A Report of the
Committee on Water Quality Criteria
    Environmental Studies Board
   National Academy of Sciences
  National Academy of Engineering

      Washington, B.C., 1972
          At the request of
           and funded by
The Environmental Protection Agency
      Washington, D.C., 1972

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For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
                  Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price: $12.80.
                        Stock Number 5501-00520

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EPA Review Notice


    This report was  prepared under a  contract financed by  the  Environmental
Protection Agency and is approved by the Agency for publication as an important
contribution  to the scientific literature,  but  not as  the Agency's sole criteria for
standards setting purposes. Neither is it necessarily a reflection of the  Agency's views
and policies. The mention of trade names  or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement  or recommendation for their use.

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                                   NOTICE
     The study reported herein was undertaken under the aegis of the National Re-
search Council with the express approval of the Governing Board of the NRG. Such
approval indicated  that the Board considered that the problem is of national signifi-
cance, that elucidation or solution of the  problem required scientific or technical
competence, and that the resources of NRG were particularly suitable  to the  conduct
of the project. The  institutional responsibilities of the NRC were then discharged in
the following manner:
     The members of the study committee were selected for their individual scholarly
competence and judgment with due consideration for the balance and breadth of
disciplines. Responsibility for all aspects of this report rests with the study committee,
to whom we express our sincere appreciation.
     Although the reports of our study committees are not submitted for approval to
the Academy membership nor to the Council, each report is reviewed by a second
group of  appropriately qualified individuals according  to procedures established
and  monitored by the Academy's Report Review Committee. Such reviews are in-
tended to determine, among other things, whether the major questions and relevant
points of view have been addressed  and whether the reported findings, conclusions,
and  recommendations arose from the available data and information. Distribution
of the report is approved, by the President, only after satisfactory completion of this
review process.

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                                                                July 22,  1972
THE HONORABLE WILLIAM D. RUCKELSHAUS
Administrator
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.

    DEAR MR.  RUCKELSHAUS:
    It is our pleasure to transmit to you the report Water Quality Criteria, 1972 pre-
pared by the National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering Com-
mittee on Water Quality Criteria.
    This book is the successor to  the Water Quality Criteria Report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior in  1968.  The 1972
Report drew significantly on its  1968 predecessor; nevertheless the  current study
represents a complete reexamination of the problems,  and a critical review of all
the data included here.  The conclusions offered reflect the best judgment  of the
Academies' Committee.
    The Report develops scientific criteria arranged in categories of major beneficial
use. We are certain that the information and conclusions contained in this Report
will be of use and value to the large number of people throughout the country who
are concerned with achieving a high level of water quality for the Nation.
    It is our pleasure to  note the substantial personal contributions of the members
of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria and its Panels and advisers. They have
contributed more than 2,000 man-days of effort for which they deserve our  gratitude.
In less than a year and a half, they have collected a vast amount  of scientific and
technical information and presented it in a way that we believe will be most helpful
to Federal and State officials as well as to the scientific community and the public.
Oversight responsibility for the document, of course, rests with the Committee on
Water Quality Criteria ably chaired by Dr. Gerard A. Rohlich of the University of
Texas at Austin.
    We wish also to express our appreciation to the Environmental Protect ion Agency
which, without in any way  attempting to influence the Committee'!:  conclusions,
provided technical expertise  and  information as well as the resources to undertake
the study.
    In the course of their work the Committee and Panels identified  several scientific
and technical areas in which necessary data is insufficient or lacking. The Academies
find that a separate report is urgently required that specifies research needs to  enable
an increasingly effective  evaluation  of water  quality.  We are  currently  preparing
such a report.
       Sincerely yours,
PHILIP HANDLER                                 CLARENCE H. LINDER
President                                         President
National Academy of Sciences                         National Academy of Engineering
                                      VI

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                  Environmental Studies Board
National Academy of  Sciences-National Academy of Engineering

           Dr. DAVID M. GATES, Chairman
           Dr. WILLIAM C. ACKERMANN
           Dr. HENDRIK W. BODE
           Dr. REID A. BRYSON
           Dr. ARTHUR D. HASLER
           Dr. G. EVELYN HUTCHINSON
           Dr. THOMAS F.  MALONE
           Dr. ROBERT S.  MORISON
           Dr. ROGER REVELLE
           Dr. JOSEPH L. SAX
           Dr. CHAUNCEY  STARR
           Dr. JOHN  A. SWARTOUT
           Dr. ALEXANDER ZUCKER,  Executive Director

              COMMITTEE ON WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

 Dr. GERARD A. ROHLICH, University of Texas, Austin, Chairman
 Dr. ALFRED M. BEETON, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
 Dr. BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
 Dr. CORNELIUS W. KRUSE, The Johns Hopkins University
 Dr. THURSTON E. LARSON, Illinois State Water Survey
 Dr. EMILIO A. SAVINELLI, Drew Chemical Corporation
 Dr. RAY L. SHIRLEY, University of Florida,  Gainesville
 Dr. CHARLES R. MALONE, Principal Staff Officer
 Mr. CARLOS M. FETTEROLF, Scientific Coordinator
 Mr. ROBERT C.  ROONEY,  Editor
                               vn

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            PANEL  ON RECREATION AND AESTHETICS
Panel Members
    Dr. CORNELIUS W. KRUSE, The Johns Hopkins University, Chairman
    Dr. MICHAEL CHUBB, Michigan State University
    Mr. MILO A. CHURCHILL, Tennessee Valley Authority
    Mr. NORMAN E. JACKSON, Department of Environmental Services,
      Washington,  D.C.
    Mr. WILLIAM L. KLEIN, Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission
    Dr. P. H. McGAUHEY, University of California, Berkeley
    Dr. ERIC W. MOOD, Yale University
    Mr. RALPH FORCES, Delaware River Basin Commission
    Dr. LESLIE  M. REID, Texas A & M University
    Dr. MICHAEL B. SONNEN, Water Resources Engineers, Inc.
    Mr. ROBERT O. SYLVESTER, University of Washington
    Mr. C. W. THREINEN, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
    Dr. RICHARD I. PIETZ, Scientific Secretary

Advisors and Contributors
    Dr. W. N. BARNES, Tennessee Valley Authority
    Mr. A. LEON BATES, Tennessee Valley Authority
    Dr. ERNEST BAY, University of Maryland
    Dr. HARWOOD S. BELDING, University of Pittsburg
    Dr. KENNETH K. CHEW, University of Washington
    Dr. T. F. HALL,  JR., Tennessee Valley Authority
    Dr. A. D. HESS, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
    Mr. ROBERT M. HOWES, Tennessee Valley Authority
    Dr. RAY B. KRONE, University of California, Davis
    Mr. DAVID  P. POLLISON, Delaware River Basin Commission
    Dr. R. A. STANLEY, Tennessee Valley Authority
    Dr. EUGENE B. WELCH, University of Washington
    Dr. IRA L. WHITMAN, Ohio Department of Health

EPA Liaisons
    Mr. LOWELL E. KEUP
    Mr. LELAND J. McCABE
                                   Vlll

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               PANEL ON PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES
Panel Members
    Dr. THURSTON E. LARSON, Illinois State Water Survey, Chairman
    Dr. RUSSELL F. CHRISTMAN, University of Washington
    Mr. PAUL D. HANEY, Black & Veatch, Consulting Engineers
    Mr. ROBERT  C. McWHINNIE,  Board of Water  Commissioners,  Denver,
     Colorado
    Mr. HENRY J. ONGERTH, State Department of Public Health, California
    Dr. RANARD J. PICKERING, U.S. Department of the Interior
    Dr. J. K. G. SILVEY, North Texas State University
    Dr. J. EDWARD SINGLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville
    Dr. RICHARD L. WOODWARD,  Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc.
    Mr. WILLIAM ROBERTSON  IV, Scientific Secretary

Advisors and Contributors
    Dr. SAMUEL D. FAUST, Rutgers  University

EPA Liaisons
    Mr. EDWIN E. GELDREICH
    Dr. MILTON W. LAMMERING,  JR.
    Dr. BENJAMIN H. PRINGLE
    Mr. GORDON G. ROBECK
    Dr. ROBERT G. TARDIFF
                                   IX

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    PANEL ON FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE  AND WILDLIFE
Panel Members
    Dr. ALFRED M. BEETON, University of Wisconsin, Chairman
    Dr. JOHN CAIRNS, JR., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
    Dr. CHARLES C. COUTANT, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
    Dr. ROLF HARTUNG, University of Michigan
    Dr. HOWARD E. JOHNSON, Michigan State University
    Dr. RUTH PATRICK, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
    Dr- LLOYD L. SMITH, JR.,  University of Minnesota,  St. Paul
    Dr. JOHN B. SPRAGUE, University of Guelph
    Mr. DONALD M. MARTIN, Scientific Secretary

Advisors and Contributors
    Dr. IRA R. ADELMAN,  University of Minnesota, St. Paul
    Mr. YATES M. BARBER, U.S. Department of the Interior
    Dr. F. H. BORMANN, Yale University
    Dr.  KENNETH  L.  DICKSON,  Virginia Polytechnic Institute  and State
      University
    Dr. FRANK M. DTTRI, Michigan State  University
    Dr. TROY DORRIS, Oklahoma State University
    Dr. PETER DOUDOROFF, Oregon State University
    Dr. W. T. EDMONDSON, University of Washington
    Dr. R. F. FOSTER, Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific  Northwest Laboratory
    Dr. BLAKE GRANT, U.S. Department of the Interior
    Dr. JOHN HOOPES, University of Wisconsin
    Dr. PAUL H. KING, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
    Dr. ROBERT E. LENNON, U.S. Department of the Interior
    Dr. GENE E. LIKENS, Cornell University
    Dr. JOSEPH I. MIHURSKY, University of Maryland
    Mr. MICHAEL E. NEWTON, Michigan  Department of Natural Resources
    Dr. JOHN C. PETERS, U.S. Department of the Interior
    Dr. ANTHONY POLICASTRO,  Argonne National Laboratory
    Dr. DONALD PRITCHARD, The Johns Hopkins University
    Dr. LUIGI PROVAZOLI, Yale University
    Dr. CHARLES RENN, The Johns Hopkins University
    Dr. RICHARD A. SCHOETTGER, U.S. Department of the Interior
    Mr. DEAN L. SHUMWAY, Oregon State University
    Dr. DAVID L.  STALLING, U.S. Department of the Interior
    Dr. RAY WEISS, Scripps Institute of Oceanography

EPA Liaisons
    Mr. JOHN W. ARTHUR
    Mr. KENNETH BIESINGER
    Dr. GERALD R. BOUCK
    Dr. WILLIAM A. BRUNGS
    Mr. JOHN G. EATON
    Dr. DONALD I. MOUNT
    Dr. ALAN V. NEBEKER

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        PANEL ON MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
Panel Members
    Dr.  BOSTWICK H.  KETCHUM, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
      Chairman
    Dr. RICHARD T. BARBER, Duke University
    Dr. JAMES CARPENTER, The Johns Hopkins University
    Dr. L. EUGENE CRONIN, University of Maryland
    Dr. HOLGER W. JANNASCH, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Dr. G. CARLETON RAY, The Johns Hopkins University
    Dr. THEODORE R. RICE, U.S.  Department of Commerce
    Dr. ROBERT W. RISEBROUGH, University of California, Berkeley
    Dr. MICHAEL WALDICHUK, Fisheries Research Board of Canada
    Mr. WILLIAM ROBERTSON IV, Scientific Secretary

Advisors and Contributors
    Mr. CLARENCE CATOE, U.S. Coast Guard
    Dr. GEORGE R. HARVEY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Dr. THEODORE G. METCALF, University of New Hampshire
    Dr. VICTOR NOSHKIN, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Dr. DONALD J. O'CONNOR, Manhattan College
    Dr. JOHN H. RYTHER, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Dr. ALBERT J. SHERK, University of Maryland
    Dr. RICHARD A. WADE, The Sport  Fishing Institute

EPA Liaisons
    Dr. THOMAS W. DUKE
    Dr. C. S. HEGRE
    Dr. GILLES LAROCHE
    Dr. CLARENCE M. TARZWELL
                                   XI

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           PANEL ON AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER
Panel Members
    Dr.  RAY L. SHIRLEY,  University  of Florida, Gainesville, Chairman
    Dr. HENRY V. ATHERTON, The University of Vermont
    Dr. R. D. BLACKBURN, U.S. Department of Agriculture
    Dr. PETER A. FRANK, U.S. Department of Agriculture
    Mr. VICTOR L. HAUSER, U.S. Department of Agriculture
    Dr. CHARLES H. HILL, North Carolina State University
    Dr. PHILIP C. KEARNEY, U.S. Department of Agriculture
    Dr. JESSE LUNIN, U.S. Department of Agriculture
    Dr. LEWIS B. NELSON, Tennessee Valley Authority
    Dr. OSCAR E. OLSON, South Dakota State University
    Dr. PARKER F. PRATT, University of California, Riverside
    Dr. G. B. VAN NESS, U.S. Department of Agriculture
    Dr. RICHARD I. PIETZ, Scientific Secretary

Advisors and Contributors

    Dr. L. BOERSMA, Oregon State University
    Dr. ROYCE J. EMERICK, South Dakota State University
    Dr.  HENRY  FISCHBACH, U.S. Department of  Health,  Education, and
      Welfare
    Dr. THOMAS D. HINESLY, University of Illinois
    Dr. CLARENCE LANCE, U.S. Department of Agriculture
    Dr. J. M. LAWRENCE, Auburn University
    Dr. R. A. PACKER,  Iowa State  University
    Dr. IVAN THOMASON, University  of California, Riverside

EPA Liaisons
    Dr. H. PAIGE NICHOLSON
    Mr. HURLON C. RAY
                                   xn

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            PANEL ON INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES
Panel Members
    Dr. EMILIO A. SAVINELLI, Drew Chemical Corporation, Chairman
    Mr. I. B. DICK, Consulting Chemical Engineer
    Mr. CHARLES C. DINKEL, Drew Chemical Corporation
    Dr.  MAURICE FUERSTENAU, South Dakota School of Mining and
     Technology
    Mr. ARTHUR W. FYNSK, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
    Mr. GEORGE J. HANKS, JR.,  Union Carbide Corporation
    Mr. WILLIAM A. KEILBAUGH, Cochrane Division, Crane Company
    Dr. JAMES C. LAMB, III, University of North Carolina
    Mr. JAMES K. RICE, Cyrus Wm. Rice Division, NUS Corporation
    Mr. J. JAMES ROOSEN, The Detroit Edison Company
    Mr. ROBERT H. STEWART, Hazen and Sawyer
    Dr. SIDNEY SUSSMAN, Olin Corporation
    Mr. CHARLES H. THORBORG, Gulf Degremont Inc.
    Mr. BERNARD WACHTER, WAPORA, Inc.
    Dr. WALTER J. WEBER, JR., The University of Michigan
    Mr. DONALD M. MARTIN, Scientific Secretary

Advisors and Contributors
    Mr. MAXEY BROOKE, Phillips Petroleum Company
    Mr. ROY V. COMEAUX, SR.,  Esso Research and Engineering Company
    Mr. HARRY V. MYERS, JR., The Detroit Edison Company

EPA Liaisons
    Mr. JOHN M. FAIRALL
    Mr. THOMAS J. POWERS
                                 xm

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                                  PREFACE
     In 1971, at the request of the United States Environmental Protection Agency,
the National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering undertook the
revision  of  WATER QUALITY CRITERIA, the  1968 Report  of the National
Technical Advisory Committee (NTAC) to the Secretary of the Interior. The Acad-
emies appointed a  Committee on Water Quality Criteria and six Panels, and the
responsibility  for overseeing  their activities  was assigned to the  Environmental
Studies Board, a joint body of the Academies.
     The guidelines for the Academies' Committee were similar to those followed by
the NTAC.  The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, as amended by the
Water Quality Act of 1965, authorized the states and the federal government to
establish water quality standards for  interstate and coastal waters. Paragraph 3,
Section 10 of the 1965 Act reads as follows:
         Standards of quality established pursuant to this subsection shall be
     such as to protect the public health or welfare, enhance the quality of water
     and serve the purposes of this Act. In establishing such standards the Secre-
     tary, the Hearing Board, or the appropriate state authority shall take into
     consideration their use and value for public water supplies, propagation of
     fish  and wildlife, recreational purposes, and  agricultural, industrial, and
     other legitimate uses.
Because of the vast amount of material that falls into the rubric of fish and wildlife,
the Academies established separate Panels  for freshwater and marine aquatic life
and wildlife. Thus the  Committee's six Panels were: (1) Recreation and Aesthetics,
(2) Public Water Supplies, (3) Freshwater  Aquatic Life  and Wildlife, (4) Marine
Aquatic Life and Wildlife,  (5) Agricultural Uses of Water, and (6) Industrial Water
Supplies.
     The members  of the Committee  and its Panels were scientists  and engineers
expert and experienced in the various disciplines associated with the subject of water
quality. The Panels also drew upon special advisors for specific water quality  con-
cerns,  and in  addition were  aided  by  Environmental Protection  Agency experts as
liaison at the  Panel meetings. This arrangement  with EPA facilitated the Panels'
access  to EPA data on water quality. Thirty-nine meetings  were  held by the Com-
mittee and its Panels resulting in an interim report to the Academies and the Environ-
mental Studies Board on December 1, 1971. This was widely circulated, and com-
ments on it were solicited from many quarters. The commentaries were then considered
for inclusion by the Committee and the appropriate Panels.  This volume, submitted
for publication in August  1972, within eighteen  months of the inception of the  task,
is the final version of the Committee's report.
     The 1972 Report is vastly more than a revision of the NTAC Report. To begin
with, it is nearly four times longer. Many new subjects are discussed in detail, among
them:  the recreational impact of boating,  levels  of use, disease vectors, nuisance
organisms, and aquatic vascular plants; viruses in relation to public water supplies;
effects of total dissolved gases on aquatic life; guidelines for toxicological research on
pesticides and uses  of toxicants in fisheries management; disposal of solid wastes in
the ocean; use of waste water for irrigation; and  industrial water treatment processes

                                       xv

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and resultant wastes. Many toxic or potentially toxic substances not considered by
the NTAC are discussed including polychlorinated biphenyls, phthalate esters, nitrilo-
triacetate (NTA), numerous metals, and chlorine. The additional length also reflects
the greater current awareness of how various characteristics of water affect its quality
and use; and  the expansion of the information base of the NTAG  Report through
new data from recent research activities and the greater  capabilities of information
processing, storage, and retrieval—especially evident in the three appendixes—have
made their impact on the increase in size. In spite of these additions, however,  the
1972 Report differs from  the NTAC  Report in that its  six Sections do not provide
summaries.  The Committee agreed that an understanding of how  the recommend-
ations should  be interpreted and used can be gained only by a thorough reading of
the rationale and the evaluation of criteria preceding the recommendations.
     Although each Section was prepared  by its appropriate Panel,  some discussions
reflect the joint effort of two or more Panels. These combined discussions attempt to
focus attention where desirable on  such subjects  as  radioactivity,  temperature,
nutrient enrichment, and growths of nuisance organisms. However, the majority of
topics were most effectively treated by individual Panel  discussions, and the reader
is encouraged  to make use of the Tables of Contents and the index in assessing the full
range of the Report's coverage  of the  many complex aspects of water quality.
     Water quality science and its application have expanded  rapidly, but much
work remains to be done. In the course of this revision, the Committee and its Panels
have identified many areas where further knowledge is needed,  and these  findings,
now in  preparation, will be published separately by the National Academy of Sci-
ences-National Academy of Engineering as a report on research  needs.
     Social perspectives and policies for managing, enhancing, and preserving water
resources are undergoing rapid and pervasive change. Because of the stipulations of
the 1965 Water Quality Act, interstate water resources are currently categorized by
use designation, and standards to protect those uses are developed from criteria. It is
in this context that the Report of the NAS-NAE Committee, like that of the NTAC,
was prepared. Concepts of managing water resources are  subject  to social, economic,
and political decisions and will continue to evolve; but the Committee believes that
the criteria and recommendations in this  Report will be of value in the context of
future as well as current approaches that might be taken to preserve and enhance
the quality of the nation's water resources.
                                GERARD A. ROHLICH
                                Chairman, Committee on Water Quality Citeria
                                      xvi

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                        ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
    The NAS-NAE Committee on Water Quality Criteria and its Panels are grate-
ful for the assistance of many institutions, groups, and individuals. The Environmental
Studies Board provided guidance throughout all phases of the  project, and the En-
vironmental Protection Agency cooperated in making available their technical and
informational  resources. Many research organizations  and individuals contributed
unpublished data for the Panels' examination and use in the Committee's Report.
    Numerous groups  and individuals  provided  reviews and comments,  among
them several Federal agencies with staff expertise in water quality sciences,  includ-
ing NOAA of the Department of Commerce, the Department of the Interior, the
Department of Health, Education, and  Welfare, the Atomic Energy Commission,
the Department of Agriculture, and the Department of the Army; scientists from the
University of Wisconsin, especially Drs.  Grant Cottam,  G.  Fred Lee, Richard B.
Corey, David Armstrong, Gordon Chesters, Mr. James Kerrigan; and many  others
from academic, government, and private research institutions, including the National
Research Council.
    Much useful information including data and literature references was provided
by the Water  Resources Scientific  Information Center of the  U.S.  Department of
the Interior, the National  Referral Center of the Library of Congress, the Defense
Documentation Center of the U.S. Department of Defense, and the Library of the
National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering. We are indebted
to James L. Olsen, Jr.  and Marilyn  J. Urion of the  Academies'  Library  and to
Robert R.  Hume, National Academy  of Sciences  Publications Editor, for their
assistance.
    Thanks are also due the many staff personnel of the Academies who assisted the
project, particularly Linda D. Jones,  Patricia A.  Sheret, Eva H.  Galambos, and
Elizabeth A.  Wilmoth. Mrs. Susan B. Taha was a tireless editorial assistant. The
comprehensive author and subject indexes were prepared  by Mrs. Bev Anne Ross.
    Finally, each Committee and Panel member is indebted to  his home institution
and staff for their generous support of his efforts devoted to the Report of the Com-
mittee  on Water Quality Criteria.
                                    xvu

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              GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTICE	     v
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL	    vi
MEMBERS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD	    vii
MEMBERS OF THE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA COMMITTEE,
   NAS STAFF, AND PANEL  MEMBERS, ADVISORS, AND CON-
   TRIBUTORS	   viii
PREFACE	    xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS	   xvii
GENERAL INTRODUCTION	     1
SECTION I  RECREATION AND AESTHETICS	     6
SECTION II PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES	    48
SECTION III FRESHWATER  AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE...   106
SECTION IV MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE	   214
SECTION V AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER	   298
SECTION VI INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES	   368
APPENDIX  I (RECREATION  AND AESTHETICS)	   398
APPENDIX  II  (FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE).   402
APPENDIX  III   (MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND  WILDLIFE)	   448
GLOSSARY	   519
CONVERSION FACTORS	   524
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
   COMMITTEE AND THE PANEL MEMBERS	   528
AUTHOR INDEX	   535
SUBJECT INDEX	   562
                            xix

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                                       GENERAL  INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

  The past decade has been a period of unprecedented
activity directed to man's concern for the quality of the
environment, but a look at history shows that this concern,
although currently intensified,  is not new. The lessons of
history and the findings of archaeologists provide concrete
evidence that at least three thousand years before the birth
of Christ man was cognizant of the need to dispose of his
wastes and other  refuse if he was to keep his environment
livable.1  For thousands of years the guidelines to quality
of the water resource  apparently were based on the senses
of smell, sight, and taste. Whether or not these organoleptic
observations on the  suitability of water  for  use would
match today's criteria is questionable in light of Reynolds'
reference to "the  old woman in the Fens" who "spoke for
many besides herself when she  asked of the new and  pure
supply: Call ye that water?  For  she  said,  it has neither taste
nor smell"2', or in light of the more recent decision of a  state
supreme  court in  1904, which  took  the position  that it is
"not  necessary to weigh  with tenderness and  care the
testimony of experts ... an ordinary mortal knows whether
water is fit to drink and use."3
   Although the concern  for  water  quality  is not  new,
progress has been made in moving from sensory associations
as a means of control to the application of knowledge and
criteria gained from scientific  advances  in detection and
measurement, and in  a greater understanding of the char-
acteristics of water.  Essentially it has been  the develop-
ments of the past century that have provided  criteria for
and knowledge of  water quality characteristics upon which
we base determinations of its suitability for particular  uses.
   Until recently, relatively few  scientists and engineers had
been engaged in this field. The past decade, however, has
seen a tremendous increase in  the number of workers de-
voted to  the  subject  of  water quality assessment. Con-
currently, an increasing awareness of the public has become
apparent. As Leopold states, "The outstanding discovery
of the twentieth  century  is not  television, or radio,  but
rather the complexity of the land organism"; and he points
out that "by land  is meant all of the things on, over, or in
the earth."4 The  growing  public  awareness  of environ-
mental quality has helped to accelerate activity directed to
the solution of problems relating to water quality.
  Forty centuries before the germ theory of disease had the
support of scientifically conducted experiments, some con-
trol measures to provide safe  water supplies were in use.
Boiling, filtration through charcoal, and the practice of
siphoning off water clarified by sedimentation were among
the early methods  used  to improve water quality.6 The
regard of the Romans for high quality water is well known,
and their civil works in obtaining water by the construction
of aqueducts and the carrying away of waste waters in  the
cloacae or sewers, and in particular the  Cloaca Maxima,
are matters of common  knowledge. The decline of sani-
tation through the Middle  Ages and into the early part ot
the past century brought on the ravages  of pestilence and
the scourges of cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery, which
led to the resurgence of public concern over water quality.
There  were many experiments and suggestions regarding
filtration for purification as early as  the 17th century. They
culminated in design of the first filters for municipal supplies
by Gibbs in Scotland in  1804 and in England in 1829 by
Simpson who is probably most  renowned for his work in
constructing filters  for  the Chelsea Water Company  to
supply water for London from the Thames River.
  The relationship  of water quality to disease was firmly
established by  the  report  on  the  Broad  Street Well  in
London by Sir John Snow in 1849, and in Edwin  Chad-
wick's  report of 1842 "On an  inquiry into the Sanitary
Condition of the Labouring  Population  of Gt.  Britain."6
The greatest part  of Chadwick's  report developed four
major  axioms  that  are still of relevance today. The first
axiom established the cause and effect relationship between
"insanitation, defective drainage, inadequate water supply,
and overcrowded housing" on the one hand, and "disease,
high mortality  rates,  and low expectation  of life" on  the
other.  The second  axiom  discussed the  economic cost of
ill health. The third dealt with the "social cost of squalor,"
and the fourth was concerned with the "inherent inefficiency
of existing legal and administrative machinery."  Chad wick
argued that the "only hope of  sanitary  improvement  lay
in radical administrative departures" which would call for
new institutional arrangements.
                                                       1

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2/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
   It is evident from these few glimpses into the early years
of development of control  that  the  basic  approach, and
justifiably so, was to provide water suitable  for human use.
A century ago the principal aim was to  provide, by bac-
teriological  examination, a  scientific basis on which to
establish water quality practices for protection of the public
health.  Increasingly, however,  we have come to recognize
that a multitude of materials that may occur in water have
adverse effects on beneficial uses other than that for public
water supplies.

WATER QUALITY CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES

  McKee and  Wolf have provided an excellent  historical
background to  the development of water quality standards
and criteria and have summarized the water quality criteria
promulgated by federal, state, and interstate agencies up
to 1963.7 Since then, many federal and state acts have been
passed and modifications made in state administrative  codes
designed to  establish criteria and standards. Of particular
significance  in  this respect was the impact  of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act of  19488 as  amended by the
Water Quality Act of 1965.9 The latter required  that the
states adopt:

    • water quality criteria applicable to interstate waters;
      and
    • a plan  for the implementation and enforcement of
      the water quality criteria adopted.

  The Act further noted that the criteria and plans would,
upon approval by the federal government, become the
applicable water quality standards. At that time the Fed-
eral  Water  Pollution Control  Administration was in the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  In May
of 1966, the FWPCA was transferred  to the Department of
the Interior,  and  in  April,  1970 it was  renamed The
Federal Water Quality Administration. In December,  1970,
interstate water quality  and  pollution  control  activities
became  the concern  of the  Environmental Protection
Agency.
  On April 1,  1968, the FWPCA published the report of
the National Technical Advisory Committee to  the Secre-
tary of the  Interior entitled  Water Quality Criteria.10 This
report,  often referred  to  as the "Green  Book,"  contains
recommendations on water quality criteria for various uses.
The present volume is a revision of that  work with the
objective of compiling and  interpreting  the most recent
scientific data in order to establish what is known about
the materials present in water as related to  specific uses.

MAJOR WATER USES AS AN  ORGANIZING APPROACH

  Although it  is  recognized that consideration must be
given to the multiple use requirements placed on our water
resources, this  revision has  followed  the  approach of the
1968  report in making recommendations  in certain use
categories. Such  an approach provides a convenient w,
of handling an otherwise unwieldy body of data. Neith
the approach itself nor the sequence in which the uses a
arranged in the Report imply any comment on the relati
importance of each use. Each water use plays its vital re
in the water systems concept discussed above, and politic;
economic,  and social  considerations that vary with h
torical periods and geographic locations have brought pz
ticular water uses to positions of preeminent Lmportanc
In  contemporary terms,  it  is not difficult  to  argue  t
primary importance of each water use considered in tl
Report: the recreational and aesthetic use of the  Natioi
water resources involves 3.7 billion man-days a year;11 o
public water supply systems  prepare 15 billion gallons p
day for the urban population alone ;12 commercial fishermt
harvested   166,430,000 pounds of fish from the  natior
public inland freshwater  bodies in  1969;13 our  marii
waters yield five billion pounds of fish  annually for hum;
use;14 agriculture consumes 123 billion gallons of water p
day in meeting its domestic, livestock, and irrigation needs
and our industries must have 84,000 billion gallons of wat
per year to maintain their operations.16
  Clearly,  the designation of one water use as more vit
than another is as impossible as it is unnecessary.  Furthe
more,  we  must not even restrict our  thinking  to prese
concepts and designated uses. Those concerned with wat
quality must envisage  future uses and values that may 1
assigned to our water  resources and recognize that mar
activities in altering the landscape and utilizing water m;
one day have to be more vigorously controlled.

THE MEANING  OF WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
  In current practice,  where multiple uses are required,
they will be in most situations, our guidelines to action w
be  the more stringent  criteria. Criteria represent  attemj
to quantify water quality in terms of its physical, chemic;
biological,  and  aesthetic characteristics. Those who  a
confronted with the problem of establishing or evaluati
criteria must do  so within the limits of the objective ai
subjective measurements available to them. Obviously, t
quality of water as expressed by  these  measurements is t
product of many  changes. From the moment of its conde
sation in the atmosphere, water accumulates substances,
solution and suspension, from the air,  from contacts as
moves over and  into  the land  resource, from biologic
processes,   and from human  activities. Man affects  t
watershed  as he  alters the landscape by urbanization, 1
agricultural development,  and by discharging municij:
and industrial residues into  the  water  resource. Thus c
matic  conditions, topography, geological formations, ai
human use and  abuse of this vital resource significant
affect the  characteristics of water, so that its quality vari
widely with location and the influencing factors.
  To look ahead again, it should be stressed that if comii
generations expect  to use  future criteria  established 1

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                                                                                  General Introduction/3
                   CRITERIA
          Qualities  and  quantities,  based
          on   scientific   determinations,
          which  must  be identified  and
          may have to be controlled.
                            Identification
                            pathway
for specific
  uses in
Recreational and
  Aesthetic Waters
Public Water Supplies
Fresh Waters
Marine Waters
Agricultural Waters
Industrial Water Supplies
                IDENTIFICATION
          Analytical   methods   (chemist,
          biologist,  engineer, recreational
          specialists & others).
FEEDBACK
                  MONITORING
          Deployment of measuring instru-
          ments  to  provide  criteria  and
          information for assessment and
          control.
                  STANDARDS
          Definition of acceptable quality
          related to unique local situation
          involving political, economic and
          social factors and including plans
          for  implementation and  ques-
          tions  of water  use  and  manage-
          ment.
            (The  operation needed  for de-
             tecting and measuring character-
             istics of water.)
             (The chronological and  spatial
             sampling operations needed.)
              FIGURE 1—Conceptual Framework for Developing Standards from Criteria

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 4/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
 aquatic scientists, baseline areas must be preserved in which
 the  scientists can work. Limnologists, oceanographers, and
 freshwater and marine biologists obtain baseline data from
 studies of undisturbed aquatic ecosystems.  Because all the
 basic  information has not yet been extracted from im-
 portant study sites, it is essential that the natural condition
 of these sites prevail.
  The fundamental  point of departure in evaluating cri-
 teria for water quality in this Report is  that the assignment
 of a level of quality is relative to the use man makes of that
 water. To evaluate the quality of water  required for various
 uses, it is essential to know the limits of quality that have a
 detrimental effect on a designated use. As a  corollary, in
 deciding whether or not  water will be  of suitable  quality,
 one  must determine  whether  or not  the introduction into,
 or presence of any material in the resource, interferes with,
 alters, or destroys its intended use. Such decisions  are sub-
ject  to political, social, and economic considerations.

 CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
  The distinction between criteria and standards is important,
 and the words  are not interchangeable nor are they syno-
 nyms for such commonly used terms as objectives or goals.
 As a clarification of the distinction that must be recognize d
 and  the  procedural  steps to  be followed  in developing
 standards from criteria, a conceptual framework based on
 the report "Waste Management and Control"  by the Com-
 mittee  on Pollution NAS-NRC17  is presented  in Figure 1.
 In this context, the definition of criteria  as  used in this
 Report is "the scientific data evaluated to derive recommen-
 dations for characteristics of water for specific uses."
  As a first step  in the development of standards it is es-
 sential  to establish scientifically based recommendations for
each assignable water use.  Establishment of recommen-
dations implies access to practical  methods for detecting
and  measuring the specified physical, chemical, biological,
and  aesthetic characteristics.  In some cases, however, less
than satisfactory methods are available, and in other cases,
less than adequate methods or procedures are  used. Moni-
toring  the  essential  characteristics can  be an operation
concurrent with the identification step.  If adequate criteria
for recommendations are available, and  the identification
and  monitoring procedures are  sound, the fundamentals
are available for the establishment of  effective standards.
 It is again at this step that political, social, and economic
factors enter  into the decision-making  process  to establish
 standards.
  Although the Committee and its Panels recognize that
 water  quality, water quantity, water use, and waste water
 disposal form a complex  system that is further complicated
 by the interchanges  that occur among the land,  air, and
 water  resources, this Report  cannot be so broad in scope:
 its explicit  purpose is to recommend water quality  char-
 acteristics for  designated  uses in light of the  scientific
 information available at this  time. We are aware that in
some areas the scientific information is lacking, inadequal
or possibly conflicting thus precluding the recommendati(
of specific numerical values. The need to refine the recot
mendations and to establish new ones will become increj
ingly important as additional field information and researi
results become available. Realistic standards are depende
on criteria, designated uses, and implementation, as well
identification and monitoring procedures; changes in the
factors may provide a basis for altering the standards.
   Recommendations  are  usually presented,  either as ri
merical values or in narrative form as summaries. In sor
instances in  place of recommendations, conclusions bas<
on the preceding discussion are given. It is important th
each discussion  be studied because  it attempts to ma
clear the basis and logic used in arriving at the particul
recommendation. The Committee wishes to emphasize t
caveat so clearly stated in the introduction  to  the "Gre>
Book."  The  Committee "does not want to be  dogrnati<
in making its recommendations. "They are meant as guid
lines only, to be used in conjunction with a thorough knov
edge of local conditions.1'18
REFERENCES

'Klein, Louis (1957) Aspects of water pollution.  Academic Pre
    Inc. New York.
2 Reynolds, Reginald (1946) Cleanliness and godliness. Doubled
    and Company, Inc. Garden City, New York.
3 Malone, F. E. (1960) Legal viewpoint. Journal Americal Water Wo
    Association 52:1180.
4 Leopold, A.  (1953)  Round river. Luna Leopold,  ed. Oxford U
    versity Press. New York.
'Baker, M. N. (1949) The quest ibr  pure water. The American We
    Works Association, New York.
'Flinn, D. W., ed. (1965) Report on the sanitary condition of 1
    laboring population of Great Britain, 1842, by Edwin Chadwi
    Edinburgh at The University Press.
7 McK.ee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf  (1963) Water quality criteria, secc
    edition. State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento, C.
    fornia. Publication No. 3-A.
8 U.S. Congress. 1948. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Pul
    Law  845, 62S., June 30, 1948, p. 1155.
9 U.S. Congress. 1965. Water Quality Act, Public Law 89-234, 7<
    October 2, 1965, p. 903.
10 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Cont
    Administration  (1968),  Water  quality criteria: report of
    National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of i
    Interior  (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.).
11 See page 9 of this Report.
12 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Economic  Resear
13 U.S. Department  of Commerce, National  Oceanic  and Atm
    pheric Administration, Statistics  and Market News Division.
"U.S. Department  of Commerce (1971) Fisheries  of the Unit
    States. (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.)
16 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Economic  Resean
16 See page 369 of this Report.
"NAS-NRC Committee on Pollution  (1966) Waste managers
    and control. Publication No. 1400 NAS-NRC, Washington, D.
18 U.S. Department of the Interior, op. cit. p. vii.

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                  Section  I—RECREATION AND  AESTHETICS
                                      TABLE  OF CONTENTS
                                              Page.
INTRODUCTION	      8
    THE ROLE OF WATER-ORIENTED RECREATION
      AND AESTHETICS	      8
    SCOPE  AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE	      8
    MAINTAINING AND RESTORING WATER QUALITY
      FOR  RECREATION  AND AESTHETICS	     10
    APPLYING RECOMMENDATIONS	     10


WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AES-
  THETIC VALUES	     11
    MANAGEMENT FOR AESTHETICS	     11
    BASIS  OF  RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR AESTHETIC
      PURPOSES	     11
          Recommendations	     12


FACTORS  INFLUENCING   THE  RECRE-
  ATIONAL  AND  AESTHETIC  VALUE  OF
  WATER	     13
    RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY	     13
        The Role of Regulation	     14
        Factors Affecting  Recreational  Carrying
          Capacity	     14
          Conclusion	     14
    SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS	     16
        Effects on Water Quality	     16
          Recommendation	     17
    VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS	     17
          Conclusion	     19
    EUTROPHICATION  AND NUTRIENTS	     19
        Defining Eutrophication and Nutrients . .     19
        Effects of Eutrophication and Nutrients. .     20
        Determination  of Trophic Conditions	     21
        Summary of  Measurement of Nutrient
          Enrichment	     23
          Recommendations	     23
    AQUATIC VASCULAR PLANTS	    23
        Interrelationships With Water Quality. . .     24
        Interrelationships With Other Biota	    25
        Effects on Recreation and Aesthetics	    25
        Control Considerations	    26
          Recommendation	    27
                                              P<
    INTRODUCTION  OF  SPECIES	
        Extent and Types of Introductions.
        Some Results  of Introductions	
        Introductions  by Official Agencies.
          Recommendations	
WATER  QUALITY FOR  GENERAL  RECRE-
  ATION, BATHING, AND SWIMMING	
    GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS FOR  ALL  RECRE-
      ATIONAL WATERS	
       Aesthetic Considerations	
          Recommendation	
       Microbiological Considerations	
          Conclusion	
       Chemical Considerations	
          Recommendations	
    SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BATHING AND SWIM-
      MING WATERS	
       Microbiological Considerations	
          Conclusion	
       Temperature Characteristics	
          Recommendation	
       pH Characteristics	
          Conclusion	
        Clarity Considerations	
          Conclusion	
        Chemical Considerations	
          Recommendation	
WATER QUALITY  CONSIDERATIONS FOR
  SPECIALIZED RECREATION	
    BOATING	
          Conclusion	
    AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE	,	
        Maintenance of Habitat	
        Variety of Aquatic: Life	
          Recommendations	
    SHELLFISH	
        Bacteriological Quality	
          Recommendation	

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                                      Page                                                Page
Pesticides	    37  WATER QUALITY  CONSIDERATIONS FOR
  Recommendation	    37    WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE	    39
Marine Biotoxins	    37      WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS	    39
  Recommendation	    38      WATER BODIES IN  URBAN AREAS	    39
Trace Metals	    38      OTHER WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE	    40
  Recommendation	    38            Conclusions	    40
Radionuclides	    38  LITERATURE CITED	    41

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                                               INTRODUCTION
  This  section considers water quality  in  the  context of
recreation and aesthetics, on the basis of available scientific
data tempered by  experience  and judgment.  In view of
today's  burgeoning population in  the  United States, the
importance of water quality criteria to preserve and enhance
the recreational and aesthetic  values of water resources is
manifest. The problems involved are both great and urgent.
Our urban centers bear the  brunt of the growth of a popu-
lation that needs and demands water-oriented recreational
resources. But those resources,  already overloaded, are de-
graded  or  rendered unfit for recreation by the effects of
man's activities. The quality of water can be assessed and
to some extent controlled, but  the principal cause of water
pollution is what man does on the land.  Water  must be
protected from harmful land-water relationships, and man
must be protected from the consequences of degraded water
quality.

THE ROLE OF WATER-ORIENTED  RECREATION  AND
AESTHETICS
  Recreation is an enigma:  nearly everyone participates in
some type  of recreation,  but few are likely to agree on an
acceptable definition of it. Most persons who are  not pro-
fessionally  involved with recreation tend to define it nar-
rowly in terms of their own experiences.  Many feel that
the term implies some form of strenuous physical activity;
to them, aesthetic appreciation and other  leisure activities
that primarily involve the  mind are  not "recreation."
There is also a tendency for some to  include  only those
physical activities that are commonly identified as "recre-
ation" by public or quasi-public recreation agencies.
  Charles E. Doell, an internationally known authority on
park and recreation planning  and administration, defines
recreation as "the refreshment of the mind or body or both
through some means  which is in itself pleasureful." He
states "almost any activity or mental process may be recre-
ation depending  largely upon  the attitude assumed in the
approach to the process itself (Doell 1963)4.* This concept
  * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or  by their superior numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
is supported by many others (Brightbill 196P, Butler 195!
Lehman 19656). If the attitude of the individual concern
is the key to whether or not an activity may be  classed
"recreation,"  it follows thait one man's work may be  a
other man's recreation; and an unwelcome  social duty
one person may  be  a valuable recreational  experience
another. Certain activities may  be either recreational
part of the daily routine depending on the attitude of t
participant. Recreation  is,  therefore, an  elusive conce
that can bear some  relationship  to any of the major co
cerns of living—work and education,  social duty, or bodi
needs. Whether or not an individual's activity falls with
the psychological realm of  recreation depends  upon  \
attitudes, goals, and  life style at a point in time.
  For the purposes of this report a broad view of recreatit
is adopted, and aesthetic appreciation is considered part
recreation. Thus the term "recreation" includes all  typ
of intensive and extensive  pleasurable activities rangii
from  sedentary, purely aesthetic experiences to  strenuo
activities  that  may  involve  a relatively small  aesthei
component.

SCOPE AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE

  The scope and significance of water-related recreation
activities is not well documented quantitatively, but ;
impression of its importance in the lives of Americans  c;
be obtained from such evidence as license registration ai
sales data, user surveys, economic impact studies, and nc
legislation programs  and regulations.
  License Registration and Sales Data  In 1960,
million persons bought  23 million state  fishing licens(
tags,  permits, and stamps. Ten years later more than '.
million licenses, tags,  permits, and stamps  were held I
over 24.5 million purchasers, an increase of about 28  p
cent over 1960  (U.S.  Department of the Interior 1961
197114). In 1970 sportsmen spent an estimated $287.7 m
lion on fishing tackle and equipment on which  they pa
$14 million in federal excise  taxes (Dingle-Johnson  Ac1
They also  added $90.9 million to state treasuries (Slat
1972),7 and in many cases these funds were matched wi
federal funds for use in fisheries improvement programs.
                                                        8

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                                                                                                       Introduction/^
   The number of recreational boats in use increased even
 more substantially. It was estimated that there were almost
 9 million boats of various types in use  during 1970, an
 increase of 9 per cent over  1966. More than $3 billion were
 spent at the retail level on boating equipment, services,
 insurance, fuel, mooring fees and memberships, a 22 per cent
 increase over 1966 (The Boating Industry 1971)1. In 1970, an
 estimated million pairs of water skis were sold,  a 5 per cent
 increase  in  domestic  and export  sales  for that year  (The
 Boating Industry 1971)1.
   Economic Impact Studies  In  fiscal  1969-70, the
 Corps of Engineers spent $27.6 million to develop or expand
 facilities for swimming,  fishing,  boating, and other water-
 oriented activities (Stout personal communication 1971)18. The
 state parks  of the nation, the majority of which are water-
 oriented, spent $125.8 million in 1970 on capital improve-
 ments and  $177 million on operations and maintenance
 (Stout personal communication  1971)18.
   Although public  expenditures for water-oriented recre-
 ational developments are large, expenditures in the private
 and commercial sectors  are of even  greater magnitude. In
 regions of the  country where water bodies are reasonably
 numerous, most seasonal homes are built on or adjacent to
 water.  In  1970, it was  estimated  that 150,000 seasonal
 homes were built at a cost of $1.2 billion (Ragatz  1971)6.
 Some waterfront locations have been extensively developed
 for a variety of public, private, and commercial recreational
 purposes. The lakes and lake frontage properties  of the
 Tennessee Valley Authority alone were-estimated to contain
 water-based recreational equipment and facilities worth $77
 million and land-based facilities and improvements valued
 at $ 178 million  in  1968 (Churchill personal communication
 1972)16.
   Expenditures for other goods and services associated with
 water-oriented recreation are also a major  factor in the
 economy. Boaters,  fishermen,  campers,  picnickers,  and
 others spend considerable sums on transportation, accommo-
 dations, and supplies. For example, preliminary data show
 that some 2.9 million waterfowl hunters spent an estimated
 $245 million during 25 million recreation days in 1970
 (Slater personal communication 1971)17.  The Tennessee Valley
 Authority estimated in 1967 that sports fishermen using its
 reservoirs spent some $42 million in order to  harvest 7,000
 to 10,000 tons offish (Stroud and Martin  1968)8.
   User Surveys   Since World War II,  per capita par-
 ticipation in most  types of recreational activities has in-
creased even more rapidly than the preceding data indicate.
Attendance  at  National  Park Service areas rose from  133
million visits in 1966 to 172 million in 1970, an increase of
 29 per cent. In the same period, visits to Corps of Engineers
reservoirs increased  42 per  cent  to a total  of 276 million.
 Comparable figures for the national forests were  151 million
 in 1966, rising  14 per cent to 173 million in 1970 (Bureau
of Outdoor  Recreation personal communication 1971)16. Most
of the recreation opportunities at Corps of Engineers areas
 and a good proportion of those available on  Park Service
 lands  and  in  national  forests  are  water-based or water-
 related.  Similar growth rates and a predominance of water-
 related  recreational experiences characterize the use  of
 recreational lands managed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries
 and Wildlife, the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau
 of Reclamation, and the Department of Defense.
   The preeminent role of water resources in recreation was
 emphasized by the  President's Outdoor Recreation  Re-
 sources  Review  Commission  in  1960.  Extensive  surveys
 showed  that most people seeking outdoor  recreation (90
 per  cent of all Americans) sought it  in association  with
 water, as indicated by the preliminary figures in Table 1-1,
 a  study  made as  part  of the  1970 U.S.  Census  (Slater
 1972)17.  Although it is  impossible  to  estimate what pro-
 portion  of  the use reported by the survey was  actually
 associated with water for those activities that are not water-
 based  but  are often water-related, the  data  nevertheless
 emphasize the magnitude of current participation in water-
 oriented recreation.
   If no  more than half the time spent on  the frequently
 water-related activities was in fact  associated  with water,
 the total man days for water-based and  water-related ac-
 tivities in 1970 would be at least 3.7 billion man  days.
   Participation in water-based and water-oriented recre-
 ation is  likely  to increase in the forseeable  future.  The
 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1967)13  predicts that by the
 year 2000 summertime participation in swimming will in-
 crease over  the year 1965 by 207 per cent, in fishing 78 per
 cent, in  boating 215 per cent, in waterskiing 363  percent,
 and in such water-related activities as camping, picnicking,
 and sightseeing 238, 127, and 156 per cent respectively.
   Legislation,  Regulations,  and   Programs  The
 importance of water-based and  water-related recreation to
society is reflected in the  increase  in  legislation and  the
number  of regulations and programs intended to increase
  TABLE 1-1—Participation in Water-Oriented Recreation
                    Activities in 1970
Activity
Water-based
Swimming. .
Fishing
Boating
Total man days
Frequently water related
Pi tracking 	
Birdwatching
Camping . 	
Nature walks
Hunting 	
Wildlife photography . . .
Total man days

Percent of U.S. population
participating"

46
29
24


	 49
4
. . 21
18
.... 12
3


Billions of man days

U2
.56
.42
2./0

.54
.43
.40
.37
.22
.04
'i. 00

 * For many activities, double counting will occur. (Slater 1972)7

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10/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
or protect opportunities for these activities. One example
is the Wild  and Scenic Rivers Act  U.S. Congress 1968)9
that authorized a national program to preserve free-flowing
rivers of  exceptional natural or recreational value.  The
Federal Power Commission has required the submission of
recreation and fish and wildlife development plans as inte-
gral parts of hydroelectric license applications. The Federal
Water Project Recreation Act  (U.S. Congress  1965)10 en-
courages state and local participation in planning, financing,
and administering  recreational features of federal water
development projects.  The Estuary  Protection Act (U.S.
Congress  1968)11  authorizes cooperative  federal-state-local
cost sharing and management programs for estuaries, and
requires that federal agencies consult with the Secretary
of the Interior on all land and water development projects
with impacts on  estuaries before submitting proposals to
Congress for authorization.
  The Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture  assists in the development of ponds that often
are used for recreational purposes and watering livestock.
Federal assistance for waterfront restoration and the preser-
vation of environmental values is available under the urban
renewal, open space, and urban beautification programs of
the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the
Land and Water Conservation Fund program of the Bureau
of Outdoor  Recreation, and the historic preservation  pro-
gram of the  National Park Service.

MAINTAINING AND RESTORING WATER QUALITY
FOR RECREATION  AND AESTHETICS

  Although  there  have been instances of  rapid water
quality  deterioration with drastic effects on  recreation,
typically the effect is  a slow,  insidious  process.  Changes
have  come about incrementally as forests are cut, lam
cultivated, urban areas expanded, and industries developec
But the cumulative effect and the losses in recreation oppoi
tunities caused by degraded water quality in this countr
in the past 100 years have been great. In many urban areas
opportunities  for virtually every type of water-based  ac
tivity have been either  severely curtailed  or eliminated
The  resource-based recreation frontier  is  being forcei
further  into  the  hinterland,  Aesthetic values of aquati
vistas are eliminated or depreciated by enchroachment c
residential, commercial,  industrial, military,  or  transpor
tation  facilities.  Drainage  of swamps  to  control  insec
vectors of disease and channelization to control floods hav
a profound effect on water run-off characteristics. A loss ii
water quality and downstream  aquatic environments ani
recreational opportunities is often the price paid for sue!
improvements.
  The application of adequate local, state, and nationa
water quality criteria is only a partial solution to our wate
quality problems. A comprehensive national land use polk
program with effective methods of decision-making, imple
mentation, and enforcement is also needed.

APPLYING RECOMMENDATIONS

  Throughout this report the recommendations given ar
to be applied in the context of local conditions. This cavea
cannot be over  emphasized, because variabilities are en
countered in different parts of the country.  Specific  loca
recommendations can be developed now  in many instance
and more will be developed as  experience grows. Numerics
criteria pertaining to other  beneficial water uses togethe
with the recommendations  for  recreational and aestheti
uses provide guidance for water quality management.

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                    WATER  QUALITY  FOR  PRESERVING AESTHETIC VALUES
  Aesthetics is  classically defined as the branch of philos-
ophy that provides a theory of the beautiful. In this Section
attention  will  be  focused  on the  aesthetics of  water in
natural and  man-made environments  and  the extent to
which  the beauty of that water can be preserved or en-
hanced by the  establishment of water quality recommen-
dations.
  Although perceptions of many forms of beauty are pro-
foundly subjective and experienced differently by each indi-
vidual,  there is an apparent  sameness in the  human re-
sponse to the beauties of water. Aesthetically pleasing waters
add to  the quality of human experience. Water may be
pleasant to look upon, to walk or rest beside, or simply to
contemplate. It may enhance the visual scene wherever it
appears, in cities or in the wilderness. It may enhance values
of adjoining properties, public or private. It may provide a
focal point of pride in the community. The perception of
beauty  and  ugliness cannot  be  strictly defined.  Either
natural or man-made visual effects may add  or detract,
depending on many  variables such as distance  from the
observer or the composition and texture of the surroundings.
As one writer has said when comparing recreational values
with aesthetics,  "Of probably greater value is the relaxation
and mental well-being achieved  by viewing and absorbing
the scenic grandeur  of  the great and restless  Missouri.
Many people crowd the 'high-line' drives along the bluffs
to view this mighty river and achieve a certain restfulness
from the proximity of nature" (Forges et al. 1952)19.
  Similarly, aesthetic experience can be enhanced or de-
stroyed by space relationships. Power  boats on a two-acre
lake  are likely  to be more hazardous  than fun, and the
water will be so choppy and turbid that people will hardly
enjoy swimming near the shore.  On  the other hand, a
sailboat on Lake Michigan can be  viewed with  pleasure.
If a designated scenic area is  surrounded by a wire fence,
the naturalness is obviously tainted. If animals can only be
viewed in restricted pens,  the enjoyment is likely  to be less
than if they could be seen moving at will in their natural
habitat.

MANAGEMENT FOR AESTHETICS

  The management of water for  aesthetic purposes must be
planned and executed in the context of the uses of the land,
the shoreline,  and the water surfaces.  People must be the
ultimate consideration. Aesthetic values relate to accessi-
bility,  perspective,  space, human  expectations,  and the
opportunity to derive a pleasurable reaction from the senses.
  Congress  has affirmed and reaffirmed its determination
to enhance water quality in a series of actions strengthening
the federal role in water pollution control and federal sup-
port for water pollution control programs of state and local
governments and industry. In a number of states, political
leaders and  voters have  supported programs to protect or
even restore water  quality  with aesthetics as one of the
values.
  The recognition, identification,  and protection of the
aesthetic qualities  of  water should  be an  objective of all
water quality management  programs. The  retention of
suitable, aesthetic quality is more likely  to be  achieved
through  strict control  of discharges at the source  than by
excessive dependence  on assimilation by receiving waters.
Paradoxically, the values that aesthetically pleasing water
provide are most urgently needed where pollution problems
are most serious as  in  the urban areas and particularly in
the central portions of cities where population and industry
are likely to be heavily concentrated
  Unfortunately, one  of the greatest unknowns is the value
of aesthetics to people. No workable formula incorporating
a valid benefit-to-cost ratio has yet been devised to reflect
tangible  and  intangible benefits accruing  to conflicting
uses or misuses and the cost of providing or avoiding them.
This dilemma could be circumvented by boldly stating that
aesthetic values are worth the cost of achieving them. The
present public reaction to water quality might well support
this position, but efforts in this area have not yet proceeded
far enough  to produce values worthy  of wide acceptance.
(See Appendix I.)

BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AESTHETIC
PURPOSES

  All surface  waters should be aesthetically pleasing. But
natural conditions vary widely, and because  of this a  series
of  descriptive rather  than numerical  recommendations is
made. The descriptions are intended to provide, in general
terms, for the protection of surface  waters from substances
or conditions arising from other  than  natural sources that
                                                       11

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12/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
might degrade or tend to degrade the aesthetic quality of
the water.  Substances  or conditions arising from natural
sources may affect water quality independently of human
activities. Human activities that augment degradation from
natural  sources,  such as accelerated erosion from surface
disturbances, are not considered natural. The  recommen-
dations are also  intended to cover degradation from "dis-
charges  or waste," a phrase embracing undesirable  inputs
from all sources attributable to human  activities whether
surface flows, point discharges, or subsurface drainages.
  The recommendations that follow are essentially finite
criteria. The absence of visible debris, oil, scum, and other
matter resulting from human activity is a strict requirement
for aesthetic acceptability. Similarly, recommended  values
for objectionable color, odor, taste, and turbidity, although
less precise, must  be measured as no significant  increase
over background. Characteristics such as excessive nutrients
and temperature elevations that  encourage objectionable
abundance of organisms, e.g., a bloom of blue-green algae
resulting from discharge of a  waste with a high  nutrient
content and an elevated temperature, must be  considered.
  These recommendations  become finite when applied as
intended in the context of natural background conditions.
Specific numbers would add little to the usefulness  of the
descriptive recommendations because of the varying  acute-
ness of sensory perception and because of the variability o
substances  and conditions  so  largely dependent  on loca
conditions.
  The phrase "virtually free" of an objectionable constituen
as used in the recommendations  implies the concept  c
freedom from the undesirable effects of the constituent bu
not necessarily freedom  from the constituent itself. Thi
recognizes  the practical impossibility of complete absenc
and the inevitability of the  presence of potential pollutant
to some degree.

Recommendations

  Surface waters will be aesthetically pleasing i
they  are virtually free  of  substances  attributabl
to discharges or waste as; follows:

• materials that will settle to form objectionabt
  deposits;
• floating debris, oil, scum, and other matter;
• substances producing objectionable color, odoi
  taste, or turbidity;
• substances  and  conditions   or   combination
  thereof in concentrations  which produce un
  desirable  aquatic  life.

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    FACTORS  INFLUENCING  THE  RECREATIONAL AND  AESTHETIC VALUE OF  WATER
  The many factors  that  influence the recreational and
aesthetic value of water may be broadly grouped  in two
imprecise and overlapping but useful categories: physical
and biological. Physical factors include geography, manage-
ment and land use practices, and carrying capacity. Bio-
logical factors involve the effects of nuisance organisms and
eutrophication, the role  of aquatic plants, species diversity,
and  the  introduction of exotic  species. In making water
quality recommendations that will maintain recreational
and  aesthetic  values  of surface  waters, it  is necessary  to
understand the interrelationships between these factors and
water  quality.  The discussions in this Section emphasize
those interrelationships,  but additional useful detail  can  be
found  in other Sections of this Report,  i.e., Public Water
Supplies (II), Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (IV), and
Agriculture (V). Cross references direct the reader to other
sources at appropriate points  in this Section.
  Physical  Factors  Recommendations  applicable  to
water-related environmental  goals may well  define those
constraints that must be imposed on man's land-based ac-
tivities and  upon his physical contact  with water  if the
quality of water  is to be maintained at a level  suited  to
recreational use.  This is especially true  of  aesthetic enjoy-
ment of water, because pleasurable aesthetic experiences
are related to water in its environmental setting and to its
changing appearance caused by  wind, light, and other
natural phenomena.
  Man-made impoundments have provided numerous op-
portunities for recreation that have not existed before, but
their operation in some instances presents a paradox for
recreational users. Often such reservoirs are located on the
upper reaches  of rivers where the natural setting  is itself
conducive to aesthetic recreational enjoyment; but because
they are  often multipurpose projects, their  operation for
water  supply,  seasonal provision of flood storage, daily
provision of hydroelectric  power,  or even  seasonal  fluctu-
ation for mosquito control will change the water  surface
elevation, leave barren  banks exposed, or cause noticeable
or transient disruptions of the otherwise natural appearing
setting. Where the  impoundment specifically provides a
public water  supply, concerned  water  works personnel,
fearing degradation of the quality of the water stored for
this purpose, may impose limitations on the scope of recre-
ational  opportunities.  Thus, the full potential  for recre-
ational  and aesthetic uses of water may well  be curtailed
somewhat  by the  operational  schedule  of a  water body
needed for other purposes, even if the quality of the stored
water meets the stipulated water quality criteria.
  Control  of turbidity  represents  another environment-
related problem, one that must  often be dealt with in terms
of somewhat subjective  local considerations.  Recommen-
dations for turbidity limits are best expressed as percentage
increases over natural background conditions. The waste-
water treatment processes normally employed are intended
to control suspended  particles and associated  problems.
Steps can also be taken to minimize erosion of soil disturbed
by  agriculture,  construction, logging, and other human
activities. Turbidity  from urban and rural areas can  be
reduced  by  ponding or other sedimentation facilities.
Wherever possible, spoils from dredging of navigable waters
should be disposed of on land  or at water sites in such a
way that environmental damage is minimized. If necessary
dredging for new construction  or channel  maintenance  is
performed with caution,  it will  not have  adverse effects on
water quality. (Effects of physical manipulation of the en-
vironment are discussed further  in Section III  on Fresh-
water Aqua ic Life and Wildlife.)
  Biological Factors  Two  principal  types of biological
factors  influence the recreational and  aesthetic value  of
surface waters: those that endanger the health or physical
comfort of people and animals,  and those that render water
aesthetically  objectionable  or  unusable  as a  result of  its
overfertilization. The former include vector and nuisance
organisms; the latter,  aquatic growths of microscopic and
macroscopic  plants.
  The discussion turns next to the physical  factors of recre-
ational  carrying capacity  and sediment  and  suspended
materials, and then to the biological factors.

RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY

  In both artificial  impoundments and  natural bodies of
water the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of the water itself are not the only factors influencing water-
                                                       13

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1 ^/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
oriented recreation. Depreciation of the recreational value
of water caused by high levels of use is a growing problem
that can be solved only by management techniques that:
either create more extensive facilities or limit the types and
amounts of use to predetermined desirable levels or carrying
capacities.
  The recreational resource carrying capacity concept is
not new.  Recreation land managers have  used carrying
capacity standards for decades, but such standards have
generally  been developed  intuitively rather than experi-
mentally.  Dana  (1957)24 called for empirical research in
this field to provide better guidelines for management of
recreation resources. The National Recreation and  Parks
Association reported  in 1969 that almost no research of this
type had  been completed  and  that standards for water-
oriented recreational activities then in use exhibited  a  dis-
turbingly  wide range  of values (Chubb  1969)21.  Among
investigations of the  carrying  capacity of water for  recre-
ational  boating currently being made  are  those at North
Carolina State University  and Michigan State University
(Ashton and Chubb 1971).20 A comparative study of the
canoeing and trout fishing  capacity of four rivers is taking
place in Michigan (Colburn, personal communication 1971)27.
Lucas (1964)25 reported on an on-going recreational carry-
ing, capacity study of the Boundary Waters Canoe  Area.
   Until a number of  these investigations  are completed,
the true nature  and  complexity of the factors involved in
recreational carrying capacity will not be known. However,
in the case of many water-oriented activities it is apparent
that social,  psychological,  and economic  factors are in-
volved,  as well as the physical characteristics of the water
body (Chubb and Ashton 1969)22. For example, boaters on
heavily  used lakes in Southeast Michigan represent a broad
spectrum  of behavioral patterns and attitudes. Fishermen
generally  dislike high-density use and are particularly an-
noyed by speeding boats that create waves. They believe
such activities disturb the fish. Waterfront home and cottage
owners  abhor the noise and litter  generated by  owners of
transient boats on trailers.  On the other hand, many water
skiers enjoy relatively  crowded conditions because  of the
social aspects of the experience; and some cruiser and pon-
toon boat owners enjoy viewing the skiers from their boats.
Thus the boating carrying  capacity of these waters involves
the relative  proportions of the various kinds of uses taking
place and the life  styles,  recreational goals,  and  social
aspirations of the boaters. Carrying capacity becomes a
function of  the levels of satisfaction achieved by  the par-
ticipants (Ashton and Chubb  1971).20
   Screw  propellers  of powerboats  operating  in  shallow
waters create currents that often suspend sediments. Power-
boats can also produce wake waves that cause shore erosion
and result in  water  turbulence. Marl-bottomed lakes and
silty, relatively narrow rivers are especially susceptible to
prolonged turbidity generated by such  disturbances. In
many cases, bank erosion has  been so severe that speed
limitations and wake-wave:  restrictions have  had  to 1
imposed.
  The size and configuration of a water body influence
recreational use and carrying capacity. Large lakes with
low ratio of shoreline-to-surface area tend to be under-usi
in the middle; conversely, lakes with a high ratio of shor
line-to-surface area tend to sustain more recreational u
per acre.

The Role of Regulation
  Rapid increases  in recreational use  have necessitati
regulations to protect the quality of  the experiences o
tained by  limiting use  so that  carrying capacity  is n
exceeded. Examples are boat speed regulations, limitatio
on horsepower, number of boat launching sites, number
parking places, and zoning and time limitations on wat
skiing and high-speed boating. Motorized crafts are oft<
prohibited.  Michigan is planning to  use  data from
current series of boating carrying capacity  studies to «
tablish  new  criteria  for its  boating  access  site progra
(Ashton and Chubb 1971).20
  The Michigan Department of Natural Resources (1970]
has proposed rationing recreation on  stretches  of  the /
Sable, Manistee,  Pine,  and  Pere Marquette Rivers 1
means of a canoe permit system to reduce conflicts betwe<
canoeists and trout fishermen. The proposed regulatio
would limit the release of Ccinoes to a specified number p
day for designated stretches of these rivers. Other regulatio
are intended to promote safety and reduce trespass, riv
bank damage, vandalism, and littering.  The National Pa
Service has limited annual user days for river running <
the Colorado through the Grand Canyon (Cowgill 1971).2

Factors Affecting Recreational Carrying Capacity
  The carrying capacity of a body of water for recreation
not a readily identifiable finite number. It is a range
values from  which society can select the most acceptafc
limits as the  controlling variables change.
  The schematic diagram (Fig. 1-1) provides an impressi(
of the number of relationships involved in a typical wat
body recreation system.  Recreational carrying capacity
water is basically dependent upon water quality but al
related to many other variables  as shown in the modi
At the  threshold level a relatively small decline in wat
quality may have a considerable  effect on the system ai
result in a substantial decline in the annual yield of wate
oriented recreational opportunities at the sites affected.

Conclusion
   No specific recommendation is made concernir
recreational carrying capacity. Agencies establisl
ing carrying  capacities  should  be aware of  tl
complex relationships of the interacting variabli
and of the constant need to review local establish*
values in  light of prevailing conditions.  Carryir

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                                    Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/15

               (broken box line indicates high probability of change)
                           WATERBODY RESOURCES
                            quantity, type, accessibility
                                                                       WATER QUALITY
                                                                     chemical, physical, and
                                                                     biological characteristics
                                                                                  I  Human   \
                                                                                  I Activities  i
                                                                                  L_       _,
                                   Prevailing
                                  Water Quality
   SOCIAL FACTORS
ulation

Economic
Factors
|


Social
Customs



Mob
|
               Cultural Factors     I
              recreation behavior,   I
            ownership, access, and  '
                  Regulations       '
                            REGIONAL SUPPLY OF
                            ALTERNATIVE WATER
                       RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
                              "Normal"patterns of
                             use for "n" waterbodies
                            Changing Patterns of Use:
                          relationship to supply-demand,
                              socio-economics, and
                                  water quality
                                     I
                                 Excessive Use:
                           reduced water quality and
                               recreational value
                                Reduced Carrying
                                   Capacity
FIGURE 1-1—Relationships Involved in a Water Resource Recreation System

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 16/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
capacity was discussed in  this Section to call at-
tention to its potential effects on water quality for
recreational use.

SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED  MATERIALS
  Weathering  of the  land surface and  the  transport  of
particles such as sand,  silt and clay by water, wind, and ice
are natural processes  of geologic  erosion that largely de-
termine  the  characteristics of  our land,  rivers,  estuaries,
and lakes. Man, however, can drastically  alter the amount
of material suspended in  surface  waters by accelerating
surface erosion through various land use and management
practices. Sources of these sediments and suspended ma-
terials such as erosion, mining, agriculture, and construction
areas  are discussed in  Section IV  on Marine Aquatic Life
and Wildlife. In addition to causing siltation problems and
affecting biological productivity, sediments  and suspended
materials affect  the quality  of surface  waters used  for
recreational and aesthetic enjoyment.

Effects on Water Quality
  The importance  of suspended particle  composition and
concentrations  to  the  recreational and aesthetic value  of
surface  water relates  to  its effects on  the clarity,  light
penetration,  temperature, and dissolved constituents  of
surface  water, the  adsorption of toxic materials,  and the
composition, distribution,  and  rate  of sedimentation  of
materials. These  in turn not only affect  recreational and
aesthetic values directly, but they control or limit biological
productivity and  the aquatic life the waters  will sustain  for
enjoyment by people (Buck 1956,28 Cairns 1968).29 Although
the qualitative effects of  suspended particles on  surface
waters are well  recognized, quantitative knowledge and
understanding are limited. (Biological  effects are discussed
in Sections III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic
Life.)
  Appearance  The  appearance of water is  relative  to
the perspective  of the viewer and his  expectations.  For
example, the surfaces  of lakes,  streams,  or  oceans viewed
from  shore  appear less turbid than they do  viewed from
above or during immersion. The responses of people viewing
the spectacularly  clear waters  of  Lake  Tahoe or Crater
Lake  are almost  surely aesthetic  in nature, and  allowing
the clarity of such waters to decrease would  certainly lower
their  aesthetic appeal. On  the other  hand, the  roaring
reaches and  the  placid stretches  of the muddy Colorado
River and miles  of the muddy Mississippi  afford another
kind  of aesthetic  pleasure and recreation  which many also
appreciate.  People seem  to  adapt to and  accept a wide
range of water turbidities as long as changes in turbidity
are part of natural processes.  However,  increases in tur-
bidity of water due to man's disturbance of the land surface,
discharge of wastes, or modification of the water-body bed
are subjectively  regarded by  many people  as  pollution,
and so in fact or in fancy they reduce aesthetic enjoyment.
  Light Penetration   The presence of suspended soli
materials in natural waters limits the penetration  by sui
light. An example of the adverse effects of reduced availab
light is  the inability of some fish to see their natural foe
or even the sport fisherman's lure (note the discussion i
Section III,  Freshwater  Aquatic Life  and Wildlife,  pj
126-129). In turbid, nutrient-rich waters, such as an est\
ary or lake where lack of light penetration limits algal repn
duction, a water management  project that reduced sed
ment input to the water  body could conceivably result i
increases of algal production to the nuisance level.
  Temperature  When suspended particles  inhibit  tl
penetration  of water  by sunlight,  greater  absorption i
solar energy occurs near the surface and warms the  wate
there. With its density thus decreased,  the water  colum
stabilizes, and vertical mixing is inhibited. Lower  oxyge
transfer from air to water  also results from higher  watt
surface  temperature. Together with inhibited vertical mi)
ing, this reduces the downward rate of oxygen transfe
especially in still or slowly moving water. In combinatio
with  the oxygen demand of benthic accumulations, an
reduction in downward transfer of oxygen hastens  the d(
velopment of anaerobic  conditions at the bed of  shallo'
eutrophic ponds, and the result may be a loss of aestheti
quality.
  Adsorption of Materials   Clay minerals have irregi
lar, platy shapes and large  surface areas with electrostati
charges. As a  consequence,  clay  minerals sorb  cation
anions,  and  organic  compounds. Pesticides  and heav
metals likewise sorb on suspended clay particles, and thos
that are strongly held are carried with the particles  to the
eventual resting place.
  Microorganisms  are frequently  sorbed  on  particular
material and incorporated into bottom sediments when tl"
material settles.  Rising storm waters may resuspend  tr
deposited material,  thereby restoring the microorganisn
to  the  water column. Swimming or  wading could  st
bottom sediments containing bacteria,  thereby effecting
rise in  bacterial counts  in  the water  (Van  Donsel an
Geldreich 1971)33.
  The capacity of minerals to hold dissolved toxic materia
is different for each material and type of clay. The  sorptiv
phenomenon effectively lends a large assimilative capacit
to muddy waters. A reduction in suspended mineral solic
in surface waters can, therefore, cause  an increase in tli
concentrations  of dissolved toxic materials contributed  b
existing waste  discharges (see Section III on  Freshwate
Aquatic Life).
  Beach Zone Effects   When typical river waters cor
taining dispersed clay minerals mix with ocean water i
estuaries to the extent of one part or more of ocean water t
33  parts river water,  the dispersed clay and silt particlt
become cohesive, and aggregates are  formed under  th
prevailing hydraulic conditions (Krone 1962).30 Such aggr«
gates of material brought downstream by storms  eithe

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                                                      Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/17
settle in the estuary, particularly in large shallow bays, or
are carried directly to sea where they often are distributed
over large areas of the sea floor. Those that settle in shallow
bays  can be  constantly resuspended  by wind-generated
waves and held in suspension by waves while tidal currents
circulate the waters throughout  the estuary and  carry a
portion of the  suspended material out to sea.  Suspended
clay mineral particles are weakly cohesive in river waters
having  either unusually  low dissolved salt concentrations
or high proportions of multivalent cations in the dissolved
salts.  When such rivers enter lakes and impoundments, the
fine particles aggregate and settle to the  bed to form soft,
fluffy deposits.
  On lakes,  the natural wind waves maintain beaches and
sandy littoral zones when  there is sufficient fetch. Wind-
driven movement  of the water through  wave action and
subsequent oscillation provides the minimum  velocity of
0.5 feet per second to sort out the fine particles of mineral
soils and organic  micelles and allow them to settle in the
depths.  Wave action extends  to depths of approximately
one-half of the wave length to sort bottom sediments. This
depth is on the order of 5 feet (1.5 m) for a one-mile (1.6
km)  fetch.  When  the  waters are deep enough to allow
settling, fine  sediments which are suspended  drop down
over the wave terrace leaving sorted sand behind. In shallow
water bodies where the orbital velocity of the water particles
of wave action is great enough to lift fine sediments, waters
may  be  kept  in  a state of turbidity  (Shephard  1963).31
Waters without adequate wind-wave action and circulation
do not have  appreciable sorting; and thereforeIsoft bottom
materials, undesirable at facilities like swimming beaches,
may build  up  in  the  shallows. These conditions reduce
clarity and  not only  affect the aesthetic value but also
present  a hazard in swimming.
  The natural phenomenon of  beach maintenance, sup-
plying sand  to beaches and littoral zones, is dependent in
part upon having ample sources of sand such as those pro-
vided by river transport  and shore erosion. Impoundment
of rivers causes sand to settle behind dams and removes it
as a future source for beach maintenance.  Man's protection
of shorelines from erosion also interrupts the supply of sand.
In the erosion process, sand is commonly moved along the
shore in response  to the net positive direction of the wind-
wave forces, or it is carried into deep water to be deposited
on the edge of wave terraces. The location of man-made
structures can,  therefore, influence the quality of beaches.
Piers and jetties can intercept the lateral movement of sand
and  leave impoverished  rocky or hardpan shores on the
up-current  side. Such  conditions are common along the
shores of the large Great Lakes and many coastal waters
(U.S. Army, Coastal Engineering Research Center  1966).w
  Sediment-Aquatic  Plant  Relationships  When
the sediment load exceeds  the transport capacity of the
river, deposition results. The accumulation of sediments in
reservoirs and  distribution  systems has  been a problem
 since ancient times. The deposited materials may so alter
 the original bed materials of surface waters that rooted
 aquatic  vascular plants are  able  to  grow in the newly
 available substrate, thus changing the aquatic environment.
 Fine sediments are often rich in the nutrients required for
 plant growths; and once the sediments are stabilized with
 a few plants, extensive colonization may follow.  (See  the
 discussion of Aquatic Vascular Plants in this Section.)

 Recommendation
   Clear waters are normally preferred for  recre-
 ation. Because sediment-laden water reduces water
 clarity, inhibits the growth  of  plants, displaces
 water volume as sediments settle, and contributes
 to the  fouling of  the bottom, prevention  of un-
 natural quantities of suspended  sediments or de-
 posit of sediments is desirable.  Individual  waters
 vary in the natural amounts of suspended sedi-
 ments they carry; therefore,  no  fixed recommen-
 dation can be made.  Management decisions should
 be developed with reference to historical base line
 data concerning the individual body of  water.

 VECTORS AND NUISANCE  ORGANISMS

   The  impact of both aquatic  vectors  of  diseases  and
 nuisance organisms on water-related recreational  and aes-
 thetic pursuits varies from  the creation of minor nuisances
 to the closing of large recreational  areas (Mackenthun and
 Ingram  1967).58 Organisms of concern  are  discussed  by
 Mackenthun (1969).67
   Massive  emergences  of  non-biting  midges,  phantom
 midges, caddisflies, and mayflies cause serious  nuisances in
 shoreline communities,  impeding  road traffic, river navi-
 gation,  commercial  enterprises and recreational  pursuits
 (Burks  1953,40 Fremling 1960a,46  1960b;47 Hunt  and Bis-
 choff I960;54  Provost 195860). Human respiratory allergic
 reactions to aquatic insect bites have been recognized  for
 many years. They were reviewed by Henson (1966),49 who
 reported the major causative groups to be the caddisflies,
 mayflies, and  midges.
   Among common diseases transmitted by aquatic inverte-
 brates are encephalitis, malaria,  and schistosomiasis,  in-
 cluding swimmers' itch.  The principal water-related arthro-
 pod-borne viral disease of importance to  public health in
 the United States is encephalitis, transmitted by mosquitoes
 (Hess and Holden  1958).61 Many polluted urban streams
 are ideally suited to production of large numbers  of Culex
Jatigans,  a vector of  St.  Louis encephalitis in urban areas.
 Although running waters  ordinarily  are  not suitable  for
 mosquito breeding,  puddles in drying stream beds and
 floodplains are excellent breeding sites for this and other
 species  of  Culex. If such pools contain  polluted waters,
 organic materials present may serve as an increased food
 supply that will  stimulate production (Hess  1956,5* U.S.

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IB/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
Department  of the  Interior, FWPCA  1967).65  Aquatic
plants also provide breeding sites for some mosquitoes and
other nuisance insects. This relationship  is discussed else-
where in this Section (p. 25).
  Other than mosquitoes, perhaps the most common nui-
sance insects associated with standing freshwater are chir-
onomid midges. These insects neither bite nor carry disease,
but their dense swarms  can interfere with man's comfort
and activities. Nuisance populations have occurred in pro-
ductive natural lakes where the larvae thrive in the largely
organic bottom sediments  (Provost  1958,60 Hunt  and Bis-
choff I960,64 Hilsenhoff 1959).52 In poorly designed sewage
lagoons mosquitoes  and midges may  thrive  (Beadle  and
Harmstrom 1958,38 Kimerle and Enns  1968).66 Reservoirs
receiving inadequately  treated  municipal wastes are po-
tential sources for abundant mosquito and midge production
(U.S.  Department of the Interior,  FWPCA 1967).K In-
creased midge production may be associated with  deterior-
ation in water quality, but this is not always the case. For
example, excessive production can occur in primary sewage
oxidation ponds as well  as in reservoirs (Grodhaus 1963,48
Bay  196436); and in sequential oxidation pond treatment,
maximum midge production may sometimes occur in those
ponds furthest from  the plant effluent where water quality
is highest (Bay et al. 1965).36
  Abrupt changes in water quality such as dilution of sea-
water by freshwater, especially if accompanied by organic
loading, can precipitate extraordinarily high midge pro-
duction  (Jamnback  1954).55 Sudden  decline  in oxygen
supply in organically overloaded ponds  or drying lakes can
disrupt or destroy established  faunal  communities, thus
favoring midge larvae  because they are  tolerant to low
dissolved oxygen  and are  primarily detrital feeders (Bay
unpublished data).67
  The physical characteristics of certain water bodies,  as
much as their water quality characteristics, may sometimes
determine midge productivity  (Bay et  al.  1966).37  For
example, freshly filled  reservoirs are  quickly sedimented
with  allocthanous detritus and  airborne organic matter
that provide food for invading  midge larvae.  The rate of
sedimentation can depend on watershed characteristics and
basin percolation rate or, in the case of airborne sediment,
on the surrounding topography. Predators in these  new
environments are few, and initial midge larval survival is
high. Thomas  (1970)64 has also  reported on the  potential
of newly or periodically flooded areas to produce  large
populations of midges and  mosquitoes.
  Midge production in  permanent bodies of water is ex-
tremely  variable. Attempts have been made (Hilsenhoff'
and  Narf 1968,53 Florida State Board of Health unpublished
datam) to correlate  factors of water quality  with midge
productivity in neighboring lakes and in lakes with certain
identifiable characteristics, but the results have been incon-
clusive.
  Organism response in organically polluted flowing wate
was  discussed  and  illustrated  by Bartsch  and  Ingran
(1959).34 As water quality and bottom materials change ii
streams recovering from  organic  waste  discharges, largi
numbers of midges and other nuisance organisms may b
produced in select reaches.
  Though blackfly  larvae  are common  in  unpollutec
streams,  an increase  in  suspended organic  food particle
may stimulate increased populations, and abnormally larg<
numbers of larvae have been found downstream from botl
municipal  and industrial waste discharges (U.S.  Depart
ment of the Interior,  FWPCA 1967).65 The larvae feed 01
drifting organic material, and either municipal, agricultural
or certain  industrial  wastes can provide the base for  ai
increased food supply. Bacteria  from soils and sewage ma'
be important in outbreaks of blackflies (Fredeen 1964).45
  Toxic  wastes  can also  affect situations where nuisano
organisms  are found  in increased  numbers. The mos
obvious  mechanism is the  destruction  of more sensitiv
predators and  competitors, leaving the  food supply an<
space available for the more tolerant forms. Surber (1959)6
found  increased  numbers of a tolerant  midge,  Cncotopu
bicinctus,  in waters  polluted  with chromium.  Rotenon
treatment  of  waters  has resulted  in temporary  massiv
increases in blackfly  and midge populations (Cook  an<
Moore 1969).41  Increased numbers of midge larvae wer
found  in a stream reach six months after a  gasoline  spil
(Bugbee  and Walter  1972).6S The  reasons for this are  no
clear but may be linked to the  more ready invasion of ai
area by  these  highly  mobile insects as compared to  les
mobile competitors and predators.
  Persons involved in water-based  activities in many area
of the  world  are subject to  bilharziasis (schistosomiasis),
debilitating and  sometimes deadly disease (World  Healt
Organization  1959).66 This  is not a problem in the cont
nental United States and Hawaii because of the absence c
a vector snail, but schistosomiasis occurs in Puerto Ric
due  to the discharge of human  feces containing Schistosom
eggs into waters harboring vector snails, the most importar
species being Biomphalaria glabrata. B. glabrata can surviv
in a wide range of water quality,  including  facultativ
sewage lagoons;  and people are exposed through conta<
with shallow water near the infected snails. Cercariae she
by the snail  penetrate the  skin of humans  and enter th
bloodstream.
   Of local concern  in water-contact  recreation  in  th
United States is  schistosome dermatitis, or swimmers'  itc
(Cort  1928,42 Mackenthun and Ingram 1967,58 Fettero
et al.  1970).44 A number  of schistosome cercariae, noi
specific for humans, are  able to enter the outer layers <
human skin. The reaction causes itching, and the severil
is related  to  the person's  sensitivity and  prior exposut
history (Oliver 1949).59 The most important of the derm;
titis-producing cercariae are duck parasites (Trichobilharzia

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                                                       Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/19
 Snails serving as intermediate hosts include Lymnaea, Physa,
 and Gyraulus (Cort 1950).43 Although swimmers' itch has
 wide distribution, in the United States  it is  principally
 endemic to the north central lake region.  Occasional  inci-
 dence is reported in marine waters (Stunkard and Hinchliflfe
 1952)."2
  About 90 per cent of severe swimmers' itch outbreaks are
 associated with Cercaria stagnicolae shed from varieties of the
 snail Lymnaea emarginata.  This relationship is promoted by
 (1)  clean, sandy beaches  ideal for swimming and preferred
 by  the snail; (2) peak populations of the snail host  that
 develop in sandy-bottomed lakes of glacial origin; (3) the
 greatest development  of adult  snails  that  do  not die off
 until toward  the  end  of the  bathing  season; and (4)  the
 cycle of cercarial  infection so  timed that the greatest num-
 bers of cercariae emerge during the  hot weather in  the
 middle of the summer when the greatest amount of bathing
 is done (Brackett  1941).89 Infected vector snails are  also
found  throughout the United  States  in swamps, muddy
 ponds, and ditches; but  dermatitis rarely results, because
 humans seldom use these areas without protective clothing.
  In some marine recreational waters jellyfish or sea nettles
 are  serious problems. Some species possess  stinging mecha-
 nisms whose cnidoblast filaments can penetrate human skin
 causing painful,  inflammed  weals. The effects of water
 quality on their abundance is not known, but Schultz and
 Cargo  (1971)61  reported that  the summer  sea nettle,
 Chrysaora quinquecirrha, has been  a problem in Chesapeake
Bay since colonial days. When these nettles are abundant,
 swimming is  practically  eliminated and fishermen's  nets
 and traps are clogged.

 Conclusion
  The role of water quality in either limiting or
augmenting the production of vector and nuisance
 organisms involves many interrelationships which
 are not clearly  understood.  Since organic wastes
 generally directly  or indirectly  increase  biomass
 production,  there  may be  an attendant  increase
 in  vector  or nuisance organisms.  Some wastes
 favor  their  production by  creating water  quality
 or  habitat  conditions that limit  their  predators
and competitors. Increased  production of vector
 and nuisance organisms may degrade a healthy
 and  desirable  human environment and  be  ac-
 companied  by a lessening of recreational and aes-
 thetic values (see  the discussion of  Aquatic Life
 and Wildlife in this Section, p. 35.)

 EUTROPHICATION AND NUTRIENTS

  Man's recent concern with eutrophy relates primarily to
 lakes, reservoirs, rivers, estuaries,  and coastal  waters  that
 have been or are being over-fertilized through society's
carelessness to a point where beneficial uses are impaired
or threatened.  With  increasing urbanization, industriali-
zation, artificial soil fertilization, and soil mantle disruption,
eutrophication has become a serious problem affecting the
aesthetic and recreational enjoyment of many of the nation's
waters.

Defining Eutrophication and Nutrients
  Lakes have  been  classified  in  accordance with their
trophic  level or  bathymetry  as eutrophic,  oligotrophic,
mesotrophic, or dystrophic (National Academy of Sciences
1969,97  Russell-Hunter  1970,106 Warren 1971,114 Stewart
and Rohlich 1967).107 A typical eutrophic lake has  a high
surface-to-volume ratio,  and an abundance of nutrients
producing heavy growth of aquatic plants and other vege-
tation; it contains highly organic sediments, and may have
seasonal or continuous low dissolved-oxygen concentrations
in its deeper waters. A typical oligotrophic lake has a low
surface-to-volume ratio, a nutrient content that  supports
only a low level of aquatic productivity, a  high dissolved-
oxygen  concentration extending to the deep waters,  and
sediments largely inorganic in composition.  The character-
istics of mesotrophic lakes lie  between those  of eutrophic
and oligotrophic lakes. A dystrophic lake has waters brown-
ish from humic materials, a relatively low  pH, a reduced
rate of bacterial decomposition, bottom sediments usually
composed of partially decomposed  vegetation,  and  low
aquatic  biomass productivity.  Dystrophication is a lake-
aging process different from that of eutrophication. Whereas
the senescent stage in eutrophication may be a productive
marsh or swamp, dystrophication leads to a peat  bog rich
in humic materials but low in productivity.
  Eutrophication refers to  the addition of  nutrients to
bodies of water and to the effects of  those nutrients.  The
theory that there is a natural, gradual, and  steady increase
in external nutrient supply throughout the existence  of a
lake is widely held,  but there is no support for this idea of
natural  eutrophication (Beeton and Edmondson 1972).74
The paleolimnological literature supports instead a concept
of trophic equilibrium such as that introduced by Hutchin-
son (1969).91 According  to this  concept the progressive
changes that occur  as a lake ages  constitute an ecological
succession effected in part  by the change in the shape of the
basin brought about by its filling. As the basin fills and the
volume  decreases,  the resulting shallowness increases  the
cycling  of  available  nutrients  and this  usually increases
plant production.
  There are many naturally eutrophic lakes of such recre-
ational value that extensive efforts  have been made to con-
trol their overproduction  of nuisance aquatic plants and
algae. In the past,  man  has often accepted  as a natural
phenomenon the loss or  decreased value of a  resource
through eutrophication. He has drained shallow, senescent
lakes for agricultural purposes or filled them to form building

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20/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
sites. The increasing value of lakes for recreation, however,
will reorder man's priorities, and instead of accepting such
alternative uses of lakes,  he  will  divert  his reclamation
efforts to salvaging and renovating their recreational values.
  Artificial or cultural eutrophication results from increased
nutrient supplies through  human activity. Many aquatic
systems have  suffered cultural eutrophication in the past
50 years as a consequence of continually increasing nutrient
loading from the wastes  of society.  Man-induced nutrients
come largely from the discharge of municipal and industrial
wastewaters and from the land runoff effects of agricultural
practices and  disruption of the soil mantle  and its vege-
tative  cover in the course of land  development and con-
struction.  If eutrophication is not to become  the future
major  deterrent to the recreational and aesthetic  enjoyment
of water, it is essential that unnatural additions of nutrients
be kept out of water  bodies through improved wastewater
treatment and land management.

Effects of Eutrophication and Nutrients
  Green Lake, a lowland lake with high recreation use in
Seattle, is an example of a natural eutrophic lake (Sylvester
and Anderson I960),109 formed some 25,000 years ago after
the  retreat  of the Vashon glacier.  During the ensuing
years,  about  two-thirds  of the  original  lake volume was
filled with inorganic and organic sediments.  A core taken
near the center of the lake  to a sediment depth of 20.5 feet
represented a  sediment accumulation over a  period of ap-
proximately 6,700 years. Organic, nutrient, and chlorophyll
analyses on samples  from the  different  sediment  depths
indicated a relatively constant rate of sedimentation, sug-
gesting that Green Lake has been in  a natural state of
eutrophy for several thousands of years.
  The recreational and aesthetic potential of the lake was
reduced for most users by littoral and emergent  vegetation
and by heavy blooms of blue-green algae in late summer.
The aquatic weeds provided harborage  for production of
mosquitoes and interfered with boating, swimming, fishing,
access  to the beach, and  model boat activities. The heavy,
blue-green algal blooms  adhered to swimmers.  The wind
blew the algal masses onto the shore where they decomposed
with a  disagreeable odor.  They dried like a blue-green paint
on objects along the shoreline, rendered boating and fishing
unattractive, and accentuated water line marks on boats.
  Nevertheless, through  the continuous addition of low-
nutrient dilution water  by the City of Seattle (Oglesby
1969),98 Green lake has been reclaimed through a reversal
of the  trophic development to mesotrophic and is now
recreationally  and aesthetically acceptable.
  Lake Washington is an example  of a large, deep, oligo-
trophic-mesotrophic lake that  turned eutrophic in  about
35  years, primarily through the discharge of treated and
untreated domestic sewage. Even to laymen, the change
was rapid, dramatic, and  spectacular. In the period of a
year, the apparent color of the lake water turned  from
bluish-green to rust as a result of massive growths of th<
blue-green alga, Oscillatoria rubescens. This threat to aesthetii
and recreational enjoyment  was a key factor in voter ap
proval of Metro, a metropolitan sewer district. Metro ha,
greatly reduced the nutrient  content of the lake and conse
quent algal growth by diverting wastewater discharges ou
of the drainage basin (Edmondson 1969,82 1970).83
  Lake Sammamish at the northern inlet  of Lake Wash
ington appeared to be  responding to the enrichment i
received  from  treated sewage and other nutrient waste
although  it had  not yet produced nuisance conditions tc
the extent found in Lake Washington (Edmondson 1970).8
However, subsequent diversion of that waste by Metro hai
resulted in little or no detectable recovery in three years, j
period that proved adequate  for  substantial  recovery ir
Lake Washington (Emery et  al. 1972).86 Lake Sebasticook
Maine, affords another example of undesirable enrichment
Although previously in an acceptable condition, it became
obnoxious during the  1960's in response  to sewage and £
wide  variety  of industrial  wastes  (HEW  1966).112  The
nutrient  income  of Lake Winnisquam, New  Hampshire
has been studied to  determine the cause of nuisance blooms
of blue-green algae (Edmondson 1969).82 The  well-knowr
Jakes  at Madison, Wisconsin,  including Monona, Waubesa,
and Mendota, have been the object of detailed studies 01
nutrient  sources  and their  deteriorating effect on water
quality (Sawyer  1947,106 Mackenthun  et al.  I960,95 Ed-
mondson  1961,80  1968).81
  A desirable  aspect of eutrophication  is the ability ol
mesotrophic or slightly eutrophic lakes typically to produce
greater crops of fish than their oligotrophic or nutrient-pooi
counterparts. As long as nuisance blooms of algae  anc
extensive  aquatic weed beds  do not hinder the growth o
desirable  fish  species  or obstruct  the mechanics  and aes-
thetics of fishing or other beneficial uses,  some enrichmen
may be desirable. Fertilization is a tool in commercial anc
sport fishery management used to produce greater crops o
fish. Many prairie  lakes in the east slope  foothills of the
Rocky Mountains would be classed as eutrophic according
to the characteristics discussed below,  yet many of thes<
lakes  are  exceptional trout producers because  of the  higl
natural fertility of the prairie (Sunde et al. 1970).108 As at
example  of an accepted  eutrophic condition, their water
are dense with plankton, but few would consider  reducing
the enrichment of these lakes.
  Streams and estuaries, as  well as lakes, show symptom:
of over-enrichment, but there is less opportunity for builduj
of nutrients because of the  continual transport  of water
Although aquatic growths can develop  to nuisance  pro
portions in streams  and estuaries as a result of over-enrich
ment, manipulation of the nutrient input can modify tht
situation more rapidly than in lakes.
  Man's fertilization of some: rivers, estuaries,  and marine
embayments has  produced undesirable  aquatic growths o
algae, water weeds, and slime: organisms such as Cladophora

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                                                          Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/21
  Ulva, Potamogeton, and Sphaerotilus. In addition to interfering
  with other uses, as in  clogging  fishing  nets with slime
  (Lincoln and Foster  1943),94  the  accompanying water-
  quality changes  in some instances upset the natural fauna
  and flora and cause undesirable shifts in the species compo-
  sition of the community.

  Determination of Trophic Conditions
    It should be emphasized that (a)  eutrophication has a
  significant relationship to the  use of water for recreational
  and aesthetic  enjoyment  as well as  the  other water uses
  discussed in this book; (b) this relationship may be desirable
  or  undesirable, depending upon the type  of recreational
  and aesthetic enjoyment sought; and (c) the possible dis-
  advantages or  advantages of eutrophication may be viewed
  subjectively as they relate to a particular water use. There
  are no generally accepted guidelines for judging whether a
  state of eutrophy exists or by what criteria it may be meas-
  ured, such as production of biomass, rate of productivity,
  appearance, or change in water quality. Ranges in primary
  productivity and oxygen deficit have  been  suggested  as
  indicative of  eutrophy,  mesotrophy, and oligotrophy  by
  Edmondson (1970)83 and Rodhe (1969),104 but these ranges
  have had no official recognition.
   The trophic state and natural  rate of eutrophication that
  exists,  or would exist, in the absence of man's activities is
  the  basis of reference  in judging man-induced  eutrophi-
 cation.  The  determination of the natural  state in many
 water  bodies will require the  careful examination of past
 data, referral  to  published historical accounts,  recall  by
 "old-timers,"  and perhaps the  examination of sediment
 cores for  indicator species and chemical composition. The
 following guidelines are suggested in determining the refer-
 ence trophic states of lakes or detecting changes in trophic
  states.  Determination  of the  reference  trophic  state  ac-
  companied by studies  of  the nutrient budget may reveal
''that the lake is already in an  advanced  state of eutrophy.
  For temperate lakes, a significant change in indicator com-
  munities  or a significant increase in any of the other four
  indices, detectable over a five-year period  or less,  is con-
 sidered sufficient evidence that accelerated eutrophication
 is occurring. An undetectable change over a shorter period
  would  not necessarily indicate a lack of accelerated eutrophi-
 cation.  A change detectable only after five years may still
 indicate unnaturally accelerated eutrophication,  but five
 years is suggested as a realistic maximum for the  average
 monitoring endeavor. Where cultural eutrophication is sus-
 pected and changes in  indices are not observable,  analysis
 of sediment cores may be necessary to establish the natural
 state.  The dynamic characteristics  and individuality  of
 lakes may produce exceptions to these guidelines. They are
 not infallible indicators of interference with recreation, but
 for  now they may serve as a beginning,  subject to modifi-
 cation  as more complete data on the  range of trophic con-
 ditions and their associated effects become available.
   Primary Productivity   Ranges in the photosynthetic
rate,  measured by  radioactive carbon assimilation, have
been  suggested by Rodhe (1969)104 as indicative of trophic
conditions (Table 1-2).
   Biomass  Chlorophyll a is used as a versatile measure
of algal  biomass. The ranges presented for mean summer
chlorophyll a concentration determined in epilim'netic water
supplies  collected at least biweekly and analyzed according
to  Standard  Methods  (American   Public   Health  Assoc.,
American Water Works Assoc., and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation 1971)70 are indices of the trophic stage of a
lake:  oligotrophic, 0-4 mg chlorophyll a/m3; eutrophic,
10-100 mg  chlorophyll a/m3.
   These ranges  are  suggested  after  reviewing data on
chlorophyll concentrations and other indicators of trophic
state  in  several lakes throughout the United States and
Canada. Of greatest significance are data from Lake Wash-
ington which show  that during peak  enrichment, mean
summer  chlorophyll a content rose to about 27 mg/m3 and
that the lake was definitely eutrophic. The post nutrient
diversion summer mean  declined to about 7 mg/m3, and
the lake is  now more  typically mesotrophic  (Edmondson
1970;83 chlorophyll a values corrected to conform to recent
analytical techniques).  Unenriched and relatively low pro-
ductive lakes at higher elevations in the Lake Washington
drainage basin show mean summer chlorophyll a contents
of 1 to 2 mg/m3. Moses Lake,  which  can be considered
hypereutrophic,  shows  a summer  mean  of 90  mg/m3
chlorophyll  a (Bush  and Welch 1972).76
   Oxygen Deficit   Criteria for  rate of depletion of  hy-
polimnetic oxygen in relation to trophic state were reported
by Mortimer (1941)96 as follows:
       oligotrophic

   <250 mg O2/m2/day
       eutrophic

>550 mg O2/m2/day
This is the rate  of depletion of hypolimnetic oxygen  de-
termined by the change in mean concentration of hypolim-
netic oxygen per unit time multiplied by the mean depth
of the  hypolimnion. The observed time interval  should be
at least a month, preferably longer, during summer stratifi-
cation.
  TABLE 1-2—Ranges in Photosynthetic Rate for Primary
               Productivity Determinations*
            Period
                                Oligotrophic
             Eutrophic
Mean daily rates in a growing season, mgC/myday       30-100
Todl annual rates, gC/mVyear   ..       .       7-75
             300-3000
             75-700
 « Measured by total carbon uptake per square meter of water surface per unit of time. Productivity estimates should
be determined from at least monthly measurements according to Standard Methods.
 American Public Health Association, American Water Works Assot, and Water Pollution Control Federation
1971"; Rodbe IMS.™

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 22/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
   Indicator Communities   The representation  of cer-
 tain species in a community grouping in fresh water  en-
 vironments is often a sensitive indicator of the trophic state.
 Nutrient enrichment in streams causes changes in the size
 of faunal  and floral  populations, kinds  of species,  and
 numbers of species (Richardson 1928,103 Ellis 1937,84 Patrick
 1949,"  Tarzwell  and  Gaufin 1953110). For example, in a
 stream  typical of the temperate zone in the eastern United
 States degraded  by organic pollution the following shifts
 in aquatic communities are often found: in the zone  of
 rapid decomposition below  a  pollution  source, bacterial
 counts  are  increased; sludgeworms (Tubificidae),  rattail
 maggots (Eristalis tenax)  and bloodworms  (Chironomidae)
 dominate the benthic fauna; and blue-green  algae and the
 sewage  fungus  (Sphaerohlus) become common  (Patrick
 1949," Tarzwell and Gaufin 1953,110 Patrick et al. 1967100).
 Various blue-green algae such as Schizothrix calcicola,  Micro-
 coleus vaginatus, Microcystis aeruginosa, and Anabaena sp. are
 commonly found  in nutrient-rich  waters, and blooms  of
 these and other algae frequently detract from the aesthetic
 and  recreational  value of lakes. Diatoms  such as Nitzschia
palea, Gomphonema parvulum,  Navicula cryptocephala, Cyclotella
 meneghiniana,  and Melosira varians are  al"O often abundant
 in nutrient-rich water (Patrick and Reimer 1966).101 Midges,
 leeches, blackfly larvae, Physa snails, and fingernail clams
 are frequently abundant in the recovery zone.
  Nutrients  Chemicals  necessary to  the   growth and
 reproduction of rooted or floating  flowering plants, ferns,
 algae,  fungi, or  bacteria are  considered to be  nutrient
 chemicals. All these chemicals are not yet known, but those
 that have been identified are classified as macronutrients,
 trace elements or micronutrients,  and organic nutrients.
 The macronutrients are calcium,  potassium, magnesium,
 sodium, sulfur, carbon and carbonates, nitrogen, and phos-
 phorus.  The micronutrients are silica, manganese, zinc,
 copper,  molybdenum,  boron, titanium, chromium, cobalt,
 and  perhaps vanadium (Chu 1942,77  Arnon and Wessell
 1953,72 Hansen et al. 1954).89 Examples of organic nutrients
 are biotin, Bi2, thiamine,  and glycylglycine (Droop 1962).79
 Some of the amino acids and simple sugars have also been
shown to  be nutrients for heterotrophs or partial hetero-
 trophs.
  Plants vary as to the amounts and kinds of nutrients they
require, and  as a result one  species or group of species of
algae or aquatic plants may gain dominance over another
group because of the variation in concentration of nutrient
chemicals.  Even  though  all the  nutrients  necessary for
plant growth are  present, growth will not  take place unless
environmental factors such as light, temperature, and sub-
strate are suitable.  Man's use of the watershed  also in-
fluences the sediment  load  and nutrient  levels in surface
waters (Leopold et al. 1964,93 Bormann and Likens 1967).75
  Thomas  (1953)111 found  that the  important factor in
artificial eutrophication was the high  phosphorus content
of domestic wastes.  Nitrogen became  the limiting growth
factor if the  algal demand  for phosphorus was met. Nu-
merous studies have verified these conclusions (Americar
Society of Limnology and Oceanography 1972).71
   Sawyer (1947)106  determined critical levels  of inorganic
nitrogen (300 jug/1 N) and inorganic phosphorus (10 jug/
P) at  the time  of spring  overturn in Wisconsin lakes. I
exceeded, these levels would  probably  produce  nuisance
blooms of algae during the summer. Nutrient concentration;
should be maximum when measured at the  spring overturr
and at the  start of  the  growing season. Nutrient concen
trations during  active growth periods may only indicate
the difference between amounts absorbed in biomass (sus
pended and settled) and the initial  amount biologicall)
available. The values, therefore, would not be indicative
of potential algal production.  Nutrient content should \x
determined  at least  monthly (including the time  of spring
overturn) from the surface, mid-depth, and bottom. These
values can be related to water volume in each stratum,  and
nutrient concentrations based on total lake  volume can be
derived.
   One of the most convincing  relationships between maxi-
mum phosphate content at the time  of lake overturn and
eutrophication  as indicated by algal biomass has beer
shown in Lake Washington (Edmondson 1970).83 During
the years when algal densities progressed to  nuisance levels.
mean winter PO4-P increased  from 10-20 jug/1 to 57 jug/1.
Following diversion  of the sewage mean PO4-P decreased
once again to the preenrichmerit level. Correlated with the
PO4-P reduction was mean summer chlorophyll a content.
which  decreased from a mean of 27 jug/1 at peak enrichrnenl
10 less  than  10 jug/1,  six years, after diversion was initiated,
  Although difficult to assess,  the  rate of  nutrient inflow
more  closely  represents  nutrient  availability  than does
nutrient concentration because of the dynamic character
of these nonconservative materials. Loading rates are usuall)
determined annually on the basis of monthly monitoring ol
water  flow,  nutrient concentration in  natural  surface and
groundwater, and wastewater inflows.
  Vollenweider (1968)113 related nutrient loading to mear
depths for various well-know a  lakes and identified trophic
states associated with induced  eutrophication.  These find-
ings showed shallow lakes to be clearly more sensitive tc
nutrient income  per unit area than deep  lakes, because
nutrient reuse to perpetuate nuisance growth  of algae in-
creased as depth decreased. From this standpoint nutrient
loading was a more  valid criterion than nutrient concen-
tration in judging trophic state, Examples of nutrient load-
ings which produced nuisance conditions were about  0.3
g/m2/yr P and 4 g/'m2/yr  N for a lake with a mean depth
of 20 meters, and about 0.8 g/m2/yr P and 11 g/m2/yr N
for a lake  with a mean depth of 100 meters.
  These suggested criteria  apply only if other requirements
of algal growth are met,  such as available light and water
retention time. If these factors limit growth rate and  the
increase of biomass,  large amounts of nutrients may move
through the system  unused, and nuisance conditions may
not occur  (Welch 1969).115

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                                                    Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/23
  Carbon (C)  is required by all photosynthetic plants. It
may be in the form of COa in solution, HCO^, or COJ°.
Carbamine carboxylate, which may form by the complexing
of calcium or other carbonates and amino  compounds in
alkaline water, is an efficient source of COa (Hutchinson
1967).90 Usually  carbon is not  a limiting factor in water
(Goldman et al. 1971).88 However, King (1970)92 estimated
that concentrations of CO2 less than 3 micromoles at equi-
librium favored blue-green algae, and concentrations greater
than this favored green  algae.
  Cations such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, and po-
tassium are required by algae  and  higher  aquatic plants
for  growth, but  the optimum  amounts and ratios vary.
Furthermore, few situations exist in which these would be
in such low supply as to be limiting to plants. Trace ele-
ments either singly or in combination are important for the
growth of algae  (Goldman 1964).86  For example molyb-
denum has been  demonstrated to be  a limiting nutrient in
Castle  Lake. Deficiencies in trace elements are more likely
to occur in oligotrophic  than in eutrophic waters (Goldman
1972).87
  The vitamins important in promoting optimum growth
in algae are biotin, thiamin,  and Bi2. All major groups
require one or more of these vitamins, but particular species
may or may not require them. As Provasoli and D'Agostino
(1969)102 pointed out, little is known about the requirement
for  these vitamins for growth of algae in polluted water.
  Under natural conditions it is difficult to determine the
effect of change  in concentrations of a single chemical on
the growth of organisms. The  principal reasons are  that
growth results from  the  interaction of many  chemical,
physical, and biological factors on  the functioning of an
organism; and that nutrients arise from  a mixture of chemi-
cals from farm, industrial, and  sanitary wastes, and runoff
from fields. However, the  increase in amounts and types of
nutrients can be  traced  by shifts in species forming aquatic
communities. Such biotic shifts have occurred in western
Lake Erie (Beeton 1969).« Since  1900 the watershed of
western Lake Erie has changed with  the rapidly increasing
human population and industrial development, as a result
of which the lake has received large quantities of sanitary,
industrial, and agricultural organic  wastes. The lake has
become modified by increased  concentrations of dissolved
solids, lower transparency, and low dissolved  oxygen concen-
tration. Blooms  of blue-green algae  and shifts in inverte-
brate populations have markedly increased in the 1960's
(Davis 1964, "Beeton  1969).73

Summary of Measurement of Nutrient Enrichment
  Several conditions can be used to measure nutrient en-
richment or its effects:

     • a steady decrease over several years in the dissolved
       oxygen content  of the hypolimnion when measured
       prior to fall overturn, and an increase in anaerobic
       areas in the lower portion of the hypolimnion;
    • an  increase  in  dissolved  materials, especially nu-
      trients such  as  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and simple
      carbohydrates;
    • an  increase in suspended  solids, especially organic
      materials;
    • a shift in  the structure of communities of aquatic
      organisms involving a shift in kinds of species and
      relative abundances of species and biomass;
    • a steady though slow decrease in light penetration;
    • an  increase in organic materials and nutrients, es-
      pecially phosphorus, in bottom deposits;
    • increases  in  total phosphorus  in the spr'ng  of the
      year.

