined sewer systems, pollution of the urban waterway can
be expected during heavy rainstorms when the streams may
contain coliform concentrations in the millions per 100 ml.
In addition, these flood waters flow with treacherous swift-
ness and are filled with mud and debris.
Small urban streams are even more numerous. Although
these may have only intermittent flow, they have the ca-
pacity to provide considerable opportunities for a variety
of water-related recreation activities. Unfortunately, these
in-city streams are more often eyesores than they are com-
munity treasures. Trash, litter, and rubble are dumped
along their banks, vegetation is removed, channels are
straightened and concrete stream beds are constructed or
even roofed over completely to form covered sewers.
This abuse and destruction of a potential economic and
social resource need not occur. The urban stream can be
made the focal point of a recreation-related complex. The
needs of the cities are many, and not the least of them is
the creation of a visually attractive urban environment in
which the role of water is crucial.
The reclamation of downtown sections of the San Antonio
River in the commercial heart of San Antonio, Texas, is
perhaps the best known and most encouraging example of
the scenic and cultural potential of America's urban streams
(Gunn et al. 1971).266 From a modest beginning with WPA
labor in the mid-1930's, the restoration of about a one-mile
portion of the river threading its way through the central
business district has resulted in the creation of the Paseo
Del Rio, or River Walk. Depressed below the level of
adjacent streets, heavily landscaped with native and tropical
vegetation, the river is bordered with pleasant promenades
along which diners relax in outdoor cafes. Fountains and
waterfalls add to the visual attractiveness, and open barg
carry groups of tourists or water-borne diners to histoi
buildings, restaurants, clubs, and a River Theater. Mo
popular with both local residents and tourists each year, t
River Walk has proved to be a significant social and ec
nomic development, attracting commercial enterprises
a previously blighted and unattractive area. The Riv
Walk is widely visited and studied as a prototype for urb;
river reclamation, and it demonstrates that urban rive
can serve as the environmental skeleton on which an enti
community amenity of major proportions can be built.
OTHER WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE
Between the remote and seldom used waters of Amerii
at one extreme and the urban waterways at the other a
many unique water recreation spots that are visited ai
enjoyed by large numbers of tourists each year. Amoi
these are Old Faithful, Crater Lake, The Everglades, tl
Colorado River-Grand Canyon National Park, and La]
Tahoe. These ecologically or geologically unique wate
are normally maintained in very nearly their natural coi
ditions, but access to them is freer and their monetai
value is greater than that of the wild rivers. To man
however, their aesthetic value will always be greater the
their monetary value. It is obviously impossible to establi:
nationally applicable quality recommendations for su<
waters. (It would be ludicrous, for example, to expect O
Faithful to be as cool as Crater Lake, or The Everglad
as clear as Lake Tahoe.) Nonetheless, responsible agenci
should establish recommendations for each of these wate
that will protect and preserve their unique values.
Municipal raw water supply reservoirs are often a p
tential source of recreation and aesthetic enjoyment. Pei
odic review of the recreational restrictions to protect wat
quality in such reservoirs could result in provision of ai
ditional recreational and aesthetic opportunities. (See al
the general Introduction, p. 3—4 regarding preservatic
of aquatic sites of scientific value.)
Conclusions
To preserve or enhance recreational and aei
thetic values:
• water quality supportive of general recreation
adequate to provide tor the intended uses of wil
and scenic rivers;
• water quality supportive of general recreation
adequate to protect or enhance uses of urba
streams, provided that economics, flow cor
ditions, and safety considerations make thes
activities feasible;
• special criteria are necessary to protect th
nation's unique recreational waters with regar
to their particular physical, chemical, or bic
logical properties.
-------
LITERATURE CITED
INTRODUCTION
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3 Butler, G. D. (1959), Introduction to community recreation, 3rd ed.
(McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York), p. 10.
4 Doell, C. E. (1963), Elements of park and recreation administration
(Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis), p. 3.
6 Lehman, H. C. (1965), Recreation, in Encyclopedia Britannica 19:
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6 Ragatz, R. L. (1971), Market potential for seasonal homes (Cornell
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'Slater, D. W. (1972), Review of the 1970 national survey. Trans.
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124.
9 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law 90-542,
S. 119, 12 p.
10 U.S. Congress (1965), Federal Water Project Recreation Act, Public
Law 89-72, 79S., July 9, 1965, 213 p.
"U.S. Congress (1968), Estuary Protection Act, Public Law 90-454,
82S.625, August 3, 1968.
12 U.S. Department of the Interior, Press releases, October 30, 1961
and November 10, 1961.
13 U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
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ning.
References Cited
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Branch, Division of Environmental Research and Development,
Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee.
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Basin Studies, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. De-
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18 Stout, N. (1971), personal communication Division of Research and
Education, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, U.S. Department of
the Interior, Washington, D.C.
WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AESTHETIC VALUES
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RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY
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SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS
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VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS
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41
-------
42/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
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EUTROPHICATION AND NUTRIENTS
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233 Muratori, A., Jr. (1968), How outboards contribute to wal
pollution. Conservationist 22(6) :6-8, 31.
234 Orsanco Quality Monitor (1969), (Published by Ohio River Vail
Water Sanitation Commission, 414 Walnut Street, Cincinna
Ohio), May 1969, p. 9.
236 Outboard Boating Club of America (1971), Statement on mai.
sanitation device performance standards, Miami, Florida.
AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
236 Keup, L. E., W. M. Ingram, and K. M. Mackenthun, compile
(1967), Biology of water pollution [U.S. Department of the Interic
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration pub. n
CWA-3] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C
290 p.
237 Mackenthun, K. M. (1969), The practice of water pollution bioh
(Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 281 p.
238 Wilhm, J. L. and T. C. Dorris (1968), Biological parameters 1
water quality criteria. Bioscience 18(6):477-480.
SHELLFISH
239 Butler, P. A. (1966a). Fixation of DDT in estuaries, in Trans. 3
N. Amer. Wildlife and Natural Resources Conf. (Wildlife Manag
ment Institute, Washington, I). C.), pp. 184-189.
240 Butler, P. A. (1966b), Pesticides in the marine environment.
Appl. Ecol. 3:253-259.
241 Butler, P. A. (1969), Monitoring pesticide pollution. Biosciet
19:889-891.
242 Chambers, J. S. and H. W. Magnusson (1950), Seasonal variatu
in toxicity of butter clams from selected Alaska beaches [Special scie
tific report: fisheries no. 53](U.S. Fish and Wildlife Servi(
Washington, D.C.), 10 p.
243Dupuy, J. L. and A. K. Sparks (1968), Gonyaulax washingtonesis,
relationship to Mytilus californianus and Crassostrea gigas as a sour
of paralytic shellfish toxin in Sequim Bay, Washington. Pr
Natl. Shellfish. Ass. 58:2.
244 Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Water Hygier
Water Quality Office (1971), Health guidelines for water i
sources and related land use management, appendix V. heal
aspects: North Atlantic Regional Water Resource Study.
246 Foehrenbach, J. (1972), Chlorinated pesticides in esturine C
ganisms. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 44(4) :61
624.
246 Gibbard, J., A. G. Campbell, A. W. H. Needier, and J. C. Medc<
(1942), Effect of hibernation on control of conform bacteria
oysters. American Journal of Public Health 32:979-986.
247 Halstead, B. W. (1965), Invertebrates, vol. 1 of Poisonous and vet
mous marine animals of the itiorld (Government Printing Offit
Washington, D. C.), 994 p.
248 Koff, R. S., G. F. Grady, T. C. Chalmers, J. W. Mosely, B.
Swartz and the Boston Later-Hospital Liver Group (196'
Viral hepatitis in a group of Boston hospitals. III. Importan
of exposure to shellfish in a non-epidemic period. New Engla
J. Med. 276:703-710.
-------
Literature Cited/'47
248 Lowe, J. I. (1965), Chronic exposure of blue crabs (Callinectes
sapidus) to sublethal concentrations of DDT. Ecology, 46:899.
260 Lumsden, L. L., H. E. Hasseltine, J. P. Leak and M. V. Veldee
(1925), A typhoid fever epidemic caused by oyster-borne in-
fection. Pub. Health Reports, suppl. 50.
261 Mason, J. A. and W. R. McLean (1962), Infectious hepatitis
traced to the consumption of raw oysters. Am. J. Hyg. 75:90—111.
262McFarren, E. F., F. J. Silva, H. Tanabe, W. B. Wilson, J. E.
Campbell, and K. H. Lewis (1965), The occurrence of a cigua-
tera-like poison in oysters, clams, and Gymnodinium breve cultures.
Toxicon 3:111-123.
2HModin, J. C. (1969), Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in
California bays and estuaries. Pesticides Monitoring Jour. 3:1.
264 Mosely, J. W. (1964a), A. Clam-associated infectious hepatitis—
New Jersey and Pennsylvania followup report. Hepatitis sur-
veillance. Report No. 79: 35-36.
266 Mosley, J. W. (1964b), B. Clam-associated infectious hepatitis—
Connecticut. Follow-up report. Hepatitis surveillance, Report
No. ?9:30-34.
266 National Academy of Sciences. Committee on Effects of Atomic
Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries (1957), The effects of
atomic radiation on oceanography and fisheries, report (The Academy,
Washington, D.C.), 137, p.
267 Old, H. N. and S. L. Gill (1946), A typhoid fever epidemic
caused by carrier bootlegging oysters. Am. Jour. Publ. Health 30:
633-640.
268 Prakash, A. and J. C. Medcof (1962), Hydrographic and meteoro-
logical factors affecting shellfish toxicity at Head Harbour, New
Brunswick, J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 19(1):101-112.
26» Pringle, B. H., E. D. Hissong, E. L. Katz, and S. T. Mulawka
(1968), Trace, metal accumulation by estuarine mollusks. J.
Sanit. Eng. Dw. Amer. Sac. Civil Eng. 94(SA3):455-475.
260 Sommer, H. and K. F. Meyer (1937), Paralytic shellfish poisoning.
Archives of Pathology 24(5): 560-598.
261 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public
Health Service (1965), National shelljish sanitation program manual
of operations [PHS Pub. 33 ](Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D. C.), 3 parts, variously paged.
362 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public
Health Service (1968), Proceedings 6th national shellfish sanitation
workshop, G. Morrison, ed. (Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D. C.), 115 p.
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR WATERS
OF SPECIAL VALUE
263 Barton, M. A. (1969), Water pollution in remote recreational
areas. J. Soil Water Conserv. 24(4): 132-134.
264 Dearinger, John A. (1968), Esthetic and recreational potential of small
naturalistic streams near urban areas, research report No. 13 (University
of Kentucky Water Resources Institute, Lexington, Kentucky),
260 p.
266 Gunn, C. A., D. J. Reed and R. E. Couch (1971), Environmental
enhancement. Proceedings 16th Annual Water for Texas Conference,
San Antonio. (Texas Water Resources Institute, Texas A & M
University, College Station, Texas).
266 Kunkle, S. H. and J. R. Meiman (1967), Water quality of mountain
watersheds [Hydrology paper 21] (Colorado State University,
Fort Collins), 53 p.
267 Sonnon, Michael B., Larry C. Davis, William R. Norton and
Gerald T. Orlob (1970), Wild rivers: methods for evaluation. [Pre-
pared for the Office of Water Resources Research, U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior](Water Resources Engineers, Inc., Walnut
Creek, California), 106 p.
268 Spooner, C. S. (1971), Solid waste management in recreational forest
areas [PHS pub. 1991 ](Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D. C.), 96 p.
269 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law
90-542, S. 119, 12 p.
270 U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
(1970), Proceedings: National symposium on wild, scenic, and recrea-
tional waterways, St. Paul, Minnesota, 209 p.
271 U.S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (1962),
Outdoor recreation for America (Government Printing Office, Wash-
inton, D. C.), 246 p.
272 Whitman, I. L. (1968), Uses of small urban river valleys [Ph.D. dis-
sertation] The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland,
299 p.
References Cited
273Betson, R. P. and R. A. Buckingham (1970), Fecal coliform con-
centrations in stormwaters. Unpublished report presented at the 51st
Annual Meeting of the American Geophysical Union, Wash-
ington, D. C. Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Tennessee.
-------
Section II PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
THE DEFINED TREATMENT PROCESS. .
WATER QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS.
SAMPLING AND MONITORING
ANALYTICAL METHODS
GROUND WATER CHARACTERISTICS. ..
WATER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS.
ALKALINITY
Conclusion.
AMMONIA
Recommendation.
ARSENIC.
Recommendation.
BACTERIA
Recommendation.
BARIUM.
Recommendation.
BORON.
CADMIUM
Recommendation.
CHLORIDE
Recommendation.
CHROMIUM
Recommendation.
COLOR.
Recommendation.
COPPER.
Recommendation.
CYANIDE.
Recommendation.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN.
Conclusion. . .
50
50
50
51
52
52
52
54
54
55
55
56
56
57
58
59
59
59
60
60
61
61
62
62
63
63
64
64
65
65
65
65
FLUORIDE
Recommendation.
FOAMING AGENTS
Recommendation.
HARDNESS
Conclusion
IRON.
Recommendation.
LEAD.
Recommendation.
MANGANESE
Recommendation.
MERCURY
Recommendation.
NITRATE-NITRITE
Recommendation.
NITRILOTRIACETATE (NTA).
Conclusion
ODOR.
Recommendation.
OIL AND GREASE
Recommendation.
ORGANICS-CARBON ADSORBABLE.
Recommendation
PESTICIDES
CHLORINATED HYDROCA RBON INSECTICIDES ....
Recommendation
ORGANOPHOSPHORUS ANO CARBAMATE INSECTI-
CIDES
Recommendation
CHLOROPHENOXY HERBICIDES
Recommendation
48
-------
pH.
Recommendation.
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS.
Recommendation..
PHOSPHATE
Recommendation.
PHTHALATE ESTERS.
PLANKTON
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB).. .
Conclusion
RADIOACTIVITY
Recommendation.
SELENIUM
Recommendation.
SILVER.
Conclusion.
Page
80
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
85
86
86
87
87
SODIUM.
Recommendation.
SULFATE.
Recommendation.
TEMPERATURE
Recommendation.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (Filterable Resi-
due)
TURBIDITY
Conclusion
URANYLION
Recommendation.
VIRUSES
Conclusion.
ZINC.
Recommendation.
LITERATURE CITED. . . .
Page
88
88
89
89
89
89
90
90
90
91
91
91
92
93
93
94
49
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INTRODUCTION
Modern water management techniques and a wide va-
riety of available water treatment processes make possible
the use of raw water of almost any quality to produce an
acceptable public water supply. For this reason it is both
possible and desirable to consider water management al-
ternatives and treatment procedures in making recommen-
dations on the quality of raw water needed for public
supplies. Furthermore, these recommendations must be
consistent with the effort and money it is reasonable to
expect an individual, company, or municipality to expend
to produce a potable water supply. Denning a reasonable
effort including treatment processes involves consideration
of present water quality, the degree of improvement in raw
water that is attainable within the bounds of natural con-
trols on water quality, and the help that can be expected
from society in cleaning up its waters. In evaluating the
basis for the recommendations in this Section, the Panel
has left water management alternatives open wherever
possible, but it has made certain arbitrary assumptions
about the treatment process.
The federal Drinking Water Standards for treated water
for public supply (U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962, hereafter referred
to as PHS 19626)* are under review and revision, but the
final standards were not available to the Panel on Public
Water Supplies at the time of publication of this Report.
The Panel did, however, have access to the data, references,
and rationale being considered in the revision of Drinking
Water Standards, and these have had a major influence on
recommendations in this report
THE DEFINED TREATMENT PROCESS
Surface water supplies characteristically contain sus-
pended sediment in varying amounts and are subject to
bacterial and viral contamination. Therefore, it is assumed
that the following defined treatment, and no more, will
be given raw surface water in a properly operated plant
prior to human consumption.
1. coagulation (less than about 50 milligrams per liter
* Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
(mg/1) alum, ferric sulfate, or copperas with alkali or acl
addition as necessary but without coagulant aids or acti
vated carbon);
2. sedimentation (6 hours or less);
3. rapid sand filtration (three gallons per square foe
per minute or more);
4. disinfection with chlorine (without consideration t
concentration or form of chlorine residual).
The panel recognizes that on the one hand some ra\
surface waters will meet federal Drinking Water Standard
with no treatment other than disinfection, and that on th
other hand almost any water, including sea water arn
grossly polluted fresh water, can be made potable for
price by available treatment processes already developec
However, the defined treatment outlined above is con
sidered reasonable in view of both the existing and generall
attainable quality of raw surface waters, and the protectio
made imperative by the current practice of using stream
to transport and degrade waste's. Assumption of the definei
treatment process throughout this Section is not meant I:
deny the availability, need, or practicality of other wate
treatment processes.
Unlike surface waters, ground waters characteristicall
contain little or no suspended sediment and are largel
free of and easily protected from bacterial and viral con
tamination. (See Ground Water Characteristics below for sig
nificant exceptions.) Therefore, no defined treatment is as
sumed for raw ground water designated for use as a publi
supply, although here again this does not deny the avail
ability, need, or practicality of treatment. Ground water
should meet current federal Drinking Water Standards h
regard to bacteriological characteristics and content o
toxic substances, thus permitting an acceptable publii
water supply to be produced with no treatment, providing
natural water quality is adequate in other respects. Th<
recommendations in this section based on consideration
other than bacterial content and toxicity apply to grounc
waters as well as surface waters unless otherwise specified.
WATER QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS
The Panel has defined water quality recommendation:
as those limits of characteristics and concentrations of sub-
50
-------
Introduction /'51
stances in raw waters that will allow the production of a
safe, clear, potable, aesthetically pleasing and acceptable
public water supply after treatment. In making these
recommendations, the Panel recognized that most of the
surface water treatment plants providing water for domestic
use in the United States are relatively small, do not have
sophisticated technical controls, and are operated by indi-
viduals whose training in modern methods varies widely.
The recommendations assume the use of the treatment
process defined above but no more.
Regional variations in natural water quality make it
necessary to apply understanding and discretion when evalu-
ating raw water quality in terms of the recommendations.
Wherever water zoned for public supply fail to meet the
recommendations in all respects, the recommendations can
be considered the minimum goal toward which to work in
upgrading water quality. In some instances the natural
presence of certain constituents in raw water sources may
make the attainment of recommended levels impractical
or even impossible. When such constituents affect human
health, the water cannot be used for public supply unless
the constituent can be brought to Drinking Water Standards
levels through a specially designed treatment process prior
to distribution to consumers. Where health is not a factor,
the natural level of the constituent prior to man-made ad-
ditions can be considered a reasonable target toward which
to work, although determination of "natural quality" may
require considerable effort, expense, and time.
The recommendations in this report should by no means
be construed as latitude to add substances to waters where
the existing quality is superior to that called for in the
recommendations. Degradation of raw water sources of
quality higher than that specified should be minimized in
order to preserve operational safety factors and economics
of treatment.
The Panel considered factors of safety for each of the
toxic substances discussed, but numerical factors of safety
have been employed only where data are available on the
known no-effect level or the minimum effect level of the
substances on humans. These factors were selected on the
basis of the degree of hazard and the fraction of daily
intake of each substance that can reasonably be assigned
to water.
The recommendations should be regarded as guides in
the control of health hazards and not as fine lines between
safe and dangerous concentrations. The amount and length
of time by which values in the recommendations may be
exceeded without injury to health depends upon the nature
of the contaminant, whether high concentrations even for
short periods produce acute poisoning, whether the effects
are cumulative, how frequently high concentrations occur,
and how long they last. All these factors must be considered
in deciding whether a hazardous situation exists.
Although some of the toxic substances considered are
known to be associated with suspended solids in raw surface
waters and might thus be removed to some extent by the
defined treatment process, the degree of removal of the
various dissolved toxic substances is not generally known;
and even if known, it could not be assured under present
treatment practices. Therefore, in the interest of safety, it
has usually been assumed here that there is no removal of
toxic substances as a result of the defined treatment process.
Substances not evaluated in this Section are not neces-
sarily innocuous in public water supply sources. It would be
impractical to prepare a compendium of all toxic, dele-
terious, or otherwise unwelcome agents, both organic and
inorganic, that may enter a surface water supply. In specific
locations it may become necessary to consider substances
not included in this section, particularly where local pol-
lution suggests that a substance may have an effect on the
beneficial use of water for public supplies.
In summary: the recommendations in this Section for raw
water quality for public supplies are intended to assure that the
water will be potable—for surface water, with the defined treatment
process; for ground water, with no treatment. For waters zoned for
public supply but not meeting the recommendations in all respects,
the recommendations can be considered a minimum target toward
which efforts at upgrading the quality should be directed. In some
instances the natural quality of raw water may make meeting
certain recommendations impractical or even impossible. For con-
stituents for which this is the case, and where health is not a factor,
the natural quality of the water can be considered a reasonable
target toward which to work, although determination of "natural
quality" may require considerable effort, expense, and time. Wherever
water quality is found superior to that described in the recommen-
dations, efforts should be made to minimize its degradation.
SAMPLING AND MONITORING
The importance of establishing an effective sampling and
monitoring program and the difficulties involved cannot be
overemphasized. A representative sample of the water
entering the raw water intake should be obtained. Multiple
sampling, chronologically and spatially, may be necessary
for an adequate characterization of the raw water body,
particularly for constituents associated with suspended solids
(Great Britain Department of the Environment 1971;3
Brown et al. 1970;2 Rainwater and Thatcher I9604). Moni-
toring plans should take into account the results of sanitary
surveys (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare 1969 ;7 American Public Health Association, American
Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control
Federation 19711 hereafter referred to as Standard Methods
19715) and the possibility of two types of water quality
hazards: (1) the chronic hazard where constituent concen-
trations are near the limit of acceptability much of the time,
and (2) the periodic hazard caused by upstream release of
wastes or accidental spills of hazardous substances into the
stream. Samples for the determination of dissolved con-
stituents only should be passed through a noncontaminat-
ing filter at time of collection.
-------
52/Section II—Public Water Supplies
ANALYTICAL METHODS
The recommendations are based on the use of analytical
methods for raw water analysis as described in Standard
Methods (1971).5 Other procedures of similar scientific
acceptability are continuously evolving but whatever the
analytical procedure used, the panel assumes that it will
conform to the statistical concepts of precision, accuracy,
and reporting style discussed in the introduction to Standard
Methods (1971).5 Analytical results should indicate whether
they apply to a filtered or unfiltered sample.
GROUND WATER CHARACTERISTICS
Development of water quality recommendations for
ground water must provide for the significant differences
between surface water and ground water. Ground water is
generally not confined in a discrete channel. Its quality
can be measured in detail only with difficulty and at great
expense. A thorough knowledge of the hydrologic char-
acteristics of the ground water body can be obtained only
after extensive study. Movement of ground water can be
extremely slow so that contamination occurring in one part
of an aquifer ma/ not become evident at a point of with-
drawal for several, tens, hundreds, or even thousands of
years.
Wastes mix differently with ground waters than they do
with surface waters. Where allowance for a mixing zone in
the immediate vicinity of a waste outfall can be provided
for in surface water standards under the assumption that
mixing is complete within a short distance downstream,
dispersion of waste in a ground water body may not be
complete for many years. At the same time, the long re-
tention time will facilitate bacterial or chemical reactions
with aquifer components that result in removal or decompo-
sition of a pollutant to the point where it no longer degrades
the aquifer. Because these reactions are imperfectly known
and cannot be predicted at the present time, it is necessary
to monitor the movement of waste in a ground water body
from the point of introduction outward. Bodies of ground
water cannot be monitored adequately by sampling at the
point of use.
Inadvertent or careless contamination of fresh ground
water bodies is occurring today from the leaching of ac-
cumulated salts from irrigation, animal feed lots, road salt,
agricultural fertilizers, dumps, and landfills, or from leakage
of sewer lines in sandy soil, septic tank effluents, petroleum
product pipelines, and chemical waste lagoons. Another
source of contamination is the upward movement of saline
water in improperly plugged wells and drill holes, or as the
result of excessive withdrawal of ground water. Deep-well
injection causes intentional introduction of wastes into saline
ground water bodies.
Because of their common use as private water supplies
in rural areas, all geologically unconfined (water-table)
aquifers could be placed in a classification comparable to
that for raw surface waters used for public water supplies.
Even though not all waters in these aquifers are suitable
for use without treatment, such classification could be used
to prohibit introduction of wastes into them. This in turn
would restrict the use of landfills and other surface disposal
practices. Limited use of the unsaturated zone for disposal
of wastes would still be acceptable, provided that decompo-
sition of organic wastes and sorption of pollutants in the
zone of aeration were essentially complete before the drain
water reached the water table Bodies of artesian ground
water in present use as public and private supplies could
be similarly classified wherever their natural source of re-
charge was sufficient to sustain the current yield and quality.
Disposal of wastes in either of the above types of aquifers
could be expressly forbidden on the basis of their classifi-
cation as public water supplies. Furthermore, before dis-
posal of wastes to the soil or bedrock adjacent to aquifers
used or usable for public supply were permitted, it could
be required that a geologic reconnaissance be made to de-
termine possible effects on ground water quality.
Water quality recommendations for raw ground waters
to be used for public water supplies are more restrictive
than water quality recommendations for raw surface water
source because of the assumption that no treatment will be
given to the ground waters. The distinction between surface
and ground waters is therefore necessary for proper appli-
cation of the recommendations. In certain cases this dis-
tinction is not easily made. For example, collector wells in
shallow river valley alluvium, wells tapping cavernous
limestone, and certain other types of shallow wells may
intercept water only a short distance away, or after only a
brief period of travel, from the: point at which it was surface
water. Springs used as raw water sources present a similar
problem. Choice of the appropriate water quality recom-
mendations to apply to such raw water sources should be
based on the individual situation.
WATER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
The purpose of establishing water quality recommen-
dations and, subsequently, establishing water quality stand-
ards is to protect the nation's waters from degradation and
to provide a basis for improvement of their quality. These
actions should not preclude the use of good water manage-
ment practices. For example, it may be possible to supple-
ment streamflow with ground water pumped from wells, or
to replace ground water removed from an aquifer with
surface water through artificial recharge. These other
sources of water may be of lower quality than the water
originally present, but it should remain a management
choice whether this lower quality is preferable to no water
at all. In arid parts of the nation, water management
practices of this sort have been applied for many years to
partially offset the effects of "mining" of ground water
(i.e., its withdrawal faster than it can be recharged
naturally).
-------
Introduction /53
Furthermore, it is possible, by merely removing ground
water from the aquifer, to degrade the quality of that
remaining—by inducing recharge from a surface or ground
water body of lesser quality. It does not seem reasonable
to forbid the use of the high-quality water that is there
because of this potential degradation. Of what value is it
if it cannot be used?
It would appear, then, that "degradation by choice"
might be an alternative under certain conditions and
within certain limits. This type of degradation is not com-
parable to that resulting from disposal of wastes in the
water body. It is simply the price exacted for using the
water. In the case of mining without artificial recharge,
the philosophy involved is the same as that applied to the
mining of other nonrenewable resources such as metal
ores or fossil fuels. Because considerations of recreation and
aesthetics and the maintenance of fish and wildlife are
generally not involved in this kind of management situation,
it is reasonable that water quality standards should provide
for the mining and artificial recharge of bodies of ground
water zoned for public supply. As in any water manage-
ment program, it would be necessary to understand the
hydrologic system and to monitor changes induced in the
system by management activities.
Preservation of water management choices can be pro-
tected by water use classification. Classification of surface
waters has not been based solely on the fact that those
waters are being used for public supply at the present time.
Presumably it has been based on the decision that the
body of water in question should be usable for public
supply with no more than the routine forms of water
treatment, whether or not it is presently in use for that
purpose. Conversely, failure to zone a body of water for
public supply would not necessarily preclude its use for
that purpose. Selective zoning could thus be used to assure
desirable water management practices.
-------
ALKALINITY
Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of a water to
neutralize acids. Anions of weak acids such as bicarbonate,
carbonate, hydroxide, sulfide, bisulfide, silicate, and phos-
phate may contribute to alkalinity. The species composition
of alkalinity is a function of pH, mineral composition,
temperature, and ionic strength.
The predominant chemical system present in natural
waters is the carbonate equilibria in which carbonate and
bicarbonate ions and carbonic acid are in equilibrium
(Standards Methods 1971).8 The bicarbonate ion is usually
more prevalent. A water may have a low alkalinity but a
relatively high pH value or vice versa, so alkalinity alone
may not be of major importance as a measure of water
quality.
The alkalinity of natural waters may have a wide range.
An alkalinity below 30 to 50 mg/1, as CaGOs, may be too
low to react with hydrolyzable coagulants, such as iron or
aluminum salts, and still provide adequate residual alka-
linity to produce a water that is not excessively corrosive.
Alkalinities below 25 mg/1, as CaCOs, may also lead to
corrosive waters when only chlorination is practiced, since
there would be inadequate buffer capacity to prevent the
pH from dropping appreciably (Weber and Stumm 1963).s
Low alkalinity waters may be difficult to stabilize by
calcium carbonate saturation which would otherwise pre-
vent corrosion of the metallic parts of the system.
High alkalinity waters may have a distinctly unpleasant
taste. Alkalinities of natural waters rarely exceed 400 to
500 mg/1 (as CaCO3).
Conclusion
No recommendation can be made, because the
desirable alkalinity for any water is associated with
other constituents such as pH and hardness. For
treatment control, however, it is desirable that
there be no sudden variations in the alkalinity.
54
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AMMONIA
Ammonia may be a natural constituent of certain ground
waters. In surface waters its concentration is normally 0.1
mg/1 or less as nitrogen. Higher levels are usually indicative
of sewage or industrial contamination (McKee and Wolf
1963).30
Ammonia consumes dissolved oxygen as a result of its
biochemical oxidation to nitrite and nitrate. Reliance on
the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) test (Standard
Methods 197133) for measuring the efficiency of sewage
treatment and the quality of effluents has focused attention
principally on the oxygen requirements of carbonaceous
matter. Ammonia is therefore a common constituent of
treated sewage, and much of the burden of satisfying the
nitrogenous oxygen demand has, in general, been shifted
from the sewage treatment plant to the receiving water
(Sawyer and Bradney 1946,32 Ludzack and Ettinger 1962,29
Johnson and Schroepfer 1964,24 Earth et al. 1966,12 Cour-
chaine 1968,18 Barth and Dean 1970,11'.Holden 1970,22
Earth 1971,10 Great Britain Department of the Environment
1971,21 Mt. Pleasant and Schlickenrieder 197131).
Ammonia is sometimes corrosive to copper and copper
alloys (LaQue and Copson 1963,26 Butler and Ison 196613);
it is also a potential algal and microbial nutrient in water
distribution systems (Larson 1939,27 Ingram and Macken-
thun 196323).
Ammonia has a significant effect on the disinfection of
water with chlorine. The reactions of ammonia with chlorine
result in the formation of chloramine compounds having
markedly less disinfecting efficiency than free chlorine.
Ammonia substantially increases the chlorine demand at
water treatment plants that practice free-residual chlori-
nation. Approximately 10 parts of chlorine per part of
ammonia nitrogen are required to satisfy the ammonia
chlorine demand (Butterfield et al. 1943,16 Butterfield and
Wattie 1946,16 Butterfield 1948,14 Fair et al. 1948,19 Kelly
and Sanderson 1958,25 Clarke and Chang 1959,17 Laubusch
197128). It would therefore be desirable to have as low a
level as possible in the raw water.
However, since ammonia is present in ground water and
in some surface water supply sources, particularly at cold
temperatures, and since it can be removed by the defined
treatment process with adequate chlorination, the cost of
the treatment is the determining factor. In the previous
edition of Water Quality Criteria (U.S. Department of the
Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
1968,34 hereafter referred to as FWPCA 196820) a permis-
sible level of 0.5 mg/1 nitrogen was proposed. This is not a
sacrosanct number, but it is considered to be tolerable.
Recommendation
Because ammonia may be indicative of pollution
and because of its significant effect on chlorination,
it is recommended that ammonia nitrogen in
public water supply sources not exceed 0.5 mg/1.
55
-------
ARSENIC
Arsenic, a metalloid that occurs ubiquitously in nature,
can be both acutely and chronically toxic to man. Although
no form of arsenic is known to be essential, arsenic has
been added in small amounts to animal feed as a growth
stimulant. For 1,577 surface water samples collected from
130 sampling points in the United States, 87 samples showed
detectable arsenic concentrations of 5 to 336 micrograms
per liter (^g/1) with a mean level of 64 ^g/1 (Kopp 1969).60
The chemical forms of arsenic consist of trivalent and
pentavalent inorganic and organic compounds. It is not
known which forms of arsenic occur in drinking water.
Although comb'nations of all forms are possible, it can be
reasonably assumed that the pentavalent inorganic form is
the most prevalent. Conditions that favor chemical and
biological oxidation promote the shift to the pentavalent
species; and conversely, those that favor reduction will
shift the equilibrium to the trivalent state.
Arsenic content in drinking water in most United States
supplies ranges from a trace to approximately 0.1 mg/1
(McCabe et al. 1970).52 No adverse health effects have been
reported from the ingestion of these waters.
Arsenic has been suspected of being carcinogenic (Paris
1820,55 Sommers and McManus 1953,60 Buchanan 1962,38
Frost 1967,46 Trelles et al. 1970,61 Borgono and Greiber
197236), but substantial evidence from human experience
and animal studies now supports the position that arsenicals
are not tumorigenic at levels encountered in the environ-
ment (Snegireff and Lombard 1951,68 Baroni et al. 1963,35
Boutwell 1963,37 Hueper and Payne 1963,47 Pinto and
Bennett 1963,56 Kanisawa and Schroeder 1967,49 Milner
1969).63
Several epidemiological studies in Taiwan (Chen and
Wu 1962)39 have reported a correlation between the in-
creased incidence of hyperkertosis and skin cancer with
consumption of water containing more than 0.3 mg/1
arsenic. A similar problem has been reported in Argentina
(Trelles et al. 1970).61 Dermatological manifestations of
arsenicism were noted in children of Antofagasta, Chile,
who used a water supply containing 0.8 mg/1 arsenic. A
new water supply was provided, and preliminary data
showed that arsenic levels in hair decreased (Borgono and
Greiber 1972).36
Inorganic arsenic is absorbed readily from the gastro-
intestinal tract, the lungs, arid to a lesser extent from the
skin and becomes distributed throughout the body tissue;
and fluids (Sollmann 1957).5!l It is excreted via urine
feces, sweat, and the epithelium of the skin (Dupont et al
1942,44 Hunter et al. 1942,4S Lowry et al. 1942,51 Ducofl
et al. 1948,43 Crema 1955,40 Musil and Dejmal 1957).5'
During chronic exposure, arsenic accumulates mainly ir
bone, muscle, and skin, and to a smaller degree in liver and
kidneys. This accumulation can be measured by analysis
of hair samples. After cessation of continuous exposure,
arsenic excretion may last up to 70 days (DuBois and
Ceiling 1959).42
In man, subacute and chronic arsenic poisoning may be
insidious and pernicious. In mild chronic poisoning, the
only symptoms present are fatigue and loss of energy. The
following symptoms may be observed in more severe intoxi-
cation; gastrointestinal catarrh, kidney degeneration, ten-
ency to edema, polyneuritis, liver cirrhosis, bone marrow
injury, and exfoliate dermatitis (DiPalma 1965,41 Goodman
and Oilman 1965).46 It has been claimed that individuals
become tolerant to arsenic. However, this apparent effect
is probably due to the ingestion of the relatively insoluble,
coarse powder, since no true tolerance has been demon-
strated (DuBois and Ceiling 1959).42
The total intake of arsenic from food averages approxi-
mately 900 /ng/day (Schroeder and Balassa 1966).57 At a
concentration of 0.1 mg/1 and an average intake of 2 liters
of water per day, the intake Jfrom water would not exceed
200 fig/day, or approximately 18 per cent of the total
ingested arsenic.
Recommendation
Because of adverse physiological effects on hu-
mans and because there is inadequate information
on the effectiveness of the denned treatment proc-
ess in removing arsenic, it is recommended that
public water supply sources contain no more than
0.1 mg/1 total arsenic.
56
-------
BACTERIA
Procedures for the detection of disease-causing bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, worms, and fungi are complex, time-
consuming, and in need of further refinement to increase
the levels of sensitivity and selectivity. Therefore, an indirect
approach to microbial hazard measurement is required.
Coliform bacteria have been used as indicators of sanitary
quality in water since 1880 when Escherica coli (E. coif) and
similar gram negative bacteria were shown to be normal
inhabitants of fecal discharges. Although the total coliform
group as presently recognized in the Drinking Water
Standards includes organisms known to vary in charac-
teristics, the total coliform concept merits consideration as
an indicator of sanitary significance, because the organisms
are normally present in large numbers in the intestinal
tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals.
Numerous stream pollution surveys over the years have
used the total coliform measurement as an index of fecal con-
tamination. However, occasional poor correlations to sani-
tary significance result from the inclusion of some strains
in the total coliform group that have a wide distribution in
the environment and are not specific to fecal material.
Therefore, interpretation of total coliform data from sewage,
polluted water, and unpolluted waters is sometimes difficult
For example, Enterobacter (Aerobacter) aerogenes and Entero-
bacter cloacae can be found on various types of vegetation
(Thomas and McQuillin 1952,78 Fraser et al. 1956,66
Geldreich et al. 1964,73 Papavassiliou et al. 196776), in soil
(Frank and Skinner 1941,66 Taylor 1951," Randall 1956,76
Geldreich et al. 1962b72), and in water polluted in the past.
Also included are plant pathogens (Elrod 1942)62 and other
organisms of uncertain taxonomy whose sanitary significance
is questionable. All of these coliform subgroups may be
found in sewage and in polluted water.
A more specific bacterial indicator of warm-blooded ani-
mal contamination is fecal coliform, defined as those coli-
form that can ferment lactose at 44.5 C to produce gas in a
multiple tube procedure (U.S. Department of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 196679
hereafter referred to as (FWPCA 1966)64 or acidity in the
membrane filter procedure (M-FC medium: Geldreich
et al. 1965).71 Research showed that 96.14 per cent of the
coliform in human feces was positive by this test (Geldreich
et al. 1962a).70 Examination of the excrement from other
warm-blooded animals, including livestock, poultry, cats,
dogs, and rodents indicates that fecal coliform contribute
93.0 per cent of the total coliform population (FWPCA
1966),64 Geldreich et al. 1968).68
At the present time, the only data available from numer-
ous freshwater stream pollution studies on a correlation of
pathogen occurrence with varying levels of fecal coliform
are for Salmonella (Geldreich 1970,67 Geldreich and Bordner
197169). These data indicate a sharp increase in the fre-
quency of Salmonella detection when fecal coliform densities
are above 200 per 100 milliliters (ml). For densities of 1 to
200/100 ml, 41 examinations showed 31.7 per cent positive
detection of Salmonella. For densities of 201 to 1,000/100 ml,
30 examinations showed 83 per cent positive detection. For
densities of 1,000 to 2,000, 88.5 per cent positive detection
was found in 17 examinations, and for densities above
2,000, 97.6 per cent positive detection was found in 123
examinations.
The significance is further illustrated by a bacterial
quality study at several water plant intakes along the
Missouri River. When fecal coliform exceeded 2,000 orga-
nisms per 100 ml, Salmonella, Poliovirus types 2 and 3, and
ECHO virus types 7 and 33 were detected (Environmental
Protection Agency 1971).63 Any occurrence of fecal coli-
form in water is therefore prime evidence of contamination
by wastes of some warm-blooded animals, and as the fecal
coliform densities increase, potential health hazards become
greater and the challenge to water treatment more de-
manding.
A study of the bacteriological quality of raw water near
six public intakes along the Ohio River showed that of 18
monthly values with maximum total coliform densities in
excess of 10,000 organisms per 100 ml, 12 were not paralleled
by fecal coliform densities above 2,000 organisms per 100
ml (ORSANCO Water Users Committee 1971).74 The
fecal coliform portion of these total coliform populations
ranged from 0.2 to 12 per cent. Data from the Missouri
River study showed total coliform densities at water intakes
to be frequently in excess of 20,000 organisms per 100 ml
57
-------
58/Section II—Public Water Supplies
with concurrent fecal coliform densities above 2,000 (En-
vironmental Protection Agency 1971).63 This indicates less
coliform aftergrowth, but proportionately more recent fecal
pollution.
The major limitation to the total coliform index is the
uncertain correlation to the occurrence of pathogenic micro-
organisms. However, fecal coliform occurrences in water
reflect the presence of fecal contamination, which is the
most likely source for pathogens.
Total coliform measurements may be used as an al-
ternative to fecal coliform measurements with the realization
that such data are subject to a wide range of density
fluctuations of doubtful sanitary significance.
A well-operated plant using the defined treatment to
process raw surface water meeting the recommendations
below can be expected to meet a value of 1 total coliforn
per 100 ml with proper chlorination practice. When coli
form counts in raw surface water approach the recommen
dations, both pre- and post-chlorination may be requirec
to achieve proper disinfection.
Recommendation
In light of the capabilities of the defined treat-
ment process for raw surface waters and the sta-
tistical correlations mentioned, it is recommendec
that the geometric mea.ns of fecal coliform anc
total coliform densities in raw surface water sources
not exceed 2,000/100 ml and 20,000/100 ml, re-
spectively.
-------
BARIUM
Barium (Ba) ingestion can cause serious toxic effects on
the heart, blood vessels, and nerves. Barium enters the body
primarily through air and water, since essentially no food
contains barium in appreciable amounts.
The solubility product of barium sulfate indicates that
1.3 mg/1 sulfate ion limits the solubility of barium to 1.0
mg/1. There is some evidence that barium may be ad-
sorbed by oxides or hydroxides of iron and manganese
(Ljunggren 1955).83 For the public water supplies of the
100 largest cities in the United States, the median barium
concentration was 0.05 mg/1 with a range of 0.01 to 0.058
mg/1. For 1,577 samples of surface waters collected in 130
locations in the United States the barium concentration in
1,568 samples ranged from 2 to 340 /ig/1 with a mean of
43 Mg/1 (Kopp 1969).82
Barium is recognized as a general muscle stimulant,
especially of the heart muscle (Sollmann 1957).86 The fatal
dose for man is considered to be from 0.8 to 0.9 grams(g)
as the chloride (550 to 600 mg Ba). Most fatalities have
occurred from mistaken use of barium salts incorporated in
rat poison. Barium is capable of causing nerve block
(Lorente and Feng 1946)84 and in small or moderate doses
produces transient increase in blood pressure by vaso-
constriction (Gotsev 1944).81
There apparently has been no study made of the amounts
of barium that can be tolerated in drinking water, nor any
study of the effects of long-term feeding of barium salts
from which a standard might be derived. The present
barium standard has been developed from the barium-in-air
standard, 0.5 mg/cubic meter (m3) (American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 1958),80 based on
the retention of inhaled barium dusts, and an estimate of
the possible adsorption from the intestines (Stokinger and
Woodward 1958).86 This value is 2 mg/1. The air standard
provides no indication of the inclusion of a factor of safety.
Therefore, it is reasonable to provide a factor of safety of
2 for protection of heterogeneous population.
Recommendation
Because of the adverse physiological effects of
barium, and because there are no data on the
effectiveness of the denned treatment process on
its removal, it is recommended that a limit for
barium of 1 mg/1 not be exceeded in public water
supply sources.
BORON
The previous Report of the Committee on Water Quality
Criteria (FWPCA 1968)87 recommended a permissible limit
of 1 mg/1 for boron. When a new Drinking Water Standards
Technical Review Committee was established in 1971, it
determined that the evidence available did not indicate
that the suggested limit of 1 mg/1 was necessary. More
information is required before deciding whether a specific
limit is needed for physiological reasons.
Whenever public water supplies are used to irrigate
plants, boron concentrations may be of concern because
of the element's effect on many plants. For consideration
of the possible effect of boron on certain irrigated plants,
see Section V on Agricultural Uses of Water (p. 341).
59
-------
CADMIUM
Cadmium is biologically a nonessential, nonbeneficial
element. The possibility of seepage of cadmium into ground
water from electroplating plants was reported in 1954 when
concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 3.2 mg/1 were recorded
(Lieber and Welsch 1954).97 Another source of cadmium
contamination in water may be zinc-galvanized iron in
which cadmium is a contaminant. For 1,577 surface water
samples collected at 130 sampling points in the United
States, 40 samples showed detectable concentrations of 1
to 20 /tg/1 of cadmium with a mean level of 9.5 fig/I. Six
samples exceeded 10 ng/l (Kopp 1969).95
Cadmium is an element of high toxic potential. Evidence
for the serious toxic potential of cadmium is provided by:
poisoning from cadmium-contaminated food (Frant and
Kleeman 1941)92 and beverages (Cangelosi 1941);88 epi-
demiologic evidence that cadmium may be associated with
renal arterial hypertension under certain conditions
(Schroeder 1965);102 epidemiologic association of cadmium
with Itai-itai disease in Japan (Murata et al. 1970);99 and
long-term oral toxicity studies in animals (Fitzhugh and
Meiller 1941,91 Ginn and Volker 1944,93 Wilson and DeEds
1950).104
Symptoms of violent nausea were reported for 29 school
children who had consumed fruit ice sticks containing 13-15
mg/1 cadmium (Frant and Kleeman 1941).92 This would be
equivalent to 1.3 to 3.0 mg of cadmium ingested.
It has been stated that the concentration and not the
absolute amount determines the acute toxicity of cadmium
(Potts et al. 1950).101 Also, equivalent concentrations of
cadmium in water are considered more toxic than concen-
trations in food because of the effect of components in th
food.
The association of cardiovascular disease, particular!'
hypertension, with ingestion of cadmium remains unsettled
Although conflicting evidence has been reported for ma]
(Schroeder 1965,102 Morgan 1969)98 and for animals (Kani
sawa and Schroeder 1969,94 Lener and Bibr 197096), it i
notable that hypertension has not been associated witl
Itai-itai disease (Nogawa and Kawano 1969).100
In view of the cumulative retention of cadmium \y
hepatic (liver) and renal (kidney) tissue (Decker et al
1958,90 Cotzias et al. 1961,89 Schroeder and Balassa 1961103
and the association of a severe endemic Itai-itai diseas<
syndrome with ingestion of as little as 600 jig/day (Yama
gata 1970),10S Drinking Water Standards limit concentra
tions of cadmium to 10 ng/l so that the maximum dail;
intake of cadmium from waiter (assuming a 2 liter dairj
consumption) will not exceed 20 ng. This is one-third th(
amount of cadmium derived from food (Schroeder anc
Balassa 1961).103 A no-effect level for intake and accumula^
tion of cadmium in man has not been established.
Recommendation
Because of the adverse physiological effects ol
cadmium, and because there is inadequate infor-
mation on the effect of the denned treatment
process on removal of cadmium, it is recommended
that the cadmium concentration in public water
supply sources not exceed 0.010 mg/1.
-------
CHLORIDE
Chloride ion in high concentrations, as part of the total
dissolved solids in water, can be detected by taste and can
lead to consumer rejection of the water supply. In undefined
high concentrations it may enhance corrosion of water
utility facilities and household appurtenances (American
Water Works Association 1971).106
For the public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in
the United States, the median chloride concentration was
13 mg/1 with a range of 0 to 540 mg/1 (Durfor and Becker
1964).107
The median chloride concentrations detected by taste
by a panel of 10 to 20 persons were 182, 160, and 372 mg/1
from sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts respectively
(Whipple 1907).no The median concentration identified
by a larger panel of 53 adults was 395 mg/1 chloride for
sodium chloride (Richter and MacLean 1939).109 When
compared with distilled water for a difference in taste,
the median concentration was 61 mg/1. Coffee was affected
in taste when brewed with 210 and 222 mg/1 chloride from
sodium chloride and calcium chloride respectively (Lock-
hart et al. 1955).108
On the basis of taste and because of the wide range of
taste perception of humans, and the absence of information
on objectionable concentrations, a limit for public water
supplies of 250 mg/1 chloride appears to be reasonable where
sources of better quality water are or can be made available.
However, there may be a great difference between a de-
tectable concentration and an objectionable concentration,
and acclimatization might be an important factor.
Recommendation
On the basis of taste preferences, not because of
toxic considerations, and because the denned treat-
ment process does not remove chlorides, it is^
recommended that chloride in public water supply
sources not exceed 250 mg/1 if sources of lower
levels are available.
61
-------
CHROMIUM
Chromium is rarely found in natural waters. It may
occur as a contaminant from plating wastes, blowdown
from cooling towers, or from circulating water in refriger-
ation equipment where it is used to control corrosion. It
has been found in some foods and in air. Chromium can
be detected in most biological systems. This does not prove
it essential, although there is reasonable evidence that it
does have a biological role (Mertz 1969).119
For 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling
points in the United States, 386 samples showed concen-
trations of 1 to 112 /ig/1 with a mean concentration of
9.7 Mg/1 for chromium (Kopp 1969).116
The hexavalent state of chromium is toxic to man, pro-
duces lung tumors when inhaled (Machle and Gregorius
1948,117 U.S. Federal Security Agency, Public Health Serv-
ice 1953123), and readily induces skin sensitizations. Tri-
valent chromium salts show none of the effects of the
hexavalent form (Fairhall 1957).114 The trivalent form is
not likely to be present in waters of pH 5 or above because
of the very low solubility of the hydrated oxide.
At present, the levels of chromate ion that can be tolerated
by man for a lifetime without adverse effects on health are
undetermined. It is not known whether cancer will result
from ingestion of chromium in any of its valence forms.
A family of four individuals is reported to have drunk
water for a period of three years with as high as 0.45 mg/1
chromium in the hexavalent form without known effect
on their health, as determined by a single medical exami
nation (Davids and Lieber 1951).113
Levels of 0.45 to 25 mg/1 of chromium administered t<
rats in chromate and chromic ion form in drinking wate
for one year produced no toxic responses (MacKenzie et al
1958).118 However, significant accumulation in the tissues oc
curred abruptly at concentrations above 5 mg/1. Naumov;
(1965)120 demonstrated that 0.033 mg of chromium froi)
potassium bichromate per kilogram (kg) of body weigh
in dogs enhanced the secretory and motor activity of thi
intestines. Although there does not appear to be a clearb
defined no-effect level, other studies (Conn et al. 1932,11
Brard 1935,111 Gross and Heller 1946,116 Schroeder et al
1963a,121 Schroeder et al. 1963b122) suggested that a concen
tration of 0.05 mg/1 with an average intake of 2 liters o
water per day would avoid hazard to human health.
Recommendation
Because of adverse physiological effects, and be
cause there are insufficient data on the effect o
the denned treatment process on the removal o:
chromium in the chromate form, it is recom
mended that public water supply sources for drink'
ing water contain no more than 0.05 mg/1 tota
chromium.
62
-------
COLOR
Color in public water supplies is aesthetically undesirable
to the consumer and is economically undesirable to some
industries. Colored substances can chelate metal ions,
thereby interfering with coagulation (Hall and Packham
1965130), and can reduce the capacity of ion exchange
resins (Frisch and Kunin I960).129 Another serious problem
is the ability of colored substances to complex or stabilize
iron and manganese and render them more difficult for
water treatment processes to remove (Robinson 1963,136
Shapiro 1964136).
Although the soluble colored substances in waters have
been studied for over 150 years, there is still no general
agreement on their structure. A number of recent studies
have indicated that colored substances are a complex mix-
ture of polymeric hydroxy carboxylic acids (Black and
Christman 1963a,125 1963b,126 Lamar and Goerlitz 1963,133
Christman and Ghassemi 1966,128 Lamar and Goerlitz
1966134) with the measurable color being a function of the
total organics concentration and the pH (Black and Christ-
man 1963a,126 Singley et al. 1966137).
The removal of color can be accomplished by the defined
process when the dosage and the pH are adjusted as func-
tions of the raw water color (Black et al. 1963,127 American
Water Works Association Research Committee on Color
Problems 1967).124 These relationships may not apply to
colors resulting from dyes and some other industrial and
processing sources that cannot be measured by comparison
with the platinum-cobalt standards (Hazen 1892,131 1896,132
Standard Methods 1971138). Such colors should not be
present in concentrations that cannot be removed by the
defined process.
Recommendation
Because color in public water supply sources is
aesthetically undesirable and because of the limi-
tations of the denned treatment process, a maxi-
mum of 75 platinum-cobalt color units is recom-
mended.
63
-------
COPPER
Copper is frequently found in surface waters and in some
ground waters in low concentrations (less than 1 mg/1). It
is an essential and beneficial element in human metabolism,
and it is known that a deficiency in copper results in nu-
tritional anemia in infants (Sollmann 1957).Ml Because the
normal diet provides only little more than what is required,
an additional supplement from water may ensure an ade-
quate intake. Small amounts are generally regarded as
nontoxic; but large doses may produce emesis, and pro-
longed oral administration may result in liver damage.
For 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling
points in the United States, 1,173 showed concentrations of
1 to 280 ^tg/1 with a mean concentration of 15 ^g/1 (Kopp
1969).140
Copper imparts some taste to water, but the detectable
range varies from 1 to 5 rng/1 (Cohen et al. I960139)
depending upon the acuity of individual taste perceptions
Copper in public water supplies enhances corrosion o
aluminum in particular and of zinc to a lesser degree. ^
limit of 0.1 mg/1 has been recommended to avoid corrosior
of aluminum (Uhlig 1963).142
The limit of 1 mg/1 copper is based on considerations o
taste rather than hazards to health.
Recommendation
To prevent taste problems and because there is
little information on the effect of the denned treat-
ment process on the removal of copper, it is recom-
mended that copper in public water supply sources
not exceed 1 mg/1.
64
-------
CYANIDE
Standards for cyanide in water have been published by
the World Health Organization in "International Stand-
ards for Drinking Water" (1963)148 and the "European
Standards for Drinking Water" (1970).149 These standards
appear to be based on the toxicity of cyanide to fish, not
to man. Cyanide in reasonable doses (10 mg or less) is
readily converted to thiocyanate in the human body and in
this form is much less toxic to man. Usually, lethal toxic
effects occur only when the detoxifying mechanism is over-
whelmed. The oral toxicity of cyanide for man is shown in
the following table.
Proper chlorination with a free chlorine residual under
neutral or alkaline conditions will reduce the cyanide level
to below the recommended limit. The acute oral toxicity
of cyanogen chloride, the chlorination product of hydrogen
cyanide, is approximately one-twentieth that of hydrogen
cyanide (Spector 1955).146
On the basis of the toxic limit calculated from the
threshold limit for air (Stokinger and Woodward 1958),147
TABLE II-1—Oral Toxicity of Cyanide for Man
Dosage
Response
Literature citations
2 9-4.7 mi/day. .
10 mj, single dose ..
19 mg/1 in water...
50-60 mg, single dose .
. Noninjiinous Smith 194*«
Nomnjunous Bodansky and Levy 19231"
Calculated from the safe thresh- StoKmger and Woodward 1958'"
old limit for air
Fatal The Merck Index or Chemicals
and Drugs 1968"'
and assuming a 2-liter daily consumption of water contain-
ing 0.2 mg/1 cyanide as a maximum, an appreciable factor
of safety would be provided.
Recommendation
Because of the toxicity of cyanide, it is recom-
mended that a limit of 0.2 mg/1 cyanide not be
exceeded in public water supply sources.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Dissolved oxygen in raw water sources aids in the elimi-
nation of undesirable constituents, particularly iron and
manganese, by precipitation of the oxidized form. It also
induces the biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrate,
and prevents the anaerobic reduction of dissolved sulfate
to hydrogen sulfide. More importantly, dissolved oxygen
in a raw surface water supply serves as an indicator that
excessive quantities of oxygen-demanding wastes are prob-
ably not present in the water, although there can be sig-
nificant exceptions to this. Therefore, it is desirable that
oxygen in the water be at or near saturation. On the other
hand, oxygen enhances corrosion of treatment facilities,
distributing systems, and household appurtenances in many
waters.
Oxygen depletion in unmixed bodies of water can result
from the presence of natural oxygen-demanding substances
as well as from organic pollution. Lakes and reservoirs
may contain little or no oxygen, yet may be essentially free
of oxygen-demanding wastes. This is because contact with
the air is limited to the upper surface, and because thermal
stratification in some lakes and reservoirs prevents oxy-
genation of lower levels directly from the air. Similar con-
ditions also occur in ground waters.
Conclusion
No recommendation is made, because the pres-
ence of dissolved oxygen in a raw water supply has
both beneficial and detrimental aspects. However,
when the waters contain ammonia or iron and
manganese in their reduced form, the benefits of
the sustained presence of oxygen at or near satu-
ration for a period of time can be greater than the
disadvantages.
65
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FLUORIDE
The fluoride ion has potential beneficial effects, but
excessive fluoride in drinking water supplies produces ob-
jectionable dental fluorosis that increases as a continuum
with increasing fluoride concentration above the recom-
mended control limits. In the United States, this is the only
harmful effect resulting from fluoride found in drinking
water (Dean 1936,150 Moulton 1942,188 Heyroth 1952,165
McClure 1953,167 Leone et al. 1954,156 Shaw 1954,159 U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service 1959160). The fluoride concentrations exces-
sive for a given community depend on climatic conditions
because the amount of water (and consequently the amount
of fluoride) ingested by children is primarily influenced by
air temperature (Galagan 1953,161 Galagan and Lamson
1953,152 Galagan and Vermillion 1957,153 Galagan et al.
1957164).
Rapid fluctuations in raw water fluoride ion levels would
create objectionable operating problems for treatment
plants serving communities that supplement raw water
fluoride concentrations. From the point of view of a water
pollution control program any value less than that recom-
mended would generally be acceptable at a point of do
mestic water withdrawal.
Recommendation
Because of adverse physiological effects and be-
cause the defined treatment process does nothing
to reduce excessive fluoride concentrations, it i!
recommended that the maximum levels shown ir
Table II-2 not be exceeded in public water supply
sources.
TABLE 11-2—fluoride. Recommendation
Annual averate of maximum daily air temperatures"
fahrenhut
Fluoride maximum mj/l
80-91
72-79
65-71
59-64
5!i-58
50-34
1.4
1.6
1 8
2.0
2.2
2.4
• Bated on temperature data obtained lor a minimum ol live years.
66
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FOAMING AGENTS
Many chemical substances occurring either naturally or
as components of industrial or domestic waste will cause
water to foam when agitated or when air is entrained.
The most common foaming agent in use today is the syn-
thetic anionic surfactant, linear alkyl benzene sulfonate
(LAS). Branched alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) was used
prior to 1965 as a base for synthetic detergents. Because of
its persistent foaming properties, however, ABS was re-
placed by LAS. The most objectionable property of sur-
factants is their foaming capacity which can produce
unsightly masses of foam in a stream or at the home tap.
The surfactants also tend to disperse normally insoluble or
sorbed substances, thus interfering with their removal by
coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.
Although conversion to the more readily biodegradable
linear alkyl sulfonates by the detergent industry has de-
creased the persistence of sulfonates in aerobic waters,
measurable concentrations of these substances still can be
found in both surface and ground waters. Concentrations
of anionic surfactants in water can be determined by means
of their reaction with methylene blue dye (Standard Meth-
ods 1971).162 Concentrations of less than 0.5 mg/1, as
methylene blue active substances (MBAS), do not cause
foaming or present serious interference in the defined treat-
ment process and are well below the inferred limit (700
mg/1) of toxicity to humans based on tests on rats fed diets
of LAS (Buehler et al. 1971).161 It must be recognized that
this procedure does not determine the total concentration
of foaming agents, merely the concentration of materials
that react with methylene blue, most of which are anionic
surfactants. Although cationic and nonionic synthetic sur-
factants do not respond, and not all substances that respond
to the methylene blue process cause foaming, the methylene
blue test is the best available measure of foaming properties.
Recommendation
To avoid undesirable aesthetic effects and be-
cause the denned treatment process does little or
nothing to reduce the level of foaming agents, it
is recommended that foaming agents determined
as methylene blue active substances not exceed
0.5 mg/1 in public water supply sources.
67
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HARDNESS
Hardness is defined as the sum of the polyvalent cations
expressed as the equivalent quantity of calcium carbonate
(CaCOs). The most common such cations are calcium and
magnesium. In general, these metal ions in public water
supply sources are not cause for concern to health, although
there are some indications that they may influence the
effect of other metal ions on some organisms (Jones 1938,168
Cairns, Jr. and Scheier 1958,164 Mount 1966170). Possible
beneficial and detrimental effects on health have been
postulated but not conclusively demonstrated (Muss 1962,171
Crawford and Crawford 1967,166 Crawford et al. 1968,165
Masironi 1969,169 Voors 1971172). There is considerable
variation in the range of hardness acceptable to a given
community. Some consumers expect and demand supplies
with a total hardness of less than 50 mg/1, expressed as
equivalent CaCO3, while others are satisfied with total
hardness greater than 200 mg/1. Consumer sensitivity is
often related to the hardness to which the public has be-
come accustomed, and acceptance may be tempered by
economic considerations.
The requirement for soap and other detergents is directl
related to the water hardness (DeBoer and Larson 1961).1'
Of particular importance is the tendency for developmer
of scale deposits when the water is heated. Variations i
water hardness may be more objectionable than any give
level. Waters with little or no hardness may be corrosiv
to water utility facilities, depending upon pH, alkalinit;
and dissolved oxygen (American Water Works Associatio
1971).163 Industrial consumers of public supplies may b
particularly sensitive to variations in hardness. A watt
hardness must relate to the level normal for the supply an
exclude hardness additions resulting in significant variatior
or general increases.
Conclusion
Acceptable levels for hardness are based on con
sumer preference. No quantitative recommen
dation for hardness in water can be specified.
68
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IRON
Iron (Fe) is objectionable in public water supplies because
of its effect on taste (Riddick et al. 1958,178 Cohen et al.
I960176), staining of plumbing fixtures, spotting of laundered
clothes, and accumulation of deposits in distribution systems.
Iron occurs in the reduced state (Fe++), frequently in
ground waters and less frequently in surface waters, since
exposure to oxygen in surface waters results in oxidation,
forming hydrated ferric oxide which is much less soluble
(American Water Works Association 1971).173
Statistical analysis of taste threshold tests with iron in
distilled water free of oxygen at pH 5.0 showed that 5 per
cent of the observers were able to distinguish between 0.04
mg/1 ferrous iron (added as ferrous sulfate) and distilled
water containing no iron. At 0.3 mg/1, 20 per cent were
able to make the distinction. When colloidal ferric oxide
was added, 5 per cent of the observers were able to dis-
tinguish between 0.7 mg/1 and distilled water. Thus the
form of iron is important. The range of sensitivities of the
observers was surprising, in that 5 per cent were unable to
detect ferrous iron at a concentration of 256 mg/1 in distilled
water. The taste of iron was variously described as bitter,
sweet, astringent, and "iron tasting." (Cohen et al. I960).176
Concentrations of iron less than 0.3 mg/1 are generally
acceptable in public water supplies as the characteristic
red stains and deposits of hydrated ferric oxide do not
manifest themselves (Hazen 1895,m Mason 1910,177 Buswell
1928174). This is the principal reason for limiting the con-
centration of soluble iron.
Recommendation
On the basis of user preference and because the
defined treatment process can remove oxidized iron
but may not remove soluble iron (Fe++), it is recom-
mended that 0.3 mg/1 soluble iron not be exceeded
in public water supply sources.
69
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LEAD
Lead is well known for its toxicity in both acute and
chronic exposures (National Academy of Sciences 1972).190
In technologically developed countries the widespread use
of lead multiplies the risk of exposure of the population to
excessive lead levels (Kehoe 1960a).184 For this reason,
constant surveillance of the lead exposure of the general
population via food, air, and water is necessary.
Acute lead toxicity is characterized by burning in the
mouth, severe thirst, inflammation of the gastrointestinal
tract with vomiting and diarrhea. Chronic toxicity produces
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, paraly-
sis, mental confusion, visual disturbances, anemia, and con-
vulsions (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs I960).189
For 1,577 surface water samples collected from 130 sam-
pling points in the United States, 11.3 per cent showed
detectable concentrations of 0.002 to 0.140 mg/1 with a
mean of 0.023 mg/1 (Kopp 1969).187 For the 100 largest
cities in the United States, the finished waters were found
to have a median concentration of 0.0037 mg/1 and a
maximum of 0.062 mg/1 (Durfor and Becker 1964).182 Of
the 969 water supplies in a community water supply study
conducted in 1969 (McCabe et al. 1970),188 the lead concen-
trations in finished water ready for distribution ranged from
0 to 0.64 mg/1. Fourteen of these supplies on the average
exceeded the 0.05 mg/1 limit for lead in drinking water
(PHS 1962).191 Of 2,595 samples from distribution systems,
37 exceeded the limit set by the Drinking Water Standards
(PHS 1962).191 When standing in lead pipe overnight, acidic
soft water in particular can dissolve appreciable concen-
trations of lead (Crawford and Morris 1967).181
The average daily intake of lead via the diet was 0.3 mg
in 1940 and rarely exceeded 0.6 mg (Kehoe et al. 1940a).186
Data obtained subsequent to 1940 indicated that the intake
of lead appeared to have decreased slightly since that time
(Kehoe 1960b,185 Schroeder and Balassa 1961).192 Whe
under experimental conditions, the daily intake of lez
from all sources amounted to 0.5 to 0.6 mg over one ye;
or more, a small amount was retained in normal healtl
adults but produced no detectable deviation from norm
health. Indirect evidence from industrial workers expost
to known amounts of lead for long periods was consistei
with these findings (Kehoe 1947).183
Young children present a special case in lead intoxicatio
both in terms of the tolerated intake and the severity of tl
symptoms (Chisholm 1964).180 The most prevalent soun
of lead poisoning of children up to three years of age h,
been lead-containing paint still found in some older horn
(Byers 1959,179 Kehoe 1960a184).
Because of the narrow gap between the quantities of lea
to which the general population is exposed through foe
and air in the course of every day life, and the quantities th;
are potentially hazardous over long periods of time, lea
in water for human consumption must be limited to lo
concentrations.
A long-time intake of 0.6 mg lead per day is a level ;
which development of lead intoxication is unlikely and ti
normal intake of lead from food is approximately 0
mg/day. Assuming a 2 liter daily consumption of wati
with 0.05 mg/1 lead, the additional daily intake would t
0.1 mg/day or 25 per cent of the total intake.
Recommendation
Because of the toxicity of lead to humans an
because there is little information on the effective
ness of the defined treatment process in decreasin
lead concentrations, it is recommended that 0.0
mg/1 lead not be exceeded in public water suppl
sources.