Recommendations
  The principal recommendations for aesthetic and
recreational uses of lakes, ponds, rivers, estuaries,
and near-shore coastal waters are that  these uses
continue to be pleasing  and undiminished  by  ef-
fects of cultural  activities that increase plant nu-
trients.  The  trophic  level  and natural rate of
eutrophication that exists, or would exist, in these
waters  in the  absence of man's activities is  con-
sidered the reference level and the commonly de-
sirable level to be maintained. Such water should
not have a demonstrable accelerated  production
of  algae  growth in  excess  of rates normally  ex-
pected  for the same type of waterbody in nature
without man-made influences.
  The concentrations of phosphorus and  nitrogen
mentioned  in  the text as leading  to  accelerated
eutrophication were developed from  studies  for
certain aquatic  systems: maintenance  of  lower
concentrations may or may  not prevent eutrophic
conditions. All the factors causing nuisance plant
growths  and the level of each which should not be
exceeded  are  not  known.  However,   nuisance
growths will be limited if the addition of all wastes
such as sewage,  food processing, cannery, and in-
dustrial  wastes  containing nutrients,  vitamins,
trace elements,  and growth stimulants are  care-
fully controlled and nothing is added  that causes
a slow overall  decrease of average dissolved oxygen
concentration in the hypolimnion and an increase
in  the extent and duration of anaerobic conditions.

AQUATIC VASCULAR PLANTS

  Aquatic vascular plants affect water quality, other aquatic
organisms, and the uses man makes of the water. Generally,
the effects are inversely proportional to the volume of the
water body and  directly proportional to the use man wishes
to  make  of  that water.  Thus  the impact  is often most
significant in marshes,  ponds,  canals,  irrigation  ditches,
rivers,  shallow  lakes, estuaries  and  embayments,  public
water supply sources, and man-made impoundments. Dense

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241'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
growths of aquatic vascular plants are not necessarily due
to human  alteration of the  environment. Where an ap-
propriate environment  for plant growth occurs, it  is ex-
tremely difficult to prevent the growth  without changing
the environment. Addition of plant nutrients can  cause
aquatic vascular plants  to increase to nuisance proportions
in waters where natural fertility levels are insufficient to
maintain dense populations (Lind and Cottam 1969).147 In
other waters where artificial nutrient additions are  not a
problem, natural  fertility alone  may  support  nuisance
growths (Frink 1967).186

Interrelationships With Water Quality
  Through  their metabolic  processes, manner of growth,
and eventual decay, aquatic vascular plants can have sig-
nificant effects on such  environmental factors as dissolved
oxygen and  carbon dioxide, carbonate and  bicarbonate
alkalinity, pH, nutrient supplies, light penetration, evapo-
ration, water circulation,  current velocity, and sediment
composition. The  difficulty  in understanding the  inter-
relationships among  plant growth  and water quality  is
described  in part  by Lathwell et al.  (1969).144  Diurnal
oxygen rhythm with maximum concentrations in the after-
noon and  minimums just before  dawn is a universally-
recognized limnological phenomenon, and metabolic ac-
tivities of vascular plants can contribute to these rhythms.
The effect  of aquatic plants  on dissolved oxygen within a
reach of stream at a particular time  of day is a function of
the plant density and distribution, plant species, light in-
tensity, water depth, turbidity, temperature, and ambient
dissolved oxygen.  Oxygen production  is  proportional to
plant density only  to a certain limit;  when  this limit  is
exceeded,  net oxygen production  begins to decrease and,
with increasing density,  the plants  become net oxygen con-
sumers (Owens et al. 1969).16!) It is hypothesized that this
phenomenon occurs because the plants become  so  dense
that some are shaded by other overlying plants. Westlake
(1966)173 developed  a model for predicting the effects of
aquatic vascular plant density  and distribution on oxygen
balance which demonstrates  that if the weeds are concen-
trated within a small area, the net effect of the weeds may
be to  consume more oxygen  than   that produced,  even
though the average density may be relatively low.
  After reviewing the  literature on the direct effects of
plants on the oxygen balance, Sculthorpe (1967)162 con-
cluded that the extent  of oxygen enrichment at  all  sites
varies with changing light intensity, temperature, and plant
population density and  distribution.  On a cloudy, cool day
community respiration  may exceed even the maximum
photosynthetic rate.  Although vigorous oxygen production
occurs in the growing season, the plants eventually die and
decay, and the resulting oxygen consumption is spread over
the cooler seasons of the year.
  Light penetration  is significantly reduced by dense  stands
of aquatic  vascular plants, and this reduces photosynthetic
rates at shallow depths. Buscemi (1958)129 found that unde:
dense beds  of Elodea  the dissolved oxygen  concentratioi
fell sharply with depth and marked stratification was pro
duced.  Severe oxygen depletion  under  floating mats  o
water hyacinth (Lynch et al. 1947),16° duckweed and wate
lettuce  (Yount 1963)170 have occurred.  Extensive covers o
floating or emergent  plants shelter the  surface from th<
wind, reduce turbulence and reaeration, hinder mixing
and promote thermal stratification. Dense growths of phyto
plankton may also shade-out submerged macrophytes, anc
this phenomenon  is used to  advantage  in  fisheries  pone
culture. Fertilization of ponds to  promote phytoplanktoi
growth  is recommended as a means of reducing the standing
crop of submerged vascular plants (Swingle 1947,167 Surbei
1961166).
   Interrelationships  of plants with water chemistry were
reported by  Straskraba (1965)16S when foliage of dens<
populations of Nuphar, Ceratophyllum, and Myriophyllum wen
aggregated on the surface. He found pronounced stratifi-
cation of temperature and chemical factors and  reportec
that the variations  of oxygen, pH, and alkalinity  were
clearly dependent on the photosynthesis and respiration oi
the plants. Photosynthesis also involves carbon dioxide, and
Sculthorpe (1967)162 found thai: for every rise of 2 mg/1 ol
dissolved oxygen  the  total carbon dioxide  should  drop
2.75 mg/1 and be accompanied by a rise  in the pH. A rise
in pH will allow greater concentrations of un-ionized am-
monia (see Freshwater Aquatic Life, p.  140).
   Hannan  and Anderson (1971)137 studied diurnal oxygen
balance, carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity and pH on a
seasonal basis in two Texas ponds less than 1  m deep which
supported dense growths of submerged rooted macrophytes.
One pond  received seepage water containing free carbon
dioxide and supported a greater plant biomass. This pond
exhibited a diurnal dissolved-oxygen range in summer from
0.8 to 16.4 mg/1, and a winter range from 0.3 to 18.0 mg/1.
The other pond's summer diurnal dissolved-oxygen range
was 3.8 to 14.9 mg/1 and the  winter range was 8.3 to 12.3
mg/1. They concluded that (a) when macrophytes use bi-
carbonate as a carbon source, they liberate carbonate and
hydroxyl ions, resulting in an increase in pH and a lowered
bicarbonate alkalinity; and (b) the pH of  a  macrophyte
community is a function of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-
carbonate ionization phenomena as altered by photosynthe-
sis and  community respiration.
   Dense colonies of aquatic macrophytes may occupy up
to 10 per cent of the total volume of a river and reduce the
maximum velocity of  the current to less than 75 per cent
of that  in uncolonized reaches (Hillebrand  1950,139 as re-
ported  by Sculthorpe  1967162). This can increase sediment
deposition and lessen channel capacity by raising the sub-
strate, thus increasing the chance of flooding. Newly de-
posited silt  may be quickly stabilized  by aquatic plants,
further  affecting flow.
   Loss of water by transpiration varies between species and

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                                                        Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/25
 growth forms. Otis (1914)168 showed that the rate of tran-
 spiration of Nymphaea odorata was slightly less than the rate
 of evaporation from a free water surface of equivalent area,
 but that of several emergent species was up to three times
 greater. Sculthorpe  (1967)162 postulated that transpiration
 from the leaves of free-floating rosettes could be at rates six
 times greater than evaporation from an equivalent  water
 surface. Loss of water through water hyacinth was reported
 by Das (1969)133 at 7.8  times that of open water.

 Interrelationships With  Other Biota
  Aquatic  macrophytes provide a direct or indirect source
of food for aquatic invertebrates and fish and for wildlife.
The plants provide increased substrate for colonization by
epiphytic algae,  bacteria, and other microorganisms which
provide food for the larger invertebrates  which, in turn,
provide food for fish. Sculthorpe (1967)162 presented a well-
documented  summary of the importance of a wide variety
of aquatic macrophytes to fish, birds, and  mammals. Sago
pondweed  (Potamogeton  pectmatus) illustrates  the opposite
extreme in  man's attitude toward  aquatic macrophytes:
Timmons (1966)168  called it  the most noxious  plant  in
irrigation  and drainage  ditches  of the American  west,
whereas Martin  and Uhler (1939)166 considered it the most
important duck food plant in the United States.
  Aquatic vegetation and flotage breaking the water surface
enhance mosquito production by  protecting larvae from
wave  action  and aquatic predators and interfering with
mosquito control procedures. Two major vectors of malaria
in the United States are Anopheles quadnmaculatus east  of the
Rocky Mountains, and A. freeborni to the west (Carpenter
and La Casse 1955).130 Anopheline mosquitoes are generally
recognized as permanent pool breeders. The more important
breeding sites of these two mosquitoes are freshwater lakes,
swamps, marshes, impoundment margins, ponds, and seep-
 age areas (Carpenter and La Casse 1955).130 The role  of
various aquatic  plant types in relation to the production
 and control  of A. quadnmaculatus on artificial  ponds and
reservoirs indicates that the greatest problems are created
by macrophytes  that are  (1)  free-floating, (2) submersed
 and anchored but which break the water surface, (3) floating
leaf anchored, and (4) emersed floating-mat anchored (U.S.
Department  of  Health, Education,  and Welfare,  Public
Health Service,  and Tennessee  Valley Authority 1947).169
 In addition  to  vector  mosquitoes,  pestiferous  mosquitoes
develop in association with plant parts in shoreline  areas.
 Jenkins  (1964)142 provided an annotated  list  and  bibli-
 ography of  papers  dealing with aquatic vegetation and
 mosquitoes.
  Generally, submersed vascular plants have lower nutrient
 requirements than  filamentous algae  or  phytoplankton
 (Mulligan and Baranowski 1969) ,157 Plants with root systems
 in the substrate do not have to compete with phytoplankton,
 periphyton, or non-rooted macrophytes for the phosphorus
 in the  sediments.
  Boyd (1971b),126 relating his earlier work on emergent
species  (Boyd 1969,122 1970a,123 197la125) to that of Stake
(1967,163 1968164) on submerged species, stated that in the
southern United States most  of the total net nutrient ac-
cumulation by aquatic vascular plants occurs by midspring
before peak dry matter standing crop is reached, and that
nutrients stored  during early spring growth are utilized for
growth later. Thus nutrients are removed from the environ-
ment early in the season, giving the  vascular hydrophytes
a competitive advantage over phytoplankton. Boyd (1967)121
also reported that the quantity of phosphorus  in aquatic
plants frequently exceeds that of the total water volume.
These phenomena may account for the high productivity
in terms of macrophytes which can occur in infertile waters.
However, if the  dissolved phosphorus level is not  a limiting
factor for the phytoplankton, the ability to utilize sediment
phosphorus is not a competitive advantage for rooted plants.
  Further interaction between aquatic vascular plants and
phytoplankton has  been demonstrated recently  in  studies
showing that concentrations of dissolved organic matter can
control plant growth in lakes by regulating the availability
of trace metals and other nutrients essential to plant photo-
synthesis. An array of organic-inorganic interactions shown
to suppress plant growth in hardwater lakes (Wetzel 1969,174
1971176) appear  to operate in  other lake types and streams
(Breger 1970,127 Malcolm et  al. 1970,162 Allen  1971116).
Wetzel and Allen in press (1971)176 and Wetzel and Manny
(1972)177 showed that aquatic macrophytes near inlets of
lakes can  influence phytoplankton growth by  removing'
nutrients as they enter the lake while at the same  time
producing  dissolved organic compounds that complex with
other nutrients necessary to phytoplankton growth. Manny
(1971,153 1972154)  showed several  mechanisms  by which
dissolved  organic nitrogen  (DON)  compounds regulate
plant growth and rates of bacterial nutrient regeneration.
These control mechanisms can be disrupted by  nutrients
from municipal  and agricultural wastes and dissolved or-
ganic matter from inadequately treated wastes.

Effects on Recreation and Aesthetics
  It is  difficult  to estimate the magnitude of the adverse
effects of aquatic macrophytes in terms of loss of recreational
opportunities or degree of interference with recreational
pursuits. For example, extensive growths of aquatic macro-
phytes interfere  with boating of all kinds; but the extent of
interference depends,  among other things, on the  growth
form of the plants,  the  density  of  the colonization, the
fraction of the waterbody covered, and the purposes, atti-
tudes, and tolerance of the boaters. Extremes of opinion on
the degree of impact create difficulty  in estimating a mone-
tary, physical, or psychological loss.
  Dense growths of aquatic macrophytes are generally ob-
jectionable to the swimmer, diver, water skier, and scuba
enthusiast. Plants or plant parts can  be at least a nuisance
to  swimmers and,  in extreme cases, can  be a  factor in

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26/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
drowning. Plants obstruct a diver's view of the bottom and
underwater hazards, and fronds can become entangled in
a scuba diver's gear. Water skiers' preparations in shallow
water are hampered by dense growths of plants,  and fear
of falling  into such growths while skiing detracts  from en-
joyment of the sport.
  Rafts of free-floating plants  or attached plants which
have  been dislodged from  the substrate  often drift  onto
beaches or into swimming areas, and time and labor are
entailed in restoring their attractiveness. Drying and decay-
ing aquatic plants often produce objectionable odors and
provide breeding areas  for a variety of insects.
  Sport fishermen have  mixed feelings about aquatic macro-
phytes.  Fishing is often good around patches of lily pads,
over deeply-submerged  plants, and on the edges of beds of
submerged weeds which rise near the surface. On the other
hand, dense growths may restrict the movement and feeding
of larger  fish  and limit the fishable area  of a waterbody.
Aquatic plants entangle lures and baits  and can prevent
fishermen from reaching desirable fishing areas.
  Marshes and aquatic macrophytes in sparse or moderate
densities along watercourse and waterbody margins  aug-
ment nature study and shoreline exploration and add to the
naturalistic value of camping  and recreation  sites.  It is
only  when  the density of  the growths,  or their growth
forms, become a nuisance  and interfere with man's ac-
tivities that he finds them objectionable. An indication of
how often that occurs is provided  by McCarthy (1961),156
who reported that on the basis of a questionnaire sent to
all states in 1960, there were over 2,000 aquatic vegetation
control projects conducted annually, and that most states
considered excessive growth of aquatic vegetation a serious
and increasing problem.
   The  aesthetic  value  of aquatic macrophytes is in the
mind of the beholder. The age-old appeal of aquatic plants
is reflected in their importance as motifs in ancient archi-
tecture, art, and mythology.  Aquatic gardens continue to
be  popular tourist attractions  and  landscaping  features,
and wild  aquatic plant communities have strong appeal to
the  artist, the photographer, and  the public. To many,
these plants make a contribution of their own to the beauty
of man's environment.

Control Considerations
   Aquatic vascular  plants  can be controlled  by several
methods: chemical (Hall  1961,136 Little 1968148); biological
(Avault et al. 1968,117  Maddox et al. 1971,161 Blackburn
et al. 1971120); mechanical   (Livermore  and  Wunderlich
1969149); and naturalistic environmental manipulation (Pen-
found 1953).160 General reviews of control techniques have
been made by Holm et al.  (1969),141 Sculthorpe  (1967),162
and Lawrence (1968).145
   Harvesting aquatic vascular plants to  reduce  nutrients
as a means of eutrophication control has been investigated
by Boyd  (1970b),124 Yount and Grossman  (1970),171 an
Peterson (1971).161 Although  many investigators have n
ported important nutrients in various aquatic  plants, tr
high moisture content of the  vegetation as it is harveste
has been an impediment to economic usefulness. Peterso
(1971)161 reported the cost per pound of phosphorus, n
trogen,  and carbon removed from a large lake supportin
dense growths of aquatic vascular plants as $61.19, $8.2
and $0.61 respectively.
  Nevertheless, improved methods of harvesting and proc
essing promise to reduce the costs of removing these bothei
some plants and  reclaiming their nutrients for animal an
human  rations or for soil enrichment.  Investigation int
the nutritive value of various aquatic plants has frequentl
been an adjunct of research on the efficiency and econom
of harvesting and processing  these plants in a a effort  t
remove  nuisance  growth from lakes and streams. Extensiv
harvesting of aquatic vegetal ion from plant-clogged  Cadd
Lake  (Texas-Louisiana)  was  followed by  plant analysi
and feeding trials. The dehydrated material was found to b
rich in protein and xanthophyll (Cregeretal. 1963,132 Couc
et al.  1963131). Bailey (1965)llfl reported an average of 38'
milligrams of xanthophyll per  pound of vacuum oven-driei
aquatic plant material with  about  19 per  cent proteir
Hentges (1970),13S in cooperation  with Bagnall (1970),'
in preliminary tests with cattle fed press-dehydrated aquati
forage,  found  that  pelleted  Hydrilla  verticillata  (Florid
elodea)  could be fed satisfactorily as 75 per  cent of a bal
anced  ration. Bruhn et  al.  (1971)128  and  Koegel  et al
(1972)143 found 44 per cent mineral and 21 per cent protei
composition in  the dry matter of the heat coagulum  of th
expressed juice  of Eurasian  water  milfoil  (Myriophyllw
spicatum).  The  press residue,  further reduced  by cuttin
and pressing to  16 per cent of the  original volume and 3
per cent of the  original weight, could readily be spread fo
lawn or garden mulch.
  Control  measures are  undertaken  when  plant growt
interferes  with human  activities beyond some ill-define-
point, but too little effort has been expended to determin
the causes of infestations and  too  little concern has bee
given the  true  nature of the  biological problem  (Boyi
1971b).126 Each aquatic macrophyte  problem under con
sideration for control should  be  treated as unique,  th
biology of the plant should tie well understood,  and all th
local factors thoroughly  investigated before  a technique i
selected. Once aquatic macrophytes  are killed, space fo
other plants becomes available. Nutrients contained  in th
original plants  are released for use by other  species.  Long
term  control normally requires  continued efforts.  Herbi
cides may be directly toxic to fish, fish eggs, or invertebrate
important as fish food  (Eipper  1959,134 Walker  1965,1'
Hiltibran 1967).140 (See  the  discussion of Pesticides,  pp
182-186,  in Section III.) C'n man-made lakes, reservoir
and ponds the potential for invasion by undesirable aquati

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                                                       Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/27
plants may be lessened by employing naturalistic methods
which limit the available habitat and requirements of par-
ticular species. It is difficult to predict what biotic form will
replace the species eliminated. Boyd  (1971 b)126 states that
in some Florida  lakes, herbicide  applications have  upset
the balance between rooted aquatics and phytoplankton,
resulting  in  nuisance  phytoplankton blooms  that  were
sometimes more objectionable than the original situation.
  Control of aquatic vascular plants can be  a  positive
factor in fisheries management (Leonard and Cain 1961) ;146
but when control projects  are contemplated in  multi-pur-
pose waters, consideration should be given to existing inter-
dependencies between man and the  aquatic community.
For example:  what  biomass of aquatic vascular plants is
necessary  to support waterfowl; what biomass will permit
boating; what is a tolerable condition for swimming;  must
the shoreline be clear of plants  for wading;  will  shore
erosion increase if the shoreline vegetation is removed? The
interference of aquatic vascular plant communities in human
activities should be controlled with methods that stop  short
of attempted plant eradication.

Recommendation
  The complex interrelationships among aquatic
vascular  plants, associated  biota,  water quality,
and the  activities of humans call for case-by-case
evaluation in assessing the need for management
programs. If management is undertaken, study of
its potential impacts on the aquatic ecosystem and
on various  water uses should precede its  imple-
mentation.

INTRODUCTION  OF  SPECIES

Extent and Types of Introductions
  Purposeful or accidental introductions  of foreign aquatic
organisms or transplantations of organisms from one drain-
age system to another can profoundly influence the aesthetic
appeal  and the  recreational  or commercial potential  of
affected waterbodies. The  introduction of a single species
may alter an  entire  aquatic  ecosystem  (Lachner et  al.
1970).188 An example of extreme alteration occurred with
the invasion of the Great Lakes by the sea lamprey (Petro-
myzon marinus) (Mofiett 1957,190 Smith 1964197). Introduced
and  transplanted species account for about half of the fish
fauna of Connecticut (Whitworth et al. 1968),199 California
(Shapovalov  et al.  1959),195  Arizona, and  Utah  (Miller
1961).189 The nature of the  original  aquatic fauna is ob-
scured in many  cases, and some indigenous species  have
been adversely  affected through predation,  competition,
hybridization, or alteration of habitat  by the  introduced
species. Exotics that have established reproducing popu-
lations in the  United  States (exclusive of the Hawaiian
Islands) include 25 species offish (Lachner et al. 1970),18g
more than 50 species of land and aquatic mollusks (Abbott
1950),178 and over 20  species  of aquatic  vascular plants
(Hotchkiss 1967)185 in addition to aquatic rodents, reptiles,
amphibians, insects, and crustaceans.
  Growths of native aquatic vascular plants and a variety
of exotic species  commonly interfere with recreation  and
fishing activities  (see  p. 25) and a variety  of other water
uses including industrial and agricultural  use (Holm et al.
1969,184 Sculthorpe 1967).194  Water hyacinth  (Eichhornia
crassipes) caused loss of almost $43 million through combined
deleterious effects in  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and
Louisiana in  1956 (Wunderlich 1962).200 Penfound  and
Earle (1948)m estimated that  the  annual loss  caused by
water  hyacinth  in Louisiana   before the  growths  were
brought under control  averaged $5 million and in some
years reached $15  million. Water chestnut (Trapa natans)
produced beds covering 10,000 acres within ten years of its
introduction  near Washington, D.C. (Rawls 1964).193 The
beds blocked navigation  and  provided breeding sites  for
mosquitoes, and their hard spined seed cases on the shore-
lines and  bottom were  a serious nuisance  to  swimmers,
waders, and  people walking the shores.  Eurasian milfoil
(Myriophyllum spicatum) infested 100,000 acres in Chesapeake
Bay. The plants blocked navigation, prevented recreational
boating and  swimming,  interfered with  seafood  harvest,
increased  siltation, and  encouraged mosquitoes  (Cronin
1967).182
  Invertebrate introductions include the Asian clam  (Cor-
bicula mamlensis), a serious pest in the clogging of industrial
and municipal raw water  intake  systems  and irrigation
canals  (Sinclair  1971),196 and an oriental oyster  drill
(Tntonalia japonica) considered the most destructive drill in
the Puget Sound  area (Korringa 1952).187

Some Results of Introductions
  Some introductions of  exotics, e.g., brown trout (Salmo
trutta), and some transplants,  e.g., striped  bass  (Morone
saxatilis) from the Atlantic to the Pacific and coho  salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) from the Pacific to the Great Lakes,
have been spectacularly successful in providing sport  and
commercial fishing opportunities. Benefits of introductions
and transplantations of many species in a variety of aquatic
situations  are discussed by several authors in A Century of
Fisheries in North America (Benson 1970).179
  The success of other introductions has been questionable
or controversial.  In the case of carp (Cyprinus carpis),  the
introduction  actually  decreased  aesthetic values because of
the increased turbidity caused by the habits of the carp.
The increased  turbidity in turn decreased the biological
productivity  of the waterbody.  The presence of carp has
lowered the  sportfishing potential of many waterbodies
because of a variety  of ecological interactions. The grass
carp or white amur (Ctenopharyngodon idella), a recent impor-

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28/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
tation, has been reported from several major river systems
including the Mississippi as far north as Illinois  (Lopinot
personal communication 1972).201 Pelzman (1971),191 in recom-
mending against introducing grass carp into  California,
concluded that their impact on established game fish would
be detrimental and that they might become more trouble-
some  than the common carp.  This view was expressed
earlier by Lachner et al. (1970)188 in considering the impact
of establishment of the species in major river systems. The
walking catfish (Glorias batrachus), accidentally released from
outdoor, holding ponds of aquarium fish dealers in southern
Florida, quickly established reproducing populations in a
variety of habitats (Idyll 1969).186 Natural ponds have pro-
duced up to 3,000 pounds per acre of this species and there
is no current American market for its flesh. This aggressive
and omniverous species apparently reduces the entire fresh-
water community to walking catfish (Lachner et al. 1970).188

Introductions by Official Agencies
  The objectives of introductions of new species by agencies
include pond culture;  aquatic plant control; insect control;
forage; predation; and improvement of sport and com-
mercial fishing. Boating, swimming,  and sport and com-
mercial fin and shellfishing are influenced by  water quality
and the biotic community. Lachner  et al. (1970),188 after
reviewing the history of exotic fish releases, concluded that
most  official releases satisfy certain social wishes  but have
not served effective biological purposes, and that some may
result in great biological damage. The guidelines  of Craig-
head  and Dasmann (1966)181 on introduction of exotic big
game species offer an excellent parallel to the considerations
that should precede the introduction  of aquatic organisms.
Such  guidelines call for (a) the establishment of  the need
and determination of the predicted ecological, recreational,
and economic impact; (b) studies of the proposed release
area to determine that it is suitable, that a  niche is vacant,
and  that indigenous  populations  will not be reduced or
displaced;  (c) life history studies of the organism  to de-
termine possible  disease interrelationships,  hybridization
potential,  and the availability of control technology; am
(d) experiments conducted under controlled conditions tha
indicate how to prevent escape of the organism.
  The California Fish and Game  Commission  (Burn
j972)18" investigated  introducing the  pancora (Aegla laevi
laevis), a small freshwater crab, into streams as  a  foo<
for trout to increase natural trout production and spor
fishing potential. The plan was ultimately rejected, but th
on-site studies  in Chile and  the  experimental  work  ii
California illustrate the breadth of consideration necessar
before any informed decision can  be reached. Problem
associated with introductions of aquatic animals were th
subject of two recent symposia (Stroud 1969;198 Departmen
of Lands  and Forests,  Ottawa 1968183).  Persons contem
plating  introductions are referred for guidelines  to  th
Committee on Exotic Fishes and Other Aquatic Organism
of The  American Fisheries  Society.  This committee ha
representation from the American Society of Ichthyologist
and Herpetologists and is currently  expanding the scope c
its membership to include other disciplines.

Recommendations
  Introduction or  transplantation of aquatic orga
nisms are factors that can affect aesthetics, boat
ing,  swimming,  sport and commercial fin am
shellfishing, and  a  variety of other  water uses
Thorough investigations of an organism's potentia
to alter  water  quality, affect  biological relation
ships, or interfere with other water  uses shoul(
precede any planned  introductions or  transplan
tations.
  The deliberate introduction of non-indigenou
aquatic vascular plants, particularly in the warme
temperature  or  tropical  regions,  is  cautione<
against because of the high potential of such plant
for impairing recreational and aesthetic values
Aquaculturists and others should use care to pre
vent  the accidental release of foreign species fo
the same reasons.

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       WATER  QUALITY FOR  GENERAL RECREATION,  BATHING,  AND  SWIMMING
  Historically, public health officials have been concerned
about the role  of sewage-contaminated  bathing  water in
the transmission  of infectious disease.  In 1921, the Com-
mittee on Bathing Places, Sanitary Engineering  Section,
American Public  Health Association,  conducted  a study
"to determine the extent and prevalence of infections which
may be conveyed by means  of swimming pools and other
bathing places"  (Simons et al. 1922).226 The results of the
study,  though inconclusive,  suggested that contaminated
bathing water may  transmit infectious agents to  bathers.
The Committee  attached special importance to  the  data
they collected on epidemics of conjunctivitis and other skin
diseases, middle ear  infections, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and
nasal sinus  infections  caused  by  contaminated  bathing
waters. However, the 1935 Report of the Committee (now
designated as the Joint Committee on Bathing Places of
the Public Health Engineering Section of the American
Public Health  Association  and the Conference  of State
Sanitary Engineers) included the following statement: "The
summary of the replies in the 1921 report when considered
in the light of known epidemiological evidence, leaves this
committee unconvinced that bathing places are  a major
public health problem even though bathing place sanitation,
because of the health considerations involved, should  be
under careful surveillance of the public health authorities,
and proper sanitary  control of bathing places should  be
exercised" (Yearbook of APHA  1936).202
  The suggested  standards  for design, equipment, and
operation of bathing places that were  part  of the  1935
report included a section entitled "Relative Classification
of Bathing  Areas Recommended"  (Yearbook of APHA
1936).202 This section reads, in part, as follows:
       In passing on waters of outdoor bathing places,  three
     aides are available: (1) the results of chemical analyses
     of the water; (2) the results of bacteriological analysis
     of the water; and (3) information obtained by a sani-
     tary survey of sources of pollution, flow currents, etc.—
     It is not considered practicable or desirable to recom-
     mend any absolute standards of safety for the waters
     of outdoor bathing places on any of the three above
     bases.
  In 1939 (Yearbook of APHA 1940)203 and again in 1955
(Yearbook of APHA 1957),204 the Joint Committee surveyed
all state health departments for  additional information on
reported cases of illness attributable to bathing places, but
these  surveys  uncovered little definite  information. Con-
taminated bathing waters were suspected in cases of sleeping
sickness, sinus infections, intestinal upsets, eye inflammation,
"swimmers itch", ear infections,  and leptospirosis.
  Several  outbreaks  of human leptospirosis, which is pri-
marily an infection of rats and dogs, have been associated
with recreational  waters  contaminated by the urine  of
infected animals (Diesch and McCulloch  1966).210  One
source of infection to man is  wading or swimming in waters
contaminated  by cattle  wastes  (Williams et  al. 1956,231
Hovens et al.  1941216). Leptospirosis is prevalent  among
"wet  crop" agricultural workers, employees of abattoirs,
handlers of livestock, and those who swim in stock-watering
ponds. The organism is not ingested  but enters the body
through breaks in  the skin and  through intact mucous
membrane, particularly the  conjunctiva.
  The most  recent reports  on disease  associated  with
swimming suggest that a free-living, benign, soil and water
amoeba of the  Naegleria group (Acanthamoeba)  may be  a
primary pathogen of animals and man.  Central nervous
system amoebiasis is usually considered a complication of
amoebic dysentery due to E. histolyhcal; however, recent
evidence proves that  Naegleria  gruben  causes  fulmenting
meningoencephalitis   (Callicot   1968,208  Butt  1966,207
Fowler  and Carter  1965,212 Patras and Andujar 1966224).
The amoeba may penetrate the mucous membrane. Free-
living amoebae and their cysts  are rather ubiquitous in
their  distribution  on  soil  and  in  natural waters;  and
identifiable disabilities from free-living amoebae, similar to
the situation with leptospirosis,  occur so rarely as a result
of recreational swimming in the United  States that  both
may  be  considered  epidemiological  curiosities  (Cerva
1971).209
  In 1953, the Committee on Bathing Beach Contamination
of the Public Health Laboratory Service of England and
Wales began  a five-year study  of the risk to health  from
                                                       29

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    ection I—Recreation and Aesthetics
bathing in sewage-polluted sea water and considered "the
practicability of laying down bacteriological standards for
bathing beaches  or  grading them according to degree of
pollution to which  they  are  exposed" (Moore 1959).222
This committee concluded in 1959 that "bathing in sewage-
polluted sea water carries only a negligible risk to health,
even on beaches that are aesthetically very unsatisfactory."
  The consensus among persons who  have studied the
relationship  between bathing  water quality and bathers'
illness appears to be that scientific proof of a direct relation-
ship is lacking, yet there is evidence to  suggest that some
relationship exists. Some experts contend that outbreaks of
illness  among bathers have not  been studied  thoroughly
with modern epidemiologic techniques, and that if such
occurrences were to be studied vigorously, specific knowl-
edge about  the relationship of bathing water quality to
infectious disease would be established. In some studies
where  bathing water  was apparently implicated in the
transmission of disease agents, the water quality was rela-
tively poor, yet no attempts were made to define the specific
relationship.
  Water quality requirements  for recreational  purposes
may be divided into two categories:  (1) general require-
ments that pertain to all recreational waters, and (2) special
requirements, usually more restrictive,  for  selected  recre-
ational use of water.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS  FOR  ALL RECREATIONAL
WATERS

Aesthetic Considerations

  As has been stressed earlier in this Section (See Applying
Recommendations, p. 10), all waters should be aesthetically
pleasing, but the great variety of locales makes it impossible
to apply recommendations without considering the par-
ticular contexts. Color of swamp waters would hardly be
acceptable for clear mountain streams. Specific recommen-
dations should reflect  adequate study of local background
quality and should consider fully the inherent variability
so that the designated values will be meaningful. Therefore,
specific local recommendations  might  better  encompass
ranges, or a daily average  further defined by a sampling
period, and  possibly an absolute maximum or minimum as
appropriate. The best  technical thought should be given to
establishment of  such values rather than dependence on
administrative or judicial decision.

Recommendation

   All  recreational surface  waters will be aestheti-
cally  pleasing if they meet the recommendations
presented  in  the discussion of Water Quality for
Preserving Aesthetic Values  in this Section,  p.  12.
Microbiological Considerations
  The hazard  posed  by  pathogenic  microorganisms i
recreational water not intended for bathing and swimmin
is obviously less than it would be if the waters were used fo
those purposes, but it is not piossible to state to what degret
Although  there is  a paucity -of epidemiological  data o
illnesses caused by bathing and swimming, there appear t
be no data that analyze the relationship of the quality c
recreational waters not intended for bathing and swimmin
to the health of  persons  enjoying such  waters.  Criteri
concerning the presence  of microorganisms in water fo
general recreation purposes ;ire not known.

Conclusion
  No  specific  recommendation  concerning  th
microbiological  qualities  of general recreations
waters is presented. In most cases of gross micro
biological pollution of surface waters, there will b
concomitant foreign substance of such magnitud
as to cause the water  to  be aesthetically unac
ceptable.

Chemical Considerations
  The human body is capable of tolerating greater concen
trations of most chemicals upon occasional contact with o
ingestion of small  quantities of water than are most form
of aquatic life. Therefore, specific recommendations for th
chemical characteristics of a.ll recreational waters  are nc
made  since such  recommendations  probably would b
superseded by recommendations for the support of variou
forms of desirable aquatic life.  (See  Sections III and IV
Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and  Wildlife.)

Recommendations
  No  specific recommendation  concerning  th
chemical characteristics  of general recreations
waters is presented. However, the following genera
recommendations are applicable:

• recreational waters  that contain chemicals ii
  such concentrations  as  to be toxic to  man  i
  small quantities are ingested  should not be use
  for recreation;

• recreational waters  that contain chemicals ii
  such concentrations  as  to be  irritating  to th
  skin or mucous membranes of the human bod
  upon brief immersion are undesirable.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BATHING AND
SWIMMING WATERS

  Since bathing and  swimming involve  intimate huma
contact with water, special water  quality requiremeni
apply to designated bathing and swimming areas. Thes

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                                                          Water Quality for General Recreation, Bathing, and Swimming/31
requirements are based on microbiological  considerations,
temperature and pH, and clarity and chemical character-
istics. They are  more precise than the requirements  for
general recreational waters. If a body of water cannot meet
these specialized requirements, it should not be designated
a bathing and  swimming area but may be designated  for
a recreational use that does not involve planned immersion
of the body.
Microbiological Considerations
  All recreational  waters should  be sufficiently  free  of
pathogenic bacteria so  as not to pose hazards to  health
through  infections, but  this  is a  particularly important
requirement  for  planned bathing and swimming areas.
Many  bodies of water receive untreated or inadequately
treated human  and animal wastes that are a potential focus
of human infection.
  There  have been several attempts to determine the spe-
c'fic hazard to  health from  swimming in sewage-contami-
nated water. Three related studies have been conducted
in this country, demonstrating that an appreciably higher
overall illness incidence may be expected among swimmers
than among nonswimmers, regardless of the quality of  the
bathing  water  (Smith et al.  1951,229  Smith and Woolsey
1952,227 1961228). More than one half of the illnesses reported
were of the eye, ear, nose, and throat type;  gastrointestinal
disturbances comprised up to  one-fifth; skin irritations and
other illnesses made up the balance.
  Specific correlation between  incidence  of  illness and
bathing in waters of a particular bacterial quality was  ob-
served in  two  of  the  studies. A statistically significant
increase  in the incidence of  illness was observed  among
swimmers who used a Lake Michigan beach  on three se-
lected  days of  poorest water quality  when  the mean total
coliform content was 2,300 per 100 ml. However, only the
data concerning these  three  days could  be  used  in  the
analysis  and differences  in illness were not noted in com-
parison with a control beach  over the total season  (Smith
et al. 1951).229  The second instance of positive correlation
was observed in an Ohio River study where it was shown
that, despite the relatively low incidence of gastrointestinal
disturbances, swimming in river  water having a median
coliform density of 2,700 per 100 ml appears to have caused
a statistically significant increase in illnesses among swim-
mers (Smith and Woolsey 1952).227 No relationship between
illness  and water quality was observed  in the  third study
conducted at salt  water beaches on Long Island Sound
(Smith and Woolsey  1961).228
  A study in England suggested that sea water carries only
a  negligible risk to health  even on beaches  that were
aesthetically unsatisfactory  (Moore 1959).222 The minimal
risk attending such  bathing  is  probably associated with
chance contact with fecal  material  that may have come
from infected persons.
  Neither  the  English  nor the United States  salt water
beach studies indicated a causal or associated relationship
between water quality  and disease among swimmers and
bathers.  While the two  United States  fresh water studies
suggested some presumptive relationship, the findings were
not definitive enough to establish specific values for micro-
biological water quality characteristics.
  Tests using fecal coliform bacteria are  more indicative
of the  possible presence of enteric pathogenic microorga-
nisms from man or other warm-blooded animals than the
coliform group of organisms. The data for total  coliform
levels of the Ohio River  Study  were  reevaluated to  de-
termine comparable levels of fecal coliform bacteria (Geld-
reich 1966).213  This reevaluation suggested that a density
of 400 fecal coliform organisms per 100 ml was the approxi-
mate equivalent of 2,700 total coliform organisms per  100
ml. Using  these data as a basis, a geometric mean of 200
fecal coliform organisms per 100 ml has  been recommended
previously  as a limiting value that under  normal circum-
stances should not be exceeded in water intended for bathing
and swimming (U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA
1968).230
  There may be some merit to the fecal coliform index as an
adjunct in determining the acceptability of water intended
for bathing and swimming, but caution should be exercised
in using it. Current epidemiological data are not materially
more refined or definitive than those that were available in
1935. The  principal value of a fecal coliform index is as an
indicator of possible fecal contamination from man or other
warm-blooded animals.  A study of  the occurrence  of
Salmonella  organisms in natural waters  showed  that  when
the fecal coliform level was less than 200 organisms per 100
ml,  this group of pathogenic bacteria was isolated  less
frequently (Geldreich 1970).214 Salmonella  organisms were
isolated  in 28 per  cent of the samples with a fecal coliform
density less than the 200 value,  but they  were  isolated in
more than 85 per cent of the samples that exceeded the
index value of 200 fecal coliform per 100 ml, and in more
than 98 per  cent of the  samples with  a fecal  coliform
density greater than 2,000 organisms per 100 ml.
   In evaluating microbiological  indicators of recreational
water quality, it should be remembered that many of the
diseases that seem  to be causally related to swimming and
bathing in polluted water are not enteric diseases or are
not caused by enteric  organisms.  Hence, the presence of
fecal coliform  bacteria or of Salmonella sp. in recreational
waters  is  less  meaningful  than  in drinking  water.  Indi-
cators other than  coliform or fecal coliform have been sug-
gested from  time to time  as being more appropriate for
evaluating bathing water quality. This includes the staphylo-
cocci (Favero et al. 1964),211 streptococci and other entero-
cocci (Litsky et al. 1953).218 Recently Pseudomonas aerugmosa,
a common organism implicated  in ear infection,  has been
isolated from natural swimming waters (Hoadley 1968)216

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yi/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
and  may prove to be an indicator of health hazards in
swimming water.  Unfortunately, to date,  none of the al-
ternative  microbiological indicators have  been supported
by epidemiological evidence.
  When used to supplement other evaluative measurements,
the fecal coliform index may be of value in  determining the
sanitary quality of recreational water intended for bathing
and  swimming. The  index is a measure of the  "sanitary
cleanliness" of the water and may denote the possible
presence of untreated or inadequately treated human wastes.
But it is an index that should be used only in conjunction
with other evaluative parameters of water quality such as
sanitary surveys,  other biological indices of pollution, and
chemical analyses of water. To use the fecal coliform index
as the  sole measure of "sanitary cleanliness," it would be
necessary to know the maximum "acceptable" concentra-
tion  of  organisms; but there is no agreed-upon value that
divides  "acceptability" from "unacceptability."* Thus, as
a measure of "sanitary cleanliness," an increasing value in
the fecal coliform index denotes simply a decrease  in the
level of cleanliness of the water.

Conclusion
  No specific recommendation is made concerning
the  presence or concentrations of microorganisms
in bathing water because of the paucity of valid
epidemiological data.

Temperature Characteristics

  The temperature of natural waters is an important factor
governing the character and extent of the recreational ac-
tivities, primarily in the  warm months of the year. Persons
engaging in winter water recreation such as ice skating,
duck hunting,  and fishing do so with the knowledge that
whole  body immersion must be avoided.  Accidental im-
mersion in water  at or near freezing temperatures is  dan-
gerous  because the median  lethal immersion time  is less
than 30 minutes for children  and most  adults  (Molnar
1946).220 Faddists swim in water that is near the freezing
temperature, but  their immersion time is short, and  they
have been  conditioned  for  the  exposure.  As a result  of
training, fat insulation, and increased body heat production,
some exceptional  athletic individuals (Korean pearl divers
and  swimmers of the English channel)  can withstand pro-
longed  immersion for as long as 17 hours in water at  16 C
(61 F),  whereas children and some adults might not survive
beyond two hours (Kreider 1964).217
  From one individual  to another,  there  is considerable
variation in the rates of body cooling and  the incidence of
          TABLE 1-3—Life Expectancy in Water
  (Expected duration in hows for adults wearing file vests and immersed in waters of varying temperature)
Duration
hours
0.5
I.*
2.0
3.0
4.0
32
0
M
L
L
L
I
41
5
M
M
L
L
L
50
10
M
L
L
Temperature of the water
59 61
15 20
Hr S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
M "I
78
25
S
S
S
S
86
30
S
S
S
S
S
95
35
S
S
S
S
S
104 P=
40 C°
M
L
L
L
L
  * If an arbitrary value for the fecal coliform index is desired, con-
sideration may be given to a density value expressed as a geometric
mean of a series of samples collected during periods of normal seasonal
flow. A maximum value of 1,000 fecal coliform per 100 ml could be
considered.
 L= Lethal, 100 per cent expectancy of death.
 M= Marginal, 50 per cent expectancy of unconsciousness, probably drowning.
 S=Sale, 100 per cent survival.
 Adapated from tables by Pan American Airways and others.
survival in cold water. The variability is a function of bod
size, fat content, prior acclimatization, ability to exercise
and overall physical  fitness.  The  ratio of body mass t
surface area is greater in large, heavy individuals, and the!
mass changes with temperature more slowly than that of
small child (Kreider 1964).217
  With the exception of water temperatures affected b
thermal springs,  ocean currents such as the Gulf Strean:
and man-made  heat,  the temperature  of natural water i
the result of air temperature:, solar radiation, evaporatior
and wind movement. Many natural waters are undesirabl
cold for complete body immersion even during the summe
period. These include  coastal waters subjected to cold cut
rents such as the Labrador Current on the northeaster
coastline or the  California Current in the Pacific Ocea
(Meyers et al. 1969).219 In a.ddition, some deep  lakes an
upwelling springs, and streams  and lakes fed from meltin
snow may have summer surface temperatures too cold fc
prolonged swimming for children.
  The most comfortable temperature range for instructions
and general recreational swimming where the  metaboli
rate of  heat production is not high—i.e.,  about 250  kil
calories/hr (1000 BTUs/hr) —appears to be about 29-30 (
(84—86 F). In sprint swimming when metabolic rates excee
500 kilo calories/hr (2,000 BTUs/hr),  swimmers can pei
form  comfortably in water  temperatures in  the range (
20-27 C (68-80 F) (Bullard and Rapp 1970).206
  The safe upper limit of water temperature for recreatiom
immersion varies from individual to individual and seen
to depend on psychological rather than physiological cor
siderations.  Unlike cold water,  the mass/surface  area rati
in warm  water favors the child.  Physiologically, neithe
adult nor child would experience  thermal stress undc
modest  metabolic heat production as long as the wate
temperature was lower than  the normal skin temperatui
of 33 C (91  F) (Newburgh 1949).223 The rate at which hej
is conducted from the immersed human body is so rapi
that thermal balance for a 'body at rest in  water can onl
be  attained if the water temperature is about 34 C (92 J
(Beckman 1963).205 The survival of an individual submerge

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                                                     Water Quality for General Recreation, Bathing, and Swimming/ZZ
in water at a temperature above  34-35 C  (93-95  F),
depends on his tolerance  to the elevation of his internal
temperature, and there is a real risk of injury with prolonged
exposure (Table 1-3). Water ranging in temperature from
26-30  C (78-86  F)  is  comfortable to  most  swimmers
throughout prolonged periods of moderate physical exertion
(Bullard and  Rapp  1970).206 Although data are limited,
natural surface waters do not often exceed skin temperature,
but water  at  32 C (90 F) is not unusual for rivers and
estuaries (Public Works 1967).225

Recommendation
  In  recreational  waters  used  for  bathing and
swimming, the thermal characteristics should not
cause an appreciable  increase or decrease in the
deep  body temperature of  bathers and swimmers.
One hour of continuous immersion in waters colder
than  15 C  (59  F) may cause  the death of some
swimmers and  will be extremely  stressful to  all
swimmers who are not garbed in underwater pro-
tective cold-clothing.  Scientific evidence suggests
that  prolonged  immersion in water warmer than
34-35  C (93-94  F) is  hazardous.  The degree of
hazard varies with water temperature, immersion
time, and metabolic rate of the swimmer.

pH Characteristics
  Some chemicals affect the pH of water. Many saline,
naturally alkaline, or acidic fresh  waters may cause  eye
irritation because  the pH of  the water is unfavorable.
Therefore,  special  requirements concerning the  pH  of
recreational waters may  be more restrictive  than those
established for public water supplies.
  The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a normal pH of
approximately 7.4 and a high  buffering capacity due pri-
marily to the presence of complex organic buffering agents.
As is  true  of many organic buffering agents, those of the
lacrimal fluid are able to maintain the pH within a narrow
range until their buffering capacity is exhausted. When the
lacrimal fluid, through exhaustion of its buffering capacity,
is unable to adjust the immediate contact layer of another
fluid to a pH of 7.4,  eye  irritation results. A deviation of
no more than 0.1 unit from the normal pH of the eye may
result in discomfort, and appreciable deviation will cause
severe pain (Mood 1968).221
  Ideally,  the pH of swimming water should be approxi-
mately the same  as that of the lacrimal  fluid, i.e.,  7.4.
However,  since the lacrimal  fluid  has a high buffering
capacity, a range of pH values from 6.5 to  8.3 can  be
tolerated under average  conditions.  If the water is  rela-
tively free  of dissolved solids and has a very low buffering
capacity, pH values from 5.0 to  9.0 may be acceptable to
most swimmers.
Conclusion
  For most bathing and swimming waters, eye irri-
tation is minimized and recreational enjoyment
enhanced by maintaining the pH within the range
of 6.5 and  8.3 except for those waters with a low
buffer capacity where  a range of pH between  5.0
and 9.0 may be tolerated.

Clarity Considerations
  It is important that water  at  bathing and  swimming
areas be clear enough for users to estimate depth, to see
subsurface hazards  easily  and clearly, and  to  detect  the
submerged bodies of swimmers or divers who may be in
difficulty. Aside from the  safety factor, clear water fosters
enjoyment of the aquatic environment. The  clearer  the
water, the more desirable the swimming area.
  The natural turbidity of some  bathing and  swimming
waters is often so high that visibility through the water is
dangerously limited. If such areas are in conformance with
all other requirements, they may be used for bathing and
swimming, provided that  subsurface hazards are removed
and the depth of the water is clearly indicated by signs that
are easily readable.

Conclusion
  Safety and enhancement of aesthetic enjoyment
is fostered  when  the clarity of the water in desig-
nated bathing and swimming areas allows the de-
tection of subsurface hazards or submerged bodies.
Where such clarity is not attainable, clearly read-
able depth indicators are desirable.

Chemical Considerations
  It is impossible to enumerate in  specific terms  all  the
specialized requirements that pertain to the chemical quality
of bathing and swimming waters. In general, these require-
ments may  be  quantified by analyzing  the  conditions
stipulated  by two kinds of human exposure, i.e., ingestion
and  contact. A  bather involuntarily swallows only a small
amount of water while  swimming, although precise data
on this are lacking.

Recommendation
  Prolonged whole body immersion in the water is
the  principal  activity that influences the required
chemical characteristics of recreational waters for
bathing and swimming.
  The  chemical characteristics of bathing  and
swimming waters  should be such  that water is
nontoxic and nonirritating to  the  skin and  the
mucous membranes of the human body. (See also
the Recommendations on p. 30.)

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            WATER  QUALITY  CONSIDERATIONS  FOR  SPECIALIZED  RECREATION
  The recreational enjoyment of water involves many ac-
tivities other than water contact sports. Some of these, such
as boating, may have an adverse effect on the quality of
water and require  berthing and launching facilities that in
themselves may degrade the  aesthetic enjoyment of the
water  environment. Others,  such as  fishing,  waterfowl
hunting, and shellfish harvesting, depend upon the quality
of water being suitable for the species of wildlife involved.
Because  they are water-related and either require or are
limited by specific water-quality constituents for their con-
tinuance, these  specialized  types of recreation  are  given
individual attention.
BOATING

  Boating  is a water-based recreational activity that re-
quires aesthetically pleasing water for its full enjoyment.
Boats also make a contribution to the aesthetic and recre-
ational activity scene as the sailboat or canoe glides about
the water  surface  or the  water  skier  performs.  Boating
activity of all types has an element of scale with larger and
faster boats associated with larger waterbodies. Many of
the problems  associated with boating are essentially vio-
lations of scale.
  Boating activities also have  an impact on water quality.
The magnitude of the impact is  illustrated  by recent esti-
mates that  there are more than 12 million pleasure boats in
the United States (Outboard Boating Club  1971).236 More
than  8 million of these are equipped  with engines, and
300,000  have  sanitary facilities without pollution  contro]
devices. Because of the large number of boats in use, many
bodies of water are now experiencing  problems that ad-
versely affect other water uses, such as public water supply,
support  of  aquatic  life, and  other types  of water-based
recreation.
  The detrimental effect of boating on water quality comes
from  three  principal sources: waste disposal systems, engine
exhaust, and  refuse  thrown  overboard. Discharges  from
waste disposal systems on boats are individually  a small
contribution to  contamination and may not be reflected
in water-quality sampling,  but they represent a potential
health hazard and an aesthetic nuisance that must be co
trolled in or near designated swimming areas.  Pathoge
in human waste are probably the most important contan
nant in the discharges, because of their potential effect i
human health (see discussions on Special Requirements (
Bathing and Swimming Waters, p. 30, and Shellfish, p. 3f
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended soli
(SS) are also involved in the discharges, but the quantiti
are not  likely  to have any  measurable effect on  over:
water quality. In view of this, it would appear that prima
emphasis should be on  the control of bacteria from sanita
systems.
  The exhaust of internal combustion engines and the u
burned fuel of the combustion cycle affect aesthetic enjc
ment and may impart undesirable taste and odors to wat
supplies  and off-flavors to  aquatic life.  Crankcase exhai
from  the two-cycle engine  can discharge  as  much as
per cent of the fuel to  the  water in  an unburned sta
while 10 to 20 per cent is common (Muratori 1968).233 O
study showed that the use of 2.2-3.5 gal/acre-foot (usi
an oil:fuel mixture of 1:17) will cause some indication
fish flesh tainting, and about 6 gal/acre-foot result in seve
tainting  (English et al. 1963).232 (For further discussions
the effects of oil on environments, see Sections III and ]
on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic  Life and Wildlife.)
  The amount of lead emitted into the  water from an 01
board motor  burning  leaded gasoline  (0.7 grams of  le
per liter) appears to be related to the size of the  motor a
the speed of operation. A 10-hp engine operated at one-h
to three-fourths throttle was shown to emit into  the wai
0.229 grams of lead  per liter of fuel consumed, whereas
5.6-hp engine operated at full throttle emitted 0.121 grai
per liter (English et al. 1963).232
  With respect to interference with other beneficial us
it has  been reported that a large municipal water works
experiencing difficulties with oil on the  clarification basil
The oil occurs subsequent to periods of extensive weeke
boating  activity during  the recreational season (Orsan
Quality Monitor 1969).234 Moreover, bottles, cans, plasti
and miscellaneous solid wastes  commonly deface wati
where boaters are numerous,  thereby  degrading the  e
vironment aesthetically.
                                                       34

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                                                                Water Quality Considerations for Specialized Recreation/35
  Waste discharge including sanitary,  litter, sullage, or
bilge from any water craft substantially reduces the water
quality of harbors and other congested areas.  The practice
is  aesthetically undesirable and  may constitute a health
hazard. When engine emissions from boats spread an oily
film on water or interfere with beneficial uses, as in lowering
the value of fish and other edible  aquatic organisms by im-
parting objectionable taste and odor to their  flesh, restric-
tions  should be devised  to limit  engine  use or reduce the
emissions.
  Floating or submerged objects  affect boating safety, and
stray electrical currents  increase  corrosion as do corrosive
substances  or low pH values. Growth of hull-fouling orga-
nisms is enhanced by the discharge of high-nutrient-bearing
wastewaters. These conditions represent either a hazard to
boating or an economic loss to the boat operator.

Conclusion
  Water that meets  the general recommendations
for aesthetic purposes is acceptable for boating.
(see Water Quality for Preserving Aesthetic Values,
pp. 11-12.)
  Boats and the impact of boating on water quality
are factors affecting  the recreational and aesthetic
aspects of water use and should be  considered as
such.

AQUATIC  LIFE AND WILDLIFE
  Fish, waterfowl, and  other water-dependent wildlife are
an  integral part  of water-based  recreation activities and
related aesthetic  values. Wildlife enhances  the aesthetic
quality of  aquatic  situations by  adding animation and a
fascinating array  of life  forms to an otherwise  largely  static
scene. Observation of these life forms, whether for photo-
graphic, educational  nature study,  or purely recreational
purposes,  is  an  aesthetically enriching  experience.  The
economic importance and popularity of recreation involving
the harvest offish, shellfish, waterfowl, and water-dependent
furbearers  have been discussed earlier. Water-quality  char-
acteristics recommended for the  well-being of aquatic life
and associated wildlife  are  discussed in detail in  Sections
III and IV on Freshwater  and Marine Aquatic Life and
Wildlife.

Maintenance of Habitat
  Pressures placed  on the aquatic environment by the in-
creasing human  population are  of major concern.  They
often lead  at  least to disruption and occasionally to de-
struction of related life-support systems  of desired species.
Examples of this are the complete elimination of aquatic
ecosystems by the filling of marshes  or shallow waters for
commercial, residential,  or industrial developments, or the
sometimes  chronic, sometimes partial, and sometimes total
destruction of aquatic   communities by society's  wastes.
Effects of cultural encroachment are often insidious rather
than spectacular. Aesthetic values are gradually reduced,
as is recruitment of water-associated wildlife populations.
  Maintenance of life-support systems for aquatic life and
water-related wildlife requires adequately oxygenated water,
virtual freedom from damaging materials  and toxicants,
and the  preservation of a general habitat for routine ac-
tivities, plus the critical habitat necessary for reproduction,
nursery areas, food production, and protection from preda-
tors. Each species has its specific life-support requirements
that, if not adequately met, lead to depauperate populations
or complete species elimination. The life-support  systems
essential  to the survival of desired aquatic life and  wildlife
are required for man to enjoy the full scope of water-related
recreational and aesthetic benefits.
  Man is often  in direct competition for a given  habitat
with many  species of aquatic life and wildlife. In  some
areas, the use of specific  waters for recreation based on
aquatic life and wildlife may be undesirable for a number of
reasons, including potential conflicts with other recreational
activities. Limitations on  the use of surface water capable
of providing recreational wildlife observation, hunting, and
fishing under practical management should not be imposed
by unsuitable  water quality.

Variety of Aquatic Life
  Natural surface waters support  a  variety of aquatic life,
and each species is of interest or importance  to man for
various reasons.  While water-based recreation often evokes
thoughts of fishing, there are a number of other important
recreational activities, such as skin diving, shell and insect
collecting, and  photography, that also benefit from the
complex  interrelationships that  produce fish. A variety of
aquatic life  is intrinsic  to our aesthetic enjoyment of the
environment.  Urban waterbodies may be  the  only  local
sites where  residents can still  conveniently  observe and
contemplate a complete web of life, from primary producers
through  predators.
  Reduction in the  variety of aquatic life has long been
widely used as an indication of water-quality degradation.
The degree of reduction in species diversity often indicates
the intensity  of  pollution because,  as a  general  rule, as
pollution increases, fewer  species can tolerate the environ-
ment.  Determining  the extent of reduction can  be ac-
complished by studying the entire ecosystem; but the phe-
nomenon is also reflected in the  community structure  of
subcomponents, e.g., bottom animals, plankton, attached
algae, or fish. Keup et al. (1967)236 compiled excerpts  of
early studies of this type. Mackenthun (1969)237 presented
numerous case studies dealing with  different types of pol-
lutants,  and Wilhm and  Dorris  (1968)238  have reviewed
recent efforts to express diversity indices mathematically.
  While  most water quality recommendations in  Sections
III and  IV on  Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and
Wildlife  are designed for  specific and known hazards, it is

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Z§/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
impossible  to make recommendations which will protect
all organisms from all hazards, including manipulation of
the physical environment. In  similar habitats and under
similar environmental conditions, a reduction in variety of
aquatic life (species diversity)  can be symptomatic  of an
ecosystem's  declining health and signal deterioration  of
recreational or other beneficial uses. In addition to mainte-
nance of aquatic community structures, special protective
consideration should  be given  sport, commercial,  and en-
dangered species of aquatic life and wildlife.
Recommendations
  To maintain and protect aesthetic values  and
recreational activities associated with aquatic life
and wildlife,  it  is recommended  that the water
quality recommendations  in the  Freshwater  and
Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife reports (Sections
III and IV) be applied.
  Since changes in species diversity are often as-
sociated with changes in water quality and signal
probable  changes  in recreational  and  aesthetic
values, it is recommended that changes in  species
diversity be employed  as indications that corrective
action may be necessary. (See Section III on Fresh-
water Aquatic  Life and Wildlife,  and  Appendix
II-B  on   Community  Structure   and  Diversity
Indices.)

SHELLFISH
  Shellfish* are a renewable, manageable natural  resource
of considerable economic  importance, and the water quality
essential to their protection  in  estuarine  growing  areas  is
discussed by the panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Section IV). However, the impact of shellfish as related to
recreational and aesthetic enjoyment is also important, al-
though difficult to estimate  in  terms of time and money.
Furthermore, because contaminated shellfish may be har-
vested  by the public, it is necessary to protect these people
and others who may eat the  unsafe catch.
  Clams and oysters are obtained  from intertidal  areas,
and these marine species have an unusual ability to  act as
disease vectors and to accumulate hazardous materials from
the water. As more people are able to seek them in a sports
fishery, the problems  of public  health  related  to  these
animals intensify.
  Because  the intent here is to protect  persons engaged in
recreational shellfishing, consideration  will be  given  to
numerous factors which  affect shellfish and their  growing
areas.  These include  bacteriological quality,  pesticides,
marine biotoxins, trace metals, and radionuclides.
  Recreational shellfishing should be limited to waters of
quality that allow harvesting for direct marketing. Epi-
  * As used here, the term "shellfish" is limited to clams, oysters, arid
mussels.
demiological  evidence  accumulated  through 46  years
operation under  the federal-state cooperative Natior
Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) demonstrated reaso
able safety in taking shellfish from approved growing are;
  The water quality criteria for determining an "approv
growing area" are the basis of the standards given in t
National Shellfish Sanitation  Program  Manual of Op<
ations, Part 1, Sanitation of Shellfish Growing Areas (PHS Pi
No. 33, 1965).261 The growing area may be designated
"approved" when:

  (a) the sanitary survey indicates that pathogenic mici
organisms, radionuclides, or toxic wastes do not reach t
area in  dangerous concentrations; and
  (b) potentially dangerous concentrations are verified
laboratory findings whenever the sanitary survey indica
the need.

Bacteriological Quality
  Clams and oysters, which are capable of concentrati
bacteria and viruses, are among the  few  animals eat
alive and raw by man. For these reasons, the consumpti
of raw shellfish harvested from unclean  or polluted watt
is  dangerous. Polluted water,  especially  that receivi
domestic sewage, may contain high numbers of bactei
normally carried in  the feces  of man and  other  anima
Although these bacteria may  not themselves be harmf
the danger exists that pathogenic bacteria and viruses m
also be  present (Lumsden  et  al. 1925,250 Old and G
1946,257  Mason  and  McLean 1962,251 Mosley 1964a,
1964b;255 Koff et al.  19G7).248 Shellfish are capable
pumping prodigious quantities of water in their  feedi
and concentrating the suspended bacteria and viruses. T
rate of  feeding in  shellfish is temperature-dependent, w
the highest  concentrating and feeding rate  occurring
warm water above 50 F and almost no feeding occurri
when the water temperatures approach 32 F. Therefo
shellfish meat in  the  winter  months  will have  a lov
bacterial concentration than in the summer months (G
bard  et al.,  1942) ,246  The  National Shellfish Sanitati
Program determines the bacteriological quality of comm
cial shellfish harvesting areas in the following manner:

    • examinations are conducted in accordance with 1
       recommended  procedures of  the American  Pul:
       Health Association for the examination of seawa
       and shellfish:
    • there must  be no direct discharges of inadequate
       treated sewage;
    • samples of water for bacteriological examination ;
       collected  under those conditions of time and  t
       which produce maximum concentrations of bacter
    • the coliform median most probable number (MP
       of the  water does not exceed 70 per 100 ml, and i
       more  than  10 per cent of the samples ordinal
       exceed an MPN of 230 per 100  ml  for a five-tu

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                                                                Water Quality Considerations for Specialized Recreation/37
       decimal dilution test (or 330 per 100 ml for a three-
       tube decimal dilution test) in those portions of the
       area most probably exposed to fecal contamination
       during the more unfavorable hydrographic and pol-
       lution conditions; and
     • the reliability of nearby waste treatment plants is
       considered before areas for direct harvesting  are
       approved.

Recommendation
   Recreational harvesting of shellfish should  be
limited  to areas  where water quality meets  the
National Shellfish Sanitation Program Standards
for approved growing areas.

Pesticides
   Pesticides reach estuarine waters from  many  sources in-
cluding sewage and industrial waste discharge, runoff from
land used for  agriculture and forestry, and chemicals used
to control aquatic vegetation and  shellfish predators. Once
pesticides are  in the marine environment, they are rapidly
accumulated by shellfish, sometimes to toxic concentrations.
Organochlorine compounds are usually the most toxic and
frequently have a deleterious effect at concentrations near
0.1 /ig/1  in the  ambient  water  (Butler  1966b).240 Lowe
(1965)249 observed that DDT at a  concentration of 0.5 ng/l
in water was fatal to juvenile blue crabs  (Callmectes sapidus)
in a few days.
   The biological magnification of persistent pesticides by
mollusks  in the  marine environment may be  very pro-
nounced. Butler  (1966a)239 observed  that DDT may be
concentrated to a level 25,000 times that found in  sur-
rounding sea water within 10 days. In some instances,  de-
pending upon water temperature, duration of exposure, and
concentration  of DDT in the surrounding water, biological
magnification  may be 70,000 times (Butler 1966b).240 Some
shellfish  species, particularly blue mussel (Mytilus edulis),
appear to have a higher concentration  factor than other
species (Modin 1969,253 Foehrenbach  1972).245
   In  1966, a nationwide surveillance system was initiated
by the  U.S. Bureau  of Commercial  Fisheries to monitor
permanent mollusk populations and determine  the extent
of pesticide pollution in North American estuaries. Butler
(1969)241 reported that sampling during the first three years
did not indicate any consistent  trends in estuarine pesticide
pollution. Distinct seasonal and geographical differences in
pollution levels were  apparent. Pesticides most  commonly
detected in order of frequency were DDT (including its
metabolites), endrin,  toxaphene,  and mirex. The amounts
detected in North  American estuaries varied.   In Wash-
ington,  less than  3  per cent of the sampled shellfish were
contaminated  with  DDT. Residues were always less than
0.05 mg/1. On the Atlantic Coast, DDT  residues in oysters
varied from less than 0.05 mg/1 in marine estuaries to less
than  0.5 mg/1 in others. In  a  monitoring program  for
TABLE 1-4—Recommended Guidelines for Pesticide Levels
                       in Shellfish
Pesticide
Aldrin" 	
BHC
Chlordane 	
DDT)
DDE) ANY ONE OR ALL, NOT TO EXCEED
ODD)
Dieldrin0
Endrin"
Heplachlofo 	 	
Heptachlor Eporide° 	
Lmdam 	 . 	
Metho«ychlor 	 	
2,4-D 	 	
Concentration in shellfish
(ppm-dramed weight)
0.20
0.20
0.03
1.50
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.50
 «It is recommended that if the combined values obtained for Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, and Heptachlor
Epoxide exceed 0.20 ppm, such values be considered as"alert" levels which indicate the need for increased samp'inf
until results indicate the levels are receding. It it further recommended that when the combined values tor the
above five pesticides reach the 0.25 ppm level, the areas be closed until it can be demonstrated that the levels an
receding.
 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service 19!8.-3
chlorinated hydrocarbon  pesticides in estuarine organisms
in marine waters of Long Island, New York, Foehrenbach
(1972)245 found that  residues of DDT,  ODD, DDE, and
dieldrin in shellfish were well within the proposed limits of
the 6th National Shellfish Sanitation Workshop  (1968)262
(see Table 1-4).  For most cases, the levels detected were
10- to 20-fold less than the recommendations for DDT and
its  metabolites, and in many  instances concentrations  in
the shellfish were lower by a factor of 100.
  Although pesticide levels in many estuaries in the United
States are low, the marked ability of shellfish to concentrate
pesticides indicates that the levels approached in  waters
may be considered significant in certain isolated instances
(Environmental Protection Agency 1971).244

Recommendation
  Concentrations of pesticides in fresh and marine
waters that provide an adequate level of protection
to  shellfish are recommended in  the Freshwater
and  Marine Aquatic  Life  and  Wildlife Reports,
Sections III and IV. Levels that protect the human
consumer of shellfish should be  based on pesticide
concentrations in  the edible portion of the  shell-
fish. Recommended human health guidelines for
pesticide concentrations in shellfish have been sug-
gested by  the  6th National  Shellfish  Sanitation
Workshop  (1968)262,  Table  1-4.  They  are  recom-
mended here as interim guidelines.

Marine Biotoxins
  Paralytic poisoning due to the ingestion of toxic shellfish,
while not  a  major public health problem,  is a  cause  of
concern to health officials because  of its extreme toxicity,
and because  there is no known antidote. Up to 1962, more

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38/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
than 957 cases of paralytic shellfish poisoning are known
to have occurred, resulting in at least 222 deaths in the
United States (Halstead 1965).24
  Paralytic shellfish  poison is a non-protein, acid-stable,
alkali-labile biotoxin nearly 10,000 times as lethal as sodium
cyanide. The original source  of the poison is a species of
unicellular  marine dinoflagellates, genus Gonyaulax. Gony-
aulax cantenella,  perhaps the best known of the toxic dino-
flagellates, is found on the Pacific Coast. Gonyaulax tamarensis
is the causative organism  of paralytic shellfish  poison on
the Atlantic Coast of Canada and the northern United
States. Other dinoflagellate species have  been identified in
outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning outside the United
States (Halstead 1965).247
  Mollusks and other seashore animals may become poison-
ous if they consume  toxic planktonic algae. Mussels and
clams are the  principal species  of edible mollusks that
reach dangerous levels of toxicity. Although oysters can
also become toxic, their apparent uptake of toxin is usually
lower; and they are  usually reared in areas free  of toxin
(Dupuy and Sparks 1968).243
  The level of toxicity of shellfish is  proportional to the
number and  poison  content of Gonyaulax ingested. When
large numbers of Gonyaulax are present in the water, shellfish
toxicity may rise rapidly to dangerous levels (Prakash and
Medcof 1962).268 The extent  of algal growth depends on
the combination of nutrients, salinity, sunlight, and temper-
ature. Massive blooms of algae are most likely to occur in
the warm summer months. In the absence of toxic  algae,
the poison that had been stored in  the shellfish is eliminated
by a purging action  over a period of time (Sommer and
Meyer 1937).260
  Although Gonyaulax only blooms in the warmer months,
shellfish are not necessarily free from  toxin during the rest
of the year, as there is great variation  in the rates of uptake
and elimination of the poison among  the various species of
mollusks. It is possible for certain species to remain toxic
for a long period of time.  Butter clams, for example, store
the toxin for a considerable length of time, especially under
cold  climatic  conditions  (Chambers  and  Magnusson
1950).242
  Cooking  by boiling, steaming,  or  pan frying does not
remove the danger of intoxication, although it does reduce
the original poison content of the raw meat to some extent.
Pan frying  seems to  be more effective than other cooking
methods  in reducing  toxicity  probably  because higher
temperatures are involved. If the water in which shellfish
have been  boiled is  discarded, most of the toxin will  be
removed (McFarren  et al. 1965).252
  A chemical method for the quantitative determination of
the poison  has been  devised,  but the most generally used
laboratory technique for determining the toxicity of shellfish
is a bioassay using mice. The  toxin extracted from shellfish
is injected into test mice and the length of time elapsii
from injection of the mice  to the time of their death c;
be correlated with the  amount of poison the shellfish co
tain. The quantity of paralytic shellfish poison produci
death is measured in mouse units.

Recommendation
  Since there is no analytical measurement for tl
biotoxin in water, shellfish should not be harvest*
from any areas even if "approved" where analys
indicates a Gonyaulax shellfish toxin poison coi
tent  of  80  micrograms  or  higher,  or  where
Ciguateria-like toxin reaches 20 mouse units  p
100 grams of the edible  portions of raw  shellfii
meat.

Trace Metals
  The hazard to humans oi" consuming shellfish containii
toxic  trace metals has been  dramatized by outbreaks
Minimata in  Japan. Pringle et al. (1968)259 noted that t
capacity  of shellfish to concentrate  in vivo some  metals
levels many hundred times greater than those in the e
vironment means that  moliusks exposed to pollution m;
contain  quantities sufficient  to produce toxicities in t
human consumer.

Recommendation
  Concentrations  of metals in fresh and marii
waters that provide  an adequate level of protectic
to shellfish  are recommended in  the Freshwat
and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Section
HI and IV. Recommendations to protect  the hi
man consumer of shellfish should be based on trac
metal content  of the edible portions of the she!
fish,  but necessary  data  to support  such recon
mendations are not currently available.

Radionuclides
  Radioactive wastes  entering water present a potent
hazard to humans who consume shellfish growing in su
water. Even though radioactive material may be discharg
into shellfish growing  waters at levels  not exceeding t
applicable standards, it  is  possible that accumulation
radionuclides  in  the aquatic food  chain may  make t
organisms used as food unsafe. The  radionuclides Zn66 a
P32 (National Academy of  Sciences 1957)256 are  known
be concentrated  in shellfish  by five orders of magnitu
(105). Therefore, consideration must be given to radioacti
fallout or discharges of wastes from nuclear reactors ai
industry into shellfish growing areas. For further  discussv
of this subject see  Section IV,  Marine Aquatic Life ai
Wildlife, p. 270.

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           WATER  QUALITY  CONSIDERATIONS FOR  WATERS  OF  SPECIAL  VALUE
WILD AND  SCENIC RIVERS

  There are still numerous watersheds in the United States
that are remote from population centers. Almost inaccessible
and apparently free from man's developmental influences,
these watersheds are conducive to mental as well as physical
relaxation in the naturalness of their surroundings. To as-
sure the preservation of such natural beauty, the Wild and
Scenic Rivers Act of 1968  established in part a  national
system of wild and scenic rivers (U.S.  Congress  1968).269
Eight rivers  designated  in the Act in whole or in part
constituted the original components of the system:

  1.  Clearwater, Middle Fork, Idaho
  2.  Eleven Point, Missouri
  3.  Feather, California
  4.  Rio Grande, New Mexico
  5.  Rogue, Oregon
  6.  Saint Croix, Minnesota and Wisconsin
  7.  Salmon, Middle Fork, Idaho
  8.  Wolf, Wisconsin

  All or portions of 27 other rivers were mentioned specifi-
cally in the Act as being worthy of inclusion in the system
if studies to be conducted by several federal agencies showed
their inclusion to be feasible. Certainly there are many more
rivers in the nation worthy of preservation by state and
local agencies (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Outdoor Recreation, 1970).270 In Kentucky alone,  it was
found that 500 streams and watersheds,  near  urban areas,
would serve purposes of outdoor recreation in natural  en-
vironments (Dearinger 1968).264
  Characteristically, such wild river areas are: (a) accessible
to man in only  limited degrees; (b) enjoyed  by relatively
few people who  actually go to the site; (c)  visited  by scout
troops or other small groups  rather than by lone indi-
viduals; and (d) productive of primarily intangible,  aesthetic
benefits of real  value though  difficult  to  quantify (U.S.
Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission 1962.271
Sonnen et al. 1970267).
  The  quality of natural  streams is generally good, pri-
marily because man's activities leading to waste discharges
are minimal or nonexistent in the area.* However, fecal
coliform concentrations in some natural waters have been
found to be quite high following surface runoff (Betson and
Buckingham unpublished report 1970;273 Kunkle and Meiman
1967266), indicating the possible presence of disease-causing
organisms in these waters. The sources of fecal coliforms in
natural waters are wild  and domestic animals and birds,
as well as  human beings who occasionally visit the  area.
Barton  (1969)263 has also reported that natural areas may
contribute  significant loads of nitrogen, phosphorus,  and
other  nutrients to the  streams  that  drain them.  These
chemicals can  lead to algal blooms and  other naturally
occurring but  aesthetically unpleasant  problems.  Barton
(1969)263 also  points out the paradox  that a significant
contributor to  pollution of natural waters is the  human
being who comes to enjoy the uniquely unpolluted environ-
ment.  In addition to water-quality degradation, man also
contributes over one pound per day of solid wastes or refuse
in campgrounds and wilderness areas, a problem with which
the  Forest  Service  and  other agencies must now  cope
(Spooner 1971).268
   This discussion has concentrated on Wild and Scenic
rivers. However, similar consideration should be given to
the recognition and preservation  of other wild stretches of
ocean  shoreline,  marshes, and unspoiled  islands  in fresh
and salt waters.

WATER  BODIES  IN URBAN AREAS

   Many large water bodies are located near or in urban and
metropolitan  areas. These waters include major  coastal
estuaries and bays,  portions of the Great Lakes,  and the
largest inland rivers. Characteristically,  these waters serve
a multiplicity of uses and are an economic advantage to the
  * Some of the least mineralized natural waters are those in high
mountain areas fed 6y rainfall or snowmelt running across  stable
rock formations. One such stream on the eastern slope of the Rocky
Mountains has been found to have total dissolved solids concentra-
tions often below 50 mg/1, coliform  organism concentrations of 0
to 300/ml, and turbidities of less than 1 unit (Kunkle and Meiman
1967).a»
                                                       39

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40/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
region and to the nation  as a whole. In addition to pro-
viding water supplies, they have pronounced effects on local
weather  and make possible valuable  aesthetic and recre-
ational pleasures, ranging from simple viewing to fishing
and boating.
  Large  urban  waterways,  because of their location in
densely populated areas,  are  heavily used  commercially
and are also in great demand for recreational and  aesthetic
purposes. Consequently, although swimming and other con-
tact activities cannot always be provided in all such waters,
quality levels supportive of these activities should be en-
couraged.
  Water  flow in the urban stream tends to be variable and
subject to higher and more frequent flood flows than under
"natural  conditions,"  because  storm water  runoff from
buildings and hard-surfaced areas is so complete and rapid.
The impaired quality of the water may be due to storm water
runoff, upstream soil erosion, or sewage discharges and low
base flow. Whitman (1968)272 surveyed the sources of pol-
lution  in the  urban streams in Baltimore and Washington
and reported that sewer malfunctions, many of which might
be eliminated, were the largest causes of poor water quality.
In large  metropolitan  areas with either separate  or com-
bined sewer systems, pollution of the urban waterway can
be expected during heavy rainstorms when the streams may
contain coliform concentrations in the millions per 100 ml.
In addition, these flood waters flow with treacherous swift-
ness and  are filled with mud and debris.
  Small  urban streams are even more numerous. Although
these may  have only intermittent flow, they have the ca-
pacity to provide considerable  opportunities for  a variety
of water-related recreation activities. Unfortunately, these
in-city streams are more often eyesores than they are com-
munity treasures.  Trash,  litter, and  rubble are  dumped
along  their banks, vegetation  is  removed,  channels are
straightened and concrete stream beds are constructed or
even roofed over completely to form covered sewers.
  This abuse and destruction of a  potential economic and
social resource  need not occur. The urban stream can be
made the focal point of a  recreation-related complex. The
needs of the cities are  many, and  not the least of them is
the creation of a visually attractive urban environment in
which the role of water is crucial.
  The reclamation of downtown sections of the San Antonio
River  in the commercial  heart of San Antonio,  Texas,  is
perhaps  the best known and most encouraging example of
the scenic and cultural potential of America's urban streams
(Gunn et al. 1971).266 From a modest beginning with WPA
labor in  the mid-1930's, the restoration of about a  one-mile
portion of the river threading  its way through the central
business  district has resulted in the creation of the Paseo
Del  Rio, or River  Walk. Depressed below the level of
adjacent streets, heavily landscaped with native and tropical
vegetation, the river is bordered with pleasant promenades
along  which  diners relax  in outdoor cafes. Fountains and
waterfalls add to the visual attractiveness, and open barg
carry groups of tourists or water-borne diners to histoi
buildings, restaurants,  clubs, and a  River  Theater.  Mo
popular with both local residents and tourists each year, t
River Walk has proved to be a significant  social and ec
nomic development, attracting commercial enterprises
a previously blighted  and unattractive area. The  Riv
Walk is widely visited and studied as a prototype for urb;
river  reclamation,  and it demonstrates that urban  rive
can serve as the environmental skeleton on which an enti
community amenity of major proportions can be built.

OTHER WATERS OF SPECIAL  VALUE

  Between the remote  and seldom used waters of Amerii
at one extreme and the urban waterways at the other a
many unique water recreation spots  that are visited ai
enjoyed by  large numbers of tourists each year. Amoi
these  are Old Faithful, Crater  Lake,  The Everglades, tl
Colorado  River-Grand Canyon National Park,  and La]
Tahoe.  These ecologically or geologically  unique wate
are  normally maintained in very nearly their natural coi
ditions, but  access  to  them  is freer  and  their  monetai
value is greater than  that of the wild rivers.  To man
however, their aesthetic value will always be greater the
their monetary value. It is obviously impossible to establi:
nationally  applicable  quality recommendations  for su<
waters. (It would be ludicrous,  for example, to expect O
Faithful to be as cool  as Crater Lake, or The Everglad
as clear as Lake Tahoe.) Nonetheless, responsible agenci
should establish recommendations for each  of these wate
that will protect and preserve their unique values.
  Municipal raw water supply  reservoirs  are often  a  p
tential source of recreation and  aesthetic enjoyment. Pei
odic review of the recreational restrictions to protect  wat
quality in such reservoirs could result in provision of ai
ditional recreational and aesthetic opportunities.  (See al
the  general Introduction, p. 3—4 regarding preservatic
of aquatic sites of scientific value.)

Conclusions
  To preserve or  enhance  recreational and  aei
thetic values:
• water quality supportive  of general recreation
  adequate to provide tor the intended uses of wil
  and scenic rivers;
• water quality supportive  of general recreation
  adequate to protect or enhance  uses of urba
  streams,  provided  that  economics, flow  cor
  ditions,  and  safety  considerations  make thes
  activities feasible;
• special  criteria are  necessary to  protect  th
  nation's unique recreational waters with regar
  to  their  particular physical,  chemical,  or  bic
  logical properties.

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                                                    LITERATURE  CITED
INTRODUCTION

1 The Boating Industry (1971), The boating business, 1970. 34(l):39-62.
2Brightbill,  C. K. (1961), Man and leisure (Prentice Hall, Englewood
     Cliffs, New Jersey), p. 9.
3 Butler,  G. D.  (1959),  Introduction  to  community recreation,  3rd ed.
     (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York), p. 10.
4 Doell, C.  E.  (1963),  Elements of park and recreation  administration
     (Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis), p. 3.
6 Lehman, H. C.  (1965), Recreation, in  Encyclopedia  Britannica 19:
     15-16.
6 Ragatz,  R. L.  (1971),  Market potential for seasonal homes (Cornell
     University, Ithaca, New York).
'Slater, D.  W. (1972), Review of the 1970 national survey. Trans.
     Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(1):163-167.
8Stroud, R. H. and R. G. Martin (1968), Fish conservation highlights,
     W63-W67 (Sport Fishing  Institute, Washington, D.C.), pp. 25,
     124.
9 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law 90-542,
     S. 119,  12 p.
10 U.S. Congress  (1965),  Federal Water  Project Recreation Act, Public
     Law 89-72,  79S., July 9, 1965, 213 p.
"U.S. Congress  (1968),  Estuary Protection Act,  Public Law 90-454,
     82S.625, August 3, 1968.
12 U.S. Department of the Interior, Press releases, October 30,  1961
     and November 10, 1961.
13 U.S. Department  of the Interior.  Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
     (1967), Outdoor recreation  trends  (Government  Printing  Office,
     Washington, D.C.), 24  p.
14 U.S. Department  of the Interior,  Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
     (1971), Communications from the  division of nationwide plan-
     ning.

References Cited
16 Bureau  of Outdoor Recreation, personal communication 1971.
16 Churchill, M.  A.  (1972), personal  communication  Water  Quality
     Branch, Division of Environmental Research and Development,
     Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee.
17 Slater, D. W.  (1971),  personal  communication,  Division of River
     Basin Studies, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. De-
     partment of the Interior,  Washington, D.C.
18 Stout, N.  (1971),  personal communication Division of Research  and
     Education, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, U.S. Department of
     the Interior, Washington, D.C.

WATER QUALITY FOR  PRESERVING  AESTHETIC VALUES

19 Forges, R. et al. (1952), Lower Missouri river basin water pollution
     investigation,  a cooperative  state-federal report,   water pollu-
     tion series 47. Federal  Security Agency, Public Health Service
     Publication 269:27.
RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY
20 Ashton, P. G. and M. Chrbb (1971), A preliminary study for de-
    termining  boating  carrying  capacity  standards. Paper given at
    the Seventh American  Water Resources Conference, Washington, D.C.
21 Chubb, M. (1969), Proceedings of the national Jorum on recreation stan-
    dards, National Recreation and Parks Association, held at Kansas
    City, Missouri.
22 Chubb, M. and P. G. Ashton  (1969), Park and recreation standards
    research: the creation of environmental quality controls for  recreation, a
    report to the National Recreation and Parks Association, Tech-
    nical Report  No.  5,  Recreation Research  and Planning  Unit
    (Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan), pp. 12—27.
23Cowgill,  P. (1971), "Too many people on the  Colorado River,"
    National Parks and Conservation Magazine, 45:14.
24 Dana, S. T.  (1957), Research  needs  in  forest recreation, in Pro-
    ceedings: Society of American Foresters meeting, October  15—17, 1956
    (The Society, Washington, D.C.), pp. 33-38.
26 Lucas, R. C. (1964),  The  recreational capacity of the Quetico-Superior
    area [U.S.  Forest Service Research paper LS-15] (Lake States
    Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minnesota), 34 p.
26 Michigan Department  of Natural  Resources  (1970),  Michigan
    recreation plan,  Lansing, Michigan VIII, 3:44.

References Cited
27 Colburn, W.  (1971), personal  communications.  Office  of  Planning
    Services, Michigan  Department of Natural Resources, Lansing,
    Michigan.

SEDIMENTS  AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS
28 Buck, O. H.  (1956), Effects of turbidity on fish and fishing. Trans.
    N. Amer. Widl. Conf. 21:249-261.
29 Cairns, J., Jr. (1968),  We're in hot water. Scientist and Citizen 10(8):
    187-198.
80 Krone, R. B. (1962),  Flume studies on the transport of sediments
    in  estuarial shoaling processes. University of California Berkley
    Sanitary Engineering Research Lab and Hydr. Eng. Lab.
31 Shepherd, F.  P. (1963), Submarine geology, 2nd ed. (Harper and Row
    Publishers, New York), 557 p.
32 U.S.  Army,  Coastal  Engineering  Research Center (1966),  Shore
    protection, planning and design, 3rd ed.  [Technical report no.  4]
    (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 399 p.
33 Von  Donsel, D. J. and  E. E.  Geldreich (1971), Relationships of
    salmonellae to fecal coliforms in bottom sediments. Water Res.
    5(11):1079-1087.

VECTORS AND NUISANCE  ORGANISMS
34 Bartsch, A. F. and W.  M. Ingram (1959), Stream life and the pollu-
    tion environment. Public  Works 90(1):  104-110.
                                                                41

-------
42/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
36 Bay,  E. C. (1964), California  chironomids. Proceedings and  Papers
     of the Thirty-second Annual Conference of the California Mosquito Con-
     trol Association pp. 82-84.
36 Bay,  E. C., L. D. Anderson and  J. Sugerman (1965), The abate-
     ment of a chironomid nuisance on  highways at Lancaster, Cali-
     fornia. California Vector Views  12(7):29-32.
"Bay,  E. C., A. A. Ingram and L. D. Anderson  (1966), Physical
     factors  influencing  chironomid infestation  of  water-spreading
     basins. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 59(4):714—717.
38 Beadle, L.  D.  and F. C. Harmstrom (1958), Mosquitoes in sewage
     stabilization ponds in the Dakotas. Mosquitoe News 18(4):293-296.
39 Brackett, S.  (1941), Schistosome dermatitus and its  distribution.  A
     Symposium on Hydrobiology (University of Wisconsin Press, Madi-
     son), pp. 360-378.
40 Burks, B. D. (1953), The Mayflies, or Ephemeroptera, of Illinois.
     Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 26:1-216.
41 Cook, S. F. and  R. L. Moore  (1969), The effects of a Rotenone
     treatment on the insect fauna  of a California stream. Transac-
     tions American Fisheries Society 98(3):539-544.
42Cort,  W.  W.  (1928), Schistosome  Dermatitis in the  United States
     (Michigan). Journal of the American Medical Association 90:1027—
     1029.
43 Cort,  W.  W.  (1950), Studies on  Schistosome Dermatitus  XI. Status
     of  knowledge  after  more  than  twenty  years.  American  Jour.
     Hygiene 52(3):251-307.
44Fetterolf, C. M.,  M. E. Newton and L. Gouine (1970), The  cause
     and control of swimmers' itch in  Michigan. Bureau of Water
     Management,  Michigan  Department  of  Natural  Resources,
     Lansing, Michigan, 8 p., mimeo.
46 Fredeen, F. H. (1964), Bacteria as food for black fly larvae (Diptera
     simulide) in laboratory cultures and in natural streams. Canad.
     Jour. gaol. 42 (4): 52 7-548.
46 Fremling,  C.  R.  (1960a),  Biology of a  large  mayfly, Hexagenia
     bilineata  (say), of the upper Mississippi River, (Home Economics
     Experimental  Station, Iowa State  University  of Science and
     Technology), American Research  Bulletin 482:842-851.
47 Fremling, C. R.  (1960b), Biology and possible control of nuisance
     caddisflies of the upper Mississippi river (Agricultural and Home
     Economics  Experimental Station,  Iowa  State  University  of
     Science and Technology), American Research Bulletin 433:856-879.
48 Grodhaus,  G.  (1963), Chironomid midges as a nuisance I.  Review
     of Biology. California Vector Views 10(4): 19-24.
49 Henson, E. B. (1966), Aquatic  insects as  inhalant allergens: a re-
     view  of  American literature. The  Ohio  Journal  of Science 66(5)-
     529-532.
60 Hess,  A. D. (1956), Insect problems of public health importance in
     the United States today. Soap and Chemical Specialities 42:134-137.
"Hess,  A. D.  and P. Holden (1958), The natural  history  of the
     Arthropodborne encephalitides in  the  United States. Annals oj
     the New York Academy of Sciences  70(3):294-311.
62 Hilsenhoff, W. L.  (1959),  The  evaluation of insecticides of the
     control  of Tendipes pismosus (linnaeus).  Journal of Economic Ento-
     mology 52(2):331-332.
63 Hilsenhoff, W. L. and R. P. Narf (1968), Ecology of Chironomidae,
     Chaoboridae,  and other  bethos in fourteen  Wisconsin  lakes.
     Annals of the Entomological Society of America 61(5):1173-1181.
64 Hunt, E. G. and A. I. Bischoff (1960), Inimical effects on wildlife
     of periodic DDD applications to Clear Lake. Calif. Fish Game 46:
     91-106.
66 Jamnback, H. (1954), The biology and control of midge Tendipes
     decorus (Joh.) in Moriches Bay (preliminary report). New York
     State Science, Report of Investigation 6:1—36.
66Kimerle, R. A. and W. R. Enns  (1968), Aquatic insects associated
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67 Mackenthun, K.  M.  (1969),  The practice of water pollution biolo.
     (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 281 p.
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69 Oliver, L. (1949), Schistosome Dermatitis, a sensitization phenomeno
     Am. Jour, of Hygiene 49(3):290~302.
60 Provost, M. W. (1958), Chironomids  and lake nutrients in Florid
     Sewage and Industrial Wastes 30(11):  1417-1419.
"Schultz, L. P. and  D.  G. Cargo (1971), The sea nettle of Ches
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62Stunkard,  H. W. and  M.  C.  Hlnchliffe (1952), The morpholoj
     and  life-history of  Microbilharza variglandis,  avian  blood-fluk
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     of Parasitology 38(3):248-265.
63 Surber,  E.  W.  (1959),  Cncotopus bicinctus, a midgefly resistant
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64 Thomas, N. A. (1970), Impoundment biology of Wilson Reservoi
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66 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Contr
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66 World Health Organization (1959), Problem of bilharziasis. Wot
     Health Organization Chronical 13(1):3.

References Cited
67 Bay, E. C.  Unpublished data.  Department of Entomology, Marylaa
     College Park, Maryland.
68Bugbee, S. L. and C.  M. Walter (1972), unpublished paper,  The e
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     1972).
69 Florida State Board of Health, Winter Haven,  Florida. Unpublish
     data.

EUTROPHICATION AND  NUTRIENTS

70 American  Public  Health  Association,   American  Water Wor
     Association, and Water  Pollution  Control  Federation  (1971
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72 Arnon,  D.  I. and  G. Wessel (1953), Vanadium as an essential el
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AQUATIC VASCULAR  PLANTS

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4A/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
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INTRODUCTION  OF SPECIES

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^/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
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244 Environmental  Protection  Agency,  Division  of  Water Hygier
     Water Quality Office (1971),  Health guidelines for water i
     sources and related  land use management, appendix V. heal
     aspects:  North Atlantic Regional  Water Resource Study.
246 Foehrenbach, J. (1972),  Chlorinated pesticides  in esturine  C
     ganisms.  Journal of  Water Pollution Control Federation  44(4) :61
     624.
246 Gibbard, J., A. G. Campbell, A. W. H. Needier, and J. C. Medc<
     (1942),  Effect of hibernation on control of conform  bacteria
     oysters.  American Journal of Public Health 32:979-986.
247 Halstead,  B. W. (1965), Invertebrates, vol. 1 of Poisonous and vet
     mous marine animals  of the itiorld (Government Printing Offit
     Washington, D. C.), 994 p.
248 Koff, R. S., G. F.  Grady,  T. C. Chalmers, J. W. Mosely, B.
     Swartz  and  the Boston Later-Hospital  Liver  Group  (196'
     Viral hepatitis in  a group of Boston hospitals.  III. Importan
     of exposure to shellfish in a non-epidemic period. New  Engla
     J. Med. 276:703-710.

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                                                                                                                   Literature Cited/'47
248 Lowe,  J.  I.  (1965), Chronic exposure of blue crabs (Callinectes
     sapidus) to sublethal concentrations of DDT. Ecology, 46:899.
260 Lumsden, L. L.,  H. E. Hasseltine, J. P. Leak and M. V. Veldee
     (1925),  A  typhoid fever  epidemic caused  by oyster-borne in-
     fection. Pub. Health Reports, suppl. 50.
261 Mason, J. A.  and  W. R.  McLean (1962), Infectious  hepatitis
     traced to the consumption of raw oysters. Am. J. Hyg. 75:90—111.
262McFarren, E. F., F. J. Silva, H. Tanabe, W. B. Wilson,  J.  E.
     Campbell, and  K. H. Lewis (1965),  The occurrence of a cigua-
     tera-like poison in oysters, clams, and Gymnodinium breve cultures.
     Toxicon 3:111-123.
2HModin, J.  C.  (1969),  Chlorinated  hydrocarbon  pesticides  in
     California bays and estuaries. Pesticides Monitoring Jour. 3:1.
264 Mosely, J. W.  (1964a), A.  Clam-associated  infectious hepatitis—
     New  Jersey and Pennsylvania  followup report. Hepatitis sur-
     veillance. Report No. 79:  35-36.
266 Mosley, J. W.  (1964b), B.  Clam-associated  infectious hepatitis—
     Connecticut.  Follow-up report. Hepatitis  surveillance, Report
     No. ?9:30-34.
266 National Academy of Sciences.  Committee on Effects of Atomic
     Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries  (1957),  The effects of
     atomic radiation on oceanography and fisheries, report (The Academy,
     Washington, D.C.), 137, p.
267 Old, H.  N.  and S. L. Gill  (1946), A typhoid  fever epidemic
     caused by carrier bootlegging oysters. Am. Jour. Publ. Health 30:
     633-640.
268 Prakash, A. and J. C. Medcof (1962), Hydrographic and meteoro-
     logical factors affecting shellfish  toxicity  at Head Harbour, New
     Brunswick, J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 19(1):101-112.
26» Pringle, B. H., E. D.  Hissong, E. L.  Katz,  and S.  T. Mulawka
     (1968),  Trace,  metal accumulation  by estuarine  mollusks.  J.
     Sanit. Eng. Dw.  Amer. Sac.  Civil Eng. 94(SA3):455-475.
260 Sommer, H. and K. F. Meyer (1937), Paralytic shellfish poisoning.
     Archives of Pathology 24(5):  560-598.
261 U.S. Department  of  Health, Education and  Welfare. Public
     Health Service  (1965), National  shelljish sanitation program manual
     of operations [PHS Pub. 33 ](Government Printing Office, Washing-
     ton, D. C.), 3 parts, variously paged.
362 U.S. Department  of Health, Education and  Welfare. Public
     Health Service (1968), Proceedings 6th national shellfish  sanitation
     workshop, G. Morrison, ed. (Government Printing Office, Wash-
     ington, D. C.),  115 p.
WATER  QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR WATERS
OF  SPECIAL VALUE

263 Barton, M. A.  (1969),  Water  pollution in  remote recreational
     areas. J. Soil Water Conserv. 24(4): 132-134.
264 Dearinger, John A. (1968), Esthetic and recreational potential of small
     naturalistic streams near urban areas, research report No. 13 (University
     of Kentucky Water Resources Institute, Lexington, Kentucky),
     260 p.
266 Gunn, C. A., D. J. Reed and R. E. Couch (1971), Environmental
     enhancement.  Proceedings 16th  Annual  Water for  Texas Conference,
     San Antonio.  (Texas Water Resources  Institute, Texas  A & M
     University, College Station, Texas).
266 Kunkle, S. H. and J. R. Meiman (1967), Water quality of mountain
     watersheds  [Hydrology  paper  21]  (Colorado State University,
     Fort Collins), 53 p.
267 Sonnon, Michael B., Larry C. Davis,  William R.  Norton  and
     Gerald T. Orlob (1970), Wild rivers: methods for evaluation. [Pre-
     pared for the Office of Water Resources Research, U.S. Depart-
     ment of the Interior](Water Resources Engineers, Inc., Walnut
     Creek, California), 106 p.
268 Spooner,  C. S. (1971), Solid waste management in  recreational forest
     areas [PHS pub. 1991 ](Government Printing Office, Washing-
     ton, D. C.), 96 p.
269 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law
     90-542, S. 119, 12 p.
270 U.S. Department of the Interior,  Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
     (1970), Proceedings: National symposium  on  wild, scenic, and recrea-
     tional waterways, St. Paul, Minnesota, 209 p.
271 U.S. Outdoor  Recreation Resources Review  Commission (1962),
     Outdoor recreation for America (Government Printing Office, Wash-
     inton, D. C.), 246 p.
272 Whitman, I. L. (1968), Uses of small urban river valleys [Ph.D. dis-
     sertation] The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland,
     299 p.

References Cited

273Betson, R.  P. and R.  A. Buckingham (1970), Fecal coliform con-
     centrations in stormwaters.  Unpublished report presented at the 51st
     Annual  Meeting of the  American  Geophysical Union,  Wash-
     ington, D. C. Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Tennessee.

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                      Section  II  PUBLIC WATER  SUPPLIES
                                   TABLE OF  CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION	
    THE DEFINED TREATMENT PROCESS. .
    WATER QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS.
    SAMPLING AND MONITORING	
    ANALYTICAL METHODS	
    GROUND WATER  CHARACTERISTICS. ..
    WATER MANAGEMENT  CONSIDERATIONS.
ALKALINITY	
         Conclusion.
AMMONIA	
         Recommendation.
ARSENIC.
         Recommendation.
BACTERIA	
         Recommendation.
BARIUM.
         Recommendation.
BORON.
CADMIUM	
         Recommendation.

CHLORIDE	
         Recommendation.
CHROMIUM	
         Recommendation.
COLOR.
         Recommendation.
COPPER.
         Recommendation.
CYANIDE.
         Recommendation.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN.
         Conclusion. . .
50
50
50
51
52
52
52
54
54

55
55

56
56

57
58

59
59
59
60
60
61
61
62
62
63
63

64
64

65
65

65
65
FLUORIDE	
         Recommendation.
FOAMING AGENTS	
         Recommendation.

HARDNESS	
         Conclusion 	
IRON.
         Recommendation.
LEAD.
         Recommendation.
MANGANESE	
         Recommendation.
MERCURY	
         Recommendation.
NITRATE-NITRITE	
         Recommendation.
NITRILOTRIACETATE (NTA).
         Conclusion	
ODOR.
         Recommendation.
                                               OIL AND GREASE	
                                                        Recommendation.
ORGANICS-CARBON ADSORBABLE.
         Recommendation	
PESTICIDES	
    CHLORINATED HYDROCA RBON INSECTICIDES ....
         Recommendation	
    ORGANOPHOSPHORUS ANO CARBAMATE INSECTI-
     CIDES 	
         Recommendation	
    CHLOROPHENOXY HERBICIDES	
         Recommendation	
                                             48

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pH.
         Recommendation.
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS.
         Recommendation..
PHOSPHATE	
         Recommendation.
PHTHALATE ESTERS.

PLANKTON	
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB).. .
         Conclusion	
RADIOACTIVITY	
         Recommendation.

SELENIUM	
         Recommendation.
SILVER.
         Conclusion.
Page
 80
 80

 80
 80

 81
 81

 82

 82

 83
 83

 84
 85

 86
 86

 87
 87
SODIUM.
          Recommendation.
SULFATE.
         Recommendation.
TEMPERATURE	
         Recommendation.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (Filterable Resi-
  due) 	
TURBIDITY	
         Conclusion    	
URANYLION	
         Recommendation.
VIRUSES	
         Conclusion.
                                                  ZINC.
         Recommendation.
LITERATURE CITED. . . .
Page
 88
 88
 89
 89
 89
 89

 90
 90
 90
 91
 91
 91
 92
 93
 93
 94
                                               49

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                                              INTRODUCTION
  Modern water management techniques and a wide va-
riety of available water treatment processes make possible
the use of raw water of almost any quality  to produce an
acceptable public water supply. For this reason it is both
possible and desirable to  consider water management al-
ternatives and treatment procedures in making recommen-
dations on  the  quality of raw water  needed for public
supplies.  Furthermore, these recommendations  must be
consistent with  the  effort and money  it  is reasonable to
expect an individual, company, or municipality to expend
to produce a potable water supply. Denning a reasonable
effort including  treatment processes involves consideration
of present water quality, the degree of improvement in raw
water that is attainable within the bounds of natural con-
trols on water quality, and the help that can be expected
from society in  cleaning up  its waters. In evaluating the
basis for the recommendations in this  Section,  the  Panel
has left water  management  alternatives open  wherever
possible, but  it has  made certain arbitrary assumptions
about the treatment process.
  The federal Drinking Water Standards for treated water
for  public supply (U.S. Department of Health,  Education
and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962, hereafter referred
to as  PHS 19626)* are under review and revision, but the
final standards were not available to the  Panel on Public
Water Supplies  at the time of publication of this Report.
The Panel did, however, have access to the data, references,
and rationale being considered in the revision of Drinking
Water Standards, and these have had a major influence on
recommendations in this report

THE DEFINED TREATMENT PROCESS
  Surface  water supplies  characteristically contain  sus-
pended sediment in varying  amounts  and  are  subject to
bacterial and viral contamination. Therefore, it is assumed
that the following  defined treatment,  and  no more,  will
be  given  raw surface water  in a properly operated plant
prior to human  consumption.
   1.  coagulation (less than  about 50 milligrams per  liter
  * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
(mg/1) alum, ferric sulfate, or copperas with alkali or acl
addition as necessary but without  coagulant aids or acti
vated carbon);
  2.  sedimentation (6 hours or less);
  3.  rapid sand filtration (three gallons  per square  foe
per minute or more);
  4.  disinfection  with  chlorine (without consideration  t
concentration or form of chlorine residual).

  The panel recognizes  that  on the one hand some  ra\
surface waters will meet federal Drinking Water Standard
with no treatment other than  disinfection,  and that on th
other hand almost  any water, including sea water  arn
grossly polluted fresh water,  can be made  potable for
price by available treatment processes  already developec
However,  the  defined treatment outlined above  is con
sidered reasonable in view of both the existing and generall
attainable quality of raw surface waters, and  the protectio
made imperative by  the current practice of using stream
to transport and degrade waste's. Assumption of the definei
treatment process  throughout this Section is not meant  I:
deny the availability, need, or practicality of other wate
treatment processes.
   Unlike  surface waters,  ground waters characteristicall
contain little  or no  suspended sediment and are largel
free of and easily  protected from bacterial and viral con
tamination. (See Ground Water Characteristics  below for sig
nificant exceptions.) Therefore, no  defined treatment is as
sumed for raw ground water designated for use as a publi
supply,  although here again this does not deny the avail
ability,  need,  or practicality of treatment. Ground water
should meet current federal Drinking Water  Standards  h
regard  to  bacteriological  characteristics and content  o
toxic substances,  thus  permitting  an  acceptable  publii
water supply to be produced with no treatment, providing
natural water  quality is adequate  in other  respects. Th<
recommendations  in this section based on consideration
other than bacterial content and toxicity apply to grounc
waters as well as surface waters unless otherwise specified.

WATER QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS

   The Panel has defined water quality recommendation:
as those limits  of characteristics and concentrations of sub-
                                                        50

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                                                                                                      Introduction /'51
stances in raw waters that will allow the production of a
safe, clear, potable, aesthetically pleasing  and acceptable
public  water supply  after  treatment.  In making these
recommendations,  the  Panel recognized that most of the
surface water treatment plants providing water for domestic
use in the United States are relatively small,  do not have
sophisticated technical controls, and are operated by indi-
viduals whose training in modern methods varies widely.
The recommendations assume the  use of the  treatment
process defined above but no more.
  Regional variations  in natural water quality make  it
necessary to apply understanding and discretion when evalu-
ating raw water quality in terms of the recommendations.
Wherever water  zoned for public supply  fail to  meet the
recommendations in all respects, the recommendations can
be considered the minimum goal  toward which to work in
upgrading water quality. In  some  instances the natural
presence of certain constituents in raw water  sources may
make  the  attainment  of recommended levels impractical
or even impossible. When such constituents affect human
health, the water cannot be used for public supply unless
the constituent can be brought to Drinking Water Standards
levels through a specially designed treatment process prior
to distribution to consumers. Where  health is not a factor,
the natural level  of the constituent prior to man-made ad-
ditions can be considered a reasonable target toward which
to work, although determination of "natural quality" may
require considerable effort, expense, and time.
  The recommendations in this report should by no means
be construed as latitude to add substances to waters where
the existing quality is  superior  to that called for in the
recommendations.  Degradation  of raw water sources of
quality higher than that specified should be minimized in
order to preserve operational safety factors and economics
of treatment.
  The Panel considered factors of safety for each of the
toxic substances discussed,  but numerical factors of safety
have been employed only where data are  available on the
known  no-effect  level  or the minimum effect level of the
substances on humans. These factors were selected on the
basis of the degree of hazard and the  fraction of daily
intake of each substance that can reasonably be assigned
to water.
  The recommendations should be regarded  as  guides in
the control of health hazards and not as fine lines between
safe and dangerous concentrations. The amount and length
of time by which values in  the recommendations may be
exceeded  without injury to health depends upon the nature
of the contaminant, whether high concentrations even for
short periods produce acute poisoning, whether  the effects
are cumulative, how frequently high concentrations occur,
and how long they last. All these factors must be considered
in deciding whether a hazardous situation exists.
  Although some of the  toxic substances considered are
known to be associated  with suspended solids in raw surface
waters and might thus be removed to some extent by the
defined treatment  process, the degree  of removal of the
various dissolved toxic substances is not generally known;
and even if known, it could not be assured under present
treatment  practices. Therefore, in the interest of safety, it
has usually been assumed here that there is no removal of
toxic substances as a result of the defined treatment process.
   Substances not evaluated in this Section are  not neces-
sarily innocuous in public water supply sources. It would be
impractical to prepare  a compendium of all toxic,  dele-
terious, or otherwise unwelcome agents, both organic and
inorganic,  that may enter a surface water supply. In specific
locations it may become necessary to consider  substances
not included  in this  section, particularly  where local pol-
lution suggests that a substance may have an effect on the
beneficial use of water for public supplies.
   In  summary:  the  recommendations in this Section for raw
water quality for public supplies  are intended to assure that the
water will be potable—for surface  water, with the defined treatment
process; for  ground water, with no treatment. For waters zoned for
public supply but not meeting  the  recommendations in  all respects,
the recommendations can be considered a minimum  target toward
which efforts at upgrading  the quality should be directed. In some
instances  the natural  quality  of  raw water may make  meeting
certain recommendations impractical or even impossible. For con-
stituents for which this is the case,  and where health is not a factor,
the natural  quality of  the water  can  be  considered  a reasonable
target toward which to work,  although  determination  of "natural
quality" may require considerable effort, expense, and time. Wherever
water quality is found superior to  that described in the recommen-
dations, efforts should be made to minimize its degradation.

SAMPLING AND MONITORING
   The importance of establishing an effective sampling and
monitoring program and the difficulties involved cannot be
overemphasized. A  representative  sample of  the  water
entering the raw water intake should be obtained. Multiple
sampling,  chronologically and spatially, may be necessary
for an adequate characterization of the raw water body,
particularly for constituents associated with suspended solids
(Great  Britain  Department  of the  Environment 1971;3
Brown et al.  1970;2 Rainwater  and Thatcher I9604). Moni-
toring plans should take into account the results  of sanitary
surveys (U.S. Department of Health,  Education, and Wel-
fare 1969 ;7 American Public Health Association, American
Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control
Federation 19711 hereafter referred to as Standard Methods
19715)  and the  possibility of  two types of water quality
hazards: (1) the chronic hazard where constituent concen-
trations are near the limit of acceptability much of the time,
and (2) the periodic hazard caused by upstream release of
wastes or accidental spills of hazardous substances into the
stream. Samples for the determination of dissolved con-
stituents only should be passed through a noncontaminat-
ing filter at time of collection.

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52/Section II—Public Water Supplies
ANALYTICAL METHODS

  The recommendations are based on the use of analytical
methods for raw water analysis as described in Standard
Methods  (1971).5 Other procedures of similar  scientific
acceptability are continuously evolving but  whatever the
analytical procedure used, the panel assumes that it  will
conform to the statistical concepts  of precision, accuracy,
and reporting style discussed in the introduction to Standard
Methods (1971).5 Analytical results should indicate whether
they apply to a filtered or unfiltered sample.

GROUND WATER CHARACTERISTICS

  Development  of water  quality  recommendations  for
ground water  must provide for the significant differences
between surface water  and ground water. Ground water is
generally not  confined in  a  discrete channel.  Its quality
can be measured  in detail only with difficulty and at great
expense. A  thorough  knowledge of the hydrologic char-
acteristics of the ground water body can be obtained only
after extensive study. Movement of ground  water can be
extremely slow so that contamination occurring in one part
of an aquifer ma/ not become evident at a point of with-
drawal for several, tens, hundreds, or  even  thousands of
years.
  Wastes mix differently with ground waters than they do
with surface waters. Where allowance for a mixing zone in
the immediate vicinity of a waste outfall can be provided
for in  surface  water standards under the assumption  that
mixing is complete within a  short distance downstream,
dispersion of waste in a ground water body may  not be
complete for many years. At  the same time, the long re-
tention time will facilitate bacterial or  chemical reactions
with aquifer components that result in removal or decompo-
sition of a pollutant to the point where it no longer degrades
the aquifer. Because these reactions are imperfectly known
and cannot be predicted at the present time,  it is necessary
to monitor the movement of waste in a ground water body
from the point of introduction outward. Bodies of ground
water cannot be monitored adequately by sampling at the
point of use.
  Inadvertent or  careless  contamination of fresh ground
water  bodies is occurring today from the  leaching of ac-
cumulated salts from irrigation, animal feed lots, road  salt,
agricultural fertilizers, dumps,  and landfills, or from leakage
of sewer lines in sandy soil, septic tank effluents, petroleum
product pipelines, and chemical waste  lagoons. Another
source of contamination is the upward movement of saline
water in improperly plugged wells and drill holes, or as the
result of excessive withdrawal of ground water. Deep-well
injection causes intentional introduction of wastes into saline
ground water bodies.
  Because of their common use as private water supplies
in rural  areas,  all geologically unconfined  (water-table)
aquifers could be placed in a classification comparable  to
that for raw surface waters used for public water supplies.
Even though not all waters  in these aquifers are suitable
for use without treatment, such classification could be used
to prohibit introduction of wastes into them.  This in turn
would restrict the use of landfills and other surface disposal
practices.  Limited use of the unsaturated zone for disposal
of wastes would still be acceptable, provided that decompo-
sition of organic  wastes and sorption of pollutants  in  the
zone of aeration were essentially complete before the drain
water reached the water table  Bodies  of artesian ground
water in present  use as public and private supplies could
be similarly classified wherever  their natural  source of re-
charge was sufficient to sustain the current yield and quality.
  Disposal of wastes in either of the above types of aquifers
could be expressly forbidden on the basis of  their classifi-
cation as  public  water supplies. Furthermore,  before dis-
posal of wastes to the soil or bedrock adjacent  to aquifers
used or usable  for public supply were permitted, it could
be required that a geologic reconnaissance be made to de-
termine possible effects  on ground water quality.
  Water quality  recommendations for raw ground  waters
to be used for public water supplies are more restrictive
than water quality recommendations for raw surface water
source because of the assumption that no treatment will be
given to the ground waters. The distinction between surface
and  ground waters is therefore necessary for proper appli-
cation of  the recommendations. In certain cases this dis-
tinction is not easily made. For example, collector wells in
shallow river valley alluvium,  wells  tapping  cavernous
limestone,  and certain other types of  shallow  wells may
intercept water only a short  distance away, or after  only a
brief period of travel, from the: point at which it was surface
water. Springs used  as raw water sources present a similar
problem.  Choice of the appropriate water quality recom-
mendations to apply to such raw  water sources should be
based on the individual situation.

WATER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
   The  purpose  of establishing  water quality recommen-
dations and, subsequently, establishing water quality stand-
ards is to protect the nation's waters from degradation and
to provide a  basis for improvement of their quality. These
actions should not preclude  the use of good water manage-
ment practices. For  example, it  may be  possible to supple-
ment streamflow with ground water pumped from wells, or
to replace ground water removed from an  aquifer with
surface water  through artificial   recharge.  These other
sources of water  may be of lower  quality than the water
originally present,  but  it  should  remain a  management
choice whether this  lower quality is preferable to no water
at all.  In arid parts of the nation,  water  management
practices of this sort have been applied for many years to
partially offset the  effects of "mining" of ground water
(i.e., its  withdrawal faster  than  it can be  recharged
naturally).

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                                                                                                    Introduction /53
  Furthermore,  it is possible,  by merely removing ground
water from the aquifer,  to degrade the quality of that
remaining—by inducing recharge from a surface or ground
water body of lesser quality.  It does not seem reasonable
to forbid the  use  of the  high-quality water that is there
because of this potential degradation. Of what  value is it
if it cannot be used?
  It would appear, then, that "degradation by choice"
might  be  an alternative  under  certain conditions and
within certain limits. This type of degradation is not com-
parable to that resulting from disposal of wastes in the
water body.  It  is  simply the  price  exacted for using the
water.  In the case of mining without  artificial  recharge,
the philosophy involved is the same as that applied  to the
mining  of other nonrenewable  resources such  as  metal
ores or fossil fuels.  Because considerations of recreation and
aesthetics and the maintenance of fish and wildlife are
generally not involved in this kind of management situation,
it is reasonable that water quality standards should provide
for the mining and artificial recharge of bodies of ground
water zoned for public supply. As in any water manage-
ment program, it would be necessary  to  understand the
hydrologic system and to monitor changes induced in the
system by management activities.
  Preservation of water  management choices can be pro-
tected  by water  use classification. Classification of surface
waters has not been based solely  on  the  fact  that those
waters are being used for public supply at the present time.
Presumably it has been  based  on the  decision that the
body of water in  question  should be usable  for  public
supply with  no more  than the routine forms of water
treatment, whether  or  not  it is  presently  in use for that
purpose. Conversely, failure to zone a body of water for
public supply would not necessarily preclude  its use for
that purpose. Selective zoning could thus be used to assure
desirable water management practices.

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                                               ALKALINITY
  Alkalinity is  a measure of the capacity of a water  to
neutralize acids. Anions of weak acids such as bicarbonate,
carbonate, hydroxide, sulfide, bisulfide, silicate, and phos-
phate may contribute to alkalinity. The species composition
of alkalinity  is  a function  of pH,  mineral  composition,
temperature, and ionic strength.
  The predominant chemical system present  in  natural
waters is the carbonate equilibria in which carbonate and
bicarbonate  ions and carbonic  acid  are in  equilibrium
(Standards Methods 1971).8 The bicarbonate ion is usually
more prevalent. A water  may have a low alkalinity but a
relatively high  pH value  or vice versa, so alkalinity alone
may not be of major importance as a measure of water
quality.
  The alkalinity of natural waters may have a wide range.
An alkalinity below 30 to 50 mg/1, as CaGOs, may be too
low to react with hydrolyzable coagulants, such as iron or
aluminum salts, and still provide adequate residual alka-
linity to produce a water that is not excessively corrosive.
Alkalinities below 25  mg/1,  as CaCOs, may also lead to
corrosive waters when only chlorination is practiced, since
there would be inadequate buffer capacity to prevent the
pH from dropping appreciably (Weber and Stumm 1963).s
Low  alkalinity waters may  be difficult to  stabilize by
calcium carbonate  saturation which would otherwise pre-
vent corrosion of the metallic parts of the system.
  High alkalinity waters may have a distinctly unpleasant
taste. Alkalinities of natural  waters rarely exceed 400 to
500 mg/1 (as CaCO3).

Conclusion
  No recommendation can be made,  because the
desirable alkalinity for any water is associated with
other constituents such  as pH and hardness. For
treatment  control,  however, it is  desirable that
there be no sudden variations in the alkalinity.
                                                      54

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                                                 AMMONIA
  Ammonia may be a natural constituent of certain ground
waters. In surface waters its concentration is normally 0.1
mg/1 or less as nitrogen. Higher levels are usually indicative
of sewage or industrial contamination (McKee and Wolf
1963).30
  Ammonia consumes dissolved oxygen as  a result of its
biochemical oxidation to nitrite and  nitrate. Reliance on
the biochemical oxygen  demand  (BOD)  test (Standard
Methods 197133) for  measuring the  efficiency of sewage
treatment and the quality of effluents  has focused attention
principally on the oxygen requirements of carbonaceous
matter.  Ammonia is  therefore a common  constituent of
treated sewage,  and much of  the burden of satisfying the
nitrogenous  oxygen demand has, in general, been  shifted
from  the sewage treatment plant to the receiving  water
(Sawyer and Bradney 1946,32 Ludzack and Ettinger  1962,29
Johnson and Schroepfer  1964,24 Earth et al.  1966,12  Cour-
chaine 1968,18 Barth  and Dean  1970,11'.Holden  1970,22
Earth 1971,10 Great Britain Department of the Environment
1971,21 Mt. Pleasant and Schlickenrieder 197131).
  Ammonia is sometimes corrosive to copper and copper
alloys (LaQue and Copson  1963,26 Butler and Ison 196613);
it is also a potential algal and microbial nutrient in water
distribution  systems (Larson 1939,27 Ingram and Macken-
thun  196323).
  Ammonia has a significant  effect on the  disinfection of
water with chlorine. The reactions of ammonia with chlorine
result in the formation of chloramine  compounds having
markedly less disinfecting  efficiency  than free chlorine.
Ammonia substantially increases  the chlorine demand at
water treatment plants that  practice  free-residual chlori-
nation.  Approximately 10  parts  of chlorine per part of
ammonia nitrogen  are required  to satisfy the  ammonia
chlorine demand (Butterfield et al. 1943,16 Butterfield and
Wattie 1946,16 Butterfield 1948,14 Fair  et al.  1948,19 Kelly
and Sanderson 1958,25 Clarke and Chang 1959,17 Laubusch
197128). It would therefore be desirable to have as low a
level as possible in the raw water.
  However, since ammonia is present in ground water and
in some surface water  supply sources, particularly at  cold
temperatures, and since it can be removed by the defined
treatment process with adequate  chlorination, the cost of
the treatment is the determining factor. In  the previous
edition of Water Quality Criteria  (U.S. Department of the
Interior, Federal  Water Pollution Control Administration
1968,34 hereafter referred to as FWPCA  196820) a permis-
sible level of 0.5 mg/1 nitrogen was proposed. This is not a
sacrosanct number, but it is considered to be tolerable.

Recommendation
  Because ammonia may be indicative of pollution
and because of its significant effect on chlorination,
it is  recommended  that  ammonia nitrogen in
public water supply sources not exceed 0.5 mg/1.
                                                       55

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                                                  ARSENIC
  Arsenic, a metalloid that occurs ubiquitously in nature,
can be both acutely and chronically toxic to man. Although
no form  of arsenic is known to be essential,  arsenic has
been added in small amounts to animal feed as a growth
stimulant. For 1,577 surface water samples collected from
130 sampling points in the United States, 87 samples showed
detectable arsenic  concentrations  of 5  to 336 micrograms
per liter (^g/1) with a mean level of 64 ^g/1 (Kopp 1969).60
  The chemical forms of arsenic consist of trivalent and
pentavalent inorganic and organic compounds. It  is not
known which  forms of arsenic occur  in  drinking water.
Although comb'nations of all forms are possible, it can be
reasonably assumed that the pentavalent inorganic form is
the most prevalent.  Conditions  that favor chemical and
biological oxidation  promote the shift  to  the pentavalent
species; and  conversely,  those  that favor reduction will
shift the equilibrium to the trivalent state.
  Arsenic content in drinking water in  most United  States
supplies ranges from a trace to approximately 0.1  mg/1
(McCabe et al.  1970).52 No adverse health effects have been
reported  from the ingestion of these waters.
  Arsenic has been suspected of being  carcinogenic  (Paris
1820,55 Sommers and McManus 1953,60 Buchanan  1962,38
Frost 1967,46 Trelles et al.  1970,61 Borgono and  Greiber
197236), but substantial evidence from human  experience
and animal studies now supports the position that arsenicals
are not tumorigenic  at levels encountered in  the environ-
ment (Snegireff and  Lombard 1951,68 Baroni et al.  1963,35
Boutwell  1963,37  Hueper and  Payne  1963,47  Pinto  and
Bennett  1963,56 Kanisawa and Schroeder 1967,49 Milner
1969).63
  Several epidemiological studies  in Taiwan  (Chen and
Wu  1962)39 have reported a correlation between the in-
creased incidence  of hyperkertosis  and skin  cancer with
consumption  of water  containing  more  than 0.3  mg/1
arsenic. A similar problem has been reported in Argentina
(Trelles et al.  1970).61 Dermatological manifestations of
arsenicism were noted in children  of  Antofagasta,  Chile,
who used a water supply containing 0.8 mg/1 arsenic. A
new water supply  was provided, and preliminary data
showed that arsenic  levels in hair decreased (Borgono and
Greiber 1972).36
  Inorganic arsenic  is absorbed readily from the gastro-
intestinal tract, the lungs, arid to a lesser extent from the
skin and becomes distributed throughout the body tissue;
and  fluids  (Sollmann 1957).5!l It is excreted  via urine
feces,  sweat, and the epithelium of the skin (Dupont et al
1942,44 Hunter et  al. 1942,4S Lowry et al. 1942,51 Ducofl
et al. 1948,43 Crema 1955,40 Musil  and Dejmal  1957).5'
During  chronic exposure, arsenic accumulates mainly  ir
bone, muscle, and skin, and to a smaller degree in liver and
kidneys. This accumulation can be  measured by  analysis
of hair  samples. After  cessation  of  continuous exposure,
arsenic  excretion may  last  up to 70 days (DuBois and
Ceiling  1959).42
  In man,  subacute  and chronic arsenic poisoning may be
insidious and pernicious.  In mild chronic poisoning, the
only symptoms present are fatigue and loss of energy. The
following symptoms may be observed in more severe intoxi-
cation;  gastrointestinal catarrh, kidney degeneration, ten-
ency to edema, polyneuritis, liver cirrhosis, bone  marrow
injury, and exfoliate  dermatitis (DiPalma 1965,41 Goodman
and Oilman 1965).46 It has  been claimed that  individuals
become tolerant to arsenic.  However,  this apparent effect
is probably due to the ingestion of the relatively insoluble,
coarse powder, since no true tolerance has been  demon-
strated (DuBois and  Ceiling 1959).42
  The total intake of arsenic from food averages approxi-
mately 900 /ng/day  (Schroeder and  Balassa 1966).57 At  a
concentration of 0.1  mg/1  and an average intake of 2 liters
of water per day, the intake Jfrom water would  not exceed
200 fig/day,  or approximately  18 per cent of the total
ingested arsenic.
Recommendation

  Because of adverse physiological effects on hu-
mans and because there is inadequate information
on the effectiveness of the denned treatment proc-
ess in removing arsenic, it is  recommended that
public water supply sources contain no more than
0.1 mg/1 total arsenic.
                                                      56

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                                                  BACTERIA
  Procedures for the detection of disease-causing bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, worms, and  fungi  are  complex, time-
consuming,  and in need of further refinement to increase
the levels of sensitivity and selectivity. Therefore, an indirect
approach  to microbial hazard measurement is required.
  Coliform bacteria have been used as indicators of sanitary
quality in water since 1880 when Escherica coli (E. coif)  and
similar gram negative bacteria  were  shown to be  normal
inhabitants of fecal discharges. Although the total coliform
group  as  presently recognized  in  the Drinking Water
Standards includes organisms  known to vary in  charac-
teristics, the total coliform concept merits consideration as
an indicator of sanitary significance, because the organisms
are normally  present in  large  numbers in the  intestinal
tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals.
  Numerous stream pollution surveys over the years have
used the total coliform measurement as an index of fecal con-
tamination.  However, occasional poor correlations  to sani-
tary  significance result  from the inclusion of some strains
in the total coliform group that have a wide distribution in
the environment and are  not  specific to fecal material.
Therefore, interpretation of total coliform data from sewage,
polluted water, and unpolluted waters is sometimes difficult
For example,  Enterobacter (Aerobacter) aerogenes and Entero-
bacter cloacae can be found  on  various types of vegetation
(Thomas  and McQuillin  1952,78 Fraser et al.  1956,66
Geldreich et al. 1964,73 Papavassiliou et al. 196776), in  soil
(Frank and Skinner 1941,66 Taylor 1951," Randall 1956,76
Geldreich et al. 1962b72), and in water polluted in the past.
Also included  are plant pathogens (Elrod 1942)62 and other
organisms of uncertain taxonomy whose sanitary significance
is questionable. All of these coliform subgroups may  be
found in sewage and in polluted water.
  A more specific bacterial indicator of warm-blooded ani-
mal  contamination is fecal coliform,  defined as those coli-
form that can ferment lactose at 44.5  C to produce  gas in a
multiple  tube procedure  (U.S. Department  of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 196679
hereafter  referred to as (FWPCA 1966)64 or  acidity in the
membrane  filter procedure (M-FC   medium:  Geldreich
et al. 1965).71 Research showed that  96.14 per cent of the
coliform in human feces was positive by this test (Geldreich
et al. 1962a).70 Examination of the excrement from other
warm-blooded  animals, including livestock,  poultry, cats,
dogs, and rodents indicates that fecal coliform contribute
93.0 per cent of the total coliform population (FWPCA
1966),64 Geldreich et al. 1968).68
  At the present time, the only data available from numer-
ous freshwater stream pollution studies on a  correlation of
pathogen  occurrence with varying levels of fecal  coliform
are for Salmonella (Geldreich 1970,67 Geldreich and Bordner
197169). These  data indicate  a sharp  increase in the fre-
quency of Salmonella detection when fecal coliform  densities
are above 200 per 100 milliliters (ml).  For densities of 1 to
200/100 ml, 41 examinations showed 31.7 per cent positive
detection of Salmonella.  For densities of 201 to  1,000/100 ml,
30 examinations showed 83 per cent positive detection. For
densities of 1,000 to 2,000, 88.5 per cent positive detection
was found in  17  examinations, and  for densities  above
2,000, 97.6  per cent  positive detection was  found in 123
examinations.
  The  significance is further  illustrated by  a   bacterial
quality study  at  several water plant intakes  along the
Missouri River. When fecal coliform exceeded  2,000 orga-
nisms per 100 ml,  Salmonella, Poliovirus types 2 and 3, and
ECHO virus types 7 and 33 were detected (Environmental
Protection Agency 1971).63 Any occurrence of fecal  coli-
form in water is therefore prime evidence of contamination
by  wastes of some warm-blooded animals, and as  the fecal
coliform densities increase, potential health hazards become
greater and  the  challenge  to water  treatment more de-
manding.
  A study of the bacteriological quality of raw water  near
six public intakes along the Ohio River showed that of 18
monthly values with maximum total  coliform  densities in
excess of 10,000 organisms per 100 ml, 12 were not paralleled
by  fecal coliform densities above 2,000 organisms per 100
ml  (ORSANCO  Water  Users Committee  1971).74  The
fecal coliform  portion of these total coliform  populations
ranged from 0.2 to 12 per cent.  Data from the  Missouri
River study showed total coliform densities at water intakes
to be frequently in excess of 20,000 organisms per 100 ml
                                                        57

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58/Section II—Public Water Supplies
with concurrent fecal coliform densities above 2,000 (En-
vironmental Protection Agency 1971).63 This indicates less
coliform aftergrowth, but proportionately more recent fecal
pollution.
  The major limitation to the total coliform index is the
uncertain correlation to the occurrence of pathogenic micro-
organisms.  However, fecal coliform  occurrences in water
reflect the  presence of fecal contamination, which is the
most likely  source for pathogens.
  Total coliform  measurements  may  be used as an  al-
ternative to fecal coliform measurements with the realization
that such data are subject  to a wide  range  of  density
fluctuations of doubtful sanitary significance.
  A well-operated plant  using the  defined treatment to
process raw surface water meeting  the recommendations
below can be expected to meet a value of 1 total coliforn
per 100 ml with proper chlorination practice. When coli
form counts in raw surface water approach the recommen
dations, both pre- and post-chlorination may be requirec
to achieve proper disinfection.

Recommendation

  In light of the  capabilities of the defined treat-
ment  process for raw surface waters and the sta-
tistical correlations mentioned, it is recommendec
that  the  geometric mea.ns of fecal coliform anc
total coliform densities in raw surface water sources
not exceed  2,000/100  ml and  20,000/100 ml,  re-
spectively.

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                                                  BARIUM
  Barium (Ba) ingestion can cause serious toxic effects on
the heart, blood vessels, and nerves. Barium enters the body
primarily through air and water, since essentially no food
contains  barium in appreciable amounts.
  The solubility product of barium  sulfate  indicates that
1.3 mg/1 sulfate ion limits the solubility  of  barium to  1.0
mg/1. There is some evidence that barium may be ad-
sorbed by  oxides  or hydroxides of  iron and  manganese
(Ljunggren  1955).83 For the public  water supplies of the
100 largest cities in the  United States, the median barium
concentration  was 0.05 mg/1 with a range of 0.01  to 0.058
mg/1. For 1,577 samples of surface waters collected in 130
locations in  the United  States  the barium concentration in
1,568 samples ranged from  2  to 340 /ig/1 with a  mean of
43 Mg/1 (Kopp 1969).82
  Barium is recognized as a general muscle stimulant,
especially of the heart muscle (Sollmann 1957).86 The fatal
dose for  man  is considered to  be from 0.8 to 0.9 grams(g)
as the chloride (550 to 600 mg Ba). Most  fatalities have
occurred from mistaken use of barium salts incorporated in
rat poison.  Barium is capable  of  causing nerve block
(Lorente and  Feng 1946)84 and in small or moderate doses
produces transient increase  in  blood pressure by vaso-
constriction (Gotsev 1944).81
  There apparently has been no study made of the amounts
of barium that can be tolerated in drinking water, nor any
study of the effects of long-term feeding of barium salts
from  which  a  standard  might  be  derived.  The  present
barium standard has been developed from the barium-in-air
standard,  0.5 mg/cubic meter (m3)  (American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists  1958),80 based on
the retention of inhaled barium dusts, and an estimate of
the possible adsorption from  the intestines (Stokinger and
Woodward 1958).86 This value is 2 mg/1. The air standard
provides no indication of the inclusion of a factor of safety.
Therefore, it is reasonable  to provide a factor of safety of
2 for protection of heterogeneous population.
Recommendation

   Because of  the adverse physiological  effects  of
barium, and  because there are  no data on the
effectiveness of  the denned treatment process on
its removal, it  is recommended  that  a limit for
barium of 1 mg/1 not be exceeded in public water
supply sources.
                                                   BORON
   The previous Report of the Committee on Water Quality
 Criteria (FWPCA 1968)87 recommended a permissible limit
 of 1 mg/1 for boron. When a new Drinking Water Standards
 Technical  Review  Committee  was established in 1971,  it
 determined that the evidence available did  not indicate
 that  the suggested limit of 1  mg/1 was necessary. More
 information is required before deciding whether a specific
 limit is needed for physiological reasons.
   Whenever  public  water supplies  are  used to irrigate
 plants, boron concentrations may be of concern because
 of the element's effect on many plants.  For consideration
 of the possible effect of boron on certain irrigated plants,
 see Section V on Agricultural Uses of Water (p. 341).
                                                       59

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                                                CADMIUM
  Cadmium is biologically a  nonessential, nonbeneficial
element. The possibility of seepage of cadmium into ground
water from electroplating plants was reported in 1954 when
concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 3.2 mg/1 were recorded
(Lieber and Welsch  1954).97 Another source of cadmium
contamination in water may  be zinc-galvanized  iron in
which cadmium is a contaminant. For 1,577 surface water
samples collected at 130 sampling points in the  United
States, 40 samples showed detectable concentrations  of 1
to 20 /tg/1 of cadmium with a  mean  level of 9.5 fig/I. Six
samples exceeded 10 ng/l (Kopp 1969).95
  Cadmium is an element of high toxic potential. Evidence
for the serious  toxic potential of cadmium is provided by:
poisoning  from cadmium-contaminated  food  (Frant  and
Kleeman  1941)92 and beverages (Cangelosi 1941);88  epi-
demiologic evidence that cadmium  may be associated  with
renal  arterial  hypertension   under  certain  conditions
(Schroeder 1965);102 epidemiologic association of cadmium
with Itai-itai disease in Japan (Murata et al. 1970);99 and
long-term  oral toxicity studies in animals (Fitzhugh  and
Meiller 1941,91 Ginn and Volker 1944,93 Wilson and DeEds
1950).104
  Symptoms of violent nausea were reported for 29 school
children who had consumed fruit ice sticks containing 13-15
mg/1 cadmium (Frant and Kleeman 1941).92 This would be
equivalent to 1.3 to 3.0 mg of cadmium ingested.
  It has been  stated that the  concentration and  not the
absolute amount determines the acute toxicity of cadmium
(Potts  et al. 1950).101 Also, equivalent concentrations of
cadmium in water are considered more toxic than concen-
trations in food because of the effect of components in th
food.
  The association of cardiovascular disease, particular!'
hypertension, with ingestion of cadmium remains unsettled
Although conflicting evidence has  been reported for ma]
(Schroeder 1965,102 Morgan 1969)98 and for animals (Kani
sawa  and Schroeder 1969,94 Lener and Bibr 197096), it  i
notable that hypertension  has not been associated  witl
Itai-itai disease (Nogawa and Kawano 1969).100
  In  view  of the cumulative retention  of  cadmium \y
hepatic (liver)  and  renal (kidney) tissue (Decker et al
1958,90 Cotzias et al.  1961,89 Schroeder and Balassa 1961103
and the  association  of  a severe endemic Itai-itai diseas<
syndrome with ingestion of as little as 600 jig/day (Yama
gata 1970),10S Drinking  Water Standards limit concentra
tions of cadmium to 10 ng/l so that the maximum dail;
intake of cadmium from waiter (assuming a 2 liter dairj
consumption) will not exceed 20 ng. This is  one-third th(
amount of cadmium derived  from food (Schroeder anc
Balassa 1961).103 A no-effect level for intake and accumula^
tion of cadmium in man has not been established.

Recommendation

  Because  of the adverse physiological effects ol
cadmium,  and because  there is inadequate infor-
mation on the effect of  the denned treatment
process on removal of cadmium, it is recommended
that  the cadmium concentration  in public water
supply sources not exceed 0.010 mg/1.

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                                                 CHLORIDE
  Chloride ion in high concentrations, as part of the total
dissolved solids in water, can be detected by taste and can
lead to consumer rejection of the water supply. In undefined
high concentrations  it may enhance  corrosion of water
utility  facilities and  household appurtenances  (American
Water  Works Association 1971).106
  For the public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in
the United States, the median chloride concentration was
13 mg/1 with a range of 0 to 540 mg/1 (Durfor and Becker
1964).107
  The  median chloride concentrations detected  by taste
by a panel of 10 to 20 persons were 182, 160, and 372 mg/1
from sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts respectively
(Whipple 1907).no The median concentration  identified
by a larger panel of 53 adults was 395 mg/1 chloride for
sodium chloride  (Richter  and MacLean  1939).109  When
compared with distilled water for a  difference  in  taste,
the median concentration was 61 mg/1. Coffee was affected
in taste when brewed with 210 and 222 mg/1 chloride from
sodium chloride  and calcium chloride respectively (Lock-
hart et al. 1955).108
  On the basis of taste and because of the wide range of
taste perception of humans, and the absence of information
on objectionable concentrations,  a limit for  public water
supplies of 250 mg/1 chloride appears to be reasonable where
sources of better quality water are or can be made available.
However, there may be a great  difference between a  de-
tectable concentration and an objectionable concentration,
and acclimatization  might be an  important factor.

Recommendation

  On the basis of taste preferences, not because of
toxic considerations, and because the denned treat-
ment process  does not  remove  chlorides,  it  is^
recommended  that chloride in public water supply
sources not exceed  250 mg/1  if sources  of  lower
levels are available.
                                                      61

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                                               CHROMIUM
  Chromium is  rarely found in natural  waters. It may
occur as a contaminant  from plating wastes,  blowdown
from cooling towers, or from circulating water in refriger-
ation equipment where it is used to control corrosion. It
has been found in some foods and in air. Chromium can
be detected in most biological systems. This does not prove
it essential, although there is reasonable evidence that it
does have a biological role (Mertz 1969).119
  For 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling
points in the United States, 386 samples  showed concen-
trations of 1  to  112 /ig/1 with a mean concentration of
9.7 Mg/1 for chromium (Kopp 1969).116
  The  hexavalent state of chromium is toxic to man, pro-
duces lung tumors when inhaled  (Machle and Gregorius
1948,117 U.S. Federal Security Agency, Public Health Serv-
ice  1953123), and readily induces skin sensitizations. Tri-
valent  chromium  salts show none of the  effects of the
hexavalent form  (Fairhall 1957).114 The trivalent form is
not likely to be present in waters of pH 5 or above because
of the very low solubility  of the hydrated oxide.
  At present, the levels of chromate ion that can be tolerated
by man for a lifetime without adverse effects on health are
undetermined. It is not known  whether cancer will result
from ingestion of chromium  in any of its valence  forms.
A  family of four  individuals is reported to have  drunk
water for a period of three years with as high as 0.45 mg/1
chromium in the hexavalent form without known effect
on their health, as determined by a single medical exami
nation (Davids and Lieber 1951).113
  Levels of 0.45 to 25 mg/1 of chromium administered t<
rats in chromate and chromic ion form in drinking wate
for one year produced no toxic responses (MacKenzie et al
1958).118 However, significant accumulation in the tissues oc
curred abruptly at concentrations above 5 mg/1. Naumov;
(1965)120 demonstrated that 0.033 mg of chromium froi)
potassium bichromate per  kilogram (kg) of body weigh
in dogs enhanced the  secretory and motor  activity of thi
intestines. Although there does not appear to  be a clearb
defined no-effect level, other studies (Conn et al. 1932,11
Brard  1935,111 Gross and Heller 1946,116 Schroeder et al
1963a,121 Schroeder et al. 1963b122) suggested that a concen
tration of 0.05 mg/1 with an average intake of 2 liters o
water per day would avoid  hazard to human health.

Recommendation
  Because of adverse physiological effects,  and be
cause there are insufficient data on the effect o
the  denned treatment process on the removal o:
chromium  in the  chromate  form,  it  is recom
mended that public water supply sources for drink'
ing  water contain  no more than 0.05 mg/1 tota
chromium.
                                                      62

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                                                  COLOR
  Color in public water supplies is aesthetically undesirable
to the consumer and is economically undesirable to some
industries.  Colored substances can  chelate metal ions,
thereby interfering with coagulation  (Hall  and Packham
1965130),  and can  reduce the capacity of  ion exchange
resins (Frisch and Kunin I960).129 Another serious problem
is the ability of colored substances to complex or stabilize
iron and manganese and  render them more difficult  for
water treatment processes to remove (Robinson  1963,136
Shapiro 1964136).
  Although  the soluble colored substances in waters have
been studied for over 150 years, there is still  no general
agreement on their structure. A number of recent  studies
have indicated that colored substances are a complex mix-
ture of polymeric  hydroxy  carboxylic acids (Black  and
Christman 1963a,125 1963b,126 Lamar and Goerlitz 1963,133
Christman  and  Ghassemi  1966,128  Lamar   and Goerlitz
1966134) with the measurable color being a function of the
total organics concentration and the pH (Black and Christ-
man 1963a,126 Singley et al. 1966137).
  The removal of color can be accomplished by the defined
process when the dosage and the pH are adjusted as func-
tions of the raw water color (Black et al. 1963,127 American
Water Works Association Research  Committee  on Color
Problems  1967).124  These relationships may not apply to
colors resulting  from dyes and some other industrial  and
processing sources that cannot be measured by comparison
with the platinum-cobalt standards (Hazen  1892,131 1896,132
Standard  Methods  1971138).  Such colors  should  not be
present in concentrations that cannot be removed by the
defined process.


Recommendation

  Because  color  in  public water supply sources is
aesthetically undesirable and because of the limi-
tations of  the denned treatment  process,  a maxi-
mum of  75 platinum-cobalt color units is recom-
mended.
                                                      63

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                                                COPPER
  Copper is frequently found in surface waters and in some
ground waters in low concentrations (less than 1 mg/1). It
is an essential and beneficial element in human metabolism,
and it is known that a deficiency in copper results in nu-
tritional anemia in infants (Sollmann 1957).Ml Because the
normal diet provides only little more than what is required,
an additional supplement  from water may ensure an ade-
quate intake. Small  amounts are generally regarded as
nontoxic; but large  doses may produce emesis, and pro-
longed oral administration may result in liver damage.
  For 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling
points in the United  States, 1,173 showed concentrations of
1 to 280 ^tg/1 with a mean concentration of 15 ^g/1 (Kopp
1969).140
  Copper imparts some taste to  water,  but the detectable
range varies from  1  to  5 rng/1 (Cohen et  al. I960139)
depending upon the acuity of individual taste perceptions
Copper  in  public  water supplies enhances  corrosion  o
aluminum in particular and  of zinc  to a lesser degree. ^
limit of 0.1 mg/1 has been recommended to avoid corrosior
of aluminum (Uhlig 1963).142
  The limit of 1 mg/1 copper is based on considerations o
taste rather than hazards to health.

Recommendation
  To prevent taste problems and because there is
little information on the effect of the denned treat-
ment process on the removal of copper, it is recom-
mended that copper in public water supply sources
not exceed 1 mg/1.
                                                     64

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                                                 CYANIDE
  Standards for cyanide in water have been published by
the World Health Organization in "International Stand-
ards for  Drinking Water" (1963)148 and  the  "European
Standards for Drinking Water" (1970).149 These standards
appear to be based on the toxicity of cyanide  to fish, not
to man.  Cyanide in reasonable doses  (10  mg or  less)  is
readily converted to thiocyanate in the human body and in
this form is much less toxic to man. Usually,  lethal  toxic
effects occur only when the detoxifying mechanism is  over-
whelmed. The oral toxicity of cyanide for man  is shown in
the following table.
  Proper chlorination with a free  chlorine  residual under
neutral or alkaline conditions will reduce the cyanide level
to below the recommended limit.  The acute oral toxicity
of cyanogen chloride, the chlorination product of hydrogen
cyanide,  is approximately one-twentieth that of hydrogen
cyanide (Spector 1955).146
  On the  basis of the  toxic limit  calculated from the
threshold limit for air (Stokinger and Woodward 1958),147
      TABLE II-1—Oral Toxicity of Cyanide for Man
         Dosage
                            Response
                                         Literature citations
2 9-4.7 mi/day. .
10 mj, single dose ..
19 mg/1 in water...

50-60 mg, single dose .
. Noninjiinous          Smith 194*«
 Nomnjunous          Bodansky and Levy 19231"
 Calculated from the safe thresh- StoKmger and Woodward 1958'"
  old limit for air
 Fatal              The Merck Index or Chemicals
                  and Drugs 1968"'
and assuming a 2-liter daily consumption of water contain-
ing 0.2 mg/1 cyanide as a maximum, an appreciable factor
of safety would be provided.

Recommendation

   Because of the toxicity of cyanide, it is recom-
mended  that a  limit of 0.2 mg/1 cyanide not  be
exceeded in public water supply sources.
                                          DISSOLVED OXYGEN
  Dissolved oxygen in raw water sources aids in the elimi-
nation of undesirable constituents, particularly  iron  and
manganese, by precipitation of the oxidized form. It  also
induces the biological oxidation  of ammonia to  nitrate,
and  prevents the anaerobic reduction of dissolved sulfate
to hydrogen sulfide. More importantly, dissolved  oxygen
in a raw surface water supply serves as an indicator  that
excessive quantities of oxygen-demanding wastes  are prob-
ably not present in the water, although there can be sig-
nificant exceptions to this. Therefore, it is desirable  that
oxygen in the water be at or near saturation. On the other
hand,  oxygen enhances  corrosion of treatment facilities,
distributing systems, and household appurtenances in many
waters.
  Oxygen depletion in unmixed bodies of water can result
from the presence of natural oxygen-demanding substances
as well as  from organic  pollution.  Lakes and  reservoirs
may contain little or no oxygen, yet may be essentially free
of oxygen-demanding wastes. This is because contact with
the air is limited to the upper surface, and because thermal
stratification  in  some  lakes and  reservoirs  prevents oxy-
genation of lower levels directly from the air. Similar con-
ditions also occur in ground waters.

Conclusion

   No recommendation is made, because the pres-
ence of dissolved oxygen in a  raw water supply has
both beneficial and detrimental aspects. However,
when the waters contain ammonia  or iron and
manganese in their reduced  form, the benefits of
the sustained  presence of oxygen at or near satu-
ration for a period of time can be greater than the
disadvantages.
                                                      65

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                                                 FLUORIDE
  The fluoride  ion  has potential beneficial effects,  but
excessive fluoride in  drinking water supplies produces ob-
jectionable dental fluorosis that  increases as a continuum
with increasing  fluoride concentration above  the  recom-
mended control limits. In the United States, this is the only
harmful  effect resulting from  fluoride found in drinking
water  (Dean 1936,150 Moulton  1942,188 Heyroth  1952,165
McClure  1953,167 Leone et al.  1954,156 Shaw 1954,159 U.S.
Department  of  Health,  Education, and Welfare,  Public
Health Service 1959160). The fluoride concentrations exces-
sive for a given  community depend on climatic conditions
because the amount of water (and consequently the amount
of fluoride) ingested  by  children  is  primarily influenced by
air temperature  (Galagan  1953,161 Galagan and Lamson
1953,152 Galagan and Vermillion  1957,153 Galagan et al.
1957164).
  Rapid fluctuations in  raw water fluoride ion levels would
create  objectionable operating  problems  for  treatment
plants  serving communities that  supplement raw water
fluoride concentrations.  From the point of view of a water
pollution  control program any value less than that  recom-
mended would generally be acceptable at  a  point of do
mestic water withdrawal.

Recommendation
  Because of adverse physiological effects and  be-
cause  the defined treatment process does nothing
to reduce excessive fluoride concentrations, it i!
recommended that the maximum levels shown ir
Table II-2 not be exceeded in  public water supply
sources.
         TABLE 11-2—fluoride. Recommendation
 Annual averate of maximum daily air temperatures"
           fahrenhut
                                   Fluoride maximum mj/l
            80-91
            72-79
            65-71
            59-64
            5!i-58
            50-34
1.4
1.6
1 8
2.0
2.2
2.4
 • Bated on temperature data obtained lor a minimum ol live years.
                                                      66

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                                           FOAMING  AGENTS
  Many chemical substances occurring either naturally or
as components of industrial or domestic waste will  cause
water to foam  when  agitated or when air is entrained.
The most common foaming agent in use today is the syn-
thetic anionic surfactant,  linear alkyl benzene sulfonate
(LAS). Branched alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) was used
prior to 1965 as a base for synthetic detergents. Because of
its persistent foaming properties, however, ABS was re-
placed by LAS.  The  most objectionable property of sur-
factants is  their  foaming capacity which  can  produce
unsightly masses of foam in a stream or at the home tap.
The surfactants also tend to disperse normally insoluble or
sorbed substances,  thus interfering with  their removal by
coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.
  Although conversion to  the more readily biodegradable
linear alkyl sulfonates by  the detergent industry  has de-
creased  the persistence of sulfonates  in  aerobic  waters,
measurable concentrations of these substances still can be
found in both surface and ground waters.  Concentrations
of anionic surfactants in water can be determined by means
of their reaction with methylene blue dye (Standard Meth-
ods  1971).162 Concentrations of  less  than 0.5 mg/1, as
methylene blue active  substances (MBAS), do not cause
foaming or present serious interference in the defined treat-
ment process and  are well below the inferred limit (700
mg/1) of toxicity to humans based on tests on rats fed diets
of LAS (Buehler et al. 1971).161 It must be recognized that
this procedure does not determine the total concentration
of foaming agents, merely the concentration  of materials
that react with methylene blue, most of which are anionic
surfactants. Although cationic and nonionic synthetic sur-
factants do not respond, and not all substances  that respond
to the methylene blue process cause foaming, the methylene
blue test is the best available measure of foaming properties.


Recommendation

  To avoid undesirable aesthetic effects and be-
cause the denned treatment process does little or
nothing  to reduce the level of  foaming agents, it
is recommended that foaming  agents determined
as  methylene blue  active substances  not  exceed
0.5 mg/1 in public water supply sources.
                                                      67

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                                                HARDNESS
  Hardness is defined as the sum of the polyvalent cations
expressed as the equivalent quantity of calcium carbonate
(CaCOs). The most common such cations are calcium and
magnesium.  In general, these  metal ions in public water
supply sources are not cause for concern to health, although
there are  some  indications  that they may influence  the
effect of other metal ions on some organisms (Jones 1938,168
Cairns, Jr. and  Scheier 1958,164 Mount 1966170). Possible
beneficial  and  detrimental  effects on  health  have been
postulated but not conclusively demonstrated (Muss 1962,171
Crawford  and Crawford  1967,166 Crawford et  al. 1968,165
Masironi  1969,169  Voors 1971172).  There  is considerable
variation in the range of hardness acceptable to a given
community.  Some consumers expect and demand supplies
with a total hardness of less than 50 mg/1, expressed as
equivalent CaCO3, while others  are  satisfied with total
hardness greater than 200  mg/1. Consumer sensitivity is
often related to  the hardness to which the public has be-
come accustomed, and acceptance may be  tempered by
economic considerations.
  The requirement for soap and other detergents is directl
related to the water hardness (DeBoer and Larson 1961).1'
Of particular importance is the tendency for developmer
of scale deposits when  the  water is heated. Variations i
water hardness may be more objectionable than any give
level. Waters with little or no hardness may  be corrosiv
to water utility facilities, depending upon pH, alkalinit;
and dissolved oxygen (American Water Works Associatio
1971).163 Industrial consumers of public supplies may b
particularly sensitive to variations  in hardness. A watt
hardness must relate to the level normal for the supply  an
exclude hardness additions resulting in significant variatior
or general increases.


Conclusion

  Acceptable levels for hardness are based on con
sumer  preference.  No  quantitative recommen
dation for hardness  in water can be specified.
                                                      68

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                                                    IRON
  Iron (Fe) is objectionable in public water supplies because
of its effect on taste (Riddick et al. 1958,178 Cohen et  al.
I960176), staining of plumbing fixtures, spotting of laundered
clothes, and accumulation of deposits in distribution systems.
Iron  occurs  in  the  reduced  state (Fe++), frequently  in
ground waters and less frequently in surface waters, since
exposure to oxygen in surface waters results in oxidation,
forming hydrated  ferric  oxide which is much  less soluble
(American Water Works Association 1971).173
  Statistical  analysis of taste  threshold tests with iron  in
distilled water free of oxygen at  pH 5.0 showed that 5 per
cent of the observers were able to distinguish between 0.04
mg/1 ferrous iron  (added as ferrous sulfate) and  distilled
water containing no iron. At 0.3 mg/1, 20 per cent were
able to make the  distinction. When colloidal ferric oxide
was  added, 5 per  cent of the observers were able to dis-
tinguish between 0.7 mg/1 and distilled water. Thus the
form of iron  is important. The range of sensitivities of the
observers was surprising, in that 5 per cent were unable to
detect ferrous iron at a concentration of 256 mg/1 in distilled
water. The taste  of iron was variously described as bitter,
sweet, astringent,  and "iron tasting." (Cohen et al. I960).176
  Concentrations of iron less than  0.3 mg/1 are generally
acceptable in public water supplies as the characteristic
red stains and deposits of  hydrated  ferric oxide do  not
manifest themselves (Hazen 1895,m Mason 1910,177 Buswell
1928174). This is the principal reason for limiting the con-
centration of soluble iron.

Recommendation

  On the basis  of user preference and because the
defined treatment process can remove oxidized iron
but may not remove soluble iron (Fe++), it is recom-
mended that 0.3 mg/1 soluble iron not be exceeded
in public water supply sources.
                                                       69

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                                                    LEAD
  Lead is well known for  its  toxicity in both acute and
chronic exposures (National Academy of Sciences  1972).190
In technologically developed countries the widespread use
of lead multiplies the risk of exposure of the population to
excessive lead levels (Kehoe  1960a).184 For  this reason,
constant surveillance of the lead  exposure  of the general
population via food, air, and water is necessary.
  Acute lead toxicity is characterized by burning in the
mouth,  severe thirst, inflammation  of the gastrointestinal
tract with vomiting and diarrhea. Chronic toxicity produces
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, paraly-
sis, mental confusion, visual disturbances, anemia, and con-
vulsions (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs  I960).189
  For 1,577 surface water samples collected from 130 sam-
pling points in the United States,  11.3 per cent showed
detectable concentrations of 0.002  to 0.140 mg/1 with a
mean of 0.023 mg/1 (Kopp 1969).187 For the  100 largest
cities in the  United States,  the finished waters were  found
to have  a  median  concentration of 0.0037 mg/1 and a
maximum of 0.062 mg/1 (Durfor  and Becker 1964).182  Of
the 969 water supplies in a  community water supply study
conducted in 1969 (McCabe et al. 1970),188 the lead concen-
trations in finished water ready for distribution ranged from
0 to  0.64 mg/1. Fourteen of these supplies on the  average
exceeded the 0.05 mg/1 limit  for lead in drinking  water
(PHS 1962).191 Of 2,595 samples from distribution  systems,
37 exceeded the limit set by the Drinking Water Standards
(PHS 1962).191 When standing in lead pipe overnight,  acidic
soft water in particular can dissolve appreciable  concen-
trations of lead (Crawford and Morris 1967).181
  The average daily intake of lead via the diet was 0.3 mg
in 1940 and rarely exceeded 0.6 mg (Kehoe et al. 1940a).186
Data obtained subsequent to 1940  indicated that the intake
of lead appeared to have decreased slightly  since that time
(Kehoe 1960b,185 Schroeder and Balassa  1961).192 Whe
under  experimental  conditions,  the daily  intake of lez
from all sources amounted  to 0.5 to 0.6 mg over one ye;
or more, a small amount was retained in normal healtl
adults  but produced no detectable deviation from norm
health. Indirect evidence from industrial workers expost
to known amounts of lead  for long periods was consistei
with these findings (Kehoe  1947).183
  Young children present a special case in lead intoxicatio
both in terms of the tolerated intake and the severity of tl
symptoms (Chisholm 1964).180 The most prevalent soun
of lead poisoning of children up to three years of age h,
been lead-containing paint still found in some older horn
(Byers 1959,179 Kehoe 1960a184).
  Because of the narrow gap between the quantities of lea
to which the general population is exposed through foe
and air in the course of every day life, and the quantities th;
are potentially  hazardous over  long periods of time, lea
in water for human consumption must be limited to lo
concentrations.
  A long-time intake of 0.6 mg  lead per day is a level ;
which  development of lead  intoxication is unlikely and ti
normal intake  of lead from  food is  approximately 0
mg/day. Assuming a 2 liter daily  consumption of wati
with 0.05 mg/1 lead, the additional daily intake would t
0.1 mg/day or 25 per cent of the total intake.

Recommendation
  Because of  the  toxicity of lead to humans an
because there is little information on the effective
ness of the defined treatment process in decreasin
lead concentrations, it  is recommended that 0.0
mg/1  lead not be  exceeded in public water suppl
sources.
                                                      70

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                                              MANGANESE
  Manganese (Mn) is objectionable in public water supplies
because of its effect on taste (Riddick et al. 1958,196 Cohen
et al. I960194), staining  of plumbing fixtures, spotting of
laundered clothes, and accumulation of deposits in  distri-
bution systems. Manganese  occurs  in  the  reduced state
(Mn++), frequently  in ground waters and less frequently
in surface  waters, since exposure to  oxygen  in  surface
waters results in oxidation to much less soluble hydrated
manganese oxides (American Water  Works Association
1971).193
  Concentrations  of manganese less than 0.05  mg/1 are
generally acceptable in public water supplies, because the
characteristic black stains and deposits  of hydrated man-
ganese oxides do not manifest  themselves.  This is the
principal reason for limiting the concentration of soluble
manganese (Griffin I960).196

Recommendation
  On the basis of user preference and because the
defined  treatment  process can remove oxidized
manganese but does little to remove soluble man-
ganese (Mn++), it is recommended that 0.05 mg/1
soluble manganese  not be exceeded in public water
sources.
                                                      71

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                                                 MERCURY
  Mercury (Hg) is distributed throughout the environment.
As a result of industrial use and agricultural  applications,
significant local increases in concentrations above natural
levels in water, soils, and air have been recorded (Wallace
et al. 1971).209  In addition to the more  commonly known
sources of  man's mercury contributions,  the burning  of
fossil fuels has been reported as a source of mercury pollution
(Bertine and Goldberg 1971,199 Joensuu 1971202).
  The presence of mercury in fresh and sea water was
reported many years ago (Proust 1799,204 Garrigou 1877,201
Willm 1879,210 Bardet 1913197).  In  Germany,  early studies
(Stock and Cucuel 1934,206 Stock  1938206) found  mercury
in tap water,  springs, rain water,  and beer.  In  all water
the concentration  of mercury  was consistently  less than
one Mg/1, but the beer occasionally contained up to 15 ng/'l.
A recent survey (U.S. Department of Interior, Geological
Survey  1970)2U demonstrated  that 93  per  cent of U.S.
streams and rivers sampled contained less than 0.5 Mg/1 of
dissolved mercury.
  Aside from  the  exposure experienced in certain  occu-
pations, food,  particularly fish,  is the greatest contributor
to the human body  burden of  mercury (Study Group on
Mercury Hazards  1971).208 The Food and Drug Adminis-
tration (FDA)  has established  a guideline of 0.5 mg/kg
for  the maximum  allowable concentration of mercury  in
fish consumed  by  humans, but it  has not been  necessary
for the FDA to establish guidelines for other foodstuffs.
  Mercury poisoning may be acute or chronic. Generally,
mercurous salts are less soluble  in  the digestive tract than
mercuric salts and are consequently less acutely toxic. For
man the fatal oral dose of mercuric salts ranges from 20 mg
to 30 mg (Stokinger 1963).207 Chronic poisoning  from in-
organic mercurials has  been most often  associated with
industrial exposure, whereas that from the organic deriva-
tives  has been the  result of accidents  or environmental
contamination.
  On the basis of their effects on man, several of the mercury
compounds  used  in agriculture and  industry  (such  as
alkoxyalkyls and aryls)  can be grouped with  inorganic
mercury  to which the former compounds are usually me-
tabolized. Alkyl compounds are the derivatives of mercury
most  toxic  to man, producing illness from the ingestion of
only a few milligrams. Chronic alkyl mercury poisoning is
insidious in that it may be  manifest after a few weeks  or
not until after a few years.
  It has been estimated (Bergrund and Berlin 1969)198 tha
of the total mercury ingested, more than 90 per cent  i
absorbed via the gastrointestinal tract when taken in th
form of methyl mercury; bu t only 2 per cent is absorbed .
it is in the form of mercuric ion (Clarkson  1971),20° Huma
excreta reveal a biological half-life of methyl mercury i
man of approximately 70 dziys (Study Group on Mercur
Hazards 1971).208
  Acute mercury toxicity is c haracterized by severe nausea
vomiting, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, kidney damage
and  death usually  within ten  days.  Chronic exposure  i
characterized by inflammation of mouth and gums, swelling
of salivary glands, excessive salivation, loosening of teeth
kidney  damage,  muscle  tremors, spasms of extremities
personality changes, depression,  irritability, and nervous
ness  (The Merck Index of Chemicals and  Drugs  I960).203
  Safe levels of ingested  mercury can be estimated fron
data presented in "Hazards of Mercury" (Study  Group 01
Mercury Hazards 1971 ).208 From epidemiological evidence
the  lowest  whole blood concentration of  methyl mercun
associated with toxic symptoms is 0.2 Mg/g, which, in turn
corresponds to prolonged, continuous intake by  man o
approximately 0.3 mg Hg/70 kg/day. When a safety facto
of 10 is used, the maximum dietary  intake should be O.CK
mg  Hg/person/day  (30 /ig/70 kg/day).  It is recognizec
that  this provides  a smaller  factor of safety for children
If exposure to mercury were  from fish alone, the 0.03 mi
limit  would allow for a maximum  daily consumption o
60 grams  (420  g/week) of fish containing 0.5 mg Hg/kg
Assuming a daily consumption of 2 liters of water containing
0.002 mg/1  (2  Mg/1) mercury,  the daily intake  would b<
4 Mg- If 420 g of fish per week containing 0.5 mg Hg/k£
plus  2 liters of water daily containing 0.002 mg/1 mercur;
were ingested, the factor of safety for a 70 kg man wouk
be 9. If all  of the mercury is not in the  alkyl form,  or  i
fish consumption is limited, a greater  factor of  safety  wil
exist.

Recommendation

  On the basis of adverse physiological effects  and
because  the defined water treatment process  has
little or no effect on removing mercury at low levels,
it is recommended that  total mercury in  public
water supply sources not  exceed 0.002 mg/1.
                                                       72

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                                             NITRATE-NITRITE
  Serious and occasionally fatal poisonings in infants have
occurred following ingestion of well waters shown to contain
nitrate  (NOs_)  at  concentrations greater than  10  mg/1
nitrate-nitrogen (N). This was first associated with  a tempo-
rary blood disorder in infants  called methemoglobinemia
in 1945 (Comly 1945).212 Since then, approximately  2,000
cases of this disease have been reported from private water
supplies in North America and  Europe,  and about  7  to
8 per cent of the infants  affected died  (Walton 1951,223
Sattelmacher 1962,218 Simon et  al. 1964219).
  High nitrate  concentrations are  frequently found  in
shallow wells on farms and in rural communities. These
are often  the  result of inadequate protection  from barn
yard drainage and from septic  tanks (U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and  Welfare, Public Health Service
1961,221 Stewart et  al.  1967220). Increasing concentrations
of nitrate in streams from farm  tile drainage  have been
shown in regions of intense fertilization and  farm crop
production (Harmeson et al. 1971).214
  Many infants have  drunk water  with nitrate-nitrogen
concentrations greater  than 10 mg/1 without  developing
the disease. Many public water  supplies in  the United
States  have levels  of  nitrate  that  routinely  exceed  the
standard,  but only one case of methemoglobinemia (Vigil
et al. 1965)222 associated with  a  public water  supply  has
thus far been reported. Rationale for degrees of  suscepti-
bility to methemoglobinemia have yet to  be  developed.
  The development of methemoglobinemia, largely  con-
fined  to infants  less than  three months old, is dependent
upon  the  bacterial  conversion  of the relatively innocuous
nitrate ion  to nitrite  (NO2~).  Nitrite absorbed  into  the
blood stream converts hemoglobin to methemoglobin. The
altered pigment can then  no longer transport oxygen, and
the clinical effect of methemoglobinemia is that of oxygen
deprivation or  suffocation. Older children and adults do
not seem to be  affected,  but  Russian research  reported
methemoglobin  in  five- to eight-year-old school  children
where the water nitrate concentrations were  182 mg/1 as N
(Diskalenko 1968).213
  Nitrite  toxicity is well known,  but a no-effect  level  has
not been established.  When  present in drinking  water
nitrite would  have a  more rapid and pronounced  effect
than  nitrate.  Concentrations  in  raw water  sources  are
usually less than 1  mg/1 as N, and  chlorination  to a free
chlorine residual converts  nitrite to nitrate.
  Several  reviews  and reports  (Walton  1951,223  Sattel-
macher  1962,218 Simon  et al.  1964,219  Winton 1970,224
Winton et al. 1971225) generally pointed to 10 mg/1 nitrate-
nitrogen in drinking water as the maximum tolerance levels
for  infants.  Sattelmacher  (1962)218  showed  3  per cent  of
473 cases of infantile methemoglobinemia to be associated
with levels of less than 9 mg/1 as N. Simon and his associates
(1964)219 found 4.4 per  cent of 249 cases  to be associated
with levels less than 11 mg/1  as N. Analyses  of available
data are hampered  by the fact that samples for water
analysis are sometimes collected weeks or months after the
disease  occurs, during  which  time the  concentration  of
nitrate may change  considerably. Hereditary defects, the
feeding  of  nitrate-rich vegetables, or the use  of common
medicines  may  increase susceptibility to  methemoglobi-
nemia. Winton and his  associates (1971)228 concluded that
"there is insufficient  evidence to permit raising the recom-
mended limit."
  Extensive reviews on methemoglobinemia associated with
nitrate and nitrite have been provided by Walton (1951),223
Miale  (1967),216 and Lee  (1970).216  They described the
circumstances  that contributed to the susceptibility of in-
fants under three  months  of  age to methemoglobinemia
from nitrate. These included (a) the  stomach pH in infants,
which is higher than that of adults and can permit growth
of bacteria that can reduce nitrate to nitrite, and (b) infant
gastrointestinal illness that may permit reduction of nitrate
to nitrite to occur higher in the intestinal tract.
  Methemoglobin is normally present at levels of 1 per cent
to 2 per cent of the total hemoglobin in the blood. Clinical
symptoms are normally detectable  only at levels of about
10  per cent. Methemoglobin in the subclinical range has
been  generally  regarded  as  unimportant. However,  10
children (ages 12 to 14) were observed to have shown con-
ditioned reflexes to both auditory and visual stimuli, as the
result of a drinking  water source with 20.4 mg/1 nitrate-
nitrogen. The average  methemoglobin  in the blood was
5.3 per cent (Petukhov  and Ivanov 1970).217

Recommendation
  On  the basis of  adverse  physiological effects on
infants and  because  the denned treatment process
has no effect on  the removal of  nitrate, it is recom-
mended that the  nitrate-nitrogen  concentration
in  public water supply sources  not exceed  10 mg/1.
  On  the basis of its high toxicity  and  more pro-
nounced  effect  than nitrate,  it is recommended
that the  nitrite-nitrogen  concentration in public
water supply sources not exceed  1 mg/1.
                                                       73

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                                     NITRILOTRIACETATE  (NTA)
  Because of its possible large-scale use, nitrilotriacetate
(NTA) should be evaluated in light of chronic low-level
exposure via drinking water and its potential for adversely
affecting the health of the general  population. Although
nitrilotriacetic acid, a white crystalline powder, is insoluble
in water, the tribasic salt is quite soluble.
  NTA has strong affinity for iron, calcium, magnesium,
and  zinc  (Bailar  1956).226 Its relative  affinity for toxic
metals such as cadmium and mercury is not presently
known, nor have its chelating properties in complex ionic
solutions  been characterized.  Copper  and  lead concen-
trations in biologically treated waste water after flocculation
with aluminum sulfate (125 mg/1)  are  a function  of the
NTA present (Nilsson 1971).227 No information is available
on the toxicity of such chelates.  No cases of acute human
poisoning by NTA have been reported.
  In the natural environment, NTA is biodegraded to CO2,
   s, and H2O, with glycine and ammonia as intermediate
(Thompson and Duthie 1968).228 This appears to occu
within  four to  five days.  Degradation is accelerated  b
biological waste treatment.  Conversion of NTA to nitrat
is on a 1 to 1  molar basis.

Conclusion

  No recommendation concerning NTA is made a
this time because of the absence of data on affinit
for toxic metals, the  absence of adequate toxicit
data, and the absence  of demonstrable effects 01
man, and because there is doubt about its potentia
use as a substitute for  phosphates in detergents
Toxicity  information should  be  developed  ant
evaluated to  establish  a reasonable  recommen
dation prior to its use as a substitute.
                                                  ODOR
  Odor and  taste, which are rarely separable, are  the
primary means by which the user determines the accepta-
bility of water. The absence of odor is an indirect indication
that contaminants such as phenolic compounds are also
absent, or nearly so.  (See Phenolic Compounds, in this sec-
tion, p. 80) Although odor cannot  be directly correlated
with the safety of the water supply,  its presence can cause
consumers to seek other supplies that may in fact  be  less
safe.
  Many odor-producing substances  in raw water supplies
are organic compounds produced by microorganisms and
by  human and  industrial wastes  (Silvey  1953,232  Rosen
1966,231 American  Water Works Association, Committe
on  Tastes  and Odors,  1970230). The denned treatmer
process can aid  in the  removal of certain odorous sul:
stances (American  Water Works Association 1971),229 bu
it may in other cases increase the odor (Silvey et al. 1950)2:
as by  the chlorination of phenolic compounds explaine
on p. 80.

Recommendation
  For  aesthetic  reasons,   public  water  suppl
sources should be essentially free from objection
able odor.
                                          OIL  AND  GREASE
  Oil and grease, as defined by Standard Methods (1971),241
occurring in public  water supplies in any quantity cause
taste, odor, and appearance problems (Braus et al. 1951,235
Middleton  and Lichtenberg  I960,240 Middleton 196la,239
American Water Works Association 1966234),  can be haz-
ardous to human health (The Johns Hopkins University,
Department of Sanitary Engineering and Water Resources
1956,237 McKee  and Wolf 1963238), and are  detrimental
to the defined treatment process (Middleton and Lichten-
berg I960).240 Even  small quantities of oil and grease can
produce objectionable odors and appearance, causing re
jection of the water  supply  before health or treatmer.
problems exist (Holluta 1961,2:t6 McKee and Wolf  1963).2;
Recommendation
   On  the basis of  odor and other aesthetic con
siderations affecting user preference and becaus
oil and grease are unnatural ingredients in watei
it is recommended that public water supply source
be essentially free from oil and grease.
                                                     74

-------
                                 ORGANICS-CARBON  ADSORBABLE
  Organics-carbon adsorbable are composed  of carbon-
chloroform extract (CCE) (Middleton 1961 b)246 and carbon-
alcohol  extract (CAE)  (Booth et al.  1965,243 Standard
Methods 1971248). CCE is a mixture of organic compounds
that can be adsorbed on activated carbon and then desorbed
with chloroform (Booth et  al. 1965).243 Middleton  and
Rosen (1956)246 showed the presence of substituted benzene
compounds,  kerosene,  polycyclic  hydrocarbons, phenyl-
ether, acrylonitrile, and insecticides in CCE  materials.
CAE is  a mixture  of organic compounds that can be ad-
sorbed on activated carbon, then desorbed with ethyl alcohol
after the chloroform soluble organics have been desorbed
(Booth et al. 1965).243
  Hueper and Payne (1963)244 showed that CCE materials
had carcinogenic  properties when ingested by  rats. This
study also suggested a life-shortening effect in rats fed CAE
materials (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
office memorandum 1963).249 The CAE material also contained
at least  one  synthetic organic,  alkyl  benzene sulfonate
(Rosen et al. 1956).247
  It is important to recognize that the carbon usually does
not adsorb all organic material  present,  nor  is  all the
adsorbed material desorbed.
  Organics-carbon adsorbable recommendations represent
a practical measure of water quality and act as a safeguard
against  the intrusion of excessive amounts of  ill-defined
potentially toxic organic material into water. They have
served in the past  as a measure of protection against the
presence of otherwise undetected toxic organic materials in
drinking water. However, they provide a rather incomplete
index of the health significance of such materials in potable
waters.
  In 1965 Booth and his associates (1965)243 developed a
Carbon  Adsorption Method (CAM)  similar to  the High-
Flow  CAM Sampler but with a longer contact time be-
tween the sample and the activated carbon. This sampler,
called  the  Low-Flow CAM Sampler,  increased organic
adsorption and therefore overall yield of the determination.
  Since that time a more  reliable  collection apparatus,
called the Mini-Sampler, has been developed (Beulow and
Carswell 1972).242 In addition, the Mini-Sampler also used
a type of coal-based activated carbon that enhanced organic
collection.  Further, the extraction  apparatus has  been
miniaturized  to  be less  expensive and more  convenient,
and the procedure modified to be more vigorous, thereby
increasing desorption and organic recovery (Beulow and
Carswell 1972).242 However,  the Mini-Sampler has not
been evaluated using raw waters at this time. Therefore,
the Low-Flow Sampler (Booth et al. 1965)243 was used for
establishing the recommendation.
  Adjustment of the High-Flow Sampler data (1961  Inter-
state Carrier Surveillance Program) to make them  com-
parable to  the recent results from the  Low-Flow Sampler
show that waters with concentrations exceeding either 0.3
mg CCE/1  or  1.5 mg  CAE/1  may contain  undesirable
and unwarranted components  and represent  a  generally
unacceptable level for unidentified organic substances.

Recommendation

  Because large values of CCE and  CAE are aes-
thetically undesirable and represent unacceptable
levels of unidentified  organic compounds that may
have adverse physiological effects, and because the
defined treatment process has little or no effect on
the removal of these organics, it  is recommended
that  organics-carbon adsorbable  as measured by
the Low-Flow Sampler (Standard Methods 1971248)
not exceed 0.3 mg/1 CCE and 1.5 mg/1  CAE  in
public water supply sources.
                                                      75

-------
                                                  PESTICIDES
  Pesticides include a great many organic compounds that
are used for specific or general purposes. Among them are
chlorinated  hydrocarbons, organophosphorus and carba-
mate compounds, as well as the chlorophenoxy, and other
herbicides. Although these compounds have been useful in
improving agricultural  yields,  controlling  disease vectors,
and reducing the mass growth of aquatic plants in streams
and reservoirs, they also create  both real  and presumed
hazards in the environment.
  Pesticides differ widely in chemical and toxicological
characteristics.  Some are accumulated in the fatty tissues
of the body while others are metabolized. The biochemistry
of the pesticides has not yet  been completely investigated.
Because of the variability in their toxicity to man and their
wide  range of biodegradability, the different  groups of
pesticides are considered separately below.
  Determining the presence of pesticides in water requires
expensive specialized equipment as well as specially trained
personnel. In smaller communities, it is not routine to make
actual  quantitative   determinations  and  identifications.
These are relegated  to  the larger cities, federal and state
agencies,  and private laboratories that monitor raw waters
at selected locations.

CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON INSECTICIDES
  The chlorinated hydrocarbons are one of the most im-
portant groups of synthetic organic insecticides  because of
their number, wide use,  great stability in the environment,
and toxicity to certain forms of wildlife and other nontarget
organisms. If absorbed  into the human body, some of the
chlorinated  hydrocarbons are not metabolized rapidly but
are stored in fatty tissues. The consequences of such storage
are presently  under  investigation  (Report of  the Secre-
tary's Commission on Pesticides and Their Relationship to
Environmental Health. U.S. Department of Health,  Edu-
cation, and Welfare 1969).284 The major chlorinated hydro-
carbons have been in use for  at least three decades, and yet
no  definite  conclusions  have been reached  regarding the
effect of these pesticides  on man (HEW 1969).284
  Regardless  of  how they  enter  organisms,  chlorinated
hydrocarbons cause symptoms of poisoning that are similar
but differ in severity. The severity is related to concentratioi
of the chlorinated  hydrocarbon  in  the nervous  system
primarily the brain (Dale et al.  1963).266 Mild intoxicatioi
causes headaches, dizziness, gastrointestinal  disturbances
numbness and  weakness of the  extremities,  apprehension
and hyperirritability. In severe cases, there are muscula
fasciculations spreading from the head to the extremities
followed eventually  by spasms involving  entire muscli
groups, leading in some cases to convulsions and death.
  Very few long term  studies have been conducted  witl
human volunteers. The highest level tested for dieldrin wa
0.211  mg/man/day for 2  years with no observed illnes
(Hunter and Robinson 1967,:!68 Hunter et al.  1969).269 Sino
aldrin is metabolized to  dieldrin and has essentially thi
same toxicity as dieldrin,  these  data  can also be applie(
to aldrin.
  Methoxychlor  levels  of  140 mg/man/day produced  n<
illness in subjects over a  period of 8 weeks (Stein  et  al
1965).280 The  maximum  level  of DDT  seen to have  n<
apparent ill effect was 35 mg/man/day for 2 years (Haye
et al. 1971).265
  The dosage  is one of the most important factors in ex
trapolating to  safe human exposure levels.  Using tumor
susceptible hybrid  strains  of mice,  significantly increaset
incidences of tumors were produced with the administratioi
of large doses of DDT (46.4  mg/kg/day)  (Innes  et  al
1969).270 In a  separate study in mice extending over fivi
generations, a  dietary level of 3 ppm of  DDT produced <
greater incidence of malignancies and leukemia beginning
in the second filial and third filial generations, respectively
and continuing in the later generations (Tarjan and Kemen)
1969).281 These results are preliminary in nature and requin
confirmation. The findings of both of these studies conflic
with earlier studies of the carcinogenic effect  of DDT whicl
yielded generally negative results.
  A summary of the levels of  several chlorinated hydra
carbons  that produced minimal toxicity or no effects wher
fed chronically to dogs and rats is shown in Table 11-^
(Lehman 1965,272 Treon  and Cleveland 1955,282 Cole un-
published data 1966286). Limits for chlorinated hydrocarbon;
in drinking water have been calculated primarily on the
                                                        76

-------
                                                                                                            Pesticides/77
                       TABLE II-3—Recommended Limits for Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
Compound
Aldrin 	


Chlordane ...


DDT 	


Dieldrin 	


Endrin


Hgptachlor..


Htpbchlor Epoiide .


Lindane .


Methoxychlor


Toxaphene...


Long-term levels with minimal or no effects
Species
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dcf
Man
Rat
DOt
Man
Rat
DOJ
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dog
Man
Ra.
Dog
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
ppm in diet
0.5
1.0

2.S
N.A.
N.A.
5.0
400.0

0.5
1.0

5.0
3.0
N.A.
0.5
4.0
N.A.
0.5
0.5
NA.
50.0
15.0
N.A.
100.0
40000

100
400.0
N.A.
Reference
(1)
(1)

(1)


0)
0)

(1)
(0

(5)
(6)

0)
0)

0)
(1)

(0
0)

(0
0)

(1)
(1)

mg/kf body Reference
weight/da)"
0.083 .
0.02
0.003 (2), (3)
0.42 . ..
N.A.
N.A.
0.83
8.0
0.5 (4)
0.083
0.02
0.003 (2), (3)
0 83
0.06
N.A.
0.083
0.08
N.A.
0.083
0.01
N.A.
8.3
0.3
N.A.
17.0
80.0
2.0 (7)
1 7
80
N.A.
Calculated maximum sale levels
from all sources of exposure
Safety Factor
(X)
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500


1/100
1/100
1/10
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/500

1/500
1/500

1/500
1/500

1/500
1/500

1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/500

mt/kf/day
0.00083
0.0002
0.0003
0.00084


0.008
0.08
0.05
0.00083
0.0002
0.0003
0.00166
0.00012

0.000166
0.00016

0.000166
0.00002

0.0166
0.0006

0.17
0.8
0.2
0.0034
0.010

mg/man/day&
0.0581
O.OW
0.021
O.SSS-i


0.56°*
5.E
3.5
0.0581
0.014<<
0.021
0.1162
0.0084''

0.1162
0.01 12*

0.01162
0.0014''

1.162
0.042''

11. ¥
56.0
14.0
0.238
-------
78/Section II—Public Water Supplies
consider the exposure from other media. In the case of the
chlorinated  hydrocarbons, exposure  is expected to occur
mostly through  the  diet, although aerial  spray  of these
agents can occasionally result in an inhalation exposure.
Dietary intake of pesticide chemicals from  1964  to 1970
have  been determined by investigators of the  Food and
Drug Administration from  "market  basket"  samples of
food and  water  (Duggan and Corneliussen 1972).268 The
average intakes (mg/man/day) are listed in Table II-3.
  If the intake from the diet  is  compared with what are
considered acceptable safe levels for these pesticides, it is
apparent that only traces of chlordane, methoxychlor, and
toxaphene are present in  the diet. Less than  10 per cent of
the maximum safe level of aldrin, DDT, endrin, heptachlor,
or lindane are ingested with the diet. For dieldrin, approxi-
mately 35 per cent of the safe level  comes from the diet.
By  contrast,  exposure to heptachlor epoxide via  the diet
accounts for more than the defined safe level. In general, an
apportionment to water of 20 per cent of the total acceptable
intake is reasonable. However, the limits for chlordane and
toxaphene were lowered  because of organoleptic effects at
concentrations above 0.003  and 0.005 mg/I, respectively
(Cohen et al. 1961,253 Sigworth 1965278). The limit  for
heptachlor epoxide was lowered to five per cent of the safe
level because of the  relatively high concentrations  in the
diet; and,  accordingly, the limit for heptachlor was lowered
because it is metabolized  to heptachlor epoxide.
  These limits reflect the amounts that can be  ingested
without harm to the health  of the consumer and without
adversely affecting the quality of the drinking water. They
are meant to serve only in the event that these chemicals
are inadvertently present in the water and do not imply
that their  deliberate addition is acceptable.
Recommendation
  Because of adverse  physiological effects on hu-
mans or on the quality  of the water and because
there is  inadequate information on the effect  of
the denned treatment on removal of chlorinated
hydrocarbons, it is  recommended that the limits
for water shown in Table II-3 not be exceeded.

ORGANOPHOSPHORUS  AND CARBAMATE
INSECTICIDES
  The number of organophosphorus and carbamate  in-
secticides  has steadily increased through special  uses in
agricultural  production and  the  control of destructive  in-
sects. At present,  there  are  perhaps 30  commonly used
organophosphates with parathion among those potentially
most  dangerous  to human  health.  No evidence  has de-
veloped of any significant contamination of water supplies
even in the  geographical areas where the use of pesticides
in this class has been extensive. However, because of their
high mammalian toxicity, it is  advisable to establish  an
upper limit for these pesticides in treated water supplies.
  The majority of organophosphorus insecticides in use at
present are somewhat similar in chemical structure and
physical and biological properties. Although their speci
chemical compositions differ from one another  and frc
carbamates, they all act by the same physiological meet
nism. Their presence in public water supplies  as contan
nants would result in some deleterious biological efft
over a period of time.
  Ingestion of small quantities of either of these pesticic
over a prolonged  period  results  in a  dysfunction  of  t
cholinesterase of the nervous system (Durham and Ha}
1962).259 This appears to  be the  only important manifi
tation of acute or chronic toxicity caused  by these coi
pounds (HEW  1969).M4
  Although safe levels of these; agents have been determin
for experimental animals on the basis of biochemical in<
cators of injury, more knowledge is needed to make speci
recommendations for water quality (HEW 1969).284
  Indications  of the  levels that  would be harmful  a
available for some organophosphorus compounds as a resi
of studies conducted with human volunteers. Grob (1950)
estimated  that  100 mg of parathion would  be lethal ai
that 25 mg would be moderately toxic. On the other han
Bidstrup (1950)261 estimated that a dose of 10  to 20 mg
parathion   might be  lethal.  Edson  (1957)260  found th
parathion  ingested by man at a rate of 3 mg/day had ]
effect on cholinesterase. Similar values were determined 1
Williams and  his associates  (1958).28B Moeller  and Rid
(1962)273 suggested that the detectable toxicity threshol
as measured by cholinesterase depression, was 9 mg/d;
for  parathion equivalency and 24 mg/day  for malathio
These investigators also reported that a daily dose of 7  n
of methyl parathion was near the detectable toxicity thres
old for this compound; but  it was later found (Rider ar
Moeller 1964)276 that  10 mg/'day  of methyl  parathion cl
not  produce any  significant inhibition of  blood choli
esterase. Therefore, 5 mg/day (0.07 mg/kg/day) of p>
rathion equivalency should be a safe intake acceptable
the body.
  Frawley and  his associates (1963)262 found  that a depre
sion of plasma  cholinesterase occurred in human subjec
at a dosage of 0.15 mg/kg/day of Delnav,  which wou
amount to a total dose of about 7 to 10 mg/day of parathk
depending on the body weight of  the subjects.
  On the  basis that carbamate and organophosphorus i
secticides  have  similar toxic effects and that parathion
one of the most toxic of these classes, the data appeared
show that  0.07 mg/kg/day  should be a safe level for tl
human body. Assuming a daily consumption of 2 liters
water containing cholinerglc organophosphates  or carb
mates in concentrations of 0.1  mg/1, 0.2 mg/day would I
ingested. This would  provide  a factor  of safety of 25  f<
parathion  for a man weighing 70 kg.

Recom mendat ion
  It  is  recommended  that  the  carbamate  an
organophosphorus  pesticides in public water suf

-------
                                                                                                      Pesticides/79
                      TABLE II-4—Recommended Allowable Levels for Chlorophenoxy Herbicides
      Compound
                        Lowest long-term levels with minimal or no effects
Calculated maximum safe levels from all sources of exposure
                                                                                                     Water
                     Species
                             Dose mg/kg/dar
                                             Reference
                                                         Safety factor (X)
                                                                      mg/kg/day
                       mg/man/dayb
                                                                                            ~% of Safe Level   Rec. limit (mg/l)°
2,4-D.. ..

2,4,5-TP(Silvex) 	

2,4,5-T .


Rat
Dot
Rat
Dot
Rat

Dot
0.5
8.0
2.6
0.9
4.E

10.0
Lehman (1965)"=
Lehman (1965)™
Mullison (1966)"<
Mullison (1966)"'
Courtney etal. (1970)2=i
Courtney & Moore (1971)"'
Drill & HiraMa (1953)2"
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/1000

1/1000
0.001
0.016
0.005
0.002
0.005

0.01
0.07-*
1 12
0.35
0.14J
0.35-*

0.7
50

50


1

0.02

0.03


0.002

 - Assume weight of rat=0.3 kg and of dog=10 kg; assume average daily food consumption of rat=0.05 kg and of dot=0.2 kg.
 *> Assume average weight of human adult=70 kg.
 « Assume average daily intake of water for man=2 liters.
 <* Chosen as basis on which to derive recommended level.
ply sources not exceed 0.1 mg/1, total, because there
is inadequate information on  the effect of the de-
fined treatment process on their removal.

CHLOROPHENOXY  HERBICIDES
  During the past 20 years, numerous reservoirs have been
constructed as  public water supplies for  cities and com-
munities in the United States. In certain areas as much as
five per cent per year of the total volume of a reservoir may
be lost because of the marginal growth  of weeds and trees.
This is  especially common in the  Southwest where water
levels fluctuate (Silvey 1968).279
  In recent years the control of aquatic vegetation has been
widely practiced for water supply sources in many com-
munities in the U.S. Since herbicides may be used for this
purpose, it is possible that some may find their way into
finished water.
  Two of the most widely  used herbicides  are 2,4-D (2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic  acid), and  2,4,5-TP  (2,4,5-tri-
chlorophenoxy-propionic acid)  (see Table  11-4). Each of
these compounds is available in  a variety of salts and esters
that may have marked differences  in herbicidal properties
but are  rapidly  hydrolyzed to  the corresponding acid in
the body. There  are additional compounds that have been
employed from time to time, such as diquat (1,1 '-ethylene-2,
2'-dipyridylium dibromide)  and endothal (disodium 3,6-
endoxohexa-hydrophthalate).
  Studies  of the acute oral toxicity of the chlorophenoxy
herbicides indicated that there was approximately a three-
fold  variation  between the species studied and  that  the
acute toxicity  was  moderate (Hill  and Carlisle  1947,267
Lehman  1951,271 Drill and Hiratzka 1953,2"  Rowe and
Hymas  1954).277 It appears that acute  oral toxicity of the
three  compounds is of about the same magnitude within
each species. In the  rat, the oral LD50 for each agent was
about 500 mg/kg.
  There are some data available on the toxicity  of 2,4-D
to man  indicating that a  daily dosage  of 500 mg  (about
7 mg/kg)  produced no apparent  ill  effects in a volunteer
over a 21-day period (Kraus unpublished 1946).288
  Sixty-three million pounds of 2,4-D were  produced in
1965. There were  no confirmed cases of  occupational
poisoning and few instances of any illness due to ingestion
(Hayes  1963,264 Nielson et al. 1965275). One case of 2,4-D
poisoning in man has been reported recently (Berwick
1970).2SO
  Lehman (1965)272 reported  that  the no-effect level ot
2,4-D is 0.5 mg/kg/day in the rat and 8.0 mg/kg/day in
the dog. In 2-year  feeding  studies  with the sodium and
potassium  salts  of silvex,  the  no-effect levels  were  2.6
mg/kg/day in  rats  and 0.9 mg/kg/day,  respectively, in
dogs (Mullison 1966).274
  Terata and embryo toxicity  effects from 2,4,5-T were
evidenced by statistically increased proportions of abnormal
fetuses within  the  litters of mice and rats (Courtney et al.
1970).254 The rat appeared to be more sensitive to  this
effect. A dosage of 21.5 mg/kg produced no harmful effects
in mice, while a level  of 4.6 mg/kg  caused  minimal  but
statistically significant  effects in the rat. More recent work
has  indicated that  a  contaminant  (2,3,7 ,8-tetrachloro-
dibenzo-p-dioxin)  which was present  at approximately 30
ppm in  the 2 ,4,5-T formulation originally tested was highly
toxic to experimental  animals and  produced  fetal  and
maternal toxicity at levels as low as 0.0005 mg/kg. However,
highly  purified  2,4,5-T  has  also  produced teratogenic
effects in both hamsters and rats at relatively high dosage
rates  (FDA and  NIEHS  unpublished data,™1 Collins  and
Williams 1971252). Current production samples of 2,4,5-T
that contain less than  1  ppm of dioxin did  not produce
embryo  toxicity or  terata in rats at  levels as high  as 24
mg/kg/day (Emerson et al. 1970).261

Recommendation
  Because of possible adverse physiological effects
and  because  there  are  inadequate data  on the
effects of the defined treatment process  on removal
of  chlorophenoxy herbicides, it is recommended
that 2,4-D not exceed 0.02 mg/1, that Silvex not
exceed  0.03  mg/1,  and  that 2,4,5-T  not exceed
0.002 mg/1 in public water supply sources.

-------
  The pH of a raw water supply is significant because it
affects water treatment  processes  and may contribute to
corrosion of waterworks structures, distribution lines, and
household plumbing fixtures. This corrosion can add such
constituents as iron, copper, lead, zinc,  and cadmium to
the water. Most natural waters have pH values within the
range of 5.0 to 9.0. Adjustment of pH within this range is
relatively  simple, and the variety of anticorrosion pro-
cedures currently in use make it unnecessary to recommei
a more narrow range.
Recommendation
  Because the defined treatment process can co]
with natural waters within the pH range of 5.0 1
9.0 but  becomes less economical as  this range
extended, it is recommended that the pH of publ
water supply sources be within 5.0 to 9.0.
                                        PHENOLIC  COMPONDS
  Phenolic compounds  are  defined  (Standard Methods
1971)301 as hydroxy derivatives of benzene and its condensed
nuclei. Sources of phenolic compounds are industrial waste
water discharges (Faust and Anderson  1968),292 domestic
sewage (Hunter  1971),296 fungicides and pesticides (Frear
1969),294  hydrolysis and chemical oxidation  of organo-
phosphorus pesticides (Gomaa  and  Faust  1971),295  hy-
drolysis and photochemical oxidation of carbamate pesti-
cides  (Aly and  El-Dib 1971),289 microbial degradation ol
phenoxyalkyl acid  herbicides (Menzie 1969),298 and natur-
ally occurring substances (Christman and Ghassemi 1966).291
Some  phenolic  compounds  are  sufficiently resistant to
microbial degradation to be transported long distances by-
water.
  Phenols affect  water quality in many ways. Perhaps the
greatest effect is noticed in municipal water systems where
trace  concentrations of phenolic compounds (usually less
than  1.0  mg/1)  affect the organoleptic properties of the
drinking water. For example, p-cresol has a threshold order
concentration of 0.055  mg/1, m-cresol  0.25  mg/I,  and
o-cresol 0.26  mg/1 (Rosen et al. 1962).300  Phenol has a
threshold  odor  concentration of 4.2 mg/1  (Rosen et al.
1962),300 whereas the values for the chlorinated phenols are:
2-chlorophenol,  2.0 jag/l; and  4-chlorophenol,  250 jug/1
(Burttschell et al. 1959).290 Generally, phenolic compounds
are not removed efficiently by the defined treatment procei
Furthermore, municipal waters are postchlorinated to insu
disinfection. If phenolic  compounds are present in wate
that are chlorinated for disinfection, chlorophenols may 1
formed. The kinetics of this reaction are such that chlor
phenols may not appear  until the water  has  been di
tributed from the treatment plant (Lee and Morris 1962).!
  2,4-dinitrophenol has been shown to inhibit oxidatr
phosphorylation  at  concentrations  of  184  and  278  mg
(Pinchot 1967).299
  The development of criteria for  phenolic compounds
hampered by the lack of sensitive standard analytical tec]
niques for  the detection of specific phenolic compound
Some of the more odorous compounds are the para subsl
tuted  halogenated phenols. These escape detection by tl
methodology suggested by  Standard Methods (1971)301 ui
less the analytical conditions are  precisely set (Faust et a
1971).293

Recommendation
  Because the defined  treatment process may s«
verely increase the odor  of  many phenolic  com
pounds, it is recommended that public water su[
ply sources contain no more than 1 yg/1  phenoli
compounds.
                                                     80

-------
                                                 PHOSPHATE
   Recommendations  for  phosphate  concentrations have
 been considered  but  no generally  acceptable recommen-
 dation is possible at this time because of the complexity of
 the problem. The purpose of such a recommendation would
 be twofold:

   1.  to avoid problems associated with algae and  other
 aquatic plants, and
   2.  to avoid coagulation problems due  particularly  to
 complex phosphates.

   Phosphate is essential to all  forms  of life.  In efforts  to
 limit the development of objectionable plant growths, phos-
 phate  is often considered the  most  readily  controllable
 nutrient. Evidence  indicates (a) that high  phosphate con-
centrations  are associated  with eutrophication of waters
 manifest in unpleasant algal or other aquatic plant growths
when other growth-promoting  factors are favorable; (b)
that aquatic plant problems develop in  reservoirs or other
standing waters at phosphate values lower than those critical
 in flowing  streams; (c)  that reservoirs and other  standing
waters will collect  phosphates  from influent  streams and
store a portion of these  within the consolidated sediments;
and (d) that initial concentrations of phosphate that stimu-
late noxious plant growths vary with other water quality
characteristics, producing such growths in one geographical
area but not in another.
  Because the ratio of total phosphorus (P)  to that form  of
phosphorus readily available for plant growth is constantly
changing and ranges from two to 17 or more times greater,
it is desirable to establish limits  for total  phosphorus rather
than to the portion that may be available for immediate
plant use. Most relatively uncontaminated lake districts are
known to have surface  waters that contain 10 to 30 ng/l
total phosphorus as P; in some waters that are not obviously
 polluted,  higher values may occur. Data collected  by the
 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Division
 of Pollution  Surveillance,  indicate that total phosphorus
 concentrations exceeded 50 jug/1 (P) at 48 per cent of the
 stations sampled across the nation  (Gunnerson  1966).302
 Some potable surface water supplies now exceed  200 /ug/1
 (P) without experiencing notable problems due to aquatic
 growths.  Fifty micrograms per liter  of total phosphorus
 (as P)  would probably  restrict  noxious aquatic  plant
 growths in flowing waters and in some standing waters.
 Some lakes, however, would experience algal nuisances at
 and below this level.
  Critical phosphorus  concentrations  will vary with other
 water quality characteristics. Turbidity and  other  factors
 in many of the nation's waters  negate the algal-producing
 effects of high phosphorus concentrations. When waters are
 detained in a lake  or  reservoir, the resultant phosphorus
 concentration is reduced to some extent over that in influent
 streams by precipitation or  uptake by organisms and subse-
 quent  deposition in fecal  pellets  or  the bodies  of dead
 organisms. At concentrations of complex phosphorus on the
 order of 100  Mg/1, difficulties with coagulation are experi-
 enced  (U.S.  Department  of the  Interior,  Federal  Water
 Pollution  Control Administration 1968).303 (See the dis-
 cussion of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Section I for a
more complete description  of phosphorus associations with
 the enrichment problem.)

 Recommendation
  No recommendation can be made because of the
complexity  of  relationships  between  phosphate
concentrations in water,  biological productivity,
and resulting problems  such as odor and nitration
difficulties.
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                                            PHTHALATE  ESTERS
  Large quantities of phthalate esters are used as plasticizers
in plastics. Phthalates in water, fish, and other organisms,
represent a potential but largely unknown health problem.
They have been implicated in growth retardation, accumu-
lation,  and chronic  toxicity, but  little  conclusive infor-
mation is available (Phthalates are discussed in Section III,
Freshwater  Aquatic Life and  Wildlife.)  Because there
insufficient information on Iheir specific effects on man, i
scientifically defensible recommendation  can be  made
this time concerning concentrations of phthalate esters
public water supply sources.
                                                  PLANKTON
  The quality of public water supplies may be drastically
affected by the presence of planktonic organisms. Plankton
may be defined as a community of motile or nonmotile
microscopic plants and animals that are suspended in water.
The species  diversity and density of the plankton  com-
munity are important  water  quality characteristics  that
should be monitored  in all public water supplies.  Several
methods for counting  plankton  have  been  improvised.
Many  reports count plankton as number of organisms per
aliquot of sample rather than biomass. Since various species
of algae are  much larger than  other  species, plankton
counts that simply enumerate cells, colonies, or filaments do
not indicate  accurately  the true  plankton  content of the
water (Standard Methods 1971).305
  Plankters are primarily important in public water supply
sources for their contribution to taste and odor problems,
pH alteration,  or  filter clogging.  To aid operators in in-
terpreting  plankton data, the algae counted  should be
listed under applicable  categories that show the predomi-
nance  or  absence of  certain  groups  of  organisms at any
given time. The categories used should include green algae,
blue-green algae,  diatoms,  flagellated  forms, Protozoa,
microcrustaceans and Rotifera, as well as related  Protista.
  Data from plankton counts can be very useful to water
treatment operators (Silvey et al.  1972).304 Counts of blue-
green algae which exceed 50 per cent of the total plankton
community usually indicate potential taste and odor pro!
lems. So long as the  green algae  comprise 75 per cent
the total plankton count, it is not likely that serious tas
and odor problems will arise. The diatom population of tt
plankton community is also important. During some diato:
blooms, the pH of the water increases enough to require tt
addition of more alum  or  iron than would  normally  t
used to achieve  the desired pH in the distribution systen
Some blooms of planktonic  green algae cause  the  pH -
the water to  rise from 7.6  to as high as 10. There are  a]
parently no plankters that  tend to  reduce pH  or remox
minerals in sufficient quantities to alter conditions.
  The role which plankton plays  in the productivity of
lake or reservoir is  important.  The relationship be twee
productivity  and respiration may  frequently be  used as
pollution  index. In many instances, plankton studies  ai
more revealing  than  bacterial studies.  A ratio of produi
tivity to respiration amounting to one or  more  indicati
that the algae are  producing more oxygen than is beir
consumed by the bacteria. If the ratio drops below one fc
significant periods, an undesirable condition exists that ma
cause problems  with anaerobic organisms.  For further di
cussions of productivity  and its relation to water qualit;
see Section I on Recreation and Aesthetics, Section  III  c
Fresh Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and Section IV on Marir
Aquatic Life and Wildlife.
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                                POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS  (PCB)
   Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)  consist of a mixture of
compounds only  slightly soluble in water; highly soluble
in fats,  oils, and nonpolar liquids; and highly resistant to
both  heat  and biological degradation. PCB have a wide
variety  of  industrial uses, primarily as insulating fluid in
electrical and heat transfer equipment (Interdepartmental
Task  Force 1972).311
   Exposure to PCB is known to cause skin lesions (Schwartz
and Peck  (1943)320 and to increase liver enzyme activity
that may have a secondary effect on reproductive processes
(Risebrough et al. 1968,317 Street et al. 1969,m Wassermann
et al.  1970325). It is not clear at this time whether the effects
are due to PCB or its contaminants, the chlorinated di-
benzofurans that are highly toxic  (Bauer  et  a]. 1961,307
Schulz 1968,319 Verrett 1970324). It is also not known whether
the chlorinated dibenzofurans are produced by degradation
of PCB  as well as during its manufacture.
  The occurrence of PCB in our waters has  been docu-
mented  repeatedly (New Scientist 1966,316  Holmes  et al.
1967,310  Risebrough et al.  1968,317  Jensen  et  al. 1969,312
Koeman et al.  1969,313 Schmidt et  al. 1971,318 Veith and
Lee  1971323).  They  have  been associated  with  sewage
effluents (Holden  1970,3M Schmidt et al.  1971318) and rain-
water (Tarrant and Tatton 1968),322 as well as releases and
leakage. Failures of closed systems using PCB have caused
some  of the more well known releases  (Kuratsune et al.
1969,314  Duke et al. 1970308). It has been reported that the
defined  treatment process does little or nothing to remove
PCB (Ahling and Jensen  1970).306
  An  epidemiological study on severe poisoning by rice oil
contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls in 1968 indi-
cated that about 0.5 grams ingested over a period of ap-
proximately one month was sufficient  to cause the Yusho
disease. Many of those affected showed no signs of relief
after  about three years (Kuratsune  et al.  1969).314 Price
and Welch (1971)316 have estimated on  the  basis of 194
samples that 41 to 45 per cent of the  general population of
the U.S.  may have PCB levels of  1.0 mg/kg or higher
(wet weight) in  adipose tissue.  Therefore, it appears that
PCB may accumulate in the body. On this basis it can be
calculated  that a daily intake  of 0.02 mg would require
about 70 years to be toxic.  Applying a factor of safety of
10 would permit a daily intake  of 0.002 mg, and assuming
a two liter per day intake, suggests a permissible concen-
tration in  water to be 0.001 mg/1.
  However, evaluation of the retention and accumulation
of PCB from water instead of oil in humans is highly desir-
able. A study on rats with a single oral dose of 170 mg/kg
showed urinary  excretion (of  PCB)  to be limited, while
70 per cent of the dose was found in the feces during an
eight week period (Yoshimura et al.  1971).326 Information
on PCB in the diet would also be helpful.

Conclusion

  Because too little is known about  the levels  in
waters,  the  retention  and accumulation in  hu-
mans, and the effects of very low rates of ingestion,
no defensible recommendation can be made at this
time.
                                                      83

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                                                RADIOACTIVITY
  The effects of radiation on human beings are viewed as
harmful, and any unnecessary exposure to radiation should
be avoided. The U.S. Federal Radiation Council* (1961a)329
provided guidance for federal  agencies to limit exposure of
individuals to  radiation from  radioactive materials in the
environment. The following statement by the U.S. Federal
Radiation  Council (I960)328 is considered especially perti-
nent in applying the recommendations of this report:
    There can be no single permissible or acceptable level
    of exposure without regard to the reason for permitting
    the exposure. It should be general practice to reduce
    exposure to  radiation, and  positive effort  should  be
    carried  out  to fulfill  the sense of these recommen-
    dations. It is basic that exposure to radiation should
    result  from a real determination of its necessity.

  The  U.S.  Federal Radiation Council criteria (I960,328
196la329) have  been used in establishing the limits for radio-
activity recommended  here. It should be noted that these
guidelines  apply to normal peacetime operations. They are
predicated upon three ranges of  daily  intake of radio-
activity as  seen in Table 11-5.
  The recommended radionuclide  intake derives from the
sum of radioactivity from air,  food,  and water.  Daily
intakes  were prescribed with the provision that dose rates
be  averaged over a period of one year.  The  range for
specific radionuclides recommended by the U.S.  Federal
Radiation  Council  (1961b)330 are shown in the following
tables:

TABLE  II-5—Ranges of Transient Rates of Intake (pd/day)
            for use in Graded Scale of Action*
                                     TABLE II-6—Graded Scale of Action
                    Ranee I
Range II
Ranie HI
Radium-226 	
lodine-131b 	
Strontium-90 . .
Strontium-89 	
0-2
0-10
0-20
0-200
2-20
10-100
20-200
200-2000
20-200
100-1000
200-2000
2000-20,000
 » See Table 11-6.
 b In the case of iodine-131, the suitable sample would include only small children. For adults, the radiation protec-
tion guide for the thyroid would not be exceeded by rates of intarin higher by a factor of 10 than those applicable
to small children.
                           Ranges of transient rates of daily intake
                          Range I  .
                          Range II.
                          Range III
                                                             Graded scale of action
                                   . Periodic confirmatory surveillance as necessary
                                   . Quantitative surveillance and routine control
                                    Evaluation and application of additional control measures as nee
                                     ary
  * The functions of the U.S. Federal Radiation Council have been
transferred to EPA, Office of Radiation Programs.
  For each range, a measure of control was defined, whic
represented a graded scale of control procedures.
  The U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1961b)330 furtht
defined the  action to be taken by  stating that "Routir
control  of  useful  applications of radiation and  atom
energy should be such that expected average exposures (
suitable samples of an exposed population group  will nr.
exceed the  upper value of Range II." Furthermore, the
recommended, with respect to Range III,  that "Contn
actions would be designed to reduce the levels to Range I
or lower, and to provide staoiJity at  lower levels."
  It has not been considered necessary to prescribe criteri
for iodine-131 or strontiurn-89 for surface waters. Iodine-13
has never been a problem  in  water supplies and does nc
appear likely to be, and strontium-89 levels should not 1;
significant if strontium-90 levels are  kept satisfactorily lov
Using the  midpoint of Range  I,  Table II-5, for transier
rates of intake recommended by the U.S. Federal Radiatio
Council, and assuming a 2 liter per day  consumption, th
radium-226 limit is 0.5 Pc/day and strontium-90  limit
5 Pc/day. These levels are not  currently being exceeded i
any surface water supply in the United States,  although
number of ground water supplies have more than 0.5 pCi/
of radium-226.
  Because tritium  (hydrogen-3)  may be  discharged fror
nuclear power reactors  and fuel reprocessing plants,  an
because it would not be detected  in normal  analysis c
water samples, it has been  considered desirable to  includ
a limit on this low energy radionuclide. The Federal Radi
ation Council has not provided guidance on tritium intake
A tentative limit of 3,000 pCi/1 of tritium has been propose*
for the revised edition of Drinking Water Standards. Thi
relatively conservative limit has been  suggested because c
                                                         84

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                                                                                                     Radio'activity /85
uncertainty in the potential  genetic effects of tritium in-
corporated  into  body  tissues as tritiated water.  It  is a
generally attainable level based on data from the Environ-
mental Protection Agency Tritium Surveillance System.
These data indicate that of 70 United States cities surveyed
in 1970, none  had an'annual average  tritium activity in
tap water exceeding 3,000 pCi/1, the highest annual average
value being 1,900 pCi/1. Levels  in surface water collected
downstream from nuclear facilities showed only two of 34
locations  having  tritium  activity exceeding 3,000  pCi/1.
Precipitation samples taken during 1970 at locations within
the United States indicated less than 700 pCi/1.
  Although a large number of other radionuclides may be
present in water, it has not  been considered  necessary to
include specific limits for  other  than the  three mentioned
above. If other nuclides are likely to be present, it is recom-
mended that permissible limits be held to 1/150 of the limit
for  continuous  occupational  exposure  set  by the  Inter-
national Commission on Radiological Protection  (I960).327
  Gross radioactivity limits  provide screening techniques
and guides to an increased level  of radiochemical analysis.
If the gross alpha and gross beta concentrations in a sample
are less than certain minimum concentrations, no additional
radiochemical or radiophysical analyses are required.
  Gross Alpha Radioactivity Gross  alpha  limits  or
investigation levels are keyed  to the concentration limit for
radium-226 (the  alpha emitter  with the most restrictive
intake limit). A typical scheme is the following:


TABLE 11-7—Typical Scheme  of Gross Alpha Concentration
TABLE II-8—Gross Beta Radioactivity to Strontium-90 and
                 Isotopes of Radioiodine
      Gross Alpha concentration (pCi/1)
                                       Required action
(a) Not exceeding 0.5 pCi/1	None
(b) Greater than 0.5 but not exceeding 5 pCi/1	Radiochemical analysis for radium-226
(c) Greater than 5 pCi/1	 Comprehensive radiochemical anaylsis
  Gross Beta Radioactivity  Two beta emitting radio-
nuclides with the  most  restrictive maximum permissible
concentrations are  lead-210 and  radium-228. However,
since it is extremely unlikely that  either radionuclide will
  Gross Beta concentration excluding Potassium-40
                                       Required action
(a) Not greater toi 5 pCi I
(b) Greater than 5, but less than 50 pCi/1
(c) Greater than 50 pCi/1. .
. None (with knowledge that lead-210 and radium-228
  are essentially absent)
. Analyses for strontium-90, iodine-) 29, and iodine-131
 Comprehensive radiochemical analysis
ever be  present  in  a significant concentration in  a raw
water source, the investigation levels for gross beta radio-
activity are keyed to strontium-90 and isotopes of radio-
iodine.
  The radionuclide concentration limits  proposed  in  the
above tables should not be considered as absolute maxima
that,  if  exceeded, constitute  grounds for  rejection of a
drinking water supply source.  Instead, the concentration
limits should  be  considered guidelines that should not be
exceeded unless there is good reason. The  constraints that
should be imposed are based on: (1) a determination by the
appropriate regulatory  agencies  that the  higher level  of
radioactivity is as low as can be practicably achieved, and
(2)  quantitative   surveillance  of all  intake pathways  to
demonstrate that total  dose to a suitable sample  of  the
exposed  population  is within Radiation Protection Guide-
lines levels. To  permit  variances in radionuclide concen-
trations  in  water depending  on concentrations in  other
environmental media  and dietary habits is consistent with
the guidance and recommendations  of the  U.S. Federal
Radiation  Council, the National Council on  Radiation
Protection  and Measurement,  and the International  Com-
mission on Radiological Protection.

Recommendation
  Because the defined treatment process has un-
certain effects  on  the  removal of soluble  radio-
nuclides and because of the effects of radiation on
humans,  it is recommended that the limits related
to  the guidelines presented  above  be accepted in
the context of the discussion  for application to
sources of public water supply.

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                                                 SELENIUM
  The toxicity of selenium  resembles that of arsenic and
can, if exposure is sufficient, cause death. Acute selenium
toxicity is characterized by  nervousness, vomiting, cough,
dyspnea,  convulsions,  abdominal pain, diarrhea,  hypo-
tension, and respiratory failure. Chronic exposure leads to
marked pallor,  red  staining of  fingers, teeth and  hair,
debility, depression, epistaxis, gastrointestinal disturbances,
dermatitis, and  irritation of the nose  and throat.  Both
acute and chronic exposure  can cause odor on the breath
similar to garlic (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs
1968).836 The  only documented case  of selenium toxicity
from a water source, uncomplicated with selenium  in  the
diet, concerned a three-month exposure  to well water con-
taining 9 mg/1 (Beath 1962).331
  Although previous evidence suggested that selenium was
carcinogenic (Fitzhugh  et al. 1944),332  these observations
have not  been borne out by subsequent data (Volganev
and  Tschenkes  1967).346  In recent years,  selenium  has
become recognized as a dietary essential in a  number of
species (Schwarz  I960,341 Nesheim and Scott 1961,338 Old-
field et al. 1963339).
  Elemental selenium is highly insoluble and requires oxi-
dation to selenite or selenate before appreciable quantities
appear in water  (Lakin and Davidson  1967).335 There is
evidence that  this reaction  is catalyzed by  certain  soil
bacteria (Olson 1967).340
  No systematic investigation of  the forms of selenium in
excessive concentrations in drinking water sources has been
carried out. However, from what is known of the solubilities
of the various compounds of selenium,  the principal in-
organic compounds  of selenium would be selenite  and
selenate. The ratio of their  individual occurrences  would
depend  primarily  on pH. Organic  forms of selenium  oc-
curred in  seleniferous soils and had sufficient mobility in
an aqueous environment to be preferentially absorbed over
selenate in certain plants (Hamilton  and Beath  1964).334
However, the extent to which these compounds might occi
in source waters is essentially unknown. Toxicologic exam
nation of plant sources of selenium revealed that seleniui
present in seleniferous grains was more toxic than inorgani
selenium added to the diet (Franke and Potter 1935).333
   Intake of selenium from foods in seleniferous areas (Smit
1941),342 may range from 600 to 6,340 jug/day,  which ap
proach estimated levels related to symptoms  of seleniur
toxicity in man  based on urine  samples  (Smith et  a
1936,343 Smith and Westfall  1937344). If data on seleniur
in foods (Morris and Levander 1970)337 are applied to th
average consumption  of foods (U.S. Department of Agri
culture, Agriculture Research Service, Consumer and Fooi
Economics Research Division 1967),345 the normal  dietar
intake of selenium is about 200 fig/day.
   If it is assumed that two liters of water are ingested pe
day, a 0.01 mg/1 concentration of total selenium wouL
increase the normal total dietary intake by  10 per cen
(20 jug/day). Considering the  range of  selenium in fooi
associated with symptoms of toxicity in  man,  this woulc
provide a  safety factor of from 2.7 to 29. A serious weaknes
in these calculations is that  their  validity depends on  ai
assumption of equivalent  toxicity of selenium  in food an<
water, in  spite of the  fact that a  considerable  portion c
selenium  associated with plants is  in an  organic form
Adequate toxicological data  that specifically examine th
organic and  the  inorganic selenium compounds are  no
available.