70
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MANGANESE
Manganese (Mn) is objectionable in public water supplies
because of its effect on taste (Riddick et al. 1958,196 Cohen
et al. I960194), staining of plumbing fixtures, spotting of
laundered clothes, and accumulation of deposits in distri-
bution systems. Manganese occurs in the reduced state
(Mn++), frequently in ground waters and less frequently
in surface waters, since exposure to oxygen in surface
waters results in oxidation to much less soluble hydrated
manganese oxides (American Water Works Association
1971).193
Concentrations of manganese less than 0.05 mg/1 are
generally acceptable in public water supplies, because the
characteristic black stains and deposits of hydrated man-
ganese oxides do not manifest themselves. This is the
principal reason for limiting the concentration of soluble
manganese (Griffin I960).196
Recommendation
On the basis of user preference and because the
defined treatment process can remove oxidized
manganese but does little to remove soluble man-
ganese (Mn++), it is recommended that 0.05 mg/1
soluble manganese not be exceeded in public water
sources.
71
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MERCURY
Mercury (Hg) is distributed throughout the environment.
As a result of industrial use and agricultural applications,
significant local increases in concentrations above natural
levels in water, soils, and air have been recorded (Wallace
et al. 1971).209 In addition to the more commonly known
sources of man's mercury contributions, the burning of
fossil fuels has been reported as a source of mercury pollution
(Bertine and Goldberg 1971,199 Joensuu 1971202).
The presence of mercury in fresh and sea water was
reported many years ago (Proust 1799,204 Garrigou 1877,201
Willm 1879,210 Bardet 1913197). In Germany, early studies
(Stock and Cucuel 1934,206 Stock 1938206) found mercury
in tap water, springs, rain water, and beer. In all water
the concentration of mercury was consistently less than
one Mg/1, but the beer occasionally contained up to 15 ng/'l.
A recent survey (U.S. Department of Interior, Geological
Survey 1970)2U demonstrated that 93 per cent of U.S.
streams and rivers sampled contained less than 0.5 Mg/1 of
dissolved mercury.
Aside from the exposure experienced in certain occu-
pations, food, particularly fish, is the greatest contributor
to the human body burden of mercury (Study Group on
Mercury Hazards 1971).208 The Food and Drug Adminis-
tration (FDA) has established a guideline of 0.5 mg/kg
for the maximum allowable concentration of mercury in
fish consumed by humans, but it has not been necessary
for the FDA to establish guidelines for other foodstuffs.
Mercury poisoning may be acute or chronic. Generally,
mercurous salts are less soluble in the digestive tract than
mercuric salts and are consequently less acutely toxic. For
man the fatal oral dose of mercuric salts ranges from 20 mg
to 30 mg (Stokinger 1963).207 Chronic poisoning from in-
organic mercurials has been most often associated with
industrial exposure, whereas that from the organic deriva-
tives has been the result of accidents or environmental
contamination.
On the basis of their effects on man, several of the mercury
compounds used in agriculture and industry (such as
alkoxyalkyls and aryls) can be grouped with inorganic
mercury to which the former compounds are usually me-
tabolized. Alkyl compounds are the derivatives of mercury
most toxic to man, producing illness from the ingestion of
only a few milligrams. Chronic alkyl mercury poisoning is
insidious in that it may be manifest after a few weeks or
not until after a few years.
It has been estimated (Bergrund and Berlin 1969)198 tha
of the total mercury ingested, more than 90 per cent i
absorbed via the gastrointestinal tract when taken in th
form of methyl mercury; bu t only 2 per cent is absorbed .
it is in the form of mercuric ion (Clarkson 1971),20° Huma
excreta reveal a biological half-life of methyl mercury i
man of approximately 70 dziys (Study Group on Mercur
Hazards 1971).208
Acute mercury toxicity is c haracterized by severe nausea
vomiting, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, kidney damage
and death usually within ten days. Chronic exposure i
characterized by inflammation of mouth and gums, swelling
of salivary glands, excessive salivation, loosening of teeth
kidney damage, muscle tremors, spasms of extremities
personality changes, depression, irritability, and nervous
ness (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs I960).203
Safe levels of ingested mercury can be estimated fron
data presented in "Hazards of Mercury" (Study Group 01
Mercury Hazards 1971 ).208 From epidemiological evidence
the lowest whole blood concentration of methyl mercun
associated with toxic symptoms is 0.2 Mg/g, which, in turn
corresponds to prolonged, continuous intake by man o
approximately 0.3 mg Hg/70 kg/day. When a safety facto
of 10 is used, the maximum dietary intake should be O.CK
mg Hg/person/day (30 /ig/70 kg/day). It is recognizec
that this provides a smaller factor of safety for children
If exposure to mercury were from fish alone, the 0.03 mi
limit would allow for a maximum daily consumption o
60 grams (420 g/week) of fish containing 0.5 mg Hg/kg
Assuming a daily consumption of 2 liters of water containing
0.002 mg/1 (2 Mg/1) mercury, the daily intake would b<
4 Mg- If 420 g of fish per week containing 0.5 mg Hg/k£
plus 2 liters of water daily containing 0.002 mg/1 mercur;
were ingested, the factor of safety for a 70 kg man wouk
be 9. If all of the mercury is not in the alkyl form, or i
fish consumption is limited, a greater factor of safety wil
exist.
Recommendation
On the basis of adverse physiological effects and
because the defined water treatment process has
little or no effect on removing mercury at low levels,
it is recommended that total mercury in public
water supply sources not exceed 0.002 mg/1.
72
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NITRATE-NITRITE
Serious and occasionally fatal poisonings in infants have
occurred following ingestion of well waters shown to contain
nitrate (NOs_) at concentrations greater than 10 mg/1
nitrate-nitrogen (N). This was first associated with a tempo-
rary blood disorder in infants called methemoglobinemia
in 1945 (Comly 1945).212 Since then, approximately 2,000
cases of this disease have been reported from private water
supplies in North America and Europe, and about 7 to
8 per cent of the infants affected died (Walton 1951,223
Sattelmacher 1962,218 Simon et al. 1964219).
High nitrate concentrations are frequently found in
shallow wells on farms and in rural communities. These
are often the result of inadequate protection from barn
yard drainage and from septic tanks (U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service
1961,221 Stewart et al. 1967220). Increasing concentrations
of nitrate in streams from farm tile drainage have been
shown in regions of intense fertilization and farm crop
production (Harmeson et al. 1971).214
Many infants have drunk water with nitrate-nitrogen
concentrations greater than 10 mg/1 without developing
the disease. Many public water supplies in the United
States have levels of nitrate that routinely exceed the
standard, but only one case of methemoglobinemia (Vigil
et al. 1965)222 associated with a public water supply has
thus far been reported. Rationale for degrees of suscepti-
bility to methemoglobinemia have yet to be developed.
The development of methemoglobinemia, largely con-
fined to infants less than three months old, is dependent
upon the bacterial conversion of the relatively innocuous
nitrate ion to nitrite (NO2~). Nitrite absorbed into the
blood stream converts hemoglobin to methemoglobin. The
altered pigment can then no longer transport oxygen, and
the clinical effect of methemoglobinemia is that of oxygen
deprivation or suffocation. Older children and adults do
not seem to be affected, but Russian research reported
methemoglobin in five- to eight-year-old school children
where the water nitrate concentrations were 182 mg/1 as N
(Diskalenko 1968).213
Nitrite toxicity is well known, but a no-effect level has
not been established. When present in drinking water
nitrite would have a more rapid and pronounced effect
than nitrate. Concentrations in raw water sources are
usually less than 1 mg/1 as N, and chlorination to a free
chlorine residual converts nitrite to nitrate.
Several reviews and reports (Walton 1951,223 Sattel-
macher 1962,218 Simon et al. 1964,219 Winton 1970,224
Winton et al. 1971225) generally pointed to 10 mg/1 nitrate-
nitrogen in drinking water as the maximum tolerance levels
for infants. Sattelmacher (1962)218 showed 3 per cent of
473 cases of infantile methemoglobinemia to be associated
with levels of less than 9 mg/1 as N. Simon and his associates
(1964)219 found 4.4 per cent of 249 cases to be associated
with levels less than 11 mg/1 as N. Analyses of available
data are hampered by the fact that samples for water
analysis are sometimes collected weeks or months after the
disease occurs, during which time the concentration of
nitrate may change considerably. Hereditary defects, the
feeding of nitrate-rich vegetables, or the use of common
medicines may increase susceptibility to methemoglobi-
nemia. Winton and his associates (1971)228 concluded that
"there is insufficient evidence to permit raising the recom-
mended limit."
Extensive reviews on methemoglobinemia associated with
nitrate and nitrite have been provided by Walton (1951),223
Miale (1967),216 and Lee (1970).216 They described the
circumstances that contributed to the susceptibility of in-
fants under three months of age to methemoglobinemia
from nitrate. These included (a) the stomach pH in infants,
which is higher than that of adults and can permit growth
of bacteria that can reduce nitrate to nitrite, and (b) infant
gastrointestinal illness that may permit reduction of nitrate
to nitrite to occur higher in the intestinal tract.
Methemoglobin is normally present at levels of 1 per cent
to 2 per cent of the total hemoglobin in the blood. Clinical
symptoms are normally detectable only at levels of about
10 per cent. Methemoglobin in the subclinical range has
been generally regarded as unimportant. However, 10
children (ages 12 to 14) were observed to have shown con-
ditioned reflexes to both auditory and visual stimuli, as the
result of a drinking water source with 20.4 mg/1 nitrate-
nitrogen. The average methemoglobin in the blood was
5.3 per cent (Petukhov and Ivanov 1970).217
Recommendation
On the basis of adverse physiological effects on
infants and because the denned treatment process
has no effect on the removal of nitrate, it is recom-
mended that the nitrate-nitrogen concentration
in public water supply sources not exceed 10 mg/1.
On the basis of its high toxicity and more pro-
nounced effect than nitrate, it is recommended
that the nitrite-nitrogen concentration in public
water supply sources not exceed 1 mg/1.
73
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NITRILOTRIACETATE (NTA)
Because of its possible large-scale use, nitrilotriacetate
(NTA) should be evaluated in light of chronic low-level
exposure via drinking water and its potential for adversely
affecting the health of the general population. Although
nitrilotriacetic acid, a white crystalline powder, is insoluble
in water, the tribasic salt is quite soluble.
NTA has strong affinity for iron, calcium, magnesium,
and zinc (Bailar 1956).226 Its relative affinity for toxic
metals such as cadmium and mercury is not presently
known, nor have its chelating properties in complex ionic
solutions been characterized. Copper and lead concen-
trations in biologically treated waste water after flocculation
with aluminum sulfate (125 mg/1) are a function of the
NTA present (Nilsson 1971).227 No information is available
on the toxicity of such chelates. No cases of acute human
poisoning by NTA have been reported.
In the natural environment, NTA is biodegraded to CO2,
s, and H2O, with glycine and ammonia as intermediate
(Thompson and Duthie 1968).228 This appears to occu
within four to five days. Degradation is accelerated b
biological waste treatment. Conversion of NTA to nitrat
is on a 1 to 1 molar basis.
Conclusion
No recommendation concerning NTA is made a
this time because of the absence of data on affinit
for toxic metals, the absence of adequate toxicit
data, and the absence of demonstrable effects 01
man, and because there is doubt about its potentia
use as a substitute for phosphates in detergents
Toxicity information should be developed ant
evaluated to establish a reasonable recommen
dation prior to its use as a substitute.
ODOR
Odor and taste, which are rarely separable, are the
primary means by which the user determines the accepta-
bility of water. The absence of odor is an indirect indication
that contaminants such as phenolic compounds are also
absent, or nearly so. (See Phenolic Compounds, in this sec-
tion, p. 80) Although odor cannot be directly correlated
with the safety of the water supply, its presence can cause
consumers to seek other supplies that may in fact be less
safe.
Many odor-producing substances in raw water supplies
are organic compounds produced by microorganisms and
by human and industrial wastes (Silvey 1953,232 Rosen
1966,231 American Water Works Association, Committe
on Tastes and Odors, 1970230). The denned treatmer
process can aid in the removal of certain odorous sul:
stances (American Water Works Association 1971),229 bu
it may in other cases increase the odor (Silvey et al. 1950)2:
as by the chlorination of phenolic compounds explaine
on p. 80.
Recommendation
For aesthetic reasons, public water suppl
sources should be essentially free from objection
able odor.
OIL AND GREASE
Oil and grease, as defined by Standard Methods (1971),241
occurring in public water supplies in any quantity cause
taste, odor, and appearance problems (Braus et al. 1951,235
Middleton and Lichtenberg I960,240 Middleton 196la,239
American Water Works Association 1966234), can be haz-
ardous to human health (The Johns Hopkins University,
Department of Sanitary Engineering and Water Resources
1956,237 McKee and Wolf 1963238), and are detrimental
to the defined treatment process (Middleton and Lichten-
berg I960).240 Even small quantities of oil and grease can
produce objectionable odors and appearance, causing re
jection of the water supply before health or treatmer.
problems exist (Holluta 1961,2:t6 McKee and Wolf 1963).2;
Recommendation
On the basis of odor and other aesthetic con
siderations affecting user preference and becaus
oil and grease are unnatural ingredients in watei
it is recommended that public water supply source
be essentially free from oil and grease.
74
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ORGANICS-CARBON ADSORBABLE
Organics-carbon adsorbable are composed of carbon-
chloroform extract (CCE) (Middleton 1961 b)246 and carbon-
alcohol extract (CAE) (Booth et al. 1965,243 Standard
Methods 1971248). CCE is a mixture of organic compounds
that can be adsorbed on activated carbon and then desorbed
with chloroform (Booth et al. 1965).243 Middleton and
Rosen (1956)246 showed the presence of substituted benzene
compounds, kerosene, polycyclic hydrocarbons, phenyl-
ether, acrylonitrile, and insecticides in CCE materials.
CAE is a mixture of organic compounds that can be ad-
sorbed on activated carbon, then desorbed with ethyl alcohol
after the chloroform soluble organics have been desorbed
(Booth et al. 1965).243
Hueper and Payne (1963)244 showed that CCE materials
had carcinogenic properties when ingested by rats. This
study also suggested a life-shortening effect in rats fed CAE
materials (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
office memorandum 1963).249 The CAE material also contained
at least one synthetic organic, alkyl benzene sulfonate
(Rosen et al. 1956).247
It is important to recognize that the carbon usually does
not adsorb all organic material present, nor is all the
adsorbed material desorbed.
Organics-carbon adsorbable recommendations represent
a practical measure of water quality and act as a safeguard
against the intrusion of excessive amounts of ill-defined
potentially toxic organic material into water. They have
served in the past as a measure of protection against the
presence of otherwise undetected toxic organic materials in
drinking water. However, they provide a rather incomplete
index of the health significance of such materials in potable
waters.
In 1965 Booth and his associates (1965)243 developed a
Carbon Adsorption Method (CAM) similar to the High-
Flow CAM Sampler but with a longer contact time be-
tween the sample and the activated carbon. This sampler,
called the Low-Flow CAM Sampler, increased organic
adsorption and therefore overall yield of the determination.
Since that time a more reliable collection apparatus,
called the Mini-Sampler, has been developed (Beulow and
Carswell 1972).242 In addition, the Mini-Sampler also used
a type of coal-based activated carbon that enhanced organic
collection. Further, the extraction apparatus has been
miniaturized to be less expensive and more convenient,
and the procedure modified to be more vigorous, thereby
increasing desorption and organic recovery (Beulow and
Carswell 1972).242 However, the Mini-Sampler has not
been evaluated using raw waters at this time. Therefore,
the Low-Flow Sampler (Booth et al. 1965)243 was used for
establishing the recommendation.
Adjustment of the High-Flow Sampler data (1961 Inter-
state Carrier Surveillance Program) to make them com-
parable to the recent results from the Low-Flow Sampler
show that waters with concentrations exceeding either 0.3
mg CCE/1 or 1.5 mg CAE/1 may contain undesirable
and unwarranted components and represent a generally
unacceptable level for unidentified organic substances.
Recommendation
Because large values of CCE and CAE are aes-
thetically undesirable and represent unacceptable
levels of unidentified organic compounds that may
have adverse physiological effects, and because the
defined treatment process has little or no effect on
the removal of these organics, it is recommended
that organics-carbon adsorbable as measured by
the Low-Flow Sampler (Standard Methods 1971248)
not exceed 0.3 mg/1 CCE and 1.5 mg/1 CAE in
public water supply sources.
75
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PESTICIDES
Pesticides include a great many organic compounds that
are used for specific or general purposes. Among them are
chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphorus and carba-
mate compounds, as well as the chlorophenoxy, and other
herbicides. Although these compounds have been useful in
improving agricultural yields, controlling disease vectors,
and reducing the mass growth of aquatic plants in streams
and reservoirs, they also create both real and presumed
hazards in the environment.
Pesticides differ widely in chemical and toxicological
characteristics. Some are accumulated in the fatty tissues
of the body while others are metabolized. The biochemistry
of the pesticides has not yet been completely investigated.
Because of the variability in their toxicity to man and their
wide range of biodegradability, the different groups of
pesticides are considered separately below.
Determining the presence of pesticides in water requires
expensive specialized equipment as well as specially trained
personnel. In smaller communities, it is not routine to make
actual quantitative determinations and identifications.
These are relegated to the larger cities, federal and state
agencies, and private laboratories that monitor raw waters
at selected locations.
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON INSECTICIDES
The chlorinated hydrocarbons are one of the most im-
portant groups of synthetic organic insecticides because of
their number, wide use, great stability in the environment,
and toxicity to certain forms of wildlife and other nontarget
organisms. If absorbed into the human body, some of the
chlorinated hydrocarbons are not metabolized rapidly but
are stored in fatty tissues. The consequences of such storage
are presently under investigation (Report of the Secre-
tary's Commission on Pesticides and Their Relationship to
Environmental Health. U.S. Department of Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare 1969).284 The major chlorinated hydro-
carbons have been in use for at least three decades, and yet
no definite conclusions have been reached regarding the
effect of these pesticides on man (HEW 1969).284
Regardless of how they enter organisms, chlorinated
hydrocarbons cause symptoms of poisoning that are similar
but differ in severity. The severity is related to concentratioi
of the chlorinated hydrocarbon in the nervous system
primarily the brain (Dale et al. 1963).266 Mild intoxicatioi
causes headaches, dizziness, gastrointestinal disturbances
numbness and weakness of the extremities, apprehension
and hyperirritability. In severe cases, there are muscula
fasciculations spreading from the head to the extremities
followed eventually by spasms involving entire muscli
groups, leading in some cases to convulsions and death.
Very few long term studies have been conducted witl
human volunteers. The highest level tested for dieldrin wa
0.211 mg/man/day for 2 years with no observed illnes
(Hunter and Robinson 1967,:!68 Hunter et al. 1969).269 Sino
aldrin is metabolized to dieldrin and has essentially thi
same toxicity as dieldrin, these data can also be applie(
to aldrin.
Methoxychlor levels of 140 mg/man/day produced n<
illness in subjects over a period of 8 weeks (Stein et al
1965).280 The maximum level of DDT seen to have n<
apparent ill effect was 35 mg/man/day for 2 years (Haye
et al. 1971).265
The dosage is one of the most important factors in ex
trapolating to safe human exposure levels. Using tumor
susceptible hybrid strains of mice, significantly increaset
incidences of tumors were produced with the administratioi
of large doses of DDT (46.4 mg/kg/day) (Innes et al
1969).270 In a separate study in mice extending over fivi
generations, a dietary level of 3 ppm of DDT produced <
greater incidence of malignancies and leukemia beginning
in the second filial and third filial generations, respectively
and continuing in the later generations (Tarjan and Kemen)
1969).281 These results are preliminary in nature and requin
confirmation. The findings of both of these studies conflic
with earlier studies of the carcinogenic effect of DDT whicl
yielded generally negative results.
A summary of the levels of several chlorinated hydra
carbons that produced minimal toxicity or no effects wher
fed chronically to dogs and rats is shown in Table 11-^
(Lehman 1965,272 Treon and Cleveland 1955,282 Cole un-
published data 1966286). Limits for chlorinated hydrocarbon;
in drinking water have been calculated primarily on the
76
-------
Pesticides/77
TABLE II-3—Recommended Limits for Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
Compound
Aldrin
Chlordane ...
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Hgptachlor..
Htpbchlor Epoiide .
Lindane .
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene...
Long-term levels with minimal or no effects
Species
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dcf
Man
Rat
DOt
Man
Rat
DOJ
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dog
Man
Ra.
Dog
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
ppm in diet
0.5
1.0
2.S
N.A.
N.A.
5.0
400.0
0.5
1.0
5.0
3.0
N.A.
0.5
4.0
N.A.
0.5
0.5
NA.
50.0
15.0
N.A.
100.0
40000
100
400.0
N.A.
Reference
(1)
(1)
(1)
0)
0)
(1)
(0
(5)
(6)
0)
0)
0)
(1)
(0
0)
(0
0)
(1)
(1)
mg/kf body Reference
weight/da)"
0.083 .
0.02
0.003 (2), (3)
0.42 . ..
N.A.
N.A.
0.83
8.0
0.5 (4)
0.083
0.02
0.003 (2), (3)
0 83
0.06
N.A.
0.083
0.08
N.A.
0.083
0.01
N.A.
8.3
0.3
N.A.
17.0
80.0
2.0 (7)
1 7
80
N.A.
Calculated maximum sale levels
from all sources of exposure
Safety Factor
(X)
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/500
mt/kf/day
0.00083
0.0002
0.0003
0.00084
0.008
0.08
0.05
0.00083
0.0002
0.0003
0.00166
0.00012
0.000166
0.00016
0.000166
0.00002
0.0166
0.0006
0.17
0.8
0.2
0.0034
0.010
mg/man/day&
0.0581
O.OW
0.021
O.SSS-i
0.56°*
5.E
3.5
0.0581
0.014<<
0.021
0.1162
0.0084''
0.1162
0.01 12*
0.01162
0.0014''
1.162
0.042''
11. ¥
56.0
14.0
0.238
-------
78/Section II—Public Water Supplies
consider the exposure from other media. In the case of the
chlorinated hydrocarbons, exposure is expected to occur
mostly through the diet, although aerial spray of these
agents can occasionally result in an inhalation exposure.
Dietary intake of pesticide chemicals from 1964 to 1970
have been determined by investigators of the Food and
Drug Administration from "market basket" samples of
food and water (Duggan and Corneliussen 1972).268 The
average intakes (mg/man/day) are listed in Table II-3.
If the intake from the diet is compared with what are
considered acceptable safe levels for these pesticides, it is
apparent that only traces of chlordane, methoxychlor, and
toxaphene are present in the diet. Less than 10 per cent of
the maximum safe level of aldrin, DDT, endrin, heptachlor,
or lindane are ingested with the diet. For dieldrin, approxi-
mately 35 per cent of the safe level comes from the diet.
By contrast, exposure to heptachlor epoxide via the diet
accounts for more than the defined safe level. In general, an
apportionment to water of 20 per cent of the total acceptable
intake is reasonable. However, the limits for chlordane and
toxaphene were lowered because of organoleptic effects at
concentrations above 0.003 and 0.005 mg/I, respectively
(Cohen et al. 1961,253 Sigworth 1965278). The limit for
heptachlor epoxide was lowered to five per cent of the safe
level because of the relatively high concentrations in the
diet; and, accordingly, the limit for heptachlor was lowered
because it is metabolized to heptachlor epoxide.
These limits reflect the amounts that can be ingested
without harm to the health of the consumer and without
adversely affecting the quality of the drinking water. They
are meant to serve only in the event that these chemicals
are inadvertently present in the water and do not imply
that their deliberate addition is acceptable.
Recommendation
Because of adverse physiological effects on hu-
mans or on the quality of the water and because
there is inadequate information on the effect of
the denned treatment on removal of chlorinated
hydrocarbons, it is recommended that the limits
for water shown in Table II-3 not be exceeded.
ORGANOPHOSPHORUS AND CARBAMATE
INSECTICIDES
The number of organophosphorus and carbamate in-
secticides has steadily increased through special uses in
agricultural production and the control of destructive in-
sects. At present, there are perhaps 30 commonly used
organophosphates with parathion among those potentially
most dangerous to human health. No evidence has de-
veloped of any significant contamination of water supplies
even in the geographical areas where the use of pesticides
in this class has been extensive. However, because of their
high mammalian toxicity, it is advisable to establish an
upper limit for these pesticides in treated water supplies.
The majority of organophosphorus insecticides in use at
present are somewhat similar in chemical structure and
physical and biological properties. Although their speci
chemical compositions differ from one another and frc
carbamates, they all act by the same physiological meet
nism. Their presence in public water supplies as contan
nants would result in some deleterious biological efft
over a period of time.
Ingestion of small quantities of either of these pesticic
over a prolonged period results in a dysfunction of t
cholinesterase of the nervous system (Durham and Ha}
1962).259 This appears to be the only important manifi
tation of acute or chronic toxicity caused by these coi
pounds (HEW 1969).M4
Although safe levels of these; agents have been determin
for experimental animals on the basis of biochemical in<
cators of injury, more knowledge is needed to make speci
recommendations for water quality (HEW 1969).284
Indications of the levels that would be harmful a
available for some organophosphorus compounds as a resi
of studies conducted with human volunteers. Grob (1950)
estimated that 100 mg of parathion would be lethal ai
that 25 mg would be moderately toxic. On the other han
Bidstrup (1950)261 estimated that a dose of 10 to 20 mg
parathion might be lethal. Edson (1957)260 found th
parathion ingested by man at a rate of 3 mg/day had ]
effect on cholinesterase. Similar values were determined 1
Williams and his associates (1958).28B Moeller and Rid
(1962)273 suggested that the detectable toxicity threshol
as measured by cholinesterase depression, was 9 mg/d;
for parathion equivalency and 24 mg/day for malathio
These investigators also reported that a daily dose of 7 n
of methyl parathion was near the detectable toxicity thres
old for this compound; but it was later found (Rider ar
Moeller 1964)276 that 10 mg/'day of methyl parathion cl
not produce any significant inhibition of blood choli
esterase. Therefore, 5 mg/day (0.07 mg/kg/day) of p>
rathion equivalency should be a safe intake acceptable
the body.
Frawley and his associates (1963)262 found that a depre
sion of plasma cholinesterase occurred in human subjec
at a dosage of 0.15 mg/kg/day of Delnav, which wou
amount to a total dose of about 7 to 10 mg/day of parathk
depending on the body weight of the subjects.
On the basis that carbamate and organophosphorus i
secticides have similar toxic effects and that parathion
one of the most toxic of these classes, the data appeared
show that 0.07 mg/kg/day should be a safe level for tl
human body. Assuming a daily consumption of 2 liters
water containing cholinerglc organophosphates or carb
mates in concentrations of 0.1 mg/1, 0.2 mg/day would I
ingested. This would provide a factor of safety of 25 f<
parathion for a man weighing 70 kg.
Recom mendat ion
It is recommended that the carbamate an
organophosphorus pesticides in public water suf
-------
Pesticides/79
TABLE II-4—Recommended Allowable Levels for Chlorophenoxy Herbicides
Compound
Lowest long-term levels with minimal or no effects
Calculated maximum safe levels from all sources of exposure
Water
Species
Dose mg/kg/dar
Reference
Safety factor (X)
mg/kg/day
mg/man/dayb
~% of Safe Level Rec. limit (mg/l)°
2,4-D.. ..
2,4,5-TP(Silvex)
2,4,5-T .
Rat
Dot
Rat
Dot
Rat
Dot
0.5
8.0
2.6
0.9
4.E
10.0
Lehman (1965)"=
Lehman (1965)™
Mullison (1966)"<
Mullison (1966)"'
Courtney etal. (1970)2=i
Courtney & Moore (1971)"'
Drill & HiraMa (1953)2"
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/1000
1/1000
0.001
0.016
0.005
0.002
0.005
0.01
0.07-*
1 12
0.35
0.14J
0.35-*
0.7
50
50
1
0.02
0.03
0.002
- Assume weight of rat=0.3 kg and of dog=10 kg; assume average daily food consumption of rat=0.05 kg and of dot=0.2 kg.
*> Assume average weight of human adult=70 kg.
« Assume average daily intake of water for man=2 liters.
<* Chosen as basis on which to derive recommended level.
ply sources not exceed 0.1 mg/1, total, because there
is inadequate information on the effect of the de-
fined treatment process on their removal.
CHLOROPHENOXY HERBICIDES
During the past 20 years, numerous reservoirs have been
constructed as public water supplies for cities and com-
munities in the United States. In certain areas as much as
five per cent per year of the total volume of a reservoir may
be lost because of the marginal growth of weeds and trees.
This is especially common in the Southwest where water
levels fluctuate (Silvey 1968).279
In recent years the control of aquatic vegetation has been
widely practiced for water supply sources in many com-
munities in the U.S. Since herbicides may be used for this
purpose, it is possible that some may find their way into
finished water.
Two of the most widely used herbicides are 2,4-D (2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), and 2,4,5-TP (2,4,5-tri-
chlorophenoxy-propionic acid) (see Table 11-4). Each of
these compounds is available in a variety of salts and esters
that may have marked differences in herbicidal properties
but are rapidly hydrolyzed to the corresponding acid in
the body. There are additional compounds that have been
employed from time to time, such as diquat (1,1 '-ethylene-2,
2'-dipyridylium dibromide) and endothal (disodium 3,6-
endoxohexa-hydrophthalate).
Studies of the acute oral toxicity of the chlorophenoxy
herbicides indicated that there was approximately a three-
fold variation between the species studied and that the
acute toxicity was moderate (Hill and Carlisle 1947,267
Lehman 1951,271 Drill and Hiratzka 1953,2" Rowe and
Hymas 1954).277 It appears that acute oral toxicity of the
three compounds is of about the same magnitude within
each species. In the rat, the oral LD50 for each agent was
about 500 mg/kg.
There are some data available on the toxicity of 2,4-D
to man indicating that a daily dosage of 500 mg (about
7 mg/kg) produced no apparent ill effects in a volunteer
over a 21-day period (Kraus unpublished 1946).288
Sixty-three million pounds of 2,4-D were produced in
1965. There were no confirmed cases of occupational
poisoning and few instances of any illness due to ingestion
(Hayes 1963,264 Nielson et al. 1965275). One case of 2,4-D
poisoning in man has been reported recently (Berwick
1970).2SO
Lehman (1965)272 reported that the no-effect level ot
2,4-D is 0.5 mg/kg/day in the rat and 8.0 mg/kg/day in
the dog. In 2-year feeding studies with the sodium and
potassium salts of silvex, the no-effect levels were 2.6
mg/kg/day in rats and 0.9 mg/kg/day, respectively, in
dogs (Mullison 1966).274
Terata and embryo toxicity effects from 2,4,5-T were
evidenced by statistically increased proportions of abnormal
fetuses within the litters of mice and rats (Courtney et al.
1970).254 The rat appeared to be more sensitive to this
effect. A dosage of 21.5 mg/kg produced no harmful effects
in mice, while a level of 4.6 mg/kg caused minimal but
statistically significant effects in the rat. More recent work
has indicated that a contaminant (2,3,7 ,8-tetrachloro-
dibenzo-p-dioxin) which was present at approximately 30
ppm in the 2 ,4,5-T formulation originally tested was highly
toxic to experimental animals and produced fetal and
maternal toxicity at levels as low as 0.0005 mg/kg. However,
highly purified 2,4,5-T has also produced teratogenic
effects in both hamsters and rats at relatively high dosage
rates (FDA and NIEHS unpublished data,™1 Collins and
Williams 1971252). Current production samples of 2,4,5-T
that contain less than 1 ppm of dioxin did not produce
embryo toxicity or terata in rats at levels as high as 24
mg/kg/day (Emerson et al. 1970).261
Recommendation
Because of possible adverse physiological effects
and because there are inadequate data on the
effects of the defined treatment process on removal
of chlorophenoxy herbicides, it is recommended
that 2,4-D not exceed 0.02 mg/1, that Silvex not
exceed 0.03 mg/1, and that 2,4,5-T not exceed
0.002 mg/1 in public water supply sources.
-------
The pH of a raw water supply is significant because it
affects water treatment processes and may contribute to
corrosion of waterworks structures, distribution lines, and
household plumbing fixtures. This corrosion can add such
constituents as iron, copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium to
the water. Most natural waters have pH values within the
range of 5.0 to 9.0. Adjustment of pH within this range is
relatively simple, and the variety of anticorrosion pro-
cedures currently in use make it unnecessary to recommei
a more narrow range.
Recommendation
Because the defined treatment process can co]
with natural waters within the pH range of 5.0 1
9.0 but becomes less economical as this range
extended, it is recommended that the pH of publ
water supply sources be within 5.0 to 9.0.
PHENOLIC COMPONDS
Phenolic compounds are defined (Standard Methods
1971)301 as hydroxy derivatives of benzene and its condensed
nuclei. Sources of phenolic compounds are industrial waste
water discharges (Faust and Anderson 1968),292 domestic
sewage (Hunter 1971),296 fungicides and pesticides (Frear
1969),294 hydrolysis and chemical oxidation of organo-
phosphorus pesticides (Gomaa and Faust 1971),295 hy-
drolysis and photochemical oxidation of carbamate pesti-
cides (Aly and El-Dib 1971),289 microbial degradation ol
phenoxyalkyl acid herbicides (Menzie 1969),298 and natur-
ally occurring substances (Christman and Ghassemi 1966).291
Some phenolic compounds are sufficiently resistant to
microbial degradation to be transported long distances by-
water.
Phenols affect water quality in many ways. Perhaps the
greatest effect is noticed in municipal water systems where
trace concentrations of phenolic compounds (usually less
than 1.0 mg/1) affect the organoleptic properties of the
drinking water. For example, p-cresol has a threshold order
concentration of 0.055 mg/1, m-cresol 0.25 mg/I, and
o-cresol 0.26 mg/1 (Rosen et al. 1962).300 Phenol has a
threshold odor concentration of 4.2 mg/1 (Rosen et al.
1962),300 whereas the values for the chlorinated phenols are:
2-chlorophenol, 2.0 jag/l; and 4-chlorophenol, 250 jug/1
(Burttschell et al. 1959).290 Generally, phenolic compounds
are not removed efficiently by the defined treatment procei
Furthermore, municipal waters are postchlorinated to insu
disinfection. If phenolic compounds are present in wate
that are chlorinated for disinfection, chlorophenols may 1
formed. The kinetics of this reaction are such that chlor
phenols may not appear until the water has been di
tributed from the treatment plant (Lee and Morris 1962).!
2,4-dinitrophenol has been shown to inhibit oxidatr
phosphorylation at concentrations of 184 and 278 mg
(Pinchot 1967).299
The development of criteria for phenolic compounds
hampered by the lack of sensitive standard analytical tec]
niques for the detection of specific phenolic compound
Some of the more odorous compounds are the para subsl
tuted halogenated phenols. These escape detection by tl
methodology suggested by Standard Methods (1971)301 ui
less the analytical conditions are precisely set (Faust et a
1971).293
Recommendation
Because the defined treatment process may s«
verely increase the odor of many phenolic com
pounds, it is recommended that public water su[
ply sources contain no more than 1 yg/1 phenoli
compounds.
80
-------
PHOSPHATE
Recommendations for phosphate concentrations have
been considered but no generally acceptable recommen-
dation is possible at this time because of the complexity of
the problem. The purpose of such a recommendation would
be twofold:
1. to avoid problems associated with algae and other
aquatic plants, and
2. to avoid coagulation problems due particularly to
complex phosphates.
Phosphate is essential to all forms of life. In efforts to
limit the development of objectionable plant growths, phos-
phate is often considered the most readily controllable
nutrient. Evidence indicates (a) that high phosphate con-
centrations are associated with eutrophication of waters
manifest in unpleasant algal or other aquatic plant growths
when other growth-promoting factors are favorable; (b)
that aquatic plant problems develop in reservoirs or other
standing waters at phosphate values lower than those critical
in flowing streams; (c) that reservoirs and other standing
waters will collect phosphates from influent streams and
store a portion of these within the consolidated sediments;
and (d) that initial concentrations of phosphate that stimu-
late noxious plant growths vary with other water quality
characteristics, producing such growths in one geographical
area but not in another.
Because the ratio of total phosphorus (P) to that form of
phosphorus readily available for plant growth is constantly
changing and ranges from two to 17 or more times greater,
it is desirable to establish limits for total phosphorus rather
than to the portion that may be available for immediate
plant use. Most relatively uncontaminated lake districts are
known to have surface waters that contain 10 to 30 ng/l
total phosphorus as P; in some waters that are not obviously
polluted, higher values may occur. Data collected by the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Division
of Pollution Surveillance, indicate that total phosphorus
concentrations exceeded 50 jug/1 (P) at 48 per cent of the
stations sampled across the nation (Gunnerson 1966).302
Some potable surface water supplies now exceed 200 /ug/1
(P) without experiencing notable problems due to aquatic
growths. Fifty micrograms per liter of total phosphorus
(as P) would probably restrict noxious aquatic plant
growths in flowing waters and in some standing waters.
Some lakes, however, would experience algal nuisances at
and below this level.
Critical phosphorus concentrations will vary with other
water quality characteristics. Turbidity and other factors
in many of the nation's waters negate the algal-producing
effects of high phosphorus concentrations. When waters are
detained in a lake or reservoir, the resultant phosphorus
concentration is reduced to some extent over that in influent
streams by precipitation or uptake by organisms and subse-
quent deposition in fecal pellets or the bodies of dead
organisms. At concentrations of complex phosphorus on the
order of 100 Mg/1, difficulties with coagulation are experi-
enced (U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration 1968).303 (See the dis-
cussion of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Section I for a
more complete description of phosphorus associations with
the enrichment problem.)
Recommendation
No recommendation can be made because of the
complexity of relationships between phosphate
concentrations in water, biological productivity,
and resulting problems such as odor and nitration
difficulties.
81
-------
PHTHALATE ESTERS
Large quantities of phthalate esters are used as plasticizers
in plastics. Phthalates in water, fish, and other organisms,
represent a potential but largely unknown health problem.
They have been implicated in growth retardation, accumu-
lation, and chronic toxicity, but little conclusive infor-
mation is available (Phthalates are discussed in Section III,
Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife.) Because there
insufficient information on Iheir specific effects on man, i
scientifically defensible recommendation can be made
this time concerning concentrations of phthalate esters
public water supply sources.
PLANKTON
The quality of public water supplies may be drastically
affected by the presence of planktonic organisms. Plankton
may be defined as a community of motile or nonmotile
microscopic plants and animals that are suspended in water.
The species diversity and density of the plankton com-
munity are important water quality characteristics that
should be monitored in all public water supplies. Several
methods for counting plankton have been improvised.
Many reports count plankton as number of organisms per
aliquot of sample rather than biomass. Since various species
of algae are much larger than other species, plankton
counts that simply enumerate cells, colonies, or filaments do
not indicate accurately the true plankton content of the
water (Standard Methods 1971).305
Plankters are primarily important in public water supply
sources for their contribution to taste and odor problems,
pH alteration, or filter clogging. To aid operators in in-
terpreting plankton data, the algae counted should be
listed under applicable categories that show the predomi-
nance or absence of certain groups of organisms at any
given time. The categories used should include green algae,
blue-green algae, diatoms, flagellated forms, Protozoa,
microcrustaceans and Rotifera, as well as related Protista.
Data from plankton counts can be very useful to water
treatment operators (Silvey et al. 1972).304 Counts of blue-
green algae which exceed 50 per cent of the total plankton
community usually indicate potential taste and odor pro!
lems. So long as the green algae comprise 75 per cent
the total plankton count, it is not likely that serious tas
and odor problems will arise. The diatom population of tt
plankton community is also important. During some diato:
blooms, the pH of the water increases enough to require tt
addition of more alum or iron than would normally t
used to achieve the desired pH in the distribution systen
Some blooms of planktonic green algae cause the pH -
the water to rise from 7.6 to as high as 10. There are a]
parently no plankters that tend to reduce pH or remox
minerals in sufficient quantities to alter conditions.
The role which plankton plays in the productivity of
lake or reservoir is important. The relationship be twee
productivity and respiration may frequently be used as
pollution index. In many instances, plankton studies ai
more revealing than bacterial studies. A ratio of produi
tivity to respiration amounting to one or more indicati
that the algae are producing more oxygen than is beir
consumed by the bacteria. If the ratio drops below one fc
significant periods, an undesirable condition exists that ma
cause problems with anaerobic organisms. For further di
cussions of productivity and its relation to water qualit;
see Section I on Recreation and Aesthetics, Section III c
Fresh Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and Section IV on Marir
Aquatic Life and Wildlife.
82
-------
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB)
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) consist of a mixture of
compounds only slightly soluble in water; highly soluble
in fats, oils, and nonpolar liquids; and highly resistant to
both heat and biological degradation. PCB have a wide
variety of industrial uses, primarily as insulating fluid in
electrical and heat transfer equipment (Interdepartmental
Task Force 1972).311
Exposure to PCB is known to cause skin lesions (Schwartz
and Peck (1943)320 and to increase liver enzyme activity
that may have a secondary effect on reproductive processes
(Risebrough et al. 1968,317 Street et al. 1969,m Wassermann
et al. 1970325). It is not clear at this time whether the effects
are due to PCB or its contaminants, the chlorinated di-
benzofurans that are highly toxic (Bauer et a]. 1961,307
Schulz 1968,319 Verrett 1970324). It is also not known whether
the chlorinated dibenzofurans are produced by degradation
of PCB as well as during its manufacture.
The occurrence of PCB in our waters has been docu-
mented repeatedly (New Scientist 1966,316 Holmes et al.
1967,310 Risebrough et al. 1968,317 Jensen et al. 1969,312
Koeman et al. 1969,313 Schmidt et al. 1971,318 Veith and
Lee 1971323). They have been associated with sewage
effluents (Holden 1970,3M Schmidt et al. 1971318) and rain-
water (Tarrant and Tatton 1968),322 as well as releases and
leakage. Failures of closed systems using PCB have caused
some of the more well known releases (Kuratsune et al.
1969,314 Duke et al. 1970308). It has been reported that the
defined treatment process does little or nothing to remove
PCB (Ahling and Jensen 1970).306
An epidemiological study on severe poisoning by rice oil
contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls in 1968 indi-
cated that about 0.5 grams ingested over a period of ap-
proximately one month was sufficient to cause the Yusho
disease. Many of those affected showed no signs of relief
after about three years (Kuratsune et al. 1969).314 Price
and Welch (1971)316 have estimated on the basis of 194
samples that 41 to 45 per cent of the general population of
the U.S. may have PCB levels of 1.0 mg/kg or higher
(wet weight) in adipose tissue. Therefore, it appears that
PCB may accumulate in the body. On this basis it can be
calculated that a daily intake of 0.02 mg would require
about 70 years to be toxic. Applying a factor of safety of
10 would permit a daily intake of 0.002 mg, and assuming
a two liter per day intake, suggests a permissible concen-
tration in water to be 0.001 mg/1.
However, evaluation of the retention and accumulation
of PCB from water instead of oil in humans is highly desir-
able. A study on rats with a single oral dose of 170 mg/kg
showed urinary excretion (of PCB) to be limited, while
70 per cent of the dose was found in the feces during an
eight week period (Yoshimura et al. 1971).326 Information
on PCB in the diet would also be helpful.
Conclusion
Because too little is known about the levels in
waters, the retention and accumulation in hu-
mans, and the effects of very low rates of ingestion,
no defensible recommendation can be made at this
time.
83
-------
RADIOACTIVITY
The effects of radiation on human beings are viewed as
harmful, and any unnecessary exposure to radiation should
be avoided. The U.S. Federal Radiation Council* (1961a)329
provided guidance for federal agencies to limit exposure of
individuals to radiation from radioactive materials in the
environment. The following statement by the U.S. Federal
Radiation Council (I960)328 is considered especially perti-
nent in applying the recommendations of this report:
There can be no single permissible or acceptable level
of exposure without regard to the reason for permitting
the exposure. It should be general practice to reduce
exposure to radiation, and positive effort should be
carried out to fulfill the sense of these recommen-
dations. It is basic that exposure to radiation should
result from a real determination of its necessity.
The U.S. Federal Radiation Council criteria (I960,328
196la329) have been used in establishing the limits for radio-
activity recommended here. It should be noted that these
guidelines apply to normal peacetime operations. They are
predicated upon three ranges of daily intake of radio-
activity as seen in Table 11-5.
The recommended radionuclide intake derives from the
sum of radioactivity from air, food, and water. Daily
intakes were prescribed with the provision that dose rates
be averaged over a period of one year. The range for
specific radionuclides recommended by the U.S. Federal
Radiation Council (1961b)330 are shown in the following
tables:
TABLE II-5—Ranges of Transient Rates of Intake (pd/day)
for use in Graded Scale of Action*
TABLE II-6—Graded Scale of Action
Ranee I
Range II
Ranie HI
Radium-226
lodine-131b
Strontium-90 . .
Strontium-89
0-2
0-10
0-20
0-200
2-20
10-100
20-200
200-2000
20-200
100-1000
200-2000
2000-20,000
» See Table 11-6.
b In the case of iodine-131, the suitable sample would include only small children. For adults, the radiation protec-
tion guide for the thyroid would not be exceeded by rates of intarin higher by a factor of 10 than those applicable
to small children.
Ranges of transient rates of daily intake
Range I .
Range II.
Range III
Graded scale of action
. Periodic confirmatory surveillance as necessary
. Quantitative surveillance and routine control
Evaluation and application of additional control measures as nee
ary
* The functions of the U.S. Federal Radiation Council have been
transferred to EPA, Office of Radiation Programs.
For each range, a measure of control was defined, whic
represented a graded scale of control procedures.
The U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1961b)330 furtht
defined the action to be taken by stating that "Routir
control of useful applications of radiation and atom
energy should be such that expected average exposures (
suitable samples of an exposed population group will nr.
exceed the upper value of Range II." Furthermore, the
recommended, with respect to Range III, that "Contn
actions would be designed to reduce the levels to Range I
or lower, and to provide staoiJity at lower levels."
It has not been considered necessary to prescribe criteri
for iodine-131 or strontiurn-89 for surface waters. Iodine-13
has never been a problem in water supplies and does nc
appear likely to be, and strontium-89 levels should not 1;
significant if strontium-90 levels are kept satisfactorily lov
Using the midpoint of Range I, Table II-5, for transier
rates of intake recommended by the U.S. Federal Radiatio
Council, and assuming a 2 liter per day consumption, th
radium-226 limit is 0.5 Pc/day and strontium-90 limit
5 Pc/day. These levels are not currently being exceeded i
any surface water supply in the United States, although
number of ground water supplies have more than 0.5 pCi/
of radium-226.
Because tritium (hydrogen-3) may be discharged fror
nuclear power reactors and fuel reprocessing plants, an
because it would not be detected in normal analysis c
water samples, it has been considered desirable to includ
a limit on this low energy radionuclide. The Federal Radi
ation Council has not provided guidance on tritium intake
A tentative limit of 3,000 pCi/1 of tritium has been propose*
for the revised edition of Drinking Water Standards. Thi
relatively conservative limit has been suggested because c
84
-------
Radio'activity /85
uncertainty in the potential genetic effects of tritium in-
corporated into body tissues as tritiated water. It is a
generally attainable level based on data from the Environ-
mental Protection Agency Tritium Surveillance System.
These data indicate that of 70 United States cities surveyed
in 1970, none had an'annual average tritium activity in
tap water exceeding 3,000 pCi/1, the highest annual average
value being 1,900 pCi/1. Levels in surface water collected
downstream from nuclear facilities showed only two of 34
locations having tritium activity exceeding 3,000 pCi/1.
Precipitation samples taken during 1970 at locations within
the United States indicated less than 700 pCi/1.
Although a large number of other radionuclides may be
present in water, it has not been considered necessary to
include specific limits for other than the three mentioned
above. If other nuclides are likely to be present, it is recom-
mended that permissible limits be held to 1/150 of the limit
for continuous occupational exposure set by the Inter-
national Commission on Radiological Protection (I960).327
Gross radioactivity limits provide screening techniques
and guides to an increased level of radiochemical analysis.
If the gross alpha and gross beta concentrations in a sample
are less than certain minimum concentrations, no additional
radiochemical or radiophysical analyses are required.
Gross Alpha Radioactivity Gross alpha limits or
investigation levels are keyed to the concentration limit for
radium-226 (the alpha emitter with the most restrictive
intake limit). A typical scheme is the following:
TABLE 11-7—Typical Scheme of Gross Alpha Concentration
TABLE II-8—Gross Beta Radioactivity to Strontium-90 and
Isotopes of Radioiodine
Gross Alpha concentration (pCi/1)
Required action
(a) Not exceeding 0.5 pCi/1 None
(b) Greater than 0.5 but not exceeding 5 pCi/1 Radiochemical analysis for radium-226
(c) Greater than 5 pCi/1 Comprehensive radiochemical anaylsis
Gross Beta Radioactivity Two beta emitting radio-
nuclides with the most restrictive maximum permissible
concentrations are lead-210 and radium-228. However,
since it is extremely unlikely that either radionuclide will
Gross Beta concentration excluding Potassium-40
Required action
(a) Not greater toi 5 pCi I
(b) Greater than 5, but less than 50 pCi/1
(c) Greater than 50 pCi/1. .
. None (with knowledge that lead-210 and radium-228
are essentially absent)
. Analyses for strontium-90, iodine-) 29, and iodine-131
Comprehensive radiochemical analysis
ever be present in a significant concentration in a raw
water source, the investigation levels for gross beta radio-
activity are keyed to strontium-90 and isotopes of radio-
iodine.
The radionuclide concentration limits proposed in the
above tables should not be considered as absolute maxima
that, if exceeded, constitute grounds for rejection of a
drinking water supply source. Instead, the concentration
limits should be considered guidelines that should not be
exceeded unless there is good reason. The constraints that
should be imposed are based on: (1) a determination by the
appropriate regulatory agencies that the higher level of
radioactivity is as low as can be practicably achieved, and
(2) quantitative surveillance of all intake pathways to
demonstrate that total dose to a suitable sample of the
exposed population is within Radiation Protection Guide-
lines levels. To permit variances in radionuclide concen-
trations in water depending on concentrations in other
environmental media and dietary habits is consistent with
the guidance and recommendations of the U.S. Federal
Radiation Council, the National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurement, and the International Com-
mission on Radiological Protection.
Recommendation
Because the defined treatment process has un-
certain effects on the removal of soluble radio-
nuclides and because of the effects of radiation on
humans, it is recommended that the limits related
to the guidelines presented above be accepted in
the context of the discussion for application to
sources of public water supply.
-------
SELENIUM
The toxicity of selenium resembles that of arsenic and
can, if exposure is sufficient, cause death. Acute selenium
toxicity is characterized by nervousness, vomiting, cough,
dyspnea, convulsions, abdominal pain, diarrhea, hypo-
tension, and respiratory failure. Chronic exposure leads to
marked pallor, red staining of fingers, teeth and hair,
debility, depression, epistaxis, gastrointestinal disturbances,
dermatitis, and irritation of the nose and throat. Both
acute and chronic exposure can cause odor on the breath
similar to garlic (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs
1968).836 The only documented case of selenium toxicity
from a water source, uncomplicated with selenium in the
diet, concerned a three-month exposure to well water con-
taining 9 mg/1 (Beath 1962).331
Although previous evidence suggested that selenium was
carcinogenic (Fitzhugh et al. 1944),332 these observations
have not been borne out by subsequent data (Volganev
and Tschenkes 1967).346 In recent years, selenium has
become recognized as a dietary essential in a number of
species (Schwarz I960,341 Nesheim and Scott 1961,338 Old-
field et al. 1963339).
Elemental selenium is highly insoluble and requires oxi-
dation to selenite or selenate before appreciable quantities
appear in water (Lakin and Davidson 1967).335 There is
evidence that this reaction is catalyzed by certain soil
bacteria (Olson 1967).340
No systematic investigation of the forms of selenium in
excessive concentrations in drinking water sources has been
carried out. However, from what is known of the solubilities
of the various compounds of selenium, the principal in-
organic compounds of selenium would be selenite and
selenate. The ratio of their individual occurrences would
depend primarily on pH. Organic forms of selenium oc-
curred in seleniferous soils and had sufficient mobility in
an aqueous environment to be preferentially absorbed over
selenate in certain plants (Hamilton and Beath 1964).334
However, the extent to which these compounds might occi
in source waters is essentially unknown. Toxicologic exam
nation of plant sources of selenium revealed that seleniui
present in seleniferous grains was more toxic than inorgani
selenium added to the diet (Franke and Potter 1935).333
Intake of selenium from foods in seleniferous areas (Smit
1941),342 may range from 600 to 6,340 jug/day, which ap
proach estimated levels related to symptoms of seleniur
toxicity in man based on urine samples (Smith et a
1936,343 Smith and Westfall 1937344). If data on seleniur
in foods (Morris and Levander 1970)337 are applied to th
average consumption of foods (U.S. Department of Agri
culture, Agriculture Research Service, Consumer and Fooi
Economics Research Division 1967),345 the normal dietar
intake of selenium is about 200 fig/day.
If it is assumed that two liters of water are ingested pe
day, a 0.01 mg/1 concentration of total selenium wouL
increase the normal total dietary intake by 10 per cen
(20 jug/day). Considering the range of selenium in fooi
associated with symptoms of toxicity in man, this woulc
provide a safety factor of from 2.7 to 29. A serious weaknes
in these calculations is that their validity depends on ai
assumption of equivalent toxicity of selenium in food an<
water, in spite of the fact that a considerable portion c
selenium associated with plants is in an organic form
Adequate toxicological data that specifically examine th
organic and the inorganic selenium compounds are no
available.
Recommendation
Because the defined treatment process has litth
or no effect on removing selenium, and because
there is a lack of data on its toxic effects on human!
when ingested in water, it is recommended that
public water supply sources contain no more than
0.01 mg/1 selenium.
86
-------
SILVER
Silver is a rather rare element with a low solubility of
0.1 to 10 mg/1 depending upon pH and chloride concen-
tration (Hem 1970).348 Data from 1,577 samples collected
from 130 sampling points in the United States showed
detectable (0.1 /ig/1) concentrations in 104 samples ranging
from 1.0 to 38 /ug/1 with a median of 2.6 jug/1 (Kopp
1969).3S2
The principal effect of silver in the body is cosmetic. It
causes a permanent grey discoloration of skin, eyes, and
mucous membranes. The amounts of colloidal silver re-
quired to produce this condition (argyria, argyrosis), which
would serve as a basis for determining the water standard,
are not known; but the amount of silver from injected
agarsphenamine that produces argyria is any amount
greater than one gram of silver in the adult (Hill and
Pillsbury 1939,349 1957360). It is also reported that silver,
once absorbed, is held indefinitely in the tissues (Aub and
Fairhall 1942).347
A study that provided analyses of samples of human
tissues from 30 normal adult males showed three to contain
silver in minute amounts. Comparison of the mean daily
concentrations of silver in successive daily samples of urine,
feces, and food (0.088 mg/day) showed essentially no ab-
sorption of the intake from food (Kehoe et al. 1940b).351
Studies of the metabolism of silver in the rat showed only
about 2 per cent of the element entered the blood from the
gastrointestinal tract and that the biological half life was
about 3 days (Scott 1949).363 However, this work was done
with carrier free silver and may not be representative of the
behavior of larger amounts of element. It does suggest,
however, that ingested silver is not likely to be completely
stored in the body.
Conclusion
Because silver in waters is rarely detected at
levels above 1 /ug/1, a limit is not recommended for
public water supply sources.
87
-------
SODIUM
Sodium salts are ubiquitous in the water environment.
These minerals are highly soluble, and their concentrations
in natural waters show considerable variation, regionally
and locally. In addition to natural sources of sodium salts,
other sources are sewage, industrial effluents, and deicing
salts. Sodium concentrations in ground waters may also
vary with well depth, and often reach higher levels of
concentration than in surface waters. Removal of sodium
is costly and is not common in public water supply treat-
ment.
Of the 100 largest public water supplies in the U.S., most
of which are surface supplies, the median sodium content
was 12 mg/1 with a range of 1.1 mg/1 to 177 mg/1 (Durfor
and Becker 1964).365 For a healthy individual, the intake
of sodium is discretionary and influenced by food selection
and seasoning. The intake of sodium may average 6 g/day
without adverse effects on health (Dahl I960).354
Various restricted sodium intakes are recommended by
physicians for a significant portion of the population, in-
cluding persons suffering from hypertension, edema associ-
ated with congestive cardiac failure, and women with
toxemias of pregnancy (National Research Council, Food
and Nutrition Board 1954).386 The sodium intake from
sources other than water recommended for very restricted
diets is 500 mg/day. Diets for these individuals permit
20 mg/1 sodium in drinking water and water used for
cooking. If the public water supply has a sodium content
exceeding this limit, persons on a very restricted sodium
diet must use distilled or deionized water.
For a larger portion of the population who use a moder-
ately restricted diet, 1,000 mg/day is the recommended
sodium intake limit (National Research Council, Food and
Nutrition Board 1954).356 Under this limit, water containir
a higher concentration of sodium could be used if tt
sodium intake from the sources other than water were n<
increased above that of the very restricted diet, Then, tf
daily intake of sodium from water (20 mg/1 for very n
stricted diets) could be increased by the additional 500 m
(250 mg/1) intake permitted in the moderately restricte
diet, thus allowing a significant portion of the populatio
to use public water supplies with higher sodium concer
trations. On this basis water containing more than 270 mg,
sodium should not be used for drinking water by thos
using the moderately restricted sodium diet, and wate
containing more than 20 mg/l sodium should not be use
by those using the very restricted sodium diet.
The response of people who should restrict their sodiur
intake for health reasons is a continuum varying wit
intake. The allocation of the difference in dietary intak
allowed by the very restricted and the moderately restricts
diets to drinking water would be an arbitrary decision
Furthermore, waters containing high concentrations c
sodium (greater than 270 mg/1) are likely to be too high]-
mineralized to be considered desirable from aesthetic stand
points aside from health considerations.
Treatment of an entire public water supply to remov
sodium is quite costly. Home treatment for drinking wate
alone for those needing low sodium water can be done a
relatively modest cost, or low sodium content bottled wate
can be used.
Recommendation
In view of the above discussion no limit is recom-
mended for sodium.
88
-------
SULFATE
The public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the
United States were found to contain a median sulfate con-
centration of 26 rng/1, and a maximum of 572 mg/1 (Durfor
and Becker 1964).387 Greater concentrations were present
in many ground water supplies for smaller communities
in the Midwest (Larson 1963).358 Sulfate ions in drinking
water can have a cathartic effect on occasional users, but
acclimatization is rapid. If two liters of water are ingested
per day, the equivalent sulfate concentrations for laxative
doses of Glauber salt and Epsom salt are 300 mg/1 and
390 mg/1, respectively (Peterson 1951,361 Moore 1952360).
Data collected by the North Dakota State Department
of Health on laxative effects of mineral quality in water
indicated that more than 750 mg/1 sulfate had a laxative
effect, and less than 600 mg/1 did not (Peterson 1951).361
If the water was high in magnesium, the effect took place
at lower sulfate concentrations than if other cations were
dominant. A subsequent interpretation showed that laxative
effects were experienced by sensitive persons not accustomed
to the water when magnesium was about 200 mg/1, and
by the average person when magnesium was 500-1000 mg/1
(Moore 1952).360
The median of sulfate concentrations detected by taste
by a panel of 10 to 20 persons was 237, 370, and 419 mg/1
for sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts, respectively
(Whipple 1907).362 Coffee brewed with 400 mg/1 sulfate
added as magnesium sulfate was affected in taste (Lockhart
et al. 1955).859
Recommendation
On the basis of taste and laxative effects and
because the defined treatment process does not
remove sulfates, it is recommended that sulfate
in public water supply sources not exceed 250 mg/1
where sources with lower sulfate concentrations
are or can be made available.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature affects the palatibility of water by intensi-
fying taste and odor through increased volatility of the
source compound (Burnson 1938).366 Any increase in tem-
perature may stimulate growth of taste and odor producing
organisms (Kofoid 1923,372 Thompson 1944,378 Silvey et al.
1950377) but tends to decrease the survival time of infectious,
organisms (Peretz and Medvinskaya 1946,376 Rudolfs et al.
1950376). The standard treatment process is also affected
by temperature or temperature changes in the steps of
coagulation (Velz 1934,379 Maulding and Harris 1968,373
American Water Works Association 1971363), sedimentation
(Camp et al. 1940,36S Hannah et al. 1967370), filtration
(Hannah et al. 1967370), and chlorination (Ames and Smith
1944,3M Butterfield and Wattie 1946367).
Temperature changes usually are caused by using water
as a coolant, as a carrier of wastes, or for irrigation
(Brashears, Jr. 1946,366 Moore 1958,374 Eldridge I960,369
Hoak 1961371). Surface water temperatures vary with the
seasons, geographical location, and climatic conditions. The
same factors along with geological conditions affect ground
water temperatures.
Recommendation
No temperature change that detracts from the
potability of public water supplies and no temper-
ature change that adversely affects the standard
treatment process are suggested guidelines for
temperature in public water supply sources.
89
-------
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
(Filterable Residue)
High total dissolved solids (TDS) are objectionable be-
cause of possible physiological effects, mineral taste, and
economic consequences. Limited research (Bruvold 1967380)
indicated that consumer acceptance of mineralized waters
decreased in direct proportion to increased mineralization.
This study covered a range of TDS values of 100 to 1,200
mg/1; one at 2,300 mg/1 TDS. For high levels of minerali-
zation, there may also be a laxative effect, particularly
upon transients. High concentrations of mineral salts, par-
ticularly sulfate and chloride, are also associated with costly
corrosion damage in water systems (Patterson and Banker
1968381).
Because of the wide range of mineralization of natural
water, it is not possible to establish a single limiting value.
The measurement of specific conductance provides an indi-
cation of the amount of TDS present. The relationship of
specific conductance to TDS will vary depending upon the
distribution of the major constituent elements present. For
any given water a relatively uniform relationship will exist.
Where sufficient data exist to establish a correlation between
the two measurements, specific conductance may be use
as a substitute for the TDS measurement. In very gener
terms, a specific conductance of 1,500 micro-rnhos is aj
proximately equivalent to 1,000 mg/1 TDS (Standai
Methods 1971).383
Because drinking water containing a high concentratic
of TDS is likely to contain an excessive concentration i
some specific substance thai: would be aesthetically objei
tionable to the consumer, the 1962 Drinking Water Stanc
ards (PHS 1962)382 included a limit for TDS of 500 mg/
if other less mineralized sources were available. Althoug
waters of higher concentrations are not generally desirabli
it is recognized that a considerable number of supplit
with dissolved solids in excess of the 500 mg/1 limit are use
without any obvious ill effects. Therefore, instead of recorr
mending a general dissolved solids limit, specific recommer
dations are made in this report for individual substances (
importance in drinking water sources, such as chloride an
sulfate.
TURBIDITY
The recommendation for acceptable levels of turbidity
in water must relate to the capacity of the water treatment
plant to remove turbidity adequately and continuously at
reasonable cost. Water treatment plants are designed to
remove the kind and quantity of turbidity to be expected
in each water supply source. Turbidity can reduce the
effectiveness of chlorination by physically protecting micro-
organisms from direct contact with the disinfectant (Sander-
son and Kelly 1964,384 Tracy et al. 1966).386
Customary methods (Standard Methods 1971)385 for
measuring and reporting turbidity do not adequately
measure those characteristics harmful to public water supply
and water treatment processing. A water with 30 turbidity
units may coagulate more rapidly than one with 5 or 10
units. Conversely, water with 30 turbidity units sometimes
may be more difficult to coagulate than water with 100
units. The type of plankton, clay, or earth particles, their
size, and electrical charges, are more important determinin
factors than the turbidity units. Sometimes clay added t
very low turbidity water will improve coagulation.
Turbidity in water should be readily removable b
coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration; it should not b
present to an extent that will overload the water treatmen
plant facilities; and it should not cause unreasonable treat
ment costs. In addition, turbidity should not frequent!'
change or vary in characteristics to the extent that sue!
changes cause upsets in water treatment plant processes.
Conclusion
No recommendation is made, because it is no
possible to establish a turbidity recommendatioi
in terms of turbidity units; nor can a turbidity
recommendation be expressed in terms of mg/
"undissolved solids" or "nonfilterable solids."
90
-------
URANYL ION
The 1968 edition of Water Quality Criteria (FWPCA
1968)387 included a limit for uranyl ion (UO2++) of 5mg/l,
because a 1965 Public Health Service Drinking Water
Standards Review Committee had tentatively decided to
include it in the next revision of the Drinking Water Stand-
ards. This value was selected because it is below the ob-
jectionable taste and appearance levels as well as the
chemically toxic concentration.
Further investigation of raw water quality data indicated
that uranium does not occur naturally in most waters
above a few micrograms per liter (U.S. Geological Survey
1969,388 EPA office memorandum 1971389).
Recommendation
The taste, color, and gross alpha recommen-
dations will restrict the uranium concentration to
levels below those objectionable on the basis of
toxicity. For these reasons, no specific limit is pro-
posed for uranyl ion.
VIRUSES
Many types of viruses are excreted in the wastes of
humans and animals (Berg 1971392), and some have been
implicated in diseases (Berg 1967391). There are'viruses that
alternate between animal hosts (Kalter 1967)403 and those
that can infect genetically distant hosts (Maramorosch
1967).407 Because almost any virus can be transmitted from
host to host through water (Mosley 1967),409 any amount
of virus detectable by appropriate techniques in surface
water supplies constitutes a hazard (Berg 1967).391
While it is believed that all human enteric viruses have
the potential to cause illness in man, not all have been
etiologically associated with clinical illness. A number of
waterborne local outbreaks attributed to virus affecting
approximately 800 people have occurred in the United
States, but no obvious large scale spread of a viral disease
by the water route is known to have occurred (Mosely
1967).409 Although virus transmission by water has been
suggested for poliomyelitis, gastroenteritis, and diarrhea,
the most convincing documentation exists for infectious
hepatitis (Mosley 1967).409 Twelve outbreaks of infectious
hepatitis have been attributed to contaminated drinking
water in the United States between 1895 and 1971, and
most of these have been linked to private systems.
Berg (1971)392 suggests that waterborne viral disease need
not occur at the epidemic level in order to be of significance.
Small numbers of virus units could produce infection with-
out causing overt disease, and infected individuals could
then serve as sources of larger amounts of virus.
The interpretation of virus data presents other problems
in addition to those posed by epidemiological evaluation.