Recommendation
   Because the defined  treatment process has litth
or no effect on removing selenium, and  because
there is a lack of data on its toxic effects on human!
when ingested  in water, it is recommended that
public water supply sources contain no more than
0.01 mg/1 selenium.
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                                                    SILVER
  Silver  is a rather rare element with a low solubility of
0.1  to  10 mg/1 depending upon pH and chloride concen-
tration (Hem  1970).348 Data from 1,577 samples collected
from  130 sampling points in the  United States showed
detectable (0.1 /ig/1) concentrations in 104 samples ranging
from  1.0  to 38  /ug/1  with a median of 2.6 jug/1  (Kopp
1969).3S2
  The principal effect of silver in the body is cosmetic. It
causes  a  permanent grey discoloration of skin, eyes, and
mucous membranes. The amounts of colloidal  silver re-
quired to produce this condition (argyria, argyrosis), which
would  serve as a basis for determining the water standard,
are not known; but  the  amount of silver  from injected
agarsphenamine that  produces  argyria  is any amount
greater than one gram of silver in the adult (Hill and
Pillsbury  1939,349 1957360). It  is also reported that silver,
once absorbed, is held indefinitely in the tissues (Aub and
Fairhall 1942).347
  A study that  provided analyses of samples  of human
tissues from 30 normal adult males showed three to contain
silver in minute amounts. Comparison of the mean daily
concentrations of silver in successive daily samples of urine,
feces, and food (0.088 mg/day)  showed essentially  no ab-
sorption of the intake from  food (Kehoe et al.  1940b).351
Studies  of the metabolism of silver in the rat showed only
about 2 per cent of the element entered the blood from the
gastrointestinal tract and  that the biological half life was
about 3 days (Scott 1949).363 However, this work was done
with carrier free silver and may not be representative of the
behavior of larger  amounts of  element. It does suggest,
however, that ingested silver is not likely to be completely
stored in the  body.

Conclusion

  Because  silver in  waters  is rarely detected at
levels above 1 /ug/1, a limit is not recommended for
public  water supply sources.
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                                                   SODIUM
  Sodium salts are ubiquitous in the water environment.
These minerals are highly soluble, and their concentrations
in natural  waters show considerable variation, regionally
and locally. In addition to natural sources of sodium salts,
other sources are sewage, industrial effluents, and deicing
salts.  Sodium concentrations  in  ground waters may also
vary with  well  depth,  and  often reach higher levels of
concentration than in surface waters.  Removal of sodium
is costly and is not common  in public water supply treat-
ment.
  Of the 100 largest public water supplies in the U.S., most
of which are surface supplies, the median  sodium content
was 12 mg/1 with a range of 1.1 mg/1 to 177 mg/1 (Durfor
and Becker  1964).365  For  a healthy  individual, the intake
of sodium is discretionary and influenced by food selection
and seasoning. The intake of sodium may average 6 g/day
without adverse effects on health (Dahl I960).354
  Various restricted sodium intakes are recommended by
physicians for a significant portion of the population,  in-
cluding persons suffering from hypertension,  edema associ-
ated with  congestive cardiac failure,  and  women  with
toxemias of pregnancy (National  Research Council,  Food
and  Nutrition  Board 1954).386 The sodium intake  from
sources other than water recommended for very restricted
diets is 500  mg/day. Diets  for  these  individuals  permit
20 mg/1 sodium in  drinking  water and  water used  for
cooking.  If the public water  supply has a  sodium content
exceeding this limit,  persons on a very restricted sodium
diet must use distilled or deionized water.
  For a larger portion of the  population who use a moder-
ately  restricted diet,  1,000 mg/day  is the recommended
sodium intake limit (National Research Council, Food and
Nutrition Board 1954).356 Under this limit, water containir
a  higher concentration of sodium  could be  used if  tt
sodium intake from the sources  other than water were  n<
increased above that of the very restricted diet, Then,  tf
daily intake of sodium from water  (20  mg/1 for very n
stricted diets) could be increased by the additional 500 m
(250 mg/1)  intake permitted in the moderately restricte
diet, thus allowing a significant portion of the  populatio
to use public  water  supplies with higher sodium concer
trations. On this basis water containing more than 270 mg,
sodium should not be  used for drinking water by  thos
using the moderately  restricted sodium diet,  and wate
containing more than 20 mg/l sodium should not be use
by those using the very restricted sodium diet.
   The response of people who should restrict their sodiur
intake for  health reasons  is  a continuum  varying wit
intake.  The allocation of the difference in dietary intak
allowed by the very restricted and the moderately restricts
diets  to drinking  water would  be an  arbitrary decision
Furthermore,  waters containing  high  concentrations  c
sodium (greater than 270 mg/1) are likely to be too high]-
mineralized to be considered desirable from aesthetic stand
points aside from health considerations.
   Treatment of an entire  public water  supply to  remov
sodium is quite costly.  Home treatment for drinking wate
alone for those needing low sodium water can be done a
relatively modest cost, or low sodium content bottled wate
can be used.

Recommendation
   In view of the above discussion no limit is recom-
mended for sodium.
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                                                  SULFATE
  The public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the
United States were found to contain a median sulfate con-
centration of 26 rng/1, and a maximum of 572 mg/1 (Durfor
and Becker  1964).387 Greater concentrations were present
in many ground  water supplies for smaller communities
in the Midwest (Larson 1963).358 Sulfate ions in drinking
water can have a cathartic effect on occasional  users, but
acclimatization is rapid. If two liters of water are ingested
per day,  the equivalent sulfate concentrations for laxative
doses of  Glauber  salt and Epsom  salt are 300  mg/1 and
390 mg/1, respectively (Peterson  1951,361 Moore  1952360).
  Data collected by  the North Dakota  State Department
of Health on laxative effects of  mineral quality in water
indicated that  more than 750 mg/1 sulfate had  a laxative
effect,  and less  than  600 mg/1 did not (Peterson 1951).361
If the water was high in magnesium,  the effect took  place
at lower  sulfate concentrations than if other cations were
dominant. A subsequent interpretation showed that laxative
effects were experienced by sensitive persons not accustomed
to the water when magnesium was  about 200 mg/1, and
by the average person when magnesium was 500-1000 mg/1
(Moore 1952).360
  The median of sulfate concentrations detected by taste
by a panel of 10 to 20 persons was 237, 370, and 419 mg/1
for  sodium, calcium,  and  magnesium salts,  respectively
(Whipple 1907).362 Coffee brewed with 400 mg/1  sulfate
added as magnesium sulfate was affected in taste (Lockhart
et al. 1955).859

Recommendation
  On the basis of  taste and laxative effects and
because  the defined  treatment process  does  not
remove sulfates, it is recommended that sulfate
in public water supply sources not exceed 250 mg/1
where  sources with  lower sulfate concentrations
are or can be made available.
                                              TEMPERATURE
  Temperature affects the palatibility of water by intensi-
fying  taste and odor  through increased volatility of the
source compound (Burnson 1938).366 Any increase in tem-
perature may stimulate growth of taste and odor producing
organisms (Kofoid 1923,372 Thompson 1944,378 Silvey et al.
1950377) but tends to decrease the survival time of infectious,
organisms (Peretz and Medvinskaya 1946,376 Rudolfs et al.
1950376).  The  standard treatment process is also affected
by temperature  or  temperature changes in the steps of
coagulation (Velz 1934,379 Maulding and Harris 1968,373
American Water Works Association 1971363), sedimentation
(Camp et al.  1940,36S Hannah et al.  1967370), filtration
(Hannah et al. 1967370), and chlorination (Ames and Smith
1944,3M Butterfield and Wattie 1946367).
  Temperature changes usually are caused by using water
as a  coolant, as a  carrier of wastes,  or  for  irrigation
(Brashears, Jr. 1946,366 Moore 1958,374  Eldridge  I960,369
Hoak 1961371). Surface water temperatures  vary with the
seasons, geographical location, and climatic conditions. The
same factors along with geological conditions affect ground
water temperatures.

Recommendation
  No temperature change that detracts from the
potability of public water supplies and no  temper-
ature change that adversely  affects the standard
treatment  process  are suggested  guidelines for
temperature in public water supply sources.
                                                     89

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                                       TOTAL  DISSOLVED  SOLIDS
                                               (Filterable Residue)
  High total dissolved solids (TDS) are objectionable be-
cause of possible physiological effects, mineral taste, and
economic consequences. Limited research (Bruvold 1967380)
indicated that consumer acceptance of mineralized waters
decreased in direct proportion to increased mineralization.
This study  covered a range of TDS values of 100 to 1,200
mg/1; one at 2,300 mg/1 TDS. For high levels of minerali-
zation,  there may also be a  laxative effect,  particularly
upon transients. High concentrations of mineral salts, par-
ticularly sulfate and chloride, are also associated with costly
corrosion damage in water systems (Patterson and Banker
1968381).
  Because of the wide range of mineralization of natural
water,  it is not  possible to establish a single limiting value.
The measurement of specific conductance provides an indi-
cation  of the amount of TDS  present. The relationship of
specific conductance to TDS will vary depending upon the
distribution of the major constituent elements present. For
any given water a relatively uniform relationship will exist.
Where sufficient data exist to establish a correlation between
the two measurements, specific conductance may be use
as a substitute for the TDS measurement. In very gener
terms,  a specific  conductance of 1,500 micro-rnhos  is aj
proximately  equivalent  to 1,000 mg/1 TDS  (Standai
Methods 1971).383
  Because drinking water containing a high concentratic
of TDS is likely  to contain an excessive concentration i
some specific substance thai: would be aesthetically  objei
tionable to the consumer, the 1962 Drinking Water Stanc
ards (PHS  1962)382 included a limit  for TDS of 500 mg/
if other less mineralized sources were  available. Althoug
waters of higher concentrations are not generally desirabli
it  is recognized  that a  considerable number  of supplit
with dissolved solids in excess of the 500 mg/1 limit are use
without any obvious ill effects. Therefore, instead of recorr
mending a general dissolved solids limit, specific recommer
dations are made in this report for individual substances (
importance in drinking water sources, such as chloride an
sulfate.
                                                 TURBIDITY
  The recommendation for acceptable levels  of turbidity
in water must relate to the capacity of the water treatment
plant to remove turbidity adequately and continuously at
reasonable cost. Water treatment plants are  designed to
remove the kind and  quantity of turbidity to  be expected
in each water  supply source.  Turbidity can reduce  the
effectiveness of chlorination by physically protecting micro-
organisms from direct contact with the disinfectant (Sander-
son and Kelly 1964,384 Tracy et al. 1966).386
  Customary  methods (Standard  Methods  1971)385  for
measuring and reporting  turbidity do not  adequately
measure those characteristics harmful to public water supply
and water treatment processing. A water with 30 turbidity
units may coagulate more rapidly than one with  5 or 10
units. Conversely, water with 30 turbidity units sometimes
may be more difficult to coagulate than water with  100
units. The type of plankton, clay, or earth  particles, their
size, and electrical charges, are more important determinin
factors than the turbidity units. Sometimes clay added t
very low turbidity water will improve coagulation.
  Turbidity  in  water  should be  readily  removable  b
coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration; it should not b
present to an extent that will overload the water treatmen
plant  facilities; and it should  not cause unreasonable treat
ment  costs.  In addition, turbidity should  not  frequent!'
change or vary  in characteristics  to the extent that sue!
changes cause upsets in water treatment plant processes.

Conclusion
  No  recommendation  is made, because  it is no
possible to establish  a  turbidity recommendatioi
in  terms  of turbidity units;  nor can a turbidity
recommendation  be  expressed in terms of  mg/
"undissolved solids" or "nonfilterable solids."
                                                       90

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                                                 URANYL  ION
   The  1968 edition  of Water Quality Criteria (FWPCA
 1968)387 included a limit for uranyl ion (UO2++) of 5mg/l,
 because a  1965 Public Health Service  Drinking  Water
 Standards Review  Committee had  tentatively  decided  to
 include it in the next revision of the Drinking Water Stand-
 ards. This value was selected because it  is below the ob-
jectionable  taste and appearance  levels  as well as the
 chemically toxic concentration.
   Further investigation of raw water quality data indicated
 that  uranium  does not occur  naturally  in  most waters
 above a few micrograms per liter (U.S. Geological Survey
 1969,388 EPA office memorandum 1971389).

 Recommendation

   The  taste,  color,  and gross alpha  recommen-
 dations will restrict  the uranium concentration to
 levels  below  those objectionable  on  the  basis of
 toxicity. For  these reasons, no specific limit is pro-
 posed for uranyl ion.
                                                    VIRUSES
  Many types of viruses  are excreted in the wastes  of
humans and animals (Berg 1971392),  and some  have been
implicated in diseases (Berg 1967391). There are'viruses that
alternate between animal hosts (Kalter 1967)403 and those
that can  infect  genetically distant  hosts (Maramorosch
1967).407 Because almost any virus can be transmitted from
host to host through water (Mosley  1967),409 any amount
of virus detectable  by  appropriate techniques  in  surface
water supplies constitutes a hazard (Berg  1967).391
  While it is believed that all human enteric viruses have
the potential to  cause  illness in  man, not all have been
etiologically associated  with clinical  illness.  A number  of
waterborne local  outbreaks attributed to virus affecting
approximately  800  people  have  occurred in the  United
States, but no obvious large scale spread  of a viral disease
by  the water route is  known to have occurred  (Mosely
1967).409 Although virus transmission by water has been
suggested  for  poliomyelitis, gastroenteritis, and diarrhea,
the most  convincing documentation  exists  for infectious
hepatitis (Mosley 1967).409 Twelve outbreaks of infectious
hepatitis have  been attributed to  contaminated drinking
water  in the United States between  1895 and  1971, and
most of these have been linked to private  systems.
  Berg (1971)392 suggests that waterborne viral disease need
not occur at the epidemic level in order to be of significance.
Small numbers of virus  units could produce infection with-
out causing overt disease,  and infected individuals could
then serve  as sources of larger amounts of virus.
  The interpretation of virus data presents other problems
in addition to those posed by epidemiological evaluation.
There is evidence that one virulent virus unit can be suffi-
cient to  infect man  if  it contacts susceptible cells (Plotkin
and Katz 1967),411 but in an intact host, this is complicated
by  various defenses  (Beard 1967).390 The  interpretation of
data is further complicated by aberrations in survival curves
for  virus thought to  be caused by clumping. The statistical
treatment of virus data has been discussed by Berg et al.
(1967),393 Chang  (1967,395  1968396),  Clark  and  Niehaus
(1967),399 Sharp \1967),412 and Berg (1971).392
  The route of enteric viral contamination of surface waters
is from human feces through the effluents of sewage treat-
ment plants  as  well as contamination from raw sewage.
Enteric virus densities in human feces have been estimated
by  calculation and  sampling. Clarke  and  his associates
(1962)400 suggested that human feces contained approxi-
mately 200 virus units per gram per  capita and 12X106
coliform  bacteria per gram per capita, or  15 enteric  virus
units per 106 coliforms. Combining these calculations with
observed data, they  estimated that sewage contained 500
virus units per 100  ml, and  contaminated surface waters
contained less than 1 virus unit per 100 ml. These numbers
are  subject to wide variation and change  radically during
an epidemic.
  The removal  capabilities of various sewage  treatment
processes have been examined individually  and in series
both in the laboratory and in the field  (Chin et al. 1967,398
                                                       91

-------
^I/Section II—Public Water Supplies

 TABLE H-9—Average  Time  in Days for 99.9 Per  Cent
  Reduction in Original Titer of Indicated Microorganisms
                 at Three Temperatures
    Microorganism
   Clean water    Moderately polluted water     Sewage
28 C   20 C   4C   28 C   20 C   4C  28 C   20 C  4C
Poliovirus I . .
ECHO 7
ECH0 12 .
Coisackie A9 . .
A. aerogenes
Ecoli 	
S recalls 	
. . 17
	 12
5
.. . <8
. . 6
... . 6
. ... 6
20
16
12
<8
8
7
8
27
26
33
10
15
10
17
11
5
3
5
15
5
9
13
7
5
8
18
5
18
19
15
19
20
44
11
57
17
28
20
6
10
12
14
23
41
32
No data
21
20
26
110
130
60
12
56
48
48
 Clarke et al. 1962<"

Clark and Niehaus  1967,399  England et al.  1967,402  Lund
and  Hedstrom 1967,404 Malherbe  1967,405 Malherbe and
Strickland-Cholmley  1967,406 Berg 1971392).  These studies
indicated that  while some  sewage treatment processes
showed virus removal potential in laboratory tests and field
evaluation, there was no indication that consistent adequate
virus removal, that is no detectable virus, was accomplished
by present sewage treatment  practices (Berg 1971).392 How-
ever, the apparent limited survival time for viruses in wat<
can be affected by factors, such as temperature and adsor]
tion that protects viruses; and the proximity of water use
may make survival for only a short period of time sufficiei
to transmit virulent  virus (Prier and Riley 1967).41°
  Table II-9 gives  virus  and bacterial  survival data  f<
clean, moderately contaminated, and sewage water.
  The  removal capabilities of  various  water  treatmei
processes are presented in Table 11-10.
  Conventional water treatment processes are variable i
their virus removal efficacy and questionable in their pe
formance under  field conditions  (Berg 1971,392  Sproi
1972413).
  Disinfection  by chlorination was  reviewed recently  f'<
its virus inactivation efficacy (Morris 1971).408 Only undi
sociated hypochlorous acid (HOC1) was considered effecti\
in virus inactivation. Approximately 25 mg/1 chloramin
100 mg/1 hypochlorite or 0.5 to  1.0 mg/1  HOC1 wi1
30-minute contact times were  required to cause  adequa
viral inactivation in  potable water. The amount of chlorit
required to achieve  these conditions varied with the p.
and the amount of nitrogen present.
TABLE II-10—Removal of Viruses from Water and Wastewater by Biological, Physical, and Chemical Treatment Procedur
        Treatment(1)
                           Menstruum tested (2)
                                             Retention time, m hours ())
                                                                    Virus" (4)
                                                                                Virus removed, as a percentage (5)
                                                                                                       Reference (6)
Primary setting . Primary effluent
Activate d sludge Activated sludge effluent

Carbon adsorption (0. 5 gal per min per sq ft) Trickling filter effluent
Ca(OH)= coagulation (500 mg per 1) Activated sludge effluent
AP(SCH)' coagulation (25 mg per 1) River water
Fed3 coagulation (25 mg per 1) . . . River water
3
6.0-8.4
6.0-7.5




Poliovirus 1
Coxsackievirus A9
Poliovirus 1
.PhageT-2
. Poliovirus 1
Coxsackievirus A2
Coxsackievirus A2
0-3
96-99
88-94»
35
98.5-99.9
95-99'
92-94=
Clarke etal. 1961<»i
Clarke et al. 1961'°'
Clarke et al. 1961«»
Sproul et al. 1967'"
Berg etal. UBS1"
Chang et al. 1958"'
Chang etal. 1958"'
 « Added to the test experimentally.
 << When volatile solids were at least 400 mg per I.
 'When good floe formation occurred.
 Berg19713!«
  Considerable progress on virological method development
has been made in the past decade. However, virology tech-
niques have not yet been perfected to a point where they
can be used routinely for monitoring water for viruses. There
is a need for virus data on relative numbers, better tech-
niques, relative die-off rates, and correlation with existing
indicators, as well as methods for direct determination.
                                          Conclusion

                                            In view of the uncertain correlation of virus oc
                                          currence with existing  Indicators,  the absence e
                                          adequate monitoring  techniques, and the genera
                                          lack of data, scientifically defensible criteria canno
                                          be recommended at this time.

-------
                                                    ZINC
  Zinc is an essential  and beneficial element in human
metabolism. The  activity of insulin and several body en-
zymes is dependent on zinc. The daily adult human intake
averages  10 to 15 mg; for preschool children it is 0.3 mg/kg.
(Vallee 1957).420
  Zinc is a widely used metal and may be dissolved from
galvanized  pipe,  hot water  tanks, or from  yellow brass.
It may also be present  in some corrosion prevention addi-
tives and in  industrial wastes.  The solubility  of zinc is
variable,  depending upon pH and alkalinity.
  In 1,577 samples from 130 locations on streams between
October  1962 and September  1967,  zinc  was detected
(2 Mg/1)  in 1,207  samples with a range of 2  to  1,183 pig/1
and a mean of 64 Mg/1  (Kopp  1969).419
  Individuals drinking  water  containing 23.8 to 40.8 mg/1
of zinc experienced no known  harmful effects. Communities
have reported using water containing 11 to 27 mg/1 of
zinc without  harmful effects  (Bartow  and Weigle 1932,416
Anderson et al. 1934416). Another report stated that spring
water containing 50 mg/1 of zinc was used for a protracted
period without harm (Hinman, Jr. 1938418).
  Statistical analysis of taste threshold tests with zinc in
distilled water showed that 5 per cent of the observers were
able to  distinguish between 4.3 mg/1 zinc (added as zinc
sulfate)  and water containing no zinc salts (Cohen et al.
I960417). When added as zinc nitrate and as zinc chloride,
the detection levels were 5.2 and 6.3 mg/1 zinc, respectively.
When zinc  sulfate or zinc chloride  was  added  to spring
water with 460 mg/1 dissolved solids, the detection levels
for  5 per cent of the observers were 6.8 and 8.6 mg/1 zinc,
respectively.

Recommendation
  Because of consumer  taste preference and be-
cause the  denned treatment process may not  re-
move appreciable amounts of zinc from the source
of  the supply, it  is recommended  that  the zinc
concentrations in public water supply sources not
exceed 5 mg/1.
                                                       93

-------
                                                     LITERATURE  CITED
INTRODUCTION

1 American Public Health Association, American Water Works As-
    sociation, and Water Pollution Control Federation (1971),  Stan-
    dard methods for  the examination of water and waste water, 13th ed.
    (American  Public  Public  Health  Association,  Washington,
    D. C.), 874 p.
2 Brown, E., M. W.  Skougstad, and M. J. Fishman (1970), Methods
    for collection and analysis of water samples for dissolved minerals
    and gases, book 5, chapter Al of Techniques of water-resources in-
    vestigations of the  United  States  Geological Survey (Government
    Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 160 p.
3 [Great Britain] Department of the Environment (1971), The design
    of sampling programmes for river waters and effluents  [Notes on water
    pollution 54] (Elder Way, Stevenage Herts., U.  K.), 4 p.
« Rainwater,  F. H.  and  L.  I. Thatcher  (1960), Methods for collection
    and analysis of  water samples  [Geological Survey water  supply
    paper 1454](Government  Printing Office, Washington, D. C.),
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6 Standard methods  (1971) American  Public  Health  Association,
    American Water Works Association,  and Water Pollution Control
    Federation  (1971),  Standard methods for the  examination of
    water and waste water, 13th ed.  (American Public  Health As-
    sociation, Washington,  D. C.), 874 p.
6 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health
    Service (1962),  Public Health Service drinking water standards, rev.
    1962  [PHS pub. 956](Government Printing Office, Washington,
    D. C.), 61 p.
' U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1969), Report
    of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Relationship to
    Environmental Health (Government Printing Office, Washington,
    D. C.), 677 p.

ALKALINITY

8 Standard methods  (1971) American  Public  Health  Association,
    American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution  Con-
    trol  Federation  (1971), Standard methods for the examination
    of water  and waste  water, 13th  ed. (American Public  Health
    Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
'Weber, W.  J.  and W. Stumm  (1963),  H ion buffering in natural
    water systems. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 55(12): 1553-1578.

AMMONIA

IOBarth, E. F. (1971), Perspectives on  wastewater  treatment  proc-
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    Fed. 43(11):2189-2194.
11 Earth, E. F. and R. B. Dean (1970), Nitrogen removal from waste-
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12 Earth,  E.  F.,  M. Mulbarger, B. V.  Salotto, and  M.  B. Etting
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13 Butler, G. and H. C. K.  Ison (1966), Corrosion and its  prevention
    waters (Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York), p. 85.
14 Butterfield,  C. T.  (1948), Baclericidal properties of free  and cor
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16 Butterfield,  C. T., E. Wattie,  S. Megregian, and C. W. Chambe
    (1943), Influence of pH and temperature on  the  survival
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17 Clarke, N. A. and S. L. Chang (1959),  Enteric viruses in water. ,
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18 Courchaine, R. J. (1968), Significance of nitrification in strea
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19 Fair, G. M., J. C. Morris, S. L. Chang, I.  Weil, and R. P. Burdf
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ARSENIC

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63 Milner, J. E.  (1969),  The effect of ingested arsenic on  methyl-
    cholanthrene-induced skin tumors in mice. Arch. Environ.  Health
    18:7-11.
64 Musil, J. and  V. Dejmal (1957), Experimental and clinical ad-
    ministration  of radioarsenic  (As76). Casopis Lekan Ceskych.  96:
    1543-1546.
55 Paris, J. A. (1820),  Pharmacologia: comprehending the art oj prescribing
    upon fixed and scientific principles together with the history oj medicinal
    substances, 3rd ed.  (W. Philips, London), p.  132.
66 Pinto,  S.  S. and B.  M. Bennett (1963),  Effect of arsenic  trioxide
    exposure on mortality. Arch. Environ. Health 7:583-591.
67 Schroeder, H. A. and J. J. Balassa (1966), Abnormal trace metals
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68 Snegireff, L. S.  and O. M. Lombard (1951), Arsenic and cancer;
    observations in  the metallurical industry. Arch. Ind. Hyg.  Occup.
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69 Sollmann, T. H. (1957), A manual of pharmacology and  its applications
    to therapeutics and toxicology, 8th ed. (W. B. Saunders Co., Phila-
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60Sommers, S. C. and R.  G.  McManus (1953),  Multiple  arsenical
    cancers of skin and internal organs. Cancer 6(2):347-359.
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    (217) .-31-80.


BACTERIA

62EIrod, R. P.  (1942), The  Erwinia-coliform relationship  J. Bac-
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63 Environmental Protection Agency (1971), Office of Water Quality,
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    Pollution Control Administration  (1966), Sanitary significance of
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    series; pub. WP.  20-3] Cincinnati Water Research Laboratory,
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66 Frank, N. and  C.  E. Skinner  (1941), Coli-aerogenes bacteria in
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66 Fraser, M. H., W. B. Reid, and J. F. Malcolm (1956), The occur-
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67 Geldreich, E. E. (1970), Applying  bacteriological parameters to
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88 Geldreich, E. E., L. C. Best, B. A. Kenner, and D. J. Van Donsel

-------
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™ Geldreich, E. E., R. H. Bordner, C. B. Huff, H. F. Clark, and P. W.
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72 Geldreich, E. E., C. B. Huff. R. H. Bordner, P. W. Kabler, and H. F.
     Clark (1962b), The  faecal  coli-aerogenes  flora  of  soils  from
     various geographical areas. J. Appl. Bacterial. 25:87-93.
"Geldreich, E. E.,  B.  A. Kenner, and P.  W. Kabler (1964), The
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76 Papavassiliou, J., S.  Tzannetis,  H. Leka,  and  G.  Michapoulos
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76 Randall, J.  S. (1956), The sanitary significance of coliform bacilli
     in soil. J. Hjig. 54:365-377.
"Taylor, C.  B. (1951),  Coli-aerogenes bacteria in soils. J. Hyg.
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78 Thomas, S.  B. and J. McQuillin (1952), Coli-aerogenes bacteria
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79 U.S. Department of the  Interior.  Federal  Water Pollution Control
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     122 p.

BARIUM

80 American  Conference  of  Governmental Industrial  Hygienists
     (1958), Threshold  limit values for 1958. A.  M. A. Arch. Indust.
     Health 18(2):178-182.
81 Gotsev, T. (1944), Blood pressure and heart activity. III. Action of
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82 Kopp, J. F. (1969),  The occurrence of trace elements in water, in
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83 Ljunggren, P. (1955), Geochemistry and radioactivity of some Mn
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84Lorente, de No, R.  and T.  P.  Feng (1946), Analysis of effect of
     barium upon nerve with  particular reference to rhythmic  ac-
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85 Sollmann, T.  H. (1957), A manual of pharmacology and its applications
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     delphia), pp. 665-667.
86 Stokinger, H.  E. and  R.  L. Woodward (1958), Toxicologic methods
     for establishing  drinking water standards. J. Amer. Water Works
     Ass. 50(4):515-529.

BORON

87FWPCA 1968 U.S.   Department of the  Interior. Federal Water
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    234 p.

CADMIUM

88 Cangelosi,  J.  T.  (1941), Acute cadmium metal poisoning.  U
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89 Cotzias, G. C., D. C. Borg, arid B. Selleck (1961), Virtual abser
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90 Decker, L. E., R.  U. Byerrum, C. F. Decker, C. A. Hoppert, a
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92 Frant, S. and I.  Kleeman  (1941),  Cadmium  "food poisoning
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97 Lieber, M. and W. F. Welsch (1954),  Contamination of grou
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98 Morgan, J. M. (1969), Tissue cadmium concentration in m.1
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99 Murata, I., T. Hirono, Y. Saeki, and S. Nakagawa (1970), Cadmiu
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CHLORIDE

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CHROMIUM

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COLOR

124 American Water  Works Association.  Research  Committee  on
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127 Black,  A. P., J. E. Singley,  G. P. Whittle, and J. S. Maulding
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128 Christman, R.  F.  and M. Ghassemi (1966),  Chemical nature of
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130 Hall, E. S.  and R. F. Packham  (1965), Coagulation of organic
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    Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.

COPPER

139 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K.  Harris, and R. L. Wood-
    ward (I960), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drink-
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142 Uhlig, H. H. (1963), Corrosion and corrosion control (John Wiley &
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CYANIDE

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145 Smith, O. M.  (1944), The detection of poisons  in  public water
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148 World Health Organization (1963), International standards for drink-
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149 World Health Organization (1970), European standards for drinking-
    water, 2nd ed. (Geneva), 58 p.

FLUORIDE

160 Dean,  H. T.  (1936), Chronic endemic  dental  fluorosis  (mottled
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161 Galagan,  D. J. (1953), Climate  and controlled fluoridation. J.
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-------
98/'Section II—Public Water Supplies
161 Galagan, D. J., J. R, Vermillion, G. A. Nevitt, Z. M. Stadt, and
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166 Heyroth, F. F. (1952), Toxicological evidence for the safety of
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166 Leone, N. C., M. B. Shimkin, F. A. Arnold, C. A. Stevenson, E. R..
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160 U.S. Department  of Health, Education,  and  Welfare. Public
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FOAMING AGENTS
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     Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.

HARDNESS
163 American Water Works Association (1971),  Water quality and treat-
     ment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p.
164 Cairns, J.,  Jr.  and  A.  Scheier (1958), The effects of temperature
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166 Crawford, M. D., M. J. Gardner, J.  N. Morris (1968), Mortality
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167DeBoer, L. M. and T. E.  Larson  (1961), Water hardness  and
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168 Jones,  J. R. E. (1938), The relative toxicity of salts of lead, zinc
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IRON
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LEAD

179 Byers, R. K.  (1959), Lead  poisoning; review of the literature a
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180 Chisholm, J. J., Jr. (1964), Disturbances  in the biosynthesis
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186 Kehoe, R. A.  (1960b), The metabolism of lead in man in  hea
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188 McCabe, L. J., J. M. Symons,  R. D. Lee and G. G. Robeck (197i
     Survey  of community water  supply  systems.  J.  Amer.  Wf,
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MANGANESE
193 American  Water Works  Association (1971),  Water quality  r,
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196 Griffin, A. E.  (1960), Significance  and removal of manganese
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MERCURY

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NITRATE-NITRITE

212 Comly,  H. H. (1945),  Cyanosis in infants caused by nitrites in well
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216 Lee, D. H. K. (1970), Nitrates, nitrites, and methemoglobinemia.
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216 Miale, J. B. (1967), Laboratory medicine—hematologf, 3rd ed. (C. V.
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218 Sattelmacher, P.  G.  (1962),  [Methemoglobinemia from  nitrates
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220 Stewart, B. A., F. G.  Viets, Jr.,  G.  L. Hutchinson, and W. D.
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226 Winton, E. F., R.  G. Tardiff, and L.  J. McCabe (1971),  Nitrate
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NTA

226Bailar, J.  C., Jr.,  ed.  (1956), The chemistry of the coordination com-
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227 Nilsson, R. (1971), Removal of metals by chemical treatment of
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ODOR

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    treatment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill  Book Co.,  New York), 654 p.
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232 Silvey, J. K. G. (1953), Newer concepts of tastes and odors in sur-
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OIL AND GREASE

234 American Water  Works Association.  Task  Group 2500R  (1966),
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ORGANICS-CARBON ADSORBABLE

242Beulow, R. and J. K.  Carswell  (1972), A  miniaturized activated
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249 Federal Water Pollution  Control Administration office memorandum
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    mental  Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.

PESTICIDES

260 Berwick,  P. (1970), 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid poisoning in
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263 Cohen, J. M., G. A. Rourke and R. L. Woodward (1961), Effects
    of fish poisons on water supplies. Journal of the American  Water
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284 Courtney, K. D., D. W. Gaylor, M. D. Hogan, H. L. Falk, R. R.
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2" Courtney, K. D. and J. A. Moore (1971), Teratology studies with
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269 Durham, W. F. and W. J. Hayes (1962),  Organic phosphoi
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260Edson, E. F.  (1957), Research report, medical department, Fisi
    Pest Control, Ltd. Saffron \Valden, Essex, England.
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262 Frawley,  J. P., R. Weir,  T,  Tusing,  K.  P.  DuBois,  and J.
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263 Grob, D. (1950),  Uses and hazards of the organic phosphate an
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266 Hayes, W.  J., Jr., W. E. Dale, and C. I. Pirkle (1971), Eviden
    of safety of long-term,  high, oral doses  of DDT for man. Ar
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266 Hayes, W.  J., Jr., W.  E. Dale and C. I. Pirkle Effect of know
    repeated oral doses of DDT. Arch. Environ. Health, in press.
267 Hill,  E. V.  and H. Carlisle (1947), Toxicity of 2,4 dichlorophc
    oxyacetic acid for experimental animals. J.  Indust.  Hyg.  Toxic
    29(2):85-95.
268 Hunter, C.  G. and J.  Robinson (1967),  Pharmacodynamics
    dieldrin (HEOD). I. Ingestiori by human subjects for 18 montl
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269 Hunter, C. G., J. Robinson, and M. Roberts (1969), Pharmac
    dynamics of  dieldrin   (HEOD).  Ingestion by human subjei
    for 18 to 24 months, and postexposure for  eight months. Ar
    Environ. Health 18:12-21.
270 Innes, J. R. M., B. M. Ulland, M. G. Valerio, L.  Petrucelli,
    Fishbein,  E. R. Hart,  A. J. Pallotta, R. R. Bates, H. L. Fa
    J. J. Gart, M. Klein, I. Mitchell, and J. Peters (1969), Bioass
    of pesticides and industrial chemicals for tumorigenicity in mil
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271 Lehman, A. J. (1951), Chemicals in foods:  a report to the Associ
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    II. [Pesticides.] Association aj the  Food Drug Office  U.S. Quarte
    Bulletin 15:122-133.
272 Lehman,  A. J.  (1965), Summaiies of pesticide toxicity. Associate
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273 Moeller, H. C.  and J. A. Rider (1962), Plasma and red blood c
    cholinesterase activity as  indications of the threshold of incipie
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274 Mullison,  W. R.  (1966),  Some toxicological aspects of Silvf
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""Nielson,  K., B.  Kaempe, and  J. Jensen-Holm (1965), Fa1
    poisoning  in  man by  2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-E
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276 Rider,  J. A., and H. C. Moeller (1964), Fed. Proceedings 23:176.
277Rowe,  V. K. and T. A. Hymas  (1954), Summary of toxicologic
    information  on 2,4-D  and 2,4,5-T type  herbicides and ;
    evaluation of the  hazards to livestock associated with their  us
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278Sigworth, E.  A. (1965),  Identification and removal  of herbicid
    and pesticides.  Journal of the  American  Water  Works Associati
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"•Silvey,  J. K. G. (1968), Effects of impoundments on water quali

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    in the Southwest—discussion: the effects of chemical and physical
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    50(3):32-36.
280 Stein, A. A., D. M. Serrone, and F. Coulston (1965), Safety evalua-
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283Treon, J.  F., F.  P. Cleveland, and J. Cappel (1955), Toxicity of
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284 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1969),  Re-
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286 Williams,  M. W., J. W.  Cook, J. R. Blake,  P. S. Jorgensen, J. P.
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PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS

289 Aly, O. M. and M. A. El-Dib  (1971), Photodecomposition of some
    carbamate  insecticides in aquatic environments, in Organic com-
    pounds in aquatic environments, S.  D. Faust  and J. Hunter, eds.
    (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York), pp. 469-493.
290 Burttschell,  R. H., A. A. Rosen,  F. M. Middleton,  and  M. B.
    Ettinger (1959), Chlorine derivatives of phenol causing taste and
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291 Christman, R. F.  and M. Ghassemi (1966), Chemical nature of
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292 Faust,  S. D. and P. W. Anderson (1968), Factors influencing con-
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293 Faust,  S.  D., H.  Stutz, O. M. Aly, and P. W.  Anderson (1971),
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    Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.

PHOSPHATE

302 Gunnerson, C.  B. (1966), An  atlas of water pollution surveillance
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PLANKTON

304Silvey, J. K., D. E. Henley, and J. T. Wyatt  (1972),  Planktonic
    blue-gree algae: growth and odor-production studies. J. Amer.
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    of water and  waste water,  13th  ed.  (American Public Health
    Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB)

306Ahling, B. and  S. Jensen (1970), Reversed liquid—liquid parti-
    tion  in  determination  of polychloriated  biphenyl  (PCB)  and
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307 Bauer, H., K.  H. Schulz, and  U.  Spiegelberg (1961), [Occupa-
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308 Duke, T.  W.,  J. I. Lowe, and A. J.  Wilson (1970) A  polychlori-
    nated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254) in the water, sediment, and biota
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309 Holden, W. S., ed. (1970), Water treatment and examination, 8th ed.
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311 Interdepartmental Task  Force  on PCB (1972),  Polychlorinated
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*14 Kuratsune,  M.,  Y. Morikawa, T.  Hirohata, M. Nishizumi,  S.
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\02/Section II—Public Water Supplies
    M. Sonoda, T. Ueda, and  M. Ogata (1969), An epidemiologic
    study on "Yusho" or chlorobiphenyls poisoning. Fukuoaka Ada
    Med. 60(6):513-532.
816 New Scientist (1966), Report of a new chemical hazard. 32:612.
316 Price, H. A.  and R. L. Welch (1972), Occurrence of polychlori-
    nated biphenyls in humans. Environmental Health Perspectives (In
    press).
317 Risebrough, R. W., P. Rieche, D. P. Peakall, S. G. Herman, and
    M. N. Kirven (1968), Polychlorinated biphenyls in the  global
    ecosystem. Nature 220:  1098-1102.
318 Schmidt, T. T., R. W. Risebrough, and F. Gress (1971), Input of
    polychlorinated biphenyls into California coastal  waters from
    urban sewage outfalls. Bull. Environ.  Contam. Toxicol.  6(3):235-
    243.
319Schulz, K. H. (1968),  Clinical picture  and etiology of chloracne.
    Arbeitsmed. Sozialmed. Arbeitshyg. 3(2) :25—29. Reprinted in trans-
    lation  in U.S., Congress,  Senate, Committee  on  Commerce,
    Effects of 2,4,5-T on man and the environment:  hearings, 91st Cong.,
    2nd sess., pp. 336-341.
320 Schwartz,  L. and  S.  M. Peck  (1943),  Occupational acne.  New
    Tork State}. Med. 43:1711-1718.
321 Street, J. C., F. M. Urry, D. J.  Wagstaff, and A.  D.  Blau (1968),
    Comparative effects  of polychlorinated biphenyls  and organo-
    chlorine  pesticides in induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes.
    American Chemical Society, 158th National meeting, Sept. 8-12,
    1968.
^Tarrant, K. R. and J.  O'G. Tatton (1968), Organochlorine pesti-
    cides in rainwater in the British Isles. Nature 219:725-727.
323 Veith, G. D. and G. F. Lee (1971),  Chlorobiphenyls (PCBs) in the
    Milwaukee River. Water Res. 5:1107-1115.
324 Verrett, J. (1970), Statement  [and supporting material], in U.S.,
    Congress, Senate, Committee  on Commerce, Effects of 2,4,5-T
    on the man and the environment: hearings, 91st Cong., 2nd sess., pp.
    190-360.
325 Wasserrnann, M., D. Wassermann, I. Aronovski, I.  Ivriani, and
    D. Rosenfeld (1970), The effect of organochlorine insecticides on
    serum colesterol level  in  people occupational!/ exposed.  Bull.
    Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5(4):368-372.
326 Yoshimura, H., H.  Yamamoto,  J.  Nagai, Y. Yae, H. Uzawa, Y.
    Ito, A. Notomi,  S.  Minakami, A. Ito, K.  Kato, and H.  Tsuji
    (1971), Studies on the tissue  distribution and  the  urinary and
    fecal excretion of 3H-kanechlor (chlorobiphenyls) in rats. Fukuoka
    Ada Med. 62(1):12-19.

RADIOACTIVITY

327 International Commission on  Radiological Protection (1960), Re-
    port on permissible dose for internal radiation  (1959); recommendations
    of Committee 2 (Pergamon Press, Inc., New York), 233 p.
328 U.S. Federal Radiation Council  (1960),  Radiation  protection
    guidance for federal agencies: memorandum for the  President,
    May 13,  1960. Fed. Reg. 25(97): 4402-4403.
329 U.S. Federal  Radiation Council (1961a), Radiation  protection
    guidance for federal agencies: memorandum for the  President,
    September  13, 1961.  Fed. Reg. 26(185):9057-9058.
330 U.S. Federal  Radiation Council  (1961b),  Background material for
    the development of radiation protection standards, staff report. Septem-
    ber,  1961 (Government  Printing Office, Washington, D. C.),
     19 p.

SELENIUM

331Beath, O.  A.  (1962), Selenium  poisons indians. Science News Letter
    81:254.
"BFitzhugh, O. G., A. A. Nelson and C. I. Buss (1944), The chronic
     oral toxicity of selenium. Journal  of Pharmacology 80:287-299.
3a3Franke, K. W. and  V. Potter  (1935), New toxicant occurrii
    naturally in certain samples:  of plant foodstuffs; toxic effects
    orally ingested selenium. J. Nutr. 10:213-221.
334 Hamilton,  J. W. and O. A. Beath (1964), Amount and chemic
    form of selenium  in vegetable plants. J. Agr. Food Chem.  12(4
    371-374.
335 Lakin, H. W. and D.  F. Davidson (1967),  The relation of the ge
    chemistry of  selenium  to its occurrence  in soils, in Symposiut
    selenium in biomedicine, O. H.  Muth,  ed.  (AVI Publishing Ct
    Inc., Westport, Connecticut), pp. 27—56.
336 The Merck  index of  chemicals and drugs, 8th ed.  (1968), (Merck
    Co., Inc., Rahway, New  Jersey).
337 Morris, V. C.  and  A. O.  Levainder (1970),  Selenium content
    foods. J.  Nutr. 100(12):1383-1388.
338Nesheim, M. C.  and M.  L.  Scott (1961), Nutritional effects
    selenium  compounds in  chickii and turkeys.  Fed. Proc. 20:67^
    678.
339Oldfield, J. E., J. R. Schubert, and O. H. Muth (1963), Irnplic
    tions of selenium  in large animal nutrition. J. Agr. Food Chet
    11(5):388-390.
340 Olson, O. E. (1967), Soil,  plant, animal cycling of excessive leve
    of selenium, in Symposium: selenium in biomedicine, O. H.  Mull
    ed.  (AVI Publishing  Co.,  Inc.,  Westport,  Connecticut),  p
    297-312.
341 Schwarz, K. (1960), Factor 3, selenium and vitamin E. Nutr. Re
    18:193-197.
342 Smith, M.  I.  (1941), Chronic  endemic  selenium posioning. '
    Amer. Med. Ass. 116:562-567.
343 Smith, M.  I.,  K.  W. Franke, and B.  B. Westfall (1936), Th
    selenium  problem in relation to public health:  Preliminary su
    vey  to determine possibility of selenium intoxication in rur,
    population living  on seleniferous soil. Pub. Health Rep. 51:1496
    1505.
344 Smith, M.  I. and B. B Westfall (1937), Further field studies on tr
    selenium  problem in relation 10  public health. Pub. Health Re^
    52:1375-1384.
346 U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Servic<
    Consumer and Food Economics Research Division  (1967), Foe
    consumption of households in the  United Slates, spring 1965: prelimmo,
    report (Agricultural Research Service, Washington, D. C.), 28 \
346 Volganev,  M. N. and Tschenkes, L. A.  (1967), Further studies i
    tissue  changes associated with sodium sellenate, in Symposiun
    selenium in biomedicin?, D. H. Mush, ed.  (AVI Publishing Co
    Inc., Westport, Connecticut), pp. 179-184.

SILVER

347 Aub, J. C. and L. T.  Fairhall (1942), Excretion of silver in  urini
    jf. Amer. Med. Ass. 118:319.
348 Hem,  J. D. (1970), Study and interpretation of chemical characteristics <
    natural  water,  2nd ed.  [Geological Survey  water supply  pape
    1473] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 363 \
349 Hill, W. R. and D.  M. Pillsbury (1939), Argyria: the pharmacology i
    silver (Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore,  Maryland), 1 72 p.
360 Hill, W. B. and D. M. Pillsbury (1957),  Argyria investigation-
    toxicologic properties of silver American Silver Producers Researc
    Project Report Appendix H.
3UKehoe, R.  A.,  J. Cholak,  and R.  V.  Story (1940b),  Manganesf
    lead, tin, copper, and silver in normal biological  material. J
    Nutr. 20(l):85-98.
362 Kopp, J. F. (1969): The occurrence of trace elements in water, i
    Proceedings of  the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Ex
    vironmental Health, edited by D.  D.  Hemphill (University c
    Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73.
'"Scott,  K. G. (1949), Metabolism of silver in  the rat,  with radio
    silver used as an  indicator. University of California, Berkeley

-------
                                                                                                                  Literature Cited/103
     Publications  in  Pharmacology  Vol.  2,  No.  19 (University of
     California Press, Berkeley 1950), pp. 241-262.

SODIUM

364 Dahl, L. K.  (1960), Der moglichc einslub der salzzufuhr auf die
     entwicklung der essentiellen hypertonie, in Essential hypertension;
     an  international symposium, P.  T. Cottier and K. D. Bock, eds.
     (Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Wilmersdorf), pp. 61-75.
355 Durfor, C.  N. and E. Becker (1964), Public water supplies of the WO
     largest cities in the United States,  1962 [Geological Survey  water
     supply paper 1812] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
     D.  C ).
356 National Research Council. Food and Nutrition Board  (1954),
     Sodium-restricted diets  [Pub. 325] (National  Academy of Sciences,
     Washington, D. C.), 71 p.

SULFATE

357 Durfor, C.  N. and E.  Becker (1964),  Public water supplies of the WO
     largest cities in the United States,  1962 [Geological Survey  water
     supply paper 1812] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
     D.C.)
358 Larson, T. E.  (1963),  Mineral content  of public ground-water
     supplies in  Illinois. Illinois State Water  Survey,  Urbana,  Illinois,
     Circular QO,  28 p.
369Lockhart, E.  E.,  C.  L.  Tucker, and M.  C. Merritt (1955), The
     effect  of water  impurities on the flavor of brewed  coffee. Food
     Res  20(6):598-605.
360 Moore.  E.  W.  (1952), Physiological effects of the consumption of
     saline drinking water.  National Research Council. Division of Medical
     Sciences. Subcommittee on  \Vatei  Supply, bulletin. Appendix  B, pp.
     221-227.
361 Peterson, N.  L. (1951), Sulfates in  drinking water. North  Dakota
     \Valer and Sewage Works  Conference Official Bulletin 18(10 & 11):
     6-7,11.
362 Whipple, G. C. (1907),  The value of purewater (John Wiley & Sons,
     New York), 84  p

TEMPERATURE

363 American Water  Works Association (1971),  Water quality and treat-
     ment, 3rd  ed.  (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p.
364 Ames, A. M. and W. W. Smith (1944),  The temperature coeffi-
     cient of the bactericidal action of chlorine. J. Bact. 47(5) :445.
365 Brashears,  M. L., Jr. (1946), Artificial recharge of ground  water
     on  Long Island, New York. Econ. Geol. 41(5):503-516.
366 Burnson, B. (1938), Seasonal temperature variations in relation to
     water treatment. J.  Amer. Water  Works Ass. 30(5): 793-811.
367 Butterfield, C. T. and  E. Wattie (1946),  Influence  of pH and
     temperature on the survival of coliforms  and enteric pathogens
     when exposed to chloramine. Pub. Health Rep. 61:157-192.
368 Camp.  T.  R.,  D. A.  Root, and B.  V. Bhoota (1940),  Effects of
     temperature on rate of floe formation. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
     32(11):1913-1927.
369 Eldridge, E. F. (1960), Return irrigation water, characteristics and
     effects. U.S. Public Health Service, Region IX, Portland, Oregon T.
370 Hannah, S. A., J. M. Cohen, and G. G. Roebeck (1967), Control
     techniques  for coagulation-filtration. J. Amer.  Water Works Ass.
     59(9): 1149-1163.
371Hoak, R. D.  (1961), The thermal pollution problem. J.  Water
     Pollut. Contr. Fed. 33:1267-1276.
372 Kofoid, C.  A.  (1923), Microscopic organisms in reservoirs  in re-
     lation to  the  esthetic qualities of potable waters. J.  Amer.  Water
     Works Ass.  10:183-191.
373 Maulding,  J. S. and R. H. Harris (1968), Effect of ionic environ-
     ment  and temperature  on the coagulation of color-causing or-
     ganic  compounds with ferric sulfate. J.  Amer. Water Works Ass.
     60(4):460^76.
374 Moore,  E. W.  (1958), Thermal "pollution" of streams. Ind. Eng.
     Chem.  50(4):87A-88A.
375 Peretz, L. G. and K. G. Medvinskaya (1946), The role of microbial
     antagonism  in  the self-purification of water. Gigiena  (USSR)
     11 (7-8): 18
376 Rudolfs, W., L L. Falk,  and R. A. Ragotzkie (1950), Literature
     review on the occurrence and survival of enteric, pathogenic, and
     relative organisms in soil,  water,  sewage, and sludges,  and  on
     vegetation. I. Bacterial  and virus  diseases.  Sewage and Indust.
     Wastes 22(11):1261-1281.
377 Silvey, J. K. G., J. C. Russel, D. R. Redden,  and W. C. McCor-
     mick  (1950), Actinomycetes  and common tastes and odors.  J.
     Amer.  Water  Works Ass. 42(11): 1018-1026.
378 Thompson, R.  E.  (1944), Factors influencing the growth of algae
     in water. Canad.  Kngr. 82 (10:24.
379 Velz,  C. J. (1934), Influence of temperature on coagulation. Civil
     Eng. 4(7): 345-349.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

380 Bruvold (1967), Journal of the American Water Works Association
     Vol. 61, No.  11.
381 Patterson, W. L. and R. F. Banker (1968), Effects of highly minera-
     lized water  on  household  plumbing and appliances. J.  Amer.
     Water  Works Ass. 60:1060-1069.
382 PHS (1962) U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
     Public Health Service  (1962), Public Health Service drinking water
     standards, rev. 1962 [PHS pub. 956] (Government Printing Of-
     fice, Washington, D.C.), 61 p.
383 Standard methods (1971) American  Public Health Association,
     American Water Works  Association, and Water Pollution Con-
     trol Federation  (1971), Standard methods for the examination of
     water  and waste water,  13th ed. (American  Public Health As-
     sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.

TURBIDITY

384 Sanderson, W. W.  and S.  Kelly  (1964),  Discussion of  Human
     enteric visuses in water: source,  survival and removability,  by
     N.  A.  Clarke, G. Berg,  P.  W. Kabler, and S.  L.  Chang, in Ad-
     vances  in  water pollution  research, W. W. Eckenfelder, ed. (The
     Macmillan Co.,  New York), vol. 2, pp. 536-541.
386 Standard methods (1971) American  Public Health Association,
     American Water Works  Association, and Water Pollution Con-
     trol Federation  (1971), Standard  methods for the examination
     of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health As-
     sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
386 Tracy, H.  W., V. M.  Camarena, and F.  Wing (1966), Coliform
     persistence  in highly  chlorinated  waters  J.  Amer. Water  Works
     Ass. 58(9) :1151-1159.

URANYL  ION

387FWCPA (1968) U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water
     Pollution Control Administration (1968), Water  quality criteria:
     report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of
     the Interior  (Government Printing  Office, Washington,  D.C.),
     234 p.
388 U.S. Geological Survey (1969), Water load of uranium, radium,
     and gross beta  activity  as  selected grazing stations water, year
     1960-61. Publication No. 1535-0.
389 Environmental Protection Agency  office memorandum (1971)  April
     19, M. Lammering to G. Robeck, E. P. A., Cincinnati, Ohio.

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104/Section II—Public Water Supplies
VIRUSES

390 Beard, J. W. (1967), Host-virus interaction in the initiation of in-
    fection, in  Transmission of viruses by the water  route, G. Berg, ed.
    (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp.  167-192.
391 Berg,  G., ed. (1967),  Transmission  of visuses by the water route (Inter-
    science Publishers, New York),  484 p.
392 Berg,  G. (1971),  Integrated  approach  to  problem of viruses in
    water. J. Samt. Eng. Dw. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng.  97 (SA6):867-882.
393 Berg,  G., R. M. Clark, D. Berman, and  S. L. Chang (1967), Aber-
    rations in survival  curves, in Transmission of viruses  by the water
    route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 235-
    240.
394 Berg,  G.,  R. B. Dean,  and D. R. Dahling (1968),  Journal  of the
    American Water  Works Association  60:193.
395 Chang, S.  L.  (1967), Statistics of the  infective units of animal
    viruses, in  Transmission of viruses by the water  route, G. Berg, ed.
    (Interscience Publishers, New York),  pp.  219-234.
396 Chang, S. L. (1968), Water borne viral infections and  their pre-
    vention. Bull. World Health Organ. 38:401-414.
an Chang, S. L., R. E.  Stevenson, A. R. Bryant, R. L.  Woodward
     and P. W. Kabler (1958),  Removal of Coxsackie and bacterial
     viruses  in water  by  flocculation.  American  Journal  of  Public,
     Health 48 (2): 159-169.
398 Chin, T. D. Y., W.  H. Mosley, S. Robinson, and C. R. Gravelle
    (1967), Detection of enteric viruses in sewage and water. Rela-
    tive sensitivity of the method, in Transmission of viruses by the water
    route, G. Berg. ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 389-
    400.
«» Clark, R. M. and J. F. Niehaus (1967),  A mathematical model for
    viral devitalization, in Transmission of viruses  by  the water route,
    G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 241-245.
*» Clarke, N. A., G. Berg, P. W. Kabler and S.  L. Chang (1962),
    Human  enteric viruses in water: source,  survival and remova-
    bility. First International Conference  of Water  Pollution  Research,
    London, England, pp. 523-542.
«' Clarke, N. A., R. E. Stevenson, S. L. Chang, and P. W. Kabler
     (1961),  Removal  of  enteric viruses from sewage by activated
     sludge treatment. American Journal of Public Health 51(8):1118.
402 England, B., R. E.  Leach, B. Adame, and R.  Shiosaki (1967),
    Virologic  assessment  of sewage treatment,  in Transmission of
    viruses by the  water  route, G.  Berg,  ed. (Interscience Publishers,
    New York), pp. 401-417.
403 Kalter, S.  S. (1967), Picornaviruses  in water, in Transmission of
    viruses by the  water  route, G.  Berg,  ed. (Interscience Publishers,
    New York), pp. 253-267.
404 Lund, E. and C.-E. Hedstrom (1967),  Recovery of viruses from
    a  sewage treatment plant, in Transmission of viruses  by the water
    route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York),  pp. 371—
    377.
406 Malherbe,  H.  H. (1967), C.  Berg,  ed. (Interscience Publishers,
    New York).
406 Malherbe, H. H.  and M. Strickland-Cholmley (1967),  Quanti
     tive studies on viral survival in sewage purification processes,
     Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscier
     Publishers, New York), pp. 379-387.
407 Maramorosch, K. (1967),  Transmission  of  plant pathogenic
     ruses, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (1
     terscience Publishers, New York), pp. 323-336.
408 Morris, J. C. (1971), Chlorination and  disinfection—state oft
     art. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 63(12):769-774.
409 Mosley, J. W. (1967), Transmission of viral diseases by drinki
     water, in Transmission of viruses by  the water route, G. Berg, e
     (Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York), pp. 5-23.
410 Prier, J. E. and R.  Riley (1967), Significance of water  in natui
     animal  virus transmission,  in  Transmission  of viruses by the wa
     route, G. Berg, ed.  (Interscience Publishers,  New York), pp. 28
     300.
411 Plotkin,  S.  A. and  M.  Katz  (1967),  Minimal infective  doses
     viruses for man by the oral route,  in  Transmission of nruws
     the water route. G. Berg, ed. (Inter-Science Publishers, New Yorl
     p. 151.
412 Sharp, D. G. (1967), Electron microscopy and viral particle fun
     tion, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (I
     terscience Publishers, New York), pp. 193-217.
113 Sproul, O. J. (1972),  Virus inactivation   by water treatmer
     Journal American Water Work? Association 64:31-35.
414 Sproul, O.  J., L. R. Larochelle, D.  F.  Wentworth, and R. '
     Thorup (1967), Virus removal in water reuse treating process!
     in  ll'ater Reuse,  L. K. Cecil, ed American  Institute of Chemic
     Engineers Chemical  Engineering Progress  Symposium Seru
     63(78):! 30-136.
ZINC
416 Anderson, E. A., C. E. Reinhard, and W. D. Hammel (1934), T?
     corrosion of zinc in various waters. J. Amer. Water Works As
     26(1):49-60.
416Bartow, E. and O. M. Weigle (1932), Zinc in water supplies. In,
     Eng. Chem. 24(4):463-465.
417 Cohen, J. M.,  L. J. Kamphake,  E. K. Harris,  and R. L. Wooc
     ward (1960),  Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drinkin
     water. J. Amer. Water Works As;. 52:660-670.
418 Hinman, J. J., Jr. (1938), Desirable characteristics of a municip;
     water supply. J. Amer. Water  Works Ass. 30(3):484-494.
419 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water, i
     Proceedings of  the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Ef
     vironmental Health, edited  by  D. D. Hemphill  (University  c
     Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73.
420 Vallee, B. L. (1957), Zinc  and its biological significance. A. M.  A
     Arch. Indust. Health 16(2): 147-154.

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        Section
FRESHWATER  AQUATIC  LIFE  AND  WILDLIFE
                                     TABLE  OF  CONTENTS
                                              Page
INTRODUCTION	    109
    COMMUNITY  STRUCTURE AND  PROTECTION  OF
      SIGNIFICANT SPECIES	    109
        Community Structure	    110
        Protection of Significant Aquatic Species. .    110
ASSIMILATIVE  CAPACITY  OF  FRESH-
  WATER RECEIVING SYSTEMS	    Ill
MIXING ZONES	    112
    DEFINITION OF A MIXING ZONE	    112
          Recommendation	    112
    GENERAL  PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS	    112
          Recommendation	    112
    GENERAL  BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS	    113
          Recommendation	    113
          Recommendation	    113
    MEETING  THE RECOMMENDATIONS	    113
    SHORT TIME EXPOSURE  SAFETY FACTORS	    114
          Recommendation	    114
    OVERLAPPING MIXING ZONES	    1 Hi-
          Recommendation	    1 HI-
    INTERIM GUIDELINE	    114
    CONFIGURATION  AND LOCATION  OF  MIXING
      ZONES	    114
    PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP OF MIXING ZONES
      TO RECEIVING SYSTEMS	   114
          Recommendation	   115
    ZONES OF PASSAGE	   115
          Recommendation	   115
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING	   116
    PROGRAMS	   116
    FIELD SURVEYS	   116
    BODY BURDENS OF TOXICANTS	   116
    IN-PLANT BIOLOGICAL MONITORING	   116
    BIOASSAYS	   117
    SIMULATION  TECHNIQUES	   117
BIOASSAYS	   118
    MEASURES OF TOXICITY	   118
    METHODS FOR BIOASSAYS	   119
    CHECKLIST OF PROCEDURES	   119
        Species	   119
                                 Dilution Water	
                                 Acclimation 	
                                 Test Methods	
                                 Dissolved Oxygen	
                                 Concentrations	
                                 Evaluation of Results	
                             APPLICATION FACTORS	
                             MIXTURES OF Two OP  MORE TOXICANTS. . .  .
                             SUBLETHAL EFFECTS	
                                 Recommcnations for the Use of Appli-
                                   cation Factors to Estimate Safe Concen-
                                   trations of Toxic Wastes in Receiving
                                   Streams	
                         PHYSICAL  MANIPULATION  OF  THE  EN-
                           VIRONMENT  	
                         SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE  SOLIDS...
                             SOIL As  A SOURCE OF  MINERAL PARTICLES...
                             EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED  PARTICLES IN  WATER. .
                             ADSORPTION OF Toxic  MATERIALS	
                             EFFECTS  ON FISH AND  INVERTEBRATES	
                                   Recommendations	
                         COLOR	
                                   Recommendation	
                         DISSOLVED GASES	
                             DISSOLVED OXYGEN	
                                 Levels of Protection	
                                 Basis for Recommendations 	
                                 Warm- and Coldwater Fishes	
                                 Unusual Waters	
                                 Organisms Other Than Fish	    I'.
                                 Salmonid Spawning	    1'
                                 Interaction With Toxic Pollutants or Other
                                   Environmental Factors	
                                 Application of Recommendations	
                                 Examples	
                                   Recommendations	
                             TOTAL DISSOLVED GASES (SUPERSATURATION) ..
                                 Etiologic Factors	
                                 Gas Bubble Disease Syndrome and Effects.
                                 Analytical Considerations	
                                                 106

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                                                Page
        Total Dissolved Gas Pressure Criteria  ...    138
          Recommendations	    139
    CARBON DIOXIDE	    139
          Recommendation	    139
ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, AND pH	    140
    NATURAL  CONDITIONS AND  SIGNIFICANCE	    140
    TOXICITY TO AQUATIC  LIFE	    140
    ADVERSE INDIRECT EFFECTS  OR SIDE EFFECTS. .    140
          Recommendations	    141
DISSOLVED  SOLIDS AND HARDNESS	    142
          Recommendation 	    143
OILS	    144
    OIL REFINERY  EFFLUENTS	    144
    FREE  AND FLOATING OIL	    144
    SEDIMENTED OIL  	    145
          Recommendations	    146
TAINTING SUBSTANCES  	    147
    BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF TAINTING	    147
    TAINTING CAUSED  BY  CHEMICALS	    147
    UPTAKE AND Loss OF FLAVOR-IMPAIRING MA-
      TERIALS 	    148
    IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES  OF  OFF-FLAVORED
      ORGANISMS	    149
    EXPOSURE  AND ORGANOLEPTIC  TESTS	    149
        Test Fish	    149
        Exposure Period	    149
        Exposure Conditions	    149
        Preparation of Test Fish and Evaluation..    149
    STATISTICAL EVALUATION	    150
          Recommendations	    150
HEAT AND  TEMPERATURE	    151
    DEVELOPMENT OF  CRITERIA	    152
    TERMINOLOGY DEFINED	    152
    MAX-MUM ACCEPTABLE TEMPERATURES FOR PRO-
      LONGED  EXPOSURES	    153
    SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL MAXIMA FOR PRO-
      LONGED EXPOSURE	    154
          Recommendation	    160
    WINTER MAXIMA	    160
          Recommendation	    161
                                                Page
    SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO  EXTREME TEMPER-
      ATURE 	    161
          Recommendation	    162
    REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT	    162
          Recommendations	    164
    CHANGES IN  STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC  COM-
      MUNITIES 	    165
    NUISANCE ORGANISMS	    165
          Recommendation	    165
    CONCLUSIONS	    165
    USE OF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA	    166
        Analytical Steps	    168
        Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature
          Change	    168
        Cooling Water Entrainment	    168
        Entrainment in the Plume	    170
        Bottom Organisms Impacted by the Plume   170
        Mixed Water Body	    171
        Discharge Canal 	    171
TOXIC SUBSTANCES	    172
    ORGANIC MERCURY	    172
        Biological Methylation	    172
        Biological Magnification	    172
        Mercury in Fresh Waters	    173
        Toxicity of Organic Mercury in Water...    173
        Tissue Levels and Toxicity	    174
        Discussion of Proposed Recommendations.    174
          Recommendations	    174
    PHTHALATE ESTERS	    174
        Toxicity	    175
          Recommendation	    175
    POLYCHLORINATED BlPHENYLS	    175
        Direct Lethal Toxicity	    176
        Feeding Studies	    176
        Residues in Tissue	    176
        Effects on Reproduction	    177
        General   Considerations  and   Further
          Needs	    177
        Basis for Recommendations	    177
          Recommendations	    177
                                                   107

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                                           Page
METALS	   177
    General Data	   177
      Recommendations	   179
    Aluminum	   179
      Recommendation	   179
    Cadmium	   179
      Recommendation	   180
    Chromium	   180
      Recommendation	   180
    Copper	   180
      Recommendation	   181
    Lead	   181
      Recommendation	   181
    Mercury	   181
      Recommendation	   181
    Nickel	   181
      Recommendation	   181
    Zinc	   182
      Recommendation	   182
PESTICIDES	   182
    Methods, Rate,  and Frequency of Appli-
      cation	   182
    Sources and Distribution	   182
    Persistence and Biological Accumulation. .   183
    Residues	   183
    Toxicity	   184
    Basis for Criteria	   185
      Recommendations	   185
OTHER TOXICANTS	   186
    Ammonia	   186
      Recommendation	   187
    Chlorine	   189
      Recommendation	   189
    Cyanides	   189
      Recommendation	   190
    Detergents	   190
    Detergent Builders	   191
      Recommendation	   191
                                                Page
        Phenolics	    191
          Recommendations	    191
        Sulfides	    191
          Recommendation	    193
WILDLIFE	    194
    PROTECTION OF FOOD AND SHELTER FOR WILD-
      LIFE 	    194
    PH	    194
          Recommendation	    194
    ALKALINITY	    194
          Recommendation	    195
    SALINITY	    195
          Recommendation	    195
    LIGHT PENETRATION	    195
    SETTLE ABLE SUBSTANCES	    195
          Recommendation	    195
    PRODUCTION OF WILDLIFE FOODS OTHER THAN
      PLANTS	    195
    TEMPERATURE	    195
          Recommendation	    195
    SPECIFIC POTENTIALLY HARMFUL SUBSTANCES. .    196
        Direct Acting Substances	    196
          Oils	    196
            Recommendation	    196
          Lead	    196
            Recommendation	    196
          Botulism Poisoning	    196
            Recommendation	    197
        Substances Acting After Magnification in
        Food Chains	    197
          Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides....    197
            DDT and Derivatives	    197
              Recommendation	    198
            Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB)	    198
              Recommendation	    198
          Mercury	    198
            Recommendation	    198
LITERATURE CITED	    199
                                               108

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                                               INTRODUCTION
   The biota of a natural aquatic ecosystem is the result of
evolutionary processes  in  the  course  of which a delicate
balance and complex interactions were established among
various kinds of organisms and between  those organisms
and their environment. Some species can live in a wide
range of environmental conditions and are found in many
different systems throughout the world. Other species  are
restricted and their distribution is limited to certain habitats
or in some  cases to only one. Frequently, it is  the latter
group of species that have been most useful to man. Minor
changes in  their environments, especially  if such changes
are rapid, may upset the ecological  balance and endanger
the species.
   Man has  the ability to alter—to impair  or improve—his
environment and that of other  organisms. His use of water
to dispose of wastes of a technological society and his other
alterations of aquatic environments have degraded his water
resources. Water pollutants may alter natural conditions
by reducing the dissolved oxygen content, by changing  the
temperature, or by direct toxic  action that can be lethal or,
more subtly, can affect the behavior, reproduction, and
physiology  of the organisms.  Although a substance may
not directly affect a species, it may endanger its continued
existence  by eliminating  essential  sources  of food and
metabolites.  Furthermore, conditions  permitting  the sur-
vival of a given organism at one stage of its life may be
intolerable at another stage.
   This Section evaluates criteria and proposes recommen-
dations that reflect scientific understanding of the relation-
ships between freshwater aquatic organisms and their  en-
vironment.  Anything added to or  removed  from natural
waters will cause some change  in the system. For each  use
of water there are certain water quality characteristics that
should be met to ensure the suitability of the water  for
that use.
  The following general recommendations  apply to a wide
variety of receiving systems and pollutants:

     • More stringent methods of control or treatment, or
      both, of waste inputs and land drainage should be
      applied  to improve water quality as the demand  for
      use increases.
     • In recognition of the limitations of water quality
       management  programs,  consideration  should  be
       given to  providing reserve  capacity of receiving
       waters for future use.
     • Bioassays and other appropriate tests, including field
       studies, should be made to obtain scientific evidence
       on the effect of wastewater  discharges on  the en-
       vironment. Test  procedures  are recommended  in
       this report.
     • A survey of the receiving system to assess the impact
       of  waste discharges on  the  biological community
       should be made on a regular basis, particularly prior
       to  new  discharges. Such surveys especially should
       cover the seasons  most critical to the biological com-
       munity. Background laboratory data should include
       bioassays using important local aquatic organisms
       and associated receiving waters. In addition to the
       more  comprehensive  surveys,  some  form  of  bio-
       monitoring in the receiving system should be carried
       out routinely. A suggested list of ecological consider-
       ations  is  included in  the section on Biological
       Monitoring.
     • One  of the principal  goals is to insure the mainte-
       nance of the biological community typical  of  that
       particular locale or, if a perturbed community exists,
       to upgrade the receiving system to  a quality which
       will permit reestablishment of that community.

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND PROTECTION OF
SIGNIFICANT SPECIES

  The natural aquatic environment includes many kinds of
plants and animals that vary  in their  life history  and  in
their chemical and physical requirements. These organisms
are interrelated in many ways to form communities. Aquatic
environments are protected out of recreational and scientific
interest, for aesthetic enjoyment, and to maintain  certain
organisms of special significance as a source of food. There
are two schools of thought as to how this can be accom-
plished. One is  to  protect the significant  species, the as-
sumption being that by so doing, the entire system is pro-
tected. The  other approach is to protect the aquatic com-
                                                       109

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110/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
munity, the assumption being that the significant species
are not protected unless the entire system is maintained.

Community Structure
  Because  chemical and  physical  environments are con-
tinually  changing—sometimes  gradually  and  sometimes
catastrophically—many species  are necessary to keep  the
aquatic ecosystems functioning  by  filling habitats vacated
because of the disappearance of other species.  Likewise,
when one kind of organism  becomes extremely  abundant
because  of the disappearance  of  one or more  species,
predator species  must  be  available to feed on  the  over-
abundant species and keep it from destroying the function-
ing of  the  community. In  a balanced  ecosystem,  large
populations of a  single species rarely maintain themselves
over a  long  time because predators quickly  reduce their
number.
  Therefore,  the diverse characteristics of a  habitat  are
necessary to the  maintenance of a functioning  ecosystem
in the process of evolution. In  the  fossil record  are found
many  species that  were more common at one  time than
they are today and others that have been replaced entirely.
If it were not for diverse gene pools, such  evolutionary
replacement would not have been possible.
  Some aquatic  environments  present unusual extremes
in their chemical  and physical characteristics. They support
highly specialized  species  that  function  as ecosystems in
which energy flows and  materials cycle.  If  these species
are not present and functioning in  this manner,  such areas
may become  aesthetically distasteful, as has  occurred for
example in the alkaline flats  of the West and the acid bogs
of the Northeast,  Midwest, and  East.
  Rare habitats support rare organisms that become extinct
or endangered species if their habitats are impaired
eliminated.  In the aquatic world there are many spec!
of algae, fish, and invertebrates  that are maintained on
in such rare, fragile habitats. Man must understand the
if he is  to  appreciate the process  of evolution and t
trend of ecological change that brings  about drastic altc
ations to fauna and flora.

Protection of Significant Aquatic Species
   An essential objective of freshwater  quality recomme
dations is the protection of fish and other aquatic organist
for sport or commercial  harvesting. This does  not imp
that all  other aquatic species will be  subject to potent;
extinction, or that an  unaltered environment is the goal
be attained in  all cases.  The average  person  is  usua
interested in only a small number of aquatic sp>ecies,  pri
cipally fish; but it remains necessary to preserve, in certa
unique or rare  areas,  a  diversified environment both i
scientific study and for maintaining species variety.
   It is  sometimes difficult to justify protection  of isolat
organisms  not used by man  unless  it  can be  document
that  they  are ultimately essential  to  the  production
desirable biota.  In some instances it may be that a critic
sensitive species, irreplaceable in the food web  of anoth
more important species, is one known only to the biologi
In such instances, protection of the  "less important" sen
tive species could justifiably determine the water quali
recommendation.
   Because no single  recommendation  can protect all ii
portant  sport and commercial  species unless the  me
sensitive is  protected, a number of species must be co
sidered.  The most sensitive species provide a good estima
of the range of sensitivity of all species.

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               ASSIMILATIVE  CAPACITY OF FRESHWATER  RECEIVING  SYSTEMS
  Waste discharges do not just go into water but  rather
into aquatic ecosystems. The capacity of such a  system to
receive and assimilate waste is determined by the physical,
chemical, and biological interactions within the system.
Thus the response is a function of the  characteristics of
both  the  ecosystem  and  the nature  and quantity  of the
waste. Understanding the unique  characteristics of each
ecosystem will enable wise users to develop means to  obtain
maximum beneficial use with minimal damage to the system.
Each aquatic ecosystem  is sufficiently unique to require
professional ecological advice to define the problems as-
sociated with  waste discharge into a particular ecosystem.
Such a procedure  has not been customary in the  past, and
this  has  led  to some  unfortunate  consequences, but the
practice is becoming increasingly prevalent.
  Aquatic systems receive  from natural and man-made
sources a  variety of organic and inorganic materials. These
materials through  physical, chemical, and biological inter-
action are transported, rendered, converted, respired, in-
corporated, excreted, deposited and thus assimilated  by the
system. However, not all systems can receive and  assimilate
the same quantity  or kinds of waste materials. The capacity
of each system to  transform waste without  damage  to the
system is a function of the complexity of environmental
factors.
  Physical factors such as flow  velocity, volume  of  water,
bottom  contour, rate of water exchange, currents,  depth,
light penetration, and temperature,  govern in  part the
ability of a system  to receive and assimilate waste  materials.
This ability is a function of the reaeration capability of the
system, the physical rendering of wastes, and other physical,
chemical, and biological factors. Most flowing systems have
a greater reaeration  capacity  than standing waters. Fur-
thermore, flowing systems are open systems with continual
renewal of water, whereas standing waters are  closed sys-
tems and act as traps for pollutants.
  Temperature plays a vital role in the rate of chemical
reactions and the nature of biological activities in fresh-
water and  in governing the receiving  and assimilative ca-
pacity of a system. Most temperate  lakes are thermally
stratified part  of the year, except when  there are small
differences between surface  and bottom temperatures  in
the spring and fall. As a consequence little exchange occurs
between  layers during  the period  of stratification.  In
organically  enriched lakes  and reservoirs,  depletion  of
soluble oxygen typically occurs in the bottom layer because
there is little or no photosynthesis and little mixing with the
oxygen-rich surface  layer. As  a result, substances  are  re-
leased from the sediments because certain compounds have
a much greater solubility in a reduced state.
  The unique  chemical characteristics of water govern  in
part the kinds and quantities of waste a system may receive.
Some  of the important chemical characteristics are hard-
ness, alkalinity, pH (associated with the buffering capacity),
and nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen,  and phosphorus.
Because  of synergistic or  antagonistic  interaction with re-
ceiving water,  the effects of a  waste on a wide variety  of
receiving systems are hard to predict.
                                                        Ill

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                                            MIXING  ZONES
  When a liquid discharge is made to a receiving system,
a zone of mixing is created. Although recent public, ad-
ministrative, and scientific emphasis has focused on mixing
zones for the dispersion of heated discharges, liquid wastes
of all types arc included in the following considerations.
(For a further discussion of Mixing Zones see Appendix
II-A.)

DEFINITION OF  A MIXING ZONE

  A mixing zone is a region in which a discharge of quality
characteristics different from those of the receiving water
is in transit and progressively diluted from the source to the
receiving system.  In this region water quality characteristics
necessary for  the  protection of aquatic life are based on
time-exposure relationships of organisms. The boundary of
a mixing zone is  where the organism response is no longer
time-dependent. At that boundary, receiving system water-
quality characteristics based on  long-term exposure will
protect aquatic life.

Recommendation

  Although water quality characteristics in mixing
zones may differ from those in receiving systems,
to protect uses in both regions it is recommended
that mixing zones be free of substances attributable
to discharges or wastes as follows:

• materials which form objectionable  deposits;
• scum, oil and floating debris;
• substances producing objectionable color, odor,
  taste, or turbidity;
• conditions which produce objectionable growth
  of nuisance plants and animals.

GENERAL PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS

  The mass emission rates of the most critical constituents
and their  relationship to the recommended values of the
material  in  the  receiving water body are normally the
primary factors  determining the system-degradation po-
tential  of an effluent.  Prior to establishment of a mixir
zone the factors described in Waste Capacity of Reccivir
Waters (Section IV, pp. 228-232) and Assimilative Capa<
ity  (This Section, p. Ill) should IDC considered and a d<
cision made on whether the system can assimilate the di
charge without damage to beneficial uses. Necessary dai
bases may include:

    • Discharge considerations—flow regime, volume, di
      sign, location, rate of mixing and  dilution, plurr
      behavior  and mass-emission  rates of constituen
      including  knowledge of their persistence, toxicir
      and  chemical or physical behavior with time.
    • Receiving system considerations—water quality, li
      cal meteorology, flow  regime (including low-flo
      records), magnitude  of water exchange at point <
      discharge, stratification phenomena, waste capacii
      of the receiving system  including  retention tim
      turbulence and speed  of flow as factors affectir
      rate of mixing and passage of entrained or migratir
      organisms, and  morphology of the receiving systei
      as related to plume  behavior, and biological plr
      nomena.
  Mathematical  models based in part on the above coi
siderations  are available for a variety of ecosystems  an
discharges.  (See  Appendix  II-A.) All such  mathematic
models must be  applied with care  to each particular di
charge and the local situation.

Recommendation
  To avoid potential biological damage  or  into
ference with other  uses of the receiving system
is recommended  that  mixing zone characteristi<
be  defined on  a case-by-case basis after determ
nation that  the  assimilative capacity of the «
ceiving system can safely accommodate the dif
charge  taking into consideration  the  physica
chemical, and  biological characteristics of the dis
charge and the receiving system,  the life histoi
and behavior of organisms in the receiving systen
and desired uses of the waters.
                                                     112

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                                                                                             Mixing Dories /113
GENERAL BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

  Organisms in the water body may be divided into two
groups from  the  standpoint of protection within mixing
zones: (1) nonmobile benthic or sessile organisms; (2) weak
and strong swimmers.
  1.   Nonmobile  benthic  or sessile organisms in mixing
zones may experience long or intermittent exposures  ex-
ceeding recommended values  for  receiving systems and
therefore their populations may be damaged or eliminated
in the local region.  Minimum  damage to these organisms
is attained by minimizing  exposure of the bottom area to
concentrations exceeding levels resulting in harm to these
organisms from long-term  exposure. This may be accom-
plished by discharge location and design.
  The mixing zone may represent a living space denied the
subject organisms and this space  may or may not  be of
significance to the biological community of the receiving
system. When planning mixing zones, a decision should be
made in each case whether the nonmobile benthic and
sessile organisms are to be  protected.

Recommendation
  To  protect populations  of  nonmobile benthic
and  sessile organisms in mixing zones it is recom-
mended  that the area  of their habitat exposed to
water quality poorer than recommended receiving
system quality be minimized by discharge location
and   design  or  that  intermittent   time-exposure
history relationships be denned for the organisms'
well-being.

  2.   Biological considerations to protect planktonic and
swimming organisms are related to the time exposure history
to which critical organisms are subjected as they are carried
or move  through a mixing  zone.  The  integrated time
exposure history must not cause deleterious effects, including
post-exposure effects. In populations of important species,
effects of total time exposure must not be deleterious either
during or after exposure.
  Weak swimmers and drifting organisms may be entrained
into discharge plumes and carried through a mixing zone.
In determining the  time exposure  history and  responses of
the organisms,  the  possibility  of delayed effects, such as
death, disease,  and increased  vulnerability to predation,
should be investigated.
  Strong swimmers are capable of moving out of, staying
out of, or remaining in  a  mixing zone. Water quality
characteristics which protect drifting organisms should also
protect migrating fish moving through mixing zones.  How-
ever,  there are some discharges that attract animals into
discharge  channels and mixing zones where they are vul-
nerable to death  or shock due to short-term changes in
water quality, such as rapid temperature fluctuations. This
vulnerability  should be recognized and  occurrences that
expose it should be guarded against (see Chlorine, page 189).
  Some free-swimming species may avoid mixing zones and
as a consequence the reduced living space  may limit the
population.
  Free-swimming species may be attracted to a  discharge.
Chronic low-level exposure to toxicants may cause death
or affect growth, reproduction  or migratory instincts, or
result in excessive body-burdens of toxicants hazardous for
human consumption.

Recommendation
  To protect  drifting and both weak and  strong
swimming organisms in mixing zones it is recom-
mended that  scientifically valid data be developed
to demonstrate that the  organisms  can survive
without irreversible damage,  the integrated time-
exposure history to be based on maximum  expected
residence time so that deleterious effects on popu-
lations of important  species do  not occur.

MEETING  THE RECOMMENDATIONS

  In mixing zones the exposure of organisms to  stress is of
greater intensity but usually  of shorter duration  than in
the receiving waters,  assuming  no attraction by  the dis-
charge. The objective of mixing zone water quality recom-
mendations  is to provide  time exposure histories which
produce negligible or no effects on populations  of critical
species in  the receiving system.  This objective can be met
by: (a) determination of the pattern of exposure in terms
of time and concentration in the mixing zone due either to
activities of the  organisms, discharge schedule, or currents
affecting dispersion;  and (h)  determination that  delayed
effects do not occur.
  Protection would lie achieved  if the time of exposure met
the relationship  T /ET(x) < 1  where T is the time of the
organism's exposure  in  the  mixing zone to a specified
concentration, and ET(x) is the effective time of exposure
to the specified concentration, C, which produces (x)  per cent
response in a sample of the organisms, including  delayed
effects after extended  observation. The per  cent response,
(x). is selected on the  basis of what is considered  negligible
effects on  the  total  population and  is then symbolized
ET(25), ET(5),  ET(O.l), etc.
  Because concentrations vary within mixing zones, a more
suitable quantitative statement than the simple relationship
T/ET(x)
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 114:/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
tration Ci during the time interval TI, to concentration Cs
during the time interval T2, etc. The sum of the individual
ratios must then not  exceed unity.  (See  caveat  below,
Short Time Exposure Safety Factors.)
  Techniques  for securing the above information,  appli-
cation to a hypothetical field situation, comments, caveats,
and limitations are expressed  in Appendix II-A, Mixing
Zones, Development of Integrated  Time Exposure  Data,
p. 403. Tabular data and formulae for summation of short-
term effects of heated discharges on aquatic life are provided
in the Heat'and Temperature discussion, page  151.

SHORT TIME EXPOSURE SAFETY  FACTORS

  This concept  of  summation of short-term  effects  and
extrapolation is an  approach which tests the applicability
of present  bioassay methodology  and precision and may
not be universally  applicable to  all types of discharges.
Conservatism in application  should be practiced.  When
developing the summation of short-term  thermal  effects
data,  a safety factor of two degrees centigrade is incorpo-
rated. In development of summation of short-term toxicity
effects data, a safety factor exists if a conservative physio-
logical or behavioral response is used with effective time of
exposure. However, when mortality is the response plotted,
an application factor must be incorporated to provide an
adequate margin of safety. This factor can most easily be
applied by lowering the sum of the additive effects to some
fraction of 1  so that the  sum of Ti/(ET(x)  at  Ci) • • • +
Tn/(ET(x) at Cn) then equals 0.9, or less. The value must
be based on scientific knowledge of the organism's behavior
and response to the contaminants involved.

Recommendation
  When developing  summation of short-term  ex-
posure  effects it  is  recommended  that safety
factors, application factors, or conservative physio-
logical or behavioral  responses be  incorporated
into  the  bioassay or extrapolation procedures to
provide an adequate margin of safety.

OVERLAPPING  MIXING ZONES

  If mixing zones are  contiguous or overlap, the formula
expressing  the integrated  time exposure history for single
plumes should  be adjusted. Synergistic effects should be
investigated, and if not found, the assumption may be made
that effects of multiple  plumes are  additive.

Recommendation
  When two plumes are contiguous or overlap and
synergistic  effects  do  not occur, protection  for
aquatic life should  be provided if  the sum of  the
fractions of integrated  time  exposure effects  for
each plume total <0.5. Alternatively, protection
should be provided  if the  sum of the fractions for
both plumes  (or  more  than two  contiguous  o
overlapping plumes) is < 1. (See caveat above, Shot
Time Exposure Safety  Factors.)

INTERIM GUIDELINE

  In the event  information on summation effects of th
integrated time  exposure  history cannot be satisfactoril
provided, a conservative single figure concentration can 1:
used for all  parts of the mixing zone until  more detaile
determinations of the time-exposure relationships are d(
veloped. This single, time-dependent median lethal concer
tration should be subject to the caveats found throughoi
this Section  and Appendix [I-A regarding delayed effec
and behavioral modifications.  Because  of the variables ir
volved,  the  single  value must be applied  in the light  (
local conditions. For one situation a 24-hour LC50  migt
be adequate to protect aquatic life.  In  another situation
96-hour LG50 might provide inadequate protection.

CONFIGURATION AND LOCATION OF MIXING ZONE

  The  time-dependent three dimensional shape of  a di:
charge plume  varies with  a multitude  of receiving syster
physical factors  and  the discharge design. While time e>
posure water quality characteristics within mixing zom
are designed to  protect aquatic life, thoughtful placemer
of the discharge and planned control  of plume behavk
may increase the level of ecosystem protection, e g., floatin
the plume on the  surface  to protect the deep water of
channel; discharging in midstream or  offshore to prote<
biologically-important littoral areas;  piping the efflueT
across a river to discharge on the far side because fis
historically migrate on the  near  side;  or piping the cli
charge away from a stream mouth which  is used by m
grating  species.  Such engineering modifications can som<
times accomplish  what is  necessary  to  meet  biologic;
requirements.
  Onshore discharges generally have  more potential  fc
interference  with other uses than offshore discharges. Fc
example the plume is more liable to impinge on the bottot
in shallow areas of biological productivity and be closer t
swimming and recreation areas.

PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP OF MIXING ZONES
TO RECEIVING  SYSTEMS

  Recommendations for mixing zones do not protect again
the long-term  biological  effects  of sublethal condition
Thus water quality  requirements necessary to protect a
life stages and  necessary  functions of aquatic  organisn
such as  spawning and larval development, are not provide
in mixing zones, and it is  essential to insure that adequal
portions of every water body are free of mixing zones. Tli
decision as to  what portion and areas must be retained i
receiving water quality values  is both a social and scientiii

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                                                                                            Mixing ^ones/115
decision. In reaching this decision, data input should in-
clude current and  projected information on  types and
locations of intakes and discharges; percentage of shoreline
necessary to provide  adequate  spawning,  nursery, and
feeding areas; and other desired uses of the water.

Recommendation
  It is recommended that the total area or volume
of a receiving system assigned to mixing zones be
limited  to that which  will: (1)  not interfere with
biological communities or populations of impor-
tant species to a degree which is damaging to the
ecosystem; (2) not diminish other beneficial uses
disproportionately.

ZONES  OF  PASSAGE

  In river systems, reservoirs, lakes,  estuaries, and  coastal
waters, zones of passage are continuous  water routes of
such volume, area, and quality as to allow passage of free-
swimming and  drifting  organisms so  that no significant
effects are produced on  their populations.
  Transport of a variety of organisms in river water and
by tidal  movements in  estuaries  is biologically important
in a number of  ways;  e.g.,  food is  carried to the  sessile
filter feeders and  other nonmobile organisms; spatial distri-
bution of organisms and reinforcement  of  depauperate
populations is enhanced; embryos and larvae of some fish
species develop  while  drifting.  Anadromous  and cata-
dromous species must be able to reach suitable spawning
areas. Their young (and in some  cases the adults) must be
assured a return route  to  their growing and  living areas.
Many species make migrations  for  spawning  and other
purposes. Barriers or blocks which prevent or interfere with
these types of essential  transport and movement can  be
created by water of inadequate chemical or physical quality.
  Water quality in the zone of passage should be such that
biological responses to the water quality characteristics of
the mixing zone are no longer time-dependent (see Defini-
tion of Mixing Zone on page 112). However, where a zone of
passage is  to  be  provided,  bioassays determining time-
exposure responses in the mixing zone should include addi-
tional requirements to assess organism behavior.  In  the
mixing zone discussion above it is assumed that entrainment
in the plume will be involuntary.  However, if there is at-
traction due to plume composition, exposure in the plume
could be very much longer  than  would be predicted by
physical modeling. If avoidance  reactions occur, migration
may be thwarted.  Thus, concentrations in both the mixing
zone and the zone of passage  should be reduced before dis-
charge to levels below those at  which such  behavioral
modifications affect the populations of the subject organisms.
  Modern  techniques of waste water  injection  such  as
diffusers  and  high  velocity jets  may form barriers to free
passage due to responses of organisms to currents.  Turbu-
lence of flows opposing stream direction may create traps
for those  organisms which migrate upstream by orientation
to opposing currents. These organisms may remain in the
mixing zone in response to currents created by the discharge.

Recommendation

  Because of  varying local physical and  chemical
conditions and  biological phenomena, no single-
value  recommendation can be  made on the per-
centage of river width necessary to allow passage of
critical  free-swimming and  drifting organisms so
that negligible or no effects are produced on their
populations. As  a guideline no more than  % the
width of a water-body should be devoted to mixing
zones  thus  leaving at  least yA free  as a zone of
passage.

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                                       BIOLOGICAL  MONITORING
  Monitoring of aquatic environments has traditionally in-
cluded obtaining physical and chemical data that are used
to evaluate the effects  of pollutants on living  organisms.
Biological  monitoring  has  received  less  emphasis  than
chemical or physical monitoring, because biological assess-
ments  were once not as readily  amenable  to  numerical
expression  and tended  to be more  time  consuming  and
more expensive. This is no longer true. Aquatic organisms
can serve as natural monitors of environmental quality and
should be included in programs designed  to provide con-
tinuous records of water quality,  because they integrate
all of the stresses placed on an  aquatic system and reflect
the combined effect. Chemical-physical assessments identify
individual components,  so the two  types of assessments are
mutually supporting rather than mutually  exclusive.
  A  biological  monitoring  program is  essential in  de-
termining  the  synergistic or antagonistic interactions  of
components of waste discharges  and the resulting effects on
living organisms. However,  biological monitoring does not
replace chemical and physical monitoring; each  program
provides information supplemental  to the others.

PROGRAMS

  An ideal  biological monitoring program has four com-
ponents' (1) field surveys, (2) in-plant biological monitoring,
(3) bioassays, and (4) simulation techniques. Obviously no
biological monitoring program is routine, nor does it neces-
sarily have to include all of the above components. However,
each  of the  components provides  valuable  and useful
information.

FIELD  SURVEYS

  Field surveys  are needed to obtain adequate data on
biological,  chemical, and physical water quality  to  de-
termine the nature of the system and the  possible adverse
effects of waste discharges on beneficial uses of the system.
Two methods  for continuously monitoring  the effects of
pollution on a receiving water have been described. Patrick
et al. (1954)6* described the use of diatoms as natural moni-
tors of various types of pollution. Various species of shellfish,
especially oysters suspended in trays, have  been describee
as an effective method of monitoring pollution  (Galtsof
et al. 1947).4 Field surveys should be carried out at suitabli
intervals depending on local  conditions. For example, it
determining  the impact of a  new  or relocated municipa
or industrial discharge,  it is desirable to  perform  tin
following functions:

    • survey the stream as a  part of the site selection pro
      cedure;
    • continue the field survey prior  to  construction t(
      determine existing water quality: at this time it i
      also useful to make bioassays using simulated plan
      wastes and  representative  organisms from the  re
      ceiving  systems,  and  to  establish biornonitorins
      stations;
    • monitor the effects of construction;
    • carry  out bioassays using actual plant wastes anc
      effluents after the  plan! is in  operation, and mak<
      field surveys to determine any changes from pre
      construction results.

BODY BURDENS OF  TOXICANTS
  Body burdens of toxicants  that can be concentrated  bi
biota should  be measured regularly. These data can provide
early warning before concentrations in water become readil;
available and can provide warnings  of  incipient  effects u
the biota being monitored.

IN-PLANT BIOLOGICAL  MONITORING

  Present information systems do not provide data rapidh
enough to be of use in  environmental  management, because
the constituents of a waste stream are likely to vary frort
hour  to hour  and from  day  to day. Potentially harmfu
materials should be detected before they enter the receivin;
water and before substantial damage has been done to  tht
ecosystem.
  * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be locatec
 alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers whict
 run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
                                                        116

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                                                                                           Biological Monitoring/117
  Several potentially  useful  methods  for  rapid in-plant
monitoring are being explored (Sparks et al. 1969,7 Waller
and Cairns 19698), and one rapid in-stream method is now
operational (Cairns et al. 1968,2 Cairns and Dickson 19713).
These  in-plant methods use changes in heart rate, respi-
ration, and movements of fish within a container to detect
sublethal concentrations of toxicants in a waste discharge.
Continual information on toxicity of a waste should enable
sanitary engineers to identify those periods likely to produce
the most toxic wastes and  to identify those components of
the production  process that  contribute  significantly  to
toxicity.  This  could be accomplished with bioassays  as
they are currently used, but  rarely are enough samples
taken over a period  of time sufficient  to give the range of
information that  would be  available with continually oper-
ating bioassay techniques.

BIOASSAYS

  Of equal importance to the river surveys and the in-plant
and  in-stream monitoring systems is  the availability  of
toxicity information based on a predictive  bioassay. The
bioassay provides valuable information pertaining to the
effects  of potential or  contemplated discharges on aquatic
life. Acute bioassays are useful as a shortcut or predictive
method of estimating safe concentrations by use of suitable
application  factors for many pollutants,  as recommended
throughout this Report.
  However, determining only the  acute lethal toxicity of
wastes is no longer adequate. Good health and an ability
to function vigorously  are  as important for aquatic eco-
systems as they are for humans. The  former end point of
bioassays, viz., death, has been supplanted by more subtle
end  points such as the protection of respiration,  growth,
reproductive success,  and  a variety  of other functional
changes  (Cairns 1967).* Acute toxicity determinations are
being supplemented by long-term tests often involving an
entire life cycle. The latter require more time and expense
than short-term tests,  but they  provide  better predictive
information about biologically safe concentrations of various
toxicants. Bioassays of organisms other than fish are be-
coming  increasingly common because of the  realization
that elimination of the lower organisms can also have serious
consequences.

SIMULATION TECHNIQUES

  The fourth component now available to provide ecological
information is the use  of scale models. Models are used to
study major ecological or environmental problems by simu-
lating  prospective new uses. Engineering scale models are
common,  but  ecological scale  models or  environmental
simulation systems are not yet as commonly used. Experi-
mental streams and reservoirs  have  been constructed  to
predict toxicity of waste discharges,  determine factors re-
sponsible for productivity  of aquatic communities, and
answer questions about plant site location (Haydu 1968,6
Warren  and Davis 19719).

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                                                 BIOASSAYS
  Bioassays are used to evaluate a given pollutant in terms
of existing water quality. Most pollution problems involve
discharges of unknown and variable composition where
more than one toxicant or stress is present. In evaluating
criteria for specific toxicants, consideration must be given
to other environmental influences such as dissolved oxygen,
temperature, and pH.
  Harmful effects of pollutants can be described by one or
more of the following terms:

     acute—involves a stimulus severe  enough to bring
         about a response speedily, usually within four days
         for fish.
     subacute—involves a stimulus less  severe than  an
         acute stimulus, producing a response in a longer
         time; may become chronic.
     chronic—involves a  lingering or continuous stimu-
         lus ; often  signifying periods of about one-tenth of
         the  life span or more.
     lethal—causes death  by direct action.
     sublethal—insufficient to cause death.
     cumulative—brought about, or increased in strength,
         by successive additions.

  Two broad categories of effect (Alderdice  1967)10 may
be distinguished: acute toxicity which is usually lethal, and
chronic toxicity which may be lethal or sublethal.

MEASURES  OF TOXICITY
  Most of the available toxicity data are reported as the
median tolerance limit (TLm  or  TL50)  or median lethal
concentration (LC50). Either symbol signifies the concen-
tration that kills 50 per cent of the test organisms within a
specified time span, usually in 96 hours. The  customary
96-hour (four-day) time period is recommended as adequate
for most routine tests of acute toxicity with fish. A threshold
of acute toxicity will have been attained within this time
in the majority of cases (Sprague 1969).43 This lethal threshold
concentration  is usually noticeable  in  the  data.  Sometimes
mortality continues, and tests of a week or longer would  be
necessary to  determine the threshold. The lethal threshold
concentration should be  reported if it is demonstrated
because it is better  for  comparative  purposes  than  th
arbitrary 96-hour LG50. Absence of any apparent threshol<
is equally noteworthy.
  The median lethal concentration is a convenient referenc
point for  expressing  the  acute lethal toxicity of a  givei
toxicant to the average or typical test animal. Obviously  i
is in no way a safe  concentration,  although occasional!
the two have  been  confused.  Safe  levels, which permi
reproduction, growth, and  all other normal  life-processe
in the fish's natural habitat, usually  are much lower thai
the LC50.  In this  book, the recommended  criteria  ar
intended to be safe levels.
  Substantial data on long-term effects and safe levels ar
available  for only a  few  toxicants. Information is now ac
cumulating on the effect  of toxicants on reproduction, a
important aspect of all long-term toxicity tests. Other infot
mation  is being  gathered on sublethal effects on growth
performance, avoidance reactions, and social  behavior c
fish. Also  important is the sensitivity of organisms at variou
life stages. Many organisms are most  sensitive  in the larva
nymphal, molting, or fry stage; some are most sensitive i
the egg and sperm stage.
  It would be desirable  if  a single,  universal, rapid, bic
logical  test could be used  to measure directly sublethx
effects of a pollutant. Data on sublethal responses of fis
have been used, such as respiratory rates and "coughing,
swimming speed, avoidance behavior, and specific physic
logical and biochemical changes in various organisms; an
histological studies  have  been made. A  review of thes
(Sprague 1971)45 shows that no single test is meaningful fc
all  kinds  of pollutants.  Therefore, it is recommended th;=
routine assessment and prediction of safe levels be made b
carrying out bioassays for  acute lethal toxicity and multiply
ing the lethal concentration  by a suitable application factoi
The application factors used and recommended here hav
been derived principally  from chronic or sublethal labors
tory experiments or from well documented field studies c
polluted situations.
  Acceptable concentrations of toxicants to which organism
are exposed continually  musl  be lower than the  highe
                                                        118

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                                                                                                     Bioassqys/119
concentrations that may be reached occasionally but briefly
without causing damage. Both maximum short-time con-
centrations and the more restrictive range of safe  concen-
trations for continuous exposure are useful. The recommen-
dations in this Report are  those  considered safe for con-
tinuous exposure,  although  in  some cases  there has also
been  an indication of permissible higher levels for short
periods.
  In  field situations  and industrial  operations,  average
24-hour concentrations can  be determined by  obtaining
composite  or continuous  samples.  After  24 hours,  the
sample  may  be mixed and  analyzed.  The  concentration
found  will represent the  average concentration. Samples
obtained  this way are more reproducible and easier  to
secure than the instantaneous sample of maximum  concen-
trations. However,  average concentrations are of little sig-
nificance if fish are  killed by a sharp peak of concentration,
and  for that  reason maximum concentrations  must also
be considered.
METHODS FOR BIOASSAYS

  Although there are many types  of assays, two  are  in
general use:

  1.  the static bioassay in which the organisms are held
in a tank containing the test solution, and
  2.  the  continuous  flow  or  flow-through  bioassay  in
which the test solution is renewed continually.

The difference between the two  types is not always great,
but one can have clear advantages over the other.
  An outline  of methods  for routine  bioassays has  been
given in "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater" (American Public Health  Association,
American Water Works Association, Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation,  1971,11 hereafter referred to as Standard
Methods 197148). Cope  (1961)21  described  bioassay re-
porting, and  Cairns  (1969)20  presented  a rating  system
for  evaluating the quality of the tests.  Sprague  (1969,43
1970,44  197145) reviewed research to develop more incisive
testing methods. Their findings are utilized in this Report.
  Procedure for acute bioassay with fish is now relatively
standardized and usually incorporates:

     • a series of replicate  test containers,  each  with  a
       different but constant concentration of the toxicant;
     • a group of similar fish, usually 10, in each container;
     • observations of fish mortality during exposures that
       last between  one day and one week, usually four
       days; and
     • final results expressed as LC50.

  Other factors that are required for good bioassay practice
are briefly summarized in  the references mentioned above.
CHECKLIST  FOR PROCEDURES

Species
  A selected strain  of fish  or  other  aquatic  organisms of
local  importance should  be used in  bioassays conducted
for  the  purpose of  pollution  monitoring.  Preferably it
should be a game or pan fish, which are usually among the
more sensitive. Ability to duplicate experiments is enhanced
by  the use of a selected strain of test organisms (Lennon
1967).31  A selected  strain can also help  to determine the
difference between toxicants more reliably,  and to detect
discrepancies in results  due to apparatus. A National Re-
search Council subcommittee chaired by Dr. S. F. Snieszko
is currently preparing a report, Standards and guidelines for
the  breeding,  care, and management of laboratory animals—Fish,
which will be  useful in this area. Susceptibility to toxicants
among different species of fish is generally less than might
be  expected—sometimes  no greater than when a single
species is tested in different types of water. For example,
trout and  certain coarse fishes were equally resistant to
ammonia when  tests continued for several days to give the
less sensitive species  time to react (Ball 1967a);13 and even
for  zinc, the coarse fishes were no more  than 3.8 times as
resistant as trout (Ball 1967b).14 Recommendations for the
selected  test fish  will often provide  protection  to  other
aquatic animals and plants. There  are exceptions to this
generalization: for example, copper  is quite  damaging to
algae and mollusks, and insecticides are especially dangerous
to aquatic arthropods. Sufficient data exist to predict these
situations.  When they  are  expected,  bioassays should  be
run with two kinds of invertebrates and two kinds of algae
(Patrick et al. 1968).41
  In  the case of important bodies of water, there is good
reason to test several kinds of aquatic organisms in addition
to fish. Patrick et al. (1968)41 made a comparative study of
the effects of 20 pollutants on fish, snails, and diatoms and
found that  no single kind of organism was  most sensitive
in all situations. The short-term bioassay method for fish
may also be used for many of the larger invertebrate ani-
mals. A greater volume of  test water and rate  of flow,  or
both, may be  required in relation to weight of the animals
since their metabolic rate is higher on a weight basis.
  Larvae of mollusks or crustaceans can  be  good test ani-
mals. The crustacean Daphnia is a good test animal and was
widely used in comparative studies of toxicants by Ander-
son (1950).12  Recently  Biesinger and Christensen (unpub-
lished data,  1971)52 have carried out tests on  the chronic
effects of toxicants on growth,  survival, and  reproduction
of Daphnia magna. Because of the rapid life cycle  of Daphnia,
experiments on chronic toxicity can be completed in about
the same time as an acute toxicity test with fish.
  Patrick et al. (1968)41  have shown that diatoms, snails
and fish exposed for roughly comparable periods of  time
and in similar environmental conditions very  often have
similar  LC50's, but at other times these may differ greatly.

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 120/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
However, for some  toxicants diatoms were most sensitive;
for others, fish; and for others, snails. When one is comparing
data of this type, one questions whether a LC50 for a diatom
population in which a number of divisions have occurred
during the test  period  is comparable to  that obtained  for
fish and snails in which no reproduction has occurred during
the test period. In the sense that there are 50 per cent fewer
cells in the LC50 concentration than there are in the diatom
control culture, the test is somewhat equivalent to a test
of acute  toxicity that results in 50 per cent fewer surviving
fish in the LC50 than in the control  container. Also loss of
ability to grow and divide  might be just as fatal to a micro-
bial population as  death  of a substantial number of its
members would be to a fish population.
  When the  absolute time for the test is considered, there
are also reasons for believing  that exposure of diatoms to a
toxicant  through several generations might  not constitute
a chronic test, because it is quite possible that for toxicants
to accumulate in a  cell may require a period of exposure
much more lengthy  than that encompassed in the average
test which only spans  a few generations. This would  be
particularly true when the organisms were dividing rapidly
and the  additional protoplasm  diluted the material being
accumulated.

Dilution  Water
  Toxicants should be tested  in the water that will receive
the pollutant in question. In this way all modifying factors
and combined toxicities will be present.  It is  not advisable
to use tap water  for dilution, because it may contain chlorine
and other harmful materials  such as copper,  zinc, or lead
from  plumbing  systems. Routine dechlorination does not
insure complete removal of chlorine.
  Variations  in physical  and chemical  characteristics of
water affect  toxicity of pollutants. Effects of five environ-
mental entities  on the  lethal threshold  of ammonia were
illustrated a decade ago (Lloyd 1961b).34 Hardness of water
is particularly important in  toxicity of metals.  Hydrogen
ion concentration is an important  modifying  factor  for
ammonia and  cyanide.  Higher  temperatures  sometimes
increase  toxicity of a pollutant, but recent work shows that
phenol,  hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, and   zinc  may  be
more toxic at low temperatures (United Kingdom Ministry
of Technology  1969).50 Dissolved oxygen levels that are
below saturation will increase toxicity, and this is predictable
(Lloyd 1961a;33 Brown 1968).16
  The supply of dilution water must be adequate to main-
tain constant test conditions. In both static and continuous
flow tests, a sufficiently large  volume of test water must be
used, and it  must be replaced or replenished frequently.
This is to provide oxygen for the organism and dilution of
metabolic wastes, to limit changes in temperature and pH,
and to compensate for degradation, volatilization,  intake,
and sorption  of  the toxicant. In static tests, there should be
two or three  liters of water per gram  of fish, changed daily,
or increased proportionally in volume for the number  of
days of the test. In continuous  flow tests,  the  flow  must
provide at least two or three liters of water per gram of fish
per day,  and it  must equal  test-volume  in  five hours  or
less, giving 90 per cent replacement in half a day or less.

Acclimation

  Acclimatizing  the  test organism  to  the  specific water
before the bioassay begins  may  have marked effect  upon
(he outcome. Abrupt changes  in quality of the water should
be avoided. Time for  acclimation of the organisms to the
conditions of the diluent water  should  be as generous  as
possible, dependent on  life span. At  least  two weeks  is
recommended for fish.

Test Methods

  Test  methods  must be adequately described when the
results are given. Several bioassay procedures are listed  in
Table III-l. Adequate and appropriate control tests must
always  be run (Sprague 1969).43 Survival  of the  control
organisms is a minimum indication of the  quality of the
test organisms. In addition, levels of survival and health
in holding tanks should be indicated and the conclusions
recorded.
TABLE III-l—Recommended Literature Sources for Bioassay
    and Biomonitoring Procedures with Various Aquatic
                       Organisms
   Kind of organism
Type of response    Appropriate situations for use
                                               Reference
Fish and Macroinverte-
brates





Fish and macromverte-
brates
Fish and inverte-
brates


Fish


Fisb (i.e., fathead min-
nows, brook tiout.
bluegill)


Daphnii


Diatoms


Marine crustacean,
larvae mollusks

96-hour lethal concen-
tration





Lethal threshold con-
centration
Incipient lethal tem-
peratures & ultimate
incipient lethal tem-
peratures
Respiratory movements
as acute sublethal
response
Reproduction, growth,
and survival



Survival, growth, and
reproduction

Survival, growth, and
reproduction

Survival, growth, and
development through
immature states
To measure lethal toxicity ef a
wiste of known or unknown
composition. To serve as a
foundation for extrapolating
to presumably salt cimcentta-
tinns. To monitor industrial
effluents.
For research applications to
document lethal thresholds.
For research to determine
lethal temperature ranges ol
a given species.

Quick (1-day) indication of
possible sublethal effects.
Fur research and monitoring.
Chronic tests for research on
safe concentrations.



Rapid completion of chronic
tests for testing special sus-
ceptibility of crustaceans
A sensitive, rapid, chronic test
for research, prediction, or
monitoring"
A sensitive, rapid, chronic test
for research, prediction, or
monitoring"
Standard Methods 1971"






Sprague 1969," 1970"

Fry 1947," Brett 1952"



Schaumburg et al. 1967"


Mount 1968," Mount i
Stephan 1967,"
Brungs 1969," McKim
I Benoit 1971," Eaton
1970*
Anderson 1950,1= Bit-
sinter & Christensen
(Unpublished data)"
Patrick 1968"


Woelke 1967"


 »requires an operator with some specialized Biological training.

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                                                                                                     Bioassay s/121
Dissolved Oxygen
   The problem of maintaining dissolved oxygen  concen-
trations suitable for aquatic life in the test water can  be
difficult. The suggestions on test volume and replacement
times (see Dilution Water above) should provide for ade-
quate oxygen in most rjases. However, with some pollutants,
insufficient oxygen may be present in the test water because
a biochemical and a chemical oxygen demand  (BOD and
COD) may consume much of the available dissolved oxygen.
Aeration or oxygenation may degrade or remove the test
material.  Devices  for  maintaining satisfactory dissolved
oxygen in static tests have been proposed and used with some
degree of effectiveness,  and  are  described  in  Doudoroff
et al. (1951).22

Concentrations
  Periodic measurements of concentration of the toxicant
should be made at least at the beginning and  end of the
bioassay. If this is not possible, introduced concentrations
may be stated alone, but it should be realized that actual
concentrations in the water may become reduced.
  In the flow-through type of bioassay, a large quantity of
test water can be made up and used gradually. More often
a device is used to add toxicant to a flow of water, and the
mixture is discharged into the test container, using apparatus
such as "dipping  bird" dosers described by Brungs and
Mount (1967).19  Other  devices have been  developed  by
Stark  (1967),47 and Mount  and  Warner (1965),39  using
the doser technique.
Evaluation of Results
  Mortality rates  at the  longest exposure time should  be
plotted on a vertical probit scale against concentrations of
toxicants on a horizontal logarithmic  scale. The concen-
tration which causes 50 per cent mortality can be read and
used as LC50. Errors in LC50 can be estimated using the
simple nomograph  procedures described by Litchfield and
Wilcoxon (1949).32 A more refined estimate of error may
be made using the  methods of Finney (1952),25 which can
be programmed for a computer.
  The value of the results would be improved if the LCSO's
were  estimated  (by  the above  procedures) at  frequent
exposure times such as  1, 2,  4, 8±1,  14±2,  24, 48,  72,
and 96 hours. A toxicity curve of time versus LC50  could
then be constructed on logarithmic axes. The lethal thresh-
old concentration  could then be estimated in  many cases
(Sprague  1969)43 to provide  a more valid single number
for description of acute toxicity than the arbitrary 96-hour
LC50.
  For  some purposes,  such as basic research or situations
where  short exposures are of  particular concern,  it would
be desirable to follow and plot separately the mortality of
the group of fish in each tank. In this way, the  median
lethal  time  can be estimated for  a given concentration.
Methods for doing  this are given in Appendix II-A.
APPLICATION FACTORS

  Short-term or acute toxicity tests do not indicate concen-
trations of a potential toxicant that are harmless under
conditions of long-term exposure. Nevertheless,  for  each
toxicant there is obviously a numerical value for the  ratio
of the safe concentration to the acutely lethal concentration.
Such values  are called application factors. In  some  cases
this  safe-to-lethal ratio is  known with reasonable  accuracy
from experimental work, as in the examples given in Table
III-2. However,  for most toxicants,  the safe level has not
been determined, and must be predicted by some approxi-
mate method.  In  these  cases,  the assumption has  been
made in this Report, that the numerical value of the  safe-
to-lethal ratio, the application factor,  is constant for related
groups  of chemicals. Values for the  ratio will  be recom-
mended. The safe level of a particular  toxicant can  then
be estimated approximately by  carrying out an acute bio-
assay to determine  the lethal concentration, then multi-
plying this by the suggested application factor. An appli-
cation factor does not make allowance for unknown factors.
It is merely a fractional or decimal factor applied  to  a
lethal  concentration  to estimate the safe concentration.
  Ideally, an application factor should be determined for
each waste material in question. To do this, it is necessary
first  to  determine  the lethal concentration of the waste
according to the bioassay procedures outlined  above. To
obtain the application factor,  the safe concentration of the
same waste  must  be determined for  the  same  species by
thorough  research on physiological,  biochemical, and be-
havioral effects,  and  by  studying growth,  reproduction,
and  production in the laboratory  and field.  The safe-to-
lethal ratio obtained could  then be used as an application
factor in a given  situation,  by working from the measured
LC50 of  a  particular  kind of  waste to  predict  the  safe
concentration.
TABLE III-2—Ratios between the safe concentration and the
lethal  concentration which have been  determined experi-
mentally for potential aquatic pollutants. Sources of data
are given in the sections on the individual pollutants.
    Material
                        Species of animal
                                             Safe-to-lethal ratio
LAS

Chlorine

Sulfides

Copper.
Trivalent chromium
Hexavalent chromium


Malathion
Carbaryl
Nickel....
Lead
Zinc .
Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)

Fathead minnow
Gammarus
Fathead minnow and white sucker (Catostomus commersoni)
Walleye pike (Stizostedion vitreum v.)
Several species of fish
Fathead minnow
Fathead minnow
Brook trout (Salvennus fontinalis)
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnen)
Fathead minnow and bluepll (Lepomis machrochirus)
Fish species
Fathead minnow
Rainbow and Brook trout
Fathead minnow
Between 0.14 and 0.28
(=3bout0.21)
0.16
0.16
0.1±
0 22±
close to 0.1
0.037
0.03
0.012
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
<0.02
0.005

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 122/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
  In this approach, a 96-hour LC50 is determined for the
pollutant using water from the receiving stream for dilution.
The test organisms selected  should be among the most
sensitive species, or an important local species at a sensitive
life  stage, or a species whose  relative sensitivity is known.
This procedure takes into consideration the effects of local
water quality and the stress  or adverse  effects of wastes
already present in the stream. The LC50  thus  found is
then multiplied by the application factor for that waste to
determine  its safe concentration in the specific stream or
section  of  stream.  Such bioassays should be  repeated at
least monthly or when changes in process or rate of waste
discharge are observed.
  For example, if the 96-hour LC50 is 0.5 milligrams per
liter (mg/1) and the concentration of the waste found to be
safe is 0.01  mg/1. the ratio would be:
              Safe Concentration   0.01    1
                96-hour LC50   ~~ 0.50 ~ 50
In this  instance, the  safe-to-lethal ratio is 0.02. It can be
used as an application factor  in other situations.  Then, in
a given  situation involving this waste, the safe concentration
in the receiving stream would be found by multiplying the
four-day LC50 by 0.02.
  This predictive procedure based on lethal concentrations
is useful, because the precise safe  level of many pollutants
is not known because of the uncertainty  about toxicity of
mixed effluents and the difference in sensitivity among fish
and fish food organisms. Henderson (1957)27 and  Tarzwell
(1962)49 have  discussed  various  factors  involved  in  de-
veloping application factors. Studies by Mount and Stephan
(1967),;!S Brungs (1969),18 Mount (1968),37 McKim  and
Benoit  (1971),3C and Eaton (1970)21 in  which continuous
exposure was used, reveal that  the safe-to-lethal ratio that
permits spawning  ranges over nearly two orders of magni-
tude.  Exposure will  not  be constant in most cases,  and
higher  concentrations usually can  be  tolerated  for short
periods.
  Lethal threshold concentrations, which may require more
than 96-hour exposures, may be beneficially used  (Sprague
1969)43 to  replace 96-hour LC50 in the above procedures,
and there  is a trend today to use such threshold concen-
trations (Eaton 1970).24
  At present, safe levels have  been detennined for only a
few wastes, and as a result only a few application factors are
known. Because the determination of safe levels of pollutants
is an  involved process, interim procedures for estimating
tolerable concentrations of various wastes in receiving waters
must be used. To meet this situation, three universal appli-
cation  factors selected on the  basis of present knowledge,
experience, and judgment are recommended at the end of
this section.  Where toxicants  have a nonpersistent nature
(a half life of less  than 4 days) or noncumulative  effects,
an  application factor of 0.1 of the 96-hour LC50 should
not be exceeded at any time or place after mixing with the
receiving waters. The 24-hour average of the concentratioi
of these toxicants should not exceed  0.05  of the LC50 i
aquatic life is to be protected.  For toxic materials whicl
are persistent or cumulative the concentrations should no
exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place, am
the 24-hour average concentration should not exceed 0.0
of the 96-hour  LC50 in order to protect aquatic life. It i
proposed that these general application factors be appliec
to LC50 values determined in the manner described abov<
to set tolerable concentrations  of wastes in the receivini
stream.

MIXTURES OF TWO OR MORE TOXICANTS

  The toxicity  of a mixture of pollutants may be estimate!
by expressing the  actual concentration of each toxicant a
a proportion of its lethal threshold  concentration  (usual!1
equal to  the 96-hour  LC50)  and adding  the  resultin;
numbers for all the toxicants. If the total is 1.0 or greater
the mixture will be lethal.
  The system of adding  different toxicants in  this way i
based on the premise that their lethal actions are additive
Unlikely as  it  seems,  this simple rule has been  found ti
govern the combined lethal action of many pairs and mix
tures of quite   dissimilar  toxicants,  such  as  copper  am
ammonia, and  zinc and  phenol in the laboratory (Hcrber
and  Vandyke   1964,2<)  Jordan  and Lloyd 1964,30 Browi
et al. 1969).17 The rule holds true in field  studies (Herber
1965,2S  Sprague et al. 1965).4(l The method of addition i
useful and reasonably accurate for predicting thresholds c
lethal effects in  mixtures.
  There is also evidence of a lower limit for additive letha
effects.  For ammonia and certain other pollutants, level
below 0.1 of the lethal concentration do not seem to con
tribute to the lethal action of a mixture (Brown el al. 1969,1
Lloyd  and  Orr 1969).35 This lower cutoff point of 0.1 c
the LC50 should be used when it is necessary to assess th
lethal effects of a mixture of toxicants.

SUBLETHAL EFFECTS

  Sublethal  or chronic effects of mixtures  are of great  im
portance.  Sublethal  concentrations of different  toxicanl
should  be  additive in effect. Here again,  it would be  e:<
pected that for any given toxicant there would be some lov
concentration that would have  no deleterious effect on ai
organism  and would not contribute any sublethal toxicit
to a mixture,  but there  is little research  on  this subject
Biesinger  and  Christensen {unpublished data  1971),62 con
eluded  that subchronic concentrations of 21 toxicants wer
close to being additive in causing chronic effects on repro
duction in  Daphnia. Copper and zinc concentrations c
about 0.01  of the LC50 are additive in causing avoiclanc
reactions (Sprague et al. 196.3).46 On the other hand, some
what lower metal concentrations of about 0.003 of the LC5I
do not seem to be additive in affecting reproduction of fisl

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                                                                                                      Bioassays/\2Z
 (Eaton unpublished data 1971).63 Perhaps there is  a lower
 cutoff point than 0.01 of the LC50  for single  pollutants
 contributing to sublethal  toxicity of a mixture.
   As an interim solution, it is recommended that the con-
 tribution of a single pollutant to the sublethal toxicity of a
 mixture should not be counted if it is less  than  0.2 of the
 recommended  level for that pollutant. Applying this to a
 basic recommended level of 0.05 (see the Recommendation
 that follows) of the LG50 would yield a value of 0.01 of the
 LC50, corresponding to the possible cutoff  point suggested
 above.
   It is expected that certain cases of joint toxicity will not
 be covered by simple addition. The most obvious exception
 would  be when  two  toxicants  combine chemically. For
 example, mixed  solutions of cyanides and  metals could
 cause addition of toxicity or very different effects if the
 metal and cyanide combined (Doudoroff et al. 1966).23 A
 thorough understanding of chemical reactions is necessary
 in these cases.
   For further discussions of bioassays  and  the difficulties
 posed in assessing sublethal effects of toxicants on organisms,
 see Section IV, pp. 233-237.

 Recommendations for the Use of Application Factors to
 Estimate Safe Concentrations of Toxic  Wastes in Receiving
 Streams

   Where specific application factors have been determined
for a given material, they should be used instead of the safe
concentration levels of wastes given below:
   (a)   Concentration of materials that are nonpersistent
or have noncumulative effects  should not  exceed 0.1  of
 the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place after mixing  with
 the receiving waters. The  24-hour average  of the  concen-
 tration  of these materials  should not exceed 0.05 of the
 LC50 after mixing.
   (b)   For  toxicants which  are persistent  or cumulative,
 the concentrations  should  not exceed  0.05  of the  96-hour
 LC50 at any time or place, nor should the 24-hour average
concentration exceed 0.01  of the 96-hour LC50.
   (c)  When two or more toxic materials  are present  at
the same time in the receiving water, it should be assumed
unless proven otherwise that their individual toxicities are
 additive and that some reduction in the permissible concen-
 trations is necessary. The amount of reduction required is
 a  function of both the number of toxic materials present
 and their concentrations in respect to  the permissible  con-
 centrations. The following relationship will  assure that the
combined amounts of the several substances do not exceed
a permissible concentration:
This formula may be applied where Ca, Cb, . . . Cn are the
measured or expected concentrations of the several toxic
materials in the water, and La, Lb, . .  . Ln are the respective
concentrations recommended or  those derived by  using
recommended application factors on  bioassays done under
local  conditions.  Should  the sum of the several fractions
exceed 1 .0,  a  local restriction on the concentration of one
or more  of the substances is necessary.
  C and L can be measured in any convenient chemical
unit as proportions of the LC50 or in any other desired way,
as long as the numerator and denominator of any single
fraction  are in the same units. To remove natural trace
concentrations and low nonadditive  concentrations from
the above formula, any single fraction which  has  a value
less than 0.2 should be removed from the calculation.

Example:
    Small  quantities of five toxicants are  measured in a
    stream  as follows:
       3  micrograms /liter (jug/1) of zinc; 3 jug/1 of phenol;
       3  fig/I of un-ionized ammonia as calculated from
       Figure  III- 10  (see Ammonia,  p. 186);  1  /ug/1 of
       cyanide; and  1 Mg/1 of chlorine.
    A bioassay with zinc sulphate indicates that  the 96-
    hour LC50 is 1.2 mg/1. The application factor  for
    zinc is 0.005;  therefore,  the allowable limit is 0.005 X
    1.2 = 0.006 mg 1. Initial bioassays  with phenol,  am-
    monia,  and cyanide  indicate that  the  recommended
    values are the safe concentrations stated in other sec-
    tions of the Report, not the fractions of LC50; so the
    limits are 0.1  mg/1, 0.02 mg/1, and 0.005 mg/1. The
    permissible limit  for chlorine (page 189) is 0.003 mg/1.
    Therefore, the total toxicity is estimated as follows for
    zinc, phenol, ammonia, cyanide,  and chlorine,  re-
    spectively :
0.003  0.003
                         0.003  0.001   0.001
           (1006  ~0     (XOT  O005   01)03
             = 0.5+0.03+0.15+0.2+0.33
    The second and third terms, i.e., phenol and ammonia,
    should be deleted since they are below the minimum
    of 0.2 for additive effects. This leaves 0.5+0.2+0.33 =
    1 .03, indicating that the total sublethal effect of these
    three toxicants  is slightly above the permissible level
    and that no higher concentration of any of the three
    is safe. Thus none can be added as a pollutant.

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                       PHYSICAL  MANIPULATION  OF  THE  ENVIRONMENT
  Numerous activities initiated to maximize certain uses of
water resources often adversely affect water quality and
minimize  other uses. These activities have caused  both
benefit and harm  in terms of environmental quality. The
common forms  of physical  alteration of watersheds are
channelization,  dredging,  filling,  shoreline  modifications
(of lakes and streams), clearing of vegetation, rip-rapping,
diking, leveling, sand and gravel removal, and impounding
of streams!
  Channelization  is widespread throughout the United
States, and many studies have been conducted documenting
its effects. Channelization usually increases stream gradient
and  flow rates.  The quiet areas or  backwaters are either
eliminated or cut off from the main flow  of the stream, the
stream bed is  made  smooth,  thus reducing  the  habitats
available to benthic organisms, and surrounding  marshes
and swamps are more rapidly drained. The steeper gradient
increases velocity  allowing the stream to  carry a greater
suspended  load  and causing  increased turbidity. The rate
of organic waste transformation per mile is usually reduced,
and destruction of spawning and nursery areas often occurs.
Trautman  (1939),67 Smith and Larimore  (1963),65 Peters
and  Alvord  (1964),64  Welker  (1967),69  Martin (1969),63
and  Gebhards  (1970)68 have discussed the harmful effects
of channelization on some fish populations and the effect
on stimulation of less desirable  species.
  Dredging  undertaken   to  increase  water  depth  often
destroys highly productive habitats such  as marshes (Mar-
shall  1968,62 Copeland and  Dickens  1969).56 The  spoils
from dredging activities are frequently disposed of in other
shallow  sites causing further  loss of  productive  areas. For
example, Taylor and Saloman  (1968)66 reported that  since
1950 there has  been a 20 per cent decrease in surface area
of productive Boca Ciega Bay, Florida,  due  to fill areas.
It has become common practice to fill in marshy sites near
large metropolitan areas  (e.g., San Francisco Bay, Jamaica
Bay)  to  provide for  airport  construction  and industrial
development.
  In addition to the material that is actually removed by
the dredging process,  a  considerable amount of  waste  is
suspended  in the water resulting in high turbidities (Mackin
1961).61 If the  dredged sediments are relatively  nontoxii
gross effects on motile aquatic life may not be noticeabL
but benthic communities ma-.y be drastically affected by tr
increased redeposition of silt (Ingle 1952).69
  In many instances either high nutrient or toxic sedimen
are suspended  or  deposited during  the dredging proces
This action may kill aquatic organisms by exposure to tl
toxicants present or by the depletion of dissolved oxyge
concentrations, or both. Brown and  Clark (1968)64 note
a dissolved oxygen reduction of 16 to 83 per cent whe
oxidizable sediments were rcsuspended. In many cases di
turbed sediments containing high nutrient concentratioi
may stimulate  undesirable  forms  of phytoplankton  c
Cladophora. Gannon and Beeton (1969)57 categorized harbc
sediments  in five groups. Those most severely  pollute
were toxic to various animals and did not stimulate growt
of phytoplankton. Other sediments were  toxic but stimi
lated plant growth. The least polluted sediments were n<
toxic  and  stimulated growth  of  phytoplankton  but nc
Cladophora.
  Three basic aspects must be considered in evaluating tr.
impact of dredging  and disposal on  the aquatic enviroi
ment: (1) the amount and nature of the dredgings, (2) ti
nature and quality  of  the environments  of removal  an
disposal,  and (3) the ecological responses.  All vary wide!
in different environments, and it is not possible to identii
an optimal dredging and  disposal system. Consequent!'
the most  suitable program must be developed  for eac
situation.  Even in situations  where soil  is deposited  i
diked enclosures or used for fill, care must be  taken  1
monitor overflow,  seepage, and runoff waters for toxic an
stimulatory materials.
  Artificial impoundments may have serious environment;
impact on natural aquatic ecosystems. Dams  and otht
artificial  barriers  frequently   block  migration and  ma
destroy large areas of specialized habitat. Aquatic organise
are frequently  subjected  to  physical damage  if  they ai
allowed to pass through or over hydroelectric power uni
and  other man-made  objects when  properly   designe
barriers are not provided.  At large darns, especially thos
designed for hydroelectric power, water  drawn from tr
                                                       124

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                                                                         Physical Manipulation of the Environment/125
pool behind the dam is frequently taken from great depths,
resulting in the release to the receiving stream  of waters
low in dissolved oxygen and excessively cold. This can be a
problem,  particularly  in  areas  where nonnative fish are
stocked.
  Cutting  down  forests,  planting the land in crops,  and
partially covering the  surface of a watershed by building
roads, houses, and industries can have detrimental effects
on water ways. Wark  and Keller (1963)68 showed that in
the Potomac River Basin (Washington, D.C.) reducing the
forest cover from 80 per  cent to 20 per cent increased the
annual sediment yield  from 50 to 400 tons per square mile
per year. The planting of land in crops increased the sedi-
ment yield from  70 to 300 tons per square mile per year,
or a fourfold increase  as the land crops increased from 10
per cent to 50 per cent. Likens et al. (1970)60 showed that
cutting down the forest in the Hubbard Brook area (Ver-
mont) caused substantial changes in the streams. The sedi-
ment load increased fourfold over a period from May 1966
to May 1968. Furthermore, the particulate matter drained
from  the deforested  watershed  became  increasingly  in-
organic in content,  thus reducing the value of the sediment
as a food source. The nutrient content of the water was also
affected by  cutting down the forests. The nitrate concen-
tration increased from 0.9 mg/1  prior to  the cutting  of
vegetation  to 53 mg/1 two  years later.  Temperatures  of
streams in deforested areas were higher, particularly during
the summer months, than  those  of streams  bordered  bv
forests (Brown and  Krygier 1970).S5
   Prior  to  any  physical  alterations  of  a  watershed,  a
thorough investigation should be  conducted to determine
the expected balance between benefits and adverse environ-
mental effects.

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                                SUSPENDED AND  SETTLEABLE  SOLIDS
   Suspended and settleable solids  include both  inorganic
and organic materials. Inorganic components include sand.
silt, and clay originating from erosion, mining, agriculture,
and areas  of construction. Organic matter may be com-
posed of a variety of materials added to the ecosystem from
natural and man-made sources. These inorganic and organic
sources are discussed in  the Panel  Report on Marine
Aquatic Life and Wildlife  (Section IV), and the effects of
land-water relationships are  described in  the  report on
Recreation and Aesthetics  (Section  I).


SOIL  AS A SOURCE OF MINERAL PARTICLES

   Soil structure and drainage patterns, together with the
intensity and temporal distribution of rainfall that directly
affect the kind and amount of protective vegetative cover,
determine  the  susceptibility  of a  soil  to erosion.  Where
rain occurs more or less uniformly throughout  the year,
protective grasses, shrubs, or trees develop  (Leopold, et al.
1964).78 Where rainfall  occurs  intermittently, as  in  arid
areas, growth  of protective plants is limited  thus allowing
unchecked  erosion of soils.
   Wetting  and drying cause swelling and shrinking of clay
soils and leave the  surface susceptible to  entrainment  in
surface  water flows.  Suspended soil particle concentrations
in rivers, therefore,  are at their peak at the beginning  of
flood flows. Data  on the concentration of suspended matter
in most of  the significant streams of the United States are
presented in the U.S.  Geological  Survey Water  Supply
Papers.
   Streams  transport boulders, rocks, pebbles, and sand by
intermittent rolling motions, or  by  intermittent suspension
and deposition as particles are entrained and later  settled
on the  bed. Fine particles  are held in suspension for long
periods, depending on the intensity of the turbulence. Fine
silt particles, when dispersed in fresh waters, remain almost
continuously suspended, and  suspension of dispersed  clay
mineral particles may be maintained even by the thermally
induced motions  in water.  These fine mineral particles are
the soil materials of greatest  significance to the  turbidity
values of a particular water.
  The suspended and settleable solids and the bed of a wall
body must be considered as interrelated, interacting part
For example, Langlois (1941)77 reported that in Lake Er
the average of 40  parts per million (ppm) of suspends
matter in the water was found to change quickly to moi
than  200 ppm with a strong wind. He further  explaine
that this increase is attributed to sediments resuspended 1:
wave action. These sediments  enter from streams or froi
shoreline erosion.
  Suspended clay mineral  particles are weakly cohesive i
fresh river waters having either unusually low dissolved sa
concentrations or high concentrations of multivalent cation
Aggregations of fine particles form and settle on the bed 1
form  soft fluffy deposits when  such waters enter a lake c
impoundment.  However,  clay mineral  particles are di,
persed or only weakly cohesive in most rivers.

EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED  PARTICLES IN WATER

  The composition and concentrations of suspended part
cles in surface waters are important because of their effec
on light penetration, temperalure, solubility products, an
aquatic life (Cairns  1968).7'2 The mechanical or abrasiv
action of particulate material is of importance to the highe
aquatic organisms,  such as mussels and  fish.  Gills may b
clogged  and  their  proper functions of respiration  an
excretion impaired. Blanketing  of plants and sessile anima
with  sediment as  well  as the blanketing  of importar
habitats, such as  spawning sites, can cause drastic change
in aquatic  ecosystems.  If sedimentation,  even of inei
particles,  covers  substantial amounts of organic materia
anaerobic conditions can occur and produce noxious gase
and  other objectionable characteristics, such as low dis
solved oxygen and decreases in pH.
  Absorption  of sunlight  by  natural  waters is strongl'
affected by the presence of suspended solids. The intensif
of light (/) at any  distance along a light ray (L) is, for ;
uniform suspension, expressed by the formula:
where 70 is the intensity just below the water surface (L = 0)
                                                       126

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                                                                                    Suspended and Settleable Solids /127
k is the extinction coefficient for the suspended solids, and
c is the concentration of suspended solids. L can be related
to the  water  depth by the  zenith angle, i,  the  angle of
refraction, r, and the index of refraction of water, 1.33, by
Snell's rule:
                       sin r =
                             1.33
The depth, Z), is L cos r. Refraction makes the light path
more nearly  vertical  under  water than  the sun's rays,
except when the sun's rays are themselves normal to  the
water surface.
  The growth of fixed and suspended aquatic plants can
be limited by the intensity of sunlight. An example of the
decrease in the photic zone was calculated for San Francisco
Bay (Krone  1963),76  where k was  1.18X103  square centi-
meters per gram.  For a typical suspended solids  concen-
tration  of 50X10"6 grams per cubic centimeter, for an
algae requiring 20 foot candles or more for  its multipli-
cation, and under incident sunlight of  13,000 foot  candles
the photic zone did not exceed  1.1 meters. A reduction in
suspended solids concentration to 20 X 10~6 g/cm3 increased
the maximum depth of the photic zone to 2.8 meters.
  Because suspended  particles  inhibit the  penetration of
sunlight, water temperatures  are  affected, and increasing
turbidity results in increasing absorption near the water
surface  so that turbid waters warm more  rapidly at  the
surface  than do clearer waters.  Warming and the accom-
panying decrease in density stabilize water and may inhibit
vertical mixing. Lower oxygen  transfer value from air to
water results when surface waters  are heated. This action
combined with inhibited vertical mixing reduces the rate of
oxygen  transfer downward. Still or slowly moving  water is
most affected.
  The rate of warming, dT/dt, at any distance from  the
surface  along  a light path,  L, in water having  uniform
suspended material is
                    dT
                                -kcL
where p is the water density  and C is  the specific heat of
the water. This equation shows that an increase in suspended
sediment concentration increases the rate of warming near
the surface and decreases exponentially  with depth. The
biological significance of this relationship  is in the effect on
time of formation,  vertical distribution of thermal stratifi-
cation,  and stability of the  upper strata. Increasing tur-
bidity could change the stratification patterns of a lake and
thus change the temperature distribution, oxygen regime,
and composition of the biological communities.

ADSORPTION OF  TOXIC MATERIALS

  Suspended mineral particles have irregular, large surface
areas,  with electrostatic charges. As a consequence, clay
minerals may sorb cations, anions, and organic compounds.
Pesticides and heavy metals may be absorbed on suspended
clay particles and strongly held with them. The sorption
of chemicals by suspended  matter is particularly important
if it leads to a buildup of toxic and  radioactive materials
in a limited area with the possibility  of sudden  release of
these toxicants.  One such  example has been reported by
Benoit et al. (1967).70 Gannon and Beeton (1969)78 reported
that sediments with the following  characteristics dredged
from various harbors on the Great Lakes were usually toxic
to various organisms: COD 42,000  mg/1, volatile solids
4,000 mg/1, ammonia 0.075 mg/g, phosphate-P 0.65 mg/g.
  The capacity of minerals to hold dissolved toxic materials
is different for each  material and type of clay mineral. An
example illustrates the magnitudes of sorptive  capacities:
the cation exchange capacity (determined by the number
of negatively charged sites  on clay mineral surfaces)  ranges
from a few milliequivalents per hundred grams (me/100 g)
of mineral for kaolinite clay to more than 100 me/100 g for
montmorillonite clay. Typical estuarial sediments, which are
mixtures  of clay,  silt, and sand  minerals, have exchange
capacities ranging from 15 to 60 me/100 g (Krone 1963).76
The large  amounts of such  material that  enter  many
estuaries and lakes from tributary streams provide continu-
ally renewed sorptive capacity  that removes materials such
as  heavy metals,  phosphorus,  and radioactive ions.  The
average new sediment load flowing through the San Fran-
cisco Bay-Delta system, for  example, has a total  cation
exchange capacity of a billion  equivalents per year.
  The sorptive capacity effectively creates the large assimi-
lative capacity of muddy waters. A reduction in suspended
mineral  solids in surface waters can cause an increase in
the concentrations of dissolved toxic materials contributed
by  existing waste discharges.


EFFECTS  ON  FISH AND  INVERTEBRATES

  The surface of particulate matter may act as a substratum
for  microbial species, although the particle itself may  or
may not contribute  to their  nutrition. When  the presence
of particulate matter enables the environment  to support
substantial increased populations of aquatic microorganisms,
the dissolved  oxygen concentration,  pH, and  other char-
acteristics of the water are frequently altered.
  There are several ways in which  an excessive concen-
tration of finely divided solid matter might be harmful to
a fishery  in a river  or a lake  (European Inland  Fisheries
Advisory Commission, EIFAC  1965).73 These include:

     •  acting directly on fish swimming in water in which
       solids are suspended, either killing them or reducing
       their growth rate and resistance to disease;
     •  preventing the successful development of  fish eggs
       and larvae;

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128/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
    •  modifying natural movements and migrations of fish;
    •  reducing the food available to fish;
    •  affecting efficiency in catching the fish.

  With respect to chemically inert suspended solids and to
waters that are otherwise satisfactory for the maintenance of
freshwater fisheries, EIFAC (1965)73 reported:

    •  there is no evidence that concentrations of suspended
       solids  less than 25 mg/1 have any harmful effects
       on fisheries;
    •  it should usually be possible to maintain  good or
       moderate fisheries in waters that normally contain
       25 to 80 mg/1 suspended solids;  other factors being
       equal, however,  the yield of fish from such waters
       might be somewhat lower than from those in the
       preceding category;
    •  waters  normally containing from 80 to 400  mg/J
       suspended solids  are unlikely to support good fresh-
       water  fisheries, although  fisheries may sometimes
       be found at  the  lower concentrations  within this
       range;
    •  only poor fisheries are  likely to be found in waters
       that normally contain more than 400 mg/1 suspended
       solids.

  In addition,  although several thousand parts per million
suspended solids may not kill fish during several hours or
days exposure, temporary high concentrations should be
prevented in rivers where good  fisheries are to be main-
tained. The spawning grounds of most  fish should be kept
as free as possible from finely divided solids.
  While the low turbidities reported above reflected values
that should protect the ecosystem, Wallen (1951)80 reported
that fish  can  tolerate  higher concentrations. Behavioral
reactions  were not observed  until concentrations of tur-
bidity neared 20,000 mg/1, and in one species reactions did
not appear until turbidities reached 100,000 mg/1.  Most
species tested endured exposures of more than 100,000 mg/1
turbidity for a  week or longer, but these same fishes finally
died at  turbidities  of  175,000 to 225,000  mg/1. Lethal
turbidities caused the death of fishes within  15 minutes to
two hours exposure. Fishes that succumbed had opercular
cavities and gill filaments clogged with silty clay  particles
from the water.
  In  a study  of fish and macroinvertebrate  populations
over a four-year period in a stream receiving sediment from
a crushed limestone quarry, Gammon  (1970)74 found that
inputs that increased the suspended solids load less than
40  mg/1 (normal suspended solids was 38 to 41 mg/1 and
volatile suspended  solids 16  to 30 mg/1) resulted in a 25
per cent reduction in macroinvertebrate  density in  the
stream below the quarry. A heavy silt input caused  increases
of more than  120  mg/1 including some decomposition of
sediment, and  resulted in a 60 per cent reduction in density
of macroinvertebrates.  Population diversity  indices we
unaffected because  most species  responded  to  the sar
degree. The  standing crop  of fish decreased dramatical
when heavy  sediment occurred in the spring; but fish r
mained in pools during the summer when the input w
heavy and vacated the pools only after deposits of seclime
accumulated. After  winter floods removed sediment  d
posits, fish returned  to the pools and achieved levels of .
per cent of the normal standing crop by early June.
  Not all particulate matter affects organisms in the san
way.  For example,  Smith,  ei.  al.  (1965)79 found that tl
lethal  action of  pulp-mill  fiber  on walleye  fingerlin
(Stizostedion vitreum vitreuni) and fathead minnows (Pimepha,
promelas) was influenced by (he type of fiber. In  96-ho
bioassays, mortality  of the  minnows in 2,000 ppm suspe
sions  was 78 per cent in conifer groundwood, 34 per ce
in conifer kraft, and 4 per cent in aspen groundwood. Hit
temperatures and reduced dissolved oxygen coricentratio
increased the lethal action of fiber.
  Buck (1956)71 studied the  growth offish in 39 farm pone
having a wide range of turbidities. The ponds were cleart
of fish  and  then restocked with  largemouth  black ba
(Micropterus  salmoides),  bluegill (Lepomis macrothirus), ar
redear  sunfish  (Lepomis  microlophus). After  two growir
seasons the yields of fish were


    • clear  ponds (less  than 25 mg/1  161.5 Ib/acre
       suspended solids)
    • intermediate   (25-100   mg/1     94.0 Ib/acre
       suspended solids)
    • muddy  (more than 100 mg/1    29.3 Ib/acrc
       suspended solids)


   The rate of reproduction was also reduced by turbidit;
and the critical concentration for all three  species appeare
to be about 75-100 mg/1. In the same paper, Buck reporte
that largemouth black bass {Micropterus  salmoides), crappk
(Pomoxis), and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) grew mor
slowly  in  a reservoir where  the  water  had an  averag
turbidity of  130 mg/1 than in another reservoir where th
water was always clear.
   Floating materials, including large objects as well as ver
fine substances, can adversely affect the activities of aquati
life. Floating logs shut out sunlight and interfere particular]
with surface  feeding fish. Logs may also  leach various type
of organic acids due to the action of water. If they hav
been  sprayed with pesticides  or treated chemically, theS'
substances may also leach into the water.  As the logs floa
downstream their bark often disengages  and falls to tfo
bed of the stream, disturbing benthic habitats. Aquatic life
is also affected by fine substances,  such as sawdust, peelings
hair  from tanneries, wood fibers, containers, scum,  oil
garbage,  and materials from untreated municipal and in
dustrial wastes, tars and greases, and precipitated chemicals

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                                                                        Suspended and Settleable Solids/129
Recommendations

• The combined effect of color and turbidity should
  not change the compensation point more than
  10 per cent from its seasonally established norm,
  nor should  such a change place more than 10
  per cent of the biomass of photosynthetic orga-
  nisms below the compensation point.
Aquatic communities should be protected if the
following maximum concentrations of suspended
solids exist:

  High level of protection         25 mg/1
  Moderate protection             80 mg/1
  Low level of protection         400 mg/1
  Very low level of protection over 400 mg/1

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                                                   COLOR
  The true color of a specific water sample is the result of
substances in solution; thus it can  be measured only after
suspended material has been removed.  Color may be of
organic or mineral origin and may be the result of natural
processes as well  as  manufacturing operations. Organic
sources  include humic materials, peat, plankton, aquatic
plants, and tannins.  Inorganic substances  are largely me-
tallic, although iron and manganese, the  most important
substances, are usually not in  solution. They affect color as
particles. Heavy-metal complexes are frequent contributors
to the color problem.
  Many industries  (such as pulp and paper, textile, refining,
chemicals,  dyes  and  explosives, and  tanning)  discharge
materials that contribute to the color of water. •Conventional
biological waste treatment procedures  are frequently in-
effective in removing color. On the other hand, such treat-
ment processes  have caused an  accentuation of the level
of color during  passage  through  the  treatment  plant.
Physicochemical treatment processes are  frequently pre-
ferable to biological  treatment if color removal  is  critical
(Eye and Aldous 1968,81 King and  Randall 197083).
  The tendency for an accentuation of color to occur as a
result of complexing of a heavy metal with an organic sub-
stance may also lead to problems in surface waters.  A rela-
tively color-free discharge from a manufacturing operation,
may, upon contact with iron in a stream, produce a highly
colored water that would significantly affect aquatic life
(Hem I960,82 Stumm and Morgan  196286).
  The standard platinum-cobalt method of measuring color
is applicable to a wide variety of water samples (Standard
Methods  1971).85  However,  industrial  wastes frequen
produce colors dissimilar to the standard  platinum-cob
color, making the  comparison technique of limited vah
The standard unit of color in water is that level produc
by  1 mg/1 of platinum as chloroplatinate ion (Standa
Methods 1971).85 Natural  color in surface waters  rant
from less than one color unit to more than 200 in higt
colored bodies of water (Nordell 1961).84
  That light intensity at which oxygen production in pho
synthesis and  oxygen consumption by  respiration  of  t
plants concerned are equal is known as the compensati
point, and the depth at which the compensation point t
curs is called the compensation  depth. For a given body
water this depth varies with several conditions, includi
season, time of day, the extent of cloud cover, condition
the water, and the taxonomic composition of the flora
volved. As commonly used, che compensation point ref
to that  intensity of light which is such  that  the  plan
oxygen  production during the  day will  be  sufficient
balance the oxygen consumpiion during the whole 24-hc
period  (Welch 1952).87

Recommendation

  The combined effect of color and turbidity shou
not change the  compensation point more than
per cent from  its seasonally established norm, n
should such a change place more than 10 per cei
of the biomass of photosynthetic organisms belc
the compensation point.
                                                      130

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                                            DISSOLVED  GASES
DISSOLVED OXYGEN

  Oxygen requirements of aquatic life have been extensively
studied.  Comprehensive  papers have  been  presented  by
Doudoroff and Shumway (1967),89 Doudoroff and Warren
(1965),91 Ellis (1937),93 and Fry (I960).94  (Much of the
research on temperature requirements also considers oxygen,
and references cited in  the discussion of Heat and Temper-
ature, p. 151,  are relevant here.) The most comprehensive
review yet to  appear has been written by Doudoroff and
Shumway  for  the  ivood and  Agriculture  Organization
(FAO)  of the United  Nations (1970).90 This FAO report
provides the most advanced summary of scientific research
on oxygen needs of fish, and  it has served as a basis for most
of the recommendations  presented  in this  discussion.  In
particular, it provided  the criteria for citing different levels
of protection  for fish,  for change from natural levels of
oxygen  concentration,  and for the actual numerical values
recommended. Much  of the text below has been quoted
verbatim or condensed  from  the FAO report. Its recommen-
dations  have been modified  in only two ways: the insertion
of a floor of 4  mg/1 as  a minimum, and the suggestion that
natural  minima be assumed to be equal  to  saturation
levels if the occurrence  of lower minima cannot be definitely
established.  Doudoroff and Shumway covered oxygen con-
centrations below the floor of 4 mg/1; however, the 4  mg/1
floor has been adopted in this report for reasons explained
below.

Levels of Protection
  Most species of adult fish can survive at very low concen-
trations of dissolved oxygen.  Even  brook trout (Salvelinus
fontinalis) have been acclimated in the laboratory  to less
than 2 mg/1 of Oa. In natural waters, the minimum concen-
tration  that allows  continued existence of  a varied fish
fauna, including valuable food and game  species, is not
high.  This minimum is not above 4 mg/1 and may be much
lower.
  However, in evaluating criteria,  it  is not important to
know how long an animal can resist  death by asphyxiation
at low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Instead, data  on
the oxygen  requirements  for  egg development,  for newly
hatched  larvae, for normal growth and activity,  and for
completing all stages of the reproductive cycle are pertinent.
Upon review  of the available research, one fact becomes
clear: any reduction of dissolved  oxygen can  reduce the
efficiency of oxygen uptake by aquatic animals and hence
reduce their ability to meet demands of their environment.
There is  evidently no concentration level or percentage of
saturation to which the O2 content of natural  waters can
be reduced without causing or risking some  adverse effects
on the reproduction,  growth, and consequently, the  pro-
duction of fishes inhabiting those waters.
  Accordingly, no single, arbitrary recommendation can
be set for  dissolved oxygen concentrations that  will  be
favorable for all kinds of fish in all kinds of waters, or  even
one kind of fish in a single kind of water. Any reduction in
oxygen may be harmful by affecting fish production and
the potential yield of a fishery.
  The selection of a level of protection (Table 111-3) is a
socioeconomic  decision, not  a biological one.  Once the
level of protection is selected, appropriate scientific recom-
mendations may be derived from  the criteria presented in
this discussion.

Basis for Recommendations

  The decision to base the recommendations on O2  con-
centration minima, and  not  on  average concentrations,
arises from various considerations. Deleterious  effects on
fish seem to depend more on extremes than on averages.
For example,  the growth of young fish is slowed markedly
if the oxygen  concentration falls to 3 mg/1  for  part of the
day, even if it rises as high as 18 mg/1 at other times. It
could be an inaccurate and possibly controversial  task to
carry out the sets of measurements  required  to  decide
whether  a criterion based  on averages was being met.
  A daily fluctuation of O2 is to be expected where there is
appreciable  photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants.  In
such cases,  the minimum  O2  concentration will usually  be
found just before daybreak,  and sampling should be  done
at that time.  Sampling should also take into account the
possible differences in  depth  or  width of the water body.
The guiding principle should be to sample the places where
                                                       131

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 132/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
aquatic organisms actually live or the parts of the habitat
where they should be able to live.
  Before recommendations are proposed, it is necessary to
evaluate criteria for the natural,  seasonal C>2 minimum
from which the recommendations can be derived. Natural
levels are assumed to be the saturation levels,  unless scien-
tific data show that  the natural levels were already low in
the absence of man-made effects.
  Certain waters in  regions of low human populations can
still be adequately studied in their natural or  pristine con-
dition. In these cases the minimum C>2  concentration at
different seasons, temperatures, and stream discharge  vol-
umes can be determined by direct observation.  Such ob-
served conditions can also be useful in estimating seasonal
minima  in similar waters in similar geographical regions
where natural levels can no longer  be observed because of
waste discharges or other man-made changes.
  In many  populated regions, some or  all of the streams
and lakes have been  altered.  Direct  determination of
natural minima may no longer be  possible. In these cases
the assumption of year-round saturation  with O2 is made
in the absence  of other evidence.
  Supersaturation of water  with  dissolved  oxygen may
occur as the result of photosynthesis by aquatic vegetation.
There is  some  evidence  that this  may  be deleterious to
aquatic animals because  of gas bubble disease (see Total
Dissolved Gases, p. 135).
  Despite the statements in previous paragraphs that there
is no single O2 concentration which is favorable to all species
and ecosystems, it is obvious  that  there are,  nevertheless,
very low C>2 concentrations that are unfavorable  to almost
all  aquatic  organisms.  Therefore,   a floor of 4 mg/1  is
recommended except in situations where the  natural level
of dissolved oxygen  is less than 4 mg/1  in which case no
further depression is desirable. The  value of 4  mg/1 has
been selected  because  there  is  evidence of  subacute or
chronic damage to  several fish below this concentration.
Doudoroff and Shumway  (1970)90  review  the  work of
several authors as given  below, illustrating such damage.
Fathead minnows  (Pimephales promelas)  held at 4 mg/1
spawned  satisfactorily;  only  25 per  cent  of  the  resultant
fry  survived for 30 days,  compared to 66 per cent survival
at 5 mg/1. At  an oxygen level of  3 mg/1, survival of fry
was even further  reduced to 5  per cent (Brungs 1972101
personal communication). Shumway  et al. (1964)98 found  that
the dry weight of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch} aleviris
(with yolk sac removed) was reduced by 59 per cent when
they had been  held at 3.8 mg/1 of oxygen,  compared to
weights of the controls. The embryos of sturgeon (Acipenser)
suffered  complete mortality  at oxygen  concentrations of
3.0 to 3.5 mg/1, compared to only 18 per cent mortality at
5.0  to 5.5 mg/1  (Yurovitskii  1964).10°  Largemouth  bass
(Micropterus salmoides) embryos reared at 25 C showed  sur-
vival equal to controls only at oxygen levels above 3.5 mg/1
(Dudley 1969).92 Efficiency of food conversion by juvenile
bass was nearly independent of Oa at 5 mg/1 and higl
but growth rate was reduced by 16.5 per cent at 4 mi
and  30 per cent at 3 mg/1 (Stewart et al. 1967)." Sim
reductions in growth  of underyearling coho  salmon
curred  at  the  same C>2 concentrations (Herrmann et
1962).95 Although  many other experiments  have she
little  or no damage to performance  of fish at 4 mg/1.
lower, the evidence given above shows appreciable efTi
on embryonic and juvenile survival and growth for sev<
species of fish sufficient to justify this value.

Warm- and Coldwater Fishes
  There are  many associations and types of fish fai
throughout the country. Dissolved oxygen criteria for cc
water fishes and warmwater game  fishes are conside
together in this report. There  is no evidence  to sugi
that the more  sensitive warmwater species have  lower
requirements than the  more sensitive coldwater fishes. "
difference in O2 requirements is probably not greater tl
the difference of the solubility of C>2 in water at the m;
mum temperatures to  which these  two kinds of fish
normally  exposed in summer  (Doudoroff and Shumv
1970).90 In warmwater regions, however, the  variety
fishes and fish habitats is relatively  great, and  there
many warmwater species that are exceedingly toleranl
O2 deficiency.

Unusual Waters
   There are certain types of waters that naturally have 1
oxygen content, such as the "black waters" draining swar
of the Southeastern United States.  (Other examples inch
certain deep ocean waters and eutrophic waters that supp
heavy biomass, the respiration of which reduces O2 cont
much of the time.) A special situation prevails in  the di
layers (hypolimnion) of some lakes. Such layers do not t
with  the surface layers for extended  periods and may h.
reduced C>2, or almost  none. Fish cannot live in  the di
layers of many such lakes during  a large part of the ye
although  each lake of  this kind must be considered  a
special case. However,  the recommendation that no oxyg
consuming  wastes should be released into the deep lay
still applies, since there may be no opportunity for reaerat
for an entire season.

Organisms Other Than Fish
   Most research concerning oxygen requirements for fre
water organisms deals with fish; but since fish depend up
other aquatic species for food,  it is  necessary to consii
the O2 requirements of these organisms. This Section ma
the assumption that the C>2 requirements of other  compc
ents of the aquatic community are  compatible  with f
(Doudoroff and Shumway 1970) .90 There are certain exci
tions where exceedingly important invertebrate organis
may be very sensitive to lov/ O2,  more sensitive than the f
species in that habitat  (Doudoroff and Shumway  1970

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                                                                                                          Dissolved Gases/133
The situation is somewhat  more complicated for inverte-
brates and aquatic plants, inasmuch as organic pollution that
causes reduction of O2 also directly increases food  material.
However, it appears equally true for sensitive invertebrates
as for fish  that  any reduction  of dissolved O2 may have de-
leterious effects  on their production. For example, Nebeker
(1972)97 has found that although a certain mayfly (Ephemera
simulans) can  survive  at  4.0 mg/1 of  oxygen for four days,
any reduction of oxygen below saturation causes a decrease
in successful transformation of the  immature  to  the adult
stage.

Salmonid Spawning

  For spawning of salmonid fishes during the  season when
eggs are  in the gravel, there are even greater requirements
for O.i than  those  given  by the high level of protection.
(See Table III-3 for  description of levels.)  This is because
the water associated with the gravel may contain less oxygen
than  the water in  the stream above the gravel.  There  is
abundant evidence that salmonid eggs are adversely affected
in direct proportion to reduction in O2. The oxygen criteria
for eggs should be about  half way between the nearly
maximum  and high levels of protection.
 TABLE III-3—Guidelines for Selecting Desired Type and
  Level of Protection of Fish Against Deleterious Effects of
              Reduced Oxygen Concentrations
 Level of protection
                 Intended type of protection
                                            Possible application
Nearly Maximum"   For virtually unimpaired productivity and
              unchanged quality of a fishery.
High          Not likely to cause appreciable change in
              tbe ecosystem, nor material reduction of
              fish production. Some impairment is
              risked, but appreciable damage is not to
              be expected at ttiese levels of oxygen.
Moderate        Fisheries should persist, usually with no
              serious impairment, but with some de-
              crease in production.
Low           Should permit the persistence of sizeable
              populations of tolerant species and suc-
              cessful passage of most migrants'1. Much
              reduced production or elimination of sen-
              sitive fish is likely.
Appropriate for conservation areas, parks, and
 water bodies of high or unique value. Re-
 quires, practically speaking, that little or no
 deoxygenatmg wastes be added to natural
 waters. Nor must there be any activities
 such as unfavorable land use which would
 reduce 02 levels.
Could be appropriate for fisheries or aquatic
 ecosystems of  some importance, which
 should not be impaired by other uses of
 water.

Could be used for fisheries which are valued,
 but must co-exist with major industries or
 dense human population
Appropriate for fisheries that have some com-
 mercial or recreational value, but are so
 unimportant compared  with other water
 uses, that  their maintenance cannot be a
 major objective ol pollution control.
This type of protection should however, pro-
 vide lor survival of sensitive species m adult
 or subadult life stages for short periods
 during the  year, if oxygen levels at other
 times are satisfactory for growth, reproduc-
 tion, etc.
0 Note that there could be > higher level of protection that would require oxygen to be near natural level at all times,
whereas nearly maximum requires only that oxygen should not fall below the lowest level characteristic of the season.
 k But will not protect migrating salmonids, which would requite it least a Moderate level of protection, for zones of
passage.
Interaction with Toxic  Pollutants or Other Environmental
Factors

   It  is known that  reduced  oxygen levels increase the
toxicity of pollutants. A method  for  predicting this inter-
action  has been given by Brown (1968),88 and a theoretical
background  by Lloyd  (1961).96 The disposal of toxic pol-
lutants must be controlled  so that their concentrations will
not  be unduly harmful at prescribed acceptable  levels  of
O2,  temperature, and  pH. The  levels  of oxygen  recom-
mended in this Section are independent of the presence  of
toxic wastes, no matter what the  nature of the  interaction
between these toxicants and O2 deficiencies. Carbon dioxide
is an  exception,  because its concentration  influences the
safe level of oxygen.  The recommendations  for  O2 are
valid  when  the  CO2  concentration  is within the limits
recommended  in  the  section on CO2.

Application  of Recommendations

   As previously stated, the recommendations herein differ
in two important respects from   those widely  used. First,
they are not  fixed values independent of natural  conditions.
Second, they offer a choice of different levels of protection
of fishes, the selection of any one of  which is  primarily a
socioeconomic  decision, not a biological one.
   Table  111-4 presents  guidelines for  the protection  of
fishes at each  of four levels.  Each column shows the level
to which the dissolved O2 can be  reduced  and still  provide
the stated level of protection for local fisheries. The values
can  be derived from the equations given in the recommen-
dations. These equations have been  calculated to fit the
curves  shown in the figure on page 264  of Doudoroff and
Shumway (1970),90 which  serve as the basis of  the  recom-
mendations.  To use  Table 111-4,  the  estimated  natural
seasonal minimum should first be determined on the basis
of available  data or  from  expert judgment.  This  may  be
taken  to  be  the minimum  saturation  value for the  season,
unless  there  is scientific  evidence that losses of O2 levels
prevailed  naturally.  The  word   "season" here means  a
period  based on local climatic and hydrologic  conditions,
during which the natural thermal and dissolved O2 regime
of a stream  or lake can  be expected  to  be fairly uniform.
Division of the year into equal three-month  periods, such
as December-February, March-May, is  satisfactory. How-
ever, under special conditions, the designated seasons could
be periods longer or shorter than  three months, and could
in fact  be  taken as individual months. The selected periods
need not be  equal in  length.
  When the  lowest natural value for the  season has  been
estimated, the  desired kind and level of protection  should
then be selected according to the guidelines in Table 111-3.
The recommended minimum level of dissolved oxygen may
then be found  in the selected column of Table 111-4, or as
given by the  formula  in the recommendation.

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 134/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
    TABLE III-4—Example of Recommended Minimum
           Concentrations of Dissolved Oxygen
 Estimated natural
 seasonal minimum Corresponding temperature of
Recommended minimum concentrations of 02 for
     selected levels of protection
bwllbvlluauull Ul
oiysen in water
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
UAJgCH-MlUiatCU 1IG»II WdlBI
(») («)
46C(a) (115FX»)
36C (96. !F)
27. 5C (>1. 5F)
21C (69. 8F)
16C (60. 8F)
7.7C (45. 9F)
1.5C (34. 7F)
Neatly
maximal
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
High Moderate
4.7 4.2
5.6 4.8
6.4 5.3
7.1 5.8
7.7 6.2
8.2 6.5
8.9 6.8
9.3 6.8
Low
4.0
40
4.0
4.3
4.5
4.6
4.8
4.9
 " Included to cover waters that are naturally somewhat deficient in 0«_ A saturation value of 5 me/I might be
found in warm springs or very saline waters. A saturation value of 6 mg/1 would apply to warm sea water (32 C=
90 F).
 Note: The desired kind and level of protection of a given body of water should first be selected (across head of
table). The estimated seasonal minimum concentration of dissolved oxygen under natural conditions should then be
determined on the basis of available data, and located in the left hand column of the table. The recommended mini-
mum concentration of oxygen for the season is then taken from the table. All values are in milligrams of 02 per
ter. Values for natural seasonal minima other than those listed are given by the forntu la and qualifications in the
section on recommendations.
Examples
    • It is desired to  give moderate protection to trout
    (Salvehnus fontinalis)  in a  small  stream during  the
    summer. The maximum summer temperature is 20 G
    (68 F); the  salt content of the water is low and  has
    negligible effect on the oxygen saturation value. The
    atmospheric pressure is  760 millimeters (mm) Hg.
    Oxygen saturation is therefore 9.2  mg/1. This is as-
    sumed to be  the natural seasonal  minimum  in  the
    absence of evidence  of lower natural concentrations.
    Interpolating from  Table III-4 or  using the recom-
    mended formula, reveals a minimum permissible con-
    centration of oxygen during the summer of 6.2 mg/1.
    If a high level of protection had been selected,  the
    recommendation would have been  7.8  mg/1.  A low
    level of protection, providing little or no protection
    for trout but some for more tolerant fish, would require
    a recommendation of 4.5 mg/1.  Other recommen-
    dations would  be calculated in a similar  way for other
    seasons.
    • It is decided to  give moderate  protection to large-
    mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)  during the summer.
    Stream temperature  reaches a maximum  of  35  C
    (95 F) during  summer, and lowest seasonal saturation
    value is accordingly 7.1 mg/1.  The recommendation
    for minimum oxygen concentration is 5.4 mg/1.
    • For  low protection of fish  in summer in the same
    stream  described above  (for  largemouth bass),  the
    recommendation would be 4.0 mg/1, which  is also the
    floor value recommended.
    • It is desired to protect marine fish in full-strength
    sea water (35 parts per thousand salinity) with a maxi-
    mum seasonal temperature of 16 C  (61  F).  The satu-
    ration value of 8 mg/I is assumed to be the natural dis-
    solved oxygen minimum for the season. For a high level
    of protection,  the recommendation is 7.1 mg/1, for a
    moderate level of protection it  is  5.8 mg/1,  and for a
    low level of protection it is 4.3 mg/1.
  It should be stressed that the recommendations are
minimum values for any time during the same season.

Recommendations
  (a) For nearly maximal protection  of  fish  a:
other aquatic life, the minimum dissolved oxyg
in any season (defined previously) should not
less than the estimated natural seasonal minimu
concentration (defined previously) characteristic
that body of water for the same season.  In es
mating natural minima, it is assumed that watt
are  saturated, unless there is  evidence that th
were lower in the absence of man-made influenc<
  (b) For a  high  level of protection  of fish, t
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration in ai
season  should not be less than that given by tl
following formula  in  which  M = the estimat
natural seasonal minimum  concentration  cha
acteristic of that body of water for the same seaso
as qualified in (a):

         Criterion* = 1.41M-0.0476M2-1.11

  (c) For a moderate level of protection of fish, tl
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration in ai
season  should not  be less than  is given by tl
following formula with qualifications as in (b):

        Criterion* = 1.08M - 0.0415M2 - 0.202

  (d) For a  low  level of protection  of fish, tl
minimum 02 in any season should not  be less ths
given by the following formula with qualificatioi
as in (b):
        Criterion * = 0.674M-0.0264M2+0.577
  (e) A floor value of 4 mg/1 is recommended excej
in those situations where the natural  level of di
solved oxygen is less than 4 mg/1, in which case r
further depression is desirable.
  (f) For  spawning grounds of salmonid fishe
higher  O2 levels are required as  given in the follov
ing formula with qualifications as in (b):
        Criterion* = 1.19M -0.0242M2-0.418
  (g) In stratified eutrophic and dystrophic lake
the  dissolved oxygen requirements may not app]
to the hypolimnion  and such lakes should be cor
sidered on a case by case basis. In other stratifie
lakes, recommendations (a), (b), (c), and (d) applj
and if the oxygen is below 4 mg/1, recommendatio
(e) applies. In unstratified lakes recommendation
apply to the entire circulating  water mass.
  (i) All the foregoing recommendations apply t
all waters except waters designated as mixing zont
                              * All values are instantaneous, and final value should be expressc
                            to two significant figures.

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                                                                                                  Dissolved Gases/ \ 35
(see  section on Mixing Zones p. 112). In locations
where supersaturation occurs, the increased levels
of oxygen should conform to the recommendations
in the discussion of Total Dissolved Gases, p. 139.

TOTAL DISSOLVED GASES (SUPERSATURATION)
  Excessive total dissolved gas pressure (supersaturation) is
a relatively new aspect of water quality.  Previously, super-
saturation was believed to be a problem that was limited to
the water  supplies of fish culture facilities (Shelford and
Alice 1913).135 Lindroth  (1957)126 reported that spillways
at hydroelectric dams in Sweden caused supersaturation,
and recently Ebel (1969)112 and Beiningen  and Ebel (1968)103
established that spillways at dams caused gas bubble disease
to be a limiting factor for aquatic life in the Columbia and
Snake Rivers. Renfro (1963)133  and others reported  that
excessive algal  blooms  have  caused  gas  bubble disease in
lentic water. DeMont and Miller (in press)110 and  Malous
et al. (1972)127 reported gas bubble disease among fish and
mollusks living in the heated effluents  of steam generating
stations. Therefore,  modified dissolved gas pressures as a
result  of dams,  eutrophication,  and  thermal  discharges
present a widespread potential for adversely affecting  fish
and  aquatic invertebrates.  Gas bubble  disease  has been
studied frequently since  Gorham (1898,119  1899120) pub-
lished his initial papers, with the result that general knowl-
edge  of the causes,  consequences, and adverse levels  are
adequate to evaluate criteria for this  water quality char-
acteristic.
  Gas bubble disease is caused by excessive total dissolved
gas pressure but it is not caused by the  dissolved nitrogen  gas
alone  (Marsh  and Gorham  1904,128 Shelford and  Alice
1913,135Englehorn 1943,115 Harvey et al. 1944a,m Doudoroff
1957,m Harvey and  Cooper 1962).123  Englehorn (1943)115
analyzed the  gases  contained  in  the  bubbles  that were
formed in fish suffering from gas bubble  disease and found
that their gas composition was essentially identical to  air.
This was confirmed by Shirahata  (1966).13C
Etiologic Factors
  Gas bubble disease (GBD) results when the uncompen-
sated total gas pressure is greater in the  water than in  the
air, but several  important factors influence the etiology of
GBD.  These factors  include: exposure time and physical
factors  such as  hydrostatic  pressure;  other compensating
forces  and  biological factors such as species  or  life stage
tolerance or levels of activity; and  any  other factors that
influence gas solubility. Of these  factors  perhaps none  are
more commonly misunderstood than the physical  roles of
total dissolved gas pressure* and hydrostatic pressure. The
following discussion is intended to clarify these roles.
  Each component gas in air exerts a measurable pressure,
and  the sum of these pressures constitutes atmospheric  or
barometric pressure, which is equivalent per unit of surface
area at  standard conditions to a  pressure  exerted  by  a
column  of mercury  760mm high or  a  column of water
about  10 meters  high (at sea level, excluding water vapor
pressure). The pressure of an individual gas in air is called
a partial pressure,  and in  water it is called  a tension; both
terms are an acknowledgement that the pressure of an indi-
vidual gas is only part of  the total  atmospheric pressure.
Likewise, each component  gas will dissolve in water inde-
pendently of all other gases, and when at equilibrium with
the air, the pressure  (tension) of a specific dissolved gas is
equivalent to its partial pressure in the air. This relationship
is evident in Table 111-5 which lists the main constituents
of dry air and their approximate partial pressures at  sea
level.
  When supersaturation  occurs, the  diffusion pressure im-
balance  between the  dissolved gas phase and the atmos-
pheric phase favors a net  transfer of gases from the water to
the air. Generally this transfer cannot be accomplished fast
enough by diffusion alone to prevent the formation of gas
bubbles. However, a gas  bubble cannot form in the water
unless  gas nuclei are  present (Evans and Walder  1969,116
Harvey et al. 1944b122) and unless  the total dissolved gas
pressure exceeds the sum of the compensating pressures such
as hydrostatic pressure. Additional compensating pressures
include  blood  pressure  and viscosity, and  their benefits
may be significant.
  Gas  nuclei are probably  unavoidable in  surface water
or in animals, because such nuclei are generated  by any
factor  which decreases gas solubility, and because extreme
measures are required to dissolve gas nuclei  (Evans and
Walder 1969;116 Harvey et al. 1944b).122 Therefore, hydro-
static pressure  is  a major preventive factor in gas bubble
disease.
  The effect of hydrostatic pressure is to oppose gas bubble
formation. For example,  one cannot blow a  bubble out of
a tube immersed  in water until the gas pressure in the tube
slightly exceeds the  hydrostatic pressure  at  the end of the
tube. Likewise a bubble  cannot form  in water, blood,  or

TABLE JH-5—Composition of Dry Air and Partial Pressures
               of Selected Gases at Sea  Level
   Gas
         Molecular" percentage  Times atmospheric pressure   Individual gas'1 pressure in air or
            in dry air                           water at sea level
N2
0,
AT. .
CO:
Ne .
He
78.084 X760mmH|
20.946
0.934
0.033
0.00181
0.00052
= 593.438 mm Ht
159.119
7.098
0.250
0.0138
0.0039
  * In this Section gas tension will be called gas pressure and total
gas tension will be called total dissolved gas pressure (TDGP). This
is being done as a descriptive aid to readers who are not familiar with
the terminology and yet need to convey these principles to laymen.
                                           759.9927 mm Ht
 « Glueckaul (19S1"»).
 * At standard conditions iicludinj corrections for water vapor pressure.

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136/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
tissue until the total gas pressure therein exceeds the sum of
atmospheric pressure (760mm Hg) plus hydrostatic pressure
plus  any  other  restraining  forces.  This  relationship  is
illustrated  in Figure III-l which shows, for example, that
gas bubbles could form in fresh water to a depth of about
one meter  when the total dissolved gas pressure is equal to
1.10  atmospheres;  but they  could not form below that
point.
  Excessive total dissolved gas pressure relative to ambient
atmospheric pressure, therefore, represents a greater threat
to aquatic organisms in the shallow but importantly pro-
ductive littoral zone  than in the deeper sublittoral zone.
For example, if fish or their food organisms remain within a
meter of the surface in water having a total dissolved gas
pressure of 1.10 atmospheres, they are theoretically capable
of developing gas bubble disease,  especially if their body
processes further decrease gas solubility by such  means as
physical activity, metabolic heat, increased osmolarity, or
decreased blood pressure.
  Hydrostatic pressure only opposes bubble formation;  it
does not decrease the kinetic energy of dissolved gas mole-
cules except at extreme pressures. If this were not the case,
aerobic animal life would be eliminated at or below a water
depth equivalent to the pressure of oxygen,  because there
would be  no  oxygen pressure to drive Oo across the gill
membrane and thence into the blood. For a more detailed
discussion  of  this subject, the reader is referred to Van
Liere and Stickney's  (1963)138 and  Randall's  (1970a)131
excellent reviews.
    1 00        1 10       1  20       1 Vi      1.40

                  Tnl.i! DissoKeel Gas PH'SSUIL HI \tmosphcics
                                                      1 5(1
  A final example will clarify the importance of total c
solved gas pressure. Eutrophic lakes often become sup
saturated with photosynthetic dissolved oxygen,  and si.
lakes commonly approach  (or  exceed) 120  per cent
saturation values  for oxygen.  But this  only represents
additional dissolved gas  pressure of  about  32mm  1
(O2= 159.19 mm HgX0.2==31.83 mm Hg) which equal;
  760_mm Hg+31.83mmHg
         760 rnm Hg
= 1.041 atmospheres of tote
    dissolved gas pressure
FIGURE III-l—Relationship of Total Dissolved Gas Pressure
to Hydrostatic Pressure in Preventing Gas Bubble Formation
This imbalance apparently can be compensated in part
metabolic  oxygen  consumption,  blood pressure,  or  bo
On  the  other hand, a  1.000-fold increase in  the  ne
saturation  level would only increase the total dissolved t
pressure by about 1.8 mm Hg or:

       1.8 mm Hg+ 760 mm Hg
       	-- = 1.002 atmospheres
             760 mm Hg

This would not cause gas bubble disease.
  The opposite situation can occur in spring water, \vh(
dissolved oxygen pressure is low and dissolved nitrogen a
other gas pressures are high. In an actual case  (Schneic
personal communication).14'1 dissolved nitrogen was reported
be 124 per cent of its air saturation value, whereas oxyg
was 46 per cent of its air saturation value;  total gas pressi.
was  1.046  of dry atmospheric1 pressure. Fish were living
this  water, and  although  they  probably suffered  frc
hypoxia, they showed no symptoms of gas bubble disease
  How  dissolved gases come out of solution and for
bubbles  (cavitate) is a basic  physical and physiologic
topic which is only summarized here. Harvey etal. (1944b)
determined that bubble formation is promoted by bounda
zone or surface interfaces which reduce surface  tension ai
thereby  decrease the dissolved gas pressure required i
cavitation.  For this  reason,  one  usually  sees gas bubb
forming first and growing fastest on  submersed interfao
such as tank walls, sticks, or the external surfaces of aqua
life.
  Gas nuclei are apparently required  for bubble formatio
and these are considered to  be ultra micro bubbles (Eva
and Walder 1969).11'1 These  nuclei apparently represent <
equilibrium between the extremely high compressive eneri
of surface tension and the pressure of contained gases. Lai
of gas nuclei probably accounts for instances when extreme
high  but uncompensated  dissolved gas pressures failed
cause  bubble formation  (Pease and  Blinks 1947,13° Her
mingsen 1970).124 Gas nuclei are produced by anything th
decreases gas  solubility or surface tension  (Harvey et £
1944b,122 Hills 1967,125 Evans and Walder  1969)116 and the
can be eliminated at least temporarily by  extremely  hie
pressure which drives them back into solution  (Evans an
Walder  1969).116
   Possible causes of gas nuclei formation in organisms ii
elude negative pressures in skeletal or cardiac muscle durhi

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                                                                                                 Dissolved Gases/137
pronounced activity (Whitaker et al. 1945),141 eddy currents
in the blood vascular system, synthetic or biologically pro-
duced surface-active compounds, and possible salting-out
effects during  hemoconcentration  (as in  saltwater adap-
tation). Once a bubble has formed, it grows via the diffusion
of all gases into it.
  Many factors influence the incidence and severity of gas
bubble, disease. For example, the fat content  of an animal
may influence its susceptibility. This has not  been studied
in fish, but Boycott  and Damant (1908),106 Behnke  (1942),102
and  Gersh  et  al.  (1944)117 report that fat mammals are
more susceptible than lean  mammals to  the "bends" in
high-altitude decompression. This may be particularly sig-
nificant to non-feeding adult Pacific  salmon  which  begin
their spawning run with considerable  stored fat. This may
also  account in part for differences  in the  tolerances of
different age groups or  fish species.  Susceptibility to gas
bubble disease is unpredictable among wild fish, particularly
when they are free  to change their water depth and level of
activity.

Gas  Bubble Disease Syndrome and Effects

  Although the literature documents  many occurrences of
gas bubble disease, data are  usually missing for several
important  physical factors,  such as hydrostatic  pressure,
barometric  pressure, relative humidity,  salinity, temper-
ature,  or other factors leading  to calculation of total dis-
solved gas pressure.  The most frequently reported parameter
has been  the  calculated  dissolved nitrogen  (Nj) concen-
tration or  its  percentage saturation  from  which one can
estimate the pressure of inert gases. Thus  the reported N»
values provide only a general indication of  the total dis-
solved gas pressure, which  unfortunately tends to convey
the erroneous concept that N2 is the instigative or only sig-
nificant factor in gas bubble disease.
  Gas bubbles probably form first on  the external surfaces
of aquatic life,  where total hydrostatic pressure is  least and
where an interface  exists. Bubbles within the body of ani-
mals  probably form later at low dissolved gas pressures,
because blood pressure and other factors may provide ad-
ditional resistance  to bubble formation. However, at high
dissolved gas pressure (>1.25 atm) bubbles  in the  blood
may he the first recognizable symptom (Schneider personal
communication).1''* In the case of larval fishes,  zooplankton,
or other small forms of aquatic life,  the effect of external
bubbles may be a blockage of the flow of water across the
gills  and asphyxiation or a change in buoyancy (Shirahata
1966).136  The  latter probably causes additional energy
expenditure or floatation, causing potentially lethal exposure
to ultraviolet radiation or potential predation.
  The direct internal effects of gas bubble disease  include a
variety of symptoms that  appear to be related primarily to
the level of total dissolved gas pressure, the exposure  time,
and  the in vivo location of lowest compensatory pressure.
  The following is a resume of Shirahata's (1966)136 results.
As the uncompensated total dissolved gas pressure increases,
bubbles begin to appear on the fish, then within the skin,
the roof of the mouth, within the fins, or within the ab-
dominal cavity. Gas pockets may also form behind the eye-
ball  and  cause an  exophthalmic "pop-eyed" condition.
Probably gas emboli  in  the  blood are  the last  primary
symptoms  to develop, because blood pressure and plasma
viscosity oppose bubble formation. At some as yet undefined
point, gas  emboli become sufficiently  large  and  frequent
to cause hemostasis in blood vessels,  which in turn may
cause extensive  tissue damage or complete  hemostasis  by
filling the  heart chamber with gas.  The latter is the usual
direct cause of death.
  Exophthalmus or  "pop-eye" and eye  damage can  be
caused  by several factors other than  gas bubble disease
and one should be duly cautious when tempted  to diagnose
gas bubble disease based solely on these criteria. While the
above symptoms can be caused by  excessive dissolved gas
pressure (Wcstgard  1964),140  they can also  be caused  by
malnutrition, abrasion, and possibly by infection.  Unfortu-
nately there is no known definitive  way to distinguish be-
tween latent eye damage caused  by previous exposure to
excessive dissolved gas pressure and  other causes.
  Secondary,  latent,  or  sublethal  effects of gas bubble
disease in fish include promoting other diseases,  necrosis, or
other tissue changes,  hemorrhages,  blindness,  and repro-
ductive failure  (Harvey  and Gooper 1962,123 Westgard
1964,140 Pauley  and  Nakatani  1967,129 and  Bouck  et  al.
1971).10'" There is no known evidence  that supersaturation
causes a nitrogen narcosis in fish (such as can be experienced
by scuba clivers), as this requires high dissolved gas pressures
probably above  10 atm. However, one can expect  that fish
afflicted  with gas bubble disease  or the  above secondary
effects might have their normal behavior altered.
  There is no definitive  evidence  that fishes  can detect
supersaturation  (Shelford and Alice 1913),13r' or that they
actively avoid it by seeking hydrostatic pressure  compen-
sation (Ebel  1969).112 However, the potential capacity to
avoid  supersaturation or  to  compensate  by sounding is
limited among  anadromous  species by   the necessity  of
ascending  their  home river and by dams with relatively
shallow fish ladders. This may also  apply to other species
that reproduce in or otherwise live in shallow-water niches.
Physiological adaptation to supersaturation seems unlikely,
and this contention is supported by the preliminary studies
of Coutant and Genoway (1968).109
  Interaction between gas bubble  disease  and other stresses
is highly likely but not clearly established. Fish were more
susceptible to a given level of total dissolved gas  pressure
when wounded  (Egusa 1955).114 The thermal tolerance of
Pacific  salmon was  reduced  when  N2 levels were 125  to
180 per cent in the  case of juveniles (Ebel et al.  1971),U3
and when N2 levels were > 118 per cent in the case of adults
(Coutant and Genoway 1968).ln9 Chemicals or other factors

-------
 \38/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
that influence body activity or cardiovascular activity may
also influence blood pressure (Randall 1970b),132 and this
would be expected to influence the degree to which the dis-
solved gas pressure is in excess, and hence the tolerance to
gas bubble disease.
  Variation in biological response  is a prominent aspect of
gas bubble disease, which should not be surprising in view
of the numerous influential factors. Some of this variation
might be explained by physiological differences between
life stages  or species,  degree of fatness, blood pressure,
blood  viscosity, metabolic  heat, body size, muscular ac-
tivity,  and  blood osmolarity. For example, susceptibility to
gas bubble disease may be inversely related to blood (or
hemolymph) pressure.  There is wide  variation in  blood
pressure between  life stages, between fish species, and be-
tween invertebrate species. Based on aortic blood pressures
alone, one can hypothesize that largemouth bass (Mwropterus
salmoides) might be more susceptible to gas  bubble disease
than chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) if other fac-
tors are equal.  This contention is also supported  by the
observations that gas bubbles form in the blood of bullfrogs
more  easily  than  in rats  (Berg  et al.  1945),104 possibly
because  of differences  in  blood  pressure  (Brand  et  al.
1951).107
  Tolerance  to supersaturation also varies  between  body
sizes or life stages; Shirahata (1966)136 relates this, in part,
to  an increase  in cardiac  and skeletal  muscle  activity.
Larger fish were generally more sensitive to supersaturation
than were smaller fish in most studies (Wiebe and McGavock
1932,142  Egusa  1955,114  Shirahata 1966,13C Harvey  and
Cooper 1962).123 Wood (1968)143 has the opposite view, but
he provides no supporting evidence. Possibly larger fish are
more susceptible to gas bubble disease in  part because they
can develop  greater metabolic heat than smaller fish. In
this regard, Carey and Teal (1969)108 reported that  large
tuna may have a muscle temperature as much as 10 C above
the water temperature.
  Data are quite  limited on  the tolerance of zooplankters
and other aquatic invertebrates to excessive dissolved gas
pressure. Evans and Walder (1969)116 demonstrated  that
invertebrates can develop gas bubble disease. Unpublished
observations by Nebekcr* demonstrate that Daphnia sp. and
Gammams sp. are susceptible to gas bubble disease. On the
other hand, it is widely known that some aquatic inverte-
brates are capable of dicl migrations that may expose them
to  a  considerable  change  in  dissolved  gas pressure; but
apparently these organisms can tolerate or otherwise handle
such changes. In view of the paucity of data, nothing firm
can be said regarding the general tolerance of invertebrates
to supersaturation.
Analytical Considerations
  The apparatus and method of Van Slyke et al. (1934)1
are still the standard analytical tools for most gas analyse
Scholander et al. (1955)134 and others have developed simih
methods with  modifications  to accomodate their speci;
needs. More recently, Swinrierton el al. (1962)137 publishe
a gas analysis  method  that utilizes gas-liquid  chromatoi
raphy. However, both  of these basic methods  have drav
backs, because  they either require special expertise or do n<
otherwise meet the field needs of limnologists and fisherl
or pollution biologists.
  A new device by  Weiss* measures the differential  g;
pressure between the  air  and the  water within  fiftee
minutes. This portable device is simple to operate, easy an
inexpensive to  build, and gives direct readings in mm Hi
Unpublished data by Weiss show that this instrument h;
an  accuracy comparable to the Van Slyke and the chn
matographic procedures. The instrument consists of a g;
sensor (150 ft.  coil of small diameter,  thin-walled, silicor
rubber tube)  connected to a  mercury  manometer.  Tt
sensor is placed  underwater where the  air  in  the  tubir
equilibrates  with the dissolved gases in  the  water.  Tt
resulting  gas  pressure  is  read  directly  via the  mercui
manometer which gives a positive value for supersaturate
water and a  negative value  for water that  is not  ful
saturated.

Total Dissolved Gas Pressure Criteria
  Safe upper limits for dissolved gases must be based on tt
total dissolved  gas pressures (sum of all gas tensions) an
not solely on the saturation value of dissolved nitrogen g:
alone. Furthermore, such limits must provide for the safei
of aquatic organisms that  inhabit or frequent the shallo
littoral zone, where  an existing supersaturation could 1
worsened  by heating,  photosynthetic oxygen  productio
or other factors.  There is little information on the chron
sublethal effects  of gas  bubble disease and  almost  all tl
research has been limited to species of the family Salmonida
Likewise, gas tolerance data are unavailable for zooplankte
and most other aquatic invertebrates. Therefore, it is nece
sary to judge safe limits from data  on mortality of selects
salmonid fishes that were  held  under conditions appros
mating the shallow water  of a  hypothetical littoral zon
These data are:

   1.   Shirahata  (1966)136  reported that advanced fry <
rainbow trout (Salmo  gairdneri) experienced 10 per  cei
mortality when N2 was about 111 per cent of its saturatic
value. He  concludes that, ". . .  the nitrogen contents whic
did  not  cause  any gas disease were . . . less than 110 pi
cent to the more advanced fry."
  * A. V. Nebeker, Western Fish Toxicology Station, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 200 S. W. 35th Street, Corvallis, Oregon,
97330.
  * Dr.  Ray Weiss, University  of California, Scripps.  Institute
Oceanography, Geological Research Division, P. O. Box 109, Lajoll
California 92037.

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                                                                                             Dissolved Gases/139
  2.  Harvey and  Cooper (1962)123 reported that  fry of
sockeye salmon  (Oncorhynchus nerka) suffered latent  effects
(necrosis and hemorrhages) for some time after normal gas
levels were said to have been restored.
  3.  Coutant and  Genoway (1968)109 reported that sexu-
ally precocious spring chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawyt-
scha) weighing 2  to 4 kg, experienced extensive mortality
in six days when exposed at or above 118  per  cent of N2
saturation; these salmon experienced no mortality when
Ns  was below 110 per cent of saturation.

  Whether or not other species or life  stages of aquatic life
may be more or less sensitive than the above salmonids
remains to be proven.  In the meantime, the above refer-
ences provide the main basis for establishing the following
total dissolved gas recommendations.

Recommendations

  Available  data for  salmonid fish  suggest that
aquatic life will be protected only  when  total dis-
solved gas pressure in water is no greater than 110
per cent of  the existing atmospheric pressure. Any
prolonged artificial increase in total dissolved gas
pressure should be avoided in view of the incom-
plete body of information.

CARBON DIOXIDE

  Carbon dioxide exists  in two  major forms in water. It
may enter into the bicarbonate buffering system at various
concentrations depending on the pH of the water. In ad-
dition, "free" carbon dioxide may also exist, and this com-
ponent affects the respiration offish (Fry 1957).151 Because
of respiratory effects, free carbon dioxide is the form con-
sidered most significant to aquatic life.
  The concentration of free carbon dioxide, where oxygen-
demanding wastes are  not  excessive, is  a function of pH,
temperature,  alkalinity, and the atmospheric pressure of
carbon dioxide. Doudoroff  (1957)147 reported that concen-
trations of free carbon dioxide above 20 mg/1 occur rarely,
even in polluted waters; and Ellis (1937)150 found that the
free carbon dioxide content of Atlantic Coast streams ranged
between zero and 12 mg/1. Ellis (1937)160  and Hart (1944)162
both reported that in 90  to 95  per cent of the fresh waters
in the United States that support a good and diverse fish
population the free carbon dioxide concentrations fall below
5 mg/1.
  An excess of free carbon dioxide may have adverse effects
on  aquatic life.  Powers and Clark  (1943)166 and Warren
(1971)167 reported that fish are able to detect and to respond
to slight  gradients  in  carbon  dioxide  tension.  Brinley
(1943)146 and Hoglund (1961)184 observed that fish may
avoid free carbon dioxide levels as low as  1.0 to 6.0 mg/1.
  Elevated carbon dioxide concentrations may interfere
with the ability of fish  to respire properly and  may thus
affect  dissolved  oxygen  uptake.  Doudoroff  and  Katz
(1950)148 and Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)149 reported
that where dissolved oxygen uptake interference does occur,
the free carbon  dioxide concentrations which appreciably
affect this are higher than those found in  polluted  waters.
In bioassay tests using ten species of warmwater  fish, Hart
(1944)152 found that the gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum)
was the most sensitive  and was unable to remove  oxygen
from water 50 per cent  saturated with dissolved oxygen in
the presence  of 88 mg/1 of free carbon dioxide. The less
sensitive, largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) was unable
to extract oxygen  when the carbon dioxide level reached
175 mg/1.  Below  60 mg/1  of free  carbon dioxide,  most
species of fish  had little  trouble in extracting dissolved
oxygen from the water.
  High concentrations  of free carbon  dioxide cause pro-
nounced increases in the  minimum dissolved oxygen require-
ment  of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), but  these fish
acclimatized  rapidly to carbon dioxide concentrations as
high as  175 mg/1 at 20  C when the  dissolved oxygen level
was near saturation (McNeil 1956).155
  Basu  (1959)146 found  that for most fish species,  carbon
dioxide affected the fishes' ability to consume oxygen in a
predictable manner. He further indicated that temperature
affected carbon dioxide sensitivity, being less at higher water
temperatures.
  The ability of fish to  acclimatize  to increases in  carbon
dioxide concentrations as high as 60 mg/1  with little effect
has been indicated by  Haskell and  Davies   (1958).153
Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)149 indicate that  the ability
of fish to detect low free carbon dioxide concentrations, the
presence of low  carbon  dioxide levels in most waters, and
the ability of fish to acclimatize to  carbon dioxide in the
water probably prevent this constituent  from   becoming
a major hazard.

Recommendation
  Concentrations of  free carbon dioxide  above  20
mg/1 occur  rarely. Fish acclimatize to increases in
carbon dioxide levels as high as 60 mg/1 with little
effect. However, fish are able to  detect and respond
to slight  gradients  and many avoid free carbon
dioxide levels as low as 1.0 to 6.0 mg/1.

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                                    ACIDITY,  ALKALINITY, AND  pH
NATURAL CONDITIONS  AND SIGNIFICANCE
  Acidity in natural waters is caused by carbon dioxide,
mineral acids,  weakly dissociated acids, and the salts of
strong acids and  weak bases.  The alkalinity of a water is
actually  a  measure of  the  capacity of  the  carbonate-
bicarbonate system to  buffer the water against change in
pH. Technical  information on alkalinity has recently been
reviewed by Kemp (1971).162
  An  index of the hydrogen ion activity  is pH. Even
though pH determinations  are used as an  indication of
acidity or alkalinity or both, pH is not a measure  of either.
There is a relationship between pH, acidity, and alkalinity
(Standard  Methods 1971):164  water with a  pH of 4.5 or
lower has no measurable  alkalinity, and water with a pH
of 8.3 or higher has  no measurable  acidity.  In natural
water, where the pH may often  be in the vicinity of 8.3,
acidity is not a factor of concern. In most productive fresh
waters, the pH  falls in a range between 6.5  and 8.5 (except
when increased by photosynthetic activity).  Some  regions
have soft waters with poor buffering capacity and  naturally
low pH.  They  tend to be less productive. Such conditions
are found especially in dark colored waters draining from
coniferous  forests or muskegs, and in swampy sections of
the Southeast.  For a variety of reasons, some waters may
exhibit quite extreme pH values. Before these are considered
natural conditions,  it should be ascertained that they have
not actually resulted  from man-made changes,  such as
stripping of ground cover or old mining activities.  This is
important because the  recommendations refer to estimated
natural levels.

TOXICITY TO AQUATIC LIFE
  Some  aquatic  organisms,  especially algae,  have  been
found to live at pH 2 and lower, and others  at pH 10 and
higher; however, such organisms are relatively few. Some
natural waters  with a pH of 4 support healthy populations
of fish and other organisms. In  these cases  the acidity is
due primarily to carbon dioxide and natural organic acids,
and  the water  has little  buffering capacity. Other  natural
waters with a pH of 9.5 also support fish but are not usually
highly productive.
  The effects of pH on aquatic life have been reviewed i
detail in excellent reports by the European Inland Fisherii
Advisory  Commission (1969)160 and Katz (1969).161 Ii
terpretations and summaries of these reviews are given i
Table 111-6.

ADVERSE INDIRECT EFFECTS OR  SIDE EFFECTS

  Addition  of  either acids or alkalies to water  may I
harmful not only by producing acid or alkaline condition
but also  by increasing the toxicity of various componeri
in the waters.  For  example, acidification  of  water ma
release free carbon dioxide. This exerts a toxic  action ac
ditional to that of the lower prl. Recommendations for p]
are valid  if carbon  dioxide is less  than 25 mg/1  (see tt
discussion of Carbon Dioxide, p. 139).
  A reduction of about 1.5 pH units can cause a thousanc
fold  increase in  the acute  toxicity of a metallocyanic
complex  (Doudoroff et al.  1966).169 The addition of stron
alkalies may cause the formal ion of undissociated NH4OH c
un-ionized NH3 in quantities that  may be toxic  (Lloy
1961,163  Burrows  1964).158 Many   other pollutants ma
change their toxicity to a lesser extent. It is difficult 1
predict whether  toxicity  will increase or decrease  for
given direction of change in pH.
  Weakly dissociated acids and bases must be  considere
in terms of their toxicities, as well  as their effects on pi
and alkalinity.
  The availability of many nutrient substances varies wit
the hydrogen ion concentration. Some trace metals becon'
more soluble at low pH. At higher pH values, iron tenc
to become unavailable to some plants, and hence the prc
duction of the whole aquatic community may be affectec
  The major buffering system in  natural waters  is th
carbonate system that not  only neutralizes acids and base
to reduce the fluctuations in  pH, but also forms a reserve
of carbon for photosynthesis. This process is indispensabl(
because there is a limit on the rate at which carbon dioxid
can be obtained from the atmosphere to replace that in th
water. Thus the productivity of waters is closely correlate
to the carbonate buffering system. The addition of miners
acids preempts the carbonate buffering capacity, and th
                                                       140

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                                                                                                      Acidity, Alkalinity, and pH/\4\
     TABLE III-6—A Summary of Some Effects of pH on
        Freshwater Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms
    PH
11 5-12.0
11 0-11 5
10 5-11.0
10.0-10.5
 9.5-10.0
 9.0-9.5
 8.5-9.0
 8.0-8.5
 7.0-8.0
6.5-7.0
6.0-6.5
5.5-6 0
5.0-5.5
                                  Known effects
4.5-5.0
 4.0-4.5
 3.5-4.0
 3.0-3.5
 Some caddis flies (Trichoptera) survive but emergence reduced.
 Rapidly lethal to all species of fish.
 Rapidly lethal to salmonlds. The upper limit is lethal to carp (Cyprinus carpio), goldfish (Carassius
  auratus), and pike. Lethal to some stoneflies (Plecoptera) and dragonflies (Odonata). Caddis
  fly emergence reduced.
 Withstood by salmomds for short periods but eventually lethal. Exceeds tolerance of bluegills
 (Lepomis macrochirus) and probably goldfish- Some typical stoneflies and mayflies (Ephemera)
  survive with reduced emergence.
 Lethal to salmomds over a prolonged period of time and no viable fishery for coldwater species.
  Reduces populations of warmwater fish and may be harmful to development stages. Causes
  reduced emergence of some stoneflies.
 Likely to be harmful to salmomds and perch (Perca) if present for a considerable length of time
  and no viable fishery for coldwater species. Reduced populations of warmwater fish. Carp avoid
  these levels.
 Approaches tolerance limit of some salmonids,  whitefish (Coregonus), catfish (Ictaluridae), and
  perch. Avoided by goldfish. No  apparent effects on invertebrates.
 Motihty of carp sperm reduced. Partial mortality of burbot (Lota lota) eggs.
Full fish production. No known harmful effects on adult or immature fish, but 7.0 is near low limit
  for Gammarus reproduction and perhaps for some other crustaceans.
 Not lethal to fish unless heavy metals or cyanides that are more toxic at low pH are present.
  Generally full fish production,  but for fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), frequency of
  spawning and number of eggs are somewhat reduced. Invertebrates except crustaceans relatively
  normal, including common occurrence of mollusks Microorganisms, algae, and higher plants
  essentially normal.
 Unlikely to be toxic to fish unless free carbon dioxide is presentin excess of 100 ppm. Good aquatic
  populations with varied species can exist with some exceptions. Reproduction of Gammarus and
  Daphma prevented, perhaps other crustaceans. Aquatic plants and microorganisms relatively
  normal except fungi frequent.
 Eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontmalis) survive at over pH 5.5. Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
  do not occur. In natural situations, small populations of relatively (ew species of fish can be
  found. Growth rate of carp reduced. Spawning of fathead minnow significantly reduced. Mollusks
  rare.
 Very restricted fish populations but not lethal to any fish species unless CO: is high (over 25 ppm),
  or water contains iron salts. May be lethal to eggs and larvae of sensitive fish species. Prevents
  spawning of fathead minnow. Benthic invertebrates moderately diverse, with certain black flies
  (Simuliidae), mayflies(Ephemerella), stoneflies,and midges (Chironomidae) presentin numbers.
  Lethal to other invertebrates such as the mayfly. Bacterial species diversity decreased; yeasts
  and sulfur and iron bacteria (Thiobacillus-Ferrobacillus) common. Algae reasonably diverse and
  higher plants will grow.
 No viable fishery can be maintained. Likely to be lethal to eggs and fry of salmomds. A salmomd
  population could not reproduce. Harmful, but not necessarily lethal to carp. Adult brown trout
  (Salmo trutta) can survive in peat waters. Benthic fauna restricted, mayflies reduced. Lethal to
  several typical stoneflies. Inhibits emergence of certain caddis fly, stonefly, and midge larvae.
  Diatoms are dominant algae.
 Fish populations limited; only a few species survive. Perch, some coarse fish, and pike can accli-
  mate to this pH, but only pike reproduce. Lethal to fathead minnow. Some caddis flies and dragon-
  flies found in such habitats; certain midges dominant. Flora restricted.
 Lethal to silmonids and bluegills. Limit of tolerance of pumkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus), perch,
  pike, and some coarse fish. All flora and fauna severely restricted in number of species. Cattail
  (Typha) is only common higher plant
 Unlikely that any fish can survive  for more than a few hours. A few kinds of invertebrates such as
  certain midges and alderflies, and a few species of algae may be found at this pH range and lower
original biological productivity is reduced in proportion to
the  degree that such capacity  is exhausted.  Therefore,  the
minimum  essential  buffering  capacity and tolerable   pH
limits are  important water quality considerations.
   Because of this importance,  there should be  no serious
depletion  of the carbonate  buffering  capacity,  and it is
recommended  that reduction of alkalinity of natural waters
should  not exceed 25 per cent.
Recommendations
   Suggested  maximum  and  minimum  levels  of
protection for aquatic life are given in the following
recommendations. A  single range of  values  could
not apply to all kinds  of fish, nor could it cover the
different degrees of graded effects. The selection of
the level of protection is a socioeconomic decision,
not a biological one.  The levels are denned in  Table
III-3 (see the discussion of Dissolved Oxygen).

Nearly  Maximum Level of Protection
     • pH not less than  6.5 nor  more  than 8.5. No
        change greater than 0.5 units above the esti-
        mated  natural  seasonal maximum, nor be-
        low  the  estimated  natural  seasonal  mini-
        mum.

High  Level of Protection
     • pH not less than  6.0 nor  more  than 9.0. No
        change greater   than  0.5  units outside the
        estimated natural  seasonal  maximum  and
        minimum.

Moderate Level of Protection
     • pH not less than  6.0 nor  more  than 9.0. No
        change greater   than  1.0  units outside the
        estimated natural  seasonal  maximum  and
        minimum.

Low Level of  Protection
     • pH not less than  5.5 nor  more  than 9.5. No
        change greater   than  1.5  units outside the
        estimated natural  seasonal  maximum  and
        minimum.

Additional Requirements for All Levels of Protection
     • If a natural pH is outside the stated range of
        pH for a  given level of protection, no further
        change is desirable.
     • The extreme range of pH  fluctuation in any
        location should  not be greater than 2.0 units.
        If natural fluctuation exceeds this, pH should
        not be altered.
     • The natural daily and  seasonal patterns  of
        pH variation should be maintained, although
        the absolute values may  be altered  within
        the limits specified.
     • The total alkalinity of water is not to be de-
        creased  more  than 25  per  cent  below  the
        natural level.

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                                 DISSOLVED  SOLIDS  AND  HARDNESS
  Surface water at  some time  and place may contain  a
trace or more of any water-soluble substance. The signifi-
cance and the effects of small concentrations of these sub-
stances  are  discussed separately throughout this Report.
The presence and relative abundance  of these constituents
in water is influenced by several factors, including surface
runoff, geochemistry of the  watershed, atmospheric fallout
including snow  and  rainfall, man-created  effluents, and
biological and chemical processes in the water itself. Many
of these dissolved materials are essential to the life processes
of aquatic organisms. For a  general discussion of the chem-
istry of fresh water  the reader is referred  to Hutchinsori
(1957)167 and Ruttner (1963).172
  A general term describing the concentration of dissolved
materials in water is total dissolved solids.  The more con-
spicuous constituents of total  dissolved solids in natural
surface waters include carbonates, sulfates, chlorides,  phos-
phates,  and nitrates. These anions  occur in combination
with such metallic cations as calcium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and iron to form ionizable salts (Reid 1961).170
  Concentrations and relative proportions of dissolved ma-
terials  vary widely  with locality and time.  Hart   et al.
(1945)166 reported that  in the inland waters of the United
States which support a  mixed biota, 5 per cent have  a dis-
solved  solids concentration  under 72  mg/1; about 50 per
cent under  169 mg/1;  and 95  per  cent under 400  mg/1.
Table  III-7 provides information on ranges  and median
concentrations of the major ions in United States streams.
  The quantity and  quality of dissolved solids are  major
factors in determining the variety and  abundance of  plants
and animals in  an aquatic system. They serve as nutrients
in productivity,  osmotic stress, and direct toxicity. A  major
change in quantity or composition of  total dissolved solids
changes the structure and function  of aquatic ecosystems.
Such changes are difficult to predict.
  Concentrations of dissolved  solids  affecting freshwater
fish by  osmotic  stress are not well known.  Mace  (1953)169
and Rounsefell  and  Everhart  (1953)171 reported  that the
upper limit may range between 5,000 and 10,000 mg/1 total
dissolved solids, depending  on  species  and prior acclimati-
zation. The literature indicates  that concentrations of total
dissolved solids that cause osmotic stress in adult fish a:
higher than the concentrations existing in most fresh wate
of the United States. Many dissolved materials are toxic
concentrations lower  than those where osmotic  effect cz
be expected. (See Toxic Substances, p. 172, and  Acidit
Alkalinity, and pH, p. 140.)
  Hardness of surface waters is a component of total di
solved solids and is  chiefly attributable  to  calcium  ar
magnesium ions. Other ions such as  strontium,  bariur
manganese, iron, copper, zinc,  and lead add to hardnes
but since they are normally  present in minor concentratioi
their  effect is usually minimal.  Generally, the  biologic
productivity of a water is directly correlated with its han
ness. However, while  calcium and magnesium contribu
to hardness and productivity, many other elements (whc
present in concentrations  which  contribute  a substanti
measure of hardness)  reduce biological  productivity  ar
are toxic.  Hardness, per se has no  biological significani
because  biological  effects are  a  function of the specii
concentrations and combinations of the elements present
  The term "hardness" serves a useful purpose as a gener
index of water type, buffering capacity,  and productivit
Waters high in calcium and magnesium ions (hard wate
lower  the  toxicity of many metals to aquatic life (Brov
1968;166 Lloyd  and Herbert 1962).168 (See Figure  III-9
the  discussion  of Metals,  p.  178.)  However,   the  ter
"hardness" should be  avoided in delineating water quali
TABLE III-7—Major Dissolved Constituents of River Wate
Representing About 90 Percent of Total Stream Flow in tl
                      United States
         Constituent
                            Median mg/1
Range mg/1
Total dissolved solids
Bicarbonate (HCO,) .
Sulfate (SOO
Chloride (Cl)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Me)
Sodium and potassium (Na and K)
169
90
32
9
28
7
10
72-400
40-180
11-90
3-170
15-52
3.5-14
6-85
                                                           Source: Alter Hart etal.(1945)15«

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                                                                          Dissolved Solids and Hardness/143
requirements for aquatic life. More emphasis  should be
placed on specific ions.

Recommendation

  Total dissolved materials should not be changed
to the  extent that the  biological communities
characteristic  of  particular  habitats are signifi-
cantly changed. When dissolved materials are al-
tered,  bioassays and field  studies can determine
the  limits  that  may  be  tolerated  without  en-
dangering  the structure  and  function of  the
aquatic ecosystem.

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                                                      OILS
  Losses of oil that can have  an adverse effect on water
quality and aquatic life can occur in many of the phases of
oil production, refining, transportation, and use. Pollution
may be in the form of floating oils, emulsified oils, or solution
of the water soluble fraction of these oils.
  The toxicity of crude oil has been difficult to  interpret
since crude oil may contain many different organic com-
pounds  and inorganic elements.  The composition of such
oils may-vary from region to region, and petroleum products
produced can be drastically different in  character in line
with their different intended  uses  (Purdy 1958).198 The
major components of crude oil can be categorized as ali-
phatic normal hydrocarbons, cyclic paraffin hydrocarbons,
aromatic hydrocarbons, naphtheno-aromatic hydrocarbons,
resins, asphaltenes, heteroatomic compounds, and metallic
compounds  (Bestougeff  1967).m The  aromatic  hydro-
carbons in crude oil appear to be the major group of acutely
toxic compounds (Blumer  1971,176 Shelton  1971).199
  Because the biological effects  of oils  and  the relative
merits of  control  measures  are discussed  in  detail  in
Section  IV (p. 257) of this Report, only effects of special
interest  or  pertinence  to fresh water are  discussed here.
The effects of floating oil on wildlife are discussed on p. 196.

OIL  REFINERY EFFLUENTS

  Copeland  and  Dorris (1964)180 studied  primary pro-
ductivity  and  community  respiration in  a series  of  oil
refinery  effluent  oxidation ponds. These  ponds received
waste waters which had been in contact with the crude oil
and various products produced within the refinery. Surface
oils were  skimmed. In the series of oxidation ponds, pri-
mary productivity and community  respiration  measure-
ments clearly indicated that primary producers were limited
in the first ponds, probably by toxins in the water. Oxidation
ponds further along in the series  typically supported algal
blooms. Apparently degradation of the toxic organic com-
pounds reduced  their  concentration below the threshold
lethal to  the algae. Primary productivity was not greater
than community respiration in the first ponds in the series.
Minter  (1964)195  found  that  species diversity  of phyto-
plankton was lowest in the first four ponds of the series
ten.  A "slug" of unknown toxic  substance  drastically r
duced  the  species diversity  in  all ponds.  Zooplanktc
volumes  increased  in  the latter  half of the  pond serie
presumably as a result of decreasing toxicity. Benthic faur
species diversity in streams receiving oil refinery effluen
was low near the outfall and progressively increased dowi
stream as biological assimilation reduced the concentratk
of toxins (Wilhm and  Dorris  1966,206 Harrel et al. 1967,-
Mathis and Dorris  1968191).
   Long-term,  continuous-flow bioassays  of biological
treated oil  refinery effluents  indicated  that  complex r
fineries produce effluents which contain  cumulative toxii
of substances that cause  accumulative deleterious eff'ec
(Graham and Dorris  1968).182 Subsequent long-term coi
tinuous-flow bioassays of biologically  treated oil  refine]
effluents indicated that passage of the effluent through ad
vated carbon columns does not remove  the fish toxicant
Of the fathead minnows (Pimphales promelas) tested,  hi
were killed in  14 days, and only 10 per cent survived '
days (Burks 1972207 personal communication).  Trace organ
compounds identified  in extracts  from the effluent were
homologous series of aliphatic hydrocarbons (CnH22 throm
CisHas) and isomers of cresol and  xylenol. Since the solub
fractions derived from oil refineries are quantitatively, ar
to some  extent  qualitatively, different from those derive
from oil  spills, care must be taken to differentiate betwec
these two sources.
FREE AND FLOATING  OIL

   Free oil or emulsions may adhere  to  the gills  of fis
interfering with respiration and causing asphyxia.  Withi
limits, fish are able  to  combat this by defensive mucoi
secretions  (Cole 1941 ).179 Free oil and  emulsions may liki
wise coat  aquatic  plants and destroy them (McKee an
Wolf 1963).193
   Fish and benthic organisms may be  affected  by solub
substances extracted  from the  oils or by  coating  froi
emulsified oils. Water soluble  compounds from crude c
                                                        144

-------
manufactured  oils may  also contain  tainting substances
which affect the taste of fish and waterfowl  (Krishnawami
and Kupchanko 1969).189
  Toxicity tests for oily substances provide  a broad range
of results which do not permit rigorous safety evaluations.
The variabilities are due  to differences in petroleum prod-
ucts tested,  non-uniform  testing  procedures,  and  species
differences.  Most of the research  on the effects of oils  on
aquatic life has used pure compounds which exist only in
low percentages in many  petroleum products or crude oils.
Table 111-8 illustrates the range of reported toxicities. For
halo-, nitro-,  or  thio-derivatives, the  expected  toxicity
would be greater.
  Because of the basic difficulties in evaluating the toxicity,
especially of the emulsified oils, and  because there is  some
evidence  that  oils may persist  and have subtle chronic
effects (Blumer 1971),m> the maximum allowable concen-
tration of emulsified oils should be determined on an  indi-
vidual basis and kept below 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 for
sensitive  species.
                                           TABLE III-8—Toxicity Ranges
Chemical
Aniline 	
Benzene 	


Crerol...
Cyclohnane ..



Ethylbfnzene 	



Heptane . . .
Isopreae ...



NeihMCiad

NffMnJim ...
ToUwn.




Gwrint.

Brtlint oil 2
Dtewlfwl
Binkaroil .
Blinker C oil . .
ppm. cone.
379
31
22
32
10
30
31
33
48
40
29
73
78
4924
75
39
180
140
5.6
6.6-7.5
165
1260
44
24
62
66
91
40
14,500
167
2417
1700
E fleet
none
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
" . .

" . .
". .
" . .

48 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
" . .
". .
". .
"...
" . .
48 hr LC50
". .
96 hr LC50
..."..
" . .
" . .
48 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
48 hr LC50
. .". .
168 hr LC50
Species
Daphma magna
Pimeptiaies promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lepomis macrochirus
Pi mephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
. Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
. Carassius auratus
. Lebistes reticulatus
Gambusia affims
Pimephales promelas
. Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Lepomis macrochirus
Physa heterostropha
Gambusia aflinis

Pimephales promelas
. Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Alosa sapidissima
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo gairdnen
Alosa sapidissimia
. Alosa sapidissima
Salmo salar
Investigator
Anderson 194417"
Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" . . ".
" ".
Cairns & Scheier 1959'-
Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" . ".
" ". ....
". ...
	 	
" ". .......

". . . .
Wallen et al. 1957™'
Pickering & Henderson 1966""


" . ".
Cairns & Scheier 1958"'
" ". . .. .
Wallen etal !957Mi

Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" ".
" " 	

Tagatz1961"3
Meincketal. 19561"
Turnbulletal 1954-"'
Tagatz 19612"M

Sprague and Carson manuscript 1970MO
SED1MENTED OIL

  Ludzack et al. (1957)190 found that the sediment in the
Ottawa River in Ohio downstream from a refinery consisted
of up to 17.8 per cent oil. Hunt (1957)187 and Hartung and
Klingler (1968)185 reported on the occurrence of sedimented
oil in the  Detroit River. North et al. (1965)196 found  sedi-
mented oils after an oil pollution incident in marine coves
in Baja California.  Forbes and Richardson (1913)181 re-
ported 2.5 per cent oils in the bottom deposits of the Illinois
River. McCauley (1964)192 reported finding oily bottom
deposits after oil pollution near Boston. Thus,  while the
reports may be  scattered, the  evidence  is clear that the
existence of sedimented oils in association with oil pollution
is widespread.
  There is an increasing body of evidence indicating that
aliphatic hydrocarbons are synthesized by aquatic organisms
and find their way into sediments in areas which have little
or no history of oil  pollution (Han et  al. 1968,'83 Avigan
and Blumer 1968174). Hydrocarbons have been reported in
the recent sediments of lakes in  Minnesota (Swain  1956)202
and the Gulf of Mexico (Stevens et al. 1956).201
  Areas which contain oily sediments usually have an im-
poverished benthic fauna; it is not clear to what extent oil
contributes to  this, because  of the presence of other pol-
lutants (Hunt 1962).188 However, there are recurring reports

-------
146/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
of a probable relationship between sedimented oils and
altered benthic communities. Sedimented oils may act as
concentrators for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides  (Har-
tung and Klingler 1970),186 but the  biological implications
indicate that additional study is required.
  Because of the differences in toxicities of sedimented oils
and because of limited knowledge on quantities which are
harmful to aquatic life, it is suggested that the concentration
of hexane extractable substances (exclusive of elemental
sulfur) in air-dried sediments not be permitted to increase
above 1,000 mg/kg on a dry weight basis.
Recommendations

  Aquatic  life  and  wildlife  should be  protected
where:
• there is no visible oil on the surface;
• emulsified oils do not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour
  LC50;
» concentration of hexane extractable substances
  (exclusive of elemental sulfur) in air-dried sedi-
  ments does not increase above 1,000 mg/kg on a
  dry weight basis.