There is evidence that one virulent virus unit can be suffi-
cient to infect man if it contacts susceptible cells (Plotkin
and Katz 1967),411 but in an intact host, this is complicated
by various defenses (Beard 1967).390 The interpretation of
data is further complicated by aberrations in survival curves
for virus thought to be caused by clumping. The statistical
treatment of virus data has been discussed by Berg et al.
(1967),393 Chang (1967,395 1968396), Clark and Niehaus
(1967),399 Sharp \1967),412 and Berg (1971).392
The route of enteric viral contamination of surface waters
is from human feces through the effluents of sewage treat-
ment plants as well as contamination from raw sewage.
Enteric virus densities in human feces have been estimated
by calculation and sampling. Clarke and his associates
(1962)400 suggested that human feces contained approxi-
mately 200 virus units per gram per capita and 12X106
coliform bacteria per gram per capita, or 15 enteric virus
units per 106 coliforms. Combining these calculations with
observed data, they estimated that sewage contained 500
virus units per 100 ml, and contaminated surface waters
contained less than 1 virus unit per 100 ml. These numbers
are subject to wide variation and change radically during
an epidemic.
The removal capabilities of various sewage treatment
processes have been examined individually and in series
both in the laboratory and in the field (Chin et al. 1967,398
91
-------
^I/Section II—Public Water Supplies
TABLE H-9—Average Time in Days for 99.9 Per Cent
Reduction in Original Titer of Indicated Microorganisms
at Three Temperatures
Microorganism
Clean water Moderately polluted water Sewage
28 C 20 C 4C 28 C 20 C 4C 28 C 20 C 4C
Poliovirus I . .
ECHO 7
ECH0 12 .
Coisackie A9 . .
A. aerogenes
Ecoli
S recalls
. . 17
12
5
.. . <8
. . 6
... . 6
. ... 6
20
16
12
<8
8
7
8
27
26
33
10
15
10
17
11
5
3
5
15
5
9
13
7
5
8
18
5
18
19
15
19
20
44
11
57
17
28
20
6
10
12
14
23
41
32
No data
21
20
26
110
130
60
12
56
48
48
Clarke et al. 1962<"
Clark and Niehaus 1967,399 England et al. 1967,402 Lund
and Hedstrom 1967,404 Malherbe 1967,405 Malherbe and
Strickland-Cholmley 1967,406 Berg 1971392). These studies
indicated that while some sewage treatment processes
showed virus removal potential in laboratory tests and field
evaluation, there was no indication that consistent adequate
virus removal, that is no detectable virus, was accomplished
by present sewage treatment practices (Berg 1971).392 How-
ever, the apparent limited survival time for viruses in wat<
can be affected by factors, such as temperature and adsor]
tion that protects viruses; and the proximity of water use
may make survival for only a short period of time sufficiei
to transmit virulent virus (Prier and Riley 1967).41°
Table II-9 gives virus and bacterial survival data f<
clean, moderately contaminated, and sewage water.
The removal capabilities of various water treatmei
processes are presented in Table 11-10.
Conventional water treatment processes are variable i
their virus removal efficacy and questionable in their pe
formance under field conditions (Berg 1971,392 Sproi
1972413).
Disinfection by chlorination was reviewed recently f'<
its virus inactivation efficacy (Morris 1971).408 Only undi
sociated hypochlorous acid (HOC1) was considered effecti\
in virus inactivation. Approximately 25 mg/1 chloramin
100 mg/1 hypochlorite or 0.5 to 1.0 mg/1 HOC1 wi1
30-minute contact times were required to cause adequa
viral inactivation in potable water. The amount of chlorit
required to achieve these conditions varied with the p.
and the amount of nitrogen present.
TABLE II-10—Removal of Viruses from Water and Wastewater by Biological, Physical, and Chemical Treatment Procedur
Treatment(1)
Menstruum tested (2)
Retention time, m hours ())
Virus" (4)
Virus removed, as a percentage (5)
Reference (6)
Primary setting . Primary effluent
Activate d sludge Activated sludge effluent
Carbon adsorption (0. 5 gal per min per sq ft) Trickling filter effluent
Ca(OH)= coagulation (500 mg per 1) Activated sludge effluent
AP(SCH)' coagulation (25 mg per 1) River water
Fed3 coagulation (25 mg per 1) . . . River water
3
6.0-8.4
6.0-7.5
Poliovirus 1
Coxsackievirus A9
Poliovirus 1
.PhageT-2
. Poliovirus 1
Coxsackievirus A2
Coxsackievirus A2
0-3
96-99
88-94»
35
98.5-99.9
95-99'
92-94=
Clarke etal. 1961<»i
Clarke et al. 1961'°'
Clarke et al. 1961«»
Sproul et al. 1967'"
Berg etal. UBS1"
Chang et al. 1958"'
Chang etal. 1958"'
« Added to the test experimentally.
<< When volatile solids were at least 400 mg per I.
'When good floe formation occurred.
Berg19713!«
Considerable progress on virological method development
has been made in the past decade. However, virology tech-
niques have not yet been perfected to a point where they
can be used routinely for monitoring water for viruses. There
is a need for virus data on relative numbers, better tech-
niques, relative die-off rates, and correlation with existing
indicators, as well as methods for direct determination.
Conclusion
In view of the uncertain correlation of virus oc
currence with existing Indicators, the absence e
adequate monitoring techniques, and the genera
lack of data, scientifically defensible criteria canno
be recommended at this time.
-------
ZINC
Zinc is an essential and beneficial element in human
metabolism. The activity of insulin and several body en-
zymes is dependent on zinc. The daily adult human intake
averages 10 to 15 mg; for preschool children it is 0.3 mg/kg.
(Vallee 1957).420
Zinc is a widely used metal and may be dissolved from
galvanized pipe, hot water tanks, or from yellow brass.
It may also be present in some corrosion prevention addi-
tives and in industrial wastes. The solubility of zinc is
variable, depending upon pH and alkalinity.
In 1,577 samples from 130 locations on streams between
October 1962 and September 1967, zinc was detected
(2 Mg/1) in 1,207 samples with a range of 2 to 1,183 pig/1
and a mean of 64 Mg/1 (Kopp 1969).419
Individuals drinking water containing 23.8 to 40.8 mg/1
of zinc experienced no known harmful effects. Communities
have reported using water containing 11 to 27 mg/1 of
zinc without harmful effects (Bartow and Weigle 1932,416
Anderson et al. 1934416). Another report stated that spring
water containing 50 mg/1 of zinc was used for a protracted
period without harm (Hinman, Jr. 1938418).
Statistical analysis of taste threshold tests with zinc in
distilled water showed that 5 per cent of the observers were
able to distinguish between 4.3 mg/1 zinc (added as zinc
sulfate) and water containing no zinc salts (Cohen et al.
I960417). When added as zinc nitrate and as zinc chloride,
the detection levels were 5.2 and 6.3 mg/1 zinc, respectively.
When zinc sulfate or zinc chloride was added to spring
water with 460 mg/1 dissolved solids, the detection levels
for 5 per cent of the observers were 6.8 and 8.6 mg/1 zinc,
respectively.
Recommendation
Because of consumer taste preference and be-
cause the denned treatment process may not re-
move appreciable amounts of zinc from the source
of the supply, it is recommended that the zinc
concentrations in public water supply sources not
exceed 5 mg/1.
93
-------
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8 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
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129 Frisch, N. W. and R. Kunin (1960), Organic fouling of anion-ex-
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130 Hall, E. S. and R. F. Packham (1965), Coagulation of organic
color with hydrolyzing coagulants. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
57(9): 1149-1166.
131 Hazen, A. (1892), A new color-standard for natural waters. Amer.
Chem. J. 14:300-310.
132 Hazen, A. (1896), The measurement of the colors of natural waters.
Amer. Chem. Soc. J. 18:264-275.
133Lamar, W. L. and D. F. Goerlitz (1963), Characterization of
carboxylic acids in unpolluted streams by gas chromatography.
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134 Lamar, W. L. and D. F. Goerlitz (1966), Organic acids in naturally
colored surface waters [Geological Survey water supply paper
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136 Robinson, L. R. (1963), The presence of organic matter and its
effect on iron removal in ground water. Progress report to U.S.
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136 Shapiro, J. (1964), Effect of yellow organic acids on iron and other
metals in water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 56(8): 1062-1082.
137 Singley, J. E., R. H. Harris, and J. S. Maulding (1966), Correc-
tion of color measurements to standard conditions. J. Amer.
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138 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
COPPER
139 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris, and R. L. Wood-
ward (I960), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drink-
ing water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 52:660-670.
140 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water, in
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Environmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University of
Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73.
141 Sollmann, T. H. (1957), A manual of pharmacology and its applications
to therapeutics and toxicology, 8th ed. (W. B. Saunders Co., Phila-
delphia), pp. 665-667.
142 Uhlig, H. H. (1963), Corrosion and corrosion control (John Wiley &
Sons, New York), p. 296.
CYANIDE
143Bodansky, M. and M. D. Levy (1923), Studies on the detoxifica-
tion of cyanids. I. Some factors influencing the detoxification of
cyanids in health and disease. Arch. Int. Med. 31:373—389.
144 The Merck index of chemicals and drugs, 8th ed. (1968), (Merck & Co.,
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145 Smith, O. M. (1944), The detection of poisons in public water
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147 Stokinger, H. E. and R. L. Woodward (1958), Toxicologic methods
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148 World Health Organization (1963), International standards for drink-
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149 World Health Organization (1970), European standards for drinking-
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FLUORIDE
160 Dean, H. T. (1936), Chronic endemic dental fluorosis (mottled
enamel). J. Amer. Med. Ass. 107:1269-1273.
161 Galagan, D. J. (1953), Climate and controlled fluoridation. J.
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162 Galagan, D. J. and G. G. Lamson (1953), Climate and endemic
dental fluorosis. Pub. Health Rep. 68(5):497-508.
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98/'Section II—Public Water Supplies
161 Galagan, D. J., J. R, Vermillion, G. A. Nevitt, Z. M. Stadt, and
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166 Heyroth, F. F. (1952), Toxicological evidence for the safety of
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166 Leone, N. C., M. B. Shimkin, F. A. Arnold, C. A. Stevenson, E. R..
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160 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public
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FOAMING AGENTS
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year feeding and reproduction study in rats with linear alkyl-
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of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
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HARDNESS
163 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and treat-
ment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p.
164 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1958), The effects of temperature
and hardness of water upon the toxicity of zinc to the pond snail,
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166 Crawford, M. D., M. J. Gardner, J. N. Morris (1968), Mortality
and hardness of local water-supplies. Lancet 1:827-831.
166 Crawford, T. and M. D. Crawford (1967), Prevalence and patho-
logical changes of ischaemic heart-disease in a hard-water and
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167DeBoer, L. M. and T. E. Larson (1961), Water hardness and
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168 Jones, J. R. E. (1938), The relative toxicity of salts of lead, zinc
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189 Masironi, R. (1969), Trace elements and cardiovascular diseases;.
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170 Mount, D. I. (1966), The effect of total hardness and pH on acute
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171 Muss, D. L. (1962), Relation between water quality and deaths
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172 Voors, A. W. (1971), Minerals in the municipal water and athero-
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IRON
173 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and
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176Hazen, A. (1895), Filtration of public water-supplies (John Wiley
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178Riddick, T. M., N. L. Lindsay, and A. Tomassi (1958), Iron a
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LEAD
179 Byers, R. K. (1959), Lead poisoning; review of the literature a
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180 Chisholm, J. J., Jr. (1964), Disturbances in the biosynthesis
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181 Crawford, M. D. and J. N. Morris (1967), Lead in drinking wat
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186 Kehoe, R. A. (1960b), The metabolism of lead in man in hea
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186 Kehoe, R. A., J. Cholak, D. M. Hubbard, K. Bambach, R.
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187 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water
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188 McCabe, L. J., J. M. Symons, R. D. Lee and G. G. Robeck (197i
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192 Schroeder, H. A. and J. J. B.ilassa (1961), Abnormal trace mcl
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MANGANESE
193 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality r,
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194 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphate, E. K. Harris and R. L. Woodwa
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196 Griffin, A. E. (1960), Significance and removal of manganese
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688-696.
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and pesticides. Journal of the American Water Works Associati
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280 Stein, A. A., D. M. Serrone, and F. Coulston (1965), Safety evalua-
tion of methoxychlor in human volunteers; [Abstract of a paper
for the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Society of Toxicology,
1965]. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 7:499.
281Tarjan, R. and T. Kemeny (1969), Multigeneration studies on
DDT in mice. Ed. Cosmet. Toxicol. 7:215.
282Treon, J. F. and F. P. Cleveland (1955), Toxicity of certain
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides for laboratory animals, with
special reference to aldrin and dieldrin. J. Agr. Food. Chem. 3(5):
402-408.
283Treon, J. F., F. P. Cleveland, and J. Cappel (1955), Toxicity of
endrin for laboratory animals. J. Agr. Food Chem. 3:842-848.
284 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1969), Re-
port of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Relationship to
Environmental Health (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C.), 677 p.
286 Williams, M. W., J. W. Cook, J. R. Blake, P. S. Jorgensen, J. P.
Frawley, J. A. Rider, H. C. Moeller, J. Swader, and R. W.
Weilcrstein (1958), The effect of parathion on human red blood
cell and plasma cholinesterase. Arch. Indust. Health 18(5):441-445.
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Ohio.
287 Food and Drug Administration, Unpublished data, NIEHS, Raleigh,
North Carolina.
288 Kraus, E. J. (1946), [unpublished results] cited by J. W. Mitchell,
R. E. Hodgson, and C. F. Gaetjens (1946), Tolerance of farm
animals to feed containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. J.
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PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
289 Aly, O. M. and M. A. El-Dib (1971), Photodecomposition of some
carbamate insecticides in aquatic environments, in Organic com-
pounds in aquatic environments, S. D. Faust and J. Hunter, eds.
(Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York), pp. 469-493.
290 Burttschell, R. H., A. A. Rosen, F. M. Middleton, and M. B.
Ettinger (1959), Chlorine derivatives of phenol causing taste and
odor. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 51(2):205-214.
291 Christman, R. F. and M. Ghassemi (1966), Chemical nature of
organic color in water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58(6):723-741.
292 Faust, S. D. and P. W. Anderson (1968), Factors influencing con-
densation of 4-aminoantipyrine with derivatives of hydroxy-
benzene-3. Water Res. 2(7):515-525.
293 Faust, S. D., H. Stutz, O. M. Aly, and P. W. Anderson (1971),
Recovery, separation and identification of phenolic compounds from pol-
luted waters (New Jersey Water Resources Research Institute,
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294Frear, D. E. H. (1969), Pesticide index, 4th ed. (College Science
Publishers, State College, Pennsylvania), 399 p.
M6Gomaa, H. M. and S. D. Faust (1971), Thermodynamic stability
of selected organic pesticides in aquatic environments, in Organic
compounds in aquatic environments, S. D. Faust and J. Hunter, eds.
(Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York), pp. 341-376.
286 Hunter, J. V. (1971), Origin of organics from artificial contamina-
tion, in Organic compounds in aquatic environments, S. D. Faust and
J. Hunter, eds. (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York), pp. 51-94.
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phenol-chlorophenolic tastes and odors. Air Water Pollut. 6:419-
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the Interior. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Special
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fice, Washington, D. C.), 487 p.
299 Pinchot, G. B. (1967), The mechanism of uncoupling of oxidative
phosphorylation by 2,4-dinitrophenol. J. Biol. Chem. 242:4577-
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300 Rosen, A. A., J. B. Peter, and F. M. Middleton (1962), Odor
thresholds of mixed organic chemicals. J. Water Pollut. Contr.
Fed. 34(1):7-14.
301 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
PHOSPHATE
302 Gunnerson, C. B. (1966), An atlas of water pollution surveillance
in the U.S., October 1, 1957 to September 30, 1965. Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio, p. 78.
303 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior (Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 234 p.
PLANKTON
304Silvey, J. K., D. E. Henley, and J. T. Wyatt (1972), Planktonic
blue-gree algae: growth and odor-production studies. J. Amer.
Water Works Ass. 64(l):35-39.
305 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB)
306Ahling, B. and S. Jensen (1970), Reversed liquid—liquid parti-
tion in determination of polychloriated biphenyl (PCB) and
chlorinated pesticides in water. Anal. Chem. 42(13): 1483-1486.
307 Bauer, H., K. H. Schulz, and U. Spiegelberg (1961), [Occupa-
tional poisonings in the production of chlorophenol compounds. ]
Arch Gewerbepath. 18:538-555.
308 Duke, T. W., J. I. Lowe, and A. J. Wilson (1970) A polychlori-
nated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254) in the water, sediment, and biota
of Escambia Bay, Florida. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5(2):
171-180.
309 Holden, W. S., ed. (1970), Water treatment and examination, 8th ed.
(Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Maryland), p. 178.
310 Holmes, D. C., J. H. Simmons, J. O'G. Tatton (1967), Chlori-
nated hydrocarbons in British wildlife. Nature 216:227-229.
311 Interdepartmental Task Force on PCB (1972), Polychlorinated
Biphenyls in the Environment. U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D. C., National Technical Information Service, Spring-
field, Va. COM-72-10419.
312 Jensen, S., A. G. Johnels, M. Olsson, and G. Otterlind (1969),
DDT and PCB in marine animals from Swedish waters. Nature
224:247-250.
313 Koeman, J. H., M. C. Ten Noever de Brauw, and R. H. DeVos
(1969), Chlorinated biphenyls in fish, mussels and birds from
the River Rhine and the Netherlands coastal area. Nature 221:
1126-1128.
*14 Kuratsune, M., Y. Morikawa, T. Hirohata, M. Nishizumi, S.
Kohchi, T. Yoshimura, J. Matsuzaka, A. Yamaguchi, N. Saruta,
N. Ishinishi, E. Kunitake, O. Shimono, K. Takigawa, K. Oki,
-------
\02/Section II—Public Water Supplies
M. Sonoda, T. Ueda, and M. Ogata (1969), An epidemiologic
study on "Yusho" or chlorobiphenyls poisoning. Fukuoaka Ada
Med. 60(6):513-532.
816 New Scientist (1966), Report of a new chemical hazard. 32:612.
316 Price, H. A. and R. L. Welch (1972), Occurrence of polychlori-
nated biphenyls in humans. Environmental Health Perspectives (In
press).
317 Risebrough, R. W., P. Rieche, D. P. Peakall, S. G. Herman, and
M. N. Kirven (1968), Polychlorinated biphenyls in the global
ecosystem. Nature 220: 1098-1102.
318 Schmidt, T. T., R. W. Risebrough, and F. Gress (1971), Input of
polychlorinated biphenyls into California coastal waters from
urban sewage outfalls. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6(3):235-
243.
319Schulz, K. H. (1968), Clinical picture and etiology of chloracne.
Arbeitsmed. Sozialmed. Arbeitshyg. 3(2) :25—29. Reprinted in trans-
lation in U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce,
Effects of 2,4,5-T on man and the environment: hearings, 91st Cong.,
2nd sess., pp. 336-341.
320 Schwartz, L. and S. M. Peck (1943), Occupational acne. New
Tork State}. Med. 43:1711-1718.
321 Street, J. C., F. M. Urry, D. J. Wagstaff, and A. D. Blau (1968),
Comparative effects of polychlorinated biphenyls and organo-
chlorine pesticides in induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes.
American Chemical Society, 158th National meeting, Sept. 8-12,
1968.
^Tarrant, K. R. and J. O'G. Tatton (1968), Organochlorine pesti-
cides in rainwater in the British Isles. Nature 219:725-727.
323 Veith, G. D. and G. F. Lee (1971), Chlorobiphenyls (PCBs) in the
Milwaukee River. Water Res. 5:1107-1115.
324 Verrett, J. (1970), Statement [and supporting material], in U.S.,
Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce, Effects of 2,4,5-T
on the man and the environment: hearings, 91st Cong., 2nd sess., pp.
190-360.
325 Wasserrnann, M., D. Wassermann, I. Aronovski, I. Ivriani, and
D. Rosenfeld (1970), The effect of organochlorine insecticides on
serum colesterol level in people occupational!/ exposed. Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5(4):368-372.
326 Yoshimura, H., H. Yamamoto, J. Nagai, Y. Yae, H. Uzawa, Y.
Ito, A. Notomi, S. Minakami, A. Ito, K. Kato, and H. Tsuji
(1971), Studies on the tissue distribution and the urinary and
fecal excretion of 3H-kanechlor (chlorobiphenyls) in rats. Fukuoka
Ada Med. 62(1):12-19.
RADIOACTIVITY
327 International Commission on Radiological Protection (1960), Re-
port on permissible dose for internal radiation (1959); recommendations
of Committee 2 (Pergamon Press, Inc., New York), 233 p.
328 U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1960), Radiation protection
guidance for federal agencies: memorandum for the President,
May 13, 1960. Fed. Reg. 25(97): 4402-4403.
329 U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1961a), Radiation protection
guidance for federal agencies: memorandum for the President,
September 13, 1961. Fed. Reg. 26(185):9057-9058.
330 U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1961b), Background material for
the development of radiation protection standards, staff report. Septem-
ber, 1961 (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.),
19 p.
SELENIUM
331Beath, O. A. (1962), Selenium poisons indians. Science News Letter
81:254.
"BFitzhugh, O. G., A. A. Nelson and C. I. Buss (1944), The chronic
oral toxicity of selenium. Journal of Pharmacology 80:287-299.
3a3Franke, K. W. and V. Potter (1935), New toxicant occurrii
naturally in certain samples: of plant foodstuffs; toxic effects
orally ingested selenium. J. Nutr. 10:213-221.
334 Hamilton, J. W. and O. A. Beath (1964), Amount and chemic
form of selenium in vegetable plants. J. Agr. Food Chem. 12(4
371-374.
335 Lakin, H. W. and D. F. Davidson (1967), The relation of the ge
chemistry of selenium to its occurrence in soils, in Symposiut
selenium in biomedicine, O. H. Muth, ed. (AVI Publishing Ct
Inc., Westport, Connecticut), pp. 27—56.
336 The Merck index of chemicals and drugs, 8th ed. (1968), (Merck
Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey).
337 Morris, V. C. and A. O. Levainder (1970), Selenium content
foods. J. Nutr. 100(12):1383-1388.
338Nesheim, M. C. and M. L. Scott (1961), Nutritional effects
selenium compounds in chickii and turkeys. Fed. Proc. 20:67^
678.
339Oldfield, J. E., J. R. Schubert, and O. H. Muth (1963), Irnplic
tions of selenium in large animal nutrition. J. Agr. Food Chet
11(5):388-390.
340 Olson, O. E. (1967), Soil, plant, animal cycling of excessive leve
of selenium, in Symposium: selenium in biomedicine, O. H. Mull
ed. (AVI Publishing Co., Inc., Westport, Connecticut), p
297-312.
341 Schwarz, K. (1960), Factor 3, selenium and vitamin E. Nutr. Re
18:193-197.
342 Smith, M. I. (1941), Chronic endemic selenium posioning. '
Amer. Med. Ass. 116:562-567.
343 Smith, M. I., K. W. Franke, and B. B. Westfall (1936), Th
selenium problem in relation to public health: Preliminary su
vey to determine possibility of selenium intoxication in rur,
population living on seleniferous soil. Pub. Health Rep. 51:1496
1505.
344 Smith, M. I. and B. B Westfall (1937), Further field studies on tr
selenium problem in relation 10 public health. Pub. Health Re^
52:1375-1384.
346 U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Servic<
Consumer and Food Economics Research Division (1967), Foe
consumption of households in the United Slates, spring 1965: prelimmo,
report (Agricultural Research Service, Washington, D. C.), 28 \
346 Volganev, M. N. and Tschenkes, L. A. (1967), Further studies i
tissue changes associated with sodium sellenate, in Symposiun
selenium in biomedicin?, D. H. Mush, ed. (AVI Publishing Co
Inc., Westport, Connecticut), pp. 179-184.
SILVER
347 Aub, J. C. and L. T. Fairhall (1942), Excretion of silver in urini
jf. Amer. Med. Ass. 118:319.
348 Hem, J. D. (1970), Study and interpretation of chemical characteristics <
natural water, 2nd ed. [Geological Survey water supply pape
1473] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 363 \
349 Hill, W. R. and D. M. Pillsbury (1939), Argyria: the pharmacology i
silver (Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland), 1 72 p.
360 Hill, W. B. and D. M. Pillsbury (1957), Argyria investigation-
toxicologic properties of silver American Silver Producers Researc
Project Report Appendix H.
3UKehoe, R. A., J. Cholak, and R. V. Story (1940b), Manganesf
lead, tin, copper, and silver in normal biological material. J
Nutr. 20(l):85-98.
362 Kopp, J. F. (1969): The occurrence of trace elements in water, i
Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Ex
vironmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University c
Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73.
'"Scott, K. G. (1949), Metabolism of silver in the rat, with radio
silver used as an indicator. University of California, Berkeley
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Literature Cited/103
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California Press, Berkeley 1950), pp. 241-262.
SODIUM
364 Dahl, L. K. (1960), Der moglichc einslub der salzzufuhr auf die
entwicklung der essentiellen hypertonie, in Essential hypertension;
an international symposium, P. T. Cottier and K. D. Bock, eds.
(Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Wilmersdorf), pp. 61-75.
355 Durfor, C. N. and E. Becker (1964), Public water supplies of the WO
largest cities in the United States, 1962 [Geological Survey water
supply paper 1812] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C ).
356 National Research Council. Food and Nutrition Board (1954),
Sodium-restricted diets [Pub. 325] (National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D. C.), 71 p.
SULFATE
357 Durfor, C. N. and E. Becker (1964), Public water supplies of the WO
largest cities in the United States, 1962 [Geological Survey water
supply paper 1812] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.)
358 Larson, T. E. (1963), Mineral content of public ground-water
supplies in Illinois. Illinois State Water Survey, Urbana, Illinois,
Circular QO, 28 p.
369Lockhart, E. E., C. L. Tucker, and M. C. Merritt (1955), The
effect of water impurities on the flavor of brewed coffee. Food
Res 20(6):598-605.
360 Moore. E. W. (1952), Physiological effects of the consumption of
saline drinking water. National Research Council. Division of Medical
Sciences. Subcommittee on \Vatei Supply, bulletin. Appendix B, pp.
221-227.
361 Peterson, N. L. (1951), Sulfates in drinking water. North Dakota
\Valer and Sewage Works Conference Official Bulletin 18(10 & 11):
6-7,11.
362 Whipple, G. C. (1907), The value of purewater (John Wiley & Sons,
New York), 84 p
TEMPERATURE
363 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and treat-
ment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p.
364 Ames, A. M. and W. W. Smith (1944), The temperature coeffi-
cient of the bactericidal action of chlorine. J. Bact. 47(5) :445.
365 Brashears, M. L., Jr. (1946), Artificial recharge of ground water
on Long Island, New York. Econ. Geol. 41(5):503-516.
366 Burnson, B. (1938), Seasonal temperature variations in relation to
water treatment. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 30(5): 793-811.
367 Butterfield, C. T. and E. Wattie (1946), Influence of pH and
temperature on the survival of coliforms and enteric pathogens
when exposed to chloramine. Pub. Health Rep. 61:157-192.
368 Camp. T. R., D. A. Root, and B. V. Bhoota (1940), Effects of
temperature on rate of floe formation. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
32(11):1913-1927.
369 Eldridge, E. F. (1960), Return irrigation water, characteristics and
effects. U.S. Public Health Service, Region IX, Portland, Oregon T.
370 Hannah, S. A., J. M. Cohen, and G. G. Roebeck (1967), Control
techniques for coagulation-filtration. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
59(9): 1149-1163.
371Hoak, R. D. (1961), The thermal pollution problem. J. Water
Pollut. Contr. Fed. 33:1267-1276.
372 Kofoid, C. A. (1923), Microscopic organisms in reservoirs in re-
lation to the esthetic qualities of potable waters. J. Amer. Water
Works Ass. 10:183-191.
373 Maulding, J. S. and R. H. Harris (1968), Effect of ionic environ-
ment and temperature on the coagulation of color-causing or-
ganic compounds with ferric sulfate. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
60(4):460^76.
374 Moore, E. W. (1958), Thermal "pollution" of streams. Ind. Eng.
Chem. 50(4):87A-88A.
375 Peretz, L. G. and K. G. Medvinskaya (1946), The role of microbial
antagonism in the self-purification of water. Gigiena (USSR)
11 (7-8): 18
376 Rudolfs, W., L L. Falk, and R. A. Ragotzkie (1950), Literature
review on the occurrence and survival of enteric, pathogenic, and
relative organisms in soil, water, sewage, and sludges, and on
vegetation. I. Bacterial and virus diseases. Sewage and Indust.
Wastes 22(11):1261-1281.
377 Silvey, J. K. G., J. C. Russel, D. R. Redden, and W. C. McCor-
mick (1950), Actinomycetes and common tastes and odors. J.
Amer. Water Works Ass. 42(11): 1018-1026.
378 Thompson, R. E. (1944), Factors influencing the growth of algae
in water. Canad. Kngr. 82 (10:24.
379 Velz, C. J. (1934), Influence of temperature on coagulation. Civil
Eng. 4(7): 345-349.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
380 Bruvold (1967), Journal of the American Water Works Association
Vol. 61, No. 11.
381 Patterson, W. L. and R. F. Banker (1968), Effects of highly minera-
lized water on household plumbing and appliances. J. Amer.
Water Works Ass. 60:1060-1069.
382 PHS (1962) U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service (1962), Public Health Service drinking water
standards, rev. 1962 [PHS pub. 956] (Government Printing Of-
fice, Washington, D.C.), 61 p.
383 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of
water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health As-
sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
TURBIDITY
384 Sanderson, W. W. and S. Kelly (1964), Discussion of Human
enteric visuses in water: source, survival and removability, by
N. A. Clarke, G. Berg, P. W. Kabler, and S. L. Chang, in Ad-
vances in water pollution research, W. W. Eckenfelder, ed. (The
Macmillan Co., New York), vol. 2, pp. 536-541.
386 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health As-
sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
386 Tracy, H. W., V. M. Camarena, and F. Wing (1966), Coliform
persistence in highly chlorinated waters J. Amer. Water Works
Ass. 58(9) :1151-1159.
URANYL ION
387FWCPA (1968) U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration (1968), Water quality criteria:
report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of
the Interior (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.),
234 p.
388 U.S. Geological Survey (1969), Water load of uranium, radium,
and gross beta activity as selected grazing stations water, year
1960-61. Publication No. 1535-0.
389 Environmental Protection Agency office memorandum (1971) April
19, M. Lammering to G. Robeck, E. P. A., Cincinnati, Ohio.
-------
104/Section II—Public Water Supplies
VIRUSES
390 Beard, J. W. (1967), Host-virus interaction in the initiation of in-
fection, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed.
(Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 167-192.
391 Berg, G., ed. (1967), Transmission of visuses by the water route (Inter-
science Publishers, New York), 484 p.
392 Berg, G. (1971), Integrated approach to problem of viruses in
water. J. Samt. Eng. Dw. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. 97 (SA6):867-882.
393 Berg, G., R. M. Clark, D. Berman, and S. L. Chang (1967), Aber-
rations in survival curves, in Transmission of viruses by the water
route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 235-
240.
394 Berg, G., R. B. Dean, and D. R. Dahling (1968), Journal of the
American Water Works Association 60:193.
395 Chang, S. L. (1967), Statistics of the infective units of animal
viruses, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed.
(Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 219-234.
396 Chang, S. L. (1968), Water borne viral infections and their pre-
vention. Bull. World Health Organ. 38:401-414.
an Chang, S. L., R. E. Stevenson, A. R. Bryant, R. L. Woodward
and P. W. Kabler (1958), Removal of Coxsackie and bacterial
viruses in water by flocculation. American Journal of Public,
Health 48 (2): 159-169.
398 Chin, T. D. Y., W. H. Mosley, S. Robinson, and C. R. Gravelle
(1967), Detection of enteric viruses in sewage and water. Rela-
tive sensitivity of the method, in Transmission of viruses by the water
route, G. Berg. ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 389-
400.
«» Clark, R. M. and J. F. Niehaus (1967), A mathematical model for
viral devitalization, in Transmission of viruses by the water route,
G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 241-245.
*» Clarke, N. A., G. Berg, P. W. Kabler and S. L. Chang (1962),
Human enteric viruses in water: source, survival and remova-
bility. First International Conference of Water Pollution Research,
London, England, pp. 523-542.
«' Clarke, N. A., R. E. Stevenson, S. L. Chang, and P. W. Kabler
(1961), Removal of enteric viruses from sewage by activated
sludge treatment. American Journal of Public Health 51(8):1118.
402 England, B., R. E. Leach, B. Adame, and R. Shiosaki (1967),
Virologic assessment of sewage treatment, in Transmission of
viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers,
New York), pp. 401-417.
403 Kalter, S. S. (1967), Picornaviruses in water, in Transmission of
viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers,
New York), pp. 253-267.
404 Lund, E. and C.-E. Hedstrom (1967), Recovery of viruses from
a sewage treatment plant, in Transmission of viruses by the water
route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 371—
377.
406 Malherbe, H. H. (1967), C. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers,
New York).
406 Malherbe, H. H. and M. Strickland-Cholmley (1967), Quanti
tive studies on viral survival in sewage purification processes,
Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscier
Publishers, New York), pp. 379-387.
407 Maramorosch, K. (1967), Transmission of plant pathogenic
ruses, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (1
terscience Publishers, New York), pp. 323-336.
408 Morris, J. C. (1971), Chlorination and disinfection—state oft
art. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 63(12):769-774.
409 Mosley, J. W. (1967), Transmission of viral diseases by drinki
water, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, e
(Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York), pp. 5-23.
410 Prier, J. E. and R. Riley (1967), Significance of water in natui
animal virus transmission, in Transmission of viruses by the wa
route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 28
300.
411 Plotkin, S. A. and M. Katz (1967), Minimal infective doses
viruses for man by the oral route, in Transmission of nruws
the water route. G. Berg, ed. (Inter-Science Publishers, New Yorl
p. 151.
412 Sharp, D. G. (1967), Electron microscopy and viral particle fun
tion, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (I
terscience Publishers, New York), pp. 193-217.
113 Sproul, O. J. (1972), Virus inactivation by water treatmer
Journal American Water Work? Association 64:31-35.
414 Sproul, O. J., L. R. Larochelle, D. F. Wentworth, and R. '
Thorup (1967), Virus removal in water reuse treating process!
in ll'ater Reuse, L. K. Cecil, ed American Institute of Chemic
Engineers Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Seru
63(78):! 30-136.
ZINC
416 Anderson, E. A., C. E. Reinhard, and W. D. Hammel (1934), T?
corrosion of zinc in various waters. J. Amer. Water Works As
26(1):49-60.
416Bartow, E. and O. M. Weigle (1932), Zinc in water supplies. In,
Eng. Chem. 24(4):463-465.
417 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris, and R. L. Wooc
ward (1960), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drinkin
water. J. Amer. Water Works As;. 52:660-670.
418 Hinman, J. J., Jr. (1938), Desirable characteristics of a municip;
water supply. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 30(3):484-494.
419 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water, i
Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Ef
vironmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University c
Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73.
420 Vallee, B. L. (1957), Zinc and its biological significance. A. M. A
Arch. Indust. Health 16(2): 147-154.
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Section
FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 109
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND PROTECTION OF
SIGNIFICANT SPECIES 109
Community Structure 110
Protection of Significant Aquatic Species. . 110
ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF FRESH-
WATER RECEIVING SYSTEMS Ill
MIXING ZONES 112
DEFINITION OF A MIXING ZONE 112
Recommendation 112
GENERAL PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS 112
Recommendation 112
GENERAL BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 113
Recommendation 113
Recommendation 113
MEETING THE RECOMMENDATIONS 113
SHORT TIME EXPOSURE SAFETY FACTORS 114
Recommendation 114
OVERLAPPING MIXING ZONES 1 Hi-
Recommendation 1 HI-
INTERIM GUIDELINE 114
CONFIGURATION AND LOCATION OF MIXING
ZONES 114
PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP OF MIXING ZONES
TO RECEIVING SYSTEMS 114
Recommendation 115
ZONES OF PASSAGE 115
Recommendation 115
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING 116
PROGRAMS 116
FIELD SURVEYS 116
BODY BURDENS OF TOXICANTS 116
IN-PLANT BIOLOGICAL MONITORING 116
BIOASSAYS 117
SIMULATION TECHNIQUES 117
BIOASSAYS 118
MEASURES OF TOXICITY 118
METHODS FOR BIOASSAYS 119
CHECKLIST OF PROCEDURES 119
Species 119
Dilution Water
Acclimation
Test Methods
Dissolved Oxygen
Concentrations
Evaluation of Results
APPLICATION FACTORS
MIXTURES OF Two OP MORE TOXICANTS. . . .
SUBLETHAL EFFECTS
Recommcnations for the Use of Appli-
cation Factors to Estimate Safe Concen-
trations of Toxic Wastes in Receiving
Streams
PHYSICAL MANIPULATION OF THE EN-
VIRONMENT
SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE SOLIDS...
SOIL As A SOURCE OF MINERAL PARTICLES...
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES IN WATER. .
ADSORPTION OF Toxic MATERIALS
EFFECTS ON FISH AND INVERTEBRATES
Recommendations
COLOR
Recommendation
DISSOLVED GASES
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Levels of Protection
Basis for Recommendations
Warm- and Coldwater Fishes
Unusual Waters
Organisms Other Than Fish I'.
Salmonid Spawning 1'
Interaction With Toxic Pollutants or Other
Environmental Factors
Application of Recommendations
Examples
Recommendations
TOTAL DISSOLVED GASES (SUPERSATURATION) ..
Etiologic Factors
Gas Bubble Disease Syndrome and Effects.
Analytical Considerations
106
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Page
Total Dissolved Gas Pressure Criteria ... 138
Recommendations 139
CARBON DIOXIDE 139
Recommendation 139
ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, AND pH 140
NATURAL CONDITIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE 140
TOXICITY TO AQUATIC LIFE 140
ADVERSE INDIRECT EFFECTS OR SIDE EFFECTS. . 140
Recommendations 141
DISSOLVED SOLIDS AND HARDNESS 142
Recommendation 143
OILS 144
OIL REFINERY EFFLUENTS 144
FREE AND FLOATING OIL 144
SEDIMENTED OIL 145
Recommendations 146
TAINTING SUBSTANCES 147
BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF TAINTING 147
TAINTING CAUSED BY CHEMICALS 147
UPTAKE AND Loss OF FLAVOR-IMPAIRING MA-
TERIALS 148
IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES OF OFF-FLAVORED
ORGANISMS 149
EXPOSURE AND ORGANOLEPTIC TESTS 149
Test Fish 149
Exposure Period 149
Exposure Conditions 149
Preparation of Test Fish and Evaluation.. 149
STATISTICAL EVALUATION 150
Recommendations 150
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 151
DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA 152
TERMINOLOGY DEFINED 152
MAX-MUM ACCEPTABLE TEMPERATURES FOR PRO-
LONGED EXPOSURES 153
SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL MAXIMA FOR PRO-
LONGED EXPOSURE 154
Recommendation 160
WINTER MAXIMA 160
Recommendation 161
Page
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO EXTREME TEMPER-
ATURE 161
Recommendation 162
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT 162
Recommendations 164
CHANGES IN STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC COM-
MUNITIES 165
NUISANCE ORGANISMS 165
Recommendation 165
CONCLUSIONS 165
USE OF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA 166
Analytical Steps 168
Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature
Change 168
Cooling Water Entrainment 168
Entrainment in the Plume 170
Bottom Organisms Impacted by the Plume 170
Mixed Water Body 171
Discharge Canal 171
TOXIC SUBSTANCES 172
ORGANIC MERCURY 172
Biological Methylation 172
Biological Magnification 172
Mercury in Fresh Waters 173
Toxicity of Organic Mercury in Water... 173
Tissue Levels and Toxicity 174
Discussion of Proposed Recommendations. 174
Recommendations 174
PHTHALATE ESTERS 174
Toxicity 175
Recommendation 175
POLYCHLORINATED BlPHENYLS 175
Direct Lethal Toxicity 176
Feeding Studies 176
Residues in Tissue 176
Effects on Reproduction 177
General Considerations and Further
Needs 177
Basis for Recommendations 177
Recommendations 177
107
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Page
METALS 177
General Data 177
Recommendations 179
Aluminum 179
Recommendation 179
Cadmium 179
Recommendation 180
Chromium 180
Recommendation 180
Copper 180
Recommendation 181
Lead 181
Recommendation 181
Mercury 181
Recommendation 181
Nickel 181
Recommendation 181
Zinc 182
Recommendation 182
PESTICIDES 182
Methods, Rate, and Frequency of Appli-
cation 182
Sources and Distribution 182
Persistence and Biological Accumulation. . 183
Residues 183
Toxicity 184
Basis for Criteria 185
Recommendations 185
OTHER TOXICANTS 186
Ammonia 186
Recommendation 187
Chlorine 189
Recommendation 189
Cyanides 189
Recommendation 190
Detergents 190
Detergent Builders 191
Recommendation 191
Page
Phenolics 191
Recommendations 191
Sulfides 191
Recommendation 193
WILDLIFE 194
PROTECTION OF FOOD AND SHELTER FOR WILD-
LIFE 194
PH 194
Recommendation 194
ALKALINITY 194
Recommendation 195
SALINITY 195
Recommendation 195
LIGHT PENETRATION 195
SETTLE ABLE SUBSTANCES 195
Recommendation 195
PRODUCTION OF WILDLIFE FOODS OTHER THAN
PLANTS 195
TEMPERATURE 195
Recommendation 195
SPECIFIC POTENTIALLY HARMFUL SUBSTANCES. . 196
Direct Acting Substances 196
Oils 196
Recommendation 196
Lead 196
Recommendation 196
Botulism Poisoning 196
Recommendation 197
Substances Acting After Magnification in
Food Chains 197
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides.... 197
DDT and Derivatives 197
Recommendation 198
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) 198
Recommendation 198
Mercury 198
Recommendation 198
LITERATURE CITED 199
108
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INTRODUCTION
The biota of a natural aquatic ecosystem is the result of
evolutionary processes in the course of which a delicate
balance and complex interactions were established among
various kinds of organisms and between those organisms
and their environment. Some species can live in a wide
range of environmental conditions and are found in many
different systems throughout the world. Other species are
restricted and their distribution is limited to certain habitats
or in some cases to only one. Frequently, it is the latter
group of species that have been most useful to man. Minor
changes in their environments, especially if such changes
are rapid, may upset the ecological balance and endanger
the species.
Man has the ability to alter—to impair or improve—his
environment and that of other organisms. His use of water
to dispose of wastes of a technological society and his other
alterations of aquatic environments have degraded his water
resources. Water pollutants may alter natural conditions
by reducing the dissolved oxygen content, by changing the
temperature, or by direct toxic action that can be lethal or,
more subtly, can affect the behavior, reproduction, and
physiology of the organisms. Although a substance may
not directly affect a species, it may endanger its continued
existence by eliminating essential sources of food and
metabolites. Furthermore, conditions permitting the sur-
vival of a given organism at one stage of its life may be
intolerable at another stage.
This Section evaluates criteria and proposes recommen-
dations that reflect scientific understanding of the relation-
ships between freshwater aquatic organisms and their en-
vironment. Anything added to or removed from natural
waters will cause some change in the system. For each use
of water there are certain water quality characteristics that
should be met to ensure the suitability of the water for
that use.
The following general recommendations apply to a wide
variety of receiving systems and pollutants:
• More stringent methods of control or treatment, or
both, of waste inputs and land drainage should be
applied to improve water quality as the demand for
use increases.
• In recognition of the limitations of water quality
management programs, consideration should be
given to providing reserve capacity of receiving
waters for future use.
• Bioassays and other appropriate tests, including field
studies, should be made to obtain scientific evidence
on the effect of wastewater discharges on the en-
vironment. Test procedures are recommended in
this report.
• A survey of the receiving system to assess the impact
of waste discharges on the biological community
should be made on a regular basis, particularly prior
to new discharges. Such surveys especially should
cover the seasons most critical to the biological com-
munity. Background laboratory data should include
bioassays using important local aquatic organisms
and associated receiving waters. In addition to the
more comprehensive surveys, some form of bio-
monitoring in the receiving system should be carried
out routinely. A suggested list of ecological consider-
ations is included in the section on Biological
Monitoring.
• One of the principal goals is to insure the mainte-
nance of the biological community typical of that
particular locale or, if a perturbed community exists,
to upgrade the receiving system to a quality which
will permit reestablishment of that community.
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND PROTECTION OF
SIGNIFICANT SPECIES
The natural aquatic environment includes many kinds of
plants and animals that vary in their life history and in
their chemical and physical requirements. These organisms
are interrelated in many ways to form communities. Aquatic
environments are protected out of recreational and scientific
interest, for aesthetic enjoyment, and to maintain certain
organisms of special significance as a source of food. There
are two schools of thought as to how this can be accom-
plished. One is to protect the significant species, the as-
sumption being that by so doing, the entire system is pro-
tected. The other approach is to protect the aquatic com-
109
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110/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
munity, the assumption being that the significant species
are not protected unless the entire system is maintained.
Community Structure
Because chemical and physical environments are con-
tinually changing—sometimes gradually and sometimes
catastrophically—many species are necessary to keep the
aquatic ecosystems functioning by filling habitats vacated
because of the disappearance of other species. Likewise,
when one kind of organism becomes extremely abundant
because of the disappearance of one or more species,
predator species must be available to feed on the over-
abundant species and keep it from destroying the function-
ing of the community. In a balanced ecosystem, large
populations of a single species rarely maintain themselves
over a long time because predators quickly reduce their
number.
Therefore, the diverse characteristics of a habitat are
necessary to the maintenance of a functioning ecosystem
in the process of evolution. In the fossil record are found
many species that were more common at one time than
they are today and others that have been replaced entirely.
If it were not for diverse gene pools, such evolutionary
replacement would not have been possible.
Some aquatic environments present unusual extremes
in their chemical and physical characteristics. They support
highly specialized species that function as ecosystems in
which energy flows and materials cycle. If these species
are not present and functioning in this manner, such areas
may become aesthetically distasteful, as has occurred for
example in the alkaline flats of the West and the acid bogs
of the Northeast, Midwest, and East.
Rare habitats support rare organisms that become extinct
or endangered species if their habitats are impaired
eliminated. In the aquatic world there are many spec!
of algae, fish, and invertebrates that are maintained on
in such rare, fragile habitats. Man must understand the
if he is to appreciate the process of evolution and t
trend of ecological change that brings about drastic altc
ations to fauna and flora.
Protection of Significant Aquatic Species
An essential objective of freshwater quality recomme
dations is the protection of fish and other aquatic organist
for sport or commercial harvesting. This does not imp
that all other aquatic species will be subject to potent;
extinction, or that an unaltered environment is the goal
be attained in all cases. The average person is usua
interested in only a small number of aquatic sp>ecies, pri
cipally fish; but it remains necessary to preserve, in certa
unique or rare areas, a diversified environment both i
scientific study and for maintaining species variety.
It is sometimes difficult to justify protection of isolat
organisms not used by man unless it can be document
that they are ultimately essential to the production
desirable biota. In some instances it may be that a critic
sensitive species, irreplaceable in the food web of anoth
more important species, is one known only to the biologi
In such instances, protection of the "less important" sen
tive species could justifiably determine the water quali
recommendation.
Because no single recommendation can protect all ii
portant sport and commercial species unless the me
sensitive is protected, a number of species must be co
sidered. The most sensitive species provide a good estima
of the range of sensitivity of all species.
-------
ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF FRESHWATER RECEIVING SYSTEMS
Waste discharges do not just go into water but rather
into aquatic ecosystems. The capacity of such a system to
receive and assimilate waste is determined by the physical,
chemical, and biological interactions within the system.
Thus the response is a function of the characteristics of
both the ecosystem and the nature and quantity of the
waste. Understanding the unique characteristics of each
ecosystem will enable wise users to develop means to obtain
maximum beneficial use with minimal damage to the system.
Each aquatic ecosystem is sufficiently unique to require
professional ecological advice to define the problems as-
sociated with waste discharge into a particular ecosystem.
Such a procedure has not been customary in the past, and
this has led to some unfortunate consequences, but the
practice is becoming increasingly prevalent.
Aquatic systems receive from natural and man-made
sources a variety of organic and inorganic materials. These
materials through physical, chemical, and biological inter-
action are transported, rendered, converted, respired, in-
corporated, excreted, deposited and thus assimilated by the
system. However, not all systems can receive and assimilate
the same quantity or kinds of waste materials. The capacity
of each system to transform waste without damage to the
system is a function of the complexity of environmental
factors.
Physical factors such as flow velocity, volume of water,
bottom contour, rate of water exchange, currents, depth,
light penetration, and temperature, govern in part the
ability of a system to receive and assimilate waste materials.
This ability is a function of the reaeration capability of the
system, the physical rendering of wastes, and other physical,
chemical, and biological factors. Most flowing systems have
a greater reaeration capacity than standing waters. Fur-
thermore, flowing systems are open systems with continual
renewal of water, whereas standing waters are closed sys-
tems and act as traps for pollutants.
Temperature plays a vital role in the rate of chemical
reactions and the nature of biological activities in fresh-
water and in governing the receiving and assimilative ca-
pacity of a system. Most temperate lakes are thermally
stratified part of the year, except when there are small
differences between surface and bottom temperatures in
the spring and fall. As a consequence little exchange occurs
between layers during the period of stratification. In
organically enriched lakes and reservoirs, depletion of
soluble oxygen typically occurs in the bottom layer because
there is little or no photosynthesis and little mixing with the
oxygen-rich surface layer. As a result, substances are re-
leased from the sediments because certain compounds have
a much greater solubility in a reduced state.
The unique chemical characteristics of water govern in
part the kinds and quantities of waste a system may receive.
Some of the important chemical characteristics are hard-
ness, alkalinity, pH (associated with the buffering capacity),
and nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
Because of synergistic or antagonistic interaction with re-
ceiving water, the effects of a waste on a wide variety of
receiving systems are hard to predict.
Ill
-------
MIXING ZONES
When a liquid discharge is made to a receiving system,
a zone of mixing is created. Although recent public, ad-
ministrative, and scientific emphasis has focused on mixing
zones for the dispersion of heated discharges, liquid wastes
of all types arc included in the following considerations.
(For a further discussion of Mixing Zones see Appendix
II-A.)
DEFINITION OF A MIXING ZONE
A mixing zone is a region in which a discharge of quality
characteristics different from those of the receiving water
is in transit and progressively diluted from the source to the
receiving system. In this region water quality characteristics
necessary for the protection of aquatic life are based on
time-exposure relationships of organisms. The boundary of
a mixing zone is where the organism response is no longer
time-dependent. At that boundary, receiving system water-
quality characteristics based on long-term exposure will
protect aquatic life.
Recommendation
Although water quality characteristics in mixing
zones may differ from those in receiving systems,
to protect uses in both regions it is recommended
that mixing zones be free of substances attributable
to discharges or wastes as follows:
• materials which form objectionable deposits;
• scum, oil and floating debris;
• substances producing objectionable color, odor,
taste, or turbidity;
• conditions which produce objectionable growth
of nuisance plants and animals.
GENERAL PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The mass emission rates of the most critical constituents
and their relationship to the recommended values of the
material in the receiving water body are normally the
primary factors determining the system-degradation po-
tential of an effluent. Prior to establishment of a mixir
zone the factors described in Waste Capacity of Reccivir
Waters (Section IV, pp. 228-232) and Assimilative Capa<
ity (This Section, p. Ill) should IDC considered and a d<
cision made on whether the system can assimilate the di
charge without damage to beneficial uses. Necessary dai
bases may include:
• Discharge considerations—flow regime, volume, di
sign, location, rate of mixing and dilution, plurr
behavior and mass-emission rates of constituen
including knowledge of their persistence, toxicir
and chemical or physical behavior with time.
• Receiving system considerations—water quality, li
cal meteorology, flow regime (including low-flo
records), magnitude of water exchange at point <
discharge, stratification phenomena, waste capacii
of the receiving system including retention tim
turbulence and speed of flow as factors affectir
rate of mixing and passage of entrained or migratir
organisms, and morphology of the receiving systei
as related to plume behavior, and biological plr
nomena.
Mathematical models based in part on the above coi
siderations are available for a variety of ecosystems an
discharges. (See Appendix II-A.) All such mathematic
models must be applied with care to each particular di
charge and the local situation.
Recommendation
To avoid potential biological damage or into
ference with other uses of the receiving system
is recommended that mixing zone characteristi<
be defined on a case-by-case basis after determ
nation that the assimilative capacity of the «
ceiving system can safely accommodate the dif
charge taking into consideration the physica
chemical, and biological characteristics of the dis
charge and the receiving system, the life histoi
and behavior of organisms in the receiving systen
and desired uses of the waters.
112
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Mixing Dories /113
GENERAL BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Organisms in the water body may be divided into two
groups from the standpoint of protection within mixing
zones: (1) nonmobile benthic or sessile organisms; (2) weak
and strong swimmers.
1. Nonmobile benthic or sessile organisms in mixing
zones may experience long or intermittent exposures ex-
ceeding recommended values for receiving systems and
therefore their populations may be damaged or eliminated
in the local region. Minimum damage to these organisms
is attained by minimizing exposure of the bottom area to
concentrations exceeding levels resulting in harm to these
organisms from long-term exposure. This may be accom-
plished by discharge location and design.
The mixing zone may represent a living space denied the
subject organisms and this space may or may not be of
significance to the biological community of the receiving
system. When planning mixing zones, a decision should be
made in each case whether the nonmobile benthic and
sessile organisms are to be protected.
Recommendation
To protect populations of nonmobile benthic
and sessile organisms in mixing zones it is recom-
mended that the area of their habitat exposed to
water quality poorer than recommended receiving
system quality be minimized by discharge location
and design or that intermittent time-exposure
history relationships be denned for the organisms'
well-being.
2. Biological considerations to protect planktonic and
swimming organisms are related to the time exposure history
to which critical organisms are subjected as they are carried
or move through a mixing zone. The integrated time
exposure history must not cause deleterious effects, including
post-exposure effects. In populations of important species,
effects of total time exposure must not be deleterious either
during or after exposure.
Weak swimmers and drifting organisms may be entrained
into discharge plumes and carried through a mixing zone.
In determining the time exposure history and responses of
the organisms, the possibility of delayed effects, such as
death, disease, and increased vulnerability to predation,
should be investigated.
Strong swimmers are capable of moving out of, staying
out of, or remaining in a mixing zone. Water quality
characteristics which protect drifting organisms should also
protect migrating fish moving through mixing zones. How-
ever, there are some discharges that attract animals into
discharge channels and mixing zones where they are vul-
nerable to death or shock due to short-term changes in
water quality, such as rapid temperature fluctuations. This
vulnerability should be recognized and occurrences that
expose it should be guarded against (see Chlorine, page 189).
Some free-swimming species may avoid mixing zones and
as a consequence the reduced living space may limit the
population.
Free-swimming species may be attracted to a discharge.
Chronic low-level exposure to toxicants may cause death
or affect growth, reproduction or migratory instincts, or
result in excessive body-burdens of toxicants hazardous for
human consumption.
Recommendation
To protect drifting and both weak and strong
swimming organisms in mixing zones it is recom-
mended that scientifically valid data be developed
to demonstrate that the organisms can survive
without irreversible damage, the integrated time-
exposure history to be based on maximum expected
residence time so that deleterious effects on popu-
lations of important species do not occur.
MEETING THE RECOMMENDATIONS
In mixing zones the exposure of organisms to stress is of
greater intensity but usually of shorter duration than in
the receiving waters, assuming no attraction by the dis-
charge. The objective of mixing zone water quality recom-
mendations is to provide time exposure histories which
produce negligible or no effects on populations of critical
species in the receiving system. This objective can be met
by: (a) determination of the pattern of exposure in terms
of time and concentration in the mixing zone due either to
activities of the organisms, discharge schedule, or currents
affecting dispersion; and (h) determination that delayed
effects do not occur.
Protection would lie achieved if the time of exposure met
the relationship T /ET(x) < 1 where T is the time of the
organism's exposure in the mixing zone to a specified
concentration, and ET(x) is the effective time of exposure
to the specified concentration, C, which produces (x) per cent
response in a sample of the organisms, including delayed
effects after extended observation. The per cent response,
(x). is selected on the basis of what is considered negligible
effects on the total population and is then symbolized
ET(25), ET(5), ET(O.l), etc.
Because concentrations vary within mixing zones, a more
suitable quantitative statement than the simple relationship
T/ET(x)
-------
114:/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
tration Ci during the time interval TI, to concentration Cs
during the time interval T2, etc. The sum of the individual
ratios must then not exceed unity. (See caveat below,
Short Time Exposure Safety Factors.)
Techniques for securing the above information, appli-
cation to a hypothetical field situation, comments, caveats,
and limitations are expressed in Appendix II-A, Mixing
Zones, Development of Integrated Time Exposure Data,
p. 403. Tabular data and formulae for summation of short-
term effects of heated discharges on aquatic life are provided
in the Heat'and Temperature discussion, page 151.
SHORT TIME EXPOSURE SAFETY FACTORS
This concept of summation of short-term effects and
extrapolation is an approach which tests the applicability
of present bioassay methodology and precision and may
not be universally applicable to all types of discharges.
Conservatism in application should be practiced. When
developing the summation of short-term thermal effects
data, a safety factor of two degrees centigrade is incorpo-
rated. In development of summation of short-term toxicity
effects data, a safety factor exists if a conservative physio-
logical or behavioral response is used with effective time of
exposure. However, when mortality is the response plotted,
an application factor must be incorporated to provide an
adequate margin of safety. This factor can most easily be
applied by lowering the sum of the additive effects to some
fraction of 1 so that the sum of Ti/(ET(x) at Ci) • • • +
Tn/(ET(x) at Cn) then equals 0.9, or less. The value must
be based on scientific knowledge of the organism's behavior
and response to the contaminants involved.
Recommendation
When developing summation of short-term ex-
posure effects it is recommended that safety
factors, application factors, or conservative physio-
logical or behavioral responses be incorporated
into the bioassay or extrapolation procedures to
provide an adequate margin of safety.
OVERLAPPING MIXING ZONES
If mixing zones are contiguous or overlap, the formula
expressing the integrated time exposure history for single
plumes should be adjusted. Synergistic effects should be
investigated, and if not found, the assumption may be made
that effects of multiple plumes are additive.
Recommendation
When two plumes are contiguous or overlap and
synergistic effects do not occur, protection for
aquatic life should be provided if the sum of the
fractions of integrated time exposure effects for
each plume total <0.5. Alternatively, protection
should be provided if the sum of the fractions for
both plumes (or more than two contiguous o
overlapping plumes) is < 1. (See caveat above, Shot
Time Exposure Safety Factors.)
INTERIM GUIDELINE
In the event information on summation effects of th
integrated time exposure history cannot be satisfactoril
provided, a conservative single figure concentration can 1:
used for all parts of the mixing zone until more detaile
determinations of the time-exposure relationships are d(
veloped. This single, time-dependent median lethal concer
tration should be subject to the caveats found throughoi
this Section and Appendix [I-A regarding delayed effec
and behavioral modifications. Because of the variables ir
volved, the single value must be applied in the light (
local conditions. For one situation a 24-hour LC50 migt
be adequate to protect aquatic life. In another situation
96-hour LG50 might provide inadequate protection.
CONFIGURATION AND LOCATION OF MIXING ZONE
The time-dependent three dimensional shape of a di:
charge plume varies with a multitude of receiving syster
physical factors and the discharge design. While time e>
posure water quality characteristics within mixing zom
are designed to protect aquatic life, thoughtful placemer
of the discharge and planned control of plume behavk
may increase the level of ecosystem protection, e g., floatin
the plume on the surface to protect the deep water of
channel; discharging in midstream or offshore to prote<
biologically-important littoral areas; piping the efflueT
across a river to discharge on the far side because fis
historically migrate on the near side; or piping the cli
charge away from a stream mouth which is used by m
grating species. Such engineering modifications can som<
times accomplish what is necessary to meet biologic;
requirements.
Onshore discharges generally have more potential fc
interference with other uses than offshore discharges. Fc
example the plume is more liable to impinge on the bottot
in shallow areas of biological productivity and be closer t
swimming and recreation areas.
PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP OF MIXING ZONES
TO RECEIVING SYSTEMS
Recommendations for mixing zones do not protect again
the long-term biological effects of sublethal condition
Thus water quality requirements necessary to protect a
life stages and necessary functions of aquatic organisn
such as spawning and larval development, are not provide
in mixing zones, and it is essential to insure that adequal
portions of every water body are free of mixing zones. Tli
decision as to what portion and areas must be retained i
receiving water quality values is both a social and scientiii
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Mixing ^ones/115
decision. In reaching this decision, data input should in-
clude current and projected information on types and
locations of intakes and discharges; percentage of shoreline
necessary to provide adequate spawning, nursery, and
feeding areas; and other desired uses of the water.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the total area or volume
of a receiving system assigned to mixing zones be
limited to that which will: (1) not interfere with
biological communities or populations of impor-
tant species to a degree which is damaging to the
ecosystem; (2) not diminish other beneficial uses
disproportionately.
ZONES OF PASSAGE
In river systems, reservoirs, lakes, estuaries, and coastal
waters, zones of passage are continuous water routes of
such volume, area, and quality as to allow passage of free-
swimming and drifting organisms so that no significant
effects are produced on their populations.
Transport of a variety of organisms in river water and
by tidal movements in estuaries is biologically important
in a number of ways; e.g., food is carried to the sessile
filter feeders and other nonmobile organisms; spatial distri-
bution of organisms and reinforcement of depauperate
populations is enhanced; embryos and larvae of some fish
species develop while drifting. Anadromous and cata-
dromous species must be able to reach suitable spawning
areas. Their young (and in some cases the adults) must be
assured a return route to their growing and living areas.
Many species make migrations for spawning and other
purposes. Barriers or blocks which prevent or interfere with
these types of essential transport and movement can be
created by water of inadequate chemical or physical quality.
Water quality in the zone of passage should be such that
biological responses to the water quality characteristics of
the mixing zone are no longer time-dependent (see Defini-
tion of Mixing Zone on page 112). However, where a zone of
passage is to be provided, bioassays determining time-
exposure responses in the mixing zone should include addi-
tional requirements to assess organism behavior. In the
mixing zone discussion above it is assumed that entrainment
in the plume will be involuntary. However, if there is at-
traction due to plume composition, exposure in the plume
could be very much longer than would be predicted by
physical modeling. If avoidance reactions occur, migration
may be thwarted. Thus, concentrations in both the mixing
zone and the zone of passage should be reduced before dis-
charge to levels below those at which such behavioral
modifications affect the populations of the subject organisms.
Modern techniques of waste water injection such as
diffusers and high velocity jets may form barriers to free
passage due to responses of organisms to currents. Turbu-
lence of flows opposing stream direction may create traps
for those organisms which migrate upstream by orientation
to opposing currents. These organisms may remain in the
mixing zone in response to currents created by the discharge.
Recommendation
Because of varying local physical and chemical
conditions and biological phenomena, no single-
value recommendation can be made on the per-
centage of river width necessary to allow passage of
critical free-swimming and drifting organisms so
that negligible or no effects are produced on their
populations. As a guideline no more than % the
width of a water-body should be devoted to mixing
zones thus leaving at least yA free as a zone of
passage.
-------
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
Monitoring of aquatic environments has traditionally in-
cluded obtaining physical and chemical data that are used
to evaluate the effects of pollutants on living organisms.
Biological monitoring has received less emphasis than
chemical or physical monitoring, because biological assess-
ments were once not as readily amenable to numerical
expression and tended to be more time consuming and
more expensive. This is no longer true. Aquatic organisms
can serve as natural monitors of environmental quality and
should be included in programs designed to provide con-
tinuous records of water quality, because they integrate
all of the stresses placed on an aquatic system and reflect
the combined effect. Chemical-physical assessments identify
individual components, so the two types of assessments are
mutually supporting rather than mutually exclusive.
A biological monitoring program is essential in de-
termining the synergistic or antagonistic interactions of
components of waste discharges and the resulting effects on
living organisms. However, biological monitoring does not
replace chemical and physical monitoring; each program
provides information supplemental to the others.
PROGRAMS
An ideal biological monitoring program has four com-
ponents' (1) field surveys, (2) in-plant biological monitoring,
(3) bioassays, and (4) simulation techniques. Obviously no
biological monitoring program is routine, nor does it neces-
sarily have to include all of the above components. However,
each of the components provides valuable and useful
information.
FIELD SURVEYS
Field surveys are needed to obtain adequate data on
biological, chemical, and physical water quality to de-
termine the nature of the system and the possible adverse
effects of waste discharges on beneficial uses of the system.
Two methods for continuously monitoring the effects of
pollution on a receiving water have been described. Patrick
et al. (1954)6* described the use of diatoms as natural moni-
tors of various types of pollution. Various species of shellfish,
especially oysters suspended in trays, have been describee
as an effective method of monitoring pollution (Galtsof
et al. 1947).4 Field surveys should be carried out at suitabli
intervals depending on local conditions. For example, it
determining the impact of a new or relocated municipa
or industrial discharge, it is desirable to perform tin
following functions:
• survey the stream as a part of the site selection pro
cedure;
• continue the field survey prior to construction t(
determine existing water quality: at this time it i
also useful to make bioassays using simulated plan
wastes and representative organisms from the re
ceiving systems, and to establish biornonitorins
stations;
• monitor the effects of construction;
• carry out bioassays using actual plant wastes anc
effluents after the plan! is in operation, and mak<
field surveys to determine any changes from pre
construction results.
BODY BURDENS OF TOXICANTS
Body burdens of toxicants that can be concentrated bi
biota should be measured regularly. These data can provide
early warning before concentrations in water become readil;
available and can provide warnings of incipient effects u
the biota being monitored.
IN-PLANT BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
Present information systems do not provide data rapidh
enough to be of use in environmental management, because
the constituents of a waste stream are likely to vary frort
hour to hour and from day to day. Potentially harmfu
materials should be detected before they enter the receivin;
water and before substantial damage has been done to tht
ecosystem.
* Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be locatec
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers whict
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
116
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Biological Monitoring/117
Several potentially useful methods for rapid in-plant
monitoring are being explored (Sparks et al. 1969,7 Waller
and Cairns 19698), and one rapid in-stream method is now
operational (Cairns et al. 1968,2 Cairns and Dickson 19713).
These in-plant methods use changes in heart rate, respi-
ration, and movements of fish within a container to detect
sublethal concentrations of toxicants in a waste discharge.
Continual information on toxicity of a waste should enable
sanitary engineers to identify those periods likely to produce
the most toxic wastes and to identify those components of
the production process that contribute significantly to
toxicity. This could be accomplished with bioassays as
they are currently used, but rarely are enough samples
taken over a period of time sufficient to give the range of
information that would be available with continually oper-
ating bioassay techniques.
BIOASSAYS
Of equal importance to the river surveys and the in-plant
and in-stream monitoring systems is the availability of
toxicity information based on a predictive bioassay. The
bioassay provides valuable information pertaining to the
effects of potential or contemplated discharges on aquatic
life. Acute bioassays are useful as a shortcut or predictive
method of estimating safe concentrations by use of suitable
application factors for many pollutants, as recommended
throughout this Report.
However, determining only the acute lethal toxicity of
wastes is no longer adequate. Good health and an ability
to function vigorously are as important for aquatic eco-
systems as they are for humans. The former end point of
bioassays, viz., death, has been supplanted by more subtle
end points such as the protection of respiration, growth,
reproductive success, and a variety of other functional
changes (Cairns 1967).* Acute toxicity determinations are
being supplemented by long-term tests often involving an
entire life cycle. The latter require more time and expense
than short-term tests, but they provide better predictive
information about biologically safe concentrations of various
toxicants. Bioassays of organisms other than fish are be-
coming increasingly common because of the realization
that elimination of the lower organisms can also have serious
consequences.
SIMULATION TECHNIQUES
The fourth component now available to provide ecological
information is the use of scale models. Models are used to
study major ecological or environmental problems by simu-
lating prospective new uses. Engineering scale models are
common, but ecological scale models or environmental
simulation systems are not yet as commonly used. Experi-
mental streams and reservoirs have been constructed to
predict toxicity of waste discharges, determine factors re-
sponsible for productivity of aquatic communities, and
answer questions about plant site location (Haydu 1968,6
Warren and Davis 19719).
-------
BIOASSAYS
Bioassays are used to evaluate a given pollutant in terms
of existing water quality. Most pollution problems involve
discharges of unknown and variable composition where
more than one toxicant or stress is present. In evaluating
criteria for specific toxicants, consideration must be given
to other environmental influences such as dissolved oxygen,
temperature, and pH.
Harmful effects of pollutants can be described by one or
more of the following terms:
acute—involves a stimulus severe enough to bring
about a response speedily, usually within four days
for fish.
subacute—involves a stimulus less severe than an
acute stimulus, producing a response in a longer
time; may become chronic.
chronic—involves a lingering or continuous stimu-
lus ; often signifying periods of about one-tenth of
the life span or more.
lethal—causes death by direct action.
sublethal—insufficient to cause death.
cumulative—brought about, or increased in strength,
by successive additions.
Two broad categories of effect (Alderdice 1967)10 may
be distinguished: acute toxicity which is usually lethal, and
chronic toxicity which may be lethal or sublethal.
MEASURES OF TOXICITY
Most of the available toxicity data are reported as the
median tolerance limit (TLm or TL50) or median lethal
concentration (LC50). Either symbol signifies the concen-
tration that kills 50 per cent of the test organisms within a
specified time span, usually in 96 hours. The customary
96-hour (four-day) time period is recommended as adequate
for most routine tests of acute toxicity with fish. A threshold
of acute toxicity will have been attained within this time
in the majority of cases (Sprague 1969).43 This lethal threshold
concentration is usually noticeable in the data. Sometimes
mortality continues, and tests of a week or longer would be
necessary to determine the threshold. The lethal threshold
concentration should be reported if it is demonstrated
because it is better for comparative purposes than th
arbitrary 96-hour LG50. Absence of any apparent threshol<
is equally noteworthy.
The median lethal concentration is a convenient referenc
point for expressing the acute lethal toxicity of a givei
toxicant to the average or typical test animal. Obviously i
is in no way a safe concentration, although occasional!
the two have been confused. Safe levels, which permi
reproduction, growth, and all other normal life-processe
in the fish's natural habitat, usually are much lower thai
the LC50. In this book, the recommended criteria ar
intended to be safe levels.
Substantial data on long-term effects and safe levels ar
available for only a few toxicants. Information is now ac
cumulating on the effect of toxicants on reproduction, a
important aspect of all long-term toxicity tests. Other infot
mation is being gathered on sublethal effects on growth
performance, avoidance reactions, and social behavior c
fish. Also important is the sensitivity of organisms at variou
life stages. Many organisms are most sensitive in the larva
nymphal, molting, or fry stage; some are most sensitive i
the egg and sperm stage.
It would be desirable if a single, universal, rapid, bic
logical test could be used to measure directly sublethx
effects of a pollutant. Data on sublethal responses of fis
have been used, such as respiratory rates and "coughing,
swimming speed, avoidance behavior, and specific physic
logical and biochemical changes in various organisms; an
histological studies have been made. A review of thes
(Sprague 1971)45 shows that no single test is meaningful fc
all kinds of pollutants. Therefore, it is recommended th;=
routine assessment and prediction of safe levels be made b
carrying out bioassays for acute lethal toxicity and multiply
ing the lethal concentration by a suitable application factoi
The application factors used and recommended here hav
been derived principally from chronic or sublethal labors
tory experiments or from well documented field studies c
polluted situations.
Acceptable concentrations of toxicants to which organism
are exposed continually musl be lower than the highe
118
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Bioassqys/119
concentrations that may be reached occasionally but briefly
without causing damage. Both maximum short-time con-
centrations and the more restrictive range of safe concen-
trations for continuous exposure are useful. The recommen-
dations in this Report are those considered safe for con-
tinuous exposure, although in some cases there has also
been an indication of permissible higher levels for short
periods.
In field situations and industrial operations, average
24-hour concentrations can be determined by obtaining
composite or continuous samples. After 24 hours, the
sample may be mixed and analyzed. The concentration
found will represent the average concentration. Samples
obtained this way are more reproducible and easier to
secure than the instantaneous sample of maximum concen-
trations. However, average concentrations are of little sig-
nificance if fish are killed by a sharp peak of concentration,
and for that reason maximum concentrations must also
be considered.
METHODS FOR BIOASSAYS
Although there are many types of assays, two are in
general use:
1. the static bioassay in which the organisms are held
in a tank containing the test solution, and
2. the continuous flow or flow-through bioassay in
which the test solution is renewed continually.
The difference between the two types is not always great,
but one can have clear advantages over the other.
An outline of methods for routine bioassays has been
given in "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater" (American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation, 1971,11 hereafter referred to as Standard
Methods 197148). Cope (1961)21 described bioassay re-
porting, and Cairns (1969)20 presented a rating system
for evaluating the quality of the tests. Sprague (1969,43
1970,44 197145) reviewed research to develop more incisive
testing methods. Their findings are utilized in this Report.
Procedure for acute bioassay with fish is now relatively
standardized and usually incorporates:
• a series of replicate test containers, each with a
different but constant concentration of the toxicant;
• a group of similar fish, usually 10, in each container;
• observations of fish mortality during exposures that
last between one day and one week, usually four
days; and
• final results expressed as LC50.
Other factors that are required for good bioassay practice
are briefly summarized in the references mentioned above.
CHECKLIST FOR PROCEDURES
Species
A selected strain of fish or other aquatic organisms of
local importance should be used in bioassays conducted
for the purpose of pollution monitoring. Preferably it
should be a game or pan fish, which are usually among the
more sensitive. Ability to duplicate experiments is enhanced
by the use of a selected strain of test organisms (Lennon
1967).31 A selected strain can also help to determine the
difference between toxicants more reliably, and to detect
discrepancies in results due to apparatus. A National Re-
search Council subcommittee chaired by Dr. S. F. Snieszko
is currently preparing a report, Standards and guidelines for
the breeding, care, and management of laboratory animals—Fish,
which will be useful in this area. Susceptibility to toxicants
among different species of fish is generally less than might
be expected—sometimes no greater than when a single
species is tested in different types of water. For example,
trout and certain coarse fishes were equally resistant to
ammonia when tests continued for several days to give the
less sensitive species time to react (Ball 1967a);13 and even
for zinc, the coarse fishes were no more than 3.8 times as
resistant as trout (Ball 1967b).14 Recommendations for the
selected test fish will often provide protection to other
aquatic animals and plants. There are exceptions to this
generalization: for example, copper is quite damaging to
algae and mollusks, and insecticides are especially dangerous
to aquatic arthropods. Sufficient data exist to predict these
situations. When they are expected, bioassays should be
run with two kinds of invertebrates and two kinds of algae
(Patrick et al. 1968).41
In the case of important bodies of water, there is good
reason to test several kinds of aquatic organisms in addition
to fish. Patrick et al. (1968)41 made a comparative study of
the effects of 20 pollutants on fish, snails, and diatoms and
found that no single kind of organism was most sensitive
in all situations. The short-term bioassay method for fish
may also be used for many of the larger invertebrate ani-
mals. A greater volume of test water and rate of flow, or
both, may be required in relation to weight of the animals
since their metabolic rate is higher on a weight basis.
Larvae of mollusks or crustaceans can be good test ani-
mals. The crustacean Daphnia is a good test animal and was
widely used in comparative studies of toxicants by Ander-
son (1950).12 Recently Biesinger and Christensen (unpub-
lished data, 1971)52 have carried out tests on the chronic
effects of toxicants on growth, survival, and reproduction
of Daphnia magna. Because of the rapid life cycle of Daphnia,
experiments on chronic toxicity can be completed in about
the same time as an acute toxicity test with fish.
Patrick et al. (1968)41 have shown that diatoms, snails
and fish exposed for roughly comparable periods of time
and in similar environmental conditions very often have
similar LC50's, but at other times these may differ greatly.
-------
120/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
However, for some toxicants diatoms were most sensitive;
for others, fish; and for others, snails. When one is comparing
data of this type, one questions whether a LC50 for a diatom
population in which a number of divisions have occurred
during the test period is comparable to that obtained for
fish and snails in which no reproduction has occurred during
the test period. In the sense that there are 50 per cent fewer
cells in the LC50 concentration than there are in the diatom
control culture, the test is somewhat equivalent to a test
of acute toxicity that results in 50 per cent fewer surviving
fish in the LC50 than in the control container. Also loss of
ability to grow and divide might be just as fatal to a micro-
bial population as death of a substantial number of its
members would be to a fish population.
When the absolute time for the test is considered, there
are also reasons for believing that exposure of diatoms to a
toxicant through several generations might not constitute
a chronic test, because it is quite possible that for toxicants
to accumulate in a cell may require a period of exposure
much more lengthy than that encompassed in the average
test which only spans a few generations. This would be
particularly true when the organisms were dividing rapidly
and the additional protoplasm diluted the material being
accumulated.
Dilution Water
Toxicants should be tested in the water that will receive
the pollutant in question. In this way all modifying factors
and combined toxicities will be present. It is not advisable
to use tap water for dilution, because it may contain chlorine
and other harmful materials such as copper, zinc, or lead
from plumbing systems. Routine dechlorination does not
insure complete removal of chlorine.
Variations in physical and chemical characteristics of
water affect toxicity of pollutants. Effects of five environ-
mental entities on the lethal threshold of ammonia were
illustrated a decade ago (Lloyd 1961b).34 Hardness of water
is particularly important in toxicity of metals. Hydrogen
ion concentration is an important modifying factor for
ammonia and cyanide. Higher temperatures sometimes
increase toxicity of a pollutant, but recent work shows that
phenol, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, and zinc may be
more toxic at low temperatures (United Kingdom Ministry
of Technology 1969).50 Dissolved oxygen levels that are
below saturation will increase toxicity, and this is predictable
(Lloyd 1961a;33 Brown 1968).16
The supply of dilution water must be adequate to main-
tain constant test conditions. In both static and continuous
flow tests, a sufficiently large volume of test water must be
used, and it must be replaced or replenished frequently.
This is to provide oxygen for the organism and dilution of
metabolic wastes, to limit changes in temperature and pH,
and to compensate for degradation, volatilization, intake,
and sorption of the toxicant. In static tests, there should be
two or three liters of water per gram of fish, changed daily,
or increased proportionally in volume for the number of
days of the test. In continuous flow tests, the flow must
provide at least two or three liters of water per gram of fish
per day, and it must equal test-volume in five hours or
less, giving 90 per cent replacement in half a day or less.
Acclimation
Acclimatizing the test organism to the specific water
before the bioassay begins may have marked effect upon
(he outcome. Abrupt changes in quality of the water should
be avoided. Time for acclimation of the organisms to the
conditions of the diluent water should be as generous as
possible, dependent on life span. At least two weeks is
recommended for fish.
Test Methods
Test methods must be adequately described when the
results are given. Several bioassay procedures are listed in
Table III-l. Adequate and appropriate control tests must
always be run (Sprague 1969).43 Survival of the control
organisms is a minimum indication of the quality of the
test organisms. In addition, levels of survival and health
in holding tanks should be indicated and the conclusions
recorded.
TABLE III-l—Recommended Literature Sources for Bioassay
and Biomonitoring Procedures with Various Aquatic
Organisms
Kind of organism
Type of response Appropriate situations for use
Reference
Fish and Macroinverte-
brates
Fish and macromverte-
brates
Fish and inverte-
brates
Fish
Fisb (i.e., fathead min-
nows, brook tiout.
bluegill)
Daphnii
Diatoms
Marine crustacean,
larvae mollusks
96-hour lethal concen-
tration
Lethal threshold con-
centration
Incipient lethal tem-
peratures & ultimate
incipient lethal tem-
peratures
Respiratory movements
as acute sublethal
response
Reproduction, growth,
and survival
Survival, growth, and
reproduction
Survival, growth, and
reproduction
Survival, growth, and
development through
immature states
To measure lethal toxicity ef a
wiste of known or unknown
composition. To serve as a
foundation for extrapolating
to presumably salt cimcentta-
tinns. To monitor industrial
effluents.
For research applications to
document lethal thresholds.
For research to determine
lethal temperature ranges ol
a given species.
Quick (1-day) indication of
possible sublethal effects.
Fur research and monitoring.
Chronic tests for research on
safe concentrations.
Rapid completion of chronic
tests for testing special sus-
ceptibility of crustaceans
A sensitive, rapid, chronic test
for research, prediction, or
monitoring"
A sensitive, rapid, chronic test
for research, prediction, or
monitoring"
Standard Methods 1971"
Sprague 1969," 1970"
Fry 1947," Brett 1952"
Schaumburg et al. 1967"
Mount 1968," Mount i
Stephan 1967,"
Brungs 1969," McKim
I Benoit 1971," Eaton
1970*
Anderson 1950,1= Bit-
sinter & Christensen
(Unpublished data)"
Patrick 1968"
Woelke 1967"
»requires an operator with some specialized Biological training.
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Bioassay s/121
Dissolved Oxygen
The problem of maintaining dissolved oxygen concen-
trations suitable for aquatic life in the test water can be
difficult. The suggestions on test volume and replacement
times (see Dilution Water above) should provide for ade-
quate oxygen in most rjases. However, with some pollutants,
insufficient oxygen may be present in the test water because
a biochemical and a chemical oxygen demand (BOD and
COD) may consume much of the available dissolved oxygen.
Aeration or oxygenation may degrade or remove the test
material. Devices for maintaining satisfactory dissolved
oxygen in static tests have been proposed and used with some
degree of effectiveness, and are described in Doudoroff
et al. (1951).22
Concentrations
Periodic measurements of concentration of the toxicant
should be made at least at the beginning and end of the
bioassay. If this is not possible, introduced concentrations
may be stated alone, but it should be realized that actual
concentrations in the water may become reduced.
In the flow-through type of bioassay, a large quantity of
test water can be made up and used gradually. More often
a device is used to add toxicant to a flow of water, and the
mixture is discharged into the test container, using apparatus
such as "dipping bird" dosers described by Brungs and
Mount (1967).19 Other devices have been developed by
Stark (1967),47 and Mount and Warner (1965),39 using
the doser technique.
Evaluation of Results
Mortality rates at the longest exposure time should be
plotted on a vertical probit scale against concentrations of
toxicants on a horizontal logarithmic scale. The concen-
tration which causes 50 per cent mortality can be read and
used as LC50. Errors in LC50 can be estimated using the
simple nomograph procedures described by Litchfield and
Wilcoxon (1949).32 A more refined estimate of error may
be made using the methods of Finney (1952),25 which can
be programmed for a computer.
The value of the results would be improved if the LCSO's
were estimated (by the above procedures) at frequent
exposure times such as 1, 2, 4, 8±1, 14±2, 24, 48, 72,
and 96 hours. A toxicity curve of time versus LC50 could
then be constructed on logarithmic axes. The lethal thresh-
old concentration could then be estimated in many cases
(Sprague 1969)43 to provide a more valid single number
for description of acute toxicity than the arbitrary 96-hour
LC50.
For some purposes, such as basic research or situations
where short exposures are of particular concern, it would
be desirable to follow and plot separately the mortality of
the group of fish in each tank. In this way, the median
lethal time can be estimated for a given concentration.
Methods for doing this are given in Appendix II-A.
APPLICATION FACTORS
Short-term or acute toxicity tests do not indicate concen-
trations of a potential toxicant that are harmless under
conditions of long-term exposure. Nevertheless, for each
toxicant there is obviously a numerical value for the ratio
of the safe concentration to the acutely lethal concentration.
Such values are called application factors. In some cases
this safe-to-lethal ratio is known with reasonable accuracy
from experimental work, as in the examples given in Table
III-2. However, for most toxicants, the safe level has not
been determined, and must be predicted by some approxi-
mate method. In these cases, the assumption has been
made in this Report, that the numerical value of the safe-
to-lethal ratio, the application factor, is constant for related
groups of chemicals. Values for the ratio will be recom-
mended. The safe level of a particular toxicant can then
be estimated approximately by carrying out an acute bio-
assay to determine the lethal concentration, then multi-
plying this by the suggested application factor. An appli-
cation factor does not make allowance for unknown factors.
It is merely a fractional or decimal factor applied to a
lethal concentration to estimate the safe concentration.
Ideally, an application factor should be determined for
each waste material in question. To do this, it is necessary
first to determine the lethal concentration of the waste
according to the bioassay procedures outlined above. To
obtain the application factor, the safe concentration of the
same waste must be determined for the same species by
thorough research on physiological, biochemical, and be-
havioral effects, and by studying growth, reproduction,
and production in the laboratory and field. The safe-to-
lethal ratio obtained could then be used as an application
factor in a given situation, by working from the measured
LC50 of a particular kind of waste to predict the safe
concentration.
TABLE III-2—Ratios between the safe concentration and the
lethal concentration which have been determined experi-
mentally for potential aquatic pollutants. Sources of data
are given in the sections on the individual pollutants.
Material
Species of animal
Safe-to-lethal ratio
LAS
Chlorine
Sulfides
Copper.
Trivalent chromium
Hexavalent chromium
Malathion
Carbaryl
Nickel....
Lead
Zinc .
Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)
Fathead minnow
Gammarus
Fathead minnow and white sucker (Catostomus commersoni)
Walleye pike (Stizostedion vitreum v.)
Several species of fish
Fathead minnow
Fathead minnow
Brook trout (Salvennus fontinalis)
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnen)
Fathead minnow and bluepll (Lepomis machrochirus)
Fish species
Fathead minnow
Rainbow and Brook trout
Fathead minnow
Between 0.14 and 0.28
(=3bout0.21)
0.16
0.16
0.1±
0 22±
close to 0.1
0.037
0.03
0.012
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
<0.02
0.005
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122/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
In this approach, a 96-hour LC50 is determined for the
pollutant using water from the receiving stream for dilution.
The test organisms selected should be among the most
sensitive species, or an important local species at a sensitive
life stage, or a species whose relative sensitivity is known.
This procedure takes into consideration the effects of local
water quality and the stress or adverse effects of wastes
already present in the stream. The LC50 thus found is
then multiplied by the application factor for that waste to
determine its safe concentration in the specific stream or
section of stream. Such bioassays should be repeated at
least monthly or when changes in process or rate of waste
discharge are observed.
For example, if the 96-hour LC50 is 0.5 milligrams per
liter (mg/1) and the concentration of the waste found to be
safe is 0.01 mg/1. the ratio would be:
Safe Concentration 0.01 1
96-hour LC50 ~~ 0.50 ~ 50
In this instance, the safe-to-lethal ratio is 0.02. It can be
used as an application factor in other situations. Then, in
a given situation involving this waste, the safe concentration
in the receiving stream would be found by multiplying the
four-day LC50 by 0.02.
This predictive procedure based on lethal concentrations
is useful, because the precise safe level of many pollutants
is not known because of the uncertainty about toxicity of
mixed effluents and the difference in sensitivity among fish
and fish food organisms. Henderson (1957)27 and Tarzwell
(1962)49 have discussed various factors involved in de-
veloping application factors. Studies by Mount and Stephan
(1967),;!S Brungs (1969),18 Mount (1968),37 McKim and
Benoit (1971),3C and Eaton (1970)21 in which continuous
exposure was used, reveal that the safe-to-lethal ratio that
permits spawning ranges over nearly two orders of magni-
tude. Exposure will not be constant in most cases, and
higher concentrations usually can be tolerated for short
periods.
Lethal threshold concentrations, which may require more
than 96-hour exposures, may be beneficially used (Sprague
1969)43 to replace 96-hour LC50 in the above procedures,
and there is a trend today to use such threshold concen-
trations (Eaton 1970).24
At present, safe levels have been detennined for only a
few wastes, and as a result only a few application factors are
known. Because the determination of safe levels of pollutants
is an involved process, interim procedures for estimating
tolerable concentrations of various wastes in receiving waters
must be used. To meet this situation, three universal appli-
cation factors selected on the basis of present knowledge,
experience, and judgment are recommended at the end of
this section. Where toxicants have a nonpersistent nature
(a half life of less than 4 days) or noncumulative effects,
an application factor of 0.1 of the 96-hour LC50 should
not be exceeded at any time or place after mixing with the
receiving waters. The 24-hour average of the concentratioi
of these toxicants should not exceed 0.05 of the LC50 i
aquatic life is to be protected. For toxic materials whicl
are persistent or cumulative the concentrations should no
exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place, am
the 24-hour average concentration should not exceed 0.0
of the 96-hour LC50 in order to protect aquatic life. It i
proposed that these general application factors be appliec
to LC50 values determined in the manner described abov<
to set tolerable concentrations of wastes in the receivini
stream.
MIXTURES OF TWO OR MORE TOXICANTS
The toxicity of a mixture of pollutants may be estimate!
by expressing the actual concentration of each toxicant a
a proportion of its lethal threshold concentration (usual!1
equal to the 96-hour LC50) and adding the resultin;
numbers for all the toxicants. If the total is 1.0 or greater
the mixture will be lethal.
The system of adding different toxicants in this way i
based on the premise that their lethal actions are additive
Unlikely as it seems, this simple rule has been found ti
govern the combined lethal action of many pairs and mix
tures of quite dissimilar toxicants, such as copper am
ammonia, and zinc and phenol in the laboratory (Hcrber
and Vandyke 1964,2<) Jordan and Lloyd 1964,30 Browi
et al. 1969).17 The rule holds true in field studies (Herber
1965,2S Sprague et al. 1965).4(l The method of addition i
useful and reasonably accurate for predicting thresholds c
lethal effects in mixtures.
There is also evidence of a lower limit for additive letha
effects. For ammonia and certain other pollutants, level
below 0.1 of the lethal concentration do not seem to con
tribute to the lethal action of a mixture (Brown el al. 1969,1
Lloyd and Orr 1969).35 This lower cutoff point of 0.1 c
the LC50 should be used when it is necessary to assess th
lethal effects of a mixture of toxicants.
SUBLETHAL EFFECTS
Sublethal or chronic effects of mixtures are of great im
portance. Sublethal concentrations of different toxicanl
should be additive in effect. Here again, it would be e:<
pected that for any given toxicant there would be some lov
concentration that would have no deleterious effect on ai
organism and would not contribute any sublethal toxicit
to a mixture, but there is little research on this subject
Biesinger and Christensen {unpublished data 1971),62 con
eluded that subchronic concentrations of 21 toxicants wer
close to being additive in causing chronic effects on repro
duction in Daphnia. Copper and zinc concentrations c
about 0.01 of the LC50 are additive in causing avoiclanc
reactions (Sprague et al. 196.3).46 On the other hand, some
what lower metal concentrations of about 0.003 of the LC5I
do not seem to be additive in affecting reproduction of fisl
-------
Bioassays/\2Z
(Eaton unpublished data 1971).63 Perhaps there is a lower
cutoff point than 0.01 of the LC50 for single pollutants
contributing to sublethal toxicity of a mixture.
As an interim solution, it is recommended that the con-
tribution of a single pollutant to the sublethal toxicity of a
mixture should not be counted if it is less than 0.2 of the
recommended level for that pollutant. Applying this to a
basic recommended level of 0.05 (see the Recommendation
that follows) of the LG50 would yield a value of 0.01 of the
LC50, corresponding to the possible cutoff point suggested
above.
It is expected that certain cases of joint toxicity will not
be covered by simple addition. The most obvious exception
would be when two toxicants combine chemically. For
example, mixed solutions of cyanides and metals could
cause addition of toxicity or very different effects if the
metal and cyanide combined (Doudoroff et al. 1966).23 A
thorough understanding of chemical reactions is necessary
in these cases.
For further discussions of bioassays and the difficulties
posed in assessing sublethal effects of toxicants on organisms,
see Section IV, pp. 233-237.
Recommendations for the Use of Application Factors to
Estimate Safe Concentrations of Toxic Wastes in Receiving
Streams
Where specific application factors have been determined
for a given material, they should be used instead of the safe
concentration levels of wastes given below:
(a) Concentration of materials that are nonpersistent
or have noncumulative effects should not exceed 0.1 of
the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place after mixing with
the receiving waters. The 24-hour average of the concen-
tration of these materials should not exceed 0.05 of the
LC50 after mixing.
(b) For toxicants which are persistent or cumulative,
the concentrations should not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour
LC50 at any time or place, nor should the 24-hour average
concentration exceed 0.01 of the 96-hour LC50.
(c) When two or more toxic materials are present at
the same time in the receiving water, it should be assumed
unless proven otherwise that their individual toxicities are
additive and that some reduction in the permissible concen-
trations is necessary. The amount of reduction required is
a function of both the number of toxic materials present
and their concentrations in respect to the permissible con-
centrations. The following relationship will assure that the
combined amounts of the several substances do not exceed
a permissible concentration:
This formula may be applied where Ca, Cb, . . . Cn are the
measured or expected concentrations of the several toxic
materials in the water, and La, Lb, . . . Ln are the respective
concentrations recommended or those derived by using
recommended application factors on bioassays done under
local conditions. Should the sum of the several fractions
exceed 1 .0, a local restriction on the concentration of one
or more of the substances is necessary.
C and L can be measured in any convenient chemical
unit as proportions of the LC50 or in any other desired way,
as long as the numerator and denominator of any single
fraction are in the same units. To remove natural trace
concentrations and low nonadditive concentrations from
the above formula, any single fraction which has a value
less than 0.2 should be removed from the calculation.
Example:
Small quantities of five toxicants are measured in a
stream as follows:
3 micrograms /liter (jug/1) of zinc; 3 jug/1 of phenol;
3 fig/I of un-ionized ammonia as calculated from
Figure III- 10 (see Ammonia, p. 186); 1 /ug/1 of
cyanide; and 1 Mg/1 of chlorine.
A bioassay with zinc sulphate indicates that the 96-
hour LC50 is 1.2 mg/1. The application factor for
zinc is 0.005; therefore, the allowable limit is 0.005 X
1.2 = 0.006 mg 1. Initial bioassays with phenol, am-
monia, and cyanide indicate that the recommended
values are the safe concentrations stated in other sec-
tions of the Report, not the fractions of LC50; so the
limits are 0.1 mg/1, 0.02 mg/1, and 0.005 mg/1. The
permissible limit for chlorine (page 189) is 0.003 mg/1.
Therefore, the total toxicity is estimated as follows for
zinc, phenol, ammonia, cyanide, and chlorine, re-
spectively :
0.003 0.003
0.003 0.001 0.001
(1006 ~0 (XOT O005 01)03
= 0.5+0.03+0.15+0.2+0.33
The second and third terms, i.e., phenol and ammonia,
should be deleted since they are below the minimum
of 0.2 for additive effects. This leaves 0.5+0.2+0.33 =
1 .03, indicating that the total sublethal effect of these
three toxicants is slightly above the permissible level
and that no higher concentration of any of the three
is safe. Thus none can be added as a pollutant.
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PHYSICAL MANIPULATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Numerous activities initiated to maximize certain uses of
water resources often adversely affect water quality and
minimize other uses. These activities have caused both
benefit and harm in terms of environmental quality. The
common forms of physical alteration of watersheds are
channelization, dredging, filling, shoreline modifications
(of lakes and streams), clearing of vegetation, rip-rapping,
diking, leveling, sand and gravel removal, and impounding
of streams!
Channelization is widespread throughout the United
States, and many studies have been conducted documenting
its effects. Channelization usually increases stream gradient
and flow rates. The quiet areas or backwaters are either
eliminated or cut off from the main flow of the stream, the
stream bed is made smooth, thus reducing the habitats
available to benthic organisms, and surrounding marshes
and swamps are more rapidly drained. The steeper gradient
increases velocity allowing the stream to carry a greater
suspended load and causing increased turbidity. The rate
of organic waste transformation per mile is usually reduced,
and destruction of spawning and nursery areas often occurs.
Trautman (1939),67 Smith and Larimore (1963),65 Peters
and Alvord (1964),64 Welker (1967),69 Martin (1969),63
and Gebhards (1970)68 have discussed the harmful effects
of channelization on some fish populations and the effect
on stimulation of less desirable species.
Dredging undertaken to increase water depth often
destroys highly productive habitats such as marshes (Mar-
shall 1968,62 Copeland and Dickens 1969).56 The spoils
from dredging activities are frequently disposed of in other
shallow sites causing further loss of productive areas. For
example, Taylor and Saloman (1968)66 reported that since
1950 there has been a 20 per cent decrease in surface area
of productive Boca Ciega Bay, Florida, due to fill areas.
It has become common practice to fill in marshy sites near
large metropolitan areas (e.g., San Francisco Bay, Jamaica
Bay) to provide for airport construction and industrial
development.
In addition to the material that is actually removed by
the dredging process, a considerable amount of waste is
suspended in the water resulting in high turbidities (Mackin
1961).61 If the dredged sediments are relatively nontoxii
gross effects on motile aquatic life may not be noticeabL
but benthic communities ma-.y be drastically affected by tr
increased redeposition of silt (Ingle 1952).69
In many instances either high nutrient or toxic sedimen
are suspended or deposited during the dredging proces
This action may kill aquatic organisms by exposure to tl
toxicants present or by the depletion of dissolved oxyge
concentrations, or both. Brown and Clark (1968)64 note
a dissolved oxygen reduction of 16 to 83 per cent whe
oxidizable sediments were rcsuspended. In many cases di
turbed sediments containing high nutrient concentratioi
may stimulate undesirable forms of phytoplankton c
Cladophora. Gannon and Beeton (1969)57 categorized harbc
sediments in five groups. Those most severely pollute
were toxic to various animals and did not stimulate growt
of phytoplankton. Other sediments were toxic but stimi
lated plant growth. The least polluted sediments were n<
toxic and stimulated growth of phytoplankton but nc
Cladophora.
Three basic aspects must be considered in evaluating tr.
impact of dredging and disposal on the aquatic enviroi
ment: (1) the amount and nature of the dredgings, (2) ti
nature and quality of the environments of removal an
disposal, and (3) the ecological responses. All vary wide!
in different environments, and it is not possible to identii
an optimal dredging and disposal system. Consequent!'
the most suitable program must be developed for eac
situation. Even in situations where soil is deposited i
diked enclosures or used for fill, care must be taken 1
monitor overflow, seepage, and runoff waters for toxic an
stimulatory materials.
Artificial impoundments may have serious environment;
impact on natural aquatic ecosystems. Dams and otht
artificial barriers frequently block migration and ma
destroy large areas of specialized habitat. Aquatic organise
are frequently subjected to physical damage if they ai
allowed to pass through or over hydroelectric power uni
and other man-made objects when properly designe
barriers are not provided. At large darns, especially thos
designed for hydroelectric power, water drawn from tr
124
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Physical Manipulation of the Environment/125
pool behind the dam is frequently taken from great depths,
resulting in the release to the receiving stream of waters
low in dissolved oxygen and excessively cold. This can be a
problem, particularly in areas where nonnative fish are
stocked.
Cutting down forests, planting the land in crops, and
partially covering the surface of a watershed by building
roads, houses, and industries can have detrimental effects
on water ways. Wark and Keller (1963)68 showed that in
the Potomac River Basin (Washington, D.C.) reducing the
forest cover from 80 per cent to 20 per cent increased the
annual sediment yield from 50 to 400 tons per square mile
per year. The planting of land in crops increased the sedi-
ment yield from 70 to 300 tons per square mile per year,
or a fourfold increase as the land crops increased from 10
per cent to 50 per cent. Likens et al. (1970)60 showed that
cutting down the forest in the Hubbard Brook area (Ver-
mont) caused substantial changes in the streams. The sedi-
ment load increased fourfold over a period from May 1966
to May 1968. Furthermore, the particulate matter drained
from the deforested watershed became increasingly in-
organic in content, thus reducing the value of the sediment
as a food source. The nutrient content of the water was also
affected by cutting down the forests. The nitrate concen-
tration increased from 0.9 mg/1 prior to the cutting of
vegetation to 53 mg/1 two years later. Temperatures of
streams in deforested areas were higher, particularly during
the summer months, than those of streams bordered bv
forests (Brown and Krygier 1970).S5
Prior to any physical alterations of a watershed, a
thorough investigation should be conducted to determine
the expected balance between benefits and adverse environ-
mental effects.
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SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE SOLIDS
Suspended and settleable solids include both inorganic
and organic materials. Inorganic components include sand.
silt, and clay originating from erosion, mining, agriculture,
and areas of construction. Organic matter may be com-
posed of a variety of materials added to the ecosystem from
natural and man-made sources. These inorganic and organic
sources are discussed in the Panel Report on Marine
Aquatic Life and Wildlife (Section IV), and the effects of
land-water relationships are described in the report on
Recreation and Aesthetics (Section I).
SOIL AS A SOURCE OF MINERAL PARTICLES
Soil structure and drainage patterns, together with the
intensity and temporal distribution of rainfall that directly
affect the kind and amount of protective vegetative cover,
determine the susceptibility of a soil to erosion. Where
rain occurs more or less uniformly throughout the year,
protective grasses, shrubs, or trees develop (Leopold, et al.
1964).78 Where rainfall occurs intermittently, as in arid
areas, growth of protective plants is limited thus allowing
unchecked erosion of soils.
Wetting and drying cause swelling and shrinking of clay
soils and leave the surface susceptible to entrainment in
surface water flows. Suspended soil particle concentrations
in rivers, therefore, are at their peak at the beginning of
flood flows. Data on the concentration of suspended matter
in most of the significant streams of the United States are
presented in the U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply
Papers.
Streams transport boulders, rocks, pebbles, and sand by
intermittent rolling motions, or by intermittent suspension
and deposition as particles are entrained and later settled
on the bed. Fine particles are held in suspension for long
periods, depending on the intensity of the turbulence. Fine
silt particles, when dispersed in fresh waters, remain almost
continuously suspended, and suspension of dispersed clay
mineral particles may be maintained even by the thermally
induced motions in water. These fine mineral particles are
the soil materials of greatest significance to the turbidity
values of a particular water.
The suspended and settleable solids and the bed of a wall
body must be considered as interrelated, interacting part
For example, Langlois (1941)77 reported that in Lake Er
the average of 40 parts per million (ppm) of suspends
matter in the water was found to change quickly to moi
than 200 ppm with a strong wind. He further explaine
that this increase is attributed to sediments resuspended 1:
wave action. These sediments enter from streams or froi
shoreline erosion.
Suspended clay mineral particles are weakly cohesive i
fresh river waters having either unusually low dissolved sa
concentrations or high concentrations of multivalent cation
Aggregations of fine particles form and settle on the bed 1
form soft fluffy deposits when such waters enter a lake c
impoundment. However, clay mineral particles are di,
persed or only weakly cohesive in most rivers.
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES IN WATER
The composition and concentrations of suspended part
cles in surface waters are important because of their effec
on light penetration, temperalure, solubility products, an
aquatic life (Cairns 1968).7'2 The mechanical or abrasiv
action of particulate material is of importance to the highe
aquatic organisms, such as mussels and fish. Gills may b
clogged and their proper functions of respiration an
excretion impaired. Blanketing of plants and sessile anima
with sediment as well as the blanketing of importar
habitats, such as spawning sites, can cause drastic change
in aquatic ecosystems. If sedimentation, even of inei
particles, covers substantial amounts of organic materia
anaerobic conditions can occur and produce noxious gase
and other objectionable characteristics, such as low dis
solved oxygen and decreases in pH.
Absorption of sunlight by natural waters is strongl'
affected by the presence of suspended solids. The intensif
of light (/) at any distance along a light ray (L) is, for ;
uniform suspension, expressed by the formula:
where 70 is the intensity just below the water surface (L = 0)
126
-------
Suspended and Settleable Solids /127
k is the extinction coefficient for the suspended solids, and
c is the concentration of suspended solids. L can be related
to the water depth by the zenith angle, i, the angle of
refraction, r, and the index of refraction of water, 1.33, by
Snell's rule:
sin r =
1.33
The depth, Z), is L cos r. Refraction makes the light path
more nearly vertical under water than the sun's rays,
except when the sun's rays are themselves normal to the
water surface.
The growth of fixed and suspended aquatic plants can
be limited by the intensity of sunlight. An example of the
decrease in the photic zone was calculated for San Francisco
Bay (Krone 1963),76 where k was 1.18X103 square centi-
meters per gram. For a typical suspended solids concen-
tration of 50X10"6 grams per cubic centimeter, for an
algae requiring 20 foot candles or more for its multipli-
cation, and under incident sunlight of 13,000 foot candles
the photic zone did not exceed 1.1 meters. A reduction in
suspended solids concentration to 20 X 10~6 g/cm3 increased
the maximum depth of the photic zone to 2.8 meters.
Because suspended particles inhibit the penetration of
sunlight, water temperatures are affected, and increasing
turbidity results in increasing absorption near the water
surface so that turbid waters warm more rapidly at the
surface than do clearer waters. Warming and the accom-
panying decrease in density stabilize water and may inhibit
vertical mixing. Lower oxygen transfer value from air to
water results when surface waters are heated. This action
combined with inhibited vertical mixing reduces the rate of
oxygen transfer downward. Still or slowly moving water is
most affected.
The rate of warming, dT/dt, at any distance from the
surface along a light path, L, in water having uniform
suspended material is
dT
-kcL
where p is the water density and C is the specific heat of
the water. This equation shows that an increase in suspended
sediment concentration increases the rate of warming near
the surface and decreases exponentially with depth. The
biological significance of this relationship is in the effect on
time of formation, vertical distribution of thermal stratifi-
cation, and stability of the upper strata. Increasing tur-
bidity could change the stratification patterns of a lake and
thus change the temperature distribution, oxygen regime,
and composition of the biological communities.
ADSORPTION OF TOXIC MATERIALS
Suspended mineral particles have irregular, large surface
areas, with electrostatic charges. As a consequence, clay
minerals may sorb cations, anions, and organic compounds.
Pesticides and heavy metals may be absorbed on suspended
clay particles and strongly held with them. The sorption
of chemicals by suspended matter is particularly important
if it leads to a buildup of toxic and radioactive materials
in a limited area with the possibility of sudden release of
these toxicants. One such example has been reported by
Benoit et al. (1967).70 Gannon and Beeton (1969)78 reported
that sediments with the following characteristics dredged
from various harbors on the Great Lakes were usually toxic
to various organisms: COD 42,000 mg/1, volatile solids
4,000 mg/1, ammonia 0.075 mg/g, phosphate-P 0.65 mg/g.
The capacity of minerals to hold dissolved toxic materials
is different for each material and type of clay mineral. An
example illustrates the magnitudes of sorptive capacities:
the cation exchange capacity (determined by the number
of negatively charged sites on clay mineral surfaces) ranges
from a few milliequivalents per hundred grams (me/100 g)
of mineral for kaolinite clay to more than 100 me/100 g for
montmorillonite clay. Typical estuarial sediments, which are
mixtures of clay, silt, and sand minerals, have exchange
capacities ranging from 15 to 60 me/100 g (Krone 1963).76
The large amounts of such material that enter many
estuaries and lakes from tributary streams provide continu-
ally renewed sorptive capacity that removes materials such
as heavy metals, phosphorus, and radioactive ions. The
average new sediment load flowing through the San Fran-
cisco Bay-Delta system, for example, has a total cation
exchange capacity of a billion equivalents per year.
The sorptive capacity effectively creates the large assimi-
lative capacity of muddy waters. A reduction in suspended
mineral solids in surface waters can cause an increase in
the concentrations of dissolved toxic materials contributed
by existing waste discharges.
EFFECTS ON FISH AND INVERTEBRATES
The surface of particulate matter may act as a substratum
for microbial species, although the particle itself may or
may not contribute to their nutrition. When the presence
of particulate matter enables the environment to support
substantial increased populations of aquatic microorganisms,
the dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and other char-
acteristics of the water are frequently altered.
There are several ways in which an excessive concen-
tration of finely divided solid matter might be harmful to
a fishery in a river or a lake (European Inland Fisheries
Advisory Commission, EIFAC 1965).73 These include:
• acting directly on fish swimming in water in which
solids are suspended, either killing them or reducing
their growth rate and resistance to disease;
• preventing the successful development of fish eggs
and larvae;
-------
128/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
• modifying natural movements and migrations of fish;
• reducing the food available to fish;
• affecting efficiency in catching the fish.
With respect to chemically inert suspended solids and to
waters that are otherwise satisfactory for the maintenance of
freshwater fisheries, EIFAC (1965)73 reported:
• there is no evidence that concentrations of suspended
solids less than 25 mg/1 have any harmful effects
on fisheries;
• it should usually be possible to maintain good or
moderate fisheries in waters that normally contain
25 to 80 mg/1 suspended solids; other factors being
equal, however, the yield of fish from such waters
might be somewhat lower than from those in the
preceding category;
• waters normally containing from 80 to 400 mg/J
suspended solids are unlikely to support good fresh-
water fisheries, although fisheries may sometimes
be found at the lower concentrations within this
range;
• only poor fisheries are likely to be found in waters
that normally contain more than 400 mg/1 suspended
solids.
In addition, although several thousand parts per million
suspended solids may not kill fish during several hours or
days exposure, temporary high concentrations should be
prevented in rivers where good fisheries are to be main-
tained. The spawning grounds of most fish should be kept
as free as possible from finely divided solids.
While the low turbidities reported above reflected values
that should protect the ecosystem, Wallen (1951)80 reported
that fish can tolerate higher concentrations. Behavioral
reactions were not observed until concentrations of tur-
bidity neared 20,000 mg/1, and in one species reactions did
not appear until turbidities reached 100,000 mg/1. Most
species tested endured exposures of more than 100,000 mg/1
turbidity for a week or longer, but these same fishes finally
died at turbidities of 175,000 to 225,000 mg/1. Lethal
turbidities caused the death of fishes within 15 minutes to
two hours exposure. Fishes that succumbed had opercular
cavities and gill filaments clogged with silty clay particles
from the water.
In a study of fish and macroinvertebrate populations
over a four-year period in a stream receiving sediment from
a crushed limestone quarry, Gammon (1970)74 found that
inputs that increased the suspended solids load less than
40 mg/1 (normal suspended solids was 38 to 41 mg/1 and
volatile suspended solids 16 to 30 mg/1) resulted in a 25
per cent reduction in macroinvertebrate density in the
stream below the quarry. A heavy silt input caused increases
of more than 120 mg/1 including some decomposition of
sediment, and resulted in a 60 per cent reduction in density
of macroinvertebrates. Population diversity indices we
unaffected because most species responded to the sar
degree. The standing crop of fish decreased dramatical
when heavy sediment occurred in the spring; but fish r
mained in pools during the summer when the input w
heavy and vacated the pools only after deposits of seclime
accumulated. After winter floods removed sediment d
posits, fish returned to the pools and achieved levels of .
per cent of the normal standing crop by early June.
Not all particulate matter affects organisms in the san
way. For example, Smith, ei. al. (1965)79 found that tl
lethal action of pulp-mill fiber on walleye fingerlin
(Stizostedion vitreum vitreuni) and fathead minnows (Pimepha,
promelas) was influenced by (he type of fiber. In 96-ho
bioassays, mortality of the minnows in 2,000 ppm suspe
sions was 78 per cent in conifer groundwood, 34 per ce
in conifer kraft, and 4 per cent in aspen groundwood. Hit
temperatures and reduced dissolved oxygen coricentratio
increased the lethal action of fiber.
Buck (1956)71 studied the growth offish in 39 farm pone
having a wide range of turbidities. The ponds were cleart
of fish and then restocked with largemouth black ba
(Micropterus salmoides), bluegill (Lepomis macrothirus), ar
redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus). After two growir
seasons the yields of fish were
• clear ponds (less than 25 mg/1 161.5 Ib/acre
suspended solids)
• intermediate (25-100 mg/1 94.0 Ib/acre
suspended solids)
• muddy (more than 100 mg/1 29.3 Ib/acrc
suspended solids)
The rate of reproduction was also reduced by turbidit;
and the critical concentration for all three species appeare
to be about 75-100 mg/1. In the same paper, Buck reporte
that largemouth black bass {Micropterus salmoides), crappk
(Pomoxis), and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) grew mor
slowly in a reservoir where the water had an averag
turbidity of 130 mg/1 than in another reservoir where th
water was always clear.
Floating materials, including large objects as well as ver
fine substances, can adversely affect the activities of aquati
life. Floating logs shut out sunlight and interfere particular]
with surface feeding fish. Logs may also leach various type
of organic acids due to the action of water. If they hav
been sprayed with pesticides or treated chemically, theS'
substances may also leach into the water. As the logs floa
downstream their bark often disengages and falls to tfo
bed of the stream, disturbing benthic habitats. Aquatic life
is also affected by fine substances, such as sawdust, peelings
hair from tanneries, wood fibers, containers, scum, oil
garbage, and materials from untreated municipal and in
dustrial wastes, tars and greases, and precipitated chemicals
-------
Suspended and Settleable Solids/129
Recommendations
• The combined effect of color and turbidity should
not change the compensation point more than
10 per cent from its seasonally established norm,
nor should such a change place more than 10
per cent of the biomass of photosynthetic orga-
nisms below the compensation point.
Aquatic communities should be protected if the
following maximum concentrations of suspended
solids exist:
High level of protection 25 mg/1
Moderate protection 80 mg/1
Low level of protection 400 mg/1
Very low level of protection over 400 mg/1
-------
COLOR
The true color of a specific water sample is the result of
substances in solution; thus it can be measured only after
suspended material has been removed. Color may be of
organic or mineral origin and may be the result of natural
processes as well as manufacturing operations. Organic
sources include humic materials, peat, plankton, aquatic
plants, and tannins. Inorganic substances are largely me-
tallic, although iron and manganese, the most important
substances, are usually not in solution. They affect color as
particles. Heavy-metal complexes are frequent contributors
to the color problem.
Many industries (such as pulp and paper, textile, refining,
chemicals, dyes and explosives, and tanning) discharge
materials that contribute to the color of water. •Conventional
biological waste treatment procedures are frequently in-
effective in removing color. On the other hand, such treat-
ment processes have caused an accentuation of the level
of color during passage through the treatment plant.
Physicochemical treatment processes are frequently pre-
ferable to biological treatment if color removal is critical
(Eye and Aldous 1968,81 King and Randall 197083).
The tendency for an accentuation of color to occur as a
result of complexing of a heavy metal with an organic sub-
stance may also lead to problems in surface waters. A rela-
tively color-free discharge from a manufacturing operation,
may, upon contact with iron in a stream, produce a highly
colored water that would significantly affect aquatic life
(Hem I960,82 Stumm and Morgan 196286).
The standard platinum-cobalt method of measuring color
is applicable to a wide variety of water samples (Standard
Methods 1971).85 However, industrial wastes frequen
produce colors dissimilar to the standard platinum-cob
color, making the comparison technique of limited vah
The standard unit of color in water is that level produc
by 1 mg/1 of platinum as chloroplatinate ion (Standa
Methods 1971).85 Natural color in surface waters rant
from less than one color unit to more than 200 in higt
colored bodies of water (Nordell 1961).84
That light intensity at which oxygen production in pho
synthesis and oxygen consumption by respiration of t
plants concerned are equal is known as the compensati
point, and the depth at which the compensation point t
curs is called the compensation depth. For a given body
water this depth varies with several conditions, includi
season, time of day, the extent of cloud cover, condition
the water, and the taxonomic composition of the flora
volved. As commonly used, che compensation point ref
to that intensity of light which is such that the plan
oxygen production during the day will be sufficient
balance the oxygen consumpiion during the whole 24-hc
period (Welch 1952).87
Recommendation
The combined effect of color and turbidity shou
not change the compensation point more than
per cent from its seasonally established norm, n
should such a change place more than 10 per cei
of the biomass of photosynthetic organisms belc
the compensation point.
130
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DISSOLVED GASES
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Oxygen requirements of aquatic life have been extensively
studied. Comprehensive papers have been presented by
Doudoroff and Shumway (1967),89 Doudoroff and Warren
(1965),91 Ellis (1937),93 and Fry (I960).94 (Much of the
research on temperature requirements also considers oxygen,
and references cited in the discussion of Heat and Temper-
ature, p. 151, are relevant here.) The most comprehensive
review yet to appear has been written by Doudoroff and
Shumway for the ivood and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations (1970).90 This FAO report
provides the most advanced summary of scientific research
on oxygen needs of fish, and it has served as a basis for most
of the recommendations presented in this discussion. In
particular, it provided the criteria for citing different levels
of protection for fish, for change from natural levels of
oxygen concentration, and for the actual numerical values
recommended. Much of the text below has been quoted
verbatim or condensed from the FAO report. Its recommen-
dations have been modified in only two ways: the insertion
of a floor of 4 mg/1 as a minimum, and the suggestion that
natural minima be assumed to be equal to saturation
levels if the occurrence of lower minima cannot be definitely
established. Doudoroff and Shumway covered oxygen con-
centrations below the floor of 4 mg/1; however, the 4 mg/1
floor has been adopted in this report for reasons explained
below.
Levels of Protection
Most species of adult fish can survive at very low concen-
trations of dissolved oxygen. Even brook trout (Salvelinus
fontinalis) have been acclimated in the laboratory to less
than 2 mg/1 of Oa. In natural waters, the minimum concen-
tration that allows continued existence of a varied fish
fauna, including valuable food and game species, is not
high. This minimum is not above 4 mg/1 and may be much
lower.
However, in evaluating criteria, it is not important to
know how long an animal can resist death by asphyxiation
at low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Instead, data on
the oxygen requirements for egg development, for newly
hatched larvae, for normal growth and activity, and for
completing all stages of the reproductive cycle are pertinent.
Upon review of the available research, one fact becomes
clear: any reduction of dissolved oxygen can reduce the
efficiency of oxygen uptake by aquatic animals and hence
reduce their ability to meet demands of their environment.
There is evidently no concentration level or percentage of
saturation to which the O2 content of natural waters can
be reduced without causing or risking some adverse effects
on the reproduction, growth, and consequently, the pro-
duction of fishes inhabiting those waters.
Accordingly, no single, arbitrary recommendation can
be set for dissolved oxygen concentrations that will be
favorable for all kinds of fish in all kinds of waters, or even
one kind of fish in a single kind of water. Any reduction in
oxygen may be harmful by affecting fish production and
the potential yield of a fishery.
The selection of a level of protection (Table 111-3) is a
socioeconomic decision, not a biological one. Once the
level of protection is selected, appropriate scientific recom-
mendations may be derived from the criteria presented in
this discussion.
Basis for Recommendations
The decision to base the recommendations on O2 con-
centration minima, and not on average concentrations,
arises from various considerations. Deleterious effects on
fish seem to depend more on extremes than on averages.
For example, the growth of young fish is slowed markedly
if the oxygen concentration falls to 3 mg/1 for part of the
day, even if it rises as high as 18 mg/1 at other times. It
could be an inaccurate and possibly controversial task to
carry out the sets of measurements required to decide
whether a criterion based on averages was being met.
A daily fluctuation of O2 is to be expected where there is
appreciable photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants. In
such cases, the minimum O2 concentration will usually be
found just before daybreak, and sampling should be done
at that time. Sampling should also take into account the
possible differences in depth or width of the water body.
The guiding principle should be to sample the places where
131
-------
132/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
aquatic organisms actually live or the parts of the habitat
where they should be able to live.
Before recommendations are proposed, it is necessary to
evaluate criteria for the natural, seasonal C>2 minimum
from which the recommendations can be derived. Natural
levels are assumed to be the saturation levels, unless scien-
tific data show that the natural levels were already low in
the absence of man-made effects.
Certain waters in regions of low human populations can
still be adequately studied in their natural or pristine con-
dition. In these cases the minimum C>2 concentration at
different seasons, temperatures, and stream discharge vol-
umes can be determined by direct observation. Such ob-
served conditions can also be useful in estimating seasonal
minima in similar waters in similar geographical regions
where natural levels can no longer be observed because of
waste discharges or other man-made changes.
In many populated regions, some or all of the streams
and lakes have been altered. Direct determination of
natural minima may no longer be possible. In these cases
the assumption of year-round saturation with O2 is made
in the absence of other evidence.
Supersaturation of water with dissolved oxygen may
occur as the result of photosynthesis by aquatic vegetation.
There is some evidence that this may be deleterious to
aquatic animals because of gas bubble disease (see Total
Dissolved Gases, p. 135).
Despite the statements in previous paragraphs that there
is no single O2 concentration which is favorable to all species
and ecosystems, it is obvious that there are, nevertheless,
very low C>2 concentrations that are unfavorable to almost
all aquatic organisms. Therefore, a floor of 4 mg/1 is
recommended except in situations where the natural level
of dissolved oxygen is less than 4 mg/1 in which case no
further depression is desirable. The value of 4 mg/1 has
been selected because there is evidence of subacute or
chronic damage to several fish below this concentration.
Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)90 review the work of
several authors as given below, illustrating such damage.
Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) held at 4 mg/1
spawned satisfactorily; only 25 per cent of the resultant
fry survived for 30 days, compared to 66 per cent survival
at 5 mg/1. At an oxygen level of 3 mg/1, survival of fry
was even further reduced to 5 per cent (Brungs 1972101
personal communication). Shumway et al. (1964)98 found that
the dry weight of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch} aleviris
(with yolk sac removed) was reduced by 59 per cent when
they had been held at 3.8 mg/1 of oxygen, compared to
weights of the controls. The embryos of sturgeon (Acipenser)
suffered complete mortality at oxygen concentrations of
3.0 to 3.5 mg/1, compared to only 18 per cent mortality at
5.0 to 5.5 mg/1 (Yurovitskii 1964).10° Largemouth bass
(Micropterus salmoides) embryos reared at 25 C showed sur-
vival equal to controls only at oxygen levels above 3.5 mg/1
(Dudley 1969).92 Efficiency of food conversion by juvenile
bass was nearly independent of Oa at 5 mg/1 and higl
but growth rate was reduced by 16.5 per cent at 4 mi
and 30 per cent at 3 mg/1 (Stewart et al. 1967)." Sim
reductions in growth of underyearling coho salmon
curred at the same C>2 concentrations (Herrmann et
1962).95 Although many other experiments have she
little or no damage to performance of fish at 4 mg/1.
lower, the evidence given above shows appreciable efTi
on embryonic and juvenile survival and growth for sev<
species of fish sufficient to justify this value.
Warm- and Coldwater Fishes
There are many associations and types of fish fai
throughout the country. Dissolved oxygen criteria for cc
water fishes and warmwater game fishes are conside
together in this report. There is no evidence to sugi
that the more sensitive warmwater species have lower
requirements than the more sensitive coldwater fishes. "
difference in O2 requirements is probably not greater tl
the difference of the solubility of C>2 in water at the m;
mum temperatures to which these two kinds of fish
normally exposed in summer (Doudoroff and Shumv
1970).90 In warmwater regions, however, the variety
fishes and fish habitats is relatively great, and there
many warmwater species that are exceedingly toleranl
O2 deficiency.
Unusual Waters
There are certain types of waters that naturally have 1
oxygen content, such as the "black waters" draining swar
of the Southeastern United States. (Other examples inch
certain deep ocean waters and eutrophic waters that supp
heavy biomass, the respiration of which reduces O2 cont
much of the time.) A special situation prevails in the di
layers (hypolimnion) of some lakes. Such layers do not t
with the surface layers for extended periods and may h.
reduced C>2, or almost none. Fish cannot live in the di
layers of many such lakes during a large part of the ye
although each lake of this kind must be considered a
special case. However, the recommendation that no oxyg
consuming wastes should be released into the deep lay
still applies, since there may be no opportunity for reaerat
for an entire season.
Organisms Other Than Fish
Most research concerning oxygen requirements for fre
water organisms deals with fish; but since fish depend up
other aquatic species for food, it is necessary to consii
the O2 requirements of these organisms. This Section ma
the assumption that the C>2 requirements of other compc
ents of the aquatic community are compatible with f
(Doudoroff and Shumway 1970) .90 There are certain exci
tions where exceedingly important invertebrate organis
may be very sensitive to lov/ O2, more sensitive than the f
species in that habitat (Doudoroff and Shumway 1970
-------
Dissolved Gases/133
The situation is somewhat more complicated for inverte-
brates and aquatic plants, inasmuch as organic pollution that
causes reduction of O2 also directly increases food material.
However, it appears equally true for sensitive invertebrates
as for fish that any reduction of dissolved O2 may have de-
leterious effects on their production. For example, Nebeker
(1972)97 has found that although a certain mayfly (Ephemera
simulans) can survive at 4.0 mg/1 of oxygen for four days,
any reduction of oxygen below saturation causes a decrease
in successful transformation of the immature to the adult
stage.
Salmonid Spawning
For spawning of salmonid fishes during the season when
eggs are in the gravel, there are even greater requirements
for O.i than those given by the high level of protection.
(See Table III-3 for description of levels.) This is because
the water associated with the gravel may contain less oxygen
than the water in the stream above the gravel. There is
abundant evidence that salmonid eggs are adversely affected
in direct proportion to reduction in O2. The oxygen criteria
for eggs should be about half way between the nearly
maximum and high levels of protection.
TABLE III-3—Guidelines for Selecting Desired Type and
Level of Protection of Fish Against Deleterious Effects of
Reduced Oxygen Concentrations
Level of protection
Intended type of protection
Possible application
Nearly Maximum" For virtually unimpaired productivity and
unchanged quality of a fishery.
High Not likely to cause appreciable change in
tbe ecosystem, nor material reduction of
fish production. Some impairment is
risked, but appreciable damage is not to
be expected at ttiese levels of oxygen.
Moderate Fisheries should persist, usually with no
serious impairment, but with some de-
crease in production.
Low Should permit the persistence of sizeable
populations of tolerant species and suc-
cessful passage of most migrants'1. Much
reduced production or elimination of sen-
sitive fish is likely.
Appropriate for conservation areas, parks, and
water bodies of high or unique value. Re-
quires, practically speaking, that little or no
deoxygenatmg wastes be added to natural
waters. Nor must there be any activities
such as unfavorable land use which would
reduce 02 levels.
Could be appropriate for fisheries or aquatic
ecosystems of some importance, which
should not be impaired by other uses of
water.
Could be used for fisheries which are valued,
but must co-exist with major industries or
dense human population
Appropriate for fisheries that have some com-
mercial or recreational value, but are so
unimportant compared with other water
uses, that their maintenance cannot be a
major objective ol pollution control.
This type of protection should however, pro-
vide lor survival of sensitive species m adult
or subadult life stages for short periods
during the year, if oxygen levels at other
times are satisfactory for growth, reproduc-
tion, etc.
0 Note that there could be > higher level of protection that would require oxygen to be near natural level at all times,
whereas nearly maximum requires only that oxygen should not fall below the lowest level characteristic of the season.
k But will not protect migrating salmonids, which would requite it least a Moderate level of protection, for zones of
passage.
Interaction with Toxic Pollutants or Other Environmental
Factors
It is known that reduced oxygen levels increase the
toxicity of pollutants. A method for predicting this inter-
action has been given by Brown (1968),88 and a theoretical
background by Lloyd (1961).96 The disposal of toxic pol-
lutants must be controlled so that their concentrations will
not be unduly harmful at prescribed acceptable levels of
O2, temperature, and pH. The levels of oxygen recom-
mended in this Section are independent of the presence of
toxic wastes, no matter what the nature of the interaction
between these toxicants and O2 deficiencies. Carbon dioxide
is an exception, because its concentration influences the
safe level of oxygen. The recommendations for O2 are
valid when the CO2 concentration is within the limits
recommended in the section on CO2.
Application of Recommendations
As previously stated, the recommendations herein differ
in two important respects from those widely used. First,
they are not fixed values independent of natural conditions.
Second, they offer a choice of different levels of protection
of fishes, the selection of any one of which is primarily a
socioeconomic decision, not a biological one.
Table 111-4 presents guidelines for the protection of
fishes at each of four levels. Each column shows the level
to which the dissolved O2 can be reduced and still provide
the stated level of protection for local fisheries. The values
can be derived from the equations given in the recommen-
dations. These equations have been calculated to fit the
curves shown in the figure on page 264 of Doudoroff and
Shumway (1970),90 which serve as the basis of the recom-
mendations. To use Table 111-4, the estimated natural
seasonal minimum should first be determined on the basis
of available data or from expert judgment. This may be
taken to be the minimum saturation value for the season,
unless there is scientific evidence that losses of O2 levels
prevailed naturally. The word "season" here means a
period based on local climatic and hydrologic conditions,
during which the natural thermal and dissolved O2 regime
of a stream or lake can be expected to be fairly uniform.
Division of the year into equal three-month periods, such
as December-February, March-May, is satisfactory. How-
ever, under special conditions, the designated seasons could
be periods longer or shorter than three months, and could
in fact be taken as individual months. The selected periods
need not be equal in length.
When the lowest natural value for the season has been
estimated, the desired kind and level of protection should
then be selected according to the guidelines in Table 111-3.
The recommended minimum level of dissolved oxygen may
then be found in the selected column of Table 111-4, or as
given by the formula in the recommendation.
-------
134/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE III-4—Example of Recommended Minimum
Concentrations of Dissolved Oxygen
Estimated natural
seasonal minimum Corresponding temperature of
Recommended minimum concentrations of 02 for
selected levels of protection
bwllbvlluauull Ul
oiysen in water
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
UAJgCH-MlUiatCU 1IG»II WdlBI
(») («)
46C(a) (115FX»)
36C (96. !F)
27. 5C (>1. 5F)
21C (69. 8F)
16C (60. 8F)
7.7C (45. 9F)
1.5C (34. 7F)
Neatly
maximal
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
High Moderate
4.7 4.2
5.6 4.8
6.4 5.3
7.1 5.8
7.7 6.2
8.2 6.5
8.9 6.8
9.3 6.8
Low
4.0
40
4.0
4.3
4.5
4.6
4.8
4.9
" Included to cover waters that are naturally somewhat deficient in 0«_ A saturation value of 5 me/I might be
found in warm springs or very saline waters. A saturation value of 6 mg/1 would apply to warm sea water (32 C=
90 F).
Note: The desired kind and level of protection of a given body of water should first be selected (across head of
table). The estimated seasonal minimum concentration of dissolved oxygen under natural conditions should then be
determined on the basis of available data, and located in the left hand column of the table. The recommended mini-
mum concentration of oxygen for the season is then taken from the table. All values are in milligrams of 02 per
ter. Values for natural seasonal minima other than those listed are given by the forntu la and qualifications in the
section on recommendations.
Examples
• It is desired to give moderate protection to trout
(Salvehnus fontinalis) in a small stream during the
summer. The maximum summer temperature is 20 G
(68 F); the salt content of the water is low and has
negligible effect on the oxygen saturation value. The
atmospheric pressure is 760 millimeters (mm) Hg.
Oxygen saturation is therefore 9.2 mg/1. This is as-
sumed to be the natural seasonal minimum in the
absence of evidence of lower natural concentrations.
Interpolating from Table III-4 or using the recom-
mended formula, reveals a minimum permissible con-
centration of oxygen during the summer of 6.2 mg/1.
If a high level of protection had been selected, the
recommendation would have been 7.8 mg/1. A low
level of protection, providing little or no protection
for trout but some for more tolerant fish, would require
a recommendation of 4.5 mg/1. Other recommen-
dations would be calculated in a similar way for other
seasons.
• It is decided to give moderate protection to large-
mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) during the summer.
Stream temperature reaches a maximum of 35 C
(95 F) during summer, and lowest seasonal saturation
value is accordingly 7.1 mg/1. The recommendation
for minimum oxygen concentration is 5.4 mg/1.
• For low protection of fish in summer in the same
stream described above (for largemouth bass), the
recommendation would be 4.0 mg/1, which is also the
floor value recommended.
• It is desired to protect marine fish in full-strength
sea water (35 parts per thousand salinity) with a maxi-
mum seasonal temperature of 16 C (61 F). The satu-
ration value of 8 mg/I is assumed to be the natural dis-
solved oxygen minimum for the season. For a high level
of protection, the recommendation is 7.1 mg/1, for a
moderate level of protection it is 5.8 mg/1, and for a
low level of protection it is 4.3 mg/1.
It should be stressed that the recommendations are
minimum values for any time during the same season.
Recommendations
(a) For nearly maximal protection of fish a:
other aquatic life, the minimum dissolved oxyg
in any season (defined previously) should not
less than the estimated natural seasonal minimu
concentration (defined previously) characteristic
that body of water for the same season. In es
mating natural minima, it is assumed that watt
are saturated, unless there is evidence that th
were lower in the absence of man-made influenc<
(b) For a high level of protection of fish, t
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration in ai
season should not be less than that given by tl
following formula in which M = the estimat
natural seasonal minimum concentration cha
acteristic of that body of water for the same seaso
as qualified in (a):
Criterion* = 1.41M-0.0476M2-1.11
(c) For a moderate level of protection of fish, tl
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration in ai
season should not be less than is given by tl
following formula with qualifications as in (b):
Criterion* = 1.08M - 0.0415M2 - 0.202
(d) For a low level of protection of fish, tl
minimum 02 in any season should not be less ths
given by the following formula with qualificatioi
as in (b):
Criterion * = 0.674M-0.0264M2+0.577
(e) A floor value of 4 mg/1 is recommended excej
in those situations where the natural level of di
solved oxygen is less than 4 mg/1, in which case r
further depression is desirable.