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                                         TAINTING  SUBSTANCES
  Discharges from municipal wastewater treatment plants,
a variety of industrial wastes and organic compounds, as
well as biological organisms, can impart objectionable taste,
odor,  or color to the flesh of fish  and other edible aquatic
organisms.  Such tainting can occur in waters with concen-
trations of  the offending material lower than those recog-
nized  as being harmful  to an animal (Tables III-9 and
111-10).

BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF TAINTING

  Thaysen  (1935)231 and Thaysen and Pentelow (1936)232
demonstrated that a muddy or earthy taste can be imparted
to the flesh of trout by material produced by an odiferous
species of Actinomyces. Lopinot (1962)224  reported a serious
fish and municipal  water supply  tainting problem on the
Mississippi  River in  Illinois during a period  when actino-
mycetes, Oscillatoria, Scenedesmus, and Actinastrum were abun-
dant.  Oscillatoria princeps and  0.  agardhi in plankton  of a
German lake were  reported by Cornelius   and  Bandt
(1933)213 as causing  off-flavor in  lake fish. Aschner et  al.
(1967)210 concluded  that the benthic alga,  O. tenms,  in
rearing  ponds in Israel was responsible for imparting  such
a bad flavor to carp  (Cyprinus carpw) that the fish were
unacceptable on the market. Henley's (1970)221 investigation
of odorous metabolites of Cyanophyta showed  that Anabaena
circinahs releases geosmin and indicated that  this material
was responsible for the musty or earthy odor often  char-
acteristic of water from reservoirs  with heavy  algal  growths
in summer  and fall.
  Oysters occasionally exhibit green coloration of the gills
due to absorption of the blue-green pigment of the diatom,
Navicula, (Ranson 1927).226

TAINTING  CAUSED BY  CHEMICALS

  Phenolic compounds are often associated with both water
and fish tainting problems (Table  III-9). However, Albers-
meyer (1957)208 and Albersmeyer and  Erichsen (1959)209
found that, after being dephenolated, both a carbolated oil
and a light  oil still imparted a taste to fish more pronounced
than  that produced by similar exposures  to naphthalene
and  methylnaphthalene (phenolated  compounds).  They
concluded that other hydrocarbons in the oils were more
responsible for imparting off-flavor than the phenolic ma-
terials in the two naphthalenes tested.
  Refineries (Fetterolf 1962),216 oily wastes (Zillich 1969),236
and crude oil (Galtsoff et al. 1935)219 have been associated
with ofT-flavor problems of fish and shellfish in both fresh-
water and marine  situations (Westman and Hoff 1963).234
Krishnawami and  Kupchanko (1969)223 demonstrated that
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) adsorbed enough compounds
from  a  stream  polluted with oil slicks and  oil refinery
effluents to exhibit  a definite oily taste and flavor. In waters
receiving black liquor from kraft pulp  mills, the  gills and
mantles of oysters  developed a gray color (Galtsoff et al.
1947).218 The authors also found this condition in oysters
grown  in  waters   receiving domestic  sewage.  Newton
(1967)237 confined  trout in live-cages and correlated inten-
  TABLE 111-9—Wastewaters Found to have Lowered the
                Portability of Fish Flesh
Wastewater source
2, 4-D mf(. plant
Coal— coking
Coal-tar
Kraft process (untreated)

Kraft process (treated)

Kraft and neutral sulfite
process
Municipal dump runoff

Municipal untreated sewage
(2 locations)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plants (4 locations)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plant (Primary)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plant (Secondary)
Oily wastes
Refinery
Sewage containing phenols
Slaughterhouses (2 locations)
Concentration in
water affecting
payability of fish
50-100 mg/l
0.02-0.1 rroj/l
O.lmg/l
1-2% by vol.

9-12% by vol.









11-13% hy »ol.

20-26% oy vol.



O.lmg 1

Species
Trout
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Salmon

Salmon

Trout

Channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus)
Channel catfish

Channel catfish

Freshwater fish

Freshwater fish

Trout
Trout
Freshwater fish
Channel catfish
Reference
Shumway 1956««
Bandt 1955'-"
Bandt 1955="
Shumway and Chadwick
197)229
Shumway and Palensky, un-
published data1"
Newton 1967":

Thomas and Hicks 19712"

Tnomas and Hicks 1971MJ

Thomas and Hicks 197V"

Shumway and PalensKy, un-
published data'"
Shumway and Palensky, un-
published data"8
Zilhch 1969»t
Fetterolf 1962""
Bandt 1955="
Thomas and Hicks 1971="
                                                       147

-------
 \48/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 TABLE HI-10—Concentrations of Chemical Compounds in
 Water That  Can Cause Tainting of the Flesh of Fish and
                 Other Aquatic Organisms
           Chemical
                           Estimated threshold level in water
                                  (me/0
                                                Reference*
acetophenone
acrylonitnle
cresol
m-cresol
o-cresol
p-cresol
cresylic acid (meta para)
N-butylmercaptan
o-sec. butylphenol
p-ttrt. butylphenol
o-chlorophenol
p-chlorophenol
2,3-dichlorophenol
2,4-dichlorophenol
2,5-dichlorophenol
2,6-dtchlorophenol
2-methyl, 4-chlorophenol
2-methyl, 6-chlorophenol
o-phenylphenol
2,4,6-trichlorophenol
phenol
phenols in polluted river
riiphenyl oxide
(3,/3-dichlorodiethyl ether
o-dichlorobenzene
ethylbenzene
ethanethiol
ethylacrylate
formaldehyde
kerosene
kerosene plus kaolin
isopropylbenzene
naphtha
naphthalene
naphthol
2-naphthol
dimethylamme
a-metliylstyrene
oil, emulsifiable
pyndine
pyrocatechol
pyroeallol
quinolme
p-quinone
styrene
toluene
outboard motor fuel, as exhaust
jciaiacol
0.5
18
0.07
0.2
0.4
0 12
0.2
0.06
0.3
0.03
0.0001 to 0.015
0.01 to 0.05
0 084
0 001 to 0 014
0 023
0.035
0 075
0 003
1
0.003(00.05
Ho tO
0.02 to 0.15
0.05
0.09 to 1.0
0 25
<0 25
0.24
0.6
95
0.1
1
<0.25
0.1
1
0.5
0.3
7
0 25
>15
5 to 28
0 8 to 5
20 to 30
0 5to1
0.5
0.25
0.25
2 S jal acre-foot
0.082






d
I
d
d
b,d, e
d,e,e
I
d, f, j
8
8
I
8
d
8

-------
                                                                                            Tainting Sub stances /149
Boetius (1954)212 reported that eels required up to 11 days
exposure before flavor impairment was detected. The time
required to impair flavor was found to be related  to  the
exposure concentration, with low concentrations requiring
longer exposure periods.
  Shumway (1966)228 found that the flesh of salmon exposed
experimentally to industrial wastes containing mainly phe-
nols acquired  maximum off-flavor in 35 hours or less, with
much  of the  tainting occurring within the first 6  hours.
After the salmon were transferred to uncontaminated water,
most of the acquired  off-flavor was lost within  20  hours,
although some off-flavor remained up  to 72 hours.
  In other tests, Shumway and Palensky (unpublished data)™
observed flavor impairment in trout after 24-hour exposure
to 2,4-dichlorophenol. After only 33.5  hours in uncontami-
nated  water,  the flavor of the  trout had  returned  to  the
preexposure level, with most of the reduction in off-flavor
occurring within 6.5 hours.
  Korschgen  et  al.  (1970)222 transferred  carp (Cyprinus
carpio)  to uncontaminated ponds from two sites,  one  of
which  received effluents from a major municipality and one
of which received little or no  effluent. Retention up to  18
days in the holding ponds failed to improve the flavor of the
carp from the contaminated  site.  These authors also  re-
ported that channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) transferred
from the  Ohio River  to control water lost about half of
their off-flavor in 7 days and nearly all of it in  21 days.

IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES OF OFF-FLAVORED
ORGANISMS

  Determination that a tainting problem exists, or identifi-
cation  of a taint-causing material, involves field or labora-
tory exposure periods and organoleptic tests. When properly
conducted, these tests are  reliable but  time-consuming.
Wright (1966)238 reported on the use of gas chromatography
in conjunction with organoleptic tests. The chromatographic
scans were compared with scans of industrial process waste
streams to identify the taint-producing wastes. Gas chro-
matographic  techniques are employed routinely in food
technology laboratories investigating flavor and odor prop-
erties (Rhoades and Millar 1965).226

EXPOSURE AND ORGANOLEPTIC TESTS

  Field exposure tests  (bioassays)  are  used to determine
the existence or the magnitude  of a tainting problem in a
water body. Fish or other edible aquatic life are held for a
period of time in cages at selected locations in and around
a suspected problem area or waste discharge and eventually
evaluated  for  flavor.  Laboratory bioassays are normally
utilized to determine the tainting potential of wastes, waste
components, or specific chemicals. Although either static
or continuous-flow bioassays can be used in laboratory tests,
continuous-flow systems are considered far superior to static
tests. Exposure bioassays are followed by the organoleptic
evaluation of the flesh of the test organisms.
   In their studies of tainted organisms, investigators have
used a number of different bioassay  and flavor-evaluation
procedures, some of which have produced poorly defined
results. The following guidelines are based primarily on the
successful procedures  of Shumway and  Newton (personal
communications).™
Test Fish
   The flesh of the  fish to be exposed should be mild and
consistent in flavor. For convenience in holding and taste
testing, fish weighing between  200 and 400  grams are de-
sir able,  although smaller or  larger fish  are acceptable.
Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), yellow perch (Perca
flavescens),  channel catfish, bluegill  (Lepomis macrochirus),
trout, salmon flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes), and others have
proven to be acceptable test fish.

Exposure Period
   In general, test fish should be exposed for a  period  not
less  than 48 hours. Shorter or  longer exposures will be
advisable in some situations, although possible stress, disease,
and mortality resulting from longer  retention of test  fish
and maintenance of holding facilities may negate advantages
of long exposure.

Exposure Conditions
   The following conditions are  desirable  in  laboratory
bioassays:
   Dissolved oxygen  	near saturation
   Temperature	10-15  C for salmonids, and
                           20-25  C  for warmwater fish
   pH	6.0-8.0, or pH  of receiving
                           water
   Light	intensity held at a low level
   Water	uncontaminated, or quality
                           of the receiving water; never
                           distilled water

Preparation of Test Fish and Evaluation
   Exposed fish and control fish, either fresh or fresh-frozen
and subsequently thawed, are individually double-wrapped
in aluminum foil, placed in an oven  and cooked at about
375 F for 15 to 30 minutes, as size requires. Large fish may
be portioned for cooking. No seasoning of any  kind is
added. Portions of _the cooked  fish  may be placed in small
coded cups and served warm to the judges for flavor evalu-
ation. A  known "reference" may be provided to aid judges
in making comparisons.  A minimum of ten experienced
judges, each seated in  an isolation booth or similar area,
smell, taste,  and score each sample. This  method offers
tighter control of variables and conforms more to off-flavor
evaluations  conducted in food  laboratories than the more
informal procedure below.

-------
150/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
  An alternative method is to place the cooked fish, still
partially wrapped in foil to preserve the heat and flavor,
on a large table. The judges start concurrently and  work
their way  around the table,  recording aroma and flavor.
If a judge tastes more than six samples during a test, a
lessening of organoleptic acuity may occur.
  When investigating the potential of a substance to pro-
duce taint, a word-evaluation scale for intensity of off-flavor
ranging from no off-flavor to extreme off-flavor, has proven
successful  with trained,  experienced judges. Numerical
values from  0 to 6 are applied to the word scale for  deri-
vation of off-flavor indices and statistical evaluation.
  When using the above method, less experienced judges
tend to  over-react to  slight off-flavor.  For this reason, in
less formal tests evaluating the effect of a substance on the
palatability of the organism, an hedonic scale accompanied
by word-judgments describing  palatability is appropriate,
i.e., 0—excellent,  1—very good, 2—good, 3—fair, 4—just
acceptable, 5—not quite acceptable, 6—very poor, inedible,
and 7—extremely poor,  repulsive. Scores of the judges on
each sample are averaged to determine final numerical or
word-judgment values.
  To determine whether there are acceptability differences
between controls and test organisms, a triangle test may be
used in  which two samples are alike and one is different.
Judges are asked to select the like samples, to  indicate the
degree of difference, and to rate both the like and the odd
samples on a preference scale.

STATISTICAL EVALUATION
  The triangle test is particularly well adapted to statistical
analysis,  but the organoleptic  testing  necessary is  more
extensive than when hedonic scales are used.
  Application of the two-way analyses of  variance to
hedonic-scale data is an  acceptable test,  but professional
assistance  with statistical procedures is desirable. Reliance
on the word-judgment system is sufficient for general  infor-
mation purposes.

Recommendations
• To  prevent  tainting of  fish  and  other  edible
  aquatic organisms, it is recommended that sub-
  stances which cause tainting should not be pres-
  ent in water in concentrations that lower the
  acceptability of such organisms as determined
  by exposure bioassay and organoleptic tests.
• Values  in Tables III-9  and IH-10 are  recom-
  mended as guidelines in determining what con-
  centrations of  wastes  and  substances in water
  may cause tainting of  the flesh of fish or other
  aquatic organisms.

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                                        HEAT  AND TEMPERATURE
  Living organisms do not respond to the quantity of heat
but to degrees of temperature or to temperature changes
caused by transfer of heat. The importance of temperature
to acquatic organisms is well known, and the composition
of aquatic communities depends largely on the temperature
characteristics of their environment. Organisms have upper
and lower thermal tolerance limits, optimum temperatures
for growth,  preferred temperatures  in thermal gradients,
and temperature limitations for migration, spawning,  and
egg  incubation. Temperature  also affects  the  physical
environment of the aquatic medium, (e.g., viscosity, degree
of ice  cover,  and  oxygen capacity. Therefore, the com-
position of aquatic  communities depends largely  on tem-
perature characteristics  of the  environment.  In  recent
years there  has been an accelerated demand for  cooling
waters for power stations  that release large quantities of
heat, causing,  or threatening to cause, either a warming of
rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, or a rapid cooling when the
artificial sources of heat are abruptly terminated. For these
reasons, the environmental consequences  of  temperature
changes must  be considered in assessments of water quality
requirements of aquatic organisms.
  The "natural" temperatures of surface  waters of the
United States  vary from 0 C to over 40 C as a function of
latitude, altitude, season,  time  of day,  duration  of flow,
depth, and  many other variables. The agents that affect
the natural temperature are so numerous that it is unlikely
that  two bodies  of water, even in the same latitude, would
have exactly the same thermal characteristics.  Moreover, a
single aquatic habitat  typically  does not have uniform or
consistent thermal  characteristics. Since all  aquatic or-
ganisms (with the exception of aquatic mammals  and  a
few large, fast-swirnming fish) have body temperatures  that
conform to the water temperature, these natural variations
create  conditions that are optimum  at times,  but  are
generally  above or  below  optima for  particular  physio-
logical, behavioral, and competitive functions of the species
present.
  Because significant temperature changes may affect the
composition of  an  aquatic or  wildlife  community, an
induced change in  the thermal characteristics of an  eco-
system may be  detrimental. On the other hand,  altered
thermal characteristics may be beneficial,  as evidenced in
most  fish hatchery  practices and  at other aquacultural
facilities. (See the discussion of Aquaculture in Section IV.)
  The general difficulty in developing suitable criteria for
temperature (which  would limit the addition of heat) lies
in determining the deviation from "natural" temperature a
particular body  of water can experience without suffering
adverse effects  on its biota. Whatever  requirements are
suggested,  a  "natural"  seasonal  cycle  must be retained,
annual  spring and fall  changes  in  temperature must be
gradual,  and  large unnatural  day-to-day  fluctuations
should be avoided. In view of the many variables, it seems
obvious that no single  temperature  requirement can be
applied uniformly to continental or large regional  areas;
the requirements must  be closely related to each body of
water  and  to   its  particular  community of organisms,
especially the important species found in it. These should
include invertebrates, plankton, or other plant and animal
life that may be of importance  to food chains or otherwise
interact with species of direct interest to man. Since thermal
requirements of various  species differ, the  social choice of
the species to be protected allows for different "levels of
protection" among water bodies as suggested by  Doudoroff
and Shumway (1970)272  for  dissolved oxygen criteria. (See
Dissolved Oxygen, p.  131.) Although such decisions clearly
transcend the scientific judgments needed in establishing
thermal criteria for protecting selected species, biologists can
aid in making  them. Some measures useful in assigning
levels of importance  to species are:  (1) high yield  to com-
mercial or sport fisheries, (2) large biomass in the existing
ecosystem (if desirable),  (3)  important links in food chains
of other species  judged  important for other reasons,  and
(4)  "endangered" or unique status.  If  it is desirable to
attempt strict preservation  of an existing ecosystem,  the
most sensitive species or life stage may dictate the criteria
selected.
  Criteria  for making  recommendations  for water tem-
perature to protect desirable aquatic life cannot be simply a
maximum allowed change from  "natural  temperatures."
This is principally because a change of even one degree from
                                                       151

-------
 152/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
an ambient  temperature has varying significance for an
organism, depending upon where the ambient level lies
within the tolerance range. In addition, historic tempera-
ture records or, alternatively, the existing ambient tempera-
ture prior to any thermal alterations by man are not always
reliable  indicators of  desirable  conditions  for  aquatic
populations. Multiple developments of water resources also
change water temperatures both  upward  (e.g., upstream
power plants or shallow reservoirs) and downward  (e.g.,
dcepwater releases from large reservoirs),  so that "ambient"
and  "natural" are exceedingly difficult to define at a given
point over periods of several years.
  Criteria for temperature should consider both the multiple
thermal requirements of aquatic species  and requirements
for balanced communities. The number of distance require-
ments and the necessary values for each require  periodic
reexamination as knowledge of thermal  effects on aquatic
species  and  communities  increases.  Currently  definable
requirements include:

     • maximum  sustained  temperatures  that  are  con-
       sistent with maintaining  desirable  levels  of pro-
       ductivity;
     • maximum levels of  metabolic acclimation to warm
       temperatures that will permit return  to  ambient
       winter  temperatures  should  artificial   sources of
       heat cease;
     • temperature 1 imitations for survival of brief exposures
       to temperature extremes, both upper and lower;
     • restricted temperature ranges  for various stages of
       reproduction, including (for fish) gonad  growth and
       gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of
       gametes,  development of the  embryo,  commence-
       ment of independent  feeding (and other activities)
       by juveniles; and temperatures required for meta-
       morphosis,  emergence, and other  activities of lower
       forms;
     • thermal limits for diverse compositions of species of
       aquatic communities, particularly where reduction
       in  diversity creates nuisance  growths  of certain
       organisms,  or  where  important food   sources or
       chains are altered;
     • thermal requirements  of downstream aquatic life
       where upstream warming of a cold-water source will
       adversely affect downstream temperature require-
       ments.

   Thermal criteria must also be formulated with knowledge
of how man alters temperatures, the hydrodynamics of the
changes, and how the biota can reasonably be expected to
interact  with the  thermal  regimes  produced. It is not
sufficient, for example, to  define only the  thermal criteria
for sustained production of a species in open waters, because
large numbers of organisms may also be exposed to thermal
changes by  being pumped  through the  condensers and
mixing zone  of a power  plant.   Design  engineers  need
particularly to  know  the biological  limitations  to their
design options in such instances. Such considerations may
-eveal nonthermal  impacts of cooling processes that may
outweigh temperature effects, such as impingement of fish
upon intake  screens, mechanical  or chemical damage  to
zooplankton  in  condensers,  or effects of altered  current
patterns on bottom fauna in a d ischarge area. The environ-
mental situations of aquatic  organisms (e.g.,  where they
are,  when they  are there,  in what numbers) must also  be
understood. Thermal criteria for migratory species should
be applied to a certain area only when the species is actually
there.  Although thermal  effects  of  power  stations are
currently of  great  interest, other less dramatic  causes  of
temperature change including deforestation, stream chan-
nelization,  and  impoundment of flowing water  must  be
recognized.

DEVELOPMENT  OF CRITERIA

  Thermal criteria  necessary for1 the protection of species or
communities are discussed separately  below. The order of
presentation of the different criteria does not imply priority
for any one body of water. The descriptions define preferred
riethods and procedures for judging thermal requirements,
and  generally do  not  give numerical  values  (except  in
Appendix II-C). Specific  values for all limitations would
require a biological handbook that is far beyond the scope
of this Section.  The criteria may  seem complex, but they
represent an extensively developed framework of knowledge
about biological responses.  (A sample application  of these
criteria begins on page  166, Use of Temperature Criteria.)

TERMINOLOGY  DEFINED

  Some basic thermal response? of aquatic organisms will
be referred  to  repeatedly  and are  defined and reviewed
briefly here. Effects of heat  on  organisms  and  aquatic
communities have been reviewec' periodically (e.g., Bullock
1955,"9 Brett 1956;253 Fry 1947,276 1964,278  1967;279 Kinne
1970296). Some effects have been analyzed in the context of
tfiermal modification by power plants  (Parker and Krenkel
!959.sos Krenkel and Parker 1969;298 Cairns 1968;261 Clark
1969;263 and Coutant  1970c269). Bibliographic information
is available from Kennedy and Mihursky (1967),294 Raney
and  Menzel (1969),su and from annual  reviews published
by   the  Water  Pollution  Control  Federation  (Coutant
1968,265 1969,266 f970a,267 1971270).
  Each species (and often each distinct life-stage of a. species)
has  a characteristic tolerance range  of temperature as a
consequence of  acclimations  (Internal biochemical adjust-
ments) made while at previous holding temperature (Figure
I1I-2; Brett 1956253). Ordinarily., the ends of this range, or
the lethal thresholds, are defined by survival of 50 per cent
of a sample of individuals. Lethal thresholds typically  are
referred to  as "incipient lethal temperatures,"  and tem-
perature beyond these ranges would be considered "ex-

-------
                                                                                          Heat and 7 emperature/\53
 treme."  The  tolerance range  is adjusted upward by  ac-
 climation to warmer water and downward to cooler water,
 although there is  a  limit  to  such accommodation.  The
 lower end of the range •usually  is at zero degrees centigrade
 (32 F) for species in temperate latitudes (somewhat less for
 saline waters),  while the  upper  end terminates in  an
 "ultimate incipient lethal temperature" (Fry et al. 1946281).
 This ultimate  threshold temperature represents the "break-
 ing point" between the highest temperatures to which an
 animal can be  acclimated and the lowest  of the extreme
 temperatures that will kill the  warm-acclimated organism.
 Any rate of temperature  change over a period of minutes
      Ultimate incipient lethal temperature
  3  10 -
                5         10        15        20

                   Acclimation temperature —Centigrade
       After Brett 1960 254
FIGURE IH-2—Upper and  lower  lethal temperatures for
young sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) plotted to
show the zone of tolerance. Within this zone two other zones
are represented to illustrate (I) an area beyond which growth
would be poor to none-at-all under the influence of the loading
effect of metabolic demand, and (2) an area beyond which
temperature is likely to inhibit normal reproduction.
   28
   26
   24
            Acclimation temperature
           24"
                                                               10
                                                                              100            1,000

                                                                            Time to 50% mortality— Minutes
                                                 10,000
                                                               After Brett 1952 252
                                                          FIGURE III-3—Median resistance times to  high tempera-
                                                          tures  among young  Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)
                                                          acclimated to temperatures  indicated. Line A-B denotes
                                                          rising lethal threshold (incipient lethal temperatures) with
                                                          increasing acclimation temperature.  This rise  eventually
                                                          ceases  at the ultimate lethal threshold (ultimate  upper
                                                          incipient lethal temperature), line B-C.
to a few hours will not greatly affect the thermal tolerance
limits, since acclimation to changing temperatures requires
several days (Brett 1941).251
  At the temperatures above and below the incipient lethal
temperatures, survival depends not only on the temperature
but  also on the duration of exposure, with  mortality oc-
curring  more rapidly the farther the temperature is from
the threshold  (Figure III-3). (See Coutant 1970a267 and
1970b268 for further  discussion  based on both field and
laboratory studies.)  Thus, organisms  respond  to  extreme
high  and low  temperatures in  a manner similar to the
dosage-response pattern which  is  common  to toxicants,
Pharmaceuticals, and radiation  (Bliss 1937).249 Such tests
seldom extend bevond one week in duration.
MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE  TEMPERATURES FOR
PROLONGED  EXPOSURES
  Specific criteria for prolonged exposure (1 week or longer)
must be defined for warm and for cold seasons. Additional
criteria for gradual temperature (and life cycle)  changes
during  reproduction  and  development periods are  dis-
cussed on pp.  162-165.

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 154/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL  MAXIMA  FOR
 PROLONGED EXPOSURE

   Occupancy of  habitats by most  aquatic  organisms is
 often limited within the thermal tolerance range  to tem-
 peratures  somewhat below  the  ultimate  upper incipient
 lethal temperature.  This is the result of poor physiological
 performance at near lethal levels (e.g.,  growth, metabolic
 scope for  activities, appetite, food  conversion  efficiency),
 interspecies  competition,  disease, predation,  and  other
 subtle ecological factors (Fry 1951 ;277 Brett 1971256). This
 complex limitation is evidenced by restricted southern and
 altitudinal distributions of many species. On the other hand,
 optimum  temperatures  (such as those producing fastest
 growth rates) are not generally  necessary at all times to
 maintain thriving populations and  are  often exceeded in
 nature during summer months (Fry 1951 ;277 Cooper  1953 ;264
 Beyerle and  Cooper I960;246  Kramer and Smith I960297).
 Moderate  temperature  fluctuations can  generally  be
 tolerated as long as a maximum upper limit is not exceeded
 for long  periods.
   A true temperature limit  for exposures  long enough to
 reflect metabolic acclimation and optimum ecological per-
 formance must  lie  somewhere between the physiological
 optimum and the  ultimate upper incipient lethal tempera-
 tures.  Brett  (I960)254 suggested  that a provisional long-
 term exposure limit be  the temperature  greater than opti-
 mum that allowed  75 per cent of optimum performance.
 His suggestion has not been  tested by definitive studies.
   Examination  of literature  on  performance,  metabolic
 rate, temperature  preference, growth, natural distribution,
 and tolerance of several species has yielded an apparently
 sound theoretical basis for estimating an upper temperature
 limit for long term  exposure and a method for doing this
 with  a  minimum  of additional  research.  New data will
 provide refinement,  but this  method forms a useful guide
 for the present time. The method is  based on the  general
 observations summarized here and in Figure 111-4 (a, b,  c).
   1.  Performances  of organisms  over a range of tempera-
 tures are available in the scientific literature for a variety of
 functions. Figures  III-4a and b  show three characteristic
 types of responses numbered  1 through 3, of which  types 1
and  2 have  coinciding  optimum peaks. These optimum
 temperatures are characteristic for a species (or  life stage).
   2.  Degrees  of  impairment from  optimum levels  of
various  performance functions are not  uniform with  in-
 creasing temperature above the optimum for a single  species.
The most sensitive function appears to be growth rate,  for
which a  temperature of zero  growth  (with abundant food)
can  be determined  for  important species and life  stages.
 Growth rate of organisms appears to  be an integrator of all
 factors acting on an organism. Growth rate should probably
 be expressed as net biomass gain or net growth (McCormick
 et al. 1971)302 of the  population, to account for deaths.
   3.  The maximum temperature at which several species
 are consistently found  in nature  (Fry  1951 ;277 Narvi
 1970)306 lies near the average of the optimum temperatui
 and the temperature of zero net growth.
   4.   Comparison of patterns in Figures III-4a  and
 among different species indicates that while the trends a:
 similar, the optimum is closer to the lethal level in son
 species than it is in sockeye salmon. Invertebrates exhibil
 pattern of temperature effects on growth  rate that  is vei
 similar to that of fish (Figure III-4c).
   The optimum temperature may be influenced by rate <
 feeding. Brett et al. (1969)2'*7  demonstrated a shift in opt
 mum toward  cooler temperatures for sockeye  salmon wh«
 ration was restricted. In a  similar experiment with chann
 catfish, Andrews and Stickney  (1972)242 could see no sue
 shift. Lack  of a general shift in optimum may be  due 1
 compensating changes in  activity of the fish (Fry person
 observation).™
   These observations suggest  that an average of the opt
 mum temperature and the temperature of zero net growt
 [(opt. temp. + z.n.g. temp)/2] would be a useful estimate c
 a limiting weekly mean temperature for resident organism
 providing  the peak  temperatures do  not exceed  valui
 recommended  for short-term  exposures. Optimum growt
 rate would generally be reduced to no lower than 80 per cec
 of the  maximum if the limiting temperature is EIS  average
 above  (Table III-ll). This range of reduction from opt
 mum appears acceptable,  although there  are no quantit;
 tive studies  available that  would allow the criterion to 1:
 based upon a  specific level of impairment.
  The criteria for maximum upper temperature must allo1
 for seasonal changes, because different life stages of man
 species  will have different thermal  requirements for  th
 average of  their optimum cind zero net  growths. Thus
juvenile fish in May will be likely to have a lower maximui
 acceptable temperature than will the same fish in July, an
 this must be reflected in the thermal criteria for a waterbodi
  TABLE  III-ll—Summary  of  Some  Upper  Limiting.
  Temperatures in C, (for periods longer than one week)
  Based Upon Optimum Temperatures and Temperatures
                   of Zero Net Growth.


Catostomus commersoni (white sucker)
Coregonus artedii (Cisco or lake herring)

Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
"

Lepomis ntacrochirus (blue(ill) (year II)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)
Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner)
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout)


27
16

30
30

22
27.5
27
15.4

growth
29.6
21.2

35.7
35.7

28.5
34
33
18.8


*
McCormick et al.
197)302
Strawn 1970"°
Andrews and Stickney
1972M!
McComish 1971'<"
Strawn 1961">
*
*
opt+z.n.g.
2
28.3
18.6

32.8
32.8

25.3
30.8
30.5
17.1
%of
opu mui
86
82

94
88

82
83
83
80
* National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn., unpublished data.';'

-------
                                                                                         Heat and Temperature/I 55
        Gross Conversion Efficiency
                                           10                   15
                                              Acclimation Temperature C
                                                                                                       25
    After Brett 1971256
FIGURE III-4a—Performance of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in Relation to Acclimation Temperature

-------
 156/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife

   While  this approach  to  developing  the maximum sus-  sizeable body of data  on  the  ultimate incipient  leth
 tained temperature appears justified on the basis of available  temperature that could serve as a substitute for the data <
 knowledge, few limits can be derived from existing data in  temperature of zero net growth. A practical consideratic
 the literature on zero growth. On the other hand, there is a  in recommending criteria is the time required to condu
   100

-------
                                                                                         Heat and Temperature /157
 research necessary to provide missing data. Techniques for
 determining incipient lethal temperatures are standardized
 (Brett 1952)252 whereas those for zero growth are not.
   A temperature that is one-third of the range between the
 optimum temperature  and  the ultimate incipient lethal
 temperature that can be calculated  by the formula
  optimum temp. -)	
                ultimate incipient lethal temp.-optimum temp.
                                              (Equation I)
yields  values  that  are  very close to  (optimum temp. +
z.n.g. temp.)/2. For example, the values are, respectively,
32.7 and 32.8 C for channel catfish and 30.6 and 30.8 for
largemouth bass (data from Table III-8 and Appendix II).
This formula offers a  practical method for obtaining allow-
     200
     150
 •=   100
 £
      50
                         15      20      25      30
                          Temperature in C
                                                     35
         Anscll 1968 243

FIGURE III-4c—M. mercenaria: The general relationship
between temperature and the rate of shell growth, based on
field measurements of growth and temperature.
•: sites in Poole Harbor, England; Q: North American sites.
able limits, while retaining as its scientific basis the require-
ments of preserving adequate rates of growth. Some limits
obtained from data in the  literature are given  in  Table
111-12. A hypothetical example of the effect of this limit on
growth of largemouth bass is illustrated in Figure 111-5.
  Figure III-5 shows a hypothetical example of the effects
of the limit on maximum weekly  average temperature on
growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a
function of temperature are from Strawn 196131
-------
158/Section ///—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                   Annual Accumulated Growth
        250 —
                                        Elevated (with limit)
                                                                  Elevated (without limit)
                                      6       8       10
                                         Weeks
                                                  Ambient + 10 F
                             Average Ambient
                             (Lake Norman, N.C.)
                                                                                             Weekly Growth Rate
                                                                                             (Ambient)
Weekly Growth Rate
(Ambient+ 10  F)
             0    7  14  21   28   4  11  18   25   4
                     JAN.           FEB.
                                   15   22  29  6   13  20   27  3
                                  APR.             MAY
10  17  24  1
JUNE

-------
                                                                            Heat and Temperature/\59
  FIGURE III-5—A hypothetical example of the effects of the limit on maximum weekly
 average temperature on growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a function
 of temperature are from Strawn 1961; the ambient temperature is an averaged curve for Lake
 Norman, N.C., adapted from data supplied by Duke Power Company. A general temperature
 elevation of 10 F is used to provide an extreme example. Incremental growth rates (mm/wk )
 are plotted on the main figure, while annual accumulated growth is plotted in the inset.
 Simplifying assumptions were that growth rates and the relationship of growth rate to tem-
 perature were constant throughout the year, and that there would be sufficient food to sus-
 tain maximum attainable growth rates at all times.
                                       Max. Weekly Avg., largemouth bass
       Incremental
      Growth Rates
        (mm/wk)
                                                                       I
38
36
                                                                                           34
                                                                                           32
26



24

    cT
    !J
22  §
    ^3
    ^
    l;
    j?
    £
20  H



18



16



14



12



10
 15  22  29   5   12  19  26  2   9  16  23   30   7   14   21  28  4   11  18  25   2   9   16  23 30
JULY           AUG.             SEPT.           OCT.            NOV.               DEC.

-------
160/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife

TABLE 111-12—Summary of Some Upper Limiting Temperatures for Prolonged Exposures of Fishes Based on Optimum Tern
                     peratures and Ultimate Upper Incipient Lethal Temperatures (Equation 1).
Species
Catostomus commersom (white sucker)
Coregonus artedn (Cisco or lake herring)
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)

Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) (yr II)

Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass)


Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)(fry)
Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner)
Oncorhynchus nerka (sockeye salmon)

(juveniles)
Pseudopleuronectes Americans (winter
flounder)
Saimotrutta (brown trout)

Salvelinus fonti nalis (brook trout)



Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout)



Optimum
C
27
16
30

22

26.3
28.3
ave 27.3
27.5
27
15.0
15.0
15.0

18.0
8 to 17
ave 12.5
15.4
13.0
15
ave 14 5
16

17
ave 16.5
F
80.6
60.8
86

71.6

83
83
81.1
81.5
80.6
59.0
59.0


64.4
54.5

59.7
55.4
59
58.1
60.8

62.6
61.7
— Function
growth
growth
growth

growth

growth
growth

growth
growth
growth
other functions
max. swimming

growth
growth

growth
growth
metabolic
scope
scope for activity
(2 metabol:sm)
swi mmmg speed

Reference
unpubl., NWQL™-
McCormicketal. im>«
Strawn 197Q;3M Andrews and Stickney
1971142
McComish 1971»°i
Anderson 1959™
Horning and Pearson 1972291
Peek 19653M

Strawn 1961319
unpubl., NWQLI2»
Brett et al. 19692"
Brett 19712S«


Brett 1970^5
Brett 1970!ss

unpubl, NVVQL'2'
Baldwin 195J»»
Graham 19492'1

Gibson and Fry 19542"



Ultimate upper incipient Maximum weekly average
lethal temperature Reference temperature (Eq 1)
C F C F
29.3
25.7
38.0

33.8

35.0


36.4
30.7
25.0



29.1
23.5

25.5



23.5



84.7 Hart194728s 27.8
78.3 Edsall and Colby 1970™ 19.2
100. 4 Allen and Steam 1968™ 32. 1

92.8 Hart1952» 25.9

95.0 Horning and Pearson 1972291 29.9


97.5 HarH9522»6 30.5
87.3 Hart19522»« 28.2
77.0 Brett 19522*2 18.3



84.4 HoffandWestmanW9 21.8
74.3 Bishai I9602" 16 2

77. 9 Fiy, Hart and Walker, 1946=" 18. 2



(iibson and Fry 19542<" 18.8



82
66.6
90.9

78. 6

85 8


86.7
82.8
64.9



71.2
61 2

64.8



65.8



  Heat added to upper reaches of some cold rivers can be
retained  throughout  the  river's remaining length  (Jaske
and Synoground 1970).292 This factor adds to the natural
trend  of warming at  distances from headwaters.  Thermal
additions in headwaters,  therefore, may  contribute sub-
stantially to reduction of cold-water species in downstream
areas  (Mount 1970).305 Upstream thermal additions should
be evaluated for their effects on summer maxima  at down-
stream locations, as well  as in the immediate vicinity of
the heat source.

Recommendation

  Growth of aquatic organisms would be main-
tained at levels  necessary for sustaining  actively
growing and reproducing populations if the maxi-
mum weekly average temperature in the zone in-
habited  by the species at that time does not exceed
one-third of the range  between the optimum tem-
perature and  the ultimate upper incipient lethal
temperature of the species (Equation 1, page 157),
and the  temperatures above the weekly average do
not exceed the criterion for  short-term exposures.
This  maximum need not apply to acceptable mix-
ing zones (see proportional relationships of mixing
zones to receiving systems, p. 114), and must be
applied with adequate understanding of the normal
seasonal distribution of the important species.
WINTER MAXIMA

  Although  artificially produced  temperature  elevatiot
during winter months  may actually bring the temperatui
closer to optimum or preferred temperature for importat
species and attract fish  (Trembley  1965),321  metaboli
acclimation to these higher levels can preclude safe retur
of the organism to  ambient temperatures should  th
artificial heating suddenly cease (Pennsylvania Fish Con
mission 1971;310 Robinson  1970)316 or the organism  I;
driven from the heat  area.  For example,  sockeye salmo
(Oncorhynchus nerka) acclimated to 20 C suffered 50 percei
mortality in the laboratory when their temperature wj
dropped suddenly to 5 C (Brett 1971:256 see Figure III-3
The same population of fish withstood a drop to zero whe
acclimated to 5 C. The lower limit of the range of therms
tolerance of important species must,  therefore, be mair
tained at  the  normal  seasonal  ambient  temperature
throughout cold seasons, unless special provisions are mad
to assure that rapid temperature drop will not occur or tha
organisms cannot become acclimated to elevated tempera
tures.  This can be accomplished by limitations on tempera
ture elevations in such areas as discharge canals and mixin;
zones  where organisms may  reside, or by insuring tha
maximum temperatures occur only in areas not accessibl
to important  aquatic life for lengths of time sufficient  ti
allow  metabolic acclimation. Such inaccessible areas wouli
include the high-velocity zones of diffusers or screened dis

-------
                                                                                        Heat and Temperature /161
charge channels. This reduction of maximum temperatures
would not preclude use of slightly warmed areas as sites for
intense winter fisheries.
  This consideration may be important in some regions at
times other than in winter.  The Great Lakes, for example,
are susceptible to rapid changes in elevation of the thermo-
cline  in  summer which may induce  rapid decreases in
shoreline temperatures.  Fish acclimated to exceptionally
high  temperatures in discharge canals may be killed or
severely stressed without changes in  power plant opera-
tions  (Robinson 1968).314 Such regions should take special
note of this possibility.
  Some numerical values for acclimation temperatures and
lower limits  of tolerance  ranges  (lower  incipient  lethal
temperatures) are given in Appendix II-C. Other data must
be provided  by further research. There  are no adequate
data available with which to estimate a safety factor for no
stress from cold shocks. Experiments currently in progress,
however, suggest that channel catfish  fingerlings are more
susceptible to predation after being cooled more than 5 to
6 C (Coutant, unpublished data).324
  The effects of limiting ice formation in lakes and rivers
should be carefully  observed.  This aspect of maximum
winter temperatures  is apparent,  although there is insuffi-
cient  evidence to estimate  its importance.

Recommendation

  Important species  should be  protected if  the
maximum weekly  average temperature during win-
ter months in any area to which they have access
does not   exceed   the  acclimation  temperature
(minus  a  2 C safety factor)  that raises  the  lower
lethal threshold temperature of such species above
the normal ambient water temperatures for that
season,  and the criterion for short-term exposures
is not exceeded. This recommendation applies es-
pecially to  locations where organisms may be at-
tracted  from the receiving water and subjected to
rapid thermal drop, as  in the low velocity areas of
water diversions (intake or discharge), canals, and
mixing zones.


SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO EXTREME  TEMPERATURE

  To protect aquatic life and yet allow  other uses  of the
water, it  is essential to know the lengths of time organisms
can survive extreme  temperatures (i.e., temperatures  that
exceed  the   7-day  incipient  lethal  temperature).  Both
natural environments and power plant cooling systems can
briefly reach  temperature extremes (both upper and lower)
without  apparent detrimental  effect  to the aquatic  life
(Fry  1951 ;277 Becker et al.  1971).245
  The length of time that  50 per cent of a population will
survive temperature above  the incipient lethal temperature
can be  calculated from  a regression equation of experi-
mental data (such as those in Figure III-3) as follows:

               log  (time) =a+b (temp.)     (Equation 2)

where time is expressed in minutes, temperature in degrees
centigrade  and where a and  b are intercept and slope,
respectively, which  are characteristics of each acclimation
temperature for each species.  In  some cases the  time-
temperature relationship is more complex than the  semi-
logarithmic model given above. Equation  2,  however,  is
the most applicable, and is  generally  accepted  by the
scientific community (Fry  1967).279 Caution  is  recom-
mended  in extrapolating beyond  the  data limits of the
original research (Appendix II-C). The rate of temperature
change does not appear to alter this equation, as long as the
change occurs more rapidly than over several days (Brett
1941 ;251  Lemke  1970).30°  Thermal  resistance  may  be
diminished by the  simultaneous presence of toxicants or
other debilitating factors (Ebel et al. 1970,273 and summary
by Coutant 1970c).269 The most accurate predictability can
be derived from data collected using water from the site
under evaluation.
  Because  the  equations based on  research on  thermal
tolerance predict 50 per cent mortality, a  safety  factor  is
needed  to assure no mortality. Several studies have indi-
cated that a 2 C reduction of an upper stress temperature
results in no  mortalities within  an equivalent exposure
duration (Fry et al. 1942;280 Black 1953).248  The validity
of a two degree safety factor was strengthened by the results
of Coutant  (1970a).267  He  showed that about 15 to  20
per cent of the exposure time, for median mortality at a given
high temperature, induced selective predation on thermally
shocked salmon and trout. (This also amounted to reduction
of the effective  stress temperature  by about 2 C.) Un-
published data  from subsequent  predation  experiments
showed that this reduction of about 2 C also applied to the
incipient lethal temperature. The level at which there is no
increased vulnerability to predation is the best estimate of a
no-stress exposure  that  is currently available. No similar
safety factor has been explored for tolerance of low tem-
peratures.  Further  research may determine  that safety
factors,  as  well  as  tolerance limits, have  to  be  decided
independently for each species, life stage, and water quality
situation.
  Information needed for predicting survival  of a number
of species of fish  and invertebrates under short-term condi-
tions of heat extremes is presented in Appendix II-C. This
information includes  (for each acclimation temperature)
upper and lower incipient lethal temperatures: coefficients
a and b for the thermal resistance equation; and information
on size,  life stage,  and  geographic source  of the  species.
It is clear that adequate data are available for only a  small
percentage of aquatic species, and additional research  is
necessary.  Thermal  resistance  information  should  be
obtained locally for critical areas to account for simul-

-------
 \&l/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
taneous presence of toxicants or other debilitating factors,
a consideration not reflected in Appendix II-C data. More
data are available for upper lethal temperatures than for
lower.
  The resistance  time  equation,  Equation  2,  can  be
rearranged to incorporate the 2 C margin of safety and also
to define conditions for survival (right side of the equation
less than or equal to 1) as follows:
                   1 > —
                           time
                       ]Q[a+b(temp.+2)]
(Equation 3)
  Low levels of mortality of some aquatic organisms are not
necessarily detrimental to ecosystems, because permissible
mortality  levels can be established. This is how fishing or
shellfishing activities are managed. Many states and inter-
national  agencies  have  established  elaborate  systems for
setting an allowable rate of mortality (for sport and com-
mercial fish) in order to assure  needed reproduction and
survival.  (This should not imply, however, that a form of
pollution should be allowed to take the entire harvestable
yield.) Warm discharge  water  from a power plant may
sufficiently stimulate reproduction of some organisms (e.g.,
zooplankton), such that those killed during passage through
the maximally heated areas are replaced within a few hours,
and no impact of the mortalities can be found  in the open
water (Churchill and Wojtalik  1969;262 Heinle  1969).288
On the other hand, Jensen (1971)293 calculated that even
five percent additional  mortality of  0-age  brook trout
(Salvelinus Jontinalis) decreased the yield of the trout fishery,
and 50 per cent additional mortality would, theoretically.
cause extinction of the population. Obviously, there can be
no adequate generalization concerning the impact  of short-
term  effects on  entire ecosystems, for each case will  be
somewhat  different. Future  research  must  be  directed
toward determining the effects of local temperature stresses
on population dynamics. A complete discussion will not be
attempted here. Criteria for complete short-term protection
may not always be necessary and  should be applied with an
adequate understanding of local conditions.

Recommendation
  Unless  there  is justifiable reason  to  believe it
unnecessary for maintenance of populations of a
species,  the right  side of  Equation 3   for  that
species should  not be allowed  to increase above
unity when the temperature exceeds the incipient
lethal temperature minus 2  C:
                          time
                  1 >
Values for a and b at the appropriate acclimation
temperature for some species can be obtained from
Appendix II-C or through additional research if
necessary data are not available. This recommen-
dation applies to all locations where organisms •
be  protected  are exposed, including areas withi
mixing zones and water diversions such  as pow
station cooling water.

REPRODUCTION  AND DEVELOPMENT

  The sequence of events relating  to gonad growth  ai
gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of garnet<
development of the egg and embryo, and commenceme
of independent feeding represents one of the  most compl
phenomena in  nature, both for  fish  (Brett  1970)256  ai
invertebrates (Kinne  1970).2'6 These events  are genera
the most thermally sensitive of all life stages. Other envirc
mental factors, such as light and salinity, often seasonal
nature, can also profoundly affect the response to ternpei
ture (Wiebe 1968).323 The general physiological state oft
organisms (e.g., energy reserves), which is an integration
previous history, has a strong effect on reproductive pott
tial (Kinne 1970).296 The erratic sequence of failures  a
successes of different year classes  of lake fish  attests to  t
unreliability of natural conditions for providing optirm.
reproduction.
  Abnormal, short-term temperature fluctuations appear
be of greatest significance in reduced production of juven
fish  and  invertebrates  (Kinne,  1963).295  Such  them
fluctuations can  be a  prominent consequence of water  i
as in hydroelectric power (rapid changes in river flow rate
thermal electric power (thermal  discharges  at fluctuati
power levels),  navigation  (irregular  lock releases),  a
irrigation   (irregular water  diversions  and  wasteway  '
leases). Jaske and Synoground  (1970)292 have document
such temperature changes due  to interacting thermal  a
hydroelectric discharges on the Columbia River.
  Tolerable limits  or variations of temperature  char
throughout development, and particularly  at  the  m
sensitive life stages,  differ  among species.   There is
adequate summary of data on  such thermal  requireme
for successful reproduction. The data are scattered throu
many  years of  natural history  observations  (however, :
Breder and Rosen 1966250 foi a recent compilation of so)
data; also see Table 111-13). High priority must be assign
to summarizing existing information  and obtaining  tt
which is lacking.
  Uniform elevations  of  temperature  by a few  degr<
during the spawning period, while maintaining short-te.
temperature cycles  and seasonal thermal patterns, app{
to have little overall  effect on the reproductive cycle
resident aquatic species, other than to advance  the timi
for spring spawners or delay it for fall spawners.  Such sh:
are often seen in nature, although no quantitative measu
ments  of  reproductive success have  been  made  in  t
connection. For  example,  thriving populations of ma
fishes occur in diverse streams of the Tennessee Valley
which the date of the spawning temperature may vary  ir

-------
                                                                                Heat and Temperature/163

TABLE 111-13—Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures
                       (Adapted from Wojtalik, T. A., unpublished manuscript)*
Fishes
Sauger
Stizostedioncanadense. ...
Walleye
S. vitreum vitreum 	
Longnose gar
Lepisosteus osseus ..
White bass
Morone chrysops 	
Least darter
Etheostoma microperca .
Spotted sucker
Minytrema melanops
White sucker
Catostomus commersom ...
Silvery minnow
Hybognathus nuchalls. .
Banded pygmoiimfisli
Elassoma zonatum
White crappie
Pomoxis annuiaris ...
Fathead minnow
Bigmouth buffalo
Ich'obuscyprinellus 	
Largemouth bass
Micropterus salmoides
Common shiner
Notropis cornutus 	
Golden shiner
Notemigonus crysoktucas 	
Green sunflsh
Lepomis cyanellus ...
Paddlefish
Pofyodon spathufa
Blackside darter
Percina maculata
Gizzard shad
Dorosoma cepedianum .
Smallmouth bass
Micropterus dotomieui.
Spotted bass
Micropterus punctubtus .
Johnny darter
Etheostoma nigrum ....
Orange spotted sunflsh
Lepomis humilii . .
Smallmouth buflalo
Icb'obus hubalus
Black buffalo
1. niger . ...
Carp
Cyprinus carpio ....
BluegiH
Lepomis macrochirus 	
Redbreast sunflsh
L.auriBs 	
Channel calf sh
Ictalurus punctatus 	
White catfish
1 catus
Pumpkinseed
Lepomis gibbosus . . .
Black crappie
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Brook silverside
Labidesthes sicculus 	
Brown bullhead 	
Ictalurus nebulosus ....
Threadfin shad
Dorosoma petenense 	
Warmouth
Lepomis gulosus 	
River redhorse

Temp.(C)
5.0
7.0
.. . 10.8
11.7
12.0
12.1
	 12.0-13.0
13.0
13.9-16.7
. 14.0-16.0
14.4
25.0
	 15.6-18.3
15.6
	 15.6-18.3
	 15.6
	 15.6
18.0
16.5
16.7
18.7
17.8
	 18.0
	 18.3
	 18.9
	 18.9
	 19.0
	 19.4
	 20.0
20.0
.. . . 26.7
20 0
20.0
20 0
20 0

21 1
	 21.1
	 21.0

Spawning site
Shallow gravel ban
Gravel, rubble, boulders on bar
Flooded shallows
Sand & rock shores

Streams or bars
Coves

Submerged materials in shallows
Shallows
Shallows
Shallows near bank
Small gravel streams
Bays I shoals, weeds
Bank, shalows
Over gravel bars


Gravel rock shore
Small streams, bar




Flooded shallows
Weeds, shallows

Bank cavity
Sand gravel bar
Bank shallows

Over gravel

Shallows, weeds
Shallow and open water
Bank shallows

Range in spawning depth
2-4 feet
3-10 feet
Flooded shallows
2-12 feet




Nr. surface
30 inches
Inches to \yt feet
Nr. surface


3-20 feet





Nr. surface
2-6 feet

<10feet
< 10 feet
<5feet

Surface

Inchest) 6 feet
Surface
<5leet

Daily spawning time
Night
Day, right
Day
Day, tang but esp. night

. . Day, night
. Day

Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Night day


Day
.. Day




Day night
Day

Day, night
Day
Day

Day


Day
Day
DH

Ensile
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds
Surface

Bottom
Bottom

Bottom
Underside floating objects
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds
Bottom
Bottom


Bottom
Bottom




Bottom
Bottom

Bottom
Bottom
Bottom

Weeds, bottom

. Weeds, bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom

Incubation period
(ays (Temp. C)
25 (5.0)
6 (20.0)
2 (15.6)




1 (21.1-23.2)
9-10 (18.7)
5 (18.9)
4 (15.6+)



7 (15.0)
4-5 (20.0)




4-8 (16.7)
1J4-3 (22.2)

9-10 (15.0)
6-7 (23.9-29.4)
3 (27.8)



5 (25.0)
3(26.7)
1H (25.0-26)7)


-------
 164:/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife

 TABLE 111-13—Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures—Contin
Fishes
Blue catfish
Ictalurus furcatus 	
Flathead catfish
Pylodictisolivaris....
Redear sunfish
Upturns microlophus . .
Ungear sunfish
L. megalotis
Freshwater drum
Apiodinotus grunniens 	
River carpsucker
Carpoidescarpio.
Spotted bullhead
Ictalurus serracanthus
Yellow bullhead
1. natalis
Temp. (C) Spawning site Range in spawning depth

22.2

22.2

23.0 Quiet, various Inches to 10 feet

. 23.3

23.0

. .. 23.9

. 26.7

Quiet, shallows 1' ,-4 feet
Daily spawning time Egg site Incubation pe
days (Temp.















Bottom 5-10 (18.9)
 * T. A. Wojtalik, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.---"'
given year by 22 to 65 days. Examination of the literature
shows that shifts in spawning dates by nearly one month
are common in natural waters throughout the U.S.  Popula-
tions of some species at the southern limits  of their dis-
tribution are exceptions, e.g., the lake whitefish (Coregonus
clupeaformis)  in  Lake Erie that  require a prolonged, cold
incubation period (Lawler  1965)299  and species  such  as
yellow perch (Perca flavescens) that require a long chill period
for egg maturation prior to spawning  (Jones,  unpublished
data).3"
   This biological plasticity suggests that the annual spring
rise, or fall drop, in temperature might safely be advanced
(or delayed) by nearly one month in many regions, as long
as the thermal requirements that are necessary for migra-
tion, spawning,  and other activities are not eliminated and
the necessary chill periods, maturation times, or incubation
periods are preserved for important species. Production of
food organisms  may  advance in a similar way, with little
disruption of food chains, although there is little evidence to
support this  assumption (but see Coutant 1968;266  Coutant
and Steele 1968;271  and Nebeker 1971).307 The process is
similar to the latitudinal differences within the range of a
given species.
  Highly  mobile  species that  depend  upon  temperature
synchrony among widely different regions or  environments
for various phases of the reproductive or rearing cycle (e.g.,
anadromous salmonids or aquatic insects)  could be faced
with dangers of dis-synchrony if one area is  warmed, but
another is not. Poor  long-term success of one year class of
Fraser River (British Columbia)  sockeye salmon (Oncorhyn-
chus nerka) was attributed to early (and highly successful)
fry production and emigration during an abnormally warm
summer  followed  by  unsuccessful,  premature  feeding
activity in the cold and still unproductive estuary  (Vernon
1958).322 Anadromous species are able, in some cases, (see
studies of eulachon  (Thaleichthys pacificus)  by Smith and
Saalfeld 1955)317 to modify their migrations and spawn
to coincide  with  the proper temperatures whenever ;
wherever they occur.
  Rates of embryonic development that could lead to p
mature hatching  are determined by  temperatures  of
microhabitat of the  embryo. Temperatures of  the  mk
habitat may be quite different from those of the remain
of the  waterbody.  For example, a thermal effluent at
temperature  of maximum water density (approximat
4 C) can sink in a lake whose surface water temperat
is  colder (Hoglund  and  Spigarelli,   1972).290  Incubat
eggs of such species as lake (.rout (Salvelinus namqycush) i
various coregonids on the lake bottom may be intermitter
exposed to temperatures warmer than  normal.  Hatch
may be advanced to dates that are too early for surviva
the fry in their  nursery  areas. Hoglund arid  Spigai
1972,290 using temperature data from a sinking plume
Lake Michigan, theorized that if lake  herring  (Coregc
artedii)  eggs  had been incubated at the  location of one
their temperature sensors, the fry would have hatcl
seven days early. Thermal limitations must, therefore, ap
at the proper location for the particular species or life st;
to be protected.
Recommendations
  After their specific  limiting temperatures  a
exposure times  have been determined  by stud
tailored to local conditions,  the reproductive j
tivity  of selected species will be protected in ar<
where:
• periods required for gonad  growth and gam<
  maturation are preserved;
• no  temperature differentials  are created  tli
  block spawning migrations, although some del
  or advancement of timing based  upon local co
  ditions may be tolerated;

-------
                                                                                    Heat and Temperature /165
• temperatures are not raised to a level at which
  necessary spawning or incubation temperatures
  of winter-spawning species cannot occur;
• sharp temperature changes are  not induced  in
  spawning areas, either  in mixing  zones  or  in
  mixed water bodies (the  thermal and geographic
  limits to such changes will be dependent upon
  local  requirements  of  species,  including the
  spawning microhabitat, e.g.,  bottom gravels,
  littoral zone,  and  surface strata);
• timing of reproductive events is not  altered  to
  the extent that synchrony is broken where repro-
  duction or rearing of certain life stages is shown
  to be dependent upon cyclic food sources or other
  factors at remote locations.
• normal patterns of gradual temperature changes
  throughout the year are maintained.

These requirements should supersede  all  others
during times when they apply.

CHANGES IN STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC COMMUNITIES

  Significant change in  temperature or in thermal patterns
over a  period of time may cause some change in the com-
position of aquatic communities (i.e., the species represented
and the numbers of individuals in each species). This has
been documented by field studies at power plants (Trembley
1956-I960)321 and by laboratory investigations (Mclntyre
19h8).3ra Allowing temperature changes to alter significantly
the community  structure in natural waters  may be detri-
mental, even  though species of direct importance  to man
arc not eliminated.
  The  limits of allowable change in species diversity due to
temperature changes should not differ from those applicable
to any  other pollutant. This  general topic is treated in
detail  in reviews  by others  (Brookhaven  National Lab.
1969)25S and is  discussed in Appendix  II-B,  Community
Structure and Diversity  Indices, p. 408.

NUISANCE ORGANISMS

  Alteration of aquatic communities by the addition of heat
may occasionally result in  growths of nuisance organisms
provided that other environmental conditions essential to
such growths (e.g.,  nutrients)  exist.  Poltoracka  (1968)311
documented the growth  stimulation of plankton in  an
artificially  heated small   lake; Trembley  (19653-1) re-
ported dense growths  of attached algae in the discharge
canal and shallow discharge plume of a power station (where
the algae  broke loose periodically releasing decomposing
organic matter to the receiving water).  Other instances of
algal growths in effluent channels of power stations were
reviewed by Coutant (1970c).269
  Changed thermal patterns (e.g., in stratified lakes) may
greatly  alter  the  seasonal  appearances of nuisance algal
growths even though the temperature changes are induced
by altered circulation patterns (e.g., artificial destratifica-
tion). Dense growths of plankton have  been retarded in
some instances and stimulated in others (Fast 1968;275 and
unpublished data 1971).325
  Data  on temperature limits or thermal distributions in
which nuisance growths will be produced are not presently
available due in part to the complex interactions with other
growth  stimulants.  There is not  sufficient evidence to say
that  any  temperature increase  will  necessarily result in
increased nuisance organisms. Careful evaluation of local
conditions is  required  for any  reasonable prediction of
effect.

Recommendation
  Nuisance  growths  of  organisms may develop
where there are increases in temperature or alter-
ations  of the temporal or spatial  distribution of
heat in water. There should be careful evaluation
of all factors contributing to nuisance growths at
any site before  establishment of  thermal  limits
based  upon  this response, and temperature limits
should be set in conjunction with restrictions on
other factors (see the discussion of  Eutrophication
and Nutrients in Section I).

CONCLUSIONS
  Recommendations  for  temperature  limits to  protect
aquatic life consist of the following two upper limits for any
time of the year (Figure 111-6).

  1.   One limit consists  of a maximum weekly average
temperature that:
     (a)  in the warmer months  (e.g., April  through
        October  in  the  North,  and  March  through
        November in the South) is one third of the range
        between  the   optimum  temperature  and  the
        ultimate upper incipient  lethal temperature for the
        most  sensitive important species (or appropriate
        life stage)  that is normally found  at that location at
        that time;  or
     (b) in the cooler months (e.g.,  mid-October to mid-
        April in the North, and December to February in
        the South) is that elevated temperature from which
        important species die when that  elevated  tem-
        perature  is suddenly  dropped  to the normal
        ambient temperature, with  the limit  being the
        acclimation temperature  (minus  a  2 C  safety
        factor), when the lower  incipient lethal tempera-
        ture equals the normal ambient water temperature
        (in some regions this limit may also be applicable
        in summer); or
     (c)  during reproduction  seasons (generally April-June
        and September-October in the North, and March-
        May  and  October-November in  the South) is that

-------
     lection HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
        temperature that meets specific site requirements
        for successful migration, spawning, egg incubation,
        fry rearing, .and other reproductive functions of
        important species; or
    (d)  at -a  specific  site is found necessary to preserve
        normal species diversity or prevent undesirable
        growths of nuisance organisms.
  2.   The second limit is the time-dependent maximum
temperature for short exposures as given by the species-
specific equation:
                         time
                  1 >
  Local requirements for reproduction should supersede
all other requirements when they are applicable. Detailed
ecological  analysis  of both  natural and  man-modified
aquatic environments is necessary to ascertain when these
requirements should apply.
   USE OF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA

     A hypothetical electric power station using lake water i
   cooling is illustrated as a typical example in Figure III
   This discussion concerns the application of thermal critei
   to this typical situation.
     The size of the power station is 1,000 megawatts elect.
   (MWe) if nuclear, or  1,700 MWe if fossil-fueled (oil, co
   gas); and it  releases 6.8  billion  British  Thermal Un
   (BTU) per hour to the aquatic environment. This size
   representative of power stations currently being instalk
   Temperature  rise  at the  condensers would be  20 F wi
   cooling water flowing at the rate of 1,520 cubic feet/secoi
   (ft3/sec) or 682,000 gallons/minute. Flow could  be  i
   creased to reduce temperature rise.
     The schematic Figure III-7 is drawn with two alternati
   discharge arrangements to illustrate the extent to whii
   design features affect thermal impacts upon aquatic li
    30 -- 86
 
-------
                                                                                 Heat and Temperature/\ 67
                  Power
                  Plant
       Canal (2 mi.)
          A'

80

70

60

50

40

30
20
                  Modified
               "~  Temperature
                  (Example)
                                       Historic             \ \
                                       Average Temp, at D	  \ \
                  JFMAMJJ   ASOND

                                      Months
                                                                              Plume Scale
                                                                         0
                                                                         I   i    i
 5000
	I
                                                                                  Feet
FIGURE IH-7—Hypothetical Power Plant Site For Application of Water Temperature Criteria

-------
 168/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Warm condenser water can be carried from the station to
the lake by (a) a pipe carrying water at a high flow velocity
or (b) a canal in which the warm water flows slowly. There
is  little cooling in a canal, as measurements at several
existing power stations have shown. Water can be released
to the lake by using any of several combinations of water
velocity and volume (i.e.,  number of outlets)  or outlet
dimensions and locations. These  design features largely
determine the configuration  of the thermal plumes illus-
trated in Figure III-7 resulting from  either rapid dilution
with lake water or from slow release as a surface layer. The
isotherms  were placed  according  to computer simulation
of thermal discharges (Pritchard 1971)312 and represent a
condition without  lake currents to aid mixing.
  Exact configuration of  an actual plume depends upon
many factors (some of which  change seasonally  or even
hourly) such as local patterns of currents, wind, and bottom
and shore topography.

Analytical Steps
  Perspective of the organisms in the water body and of the
pertinent  non-biological  considerations  (chemical,   hv-
drological,  hydraulic)  is  an  essential   beginning.  This
perspective requires a certain amount of literature survey-
or on site study if  the information  is not  well known. T\vo
steps are particularly important:

  1.  identification of  the  important species  and  com-
munity (primary production, species diversity, etc.) that are
relevant to this site; and
  2.  determination of life patterns of the important species
(seasonal distribution, migrations,  spawning areas, nursery
and rearing areas, sites of commercial or sport fisheries).
This information should include as much specific informa-
tion on thermal requirements as  it is possible  to obtain
from the literature.

  Other steps relate the life  patterns and environmental
requirements of the biota to the sources of potential thermal
damage from the power plant. These steps can be identified
with specific  areas in Figure  III-7.

Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature Change

  Five principal areas offer potential for biological damage
from thermal changes, labeled A-E on  Figure III-7. (There
are other areas associated with mechanical or  chemical
effects that cannot be treated here; see the index.)

  Area A  The cooling water as it passes through the intake,
          intake piping (Ai), condensers, discharge piping
          (A2)  or  canal (A'2), and thermal plume (A3 or
          A'3), carrying with it small organisms (such as
          phytoplankton, zooplankton, invertebrate larvae,
          and  fish eggs or larvae). Organisms receive a
          thermal shock  to  the full  20 F above  ambient
          temperature wilh a duration that depends uf
          the rate of water flow and the  temperature di
          in the plume.
  Area B  Water  of the  plume alone that entrains  b
          small and larger organisms (including small fi
          as it is diluted (B  or  B'). Organisms  rece
          thermal shocks from temperatures ranging fr
          the discharge  to the  ambient temperature,
          pending upon where they  are entrained.
  Area C  Benthic environment where bottom organi;
          (including fish eggs) can be heated chronically
          periodically  by the thermal plume (C or C')
  Area D  The slightly  warmed mixed water body (or la
          segment of it)  where all organisms experienc
          slightly warmer average temperature (D).
  Area E  The discharge canal in which resident or seaso
          populations  reside  at abnormally high tempe
          tures (E).

Cooling Water Entrainment
  It is not adequate to  consider only thermal criteria
water bodies alone when large numbers of aquatic organis
may be pumped  through a power plant. The probabil
of an organism being  pumped through  will depend up
the ratio of the volume of cooling water in the plant to 1
volume in the lake (or  to the volume  passing the plant ii
river  or tidal  fresh water}.  Tidal  environments  (be
freshwater and saline)  offer  greater potential for entra
ment than  is apparent,  s\nce the same water mass  v
move back and forth past the plant many times during 1
lifetime  of  pelagic  residence time  of  most organisi
Thermal shocks that could  be  experienced  by organis
entrained  at the  hypothetical power  station are shown
Figure III-8.
  Detrimental effects of thermal exposures received duri
entrainment can be judged by using the following equati
for short-term exposures  to extreme temperatures:
           General criterion. 1>
                                    time
                                10la+b(temp.+2)]
Values for a and b in the equation for the species of aqua
organisms that are likely to be pumped with cooling wa
may be obtained from Appendix II, or the data may
obtained using the methods of Brett (1952).262 The prevaili
intake  temperature  would  determine  the  acclimati
temperature to be selected from the table.
  For example, juvenile largemouth bass may frequent t
near-shore waters of this lake and be drawn into the intal
To determine whether the hypothetical thermal dischart
(Figure III-7) would be detrimental for juvenile bass,  t
following analysis can  be made (assuming, for examp
that the lake is in Wisconsin where these basic data for b;
are available):
       Criterion for juvenile  bass (Wisconsin) when inta

-------
             Condenser

               Piping •
           Intake Piping

             Intake
               i,
                        Can a
Dilution Plume
                                                      Canal Plume
                                                                 T_
                                                J_
                                                12       16        20        24

                                                lime \fu-r Initial Heating (his )
      Modified aflcr Coutant I970c269
                                                                                            //ifat and Temperature/\ 69
                                                                                                     36       40
FIGURE IH-8—Time Course of Temperature Change in Cooling Water Passing Through the Example Power Station with
                   Two Alternate Discharges. The Canal Is Assumed to Flow at a Rate of 3 Ft. Per Sec.
    temperature (acclimation) is  70 F  (21.11  C).  (Data
    from Appendix II-C).
                                      ploying rapid dilution.
                            time
                    10134- 3649-0. 97 8 9 (temp.+2) J
     Canal
       Criterion applied to entrainment to end of discharge
    canal (discharge temperature is 70 F plus the 20 degree
    rise in the condensers or 90 F (32.22 C). The thermal
    plume would provide additional  exposure  above the
    lethal threshold, minus 2 C (29.5 C or 85.1 F) of more
    than four hours.
                1>
                             60
                    1Q [34. 364 9- 0.9 7 89(32. 22+2)]
     Conclusion:

       Juvenile bass  would not survive to the end of the
    discharge canal.

    Dilution

       Criterion applied to entrainment in the system em-
                                                                           1  >
                                                                                        1.2
                                                                               }Q[34. 3649-0. 9789(32. 22+2.0)]
                                                                               1.2
                                                                            -
                                      Travel time in piping to discharge is  assumed to be
                                      1  min., and temperature drop to below the lethal
                                      threshold minus 2 C (29.5 C or 85.1 F)  is about 10 sec.
                                      (Pritchard, 197 1).312

                                      Conclusion

                                        Juvenile bass would survive this  thermal exposure:

                                                         1>0.1630

                                        By using the  equation  in the following form,

                                                log (time)=a+6 (temp. + 2)

                                      the  length  of time that bass could barely survive the
                                      expected temperature rise could  be calculated, thus
                                      allowing selection of an appropriate discharge system.
                                      For example:

                                           log (time) =34.3649- 0.9789 (34.22)
                                           log (time) =0.8669
                                                time =7.36

-------
 170/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
       This would be about 1,325 feet of canal flowing at
     3 ft/sec.
  It is apparent that a long discharge canal, a nonrecircu-
lating cooling pond, a very long offshore oioe, or delayed
dilution in a mixing zone (such as the one promoting surface
cooling) could prolong the duration of exposure of pumped
organisms and thereby increase the likelihood of damage to
them. Precise information on the travel times of the cooling
water in the discharge system is needed to conduct this
analysis.
  The calculations have ignored changing temperatures in
the thermal plume,  because the canal alone was lethal, and
cooling in the plume with rapid dilution  was so rapid that
the additional exposure was only for 10 seconds (assumed to
be  at the discharge temperature the whole time). There
may  be  other  circumstances  under which the  effect  of
decreasing exposure temperature  in  the plume may  be
of interest.
  Effects of changing  temperatures in the plume can  be
estimated by summing the effects of incremental exposures
for  short time periods (Fry et al. 1946281). For example, the
surface cooling plume of Figures III-7  and III-8 could  be
considered to be composed of several short time spans, each
with  an average temperature,  until the  temperature had
dropped  to  the upper lethal  threshold minus  2 C for the
juvenile bass. Each  time period would be calculated as if
it were a single exposure, and the calculated values for  all
time periods would be summed and compared with unity,
as follows:
                                            time,,
.1+2)] ~T JQ[a+b(temp.2+2)]
                                        lQ[a+b(temp.n+2)]
  The surface cooling plume of Figure III-6 (exclusive of
the canal) could  be considered to  consist of  15 min at
89.7 F (32.06 C),  15 min at 89.2 F  (31.78C),  15 min at
88.7 F (31.4 C), 15  min at 88.2 F (31.22 C),  15  min at
87.8 F (31.00 C), until the lethal threshold for 70 F acclima-
tion minus 2 C (85.1  F) was reached. The calculation would
proceed as follows:
1 >
              15
     JQ [34.3649—0.9789(32.06+2)]
                                     15
                            1QI34.3649-0.9789(31.78+2)]

  In this case, the bass would not survive through the first
15-minute period. In other such calculations, several steps
would have to be summed before unity was reached (if not
reached, the plume would not be detrimental).

Entrainment in the Plume
  Organisms mixed with the thermal plume during dilution
will also receive thermal  shocks, although the maximum
temperatures  will generally be  less than  the  discharge
temperature. The number of organisms affected to son
degree  may be  significantly  greater than  the  numbe
actually pumped through the plant. The route of maximu
thermal  exposure for each  plume is indicated in  Figu
III-7 by a dashed line. This route should be analyzed
determine the maximum reproducible effect.
  Detrimental effects of these exposures can also be judgi
by using the criterion for short-term  exposures to extren
temperatures. The analytical steps were outlined above f
estimating the effects on organisms that pass through tl
thermal plume portions of the entrainment thermal patter
There would have been no mortalities of the largemou
bass from entrainment in the plume with rapid d ilution, di
to the short duration of exposure (about 10 seconds). Ai
bass that were entrained in  the near-shore portions of tl
larger plume, and remained in it, would have died in k
than 15 minutes.

Bottom  Organisms Impacted by the Plume
  Bottom  communities  of invertebrates,  algae,  root<
aquatic  plants, and many  incubating fish  eggs  can  1
exposed  to  warm plume water,  particularly in  shallo
environments. In some circumstances the warming can I
continuous,  in others it can be intermittent due to chang
in plume configuration with changes in currents, winds, i
other factors. Clearly a thermal plume that stratifies  ar
occupies only the upper part of the water column will ha1
least effect on bottom biota.
  Several approaches are useful in evaluating effects on tl
community. Some have predictive capability, while othe
are suitable largely  for identifying effects  after they  ha'
occurred. The criterion for short-term exposures identifie
relatively brief periods  of detrimental high temperature
Instead  of the organism passing through zones of elevate
temperatures, as in the previous examples, the organism
sedentary, and the thermal pulse passes over it. Developii
fish eggs may be very sensitive to such changes. A bri
pulse of high temperature that kills large numbers of org
nisms may affect  a bottom area for time periods far long
than the immediate  exposure time. Repeated sublethal e
posures  may also be detrimental, although the process
more complex than  straight-forward  summation. Analy;
of single exposures proceeds exactly as described for plun
entrainment.
  The criterion for prolonged exposures is more general
applicable. The maximum tolerable  weekly  average  ten
perature may be  determined by the organisms present an
the phase of their life  cycle.  In  May, for  example, tit
maximum heat tolerance temperature for the communii
may be  determined by incubating fish eggs or fish fry on tl
bottom.  In July  it may be determined by the importai
resident invertebrate species. A well-designed thermal di
charge should not require an extensive mixing zone whei
these criteria are exempted. Special criteria for reproducth
processes may have  to be applied, although  thermal di

-------
                                                                                          Heat and Temperature/171
charges  should  be located  so  that  zones important  for
reproduction—migration, spawning,  incubation—are not
used.
  Criteria  for species diversity provide a useful tool  for
identifying  effects  of thermal  changes  after  they  have
occurred, particularly the effects of subtle changes that are
a result of community interactions rather than physiological
responses by one or more major species.  Further research
may identify  critical temperatures or sequences of tem-
perature changes that cannot be exceeded  and may thereby
provide  a  predictive capability as well.  (See Appendix
II B.)

Mixed  Water Body (or major region thereof)
  This  is the region most  commonly considered  in  es-
tablishing water quality standards, for it generally includes
the major area of the water body. Here the results of thermal
additions are observed as small temperature increases over a
large area (instead of high temperatures locally at the dis-
charge point), and all heat sources become integrated into
the normal  annual temperature cycle (Figure III-6 and
Figure III-7 insert).
  Detrimental high temperatures in this  area  (or parts of
it) are defined by the criteria for maximum temperatures
for prolonged exposure  (warm  and cool months) for the
most sensitive species or  life stage occurring there, at each
time of year, and by the  criteria for reproduction.
  For  example,  in the lake  with the hypothetical  power
station, there may be  40 principal fish species, of which half
are considered  important. These species have spawning
temperatures ranging from 5 to 6 C for the  sauger (Stizo-
stedion canadense)  to 26.7 C for the spotted bullhead (Ictalurus
sen acanthus). They also have a similar range of temperatures
required for egg  incubation, and  a  range  of maximum
temperatures  for  prolonged exposures of juveniles and
adults. The requirements, however, may  be met any time
within normal time spans, such as January 1 to 24 for sauger
spawning, and March 25 to  April 29  for smallmouth bass
spawning. Maximum temperatures for prolonged exposures
may  increase steadily  throughout  a spring  period.  To
predict effects of thermal discharges the pertinent tempera-
tures for reproductive activities and maximum temperatures
for each  life stage can be plotted over a  12-month period
such as shown in Fig. Ill—6. A maximum annual tempera-
ture curve can become apparent when sufficient biological
data are available. Mount  (1970)308 gives an  example of
this type of analysis.

Discharge Canal
   Canals  or  embayments  that carry  nearly undiluted
condenser cooling water can develop biological communities
that are atypical of normal seasonal communities. Interest
in these areas does  not generally derive from concern for a
balanced ecosystem, but rather from effects that the altered
communities can have on the entire aquatic ecosystem.
   The general  criteria for  nuisance organisms  may  be
applicable. In the discharge canals of some existing power
stations, extensive mats of temperature-tolerant blue-green
algae grow and  periodically break away, adding a decom-
posing organic matter to the nearby shorelines.
   The winter criterion  for maximum  temperatures  for
prolonged exposures identifies the potential for fish kills due
to rapid decreases in temperature.  During cold seasons
particularly,  fish are  attracted  to  warmer water  of  an
enclosed  area, such as a  discharge canal.  Large numbers
may reside  there for sufficiently long periods to become
metabolically  acclimated to  the warm  water.  For any
acclimation  temperature there  is a minimum temperature
to which the species can be cooled rapidly and still survive
(lower incipient lethal  temperature).  These  numerical
combinations, where  data are  available,  are found  in
Appendix II-C. There would be 50 per cent mortality,  for
example,  if largemouth bass  acclimated  in a discharge
canal to  20 C, were cooled to 5.5 C or below. If normal
winter ambient  temperature is less than 5.5 C,  then the
winter maximum should  be below  20 C,  perhaps nearer
15 C. If it is difficult to maintain the lower temperatures,
fish should be excluded from the area.

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                                           TOXIC  SUBSTANCES
ORGANIC MERCURY

   Until  recently,  mercury  most  commonly  entered  the
aquatic environment by leaching from geological formations
and by water  transport to  streams and lakes.  Since  the
industrial revolution, however, increasing amounts of mer-
cury have been added to the  aquatic environment with
waste products from manufacturing processes or through
improper disposal  of industrial and consumer products. In
addition, large quantities of mercury enter the environment
when ores are  smelted to recover such metals as copper,
lead, and zinc  (Klein  1971),343  and when fossil fuels  are
burned. Whereas the maximum amount of mercury released
by weathering  processes is approximately 230 metric tons
per year worldwide, the amount released by  the burning
of coal is on the order of 3000 tons per year; and a further
quantity,  probably comparable  to 3000 tons, is emitted
from industrial  processes (Joensuu 1971).341
   In urban and industrial areas consumer  products con-
taining  mercury are often disposed of in  sewer systems.
These mercury discharges, though individually small, can-
not be considered  insignificant, because cumulatively they
add large quantities of mercury to the water  courses that
receive these effluents. On  the average, the mercury concen-
tration in sewage effluent is one order of magnitude greater
than its concentration  in  the water course  that receives it
(D'ltri unpublished data  1971).359 Based on Klein and Gold-
berg's 1970344 report of mercury concentrations in samples
of ocean sediments near municipal sewer out-falls, it  can
be calculated that in an urban area from 400 to 500 pounds
of mercury per million population are discharged to  re-
ceiving waters every year. The uses of mercury are varied,
and its consumption is fairly large. The National Academy
of Sciences (1969)347 reported the consumption of mercury
by user category.
   World attention focused on the environmental mercury
problem  when human beings  were poisoned by  eating
contaminated fish and shell fish during the middle and late
1950's in  Minamata, Japan. Since the first occurrence of
"Minamata disease"  in  1953,  121  cases resulting in 46
deaths have been confirmed  in the Minamata area with an
additional  47 confirmed  cases  and  6  deaths in  near!
Niigata (Takeuchi 1970).362
  In Sweden  in the 1950's, conservationists charged th
the abundance of methylmercury in the environment w
causing severe poisoning in seed-eating  birds  and  the
predators  (Johnels et al. 1967).342 These poisonings cou
be related  to  the use of methylmercury in  seed dressing
When these seed dressings wen? prohibited, levels of mercu
declined substantially in seed-eating animals. At about tl
same  time, investigators found high  levels  of mercury
fish in waters  off Sweden, practically all of it in the  for
of methylmercury.

Biological Methylation

  Some microbes are capable  of biologically synthesizir
methylmercury from mercury  ions (Jensen  and Jcrneli
1969;339 Wood et al. 1969;368 Dunlap 1971 ;333 Fagerstro
and Jernelov 1971).334 At low concentrations, the forma tic
of dimethylmercury is favored in the methyl transfer reactic
but at higher concentrations of mercury, the major produ
appears to be  monomethylmercury. In any  particular eci
system,  the amounts of mono- and  dimethylmercury  con
pounds are determined by the presence of microbial specie
the amount of organic  pollution loading, the mercury coi
centration, temperature, and pH (Wood et al. 1969).3:>s

Biological Magnification

  Aquatic  organisms concentrate methylmercury in  the
bodies either directly from the water or through the foe
chain (Johnels et al. 1967;:!42 Hannerz 1968,-356  Hasseln
1968,338 Miettinen  et  al.  1970346). Northern  pike  (Est
lucius) and rainbow  trout (Salmo gairdneri) are able to  a
similate and concentrate methylmercury directly into  the
muscle tissues  from ingested food (Miettinen et al. 1970).3
In general, mercury in organisms eaten  by fish increases ;
each trophic level of the food chain (Hamilton 1971).3
The magnitude of the bioaccumulation of mercury is d<
termined  by  the species,  its exposure, feeding  habit
metabolic rate, age and size, quality of the water, and th
degree of mercury  pollution  in  the  water. Rucker  an
                                                       172

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                                                                                                Toxic Substances/] 73
Amend (1969)349 established that rainbow trout contained
mercury levels of 4.0  and 17.3 Mg/g  in their muscle and
kidney tissue after being exposed to 60 ng/l of ethylmercury
for one hour a day over 10 days. Fresh water phytoplankton,
macrophytes, and fish are capable of biologically magnifying
mercury concentrations from water 1000 times (Chapman
et al. 1968).33° Johnels et al. (1967)342 reported a mercury
concentration factor from water to pike of 5000 or more.
Johnels et al.  (1967)34'2 had previously shown that  when
mercury levels in pike muscle  were below  0.2  ^g, g, the
level  was relatively constant irrespective of  weight,  but
above 0.2 Mg/g,  the  concentration of mercury  tended to
increase with increasing age and weight.
   Experiments in progress at the National Water Quality
Laboratory  in  Duluth,  Minnesota,  (Mount unpublished
data  1971)361  indicate  that  when brook  trout  (Salvelinus
fontinahf) are held in water containing 0.05 pg/\ of methyl-
mercury for 2 months they  can  accumulate more  than
0.5 /ig'g  of mercury. This  is  a  magnification  of 10,000
times. In the  same experiments, exposure to 0.03  Mg/1 for
5 months resulted in continuing accumulation in fish tissue
with no indication of a plateau.  In a group  of fish held at
one /xg, 1, some organs  contained 30 Mg'g- Some fresh water
invertebrates  have also been reported  to  have a 10,000
magnification (Hannerz 1968).331'
   Although the mechanisms by which mercury accumulates
and  concentrates  have not been fully explained,  at  least
three factors are involved: the metabolic rate of individual
fish;  differences  in the selection of food  as fish  mature;
and the epithelial surface of the fish (Wobeser et al. 1970 ;357
Hannerz  1968).336 The rate at  which fish lose  methyl-
mercury also  has considerable  effect on magnification of
mercury in  the tissues. Miettinen et al. have shown in  a
series of papers (1970)34C that the loss of methylmercury  is
both fast and slow in fishes. The fast loss occurs early, while
mercury is being redistributed through the body, and lasts
only  a  few weeks. The subsequent loss from established
binding sites follows slowly; a  half-life is estimated  to be
on the order of 2 years. These rates mean that fishes, and
perhaps  other lower vertebrates, reduce  their content of
methylmercury many times more slowly than do the higher
terrestrial vertebrates. Man, for  example,  is  usually con-
sidered to excrete half of any given mercury residue in
about 80 days. Extremely low rates of loss have also  been
shown in different species of aquatic mollusks  and crayfish
(Cambarus) (Nelson 1971).348
   Excessive mercury residues in  the sediments are dissipated
only slowly. Lofroth (1970)345 estimated that aquatic habi-
tats polluted with mercury continue to contaminate fish for
as long as 10  to 100 years after pollution has stopped.

Mercury in  Fresh Waters
   Mercury measured  in the water of selected rivers of the
United States ranged from less than 0.1  jtg/1 to  17  ng/L
Two-thirds of the rivers contained 0.1 Mg/1 or less (Wallace
et al. 1971).355 The value of 0.1 /ig/1 is also reported as the
earliest reliable  estimate  of mercury levels in uncontami-
nated  fresh water  (Swedish National  Institute of Public
Health 1971).351 Some rivers tested by the Swedish Institute
were as low as 0.05 Mg/1, which was also the average mercury
level in some salt waters.

Toxicity of Organic Mercury in Water
  The  chemical form of methylmercury administered to
fish  makes little difference in its toxic effect (Miettinen et
al. 1970).346 The methylmercury bound to sulfhydryl groups
of proteins, as it would be in nature, is just as toxic as the
free  unbound ionic form.
  Fish are able  to survive relatively high concentrations of
organomercurials for a short  time with  few ill  effects.  For
example,  fry of steel  head  trout  (Salmo gairdrieri)   and
finger-lings of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) are able
to survive in  10 mg/'l of pyridyl mercuric  acetate for  one
hour with no toxic effects (Rucker and Whipple 1951).350
The LC50 of pyridyl mercuric acetate for some freshwater
fish  ranges from 390 jug/1 to 26,000 /xg/1 for exposures be-
tween  24  and 72 hours  (\Villford 1966;3"6  Clemmens  and
Snced  1958,331 1959).332
  As the exposure times lengthen, lower concentrations of
mercury are  lethal. On the basis of 120-hour bioassay tests
of three species of minnows, Van Horn and Balch (1955)354
determined that the  minimum lethal  concentrations of
pyridyl mercuric acetate,  pyridyl mercuric chloride, phenyl
mercuric acetate,  and ethyl  mercuric phosphate averaged
250  /ig/1.
  Recent experiments at the National Water Quality Lab-
oratory (Mount, personal communication  1971)360 indicated
that 0.2 /ug/1 of methylmercury killed  fathead  minnows
(Ptmephalespromelas) within 6 to 8 weeks.  Toxicity data from
this  same  laboratory on several other  species including
Gammarus,  Daphnia,  top  minnow (Fundulus sp.) and brook
trout (Salvelinus fontmahs) indicated  that none was more
sensitive than the fathead minnow.
  Northern pike seem to be  more sensitive.  When  they
were reared in water containing 0.1 /ig/1 of methylmercury
for a season and then placed in clean water,  they underwent
continuing mortality. Scattered mortality from this source
could  ordinarily not be  detected in nature,  because  the
affected fish became uncoordinated and probably would
have been eaten by predators (Hannerz  1968,33G quoted by
Nelson 1971348).
   Some species of  plankton  are  particularly sensitive.
Studies of the effect of mercury on phytoplankton species
confirmed that concentrations as low as 0.1 /zg/1 of selected
organomercurial fungicides decreased both the photosynthe-
sis  and the  growth of laboratory cultures of the marine
alga Nitzschia delicatissum, as well as of some fresh water
phytoplankton  species (Harriss et  al.  1970).337  Ethyl-
mercury phosphate is lethal  to marine  phytoplankton at
60 Mg/1, and levels as low as 0.5 jig/1 drastically limit their

-------
114/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
growth  (Ukeles  1962).363 There is insufficient information
about the thresholds for chronic toxicity.

Tissue Levels and Toxicity
  There is almost no information on the  concentrations of
mercury in the tissues of aquatic organisms that are likely
to cause mortality of the organisms themselves. Fish  and
shellfish found dead in Minamata contained 9 to 24 /ug/g
of mercury on the usual wet-weight basis;  presumably some
of these  levels were lethal (Nelson  1971).348 Miettinen et al.
(1970)346 showed that pike which  had been experimentally
killed by methylmercury contained from 5 to 9.1 ng/g and
averaged  6.4 and 7.4 micrograms  of methylmercury per
gram of muscle tissue.

Discussion of Proposed Recommendations
  At the present time there are not sufficient data available
to determine the levels  of mercury in water that are safe
for aquatic organisms under chronic exposure. There have
not been, for example,  any experiments  on the effects of
chronic  exposure to  mercury on reproduction and growth
of fish in the laboratory.  Since experiments on sublethal
effects are lacking, the next most useful information is on
lethal effects following moderately long exposures of weeks
or months. The lowest concentration shown to be lethal to
fish is 0.2 /ig/1 of methylmercury which is lethal to fathead
minnows (Pimephalespromelas) in six weeks. Because 0.2  Mg/1
of methylmercury has been shown to be lethal, it is suggested
that this concentration of mercury not be exceeded at any
time or  place in natural waters.  Since phytoplankton are
more sensitive, the average concentration of methylmercury
in water  probably  should  not exceed 0.05 /ug/1  for their
protection. This recommended average  is approximately
equal to the supposed natural  concentrations of mercury
in water; hence little mercury can be added to the aquatic
environment.  The  National Water  Quality  Laboratory
(Mount, unpublished  data 1971)361  found  that exposure of
trout to 0.05 Mg/1 of methylmercury for 3 months resulted
in concentrations of 0.5 ng/g, the Food and Drug Adminis-
tration guideline for the maximum level for edible portions
of fish flesh.
  These concentrations of mercury or methylmercury in
water are very low and difficult to measure or differentiate
without  special  equipment and  preparation.  These low
concentrations can also only be measured as total  mercury.
Since sediments may contain 10,000  times the  amount of
mercury in water, suspended solids in water can seriously
affect the values found  in analyses of water for mercury
(Jernelov 1972).340 Because of these difficulties and because
the real danger of mercury pollution results from a biological
magnification, recommendations  for  mercury residues in
tissues  of aquatic  organisms should be developed.  This
would make monitoring and control not only more effective
and certain  but also more feasible technically.  Unfortu-
nately,  data are not yet available on the residue levels that
are safe  for  the aquatic organisms  themselves  and  fc
organisms higher in the food chain, such as predatory fis
or fish-eating birds. It is known that concentrations of 5 t
10 ng/g are found in some fish that died of methylmercur
poisoning, and that 0.01  to 0.2 ng/g is apparently a usu;
background level in freshwater fish. Because data are lackin
for safe residue levels in aquatic food chains, it is suggeste
that the  Food & Drug Administration guideline level c
0.5 Mg/g of total mercury in edible portions of freshwatc
fish used as human food be the guideline to protect predatoj
in aquatic food chains.
  Hence, mercury residues should not exceed 0.5 ng/g i
any aquatic organisms. If levels approaching this are founc
there should  be  total  elimination of all possible sources c
mercury pollution.
  No distinction has been drawn between organic and ir
organic forms of mercury in these discussions because of th
possibility of  biological transformation to the organic phas
in aquatic habitats. Since  the form of mercury in  watc
cannot be  readily determined,  the recommendations  ar
primarily based upon  methylmercury but expressed as tote
mercury.

Recommendations
   Selected  species  of fish and  predatory aquati
organisms should be protected when  the followin
conditions  are fulfilled:  (1)  the  concentration  o
total mercury does not exceed a total body burdei
of 0.5 M£/£ wet  weight in any aquatic  organism
(2) the total mercury concentrations in unfilterei
water do  not exceed 0.2  fig/1 at any time or place
and (3) the average total mercury concentration ii
unfiltered water does not exceed 0.05 jug/1-

PHTHALATE  ESTERS
   The occurrence of dialkyl  phthalate residues has bee
established in various segments of the aquatic environmer
of North America.  Phthalate ester residues occur principall
in samples of water,  sediment,  and aquatic organisms i
industrial and heavily populated areas (Stalling 1972).3'
In fish di-n-butyl phthalate  residues ranged from 0 to 50
fig/kg, and di-2-ethylhexyl phi:halate residues were as hig
as 3,200 Mg/kg.  No well-documented information exists o
the fate of phthalate  compounds in aquatic environment!
   Phthalate  esters are widely used as  plasticizers, particu
larly in  polyvinyl chloride  (PVC)  plastics.  The  mos
common phthalate ester plasticizer is di-2-ethylhexyl phthal
ate. Di-7z-butyl phthalate has been used as an insect repellen
(Frear 1969)362  and  in pesticide formulations to  retari
volatilization (Schoof et al.  1963).365 Production of diocty
phthalate ester placticizers was estimated to  be 4.10Xl08lb
in  1970 (Neelyl 970).363 Total phthalate ester productioi
was reported to be 8.40 X 108 Ibs in 1968, of which 4.40 X 10
Ibs were dioctyl phthalate esters (Nematollahi et al. 1967).36
Production of  phthalic  anhydride was estimated   to  bi

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                                                                                                   Toxic Substances/175
7.60X 108 Ibs in 1970 (Ncely 1970).363 PVC plastic formula-
tions may contain 30 to 60  parts per hundred of phthalate
ester plasticizer (Nematollahi et al.  1967).364

Toxicity
  Studies to determine the acute or chronic toxicity effects
of phthalate esters or other plasticizers on aquatic organisms
have only recently been undertaken (Stalling 1972).366 For
example, the acute toxicity of di-«-butyl  phthalate  to fish
is extremely low compared  to pesticides (Table  111-14).
  Daphnia magna were exposed to 0.1 fie;/I of 14C di-rc-butyl
phthalate and the organisms accumulated chemical residues
of 600 /^g/kg within 10 days, or a 6,000-fold magnification
(Saundcrs, unpublished data 1971).367 However, after transfer
of the  Daphnia to uncontaminated  water,  approximately
50 per cent  of the di-rz-butyl phthalate was excreted in three
days. It was recently found that a concentration of 3 jug/1
of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate significantly reduced  the growth
and  reproduction of Daphnia magna (Sanders  unpublished
data 1971).367
  The acute toxicity of phthalate esters appears  to be rela-
tively insignificant, but  these compounds  may be  detri-
mental to aquatic organisms at low chronic concentrations.

Recommendation
  Until a more detailed  evaluation is made of toxi-
cological effects of phthalate esters on aquatic eco-
systems, a safety factor of 0.1 has been applied to
data for Daphnia magna toxicity, and a  level not
to  exceed   0.3  /*£/! should protect   fish and  their
food supply.

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

  Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) have been found in fish
and wildlife in many parts  of the world and at  levels that
may adversely affect  aquatic  organisms  (Jensen  et  al.
1969;376  Holmes  et  al.  1967;375  Koeman  et al. 1969;378
                                    TABLE 111-14—Acute Toxicity of Di-n-butyl  Phthalate to
                                            Four Species of Fish and Daphnia Magna.
LC50 in jug/I
Species Temperature 24 hr
Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)
Bluegill (Lepomis macrechinis) 1230
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) . 3720
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnen)
Daphnia magna
48 hr
1490
731
2910


96 hr
1300 (Stalling)'"
731 (Stalling)**
2910 (Stalling)'"
6470 (Sanders)1"
>5000 (Sanders)3"
                                    Risebrough et al. 1968).386 The environmental occurrence,
                                    uses, and present toxicological aspects of PCB were recently
                                    reviewed  by  Peakall  and   Lincer  (1970),384  Gustafson
                                    (1970),372 Risebrough  (1970),387 and Reynolds (1971).385
                                      Biphenyls may have  1 to  10 attached  chlorine  atoms,
                                    making  possible over 200 compounds  (Gustafson 1970).372
                                    PCB occur  as residues in fish, and presumably also in water,
                                    as  mixtures of chlorinated  biphenyl  isomers  as shown in
                                    Table 111-15 (Stalling and Johnson, unpublished data 1970,3%
                                    Stalling mpress™2).
                                      Analysis of PCB has been accomplished by gas chromatog-
                                    raphy after separation of PCB from pesticides. A separation
                                    method  has been described by Armour and Burke (1970)369
                                    and modified by Stalling and Huckins (1971).391 A method
                                    using separation on a charcoal column  has shown  good
                                    reproducibility (Frank and Rees, personal communication) .396
                                    No  standardized gas-liquid  chromatography method has
                                    been proposed for the  analysis of mixtures of PCB in en-
                                    vironmental samples.  The solubility of these formulations
                                    in water has not been  precisely determined, but it is in the
                                    range of 100  to 1,000  /ig/1  (Papageorge 1970).383 Since
                                    PCB have  gas chromatographic characteristics similar to
                                    many organochlorine  pesticides,  they can  cause  serious
                                    interference in the  gas chromatographic  determination of
                                    chlorinated insecticides  (Risebrough et al. 1968).386
                                      The Monsanto Company, the sole manufacturer of PCB
      TABLE 111-15—Composition of PCB Residues in Selected Fish Samples from the 1970 National Pesticide Residue
                                                  Monitoring Program
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Yazoo
Hudson.
Allegheny
Delaware
Cape Fear
Lake Ontario
Mississippi
Mernmac  .
           River
                              Location
Cincinnati, 0.
Cincinnati, 0.
Marietta, 0.
Marietta, 0.
Redwood, Miss.
PoughKeepsie, N.Y.
Natrona, Pa.
Camden, N.J.
Elizabeth Town, N.C.
Port Ontario, N.Y.
Memphis, Tenn.
Lowell, Mass.
                                                      Species
Carp Cyprinus carpio
White crappie Poximus annularus
Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus
Channel catfish
Smallmouth buffalo Ictiobus bubalus
Goldfish Carassius auratus
Walleye Stezostedion vitreum v.
White perch Roccus americanus
Gizzard shad Porosoma cepedianum
White perch
Drum Aplodmotus grunniens
Drum
                                                                                  PCB Residue as Aroclor ® type(,*g/g whole body)
                                                                          1232
                                                                                    1248
                                                                                             1254
                                                                                                       1260
                                                                                                                Total
10
lularus 16
unctatus 38
16
s bubalus 72
9
im v.
anus
ledianum 19
13
IS 11
14
75
17
23
5.2

173
5.2
8.0



75
42
27
11
13
1.4
32
25
6.8
2.6
4.6
4.5
6.1
6.0
5.6
4.9
4.E


4.6
3.9
1.1
1.2
3.4
3.2
133
66
77
38
73
213
35
19
23
19
19
98

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\7(j/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
in the United States (Gustafson 1970),372 markets eight
formulations of chlorinated biphenyls under the trademarks
Aroclor® 1221, 1232, 1242, 1248, 1254, 1260, 1262, and
1268. The last two digits of each formulation designate the
percent chlorine. Aroclor® 1248 and 1254 are produced in
greatest  quantities. They are  used  as dielectric  fluids  in
capacitors  and  in closed-system  heat  exchangers  (Papa-
george 1970).383 Aroclor® 1242 is used as a hydraulic fluid,
and Aroclor ® 1260 as a plasticizer. Chlorinated terphenyls
are marketed under the trademark Aroclor ® 5442 and 5460,
and a mixture of bi-  and terphenyls is designated Aroclor ®
4465. The isomer composition  and chromatographic char-
acteristics of  each formulation  have   been described by
Stalling and Huckins (1971)391  and Bagley et al. (1970)."°
A contaminant of some PCB. especially those manufactured
in Europe, are chlorinated  dibenzofurans (Brungs personal
communication  1972).393 Although  these  byproducts would
appear to be extremely toxic, no data are available on their
toxicity to aquatic life.

Direct Lethal Toxicity
  Studies of toxicity of PCB to aquatic organisms arc limited.
They show  considerable variation of  toxicity  to  different
species, as well as variation with the chlorine content of the
PCB. Nevertheless, some trends in the  toxic characteristics
have become apparent, principally from the work of Mayer
as described below:

    • The higher the per cent chlorine, the lower the ap-
      parent toxicity of PCB  to fish  (Mayer,  in press).3™
      This was found in 15-day intermittent-flow bioassays
      using bluegills (Lepomis macrochmis) and channel cat-
      fish  (Ictalurus  punctatus)  with  Aroclor®  1242, 1248,
       1254. All LC50 values were in  the  range 10 to 300
      Mg/'l-
    • The bluegill/channel catfish  experiments also illus-
      trated  that all LC50 values decreased significantly
      when exposures continued from 15 to 20 days. The
      96-hour LC50 of a  PCB to fish cannot adequately
      measure its lethal toxicity.
    • The same tests showed that the toxicity of Aroclor ®
       1248 doubled when the temperature was raised from
      20 C to 27 C.
  To invertebrates,  Aroclor®  1242 has about  the same
acute toxicity that it has  to fish. In  4-  and 7-day tests
(Saunders,  in press),3*9 it killed Gammarus at 42 /jg/'l and
crayfish (Cambarus) at 30 /ug/1, with values that were similar
to the 15-day LC50  reported for bluegills. However, there
is an extreme  range in the reported short-term lethal levels
of Aroclor®  1254 for invertebrates. Saunders (in press)3*9
reported  a 96-hour LC50 as 80 jig/1 for crayfish and only
3 ng/l for  glass shrimp  (Paleomonetes)   in 7-day tests; and
Duke et  al. (1970)371 reported that as little as 0.94 /ig/1
killed immature pink shrimp (Panaeus duorarum). Part of this
variation is related to exposure  periods in the tests; part
is  no doubt  the variation in species response.  Again thi
emphasizes the point that short-term tests of acute toxicitie
of PCB have serious limitations.
  Marine animals may be more easily killed by PCB thai
freshwater ones (see Section IV). When two cstuarine fishe
(Lagodon rhomboides and Leiostomits xanthurus) were exposei
for 14 to  45 days to  Aroclor ®  1254, mortalities were ob
served at  5 /ug/1 (Hansen, el al. 1971).373 This indicated ,
toxicity about  five times greater  than  summarized abov
for freshwater fish  but about the same as the toxicity for th
marine crustaceans mentioned above.

Feeding Studies
  Dietary exposure to PCB seems  to  be less of a  direc
hazard to  fish than  exposure  in  water.  Coho salmoi
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) fed Aroclor® 1254 in varying amount
up to 14,500 jiig/kg body weight per day accumulated whol
body residues which were  only 0.9 to 0.5 of the level ii
the food after 240 days of dietary exposure. Growth  rate
were not affected. However, all fish exposed to the highes
treatment died after 240 days exposure; and thyroid activit-
was stimulated in all except the  group treated at the lowes
concentration (Mehrle and Grant unpublished data 1971).39
  At  present, evaluation of data from  laboratory expert
ments  indicates that exposures to PCB  in water represent
a greater  hazard to fish than dietary exposures. However
in the  environment, residue accumulation from dietan
sources could  be  more  important,  because PCB have ;
high affinity for sediments, and therefore, they readily ente
food chains  (Duke ct al.  1970;m Nimmo, et  al. 1971).382

Residues  in Tissue
   It is clear that widespread pollution of major waterway
has occurred, and that appreciable PCB residues exist ii
fish. \Vhen  analyses  of 40  fish from  the  1970 Nationa
Pesticide Monitoring Program were made, only one of thi
fish was found to contain less than 1 /ig/g  PCB (Stalling
and  Mayer  1972).39° The 10 highest residue levels in thi
40 selected  fish ranged from 19 pig/g  to 213  jug/g wholi
body weight.
  By contrast,  residues measiured in ocean fish  have beer
generally  below 1  yug/g (Risebrough 1970;387 Jensen, et al
1969).376  Between the ranges  in freshwater fish and thosi
in marine fish are the levels of PCB found in seals (Jenser
et al.  1969;376 Holden 1970),m  and in the eggs of fish
eating birds in North America  (Anderson et al. 1969;36
Mulhern et  al. 1971 ;380 Reynolds 1971).385
   In laboratory experiments. Crustacea exposed  to varyiru
levels of Aroclor® 1254 in the water concentrated the PCI
within  their bodies more  than  20,000 times.  The tissut
residues may  sometimes  reach an  equilibrium, and  ir
Gammarus fasciatus PCB did nol  concentrate beyond 27,00(
times despite an  additional 3-week  exposure  to 1.6 ng/
Aroclor®  (Saunders 1972).38S In contrast, PCB residues ir
crayfish did not reach equilibrium after a 28-day exposure

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                                                                                               Toxic Substances/111
PCB concentration factors by two estuarine fishes, Lagondon
rhomboides and Leiostomus xanthurus, were  similar  to  that
described above for crustaceans, i.e., about  10,000 to 50,000
times the exposure levels  in water (Hansen et al.  1971).373
It is important to note that these accumulations  occurred
at water concentrations of  PCB  that killed the fish in 15
to 45 days.
  Also similar were the accumulation  ratios  of  26,000 to
56,000 for bluegills (Lepomis  macrochirus) chronically exposed
to 2 to 15 jug/1 of Aroclor ® 1248 and 1254. Fathead minnows
(Pimeplmles promelas) chronically exposed to Aroclor® 1242
and  1254 for 8  weeks concentrated   PCB  100,000  and
200,000 times the exposure  levels, respectively. Residues of
50 jig/1 (whole body)  resulted from exposure for 8 weeks
to 0.3  Mg'l Aroclor® 1254  (Nebcker et al. 1972).3S1 These
experiments with bluegills also indicated that the maximum
levels of PCB were generally related to the concentration
of PCB in the water (50,000-200,000 times higher) to which
they were exposed (Stalling and Huckins unpublished data
1971).3<)7

Effects on Reproduction
  PCB residues in salmon  eggs are apparently related to
mortality of eggs. In preliminary investigations in Sweden,
Jensen  and  his associates  (1970)377 reported that when
residues in groups of eggs ranged from 0.4 to 1.9 /ug/g °n
a whole-weight basis (7.7  to 34 jig,'g on a fat basis), related
mortalities ranged from 16 per cent up to 100 per cent.
  PCB concentrations  in the range of  0.5 to 10 /ig/1 in
water interfered with reproduction of several aquatic ani-
mals according to recent work of Nebeker  et al.  (1971).381
About 5 yug  I of Aroclor®  1248 was  the  highest concen-
tration  that did not affect  reproduction of Daphma magna
and  Gammarus pmidohmnaeus. In tests of reproduction by
fathead minnows (Pimephalespromelas) all died when exposed
chronically to greater than 8.3 jig/l  of either Aroclor® 1242
or Aroclor®  1254. Reproduction occurred at and below
5.4 /ng.l Aroclor®  1242, and at and below  1.8 /ig 1 of
Aroclor® 1254.
  The  association  between residue levels  and  biological
effects in  aquatic animals is scarcely known, but the work
of Jensen et  al. (1970)377  suggested that about 0.5 /ig/g of
PCB in whole salmon eggs  might be the threshold for egg
mortality. Such a  level in  eggs would be associated with
levels in general body tissue  (e.g., muscle) of 2.5 to 5.0 jig/g.
The residue in muscle corresponded to the present Food and
Drug Administration level  for allowable levels of PCB in
fish used as human food.  Residues  measured in the survey
by the  1970  National  Pesticide Monitoring Program were
generally above 5 Mg/g-
  Applying a minimal safety factor of  10 for protection of
the affected population, and for protection of other species
higher in the food  chain,  would yield a maximum permis-
sible tissue concentration of 0.5 Mg/g in any aquatic organism
in any habitat affected by PCB.
General Considerations and Further Needs

  Another means of control would be justified  in view of
the toxicity of PCB, the lack of knowledge about how it
first  enters natural  ecosystems as a pollutant, and its ap-
parent distribution in high concentrations  in  freshwater
fish in the United States.  This method would be  to regulate
the manufacture of PCB and maintain close control  of its
uses  to avoid situations where PCB is lost to the  environ-
ment. The Monsanto Company recently restricted the sale
of PCB for uses in which  disposal of the end products could
not be controlled, as with plasticizcrs (Gustafson 1970).372

Basis for Recommendations

  For PCB levels in water, the most sensitive reaction shown
by aquatic organisms is to  the lethal effects of low concen-
trations continually present in water for long periods (weeks
or months). Concentrations in  the range of 1  to 8 /ig/1
have been shown to be lethal to several animals.
  The work of Hansen,  et al. (1971)373  and Stallings and
Huckins  (unpublished dala 1971)391  indicates  that  concen-
trations of 0.01 fig, 1 of PCB in water over periods of up to
36 weeks  could lead to dangerous  levels of PCB in the
tissues of  aquatic  organisms. Accumulation by factors of
75,000 to  200,000 times  is  indicated by  their work. If the
higher ratio is taken, 0.01 /ig/1 in water might result in 2.0
jig, g in flesh on whole fish  basis. This is comparable to the
residue  level  in  salmon eggs  associated with complete
mortality of embryos. Therefore, a concentration is recom-
mended that is reduced by a factor of 5, or 0.002  /ig/1. In
addition, a control based on  residue  levels is required, as
well  as one based on PCB in the water.