(f) For spawning grounds of salmonid fishe
higher O2 levels are required as given in the follov
ing formula with qualifications as in (b):
Criterion* = 1.19M -0.0242M2-0.418
(g) In stratified eutrophic and dystrophic lake
the dissolved oxygen requirements may not app]
to the hypolimnion and such lakes should be cor
sidered on a case by case basis. In other stratifie
lakes, recommendations (a), (b), (c), and (d) applj
and if the oxygen is below 4 mg/1, recommendatio
(e) applies. In unstratified lakes recommendation
apply to the entire circulating water mass.
(i) All the foregoing recommendations apply t
all waters except waters designated as mixing zont
* All values are instantaneous, and final value should be expressc
to two significant figures.
-------
Dissolved Gases/ \ 35
(see section on Mixing Zones p. 112). In locations
where supersaturation occurs, the increased levels
of oxygen should conform to the recommendations
in the discussion of Total Dissolved Gases, p. 139.
TOTAL DISSOLVED GASES (SUPERSATURATION)
Excessive total dissolved gas pressure (supersaturation) is
a relatively new aspect of water quality. Previously, super-
saturation was believed to be a problem that was limited to
the water supplies of fish culture facilities (Shelford and
Alice 1913).135 Lindroth (1957)126 reported that spillways
at hydroelectric dams in Sweden caused supersaturation,
and recently Ebel (1969)112 and Beiningen and Ebel (1968)103
established that spillways at dams caused gas bubble disease
to be a limiting factor for aquatic life in the Columbia and
Snake Rivers. Renfro (1963)133 and others reported that
excessive algal blooms have caused gas bubble disease in
lentic water. DeMont and Miller (in press)110 and Malous
et al. (1972)127 reported gas bubble disease among fish and
mollusks living in the heated effluents of steam generating
stations. Therefore, modified dissolved gas pressures as a
result of dams, eutrophication, and thermal discharges
present a widespread potential for adversely affecting fish
and aquatic invertebrates. Gas bubble disease has been
studied frequently since Gorham (1898,119 1899120) pub-
lished his initial papers, with the result that general knowl-
edge of the causes, consequences, and adverse levels are
adequate to evaluate criteria for this water quality char-
acteristic.
Gas bubble disease is caused by excessive total dissolved
gas pressure but it is not caused by the dissolved nitrogen gas
alone (Marsh and Gorham 1904,128 Shelford and Alice
1913,135Englehorn 1943,115 Harvey et al. 1944a,m Doudoroff
1957,m Harvey and Cooper 1962).123 Englehorn (1943)115
analyzed the gases contained in the bubbles that were
formed in fish suffering from gas bubble disease and found
that their gas composition was essentially identical to air.
This was confirmed by Shirahata (1966).13C
Etiologic Factors
Gas bubble disease (GBD) results when the uncompen-
sated total gas pressure is greater in the water than in the
air, but several important factors influence the etiology of
GBD. These factors include: exposure time and physical
factors such as hydrostatic pressure; other compensating
forces and biological factors such as species or life stage
tolerance or levels of activity; and any other factors that
influence gas solubility. Of these factors perhaps none are
more commonly misunderstood than the physical roles of
total dissolved gas pressure* and hydrostatic pressure. The
following discussion is intended to clarify these roles.
Each component gas in air exerts a measurable pressure,
and the sum of these pressures constitutes atmospheric or
barometric pressure, which is equivalent per unit of surface
area at standard conditions to a pressure exerted by a
column of mercury 760mm high or a column of water
about 10 meters high (at sea level, excluding water vapor
pressure). The pressure of an individual gas in air is called
a partial pressure, and in water it is called a tension; both
terms are an acknowledgement that the pressure of an indi-
vidual gas is only part of the total atmospheric pressure.
Likewise, each component gas will dissolve in water inde-
pendently of all other gases, and when at equilibrium with
the air, the pressure (tension) of a specific dissolved gas is
equivalent to its partial pressure in the air. This relationship
is evident in Table 111-5 which lists the main constituents
of dry air and their approximate partial pressures at sea
level.
When supersaturation occurs, the diffusion pressure im-
balance between the dissolved gas phase and the atmos-
pheric phase favors a net transfer of gases from the water to
the air. Generally this transfer cannot be accomplished fast
enough by diffusion alone to prevent the formation of gas
bubbles. However, a gas bubble cannot form in the water
unless gas nuclei are present (Evans and Walder 1969,116
Harvey et al. 1944b122) and unless the total dissolved gas
pressure exceeds the sum of the compensating pressures such
as hydrostatic pressure. Additional compensating pressures
include blood pressure and viscosity, and their benefits
may be significant.
Gas nuclei are probably unavoidable in surface water
or in animals, because such nuclei are generated by any
factor which decreases gas solubility, and because extreme
measures are required to dissolve gas nuclei (Evans and
Walder 1969;116 Harvey et al. 1944b).122 Therefore, hydro-
static pressure is a major preventive factor in gas bubble
disease.
The effect of hydrostatic pressure is to oppose gas bubble
formation. For example, one cannot blow a bubble out of
a tube immersed in water until the gas pressure in the tube
slightly exceeds the hydrostatic pressure at the end of the
tube. Likewise a bubble cannot form in water, blood, or
TABLE JH-5—Composition of Dry Air and Partial Pressures
of Selected Gases at Sea Level
Gas
Molecular" percentage Times atmospheric pressure Individual gas'1 pressure in air or
in dry air water at sea level
N2
0,
AT. .
CO:
Ne .
He
78.084 X760mmH|
20.946
0.934
0.033
0.00181
0.00052
= 593.438 mm Ht
159.119
7.098
0.250
0.0138
0.0039
* In this Section gas tension will be called gas pressure and total
gas tension will be called total dissolved gas pressure (TDGP). This
is being done as a descriptive aid to readers who are not familiar with
the terminology and yet need to convey these principles to laymen.
759.9927 mm Ht
« Glueckaul (19S1"»).
* At standard conditions iicludinj corrections for water vapor pressure.
-------
136/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
tissue until the total gas pressure therein exceeds the sum of
atmospheric pressure (760mm Hg) plus hydrostatic pressure
plus any other restraining forces. This relationship is
illustrated in Figure III-l which shows, for example, that
gas bubbles could form in fresh water to a depth of about
one meter when the total dissolved gas pressure is equal to
1.10 atmospheres; but they could not form below that
point.
Excessive total dissolved gas pressure relative to ambient
atmospheric pressure, therefore, represents a greater threat
to aquatic organisms in the shallow but importantly pro-
ductive littoral zone than in the deeper sublittoral zone.
For example, if fish or their food organisms remain within a
meter of the surface in water having a total dissolved gas
pressure of 1.10 atmospheres, they are theoretically capable
of developing gas bubble disease, especially if their body
processes further decrease gas solubility by such means as
physical activity, metabolic heat, increased osmolarity, or
decreased blood pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure only opposes bubble formation; it
does not decrease the kinetic energy of dissolved gas mole-
cules except at extreme pressures. If this were not the case,
aerobic animal life would be eliminated at or below a water
depth equivalent to the pressure of oxygen, because there
would be no oxygen pressure to drive Oo across the gill
membrane and thence into the blood. For a more detailed
discussion of this subject, the reader is referred to Van
Liere and Stickney's (1963)138 and Randall's (1970a)131
excellent reviews.
1 00 1 10 1 20 1 Vi 1.40
Tnl.i! DissoKeel Gas PH'SSUIL HI \tmosphcics
1 5(1
A final example will clarify the importance of total c
solved gas pressure. Eutrophic lakes often become sup
saturated with photosynthetic dissolved oxygen, and si.
lakes commonly approach (or exceed) 120 per cent
saturation values for oxygen. But this only represents
additional dissolved gas pressure of about 32mm 1
(O2= 159.19 mm HgX0.2==31.83 mm Hg) which equal;
760_mm Hg+31.83mmHg
760 rnm Hg
= 1.041 atmospheres of tote
dissolved gas pressure
FIGURE III-l—Relationship of Total Dissolved Gas Pressure
to Hydrostatic Pressure in Preventing Gas Bubble Formation
This imbalance apparently can be compensated in part
metabolic oxygen consumption, blood pressure, or bo
On the other hand, a 1.000-fold increase in the ne
saturation level would only increase the total dissolved t
pressure by about 1.8 mm Hg or:
1.8 mm Hg+ 760 mm Hg
-- = 1.002 atmospheres
760 mm Hg
This would not cause gas bubble disease.
The opposite situation can occur in spring water, \vh(
dissolved oxygen pressure is low and dissolved nitrogen a
other gas pressures are high. In an actual case (Schneic
personal communication).14'1 dissolved nitrogen was reported
be 124 per cent of its air saturation value, whereas oxyg
was 46 per cent of its air saturation value; total gas pressi.
was 1.046 of dry atmospheric1 pressure. Fish were living
this water, and although they probably suffered frc
hypoxia, they showed no symptoms of gas bubble disease
How dissolved gases come out of solution and for
bubbles (cavitate) is a basic physical and physiologic
topic which is only summarized here. Harvey etal. (1944b)
determined that bubble formation is promoted by bounda
zone or surface interfaces which reduce surface tension ai
thereby decrease the dissolved gas pressure required i
cavitation. For this reason, one usually sees gas bubb
forming first and growing fastest on submersed interfao
such as tank walls, sticks, or the external surfaces of aqua
life.
Gas nuclei are apparently required for bubble formatio
and these are considered to be ultra micro bubbles (Eva
and Walder 1969).11'1 These nuclei apparently represent <
equilibrium between the extremely high compressive eneri
of surface tension and the pressure of contained gases. Lai
of gas nuclei probably accounts for instances when extreme
high but uncompensated dissolved gas pressures failed
cause bubble formation (Pease and Blinks 1947,13° Her
mingsen 1970).124 Gas nuclei are produced by anything th
decreases gas solubility or surface tension (Harvey et £
1944b,122 Hills 1967,125 Evans and Walder 1969)116 and the
can be eliminated at least temporarily by extremely hie
pressure which drives them back into solution (Evans an
Walder 1969).116
Possible causes of gas nuclei formation in organisms ii
elude negative pressures in skeletal or cardiac muscle durhi
-------
Dissolved Gases/137
pronounced activity (Whitaker et al. 1945),141 eddy currents
in the blood vascular system, synthetic or biologically pro-
duced surface-active compounds, and possible salting-out
effects during hemoconcentration (as in saltwater adap-
tation). Once a bubble has formed, it grows via the diffusion
of all gases into it.
Many factors influence the incidence and severity of gas
bubble, disease. For example, the fat content of an animal
may influence its susceptibility. This has not been studied
in fish, but Boycott and Damant (1908),106 Behnke (1942),102
and Gersh et al. (1944)117 report that fat mammals are
more susceptible than lean mammals to the "bends" in
high-altitude decompression. This may be particularly sig-
nificant to non-feeding adult Pacific salmon which begin
their spawning run with considerable stored fat. This may
also account in part for differences in the tolerances of
different age groups or fish species. Susceptibility to gas
bubble disease is unpredictable among wild fish, particularly
when they are free to change their water depth and level of
activity.
Gas Bubble Disease Syndrome and Effects
Although the literature documents many occurrences of
gas bubble disease, data are usually missing for several
important physical factors, such as hydrostatic pressure,
barometric pressure, relative humidity, salinity, temper-
ature, or other factors leading to calculation of total dis-
solved gas pressure. The most frequently reported parameter
has been the calculated dissolved nitrogen (Nj) concen-
tration or its percentage saturation from which one can
estimate the pressure of inert gases. Thus the reported N»
values provide only a general indication of the total dis-
solved gas pressure, which unfortunately tends to convey
the erroneous concept that N2 is the instigative or only sig-
nificant factor in gas bubble disease.
Gas bubbles probably form first on the external surfaces
of aquatic life, where total hydrostatic pressure is least and
where an interface exists. Bubbles within the body of ani-
mals probably form later at low dissolved gas pressures,
because blood pressure and other factors may provide ad-
ditional resistance to bubble formation. However, at high
dissolved gas pressure (>1.25 atm) bubbles in the blood
may he the first recognizable symptom (Schneider personal
communication).1''* In the case of larval fishes, zooplankton,
or other small forms of aquatic life, the effect of external
bubbles may be a blockage of the flow of water across the
gills and asphyxiation or a change in buoyancy (Shirahata
1966).136 The latter probably causes additional energy
expenditure or floatation, causing potentially lethal exposure
to ultraviolet radiation or potential predation.
The direct internal effects of gas bubble disease include a
variety of symptoms that appear to be related primarily to
the level of total dissolved gas pressure, the exposure time,
and the in vivo location of lowest compensatory pressure.
The following is a resume of Shirahata's (1966)136 results.
As the uncompensated total dissolved gas pressure increases,
bubbles begin to appear on the fish, then within the skin,
the roof of the mouth, within the fins, or within the ab-
dominal cavity. Gas pockets may also form behind the eye-
ball and cause an exophthalmic "pop-eyed" condition.
Probably gas emboli in the blood are the last primary
symptoms to develop, because blood pressure and plasma
viscosity oppose bubble formation. At some as yet undefined
point, gas emboli become sufficiently large and frequent
to cause hemostasis in blood vessels, which in turn may
cause extensive tissue damage or complete hemostasis by
filling the heart chamber with gas. The latter is the usual
direct cause of death.
Exophthalmus or "pop-eye" and eye damage can be
caused by several factors other than gas bubble disease
and one should be duly cautious when tempted to diagnose
gas bubble disease based solely on these criteria. While the
above symptoms can be caused by excessive dissolved gas
pressure (Wcstgard 1964),140 they can also be caused by
malnutrition, abrasion, and possibly by infection. Unfortu-
nately there is no known definitive way to distinguish be-
tween latent eye damage caused by previous exposure to
excessive dissolved gas pressure and other causes.
Secondary, latent, or sublethal effects of gas bubble
disease in fish include promoting other diseases, necrosis, or
other tissue changes, hemorrhages, blindness, and repro-
ductive failure (Harvey and Gooper 1962,123 Westgard
1964,140 Pauley and Nakatani 1967,129 and Bouck et al.
1971).10'" There is no known evidence that supersaturation
causes a nitrogen narcosis in fish (such as can be experienced
by scuba clivers), as this requires high dissolved gas pressures
probably above 10 atm. However, one can expect that fish
afflicted with gas bubble disease or the above secondary
effects might have their normal behavior altered.
There is no definitive evidence that fishes can detect
supersaturation (Shelford and Alice 1913),13r' or that they
actively avoid it by seeking hydrostatic pressure compen-
sation (Ebel 1969).112 However, the potential capacity to
avoid supersaturation or to compensate by sounding is
limited among anadromous species by the necessity of
ascending their home river and by dams with relatively
shallow fish ladders. This may also apply to other species
that reproduce in or otherwise live in shallow-water niches.
Physiological adaptation to supersaturation seems unlikely,
and this contention is supported by the preliminary studies
of Coutant and Genoway (1968).109
Interaction between gas bubble disease and other stresses
is highly likely but not clearly established. Fish were more
susceptible to a given level of total dissolved gas pressure
when wounded (Egusa 1955).114 The thermal tolerance of
Pacific salmon was reduced when N2 levels were 125 to
180 per cent in the case of juveniles (Ebel et al. 1971),U3
and when N2 levels were > 118 per cent in the case of adults
(Coutant and Genoway 1968).ln9 Chemicals or other factors
-------
\38/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
that influence body activity or cardiovascular activity may
also influence blood pressure (Randall 1970b),132 and this
would be expected to influence the degree to which the dis-
solved gas pressure is in excess, and hence the tolerance to
gas bubble disease.
Variation in biological response is a prominent aspect of
gas bubble disease, which should not be surprising in view
of the numerous influential factors. Some of this variation
might be explained by physiological differences between
life stages or species, degree of fatness, blood pressure,
blood viscosity, metabolic heat, body size, muscular ac-
tivity, and blood osmolarity. For example, susceptibility to
gas bubble disease may be inversely related to blood (or
hemolymph) pressure. There is wide variation in blood
pressure between life stages, between fish species, and be-
tween invertebrate species. Based on aortic blood pressures
alone, one can hypothesize that largemouth bass (Mwropterus
salmoides) might be more susceptible to gas bubble disease
than chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) if other fac-
tors are equal. This contention is also supported by the
observations that gas bubbles form in the blood of bullfrogs
more easily than in rats (Berg et al. 1945),104 possibly
because of differences in blood pressure (Brand et al.
1951).107
Tolerance to supersaturation also varies between body
sizes or life stages; Shirahata (1966)136 relates this, in part,
to an increase in cardiac and skeletal muscle activity.
Larger fish were generally more sensitive to supersaturation
than were smaller fish in most studies (Wiebe and McGavock
1932,142 Egusa 1955,114 Shirahata 1966,13C Harvey and
Cooper 1962).123 Wood (1968)143 has the opposite view, but
he provides no supporting evidence. Possibly larger fish are
more susceptible to gas bubble disease in part because they
can develop greater metabolic heat than smaller fish. In
this regard, Carey and Teal (1969)108 reported that large
tuna may have a muscle temperature as much as 10 C above
the water temperature.
Data are quite limited on the tolerance of zooplankters
and other aquatic invertebrates to excessive dissolved gas
pressure. Evans and Walder (1969)116 demonstrated that
invertebrates can develop gas bubble disease. Unpublished
observations by Nebekcr* demonstrate that Daphnia sp. and
Gammams sp. are susceptible to gas bubble disease. On the
other hand, it is widely known that some aquatic inverte-
brates are capable of dicl migrations that may expose them
to a considerable change in dissolved gas pressure; but
apparently these organisms can tolerate or otherwise handle
such changes. In view of the paucity of data, nothing firm
can be said regarding the general tolerance of invertebrates
to supersaturation.
Analytical Considerations
The apparatus and method of Van Slyke et al. (1934)1
are still the standard analytical tools for most gas analyse
Scholander et al. (1955)134 and others have developed simih
methods with modifications to accomodate their speci;
needs. More recently, Swinrierton el al. (1962)137 publishe
a gas analysis method that utilizes gas-liquid chromatoi
raphy. However, both of these basic methods have drav
backs, because they either require special expertise or do n<
otherwise meet the field needs of limnologists and fisherl
or pollution biologists.
A new device by Weiss* measures the differential g;
pressure between the air and the water within fiftee
minutes. This portable device is simple to operate, easy an
inexpensive to build, and gives direct readings in mm Hi
Unpublished data by Weiss show that this instrument h;
an accuracy comparable to the Van Slyke and the chn
matographic procedures. The instrument consists of a g;
sensor (150 ft. coil of small diameter, thin-walled, silicor
rubber tube) connected to a mercury manometer. Tt
sensor is placed underwater where the air in the tubir
equilibrates with the dissolved gases in the water. Tt
resulting gas pressure is read directly via the mercui
manometer which gives a positive value for supersaturate
water and a negative value for water that is not ful
saturated.
Total Dissolved Gas Pressure Criteria
Safe upper limits for dissolved gases must be based on tt
total dissolved gas pressures (sum of all gas tensions) an
not solely on the saturation value of dissolved nitrogen g:
alone. Furthermore, such limits must provide for the safei
of aquatic organisms that inhabit or frequent the shallo
littoral zone, where an existing supersaturation could 1
worsened by heating, photosynthetic oxygen productio
or other factors. There is little information on the chron
sublethal effects of gas bubble disease and almost all tl
research has been limited to species of the family Salmonida
Likewise, gas tolerance data are unavailable for zooplankte
and most other aquatic invertebrates. Therefore, it is nece
sary to judge safe limits from data on mortality of selects
salmonid fishes that were held under conditions appros
mating the shallow water of a hypothetical littoral zon
These data are:
1. Shirahata (1966)136 reported that advanced fry <
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) experienced 10 per cei
mortality when N2 was about 111 per cent of its saturatic
value. He concludes that, ". . . the nitrogen contents whic
did not cause any gas disease were . . . less than 110 pi
cent to the more advanced fry."
* A. V. Nebeker, Western Fish Toxicology Station, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 200 S. W. 35th Street, Corvallis, Oregon,
97330.
* Dr. Ray Weiss, University of California, Scripps. Institute
Oceanography, Geological Research Division, P. O. Box 109, Lajoll
California 92037.
-------
Dissolved Gases/139
2. Harvey and Cooper (1962)123 reported that fry of
sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) suffered latent effects
(necrosis and hemorrhages) for some time after normal gas
levels were said to have been restored.
3. Coutant and Genoway (1968)109 reported that sexu-
ally precocious spring chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawyt-
scha) weighing 2 to 4 kg, experienced extensive mortality
in six days when exposed at or above 118 per cent of N2
saturation; these salmon experienced no mortality when
Ns was below 110 per cent of saturation.
Whether or not other species or life stages of aquatic life
may be more or less sensitive than the above salmonids
remains to be proven. In the meantime, the above refer-
ences provide the main basis for establishing the following
total dissolved gas recommendations.
Recommendations
Available data for salmonid fish suggest that
aquatic life will be protected only when total dis-
solved gas pressure in water is no greater than 110
per cent of the existing atmospheric pressure. Any
prolonged artificial increase in total dissolved gas
pressure should be avoided in view of the incom-
plete body of information.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide exists in two major forms in water. It
may enter into the bicarbonate buffering system at various
concentrations depending on the pH of the water. In ad-
dition, "free" carbon dioxide may also exist, and this com-
ponent affects the respiration offish (Fry 1957).151 Because
of respiratory effects, free carbon dioxide is the form con-
sidered most significant to aquatic life.
The concentration of free carbon dioxide, where oxygen-
demanding wastes are not excessive, is a function of pH,
temperature, alkalinity, and the atmospheric pressure of
carbon dioxide. Doudoroff (1957)147 reported that concen-
trations of free carbon dioxide above 20 mg/1 occur rarely,
even in polluted waters; and Ellis (1937)150 found that the
free carbon dioxide content of Atlantic Coast streams ranged
between zero and 12 mg/1. Ellis (1937)160 and Hart (1944)162
both reported that in 90 to 95 per cent of the fresh waters
in the United States that support a good and diverse fish
population the free carbon dioxide concentrations fall below
5 mg/1.
An excess of free carbon dioxide may have adverse effects
on aquatic life. Powers and Clark (1943)166 and Warren
(1971)167 reported that fish are able to detect and to respond
to slight gradients in carbon dioxide tension. Brinley
(1943)146 and Hoglund (1961)184 observed that fish may
avoid free carbon dioxide levels as low as 1.0 to 6.0 mg/1.
Elevated carbon dioxide concentrations may interfere
with the ability of fish to respire properly and may thus
affect dissolved oxygen uptake. Doudoroff and Katz
(1950)148 and Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)149 reported
that where dissolved oxygen uptake interference does occur,
the free carbon dioxide concentrations which appreciably
affect this are higher than those found in polluted waters.
In bioassay tests using ten species of warmwater fish, Hart
(1944)152 found that the gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum)
was the most sensitive and was unable to remove oxygen
from water 50 per cent saturated with dissolved oxygen in
the presence of 88 mg/1 of free carbon dioxide. The less
sensitive, largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) was unable
to extract oxygen when the carbon dioxide level reached
175 mg/1. Below 60 mg/1 of free carbon dioxide, most
species of fish had little trouble in extracting dissolved
oxygen from the water.
High concentrations of free carbon dioxide cause pro-
nounced increases in the minimum dissolved oxygen require-
ment of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), but these fish
acclimatized rapidly to carbon dioxide concentrations as
high as 175 mg/1 at 20 C when the dissolved oxygen level
was near saturation (McNeil 1956).155
Basu (1959)146 found that for most fish species, carbon
dioxide affected the fishes' ability to consume oxygen in a
predictable manner. He further indicated that temperature
affected carbon dioxide sensitivity, being less at higher water
temperatures.
The ability of fish to acclimatize to increases in carbon
dioxide concentrations as high as 60 mg/1 with little effect
has been indicated by Haskell and Davies (1958).153
Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)149 indicate that the ability
of fish to detect low free carbon dioxide concentrations, the
presence of low carbon dioxide levels in most waters, and
the ability of fish to acclimatize to carbon dioxide in the
water probably prevent this constituent from becoming
a major hazard.
Recommendation
Concentrations of free carbon dioxide above 20
mg/1 occur rarely. Fish acclimatize to increases in
carbon dioxide levels as high as 60 mg/1 with little
effect. However, fish are able to detect and respond
to slight gradients and many avoid free carbon
dioxide levels as low as 1.0 to 6.0 mg/1.
-------
ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, AND pH
NATURAL CONDITIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE
Acidity in natural waters is caused by carbon dioxide,
mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and the salts of
strong acids and weak bases. The alkalinity of a water is
actually a measure of the capacity of the carbonate-
bicarbonate system to buffer the water against change in
pH. Technical information on alkalinity has recently been
reviewed by Kemp (1971).162
An index of the hydrogen ion activity is pH. Even
though pH determinations are used as an indication of
acidity or alkalinity or both, pH is not a measure of either.
There is a relationship between pH, acidity, and alkalinity
(Standard Methods 1971):164 water with a pH of 4.5 or
lower has no measurable alkalinity, and water with a pH
of 8.3 or higher has no measurable acidity. In natural
water, where the pH may often be in the vicinity of 8.3,
acidity is not a factor of concern. In most productive fresh
waters, the pH falls in a range between 6.5 and 8.5 (except
when increased by photosynthetic activity). Some regions
have soft waters with poor buffering capacity and naturally
low pH. They tend to be less productive. Such conditions
are found especially in dark colored waters draining from
coniferous forests or muskegs, and in swampy sections of
the Southeast. For a variety of reasons, some waters may
exhibit quite extreme pH values. Before these are considered
natural conditions, it should be ascertained that they have
not actually resulted from man-made changes, such as
stripping of ground cover or old mining activities. This is
important because the recommendations refer to estimated
natural levels.
TOXICITY TO AQUATIC LIFE
Some aquatic organisms, especially algae, have been
found to live at pH 2 and lower, and others at pH 10 and
higher; however, such organisms are relatively few. Some
natural waters with a pH of 4 support healthy populations
of fish and other organisms. In these cases the acidity is
due primarily to carbon dioxide and natural organic acids,
and the water has little buffering capacity. Other natural
waters with a pH of 9.5 also support fish but are not usually
highly productive.
The effects of pH on aquatic life have been reviewed i
detail in excellent reports by the European Inland Fisherii
Advisory Commission (1969)160 and Katz (1969).161 Ii
terpretations and summaries of these reviews are given i
Table 111-6.
ADVERSE INDIRECT EFFECTS OR SIDE EFFECTS
Addition of either acids or alkalies to water may I
harmful not only by producing acid or alkaline condition
but also by increasing the toxicity of various componeri
in the waters. For example, acidification of water ma
release free carbon dioxide. This exerts a toxic action ac
ditional to that of the lower prl. Recommendations for p]
are valid if carbon dioxide is less than 25 mg/1 (see tt
discussion of Carbon Dioxide, p. 139).
A reduction of about 1.5 pH units can cause a thousanc
fold increase in the acute toxicity of a metallocyanic
complex (Doudoroff et al. 1966).169 The addition of stron
alkalies may cause the formal ion of undissociated NH4OH c
un-ionized NH3 in quantities that may be toxic (Lloy
1961,163 Burrows 1964).158 Many other pollutants ma
change their toxicity to a lesser extent. It is difficult 1
predict whether toxicity will increase or decrease for
given direction of change in pH.
Weakly dissociated acids and bases must be considere
in terms of their toxicities, as well as their effects on pi
and alkalinity.
The availability of many nutrient substances varies wit
the hydrogen ion concentration. Some trace metals becon'
more soluble at low pH. At higher pH values, iron tenc
to become unavailable to some plants, and hence the prc
duction of the whole aquatic community may be affectec
The major buffering system in natural waters is th
carbonate system that not only neutralizes acids and base
to reduce the fluctuations in pH, but also forms a reserve
of carbon for photosynthesis. This process is indispensabl(
because there is a limit on the rate at which carbon dioxid
can be obtained from the atmosphere to replace that in th
water. Thus the productivity of waters is closely correlate
to the carbonate buffering system. The addition of miners
acids preempts the carbonate buffering capacity, and th
140
-------
Acidity, Alkalinity, and pH/\4\
TABLE III-6—A Summary of Some Effects of pH on
Freshwater Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms
PH
11 5-12.0
11 0-11 5
10 5-11.0
10.0-10.5
9.5-10.0
9.0-9.5
8.5-9.0
8.0-8.5
7.0-8.0
6.5-7.0
6.0-6.5
5.5-6 0
5.0-5.5
Known effects
4.5-5.0
4.0-4.5
3.5-4.0
3.0-3.5
Some caddis flies (Trichoptera) survive but emergence reduced.
Rapidly lethal to all species of fish.
Rapidly lethal to salmonlds. The upper limit is lethal to carp (Cyprinus carpio), goldfish (Carassius
auratus), and pike. Lethal to some stoneflies (Plecoptera) and dragonflies (Odonata). Caddis
fly emergence reduced.
Withstood by salmomds for short periods but eventually lethal. Exceeds tolerance of bluegills
(Lepomis macrochirus) and probably goldfish- Some typical stoneflies and mayflies (Ephemera)
survive with reduced emergence.
Lethal to salmomds over a prolonged period of time and no viable fishery for coldwater species.
Reduces populations of warmwater fish and may be harmful to development stages. Causes
reduced emergence of some stoneflies.
Likely to be harmful to salmomds and perch (Perca) if present for a considerable length of time
and no viable fishery for coldwater species. Reduced populations of warmwater fish. Carp avoid
these levels.
Approaches tolerance limit of some salmonids, whitefish (Coregonus), catfish (Ictaluridae), and
perch. Avoided by goldfish. No apparent effects on invertebrates.
Motihty of carp sperm reduced. Partial mortality of burbot (Lota lota) eggs.
Full fish production. No known harmful effects on adult or immature fish, but 7.0 is near low limit
for Gammarus reproduction and perhaps for some other crustaceans.
Not lethal to fish unless heavy metals or cyanides that are more toxic at low pH are present.
Generally full fish production, but for fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), frequency of
spawning and number of eggs are somewhat reduced. Invertebrates except crustaceans relatively
normal, including common occurrence of mollusks Microorganisms, algae, and higher plants
essentially normal.
Unlikely to be toxic to fish unless free carbon dioxide is presentin excess of 100 ppm. Good aquatic
populations with varied species can exist with some exceptions. Reproduction of Gammarus and
Daphma prevented, perhaps other crustaceans. Aquatic plants and microorganisms relatively
normal except fungi frequent.
Eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontmalis) survive at over pH 5.5. Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
do not occur. In natural situations, small populations of relatively (ew species of fish can be
found. Growth rate of carp reduced. Spawning of fathead minnow significantly reduced. Mollusks
rare.
Very restricted fish populations but not lethal to any fish species unless CO: is high (over 25 ppm),
or water contains iron salts. May be lethal to eggs and larvae of sensitive fish species. Prevents
spawning of fathead minnow. Benthic invertebrates moderately diverse, with certain black flies
(Simuliidae), mayflies(Ephemerella), stoneflies,and midges (Chironomidae) presentin numbers.
Lethal to other invertebrates such as the mayfly. Bacterial species diversity decreased; yeasts
and sulfur and iron bacteria (Thiobacillus-Ferrobacillus) common. Algae reasonably diverse and
higher plants will grow.
No viable fishery can be maintained. Likely to be lethal to eggs and fry of salmomds. A salmomd
population could not reproduce. Harmful, but not necessarily lethal to carp. Adult brown trout
(Salmo trutta) can survive in peat waters. Benthic fauna restricted, mayflies reduced. Lethal to
several typical stoneflies. Inhibits emergence of certain caddis fly, stonefly, and midge larvae.
Diatoms are dominant algae.
Fish populations limited; only a few species survive. Perch, some coarse fish, and pike can accli-
mate to this pH, but only pike reproduce. Lethal to fathead minnow. Some caddis flies and dragon-
flies found in such habitats; certain midges dominant. Flora restricted.
Lethal to silmonids and bluegills. Limit of tolerance of pumkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus), perch,
pike, and some coarse fish. All flora and fauna severely restricted in number of species. Cattail
(Typha) is only common higher plant
Unlikely that any fish can survive for more than a few hours. A few kinds of invertebrates such as
certain midges and alderflies, and a few species of algae may be found at this pH range and lower
original biological productivity is reduced in proportion to
the degree that such capacity is exhausted. Therefore, the
minimum essential buffering capacity and tolerable pH
limits are important water quality considerations.
Because of this importance, there should be no serious
depletion of the carbonate buffering capacity, and it is
recommended that reduction of alkalinity of natural waters
should not exceed 25 per cent.
Recommendations
Suggested maximum and minimum levels of
protection for aquatic life are given in the following
recommendations. A single range of values could
not apply to all kinds of fish, nor could it cover the
different degrees of graded effects. The selection of
the level of protection is a socioeconomic decision,
not a biological one. The levels are denned in Table
III-3 (see the discussion of Dissolved Oxygen).
Nearly Maximum Level of Protection
• pH not less than 6.5 nor more than 8.5. No
change greater than 0.5 units above the esti-
mated natural seasonal maximum, nor be-
low the estimated natural seasonal mini-
mum.
High Level of Protection
• pH not less than 6.0 nor more than 9.0. No
change greater than 0.5 units outside the
estimated natural seasonal maximum and
minimum.
Moderate Level of Protection
• pH not less than 6.0 nor more than 9.0. No
change greater than 1.0 units outside the
estimated natural seasonal maximum and
minimum.
Low Level of Protection
• pH not less than 5.5 nor more than 9.5. No
change greater than 1.5 units outside the
estimated natural seasonal maximum and
minimum.
Additional Requirements for All Levels of Protection
• If a natural pH is outside the stated range of
pH for a given level of protection, no further
change is desirable.
• The extreme range of pH fluctuation in any
location should not be greater than 2.0 units.
If natural fluctuation exceeds this, pH should
not be altered.
• The natural daily and seasonal patterns of
pH variation should be maintained, although
the absolute values may be altered within
the limits specified.
• The total alkalinity of water is not to be de-
creased more than 25 per cent below the
natural level.
-------
DISSOLVED SOLIDS AND HARDNESS
Surface water at some time and place may contain a
trace or more of any water-soluble substance. The signifi-
cance and the effects of small concentrations of these sub-
stances are discussed separately throughout this Report.
The presence and relative abundance of these constituents
in water is influenced by several factors, including surface
runoff, geochemistry of the watershed, atmospheric fallout
including snow and rainfall, man-created effluents, and
biological and chemical processes in the water itself. Many
of these dissolved materials are essential to the life processes
of aquatic organisms. For a general discussion of the chem-
istry of fresh water the reader is referred to Hutchinsori
(1957)167 and Ruttner (1963).172
A general term describing the concentration of dissolved
materials in water is total dissolved solids. The more con-
spicuous constituents of total dissolved solids in natural
surface waters include carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, phos-
phates, and nitrates. These anions occur in combination
with such metallic cations as calcium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and iron to form ionizable salts (Reid 1961).170
Concentrations and relative proportions of dissolved ma-
terials vary widely with locality and time. Hart et al.
(1945)166 reported that in the inland waters of the United
States which support a mixed biota, 5 per cent have a dis-
solved solids concentration under 72 mg/1; about 50 per
cent under 169 mg/1; and 95 per cent under 400 mg/1.
Table III-7 provides information on ranges and median
concentrations of the major ions in United States streams.
The quantity and quality of dissolved solids are major
factors in determining the variety and abundance of plants
and animals in an aquatic system. They serve as nutrients
in productivity, osmotic stress, and direct toxicity. A major
change in quantity or composition of total dissolved solids
changes the structure and function of aquatic ecosystems.
Such changes are difficult to predict.
Concentrations of dissolved solids affecting freshwater
fish by osmotic stress are not well known. Mace (1953)169
and Rounsefell and Everhart (1953)171 reported that the
upper limit may range between 5,000 and 10,000 mg/1 total
dissolved solids, depending on species and prior acclimati-
zation. The literature indicates that concentrations of total
dissolved solids that cause osmotic stress in adult fish a:
higher than the concentrations existing in most fresh wate
of the United States. Many dissolved materials are toxic
concentrations lower than those where osmotic effect cz
be expected. (See Toxic Substances, p. 172, and Acidit
Alkalinity, and pH, p. 140.)
Hardness of surface waters is a component of total di
solved solids and is chiefly attributable to calcium ar
magnesium ions. Other ions such as strontium, bariur
manganese, iron, copper, zinc, and lead add to hardnes
but since they are normally present in minor concentratioi
their effect is usually minimal. Generally, the biologic
productivity of a water is directly correlated with its han
ness. However, while calcium and magnesium contribu
to hardness and productivity, many other elements (whc
present in concentrations which contribute a substanti
measure of hardness) reduce biological productivity ar
are toxic. Hardness, per se has no biological significani
because biological effects are a function of the specii
concentrations and combinations of the elements present
The term "hardness" serves a useful purpose as a gener
index of water type, buffering capacity, and productivit
Waters high in calcium and magnesium ions (hard wate
lower the toxicity of many metals to aquatic life (Brov
1968;166 Lloyd and Herbert 1962).168 (See Figure III-9
the discussion of Metals, p. 178.) However, the ter
"hardness" should be avoided in delineating water quali
TABLE III-7—Major Dissolved Constituents of River Wate
Representing About 90 Percent of Total Stream Flow in tl
United States
Constituent
Median mg/1
Range mg/1
Total dissolved solids
Bicarbonate (HCO,) .
Sulfate (SOO
Chloride (Cl)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Me)
Sodium and potassium (Na and K)
169
90
32
9
28
7
10
72-400
40-180
11-90
3-170
15-52
3.5-14
6-85
Source: Alter Hart etal.(1945)15«
-------
Dissolved Solids and Hardness/143
requirements for aquatic life. More emphasis should be
placed on specific ions.
Recommendation
Total dissolved materials should not be changed
to the extent that the biological communities
characteristic of particular habitats are signifi-
cantly changed. When dissolved materials are al-
tered, bioassays and field studies can determine
the limits that may be tolerated without en-
dangering the structure and function of the
aquatic ecosystem.
-------
OILS
Losses of oil that can have an adverse effect on water
quality and aquatic life can occur in many of the phases of
oil production, refining, transportation, and use. Pollution
may be in the form of floating oils, emulsified oils, or solution
of the water soluble fraction of these oils.
The toxicity of crude oil has been difficult to interpret
since crude oil may contain many different organic com-
pounds and inorganic elements. The composition of such
oils may-vary from region to region, and petroleum products
produced can be drastically different in character in line
with their different intended uses (Purdy 1958).198 The
major components of crude oil can be categorized as ali-
phatic normal hydrocarbons, cyclic paraffin hydrocarbons,
aromatic hydrocarbons, naphtheno-aromatic hydrocarbons,
resins, asphaltenes, heteroatomic compounds, and metallic
compounds (Bestougeff 1967).m The aromatic hydro-
carbons in crude oil appear to be the major group of acutely
toxic compounds (Blumer 1971,176 Shelton 1971).199
Because the biological effects of oils and the relative
merits of control measures are discussed in detail in
Section IV (p. 257) of this Report, only effects of special
interest or pertinence to fresh water are discussed here.
The effects of floating oil on wildlife are discussed on p. 196.
OIL REFINERY EFFLUENTS
Copeland and Dorris (1964)180 studied primary pro-
ductivity and community respiration in a series of oil
refinery effluent oxidation ponds. These ponds received
waste waters which had been in contact with the crude oil
and various products produced within the refinery. Surface
oils were skimmed. In the series of oxidation ponds, pri-
mary productivity and community respiration measure-
ments clearly indicated that primary producers were limited
in the first ponds, probably by toxins in the water. Oxidation
ponds further along in the series typically supported algal
blooms. Apparently degradation of the toxic organic com-
pounds reduced their concentration below the threshold
lethal to the algae. Primary productivity was not greater
than community respiration in the first ponds in the series.
Minter (1964)195 found that species diversity of phyto-
plankton was lowest in the first four ponds of the series
ten. A "slug" of unknown toxic substance drastically r
duced the species diversity in all ponds. Zooplanktc
volumes increased in the latter half of the pond serie
presumably as a result of decreasing toxicity. Benthic faur
species diversity in streams receiving oil refinery effluen
was low near the outfall and progressively increased dowi
stream as biological assimilation reduced the concentratk
of toxins (Wilhm and Dorris 1966,206 Harrel et al. 1967,-
Mathis and Dorris 1968191).
Long-term, continuous-flow bioassays of biological
treated oil refinery effluents indicated that complex r
fineries produce effluents which contain cumulative toxii
of substances that cause accumulative deleterious eff'ec
(Graham and Dorris 1968).182 Subsequent long-term coi
tinuous-flow bioassays of biologically treated oil refine]
effluents indicated that passage of the effluent through ad
vated carbon columns does not remove the fish toxicant
Of the fathead minnows (Pimphales promelas) tested, hi
were killed in 14 days, and only 10 per cent survived '
days (Burks 1972207 personal communication). Trace organ
compounds identified in extracts from the effluent were
homologous series of aliphatic hydrocarbons (CnH22 throm
CisHas) and isomers of cresol and xylenol. Since the solub
fractions derived from oil refineries are quantitatively, ar
to some extent qualitatively, different from those derive
from oil spills, care must be taken to differentiate betwec
these two sources.
FREE AND FLOATING OIL
Free oil or emulsions may adhere to the gills of fis
interfering with respiration and causing asphyxia. Withi
limits, fish are able to combat this by defensive mucoi
secretions (Cole 1941 ).179 Free oil and emulsions may liki
wise coat aquatic plants and destroy them (McKee an
Wolf 1963).193
Fish and benthic organisms may be affected by solub
substances extracted from the oils or by coating froi
emulsified oils. Water soluble compounds from crude c
144
-------
manufactured oils may also contain tainting substances
which affect the taste of fish and waterfowl (Krishnawami
and Kupchanko 1969).189
Toxicity tests for oily substances provide a broad range
of results which do not permit rigorous safety evaluations.
The variabilities are due to differences in petroleum prod-
ucts tested, non-uniform testing procedures, and species
differences. Most of the research on the effects of oils on
aquatic life has used pure compounds which exist only in
low percentages in many petroleum products or crude oils.
Table 111-8 illustrates the range of reported toxicities. For
halo-, nitro-, or thio-derivatives, the expected toxicity
would be greater.
Because of the basic difficulties in evaluating the toxicity,
especially of the emulsified oils, and because there is some
evidence that oils may persist and have subtle chronic
effects (Blumer 1971),m> the maximum allowable concen-
tration of emulsified oils should be determined on an indi-
vidual basis and kept below 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 for
sensitive species.
TABLE III-8—Toxicity Ranges
Chemical
Aniline
Benzene
Crerol...
Cyclohnane ..
Ethylbfnzene
Heptane . . .
Isopreae ...
NeihMCiad
NffMnJim ...
ToUwn.
Gwrint.
Brtlint oil 2
Dtewlfwl
Binkaroil .
Blinker C oil . .
ppm. cone.
379
31
22
32
10
30
31
33
48
40
29
73
78
4924
75
39
180
140
5.6
6.6-7.5
165
1260
44
24
62
66
91
40
14,500
167
2417
1700
E fleet
none
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
" . .
" . .
". .
" . .
48 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
" . .
". .
". .
"...
" . .
48 hr LC50
". .
96 hr LC50
..."..
" . .
" . .
48 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
48 hr LC50
. .". .
168 hr LC50
Species
Daphma magna
Pimeptiaies promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lepomis macrochirus
Pi mephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
. Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
. Carassius auratus
. Lebistes reticulatus
Gambusia affims
Pimephales promelas
. Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Lepomis macrochirus
Physa heterostropha
Gambusia aflinis
Pimephales promelas
. Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Alosa sapidissima
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo gairdnen
Alosa sapidissimia
. Alosa sapidissima
Salmo salar
Investigator
Anderson 194417"
Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" . . ".
" ".
Cairns & Scheier 1959'-
Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" . ".
" ". ....
". ...
" ". .......
". . . .
Wallen et al. 1957™'
Pickering & Henderson 1966""
" . ".
Cairns & Scheier 1958"'
" ". . .. .
Wallen etal !957Mi
Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" ".
" "
Tagatz1961"3
Meincketal. 19561"
Turnbulletal 1954-"'
Tagatz 19612"M
Sprague and Carson manuscript 1970MO
SED1MENTED OIL
Ludzack et al. (1957)190 found that the sediment in the
Ottawa River in Ohio downstream from a refinery consisted
of up to 17.8 per cent oil. Hunt (1957)187 and Hartung and
Klingler (1968)185 reported on the occurrence of sedimented
oil in the Detroit River. North et al. (1965)196 found sedi-
mented oils after an oil pollution incident in marine coves
in Baja California. Forbes and Richardson (1913)181 re-
ported 2.5 per cent oils in the bottom deposits of the Illinois
River. McCauley (1964)192 reported finding oily bottom
deposits after oil pollution near Boston. Thus, while the
reports may be scattered, the evidence is clear that the
existence of sedimented oils in association with oil pollution
is widespread.
There is an increasing body of evidence indicating that
aliphatic hydrocarbons are synthesized by aquatic organisms
and find their way into sediments in areas which have little
or no history of oil pollution (Han et al. 1968,'83 Avigan
and Blumer 1968174). Hydrocarbons have been reported in
the recent sediments of lakes in Minnesota (Swain 1956)202
and the Gulf of Mexico (Stevens et al. 1956).201
Areas which contain oily sediments usually have an im-
poverished benthic fauna; it is not clear to what extent oil
contributes to this, because of the presence of other pol-
lutants (Hunt 1962).188 However, there are recurring reports
-------
146/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
of a probable relationship between sedimented oils and
altered benthic communities. Sedimented oils may act as
concentrators for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Har-
tung and Klingler 1970),186 but the biological implications
indicate that additional study is required.
Because of the differences in toxicities of sedimented oils
and because of limited knowledge on quantities which are
harmful to aquatic life, it is suggested that the concentration
of hexane extractable substances (exclusive of elemental
sulfur) in air-dried sediments not be permitted to increase
above 1,000 mg/kg on a dry weight basis.
Recommendations
Aquatic life and wildlife should be protected
where:
• there is no visible oil on the surface;
• emulsified oils do not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour
LC50;
» concentration of hexane extractable substances
(exclusive of elemental sulfur) in air-dried sedi-
ments does not increase above 1,000 mg/kg on a
dry weight basis.
-------
TAINTING SUBSTANCES
Discharges from municipal wastewater treatment plants,
a variety of industrial wastes and organic compounds, as
well as biological organisms, can impart objectionable taste,
odor, or color to the flesh of fish and other edible aquatic
organisms. Such tainting can occur in waters with concen-
trations of the offending material lower than those recog-
nized as being harmful to an animal (Tables III-9 and
111-10).
BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF TAINTING
Thaysen (1935)231 and Thaysen and Pentelow (1936)232
demonstrated that a muddy or earthy taste can be imparted
to the flesh of trout by material produced by an odiferous
species of Actinomyces. Lopinot (1962)224 reported a serious
fish and municipal water supply tainting problem on the
Mississippi River in Illinois during a period when actino-
mycetes, Oscillatoria, Scenedesmus, and Actinastrum were abun-
dant. Oscillatoria princeps and 0. agardhi in plankton of a
German lake were reported by Cornelius and Bandt
(1933)213 as causing off-flavor in lake fish. Aschner et al.
(1967)210 concluded that the benthic alga, O. tenms, in
rearing ponds in Israel was responsible for imparting such
a bad flavor to carp (Cyprinus carpw) that the fish were
unacceptable on the market. Henley's (1970)221 investigation
of odorous metabolites of Cyanophyta showed that Anabaena
circinahs releases geosmin and indicated that this material
was responsible for the musty or earthy odor often char-
acteristic of water from reservoirs with heavy algal growths
in summer and fall.
Oysters occasionally exhibit green coloration of the gills
due to absorption of the blue-green pigment of the diatom,
Navicula, (Ranson 1927).226
TAINTING CAUSED BY CHEMICALS
Phenolic compounds are often associated with both water
and fish tainting problems (Table III-9). However, Albers-
meyer (1957)208 and Albersmeyer and Erichsen (1959)209
found that, after being dephenolated, both a carbolated oil
and a light oil still imparted a taste to fish more pronounced
than that produced by similar exposures to naphthalene
and methylnaphthalene (phenolated compounds). They
concluded that other hydrocarbons in the oils were more
responsible for imparting off-flavor than the phenolic ma-
terials in the two naphthalenes tested.
Refineries (Fetterolf 1962),216 oily wastes (Zillich 1969),236
and crude oil (Galtsoff et al. 1935)219 have been associated
with ofT-flavor problems of fish and shellfish in both fresh-
water and marine situations (Westman and Hoff 1963).234
Krishnawami and Kupchanko (1969)223 demonstrated that
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) adsorbed enough compounds
from a stream polluted with oil slicks and oil refinery
effluents to exhibit a definite oily taste and flavor. In waters
receiving black liquor from kraft pulp mills, the gills and
mantles of oysters developed a gray color (Galtsoff et al.
1947).218 The authors also found this condition in oysters
grown in waters receiving domestic sewage. Newton
(1967)237 confined trout in live-cages and correlated inten-
TABLE 111-9—Wastewaters Found to have Lowered the
Portability of Fish Flesh
Wastewater source
2, 4-D mf(. plant
Coal— coking
Coal-tar
Kraft process (untreated)
Kraft process (treated)
Kraft and neutral sulfite
process
Municipal dump runoff
Municipal untreated sewage
(2 locations)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plants (4 locations)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plant (Primary)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plant (Secondary)
Oily wastes
Refinery
Sewage containing phenols
Slaughterhouses (2 locations)
Concentration in
water affecting
payability of fish
50-100 mg/l
0.02-0.1 rroj/l
O.lmg/l
1-2% by vol.
9-12% by vol.
11-13% hy »ol.
20-26% oy vol.
O.lmg 1
Species
Trout
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Salmon
Salmon
Trout
Channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus)
Channel catfish
Channel catfish
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Trout
Trout
Freshwater fish
Channel catfish
Reference
Shumway 1956««
Bandt 1955'-"
Bandt 1955="
Shumway and Chadwick
197)229
Shumway and Palensky, un-
published data1"
Newton 1967":
Thomas and Hicks 19712"
Tnomas and Hicks 1971MJ
Thomas and Hicks 197V"
Shumway and PalensKy, un-
published data'"
Shumway and Palensky, un-
published data"8
Zilhch 1969»t
Fetterolf 1962""
Bandt 1955="
Thomas and Hicks 1971="
147
-------
\48/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE HI-10—Concentrations of Chemical Compounds in
Water That Can Cause Tainting of the Flesh of Fish and
Other Aquatic Organisms
Chemical
Estimated threshold level in water
(me/0
Reference*
acetophenone
acrylonitnle
cresol
m-cresol
o-cresol
p-cresol
cresylic acid (meta para)
N-butylmercaptan
o-sec. butylphenol
p-ttrt. butylphenol
o-chlorophenol
p-chlorophenol
2,3-dichlorophenol
2,4-dichlorophenol
2,5-dichlorophenol
2,6-dtchlorophenol
2-methyl, 4-chlorophenol
2-methyl, 6-chlorophenol
o-phenylphenol
2,4,6-trichlorophenol
phenol
phenols in polluted river
riiphenyl oxide
(3,/3-dichlorodiethyl ether
o-dichlorobenzene
ethylbenzene
ethanethiol
ethylacrylate
formaldehyde
kerosene
kerosene plus kaolin
isopropylbenzene
naphtha
naphthalene
naphthol
2-naphthol
dimethylamme
a-metliylstyrene
oil, emulsifiable
pyndine
pyrocatechol
pyroeallol
quinolme
p-quinone
styrene
toluene
outboard motor fuel, as exhaust
jciaiacol
0.5
18
0.07
0.2
0.4
0 12
0.2
0.06
0.3
0.03
0.0001 to 0.015
0.01 to 0.05
0 084
0 001 to 0 014
0 023
0.035
0 075
0 003
1
0.003(00.05
Ho tO
0.02 to 0.15
0.05
0.09 to 1.0
0 25
<0 25
0.24
0.6
95
0.1
1
<0.25
0.1
1
0.5
0.3
7
0 25
>15
5 to 28
0 8 to 5
20 to 30
0 5to1
0.5
0.25
0.25
2 S jal acre-foot
0.082
d
I
d
d
b,d, e
d,e,e
I
d, f, j
8
8
I
8
d
8
-------
Tainting Sub stances /149
Boetius (1954)212 reported that eels required up to 11 days
exposure before flavor impairment was detected. The time
required to impair flavor was found to be related to the
exposure concentration, with low concentrations requiring
longer exposure periods.
Shumway (1966)228 found that the flesh of salmon exposed
experimentally to industrial wastes containing mainly phe-
nols acquired maximum off-flavor in 35 hours or less, with
much of the tainting occurring within the first 6 hours.
After the salmon were transferred to uncontaminated water,
most of the acquired off-flavor was lost within 20 hours,
although some off-flavor remained up to 72 hours.
In other tests, Shumway and Palensky (unpublished data)™
observed flavor impairment in trout after 24-hour exposure
to 2,4-dichlorophenol. After only 33.5 hours in uncontami-
nated water, the flavor of the trout had returned to the
preexposure level, with most of the reduction in off-flavor
occurring within 6.5 hours.
Korschgen et al. (1970)222 transferred carp (Cyprinus
carpio) to uncontaminated ponds from two sites, one of
which received effluents from a major municipality and one
of which received little or no effluent. Retention up to 18
days in the holding ponds failed to improve the flavor of the
carp from the contaminated site. These authors also re-
ported that channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) transferred
from the Ohio River to control water lost about half of
their off-flavor in 7 days and nearly all of it in 21 days.
IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES OF OFF-FLAVORED
ORGANISMS
Determination that a tainting problem exists, or identifi-
cation of a taint-causing material, involves field or labora-
tory exposure periods and organoleptic tests. When properly
conducted, these tests are reliable but time-consuming.
Wright (1966)238 reported on the use of gas chromatography
in conjunction with organoleptic tests. The chromatographic
scans were compared with scans of industrial process waste
streams to identify the taint-producing wastes. Gas chro-
matographic techniques are employed routinely in food
technology laboratories investigating flavor and odor prop-
erties (Rhoades and Millar 1965).226
EXPOSURE AND ORGANOLEPTIC TESTS
Field exposure tests (bioassays) are used to determine
the existence or the magnitude of a tainting problem in a
water body. Fish or other edible aquatic life are held for a
period of time in cages at selected locations in and around
a suspected problem area or waste discharge and eventually
evaluated for flavor. Laboratory bioassays are normally
utilized to determine the tainting potential of wastes, waste
components, or specific chemicals. Although either static
or continuous-flow bioassays can be used in laboratory tests,
continuous-flow systems are considered far superior to static
tests. Exposure bioassays are followed by the organoleptic
evaluation of the flesh of the test organisms.
In their studies of tainted organisms, investigators have
used a number of different bioassay and flavor-evaluation
procedures, some of which have produced poorly defined
results. The following guidelines are based primarily on the
successful procedures of Shumway and Newton (personal
communications).™
Test Fish
The flesh of the fish to be exposed should be mild and
consistent in flavor. For convenience in holding and taste
testing, fish weighing between 200 and 400 grams are de-
sir able, although smaller or larger fish are acceptable.
Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), yellow perch (Perca
flavescens), channel catfish, bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus),
trout, salmon flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes), and others have
proven to be acceptable test fish.
Exposure Period
In general, test fish should be exposed for a period not
less than 48 hours. Shorter or longer exposures will be
advisable in some situations, although possible stress, disease,
and mortality resulting from longer retention of test fish
and maintenance of holding facilities may negate advantages
of long exposure.
Exposure Conditions
The following conditions are desirable in laboratory
bioassays:
Dissolved oxygen near saturation
Temperature 10-15 C for salmonids, and
20-25 C for warmwater fish
pH 6.0-8.0, or pH of receiving
water
Light intensity held at a low level
Water uncontaminated, or quality
of the receiving water; never
distilled water
Preparation of Test Fish and Evaluation
Exposed fish and control fish, either fresh or fresh-frozen
and subsequently thawed, are individually double-wrapped
in aluminum foil, placed in an oven and cooked at about
375 F for 15 to 30 minutes, as size requires. Large fish may
be portioned for cooking. No seasoning of any kind is
added. Portions of _the cooked fish may be placed in small
coded cups and served warm to the judges for flavor evalu-
ation. A known "reference" may be provided to aid judges
in making comparisons. A minimum of ten experienced
judges, each seated in an isolation booth or similar area,
smell, taste, and score each sample. This method offers
tighter control of variables and conforms more to off-flavor
evaluations conducted in food laboratories than the more
informal procedure below.
-------
150/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
An alternative method is to place the cooked fish, still
partially wrapped in foil to preserve the heat and flavor,
on a large table. The judges start concurrently and work
their way around the table, recording aroma and flavor.
If a judge tastes more than six samples during a test, a
lessening of organoleptic acuity may occur.
When investigating the potential of a substance to pro-
duce taint, a word-evaluation scale for intensity of off-flavor
ranging from no off-flavor to extreme off-flavor, has proven
successful with trained, experienced judges. Numerical
values from 0 to 6 are applied to the word scale for deri-
vation of off-flavor indices and statistical evaluation.
When using the above method, less experienced judges
tend to over-react to slight off-flavor. For this reason, in
less formal tests evaluating the effect of a substance on the
palatability of the organism, an hedonic scale accompanied
by word-judgments describing palatability is appropriate,
i.e., 0—excellent, 1—very good, 2—good, 3—fair, 4—just
acceptable, 5—not quite acceptable, 6—very poor, inedible,
and 7—extremely poor, repulsive. Scores of the judges on
each sample are averaged to determine final numerical or
word-judgment values.
To determine whether there are acceptability differences
between controls and test organisms, a triangle test may be
used in which two samples are alike and one is different.
Judges are asked to select the like samples, to indicate the
degree of difference, and to rate both the like and the odd
samples on a preference scale.
STATISTICAL EVALUATION
The triangle test is particularly well adapted to statistical
analysis, but the organoleptic testing necessary is more
extensive than when hedonic scales are used.
Application of the two-way analyses of variance to
hedonic-scale data is an acceptable test, but professional
assistance with statistical procedures is desirable. Reliance
on the word-judgment system is sufficient for general infor-
mation purposes.
Recommendations
• To prevent tainting of fish and other edible
aquatic organisms, it is recommended that sub-
stances which cause tainting should not be pres-
ent in water in concentrations that lower the
acceptability of such organisms as determined
by exposure bioassay and organoleptic tests.
• Values in Tables III-9 and IH-10 are recom-
mended as guidelines in determining what con-
centrations of wastes and substances in water
may cause tainting of the flesh of fish or other
aquatic organisms.
-------
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Living organisms do not respond to the quantity of heat
but to degrees of temperature or to temperature changes
caused by transfer of heat. The importance of temperature
to acquatic organisms is well known, and the composition
of aquatic communities depends largely on the temperature
characteristics of their environment. Organisms have upper
and lower thermal tolerance limits, optimum temperatures
for growth, preferred temperatures in thermal gradients,
and temperature limitations for migration, spawning, and
egg incubation. Temperature also affects the physical
environment of the aquatic medium, (e.g., viscosity, degree
of ice cover, and oxygen capacity. Therefore, the com-
position of aquatic communities depends largely on tem-
perature characteristics of the environment. In recent
years there has been an accelerated demand for cooling
waters for power stations that release large quantities of
heat, causing, or threatening to cause, either a warming of
rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, or a rapid cooling when the
artificial sources of heat are abruptly terminated. For these
reasons, the environmental consequences of temperature
changes must be considered in assessments of water quality
requirements of aquatic organisms.
The "natural" temperatures of surface waters of the
United States vary from 0 C to over 40 C as a function of
latitude, altitude, season, time of day, duration of flow,
depth, and many other variables. The agents that affect
the natural temperature are so numerous that it is unlikely
that two bodies of water, even in the same latitude, would
have exactly the same thermal characteristics. Moreover, a
single aquatic habitat typically does not have uniform or
consistent thermal characteristics. Since all aquatic or-
ganisms (with the exception of aquatic mammals and a
few large, fast-swirnming fish) have body temperatures that
conform to the water temperature, these natural variations
create conditions that are optimum at times, but are
generally above or below optima for particular physio-
logical, behavioral, and competitive functions of the species
present.
Because significant temperature changes may affect the
composition of an aquatic or wildlife community, an
induced change in the thermal characteristics of an eco-
system may be detrimental. On the other hand, altered
thermal characteristics may be beneficial, as evidenced in
most fish hatchery practices and at other aquacultural
facilities. (See the discussion of Aquaculture in Section IV.)
The general difficulty in developing suitable criteria for
temperature (which would limit the addition of heat) lies
in determining the deviation from "natural" temperature a
particular body of water can experience without suffering
adverse effects on its biota. Whatever requirements are
suggested, a "natural" seasonal cycle must be retained,
annual spring and fall changes in temperature must be
gradual, and large unnatural day-to-day fluctuations
should be avoided. In view of the many variables, it seems
obvious that no single temperature requirement can be
applied uniformly to continental or large regional areas;
the requirements must be closely related to each body of
water and to its particular community of organisms,
especially the important species found in it. These should
include invertebrates, plankton, or other plant and animal
life that may be of importance to food chains or otherwise
interact with species of direct interest to man. Since thermal
requirements of various species differ, the social choice of
the species to be protected allows for different "levels of
protection" among water bodies as suggested by Doudoroff
and Shumway (1970)272 for dissolved oxygen criteria. (See
Dissolved Oxygen, p. 131.) Although such decisions clearly
transcend the scientific judgments needed in establishing
thermal criteria for protecting selected species, biologists can
aid in making them. Some measures useful in assigning
levels of importance to species are: (1) high yield to com-
mercial or sport fisheries, (2) large biomass in the existing
ecosystem (if desirable), (3) important links in food chains
of other species judged important for other reasons, and
(4) "endangered" or unique status. If it is desirable to
attempt strict preservation of an existing ecosystem, the
most sensitive species or life stage may dictate the criteria
selected.
Criteria for making recommendations for water tem-
perature to protect desirable aquatic life cannot be simply a
maximum allowed change from "natural temperatures."
This is principally because a change of even one degree from
151
-------
152/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
an ambient temperature has varying significance for an
organism, depending upon where the ambient level lies
within the tolerance range. In addition, historic tempera-
ture records or, alternatively, the existing ambient tempera-
ture prior to any thermal alterations by man are not always
reliable indicators of desirable conditions for aquatic
populations. Multiple developments of water resources also
change water temperatures both upward (e.g., upstream
power plants or shallow reservoirs) and downward (e.g.,
dcepwater releases from large reservoirs), so that "ambient"
and "natural" are exceedingly difficult to define at a given
point over periods of several years.
Criteria for temperature should consider both the multiple
thermal requirements of aquatic species and requirements
for balanced communities. The number of distance require-
ments and the necessary values for each require periodic
reexamination as knowledge of thermal effects on aquatic
species and communities increases. Currently definable
requirements include:
• maximum sustained temperatures that are con-
sistent with maintaining desirable levels of pro-
ductivity;
• maximum levels of metabolic acclimation to warm
temperatures that will permit return to ambient
winter temperatures should artificial sources of
heat cease;
• temperature 1 imitations for survival of brief exposures
to temperature extremes, both upper and lower;
• restricted temperature ranges for various stages of
reproduction, including (for fish) gonad growth and
gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of
gametes, development of the embryo, commence-
ment of independent feeding (and other activities)
by juveniles; and temperatures required for meta-
morphosis, emergence, and other activities of lower
forms;
• thermal limits for diverse compositions of species of
aquatic communities, particularly where reduction
in diversity creates nuisance growths of certain
organisms, or where important food sources or
chains are altered;
• thermal requirements of downstream aquatic life
where upstream warming of a cold-water source will
adversely affect downstream temperature require-
ments.
Thermal criteria must also be formulated with knowledge
of how man alters temperatures, the hydrodynamics of the
changes, and how the biota can reasonably be expected to
interact with the thermal regimes produced. It is not
sufficient, for example, to define only the thermal criteria
for sustained production of a species in open waters, because
large numbers of organisms may also be exposed to thermal
changes by being pumped through the condensers and
mixing zone of a power plant. Design engineers need
particularly to know the biological limitations to their
design options in such instances. Such considerations may
-eveal nonthermal impacts of cooling processes that may
outweigh temperature effects, such as impingement of fish
upon intake screens, mechanical or chemical damage to
zooplankton in condensers, or effects of altered current
patterns on bottom fauna in a d ischarge area. The environ-
mental situations of aquatic organisms (e.g., where they
are, when they are there, in what numbers) must also be
understood. Thermal criteria for migratory species should
be applied to a certain area only when the species is actually
there. Although thermal effects of power stations are
currently of great interest, other less dramatic causes of
temperature change including deforestation, stream chan-
nelization, and impoundment of flowing water must be
recognized.
DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA
Thermal criteria necessary for1 the protection of species or
communities are discussed separately below. The order of
presentation of the different criteria does not imply priority
for any one body of water. The descriptions define preferred
riethods and procedures for judging thermal requirements,
and generally do not give numerical values (except in
Appendix II-C). Specific values for all limitations would
require a biological handbook that is far beyond the scope
of this Section. The criteria may seem complex, but they
represent an extensively developed framework of knowledge
about biological responses. (A sample application of these
criteria begins on page 166, Use of Temperature Criteria.)
TERMINOLOGY DEFINED
Some basic thermal response? of aquatic organisms will
be referred to repeatedly and are defined and reviewed
briefly here. Effects of heat on organisms and aquatic
communities have been reviewec' periodically (e.g., Bullock
1955,"9 Brett 1956;253 Fry 1947,276 1964,278 1967;279 Kinne
1970296). Some effects have been analyzed in the context of
tfiermal modification by power plants (Parker and Krenkel
!959.sos Krenkel and Parker 1969;298 Cairns 1968;261 Clark
1969;263 and Coutant 1970c269). Bibliographic information
is available from Kennedy and Mihursky (1967),294 Raney
and Menzel (1969),su and from annual reviews published
by the Water Pollution Control Federation (Coutant
1968,265 1969,266 f970a,267 1971270).
Each species (and often each distinct life-stage of a. species)
has a characteristic tolerance range of temperature as a
consequence of acclimations (Internal biochemical adjust-
ments) made while at previous holding temperature (Figure
I1I-2; Brett 1956253). Ordinarily., the ends of this range, or
the lethal thresholds, are defined by survival of 50 per cent
of a sample of individuals. Lethal thresholds typically are
referred to as "incipient lethal temperatures," and tem-
perature beyond these ranges would be considered "ex-
-------
Heat and 7 emperature/\53
treme." The tolerance range is adjusted upward by ac-
climation to warmer water and downward to cooler water,
although there is a limit to such accommodation. The
lower end of the range •usually is at zero degrees centigrade
(32 F) for species in temperate latitudes (somewhat less for
saline waters), while the upper end terminates in an
"ultimate incipient lethal temperature" (Fry et al. 1946281).
This ultimate threshold temperature represents the "break-
ing point" between the highest temperatures to which an
animal can be acclimated and the lowest of the extreme
temperatures that will kill the warm-acclimated organism.
Any rate of temperature change over a period of minutes
Ultimate incipient lethal temperature
3 10 -
5 10 15 20
Acclimation temperature —Centigrade
After Brett 1960 254
FIGURE IH-2—Upper and lower lethal temperatures for
young sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) plotted to
show the zone of tolerance. Within this zone two other zones
are represented to illustrate (I) an area beyond which growth
would be poor to none-at-all under the influence of the loading
effect of metabolic demand, and (2) an area beyond which
temperature is likely to inhibit normal reproduction.
28
26
24
Acclimation temperature
24"
10
100 1,000
Time to 50% mortality— Minutes
10,000
After Brett 1952 252
FIGURE III-3—Median resistance times to high tempera-
tures among young Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)
acclimated to temperatures indicated. Line A-B denotes
rising lethal threshold (incipient lethal temperatures) with
increasing acclimation temperature. This rise eventually
ceases at the ultimate lethal threshold (ultimate upper
incipient lethal temperature), line B-C.
to a few hours will not greatly affect the thermal tolerance
limits, since acclimation to changing temperatures requires
several days (Brett 1941).251
At the temperatures above and below the incipient lethal
temperatures, survival depends not only on the temperature
but also on the duration of exposure, with mortality oc-
curring more rapidly the farther the temperature is from
the threshold (Figure III-3). (See Coutant 1970a267 and
1970b268 for further discussion based on both field and
laboratory studies.) Thus, organisms respond to extreme
high and low temperatures in a manner similar to the
dosage-response pattern which is common to toxicants,
Pharmaceuticals, and radiation (Bliss 1937).249 Such tests
seldom extend bevond one week in duration.
MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE TEMPERATURES FOR
PROLONGED EXPOSURES
Specific criteria for prolonged exposure (1 week or longer)
must be defined for warm and for cold seasons. Additional
criteria for gradual temperature (and life cycle) changes
during reproduction and development periods are dis-
cussed on pp. 162-165.
-------
154/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL MAXIMA FOR
PROLONGED EXPOSURE
Occupancy of habitats by most aquatic organisms is
often limited within the thermal tolerance range to tem-
peratures somewhat below the ultimate upper incipient
lethal temperature. This is the result of poor physiological
performance at near lethal levels (e.g., growth, metabolic
scope for activities, appetite, food conversion efficiency),
interspecies competition, disease, predation, and other
subtle ecological factors (Fry 1951 ;277 Brett 1971256). This
complex limitation is evidenced by restricted southern and
altitudinal distributions of many species. On the other hand,
optimum temperatures (such as those producing fastest
growth rates) are not generally necessary at all times to
maintain thriving populations and are often exceeded in
nature during summer months (Fry 1951 ;277 Cooper 1953 ;264
Beyerle and Cooper I960;246 Kramer and Smith I960297).
Moderate temperature fluctuations can generally be
tolerated as long as a maximum upper limit is not exceeded
for long periods.
A true temperature limit for exposures long enough to
reflect metabolic acclimation and optimum ecological per-
formance must lie somewhere between the physiological
optimum and the ultimate upper incipient lethal tempera-
tures. Brett (I960)254 suggested that a provisional long-
term exposure limit be the temperature greater than opti-
mum that allowed 75 per cent of optimum performance.
His suggestion has not been tested by definitive studies.
Examination of literature on performance, metabolic
rate, temperature preference, growth, natural distribution,
and tolerance of several species has yielded an apparently
sound theoretical basis for estimating an upper temperature
limit for long term exposure and a method for doing this
with a minimum of additional research. New data will
provide refinement, but this method forms a useful guide
for the present time. The method is based on the general
observations summarized here and in Figure 111-4 (a, b, c).
1. Performances of organisms over a range of tempera-
tures are available in the scientific literature for a variety of
functions. Figures III-4a and b show three characteristic
types of responses numbered 1 through 3, of which types 1
and 2 have coinciding optimum peaks. These optimum
temperatures are characteristic for a species (or life stage).
2. Degrees of impairment from optimum levels of
various performance functions are not uniform with in-
creasing temperature above the optimum for a single species.
The most sensitive function appears to be growth rate, for
which a temperature of zero growth (with abundant food)
can be determined for important species and life stages.
Growth rate of organisms appears to be an integrator of all
factors acting on an organism. Growth rate should probably
be expressed as net biomass gain or net growth (McCormick
et al. 1971)302 of the population, to account for deaths.
3. The maximum temperature at which several species
are consistently found in nature (Fry 1951 ;277 Narvi
1970)306 lies near the average of the optimum temperatui
and the temperature of zero net growth.
4. Comparison of patterns in Figures III-4a and
among different species indicates that while the trends a:
similar, the optimum is closer to the lethal level in son
species than it is in sockeye salmon. Invertebrates exhibil
pattern of temperature effects on growth rate that is vei
similar to that of fish (Figure III-4c).
The optimum temperature may be influenced by rate <
feeding. Brett et al. (1969)2'*7 demonstrated a shift in opt
mum toward cooler temperatures for sockeye salmon wh«
ration was restricted. In a similar experiment with chann
catfish, Andrews and Stickney (1972)242 could see no sue
shift. Lack of a general shift in optimum may be due 1
compensating changes in activity of the fish (Fry person
observation).™
These observations suggest that an average of the opt
mum temperature and the temperature of zero net growt
[(opt. temp. + z.n.g. temp)/2] would be a useful estimate c
a limiting weekly mean temperature for resident organism
providing the peak temperatures do not exceed valui
recommended for short-term exposures. Optimum growt
rate would generally be reduced to no lower than 80 per cec
of the maximum if the limiting temperature is EIS average
above (Table III-ll). This range of reduction from opt
mum appears acceptable, although there are no quantit;
tive studies available that would allow the criterion to 1:
based upon a specific level of impairment.
The criteria for maximum upper temperature must allo1
for seasonal changes, because different life stages of man
species will have different thermal requirements for th
average of their optimum cind zero net growths. Thus
juvenile fish in May will be likely to have a lower maximui
acceptable temperature than will the same fish in July, an
this must be reflected in the thermal criteria for a waterbodi
TABLE III-ll—Summary of Some Upper Limiting.
Temperatures in C, (for periods longer than one week)
Based Upon Optimum Temperatures and Temperatures
of Zero Net Growth.
Catostomus commersoni (white sucker)
Coregonus artedii (Cisco or lake herring)
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
"
Lepomis ntacrochirus (blue(ill) (year II)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)
Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner)
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout)
27
16
30
30
22
27.5
27
15.4
growth
29.6
21.2
35.7
35.7
28.5
34
33
18.8
*
McCormick et al.
197)302
Strawn 1970"°
Andrews and Stickney
1972M!
McComish 1971'<"
Strawn 1961">
*
*
opt+z.n.g.
2
28.3
18.6
32.8
32.8
25.3
30.8
30.5
17.1
%of
opu mui
86
82
94
88
82
83
83
80
* National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn., unpublished data.';'
-------
Heat and Temperature/I 55
Gross Conversion Efficiency
10 15
Acclimation Temperature C
25
After Brett 1971256
FIGURE III-4a—Performance of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in Relation to Acclimation Temperature
-------
156/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
While this approach to developing the maximum sus- sizeable body of data on the ultimate incipient leth
tained temperature appears justified on the basis of available temperature that could serve as a substitute for the data <
knowledge, few limits can be derived from existing data in temperature of zero net growth. A practical consideratic
the literature on zero growth. On the other hand, there is a in recommending criteria is the time required to condu
100
-------
Heat and Temperature /157
research necessary to provide missing data. Techniques for
determining incipient lethal temperatures are standardized
(Brett 1952)252 whereas those for zero growth are not.
A temperature that is one-third of the range between the
optimum temperature and the ultimate incipient lethal
temperature that can be calculated by the formula
optimum temp. -)
ultimate incipient lethal temp.-optimum temp.
(Equation I)
yields values that are very close to (optimum temp. +
z.n.g. temp.)/2. For example, the values are, respectively,
32.7 and 32.8 C for channel catfish and 30.6 and 30.8 for
largemouth bass (data from Table III-8 and Appendix II).
This formula offers a practical method for obtaining allow-
200
150
•= 100
£
50
15 20 25 30
Temperature in C
35
Anscll 1968 243
FIGURE III-4c—M. mercenaria: The general relationship
between temperature and the rate of shell growth, based on
field measurements of growth and temperature.
•: sites in Poole Harbor, England; Q: North American sites.
able limits, while retaining as its scientific basis the require-
ments of preserving adequate rates of growth. Some limits
obtained from data in the literature are given in Table
111-12. A hypothetical example of the effect of this limit on
growth of largemouth bass is illustrated in Figure 111-5.
Figure III-5 shows a hypothetical example of the effects
of the limit on maximum weekly average temperature on
growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a
function of temperature are from Strawn 196131
-------
158/Section ///—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Annual Accumulated Growth
250 —
Elevated (with limit)
Elevated (without limit)
6 8 10
Weeks
Ambient + 10 F
Average Ambient
(Lake Norman, N.C.)
Weekly Growth Rate
(Ambient)
Weekly Growth Rate
(Ambient+ 10 F)
0 7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 4
JAN. FEB.
15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3
APR. MAY
10 17 24 1
JUNE
-------
Heat and Temperature/\59
FIGURE III-5—A hypothetical example of the effects of the limit on maximum weekly
average temperature on growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a function
of temperature are from Strawn 1961; the ambient temperature is an averaged curve for Lake
Norman, N.C., adapted from data supplied by Duke Power Company. A general temperature
elevation of 10 F is used to provide an extreme example. Incremental growth rates (mm/wk )
are plotted on the main figure, while annual accumulated growth is plotted in the inset.
Simplifying assumptions were that growth rates and the relationship of growth rate to tem-
perature were constant throughout the year, and that there would be sufficient food to sus-
tain maximum attainable growth rates at all times.
Max. Weekly Avg., largemouth bass
Incremental
Growth Rates
(mm/wk)
I
38
36
34
32
26
24
cT
!J
22 §
^3
^
l;
j?
£
20 H
18
16
14
12
10
15 22 29 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 2 9 16 23 30
JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.
-------
160/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 111-12—Summary of Some Upper Limiting Temperatures for Prolonged Exposures of Fishes Based on Optimum Tern
peratures and Ultimate Upper Incipient Lethal Temperatures (Equation 1).
Species
Catostomus commersom (white sucker)
Coregonus artedn (Cisco or lake herring)
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) (yr II)
Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)(fry)
Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner)
Oncorhynchus nerka (sockeye salmon)
(juveniles)
Pseudopleuronectes Americans (winter
flounder)
Saimotrutta (brown trout)
Salvelinus fonti nalis (brook trout)
Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout)
Optimum
C
27
16
30
22
26.3
28.3
ave 27.3
27.5
27
15.0
15.0
15.0
18.0
8 to 17
ave 12.5
15.4
13.0
15
ave 14 5
16
17
ave 16.5
F
80.6
60.8
86
71.6
83
83
81.1
81.5
80.6
59.0
59.0
64.4
54.5
59.7
55.4
59
58.1
60.8
62.6
61.7
— Function
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
other functions
max. swimming
growth
growth
growth
growth
metabolic
scope
scope for activity
(2 metabol:sm)
swi mmmg speed
Reference
unpubl., NWQL™-
McCormicketal. im>«
Strawn 197Q;3M Andrews and Stickney
1971142
McComish 1971»°i
Anderson 1959™
Horning and Pearson 1972291
Peek 19653M
Strawn 1961319
unpubl., NWQLI2»
Brett et al. 19692"
Brett 19712S«
Brett 1970^5
Brett 1970!ss
unpubl, NVVQL'2'
Baldwin 195J»»
Graham 19492'1
Gibson and Fry 19542"
Ultimate upper incipient Maximum weekly average
lethal temperature Reference temperature (Eq 1)
C F C F
29.3
25.7
38.0
33.8
35.0
36.4
30.7
25.0
29.1
23.5
25.5
23.5
84.7 Hart194728s 27.8
78.3 Edsall and Colby 1970™ 19.2
100. 4 Allen and Steam 1968™ 32. 1
92.8 Hart1952» 25.9
95.0 Horning and Pearson 1972291 29.9
97.5 HarH9522»6 30.5
87.3 Hart19522»« 28.2
77.0 Brett 19522*2 18.3
84.4 HoffandWestmanW9 21.8
74.3 Bishai I9602" 16 2
77. 9 Fiy, Hart and Walker, 1946=" 18. 2
(iibson and Fry 19542<" 18.8
82
66.6
90.9
78. 6
85 8
86.7
82.8
64.9
71.2
61 2
64.8
65.8
Heat added to upper reaches of some cold rivers can be
retained throughout the river's remaining length (Jaske
and Synoground 1970).292 This factor adds to the natural
trend of warming at distances from headwaters. Thermal
additions in headwaters, therefore, may contribute sub-
stantially to reduction of cold-water species in downstream
areas (Mount 1970).305 Upstream thermal additions should
be evaluated for their effects on summer maxima at down-
stream locations, as well as in the immediate vicinity of
the heat source.
Recommendation
Growth of aquatic organisms would be main-
tained at levels necessary for sustaining actively
growing and reproducing populations if the maxi-
mum weekly average temperature in the zone in-
habited by the species at that time does not exceed
one-third of the range between the optimum tem-
perature and the ultimate upper incipient lethal
temperature of the species (Equation 1, page 157),
and the temperatures above the weekly average do
not exceed the criterion for short-term exposures.
This maximum need not apply to acceptable mix-
ing zones (see proportional relationships of mixing
zones to receiving systems, p. 114), and must be
applied with adequate understanding of the normal
seasonal distribution of the important species.
WINTER MAXIMA
Although artificially produced temperature elevatiot
during winter months may actually bring the temperatui
closer to optimum or preferred temperature for importat
species and attract fish (Trembley 1965),321 metaboli
acclimation to these higher levels can preclude safe retur
of the organism to ambient temperatures should th
artificial heating suddenly cease (Pennsylvania Fish Con
mission 1971;310 Robinson 1970)316 or the organism I;
driven from the heat area. For example, sockeye salmo
(Oncorhynchus nerka) acclimated to 20 C suffered 50 percei
mortality in the laboratory when their temperature wj
dropped suddenly to 5 C (Brett 1971:256 see Figure III-3
The same population of fish withstood a drop to zero whe
acclimated to 5 C. The lower limit of the range of therms
tolerance of important species must, therefore, be mair
tained at the normal seasonal ambient temperature
throughout cold seasons, unless special provisions are mad
to assure that rapid temperature drop will not occur or tha
organisms cannot become acclimated to elevated tempera
tures. This can be accomplished by limitations on tempera
ture elevations in such areas as discharge canals and mixin;
zones where organisms may reside, or by insuring tha
maximum temperatures occur only in areas not accessibl
to important aquatic life for lengths of time sufficient ti
allow metabolic acclimation. Such inaccessible areas wouli
include the high-velocity zones of diffusers or screened dis
-------
Heat and Temperature /161
charge channels. This reduction of maximum temperatures
would not preclude use of slightly warmed areas as sites for
intense winter fisheries.
This consideration may be important in some regions at
times other than in winter. The Great Lakes, for example,
are susceptible to rapid changes in elevation of the thermo-
cline in summer which may induce rapid decreases in
shoreline temperatures. Fish acclimated to exceptionally
high temperatures in discharge canals may be killed or
severely stressed without changes in power plant opera-
tions (Robinson 1968).314 Such regions should take special
note of this possibility.
Some numerical values for acclimation temperatures and
lower limits of tolerance ranges (lower incipient lethal
temperatures) are given in Appendix II-C. Other data must
be provided by further research. There are no adequate
data available with which to estimate a safety factor for no
stress from cold shocks. Experiments currently in progress,
however, suggest that channel catfish fingerlings are more
susceptible to predation after being cooled more than 5 to
6 C (Coutant, unpublished data).324
The effects of limiting ice formation in lakes and rivers
should be carefully observed. This aspect of maximum
winter temperatures is apparent, although there is insuffi-
cient evidence to estimate its importance.
Recommendation
Important species should be protected if the
maximum weekly average temperature during win-
ter months in any area to which they have access
does not exceed the acclimation temperature
(minus a 2 C safety factor) that raises the lower
lethal threshold temperature of such species above
the normal ambient water temperatures for that
season, and the criterion for short-term exposures
is not exceeded. This recommendation applies es-
pecially to locations where organisms may be at-
tracted from the receiving water and subjected to
rapid thermal drop, as in the low velocity areas of
water diversions (intake or discharge), canals, and
mixing zones.
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO EXTREME TEMPERATURE
To protect aquatic life and yet allow other uses of the
water, it is essential to know the lengths of time organisms
can survive extreme temperatures (i.e., temperatures that
exceed the 7-day incipient lethal temperature). Both
natural environments and power plant cooling systems can
briefly reach temperature extremes (both upper and lower)
without apparent detrimental effect to the aquatic life
(Fry 1951 ;277 Becker et al. 1971).245
The length of time that 50 per cent of a population will
survive temperature above the incipient lethal temperature
can be calculated from a regression equation of experi-
mental data (such as those in Figure III-3) as follows:
log (time) =a+b (temp.) (Equation 2)
where time is expressed in minutes, temperature in degrees
centigrade and where a and b are intercept and slope,
respectively, which are characteristics of each acclimation
temperature for each species. In some cases the time-
temperature relationship is more complex than the semi-
logarithmic model given above. Equation 2, however, is
the most applicable, and is generally accepted by the
scientific community (Fry 1967).279 Caution is recom-
mended in extrapolating beyond the data limits of the
original research (Appendix II-C). The rate of temperature
change does not appear to alter this equation, as long as the
change occurs more rapidly than over several days (Brett
1941 ;251 Lemke 1970).30° Thermal resistance may be
diminished by the simultaneous presence of toxicants or
other debilitating factors (Ebel et al. 1970,273 and summary
by Coutant 1970c).269 The most accurate predictability can
be derived from data collected using water from the site
under evaluation.
Because the equations based on research on thermal
tolerance predict 50 per cent mortality, a safety factor is
needed to assure no mortality. Several studies have indi-
cated that a 2 C reduction of an upper stress temperature
results in no mortalities within an equivalent exposure
duration (Fry et al. 1942;280 Black 1953).248 The validity
of a two degree safety factor was strengthened by the results
of Coutant (1970a).267 He showed that about 15 to 20
per cent of the exposure time, for median mortality at a given
high temperature, induced selective predation on thermally
shocked salmon and trout. (This also amounted to reduction
of the effective stress temperature by about 2 C.) Un-
published data from subsequent predation experiments
showed that this reduction of about 2 C also applied to the
incipient lethal temperature. The level at which there is no
increased vulnerability to predation is the best estimate of a
no-stress exposure that is currently available. No similar
safety factor has been explored for tolerance of low tem-
peratures. Further research may determine that safety
factors, as well as tolerance limits, have to be decided
independently for each species, life stage, and water quality
situation.
Information needed for predicting survival of a number
of species of fish and invertebrates under short-term condi-
tions of heat extremes is presented in Appendix II-C. This
information includes (for each acclimation temperature)
upper and lower incipient lethal temperatures: coefficients
a and b for the thermal resistance equation; and information
on size, life stage, and geographic source of the species.
It is clear that adequate data are available for only a small
percentage of aquatic species, and additional research is
necessary. Thermal resistance information should be
obtained locally for critical areas to account for simul-
-------
\&l/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
taneous presence of toxicants or other debilitating factors,
a consideration not reflected in Appendix II-C data. More
data are available for upper lethal temperatures than for
lower.
The resistance time equation, Equation 2, can be
rearranged to incorporate the 2 C margin of safety and also
to define conditions for survival (right side of the equation
less than or equal to 1) as follows:
1 > —
time
]Q[a+b(temp.+2)]
(Equation 3)
Low levels of mortality of some aquatic organisms are not
necessarily detrimental to ecosystems, because permissible
mortality levels can be established. This is how fishing or
shellfishing activities are managed. Many states and inter-
national agencies have established elaborate systems for
setting an allowable rate of mortality (for sport and com-
mercial fish) in order to assure needed reproduction and
survival. (This should not imply, however, that a form of
pollution should be allowed to take the entire harvestable
yield.) Warm discharge water from a power plant may
sufficiently stimulate reproduction of some organisms (e.g.,
zooplankton), such that those killed during passage through
the maximally heated areas are replaced within a few hours,
and no impact of the mortalities can be found in the open
water (Churchill and Wojtalik 1969;262 Heinle 1969).288
On the other hand, Jensen (1971)293 calculated that even
five percent additional mortality of 0-age brook trout
(Salvelinus Jontinalis) decreased the yield of the trout fishery,
and 50 per cent additional mortality would, theoretically.
cause extinction of the population. Obviously, there can be
no adequate generalization concerning the impact of short-
term effects on entire ecosystems, for each case will be
somewhat different. Future research must be directed
toward determining the effects of local temperature stresses
on population dynamics. A complete discussion will not be
attempted here. Criteria for complete short-term protection
may not always be necessary and should be applied with an
adequate understanding of local conditions.
Recommendation
Unless there is justifiable reason to believe it
unnecessary for maintenance of populations of a
species, the right side of Equation 3 for that
species should not be allowed to increase above
unity when the temperature exceeds the incipient
lethal temperature minus 2 C:
time
1 >
Values for a and b at the appropriate acclimation
temperature for some species can be obtained from
Appendix II-C or through additional research if
necessary data are not available. This recommen-
dation applies to all locations where organisms •
be protected are exposed, including areas withi
mixing zones and water diversions such as pow
station cooling water.
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
The sequence of events relating to gonad growth ai
gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of garnet<
development of the egg and embryo, and commenceme
of independent feeding represents one of the most compl
phenomena in nature, both for fish (Brett 1970)256 ai
invertebrates (Kinne 1970).2'6 These events are genera
the most thermally sensitive of all life stages. Other envirc
mental factors, such as light and salinity, often seasonal
nature, can also profoundly affect the response to ternpei
ture (Wiebe 1968).323 The general physiological state oft
organisms (e.g., energy reserves), which is an integration
previous history, has a strong effect on reproductive pott
tial (Kinne 1970).296 The erratic sequence of failures a
successes of different year classes of lake fish attests to t
unreliability of natural conditions for providing optirm.
reproduction.
Abnormal, short-term temperature fluctuations appear
be of greatest significance in reduced production of juven
fish and invertebrates (Kinne, 1963).295 Such them
fluctuations can be a prominent consequence of water i
as in hydroelectric power (rapid changes in river flow rate
thermal electric power (thermal discharges at fluctuati
power levels), navigation (irregular lock releases), a
irrigation (irregular water diversions and wasteway '
leases). Jaske and Synoground (1970)292 have document
such temperature changes due to interacting thermal a
hydroelectric discharges on the Columbia River.
Tolerable limits or variations of temperature char
throughout development, and particularly at the m
sensitive life stages, differ among species. There is
adequate summary of data on such thermal requireme
for successful reproduction. The data are scattered throu
many years of natural history observations (however, :
Breder and Rosen 1966250 foi a recent compilation of so)
data; also see Table 111-13). High priority must be assign
to summarizing existing information and obtaining tt
which is lacking.
Uniform elevations of temperature by a few degr<
during the spawning period, while maintaining short-te.
temperature cycles and seasonal thermal patterns, app{
to have little overall effect on the reproductive cycle
resident aquatic species, other than to advance the timi
for spring spawners or delay it for fall spawners. Such sh:
are often seen in nature, although no quantitative measu
ments of reproductive success have been made in t
connection. For example, thriving populations of ma
fishes occur in diverse streams of the Tennessee Valley
which the date of the spawning temperature may vary ir
-------
Heat and Temperature/163
TABLE 111-13—Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures
(Adapted from Wojtalik, T. A., unpublished manuscript)*
Fishes
Sauger
Stizostedioncanadense. ...
Walleye
S. vitreum vitreum
Longnose gar
Lepisosteus osseus ..
White bass
Morone chrysops
Least darter
Etheostoma microperca .
Spotted sucker
Minytrema melanops
White sucker
Catostomus commersom ...
Silvery minnow
Hybognathus nuchalls. .
Banded pygmoiimfisli
Elassoma zonatum
White crappie
Pomoxis annuiaris ...
Fathead minnow
Bigmouth buffalo
Ich'obuscyprinellus
Largemouth bass
Micropterus salmoides
Common shiner
Notropis cornutus
Golden shiner
Notemigonus crysoktucas
Green sunflsh
Lepomis cyanellus ...
Paddlefish
Pofyodon spathufa
Blackside darter
Percina maculata
Gizzard shad
Dorosoma cepedianum .
Smallmouth bass
Micropterus dotomieui.
Spotted bass
Micropterus punctubtus .
Johnny darter
Etheostoma nigrum ....
Orange spotted sunflsh
Lepomis humilii . .
Smallmouth buflalo
Icb'obus hubalus
Black buffalo
1. niger . ...
Carp
Cyprinus carpio ....
BluegiH
Lepomis macrochirus
Redbreast sunflsh
L.auriBs
Channel calf sh
Ictalurus punctatus
White catfish
1 catus
Pumpkinseed
Lepomis gibbosus . . .
Black crappie
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Brook silverside
Labidesthes sicculus
Brown bullhead
Ictalurus nebulosus ....
Threadfin shad
Dorosoma petenense
Warmouth
Lepomis gulosus
River redhorse
Temp.(C)
5.0
7.0
.. . 10.8
11.7
12.0
12.1
12.0-13.0
13.0
13.9-16.7
. 14.0-16.0
14.4
25.0
15.6-18.3
15.6
15.6-18.3
15.6
15.6
18.0
16.5
16.7
18.7
17.8
18.0
18.3
18.9
18.9
19.0
19.4
20.0
20.0
.. . . 26.7
20 0
20.0
20 0
20 0
21 1
21.1
21.0
Spawning site
Shallow gravel ban
Gravel, rubble, boulders on bar
Flooded shallows
Sand & rock shores
Streams or bars
Coves
Submerged materials in shallows
Shallows
Shallows
Shallows near bank
Small gravel streams
Bays I shoals, weeds
Bank, shalows
Over gravel bars
Gravel rock shore
Small streams, bar
Flooded shallows
Weeds, shallows
Bank cavity
Sand gravel bar
Bank shallows
Over gravel
Shallows, weeds
Shallow and open water
Bank shallows
Range in spawning depth
2-4 feet
3-10 feet
Flooded shallows
2-12 feet
Nr. surface
30 inches
Inches to \yt feet
Nr. surface
3-20 feet
Nr. surface
2-6 feet
<10feet
< 10 feet
<5feet
Surface
Inchest) 6 feet
Surface
<5leet
Daily spawning time
Night
Day, right
Day
Day, tang but esp. night
. . Day, night
. Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Night day
Day
.. Day
Day night
Day
Day, night
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
DH
Ensile
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds
Surface
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Underside floating objects
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds, bottom
. Weeds, bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Incubation period
(ays (Temp. C)
25 (5.0)
6 (20.0)
2 (15.6)
1 (21.1-23.2)
9-10 (18.7)
5 (18.9)
4 (15.6+)
7 (15.0)
4-5 (20.0)
4-8 (16.7)
1J4-3 (22.2)
9-10 (15.0)
6-7 (23.9-29.4)
3 (27.8)
5 (25.0)
3(26.7)
1H (25.0-26)7)
-------
164:/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 111-13—Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures—Contin
Fishes
Blue catfish
Ictalurus furcatus
Flathead catfish
Pylodictisolivaris....
Redear sunfish
Upturns microlophus . .
Ungear sunfish
L. megalotis
Freshwater drum
Apiodinotus grunniens
River carpsucker
Carpoidescarpio.
Spotted bullhead
Ictalurus serracanthus
Yellow bullhead
1. natalis
Temp. (C) Spawning site Range in spawning depth
22.2
22.2
23.0 Quiet, various Inches to 10 feet
. 23.3
23.0
. .. 23.9
. 26.7
Quiet, shallows 1' ,-4 feet
Daily spawning time Egg site Incubation pe
days (Temp.
Bottom 5-10 (18.9)
* T. A. Wojtalik, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.---"'
given year by 22 to 65 days. Examination of the literature
shows that shifts in spawning dates by nearly one month
are common in natural waters throughout the U.S. Popula-
tions of some species at the southern limits of their dis-
tribution are exceptions, e.g., the lake whitefish (Coregonus
clupeaformis) in Lake Erie that require a prolonged, cold
incubation period (Lawler 1965)299 and species such as
yellow perch (Perca flavescens) that require a long chill period
for egg maturation prior to spawning (Jones, unpublished
data).3"
This biological plasticity suggests that the annual spring
rise, or fall drop, in temperature might safely be advanced
(or delayed) by nearly one month in many regions, as long
as the thermal requirements that are necessary for migra-
tion, spawning, and other activities are not eliminated and
the necessary chill periods, maturation times, or incubation
periods are preserved for important species. Production of
food organisms may advance in a similar way, with little
disruption of food chains, although there is little evidence to
support this assumption (but see Coutant 1968;266 Coutant
and Steele 1968;271 and Nebeker 1971).307 The process is
similar to the latitudinal differences within the range of a
given species.
Highly mobile species that depend upon temperature
synchrony among widely different regions or environments
for various phases of the reproductive or rearing cycle (e.g.,
anadromous salmonids or aquatic insects) could be faced
with dangers of dis-synchrony if one area is warmed, but
another is not. Poor long-term success of one year class of
Fraser River (British Columbia) sockeye salmon (Oncorhyn-
chus nerka) was attributed to early (and highly successful)
fry production and emigration during an abnormally warm
summer followed by unsuccessful, premature feeding
activity in the cold and still unproductive estuary (Vernon
1958).322 Anadromous species are able, in some cases, (see
studies of eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) by Smith and
Saalfeld 1955)317 to modify their migrations and spawn
to coincide with the proper temperatures whenever ;
wherever they occur.
Rates of embryonic development that could lead to p
mature hatching are determined by temperatures of
microhabitat of the embryo. Temperatures of the mk
habitat may be quite different from those of the remain
of the waterbody. For example, a thermal effluent at
temperature of maximum water density (approximat
4 C) can sink in a lake whose surface water temperat
is colder (Hoglund and Spigarelli, 1972).290 Incubat
eggs of such species as lake (.rout (Salvelinus namqycush) i
various coregonids on the lake bottom may be intermitter
exposed to temperatures warmer than normal. Hatch
may be advanced to dates that are too early for surviva
the fry in their nursery areas. Hoglund arid Spigai
1972,290 using temperature data from a sinking plume
Lake Michigan, theorized that if lake herring (Coregc
artedii) eggs had been incubated at the location of one
their temperature sensors, the fry would have hatcl
seven days early. Thermal limitations must, therefore, ap
at the proper location for the particular species or life st;
to be protected.
Recommendations
After their specific limiting temperatures a
exposure times have been determined by stud
tailored to local conditions, the reproductive j
tivity of selected species will be protected in ar<
where:
• periods required for gonad growth and gam<
maturation are preserved;
• no temperature differentials are created tli
block spawning migrations, although some del
or advancement of timing based upon local co
ditions may be tolerated;
-------
Heat and Temperature /165
• temperatures are not raised to a level at which
necessary spawning or incubation temperatures
of winter-spawning species cannot occur;
• sharp temperature changes are not induced in
spawning areas, either in mixing zones or in
mixed water bodies (the thermal and geographic
limits to such changes will be dependent upon
local requirements of species, including the
spawning microhabitat, e.g., bottom gravels,
littoral zone, and surface strata);
• timing of reproductive events is not altered to
the extent that synchrony is broken where repro-
duction or rearing of certain life stages is shown
to be dependent upon cyclic food sources or other
factors at remote locations.
• normal patterns of gradual temperature changes
throughout the year are maintained.
These requirements should supersede all others
during times when they apply.
CHANGES IN STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC COMMUNITIES
Significant change in temperature or in thermal patterns
over a period of time may cause some change in the com-
position of aquatic communities (i.e., the species represented
and the numbers of individuals in each species). This has
been documented by field studies at power plants (Trembley
1956-I960)321 and by laboratory investigations (Mclntyre
19h8).3ra Allowing temperature changes to alter significantly
the community structure in natural waters may be detri-
mental, even though species of direct importance to man
arc not eliminated.
The limits of allowable change in species diversity due to
temperature changes should not differ from those applicable
to any other pollutant. This general topic is treated in
detail in reviews by others (Brookhaven National Lab.
1969)25S and is discussed in Appendix II-B, Community
Structure and Diversity Indices, p. 408.
NUISANCE ORGANISMS
Alteration of aquatic communities by the addition of heat
may occasionally result in growths of nuisance organisms
provided that other environmental conditions essential to
such growths (e.g., nutrients) exist. Poltoracka (1968)311
documented the growth stimulation of plankton in an
artificially heated small lake; Trembley (19653-1) re-
ported dense growths of attached algae in the discharge
canal and shallow discharge plume of a power station (where
the algae broke loose periodically releasing decomposing
organic matter to the receiving water). Other instances of
algal growths in effluent channels of power stations were
reviewed by Coutant (1970c).269
Changed thermal patterns (e.g., in stratified lakes) may
greatly alter the seasonal appearances of nuisance algal
growths even though the temperature changes are induced
by altered circulation patterns (e.g., artificial destratifica-
tion). Dense growths of plankton have been retarded in
some instances and stimulated in others (Fast 1968;275 and
unpublished data 1971).325
Data on temperature limits or thermal distributions in
which nuisance growths will be produced are not presently
available due in part to the complex interactions with other
growth stimulants. There is not sufficient evidence to say
that any temperature increase will necessarily result in
increased nuisance organisms. Careful evaluation of local
conditions is required for any reasonable prediction of
effect.
Recommendation
Nuisance growths of organisms may develop
where there are increases in temperature or alter-
ations of the temporal or spatial distribution of
heat in water. There should be careful evaluation
of all factors contributing to nuisance growths at
any site before establishment of thermal limits
based upon this response, and temperature limits
should be set in conjunction with restrictions on
other factors (see the discussion of Eutrophication
and Nutrients in Section I).
CONCLUSIONS
Recommendations for temperature limits to protect
aquatic life consist of the following two upper limits for any
time of the year (Figure 111-6).
1. One limit consists of a maximum weekly average
temperature that:
(a) in the warmer months (e.g., April through
October in the North, and March through
November in the South) is one third of the range
between the optimum temperature and the
ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature for the
most sensitive important species (or appropriate
life stage) that is normally found at that location at
that time; or
(b) in the cooler months (e.g., mid-October to mid-
April in the North, and December to February in
the South) is that elevated temperature from which
important species die when that elevated tem-
perature is suddenly dropped to the normal
ambient temperature, with the limit being the
acclimation temperature (minus a 2 C safety
factor), when the lower incipient lethal tempera-
ture equals the normal ambient water temperature
(in some regions this limit may also be applicable
in summer); or
(c) during reproduction seasons (generally April-June
and September-October in the North, and March-
May and October-November in the South) is that
-------
lection HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
temperature that meets specific site requirements
for successful migration, spawning, egg incubation,
fry rearing, .and other reproductive functions of
important species; or
(d) at -a specific site is found necessary to preserve
normal species diversity or prevent undesirable
growths of nuisance organisms.
2. The second limit is the time-dependent maximum
temperature for short exposures as given by the species-
specific equation:
time
1 >
Local requirements for reproduction should supersede
all other requirements when they are applicable. Detailed
ecological analysis of both natural and man-modified
aquatic environments is necessary to ascertain when these
requirements should apply.
USE OF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA
A hypothetical electric power station using lake water i
cooling is illustrated as a typical example in Figure III
This discussion concerns the application of thermal critei
to this typical situation.
The size of the power station is 1,000 megawatts elect.
(MWe) if nuclear, or 1,700 MWe if fossil-fueled (oil, co
gas); and it releases 6.8 billion British Thermal Un
(BTU) per hour to the aquatic environment. This size
representative of power stations currently being instalk
Temperature rise at the condensers would be 20 F wi
cooling water flowing at the rate of 1,520 cubic feet/secoi
(ft3/sec) or 682,000 gallons/minute. Flow could be i
creased to reduce temperature rise.
The schematic Figure III-7 is drawn with two alternati
discharge arrangements to illustrate the extent to whii
design features affect thermal impacts upon aquatic li
30 -- 86
-------
Heat and Temperature/\ 67
Power
Plant
Canal (2 mi.)
A'
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Modified
"~ Temperature
(Example)
Historic \ \
Average Temp, at D \ \
JFMAMJJ ASOND
Months
Plume Scale
0
I i i
5000
I
Feet
FIGURE IH-7—Hypothetical Power Plant Site For Application of Water Temperature Criteria
-------
168/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Warm condenser water can be carried from the station to
the lake by (a) a pipe carrying water at a high flow velocity
or (b) a canal in which the warm water flows slowly. There
is little cooling in a canal, as measurements at several
existing power stations have shown. Water can be released
to the lake by using any of several combinations of water
velocity and volume (i.e., number of outlets) or outlet
dimensions and locations. These design features largely
determine the configuration of the thermal plumes illus-
trated in Figure III-7 resulting from either rapid dilution
with lake water or from slow release as a surface layer. The
isotherms were placed according to computer simulation
of thermal discharges (Pritchard 1971)312 and represent a
condition without lake currents to aid mixing.
Exact configuration of an actual plume depends upon
many factors (some of which change seasonally or even
hourly) such as local patterns of currents, wind, and bottom
and shore topography.
Analytical Steps
Perspective of the organisms in the water body and of the
pertinent non-biological considerations (chemical, hv-
drological, hydraulic) is an essential beginning. This
perspective requires a certain amount of literature survey-
or on site study if the information is not well known. T\vo
steps are particularly important:
1. identification of the important species and com-
munity (primary production, species diversity, etc.) that are
relevant to this site; and
2. determination of life patterns of the important species
(seasonal distribution, migrations, spawning areas, nursery
and rearing areas, sites of commercial or sport fisheries).
This information should include as much specific informa-
tion on thermal requirements as it is possible to obtain
from the literature.
Other steps relate the life patterns and environmental
requirements of the biota to the sources of potential thermal
damage from the power plant. These steps can be identified
with specific areas in Figure III-7.
Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature Change
Five principal areas offer potential for biological damage
from thermal changes, labeled A-E on Figure III-7. (There
are other areas associated with mechanical or chemical
effects that cannot be treated here; see the index.)
Area A The cooling water as it passes through the intake,
intake piping (Ai), condensers, discharge piping
(A2) or canal (A'2), and thermal plume (A3 or
A'3), carrying with it small organisms (such as
phytoplankton, zooplankton, invertebrate larvae,
and fish eggs or larvae). Organisms receive a
thermal shock to the full 20 F above ambient
temperature wilh a duration that depends uf
the rate of water flow and the temperature di
in the plume.
Area B Water of the plume alone that entrains b
small and larger organisms (including small fi
as it is diluted (B or B'). Organisms rece
thermal shocks from temperatures ranging fr
the discharge to the ambient temperature,
pending upon where they are entrained.
Area C Benthic environment where bottom organi;
(including fish eggs) can be heated chronically
periodically by the thermal plume (C or C')
Area D The slightly warmed mixed water body (or la
segment of it) where all organisms experienc
slightly warmer average temperature (D).
Area E The discharge canal in which resident or seaso
populations reside at abnormally high tempe
tures (E).
Cooling Water Entrainment
It is not adequate to consider only thermal criteria
water bodies alone when large numbers of aquatic organis
may be pumped through a power plant. The probabil
of an organism being pumped through will depend up
the ratio of the volume of cooling water in the plant to 1
volume in the lake (or to the volume passing the plant ii
river or tidal fresh water}. Tidal environments (be
freshwater and saline) offer greater potential for entra
ment than is apparent, s\nce the same water mass v
move back and forth past the plant many times during 1
lifetime of pelagic residence time of most organisi
Thermal shocks that could be experienced by organis
entrained at the hypothetical power station are shown
Figure III-8.
Detrimental effects of thermal exposures received duri
entrainment can be judged by using the following equati
for short-term exposures to extreme temperatures:
General criterion. 1>
time
10la+b(temp.+2)]
Values for a and b in the equation for the species of aqua
organisms that are likely to be pumped with cooling wa
may be obtained from Appendix II, or the data may
obtained using the methods of Brett (1952).262 The prevaili
intake temperature would determine the acclimati
temperature to be selected from the table.
For example, juvenile largemouth bass may frequent t
near-shore waters of this lake and be drawn into the intal
To determine whether the hypothetical thermal dischart
(Figure III-7) would be detrimental for juvenile bass, t
following analysis can be made (assuming, for examp
that the lake is in Wisconsin where these basic data for b;
are available):
Criterion for juvenile bass (Wisconsin) when inta
-------
Condenser
Piping •
Intake Piping
Intake
i,
Can a
Dilution Plume
Canal Plume
T_
J_
12 16 20 24
lime \fu-r Initial Heating (his )
Modified aflcr Coutant I970c269
//ifat and Temperature/\ 69
36 40
FIGURE IH-8—Time Course of Temperature Change in Cooling Water Passing Through the Example Power Station with
Two Alternate Discharges. The Canal Is Assumed to Flow at a Rate of 3 Ft. Per Sec.
temperature (acclimation) is 70 F (21.11 C). (Data
from Appendix II-C).
ploying rapid dilution.
time
10134- 3649-0. 97 8 9 (temp.+2) J
Canal
Criterion applied to entrainment to end of discharge
canal (discharge temperature is 70 F plus the 20 degree
rise in the condensers or 90 F (32.22 C). The thermal
plume would provide additional exposure above the
lethal threshold, minus 2 C (29.5 C or 85.1 F) of more
than four hours.
1>
60
1Q [34. 364 9- 0.9 7 89(32. 22+2)]
Conclusion:
Juvenile bass would not survive to the end of the
discharge canal.
Dilution
Criterion applied to entrainment in the system em-
1 >
1.2
}Q[34. 3649-0. 9789(32. 22+2.0)]
1.2
-
Travel time in piping to discharge is assumed to be
1 min., and temperature drop to below the lethal
threshold minus 2 C (29.5 C or 85.1 F) is about 10 sec.
(Pritchard, 197 1).312
Conclusion
Juvenile bass would survive this thermal exposure:
1>0.1630
By using the equation in the following form,
log (time)=a+6 (temp. + 2)
the length of time that bass could barely survive the
expected temperature rise could be calculated, thus
allowing selection of an appropriate discharge system.
For example:
log (time) =34.3649- 0.9789 (34.22)
log (time) =0.8669
time =7.36
-------
170/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
This would be about 1,325 feet of canal flowing at
3 ft/sec.
It is apparent that a long discharge canal, a nonrecircu-
lating cooling pond, a very long offshore oioe, or delayed
dilution in a mixing zone (such as the one promoting surface
cooling) could prolong the duration of exposure of pumped
organisms and thereby increase the likelihood of damage to
them. Precise information on the travel times of the cooling
water in the discharge system is needed to conduct this
analysis.
The calculations have ignored changing temperatures in
the thermal plume, because the canal alone was lethal, and
cooling in the plume with rapid dilution was so rapid that
the additional exposure was only for 10 seconds (assumed to
be at the discharge temperature the whole time). There
may be other circumstances under which the effect of
decreasing exposure temperature in the plume may be
of interest.
Effects of changing temperatures in the plume can be
estimated by summing the effects of incremental exposures
for short time periods (Fry et al. 1946281). For example, the
surface cooling plume of Figures III-7 and III-8 could be
considered to be composed of several short time spans, each
with an average temperature, until the temperature had
dropped to the upper lethal threshold minus 2 C for the
juvenile bass. Each time period would be calculated as if
it were a single exposure, and the calculated values for all
time periods would be summed and compared with unity,
as follows:
time,,
.1+2)] ~T JQ[a+b(temp.2+2)]
lQ[a+b(temp.n+2)]
The surface cooling plume of Figure III-6 (exclusive of
the canal) could be considered to consist of 15 min at
89.7 F (32.06 C), 15 min at 89.2 F (31.78C), 15 min at
88.7 F (31.4 C), 15 min at 88.2 F (31.22 C), 15 min at
87.8 F (31.00 C), until the lethal threshold for 70 F acclima-
tion minus 2 C (85.1 F) was reached. The calculation would
proceed as follows:
1 >
15
JQ [34.3649—0.9789(32.06+2)]
15
1QI34.3649-0.9789(31.78+2)]
In this case, the bass would not survive through the first
15-minute period. In other such calculations, several steps
would have to be summed before unity was reached (if not
reached, the plume would not be detrimental).
Entrainment in the Plume
Organisms mixed with the thermal plume during dilution
will also receive thermal shocks, although the maximum
temperatures will generally be less than the discharge
temperature. The number of organisms affected to son
degree may be significantly greater than the numbe
actually pumped through the plant. The route of maximu
thermal exposure for each plume is indicated in Figu
III-7 by a dashed line. This route should be analyzed
determine the maximum reproducible effect.
Detrimental effects of these exposures can also be judgi
by using the criterion for short-term exposures to extren
temperatures. The analytical steps were outlined above f
estimating the effects on organisms that pass through tl
thermal plume portions of the entrainment thermal patter
There would have been no mortalities of the largemou
bass from entrainment in the plume with rapid d ilution, di
to the short duration of exposure (about 10 seconds). Ai
bass that were entrained in the near-shore portions of tl
larger plume, and remained in it, would have died in k
than 15 minutes.
Bottom Organisms Impacted by the Plume
Bottom communities of invertebrates, algae, root<
aquatic plants, and many incubating fish eggs can 1
exposed to warm plume water, particularly in shallo
environments. In some circumstances the warming can I
continuous, in others it can be intermittent due to chang
in plume configuration with changes in currents, winds, i
other factors. Clearly a thermal plume that stratifies ar
occupies only the upper part of the water column will ha1
least effect on bottom biota.
Several approaches are useful in evaluating effects on tl
community. Some have predictive capability, while othe
are suitable largely for identifying effects after they ha'
occurred. The criterion for short-term exposures identifie
relatively brief periods of detrimental high temperature
Instead of the organism passing through zones of elevate
temperatures, as in the previous examples, the organism
sedentary, and the thermal pulse passes over it. Developii
fish eggs may be very sensitive to such changes. A bri
pulse of high temperature that kills large numbers of org
nisms may affect a bottom area for time periods far long
than the immediate exposure time. Repeated sublethal e
posures may also be detrimental, although the process
more complex than straight-forward summation. Analy;
of single exposures proceeds exactly as described for plun
entrainment.
The criterion for prolonged exposures is more general
applicable. The maximum tolerable weekly average ten
perature may be determined by the organisms present an
the phase of their life cycle. In May, for example, tit
maximum heat tolerance temperature for the communii
may be determined by incubating fish eggs or fish fry on tl
bottom. In July it may be determined by the importai
resident invertebrate species. A well-designed thermal di
charge should not require an extensive mixing zone whei
these criteria are exempted. Special criteria for reproducth
processes may have to be applied, although thermal di
-------
Heat and Temperature/171
charges should be located so that zones important for
reproduction—migration, spawning, incubation—are not
used.
Criteria for species diversity provide a useful tool for
identifying effects of thermal changes after they have
occurred, particularly the effects of subtle changes that are
a result of community interactions rather than physiological
responses by one or more major species. Further research
may identify critical temperatures or sequences of tem-
perature changes that cannot be exceeded and may thereby
provide a predictive capability as well. (See Appendix
II B.)
Mixed Water Body (or major region thereof)
This is the region most commonly considered in es-
tablishing water quality standards, for it generally includes
the major area of the water body. Here the results of thermal
additions are observed as small temperature increases over a
large area (instead of high temperatures locally at the dis-
charge point), and all heat sources become integrated into
the normal annual temperature cycle (Figure III-6 and
Figure III-7 insert).
Detrimental high temperatures in this area (or parts of
it) are defined by the criteria for maximum temperatures
for prolonged exposure (warm and cool months) for the
most sensitive species or life stage occurring there, at each
time of year, and by the criteria for reproduction.
For example, in the lake with the hypothetical power
station, there may be 40 principal fish species, of which half
are considered important. These species have spawning
temperatures ranging from 5 to 6 C for the sauger (Stizo-
stedion canadense) to 26.7 C for the spotted bullhead (Ictalurus
sen acanthus). They also have a similar range of temperatures
required for egg incubation, and a range of maximum
temperatures for prolonged exposures of juveniles and
adults. The requirements, however, may be met any time
within normal time spans, such as January 1 to 24 for sauger
spawning, and March 25 to April 29 for smallmouth bass
spawning. Maximum temperatures for prolonged exposures
may increase steadily throughout a spring period. To
predict effects of thermal discharges the pertinent tempera-
tures for reproductive activities and maximum temperatures
for each life stage can be plotted over a 12-month period
such as shown in Fig. Ill—6. A maximum annual tempera-
ture curve can become apparent when sufficient biological
data are available. Mount (1970)308 gives an example of
this type of analysis.
Discharge Canal
Canals or embayments that carry nearly undiluted
condenser cooling water can develop biological communities
that are atypical of normal seasonal communities. Interest
in these areas does not generally derive from concern for a
balanced ecosystem, but rather from effects that the altered
communities can have on the entire aquatic ecosystem.
The general criteria for nuisance organisms may be
applicable. In the discharge canals of some existing power
stations, extensive mats of temperature-tolerant blue-green
algae grow and periodically break away, adding a decom-
posing organic matter to the nearby shorelines.
The winter criterion for maximum temperatures for
prolonged exposures identifies the potential for fish kills due
to rapid decreases in temperature. During cold seasons
particularly, fish are attracted to warmer water of an
enclosed area, such as a discharge canal. Large numbers
may reside there for sufficiently long periods to become
metabolically acclimated to the warm water. For any
acclimation temperature there is a minimum temperature
to which the species can be cooled rapidly and still survive
(lower incipient lethal temperature). These numerical
combinations, where data are available, are found in
Appendix II-C. There would be 50 per cent mortality, for
example, if largemouth bass acclimated in a discharge
canal to 20 C, were cooled to 5.5 C or below. If normal
winter ambient temperature is less than 5.5 C, then the
winter maximum should be below 20 C, perhaps nearer
15 C. If it is difficult to maintain the lower temperatures,
fish should be excluded from the area.
-------
TOXIC SUBSTANCES
ORGANIC MERCURY
Until recently, mercury most commonly entered the
aquatic environment by leaching from geological formations
and by water transport to streams and lakes. Since the
industrial revolution, however, increasing amounts of mer-
cury have been added to the aquatic environment with
waste products from manufacturing processes or through
improper disposal of industrial and consumer products. In
addition, large quantities of mercury enter the environment
when ores are smelted to recover such metals as copper,
lead, and zinc (Klein 1971),343 and when fossil fuels are
burned. Whereas the maximum amount of mercury released
by weathering processes is approximately 230 metric tons
per year worldwide, the amount released by the burning
of coal is on the order of 3000 tons per year; and a further
quantity, probably comparable to 3000 tons, is emitted
from industrial processes (Joensuu 1971).341
In urban and industrial areas consumer products con-
taining mercury are often disposed of in sewer systems.
These mercury discharges, though individually small, can-
not be considered insignificant, because cumulatively they
add large quantities of mercury to the water courses that
receive these effluents. On the average, the mercury concen-
tration in sewage effluent is one order of magnitude greater
than its concentration in the water course that receives it
(D'ltri unpublished data 1971).359 Based on Klein and Gold-
berg's 1970344 report of mercury concentrations in samples
of ocean sediments near municipal sewer out-falls, it can
be calculated that in an urban area from 400 to 500 pounds
of mercury per million population are discharged to re-
ceiving waters every year. The uses of mercury are varied,
and its consumption is fairly large. The National Academy
of Sciences (1969)347 reported the consumption of mercury
by user category.
World attention focused on the environmental mercury
problem when human beings were poisoned by eating
contaminated fish and shell fish during the middle and late
1950's in Minamata, Japan. Since the first occurrence of
"Minamata disease" in 1953, 121 cases resulting in 46
deaths have been confirmed in the Minamata area with an
additional 47 confirmed cases and 6 deaths in near!
Niigata (Takeuchi 1970).362
In Sweden in the 1950's, conservationists charged th
the abundance of methylmercury in the environment w
causing severe poisoning in seed-eating birds and the
predators (Johnels et al. 1967).342 These poisonings cou
be related to the use of methylmercury in seed dressing
When these seed dressings wen? prohibited, levels of mercu
declined substantially in seed-eating animals. At about tl
same time, investigators found high levels of mercury
fish in waters off Sweden, practically all of it in the for
of methylmercury.
Biological Methylation
Some microbes are capable of biologically synthesizir
methylmercury from mercury ions (Jensen and Jcrneli
1969;339 Wood et al. 1969;368 Dunlap 1971 ;333 Fagerstro
and Jernelov 1971).334 At low concentrations, the forma tic
of dimethylmercury is favored in the methyl transfer reactic
but at higher concentrations of mercury, the major produ
appears to be monomethylmercury. In any particular eci
system, the amounts of mono- and dimethylmercury con
pounds are determined by the presence of microbial specie
the amount of organic pollution loading, the mercury coi
centration, temperature, and pH (Wood et al. 1969).3:>s
Biological Magnification
Aquatic organisms concentrate methylmercury in the
bodies either directly from the water or through the foe
chain (Johnels et al. 1967;:!42 Hannerz 1968,-356 Hasseln
1968,338 Miettinen et al. 1970346). Northern pike (Est
lucius) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) are able to a
similate and concentrate methylmercury directly into the
muscle tissues from ingested food (Miettinen et al. 1970).3
In general, mercury in organisms eaten by fish increases ;
each trophic level of the food chain (Hamilton 1971).3
The magnitude of the bioaccumulation of mercury is d<
termined by the species, its exposure, feeding habit
metabolic rate, age and size, quality of the water, and th
degree of mercury pollution in the water. Rucker an
172
-------
Toxic Substances/] 73
Amend (1969)349 established that rainbow trout contained
mercury levels of 4.0 and 17.3 Mg/g in their muscle and
kidney tissue after being exposed to 60 ng/l of ethylmercury
for one hour a day over 10 days. Fresh water phytoplankton,
macrophytes, and fish are capable of biologically magnifying
mercury concentrations from water 1000 times (Chapman
et al. 1968).33° Johnels et al. (1967)342 reported a mercury
concentration factor from water to pike of 5000 or more.
Johnels et al. (1967)34'2 had previously shown that when
mercury levels in pike muscle were below 0.2 ^g, g, the
level was relatively constant irrespective of weight, but
above 0.2 Mg/g, the concentration of mercury tended to
increase with increasing age and weight.
Experiments in progress at the National Water Quality
Laboratory in Duluth, Minnesota, (Mount unpublished
data 1971)361 indicate that when brook trout (Salvelinus
fontinahf) are held in water containing 0.05 pg/\ of methyl-
mercury for 2 months they can accumulate more than
0.5 /ig'g of mercury. This is a magnification of 10,000
times. In the same experiments, exposure to 0.03 Mg/1 for
5 months resulted in continuing accumulation in fish tissue
with no indication of a plateau. In a group of fish held at
one /xg, 1, some organs contained 30 Mg'g- Some fresh water
invertebrates have also been reported to have a 10,000
magnification (Hannerz 1968).331'
Although the mechanisms by which mercury accumulates
and concentrates have not been fully explained, at least
three factors are involved: the metabolic rate of individual
fish; differences in the selection of food as fish mature;
and the epithelial surface of the fish (Wobeser et al. 1970 ;357
Hannerz 1968).336 The rate at which fish lose methyl-
mercury also has considerable effect on magnification of
mercury in the tissues. Miettinen et al. have shown in a
series of papers (1970)34C that the loss of methylmercury is
both fast and slow in fishes. The fast loss occurs early, while
mercury is being redistributed through the body, and lasts
only a few weeks. The subsequent loss from established
binding sites follows slowly; a half-life is estimated to be
on the order of 2 years. These rates mean that fishes, and
perhaps other lower vertebrates, reduce their content of
methylmercury many times more slowly than do the higher
terrestrial vertebrates. Man, for example, is usually con-
sidered to excrete half of any given mercury residue in
about 80 days. Extremely low rates of loss have also been
shown in different species of aquatic mollusks and crayfish
(Cambarus) (Nelson 1971).348
Excessive mercury residues in the sediments are dissipated
only slowly. Lofroth (1970)345 estimated that aquatic habi-
tats polluted with mercury continue to contaminate fish for
as long as 10 to 100 years after pollution has stopped.
Mercury in Fresh Waters
Mercury measured in the water of selected rivers of the
United States ranged from less than 0.1 jtg/1 to 17 ng/L
Two-thirds of the rivers contained 0.1 Mg/1 or less (Wallace
et al. 1971).355 The value of 0.1 /ig/1 is also reported as the
earliest reliable estimate of mercury levels in uncontami-
nated fresh water (Swedish National Institute of Public
Health 1971).351 Some rivers tested by the Swedish Institute
were as low as 0.05 Mg/1, which was also the average mercury
level in some salt waters.
Toxicity of Organic Mercury in Water
The chemical form of methylmercury administered to
fish makes little difference in its toxic effect (Miettinen et
al. 1970).346 The methylmercury bound to sulfhydryl groups
of proteins, as it would be in nature, is just as toxic as the
free unbound ionic form.
Fish are able to survive relatively high concentrations of
organomercurials for a short time with few ill effects. For
example, fry of steel head trout (Salmo gairdrieri) and
finger-lings of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) are able
to survive in 10 mg/'l of pyridyl mercuric acetate for one
hour with no toxic effects (Rucker and Whipple 1951).350
The LC50 of pyridyl mercuric acetate for some freshwater
fish ranges from 390 jug/1 to 26,000 /xg/1 for exposures be-
tween 24 and 72 hours (\Villford 1966;3"6 Clemmens and
Snced 1958,331 1959).332
As the exposure times lengthen, lower concentrations of
mercury are lethal. On the basis of 120-hour bioassay tests
of three species of minnows, Van Horn and Balch (1955)354
determined that the minimum lethal concentrations of
pyridyl mercuric acetate, pyridyl mercuric chloride, phenyl
mercuric acetate, and ethyl mercuric phosphate averaged
250 /ig/1.
Recent experiments at the National Water Quality Lab-
oratory (Mount, personal communication 1971)360 indicated
that 0.2 /ug/1 of methylmercury killed fathead minnows
(Ptmephalespromelas) within 6 to 8 weeks. Toxicity data from
this same laboratory on several other species including
Gammarus, Daphnia, top minnow (Fundulus sp.) and brook
trout (Salvelinus fontmahs) indicated that none was more
sensitive than the fathead minnow.
Northern pike seem to be more sensitive. When they
were reared in water containing 0.1 /ig/1 of methylmercury
for a season and then placed in clean water, they underwent
continuing mortality. Scattered mortality from this source
could ordinarily not be detected in nature, because the
affected fish became uncoordinated and probably would
have been eaten by predators (Hannerz 1968,33G quoted by
Nelson 1971348).
Some species of plankton are particularly sensitive.
Studies of the effect of mercury on phytoplankton species
confirmed that concentrations as low as 0.1 /zg/1 of selected
organomercurial fungicides decreased both the photosynthe-
sis and the growth of laboratory cultures of the marine
alga Nitzschia delicatissum, as well as of some fresh water
phytoplankton species (Harriss et al. 1970).337 Ethyl-
mercury phosphate is lethal to marine phytoplankton at
60 Mg/1, and levels as low as 0.5 jig/1 drastically limit their
-------
114/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
growth (Ukeles 1962).363 There is insufficient information
about the thresholds for chronic toxicity.
Tissue Levels and Toxicity
There is almost no information on the concentrations of
mercury in the tissues of aquatic organisms that are likely
to cause mortality of the organisms themselves. Fish and
shellfish found dead in Minamata contained 9 to 24 /ug/g
of mercury on the usual wet-weight basis; presumably some
of these levels were lethal (Nelson 1971).348 Miettinen et al.
(1970)346 showed that pike which had been experimentally
killed by methylmercury contained from 5 to 9.1 ng/g and
averaged 6.4 and 7.4 micrograms of methylmercury per
gram of muscle tissue.
Discussion of Proposed Recommendations
At the present time there are not sufficient data available
to determine the levels of mercury in water that are safe
for aquatic organisms under chronic exposure. There have
not been, for example, any experiments on the effects of
chronic exposure to mercury on reproduction and growth
of fish in the laboratory. Since experiments on sublethal
effects are lacking, the next most useful information is on
lethal effects following moderately long exposures of weeks
or months. The lowest concentration shown to be lethal to
fish is 0.2 /ig/1 of methylmercury which is lethal to fathead
minnows (Pimephalespromelas) in six weeks. Because 0.2 Mg/1
of methylmercury has been shown to be lethal, it is suggested
that this concentration of mercury not be exceeded at any
time or place in natural waters. Since phytoplankton are
more sensitive, the average concentration of methylmercury
in water probably should not exceed 0.05 /ug/1 for their
protection. This recommended average is approximately
equal to the supposed natural concentrations of mercury
in water; hence little mercury can be added to the aquatic
environment. The National Water Quality Laboratory
(Mount, unpublished data 1971)361 found that exposure of
trout to 0.05 Mg/1 of methylmercury for 3 months resulted
in concentrations of 0.5 ng/g, the Food and Drug Adminis-
tration guideline for the maximum level for edible portions
of fish flesh.
These concentrations of mercury or methylmercury in
water are very low and difficult to measure or differentiate
without special equipment and preparation. These low
concentrations can also only be measured as total mercury.
Since sediments may contain 10,000 times the amount of
mercury in water, suspended solids in water can seriously
affect the values found in analyses of water for mercury
(Jernelov 1972).340 Because of these difficulties and because
the real danger of mercury pollution results from a biological
magnification, recommendations for mercury residues in
tissues of aquatic organisms should be developed. This
would make monitoring and control not only more effective
and certain but also more feasible technically. Unfortu-
nately, data are not yet available on the residue levels that
are safe for the aquatic organisms themselves and fc
organisms higher in the food chain, such as predatory fis
or fish-eating birds. It is known that concentrations of 5 t
10 ng/g are found in some fish that died of methylmercur
poisoning, and that 0.01 to 0.2 ng/g is apparently a usu;
background level in freshwater fish. Because data are lackin
for safe residue levels in aquatic food chains, it is suggeste
that the Food & Drug Administration guideline level c
0.5 Mg/g of total mercury in edible portions of freshwatc
fish used as human food be the guideline to protect predatoj
in aquatic food chains.
Hence, mercury residues should not exceed 0.5 ng/g i
any aquatic organisms. If levels approaching this are founc
there should be total elimination of all possible sources c
mercury pollution.
No distinction has been drawn between organic and ir
organic forms of mercury in these discussions because of th
possibility of biological transformation to the organic phas
in aquatic habitats. Since the form of mercury in watc
cannot be readily determined, the recommendations ar
primarily based upon methylmercury but expressed as tote
mercury.
Recommendations
Selected species of fish and predatory aquati
organisms should be protected when the followin
conditions are fulfilled: (1) the concentration o
total mercury does not exceed a total body burdei
of 0.5 M£/£ wet weight in any aquatic organism
(2) the total mercury concentrations in unfilterei
water do not exceed 0.2 fig/1 at any time or place
and (3) the average total mercury concentration ii
unfiltered water does not exceed 0.05 jug/1-
PHTHALATE ESTERS
The occurrence of dialkyl phthalate residues has bee
established in various segments of the aquatic environmer
of North America. Phthalate ester residues occur principall
in samples of water, sediment, and aquatic organisms i
industrial and heavily populated areas (Stalling 1972).3'
In fish di-n-butyl phthalate residues ranged from 0 to 50
fig/kg, and di-2-ethylhexyl phi:halate residues were as hig
as 3,200 Mg/kg. No well-documented information exists o
the fate of phthalate compounds in aquatic environment!
Phthalate esters are widely used as plasticizers, particu
larly in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics. The mos
common phthalate ester plasticizer is di-2-ethylhexyl phthal
ate. Di-7z-butyl phthalate has been used as an insect repellen
(Frear 1969)362 and in pesticide formulations to retari
volatilization (Schoof et al. 1963).365 Production of diocty
phthalate ester placticizers was estimated to be 4.10Xl08lb
in 1970 (Neelyl 970).363 Total phthalate ester productioi
was reported to be 8.40 X 108 Ibs in 1968, of which 4.40 X 10
Ibs were dioctyl phthalate esters (Nematollahi et al. 1967).36
Production of phthalic anhydride was estimated to bi
-------
Toxic Substances/175
7.60X 108 Ibs in 1970 (Ncely 1970).363 PVC plastic formula-
tions may contain 30 to 60 parts per hundred of phthalate
ester plasticizer (Nematollahi et al. 1967).364
Toxicity
Studies to determine the acute or chronic toxicity effects
of phthalate esters or other plasticizers on aquatic organisms
have only recently been undertaken (Stalling 1972).366 For
example, the acute toxicity of di-«-butyl phthalate to fish
is extremely low compared to pesticides (Table 111-14).
Daphnia magna were exposed to 0.1 fie;/I of 14C di-rc-butyl
phthalate and the organisms accumulated chemical residues
of 600 /^g/kg within 10 days, or a 6,000-fold magnification
(Saundcrs, unpublished data 1971).367 However, after transfer
of the Daphnia to uncontaminated water, approximately
50 per cent of the di-rz-butyl phthalate was excreted in three
days. It was recently found that a concentration of 3 jug/1
of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate significantly reduced the growth
and reproduction of Daphnia magna (Sanders unpublished
data 1971).367
The acute toxicity of phthalate esters appears to be rela-
tively insignificant, but these compounds may be detri-
mental to aquatic organisms at low chronic concentrations.
Recommendation
Until a more detailed evaluation is made of toxi-
cological effects of phthalate esters on aquatic eco-
systems, a safety factor of 0.1 has been applied to
data for Daphnia magna toxicity, and a level not
to exceed 0.3 /*£/! should protect fish and their
food supply.
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) have been found in fish
and wildlife in many parts of the world and at levels that
may adversely affect aquatic organisms (Jensen et al.
1969;376 Holmes et al. 1967;375 Koeman et al. 1969;378
TABLE 111-14—Acute Toxicity of Di-n-butyl Phthalate to
Four Species of Fish and Daphnia Magna.