Recommendations
  Aquatic life should  be protected where the maxi-
mum concentration  of  total PCB  in unfiltered
water does not exceed 0.002 /tg/1 at  any time or
place, and the residues in the general body tissues
of any aquatic organism do not exceed 0.5 /zg/g.

METALS

General Data
  Several reviews of the toxicity of metals are available
(e.g.,  Skidmore   1964;428  McKee   and   Wolf  1963;415
Doudoroff and Katz 1953).406 Some  of  the  most  relevant
research is currently in progress or only recently completed.
Some deals with  chronic effects of metals  on survival,
growth, and reproduction of fish and other organisms. The
completed studies have estimated safe concentrations, and
from these application factors have been  derived as defined
in the discussion of bioassays (pp. 118-123).
  The important relation  between  water  hardness  and
lethal toxicity  is well documented  for  some metals  (see
Figure III-9).  For  copper, the  difference  in toxicity may

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178/'Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                  S   0.5
                      0.2


                     0.02
                                      LEAD
                                      z

                                                                        ZINC

                                                                     COPPER
                        10
                                    20
                                                      50           100          200

                                                           Total Hardness, mg/1 as CaCo^j
                                                                                                  1000
                                                                                                  100
                                                                                                  20
                          Brown 1968,401 Lloyd and Herbert I960'
 FIGURE IH-9—The 48-Hour Lethal Concentrations of Three Heavy Metals for Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri). (Simile
                                       Relationships Exist for Other Species of Fish.)

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                                                                                           Toxic Substances/179
not be related to the difference in hardness per se, but to
the difference in alkalinity of the water that accompanies
change  in  hardness (Stiff  1971).434 Nevertheless, the re-
lation to hardness is a  convenient and  accepted one. The
hardness classification  developed by the U.S. Geological
Survey  is the following:
  Soft
  Moderately hard
  Hard
 0- 60 mg/1 (hardness as CaCO3)
61-120 mg/1
in excess of 120 mg/1
  There  are  many chemical species of metals  in water;
some are toxic to aquatic life, others are not. Hydrogen ion
concentration in water is extremely important in governing
the species and solubility of metals and therefore the lethal
toxicity. At high pH, many heavy metals form hydroxides
or basic carbonates that are relatively insoluble and  tend
to precipitate. They may, however, remain suspended in
the water as fine  particles (O'Connor et al.  1964;421  Stiff
1971).434
  The  toxicity  of suspended hydroxides of metal depends
on the  particular situation. For example, suspended zinc has
been found to be nontoxic (Sprague 1964a&b),429'430 equally
as toxic as dissolved zinc  (Lloyd I960)412 and more toxic
than dissolved  zinc (Mount 1966).417  This  indicates  that
suspended zinc is at least potentially poisonous, and there-
fore the total metal measured in the water should be  con-
sidered toxic. It is difficult to predict the effect of pH on
toxicity. For example, low pH (about 5) as well as high pH
(about 9) reduced toxicity of copper and zinc compared to
that at neutral pH (Fisheries Research  Board  of Canada
unpublished data  1971).444 Therefore pH should be regulated
in bioassays with metals in order to simulate local conditions
and to explore any effect of local variation of pH.
   In addition to hardness,  numerous other factors influence
the lethal toxicity  of copper  to fish.  McKee and  Wolf
(1963)415 and Doudoroff and Katz (1953)406 included dis-
solved  oxygen, temperature,  turbidity,  carbon dioxide,
magnesium salts, and phosphates as factors affecting copper
toxicity.  Artificial  chelating compounds such as nitrilo-
triacetic acid can  reduce or  eliminate toxic  effects of zinc
and other  metals  (Sprague 1968b)432 and  there may be
natural chelating  agents that  would do the same thing.
Certain organic ligands  (Bender et al.  1970)399 and amino
acids from sewage  treatment plant  effluent (United King-
dom Ministry  of  Technology  1969)435 also  reduce  the
toxicity of copper by forming  copper-organic complexes
that do not contribute to lethal toxicity. It is safe to assume
that some of these factors will influence the toxicity of other
metals. In addition, the amount of metals found (at  least
temporarily) in living biological matter is included in most
routine water analyses. At the  present time, however, it is
not possible to predict accurately the amount of total metal
in any environment that may be lethal,  biologically active,
or  contributory to toxicity. Consequently,  the following
recommendations  are made.
Recommendations
  Since forms or species of metals in water may
change with shifts in the water quality, and since
the  toxicity  to  aquatic  life  may  concurrently
change in as yet unpredictable ways, it is recom-
mended  that water quality criteria for a  given
metal  be based on the  total amount of it in the
water, regardless of the chemical state or form of
the metal, except that settleable solids should be
excluded  from the  analysis (Standard Methods
1971).433 Additionally, hardness affects the toxicity
of many metals (see  Figure III-9).
  Metals  which have collected in  the  sediments
can redissolve into  the water, and such redissolved
metals should meet  the criteria for heavy metals.
To protect aquatic life, amounts likely to be harm-
ful should not occur in the sediments.
  It  is recommended that  any metal species not
specifically mentioned in this report but suspected
of  causing detrimental  effects  on  aquatic life be
examined as outlined in the section on  Bioassays.

Aluminum
  Current  research by  Freeman and Everhart (1971)407
indicated  that  aluminum  salts  were  slightly  soluble at
neutral pH;  0.05  mg/1  dissolved and  had no sublethal
effects on  fish. At pH 9, at  least 5 mg/1  of aluminum dis-
solved and this killed fingerling rainbow trout within 48
hours. However, the suspended precipitate of ionized alumi-
num  is toxic. In most natural waters, the ionized or po-
tentially ionizable aluminum would be in the form of anionic
or neutral precipitates, and anything greater than 0.1 mg/1
of this would be deleterious to growth and survival of fish.

Recommendation
  Careful examination of toxicity problems should
be made to protect  aquatic life in situations where
the  presence  of ionic  aluminum  is  suspected.
Aluminum may have considerably greater toxicity
than has been assumed.

Cadmium
  This metal is  an extremely dangerous cumulative poison.
In mammals (Nilsson  1970),420 fish (Eaton unpublished data
1971),442 and probably  other animals, there is insidious,
progressive, chronic poisoning because there is almost no
excretion of the metal. In its acute lethal action on rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdnen), Ball  (1967)398 found cadmium un-
usually slow. A lethal  threshold of 0.01 mg/1 was not dis-
cernible until  seven  days'  exposure. Other  investigators
(Pickering  and Gast,  in press,'12'1 Eaton unpublished  data
1971)442 have determined lethal threshold concentrations in
fathead minnows in 2 to 6 days and in bluegill in 96 hours.
The  chronically safe  levels  for both fathead minnows

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180/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Pimephales promelas)  (Pickering and  Gast, in press)**'1 and
bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) (Eaton unpublished data
1971)442 in hard water (200 mg/1 as CaCO3) are between
0.06  and 0.03 mg/1. In these exposures, death of eggs or
early larvae was one of the effects observed at the  lowest
unsafe concentrations tested. Recent exposures of eggs and
larvae at the National Water Quality Laboratory (Duluth)
in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOs) demonstrated that 0.01
mg/1 was unsafe; 0.004 mg/1 was safe for several warm- and
coldwater fishes, including some  salmonids;  and the safe
level for coho salmon fry  (Oncorhynchus kisutch) was  lower,
i.e.,  between 0.004 mg/1 and 0.001  mg/1  (McKim and
Eaton unpublished data 1971).'145
  Daphnia magna appeared to be very sensitive to cadmium.
Concentrations of 0.0005 mg/1 were found to reduce repro-
duction in  one-generation exposures lasting three  weeks
(Biesinger and Christensen  unpublished data  1971).440 This
sensitivity is probably  representative  of other crustaceans
as well.

Recommendation
  Aquatic life should be protected where  levels of
cadmium do not exceed 0.03  mg/1 in water having
total hardness above 100  mg/1 as CaCO3, or  0.004
mg/1 in waters with  a hardness of 100  mg/1 or
below at any time or  place. Habitats should be
safe for crustaceans or  the eggs and larvae of
salmon  if the levels of cadmium do  not exceed
0.003 mg/1 in hard water or 0.0004 mg/1 in  soft
water at any time or place.

Chromium
   The chronic toxicity of hexavalent chromium  to fish has
been studied  by Olson  (1958),422 and Olson and  Foster
(1956,423 1957).424  Their data demonstrated  a pronounced
cumulative  toxicity  of chromium  to  rainbow  trout and
chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawy(scha). Duodoroff and
Katz  (1953)406 found  that bluegills  (Lepomis macrochirus)
tolerated a 45 mg/1 level for 20 days in hard water.  Cairns
(1956),403 using chromic oxide  (CrO3), found that a concen-
tration of 104 mg/1 was toxic  to bluegills in  6 to 84 hours.
Bioassays  conducted with four species of fish gave 96-hour
LC50's of hexavalent  chromium thai ranged from  17 to
118  mg/1, indicating  little effect of hardness on toxicity
(Pickering and Henderson  1966).426
   Recently some tests  of chronic effects on reproduction of
fish  have been carried out.  The 96-hour LC50 and safe
concentrations for hexavalent chromium were 33 and 1.0
mg/1  for fathead  minnows  (Pimephales promelas) in  hard
water (Pickering unpublished data 1971),446 50 and 0.6 mg/1
for brook trout (Salvelinus fontinahs) in soft  water, and 69
and  0.3 mg/1 for rainbow trout (Salmo  gairdneri)  in soft
water (Benoit  unpublished data 1971).438 Equivalent values
for  trivalent chromium were little different: 27 mg/1 for
the  96-hour LC50, and  1.0 mg/1 for a safe  concentration
for fathead minnows in hard  water (Pickering unpublishd
data 1971).446
  For Daphnia the LC50 of hexavalent chromium was re
ported as 0.05 mg/1,  and the chronic no-effect  level o
trivalent chromium on reproduction was 0.33  rag/1 (Bie
singer and Christensen unpublished data  1971).44° Some dat;
are available concerning the toxicity of chromium to algae
The  concentrations of chromium that inhibited growth fo
the test organisms are  as follows  (Hervey 1949):410 Chlor
ococcales, 3.2 to  6.4 mg/1;  Euglenoids, 0.32 to 1.6 mg/l
and  diatoms, 0.032 to  0.32  mg/1.  Patrick (unpublished dat
1971)447 found that 50 per cent growth reduction for  twi
diatoms in hard and soft water occurred at 0.2 to 0.4 mg/
chromium.
  Thus it is  apparent  that there  is a great range  of sensi
tivity to chromium among different  species of organism
and  in different waters. Those lethal levels reported abovi
are 17 to 118 mg/1 for fish, 0.05 mg/1 for invertebrates,  an<
0.032 to 6.4  mg/1 for algae, the highest value being 3,701
times the lowest  one.  The apparent "safe" concentratioi
for fish is moderately high, but the recommended maximun
concentration of  0.05  mg/1 has been  selected in  order ti
protect  other organisms, in particular  Daphnia and certaii
diatoms which are affected at slightly below this concert
tration.

Recommendation
   Mixed aquatic populations should be protecte<
where  the concentration of  total  chromium  it
water  does not exceed 0.05  mg/1 at any  time o
place.

Copper
   Copper  is known to be particularly toxic to algae  ant
mollusks, and the implications of this should be eonsideree
for any given body of  water. Based on studies of effects o:
these organisms, it is known that the criteria for fish protec
these other forms as well.  Recent work (Biesinger et al
unpublished data 1971)439 indicated that the sale level  o
copper  for reproduction and  growth  of Daphnia  magna  ii
soft  water (45 mg/1  as CaGOs)  is 0.006 mg/1,  which i
similar  to the concentrations described  below as safe fo
fish. The relationship of LC50 to water hardness was showi
in Figure III-7 for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri).
   The safe concentration of copper for reproduction by fat
head minnows (Pimephales promelas)  in hard  water  (20(
mg/1 as  CaCOa)  was between  0.015  and 0.033 mg/
(Mount 1968),418 and in  soft  water  (30 mg/1 as CaCO;i
was between 0.011 and 0.018 mg/1 (Mount and Stephat
 1969).419 More recent  work with fathead minnows in hare
water indicated that a concentration of 0.033 mg/1 wouk
probably  be safe  (Brungs unpublished data  1971).441  Ac
ceptable reproduction by brook  trout (Salvelinus fontinalis
in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOg) occurred between 0.01(
and 0.018 mg/1 (McKim and Benoit 1971).416 The safe-to

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                                                                                            Toxic Substances /181
lethal ratios determined in these studies varied somewhat;
but that for hard water is close to 0.1 and that for soft water
is approximately 0.1 to 0.2. In very soft water, typical of
some northern and mountainous regions, 0.1 of the 96-hour
LC50 for  sensitive species would be  close to what is con-
sidered  a natural concentration in these waters.
  Recent  work indicated that avoidance reactions by fish
may be as restrictive as reproductive requirements or even
more so (Sprague 1964b).430 It has been demonstrated that
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) avoid a concentration of 0.004
mg/1 in the laboratory.

Recommendation

  Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important  species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of copper safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the  96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.1.

Lead

  Lead  has a low solubility of 0.5 mg/1 in soft water and
only 0.003 mg/1 in hard water, although higher concen-
trations  of suspended and colloidal lead may  remain in the
water. The extreme effects of water hardness on lead toxicity
are  demonstrated by  the LG50 values in hard and soft
waters.  The 96-hour LC50 values in soft water (20 to 45
mg/1 as CaCO3) were 5 to 7 mg/1 and  4 to 5 mg/1 for the
fathead  minnow (Pimephales promelai) and the brook  trout
(Salvelinusfontinahs) respectively (Pickering and Henderson
1966,426  Benoit  unpublished data 1971).438 Brown  (1968)401
reported a 96-hour LC50 of 1 mg/1  for rainbow  trout
(Salmo  gairdneri) in soft water  (50 mg/1  as CaCOs). (See
Figure III-9 for other values for this species.) The 96-hour
LC50 values  of lead  in  hard water were 482 mg/1 and
442 mg/1  for fathead  minnow and brook trout (Pickering
and Henderson 1966).426
  There is not sufficient information on  chronic toxicity
of lead to fish to justify recommending values as application
factors.  However,  preliminary information  on  long ex-
posures  (2 to 3 months) on rainbow trout and brook  trout
(Everhart  unpublished  data 1971,443 Benoit unpublished data
1971)438 indicated detrimental effects at 0.10 mg/1  of lead
in soft  water (20  to  45 mg/1 as CaCO3), a safe-to-lethal
ratio of less than 0.02.
  Growth of guppies  (Lebistes) was affected  by  1.24  mg/1
of lead  (Crandall  and Goodnight 1962).405 Jones (1939)411
and  Hawksley (1967)408 found chronic  or  sublethal effects
on sticklebacks from  lead  concentrations of 0.1 and 0.3
mg/1. The  conditioned behavior  of  goldfish  (Carassius
auratus)  in a light-dark shuttlebox was adversely affected
by 0.07  mg/1 of lead in soft water (Weir and Hine 1970).437
  Chronic lead toxicity was recently investigated  with
Daphnia magna (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data
1971)440 and the effect on reproduction was observed at a
level of 0.03 mg/1 of lead. This concentration of 0.03 mg/1,
the safe level for Daphnia, is recommended as the criterion
for protection of aquatic life. It is probably also close to
the safe level  for fish, because  the  tests  described above,
although  somewhat preliminary, indicated that concen-
trations about 2 or  3 times higher had detrimental effects.

Recommendation

   The concentration of lead in water should not
be higher than 0.03 mg/1 at any time or place in
order to  protect aquatic life.

Mercury

   Most data about mercury involve the organic compounds
(see the discussion  of Organic Mercury, p. 172.)  Infor-
mation is  available,  however, for inorganic mercury in the
form of mercuric ions. Short-term 96-hour bioassay studies
indicated  that  concentrations of 1 mg/1 are fatal to  fish
(Boetius I960,400 Jones  1939,411 Weir and  Hine 1970).«7
For long-term exposures of  10 days or more, mercury levels
as low as  10 to 20 mg/1 have been shown to be fatal to fish
(Uspenskaya  1946).436

Recommendation
   In protecting aquatic life, the recommendations
for organic mercury (p, 174) also pertain here.

Nickel
   The 96-hour LC50  of  nickel  for fathead  minnows
(Pimephales promelas) ranges from 5 mg/1  in soft water (20
mg/1 as CaCOa) to 43 mg/1 in  hard  water (360  mg/1 as
CaCO3) under static test conditions (Pickering and Hender-
son 1966).426 In water of 200 mg/1 hardness (as GaCO3),
the 96-hour LC50 for fathead minnows was 26 to 31 mg/1
with a chronically safe concentration between 0.8 and 0.4
mg/1  (Pickering unpublished data  1971).446 On the basis of
this work, an application  factor of 0.02 appeared to  be
appropriate for the protection of fish. If this factor is used,
the estimated  safe  concentration  of nickel for  fathead
minnows  in  soft water would  be about  0.1 mg/1.  Using
static test conditions  and  Daphnia  magna,  Biesinger and
Christensen  (unpublished data 1971)440 determined  that  a
nickel concentration of 0.095 mg/1 reduced reproduction
during a 3-week exposure in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOs),
and  a nickel concentration of 0.030 mg/1  had no effect.
This result indicated that  the sensitivity of Daphnia magna
is comparable  to that of fish.

Recommendation
   Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species  in the  locality as the test
organism, a concentration of nickel safe to aquatic

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 182/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.02.


Zinc

  The acute lethal toxicity of zinc is greatly affected by
water hardness (see Figure III-7). Pickering and Henderson
(1966)426 determined the  96-hour LC50 of zinc  for fathead
minnows (Pimephales promelas) and bluegills (Lepomis macro-
chirus) using static test conditions. For fathead minnows in
soft water (20 mg/1 as CaCO3) the LC50  was  0.87 mg/1,
and in hard  water  (360 mg/1 as CaCO3) it was 33 mg/1.
Bluegills  were more resistant in both waters. Similarly the
lethal threshold concentration was 3 or 4 times as high for
coarse fish as for trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) (Ball 1967).398
  The 24-hour  LC50 of zinc for rainbow trout  (Salmo
gairdnen) was reduced only 20 per cent when the fish were
forced to swim at 85 per cent of their maximum sustained
swimming speed (Herbert and Shurben 1964).409 The maxi-
mum effect of a reduction in dissolved oxygen from 6 to 7
mg/1 to 2 mg/1 on the acute toxicity of zinc was a 50 per cent
increase (Lloyd 1961,413 Cairns and Scheier 1958,404 Picker-
ing 1968).42S The effects  are  small in comparison to the
difference between  acutely  toxic and  safe concentrations.
The  recommended application  factor  recognizes  these
effects.
  A chronic test in  hard water  (200 mg/1 as  CaCOa),
involving fathead minnow  reproduction,  determined the
safe concentration of zinc to be between 0.03 mg/1, which
had no effect, and 0.18 mg/1, which caused 83 per cent
reduction in  fecundity (Brungs 1969).402 Using the 96-hour
LC50 of 9.2  mg/1, the ratio of the above no-effect concen-
tration to the LC50 is 0.0034. Interpolation suggests that
about 0.005 of the LC50 would cause 20 per cent reduction
of fecundity,  making the best estimate  of a valid application
factor close to 0.005.
  There was a reduction in reproduction of Daphma magna
at a zinc concentration of 0.10 mg/1 using soft water (45
mg/1 as CaCOs)  (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data
1971).440 No  effect was observed at 0.07 mg/1,  which indi-
cated that Daphma magna was  more resistant to zinc  than
the fathead minnow.
  Avoidance reactions by rainbow trout in the laboratory
have  been caused  by 0.01 of the LC50 of zinc  (Sprague
1968a).431


Recommendation

  Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive  important species in  the locality as the test
organism,  a concentration of zinc safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.005.
PESTICIDES

  Pesticides are chemicals, natural and synthetic, used tc
control or destroy plant and animal life considered adverse
to human society.  Since the  1940's a  large number o
synthetic  organic  compounds  have  been developed foi
pesticide purposes. Presently there are thousands of regis
tered formulations incorporating nearly 900 different chemi
cals. Trends in  production and use of pesticides indicate ar
annual increase of about 15 per cent, and there are pre-
dictions of increased demand during the next decade (Mral
1969).477 The subject of pesticides and their environmenta
significance has been  carefully  evaluated  in the Report o
the  Secretary's  Commission on Pesticides and  their  Re-
lationship to Environmental Health (Mrak 1969).477

Methods, Rale, and Frequency of Application
  Pesticides are used for a wide variety  of purposes in i
multitude  of  environmental  situations.  Often  they arc
categorized according to their use or intended target  (e.g.
insecticide,  herbicide,  fungicide),  but their release in the
environment presents  an inherent hazard to many  non-
target organisms. Some  degree of contamination and risk
is assumed with nearly all pesticide use. The risk to aquatic
ecosystems depends upon the chemical and  physical prop-
erties of the pesticide,  type of formulation, frequency, rate
and methods of application, and the nature of the receiving
system.
  The pesticides of greatest concern are those that are
persistent for long periods and  accumulate in the environ-
ment ; those that are highly toxic to man, fish, and wildlife;
and those that are used in large" volumes over broad areas.
A list of such chemicals recommended for monitoring in the
environment appears in Appendix II-F. The majority of
ihese compounds are  either insecticides or herbicides used
extensively in  agriculture, public health,  and for household
or garden purposes. In  the absence of definitive data on
their individual behavior and their individual effect on the
environment,  some generalization about pesticides is re-
quired to serve as a guideline for establishing water quality
criteria to protect aquatic life. In specific instances,  how-
ever, each compound  must be considered individually on
the  basis of information about its reaction in the environ-
ment and its effect on aquatic organisms.

Sources  and Distribution

  The major sources of pesticides in water are runoff from
treated  lands,  industrial discharges, and  domestic sewage.
Significant  contributions may also  occur in fallout from
atmospheric drift and in precipitation (Tarrant and Tatton
1968).485 Applications  to water  surfaces,  intentional or
otherwise, will result in rapid and extensive contamination.
The persistent organochlorine pesticides have received the
greatest  attention in  monitoring programs (Lichtenberg
et al.  1970,471  Henderson et al. 1969).461 Their extensive

-------
                                                                                                Toxic Substances/ \ 83
distribution in  aquatic  systems  is  indicative of environ-
mental loading from both point and nonpoint sources.
  Many pesticides have a low water solubility that favors
their rapid sorption on suspended or sedimented materials
and  their affinity to  plant and  animal lipids. Soluble or
dispersed fractions of pesticides in the water rapidly decline
after initial contamination, resulting in increased concen-
trations  in the  sediments  (Yule  and Tomlin 1971).489 In
streams,  much of the residue is in continuous transport on
suspended  paniculate  material  or  in  sediments  (Zabik
1969).4W The  distribution within the stream flow is  non-
uniform  because of unequal velocity and  unequal distri-
bution of suspended materials within the stream bed (Feltz
ct al.  1971).454  Seasonal  fluctuations  in  runoff and use
pattern cause  major changes in  concentration during the
year,  but the continuous  downstream transport tends to
reduce levels in  the upper reaches of streams while increas-
ing them in the  downstream areas and eventually in major
receiving basins (i.e.,  lakes, reservoirs,  or  estuaries). If
applications in a watershed cease entirely, residues in the
stream will gradually  and  continuously decline (Sprague
et al.  1971).484 A similar decline would be expected in the
receiving basins  but at a slower rate.
  In lakes the sediments apparently act as a reservoir  from
which  the  pesticide is partitioned  into  the water phase
according to the solubility of the compound, the concen-
tration in the sediment, and the type of sediment (Hamelink
et ;iJ. 1971).158 Dissolved natural organic  materials in the
water may  greatly enhance the water solubility of some
pesticides (Wershaw  et  al.  1969).ls7 Some  investigations
indicated pesticides may  be less  available to the water in
eutrophic systems where the higher organic content in the
sediments has  a  greater capacity to hold pesticide residues
(Lotse et al.  1968,172  Hartung 1970"'°). This in part ex-
plained the difference  in  time required for some waters to
"detoxify,"  as observed in lakes treated with toxaphene to
eradicate undesirable fish species (Terriere et al. 1966).486
  Herbicides  applied  to aquatic systems to  control plant
growths  are removed from  the water by absorption in the
plants or sorption to the hydrosoil. The rate of disappearance
from the water may be dependent upon the availability of
suitable  sorption sites. Frank and  Comes (1967)155 found
residues of dichlobenil  in soil and water up  to  160 clays after
application. They  also found  that cliquat  and paraquat
residues  were  persistent  in  hydrosoils for approximately 3
to 6 months  after application. Granular  herbicide  treat-
ments made on a volume basis deposit greater quantities on
the hydrosoil in deep water areas than in water of less depth.
The granules  may supply  herbicide to the  water  over a
period of time depending upon solubility of the herbicide,
concentrations in the granule, and other conditions.
  Because  the  distribution of pesticides   is nonuniform,
sampling methods and frequency, as well as selection of
sampling sites,  must  be  scientifically determined (Feltz
et al. 1971).454 Pesticides found in the water in suspended
particulate material  and  in  sediments may  be toxic  to
aquatic organisms or contribute to residue accumulation
in them.

Persistence and Biological Accumulation
  All organic pesticides are subject to metabolic and non-
metabolic degradation in  the environment. Specific com-
pounds vary  widely in their rate of degradation, and some
form degradation products that may be both persistent and
toxic. Most pesticides are readily degraded to nontoxic or
elementary materials within a few days to a few months;
these  compounds may be absorbed by aquatic organisms,
but the residues do not necessarily accumulate or persist
for long periods. Concentrations in the organism  may  be
higher than ambient  water levels, but they rapidly decline
as water concentrations are diminished. Examples of such
dynamic exchange have been demonstrated with malathion
(Bender 1969),448 methoxychlor (Burdick  et  al. 1968),449
and various  herbicides (Mullison 1970).478 If degradation
in water is completed within sufficient time to prevent toxic
or adverse physiological effects, these  nonpersistcnt com-
pounds do not  pose  a long-term hazard to aquatic life.
However, degradation rates of specific pesticides are often
dependent upon environmental conditions.  Considerable
variation in persistence may be observed in waters of differ-
ent types.  Gakstatter and Weiss (1965),456  for example,
have shown that wide variations in the stability of organic
phosphorous  insecticides  in  water solutions  is dependent
upon  the  pH of the water. The  half-life of malathion was
reduced from about six months at pH 6 to only one to two
weeks at pH 8. Repeated applications and slow degradation
rates may maintain elevated environmental concentrations,
but there is  no indication that  these  compounds can  be
accumulated  through the food chain.
   Some  pesticides,   primarily  the  organochlorine  com-
pounds,  are  extremely stable,  degrading  only slowly  or
forming persistent degradation products. Aquatic organisms
may accumulate these compounds directly by absorption
from  water and by  eating contaminated  food organisms.
In waters containing  very  low concentrations of pesticides,
fish probably obtain  the greatest amount of residue from
contaminated foods;  but the amount retained in the tissue
appears to be a function  of the  pesticide concentration in
the water and its rate of elimination  from the organism
(Hamelink et al.  1971).4"'8 The  transfer  of residues from
prey to predator in  the food  chain ultimately results  in
residues in the higher trophic levels many  thousand times
higher  than  ambient water levels. Examples of trophic
accumulation have been described in  several locations in-
cluding Clear Lake, California (Hunt and Bischoff I960),463
and Lake Poinsett, South Dakota (Hannon et al. 1970).459

Residues
   Samples of wild fish have often contained pesticide resi-
dues in greater concentrations  than  are  tolerated in any

-------
184/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
commercially produced agricultural products.  The highest
concentrations are  often found in the  most highly prized
fish. Coho salmon (Oncorhyncus kisulcK) from Lake Michigan
are not considered acceptable for sale in interstate commerce
on  the  basis  of an interim guideline  for DDT  and  its
metabolites set for fish by the U.S. Food and Drug Adminis-
tration  (Mount 1968).476 Lake  trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
and some catches of chubs (Coregonus kiyi and Coregonus hoyi)
and lake herring (Coregonus artedt) from Lake Michigan also
exceed  the guideline limits and  are thus not considered
acceptable for interstate commerce (Reinert 1970;481 Michi-
gan Department of Agriculture  personal  communication).^
Pesticide residues in  fish or fish products may enter the
human  food  chain  indirectly in other  ways, as in fish  oil
and meal used in domestic animal feeds.
  Fish may survive relatively  high residue concentrations
in their body fats, but residues concentrated in the eggs of
mature  fish may be  lethal to the developing fry.  Up to
100 per cent loss  of lake  trout  (Salvelinus namaycush) fry
occurred when residues of DDT-DDD in the eggs exceeded
4.75 mg/kg  (Burdick  et al. 1964).46° A similar mortality
was reported in coho salmon fry from  Lake Michigan
where eggs  contained significant quantities of DDT, di-
eldrin, and polychlorinated biphenyls (Johnson and  Pecor
1969 ;468 Johnson 1968).«6 Johnson (1967)467 reported that
adult fish not harmed by low concentrations  of endrin in
water accumulated levels in the eggs that were  lethal  to the
developing fry.  Residues in fish may be  directly harmful
under stress conditions or at different temperature regimes.
Brook trout  (Salvelinus fontmalis)  fed DDT at 3.0  mg/kg
body weight per week for  26 weeks suffered 96.2 per cent
mortality during a  period of reduced feeding and declining
water  temperature. Mortality of untreated  control fish
during  the same period was 1.2  per cent (Macek 1968).473
Declining water temperature during the fall was believed
to cause delayed mortality  of salmon parr in  streams con-
taminated with DDT (Elson 1967).453
  In addition to the problem of pesticide residues in aquatic
systems, other problems suggest themselves and remain to
be  investigated, including  the potential  of  resistant fish
species  to  accumulate levels  hazardous  to other  species
(Rosato and Ferguson 1968) ;482 the potential for enhanced
residue  storage when  fish are exposed to more than one
compound (Mayer et al. 1970) ;474 and the potential effect
of metabolites not  presently identified. The adverse  effects
of  DDT on  the reproductive  performance of fish-eating
birds has been well  documented.  (See the  discussion of
Wildlife, pp. 194-198.)
  Levels of persistent pesticides in water that will not result
in undesirable effects cannot be determined on the basis of
present knowledge. Water concentrations below the practical
limits of detection have resulted in unacceptable residues in
fish for  human consumption and have affected  reproduction
and survival  of aquatic life. Criteria  based upon residue
concentrations in  the  tissues of selected species may offe
some  guidance. Tolerance levels for pesticides in wild fisl
have not been established, but action levels have been sug
gested by the  U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Mouri
1968).476 However, acceptable concentrations of persisten
pesticides that offer protection to aquatic life and humai
health are unknown.
  It should also  be  recognized that residue criteria an
probably  unacceptable except on a total ecosystem  basis
Residues  in stream fish  may meet  some  guidelines, bu
pesticides from that stream may eventually create excessiv<
residues in fish  in the downstream receiving basins.  LInti
more is known of the effects of persistent pesticide  residues
any accumulation must be considered undesirable.

Toxieity
  Concentrations of pesticides I hat are lethal to aquatic lif(
have often occurred in local areas where applications overlap
streams or lakes, in streams receiving runoff from recentl)
treated areas, and where  misuse or spillage has occurred
Applications  of pesticides to  water to  control   noxiou;
alants, fish, or insects have  also killed  desirable  species
Fish populations,  however, usually recovered within  a few
months to a year  (Elson  1967).453 The recovery of aquatic
invertebrates  in areas  that have been heavily contaminated
may require a longer period,  with some species requiring
several years  to regain precontamination numbers (Cope
1961,451 Ide 1967).465 Undesirable species of insects may be
ihe first to repopulate the area  (Hynes  1961),464 and  in
some instances the species composition has been completely
changed (Hopkins et  al.  1966).462 Areas that are contami-
nated by pesticide application are subject to loss of fish
populations and reduced food for fish growth  (Schoenthal
]  964,483 Kerswill and Edwards 1967).469 Where  residues are
persistent in  bottom  sediments  for long  periods,  benthic
organisms may be damaged even  though  water  concen-
trations remain low (Wilson and Bond 1969).488
  Pesticides  are toxic to aquatic life over wide ranges.
Great differences  in  susceptibility to  different compounds
exist  between species and  within  species.  For example,
96-hour LC50 values of 5 to  610,000 /ig/1 were  reported
for various fish species exposed to organophosphate  pesti-
cides  (Pickering et al.  1962).*79  In  addition  to species'
cifferences, the toxicity may be modified by differences in
formulation, environmental conditions, animal size and age,
and physiological condition. The effect of combinations of
pesticides on  aquatic  organisms has not received  sufficient
attention.  Macek (unpublished data 1971)491 reported that
combinations of various common pesticides were synergistic
in their action on  bluegill  (Lepomis macrochirus) and rainbow
trout  (Salmo  gairdnen), while  others  had additive effects.
Several of the combinations that were found to be syner-
gistic  are recommended  for  insect  pest  control (Table
111-16).

-------
                                                                                                Toxic Substances/185
    TABLE 111-16—Acute Toxic Interaction of Pesticide
      Combinations to Rainbow Trout and Bluegills.
Pesticide combination
Compound A
DDT
"
"
"
".
".
"
Parathion
"
"
".
"
Malathion
"
"..
"
"
"
"
". .
Carbaryl
"
"..
".
"
Methyl parathion
".
"
Bidrm .
Compound B
Vapona
Endnn
Dieldnn
Azinphosmethyl
Toxaphene
Zectran
BHC
Copper sulfate
Diazinon
DDT
Endosulfan
Methoiychlor
Baytex
Copper sultate
DDT
EPN
Parathion
Perthane
Carbaryl
Toxaphene
Copper sullate
DDT
Azinphosmethyl
Methoiychlor
Parathion
DDT
Endosulfan
Carbaryl
Sumithion
Toxic interaction
Additive
Additive
Additive
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Synergistic"
Synergistic
Synergistic
Additive"
Additive
Synergistic'
Synergistic
Antagonistic
Addibve
Synergistic
Synergistic
Synergistic"
Synergistic"
Additive-
Synergistic
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Additive'
Additive"
Additive
 " This combination recommended lor control of insect pests by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
 Note: mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement.
  Most data on pesticide effects on aquatic life are limited
to a  few species  and  concentrations  that are lethal  in
short-term tests. The few  chronic tests  conducted  with
aquatic species indicated that toxic effects occurred at much
lower concentrations. Mount and Stephan  (1967)475 found
the 96-hour LC50 for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas)
in malathion was 9,000 jug/1, but spinal deformities in adult
fish occurred during a  10-month exposure  to  580 /ig/1.
Eaton  (1970)452 found  that  bluegill  suffered  the same
crippling effects after chronic exposure to 7.4 /ug/1 malathion
and the 96-hour LC50 was  108 yug/1.
  Where chronic toxicity data are available, they may  be
used to develop application factors to estimate safe levels.
Mount and  Stephan  (1967)475 have  suggested using  an
application  factor consisting of the laboratory-determined
maximum  concentration that  has  no  effect on chronic
exposure divided by the  96-hour LC50. Using this method,
Eaton (1970)452 showed that application factors for bluegill
and  fathead minnow exposed to malathion were  similar
despite a greater than  50-fold  difference  in species sensi-
tivity.  Application factors derived for one compound may
be appropriate  for  closely related compounds that  have a
similar mode of action,  but  additional research is necessary
to verify this concept.  In the absence of chronic toxicity
data, the application factors for many compounds must be
arbitrary values set with the  intention of providing some
margin of safety for sensitive  species,  prolonged exposure,
and potential effects of interaction with other compounds.

Basis for Criteria

  The reported acute toxicity values  and subacute effects
of pesticides for aquatic life are listed in Appendix  II-D.
The acute  toxicity values  multiplied by  the appropriate
application  factor provided the recommended criteria. The
96-hour LC50 should be multiplied by an application factor
of 0.01 in most cases. The value derived from multiplying
the 96-hour LC50  by a factor of 0.01 can be used as the
24-hour average concentration.
  Recommended concentrations of pesticides may be below
those presently detectable without additional extraction and
concentration techniques.  However,  concentrations  below
those detectable by routine techniques are known to cause
detrimental  effects  to aquatic  organisms  and to  man.
Therefore,   recommendations  are based on bioassay pro-
cedures and the use of an appropriate application factor.
  The recommendations are based upon the most sensitive
species. Permissible concentrations in water have been sug-
gested only  where several animal species have been tested.
Where toxicity data arc not available, acute toxicity bio-
assays should be conducted with locally important sensitive
aquatic species, and safe levels should be estimated by using
an application factor of 0.01.
  Some  organochlorine pesticides  (i.e., DDT  including
DDD and DDE, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, hepta-
chlor, toxaphene, lindane, endosulfan, and benzene hexa-
chloride) are considered especially hazardous because of
their persistence and accumulation in aquatic organisms.
These compounds,  including some of their metabolites, are
directly toxic to various aquatic species at concentrations
of less than one /xg/1. Their accumulation in aquatic systems
presents a hazard,  both real  and potential, to animals in
the higher trophic levels, including man (Pimentel  1971,480
Mrak 1969,477 Kraybill 1969,470 Gillett  1969).457  Present
knowledge  is not yet sufficient to predict or estimate safe
concentrations of these compounds in aquatic systems. How-
ever, residue concentrations in aquatic organisms provide a
measure of  environmental contamination. Therefore, spe-
cific  maximum tissue  concentrations have  been  recom-
mended as a guideline for  water quality control.

Recommendations

  Organochlorine Insecticides  The recommenda-
tions for  selected organochlorine insecticides are
based upon levels in water and residue concentra-
tions in whole fish on a wet weight basis. Aquatic
life should be protected where the maximum con-

-------
 186/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
centration of  the  organochlorine pesticide in the
water  does not exceed  the  values listed in Table
111-17.
   For  the  protection of  predators,  the  following
values are suggested for residues in whole fish (wet
weight): DDT  (including  DDD  and  DDE)—1.0
mg/kg;  aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor  (in-
cluding  heptachlor  epoxide), chlordane,  lindane,
benzene   hexachloride,   toxaphene,   and   endo-
sulfan—0.1 mg/kg, either singly or in combination.
For further discussion, see the section on Wildlife
(P. 197).
   If fish and wildlife are to be protected, and where
residues exceed the recommended concentrations,
pesticide use should be restricted  until the  recom-
mended concentrations are reached  (except where
a  substitute  pesticide will not  protect  human
health).
   Other pesticides  The recommended maximum
concentrations of pesticides in freshwater are listed
in Table 111-18  except that where  pesticides  are
applied  to water to  kill  undesirable aquatic life,
the values will be higher. In the latter instances,
care should  be taken to  avoid  indiscriminate  use
and  to  insure that application  of  the pesticide
follows the prescribed methods.

OTHER TOXICANTS

Ammonia
   Ammonia is discharged  from a wide  variety of industrial
processes and cleaning operations that use ammonia  or
ammonia salts.  Ammonia also results  from the decompo-
sition of organic  matter.
   Ammonia  gas is  soluble  in  water  in the form of  am-
monium hydroxide to the extent of 100,000 mg/'l  at 20  C.
Ammonium hydroxide dissociates readily  into  ammonium
TABLE HI-17—Recommended Maximum Concentrations of
  Organochlorine Pesticides in Whole (Unfiltered)  Water,
           Sampled at Any Time and Any Place.*
TABLE 111-18—Recommended Maximum Concentrations of
Other  Pesticides in Whole (Vnfiltered)  Water, Sampled at
                Any Time and Any Place.*
Organochlorine pesticides
Aldrin
DDT
TOE
Dieldrin
Cblordane
Endosulfan
Endrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Methoxychlor .
Toxaphene
Recommended maximum concentration (ug 1)
0.01
0002
0 006
0 005
0 04
0.003
0.002
0.01
0.02
0.005
001
        Organophosphate insecticides
(bale
Azinphosmethyl
Azinphosethyl
Carbophenothion
Chlorothion
Ciodrin
Coumaphos
temeton
tiazmon
['ichlorvos
t'loxathion
['isulfonton
[llrsban
E till on
EPN
Fenthion
Malathion
Methyl Parathioit
Mevmphos
haled
Cxydemeton methyl
Parathion
Fhorate
Fhosphamirfon
Fonnel
1EPP
Tnclilorophon
          Carbamate insecticides
Ammocarb
Bayer
Baygort
Carnaryl
Zectran
      Herbicides, fungicides and defoliants
  • Concentrations were determined by multiplying the acute toxicity values lor the more sensitive species (Appendix
 II-D) by an application factor of 0.01 except where an experimentally derived application factor is indicated.
Acrolem
Ammotnazole
Balan
Bensuhde
Choroxuron
CIPC
Baettal
Dalapon
DEF
Dexon
Dicamba
Dichlobeml
Dichlone
Diquat
Dmron
Difolitan
Dmitrobutyl phenol
Diphenamid
2 4-D (PBBE)
2 4-D (BEE)
2 4-D (IDE)
2 4-D (Diethylamine salts)
Eidothal (Disodium salt)
Eidottiat (Oiootassium salt)
Eitam
Fimac (Sodium salt)
Hyamine-1622
Hyamine-2389
H»drothal-47
Hvdrottial-191
Hidrothal plus
ICC
MCPA
Molmate
Monuron
Paraquat
Recommended maximum concentration (Mg/l)


           (b)
           0.001
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           0.1
           0 001
           (b)
           0.009
           0.001
           0.09
           0.05
           0.001
           0 02
           0.06
           0 006
           0 008
           (b)
           0.002
           0 004
           0.4
           0.0004
           (b)
           0 03
           (b)
           0.4
           0 002

Recommended maximum concentrations (jug/l)

           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           0.02
           0.1

Recommended maximum concentrations (ug/l)
          300.0
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
          110.0
           (b)
           (b)
          200
           37.0
           0 2
           0.5
           1.6
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           4.0
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           45.0
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)
           (b)

-------
                                                                                               Toxic Sub stances/187
                TABLE 111-18—Continued
TABLE III-19—Sublethat and Acutely Toxic Concentrations
     of Vn-Ionized Ammonia for Various Fish Species'
nciuiRUtiS, limgluuB aim umuiidiua

Peculate
Picloram
Propanil
Silm(BEE)
Silvex (PGBE)
Silvex (IOE)
Silvex (Potassium salt)
Simazine
Trifluaralin
Vernolate

Botanicals
Allethrin .
Pyrethrum
Rotenone


imbunmiGiiuvii maximum vuiiiiGiiuauiiii w \j

(b)
(b)
(b)
2.5
2.0
(b)
(b)
10.0
(b)
(b)

Recommended maximum concentrations (Mg/l)
0.002
0.01
10.0


« Concentrations were determined by multiplying the acute toxicity values for the more sensitive species (Ap-

Species



Stickleback
Striped bass (Marone saxatalis)
Rainbow trout
Perch (Perca)
Roach (Hesperoleucus)
Rudd (Scardinius)
Bream (Lepomis)
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
Rainbow trout
Trout
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)

Acute
mortality
IC50 (rag/I)


1.&-2.1
1.9-2.8
0.39
0.29
0.35
0.36
0.41
0.41
0.42-0.89
0.38
0.88




No sublethal
effect (mj/l) Author



Hazel etal. (1971)™
".
0.046 Lloyd and Orr (1969)™
. Ball(1967)«M
"
".
" .
Lloyd and Herbert (1960)™
Herbert and Shurben (1965)™
"
<0.27 Reichenbach-Klinke (1967)*w
<0.006 Burrows (1964)<»s


pendix II-D) by an application factor of 0.01 except where an experimentally derived application factor is indicated.
6 Insufficient data to determine safe concentrations.

n Tn Inrltra * hiah laual nf nrnfaAtlnl
1 fha mnan nt tha C
IR.hnnr 1 pitf'e mac ncpri AC a ha» and an annliralinn far
and hydroxyl ions as follows:

               NH3+H2O->HN4++OH-

The equilibrium  of the  reaction is dependent  upon  pH,
and within the pH range of most natural waters ammonium
ions predominate (Figure 111-10).  Since the toxic com-
ponent  of ammonia solutions is the un-ionized  ammonia,
toxicity of ammonia solutions increases with increased pH
(Ellis 1937,497 Wuhrmann et  al. 1947,608 Wuhrmann  and
Woker 1948,609 Downing and Merkens 1955496).
  Wuhrmann (1952),607  Downing and Merkens (1955),496
and Merkens and Downing (1957)605 found that  a decrease
in dissolved oxygen concentration increased the  toxicity of
un-ionized ammonia to several species of freshwater fishes.
Lloyd  (1961)502 showed that the increase in  toxicity of
un-ionized ammonia to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) with
decreased oxygen was considerably more severe than for
zinc, copper, lead, or phenol.
  Much of the data  on ammonia  toxicity is not useable,
because reporting of chemical conditions or experimental
control  was  unsatisfactory. Ellis  (1937)497 reported  that
total ammonia nitrogen  concentrations of 2.5 mg/1 in the
pH range of 7.4 to 8.5 were harmful to several fish  species,
but  concentrations of 1.5 mg/1 were  not. Most  streams
without a source of pollution contained  considerably less
than  1  mg/1 total ammonia. The sublethal and  acutely
toxic concentrations of un-ionized ammonia for various fish
species are given  in Table 111-19.
  Brockway (1950)494 found impairment of oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood of trout at a total ammonia nitrogen
concentration of  0.3 mg/1. Fromm  (1970)499 found that at
total ammonia nitrogen concentrations of 5 mg/1, ammonia
excretion by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was inhibited;
at 3 mg/1 the trout became hyperexcitable; and at 8 mg/1
(approximately 1 mg/1 un-ionized  ammonia) 50 per cent
                                                          tor ol 0.05 applied to arrive at an acceptable level for most species in fresh water. Two apparently resistant species
                                                          were omitted because they were far out of line with the others. After application of the factor, the resultant level is
                                                          approximately half that projected from the data of Lloyd and Orr (1969).r"!3
were dead in 24 hours (Fromm 1970).4" Goldfish (Carassius
auratus) were more tolerant; at 40 mg/1  of total ammonia
nitrogen, 10 per cent were dead in 24 hours.
  Burrows (1964)495 found progressive gill hyperplasia in
fingerling chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during
a six-week exposure to the lowest  concentration applied,
0.006  mg/1  un-ionized  ammonia.  Reichenbach-Klinke
(1967)506 also noted gill hyperplasia, as well as pathology of
the liver and blood, of various species at un-ionized  am-
monia  concentrations  of  0.27  mg/1. Exposure  of carp
(Cyprinus carpio) to sublethal un-ionized ammonia concen-
trations in the range of 0.11 to 0.34 mg/1 resulted  in ex-
tensive necrotic changes and tissue disintegration in various
organs (Flis 1968).498
  Lloyd and Orr (1969)503 found that volume of urine pro-
duction increased with exposure to increasing  ammonia
concentrations, but that an ammonia  concentration of 12
per cent of the lethal  threshold  concentration resulted in
no  increased production  of urine.  This  concentration of
un-ionized ammonia was 0.046 mg/1 for the rainbow trout
used in the experiments.

Recommendation -
  Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important  species in the  locality as the test
organism, a concentration of un-ionized ammonia
(NH3) safe to aquatic life in that water can be esti-
mated by multiplying the 96-hr LC50 by an appli-
cation factor of 0.05; but no  concentration greater
than  0.02  mg/1 is recommended at any  time  or
place.

-------
188/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                         50 0
                          1.0
                          0.5
                             7 0
                                         7.4
                                                      7.8
                                                                  8.2



                                                                  PH
                                                                              8.6
                                                                                          9.0
                                                                                                      9.4
  FIGURE 111-10—Percentage of Vn-ionized Ammonia in Ammonium Hydroxide Solutions at 20 C and Various Levels of pi

-------
                                                                                              Toxic Substances/189
 Chlorine

   Chlorine and chloramines are widely used in treatment of
 potable water supplies and sewage-treatment-plant effluents,
 and in  power plants, textile and paper  mills,  and certain
 other industries.  Field tests conducted  on caged fish in
 streams below a sewage outfall where chlorinated and non-
 chlorinated effluents were  discharged showed that  toxic
 conditions occurred for rainbow trout (Salmo gandnert) 0.8
 miles below  the  plant  discharge point  when  chlorinated
 effluents were discharged (Basch et al. 1971).M1 It has also
 been shown  that total numbers of fish and  numbers of
 species  were drastically reduced  below industrial  plants
 discharging  chlorinated  sewage effluents  (Tsai  1968,617
 1970).!'18
   The  toxicity to  aquatic  life of  chlorine in water  will
 depend upon the  concentration of residual  chlorine re-
 maining and  the relative amounts of free chlorine and chlor-
 amines. Since addition of chlorine or hypochlorites to water
 containing nitrogenous materials rapidly forms chloramines,
 problems of toxicity in most receiving waters are related to
 chloramine concentrations.  Merkens (1958)615 stated that
 toxicities  of free  chlorine and  chloramines were best esti-
 mated from  total chlorine  residuals. In monitoring pro-
 grams,  evaluation of chlorine  content of water is usually
 stated in terms  of  total chlorine  residuals.  Because the
 chlorine concentrations of concern  are below  the level of
 detection  by the orthotolidine method,  a  more  sensitive
 analytical technique is recommended.
   The literature summarized by McKcc and Wolf (1963)514
 showed  a wide range of acute chlorine toxicity to various
 aquatic organisms,  but the conditions of  the tests varied so
 widely  that  estimation of generally applicable  acute or
 safe  levels cannot be derived from  the combined  data. It
 has also been demonstrated  that small amounts of chlorine
 can  greatly  increase  the toxicity  of various industrial
 effluents.
   Merkens (1958)615 found  that at pH  7.0,   0.008 mg/1
 residual chlorine  killed half the test  fish in seven days. The
 test results were obtained using the  ainperometric  titration
 and  the diethyl-jft-phenylene  diamine methods  of  chlorine
 analysis. Zillich (1972),519 working with chlorinated sewage
 effluent, determined that  threshold  toxicity  for  fathead
 minnows  (Pimephales promelai) was 0.04-0.05 mg/1 residual
 chlorine. In two series of 96-hour LC50 tests an average of
 0.05-0.19 mg/1 residual chlorine was noted. Basch  et al.
 (1971)511  found 96-hour LC50 for  rainbow trout (Salmo
gaudneri}  to  be 0.23 mg/1.  Arthur and Eaton (1971),610
 working with fathead minnows and Gammarus pseudohmnaeus,
 found  that  the  96-hour LG50  total   residual   chlorine
 (as chloramine)  for Gammarus was 0.22 mg/1, and that
 all minnows were  dead  after 72  hours  at   0.15  mg/1.
 After seven days  exposure to 0.09 mg/1,  the first fish died.
 The LC50 for minnows was therefore between these levels.
 In chronic tests extending for 15 weeks, survival of Gammarus
was reduced at 0.04 mg/1, and reproduction was reduced at
0.0034 mg/1. Growth and survival of fathead minnows after
21 weeks was not affected by continuous exposure to 0.043
mg/1 total  chloramines, but fecundity  of  females was re-
duced. The highest level showing no  significant effect was
0.016 mg/1. Merkens (1958)515 postulated by extrapolation
that a concentration of 0.004 mg/1 residual chlorine would
permit one  half the  test fish to survive  one year.  Sprague
and Drury  (1969)616 have shown an avoidance response of
rainbow trout to free chlorine at 0.001 mg/1.
  Aquatic organisms  will tolerate longer short-term ex-
posures to much higher levels of chlorine than  the concen-
trations which have adverse chronic effects.  Brungs (1972)512
in a review  has noted that 1-hour LCSO's of fish vary from
0.74 to 0.88 mg/1, and that longer  short-term exposures
have LCSO's lower but still substantially  higher than ac-
ceptable for long-term exposure. Available information,
however, does  not show what effect  repeated  exposure to
these, or lower levels, will have on aquatic life.
  Because Gammarus, an essential food  for  fish, is affected
at 0.0034 mg/1, and a safe level is judged to  be one that
will not  permit adverse effect on  any  element of the biota,
the following recommendation has been made.

Recommendation
  Aquatic  life should be protected where the con-
centration of residual  chlorine in  the receiving
system  does  not exceed  0.003 mg/1 at any time  or
place. Aquatic organisms will  tolerate short-term
exposure to  high  levels  of chlorine. Until more is
known  about the short-term effects, it  is  recom-
mended that total  residual chlorine  should not
exceed 0.05 mg/1 for a period up to 30-minutes  in
any 24-hour period.

Cyanides
  The cyanide radical is a constituent of many  compounds
or complex  ions that may be present in industrial wastes.
Cyanide-bearing wastes may derive from gas works, coke
ovens,  scrubbing of gases in steel plants, metal plating
operations, and chemical industries. The  toxicity of cyanides
varies widely with pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen
concentration.  The pH is especially  important, since the
toxicity of some cyanide complexes changes manyfold over
the range commonly found in receiving  waters.
  "Free  cyanide"  (CN~ ion and HCN) occurs mostly  as
molecular hydrogen cyanide, the more  toxic  form, at pH lev-
els of natural waters as well as in unusually acid waters. Fifty
per cent  ionization of the acid occurs  at  pH near 9.3.  Free
cyanide concentrations from 0.05  to 0.01 mg/1 as CN have
proved fatal to many  sensitive fishes  (Jones  1964),527 and
levels much above 0.2 mg/1 are rapidly  fatal  for most
species of fish. A level as low as 0.01 mg/1 is known to have
a pronounced,  rapid, and lasting effect  on the swimming
ability of salmonid fishes.

-------
 190/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
  The work of Doudoroff et al. (1966)624 has demonstrated
that the effective toxicant to fish in nearly all solutions of
complex metallocyanides tested was molecular HGN,  the
complex ions being relatively  harmless. The total cyanide
content of such solutions is not a reliable index of their
toxicity. The HCN derives from dissociation of the complex
ions,  which can be greatly influenced  by pH  changes.
Doudoroff (1956)523 demonstrated a more than thousand-
fold increase of the toxicity of the nickelocyanide complex
associated with a decrease of pH from 8.0 to 6.5. A change
in pH from 7.8 to 7.5 increased the toxicity more than
tenfold.
  Burdick  and Lipschuetz (1948)521 have shown that so-
lutions  containing the  ferro and ferricyanide complexes
become highly toxic to fish through photodecomposition
upon  exposure to sunlight.  Numerous investigations have
shown that toxicity of free  cyanide increased at reduced
oxygen  concentrations  (Downing 1954,625 Wuhrmann and
Woker  1955,528  Burdick et al. 1958,520 Cairns and Scheier
1963).622 The  toxic  action  is known to  be  accelerated
markedly by increased temperature (Wuhrmann and Woker
1955,528 Cairns and Scheier 1963),622  but the influence of
temperature during long  exposure has not >been  demon-
strated. The toxicity of the nitriles (organic cyanides) to fish
varied greatly. Henderson et  al. (I960)526 found marked
cumulative  toxicity of  acrylonitrile.  Lactonitrile  decom-
posed rapidly  in water yielding free cyanide, and its high
toxicity evidently was due to the HCN formed.
  The  toxicity of cyanide  to  diatoms varied  little with
change of temperature and was a little greater in soft water
than  in hard  water (Patrick unpublished data  1971).529  For
Nitzchia linearis, concentrations found to cause a 50 per cent
reduction in growth of the population in  soft water  (44
mg/1  Ca-Mg as CaCO3) were 0.92 mg/1 (CN) at 72 F, 0.30
mg/1  at 82 F, and 0.28 mg/1 at 86 F. For Navicula seminulum
var. Hustedtil,  the concentrations reducing  growth of  the
population by 50 per cent in hard water (170 mg/1 Ca-Mg
as CaCO3) were found to be 0.36 mg/1 at 72 F, 0.49 mg/1
at 82 F, and 0.42  mg/1 at 86 F.  Cyanide appeared to be
more  toxic to  animals than to algae.
  Recommended maximum concentrations of cyanide-bear-
ing wastes of unknown  composition and properties should
be  determined by static and flow-through  bioassays.  The
bioassays should be performed with dissolved oxygen, tem-
perature, and pH held at the local water quality conditions
under which cyanides  are most toxic. Because  the partial
dissociation of some complex metallocyanide ions may be
slow,  static bioassays  may  reveal  much  greater  toxicity
than  that demonstrable by the flow-through methods.  On
the other hand, standing test solutions of simple and some
complex cyanides exposed to the atmosphere gradually  lose
their  toxicity,  because the volatile HCN escapes.
  Chemical determination of the concentration of undis-
sociated, molecular HCN alone  may be the best way to
evaluate the danger of free cyanide to fish in waters receiving
cyanide bearing wastes. Such tests may reveal the occi
rence of harmful concentrations of HCN not predictal
through  bioassay  of  the  wastes. Because an  acceptal:
concentration  of HCN or fraction of a LC50 of cyanic
and  cyanide-bearing effluents has not yet been positive
determined, a conservative  estimate must be made; ai
because levels as low as 0.01 mg/1 have  proved harmi
under some conditions, a factor of 0.05 should be applii
to LC50 levels.

Recommendation
  Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined usit
the receiving water in question and the most sens
tive important species in the locality as the te
organism, a concentration of  free cyanide  (CN
safe to aquatic life in that water can be estimate
by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an applicatic
factor  of  0.05; but no  concentration greater tha
0.005 mg/1 is recommended at any time or place

Detergents
  Detergents are a common component of sewage and i
dustrial effluents derived in Largest amounts from househo
cleaning agents. In  1965 a shift from tetrapropylene-deriv<
alkylbenzene sulfonates (ABS)  to the more biodegradab
linear alkylate sulfonates (LAS) was made by the deterge
industry. In current detergent formulas. LAS is the primal
toxic active compound, two to four times more  toxic th;
ABS (Pickering 1966).534 However, toxicity of LAS di
appears along with the metbylene  blue  active  substanc
(MBAS) response  upon biodegradation (Swisher 1967).5
Retrieval  of MBAS data  from the National Surveillam
Stations  throughout the U.S.  from  1966 to the  presei
showed  that the mean of 3,608 samples was less than 0
mg/1. There has been a downward trend in MBAS concei
trations. Only four stations  reported  mean concentratioi
greater  than 0.2 mg/1.
  The MBAS determination has been the routine analytic,
method for measurement of surfactant concentrations. Pos
tive  errors are more  common than negative ones in tk
determination of anionic  surfactants in water  (Standar
Methods 1971).536 An  infrared determination or a carbc
absorption cleanup procedure is recommended when hit>
MBAS concentrations are found.
  Marchetti (1965)533 critically reviewed  the effects of d<
tergents  on aquatic life.  Most available  information o
LAS toxicity relates to fish. Short term studies by a numlx
of investigators have  shown  (hat lethal concentrations t
selected fish species vary from 0.2 to 10.0  mg/1 (Hokanso
and  Smith 1971).632 Bardach et al.  (1965)631 reported tliE
10 mg/1 is lethal to bullheads (Ictalurus sp.), arid  that 0.
mg/1 eroded 50 per cent of their taste buds within 24 day:
Thatcher and  Santner (1966)5;i8 found 96-hour LC50 value
from 3.3 to 6.4 mg/1 for five species of fish.
   Pickering and Thatcher (1 970)536 found in their study c

-------
                                                                                           7 oxic Substances /191
 chronic toxicity that a concentration of 0.63 mg/1 had no
 measurable effect, on the life cycle of the fathead minnow
 (Pimephalespromelas), while a concentration of 1.2 mg/1 was
 lethal  to  the newly hatched  fry. A safe level should be
 between 14 and 28 per cent of the 96-hour LC50. Hokanson
 and Smith (1971)532 reported that a concentration of 1 mg/1
 was an approximate safe  concentration for bluegills  in
 Mississippi River water of good quality.  Arthur  (1970)630
 found  that the  no-effect level of LAS on  Gammanis pseudo-
 limnaeus was 0.2 to 0.4 mg/1. This investigator also subjected
 opculate and  pulmonate  snails  to  60-week exposures  of
 LAS and  showed the  toxicity levels to  be 0.4 to  1.0 mg/1
 and greater than 4.4 mg/1, respectively.

 Detergent Builders

  Phosphates have been included in household detergents
 to increase their effectiveness, although this use has been
 seriously questioned recently. Nitrilotriacctate (NTA) and
 other builders have been tried, but most  are either less
effective or have been barred for reasons of potential health
 hazard. Available builders do not have serious direct effects
 on fish or  aquatic organisms at  concentrations likely to be
encountered in  receiving waters. In view of the uncertain
legal  status  of  present commercial detergents  and the
extensive search for adequate substitutes  now in  progress,
recommendations for builders arc not practical at this time.
 However,  it can  be stated that a satisfactory builder should
 be  biologically  degradable  and  nontoxic  to   aquatic
 organisms and humans, and that it should  not cause aes-
 thetic problems in the receiving  water.

 Recommendation

  Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
 the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of LAS safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
 the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.05;
but no concentration greater than  0.2  mg/1 is
recommended at  any time or place.

 Phenolics

  Phenols and phenolic wastes are derived from petroleum,
coke,  and chemical  industries; wood distillation; and do-
mestic and animal wastes. Many phenolic compounds are
more toxic than  pure phenol: their toxicity varies with the
combinations and general nature of total  wastes.  Acute
toxicity of pure  phenol varies  between 0.079 mg/1 in 30
minutes to minnows, and 56.0 mg/1 in 96 hours to mosquito
fish (Gambusia affims).  Mitrovic et  al.  (1968)641  found  a
48-hour LC50 of 7.5 mg/1 to trout; they noted that exposure
to 6.5  mg/1 caused  damage to epithelial  cells in  2 hours,
and extensive damage  to reproductive  systems in  7 days.
 Ellis (1937)539  reported  1.0 mg/1 safe to trout; and 0.10
mg/1 was found nonlethal to bluegill (Lepomis  macrochirus)
in 48 hours (Turnbull et al. 1954).542 These studies illustrated
the wide range of phenol toxicity. There is not yet adequate
documentation  about chronic effects and toxicity of mixed
wastes on which to base recommendations of safe levels for
fish.
  Phenolics affect the  taste of fish  at  levels  that do not
appear to  affect fish physiology adversely. Mixed wastes
often have more objectionable effects than pure materials.
For example, 2,4-dicholorphenol affects taste  at 0.001  to
0.005  mg/1:  />-chlorophenol  at  0.01 to  0.06  mg/1; and
2-methyl, 6-chlorophcnol at 0.003 mg/1. (See the discussion
of Tainting Substances, p. 147.) Pure phenol did not affect
taste until levels of 1 to  10 mg/1 were reached (Fetterolf
1964).S4° The  taste of  fish in  most polluted  situations is
adversely affected  by phenolics  before  acute  toxic effects
are observed.

Recommendations
  In view of  the wide range of  concentrations of
phenolics which produce toxic  effects in fish and
the generally lower levels which taint fish flesh,  it
is recommended that taste and odor criteria  be
used  to determine  suitability  of  waste receiving
waters to support usable fish populations.  Where
problems of fish kills occur or fish  are subjected to
occasional short-term exposure  to phenolic com-
pounds, a 96-hour  LC50  should  be determined
using the receiving water in question and the most
sensitive important  fish in the locality as the test
animal.  Concentrations of  phenolic compounds
safe to fish in that water can then  be estimated by
multiplying  the 96-hour  LC50  by an application
factor of  0.05; but no concentration greater than
0.1   mg/1  is recommended at any time  or place.
Tests of other species will be necessary  to protect
other trophic levels.

Sulfides
  Sulfides are constituents of many industrial wastes, such
as those from tanneries,  paper  mills, chemical plants, and
gas  works. Hydrogen sulfide  may be  generated  by the
anaerobic  decomposition  of  sewage and  other   organic
matter in the water, and in sludge beds. Natural production
of HoS may also result from deposits of organic material.
  When soluble sulfidcs  are added  to  water,  they  react
with hydrogen ions to form HS~ or H2S, the proportion of
each depending on the  pH values. The  toxicity of sulfides
derives primarily from H2S rather than the sulfide ion. The
rapid combination of HoS with other materials, including
oxygen, has frequently caused investigators to overlook the
importance of HoS as it  affects aquatic life, especially when
it originates from sludge beds. Because  water  samples
usually are not  taken at the mud/water interface, the im-
portance of H2S in this habitat for fish  eggs, fish fry, and

-------
192/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                 100

                90 0

                80 0

                70.0


                60.0


                 50.0



                400




                 30.0
                 20.0
                  9.0

                  8.0

                  7.0

                  6.0


                  5.0



                  40




                  3.0
                  2.0
                  1.0
                    6.0
                                  6.4
                                               6.8
                                                             7 2
                                                                           7.6
                                                                                         8 0
                                                                                                       8 4
FIGURE III-ll—Percentage of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Form of Vndissociated H2S at Various pH Levels (Temperature
                                               20 C; ionic strength n = 0.01)

-------
                                                                                              Toxic Substances/193
fish food organisms is often overlooked (Colby and  Smith
1967).545
   Hydrogen sulfide is a poisonous gas, soluble in water to
the extent of about 4,000 mg/1 at 20 C and one atmosphere
of pressure  (Figure III-ll). Upon solution, it dissociates
according  to the reaction H2S—>HS~+H+  and  HS~—>
S—+H+. At pH 9, about 99 per cent of the sulfide is in
the form of HS~; at pH 7 it is about equally divided between
HS~ and  H2S; and at pH 5 about 99 per cent is present
as H2S.
   Consequently,  the toxicity of sulfides increases at lower
pH because a greater proportion is in the form of undissoci-
ated H2S.  Only  at pH  10 and above is the sulfide ion
present in  appreciable amounts.  In  polluted  situations,
where the pH may be  neutral or below 7.0, or where oxygen
levels are low but not lethal, problems arising from sulfides
or from hydrogen sulfide  generated in sludge deposits will
be increased.
   Much available data on the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide
to fish and aquatic life have been based on extremely short
exposure periods  and  have failed  to  give  adequate infor-
mation  on water  quality,  oxygen, and pH. Consequently,
early data have suggested that concentrations between 0.3
and  4.0 mg/1 permit fish to  survive  (Schaut  1939,r'46
VanHorn 1958,550 Bonn and Follis 1967,544 Theedc et al.
1969).54<) Recent  data both in  field situations and  under
controlled  laboratory  conditions demonstrated hydrogen
sulfide toxicity at lower concentrations.  Colby and  Smith
(1967)015 found that  concentrations as high as 0.7 mg/1
were found  within 20 mm of the  bottom  on sludge beds,
and that levels of  0.1 to 0.02 mg/1 were common within the
first 20  mm of water above this  layer. Walleye (Stizostedion
mtreum r.) eggs held in trays in this  zone did not hatch.
Adelman  and Smith  (1970)543  reported that hatching of
northern pike (Esox luaus) eggs was substantially reduced
at 0.025 mg/1  of H2S, and at  0.047 mg/1 mortality  was
almost  complete.  Northern pike fry had 96-hour  LC50
values that varied  from  0.017  to 0.032  mg/1 at normal
oxygen  levels (6.0 mg/1). The highest concentration of
hydrogen  sulfide  at which no short-term effects on eggs or
fry were observed was 0.814 mg/1.  Smith and Oseid  (in
press 1971),548 working on eggs, fry, and juveniles of walleyes
and white  suckers  (Catostomus commersonni),  and   Smith
(1971),547  working  on walleyes  and  fathead  minnows
(Pimephales  promelas),  found that  safe levels varied  from
0.0029 to 0.012 ing /I with eggs being the least sensitive and
TABLE 111-20—96-Hour LC50 and Safe Levels Based on No
       Adverse Effect on Critical Life History Stages
            Species
                               96-Hr. LC (mg/1)
                                            Safe levels" (mc/l)
Northern Pike

Walleye


White Sucker


Fathead minnows

Bluegill

Gamnurus pseudolimnaeus
Heragema limbata
egjs
try
egis
fry
juvenile
em
fry
juvenile
juvenile
adult
juvenile
adult


0.037
0.026
0.071
0 007
0.017

0.0018
0.0185
0.032 (at 20C)
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.042 (10-day)
0.350
0.014
0.004
0.012
0.007
0.0037
0.015
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.0033

 " Safe levels are construed to mean no demonstrable deleterious effect on survival or growth after long-term
chronic exposure.
juveniles being the most sensitive in short-term tests (Table
111-20). In 96-hour bioassays fathead minnows and goldfish
(Carasstus auralus) varied greatly in tolerance to hydrogen
sulfide with  changes  in  temperature.  They were more
tolerant at low temperatures (6 to  10 C).
  On  the  basis of chronic tests  evaluating  growth and
survival,  the  safe level  for bluegill  (Lepomis macrochirus)
juveniles and adults was 0.002 mg/1. White sucker eggs  all
hatched at 0.015 mg/1, but juveniles showed a  negligible
growth reduction  at  0.002 mg/1.  Safe levels for fathead
minnows were between 0.002  and 0.003 mg/1. Studies  on
various arthropods  (Gammarus pseudolimnaeus and Hexagenia
limbata),  useful as fish food, indicated that safe levels were
between 0.002 and 0.003 mg/1 (Smith 1971).647 Some species
typical of normally stressed habitats were much more  re-
sistant (Asellus sp.).

Recommendation
  On  the basis of available data, a level of undis-
sociated hydrogen sulfide assumed  to  be safe for
all  aquatic  organisms including  fish is  0.002 mg/1.
At a pH of 6.0 and a temperature of 13.0 C, approxi-
mately 99 per cent of the total sulfide is present  as
undissociated  hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, to pro-
tect aquatic organisms within the acceptable limits
of  pH and  temperature, it is recommended that
the concentration of total sulfides not exceed 0.002
mg/1 at any time or place.

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                                                   WILDLIFE
  In this report, wildlife is defined as all species of verte-
brates other than fish and man.  To assure  the short-term
and long-term survival of wildlife, the water of the aquatic
ecosystem must  be  of the quality and quantity to  furnish
the necessary life support throughout the life-cycle of the
species involved. In addition to the quantity, the quality of
food substances produced by the aquatic environment must
be adequate to support  the long-term survival of the wild-
life species.
  Many species  of wildlife require the existence of specific,
complex, and relatively undisturbed ecosystems for their
continued  existence.  Aquatic  ecosystems,  such  as bogs,
muskegs,  seepages,  swamps,  and  marshes,  can  exhibit
marked fragility under the influence of changing  water
levels, various pollutants, fire,  or  human activity. Changes
in the abundance  of animal  populations living in  such
aquatic communities can result  in  reactions  and  altered
abundance of plant life, which in turn will have repercus-
sions of other species of animal life. In general, these transi-
tional ecosystems between land and water are characterized
by very high productivity and importance for wildlife,  and
they should thus be maintained in that state to the greatest
possible extent.
  In many instances, criteria  to  protect fish and inverte-
brates or to provide water suitable for consumption by man
or domestic animals will also provide the minimal requisites
for some species of wildlife. This  would be true  for species
that use water only for direct consumption or that feed on
aquatic organisms to only a minor extent. For many species
of wildlife, however, the setting of water quality  criteria is
complicated by their ecological position at the apex of com-
plex food  webs,  and also by the  extreme mobility of some
wildlife, especially birds.
  Those substances which are concentrated via food chains,
such as many chlorinated hydrocarbons, present  special
problems for those species that occupy the apex of long food
chains.  In those instances, environmental levels which are
safe for fish, do not necessarily convey safety to predators or
even to scavengers that consume fish.
PROTECTION OF FOOD AND  SHELTER FOR WILDLIFE
  A number of factors can be identified that can affe
specific components of the ecosystem and cause reduo
food and shelter  for wildlife. These factors also affect fi
and other squatic life and therefore are discussed in great
detail in appropriate related subtopics.

PH
  In bioassays with aquatic plants, Sincock (1968)893foui
that when the pH of the water in test vessels dropped to 4,
reedhead-grass (Potamogeton perfoliatus),  a valuable wate
fowl food plant, died within a few days.  Similarly, in Ba
Bay, Virginia,  between August and November,  1963, t
aquatic plant production declined  from 164 to 13 poun
per acre. This  atypical decline  was immediately preced>
by a decline in pH to 6.5 compared to previous midsumm
readings of 7.7 to 9.2.  (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries ai
Wildlife).601

Recommendation
  Aquatic plants of greatest value as food for wate
fowl thrive best in waters with a summer pH rani
of 7.0 to 9.2.

ALKALINITY

  Generally, waters with reasonably high bicarbonate alk
Unity are more productive of valuable waterfowl food plar
than are waters with low bic arbonate alkalinity. Few wate
with less than 25 mg/1 bicarbonate alkalinity can be classi
among the better waterfowl habitats. Many waterfowl hat
tats productive of valuable foods,  such  as sago pondwei
(Potamogeton pectinatus), widgeongrass (Rappia maritima at
R. occidentalis), banana waterlily (Castalia flava), wild celer
(Vallisneria americana),  and others have a bicarbonate alk
Unity range of 35 to 200 mg/1.
   Definitive submerged aquatic plant communities devek
in  waters  with  different  concentrations of bicarbona
                                                       194

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                                                                                                   Wildlife/195
 alkalinity.  It is logical to assume that excessive and pro-
 longed fluctuation in alkalinity would not be conducive to
 stabilization of any one plant community type.  Sufficient
 experimental evidence is not available to define the effects
 of various  degrees and rates  of change in alkalinity on
 aquatic plant communities. Fluctuations of 50 mg/1 prob-
 ably  would contribute to  unstable  plant communities.
 Fluctuations of this magnitude may be due to canals con-
 necting watersheds, diversion of irrigation water, or flood
 diversion canals (Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
 tration 1968, hereafter referred to as FWPCA 1968).562

 Recommendation
  Waterfowl habitats  should  have a bicarbonate
 alkalinity between  30 and 130 mg/1 to  be pro-
 ductive. Fluctuations should be less than 50 mg/1
 from natural conditions.

 SALINITY

  Salinity  can  also affect plant communities.  All saline
 water communities, from slightly brackish to marine, pro-
 duce  valuable waterfowl  foods, and the most  important
 consideration is the degree of fluctuation of salinity. The
 germination of seeds and the growth of seedlings are critical
 stages in the plant-salinity relationship; plants become more
 tolerant to  salinity with age.
  Salinities from  0.35 to  0.9  per cent NaCl in drinking
water have been shown to be toxic to many members of the
order Galliformes (chickens, pheasant, quail) (Krista et al.
 1961,585 Scrivner  1946,592 Field  and  Evans 1946661).
  Young ducklings were killed or retarded in growth as  a
result of salt poisoning by solutions equal to those found on
the Suisun  Marsh, California, during the summer months.
Salinity maxima varied from 0.55 to 1.74 per cent, and the
means varied from 0.07  to 1.26 per cent during July from
 1956  to 1960 (Griffith 1962-63).565

 Recommendation
  Salinity should be kept as close to natural con-
ditions as possible. Rapid  fluctuations should be
minimized.

LIGHT PENETRATION

  Criteria  for  light penetration  established in  the discus-
sions  of Color (p.  130) and Settleable Solids (p. 129) should
also be adequate  to provide  for the production of aquatic
plants for freshwater wildlife.

SETTLEABLE SUBSTANCES

  Accumulation of silt deposits are  destructive to aquatic
plants due  especially to  the creation of a soft,  semi-liquid
substratum inadequate for the  anchoring of roots. Back
Bay, Virginia, and Currituck Sound, North Carolina, serve
 as examples of the  destructive  nature  of  silt deposition.
 Approximately 40 square miles of bottom are covered with
 soft, semi-liquid silts up to 5 inches deep; these areas, con-
 stituting one-fifth of the total area, produce  only 1 per cent
 of the total aquatic plant production (FWPCA 1968).662

 Recommendation
   Setteable substances  can destroy the usefulness
 of  aquatic bottoms to waterfowl, and  for that
 reason, settleable substances should be minimized
 in areas expected to support waterfowl.

 PRODUCTION  OF WILDLIFE FOODS  OTHER THAN
 PLANTS

  The production of protozoans, crustaceans,  aquatic  in-
 sects, other  invertebrates, and fish is  dependent on water
 quality. The water quality requirements for the production
 of fish are dealt with elsewhere in this Section, and a normal
 level of productivity of invertebrates is also required for the
 normal production of fish that feed upon them.
  While it is well known that many species of invertebrates
 are easily affected by low concentrations of pollutants, such
 as insecticides, in water (Gaufin etal. 1965,863 Burdicket al.
 1968,555 Kennedy et al. 1970584), most of the field studies do
 not supply  reliable  exposure  data, and most laboratory
 studies are of too short a duration or are performed under
 static conditions,  allowing  no reliable extrapolations to
 natural conditions. The general impression to  be gained
 from these studies is that insects and crustaceans tend to be
 as sensitive as or more sensitive than fish to  various insecti-
 cides, and that many molluscs and oligochetes tend to be
 less sensitive.

 TEMPERATURE

  The increasing discharge of warmed industrial  and do-
 mestic effluents into northern streams and lakes has changed
 the duration and extent of normal ice cover  in these north-
 ern regions. This  has prompted changes  in the  normal
 overwintering pattern of some species  of waterfowl. Thus,
 Hunt (1957)576 details the increasing use since 1930 of the
 Detroit  River  as a wintering area for  black duck (Anas
 rubripes), canvasback (Aythya valisneria), lesser scaup (Aythya
 qffines),  and redhead (Athya americana).  In this  process,
waterfowl may  become crowded  into areas  near industrial
complexes with  a  shrinking supply of winter food. The
 proximity of sources of pollutants, food shortages, and low
 air temperatures often interact to produce unusually high
waterfowl mortalities.

 Recommendation
  Changes in natural freezing patterns and dates
 should  be  avoided as far  as possible in order to
 minimize  abnormal  concentrations of wintering
waterfowl.

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 196/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
SPECIFIC  POTENTIALLY HARMFUL SUBSTANCES
Direct Acting Substances
  Oils  Waterbirds and aquatic mammals, such  as musk-
rat and otter, require water that is free from surface oil.
Catastrophic losses of waterbirds have resulted from the
contamination of plumages by oils. Diving  birds appear  to
be more susceptible to oiling than other species  (Hawkes
1961).671 Heavy contamination of the plumage results  in
loss of buoyancy and drowning. Lower levels of contamina-
tion cause excessive heat loss resulting in an energy deficit
which expresses itself in an accelerated starvation (Hartung
1967a).667 Less than 5 mg of oil per bird can produce sig-
nificant increases in heat loss. The ingestion  of  oils may
contribute to mortalities, and this is especially true for some
manufactured  oils  (Hartung  and Hunt  1966).569  When
small quantities of oil are coated  onto eggs by incubating
mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), the likelihood  of those eggs  to
hatch is greatly  reduced  (Hartung  1965).566  Rittinghaus
(1956)591 reported an incident in which numerous Cabot's
Terns (Tkalasseus sandvicensis) and other shorebirds became
contaminated with oil that had been washed on shore. Eggs
which were subsequently oiled by the plumage of oiled fe-
male terns did not hatch even after 50 days of incubation.
The absence of visible surface oils should  protect wildlife
from direct effect.
  Oils can  be sedimented  by coating particulates on the
surface  and then sinking to the bottom.  Sedimented oils
have been associated with changes in  benthic communities
(Hunt 1957)576 and have been shown to act as concentrators
for chlorinated  hydrocarbon  pesticides   (Hartung  and
Klingler 1970570).
Recommendation
  To protect waterfowl,  there should be no visible
floating oil (see p. 146 of this Section and pp. 263-264
of Section IV).
   Lead  Waterfowl often mistake spent lead shot for seed
or grit and ingest it. See Section  IV, pp.  227-228,  for  a
discussion of this problem.
Recommendation
  The recommendation of the Marine Aquatic Life
and Wildlife  Panel, Section IV,  (p. 228) to protect
waterfowl also applies to the freshwater environ-
ment.
   Botulism Poisoning   Botulism   is a  food  poisoning
caused by the ingestion of the toxin of Clostridium botulinum
of  any six  immunologically distinct  types, designated  A
through F. The disease, as it occurs in epizootic proportions
in wild birds, is most commonly of the C  type,  although
outbreaks of type E  botulism have been  observed on the
Great Lakes (Kaufman and Fay 1964582, Fay 1966660).
   Cl. botulinum,  a widely distributed  anaerobic bacterium,
is capable of existing for many years in its dormant spore
form, even under chemically and physically  adverse  e
vironmental conditions.  Its  toxins are  produced in  t
course of its metabolic activity as the vegetative form gro'
and  reproduces in suitable media. Outbreaks  occur wh
aquatic birds consume this preformed toxin.
  The highest morbidity and mortality rates from botulis
in aquatic birds have  been recorded in shallow,  alkali
lakes or marshes in the western United States, and outbrea
have most commonly occurred from July through  Septei
ber and, in some years,  October.  The optimum tempei
tures for growth of the bacterium or the toxin productic
or both, have  been reported as low as  25 C (Hunter et
1970)5" and as  high as 37 C (Quortrup and Sudheirr
1942588). The discrepancies are probably the result of diffi
ences in the experimental conditions under which the me;
urements were made and the strains of CL botulinum type
used.
  The popular belief that avian botulism epizootics are ;
sociated with low water levels and consequent stagnation
not necessarily supported by facts. In three of the years
heaviest bird losses in the history of the Bear River Migi
tory Bird  Refuge (1965,  1967, and 1971), the water sup[
was  considerably  more  abundant than normal  (Hunt
California Department of P'ish and Game, personal  commu
cation; unpublished Bureau of Sport Fisheries and  Wildl
reports600). The  high water  levels  caused flooding of mi
flats not normally under water in the summer months. Sir
lar inundations of soil  that had been dry for several ye;
have been associated previously with outbreaks on  the Be
River Refuge  and in other epizootic areas. A partial  e
planation for these associations may be that flooding of d
ground is commonly followed by  a proliferation  of ma
species  of aquatic invertebrates  (McKnight 1970687),  t
carcasses of which may be utilized by Cl. botulinum.
  Bell et al. (1955)562 provided experimental support for
idea expressed earlier by Kalmbach (1934).681 According
their "rnicroenvirontnent concept," the bodies of inver
brate animals provide  the nutrients and the anaerobic t
vironment required by C. botulinum type C  for growth  a
toxin production. These bodies would presumably also of,
some protection to the bacterium and its toxin from a chen
cally unfavorable ambient  medium. Jensen and  All
(I960)578  presented evidence of a  possible relationship  t
tween die-offs  of certain invertebrate species and subseque
botulism outbreaks.
  The  relationship  between  alkalinity or salinity of  t
marsh and the occurrence of botulism outbreaks is not cle;
Invertebrate carcasses  suspended  in distilled water suppc
high levels of  toxin (Bell et  al. 1955).552 Laboratory mec
are  commonly composed of ingredients such  as peptoni
yeast extract, and glucose, without added salts. The mediu
used routinely at the Bear River Research Station for  t
culture of Cl.  botulinum type C has a pH of 6.8 to  7.0 aft
heat sterilization. McKee el al. (1958)686 showed that win
pH  was automatically maintained at a particular level

-------
                                                                                                     Wildlife
 laboratory cultures of Cl. botulinum type C throughout the
 growth period, the largest amount of toxin was produced at
 pH 5.7, the lowest level tested. Decomposing carcasses of
 birds dead of botulism commonly contain very high concen-
 trations of type C toxin, and in these cases production is
 ordinarily independent of the chemical composition of the
 marsh.
   Kalmbach (1934)581 tabulated the  salt  concentrations of
 water samples collected from 10 known botulism epizootic
 areas. The values ranged from 261 to 102,658 ppm  (omit-
 ting the highest, which was taken from a lake where the bird
 losses were possibly from a cause other than botulism).
   Christiansen and Low (1970)s:>6 recorded  conductance
 measurements on water in  the management units  of the
 Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge and the Farmington Bay
 Waterfowl Management Area, both  sites of botulism out-
 breaks varying in severity from year  to year.  The average
 conductance of water flowing into the five units of the Bear
 River Refuge in five summers (1959-1963) ranged from 3.7
 to 4.9 millimhos per centimeter at 25 C.  The readings on
 outflowing water from the five units ranged from 4.4 to 8.3
 mmhos.  Comparable figures for the three Farmington Bay
 units were 1.8 to 3.2  (inflow) and 3.2 to  4.8 mmhos (out-
 flow). Thus the salinity range of the inflowing water at Bear
 River  was comparable to that of the outflowing water at
 Farmington.
   These data suggest that salt concentration of the water in
 an epizootic area is not one of the critical factors influencing
 the occurrence of outbreaks.  If high salinity does favor their
 occurrence,  it is probably not  because of its  effect on Cl.
 botulinum itself.  Other possible explanations for  the higher
 incidence of botulism in shallow, alkaline marshes are:
    •  Saline waters may support higher invertebrate popu-
       lation levels than do relatively fresh waters. (Com-
       parisons,  as they relate to avian botulism, have not
       been made.)
    •  High salinity may inhibit some of the microorganisms
       that compete with Cl. botulinum for nutrients or those
       that cause deterioration of the toxin.
    •  Salinity may have no significant effect on the  in-
       vertebrates or the bacteria, but it increases the sus-
       ceptibility of the birds. Cooch (1964)557 has shown
       that type  C botulinum toxin decreases the activity of
       the salt  gland in ducks, reducing its capacity to
       eliminate salt. Birds so affected succumb  to smaller
       doses  of toxin  than  do  those  provided with fresh
       water.
    •  Outbreaks of botulism poisoning tend to be associ-
       ated with or affected by insect die-offs, water tem-
       peratures above 70 F,  fluctuations in water levels and
       elevated concentrations of dissolved  solids.
Recommendation
   Outbreaks of botulism poisoning tend to be  as-
sociated with, or affected by  insect die-offs, water
 temperature  above  70 F, fluctuating water levels,
 and elevated  concentrations of  dissolved  solids.
 Management of these factors may reduce outbreaks
 of botulism poisoning.


 Substances  Acting  After Magnification in Food Chains

   Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides

   DDT and Derivatives   DDT  and  its abundant  de-
 rivatives DDE and TDE have high lipid solubility and low
 water solubility, and thus tend to concentrate in the lipid,
 i.e., living fraction  of  the aquatic environment (Hartung
 1967b).568 DDE is the most stable of the DDT compounds
 and has been especially implicated in producing thinning of
 egg shells, increased breakage of eggs, reproductive failure
 in species occupying the apex of aquatic food chains in areas
 with long histories of DDT usage.
   Reproductive failures  and local  extirpation associated
 with egg shell thinning have been reported for several North
 American bird species. The phenomenon was first described
 and is  most wide-spread for the peregrine falcon (Falco
 pertgrinus) (Hickey and  Anderson 1968).374 Since then simi-
 lar  phenomena have been  described  in  Brown  Pelicans
 (Pelecanus ocadetitalis) (Anderson  and Hickey  1970)551 and
 species  of several other  families of predatory birds. Further
 increases of DDE in large receiving basins, such as the Great
 Lakes,  would be expected to increase the extent of repro-
 ductive failure among predatory  aquatic bird populations.
 Concentrations  as low  as 2.8  ppm p ,//DDE on  a wet-
 weight  basis produced experimental thinning of egg shells in
 the  American   Kestrel  (Falco  spmvanus)  (\Viemeyer  and
 Porter  1970).5" Heath  et al. (1969)572  induced significant
 levels of eggshell thinning in mallards  after  feeding  them
 similarly low levels of DDE. Concentrations of DDT com-
 pounds in the water  of Lake Michigan have been estimated
 to be  1 to 3 parts  per trillion  (Reinert  1970)589 (Table
 111-21). Concentrations that would permit the assured sur-
 vival of sensitive predatory bird species are evidently much
 lower than that. Because such low concentrations cannot be
 reliably measured by present technologies and because the
 concentrating factor  for the food chains appears to be vari-
 able or is not known, or both, a biological monitoring sys-
 tem should be chosen. If it is desired to protect a number of
 fish-eating and raptorial birds,  it is essential to reduce the
 levels of DDE contamination, especially in large receiving
 basins  (see Section IV).
  The available data indicate that there should not be con-
centrations greater than  1  mg/kg of total DDT in any
aquatic plants or animals in order to protect most species of
aquatic wildlife. Present unpublished data indicate effects
for even lower levels of  DDE to some species of predatory
birds (Stickel unpublished data).m
  Present environmental levels vastly exceed the recom-
mended levels in many  locations, and continued direct or

-------
 198/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
  TABLE 111-21—Relationship of DDT and Metabolites to
                  Eggshell Thinning
Species
Mallard

Prairie falcon (Falco
meiicanus)


Japanese quail
(Coturnix)

Herring gull (Larus
argentatus)
American kestrel
(Falco sparvariiis)
Mallard

Dosage* wet-
weight basis
. lOOOmg/kg
single dose
N.D.f



lOOppmo.pDDT

100ppmp,p'DDT
ca. 3.3ppm
total DDT
2.8 ppmp.p'DDE

"2.8 ppm DDE
"11. 2 ppm DDE
Pesticide level
in eggs
N.D.f

0-10 ppm DDE
1 0-20 ppm DDE
20-30 ppm DDE
30 ppm DDE
23.6 ppm o.pDDT
0.52 ppm DDE
48.0 ppm p.p'DDE
227 ppm total DDT

32 4 ppm DDE

N.Dt
N.D.f
Thinning
Percent
25

ca. 5
ca. 13
ca. 18
ca. 25
4

E
N.D.f

10

11
14
Reference
Tucker & Haegele, 1970s'5

Enderson & Berger, 1970s5'



Bitmanetal., 1969«3


Keith, 1966*"

Wiemeyer & Porter, 1970s"

Heath et al., 1969S1!

 * All tests except the first one are chronic, spanning at least several months.
 " Converted from dry-basis.
 t Not determined.
indirect inputs of DDT would make these recommendations
unattainable.

Recommendation

  In order to protect most species of aquatic wild-
life, the total DDT concentration on a wet-weight
basis should be less than  1  mg/kg in any aquatic
plants or animals. (Also see Recommendations for
Pesticides, p. 185-186.)

  Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB)  Polychlorinated
biphenyls are chlorinated hydrocarbons which are  highly
resistant to chemical or biological degradation. They have
been widespread environmental contaminants (Jensen et al.
1969,580 Risebrough et al. 1968590). Their biological effects
at present  environmental concentrations are  not  known.
PCB's can elevate microsomal  enzyme activity (Risebrough
et al.  1968,590 Street et  al. 1968594), but the environmental
significance  of that finding is not clear.  The toxicity of
PCB is influenced by the presence of small amounts of con-
taminated chlorinated  dibenzofurans  (Vos  and Koeman
1970,596 Vos et al. 1970597)  which are highly toxic to d
veloping embryos.

Recommendation
  Because  of  the persistence of  PCB  and the
susceptibility  to  biological magnification, it :
recommended that  the body  burdens of  PCB i
birds and mammals not be permitted to increas
and that monitoring programs be instituted (se
Section IV).

  Mercury
  Westoo (1966)598 reported that almost all of the mercui
found  in  fish is methyl mercury. Jensen and  Jernelc
(1969)679 showed that natural sediments can methyla
ionic  mercury. Mercury  levels in  fish in Lake  St. Cla
ranged  between 0.4 and 3  ppm, averaging near 1.5 ppi
(Greig and Seagram 1970).£64 Residues in fish-eating bin
from Lake St.  Clair ranged up to 7.5 ppm in a tern, and u
to 23  ppm in a great blue heron (Dustman et al. 1970).5
These residues are comparable to those found  in  Swedis
birds  that  died after  experimental dosing with  methy
mercury, and  in birds that died with signs of mercury po
soning  under  field conditions  in  Scandinavian  countn
(Henriksson et al. 1966,5" Bor; etal. 1969,564 Holt 1969s".
To date, no bird mortalities due to mercury contaminatio
have  been  demonstrated  in the Lake St. Clair area, bt
body  burdens of fish-eating birds are obviously  close  t
demonstrated toxic levels. It is therefore concluded that th
mercury levels in fish flesh should be kept below 0.5 ppm I.
assure the long-term survival of fish-eating birds. Since thi
level incorporates little or no safety margin for fish-eatin
wildlife, it is suggested that the safety of a 0.5 ppm level b
reevaluated as soon as possible.

Recommendation
   Fish-eating birds should be protected if mercurj
levels in fish do not exceed 0.5 ^6/6-
   Since the  recommendation  of 0.5 /ug/g mercuri
in  fish provides little or no safety margin for fish'
eating wildlife, it is recommended that the safetj
of  the 0.5  Mg/g  level be reevaluated  as soon as
possible.

-------
                                                      LITERATURE  CITED
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING

1 Cairns, J., Jr. (1967), Suspended solids standards for the protection
     of aquatic organisms. Proc. Ind.  Waste Conf. Purdue Unw. 129(1):
     16-27.
2 Cairns, J.,  Jr., D. W.  Albaugh,  F. Busey,  and  M. D.  Chanay
     (1968), The sequential  comparison  index:  a simplified method
     for non-biologists to estimate relative  differences in biological
     diversity in stream pollution studies. J.  Water Pollut. Cantr. Fed.
     40(9):1607-1613.
3 Cairns, J., Jr. and K. L. Dickson (1971), A simple method for the
     biological  assessment of the effects of waste discharges on aquatic
     bottom-dwelling organisms. J.  Water  Pollut.  Contr. Fed. 43(5):
     7.r>r)-772.
4 Galtsoff, P. S., W. A. Chipman, Jr., J. B.  Engle, and II. N. Calder-
     wood (1947), Ecological and physiological studies of the effect of
     sulfite pulpmill wastes on oysters in the York  River,  Virginia.
     Fish and Wildlife Service Fisheries Bulletin 43(51):59-186.
6 Hayclu,  E.  P. (1968), Biological concepts  in pollution control. In-
     diut. Water Eng. 5(7): 18-21.
6 Patrick, R., H. II. Holm, and J. H. Wallace (1954), A new method
     for determining  the  pattern  of the  diatom flora. Notulae Natur.
     (Philadelphia)  no. 259:1-12.
'Sparks, R. E., A.  G. Heath,  and J. Cairns, Jr. (1969), Changes in
     bluegill EKG and respiratory signal caused by exposure to con-
     centrations of zinc. Ass.  Southeast. Rial.  Butt. 16(2).-69.
8 Waller, W. T. and J. Cairns, Jr. (1969), Changes in movement pat-
     terns of fish exposed to  sublcthal  concentrations of zinc. Ass.
     Southeast. Bwl. Bull. 16(2):70.
9 Warren, C. E. and G. E. Davis (1971),  Laboratory  stream research:
     objectives, possibilities, and constraints. Annu. Rev. F.col. Systema-
     tic^ 2:111-144.

BIOASSAYS

10 Alderdice, D. F.  (1967), The detection and measurement of water
     pollution:  biological  assays.  Can. Fish. Rep. no. 9:33-39.
11 American Public Health Association,  American  Water Works As-
     sociation,  and  Water  Pollution Control  Federation (1971),
     Standard methods for examination oj water and wastewater,  13th ed.
     (American Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.), 874p.
12 Anderson,  B. G.  (1950),  The  apparent  thresholds of toxicity to
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                                                                  199

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140 Westgard, R.  L.  (1964), Physical and  biological aspects  of g,
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141 Whitaker, D. M., L. R. Blinks, W. E. Berg, V. C. Twitty and 1
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142 Wiebe, A.  H. and A.  M. McGavock (1932), The ability of sevei
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CARBON  DIOXIDE

146 Basu, S. P. (1959), Active respiration of fish in relation to ambie
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146 Brinley, F. J.  (1943),  Sewage, algae and fish.  Sewage  Works J. I
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148 Doudoroff,  P. and M. Katz (l'J50),  Critical review of literatu
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149 Doudoroff, P. and D. L. Shurnway (1970),  Dissolved oxygen requir
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ACIDITY,  ALKALINITY  AND  pH

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OILS

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177 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheicr (1958), The effects of periodic low
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178 Cairns,  ]., Jr. and A. Scheier (1959), The relationship of blucgill
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180 Copeland, B   J.  and T.  C. Dorris (1964), Community metabolism
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183 Han,  [.,  E. D. McCarthy, W. Van Hoeven, M. Calvin, and W. H.
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184 Harrcl, R. C.,  B. Davis, and T. C. Dorris (1967), Stream order and
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185 Ilartung, R. and G.  W.  Klinglcr (1968), Sedimentation of floating
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186 Hartung,  R  and G. W. Klingler (1970), Concentration  of DDT
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204/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
""McKee, J. E. and H.  W. Wolf, eds. (1963),  Water quality criteria,
    2nd ed. (California.  State Water  Quality Control Board, pub.
    no. 3-A, Sacramento), 548 p.
"4 Meinck,  F.,  H.  Stoof, and  H.  Kohlschiitter (1956),  Industrie-
    abwasser, 2nd ed. (G. Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart), 527 p.
196 Minter, K. W. (1964)  Standing crop and community structure of
    plankton in oil refinery effluent holding  ponds.  Ph. D. Thesis,
    Oklahoma State Univ.,  104  pp.
196 North, W.  J., M. Neushul, and K.  A. Clendenning (1965), Suc-
    cessive biological changes observed in a marine cove exposed
    to a large spillage of mineral oil,  in Marine pollution by micro-or-
    ganisms and petroleum products (Commission  Internationale pour
    1'Exploration de la Mer Mediterranee, Paris), pp. 335-354.
197 Pickering, Q. H.  and C. Henderson (1966), The acute toxicity of
    some heavy metals to different species of warmwater fishes. Air
    Water Pollut. 10(6/7): 453-463.
198 Purdy, G. A. (1958), Petroleum—prehistoric to petrochemicals (McGraw-
    Hill Book Co., New York), 492 p.
'"Shelton, R. G. J.  (1971),  Effects of oil and oil dispersants  on the
    marine environment. Proceedings of the  Royal  Society of  London
    Biological Sciences 177(1048):411-422.
20(>Sprague, J. B. and W. G. Carson, manuscript (1970). Toxicity tests
    with oil dispersants  in connection with oil spill  at  Chedabucto
    Bay, Nova Scotia. Fish. Res. Bd.  of Canada, Technical Report
    Series No. 201,  30 pp.
»» Stevens, N. P., E. E. Bray, and E. D. Evans, (1956), Hydrocarbons
    in sediments of the Gulf of  Mexico. Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol.  Geol.
    40(5):475-483.
202 Swain, F. M.  (1956), Lake deposits  in central and northern Min-
    nesota. Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 40(4):600-653.
203 Tagatz, M. E. (1961), Reduced oxygen tolerance and toxicity of
    petroleum  products  to juvenile American  shad.  Chesapeake Sci.
    2(12):65-71.
2»4Turnbull, H., J.  G. DeMann, and R. F. Weston (1954), Toxicity
    of various refinery materials to fresh water fish.  Ind. Eng. Chem.
    46:324-333.
206Wallen,  I. E., W.  C.  Greer,  and R.  Lasater (1957),  Toxicity to
    Gambusia  affims of  certain  pure  chemicals in  turbid  waters.
    Sewage Indust. Wastes 29(6):695-711.
2»6Wilhm, J.  L. and T. C. Dorris (1966), Species diversity of benthic
    macro-invertebrates  in  a stream receiving  domestic and oil re-
    finery effluents. Amer. Midi.  Nat. 76(2) :427-449.

Reference Cited
207 Burks, S. L., personal communication,  (1972). Preliminary report on
     the identification of  toxic compounds in oil refinery effluents.


TAINTING  SUBSTANCES

208 Albersmeyer,  W.  (1957), The effect  of phenolic  waste water on
     fish. Fischwirt.  7:207-211.
209 Albersmeyer, W. and L. V.  Erichsen (1959), [Investigations on
     the effects of tar constituents  in waste waters.] £. Fisch.  8(1/3):
     40-46.
21°Aschner, M., C. Laventner,  T.  Chorin-Kirsch (1967), Off flavor
     in carp from fishponds in the coastal plains and the Galil. Ba-
     mideh. Bull. Fish. Cult. Israel 19(ll):23-25.
 211 Bandt,   H. J. (1955), Fischereischaden   durch phenolabwasser.
     Wasserwitrisch.- Wassertech. 5(9) :290-294.
 218 Boetius, J.  (1954), Foul taste offish and oysters caused by chloro-
     phenol. Medd.  Dan.  Fish. Havunders. 1(4): 1-8.
 218 Cornelius, W. O. and H. J. Bandt  (1933), Fischereischaedigungeri
     durch Starke  Vermehrung gewisser  pflanzlicher  Planktonten
     insbesondere Geschmacks-Beeinflussung der Pische durch Oscil-
     latorien. Zfitschrijt Fur Fischerei Vnd Deren Hiljsuiissenschajten.
214 English, J.  N.,  G. N. McEiermott, and C.  Henderson (196:
    Pollutional  effects   of  outboard  motor  exhaust—laboratc
    studies. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 35(7):923-931.
215 Fetterolf, C. M. (1962), Investigation offish off flavor, Muskeg
    lake. Bureau  of Water Management, Michigan  Department of JVatu
    Resources. Lansing, Michigan.
216 Fetterolf,  C. M.  (1964),  Taste and odor  problems  in  fish frc
    Michigan waters Proc.  Ind.  IVasle Conf.  Purdue Univ.  115:17
    182.
217Galtsoff, P. S. (1964), The American oyster, Crassostrea  virginii
    Gmelin. Fish and Wildlife Servce Fisheries Bulletin 64:1-480.
218 Galtsoff, P. S., W. A.  Chipman, Jr., J. B. Engle, and El. N. Cald.
    wood (1947), Ecological and physiological studies,  of  the eff<
    of sulfite pulpmill wastes on  oysters in the York River, Va.  1'
    and Wildlife  Service  Fish. Bull. 43(51):  59-186.
219 Galtsoff,  P. S., H. F. Prytherch,  R. O. Smith and V.  Kochri
     (1935),  Effects of  crude oil pollution on  oysters in  Louisia
    waters. Bulletin Bureau of Fish 48(18):209.
220 GaltsofT,  P. S. and D. V. Whipple  (1931), Oxygen  consumpti
    of  normal and green oysters. Bulletin Bureau of Fish 46 489-51
221 Henley,  D. E.  (1970),  Odorous metabolite and  other select
    studies of Cyanophyta. [Ph.D. dissertation], North Texas St;
     University.
222 Korschgen, B. M., R. E. Baldwin, and J. W.  Robinson (1970), ]
     fluence of environment on pal,liability of carp. J. Food Sci. 35(<
     425-428.
223 Krishnawami, S.  K.  and E. E. Kupchanko  (1969),  Relations!'
     between odor of petroleum  refinery wastewater and occurrer
     of  "oily" taste-flavor in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneru. J. Wa
     Pollut.  Conlr. Fed. 41 :R189-R 196.
224 Lopinot, A. C. (1962), 1961 Mississippi river taste and odor pre
     lems. Fish division, Illinois department of conservation.
225 Ranson, G. (1927), L'absorptioa  de matieres organiques dissoui
     par la surface exterieure du  corps  chez les  animaux aquatiqu*
     These, in Annales de L'Inst. Ocean, t. IV.
226Rhoades, J. W. and  J. D. Millrr (1965), Fruit flavor constituen
     Gas chromatographic  method for comparative analysis of in
     flavors. J. A«r. Food Chem.  13(l):5-9.
227 Schulze, E. (1961), The influence of phenol-containing effluents <
     the taste offish. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobwl. 46(1):84-90.
228 Shumway, D. L.  (1966), Effects of effluents on flavor of salmon fie
     (Agricultural Experiment  Station,  Oregon State Univcrsil
     Corvallis), 17 p,
229 Shumway, D. L.  and G. G. Chadwick  (1971),  Influence of kr;
     mill effluent on the flavor oF salmon flesh.  Water Res. 5(11):99
     1003.
 230Surber,  E. W,  J.  N. English,  and G. N. McDermott  (196;
     Tainting of fish by outboard motor exhaust wastes as related
     gas  and oil consumption, ia Biological problems in water pollulu
     C. M. Tarzwell, ed. [PHS Pub. 999-WP-25].
 231 Thaysen, A. C. (1935), The origin of an earthy or muddy taint
     fish. I. The nature and isolation of the taint. Ann. Appl. Biol. 2
     99-104.
 232 Thaysen, A.  C. and F. T. K Pentelow (1936), The origin of ;
     earthy or muddy taint in  fish, II.  The effect on fish of the tai
     produced by an odoriferous species of Actmomyces. Annals of A
     plied Biology 23:105-109.
 233 Thomas, N. A. and  D. B. Hicks (1971), Effects of waste water di
     charges on  the flavor of fishes in the  Missouri river (Sioux Cit
     Iowa to Waverly, Missouri), in Everyone can't live upstream (Unit<
     States Environmental Protection  Agency,  Office  of Water Pr
     grams, Kansas City, Missouri).
 234 Westman, J. R. and J. G. Hoff  (1963), Flavor studies  of Rarit£
     Bay fish. Interstate Sanitation Commission, 10 Columbus Circl
     New York, New York.
 '"Wright, R. L. (1966), Pollution abatement practices at the Se

-------
                                                                                                                   Literature Cited/205
     drift plant of Union Carbide Corporation,  presented  at Water
     Pollution  Control Federation Conference,  Kansas City,  Mis-
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236 Zillirh, J. A. (1969), A secondary  fish taint test,  Muskegon Lake,
     with special emphasis on fish and water near Continental Motors
     Corporation.  Bureau of Water Management, Michigan Depart-
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References Cited
237 Newton, M. E.  (1967), Fish Tainting Tests, Manistcc Lake, Manis-
     tee County, Bureau  of Water Management, Michigan Dept  of
     Natural Resources, Lansing, Michigan.
238 Shumway, D. L. and M. E. Newton, personal communication (1971),
     Dean L. Shurnway, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon
     State University, Corvallis, Oregon,  Michael E. Newton, Bureau
     of Water Management,  Michigan Department of  Natural Re-
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239 Shumway,  D.  L. and J. R. Palensky,  unpublished  data (1971),
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     vallis, Oregon.