LC50 in jug/I
Species Temperature 24 hr
Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)
Bluegill (Lepomis macrechinis) 1230
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) . 3720
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnen)
Daphnia magna
48 hr
1490
731
2910
96 hr
1300 (Stalling)'"
731 (Stalling)**
2910 (Stalling)'"
6470 (Sanders)1"
>5000 (Sanders)3"
Risebrough et al. 1968).386 The environmental occurrence,
uses, and present toxicological aspects of PCB were recently
reviewed by Peakall and Lincer (1970),384 Gustafson
(1970),372 Risebrough (1970),387 and Reynolds (1971).385
Biphenyls may have 1 to 10 attached chlorine atoms,
making possible over 200 compounds (Gustafson 1970).372
PCB occur as residues in fish, and presumably also in water,
as mixtures of chlorinated biphenyl isomers as shown in
Table 111-15 (Stalling and Johnson, unpublished data 1970,3%
Stalling mpress™2).
Analysis of PCB has been accomplished by gas chromatog-
raphy after separation of PCB from pesticides. A separation
method has been described by Armour and Burke (1970)369
and modified by Stalling and Huckins (1971).391 A method
using separation on a charcoal column has shown good
reproducibility (Frank and Rees, personal communication) .396
No standardized gas-liquid chromatography method has
been proposed for the analysis of mixtures of PCB in en-
vironmental samples. The solubility of these formulations
in water has not been precisely determined, but it is in the
range of 100 to 1,000 /ig/1 (Papageorge 1970).383 Since
PCB have gas chromatographic characteristics similar to
many organochlorine pesticides, they can cause serious
interference in the gas chromatographic determination of
chlorinated insecticides (Risebrough et al. 1968).386
The Monsanto Company, the sole manufacturer of PCB
TABLE 111-15—Composition of PCB Residues in Selected Fish Samples from the 1970 National Pesticide Residue
Monitoring Program
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Yazoo
Hudson.
Allegheny
Delaware
Cape Fear
Lake Ontario
Mississippi
Mernmac .
River
Location
Cincinnati, 0.
Cincinnati, 0.
Marietta, 0.
Marietta, 0.
Redwood, Miss.
PoughKeepsie, N.Y.
Natrona, Pa.
Camden, N.J.
Elizabeth Town, N.C.
Port Ontario, N.Y.
Memphis, Tenn.
Lowell, Mass.
Species
Carp Cyprinus carpio
White crappie Poximus annularus
Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus
Channel catfish
Smallmouth buffalo Ictiobus bubalus
Goldfish Carassius auratus
Walleye Stezostedion vitreum v.
White perch Roccus americanus
Gizzard shad Porosoma cepedianum
White perch
Drum Aplodmotus grunniens
Drum
PCB Residue as Aroclor ® type(,*g/g whole body)
1232
1248
1254
1260
Total
10
lularus 16
unctatus 38
16
s bubalus 72
9
im v.
anus
ledianum 19
13
IS 11
14
75
17
23
5.2
173
5.2
8.0
75
42
27
11
13
1.4
32
25
6.8
2.6
4.6
4.5
6.1
6.0
5.6
4.9
4.E
4.6
3.9
1.1
1.2
3.4
3.2
133
66
77
38
73
213
35
19
23
19
19
98
-------
\7(j/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
in the United States (Gustafson 1970),372 markets eight
formulations of chlorinated biphenyls under the trademarks
Aroclor® 1221, 1232, 1242, 1248, 1254, 1260, 1262, and
1268. The last two digits of each formulation designate the
percent chlorine. Aroclor® 1248 and 1254 are produced in
greatest quantities. They are used as dielectric fluids in
capacitors and in closed-system heat exchangers (Papa-
george 1970).383 Aroclor® 1242 is used as a hydraulic fluid,
and Aroclor ® 1260 as a plasticizer. Chlorinated terphenyls
are marketed under the trademark Aroclor ® 5442 and 5460,
and a mixture of bi- and terphenyls is designated Aroclor ®
4465. The isomer composition and chromatographic char-
acteristics of each formulation have been described by
Stalling and Huckins (1971)391 and Bagley et al. (1970)."°
A contaminant of some PCB. especially those manufactured
in Europe, are chlorinated dibenzofurans (Brungs personal
communication 1972).393 Although these byproducts would
appear to be extremely toxic, no data are available on their
toxicity to aquatic life.
Direct Lethal Toxicity
Studies of toxicity of PCB to aquatic organisms arc limited.
They show considerable variation of toxicity to different
species, as well as variation with the chlorine content of the
PCB. Nevertheless, some trends in the toxic characteristics
have become apparent, principally from the work of Mayer
as described below:
• The higher the per cent chlorine, the lower the ap-
parent toxicity of PCB to fish (Mayer, in press).3™
This was found in 15-day intermittent-flow bioassays
using bluegills (Lepomis macrochmis) and channel cat-
fish (Ictalurus punctatus) with Aroclor® 1242, 1248,
1254. All LC50 values were in the range 10 to 300
Mg/'l-
• The bluegill/channel catfish experiments also illus-
trated that all LC50 values decreased significantly
when exposures continued from 15 to 20 days. The
96-hour LC50 of a PCB to fish cannot adequately
measure its lethal toxicity.
• The same tests showed that the toxicity of Aroclor ®
1248 doubled when the temperature was raised from
20 C to 27 C.
To invertebrates, Aroclor® 1242 has about the same
acute toxicity that it has to fish. In 4- and 7-day tests
(Saunders, in press),3*9 it killed Gammarus at 42 /jg/'l and
crayfish (Cambarus) at 30 /ug/1, with values that were similar
to the 15-day LC50 reported for bluegills. However, there
is an extreme range in the reported short-term lethal levels
of Aroclor® 1254 for invertebrates. Saunders (in press)3*9
reported a 96-hour LC50 as 80 jig/1 for crayfish and only
3 ng/l for glass shrimp (Paleomonetes) in 7-day tests; and
Duke et al. (1970)371 reported that as little as 0.94 /ig/1
killed immature pink shrimp (Panaeus duorarum). Part of this
variation is related to exposure periods in the tests; part
is no doubt the variation in species response. Again thi
emphasizes the point that short-term tests of acute toxicitie
of PCB have serious limitations.
Marine animals may be more easily killed by PCB thai
freshwater ones (see Section IV). When two cstuarine fishe
(Lagodon rhomboides and Leiostomits xanthurus) were exposei
for 14 to 45 days to Aroclor ® 1254, mortalities were ob
served at 5 /ug/1 (Hansen, el al. 1971).373 This indicated ,
toxicity about five times greater than summarized abov
for freshwater fish but about the same as the toxicity for th
marine crustaceans mentioned above.
Feeding Studies
Dietary exposure to PCB seems to be less of a direc
hazard to fish than exposure in water. Coho salmoi
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) fed Aroclor® 1254 in varying amount
up to 14,500 jiig/kg body weight per day accumulated whol
body residues which were only 0.9 to 0.5 of the level ii
the food after 240 days of dietary exposure. Growth rate
were not affected. However, all fish exposed to the highes
treatment died after 240 days exposure; and thyroid activit-
was stimulated in all except the group treated at the lowes
concentration (Mehrle and Grant unpublished data 1971).39
At present, evaluation of data from laboratory expert
ments indicates that exposures to PCB in water represent
a greater hazard to fish than dietary exposures. However
in the environment, residue accumulation from dietan
sources could be more important, because PCB have ;
high affinity for sediments, and therefore, they readily ente
food chains (Duke ct al. 1970;m Nimmo, et al. 1971).382
Residues in Tissue
It is clear that widespread pollution of major waterway
has occurred, and that appreciable PCB residues exist ii
fish. \Vhen analyses of 40 fish from the 1970 Nationa
Pesticide Monitoring Program were made, only one of thi
fish was found to contain less than 1 /ig/g PCB (Stalling
and Mayer 1972).39° The 10 highest residue levels in thi
40 selected fish ranged from 19 pig/g to 213 jug/g wholi
body weight.
By contrast, residues measiured in ocean fish have beer
generally below 1 yug/g (Risebrough 1970;387 Jensen, et al
1969).376 Between the ranges in freshwater fish and thosi
in marine fish are the levels of PCB found in seals (Jenser
et al. 1969;376 Holden 1970),m and in the eggs of fish
eating birds in North America (Anderson et al. 1969;36
Mulhern et al. 1971 ;380 Reynolds 1971).385
In laboratory experiments. Crustacea exposed to varyiru
levels of Aroclor® 1254 in the water concentrated the PCI
within their bodies more than 20,000 times. The tissut
residues may sometimes reach an equilibrium, and ir
Gammarus fasciatus PCB did nol concentrate beyond 27,00(
times despite an additional 3-week exposure to 1.6 ng/
Aroclor® (Saunders 1972).38S In contrast, PCB residues ir
crayfish did not reach equilibrium after a 28-day exposure
-------
Toxic Substances/111
PCB concentration factors by two estuarine fishes, Lagondon
rhomboides and Leiostomus xanthurus, were similar to that
described above for crustaceans, i.e., about 10,000 to 50,000
times the exposure levels in water (Hansen et al. 1971).373
It is important to note that these accumulations occurred
at water concentrations of PCB that killed the fish in 15
to 45 days.
Also similar were the accumulation ratios of 26,000 to
56,000 for bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) chronically exposed
to 2 to 15 jug/1 of Aroclor ® 1248 and 1254. Fathead minnows
(Pimeplmles promelas) chronically exposed to Aroclor® 1242
and 1254 for 8 weeks concentrated PCB 100,000 and
200,000 times the exposure levels, respectively. Residues of
50 jig/1 (whole body) resulted from exposure for 8 weeks
to 0.3 Mg'l Aroclor® 1254 (Nebcker et al. 1972).3S1 These
experiments with bluegills also indicated that the maximum
levels of PCB were generally related to the concentration
of PCB in the water (50,000-200,000 times higher) to which
they were exposed (Stalling and Huckins unpublished data
1971).3<)7
Effects on Reproduction
PCB residues in salmon eggs are apparently related to
mortality of eggs. In preliminary investigations in Sweden,
Jensen and his associates (1970)377 reported that when
residues in groups of eggs ranged from 0.4 to 1.9 /ug/g °n
a whole-weight basis (7.7 to 34 jig,'g on a fat basis), related
mortalities ranged from 16 per cent up to 100 per cent.
PCB concentrations in the range of 0.5 to 10 /ig/1 in
water interfered with reproduction of several aquatic ani-
mals according to recent work of Nebeker et al. (1971).381
About 5 yug I of Aroclor® 1248 was the highest concen-
tration that did not affect reproduction of Daphma magna
and Gammarus pmidohmnaeus. In tests of reproduction by
fathead minnows (Pimephalespromelas) all died when exposed
chronically to greater than 8.3 jig/l of either Aroclor® 1242
or Aroclor® 1254. Reproduction occurred at and below
5.4 /ng.l Aroclor® 1242, and at and below 1.8 /ig 1 of
Aroclor® 1254.
The association between residue levels and biological
effects in aquatic animals is scarcely known, but the work
of Jensen et al. (1970)377 suggested that about 0.5 /ig/g of
PCB in whole salmon eggs might be the threshold for egg
mortality. Such a level in eggs would be associated with
levels in general body tissue (e.g., muscle) of 2.5 to 5.0 jig/g.
The residue in muscle corresponded to the present Food and
Drug Administration level for allowable levels of PCB in
fish used as human food. Residues measured in the survey
by the 1970 National Pesticide Monitoring Program were
generally above 5 Mg/g-
Applying a minimal safety factor of 10 for protection of
the affected population, and for protection of other species
higher in the food chain, would yield a maximum permis-
sible tissue concentration of 0.5 Mg/g in any aquatic organism
in any habitat affected by PCB.
General Considerations and Further Needs
Another means of control would be justified in view of
the toxicity of PCB, the lack of knowledge about how it
first enters natural ecosystems as a pollutant, and its ap-
parent distribution in high concentrations in freshwater
fish in the United States. This method would be to regulate
the manufacture of PCB and maintain close control of its
uses to avoid situations where PCB is lost to the environ-
ment. The Monsanto Company recently restricted the sale
of PCB for uses in which disposal of the end products could
not be controlled, as with plasticizcrs (Gustafson 1970).372
Basis for Recommendations
For PCB levels in water, the most sensitive reaction shown
by aquatic organisms is to the lethal effects of low concen-
trations continually present in water for long periods (weeks
or months). Concentrations in the range of 1 to 8 /ig/1
have been shown to be lethal to several animals.
The work of Hansen, et al. (1971)373 and Stallings and
Huckins (unpublished dala 1971)391 indicates that concen-
trations of 0.01 fig, 1 of PCB in water over periods of up to
36 weeks could lead to dangerous levels of PCB in the
tissues of aquatic organisms. Accumulation by factors of
75,000 to 200,000 times is indicated by their work. If the
higher ratio is taken, 0.01 /ig/1 in water might result in 2.0
jig, g in flesh on whole fish basis. This is comparable to the
residue level in salmon eggs associated with complete
mortality of embryos. Therefore, a concentration is recom-
mended that is reduced by a factor of 5, or 0.002 /ig/1. In
addition, a control based on residue levels is required, as
well as one based on PCB in the water.
Recommendations
Aquatic life should be protected where the maxi-
mum concentration of total PCB in unfiltered
water does not exceed 0.002 /tg/1 at any time or
place, and the residues in the general body tissues
of any aquatic organism do not exceed 0.5 /zg/g.
METALS
General Data
Several reviews of the toxicity of metals are available
(e.g., Skidmore 1964;428 McKee and Wolf 1963;415
Doudoroff and Katz 1953).406 Some of the most relevant
research is currently in progress or only recently completed.
Some deals with chronic effects of metals on survival,
growth, and reproduction of fish and other organisms. The
completed studies have estimated safe concentrations, and
from these application factors have been derived as defined
in the discussion of bioassays (pp. 118-123).
The important relation between water hardness and
lethal toxicity is well documented for some metals (see
Figure III-9). For copper, the difference in toxicity may
-------
178/'Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
S 0.5
0.2
0.02
LEAD
z
ZINC
COPPER
10
20
50 100 200
Total Hardness, mg/1 as CaCo^j
1000
100
20
Brown 1968,401 Lloyd and Herbert I960'
FIGURE IH-9—The 48-Hour Lethal Concentrations of Three Heavy Metals for Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri). (Simile
Relationships Exist for Other Species of Fish.)
-------
Toxic Substances/179
not be related to the difference in hardness per se, but to
the difference in alkalinity of the water that accompanies
change in hardness (Stiff 1971).434 Nevertheless, the re-
lation to hardness is a convenient and accepted one. The
hardness classification developed by the U.S. Geological
Survey is the following:
Soft
Moderately hard
Hard
0- 60 mg/1 (hardness as CaCO3)
61-120 mg/1
in excess of 120 mg/1
There are many chemical species of metals in water;
some are toxic to aquatic life, others are not. Hydrogen ion
concentration in water is extremely important in governing
the species and solubility of metals and therefore the lethal
toxicity. At high pH, many heavy metals form hydroxides
or basic carbonates that are relatively insoluble and tend
to precipitate. They may, however, remain suspended in
the water as fine particles (O'Connor et al. 1964;421 Stiff
1971).434
The toxicity of suspended hydroxides of metal depends
on the particular situation. For example, suspended zinc has
been found to be nontoxic (Sprague 1964a&b),429'430 equally
as toxic as dissolved zinc (Lloyd I960)412 and more toxic
than dissolved zinc (Mount 1966).417 This indicates that
suspended zinc is at least potentially poisonous, and there-
fore the total metal measured in the water should be con-
sidered toxic. It is difficult to predict the effect of pH on
toxicity. For example, low pH (about 5) as well as high pH
(about 9) reduced toxicity of copper and zinc compared to
that at neutral pH (Fisheries Research Board of Canada
unpublished data 1971).444 Therefore pH should be regulated
in bioassays with metals in order to simulate local conditions
and to explore any effect of local variation of pH.
In addition to hardness, numerous other factors influence
the lethal toxicity of copper to fish. McKee and Wolf
(1963)415 and Doudoroff and Katz (1953)406 included dis-
solved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, carbon dioxide,
magnesium salts, and phosphates as factors affecting copper
toxicity. Artificial chelating compounds such as nitrilo-
triacetic acid can reduce or eliminate toxic effects of zinc
and other metals (Sprague 1968b)432 and there may be
natural chelating agents that would do the same thing.
Certain organic ligands (Bender et al. 1970)399 and amino
acids from sewage treatment plant effluent (United King-
dom Ministry of Technology 1969)435 also reduce the
toxicity of copper by forming copper-organic complexes
that do not contribute to lethal toxicity. It is safe to assume
that some of these factors will influence the toxicity of other
metals. In addition, the amount of metals found (at least
temporarily) in living biological matter is included in most
routine water analyses. At the present time, however, it is
not possible to predict accurately the amount of total metal
in any environment that may be lethal, biologically active,
or contributory to toxicity. Consequently, the following
recommendations are made.
Recommendations
Since forms or species of metals in water may
change with shifts in the water quality, and since
the toxicity to aquatic life may concurrently
change in as yet unpredictable ways, it is recom-
mended that water quality criteria for a given
metal be based on the total amount of it in the
water, regardless of the chemical state or form of
the metal, except that settleable solids should be
excluded from the analysis (Standard Methods
1971).433 Additionally, hardness affects the toxicity
of many metals (see Figure III-9).
Metals which have collected in the sediments
can redissolve into the water, and such redissolved
metals should meet the criteria for heavy metals.
To protect aquatic life, amounts likely to be harm-
ful should not occur in the sediments.
It is recommended that any metal species not
specifically mentioned in this report but suspected
of causing detrimental effects on aquatic life be
examined as outlined in the section on Bioassays.
Aluminum
Current research by Freeman and Everhart (1971)407
indicated that aluminum salts were slightly soluble at
neutral pH; 0.05 mg/1 dissolved and had no sublethal
effects on fish. At pH 9, at least 5 mg/1 of aluminum dis-
solved and this killed fingerling rainbow trout within 48
hours. However, the suspended precipitate of ionized alumi-
num is toxic. In most natural waters, the ionized or po-
tentially ionizable aluminum would be in the form of anionic
or neutral precipitates, and anything greater than 0.1 mg/1
of this would be deleterious to growth and survival of fish.
Recommendation
Careful examination of toxicity problems should
be made to protect aquatic life in situations where
the presence of ionic aluminum is suspected.
Aluminum may have considerably greater toxicity
than has been assumed.
Cadmium
This metal is an extremely dangerous cumulative poison.
In mammals (Nilsson 1970),420 fish (Eaton unpublished data
1971),442 and probably other animals, there is insidious,
progressive, chronic poisoning because there is almost no
excretion of the metal. In its acute lethal action on rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdnen), Ball (1967)398 found cadmium un-
usually slow. A lethal threshold of 0.01 mg/1 was not dis-
cernible until seven days' exposure. Other investigators
(Pickering and Gast, in press,'12'1 Eaton unpublished data
1971)442 have determined lethal threshold concentrations in
fathead minnows in 2 to 6 days and in bluegill in 96 hours.
The chronically safe levels for both fathead minnows
-------
180/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Pimephales promelas) (Pickering and Gast, in press)**'1 and
bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) (Eaton unpublished data
1971)442 in hard water (200 mg/1 as CaCO3) are between
0.06 and 0.03 mg/1. In these exposures, death of eggs or
early larvae was one of the effects observed at the lowest
unsafe concentrations tested. Recent exposures of eggs and
larvae at the National Water Quality Laboratory (Duluth)
in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOs) demonstrated that 0.01
mg/1 was unsafe; 0.004 mg/1 was safe for several warm- and
coldwater fishes, including some salmonids; and the safe
level for coho salmon fry (Oncorhynchus kisutch) was lower,
i.e., between 0.004 mg/1 and 0.001 mg/1 (McKim and
Eaton unpublished data 1971).'145
Daphnia magna appeared to be very sensitive to cadmium.
Concentrations of 0.0005 mg/1 were found to reduce repro-
duction in one-generation exposures lasting three weeks
(Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data 1971).440 This
sensitivity is probably representative of other crustaceans
as well.
Recommendation
Aquatic life should be protected where levels of
cadmium do not exceed 0.03 mg/1 in water having
total hardness above 100 mg/1 as CaCO3, or 0.004
mg/1 in waters with a hardness of 100 mg/1 or
below at any time or place. Habitats should be
safe for crustaceans or the eggs and larvae of
salmon if the levels of cadmium do not exceed
0.003 mg/1 in hard water or 0.0004 mg/1 in soft
water at any time or place.
Chromium
The chronic toxicity of hexavalent chromium to fish has
been studied by Olson (1958),422 and Olson and Foster
(1956,423 1957).424 Their data demonstrated a pronounced
cumulative toxicity of chromium to rainbow trout and
chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawy(scha). Duodoroff and
Katz (1953)406 found that bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus)
tolerated a 45 mg/1 level for 20 days in hard water. Cairns
(1956),403 using chromic oxide (CrO3), found that a concen-
tration of 104 mg/1 was toxic to bluegills in 6 to 84 hours.
Bioassays conducted with four species of fish gave 96-hour
LC50's of hexavalent chromium thai ranged from 17 to
118 mg/1, indicating little effect of hardness on toxicity
(Pickering and Henderson 1966).426
Recently some tests of chronic effects on reproduction of
fish have been carried out. The 96-hour LC50 and safe
concentrations for hexavalent chromium were 33 and 1.0
mg/1 for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) in hard
water (Pickering unpublished data 1971),446 50 and 0.6 mg/1
for brook trout (Salvelinus fontinahs) in soft water, and 69
and 0.3 mg/1 for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in soft
water (Benoit unpublished data 1971).438 Equivalent values
for trivalent chromium were little different: 27 mg/1 for
the 96-hour LC50, and 1.0 mg/1 for a safe concentration
for fathead minnows in hard water (Pickering unpublishd
data 1971).446
For Daphnia the LC50 of hexavalent chromium was re
ported as 0.05 mg/1, and the chronic no-effect level o
trivalent chromium on reproduction was 0.33 rag/1 (Bie
singer and Christensen unpublished data 1971).44° Some dat;
are available concerning the toxicity of chromium to algae
The concentrations of chromium that inhibited growth fo
the test organisms are as follows (Hervey 1949):410 Chlor
ococcales, 3.2 to 6.4 mg/1; Euglenoids, 0.32 to 1.6 mg/l
and diatoms, 0.032 to 0.32 mg/1. Patrick (unpublished dat
1971)447 found that 50 per cent growth reduction for twi
diatoms in hard and soft water occurred at 0.2 to 0.4 mg/
chromium.
Thus it is apparent that there is a great range of sensi
tivity to chromium among different species of organism
and in different waters. Those lethal levels reported abovi
are 17 to 118 mg/1 for fish, 0.05 mg/1 for invertebrates, an<
0.032 to 6.4 mg/1 for algae, the highest value being 3,701
times the lowest one. The apparent "safe" concentratioi
for fish is moderately high, but the recommended maximun
concentration of 0.05 mg/1 has been selected in order ti
protect other organisms, in particular Daphnia and certaii
diatoms which are affected at slightly below this concert
tration.
Recommendation
Mixed aquatic populations should be protecte<
where the concentration of total chromium it
water does not exceed 0.05 mg/1 at any time o
place.
Copper
Copper is known to be particularly toxic to algae ant
mollusks, and the implications of this should be eonsideree
for any given body of water. Based on studies of effects o:
these organisms, it is known that the criteria for fish protec
these other forms as well. Recent work (Biesinger et al
unpublished data 1971)439 indicated that the sale level o
copper for reproduction and growth of Daphnia magna ii
soft water (45 mg/1 as CaGOs) is 0.006 mg/1, which i
similar to the concentrations described below as safe fo
fish. The relationship of LC50 to water hardness was showi
in Figure III-7 for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri).
The safe concentration of copper for reproduction by fat
head minnows (Pimephales promelas) in hard water (20(
mg/1 as CaCOa) was between 0.015 and 0.033 mg/
(Mount 1968),418 and in soft water (30 mg/1 as CaCO;i
was between 0.011 and 0.018 mg/1 (Mount and Stephat
1969).419 More recent work with fathead minnows in hare
water indicated that a concentration of 0.033 mg/1 wouk
probably be safe (Brungs unpublished data 1971).441 Ac
ceptable reproduction by brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis
in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOg) occurred between 0.01(
and 0.018 mg/1 (McKim and Benoit 1971).416 The safe-to
-------
Toxic Substances /181
lethal ratios determined in these studies varied somewhat;
but that for hard water is close to 0.1 and that for soft water
is approximately 0.1 to 0.2. In very soft water, typical of
some northern and mountainous regions, 0.1 of the 96-hour
LC50 for sensitive species would be close to what is con-
sidered a natural concentration in these waters.
Recent work indicated that avoidance reactions by fish
may be as restrictive as reproductive requirements or even
more so (Sprague 1964b).430 It has been demonstrated that
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) avoid a concentration of 0.004
mg/1 in the laboratory.
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of copper safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.1.
Lead
Lead has a low solubility of 0.5 mg/1 in soft water and
only 0.003 mg/1 in hard water, although higher concen-
trations of suspended and colloidal lead may remain in the
water. The extreme effects of water hardness on lead toxicity
are demonstrated by the LG50 values in hard and soft
waters. The 96-hour LC50 values in soft water (20 to 45
mg/1 as CaCO3) were 5 to 7 mg/1 and 4 to 5 mg/1 for the
fathead minnow (Pimephales promelai) and the brook trout
(Salvelinusfontinahs) respectively (Pickering and Henderson
1966,426 Benoit unpublished data 1971).438 Brown (1968)401
reported a 96-hour LC50 of 1 mg/1 for rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) in soft water (50 mg/1 as CaCOs). (See
Figure III-9 for other values for this species.) The 96-hour
LC50 values of lead in hard water were 482 mg/1 and
442 mg/1 for fathead minnow and brook trout (Pickering
and Henderson 1966).426
There is not sufficient information on chronic toxicity
of lead to fish to justify recommending values as application
factors. However, preliminary information on long ex-
posures (2 to 3 months) on rainbow trout and brook trout
(Everhart unpublished data 1971,443 Benoit unpublished data
1971)438 indicated detrimental effects at 0.10 mg/1 of lead
in soft water (20 to 45 mg/1 as CaCO3), a safe-to-lethal
ratio of less than 0.02.
Growth of guppies (Lebistes) was affected by 1.24 mg/1
of lead (Crandall and Goodnight 1962).405 Jones (1939)411
and Hawksley (1967)408 found chronic or sublethal effects
on sticklebacks from lead concentrations of 0.1 and 0.3
mg/1. The conditioned behavior of goldfish (Carassius
auratus) in a light-dark shuttlebox was adversely affected
by 0.07 mg/1 of lead in soft water (Weir and Hine 1970).437
Chronic lead toxicity was recently investigated with
Daphnia magna (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data
1971)440 and the effect on reproduction was observed at a
level of 0.03 mg/1 of lead. This concentration of 0.03 mg/1,
the safe level for Daphnia, is recommended as the criterion
for protection of aquatic life. It is probably also close to
the safe level for fish, because the tests described above,
although somewhat preliminary, indicated that concen-
trations about 2 or 3 times higher had detrimental effects.
Recommendation
The concentration of lead in water should not
be higher than 0.03 mg/1 at any time or place in
order to protect aquatic life.
Mercury
Most data about mercury involve the organic compounds
(see the discussion of Organic Mercury, p. 172.) Infor-
mation is available, however, for inorganic mercury in the
form of mercuric ions. Short-term 96-hour bioassay studies
indicated that concentrations of 1 mg/1 are fatal to fish
(Boetius I960,400 Jones 1939,411 Weir and Hine 1970).«7
For long-term exposures of 10 days or more, mercury levels
as low as 10 to 20 mg/1 have been shown to be fatal to fish
(Uspenskaya 1946).436
Recommendation
In protecting aquatic life, the recommendations
for organic mercury (p, 174) also pertain here.
Nickel
The 96-hour LC50 of nickel for fathead minnows
(Pimephales promelas) ranges from 5 mg/1 in soft water (20
mg/1 as CaCOa) to 43 mg/1 in hard water (360 mg/1 as
CaCO3) under static test conditions (Pickering and Hender-
son 1966).426 In water of 200 mg/1 hardness (as GaCO3),
the 96-hour LC50 for fathead minnows was 26 to 31 mg/1
with a chronically safe concentration between 0.8 and 0.4
mg/1 (Pickering unpublished data 1971).446 On the basis of
this work, an application factor of 0.02 appeared to be
appropriate for the protection of fish. If this factor is used,
the estimated safe concentration of nickel for fathead
minnows in soft water would be about 0.1 mg/1. Using
static test conditions and Daphnia magna, Biesinger and
Christensen (unpublished data 1971)440 determined that a
nickel concentration of 0.095 mg/1 reduced reproduction
during a 3-week exposure in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOs),
and a nickel concentration of 0.030 mg/1 had no effect.
This result indicated that the sensitivity of Daphnia magna
is comparable to that of fish.
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of nickel safe to aquatic
-------
182/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.02.
Zinc
The acute lethal toxicity of zinc is greatly affected by
water hardness (see Figure III-7). Pickering and Henderson
(1966)426 determined the 96-hour LC50 of zinc for fathead
minnows (Pimephales promelas) and bluegills (Lepomis macro-
chirus) using static test conditions. For fathead minnows in
soft water (20 mg/1 as CaCO3) the LC50 was 0.87 mg/1,
and in hard water (360 mg/1 as CaCO3) it was 33 mg/1.
Bluegills were more resistant in both waters. Similarly the
lethal threshold concentration was 3 or 4 times as high for
coarse fish as for trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) (Ball 1967).398
The 24-hour LC50 of zinc for rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdnen) was reduced only 20 per cent when the fish were
forced to swim at 85 per cent of their maximum sustained
swimming speed (Herbert and Shurben 1964).409 The maxi-
mum effect of a reduction in dissolved oxygen from 6 to 7
mg/1 to 2 mg/1 on the acute toxicity of zinc was a 50 per cent
increase (Lloyd 1961,413 Cairns and Scheier 1958,404 Picker-
ing 1968).42S The effects are small in comparison to the
difference between acutely toxic and safe concentrations.
The recommended application factor recognizes these
effects.
A chronic test in hard water (200 mg/1 as CaCOa),
involving fathead minnow reproduction, determined the
safe concentration of zinc to be between 0.03 mg/1, which
had no effect, and 0.18 mg/1, which caused 83 per cent
reduction in fecundity (Brungs 1969).402 Using the 96-hour
LC50 of 9.2 mg/1, the ratio of the above no-effect concen-
tration to the LC50 is 0.0034. Interpolation suggests that
about 0.005 of the LC50 would cause 20 per cent reduction
of fecundity, making the best estimate of a valid application
factor close to 0.005.
There was a reduction in reproduction of Daphma magna
at a zinc concentration of 0.10 mg/1 using soft water (45
mg/1 as CaCOs) (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data
1971).440 No effect was observed at 0.07 mg/1, which indi-
cated that Daphma magna was more resistant to zinc than
the fathead minnow.
Avoidance reactions by rainbow trout in the laboratory
have been caused by 0.01 of the LC50 of zinc (Sprague
1968a).431
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of zinc safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.005.
PESTICIDES
Pesticides are chemicals, natural and synthetic, used tc
control or destroy plant and animal life considered adverse
to human society. Since the 1940's a large number o
synthetic organic compounds have been developed foi
pesticide purposes. Presently there are thousands of regis
tered formulations incorporating nearly 900 different chemi
cals. Trends in production and use of pesticides indicate ar
annual increase of about 15 per cent, and there are pre-
dictions of increased demand during the next decade (Mral
1969).477 The subject of pesticides and their environmenta
significance has been carefully evaluated in the Report o
the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Re-
lationship to Environmental Health (Mrak 1969).477
Methods, Rale, and Frequency of Application
Pesticides are used for a wide variety of purposes in i
multitude of environmental situations. Often they arc
categorized according to their use or intended target (e.g.
insecticide, herbicide, fungicide), but their release in the
environment presents an inherent hazard to many non-
target organisms. Some degree of contamination and risk
is assumed with nearly all pesticide use. The risk to aquatic
ecosystems depends upon the chemical and physical prop-
erties of the pesticide, type of formulation, frequency, rate
and methods of application, and the nature of the receiving
system.
The pesticides of greatest concern are those that are
persistent for long periods and accumulate in the environ-
ment ; those that are highly toxic to man, fish, and wildlife;
and those that are used in large" volumes over broad areas.
A list of such chemicals recommended for monitoring in the
environment appears in Appendix II-F. The majority of
ihese compounds are either insecticides or herbicides used
extensively in agriculture, public health, and for household
or garden purposes. In the absence of definitive data on
their individual behavior and their individual effect on the
environment, some generalization about pesticides is re-
quired to serve as a guideline for establishing water quality
criteria to protect aquatic life. In specific instances, how-
ever, each compound must be considered individually on
the basis of information about its reaction in the environ-
ment and its effect on aquatic organisms.
Sources and Distribution
The major sources of pesticides in water are runoff from
treated lands, industrial discharges, and domestic sewage.
Significant contributions may also occur in fallout from
atmospheric drift and in precipitation (Tarrant and Tatton
1968).485 Applications to water surfaces, intentional or
otherwise, will result in rapid and extensive contamination.
The persistent organochlorine pesticides have received the
greatest attention in monitoring programs (Lichtenberg
et al. 1970,471 Henderson et al. 1969).461 Their extensive
-------
Toxic Substances/ \ 83
distribution in aquatic systems is indicative of environ-
mental loading from both point and nonpoint sources.
Many pesticides have a low water solubility that favors
their rapid sorption on suspended or sedimented materials
and their affinity to plant and animal lipids. Soluble or
dispersed fractions of pesticides in the water rapidly decline
after initial contamination, resulting in increased concen-
trations in the sediments (Yule and Tomlin 1971).489 In
streams, much of the residue is in continuous transport on
suspended paniculate material or in sediments (Zabik
1969).4W The distribution within the stream flow is non-
uniform because of unequal velocity and unequal distri-
bution of suspended materials within the stream bed (Feltz
ct al. 1971).454 Seasonal fluctuations in runoff and use
pattern cause major changes in concentration during the
year, but the continuous downstream transport tends to
reduce levels in the upper reaches of streams while increas-
ing them in the downstream areas and eventually in major
receiving basins (i.e., lakes, reservoirs, or estuaries). If
applications in a watershed cease entirely, residues in the
stream will gradually and continuously decline (Sprague
et al. 1971).484 A similar decline would be expected in the
receiving basins but at a slower rate.
In lakes the sediments apparently act as a reservoir from
which the pesticide is partitioned into the water phase
according to the solubility of the compound, the concen-
tration in the sediment, and the type of sediment (Hamelink
et ;iJ. 1971).158 Dissolved natural organic materials in the
water may greatly enhance the water solubility of some
pesticides (Wershaw et al. 1969).ls7 Some investigations
indicated pesticides may be less available to the water in
eutrophic systems where the higher organic content in the
sediments has a greater capacity to hold pesticide residues
(Lotse et al. 1968,172 Hartung 1970"'°). This in part ex-
plained the difference in time required for some waters to
"detoxify," as observed in lakes treated with toxaphene to
eradicate undesirable fish species (Terriere et al. 1966).486
Herbicides applied to aquatic systems to control plant
growths are removed from the water by absorption in the
plants or sorption to the hydrosoil. The rate of disappearance
from the water may be dependent upon the availability of
suitable sorption sites. Frank and Comes (1967)155 found
residues of dichlobenil in soil and water up to 160 clays after
application. They also found that cliquat and paraquat
residues were persistent in hydrosoils for approximately 3
to 6 months after application. Granular herbicide treat-
ments made on a volume basis deposit greater quantities on
the hydrosoil in deep water areas than in water of less depth.
The granules may supply herbicide to the water over a
period of time depending upon solubility of the herbicide,
concentrations in the granule, and other conditions.
Because the distribution of pesticides is nonuniform,
sampling methods and frequency, as well as selection of
sampling sites, must be scientifically determined (Feltz
et al. 1971).454 Pesticides found in the water in suspended
particulate material and in sediments may be toxic to
aquatic organisms or contribute to residue accumulation
in them.
Persistence and Biological Accumulation
All organic pesticides are subject to metabolic and non-
metabolic degradation in the environment. Specific com-
pounds vary widely in their rate of degradation, and some
form degradation products that may be both persistent and
toxic. Most pesticides are readily degraded to nontoxic or
elementary materials within a few days to a few months;
these compounds may be absorbed by aquatic organisms,
but the residues do not necessarily accumulate or persist
for long periods. Concentrations in the organism may be
higher than ambient water levels, but they rapidly decline
as water concentrations are diminished. Examples of such
dynamic exchange have been demonstrated with malathion
(Bender 1969),448 methoxychlor (Burdick et al. 1968),449
and various herbicides (Mullison 1970).478 If degradation
in water is completed within sufficient time to prevent toxic
or adverse physiological effects, these nonpersistcnt com-
pounds do not pose a long-term hazard to aquatic life.
However, degradation rates of specific pesticides are often
dependent upon environmental conditions. Considerable
variation in persistence may be observed in waters of differ-
ent types. Gakstatter and Weiss (1965),456 for example,
have shown that wide variations in the stability of organic
phosphorous insecticides in water solutions is dependent
upon the pH of the water. The half-life of malathion was
reduced from about six months at pH 6 to only one to two
weeks at pH 8. Repeated applications and slow degradation
rates may maintain elevated environmental concentrations,
but there is no indication that these compounds can be
accumulated through the food chain.
Some pesticides, primarily the organochlorine com-
pounds, are extremely stable, degrading only slowly or
forming persistent degradation products. Aquatic organisms
may accumulate these compounds directly by absorption
from water and by eating contaminated food organisms.
In waters containing very low concentrations of pesticides,
fish probably obtain the greatest amount of residue from
contaminated foods; but the amount retained in the tissue
appears to be a function of the pesticide concentration in
the water and its rate of elimination from the organism
(Hamelink et al. 1971).4"'8 The transfer of residues from
prey to predator in the food chain ultimately results in
residues in the higher trophic levels many thousand times
higher than ambient water levels. Examples of trophic
accumulation have been described in several locations in-
cluding Clear Lake, California (Hunt and Bischoff I960),463
and Lake Poinsett, South Dakota (Hannon et al. 1970).459
Residues
Samples of wild fish have often contained pesticide resi-
dues in greater concentrations than are tolerated in any
-------
184/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
commercially produced agricultural products. The highest
concentrations are often found in the most highly prized
fish. Coho salmon (Oncorhyncus kisulcK) from Lake Michigan
are not considered acceptable for sale in interstate commerce
on the basis of an interim guideline for DDT and its
metabolites set for fish by the U.S. Food and Drug Adminis-
tration (Mount 1968).476 Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
and some catches of chubs (Coregonus kiyi and Coregonus hoyi)
and lake herring (Coregonus artedt) from Lake Michigan also
exceed the guideline limits and are thus not considered
acceptable for interstate commerce (Reinert 1970;481 Michi-
gan Department of Agriculture personal communication).^
Pesticide residues in fish or fish products may enter the
human food chain indirectly in other ways, as in fish oil
and meal used in domestic animal feeds.
Fish may survive relatively high residue concentrations
in their body fats, but residues concentrated in the eggs of
mature fish may be lethal to the developing fry. Up to
100 per cent loss of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) fry
occurred when residues of DDT-DDD in the eggs exceeded
4.75 mg/kg (Burdick et al. 1964).46° A similar mortality
was reported in coho salmon fry from Lake Michigan
where eggs contained significant quantities of DDT, di-
eldrin, and polychlorinated biphenyls (Johnson and Pecor
1969 ;468 Johnson 1968).«6 Johnson (1967)467 reported that
adult fish not harmed by low concentrations of endrin in
water accumulated levels in the eggs that were lethal to the
developing fry. Residues in fish may be directly harmful
under stress conditions or at different temperature regimes.
Brook trout (Salvelinus fontmalis) fed DDT at 3.0 mg/kg
body weight per week for 26 weeks suffered 96.2 per cent
mortality during a period of reduced feeding and declining
water temperature. Mortality of untreated control fish
during the same period was 1.2 per cent (Macek 1968).473
Declining water temperature during the fall was believed
to cause delayed mortality of salmon parr in streams con-
taminated with DDT (Elson 1967).453
In addition to the problem of pesticide residues in aquatic
systems, other problems suggest themselves and remain to
be investigated, including the potential of resistant fish
species to accumulate levels hazardous to other species
(Rosato and Ferguson 1968) ;482 the potential for enhanced
residue storage when fish are exposed to more than one
compound (Mayer et al. 1970) ;474 and the potential effect
of metabolites not presently identified. The adverse effects
of DDT on the reproductive performance of fish-eating
birds has been well documented. (See the discussion of
Wildlife, pp. 194-198.)
Levels of persistent pesticides in water that will not result
in undesirable effects cannot be determined on the basis of
present knowledge. Water concentrations below the practical
limits of detection have resulted in unacceptable residues in
fish for human consumption and have affected reproduction
and survival of aquatic life. Criteria based upon residue
concentrations in the tissues of selected species may offe
some guidance. Tolerance levels for pesticides in wild fisl
have not been established, but action levels have been sug
gested by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Mouri
1968).476 However, acceptable concentrations of persisten
pesticides that offer protection to aquatic life and humai
health are unknown.
It should also be recognized that residue criteria an
probably unacceptable except on a total ecosystem basis
Residues in stream fish may meet some guidelines, bu
pesticides from that stream may eventually create excessiv<
residues in fish in the downstream receiving basins. LInti
more is known of the effects of persistent pesticide residues
any accumulation must be considered undesirable.
Toxieity
Concentrations of pesticides I hat are lethal to aquatic lif(
have often occurred in local areas where applications overlap
streams or lakes, in streams receiving runoff from recentl)
treated areas, and where misuse or spillage has occurred
Applications of pesticides to water to control noxiou;
alants, fish, or insects have also killed desirable species
Fish populations, however, usually recovered within a few
months to a year (Elson 1967).453 The recovery of aquatic
invertebrates in areas that have been heavily contaminated
may require a longer period, with some species requiring
several years to regain precontamination numbers (Cope
1961,451 Ide 1967).465 Undesirable species of insects may be
ihe first to repopulate the area (Hynes 1961),464 and in
some instances the species composition has been completely
changed (Hopkins et al. 1966).462 Areas that are contami-
nated by pesticide application are subject to loss of fish
populations and reduced food for fish growth (Schoenthal
] 964,483 Kerswill and Edwards 1967).469 Where residues are
persistent in bottom sediments for long periods, benthic
organisms may be damaged even though water concen-
trations remain low (Wilson and Bond 1969).488
Pesticides are toxic to aquatic life over wide ranges.
Great differences in susceptibility to different compounds
exist between species and within species. For example,
96-hour LC50 values of 5 to 610,000 /ig/1 were reported
for various fish species exposed to organophosphate pesti-
cides (Pickering et al. 1962).*79 In addition to species'
cifferences, the toxicity may be modified by differences in
formulation, environmental conditions, animal size and age,
and physiological condition. The effect of combinations of
pesticides on aquatic organisms has not received sufficient
attention. Macek (unpublished data 1971)491 reported that
combinations of various common pesticides were synergistic
in their action on bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdnen), while others had additive effects.
Several of the combinations that were found to be syner-
gistic are recommended for insect pest control (Table
111-16).
-------
Toxic Substances/185
TABLE 111-16—Acute Toxic Interaction of Pesticide
Combinations to Rainbow Trout and Bluegills.
Pesticide combination
Compound A
DDT
"
"
"
".
".
"
Parathion
"
"
".
"
Malathion
"
"..
"
"
"
"
". .
Carbaryl
"
"..
".
"
Methyl parathion
".
"
Bidrm .
Compound B
Vapona
Endnn
Dieldnn
Azinphosmethyl
Toxaphene
Zectran
BHC
Copper sulfate
Diazinon
DDT
Endosulfan
Methoiychlor
Baytex
Copper sultate
DDT
EPN
Parathion
Perthane
Carbaryl
Toxaphene
Copper sullate
DDT
Azinphosmethyl
Methoiychlor
Parathion
DDT
Endosulfan
Carbaryl
Sumithion
Toxic interaction
Additive
Additive
Additive
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Synergistic"
Synergistic
Synergistic
Additive"
Additive
Synergistic'
Synergistic
Antagonistic
Addibve
Synergistic
Synergistic
Synergistic"
Synergistic"
Additive-
Synergistic
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Additive'
Additive"
Additive
" This combination recommended lor control of insect pests by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Note: mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement.
Most data on pesticide effects on aquatic life are limited
to a few species and concentrations that are lethal in
short-term tests. The few chronic tests conducted with
aquatic species indicated that toxic effects occurred at much
lower concentrations. Mount and Stephan (1967)475 found
the 96-hour LC50 for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas)
in malathion was 9,000 jug/1, but spinal deformities in adult
fish occurred during a 10-month exposure to 580 /ig/1.
Eaton (1970)452 found that bluegill suffered the same
crippling effects after chronic exposure to 7.4 /ug/1 malathion
and the 96-hour LC50 was 108 yug/1.
Where chronic toxicity data are available, they may be
used to develop application factors to estimate safe levels.
Mount and Stephan (1967)475 have suggested using an
application factor consisting of the laboratory-determined
maximum concentration that has no effect on chronic
exposure divided by the 96-hour LC50. Using this method,
Eaton (1970)452 showed that application factors for bluegill
and fathead minnow exposed to malathion were similar
despite a greater than 50-fold difference in species sensi-
tivity. Application factors derived for one compound may
be appropriate for closely related compounds that have a
similar mode of action, but additional research is necessary
to verify this concept. In the absence of chronic toxicity
data, the application factors for many compounds must be
arbitrary values set with the intention of providing some
margin of safety for sensitive species, prolonged exposure,
and potential effects of interaction with other compounds.
Basis for Criteria
The reported acute toxicity values and subacute effects
of pesticides for aquatic life are listed in Appendix II-D.
The acute toxicity values multiplied by the appropriate
application factor provided the recommended criteria. The
96-hour LC50 should be multiplied by an application factor
of 0.01 in most cases. The value derived from multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by a factor of 0.01 can be used as the
24-hour average concentration.
Recommended concentrations of pesticides may be below
those presently detectable without additional extraction and
concentration techniques. However, concentrations below
those detectable by routine techniques are known to cause
detrimental effects to aquatic organisms and to man.
Therefore, recommendations are based on bioassay pro-
cedures and the use of an appropriate application factor.
The recommendations are based upon the most sensitive
species. Permissible concentrations in water have been sug-
gested only where several animal species have been tested.
Where toxicity data arc not available, acute toxicity bio-
assays should be conducted with locally important sensitive
aquatic species, and safe levels should be estimated by using
an application factor of 0.01.
Some organochlorine pesticides (i.e., DDT including
DDD and DDE, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, hepta-
chlor, toxaphene, lindane, endosulfan, and benzene hexa-
chloride) are considered especially hazardous because of
their persistence and accumulation in aquatic organisms.
These compounds, including some of their metabolites, are
directly toxic to various aquatic species at concentrations
of less than one /xg/1. Their accumulation in aquatic systems
presents a hazard, both real and potential, to animals in
the higher trophic levels, including man (Pimentel 1971,480
Mrak 1969,477 Kraybill 1969,470 Gillett 1969).457 Present
knowledge is not yet sufficient to predict or estimate safe
concentrations of these compounds in aquatic systems. How-
ever, residue concentrations in aquatic organisms provide a
measure of environmental contamination. Therefore, spe-
cific maximum tissue concentrations have been recom-
mended as a guideline for water quality control.
Recommendations
Organochlorine Insecticides The recommenda-
tions for selected organochlorine insecticides are
based upon levels in water and residue concentra-
tions in whole fish on a wet weight basis. Aquatic
life should be protected where the maximum con-
-------
186/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
centration of the organochlorine pesticide in the
water does not exceed the values listed in Table
111-17.
For the protection of predators, the following
values are suggested for residues in whole fish (wet
weight): DDT (including DDD and DDE)—1.0
mg/kg; aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor (in-
cluding heptachlor epoxide), chlordane, lindane,
benzene hexachloride, toxaphene, and endo-
sulfan—0.1 mg/kg, either singly or in combination.
For further discussion, see the section on Wildlife
(P. 197).
If fish and wildlife are to be protected, and where
residues exceed the recommended concentrations,
pesticide use should be restricted until the recom-
mended concentrations are reached (except where
a substitute pesticide will not protect human
health).
Other pesticides The recommended maximum
concentrations of pesticides in freshwater are listed
in Table 111-18 except that where pesticides are
applied to water to kill undesirable aquatic life,
the values will be higher. In the latter instances,
care should be taken to avoid indiscriminate use
and to insure that application of the pesticide
follows the prescribed methods.
OTHER TOXICANTS
Ammonia
Ammonia is discharged from a wide variety of industrial
processes and cleaning operations that use ammonia or
ammonia salts. Ammonia also results from the decompo-
sition of organic matter.
Ammonia gas is soluble in water in the form of am-
monium hydroxide to the extent of 100,000 mg/'l at 20 C.
Ammonium hydroxide dissociates readily into ammonium
TABLE HI-17—Recommended Maximum Concentrations of
Organochlorine Pesticides in Whole (Unfiltered) Water,
Sampled at Any Time and Any Place.*
TABLE 111-18—Recommended Maximum Concentrations of
Other Pesticides in Whole (Vnfiltered) Water, Sampled at
Any Time and Any Place.*
Organochlorine pesticides
Aldrin
DDT
TOE
Dieldrin
Cblordane
Endosulfan
Endrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Methoxychlor .
Toxaphene
Recommended maximum concentration (ug 1)
0.01
0002
0 006
0 005
0 04
0.003
0.002
0.01
0.02
0.005
001
Organophosphate insecticides
(bale
Azinphosmethyl
Azinphosethyl
Carbophenothion
Chlorothion
Ciodrin
Coumaphos
temeton
tiazmon
['ichlorvos
t'loxathion
['isulfonton
[llrsban
E till on
EPN
Fenthion
Malathion
Methyl Parathioit
Mevmphos
haled
Cxydemeton methyl
Parathion
Fhorate
Fhosphamirfon
Fonnel
1EPP
Tnclilorophon
Carbamate insecticides
Ammocarb
Bayer
Baygort
Carnaryl
Zectran
Herbicides, fungicides and defoliants
• Concentrations were determined by multiplying the acute toxicity values lor the more sensitive species (Appendix
II-D) by an application factor of 0.01 except where an experimentally derived application factor is indicated.
Acrolem
Ammotnazole
Balan
Bensuhde
Choroxuron
CIPC
Baettal
Dalapon
DEF
Dexon
Dicamba
Dichlobeml
Dichlone
Diquat
Dmron
Difolitan
Dmitrobutyl phenol
Diphenamid
2 4-D (PBBE)
2 4-D (BEE)
2 4-D (IDE)
2 4-D (Diethylamine salts)
Eidothal (Disodium salt)
Eidottiat (Oiootassium salt)
Eitam
Fimac (Sodium salt)
Hyamine-1622
Hyamine-2389
H»drothal-47
Hvdrottial-191
Hidrothal plus
ICC
MCPA
Molmate
Monuron
Paraquat
Recommended maximum concentration (Mg/l)
(b)
0.001
(b)
(b)
(b)
0.1
0 001
(b)
0.009
0.001
0.09
0.05
0.001
0 02
0.06
0 006
0 008
(b)
0.002
0 004
0.4
0.0004
(b)
0 03
(b)
0.4
0 002
Recommended maximum concentrations (jug/l)
(b)
(b)
(b)
0.02
0.1
Recommended maximum concentrations (ug/l)
300.0
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
110.0
(b)
(b)
200
37.0
0 2
0.5
1.6
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
4.0
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
45.0
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
-------
Toxic Sub stances/187
TABLE 111-18—Continued
TABLE III-19—Sublethat and Acutely Toxic Concentrations
of Vn-Ionized Ammonia for Various Fish Species'
nciuiRUtiS, limgluuB aim umuiidiua
Peculate
Picloram
Propanil
Silm(BEE)
Silvex (PGBE)
Silvex (IOE)
Silvex (Potassium salt)
Simazine
Trifluaralin
Vernolate
Botanicals
Allethrin .
Pyrethrum
Rotenone
imbunmiGiiuvii maximum vuiiiiGiiuauiiii w \j
(b)
(b)
(b)
2.5
2.0
(b)
(b)
10.0
(b)
(b)
Recommended maximum concentrations (Mg/l)
0.002
0.01
10.0
« Concentrations were determined by multiplying the acute toxicity values for the more sensitive species (Ap-
Species
Stickleback
Striped bass (Marone saxatalis)
Rainbow trout
Perch (Perca)
Roach (Hesperoleucus)
Rudd (Scardinius)
Bream (Lepomis)
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
Rainbow trout
Trout
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)
Acute
mortality
IC50 (rag/I)
1.&-2.1
1.9-2.8
0.39
0.29
0.35
0.36
0.41
0.41
0.42-0.89
0.38
0.88
No sublethal
effect (mj/l) Author
Hazel etal. (1971)™
".
0.046 Lloyd and Orr (1969)™
. Ball(1967)«M
"
".
" .
Lloyd and Herbert (1960)™
Herbert and Shurben (1965)™
"
<0.27 Reichenbach-Klinke (1967)*w
<0.006 Burrows (1964)<»s
pendix II-D) by an application factor of 0.01 except where an experimentally derived application factor is indicated.
6 Insufficient data to determine safe concentrations.
n Tn Inrltra * hiah laual nf nrnfaAtlnl
1 fha mnan nt tha C
IR.hnnr 1 pitf'e mac ncpri AC a ha» and an annliralinn far
and hydroxyl ions as follows:
NH3+H2O->HN4++OH-
The equilibrium of the reaction is dependent upon pH,
and within the pH range of most natural waters ammonium
ions predominate (Figure 111-10). Since the toxic com-
ponent of ammonia solutions is the un-ionized ammonia,
toxicity of ammonia solutions increases with increased pH
(Ellis 1937,497 Wuhrmann et al. 1947,608 Wuhrmann and
Woker 1948,609 Downing and Merkens 1955496).
Wuhrmann (1952),607 Downing and Merkens (1955),496
and Merkens and Downing (1957)605 found that a decrease
in dissolved oxygen concentration increased the toxicity of
un-ionized ammonia to several species of freshwater fishes.
Lloyd (1961)502 showed that the increase in toxicity of
un-ionized ammonia to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) with
decreased oxygen was considerably more severe than for
zinc, copper, lead, or phenol.
Much of the data on ammonia toxicity is not useable,
because reporting of chemical conditions or experimental
control was unsatisfactory. Ellis (1937)497 reported that
total ammonia nitrogen concentrations of 2.5 mg/1 in the
pH range of 7.4 to 8.5 were harmful to several fish species,
but concentrations of 1.5 mg/1 were not. Most streams
without a source of pollution contained considerably less
than 1 mg/1 total ammonia. The sublethal and acutely
toxic concentrations of un-ionized ammonia for various fish
species are given in Table 111-19.
Brockway (1950)494 found impairment of oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood of trout at a total ammonia nitrogen
concentration of 0.3 mg/1. Fromm (1970)499 found that at
total ammonia nitrogen concentrations of 5 mg/1, ammonia
excretion by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was inhibited;
at 3 mg/1 the trout became hyperexcitable; and at 8 mg/1
(approximately 1 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia) 50 per cent
tor ol 0.05 applied to arrive at an acceptable level for most species in fresh water. Two apparently resistant species
were omitted because they were far out of line with the others. After application of the factor, the resultant level is
approximately half that projected from the data of Lloyd and Orr (1969).r"!3
were dead in 24 hours (Fromm 1970).4" Goldfish (Carassius
auratus) were more tolerant; at 40 mg/1 of total ammonia
nitrogen, 10 per cent were dead in 24 hours.
Burrows (1964)495 found progressive gill hyperplasia in
fingerling chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during
a six-week exposure to the lowest concentration applied,
0.006 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia. Reichenbach-Klinke
(1967)506 also noted gill hyperplasia, as well as pathology of
the liver and blood, of various species at un-ionized am-
monia concentrations of 0.27 mg/1. Exposure of carp
(Cyprinus carpio) to sublethal un-ionized ammonia concen-
trations in the range of 0.11 to 0.34 mg/1 resulted in ex-
tensive necrotic changes and tissue disintegration in various
organs (Flis 1968).498
Lloyd and Orr (1969)503 found that volume of urine pro-
duction increased with exposure to increasing ammonia
concentrations, but that an ammonia concentration of 12
per cent of the lethal threshold concentration resulted in
no increased production of urine. This concentration of
un-ionized ammonia was 0.046 mg/1 for the rainbow trout
used in the experiments.
Recommendation -
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of un-ionized ammonia
(NH3) safe to aquatic life in that water can be esti-
mated by multiplying the 96-hr LC50 by an appli-
cation factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater
than 0.02 mg/1 is recommended at any time or
place.
-------
188/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
50 0
1.0
0.5
7 0
7.4
7.8
8.2
PH
8.6
9.0
9.4
FIGURE 111-10—Percentage of Vn-ionized Ammonia in Ammonium Hydroxide Solutions at 20 C and Various Levels of pi
-------
Toxic Substances/189
Chlorine
Chlorine and chloramines are widely used in treatment of
potable water supplies and sewage-treatment-plant effluents,
and in power plants, textile and paper mills, and certain
other industries. Field tests conducted on caged fish in
streams below a sewage outfall where chlorinated and non-
chlorinated effluents were discharged showed that toxic
conditions occurred for rainbow trout (Salmo gandnert) 0.8
miles below the plant discharge point when chlorinated
effluents were discharged (Basch et al. 1971).M1 It has also
been shown that total numbers of fish and numbers of
species were drastically reduced below industrial plants
discharging chlorinated sewage effluents (Tsai 1968,617
1970).!'18
The toxicity to aquatic life of chlorine in water will
depend upon the concentration of residual chlorine re-
maining and the relative amounts of free chlorine and chlor-
amines. Since addition of chlorine or hypochlorites to water
containing nitrogenous materials rapidly forms chloramines,
problems of toxicity in most receiving waters are related to
chloramine concentrations. Merkens (1958)615 stated that
toxicities of free chlorine and chloramines were best esti-
mated from total chlorine residuals. In monitoring pro-
grams, evaluation of chlorine content of water is usually
stated in terms of total chlorine residuals. Because the
chlorine concentrations of concern are below the level of
detection by the orthotolidine method, a more sensitive
analytical technique is recommended.
The literature summarized by McKcc and Wolf (1963)514
showed a wide range of acute chlorine toxicity to various
aquatic organisms, but the conditions of the tests varied so
widely that estimation of generally applicable acute or
safe levels cannot be derived from the combined data. It
has also been demonstrated that small amounts of chlorine
can greatly increase the toxicity of various industrial
effluents.
Merkens (1958)615 found that at pH 7.0, 0.008 mg/1
residual chlorine killed half the test fish in seven days. The
test results were obtained using the ainperometric titration
and the diethyl-jft-phenylene diamine methods of chlorine
analysis. Zillich (1972),519 working with chlorinated sewage
effluent, determined that threshold toxicity for fathead
minnows (Pimephales promelai) was 0.04-0.05 mg/1 residual
chlorine. In two series of 96-hour LC50 tests an average of
0.05-0.19 mg/1 residual chlorine was noted. Basch et al.
(1971)511 found 96-hour LC50 for rainbow trout (Salmo
gaudneri} to be 0.23 mg/1. Arthur and Eaton (1971),610
working with fathead minnows and Gammarus pseudohmnaeus,
found that the 96-hour LG50 total residual chlorine
(as chloramine) for Gammarus was 0.22 mg/1, and that
all minnows were dead after 72 hours at 0.15 mg/1.
After seven days exposure to 0.09 mg/1, the first fish died.
The LC50 for minnows was therefore between these levels.
In chronic tests extending for 15 weeks, survival of Gammarus
was reduced at 0.04 mg/1, and reproduction was reduced at
0.0034 mg/1. Growth and survival of fathead minnows after
21 weeks was not affected by continuous exposure to 0.043
mg/1 total chloramines, but fecundity of females was re-
duced. The highest level showing no significant effect was
0.016 mg/1. Merkens (1958)515 postulated by extrapolation
that a concentration of 0.004 mg/1 residual chlorine would
permit one half the test fish to survive one year. Sprague
and Drury (1969)616 have shown an avoidance response of
rainbow trout to free chlorine at 0.001 mg/1.
Aquatic organisms will tolerate longer short-term ex-
posures to much higher levels of chlorine than the concen-
trations which have adverse chronic effects. Brungs (1972)512
in a review has noted that 1-hour LCSO's of fish vary from
0.74 to 0.88 mg/1, and that longer short-term exposures
have LCSO's lower but still substantially higher than ac-
ceptable for long-term exposure. Available information,
however, does not show what effect repeated exposure to
these, or lower levels, will have on aquatic life.
Because Gammarus, an essential food for fish, is affected
at 0.0034 mg/1, and a safe level is judged to be one that
will not permit adverse effect on any element of the biota,
the following recommendation has been made.
Recommendation
Aquatic life should be protected where the con-
centration of residual chlorine in the receiving
system does not exceed 0.003 mg/1 at any time or
place. Aquatic organisms will tolerate short-term
exposure to high levels of chlorine. Until more is
known about the short-term effects, it is recom-
mended that total residual chlorine should not
exceed 0.05 mg/1 for a period up to 30-minutes in
any 24-hour period.
Cyanides
The cyanide radical is a constituent of many compounds
or complex ions that may be present in industrial wastes.
Cyanide-bearing wastes may derive from gas works, coke
ovens, scrubbing of gases in steel plants, metal plating
operations, and chemical industries. The toxicity of cyanides
varies widely with pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen
concentration. The pH is especially important, since the
toxicity of some cyanide complexes changes manyfold over
the range commonly found in receiving waters.
"Free cyanide" (CN~ ion and HCN) occurs mostly as
molecular hydrogen cyanide, the more toxic form, at pH lev-
els of natural waters as well as in unusually acid waters. Fifty
per cent ionization of the acid occurs at pH near 9.3. Free
cyanide concentrations from 0.05 to 0.01 mg/1 as CN have
proved fatal to many sensitive fishes (Jones 1964),527 and
levels much above 0.2 mg/1 are rapidly fatal for most
species of fish. A level as low as 0.01 mg/1 is known to have
a pronounced, rapid, and lasting effect on the swimming
ability of salmonid fishes.
-------
190/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
The work of Doudoroff et al. (1966)624 has demonstrated
that the effective toxicant to fish in nearly all solutions of
complex metallocyanides tested was molecular HGN, the
complex ions being relatively harmless. The total cyanide
content of such solutions is not a reliable index of their
toxicity. The HCN derives from dissociation of the complex
ions, which can be greatly influenced by pH changes.
Doudoroff (1956)523 demonstrated a more than thousand-
fold increase of the toxicity of the nickelocyanide complex
associated with a decrease of pH from 8.0 to 6.5. A change
in pH from 7.8 to 7.5 increased the toxicity more than
tenfold.
Burdick and Lipschuetz (1948)521 have shown that so-
lutions containing the ferro and ferricyanide complexes
become highly toxic to fish through photodecomposition
upon exposure to sunlight. Numerous investigations have
shown that toxicity of free cyanide increased at reduced
oxygen concentrations (Downing 1954,625 Wuhrmann and
Woker 1955,528 Burdick et al. 1958,520 Cairns and Scheier
1963).622 The toxic action is known to be accelerated
markedly by increased temperature (Wuhrmann and Woker
1955,528 Cairns and Scheier 1963),622 but the influence of
temperature during long exposure has not >been demon-
strated. The toxicity of the nitriles (organic cyanides) to fish
varied greatly. Henderson et al. (I960)526 found marked
cumulative toxicity of acrylonitrile. Lactonitrile decom-
posed rapidly in water yielding free cyanide, and its high
toxicity evidently was due to the HCN formed.
The toxicity of cyanide to diatoms varied little with
change of temperature and was a little greater in soft water
than in hard water (Patrick unpublished data 1971).529 For
Nitzchia linearis, concentrations found to cause a 50 per cent
reduction in growth of the population in soft water (44
mg/1 Ca-Mg as CaCO3) were 0.92 mg/1 (CN) at 72 F, 0.30
mg/1 at 82 F, and 0.28 mg/1 at 86 F. For Navicula seminulum
var. Hustedtil, the concentrations reducing growth of the
population by 50 per cent in hard water (170 mg/1 Ca-Mg
as CaCO3) were found to be 0.36 mg/1 at 72 F, 0.49 mg/1
at 82 F, and 0.42 mg/1 at 86 F. Cyanide appeared to be
more toxic to animals than to algae.
Recommended maximum concentrations of cyanide-bear-
ing wastes of unknown composition and properties should
be determined by static and flow-through bioassays. The
bioassays should be performed with dissolved oxygen, tem-
perature, and pH held at the local water quality conditions
under which cyanides are most toxic. Because the partial
dissociation of some complex metallocyanide ions may be
slow, static bioassays may reveal much greater toxicity
than that demonstrable by the flow-through methods. On
the other hand, standing test solutions of simple and some
complex cyanides exposed to the atmosphere gradually lose
their toxicity, because the volatile HCN escapes.
Chemical determination of the concentration of undis-
sociated, molecular HCN alone may be the best way to
evaluate the danger of free cyanide to fish in waters receiving
cyanide bearing wastes. Such tests may reveal the occi
rence of harmful concentrations of HCN not predictal
through bioassay of the wastes. Because an acceptal:
concentration of HCN or fraction of a LC50 of cyanic
and cyanide-bearing effluents has not yet been positive
determined, a conservative estimate must be made; ai
because levels as low as 0.01 mg/1 have proved harmi
under some conditions, a factor of 0.05 should be applii
to LC50 levels.
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined usit
the receiving water in question and the most sens
tive important species in the locality as the te
organism, a concentration of free cyanide (CN
safe to aquatic life in that water can be estimate
by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an applicatic
factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater tha
0.005 mg/1 is recommended at any time or place
Detergents
Detergents are a common component of sewage and i
dustrial effluents derived in Largest amounts from househo
cleaning agents. In 1965 a shift from tetrapropylene-deriv<
alkylbenzene sulfonates (ABS) to the more biodegradab
linear alkylate sulfonates (LAS) was made by the deterge
industry. In current detergent formulas. LAS is the primal
toxic active compound, two to four times more toxic th;
ABS (Pickering 1966).534 However, toxicity of LAS di
appears along with the metbylene blue active substanc
(MBAS) response upon biodegradation (Swisher 1967).5
Retrieval of MBAS data from the National Surveillam
Stations throughout the U.S. from 1966 to the presei
showed that the mean of 3,608 samples was less than 0
mg/1. There has been a downward trend in MBAS concei
trations. Only four stations reported mean concentratioi
greater than 0.2 mg/1.
The MBAS determination has been the routine analytic,
method for measurement of surfactant concentrations. Pos
tive errors are more common than negative ones in tk
determination of anionic surfactants in water (Standar
Methods 1971).536 An infrared determination or a carbc
absorption cleanup procedure is recommended when hit>
MBAS concentrations are found.
Marchetti (1965)533 critically reviewed the effects of d<
tergents on aquatic life. Most available information o
LAS toxicity relates to fish. Short term studies by a numlx
of investigators have shown (hat lethal concentrations t
selected fish species vary from 0.2 to 10.0 mg/1 (Hokanso
and Smith 1971).632 Bardach et al. (1965)631 reported tliE
10 mg/1 is lethal to bullheads (Ictalurus sp.), arid that 0.
mg/1 eroded 50 per cent of their taste buds within 24 day:
Thatcher and Santner (1966)5;i8 found 96-hour LC50 value
from 3.3 to 6.4 mg/1 for five species of fish.
Pickering and Thatcher (1 970)536 found in their study c
-------
7 oxic Substances /191
chronic toxicity that a concentration of 0.63 mg/1 had no
measurable effect, on the life cycle of the fathead minnow
(Pimephalespromelas), while a concentration of 1.2 mg/1 was
lethal to the newly hatched fry. A safe level should be
between 14 and 28 per cent of the 96-hour LC50. Hokanson
and Smith (1971)532 reported that a concentration of 1 mg/1
was an approximate safe concentration for bluegills in
Mississippi River water of good quality. Arthur (1970)630
found that the no-effect level of LAS on Gammanis pseudo-
limnaeus was 0.2 to 0.4 mg/1. This investigator also subjected
opculate and pulmonate snails to 60-week exposures of
LAS and showed the toxicity levels to be 0.4 to 1.0 mg/1
and greater than 4.4 mg/1, respectively.
Detergent Builders
Phosphates have been included in household detergents
to increase their effectiveness, although this use has been
seriously questioned recently. Nitrilotriacctate (NTA) and
other builders have been tried, but most are either less
effective or have been barred for reasons of potential health
hazard. Available builders do not have serious direct effects
on fish or aquatic organisms at concentrations likely to be
encountered in receiving waters. In view of the uncertain
legal status of present commercial detergents and the
extensive search for adequate substitutes now in progress,
recommendations for builders arc not practical at this time.
However, it can be stated that a satisfactory builder should
be biologically degradable and nontoxic to aquatic
organisms and humans, and that it should not cause aes-
thetic problems in the receiving water.
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of LAS safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.05;
but no concentration greater than 0.2 mg/1 is
recommended at any time or place.
Phenolics
Phenols and phenolic wastes are derived from petroleum,
coke, and chemical industries; wood distillation; and do-
mestic and animal wastes. Many phenolic compounds are
more toxic than pure phenol: their toxicity varies with the
combinations and general nature of total wastes. Acute
toxicity of pure phenol varies between 0.079 mg/1 in 30
minutes to minnows, and 56.0 mg/1 in 96 hours to mosquito
fish (Gambusia affims). Mitrovic et al. (1968)641 found a
48-hour LC50 of 7.5 mg/1 to trout; they noted that exposure
to 6.5 mg/1 caused damage to epithelial cells in 2 hours,
and extensive damage to reproductive systems in 7 days.
Ellis (1937)539 reported 1.0 mg/1 safe to trout; and 0.10
mg/1 was found nonlethal to bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
in 48 hours (Turnbull et al. 1954).542 These studies illustrated
the wide range of phenol toxicity. There is not yet adequate
documentation about chronic effects and toxicity of mixed
wastes on which to base recommendations of safe levels for
fish.
Phenolics affect the taste of fish at levels that do not
appear to affect fish physiology adversely. Mixed wastes
often have more objectionable effects than pure materials.
For example, 2,4-dicholorphenol affects taste at 0.001 to
0.005 mg/1: />-chlorophenol at 0.01 to 0.06 mg/1; and
2-methyl, 6-chlorophcnol at 0.003 mg/1. (See the discussion
of Tainting Substances, p. 147.) Pure phenol did not affect
taste until levels of 1 to 10 mg/1 were reached (Fetterolf
1964).S4° The taste of fish in most polluted situations is
adversely affected by phenolics before acute toxic effects
are observed.
Recommendations
In view of the wide range of concentrations of
phenolics which produce toxic effects in fish and
the generally lower levels which taint fish flesh, it
is recommended that taste and odor criteria be
used to determine suitability of waste receiving
waters to support usable fish populations. Where
problems of fish kills occur or fish are subjected to
occasional short-term exposure to phenolic com-
pounds, a 96-hour LC50 should be determined
using the receiving water in question and the most
sensitive important fish in the locality as the test
animal. Concentrations of phenolic compounds
safe to fish in that water can then be estimated by
multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an application
factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater than
0.1 mg/1 is recommended at any time or place.
Tests of other species will be necessary to protect
other trophic levels.
Sulfides
Sulfides are constituents of many industrial wastes, such
as those from tanneries, paper mills, chemical plants, and
gas works. Hydrogen sulfide may be generated by the
anaerobic decomposition of sewage and other organic
matter in the water, and in sludge beds. Natural production
of HoS may also result from deposits of organic material.
When soluble sulfidcs are added to water, they react
with hydrogen ions to form HS~ or H2S, the proportion of
each depending on the pH values. The toxicity of sulfides
derives primarily from H2S rather than the sulfide ion. The
rapid combination of HoS with other materials, including
oxygen, has frequently caused investigators to overlook the
importance of HoS as it affects aquatic life, especially when
it originates from sludge beds. Because water samples
usually are not taken at the mud/water interface, the im-
portance of H2S in this habitat for fish eggs, fish fry, and
-------
192/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
100
90 0
80 0
70.0
60.0
50.0
400
30.0
20.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
40
3.0
2.0
1.0
6.0
6.4
6.8
7 2
7.6
8 0
8 4
FIGURE III-ll—Percentage of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Form of Vndissociated H2S at Various pH Levels (Temperature
20 C; ionic strength n = 0.01)
-------
Toxic Substances/193
fish food organisms is often overlooked (Colby and Smith
1967).545
Hydrogen sulfide is a poisonous gas, soluble in water to
the extent of about 4,000 mg/1 at 20 C and one atmosphere
of pressure (Figure III-ll). Upon solution, it dissociates
according to the reaction H2S—>HS~+H+ and HS~—>
S—+H+. At pH 9, about 99 per cent of the sulfide is in
the form of HS~; at pH 7 it is about equally divided between
HS~ and H2S; and at pH 5 about 99 per cent is present
as H2S.
Consequently, the toxicity of sulfides increases at lower
pH because a greater proportion is in the form of undissoci-
ated H2S. Only at pH 10 and above is the sulfide ion
present in appreciable amounts. In polluted situations,
where the pH may be neutral or below 7.0, or where oxygen
levels are low but not lethal, problems arising from sulfides
or from hydrogen sulfide generated in sludge deposits will
be increased.
Much available data on the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide
to fish and aquatic life have been based on extremely short
exposure periods and have failed to give adequate infor-
mation on water quality, oxygen, and pH. Consequently,
early data have suggested that concentrations between 0.3
and 4.0 mg/1 permit fish to survive (Schaut 1939,r'46
VanHorn 1958,550 Bonn and Follis 1967,544 Theedc et al.
1969).54<) Recent data both in field situations and under
controlled laboratory conditions demonstrated hydrogen
sulfide toxicity at lower concentrations. Colby and Smith
(1967)015 found that concentrations as high as 0.7 mg/1
were found within 20 mm of the bottom on sludge beds,
and that levels of 0.1 to 0.02 mg/1 were common within the
first 20 mm of water above this layer. Walleye (Stizostedion
mtreum r.) eggs held in trays in this zone did not hatch.
Adelman and Smith (1970)543 reported that hatching of
northern pike (Esox luaus) eggs was substantially reduced
at 0.025 mg/1 of H2S, and at 0.047 mg/1 mortality was
almost complete. Northern pike fry had 96-hour LC50
values that varied from 0.017 to 0.032 mg/1 at normal
oxygen levels (6.0 mg/1). The highest concentration of
hydrogen sulfide at which no short-term effects on eggs or
fry were observed was 0.814 mg/1. Smith and Oseid (in
press 1971),548 working on eggs, fry, and juveniles of walleyes
and white suckers (Catostomus commersonni), and Smith
(1971),547 working on walleyes and fathead minnows
(Pimephales promelas), found that safe levels varied from
0.0029 to 0.012 ing /I with eggs being the least sensitive and
TABLE 111-20—96-Hour LC50 and Safe Levels Based on No
Adverse Effect on Critical Life History Stages
Species
96-Hr. LC (mg/1)
Safe levels" (mc/l)
Northern Pike
Walleye
White Sucker
Fathead minnows
Bluegill
Gamnurus pseudolimnaeus
Heragema limbata
egjs
try
egis
fry
juvenile
em
fry
juvenile
juvenile
adult
juvenile
adult
0.037
0.026
0.071
0 007
0.017
0.0018
0.0185
0.032 (at 20C)
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.042 (10-day)
0.350
0.014
0.004
0.012
0.007
0.0037
0.015
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.0033
" Safe levels are construed to mean no demonstrable deleterious effect on survival or growth after long-term
chronic exposure.
juveniles being the most sensitive in short-term tests (Table
111-20). In 96-hour bioassays fathead minnows and goldfish
(Carasstus auralus) varied greatly in tolerance to hydrogen
sulfide with changes in temperature. They were more
tolerant at low temperatures (6 to 10 C).
On the basis of chronic tests evaluating growth and
survival, the safe level for bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
juveniles and adults was 0.002 mg/1. White sucker eggs all
hatched at 0.015 mg/1, but juveniles showed a negligible
growth reduction at 0.002 mg/1. Safe levels for fathead
minnows were between 0.002 and 0.003 mg/1. Studies on
various arthropods (Gammarus pseudolimnaeus and Hexagenia
limbata), useful as fish food, indicated that safe levels were
between 0.002 and 0.003 mg/1 (Smith 1971).647 Some species
typical of normally stressed habitats were much more re-
sistant (Asellus sp.).
Recommendation
On the basis of available data, a level of undis-
sociated hydrogen sulfide assumed to be safe for
all aquatic organisms including fish is 0.002 mg/1.
At a pH of 6.0 and a temperature of 13.0 C, approxi-
mately 99 per cent of the total sulfide is present as
undissociated hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, to pro-
tect aquatic organisms within the acceptable limits
of pH and temperature, it is recommended that
the concentration of total sulfides not exceed 0.002
mg/1 at any time or place.
-------
WILDLIFE
In this report, wildlife is defined as all species of verte-
brates other than fish and man. To assure the short-term
and long-term survival of wildlife, the water of the aquatic
ecosystem must be of the quality and quantity to furnish
the necessary life support throughout the life-cycle of the
species involved. In addition to the quantity, the quality of
food substances produced by the aquatic environment must
be adequate to support the long-term survival of the wild-
life species.
Many species of wildlife require the existence of specific,
complex, and relatively undisturbed ecosystems for their
continued existence. Aquatic ecosystems, such as bogs,
muskegs, seepages, swamps, and marshes, can exhibit
marked fragility under the influence of changing water
levels, various pollutants, fire, or human activity. Changes
in the abundance of animal populations living in such
aquatic communities can result in reactions and altered
abundance of plant life, which in turn will have repercus-
sions of other species of animal life. In general, these transi-
tional ecosystems between land and water are characterized
by very high productivity and importance for wildlife, and
they should thus be maintained in that state to the greatest
possible extent.
In many instances, criteria to protect fish and inverte-
brates or to provide water suitable for consumption by man
or domestic animals will also provide the minimal requisites
for some species of wildlife. This would be true for species
that use water only for direct consumption or that feed on
aquatic organisms to only a minor extent. For many species
of wildlife, however, the setting of water quality criteria is
complicated by their ecological position at the apex of com-
plex food webs, and also by the extreme mobility of some
wildlife, especially birds.
Those substances which are concentrated via food chains,
such as many chlorinated hydrocarbons, present special
problems for those species that occupy the apex of long food
chains. In those instances, environmental levels which are
safe for fish, do not necessarily convey safety to predators or
even to scavengers that consume fish.
PROTECTION OF FOOD AND SHELTER FOR WILDLIFE
A number of factors can be identified that can affe
specific components of the ecosystem and cause reduo
food and shelter for wildlife. These factors also affect fi
and other squatic life and therefore are discussed in great
detail in appropriate related subtopics.
PH
In bioassays with aquatic plants, Sincock (1968)893foui
that when the pH of the water in test vessels dropped to 4,
reedhead-grass (Potamogeton perfoliatus), a valuable wate
fowl food plant, died within a few days. Similarly, in Ba
Bay, Virginia, between August and November, 1963, t
aquatic plant production declined from 164 to 13 poun
per acre. This atypical decline was immediately preced>
by a decline in pH to 6.5 compared to previous midsumm
readings of 7.7 to 9.2. (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries ai
Wildlife).601
Recommendation
Aquatic plants of greatest value as food for wate
fowl thrive best in waters with a summer pH rani
of 7.0 to 9.2.
ALKALINITY
Generally, waters with reasonably high bicarbonate alk
Unity are more productive of valuable waterfowl food plar
than are waters with low bic arbonate alkalinity. Few wate
with less than 25 mg/1 bicarbonate alkalinity can be classi
among the better waterfowl habitats. Many waterfowl hat
tats productive of valuable foods, such as sago pondwei
(Potamogeton pectinatus), widgeongrass (Rappia maritima at
R. occidentalis), banana waterlily (Castalia flava), wild celer
(Vallisneria americana), and others have a bicarbonate alk
Unity range of 35 to 200 mg/1.
Definitive submerged aquatic plant communities devek
in waters with different concentrations of bicarbona
194
-------
Wildlife/195
alkalinity. It is logical to assume that excessive and pro-
longed fluctuation in alkalinity would not be conducive to
stabilization of any one plant community type. Sufficient
experimental evidence is not available to define the effects
of various degrees and rates of change in alkalinity on
aquatic plant communities. Fluctuations of 50 mg/1 prob-
ably would contribute to unstable plant communities.
Fluctuations of this magnitude may be due to canals con-
necting watersheds, diversion of irrigation water, or flood
diversion canals (Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration 1968, hereafter referred to as FWPCA 1968).562
Recommendation
Waterfowl habitats should have a bicarbonate
alkalinity between 30 and 130 mg/1 to be pro-
ductive. Fluctuations should be less than 50 mg/1
from natural conditions.
SALINITY
Salinity can also affect plant communities. All saline
water communities, from slightly brackish to marine, pro-
duce valuable waterfowl foods, and the most important
consideration is the degree of fluctuation of salinity. The
germination of seeds and the growth of seedlings are critical
stages in the plant-salinity relationship; plants become more
tolerant to salinity with age.
Salinities from 0.35 to 0.9 per cent NaCl in drinking
water have been shown to be toxic to many members of the
order Galliformes (chickens, pheasant, quail) (Krista et al.
1961,585 Scrivner 1946,592 Field and Evans 1946661).
Young ducklings were killed or retarded in growth as a
result of salt poisoning by solutions equal to those found on
the Suisun Marsh, California, during the summer months.
Salinity maxima varied from 0.55 to 1.74 per cent, and the
means varied from 0.07 to 1.26 per cent during July from
1956 to 1960 (Griffith 1962-63).565
Recommendation
Salinity should be kept as close to natural con-
ditions as possible. Rapid fluctuations should be
minimized.
LIGHT PENETRATION
Criteria for light penetration established in the discus-
sions of Color (p. 130) and Settleable Solids (p. 129) should
also be adequate to provide for the production of aquatic
plants for freshwater wildlife.
SETTLEABLE SUBSTANCES
Accumulation of silt deposits are destructive to aquatic
plants due especially to the creation of a soft, semi-liquid
substratum inadequate for the anchoring of roots. Back
Bay, Virginia, and Currituck Sound, North Carolina, serve
as examples of the destructive nature of silt deposition.
Approximately 40 square miles of bottom are covered with
soft, semi-liquid silts up to 5 inches deep; these areas, con-
stituting one-fifth of the total area, produce only 1 per cent
of the total aquatic plant production (FWPCA 1968).662
Recommendation
Setteable substances can destroy the usefulness
of aquatic bottoms to waterfowl, and for that
reason, settleable substances should be minimized
in areas expected to support waterfowl.
PRODUCTION OF WILDLIFE FOODS OTHER THAN
PLANTS
The production of protozoans, crustaceans, aquatic in-
sects, other invertebrates, and fish is dependent on water
quality. The water quality requirements for the production
of fish are dealt with elsewhere in this Section, and a normal
level of productivity of invertebrates is also required for the
normal production of fish that feed upon them.
While it is well known that many species of invertebrates
are easily affected by low concentrations of pollutants, such
as insecticides, in water (Gaufin etal. 1965,863 Burdicket al.
1968,555 Kennedy et al. 1970584), most of the field studies do
not supply reliable exposure data, and most laboratory
studies are of too short a duration or are performed under
static conditions, allowing no reliable extrapolations to
natural conditions. The general impression to be gained
from these studies is that insects and crustaceans tend to be
as sensitive as or more sensitive than fish to various insecti-
cides, and that many molluscs and oligochetes tend to be
less sensitive.
TEMPERATURE
The increasing discharge of warmed industrial and do-
mestic effluents into northern streams and lakes has changed
the duration and extent of normal ice cover in these north-
ern regions. This has prompted changes in the normal
overwintering pattern of some species of waterfowl. Thus,
Hunt (1957)576 details the increasing use since 1930 of the
Detroit River as a wintering area for black duck (Anas
rubripes), canvasback (Aythya valisneria), lesser scaup (Aythya
qffines), and redhead (Athya americana). In this process,
waterfowl may become crowded into areas near industrial
complexes with a shrinking supply of winter food. The
proximity of sources of pollutants, food shortages, and low
air temperatures often interact to produce unusually high
waterfowl mortalities.
Recommendation
Changes in natural freezing patterns and dates
should be avoided as far as possible in order to
minimize abnormal concentrations of wintering
waterfowl.
-------
196/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
SPECIFIC POTENTIALLY HARMFUL SUBSTANCES
Direct Acting Substances
Oils Waterbirds and aquatic mammals, such as musk-
rat and otter, require water that is free from surface oil.
Catastrophic losses of waterbirds have resulted from the
contamination of plumages by oils. Diving birds appear to
be more susceptible to oiling than other species (Hawkes
1961).671 Heavy contamination of the plumage results in
loss of buoyancy and drowning. Lower levels of contamina-
tion cause excessive heat loss resulting in an energy deficit
which expresses itself in an accelerated starvation (Hartung
1967a).667 Less than 5 mg of oil per bird can produce sig-
nificant increases in heat loss. The ingestion of oils may
contribute to mortalities, and this is especially true for some
manufactured oils (Hartung and Hunt 1966).569 When
small quantities of oil are coated onto eggs by incubating
mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), the likelihood of those eggs to
hatch is greatly reduced (Hartung 1965).566 Rittinghaus
(1956)591 reported an incident in which numerous Cabot's
Terns (Tkalasseus sandvicensis) and other shorebirds became
contaminated with oil that had been washed on shore. Eggs
which were subsequently oiled by the plumage of oiled fe-
male terns did not hatch even after 50 days of incubation.
The absence of visible surface oils should protect wildlife
from direct effect.
Oils can be sedimented by coating particulates on the
surface and then sinking to the bottom. Sedimented oils
have been associated with changes in benthic communities
(Hunt 1957)576 and have been shown to act as concentrators
for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Hartung and
Klingler 1970570).
Recommendation
To protect waterfowl, there should be no visible
floating oil (see p. 146 of this Section and pp. 263-264
of Section IV).
Lead Waterfowl often mistake spent lead shot for seed
or grit and ingest it. See Section IV, pp. 227-228, for a
discussion of this problem.
Recommendation
The recommendation of the Marine Aquatic Life
and Wildlife Panel, Section IV, (p. 228) to protect
waterfowl also applies to the freshwater environ-
ment.
Botulism Poisoning Botulism is a food poisoning
caused by the ingestion of the toxin of Clostridium botulinum
of any six immunologically distinct types, designated A
through F. The disease, as it occurs in epizootic proportions
in wild birds, is most commonly of the C type, although
outbreaks of type E botulism have been observed on the
Great Lakes (Kaufman and Fay 1964582, Fay 1966660).
Cl. botulinum, a widely distributed anaerobic bacterium,
is capable of existing for many years in its dormant spore
form, even under chemically and physically adverse e
vironmental conditions. Its toxins are produced in t
course of its metabolic activity as the vegetative form gro'
and reproduces in suitable media. Outbreaks occur wh
aquatic birds consume this preformed toxin.
The highest morbidity and mortality rates from botulis
in aquatic birds have been recorded in shallow, alkali
lakes or marshes in the western United States, and outbrea
have most commonly occurred from July through Septei
ber and, in some years, October. The optimum tempei
tures for growth of the bacterium or the toxin productic
or both, have been reported as low as 25 C (Hunter et
1970)5" and as high as 37 C (Quortrup and Sudheirr
1942588). The discrepancies are probably the result of diffi
ences in the experimental conditions under which the me;
urements were made and the strains of CL botulinum type
used.
The popular belief that avian botulism epizootics are ;
sociated with low water levels and consequent stagnation
not necessarily supported by facts. In three of the years
heaviest bird losses in the history of the Bear River Migi
tory Bird Refuge (1965, 1967, and 1971), the water sup[
was considerably more abundant than normal (Hunt
California Department of P'ish and Game, personal commu
cation; unpublished Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildl
reports600). The high water levels caused flooding of mi
flats not normally under water in the summer months. Sir
lar inundations of soil that had been dry for several ye;
have been associated previously with outbreaks on the Be
River Refuge and in other epizootic areas. A partial e
planation for these associations may be that flooding of d
ground is commonly followed by a proliferation of ma
species of aquatic invertebrates (McKnight 1970687), t
carcasses of which may be utilized by Cl. botulinum.
Bell et al. (1955)562 provided experimental support for
idea expressed earlier by Kalmbach (1934).681 According
their "rnicroenvirontnent concept," the bodies of inver
brate animals provide the nutrients and the anaerobic t
vironment required by C. botulinum type C for growth a
toxin production. These bodies would presumably also of,
some protection to the bacterium and its toxin from a chen
cally unfavorable ambient medium. Jensen and All
(I960)578 presented evidence of a possible relationship t
tween die-offs of certain invertebrate species and subseque
botulism outbreaks.
The relationship between alkalinity or salinity of t
marsh and the occurrence of botulism outbreaks is not cle;
Invertebrate carcasses suspended in distilled water suppc
high levels of toxin (Bell et al. 1955).552 Laboratory mec
are commonly composed of ingredients such as peptoni
yeast extract, and glucose, without added salts. The mediu
used routinely at the Bear River Research Station for t
culture of Cl. botulinum type C has a pH of 6.8 to 7.0 aft
heat sterilization. McKee el al. (1958)686 showed that win
pH was automatically maintained at a particular level
-------
Wildlife
laboratory cultures of Cl. botulinum type C throughout the
growth period, the largest amount of toxin was produced at
pH 5.7, the lowest level tested. Decomposing carcasses of
birds dead of botulism commonly contain very high concen-
trations of type C toxin, and in these cases production is
ordinarily independent of the chemical composition of the
marsh.
Kalmbach (1934)581 tabulated the salt concentrations of
water samples collected from 10 known botulism epizootic
areas. The values ranged from 261 to 102,658 ppm (omit-
ting the highest, which was taken from a lake where the bird
losses were possibly from a cause other than botulism).
Christiansen and Low (1970)s:>6 recorded conductance
measurements on water in the management units of the
Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge and the Farmington Bay
Waterfowl Management Area, both sites of botulism out-
breaks varying in severity from year to year. The average
conductance of water flowing into the five units of the Bear
River Refuge in five summers (1959-1963) ranged from 3.7
to 4.9 millimhos per centimeter at 25 C. The readings on
outflowing water from the five units ranged from 4.4 to 8.3
mmhos. Comparable figures for the three Farmington Bay
units were 1.8 to 3.2 (inflow) and 3.2 to 4.8 mmhos (out-
flow). Thus the salinity range of the inflowing water at Bear
River was comparable to that of the outflowing water at
Farmington.
These data suggest that salt concentration of the water in
an epizootic area is not one of the critical factors influencing
the occurrence of outbreaks. If high salinity does favor their
occurrence, it is probably not because of its effect on Cl.
botulinum itself. Other possible explanations for the higher
incidence of botulism in shallow, alkaline marshes are:
• Saline waters may support higher invertebrate popu-
lation levels than do relatively fresh waters. (Com-
parisons, as they relate to avian botulism, have not
been made.)
• High salinity may inhibit some of the microorganisms
that compete with Cl. botulinum for nutrients or those
that cause deterioration of the toxin.
• Salinity may have no significant effect on the in-
vertebrates or the bacteria, but it increases the sus-
ceptibility of the birds. Cooch (1964)557 has shown
that type C botulinum toxin decreases the activity of
the salt gland in ducks, reducing its capacity to
eliminate salt. Birds so affected succumb to smaller
doses of toxin than do those provided with fresh
water.
• Outbreaks of botulism poisoning tend to be associ-
ated with or affected by insect die-offs, water tem-
peratures above 70 F, fluctuations in water levels and
elevated concentrations of dissolved solids.
Recommendation
Outbreaks of botulism poisoning tend to be as-
sociated with, or affected by insect die-offs, water
temperature above 70 F, fluctuating water levels,
and elevated concentrations of dissolved solids.
Management of these factors may reduce outbreaks
of botulism poisoning.
Substances Acting After Magnification in Food Chains
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides
DDT and Derivatives DDT and its abundant de-
rivatives DDE and TDE have high lipid solubility and low
water solubility, and thus tend to concentrate in the lipid,
i.e., living fraction of the aquatic environment (Hartung
1967b).568 DDE is the most stable of the DDT compounds
and has been especially implicated in producing thinning of
egg shells, increased breakage of eggs, reproductive failure
in species occupying the apex of aquatic food chains in areas
with long histories of DDT usage.
Reproductive failures and local extirpation associated
with egg shell thinning have been reported for several North
American bird species. The phenomenon was first described
and is most wide-spread for the peregrine falcon (Falco
pertgrinus) (Hickey and Anderson 1968).374 Since then simi-
lar phenomena have been described in Brown Pelicans
(Pelecanus ocadetitalis) (Anderson and Hickey 1970)551 and
species of several other families of predatory birds. Further
increases of DDE in large receiving basins, such as the Great
Lakes, would be expected to increase the extent of repro-
ductive failure among predatory aquatic bird populations.
Concentrations as low as 2.8 ppm p ,//DDE on a wet-
weight basis produced experimental thinning of egg shells in
the American Kestrel (Falco spmvanus) (\Viemeyer and
Porter 1970).5" Heath et al. (1969)572 induced significant
levels of eggshell thinning in mallards after feeding them
similarly low levels of DDE. Concentrations of DDT com-
pounds in the water of Lake Michigan have been estimated
to be 1 to 3 parts per trillion (Reinert 1970)589 (Table
111-21). Concentrations that would permit the assured sur-
vival of sensitive predatory bird species are evidently much
lower than that. Because such low concentrations cannot be
reliably measured by present technologies and because the
concentrating factor for the food chains appears to be vari-
able or is not known, or both, a biological monitoring sys-
tem should be chosen. If it is desired to protect a number of
fish-eating and raptorial birds, it is essential to reduce the
levels of DDE contamination, especially in large receiving
basins (see Section IV).
The available data indicate that there should not be con-
centrations greater than 1 mg/kg of total DDT in any
aquatic plants or animals in order to protect most species of
aquatic wildlife. Present unpublished data indicate effects
for even lower levels of DDE to some species of predatory
birds (Stickel unpublished data).m
Present environmental levels vastly exceed the recom-
mended levels in many locations, and continued direct or
-------
198/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 111-21—Relationship of DDT and Metabolites to
Eggshell Thinning
Species
Mallard
Prairie falcon (Falco
meiicanus)
Japanese quail
(Coturnix)
Herring gull (Larus
argentatus)
American kestrel
(Falco sparvariiis)
Mallard
Dosage* wet-
weight basis
. lOOOmg/kg
single dose
N.D.f
lOOppmo.pDDT
100ppmp,p'DDT
ca. 3.3ppm
total DDT
2.8 ppmp.p'DDE
"2.8 ppm DDE
"11. 2 ppm DDE
Pesticide level
in eggs
N.D.f
0-10 ppm DDE
1 0-20 ppm DDE
20-30 ppm DDE
30 ppm DDE
23.6 ppm o.pDDT
0.52 ppm DDE
48.0 ppm p.p'DDE
227 ppm total DDT
32 4 ppm DDE
N.Dt
N.D.f
Thinning
Percent
25
ca. 5
ca. 13
ca. 18
ca. 25
4
E
N.D.f
10
11
14
Reference
Tucker & Haegele, 1970s'5
Enderson & Berger, 1970s5'
Bitmanetal., 1969«3
Keith, 1966*"
Wiemeyer & Porter, 1970s"
Heath et al., 1969S1!
* All tests except the first one are chronic, spanning at least several months.
" Converted from dry-basis.
t Not determined.
indirect inputs of DDT would make these recommendations
unattainable.
Recommendation
In order to protect most species of aquatic wild-
life, the total DDT concentration on a wet-weight
basis should be less than 1 mg/kg in any aquatic
plants or animals. (Also see Recommendations for
Pesticides, p. 185-186.)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) Polychlorinated
biphenyls are chlorinated hydrocarbons which are highly
resistant to chemical or biological degradation. They have
been widespread environmental contaminants (Jensen et al.
1969,580 Risebrough et al. 1968590). Their biological effects
at present environmental concentrations are not known.
PCB's can elevate microsomal enzyme activity (Risebrough
et al. 1968,590 Street et al. 1968594), but the environmental
significance of that finding is not clear. The toxicity of
PCB is influenced by the presence of small amounts of con-
taminated chlorinated dibenzofurans (Vos and Koeman
1970,596 Vos et al. 1970597) which are highly toxic to d
veloping embryos.
Recommendation
Because of the persistence of PCB and the
susceptibility to biological magnification, it :
recommended that the body burdens of PCB i
birds and mammals not be permitted to increas
and that monitoring programs be instituted (se
Section IV).
Mercury
Westoo (1966)598 reported that almost all of the mercui
found in fish is methyl mercury. Jensen and Jernelc
(1969)679 showed that natural sediments can methyla
ionic mercury. Mercury levels in fish in Lake St. Cla
ranged between 0.4 and 3 ppm, averaging near 1.5 ppi
(Greig and Seagram 1970).£64 Residues in fish-eating bin
from Lake St. Clair ranged up to 7.5 ppm in a tern, and u
to 23 ppm in a great blue heron (Dustman et al. 1970).5
These residues are comparable to those found in Swedis
birds that died after experimental dosing with methy
mercury, and in birds that died with signs of mercury po
soning under field conditions in Scandinavian countn
(Henriksson et al. 1966,5" Bor; etal. 1969,564 Holt 1969s".
To date, no bird mortalities due to mercury contaminatio
have been demonstrated in the Lake St. Clair area, bt
body burdens of fish-eating birds are obviously close t
demonstrated toxic levels. It is therefore concluded that th
mercury levels in fish flesh should be kept below 0.5 ppm I.
assure the long-term survival of fish-eating birds. Since thi
level incorporates little or no safety margin for fish-eatin
wildlife, it is suggested that the safety of a 0.5 ppm level b
reevaluated as soon as possible.
Recommendation
Fish-eating birds should be protected if mercurj
levels in fish do not exceed 0.5 ^6/6-
Since the recommendation of 0.5 /ug/g mercuri
in fish provides little or no safety margin for fish'
eating wildlife, it is recommended that the safetj
of the 0.5 Mg/g level be reevaluated as soon as
possible.
-------
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BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
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-------
2001 Section III—Freshwater Aquatw Life and Wildlife
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3« Wobeser, G., N. O. Nielsen, R. H. Dunlop, and F. M. Alton (1970),
Mercury concentrations in tissues of fish from the Saskatchewan
River. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27(4):830-834.
358 Wood, ]. M., C. G. Rosen, and F. S. Kennedy (1969), Synthesis
of methyl-mercury compounds by extracts of a methanogenic
bacterium. Mature 220:173-174.
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359D'Itri, F. M. unpublished data, 1971. The environmental mercury
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seo Mount, D. I., personal communication, 1971 National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minn.
361 Mount, D. I., unpublished data, 1971. National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
PHTALATE ESTERS
362Frcar, D. E. H. (1969), Pesticide index, 4th ed. (College Science
Publishers, State College, Pennsylvania), 399 p.
363 Nccly, H. C. (1970), Production increasing but prices low. Chem.
Eng. News 48(37):59A-61A.
364 Nematollahi, J., W. L. Guess, and J. Autian (1967), Plasticizcrs
in medical application. I. Analysis and toxicity evaluation of
dialkyl benzencdicarboxylates. J. Pharm. Sci. 56(11):1446-1453.
365Schoof, H. F., G. W. Pearce, and W. Mathis (1963), Dichlorous
as a residual fumigant in mud, plywood, and bamboo huts. Bull.
World Health Organ. 29:227-230.
366 Stalling, D. L. (1972), Analysis of organochlorinc residues in fish:
current research at the Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory, in
Pesticide chemistry, vol. 4, Methods in residue analysis, A. S. Tahori,
ed. (Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, New York), pp. 413—
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367 Sanders, O. unpublished data 1971, Fish-Pesticide Research Labora-
tory, Columbia, Missouri.
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
368 Anderson, D. W., J. J. Hickey, R. W. Risebrough, D. F. Hughes,
and R. E. Christensen (1969), Significance of chlorinated hydro-
carbon residues to breeding pelicans and cormorants. Can. Field
Natur. 83(2):91-112.
369 Armour, J. A. and J. A. Burke (1970), Method for separating
polychlorinated biphenyls from DDT and its analogs. J. Ass.
Offic. Anal. Chem. 53(4)-.761-768.
3™Bagley, G. E., W. L. Reichel, and E. Cromartie (1970), Identifica-
tion of polychlorinated biphenyls in two bald eagles by combined
gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Ass. Offic. Anal.
Chem. 53(2):251-261.
311 Duke, T. W., J. I. Lowe, and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (1970), A poly-
chlorinated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254®) in the water, sediment,
and biota of Escambia Bay, Florida. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol.
5(2):171-180.
372 Gustafson, C. G. (1970), PCB's-prevalent and persistent. Environ.
Sci. Techrwl. 4:814-819.
373Hansen, D. J., P. R. Parrish, J. I. Lowe, A. J. Wilson, Jr., and
P. D. Wilson (1971), Chronic toxicity, uptake, and retention of
a polychlorinated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254) in two estuarine
fishes. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6(2):113-119.
374 Holden, A. V. (1970), International cooperative study of organi
chlorine pesticide residues in terrestrial and aquatic wildh
1967/1968. Peshc. Monit. J. 1(3) :117-135.
375 Holmes, D. C., J. H. Simmons, and J. O'G. Tatton (1967
Chlorinated hydrocarbons in British wildlife. Nature 216'22/
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316 Jensen, S. A., G. Johnels, S Olsson, and G. Otterlind (1969
DDT and PCB in marine animals from Swedish waters. Matu
224-247-250.
377 Jensen, S., N. Johansson, and M. Olsson (1970), PCB-indicatioi
of effects on salmon, PCB conference, Stockholm, September 2'
1970. (Swedish Salmon Research Institute), [Report LFI MED
7/1970].
378 Kocman, J. H., M. C. Ten Noever de Brauw, and R . H. De V<
(1969), Chlorinated biphenyls in fish, mussels and birds froi
the River Rhine and the Netherlands coastal area Mature 22
1126-1128.
379 Mayer, F. L., Jr. infirets (1972), Special report on PCB's in Progre
in sport fishery research, 1970. (Government Printing Ofno
Washington, D. C.)
380Mulhern, B. M., E. Cromartie, W. L. Reichel, and A. A. Bclis
(1971), Semi quantitative determination of polychlorinate
biphenyls in tissue samples by thin layer chromatography. _'
/Irr. Offic. Anal. Chem. 54(3):MS-550.
381Nebeker, A. V., F. A. Publis and D. L. Defoe (1971), Toxicity <
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) to fish and other aquatic lif<
Final draft. Environmental Protection Agency, Motional Water Qiialii
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
382Nimmo, D. R., P. D. Wilson, R. R. Blackman, and A. J. Wilsor
Jr. (1971), Polychlorinated biphenyl absorbed from sedirnenl
by fiddler crabs and pink shrimp. Mature 231:50-52.
sss Papagcorgc, W. B. (1970), Monsanto Company, presented i
part at a meeting, "PCB's in the environment," Match 17, 197r
sponsored by the National Water Quality Laboratory, FWQA
Duluth, Minnesota.
'"Peakall, D. B. and J. L. Lincer (1970), Polychlorinated biphenyls
another long-life widespread chemical in the environment. Bio
science 20:958-964.
386 Reynolds. L. M. (1971), Pesticide residue analysis in the presenc
of polychlorobiphcnyls (PCB's). Residue Rev. 34:27-57.
386 Risebrough, R. W., P. Rieche, D. B. Peakall, S. G. Herman, am
M. N. Kirven (1968), Polychlorinated biphenyls in the globa
ecosystem. Nature 220:1098-1102.
387 Risebrough, R. (1970), More letters in the wind. Environment 12(1)
16-26.
388 Saundcrs, H. O. (1972), Special report on PCB's, in Progress ii
sport fishery research 1970. (Government Printing Office, Wash
ington, D. C.).
389 Saunders, H. O. in press, Special Report on PCB's. In: Progress it
Sport Fishery Research, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Resource Publication USGPO.
190 Stalling, D. L. and F. L. Mayer, Jr. (1972), Toxicities of PCB;
to fish and environmental residues. Environmental Health Per-
spectives 1:159-164.
•191 Stalling, D. L. and J. N. Huckins (1971), Gas-liquid chromato-
graphy-mass spectrometry characterization of polychlorinated
biphenyls (aroclors) and 36Cl-labeling of Aroclors 1248 and
1254. J. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 54(4):801-807.
:i92 Stalling, D. L. in press (1971), Analysis of Organochlorine Residues
in Fish-Current Research at the Fish-Pesticide Research Labora-
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593 Brungs, W. A., personal communication, 1972. Effects of polychlori-
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-------
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394Mehrle, P. M. and B. F. Grant, unpublished data, 1971. Fish Pesti-
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395 Frank, R. and J. Rees, personal communication. R. Frank, Director
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of Guclph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada; J. Rees, Ontario Water
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396 Stalling;, D. L and J. L. Johnson, unpublished data, 1970. Labora-
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Columbia, Missouri
397 Stalling, D. L. and J. N. Huckins, unpublished data, 1971. National
Pesticide Monitoring Program. Fish Pesticide Research Labora-
tory, Columbia, Missouri.
METALS
398 Ball, I R. (1967), The relative susceptibilities of some species of
ftxsh-water fish to poisons I. Ammonia. Water Res. 1(11-12):
767 775.
399 Bender, M. E , W R. Matson, and R. A. Jordan (1970), On the
significance of metal complcxing agents in secondary sewage
effluents. Em-it on Sci. Techno!. 4(6):520-521.
400 Boetius, J. (1960), Lethal action of mercuric chloride and phenyl-
mercuric acetate on fishes. Medd. Dan. Fnk. Havunders. 3(4).'93-
11").
401 Brown, V. M. (1968), The calculation of the acute toxicity of mix-
tures of poisons to rainbow trout. Water Res. 2(10):723-733.
402 Brungs, W. A (1969), Chronic toxicity of zinc to the fathead min-
nows, Pimephales promelas Rafinesque. Allans. Amer Fish. Soc.
98(2):272-279.
403 Cairns, J , Jr. (1956), The effects of increased temperatures upon
aquatic organisms. Purdue Untr. Fng. Bull. F.xl. Ser. no. 89'346—
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4(14 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Schcier (1918), The effect of periodic low
oxygen upon the toxicity of various chemicals to aquatic or-
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405 Crandall, C. A. and C. J. Goodnight (19(52), Effects of sublethal
concentrations of several toxicants on growth of the common
guppy, Lebistes rettculatus. Limnol. Oceanogi. 7(2) 233-239.
406 Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz (1953), Critical review of literature
on the toxicity of industrial wastes and their components to fish.
II The metals as salts. Sewage Induit. Wastes 2 5(7):802-839.
407 Freeman, R A. and W. II Everhart (1971), Toxicity of aluminum
hydroxide complexes in neutral and basic media to rainbow
trout. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(4):644-658.
408 Hawkslcy, R. A. (1967), Advanced water pollution analysis by a
water laboratory. Analyzer 8(1):13-15.
409 Herbert, D. W. M. and D S. Shurbcn (1964), The toxicity to
fish of mixtures of poisons. I. Salts of ammonia and zinc. Ann.
Appl. Bwl. 53(1):33-41.
410 Hervcy, R. J. (1949), Effect of chromium on the growth of uni-
cellular Chlorophyceae and diatoms. Rot. Gaz. 111(1)'1-11.
411 Jones, J. R E. (1939), The relation between the electrolytic solu-
tion pressures of the metals and their toxicity to the stickleback
(Gasterosteus aculealus L.). J. Exptl. Bwl. 16:425-437.
412 Lloyd, R. (1960), Toxicity of zinc sulfate to rainbow trout. Ann.
Appl. Bwl. 48:84-94.
413 Lloycl, R. (1961), Effect of dissolved oxygen concentrations on
the toxicity of several poisons to rainbow trout (Salmn gairdnerii
Richardson). J. Exp. Biology 38:447.
414 Lloycl, R. and D. W. M. Herbert (1960), Influence of carbon
dioxide on the toxicity of non-ionized ammonia to rainbow trout
(Salmo gamlnern). Ann. Appl. Bwl. 48:399-404.
-------
210/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
437 Weir, P. A. and C. H. Hine (1970), Effects of various metals on
behavior of conditioned goldfish. Arch. Environ. Health 20( 1) :45-51.
References Cited
438Benoit, D. A., unpublished data, 1971. Long term effects of hexava-
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brook trout and rainbow trout. National Water Quality Labora-
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439 Biesinger, K. E., G. Glass and R. W. Andrew, unpublished data,
1971. Toxicity of copper to Daphnia magna, National Water
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440 Biesinger, K. E. and G. M. Christensen, unpublished data, 1971.
Metal effects on survival, growth, reproduction and metabolism
of Daphnia magna.
441Brungs, W. A., unpublished data, 1971. National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minn.
442 Eaton, J. G., unpublished data, 1971. Chronic toxicity of cadmium
to the bluegill. National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth,
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443 Everhart, W. H., unpublished data, 1971. Zoology Dept. Colorado
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444 Fisheries Research Board of Canada, unpublished data, 1971.
445 McKirn, J. M. and J. G. Eaton, unpublished data, 1971. Toxic
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446 Pickering, Q. H., unpublished data, 1971. Newtown Fish Toxicology
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447 Patrick, R., unpublished data, 1971. Dissolved and floating ma-
terials in water eutrophication, effects of heavy metals on diatoms,
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PESTICIDES
448 Bender, M. E. (1969), Uptake and retention of malathion by the
carp. Progr. Fish-Cult. 31(3): 1.55-159.
449 Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean, E. J. Harris, J. Skea, C. Frisa, and C.
Sweeney (1968), Methoxychlor as a blackfly larvicide: persis-
tence of its residues in fish and its effect on stream arthropods.
N. T. Fish. Game J. 15(2):121-142.
460 Burdick, G. E., E. J. Harris, H. J. Dean, T. M. Walker, J. Skea,
and D. Colby (1964), The accumulation of DDT in lake trout
and the effect on reproduction. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(2):
127-136.
461 Cope, O. B. (1961), Effects of DDT spraying for spruce budworm
on fish in the Yellowstone River system. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
90(3)-.239-251.
462 Eaton, J. G. (1970), Chronic malathion toxicity to the bluegill
(Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque): Water Res. 4(10):673-684.
463 Elson, P. F. (1967), Effects on wild young salmon of spraying DDT
over New Brunswick forests. J. Fish. Res. Ed. Canada 24(4):731-
767.
454Feltz, H. R., W. T. Sayers, and H. P. Nicholson (1971), National
monitoring program for the assessment of pesticide residues
in water. Pestic. Monit. J. 5(l):54-62.
466 Frank, P. A. and R. D. Comes (1967), Herbicidal residues in pond
water and hydrosoil. Weeds 15(3):210-213.
466 Gakstatter, J. L. and C. M. Weiss (1965), The decay of anti-
cholinesterase activity of organic phosphorus insecticides on
storage in waters of different pH. Proceedings Second International
Water Pollution Conference, Tokyo, 7964, pp. 83-95.
"'Gillett, J. W., ed. (1969), The biological impact of pesticides in the
environment [Environmental health science series no. 1 ] (En-
vironmental Health Studies Center, Oregon State University,
Corvallis), 210 p.
468Hamelink, J. L., R. C. Waybrant, and R. C. Ball (1971), A pro-
posal: exchange equilibria control the degree chlorinated hydro-
carbons are biologically magnified in lentic environments. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(2):207-214.
459 Hannon, M. R., Y. A. Greichus, R. L. Applegate, and A. C. Fox
(1970), Ecological distribution of pesticides in Lake Poinsett
South Dakota. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3) :496-500.
460 Hartung, R. (1970) Seasonal dynamics of pesticides in western
Lake Erie. Sea Grant progress Report. University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor.
461 Henderson, C., W. L. Johnson, and A. Inglis (1969), Organo-
chlorine insecticide residues in fish. (National pesticide moni-
toring program). Pestic. Monit. J. 3(3):145-171.
462 Hopkins, C. L., H. V. Brewerton. and H. J. W. McGrath (1966)
The effect on a stream fauna of an aerial application of DDT
prills to pastureland. N. %. J Sci. 9(l):236-248.
163 Hunt, E. G. and A. I. Bischoff (1960), Inimical effects on wildlife
of periodic DDD applications to Clear Lake. Calif. Fnh Garni
46:91-106.
164 Hynes, H. B. N. (1961), The effect of sheep-dip containing the
insecticide BHC on the fauna of a small stream, including
Simuhum and its predators. Ann. Trap. Med. Parasitol. 55(2).192-
196.
165 Ide, F. P. (1967), Effects of forest spraying with DDT on aquatic
insects of salmon streams in New Brunswick. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 24(4) 769-805.
166 Johnson, D. W. (1968), Pesticides and fishes: a review of selected
literature. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4)-398-424.
167 Johnson, H. E. (1967), The effects of endrm on the reproduction of a
fresh water fish (Oryzias latipcs) [Ph.D. dissertation] University
of Washington, Seattle, 149 p.
168 Johnson, H E. and C. Pecor (1969), Coho salmon mortality and
DDT in Lake Michigan Tram. N. Amer. Wildl. Nairn. Resour.
Con/. 34:159-166.
'69Kerswill, C. J. and II. E. Edwards (1967), Fish losses after forest
sprayings with insecticides in New Brunswick, 1952-62, as shown
by caged specimens and other observations. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 24(4): 709-729.
•"» Kraybill, H. F., ed. (1969), Biological effects of pesticides in
mammalian systems. Ann. N. T. Acad. Sci. 160:1-422
471 Lichtenberg, J. J., J. W. Eichelberger, R. C. Dressmari, and J. E.
Longbottom (1970), Pesticides in surface waters of the United
States: a five-year summary, 1964-68. Pestic. Momt. J. 4(2):
71-86.
472 Lotse, E. G., D. A Graetz, G Chesters, G. B. Lee, and L. W.
Newland (1968), Lindane adsorption by lake sediments Environ
Sci. Technol. 2(5):353-357.
"3 Macek, K. J (1968), Growth and resistance to stress in brook
trout fed sublethal levels of DDT. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 25(11)
2443-2451.
474 Mayer, F. L., Jr., J. C. Street, aid J. M. Neuhold (1970), Organo-
chlorine insecticide interactions affecting residue storage in
rainbow trout. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 5(4)-300-310.
475 Mount, D. I. and C. E. Stephan (1967), A method for detecting
cadmium poisoning in fish. J. Wildlife Manage. 31(1):168-172.
476 Mount, D. I. (1968), Chronic toxicity of copper to fathead min-
nows (Pimephales promelas, Rafinesque). Water Res. 2(3):215-223.
417 Mrak, E. M. chairman, (1969), Report of the Secretary's Commission
on pesticides and their relationship to environmental health (Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 677 p.
™ Mullison, W. R. (1970), Effects of herbicides on water and its
inhabitants. Weed Sci. 18(6):738-750.
4"9 Pickering, Q. H., C. Henderson, and A. E. Lemke (1962), The
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-------
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480 Pimentcl, D. (1971), Ecological effects of pesticides on non-target species
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481 Reincrt, R. E. (1970), Pesticide concentrations in Great Lakes
fish. Pestic. Moml. J. 3(4):233-240.
482 Rosato, P. and D. E. Ferguson (1968), The toxicity of endrin-
resistant mosquitofish to eleven species of vertebrates. Bioscience
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483 Schoenthal, N. D. (1964), Some effects of DDT on cold-water
fish and fish-food organisms. Proc. Mont. Acad. Sa. 23(l):63-95.
484Sprague, J. B., P. F. Elson, and J. R. Duffy (1971), Decrease in
DDT residues in young salmon after forest spraying in New
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485 Tarrant, K. R. and J. O'G. Tatton (1968), Organochlorine pesti-
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486Terriere, L. C., LI. Kiigemai, A. R. Gerlach, and R. L. Borovicka
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48? Wcrshaw, R. L., P. J Burcar, and M. C. Goldberg (1969), Inter-
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488 Wilson, D. C. and C. E. Bond (1969), Effects of the herbicides
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489 Yule, W. N. and A. D. Tomlin (1971), DDT in forest streams.
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AMMONIA
493 Ball, I. R. (1967), Toxicity of cadmium to rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneni Richardson). Wain Res 1(11/12):805-806.
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497 Ellis, M. M. (1937), Detection and measurement of stream pol-
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600 Hazel, C. R., W. Thomsen, and S. J. Meith (1971), Sensitivity of
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601 Herbert, D. W. M , D. S. Shurben (1965), The susceptibility of
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602 Lloyd, R. (1961), The toxicity of ammonia to rainbow trout
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604 Lloyd, R. and D. W. M. Herbert (1960), The influence of carbon
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605 Merkens, J. C. and K. M. Downing (1957), The effect of tension
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606 Rcichenbach-Klinke, H. H. (1967), Untersuchungen uber die
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CHLORINE
""Arthur, J. W. and J. G. Eaton (1971), Chlorine toxicity to the
Amphipod, Gammariis pseudolimnaeits and the fathead minnow
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511Basch, R. E., M. E. Newton, J. G. Truchan, and C. M. Fetterolf
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612 Brungs, W. A. in preparation (1972), Literature review of the effects
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613 Laubusch, E. J. (1962), Water chlorination, in Chlorine: its manu-
facture, properties and uses, J. S. Sconce, ed. [American Chemical
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514McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, eds. (1963), Water quality criteria,
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616 Merkens, J. C. (1958), Studies on the toxicity of chlorine and
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616 Sprague, J. B. and D. E. Drury (1969), Avoidance reactions of
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617Tsai, C. F. (1968), Effects of chlorinated sewage effluents on fish
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618 Tsai, C. F. (1970), Changes in fish populations and migration in
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619 Zillich, J. A. (1972), Toxicity of combined chlorine residuals to
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CYANIDES
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-------
212/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
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effect of some organic cyanides (nitriles) on fish. Purdue Una1.
Eng. Bull. Ext. Ser. no. 106:120-130.
627 Jones, J. R. E. (1964), Fish and river pollution (Butterworth & Co.,
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628 Wuhrman, K. and H. Woker (1955), Influence of temperature of
oxygen tension on the toxicity of poisons to fish. Proc. Inter-
national Assoc. Theoret. Appl. Leinnol., 12:795-801.
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629 Patrick, R., unpublished data, 1971. Academy of Natural Sciences
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DETERGENTS
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detergent on Cammarus pseudohmnaeus, Campeloma dinsum, and
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632 Hokanson, K. E. F. and L. L. Smith (1971), Some factors in-
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633 Marchetti, R. (1965), Critical review of the effects of synthetic detergents
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634 Pickering, Q. H. (1966), Acute toxicity of alkyl benzene sulfonate
and linear alkylate sulfonate to the eggs of the fathead minnow,
Pimephales promelas. Air Water Pollut. 10(5) = 385-391.
636 Pickering, Q. H. and T. O. Thatcher (1970), The chronic toxicity
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636 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
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Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
637 Swisher, R. D (1967), Biodegradation of LAS benzene rings in
activated sludge. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 44(12) = 717-724.
638 Thatcher, T. O. and J. F. Santner (1966), Acute toxicity of LAS
to various fish species. Purdue Univ. Eng. Bull. Ext. Sir. no. 121:
996-1002.
PHENOLICS
639 Ellis, M. M. (1937), Detection and measurement of stream pollu-
tion. U.S. Bur Fish. Bull. no. 22:365-437.
640 Fetterolf, C. M. (1964), Taste and odor problems in fish from
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641 Mitrovic, U. U., V. M. Brown, D. G. Shurben, and M. H. Berry-
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poisoning of rainbow trout by phenol in hard water. Water Re;
2(4):249-254.
542 Turnbull, H., J. G. DeMann, arid R. F. Weston (1954), Toxicit
of various refinery materials to fresh water fish. Ind. Eng. Chert
46:324-333
SULFIDES
643Adclman, I. R. and L. L. Smith, Jr. (1970), Effect of hydrogci
sulfide on northern pike eggs and sac fry. Trans. An: ft. Fish. Sot
99(3):501-509.
"4 Bonn, E. W. and B. J. Follis (1967), Effects of hydrogen sulfide o
channel catfish (Iclal'irits punctatus). Trans. Amer. Full. Soc. 96(1}
31-36.
645 Colby, P. J. and L. L Smith (1967), Survival of walleye eggs am
fry on paper fiber sludge deposits in Rainey River, Minnesota
Tiam. Ame,. Fish. Soi. 96(3) =278-296.
646 Schaut, G. G. (1939), Fish catastrophies during droughts. J. Ama
Watt, Works Ass. 31(l):771-82/'
647 Smith, L. L. (1971), Influence of hydrogen sulfide on fish am
arthropods. Preliminary completion report EPA Project 1805
PCG, 30pp.
648 Smith, L. L. and D. Oscid mpr - (1971), Toxic effects of hydroge
sulfide to juvenile fish and f h eggs. Proc. 25th Purdue Indus
trial Waste Conf
"9Thecdc, H., A. Ponat, K. Hiro' :, and C. Schlieper (1969), Studio
on the resistance of marine bottom invertebrates to oxygen-de
ficiency and hydrogen sulfide. Mar. Biol. 2(4) =325-337.
660 Van Horn, W. M. (1958), The effect of pulp and paper mil
wastes on aquatic life. Proc. Ontario Indust. Waste Conf. 5 '60— 66.
WILDLIFE
561 Anderson, D. W. and J. J. Hickey (1970) Oological data on egj
and breeding characteristics of brown pelicans Wilson Bull. 8i
652 Bell, J. F., G. W. Sciple, and A. A. Hubert (1955), A microen
vironment concept of the epizoology of avian botulism. J. Wild
life Manage. 19(3) =352-357.
653 Bitman, J , H. C. Cecil, S. J. H arris, and G. F. Fries ( 1 969), DDT
induces a decrease in eggshell CEilcium. Nature 224:44- 46.
554Borg, K., H. Wanntorp, K. Erre, and E. Hanko (1969), Alky
mercury poisoning in terrestrial Swedish wildlife. Viitrevy 6(4)
301-379.
'•"Burdick, G. E , H. J. Dean, E, J. Harris, J. Ske.i, C Frisa, and
C. Sweeney (1968), Methoxychlor as a black fly larvicide,
persistence of its residues in fish and its effects on stream arthro-
pods. M. T. Fnh& Game 15(2):121-142.
iiB6 Christiansen, J. E. and J. B. Low (1970), Water requirements of
waterfowl marshlands in northern Utah. Publication No. 69-12,
Utah Division of Fish and Game.
ll67 Cooch, F. G. 1964. Preliminary .study of the survival value of a
salt gland in prairie Anatidae. Auk. 81(0=380-393.
1168 Dustman, E. H., L. F. Stickel and J. B. Elder (1970), Mercury in
wild animals. Lake St. Glair. Paper presented at the Environmental
Mercury Contamination Conference, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
ll69 Enderson, J. H. and D. D. Beiger (1970), Pesticides: eggshell
thinning and lowered reproduction of young in prairie falcons.
Bwmence 20:355-356.
1160 Fay, L. D. 1966. Type E botulism in Great Lake water birds.
Trans. 31st N. Amer. Wildlife Conf.: 139-149.
'"Field, H. I. and E. T. R. Evans (1946), Acute salt poisoning ir
poultry. VelRec. 58(231:253-254.
>62FWPCA (1968)
U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Con-
-------
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trol Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of the
National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior
(Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 234 p.
663 Gaufin, A. R., L. D. Jensen, A. V. Nebeker, T. Nelson, and R. W.
Teel (1965), The toxicity of ten organic insecticides to various
aquatic invertebrates. Water and Sewage Works 112(7):276-279.
664 Greig, R. A. and H. L. Seagram (1970), Survey of mercury con-
centrations in fishes of lakes St. Clair, Erie and Huron. Paper
presented at the Environmental Mercury Contamination Confidence, Ann
Arbor, Michigan.
665 Griffith, W. II , Jr. (1962-63), Salt as a possible limiting factor
to the Suisan Marsh pheasant population. Annual report, Delta
Fish & Wildlife Protection Study, Cooperative Study of Cali-
fornia.
666 Hartung, R. (1965), Some effects of oiling on reproduction of
ducks. J. Wildlife Manage. 29(4):872-874.
667 Hartung, R. (1967a), Energy metabolism in oil-covered ducks
J Wildlife Manage. 31(4): 798-804.
668Haitung, R. (1967b), An outline for biological and physical con-
centrating mechanisms for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides.
Pap. Mich. Acad. Sn Arts Lett. 52:77-83.
669 Hartung, R. and G. S Hunt (1966), Toxicity of some oils to water-
fowl. J. Wildlife Manage. 30(3):564-570.
670 Hartung, R. and G. W. Klingk-r (1970), Concentration of DDT
sedimented polluting oils. Enriron. Sci. Technol. 4(5) :407—410.
671 Hawkes, A. L. 1961. A review of the nature and extent of damage
caused by oil pollution at sea. Trans. N. Am. Wildlife and Na-
tional Resources Conf. 26-343-355.
672He,ith. R. G., J. W. Spann, and J F. Krcitzer (1969), Marked
DDE impairment of mallard reproduction in controlled studies.
Mature 224:47-48.
673 Henriksson, K., E. Karppanen, and M. Helminen (1966), High
residue of mercury in Finnish white-tailed eagles Onus l-enn.
43 (2): 38-45.
674Hickey, J. J. and D W. Anderson (1968), Chlorinated hydro-
carbons and eggshell changes in raptorial and fish-eating birds.
Science 162 271-273.
675 Holt, G. (1969), Mercury residues in wild birds in Norway. 1965-
1967, Nord. Vet Med. 21(2)'105- 114.
676 Hunt, G. S. (1957), Causes of mortality among ducks wintering on the
lower Detroit River [Ph.D. dissertation] University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.
677 Hunter, B. F., W. E. Clark, P. J. Perkins and P. R. Coleman
(1970), Applied botulism research including management recom-
mendations—a progress report. California Department of Fish
Game, Sacramento, 87 p.
578 Jensen, W. I and J. P. Allen (1960), A possible relationship be-
tween aquatic invertebrates and avian botulism. Ttans. N. Arner.
WML .Nairn, Ketnur. Conf. 25:171-179.
679 Jensen, S. and A. Jcrnelov (1969), Biological incthylation of
mercury in aquatic organisms. Native 223:753—754.
680 Jensen, S., A. G. Johnels, M. Olsson and G. Otterhncl (1969),
DDT and FOB in marine animals from Swedish waters. Mature
224:247-250.
681 Kalmbach, E. R (1934), Western duck sickness a form of botu-
lism. U.S. Dep. Agt. Tech. Bull. No. 411, pp. 181.
682 Kaufman, O. W., and L. D. Fay (1964), Clostridmm hotulmum type
E toxin in tissues of dead loons and gulls. Michigan State Uni-
versity Experiment Station Quarterly Bulletin 47:236-242.
683 Keith, J. A. (1966), Reproduction in a population of herring gulls
(Larus argentatus) contaminated by DDT. J. Appl. Ecol. 3 (supp):
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and their effects on wildlife, N. W. Moore, ed. (Blackwell Scientific
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684 Kennedy, H. D., L. L. Eller, and D. E. Walsh (1970), Chronic ef-
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685Krista, L. M., C W. Carlson, and O. E. Olson (1961), Some ef-
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686McKee. M. T., J. F. Bell and W. H. Iloycr (1958), Culture of
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687 McKnight, D. E. (1970), Waterfowl production on a spring-fed
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688 Quortrup, E. R. and R. L Sudhciiner (1942), Research notes on
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689 Rcinert, R. E. (1970), Pesticide concentrations in Great Lakes
fish. Pfshc. Moml J. 3(4) 233-240.
690 Risebrough, R. W , P. Rieche, D. B. Peakall, S G. Herman, and
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Section IV—MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 216
Development of Recommendations 217
USES OF THE MARINE SYSTEM TO BE PRO-
TECTED 219
THE NATURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM 219
Effects of Water Quality Change on Eco
systems 219
FISHERIES 221
MARINE AQUACULTURE 222
Application of Water Quality to Aqua-
culture 224
MARINE WILDLIFE 224
Bases for Recommendations 225
Radionuclides 226
Recommendation 226
Heavy Metals 226
Recommendation 226
Polych orinated Biphenyls (PCB) 226
Recommendation 226
DDT Compounds 226
Recommendation 227
Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, and Heptachlor. . 227
Recommendation 227
Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesti-
cides 227
Recommendation 227
Lead 227
Recommendation 228
WASTE CAPACITY OF RECEIVING WATERS 228
Mixing Zones 231
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT 233
ACUTE TOXICITIES—BIOASSAYS 233
BIOANALYSIS 233
BIORESPONSE 234
DESIGN OF BIOASSAYS 235
SUBLETHAL EFFECTS 236
Migrations 236
Behavior 236
Incidence of Disease 236
Life Cycle 236
Physiological Processes 237
Genetic Effects 237
Page
Nutrition and Food Chains 237
Effects on the Ecosystem 237
Food Value for Human Use 237
CATEGORIES OF POLLUTANTS 238
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT 238
INORGANICS, INCLUDING HEAVY METALS AND
PH 238
Forms of Chemical and Environmental
Interactions 239
Biological Effects 239
Metals 240
Alkalinity or Buffer Capacity, Carbon Di-
oxide, and pH 241
Recommendation 241
Aluminum 242
Recommendation 242
Ammonia 242
Recommendation 242
Antimony 242
Recommendation 243
Arsenic 243
Recommendation 243
Barium 243
Recommendation 244
Beryllium 244
Recommendation 244
Bismuth 244
Boron 244
Recommendation 245
Bromine 245
Recommendation 245
Cadmium 245
Recommendation 246
Chlorine 246
Recommendation 247
Chromium 247
Recommendation 247
Copper 247
Recommendation 248
Cyanides 248
Recommendation 248
Fluorides 248
214
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Recommendation
Iron
Recommendation
Lead
Recommendation
Manganese
Recommendation
Mercury
Recommendation
Molybdenum
Recommendation
Nickel
Recommendation
Phosphorus
Recommendation
Selenium
Recommendation
Silver
Recommendation
Sulfides
Recommendation
Thallium
Recommendation
Uranium
Recommendation
Vanadium
Recommendation
Zinc
Recommendation
OIL IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Sources of Oil Pollution
Biological Effects of Petroleum Hydrocar-
bons
Corrective Measures
Recommendations
249
249
249
249
250
250
251
251
252
252
253
253
253
253
254
254
255
255
255
255
256
256
256
256
256
257
257
257
257
257
257
258
262
263
Paeg
Toxic ORGANICS 264
Bases for Recommendations 269
Recommendations 269
OXYGEN 269
Recommendation 270
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE AQUATIC EN-
VIRONMENT 270
Characteristics and Sources of Radio-
activity 271
Exposure Pathways 272
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation. . 272
Restrictions on Radioactive Materials. ... 273
Conclusions 273
Recommendat'on 274
SEWAGE AND NUTRIENT-; 274
Magnitude of the Problem 274
Oxygen Depletion 274
Excessive Nutrient Enrichment 275
Pathogenic Microorganisms 276
Sludge Disposal into Marine Waters 277
Deep Sea Dumping 277
Potential Beneficial Uses of Sewage 277
Rationale for Establishing Recommenda-
tions 277
Recommendations 277
SOLID WASTES, PARTICULATE MATTER, AND
OCEAN DUMPING 278
Dredge Spoils 278
Sewage Sludges 279
Solid Wastes 280
Industrial Wastes 280
Other Solid Wastes 280
Suspended Particulate Materials 281
Recommendations 282
LITERATURE CITED 284
215
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INTRODUCTION
The Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife took as
its prime responsibility the development of recommenda-
tions that would reasonably assure protection of the marine
ecosystem. The recommendations have been discussed at
various meetings of the members of the Panel and represent
a consensus on the best statement that can be made in the
light of present knowledge. The recommendations are not
inflexible and may be modified as our understanding of the
marine ecosystem improves.
Many parts of the marine ecosystem do not meet the
quality requirements recommended here. As a result of
man's activities, the marine ecosystem has been greatly
modified; many species are excluded from areas where they
were once abundant, and many areas have been closed for
the harvesting of marine products as human food because
of pollution. The decision as to what part, and how much,
of the marine ecosystem should be protected for normal
aquatic life and wildlife has political, social, and economic
aspects, and such decisions cannot be based upon scientific
evidence alone. Although some marine pollution problems
are local in character, many are global and only the broad-
est possible approach can solve these problems. Food from
the sea is already an important source of animal protein for
human nutrition, and this continuing supply must not be
diminished b |