HEAT  AND  TEMPERATURE

240 Allen,  K.  O. and K.  Strawn (1968),  Heat tolerance of channel
     catfish  Ictalurus punctatus, in  Proceedings of  the  21st annual con-
     ference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish  Commissioner1;
     (The Association,  Columbia, South Carolina),  pp.  399-411.
241 Anderson, R. O. (19r)9), The influence of season  and temperature
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     University of  Michigan, Horace II. Rackham School of Graduate
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242 Andrews, J. W. and R. R  Stickney (1972),  Interaction of feeding
     rates and environmental temperature of growth, food conversion,
     and body  composition of channel catfish.  Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
     101(1)-94-99.
243 Ansell, A. D.,  1968. The Rate of Growth of the hard clam  Mer-
     cenana mercenana (L)  throughout the geographical range. Conseil
     permanent international  pour 1'exploration de la  mer. 31:(3)
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244 Baldwin, N.  S. (1957), Food consumption  and  growth of  brook
     trout at different temperatures.  Trans. Amer. Fish.  Soc. 86:323-
     328.
246 Becker, C.  D.,  C  C. Coutant, and E. F. Prentice (1971), Experi-
     mental drifts of juvenile salmonids through effluent discharges at Hanford,
     Part  II.  191)9 drifts and conclusions [USAEC BNWL-15271  (Bat-
     telle-Northwest, Richland, Washington), 61 p.
246Beyerle, G.  B.  and Cooper, E. L. (1960), Growth of brown  trout
     in selected  Pennsylvania  streams.  Trans. American Fisheries Society
     89(3): 255-262.
247 Bishai, H.  M.  (1960), Upper lethal  temperatures for larval sal-
     monids. J. Cons. Perma. Int.  Explor. Mer 25(2)'129-133.
248 Black,  E.  C. (1953), Upper  lethal temperatures  of  some  British
     Columbia freshwater fishes. J. Fish.  Res. Bd. Canada 10(4):196-
     210.
249 Bliss, C. I. (1937), Calculation of  the time-mortality curve. Ann.
     Appl. Bwl  24:815-852.
250Breder, C.  M.  and  D. E. Rosen  (1966), Modes of reproduction  in
    fishes (The Natural History  Press, New York), 941 p.
261 Brett, J. R. (1941),  Tempering versus acclimation in the planting
     of speckled trout.  Trans.  Amer. Fish.  Soc. 70:397-403.
262 Brett, J. R.  (1952), Temperature  tolerance in young Pacific sal-
     mon, genus Oncorhynchus. J.  Fish.  Res. Bd. Canada 9:265-323.
253 Brett,  J. R.  (1956), Some principles in the  thermal requirements
     of fishes.  Quart. Ren. Biol. 31(2):75-87.
264 Brett,  J. R.  (1960), Thermal requirements of fish—three decades
     of study, in Biological problems of water pollution,  C. M. Tarzwell,
     ed. (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Robert
     A. Taft  Sanitary  Engineering  Center,  Cincinnati,  Ohio), pp.
     110-117.
266 Brett,  J.  R.  (1970),  Temperature-animals-fishes,  in  Marine
     ecology, O.  Kinne,  ed. (John Wiley  & Sons, New York), vol.  1,
     pp. 515-560.
266 Brett, J. R. (1971), Energetic responses of salmon to temperature.
     A study  of some thermal relations  in the physiology and fresh
     water ecology of sockeyc salmon {Oncorhynchus nerka}. Amer. ^ool.
267 Brett, J. R., J.  E.  Shelboum, and  C.  T. Shoop (1969), Growth
     rate and body composition of fingerling sockeye salmon, Oncor-
     hynchus neika, in relation to temperature and ration size. J. Fish.
     Res. Bd. Canada 26(9):2363-2394.
268 Brookhavcn National  Laboratory  (1969), Diversity and stability
     in ecological systems. Brookharen Symposia in Biology 22'264 pp.
269 Bullock, T. II. (1955), Compensation for temperature in the metab-
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     311-342.
260 Burdick, G. E., H.  J. Dean,  E. J. Harris, J.  Skea, C. Frisa and C.
     Sweeney (1968), Methoxychlor as a blackfly larvicicle: persistence
     of its residues  in  fish and  its  effect on stream arthropods. X. T.
     Fish. Game J. 15(2):121-142.
261 Cairns, J., Jr. (1968), We're in hot water. Scientist and Citizen 10(8):
     187-198.
262 Churchill, M. A. and T. A. Wojtalik (1969), Effects of heated dis-
     charges on  the aquatic  environment:  the TVA experience, in
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263 Clark, J.  R. (1969), Thermal pollution and  aquatic life.  Sci. Amer.
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278 Fry,  F. E. J.  (1964),  Animals in aquatic environments: fishes
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280 Fry, F. E. J., J. R. Brett, and G. H. Clawson (1942),  Lethal limits
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282 Gammon, J. R. (1970),  Aquatic life survey of the Wabask River, with
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283 Gibson, E. S. and F. E. J. Fry (1954), The performance of the lake
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312 Pritchard, D.  W.  (1971), Design  and siting  criteria for  once
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319 Strawn, K.  (1961), Growth  of largemouth  bass  fry at  various
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    the toxicity of several poisons to rainbow  trout (Salmn gairdnerii
    Richardson). J. Exp. Biology 38:447.
414 Lloycl,  R. and D.  W.  M. Herbert (1960), Influence  of carbon
    dioxide on the toxicity of non-ionized ammonia to rainbow trout
    (Salmo gamlnern). Ann. Appl. Bwl. 48:399-404.

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210/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
437 Weir, P. A. and C.  H. Hine (1970), Effects of various metals on
    behavior of conditioned goldfish. Arch. Environ. Health 20( 1) :45-51.

References Cited
438Benoit, D. A., unpublished data, 1971. Long term effects of hexava-
    lent chromium on  the growth, survival and reproduction of the
    brook trout and rainbow trout. National Water Quality Labora-
    tory, Duluth, Minn.
439 Biesinger, K.  E., G. Glass and  R.  W.  Andrew,  unpublished  data,
    1971.  Toxicity  of copper to Daphnia  magna,  National  Water
    Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn.
440 Biesinger, K.  E.  and G.  M. Christensen,  unpublished  data,  1971.
    Metal effects on survival, growth,  reproduction and metabolism
    of Daphnia magna.
441Brungs, W.  A., unpublished data,  1971.  National Water  Quality
    Laboratory,  Duluth, Minn.
442 Eaton, J. G.,  unpublished data,  1971. Chronic toxicity of cadmium
    to the  bluegill. National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth,
    Minn.
443 Everhart, W.  H., unpublished data, 1971. Zoology Dept. Colorado
    State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
444 Fisheries Research Board  of Canada, unpublished data, 1971.
445 McKirn, J. M. and J.  G.  Eaton,  unpublished data, 1971. Toxic
    levels of cadmium for eggs and fry of several fish species.  Na-
    tional Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn.
446 Pickering, Q.  H., unpublished data, 1971.  Newtown Fish Toxicology
    Laboratory,  Cincinnati, Ohio.
447 Patrick,  R., unpublished  data,  1971.  Dissolved and floating  ma-
    terials in water eutrophication, effects of heavy metals on diatoms,
    a description of various freshwater receiving systems. Academy
    of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.


PESTICIDES

448 Bender, M.  E. (1969), Uptake and  retention of malathion by the
    carp. Progr.  Fish-Cult. 31(3): 1.55-159.
449 Burdick, G.  E., H. J. Dean, E. J. Harris, J. Skea, C. Frisa, and C.
    Sweeney (1968),  Methoxychlor as  a  blackfly larvicide: persis-
    tence of its residues in fish  and its effect on stream arthropods.
    N. T. Fish. Game J. 15(2):121-142.
460 Burdick, G. E., E. J. Harris, H. J. Dean, T. M. Walker, J. Skea,
    and D. Colby (1964), The  accumulation of DDT in lake  trout
    and  the effect  on reproduction.  Trans. Amer. Fish.  Soc. 93(2):
     127-136.
461 Cope, O. B. (1961),  Effects of DDT spraying for spruce budworm
    on fish in  the Yellowstone River system. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
    90(3)-.239-251.
462 Eaton, J. G.  (1970), Chronic malathion toxicity to the bluegill
    (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque): Water Res. 4(10):673-684.
463 Elson, P. F.  (1967), Effects on wild young salmon of spraying DDT
    over New Brunswick forests.  J. Fish. Res. Ed. Canada 24(4):731-
     767.
454Feltz, H. R., W.  T.  Sayers, and H.  P. Nicholson (1971), National
    monitoring  program  for the assessment of pesticide  residues
    in water. Pestic. Monit. J. 5(l):54-62.
466 Frank, P. A. and R.  D. Comes (1967), Herbicidal residues in pond
    water and hydrosoil. Weeds  15(3):210-213.
466 Gakstatter,  J. L. and C. M. Weiss  (1965), The  decay  of  anti-
    cholinesterase activity  of organic  phosphorus insecticides  on
    storage in waters of different pH.  Proceedings Second  International
     Water Pollution Conference,  Tokyo, 7964,  pp. 83-95.
"'Gillett, J. W., ed.  (1969), The  biological impact  of  pesticides in the
    environment  [Environmental  health  science  series no.  1 ]  (En-
    vironmental  Health  Studies Center,  Oregon  State  University,
    Corvallis), 210 p.
468Hamelink, J. L., R. C. Waybrant, and R. C. Ball (1971), A pro-
    posal: exchange equilibria control the degree chlorinated hydro-
    carbons are biologically magnified in lentic environments. Trans.
    Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(2):207-214.
459 Hannon, M. R., Y. A. Greichus, R. L. Applegate, and A. C. Fox
    (1970), Ecological distribution  of  pesticides  in Lake Poinsett
    South Dakota. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3) :496-500.
460 Hartung, R.  (1970) Seasonal dynamics of pesticides in western
    Lake Erie. Sea Grant progress Report. University of Michigan,
    Ann Arbor.
461 Henderson, C.,  W.  L. Johnson,  and A.  Inglis  (1969), Organo-
    chlorine insecticide residues in fish.  (National pesticide moni-
    toring program). Pestic. Monit. J. 3(3):145-171.
462 Hopkins, C. L.,  H. V. Brewerton. and H. J. W. McGrath (1966)
    The effect on  a stream fauna of an aerial application of DDT
    prills to pastureland. N. %. J Sci. 9(l):236-248.
163 Hunt, E. G. and A. I. Bischoff (1960), Inimical effects  on wildlife
    of periodic  DDD applications to Clear Lake. Calif.  Fnh Garni
    46:91-106.
164 Hynes,  H.  B.  N.  (1961), The effect of sheep-dip containing the
    insecticide BHC on  the  fauna of a  small  stream,  including
    Simuhum and its predators. Ann.  Trap. Med. Parasitol.  55(2).192-
     196.
165 Ide, F.  P. (1967), Effects of forest  spraying with DDT  on aquatic
    insects of salmon streams in New  Brunswick. J. Fish. Res.  Bd.
    Canada 24(4) 769-805.
166 Johnson, D. W. (1968), Pesticides and fishes: a review  of selected
    literature.  Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4)-398-424.
167 Johnson, H. E.  (1967), The effects of endrm on  the reproduction of a
    fresh  water fish (Oryzias latipcs)  [Ph.D.  dissertation]  University
    of Washington, Seattle, 149 p.
168 Johnson, H E.  and C. Pecor (1969), Coho salmon mortality and
    DDT in Lake Michigan  Tram. N. Amer.  Wildl. Nairn.  Resour.
    Con/. 34:159-166.
'69Kerswill, C. J. and II. E. Edwards (1967),  Fish losses  after forest
    sprayings with insecticides in New Brunswick, 1952-62, as shown
    by caged specimens  and  other  observations. J. Fish.  Res.  Bd.
    Canada 24(4): 709-729.
•"» Kraybill,  H.  F.,  ed.  (1969),  Biological  effects of  pesticides  in
    mammalian systems. Ann. N.  T.  Acad. Sci. 160:1-422
471 Lichtenberg, J. J., J. W. Eichelberger, R. C. Dressmari, and J. E.
    Longbottom (1970),  Pesticides  in surface waters of the United
    States: a five-year summary,  1964-68.  Pestic. Momt.  J. 4(2):
     71-86.
472 Lotse,  E. G.,  D. A Graetz,  G  Chesters, G. B. Lee, and L. W.
    Newland (1968), Lindane adsorption by lake sediments  Environ
    Sci.  Technol. 2(5):353-357.
"3 Macek, K. J   (1968),  Growth and  resistance  to stress in brook
    trout fed sublethal levels of DDT. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 25(11)
    2443-2451.
474 Mayer, F. L., Jr., J. C. Street, aid J. M. Neuhold (1970), Organo-
    chlorine insecticide  interactions affecting residue  storage  in
    rainbow trout. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol.  5(4)-300-310.
475 Mount, D. I.  and C. E. Stephan (1967),  A method  for detecting
    cadmium poisoning in fish. J. Wildlife Manage. 31(1):168-172.
476 Mount, D. I.  (1968),  Chronic toxicity of copper to fathead min-
    nows (Pimephales promelas,  Rafinesque). Water Res. 2(3):215-223.
417 Mrak,  E. M. chairman, (1969), Report of the Secretary's Commission
    on pesticides and  their  relationship  to  environmental health (Govern-
    ment Printing Office, Washington,  D. C.), 677 p.
™ Mullison,  W.  R.  (1970), Effects of  herbicides on water and  its
    inhabitants.  Weed Sci. 18(6):738-750.
4"9 Pickering, Q.  H., C. Henderson,  and  A. E. Lemke  (1962), The
    toxocity of organic phosphorus insecticides to  different species of
    warmwater fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.  91 (2): 175-184.

-------
                                                                                                                   Literature Cited/2l I
480 Pimentcl, D. (1971), Ecological effects of pesticides on non-target species
     (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 220 p.
481 Reincrt, R.  E.  (1970),  Pesticide concentrations in  Great Lakes
     fish. Pestic.  Moml. J. 3(4):233-240.
482 Rosato, P. and D.  E. Ferguson  (1968), The  toxicity  of  endrin-
     resistant mosquitofish to eleven species of vertebrates. Bioscience
     18:783-784.
483 Schoenthal, N. D.  (1964), Some effects of  DDT  on  cold-water
     fish and fish-food organisms. Proc. Mont. Acad. Sa. 23(l):63-95.
484Sprague, J. B., P. F. Elson, and J. R. Duffy (1971), Decrease in
     DDT residues  in  young  salmon  after forest spraying in New
     Brunswick  Environ. Pollut. 1:191-203.
485 Tarrant, K. R. and  J. O'G. Tatton (1968), Organochlorine pesti-
     cides in rainwater  in the British Isles. Nature 219:725-727.
486Terriere, L. C., LI. Kiigemai, A. R. Gerlach, and R. L. Borovicka
     (1966), The persistence of toxaphene in  lake  water and its up-
     take  by aquatic plants and  animals J.  Agr.  Food  C/iem.  14(1):
     66-69.
48? Wcrshaw, R. L.,  P.  J  Burcar, and M. C. Goldberg (1969), Inter-
     action of pesticides with  natural  organic material. Environ. Sci.
     Technol.  3(3):271-273.
488 Wilson, D. C. and  C. E. Bond  (1969), Effects of the  herbicides
     diquat and dichlobenil  (Casoron) on  pond invertebrates.  I.
     Acute toxocity.  Trans.  Arner.  Fish.  Soc. 98(3)'438-443.
489 Yule, W.  N. and A. D. Tomlin  (1971), DDT in forest streams.
     Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 5(6) :479-488.
490 Zabik,  M. J. (1969), The  contribution of urban and agricultural
     pesticide use to the contamination of the Red Cedar  River. Of-
     fice of Water Resources Research Project J\'o. A-012-Michigan, Of-
     fice }\rater Resources  19 pp.

References Cited
491 Macek,  K. ]., unpublished data  (1971). Investigations  in fish pesti-
     cide research, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries  and Wildlife.
492 Michigan  Department of Agriculture personal communication (1970)
     (Reinert, R.) Lansing,  Michigan.

AMMONIA

493 Ball, I.  R. (1967), Toxicity of cadmium to rainbow  trout  (Salmo
     gairdneni Richardson).  Wain Res  1(11/12):805-806.
494Brockway,  D. R. (1950),  Metabolic products  and their  effects.
     Progr.  Fish-Cull. 12:127-129.
496 Burrows, R.  E.  (1964), Effects of accumulated excretory  products  on
     liatcherf-reared salmomds [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
     research report 66] (Government Printing Office,  Washington,
     D  C.), 12 p.
496 Downing, K. M.  and J.  C. Merkens (1955), The influence of dis-
     solved oxygen concentration on  the toxieity  of unionized am-
     monia to rainbow  trout (Salmo gairdneru Richardson).  Ann. Appl.
     liwl. 43:243-246.
497 Ellis, M. M. (1937), Detection and measurement of stream pol-
     lution. U.S. Bur. Fish. Bull, no 22.365-437.
498 Flis,  J.  (1968), [listopathological changes induced in carp (Cy~
    pnnus carpio L.)  by ammonia water. Ac/a Hydrobiol.  10(1/2):205-
     238.
499 Fromm, P. O. (3970), Toxic action of water soluble pollutants on fresh-
     icater fish  [Environmental Protection Agency water  pollution
     control  research  series no.  18050DST]  (Government Printing
     Office, Washington, D.C.), 56 p.
600 Hazel,  C.  R., W.  Thomsen, and S. J. Meith  (1971), Sensitivity  of
     striped bass and stickleback to ammonia in relation to tempera-
     ture and salinity. Calif. Fish Game 57(3): 138-153.
601 Herbert, D. W. M , D.  S.  Shurben (1965), The susceptibility  of
     salmonid fish to  poisons  under estuarine  conditions: II. Am-
     monium chloride. Aw Water Pollut. 9(l/2):89-91.
602 Lloyd,  R. (1961), The  toxicity of ammonia to  rainbow  trout
     (Salmo gairdneni Richardson).  Water  Waste Treat. 8:278-279.
W3 Lloyd, R. and L. D. Orr  (1969), The diuretic response by rainbow
     trout  to sub-lethal concentrations of ammonia. Water Res. 3(5):
     335-344.
604 Lloyd, R. and D. W. M.  Herbert (1960), The influence of carbon
     dioxide  on  the  toxicity  of un-ionized ammonia  to rainbow trout
     (Salmo gairdneni Richardson). Ann. Appl. Bwl. 48:399-404.
605 Merkens,  J. C. and K. M. Downing (1957), The effect of tension
     of dissolved oxygen  on the  toxicity  of un-ionized  ammonia  to
     several species offish. Ann. Appl. Bwl. 45(3):521-527.
606 Rcichenbach-Klinke,  H.  H.  (1967),  Untersuchungen  uber die
     einwirkung des ammoniakgehalts auf den  fischorganismus. Arch.
     Fischereiwiss. 17(2): 122-132.
607Wuhrmann,  K.  (1952),   [Toxicology  of fish].  Bull. Cent.  Beige
     Etude  Document. Eaux no. 15, pp. 49-60.
60S Wuhrrnann,  K.,  F. Zchender, and  H. Woker  (1947), [Biological
     significance of the ammonium and ammonia contents of flowing
     water in fisheries].  Vierteljahresschr.  Naturforsch. Ges. Clinch 92:
     198-204.
509 \Vuhrrnann, K. and H. Woker (1948), Beitrage zur toxikologie der
     fische. II. Experimentelle Untersuchungen uber die ammoniak-
     und blausaure-vergiftung. Schweiz.. £. Hydrol.  11:210-244.


CHLORINE

""Arthur,  J. W. and J.  G. Eaton (1971), Chlorine toxicity  to the
     Amphipod, Gammariis pseudolimnaeits  and  the fathead  minnow
     Punephales promelas Rafincsque. J. Fish. Res. Bd.  Canada, (in press).
511Basch, R.  E., M. E. Newton,  J.  G. Truchan, and C.  M. Fetterolf
     (1971),  Chlorinated municipal waste  toxicities to rainbow  trout and
    fathead minnows [Environmental Protection Agency  water pollu-
     tion control research series  no. 18050G22] (Government Print-
     ing Office, Washington, D C.), 50 p.
612 Brungs,  W. A. in preparation (1972), Literature review  of the effects
     of residual chlorine on aquatic life. National Water Quality
     Laboratory, Duluth, Minn.
613 Laubusch, E. J.  (1962),  Water chlorination, in Chlorine: its manu-
     facture, properties and  uses,  J. S. Sconce, ed. [American Chemical
     Society  monograph scries no. 154] (Rcinhold Publishing  Corp.,
     New York), pp. 457-484.
514McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, eds.  (1963), Water quality criteria,
     2nd ed.  (California.  State Water Quality  Control Board,  Sacra-
     mento),  548 p.
616 Merkens,  J.  C.  (1958),  Studies on the toxicity  of chlorine and
     chloramines to  rainbow trout.  Water Waste Treat. J. 7:150-151.
616 Sprague, J. B. and D. E. Drury (1969), Avoidance reactions  of
     salmonid fish  to representative pollutants, in Advances in water
     pollution  research, proceedings of the 4th international conference, S. H.
     Jenkins, ed. (Pergamon Press,  New York), pp.  169-179.
617Tsai, C. F. (1968), Effects of chlorinated sewage effluents on fish
     in  upper Patuxent River, Maryland. Chesapeake Sa. 9(2)'83-93.
618 Tsai, C. F. (1970), Changes in fish  populations and migration  in
     relation  to increased sewage pollution in  Little  Patuxent River,
     Maryland.  Chesapeake Sa. 11(1):34-41.
619 Zillich,  J. A. (1972),  Toxicity of combined chlorine residuals  to
     fresh water fish, journal of  Water Pollution Control Federation 44:
     212-220.


CYANIDES

«2»Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean, and E. J. Harris (1958), Toxicity of
     cyanide  to brown trout  and smallmouth bass. N. T. Fish Game J.
     5(2)'133-163.
621 Burdick, G. E. and M. Lipschuetz (1948), Toxicity of ferro- and

-------
212/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
     ferricyanide solutions to fish, and determination of the cause of
     mortality. Tram. Amer. Fish. Soc. 78:192-202.
622 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1963), Environmental effects upon
     cyanide toxicity to fish. Notulae Natur. (Philadelphia) no. 361:
     1-11.
623 Doudoroff, P. (1956), Some experiments on the toxicity of complex
     cyanides to fish. Sewage Indust. Wastes 28(8): 1020-1040.
621 Doudoroff,  P., G.  Leduc and G. R.  Schneider  (1966),  Acute
     toxicity  to  fish  of solutions containing complex metal cyanides,
     in  relation  to  concentrations of molecular hydrocyanic acid.
     Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95(1)-6-22.
626 Downing, K. M.  (1954), Influence of dissolved oxygen concentra-
     tion on  the toxicity  of potassium cyanide to rainbow trout. J.
     Exp. Bio!. 31(2): 161-164.
626 Henderson, C , Q.  H.  Pickering,  and A. E. Lemkc  (1960), The
     effect of some  organic cyanides (nitriles)  on fish.  Purdue Una1.
     Eng. Bull. Ext. Ser.  no. 106:120-130.
627 Jones, J.  R. E. (1964), Fish and river pollution (Butterworth & Co.,
     London), 200 p.
628 Wuhrman, K. and H.  Woker (1955), Influence of temperature of
     oxygen  tension  on the toxicity  of poisons to fish.  Proc. Inter-
     national Assoc.  Theoret. Appl. Leinnol., 12:795-801.

Reference  Cited
629 Patrick,  R., unpublished data,  1971. Academy of Natural Sciences
     of Philadelphia.


DETERGENTS

630 Arthur, J. W. (1970),  Chronic effects of linear alkylate sulfonate
     detergent  on Cammarus pseudohmnaeus,  Campeloma  dinsum,  and
     Physa mtegra. Water Res. 4(3):251-257.
531Bardach,  J. E., M.  Fujiya, and A. Holl (1965), Detergents:  ef-
     fects on  the chemical senses of the fish Ictalurus natahs (le Sueur).
     Science 148:1605-1607.
632 Hokanson, K. E. F. and L.  L.  Smith  (1971), Some factors  in-
     fluencing toxicity of linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS) to the blue-
     gill. Trans.  Amer. Fish. Soc. !00(1):1-12.
633 Marchetti, R. (1965), Critical review of the effects of synthetic detergents
     on aquatic life [Studies and reviews no. 26]  (General  Fish Council
     for the Mediterranean, Rome), 32 p.
634 Pickering, Q. H.  (1966), Acute toxicity of alkyl benzene sulfonate
     and linear alkylate sulfonate to the eggs of the fathead minnow,
     Pimephales promelas. Air Water Pollut.  10(5) = 385-391.
636 Pickering, Q. H.  and T. O. Thatcher (1970), The chronic toxicity
     of linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS) to Pimephales promelas. J. Water
     Pollut. Contr. Fed. 42(2 part l)'243-2r>4.
636 Standard  methods  (1971)  American Public  Health Association,
     American Water Works Association, and  Water Pollution Con-
     trol Federation  (1971), Standard methods for the  examination
     of water and waste  water,  13th ed.  (American  Public Health
     Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
637 Swisher,  R. D (1967),  Biodegradation  of  LAS benzene rings in
     activated sludge. J. Amer.  Oil Chem. Soc. 44(12) = 717-724.
638 Thatcher, T. O.  and J.  F. Santner (1966),  Acute toxicity of LAS
     to various fish species. Purdue  Univ. Eng. Bull. Ext.  Sir. no. 121:
     996-1002.


PHENOLICS

639 Ellis, M.  M. (1937), Detection and measurement of stream pollu-
     tion. U.S. Bur Fish. Bull. no. 22:365-437.
640 Fetterolf, C.  M.  (1964), Taste and  odor  problems  in fish from
     Michigan waters. Proc. hd. Waste Conf. Purdue Umv,  115:174-182.
 641 Mitrovic, U. U., V. M. Brown, D. G. Shurben, and M. H. Berry-
    man  (1968), Some pathological effects of sub-acute and  acut
    poisoning of rainbow trout by phenol in hard water. Water Re;
    2(4):249-254.
542 Turnbull, H.,  J. G. DeMann, arid R. F. Weston (1954), Toxicit
    of various refinery materials to fresh water fish. Ind. Eng.  Chert
    46:324-333

SULFIDES

643Adclman, I. R.  and L. L. Smith, Jr. (1970),  Effect of hydrogci
    sulfide on northern pike eggs and sac fry. Trans. An: ft. Fish. Sot
    99(3):501-509.
"4 Bonn, E. W. and B. J.  Follis (1967), Effects of hydrogen sulfide o
    channel catfish (Iclal'irits punctatus).  Trans. Amer. Full. Soc.  96(1}
    31-36.
645 Colby, P. J. and L. L  Smith (1967), Survival of walleye eggs am
    fry on paper fiber sludge deposits in Rainey River,  Minnesota
    Tiam. Ame,. Fish. Soi. 96(3) =278-296.
646 Schaut, G. G. (1939), Fish catastrophies during droughts. J. Ama
    Watt, Works Ass. 31(l):771-82/'
647 Smith, L. L.  (1971),  Influence of hydrogen sulfide  on fish am
    arthropods.  Preliminary  completion report EPA  Project  1805
    PCG, 30pp.
648 Smith, L. L. and D. Oscid mpr  - (1971), Toxic effects of hydroge
    sulfide  to juvenile fish and f h eggs. Proc. 25th Purdue Indus
    trial  Waste Conf
"9Thecdc, H., A. Ponat,  K. Hiro' :, and C. Schlieper (1969), Studio
    on the resistance of marine bottom invertebrates to oxygen-de
    ficiency and hydrogen sulfide. Mar. Biol. 2(4) =325-337.
660 Van Horn, W.  M. (1958), The effect of pulp  and  paper mil
    wastes on aquatic life. Proc. Ontario Indust. Waste Conf. 5 '60— 66.

WILDLIFE

561 Anderson, D.  W. and  J. J. Hickey  (1970) Oological  data on egj
    and breeding characteristics  of brown pelicans Wilson Bull.  8i
652 Bell, J. F., G.  W. Sciple,  and A. A. Hubert (1955), A  microen
     vironment concept of the epizoology of avian botulism. J. Wild
     life Manage. 19(3) =352-357.
653 Bitman, J , H.  C. Cecil, S.  J. H arris, and G. F. Fries ( 1 969), DDT
     induces a decrease in eggshell  CEilcium.  Nature 224:44- 46.
554Borg, K., H. Wanntorp, K.  Erre,  and  E.  Hanko (1969), Alky
     mercury poisoning in terrestrial Swedish wildlife. Viitrevy 6(4)
     301-379.
'•"Burdick, G. E , H. J. Dean, E, J. Harris, J. Ske.i, C  Frisa, and
     C.  Sweeney  (1968),  Methoxychlor  as a  black fly  larvicide,
     persistence of its residues  in fish and its  effects on stream arthro-
     pods. M. T. Fnh& Game 15(2):121-142.
iiB6 Christiansen,  J. E. and J.  B.  Low (1970), Water requirements of
     waterfowl marshlands in northern Utah.  Publication No. 69-12,
     Utah Division of Fish and Game.
ll67 Cooch, F. G.  1964.  Preliminary .study of the survival value of a
     salt gland in  prairie Anatidae. Auk. 81(0=380-393.
1168 Dustman, E. H., L. F. Stickel and J. B. Elder (1970), Mercury in
     wild animals. Lake St. Glair. Paper presented at the Environmental
     Mercury Contamination Conference, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
ll69 Enderson, J. H. and D.  D. Beiger  (1970), Pesticides:  eggshell
     thinning and  lowered reproduction  of  young in prairie falcons.
     Bwmence 20:355-356.
1160 Fay,  L.  D.  1966.  Type E botulism in Great Lake water birds.
     Trans.  31st N. Amer. Wildlife Conf.:  139-149.
 '"Field, H. I. and E. T. R. Evans (1946), Acute salt poisoning ir
     poultry. VelRec.  58(231:253-254.
 >62FWPCA (1968)
     U.S. Department of the  Interior.  Federal Water Pollution Con-

-------
                                                                                                                   Literature Cited'/213
     trol  Administration  (1968),  Water quality criteria: report  of the
     National  Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the  Interior
     (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 234 p.
 663 Gaufin, A. R., L. D. Jensen, A. V. Nebeker, T. Nelson, and R. W.
     Teel (1965), The toxicity of ten  organic insecticides to various
     aquatic invertebrates. Water and Sewage Works 112(7):276-279.
 664 Greig, R. A.  and H. L. Seagram (1970), Survey of mercury con-
     centrations  in  fishes  of lakes St.  Clair, Erie and Huron. Paper
     presented at the Environmental Mercury Contamination  Confidence, Ann
     Arbor, Michigan.
 665 Griffith, W. II , Jr. (1962-63), Salt as  a possible  limiting  factor
     to the Suisan Marsh  pheasant population. Annual report, Delta
     Fish  &  Wildlife  Protection  Study, Cooperative  Study of Cali-
     fornia.
 666 Hartung,  R.  (1965),  Some effects  of oiling  on reproduction of
     ducks. J.  Wildlife Manage. 29(4):872-874.
 667 Hartung,  R.  (1967a),  Energy metabolism  in oil-covered  ducks
     J Wildlife Manage. 31(4): 798-804.
 668Haitung, R. (1967b), An outline for biological and physical con-
     centrating mechanisms for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides.
     Pap. Mich. Acad. Sn  Arts Lett. 52:77-83.
 669 Hartung, R. and G. S Hunt (1966), Toxicity of some oils to water-
     fowl. J.  Wildlife Manage. 30(3):564-570.
 670 Hartung, R. and G. W. Klingk-r (1970), Concentration of DDT
     sedimented polluting  oils. Enriron.  Sci.  Technol. 4(5) :407—410.
 671 Hawkes, A. L. 1961. A review of the nature and extent of damage
     caused by oil pollution at sea. Trans. N. Am. Wildlife  and Na-
     tional Resources Conf. 26-343-355.
 672He,ith. R.  G., J. W. Spann, and J F.  Krcitzer (1969), Marked
     DDE impairment of mallard reproduction in controlled studies.
     Mature 224:47-48.
 673 Henriksson, K.,  E.  Karppanen, and M. Helminen (1966), High
     residue of mercury in Finnish white-tailed  eagles  Onus l-enn.
     43 (2): 38-45.
674Hickey, J. J.  and D  W.  Anderson (1968),  Chlorinated  hydro-
     carbons  and  eggshell  changes in raptorial and fish-eating birds.
     Science 162 271-273.
 675 Holt, G. (1969),  Mercury residues in wild birds in Norway.  1965-
     1967, Nord. Vet Med.  21(2)'105- 114.
 676 Hunt, G.  S. (1957), Causes of mortality among ducks  wintering on the
     lower  Detroit River [Ph.D. dissertation] University of Michigan,
     Ann Arbor,  Michigan.
 677 Hunter, B.  F., W. E.  Clark,  P. J.  Perkins and P.  R. Coleman
     (1970), Applied botulism research  including management recom-
     mendations—a progress  report.  California  Department of Fish
     Game,  Sacramento,  87 p.
 578 Jensen,  W.  I  and  J. P. Allen (1960), A possible relationship be-
     tween aquatic invertebrates and avian botulism. Ttans. N. Arner.
     WML .Nairn, Ketnur. Conf. 25:171-179.
 679 Jensen,  S.  and  A. Jcrnelov  (1969),  Biological  incthylation  of
     mercury in aquatic organisms. Native 223:753—754.
 680 Jensen,  S.,  A. G. Johnels, M. Olsson  and G. Otterhncl  (1969),
     DDT  and FOB in marine animals from Swedish waters.  Mature
     224:247-250.
 681 Kalmbach,  E.  R  (1934), Western duck  sickness  a  form  of botu-
     lism.  U.S. Dep.  Agt. Tech.  Bull. No. 411, pp.  181.
 682 Kaufman, O.  W., and L. D. Fay (1964), Clostridmm hotulmum type
     E toxin  in tissues of  dead loons and gulls.  Michigan State Uni-
     versity Experiment Station Quarterly Bulletin 47:236-242.
683 Keith, J. A. (1966), Reproduction in a population of herring gulls
     (Larus argentatus) contaminated by DDT. J. Appl. Ecol. 3 (supp):
     57-70.  Supplement  3 published  as Pesticides in the environment
     and their effects on wildlife, N. W. Moore, ed. (Blackwell Scientific
     Publications, Oxford).
684 Kennedy, H.  D., L. L. Eller, and D. E. Walsh (1970), Chronic ef-
     fects of methoxychlor on bluegills and aquatic invertebrates [Bureau of
     Sport Fisheries and  Wildlife technical paper 53] (Government
     Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 18 p.
685Krista, L. M., C  W.  Carlson, and O. E. Olson (1961), Some ef-
     fects of saline waters  on chicks, laying hens, poults and ducklings.
     Poultry Set. 40(4)-938 944.
686McKee.  M. T., J. F.  Bell and W. H.  Iloycr  (1958), Culture of
     Clostrifhum botulinum  type C with controlled p!T. Journal of Kac-
     /mo'«y>75(2):135-142.
687 McKnight, D. E. (1970), Waterfowl production  on  a spring-fed
     salt marsh in Utah. Ph.D. dissert,ition. Utah  State University.
688 Quortrup, E.  R. and R. L Sudhciiner  (1942), Research  notes on
     botulism in  western marsh  areas  with recommendations for
     control. North Amirtian Wildlife Conference, Transactions 7:284-293.
689 Rcinert,  R. E. (1970),  Pesticide concentrations  in  Great Lakes
     fish. Pfshc. Moml J. 3(4) 233-240.
690 Risebrough, R. W , P. Rieche, D. B.  Peakall, S  G. Herman, and
     M. N. Kirven (1968),  Polychlorinated biphenyls in the global
     ecosystem. Nature 220:1098-1102.
681 Rittinghaus,  II (1956), Etwas  uber  die indirete  vcrbreitung dcr
     olpest in einem seevogclschutzgebiete   Ornilhol  Mitt  8(3) 43-46.
592 Scrivner, L. II. (1946), Experimental edema  and ascites in poults.
     J  Amer. Vet. Med. As,. 108-27-32.
6q3 Sincock, John  L.  (1968),  Common  faults of  management.  Pro-
     ceedings  Alan/i Esliiaiy  Management  Symposium, Louisiana State
     University, July. 1967, pp. 222-226
694 Street, J. C.,  F. M. Urry, D. J. Wagstaff, and  A. D. Bl.ui (1968),
     Comparative  effects of polychlorinated biphenyls  and  organo-
     chlorine pesticides in induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes.
     American  Chemical Society,   158th  National  meeting,  Sept.
     8-12, 1968.
605 Tucker,  R.  K.  and II  A  Ilaegelc  (1970),  Eggshell thinning  as
     influenced by method of DDT exposure.  Bull.  Envnon.  Contain.
     Toxicol. 5(3)-191-194
596 Vos,  J. G. and  J  H   Koeman (1970), Comparative toxicologic
     study with  polychlorinated biphenyls  in chickens  with special
     reference to  porphyria, edema formation, liver necrosis and tissue
     residues Toxicol. Appl. Phatmaail. 17(3):656-668.
597 Vos, J. G., J.  H  Koeman, 11. L  van  der Maas, M. C. ten Xoever
     dc Branw, and R. H. de Vos (1970),  Identification and toxico-
     logical  evaluation of chlorinated dibenzofuran and chlorinated
     napthalene in two commercial  polychlorinated  biphenyls.  Food
     Cosmet.  7oxicol 8 62V633.
598 Westoo, G (1966),  Determination of methylmcrcury compounds
     in  foodstuffs.  I  Mcthyhnercury compounds  in fish, identifica-
     tion and determination. Ada. Chem.  Scand.  20(8).2131-2137.
69(1 Wiemcyer, S.  N. and R. D. Porter (1970), DDE thins eggshells of
     captive American kestrels. Nature 227-737-738.

References Cited
600 Hunter, Brian, personal  communication, California Department of  Fish
     and Game; unpublished Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
     administrative reports.
MI Stickel, unpublished data 1972,  U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries  and
     Wildlife, Patuxcnt, Maryland.

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           Section  IV—MARINE  AQUATIC  LIFE  AND WILDLIFE
                                     TABLE  OF CONTENTS
                                              Page
INTRODUCTION	   216
        Development of Recommendations	   217
USES OF THE MARINE SYSTEM TO BE PRO-
  TECTED	   219
    THE NATURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM	   219
        Effects of Water Quality Change on Eco
          systems	   219
    FISHERIES	   221
    MARINE AQUACULTURE	   222
        Application  of Water  Quality to  Aqua-
          culture 	   224
    MARINE WILDLIFE	   224
        Bases for Recommendations	   225
        Radionuclides	   226
          Recommendation	   226
        Heavy Metals	   226
          Recommendation	   226
        Polych orinated Biphenyls (PCB)	   226
          Recommendation	   226
        DDT Compounds	   226
          Recommendation	   227
        Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, and Heptachlor. .   227
          Recommendation	   227
        Other  Chlorinated  Hydrocarbon  Pesti-
           cides	   227
          Recommendation	   227
        Lead	   227
          Recommendation	   228
    WASTE CAPACITY OF RECEIVING WATERS	   228
        Mixing Zones	   231
METHODS OF  ASSESSMENT	   233
    ACUTE TOXICITIES—BIOASSAYS	   233
    BIOANALYSIS	   233
    BIORESPONSE	   234
    DESIGN OF BIOASSAYS	   235
    SUBLETHAL EFFECTS	   236
        Migrations	   236
        Behavior 	   236
        Incidence of Disease	   236
        Life Cycle	   236
        Physiological Processes	   237
        Genetic Effects	   237
                                              Page
        Nutrition and Food Chains	   237
        Effects on the Ecosystem	   237
        Food Value for Human Use	   237
CATEGORIES OF POLLUTANTS	   238
    TEMPERATURE  AND HEAT	   238
    INORGANICS, INCLUDING HEAVY METALS AND
      PH	   238
        Forms of Chemical  and  Environmental
          Interactions	   239
        Biological Effects	   239
        Metals	   240
        Alkalinity or Buffer Capacity, Carbon Di-
            oxide, and pH	   241
          Recommendation	   241
        Aluminum	   242
          Recommendation	   242
        Ammonia 	   242
          Recommendation	   242
        Antimony	   242
          Recommendation	   243
        Arsenic	   243
          Recommendation	   243
        Barium	   243
          Recommendation	   244
        Beryllium	   244
          Recommendation	   244
        Bismuth	   244
        Boron	   244
          Recommendation	   245
        Bromine   	   245
          Recommendation	   245
        Cadmium	   245
          Recommendation	   246
        Chlorine	   246
          Recommendation	   247
        Chromium	   247
          Recommendation	   247
        Copper	   247
          Recommendation	   248
        Cyanides	   248
          Recommendation	   248
        Fluorides	   248
                                                 214

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      Recommendation	
    Iron	
      Recommendation	
    Lead	
      Recommendation	
    Manganese	
      Recommendation	
    Mercury	
      Recommendation	
    Molybdenum	
      Recommendation	
    Nickel	
      Recommendation	
    Phosphorus	
      Recommendation	
    Selenium	
      Recommendation	
    Silver	
      Recommendation	
    Sulfides	
      Recommendation	
    Thallium	
      Recommendation	
    Uranium	
      Recommendation	
    Vanadium	
      Recommendation	
    Zinc	
      Recommendation	
OIL IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT	
    Sources of Oil Pollution	
    Biological  Effects of Petroleum  Hydrocar-
      bons 	
    Corrective Measures	
      Recommendations	
249
249
249
249
250
250
251
251
252
252
253
253
253
253
254
254
255
255
255
255
256
256
256
256
256
257
257
257
257
257
257

258
262
263
                                                Paeg
    Toxic ORGANICS	   264
        Bases for Recommendations	   269
          Recommendations	   269
    OXYGEN	   269
          Recommendation	   270
    RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE AQUATIC EN-
      VIRONMENT 	   270
        Characteristics  and  Sources  of  Radio-
          activity 	   271
        Exposure Pathways	   272
        Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation. .   272
        Restrictions on Radioactive Materials. ...   273
        Conclusions	   273
          Recommendat'on	   274
    SEWAGE AND NUTRIENT-;	   274
        Magnitude of the Problem	   274
        Oxygen Depletion	   274
        Excessive Nutrient Enrichment	   275
        Pathogenic Microorganisms	   276
        Sludge Disposal into Marine Waters	   277
        Deep Sea Dumping	   277
        Potential Beneficial Uses of Sewage	   277
        Rationale for Establishing Recommenda-
            tions	   277
          Recommendations  	   277
    SOLID  WASTES,   PARTICULATE  MATTER,  AND
      OCEAN DUMPING	   278
        Dredge Spoils 	   278
        Sewage Sludges	   279
        Solid Wastes	   280
        Industrial Wastes	   280
        Other Solid Wastes	   280
        Suspended Particulate Materials	   281
          Recommendations	   282
LITERATURE CITED	   284
                                                215

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                                               INTRODUCTION
   The Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife took as
its prime responsibility the development of recommenda-
tions that would reasonably assure protection of the marine
ecosystem. The recommendations have been discussed  at
various meetings of the members of the Panel and represent
a consensus on the best statement that can be made in the
light of present knowledge. The recommendations are not
inflexible and may be modified as our understanding of the
marine ecosystem improves.
   Many parts of  the marine ecosystem  do not meet the
quality requirements recommended here. As  a result  of
man's  activities,  the marine  ecosystem has been greatly
modified; many species are excluded from areas where they
were once abundant, and many areas have been closed for
the harvesting of marine products as human food because
of pollution.  The decision as to what part, and how much,
of the marine ecosystem should be protected for normal
aquatic life and wildlife has political, social, and economic
aspects, and such decisions cannot be based upon scientific
evidence alone. Although some marine pollution problems
are local in character, many are global and only the broad-
est possible approach can solve these problems.  Food from
the sea is already an important source of animal protein for
human nutrition,  and this continuing supply must not be
diminished by pollution.
  At the same time, the  Panel recognizes that additions  of
pollutants to the oceans as by-products of our present mode
of living will continue. But if pollution is kept  within the
boundaries and constraints which are defined in the recom-
mendations, the Panel believes that the marine ecosystem
can be protected.
  In many  ways  the marine ecosystem  is similar to the
freshwater,  but there  are significant  differences which
should be briefly described. For  more details which sum-
marize the extensive literature on this subject, the reader is
referred to The Oceans by Sverdrup, et al. (1942)6,* The Sea,
particularly volume 2 edited  by  M. N.  Hill (1964),3 and
Estuaries, edited by G. H. Lauff (1967).4
  * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
   The marine environment is a significant source of animal
protein with an annual production of about 60 million tons
fresh weight of fisheries products (Food and Agriculture
Organization 1967).2 Various estimates of the potential ex-
pansion of this harvest have been made and are summarized
by Ryther (1969)5 who concludes that the potential harvest
might double this figure.  Some  of the existing stocks are
already fished  to capacity  or overfished, but  aquaculture
(pp. 222-224) may increase world marine production.
   The importance  of this  supply of animal protein to the
v/orld population  has  been emphasized  by Borgstrom
(1961).1 He estimates that  more than two billion people of
tic world's population receive 50  per cent or more of their
animal protein from marine products. In the United States
fish contributes only about 5 per cent of our animal protein
consumption, but even so  it has  been estimated l>\  Pruter
(unpublished 1972)8 that over ten billion pounds of commercial
fish and shellfish were harvested from the estuaries and con-
tinental shelf of the United  States in 1970. Furthermore, in
the United States a great deal of fishmeal is used to fortify
animal  feeds, particularly  for cnickens.  It  is  obvious that
this valuable food resource  of the1 marine environment must
be sustained.
   The estuaries are regions where the impact of man's ac-
tivity is greatest, and they  arc also areas of great value for
marine  fish  production. They serve not only as  nursery
areas and breeding grounds for many  species of fish,  but
also  as the regular home for  i:he  entire life cycle of some
valuable species, such as oysters and crabs. Sykcs (1968)7 has
estimated that 90 per cent or more of the commercial catch
of finfish in some geographical regions of the United States
consists of estuarine-dependent  species.  The  estuaries  are
tr e most variable regions of the marine ecosystem (see  pp.
2, 9-221) and organisms which inhabit them are exposed to
extreme variations.  Since these organisms survive, they are
obviously adapted to the stress imposed by these variations.
During the tidal cycle, a sessile organism will be exposed to
variations in temperature and salinity as the tide ebbs and
flows. On a  seasonal basis, because of variations  in river
flow, organisms at a fixed location may be exposed to fresh
water during flood periods or to nearly undiluted sea water
during droughts. The oscillatory nature of the tidal cur-
                                                       216

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                                                                                                   Introduction /217
rents can also lead to an accumulation of pollutants within
an estuary,  as is discussed in the section on waste capacity
of receiving waters (pp. 228-232).
  Migratory fishes must also pass through estuaries in order
to reach their breeding grounds. Anadromous fishes, such
as the alewife, salmon, shad, and striped bass, move up-
stream to breed in the highly diluted seawater or in fresh
water. In contrast the catadromous  species such as the eel
spend their  adult stages in fresh water and migrate down-
stream in order to breed in the open sea. Conditions within
the estuaries should be maintained  so  that these seasonal
breeding migrations are not interfered with.
  The conditions in the coastal waters are less variable than
those in the  estuaries, but in temperate regions, the seasonal
range of conditions can be considerable. The coastal waters,
particularly in areas of upwelling, are the most highly pro-
ductive parts of  the marine environment and have been
estimated by Rythcr (1969)1'1 to produce half of the  potential
marine  fish  production,  even though they constitute only
0.1  per cent of the  total area of the oceans.  The coastal
zones, including near shore areas of high production such as
fishing banks, constitute 9.9 per cent  of the area of the ocean
and  contribute nearly  half of the world fish production.  In
tropical waters, the  seasonal variation in conditions  is less
extreme  than in temperate waters. However, as will  be
discussed  in the section on  temperature  (p. 238)  many
tropical species are living near their upper extreme  tempera-
ture  during  the summer, and this fact presents considerable
problems in the disposal of waste heat in tropical areas
  The open ocean constitutes 90 per cent of the area of the
world ocean and is the least variable of the marine environ-
ments. The  deep  sea produces only a minor fraction of the
world's fish production, and this consists mainly of the large
pelagic carnivores such as the tuna (Rythcr 1969).•"' During
the  19th  century,  the  whale  harvest  was  substantially
greater than it is  at present, but the whales captured were
not as effectively utilized as they are in modern whaling
methods.  Many species of whales were grossly over-fished,
and  there is considerable question today whether some  of
these species can recover their original population sizes even
in those cases where a complete moratorium on their cap-
ture  is in  effect.
  The waters of the deep sea below the permanent thermo-
cline (the depths below which seasonal temperature changes
do not occur) constitute  the largest  and most constant en-
vironment on earth. During the  history of modern ocean-
ography,  which  covers  the  last centurx, no significant
changes in  cither salinit\ or temperature of the  deep sea
have been observed, the organisms living in this abyssal en-
vironment having  evolved  under conditions  which were
presumably constant for  millcnia. To protect the coastal
environment many proposals have been made to dump ma-
terials, such as solid waste, sewage sludge, and contaminated
drege spoils in the deep sea. Since the organisms inhabiting
the depths of the ocean have  been  exposed to a  constant
environment, they arc not accustomed to unusual stresses
which might be created by such dumping operations (see
pp. 278-283). Consequently, dumping of organic wastes in
the deep sea is not recommended (pp. 277, 282-283).

Development of Recommendations

  In  most cases, recommendations are not applicable to
every  local  situation.  The  marine  environment varies
widely, and only an understanding of local conditions will
make it possible to determine what  can or cannot be added
in  each  situation.  Many  materials  are accumulated by
marine organisms, and the concentration is often increased
at higher levels of the food web. With substances that are
toxic  and persistent, it  is the concentration  in the highest
predators,  fish  or birds, that  is critical. One example is
DDT and its derivatives which have accumulated in birds to
levels that interfere with their breeding. Materials that de-
compose or  are otherwise removed from the marine en-
vironment present lesser hazards.
  The. application of an) recommendation to a local situa-
tion is unique  because it requires (a)  an understanding of
the circulation of the water and the resultant mixing and
dilution of the  pollutant, (b) a knowledge of the local bio-
logical species in the environment and  the identification of
those that are  most sensitive  to the pollutant being con-
sidered, and (c) an  evaluation of the transport of the ma-
terial through the food web because of the possibility that
the pollutant may reach concentrations hazardous either to
the normal aquatic  species present, or  to man through his
use of aquatic species as food.
  The normal cycle of variation in the environment of many
substances or conditions that occur naturally, such as oxy-
gen, temperature, and nutrients, must be determined before
decisions can be made as to possible permissible changes. In
many  estuaries and  coastal waters  "normal" conditions
have  been modified by  man's activities and may already
have  changed  to the extent that some species that might
have  been found at  earlier times have  been eliminated. In
some circumstances, a recommendation may not be applic-
able because it may be  necessary to specify no additional
change beyond that which has already occurred.  There is
no  generally applicable formula for recommendations to
protect marine aquatic life and wildlife;  a  study  of local
environmental conditions is essential prior to application of
the recommendations.
  The Panel recognizes that what can or should be done in a
given situation  cannot  wait for the completion  of time-
consuming studies.  The  degree of protection desired for a
given location  involves  social  and  political decisions. The
ecological nature and quality  of each water mass proposed
for  modification must be assessed prior to any decision to
modify. This requires appropriate information on the physi-
cal and chemical characteristics, on the distribution and
abundance of species, and on the normal variations in these

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218/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
attributes over the annual cycle. In addition, there must be
sufficient knowledge to permit useful prediction of the sig-
nificant effects of the proposed pollutant on the stages in the
life cycle of important species, on populations, and on the
biological communities present. The possible impact of that
pollutant upon the ecosystem can then be assessed. Thesi
subjects are covered in greater detail in other parts of thi
Section, but they are mentioned here to emphasize theii
primary importance in determining how the recommenda
tions should be used in local situations.

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                        USES OF THE MARINE SYSTEM TO  BE  PROTECTED
  Coastal marine waters serve  a wide variety of excep-
tionally important human uses. Many of these uses produce
high local benefits such as the yield of shellfish and recrea-
tional  activities.  Others involve regional  benefits  or the
global  unity of the marine system, since local events influ-
ence, and are influenced by, water quality at distant points.
Many  of the human uses of marine waters  are directly de-
pendent upon  the nature and  quality of the biological,
chemical, and physical systems  present. Efforts to protect
and  enhance these uses will be  limited principally by our
ability to understand and protect the environmental condi-
tions which are essential for the  biota.
  Water quality  criteria for marine aquatic life and wild-
life define  the environmental requirements for  specified
uses. Five of these are discussed in this Section, namely,
maintenance of the ecosystem; fisheries; aquaculture; wild-
life protection; and waste disposal. These  are not sharply
separable, but the water quality requirements for each use
are briefly summarized. The effects of transportation, harbor
development,  dredging and  dumping of spoils have also
been considered in developing the recommendations.

NATURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM

  Many of the principal human uses of marine waters de-
pend upon successful maintenance and enhancement of the
existing ecosystems or, in a few circumstances, upon creating
and  continuing new and artificial ecosystems for specific
purposes. The ecosystem includes all of the biological and
non-biological  (geological, physical,  and  chemical)  com-
ponents of the environment and  their highly complex inter-
actions. Studies of ecosystems must include all that is within
the body of water as well as the imports to and exports from
it. Research in such situations has shown that the biotic ele-
ments  include producers of organic material, several levels
of consumers,  and decomposers.  In the least complex situa-
tion, these act at rates controlled by the abiotic factors to
transfer energy and recycle materials. In those aquatic en-
vironments which continuously  or intermittently exchange
large quantities of energy or materials with other parts of
the  total global  system, understanding and management
become more difficult. In the marine environment imports
and exports continually occur from coastal runoff,  tidal
action,  oceanic  currents, meterological  actions, and ex-
changes with adjacent  water  bodies or  with the benthos
and atmosphere. These exchanges are only partially under-
stood, but it is clear that each marine site is connected inti-
mately  to  the  rest of  the  oceans and to  total global
mechanisms.
  The estuaries  are in  many  ways  the most complicated
and variable of aquatic ecosystems. Materials carried from
the land by rivers vary in quantity and quality,  sometimes
with strong seasonal patterns of high biological significance.
Tidal oscillations cause vigorous reversals of flow. Inherent
hydrographic patterns can lead to accumulation of materials
and to upstream transport from the point of addition. Dense
urban populations on the shores of estuaries produce large
amounts of waste, and  engineering projects have changed
the boundaries and flows of water courses. The biologically
rich estuaries are the most variable and the most endangered
part of the  marine environment.
  In each  environment  the existing characteristics of the
system have been produced by dynamic interaction among
the components, forces, and processes present. Some of these
are small or transitory, but others are massive and enduring.
If any one of these forces or processes is changed, a new
balance is produced in the system.  Relative stability, there-
fore, results from the balancing of forces, not the absence.
The biota are the product of evolution, and each ecosystem
contains those species and communities  which have adapted
to the specific environment over a long period of time and
which are successful in that environment. Drastic and rapid
modification  of the environment,  as  by pollution,  may
eliminate seme species and encourage others in ways which
can reduce the  value of the  ecosystem  for  man's use or
enjoyment.

Effects of Water Quality Change on  Ecosystems
  The introduction of a chemical compound or a change in
the physical environment may affect a  natural marine eco-
system in many ways. In coastal waters  undisturbed for long
periods of time,  the ecosystem has adjusted to the existing
                                                       219

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 220/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 conditions. The system is productive, species are diverse, the
 biomass is high, and the  flow  of energy  is comparatively
 efficient. The addition of pollutants to such a system might:

     • reduce the input of solar energy into the ecosystem;
     • increase  the input  of organic matter and nutrients
       which might stimulate  the  growth of undesirable
       species;
     • reduce  the  availability  of nutrients  by increased
       sorption  and  sedimentation;
     • create intolerable physical extremes for  some orga-
       nisms, as by the addition  of heat;
     • kill or reduce the  success of individual organisms,
       as by lethal  toxicity or crippling with oil;
     • eliminate species by adding a toxic material or mak-
       ing an essential element unavailable;
     • interfere  with the  flow  of energy from  species to
       species, as by a chemical that interferes with feeding
       behavior;
     • reduce species diversity in the system;
     • interfere  with regenerative cycling by decomposers;
     • decrease  biomass by reduction of abundant species
       or disruption of the processes of ecosystems;
     • increase biomass  by removing important consumers
       allowing  runaway production of other species.
   All of these  may involve  changes in  production and
lowered  human usefulness of  the system. These  are  ex-
amples; additional effects  can occur. The specific  impacts
of pollution at a site can be determined only through long-
term study of that portion of the ocean  and the changes that
occur.
   It is clear that man, through his numbers and his actions,
is having  increasingly  pronounced  effects on  organisms,
populations, and entire ecosystems.  Many people willingly
accept the consequences of advanced  technology that  are
markedly deleterious, but most people  become alarmed
when an entire  large ecosystem undergoes  transformation.
When society recognizes that catastrophe threatens due to
its carelessness, it seeks to  rearrange its  demands on such
ecosystems  in ways that  can be  accommodated within  the
inherent capacities  of the system. To provide adequate an-
swers we need understanding of ecosystems, since knowledge
at the species and population levels, however denned, will
be too limited in scope to answer the questions that arise at
the more highly organized level of the ecosystem.
  The study of the effects  of pollution on ecosystems may
be undertaken by  considering  pollution  as an additional
stress on the mechanisms that keep  ecosystems  organized.
Unless the  living parts of an ecosystem are already under
stress,  the early  effects of the introduction of toxic pollu-
tants may contribute to  the extinction of particularly sus-
ceptible species leaving the more resistant forms in a less
diverse community. In  communities already under stress,
relatively low levels of pollution may cause the disruption
of the communities.
   Estuaries and intertidal regions are naturally exposed to
 stressful conditions. In the estuaries the ebb and flow of the
 lide and the  fluctuating freshwater flow create changes in
 salinity on various  time scales  ranging from hourly  to
 seasonally. In the intertidal zone the normal inhabitants are
 exposed to air during part of each tidal cycle. They are also
 subjected  to vigorous wave actions on exposed beaches and
 headlands. Unique assemblages of organisms have evolved
 which  manage to survive these  rigorous conditions if waters
 remain unpolluted.
   Pollutants  are commonly released into such aquatic eco-
 systems of high natural variation in their nonliving compo-
 nents,  and the rate of pollutant discharge usually varies
 1'rom time to  time. The immediate effect of these conditions
 is that  at any  fixed point in the  habitat the concentration of
 a pollutant varies markedly with time, but not in such a way
 1 hat a  community can adapt itself to these variations. The
 result is that short-lived opportunistic species are likely to be
 i'avored in areas subject to variable aquatic pollution.
   Any single  toxicant may be equally virulent towards long-
 lived or short-lived species in tre normal aquatic commun-
 ity. Except at outfalls where toxicants reach lethal concen-
 1 rations, as in continuous discharges in stable environments,
 toxicants act  discontinuously through time.  Where water
 mass instabilities are such  that  poisonous  concentrations
 occur on the  average of once a  week, for instance,  it is pos-
 sible  for organisms with much shorter life spans to flourish
 briefly  with large population fluctuations. Where they occur
 once  a  month, a community may evolve  rapidly through a
 successional sequence involving  a few longer-lived organisms
 before  the next  toxic concentration occurs. Where lethal
 dosages are as infrequent as once a year, the succession may
 go to the stage of some fish of medium life span,  particularly
 if access to the area is relatively  free. Because of the fluctua-
 tions  with time,  the  community nearest an outfall is  most
 primitive from  a successional  viewpoint, and  as  distance
 from  the outfall increases, there is a successional  gradient
 toward  the usual climax  community  of an  unpolluted
 environment.
   Evaluation  of the effects of pollution or  of other  environ-
 mental  changes on the  ecosystem involves studies of  bio-
 logical  production,  species diversity, energy  flow,   and
 cycling of materials.  The process may be complicated by
 riassive imports and exports at any one site. Although
 pathways of energy flow and efficiencies  are not yet com-
 pletely understood, they offer a  unifying approach to these
 problems such as proposed by Odum (1967,12 197113).
   Species diversity is a useful attribute of biological  systems.
 Diversity  is affected  by  a number of factors as evidenced
 by the papers presented at  a symposium  on Diversity and
 Stability  in   Ecological  Systems  (Brookhaven National
 Laboratory 1969),10 as well  as  other symposia  (American
 Society  of Civil Engineering and Stanford University 1967,9
Olson and Burgess 1967,14 NAS-NRC Committee on Ocean-
ography 1970,11 Royal Society of London 197115). Some sue-

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                                                                           Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/221
 cess has been achieved in the use of diversity measurements,
 however, and their potential for future use is high. (See the
 discussion of Community Structure in Section III on Fresh-
 water Aquatic Life and Wildlife and in Appendix II-B.)
   There  are potentials for  managing additions to coastal
 ecosystems in ways  that  benefit human uses. These are as
 yet  poorly understood,  and efforts to utilize waste heat,
 nutrients  and other possible resources are primitive. Such
 possibilities merit  vigorous exploration  and,  eventually,
 careful  application.


 FISHERIES

   Major  marine and coastal fisheries are based upon  the
 capture of wild crops produced in  estuaries,  coastal waters,
 and oceans. The quantity and  quality of the available sup-
 ply of useful species are controlled by the nature and effi-
 ciency of the several ecosystems upon which  each species
 depends for its life cycle. Shad, for instance, depend upon
 freshwater areas  at the head of estuaries for spawning and
 for survival as eggs and larvae, open estuaries for the nutri-
 tion of juveniles, and large  open coastal regions for growth
 and maturation. As do mam  other  species, shad migrate
 over large distances. Serious pollution at  any point in  the
lower river,  the estuary, or  the  inshore ocean might, there-
fore, break the necessary patterns and reduce the fishery.
   Estuaries  have exceptional usefulness in support of fish-
eries. At least three quarters of the species in the commercial
and recreational  fisheries  of the nation are dependent upon
the estuarine ecosystem at one or  more stages of their  life
historv.  Estuaries arc used as obligatory spawning grounds,
nurscr\  areas, havens from  parasites and predators, and as
rich sources of food because of high productivity.
   American  fisheries exploit several  levels  of the coastal
ecosystem. We do  not  utilize the plants, the producers,
directly as food or in commerce except for a comparatively
 small harvest of kelp and   other  seaweeds. The  primary
 consumers, however, are extensively utilized. These include
 oysters,  clams,  mussels, and  vast quantities of filter-feeding
fish  such  as  sardines,  anchovies, menhaden, and  herring.
 Second  and third level consumers,  which are less abundant
 but frequently  more desired than plankton feeders, include
 most of our sports fish and  major commercial species such
 as tuna, striped bass, cod, halibut,  and sea trout, as well as
 squid, sharks, and other species which hold potential  for
 increased future use.
   Pollutants can  be detrimental  to  fisheries by reducing
 desired  species  through  direct mortality  from  toxicity,
 smothering, intolerable heat, or other killing changes. Re-
 duction may also occur when  a pollutant has a sublethal
 stressing  effect  that significantly  interferes with  feeding,
 movement, reproduction, or some  other essential function.
 Pollution has an indirect deleterious effect when it increases
 predators or parasites, reduces  food organisms or  essential
consorts, or damages the efficiency of the ecosystem func-
tions pertinent to the species in question. Consideration of
all these occurrences must enter into efforts to protect and
enhance fisheries.
   Pollutants also damage marine organisms by imparting
characteristics that make them unacceptable for commercial
or  recreational use. Economic loss has resulted  from flesh
tainting of fish and shellfish by oil, phenolics, and other ma-
terials affecting taste, flavor, or appearance. DDT and other
persistent organics, applied on  land, have  accumulated in
fish to levels that exceed established standards for accept-
able human food.  Heavy metals,  e.g., mercury, can reach
levels in fish several thousand times the concentration in the
ambient water, destroying the economic value of the orga-
nisms involved.
   More than 90 per cent  of  the  American commercial
catch and  virtually all of the sport fish are taken from the
estuaries and continental shelf. The total yield is difficult to
estimate, involving as it does migratory species, catches by
both foreign and domestic vessels, and recreational fisheries
which are only  partially  measured. Stroud (1971)26  esti-
mated that the cstuarine-dependent fishery of the Atlantic
coast yields 535 pounds per acre of estuary for a total annual
yield of 6.6 X 1011 Ibs. He concludes that shrinking of estu-
aries by filling or other destruction would reduce the  yield
by a directly proportional quantity.  Further, he predicts
that reduction of the productivity of estuaries by pollution
would also produce a proportional decrease in fish produc-
tion. The U.S. commercial  fisheries of largest volume, in
order  of decreasing harvest, include  menhaden, salmon,
shrimp, crabs, herring, and oysters (Riley 1971).24 The most
valuable commercial harvests include shrimp, salmon, lob-
sters, crabs, menhaden, oysters, clams, flounders, and scal-
lops (Riley 1971).21
  The estuaries,  as recipients of wastes both from rivers
entering them and cities and industries along their shores,
arc obviously more immediately susceptible  to  pollution
damage than  any other part of the marine system (Clark
1967,ls American Society of Civil Engineering and Stanford
University 1967,16 U.S. Dept. of Interior 1969,27 and U.S.
Dept.  of Interior,  Fish and  Wildlife Service 197028).  Al-
though the vulnerability of such inshore bodies of water to
physical and  chemical damage is  exceptional,  the  open
waters along the  coast are also subject to damage from the
use of these waters for waste disposal. Approximately 250
waste disposal sites are in use along the coast of the United
States, and 48 million tons of wastes are estimated to  have
been dumped in  1968  (Council on Environmental Quality
1970).19 These dumped wastes  included dredge  spoils,  in-
dustrial wastes, sewage sludge, construction and demolition
debris, solid wastes, and explosives (see pp. 278-283 of this
Section for a more extended discussion of dumped wastes).
Increased  populations and  technological  concentration
along the coasts,  with simultaneous resistance to the use of
land, rivers, and estuaries for disposal has stimulated pro-

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 222/Section IV— Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
posals to increase the use of oceanic areas as receivers of
wastes.
   The effects of such coastal disposal on fisheries are not yet
clearly established.  Bechtel Corp. (1969)17  has suggested
that continued  expansion of waste disposal  along the At-
lantic coast at the present rate of increase may, in about 30
years,  significantly reduce the  quality of water over the
continental shelf by increased suspended solids,  phosphate
or nitrate  enrichment,  oxygen  demand,  heavy  metals,  or
simultaneous effects from all of these.  Preliminary studies of
the effects of dumping of sewage sludge and dredging spoils
from the metropolitan New York area indicate that an area
of about 20 square miles has been impoverished by reduc-
tion of normal benthic populations; and indirect effects may
be far more extensive (Pearce 1970).23
  More general approaches to disposal of wastes in ocean
waters have been presented by  Foyn (1965)20  Olson and
Burgess (1967)22, NAS-NRC Committee on Oceanography
(1970)21 and the Royal  Society of London (1971).25  Some
discernible  and disturbing changes in coastal  waters are
documented that prove  the urgent need  for better under-
standing of pollution effects at the edge of the oceans. The
limitation that must be placed upon any such releases must
be learned and put to use quickly, and we should proceed
carefully while we are learning.
  Fisheries  provide useful indications  of the  biological
health and productivity of marine waters. Continuous high
yield of a  harvestable crop of indigenous fish or shellfish
free  of toxicants or pathogens is an indication  that water
quality is satisfactory, that the environmental conditions are
favorable for the total biological community, and that no
contaminant is  present  in sufficient  quantity  to destroy
major  components of the  ecosystem. Fisheries production
statistics can thus  serve as a sensitive indicator of environ-
mental quanity.
  Specific criteria for categories of pollutants will be given
in subsequent parts of this Section.  The general require-
ments  for water quality in relation  to successful fisheries
include:

    • favorable, not merely tolerable, environmental  con-
       ditions at every location which is required in the life
       history of each species: this places special value on
      water quality of  estuaries which  are obligate en-
      vironments for many species during  at  least  some
       portion of their life  cycles;
    • freedom from tainting substances or conditions where
      useful species exist, including  elements  and  com-
       pounds which can  be accumulated  by   organisms
       to unacceptable levels;
    •  absence  of toxic conditions or substances wherever
       useful species occur at any time in their life history;
    •  absence  of sublethal deleterious conditions which
       reduce survival and reproductive success;
     •  water sufficient  to maintain the health of the  bio
       logical systems which support useful species;
     •  absence of environmental conditions which  are ex
       ceptionally  favorable  10  parasites,  predators,  am
       competitors of useful species.

MARINE  AQUACULTURE

   Although often considered a new approach to the worL
food problem,  aquaculture  is an ancient practice in man
parts of the world. In the Orient,  aquatic organisms hav
been successfully  cultivated for centuries,  usually wit
rather primitive and empirical techniques, but nevertheles
with impressive success.
   The annual  world production of food through aquacul
ture has recently been estimated at over four million metri
tons, about 6.5 per cent of the total world fish landings. Al
though this is  derived  largely from fresh water, and open
ocean maraculture is in its infancy, an unknown but signif
cant fraction of the production is brackish-water organisn-
taken  from  estuarine  system,;.  The  distinction  betweei
freshwater and marine aquaculture is quite artificial. Be
cause the  principles, techniques,  potentials, and environ
mental  requirements for growing organisms in either fres
or salt water are  much  the same, the distinction is also un
necessary for the purposes of the present discussion, excep
as noted below.
   It is  difficult to assess the potential  yield from  mariri
aquaculture, dependent as  it is on  a  primitive art under
going rapid  technological development. The introductio
of present methods into  new, undeveloped parts of the worL
could at least  double the present harvest within the ne>;
decade. Judging from  the  experience in agriculture  an<
terrestrial  animal  husbandry, much  greater increase i
yields should presumably be possible with advances in sue
fields as genetic  selection and  control, nutrition,  habita
management and elimination or control of disease, preda
tion, and competition. It is not inconceivable that the )ieL
from  aquaculture  might one  day surpass  that  from th
harvest  of wild, untended stocks of aquatic organisms. Fui
ther, since only the most desirable species are selected fo
aquaculture, both the economic  and nutritional value pe
pound of cultivated organisms greatly exceeds that of th
average fishery product. In the United States, cxpandei
recent  interest  in coastal aquaculture will  hopefully pro
duce new  techniques, products,  and  quantities,  althoug]
economic feasibility has been difficult to achieve thus far.
  Although no firm distinction can be drawn, it is conveni
ent to think of most forms of marine aquaculture in one o
two categories  that will be referred to here as extensive  anc
intensive  culture. In extensive culture, animals are reared a
relatively  low  densities in  large  impoundments,  embay
ments, or sections of estuaries, either natural or man-made
The impoundments may be  closed off or open to the  sea
depending upon  the desired degree of control, but evei

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                                                                          Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/223
those that are enclosed  must be located near a source of
seawater so that the water may be exchanged frequently
to prevent stagnation and to regulate such factors as tem-
perature and salinity. Such exchanges are accomplished by
tidal action or by pumping.
  The cultivated animals may be stocked or may consist of
natural populations that  enter  the  system as larvae  or
juveniles.  They  are usually not fed but subsist on natural
foods that grow in the area or are carried in with the outside
seawater.
  Extensive aquaculture systems are  most common in  the
undeveloped parts of the world (e.g., Southeast Asia) where
large areas of coastal mangrove swamps, marshes, and estu-
aries arc available and are not presently in use or demand
for other purposes. For example, it has been estimated that
there are over six  million acres of mangrove swamps  in
Indonesia alone that would be suitable for some form of fish
farming.
  In such coastal impoundments, milkfish, mullet, shrimp,
and  other  free-swimming species are  grown.  In the more
open situations such as embayments and arms of estuaries,
non-fugitive organisms are cultivated.  The oldest and most
highly-developed form of marine aquaculture practiced in
the United States and Europe, that of oyster culture, falls
into this category. Seaweed culture in Japan and  China is
another interesting example of this  general  approach  to
aquaculture.
  Yields from extensive aquaculture range from a few hun-
dred pounds to, at best, about one ton  per acre per year.
Little,  in  some  cases almost no, capital investment  is  re-
quired, and it is not a labor-intensive form of enterprise.
One or two unskilled laborers  can manage  100  acres  or
more of shrimp or milkfish  ponds in  Malayasia or  the
Philippines  except  during stocking and harvesting opera-
tions. This is normally a highly profitable  form of business
to the  culturist  and, despite the modest yields,  extensive
aquaculture is capable of making a significant contribution
to the  protein nutrition  of many of the  undeveloped parts
of the world.
  Intensive aquaculture makes use of  flowing-water sys-
tems using flumes or raceways and  is best typified by trout
and salmon hatcheries that have been  operated successfully
in the  United States and Europe for many years and have
now reached a relatively high level of technical sophistica-
tion. Although  originally  designed to produce fish to  be
stocked in natural waters to enhance commercial  or sports
fishing, such systems are now being increasingly used for the
production  of fish  to be marketed directly as food. Such
systems were originally developed and used exclusively for
rearing freshwater species, but  they  are now  also finding
application in saltwater  areas for the production of marine
or anadromous species.
  A variation of the raceway system of intensive  aquacul-
ture is that of floating cage culture in which the animals are
held in nets suspended  by a floating wooden framework.
These may be moored in estuaries or other protected arms
of the sea, where they are exposed to strong tidal currents.
  A common feature of the various kinds of intensive aqua-
culture is that the animals are grown closely packed at ex-
tremely high densities and depend upon the flow of large
volumes  of water over and around them to provide oxygen
and carry away wastes. When feasible, the animals are fed
artifically on prepared, pelletized food. The entire system
must be carefully controlled and monitored.
  Intensive aquaculture systems for the commercial  pro-
duction of food are in an early stage of development and
have yet to prove themselves as profitable  and reliable for
marine species. Rapid progress is being made in this area,
however, particularly in highly developed parts of the world
where technological skill is available, where coastal marine
areas are scarce and in high demand, and where the price of
luxury seafoods is escalating. Various  species of molluscs,
crustaceans, and finfish are now being grown in this way,
and many more are likely  candidates as  soom  as funda-
mental  aspects of their life  history  and  nutrition  are
mastered.
  The yield from intensive aquaculture per unit  of area in
which the organisms are grown is ecologically meaningless
(as is that from a cattle feed-lot, for example) but amounts
to as much as hundreds of tons  per acre. More realistically,
the yield from such systems may be expressed per  cubic foot
per minute of water flowing through it, which is usually the
limiting factor.
  In contrast to extensive  aquaculture, intensive systems
usually  require high  capital outlay  and have  a relatively
high labor demand. Profits or losses are determined by small
differences in the costs of food, labor,  marketing, and the
demand for the product.
  Both  extensive and intensive forms of aquaculture  are
heavily  dependent on high  quality water to sustain them.
Neither is independent of the adjacent coastal marine en-
vironment.  Extensive  pond culture  may be semi-autono-
mous, but as explained above, the water must be occasion-
ally and sometimes frequently  exchanged.  Intensive aqua-
culture systems are vitally dependent on a continuous large
supply of new  seawater. Because of the large investment
and, at best, small margin of profit, and because of the dense
populations of  animals maintained at any one time, inten-
sive aquaculture represents a far greater risk.
  Freshwater aquaculture  systems, if strategically located
near an  adequate source of underground water, may be
largely independent of man's activities  and  relatively free
from the threat of pollution. This, unfortunately, is never
quite true of marine aquaculture. The contiguous oceans of
the world circulate freely, as do the substances man adds to
them. While water movements may be predicted on large
geographical and time scales, they are quite unpredictable
on  a local and  short-term basis. An embayment or estuary
whose shores are uninhabited and which may suffer no ill
effects from the surrounding land may suddenly become in-

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224/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
fused with materials added to the water hundreds of miles
distant and carried' to the scene by winds, tides, and coastal
currents. In this sense, marine aquaculture is not only more
vulnerable to change than freshwater culture, but the dan-
gers are also far less predictable.

Application of Water Quality to Aquaculture

  The various toxic or otherwise harmful wastes that man
adds  to the coastal marine environment affect cultivated
organisms much the same as  they do the natural popula-
tions of the same species. These are discussed in detail else-
where and need  not  be repeated  here.  In  general  the
deleterious effects  of wastes on organisms that are used as
food by man are: (1) to  kill, injure, or interfere with  the
growth or other vital functions of the organisms, or (2) to
become concentrated in the organisms to such  an extent as
to render them unfit for human consumption by exceeding
public health standards or by making them unpalatable. In
the latter case, this may occur with no apparent  accompany-
ing impairment of the organism.
  Certain aspects of aquaculture, particularly the intensive
forms of culture described above,  are particularly sensitive
and vulnerable to various kinds of pollution—more so than
their freeliving counterparts in nature. These are enumer-
ated and discussed briefly below.

    • The carrying capacity  of intensive aquaculture  sys-
      tems is based on the flow of water and its supply ol
      oxygen. If the concentration of oxygen in the water
      suddenly decreases due to an organic  overload, a
      temperature increase,  or  other external causes, it
      may be inadequate   to   support  the cultivated
      animals.
    • Captive organisms cannot  avoid localized unfavor-
      able conditions (e.g.,  oxygen, temperature, turbid-
      ity)  as can free-swimming natural populations.
    • Many  organisms  can  tolerate alterations  in their
      environment if they are allowed to  adapt and  be-
      come acclimated to such changes slowly. Cultivated
      organisms may be, and often are subjected to sudden
      changes in water quality and cannot  endure the  ini-
      tial  shock, while the free-swimming natural popula-
      tions can enter an affected area slowly and cautiously
      and  allow   themselves  to  adapt to   the  altered
      conditions.
    • Cultivated  organisms,  particularly in  the  densely-
      crowded conditions of intensive aquaculture, may be
      and perhaps always are under rather severe physio-
      logical stress. Artificial  diets are often incomplete or
      otherwise unbalanced.  Unnaturally  crowded living
      conditions may cause hormonal or other  biochemical
      imbalance.  The animals may already suffer the ef-
      fects of poor water quality from their own pollutants.
      They are therefore particularly susceptable and vul-
       nerable to any  additional  deterioration in  wate
       quality that may increase their stress condition.
    •  Disease is a spectre that perpetually haunts the aqua
       culturist. Virtually impossible to avoid or eliminat
       in  any open  system,  it is usually, at best,  held ii
       check.  Again, the  additional stress caused by a de
       terioration in water quality, while not fatal  in itseli
       may lower the resistance of the cultivated animals t
       epidemic disease.
    •  Artificially-fed cultivated organisms may  be no les
       susceptible to accumulation of wastes, although in
       tensively cultivated organisms that are fed  entire!
       on an artificial diet would appear to have  one ad
       vantage over natural populations of the same animal
       living in polluted waters. Many toxic substances sue!
       as  chlorinated hydrocarbons may reach toxic or un
       acceptable levels  in  larger  organisms  because c
       concentration and amplification at  each successiv
       step in the food chain that ultimately supports th
       animal  in question.  However,  there is increasing
       evidence that these substances also enter fishes  anc
       other organisms  directlv from  solution in the water
       across  respiratory or  digestive membranes. Sucl
       direct absorption of toxic material may in some case
       exceed the quantities  ingested and assimilated witl
       food.

  Therefore, the general  recommendations for the qualit'
of water for use in culture include:  (1) continuously ade
quate control of those materials and conditions which an
required for  good health and efficient production of thi
cultured species; (2) absence of deleterious chemical  anc
physical conditions,  even  for short  or intermittent periods
(3) environmental stability; and (4) prevention of introduc
tion  of diseases that attack  the organisms under  culture
The  specific  requirements for  each culture effort must bi
with reference to the species  involved, the densities desired
and the operational  design of the culture  system.

MARINE  WILDLIFE

  Marine wildlife for the purposes of this  Section is definec
as those species of mammals, birds, and  reptiles which in
habit estuaries or coastal and marine waters for at least ;
portion of their life span. The fish, invertebrates, and plank
ton that constitute the food webs upon which these specie:
depend are not, therefore, considered to  be wildlife in  thi:
context. The  recommendations for marine  wildlife, how-
ever,  necessarily  include  all  recommendations  formulatec
to protect the  fish,  invertebrate,  and plant communities
because wildlife can be adequately  protected only  if the
diversity and integrity of food webs are maintained. More-
over, the recommendations must protect wildlife from pol-
lutants  that are  relatively persistent in the environment.
transported by wind or water currents, and concentrated 01
recycled in the food webs. Because of trophic accumulation,

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                                                                           Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/225
birds and mammals that occupy the higher trophic levels in
the food web may acquire body burdens of toxicants that
are lethal or that have significant sublethal effects on repro-
ductive capacity, even though the concentrations of these
substances in the water remain extremely low. Pollutants of
concern or of potential concern are  the radionuclides, heavy
metals,  chlorinated  hydrocarbons,  and  other  synthetic
chemicals that  are  relatively  resistant  to  biological and
chemical degradation.
  Recommendations to protect wildlife dependent  upon
freshwater ecosystems may in  general also apply to estu-
aries. This is particularly  true  for protection of food and
shelter for wildlife, pH, alkalinity,  light penetration, settle-
able substances, and temperature.  These are discussed in
Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife.
  Marine and coastal waters constitute major sinks for per-
sistent pollutants.  Accumulation  rates and  steady-state
levels are complex functions of input, rates of degradation,
and rates of deposition in the sediments. As yet no research
programs have measured accumulation rates of pollutants
in coastal waters or determined whether steady-state con-
centrations have already been attained.
  Current knowledge  of the partition coefficients among
concentrations in water,  in sediments, and in  tissues of
representative species in food webs is at best fragmentary.
It is assumed, however, in the evaluation  of water quality
that the distribution and concentration of gradients of a
pollutant in  an aqueous ecosystem satisfy thermod}namic
equilibria requirements. The pollutants considered here are
not essential  to physiological functions, and do  not require
energy to maintain  the concentration gradients.  Thus the
chlorinated  hydrocarbons  are  concentrated in  the  lipid
pools of organisms from ambient water but will not accumu-
late indefinitely.  Rather,  under  equilibrium  conditions,
these pollutants will also be lost to ambient water, particu-
late matter,   and sediments in  satisfying thermodynamic
requirements. Because the internal environments of birds
and mammals are more isolated from the ambient environ-
ment than those of invertebrates and most fish, equilibrium
concentrations of pollutants, particularly the  chlorinated
hydrocarbons, may  be substantially  higher.
  Theoretically, therefore, measurements of pollutant con-
centrations in one component of an ecosystem are sufficient
to indicate the level in the system as a whole when the parti-
tion coefficients among water, suspended particulate  and
organic material, sediments, lipid  pools, surface films,  and
the atmosphere are  known. The methodologies  for measur-
ing pollutant concentrations in sea water are as yet imper-
fect,  and very  few  good  measurements have so far been
made. Consequently it is  not practical at present to make
recommendations for the relatively persistent organic pollu-
tants based  upon water  concentrations,  especially when
partition coefficients are not known. Residue concentrations
in fish are more easily determined  and can more readily be
associated with harm to bird and mammal populations that
consume them. Recommendations  for  the toxic organic
compounds that are trophically  accumulated  by marine
wildlife are therefore based upon concentrations in fish.
  It cannot be assumed that there is a level or concentration
in the ecosystem as a whole of pollutants which are muta-
gens or teratogens that causes no effect on any of the wild-
life species. The chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins are highly
toxic  to developing embryos (Verret 1970)71  and are con-
taminants  in compounds prepared  from chlorinated  phe-
nols, including the herbicide 2,4,  5-T (Verrett 1970)71  and
the widely used fungicide pentachlorophenol (Jensen  and
and Renberg 1972).53  The closely related chlorinated di-
bcnzofurans are contaminants in some  PCB preparations
(Vos  and Koeman 1970,74 Vos et al., 1970,75 Vos in press
1972).72 Embryonic mortality in birds is induced by these or
other derivatives  of PCB (Peakall  et al.,  in press 1972,59
Vos in press 1972).72 For the  present time the chlorinated
dibenzofurans are included with PCB in the recommenda-
tions. When environmental mutagens and teratogens affect
only  relatively  few  individuals of a  population, it  is as-
sumed that these  will  be eliminated by natural selection
without harm to the species as a whole.
  For other pollutants which affect specific enzyme systems
or other physiological processes but not the genetic material
or embryological development, it  is  assumed that there are
levels in the environment of each below which all organisms
are able to  function  without disrupting  their life cycles.
Manifestations of physiological effects,  such as  a certain
amount  of eggshell  thinning or  higher level of hormone
metabolism,  might  be detectable  in the most sensitive
species. If environmental levels increase,  the reproductive
capacity of the most sensitive species would be affected first.
The object of the recommendations presented is to maintain
the steady-state concentrations of  each  pollutant  below
those levels which interfere with the life cycles of the most
sensitive wildlife  species. Input  should not therefore be
measured only in  terms of concentrations of each pollutant
in individual effluents, but in relation to the net contribu-
tion to the ecosystem.  At the steady-state level, the net
contribution would be zero, with the total input equal to the
sum  of  degradation  and permanent  deposition  in the
sediments.

Bases For Recommendations
   Recommendations based upon pollutant concentrations
in  fish must take  into account the  individual variation  in
residue concentration. The distribution is usually not Gaus-
sian  (Holden   1970;51  Anderson and  Fenderson  1970;30
Risebrough  et al. in press 1972),65  with several individual
fish in a sample frequently containing much higher residue
concentrations than the majority. Fish samples should there-
fore consist of pooled collections. Samples as large as 100
fish may not be sufficient to determine mean concentrations
of  a pollutant with  a  precision of 10 per cent (Risebrough
et  al. in  press 1972).65  Practicality, however,  frequently

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226/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
dictates against sample sizes of this magnitude, and samples
consisting of 25 or more fish are suggested as a reasonable
compromise.

Radionuclides

Recommendation
  In the absence of data that would indicate that
any of the  radionuclides  released by  human ac-
tivities are  accumulated  by  wildlife species, it is
recommended that  the recommendations estab-
lished for marine fish and invertebrates apply also
to wildlife.

Heavy Metals
  The  results  obtained during the baseline study of  the
International  Decade  of Ocean  Exploration (IDOE)  in
1971-72 have failed to indicate any evidence of pollution by
heavy  metals, including mercury and cadmium, above
background levels  in  marine  species  (Goldberg  1972).4il
The results, suggested,  however,  local patterns of coastal
contamination.  The heavy metal analyses carried out to
date of tissues of several species of petrels, strictly pelagic in
their distribution (Anderlini et al. 1972) ;32 and of coastal
fish-eating species  such as the  Brown Pelican, Pelecanus
occidentahs, (Connors et  al.  in press 1972a);40 and the Com-
mon Tern,  Sterna hirundo (Connors et al. in press 1972b)41
have confirmed this conclusion.

Recommendation
  In  the absence  of data indicating  that  heavy
metals are present in marine wildlife in concen-
trations above natural levels, it is  recommended
that recommendations formulated to protect other
marine  organisms also apply to wildlife in order
to provide protection in local areas.

Pol/chlorinated Biphenyls  (PCB)
  Evidence is accumulating that  PCB does not contribute-
to the shell thinning that has been a n ajor symptom of the
reproductive failures and population declines of raptorial
and fish-eating birds. Dietary PCB produced no shell thin-
ning of eggs of Mallard Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) (Heath
et al. in press 1972),49 nor did PCB have any effects on eggs of
Ring Doves (Streptopelia risoria)  (Peakall  1971).58 A PCB
effect could not be associated  with the thinning of Brown
Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) eggshells (Risebrough in press
1972).62 PCB may increase  susceptibility to infectious agents
such as virus diseases (Friend and Trainer  1970).44 Like
other chlorinated hydrocarbons, PCB increases the activity
of liver enzymes that  degrade steroids, including the  sex
hormones (Risebrough  et al.  1968;64 Street et al.  1968).67
The ecological significance  of this  phenomenon is not clear.
  Because laboratory studies have indicated that PCB, with
its derivatives or metabolites, causes  embryonic death of
birds  (Vos et al. 1970;75 Vos and Koeman 1970;74 Vos
press 1972;72 Peakall et al. in press  197269) and because e:
ceptionally high concentrations are occasionally found i
fish-eating and raptorial species (Risebrough et al. 1968;
Jensen et al.  196962), it is highly probable that PCB hi
had an adverse effect on the reproductive capacity of son
species of birds that have shown population declines.
  Median PCB concentrations in whole fish of eight speci<
from  Long Island  Sound,  obtained  in  1970, were in tl
order  of  one  milligram per kilogram (mg/kg)  (Hays ar
Risebrough 1972),47 and comparable concentrations  ha\
been  reported   from  southern   California  (Risebroug
1969).61 On the basis of the high  probability that PCB :
the environment has contributed to the reproductive failur
offish-eating birds, it is desirable to decrease these levels I
at least a factor of two  (see  Section  III  on Freshwati
Aquatic Life and Wildlife pp. 175-177).

Recommendation
  It is recommended that PCB concentrations i
any sample consisting of  a  homogenate  of 25 <
more whole fish of any species that is consumed t
fish-eating birds and mammals, within the sam
size range as the fish  consumed  by any  bird (
mammal, be no  greater than 0.5 mg/kg of the w<
weight.
  In  the absence  of a  standardized methodolog
for the  determination of  PCB in  environments
samples, it is recommended that estimates of  PC
concentrations  be  based  on  the   commerci:
Aroclor® preparation which it  most  closely r<
sembles  in  chlorine  composition.  If  the  PC
composition should resemble a mixture  of moi
than one Aroclor®, it should  be considered a mfc
ture  for the basis  of quantitation, and the  PC
concentration reported  should be the sum of tt
component Aroclor® equivalents.

DDT Compounds
  DDT compounds have become widespread and local
abundant pollutants in coastal and marine environments
North America. The most abundant of these is DDE  [2,1
bis(p-chlorophenyl) dicholoroethylene], a derivative of ti
insecticidal DDT  compound,  p,p'-DDT.  DDE is  mo
stable than other DDT derivatives, and very little inform;
tion exists on its degradation in  ecosystems. All availab
data suggest that it is degraded slowly. No degradation patl
way has so far been shown to exist in the sea, except depos
tion in sediments.
  Experimental  studies have  shown that DDE indue <
shell thinning of eggs of birds of several families, includir
Mallard  Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) (Heath et al. 1969),
American Kestrels  (Falco sparaerius) (Wiemeyer and Porti
1970),77 Japanese  Quail (Coturnix)  (Stickel  and Rhod<
1970)66 and Ring Doves (Streptopelia risorial) (Peakall 1970).

-------
                                                                       Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/227
Studies  of eggshell thinning in wild populations have re-
ported an inverse relationship between shell thickness and
concentrations of DDE in the eggs of Herring Gulls (Larus
argentatus) (Hickey and Anderson 1968).50 Double-crested
Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) (Anclerson et al. 1969),31
Great Blue Herons (Ardea herodias) (Vermeer and Reynolds
1970),70 White Pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) (Anderson
et al. 1969),31 Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis)  (Blus
et al. 1972;36 Risebrough  in press 1972),62 and Peregrines
(Falco peregrinus)  (Cade et al. 1970).37
  Because of its  position  in the food webs, the  Peregrine
accumulates higher residues than fish-eating birds in  the
same ecosystem (Risebrough ct al. 1968).64 It was the first
North American  species to show shell thinning (Hickey and
Anderson 1968).50 It is therefore considered to be the species
most sensitive to environmental residues of DDE.
  The most severe cases of shell thinning documented to
date have occurred in the marine ecosystem of southern
California (Risebrough et al.  1970)63 where DDT residues
in fish have been in the order of  1-10 mg/kg of  the whole
fish (Risebrough  in press 1972).62 In Connecticut  and  Long
Island, shell thinning of eggs of the Osprey (Pandion haliae-
tus)  is sufficiently severe  to adversely  affect reproductive
success; over North America, shell thinning of Osprey eggs
also  shows  a significant negative relationship with  DDE
(Spitzer and Risebrough, unpublished results).1* DDT residues
in collections of eight species of fish from this area in 1970
ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg of the wet weight (Hays and
Risebrough  1972).47 Evidently this level of contamination
is higher than one which would permit the successful repro-
duction  of several of the fish-eating and raptorial birds.

Recommendation
  It is  recommended that DDT concentrations in
any sample consisting  of a  homogenate  of 25 or
more fish of any species that is consumed by  fish-
eating  birds and  mammals,  within  the same size
range as the fish consumed by any bird or mammal,
be  no  greater  than 50  Mg/kg  of  the  wet  weight.
DDT residues are defined as the sum of the concen-
trations of p,p'-DDT,  p,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDE  and
their ortho-para isomers.

Aldrin,  Dieldrin,  Endrin, and Heptachlor
  Aldrin, dieldrin,  endrin,  and heptachlor constitute a
class of closely related, highly toxic, organochlorine insecti-
cides. Aldrin is readily converted to dieldrin in the environ-
ment, and  heptachlor to a highly toxic derivative, hepta-
chlor epoxide. Like  the DDT compounds,  dieldrin may be
dispersed through the atmosphere (Tarrant  and Tatton
1968,68  Risebrough  et al.  1968).64 The greatest  hazard of
dieldrin is to fish-eating birds such as the Bald Eagle (Hah-
aeetus leucocephalus) (Mulhern ct  al. 1970) ;56 the Common
Egret (Casmerodms albus)  (Faber  et al.  1972)43 and  the
Peregrine (Falco  peregrinus)  (Ratcliffe 1970),60 which may
accumulate lethal amounts from fish or birds that have not
themselves been harmed.
  These compounds are somewhat more soluble in water
than are other chlorinated hydrocarbons such as the DDT
group (Gunther et al. 1968) ;46 partition coefficients between
water and fish tissues can be assumed to be lower than those
of the DDT compounds. Equivalent concentrations in fish
would  therefore indicate higher  environmental levels  ol
dieldrin, endrin, or heptachlor epoxide than of DDE or any
of the other DDT compounds. Moreover, these compounds
are  substantially  more  toxic to  wildlife  than  are  other
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Tucker and Crabtree
1970).69 More conservative recommendations are therefore
necessary.

Recommendation
  It is recommended that the sum of the concen-
trations of aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and heptachlor
epoxide  in any sample consisting of a homogenate
of 25 or  more whole fish of any species that is con-
sumed by fish-eating birds  and mammals, within
the size range consumed by any bird or mammal,
be  no greater than 5  yug/kg of the wet weight.
Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides
  Other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides include lin-
dane, chlordane, endosulfan,  methoxychlor,  mirex,  and
toxaphene. Hexachlorobenzene is likely to have increased
use as a fungicide as mercury compounds are phased out.
This compound is toxic to birds and is persistent (Vos et al.
1968).73 With the possible exception of hexachlorobenzene,
recommendations that protect the invertebrate and fish life
of estuaries from injudicious use of these pesticides will also
protect  the wildlife species. In light of the experience with
DDT and dieldrin, the large scale use of a compound such
as mirex can be expected to have adverse effects on wildlife
populations.

Recommendation
  It is recommended that the concentration of any
of these  chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, in-
cluding lindane, chlordane, endosulfan, methoxy-
chlor,  mirex, and toxaphene, and  of hexachloro-
benzene, in any sample consisting of a homogenate
of 25 or more whole fish of any species that is con-
sumed by fish-eating birds  and mammals, with
the  size  range that  is consumed by any  bird or
mammal, be no greater  than 50  M&/kg of the wet
weight.

Lead
  No data was found to indicate that lead released into the
atmosphere through the combustion of leaded gasolines has
posed a hazard to wildlife populations or has resulted in an

-------
218/Section IV— Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
increase in body burdens of lead over background levels.
Critical studies, however, have not yet been  carried out.
Ingestion  of lead shot by waterfowl,  which often mistake
spent lead shot for seed or grit, kills  many birds,  and the
pollution of marshes by lead shot is a serious problem.
  Jordan (1952)64 found that female waterfowl are about
twice as sensitive to poisoning as males, and  that toxicity
varied greatly, depending on species,  sex, and quantity and
quality of food intake. A corn diet  greatly increased the
toxicity of lead. A study carried out by Bellrose  (1951)34
indicated  that  the incidence  of lead shot in gizzards of
waterfowl averaged 6.6 per cent in  18,454 ducks. Among
infected ducks,  68 per cent contained only one shot in  their
gizzards, and only 17.7 per cent contained more than two
(Jordan and Bellrose  1951).55 The  incidence of  ingested
shot appears to  increase throughout the hunting season with
a subsequent decline afterwards.  Most losses  of waterfowl
due to ingested  lead shot are in fall,  winter,  and  early
spring (Jordan 1952).54 Different species show different
propensities to ingest shot.  Redhead  (Aythya  americana),
Canvasback  (Aythya  valisneria)  and Ringneckcd Ducks
(Aythya collaris) are  prone  to ingest  shot, while Gadwall
(Anas strepera), Teal (Anus sp.) and Shoveler (Spatula clypeata)
show a low incidence. Ingestion of one shot does not appear
to produce measurable changes in longevity,  but six No. 6
shot are a lethal dose to Mallards, Pintail (Anus acutd) and
Redheads (Wetmore 1919).76 Cook  and Trainer  (1966)43
found that four to five pellets of No. 4 lead shot were a
lethal dose for Canada Geese (Branta  canadensis). On a  body
weight basis, 6  to 8 mg/kg/day is detrimental to Mallards
(Coburnetal.  1951).89
  Lead concentrations in livers of poisoned birds  are of a
comparable order  of magnitude,  ranging from  9 to  27
mg/kg in  Canada Geese  (Adler 1944),29 18 to  37 mg/kg in
Whistling  Swans (Olor  columbianus)  (Chupp  and Dalke
1964)38 and an average of 43 mg/kg  in  Mallards   (Anas
platyrhynchos) (Coburn et  al. 1951).39  These levels are  10 to
40 times higher than background, which is in the order of
one mg/kg of  the wet  weight liver (Bagley and Locke
1967).33
  Lead poisoning in waterfowl tends  to occur especially in
areas where a few inches of soft mud overlay a hard sub-
strate. In  marshes where waterfowl are hunted, the number
of lead pellets per acre of marsh bottom is on the order of
25,000 to  30,000  per acre and is frequently higher  (Bellrose
1959).35 30,000 pellets per acre are equivalent  to 0.7 pellets
per square foot.
  The data examined indicate that  the  annual loss is be-
tween 0.7 per cent and 8.1 per cent of  a population esti-
mated to  be 100 million birds. Although there  is apparently
no  evidence that a loss  of this magnitude has long-term
detrimental effects on any species, it is considered unac-
ceptable.  Levels of lead shot in the more polluted marshes
should therefore  be reduced. The ultimate solution to this
problem is the production of non-toxic shot.
Recommendation

  In order to reduce the incidence of lead poisoniti
in freshwater  and  marine waterfowl, it is recon
mended  that: non-toxic shot be used,  or that n
further lead shot be introduced  into  zones of sh(
deposition if lead  shot concentrations exceed 1
shot per  4  square feet in  the  top two inches  <
sediment.

WASTE CAPACITY OF RECEIVING  WATERS

  When waste disposal to any natural body of water is co
sidered, the receiving capacity of the environment must 1
taken into account.  Waste  disposal has been one of tl
many uses man has required of estuaries and coastal watei
These waters are capable of assimilation of definable quam
ties and kinds of wastes that are not toxic and that do n
accumulate to  unacceptable  levels.  In  many  locatio
wastes are  being added to these waters at rates that excei
their capacity 10 recover; and when the rate of addition e
ceeds the recovery capacity, ihe water quality detcriorat
rapidly. It is  essential to understand  the local conditio
and  the processes that determine the fate, concentratio
and  distribution of the pollutant  in order to determine tl
amount of the pollutant and the rate of disposal that w
not exceed the recommended levels.
  A simplified diagram of the  various processes that m,
determine  the fate and distribution of a pollutant added
the  marine  environment  is  presented in  Figure  IV
(Ketchum 1967).82 The waste material may be diluted, d
persed,  and transported by various physical processes, sui
as turbulent mixing,  ocean currents,  or exchanges with tl
atmosphere. It may  be concentrated  by various biologic
processes,  such as the direct uptake by organisms of a d
solved material in the water, end it may be transferred fro
organism to organism in various trophic levels of the foi
web. Additional concentration of the material may occur
the higher  trophic levels, particularly if some organ or tiss
of the body accumulates the substance, such as DDT
petroleum  products  that accumulate in the  fatty  tissui
various metals that may accumulate in the bone or  live
and  iodine which accumulated in the thyroid.
  Substances  can also be concentrated from  the cnviro
ment by chemical, physical, and geological processes such
sorption. Natural waters contain a certain amount of si.
pended material, and some material added to the water m;
be sorbcd  on  these particles. In  sea water, which alreac
contains in solution  most of the known elements, addi
materials  may be precipitated  from the water by vario
chemical reactions. As fresh waters carry pollutants to tl
sea,  the change in salinity causes flocculation of some of tl
materials suspended in  the fresh  water and results in the
precipitation  from the medium.  Ion exchange reactio
with the various organic compounds dissolved in sea wat
can  also occur.

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                                                                           Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/229
  The average concentration of a given pollutant continu-
ously added  to a body of water,  will tend to approach a
steady state in the system. This concentration is determined
                    by the rate of addition of the pollutant, the rate of its re-
                    moval or dilution by the circulation, and the rate  of its
                    decomposition or removal by biological, chemical, or geo-
                            Diluted and
                            Dispersed B>
                             Exchange
                               With
                            \tmosphere
                                                                           Chemical and
                                                                              Physical
                                                                             Processes
                          Uptake
                         By Phy-
                        toplankton
     Uptake
       By
    Seaweeds
Sorption
Precipitation
              Inverte-
               brate
              Benthos
  Zoo-
plankton
   Ion
Exchange
           Accumulation
              on the
              Bottom
                          Fish and
                          Mammals
    Ketchum 196782

     FIGURE IV-1—Processes That Determine the Fate and Distribution of a Pollutant Added to the Marine Environment.

-------
 230/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 logical processes. The average concentration is not always
 the critical concentration to be evaluated. For example, if
 bioaccumulation occurs,  the amount accumulated in the
 critical organism should be evaluated, rather than the aver-
 age concentration in the  system as a whole. The processes
 of circulation and mixing may leave relatively high concen-
 trations in one part of the system and low concentrations in
 another. The average conditions thus set an upper limit on
 what can be added to the system but do not determine the
 safe limit.  It is clear, however, that a  pollutant might be
 added to a body of water with vigorous  circulation at a rate
 that could  result in acceptable water quality conditions,
 while the same rate of addition of the pollutant to a sluggish
 stream might produce unacceptable levels of contamination.
 Thus,  the characteristics of the receiving  body  of water
 must  be taken into account when evaluating the  effects of
 the pollutant upon the  environment.
   In a stream, the diluting capacity of a system is relatively
 easy to determine from the rate of addition of the pollutant
 and the rate of stream flow. The pollutant is carried down-
 stream by the river flow, and "new" water is always avail-
 able for the dilution of the pollutant. This is not necessarily
 true of lakes where the  pollution added over a long period
 of time may accumulate, because only a  small fraction of the
 added pollutant may be removed as a result of flushing by
 the outflow. In estuaries, the situation is further compli-
 cated by the mixture of salt and fresh water, because a
 pollutant added at a mid-point in the estuary can be carried
 upstream by  tidal  mixing  just as  the salt  is carried  up-
 stream. The upstream distribution of a conservative pollu-
 tant is  porportional  to the upstream distribution of salt,
whereas the downstream distribution  of the  pollutant is
 proportional to the downstream distribution of fresh water.
   In either lakes or estuaries, the average retention time or
 the half-life of the material  in  the system can be used to
 estimate the average concentration  that the pollutant will
 achieve in  the system. In  lakes, an estimate of the average
retention time can be derived from the  ratio of the volume
of the lake divided by the  rate of inflow  (or outflow). When
the lake is stratified, only part of the  volume  of the  lake
enters into the active circulation,  and an appropriate cor-
rection  must be made.  In estuaries and coastal waters, a
similar calculation can be made by comparing the volume
of fresh water in the estuary with the rate of river inflow.
The amount of fresh water in any given sample can be com-
puted from the determination of salinity. In stratified estu-
aries such  as a fjord, only  the  part of the system  that is
actively circulated should be taken into account. This may
be adequately done by  the choice of the appropriate base
salinity in computing the  fresh water content. Examples of
the mean retention time of a few bodies of water calculated
as described above are presented in Table IV-1.
   Lakes with large volumes superficially appear to have a
 great  capacity  to accept waste  materials. If the retention
time is long, however, this merely means that it takes a long
 TABLE IV-1—Average Retention Times and Half Lives /<
 River Water in the Great Lakes and in Various Estuarl
                   and Coastal Regions


Lake Superior .
Lake Michigan
Lake Huron
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario
Continental Shelf
Capes Cod to Hatterasto
1,000 (1 contour
New York Bight
Bay of Fundy
Delaware Bay
high river flow
low river flow

Raritan Bay
high river flow
low r i ver flow
Long Island Sound
Surface
area mi2
31,820
22,420
23,010
9,930
7,520

29,000

483 to 662
3,300





45

930
Mean retention
time
183 yt ,.
100 yn.
30 yrs.
2 8 yrs.
8yr>.

1.6- 2.0 yrs.

6. 0-7. 4 days
76 days

48-1/6 days



15-30 days

36 days
Half life

128 yrs.
69 yrs.
21 yrs.
1.9 yrs.
5 6 yrs.

1.1-1. 4 yrs.

4. 1-5. 05 days
52 days

33-87 days



10-21 days

25 days
Reference

Beeton (1969)"
Beeton (1969)"
Beeton (1969)"
Beeton (1969)"
Beeton (1969)"

Ketchum and Keen (1955

Ketchum et al (1951)»s
Ketchum and Keen (1953


Ketchum (unpublished)
(1952)8'

Ketchum (1951a,8»h8i)

Riley (1952)™
time to build up to steady-state concentration, and it w
take a comparably long time to recover from a steady-sta
concentration once it is achieved. For Lake Superior, ii
example, it  would  take  123 years to remove half of tl
steady-state  concentration  of a pollutant that had bee
achieved over 185 years at the average rate of input. Aquat
environments in which the circulation is more rapid \v
achieve a  steady-state concentration of a pollutant mo
quickly and will also recover more quickly.
   Nonconservativc  pollutants are those that  change wil
time by processes which are additional to circulation ar
dilution. The half-life  of these substances in  the  enviroi
ment is the product of these processes and the processes
circulation  and dilution.  Foi radioactivity,  for  exainpl
the half-life is the time needed for the normal radioacti\
decay to  dissipate half of the radiation of  the  materi?
This is different for each radioisotope and ma> vary fro
fractions of a second to centuries.  The half-life for the cl
composition  of  the organic matter  in sewage in  marit
systems is probably on the order  of days and will  be  d<
pendent on  temperature.  The decomposition of sewag
however,  releases the fertilizing  elements in the organ
molecule, and these will persist in the environment. In cor
trast to these rapid changes, t'-ie half-life of the chlorinate
hydrocarbon pesticides is probably of the order of 10 yea
in the marine environment, though this is an estimate an
not a direct determination. Heavy toxic metals, which ma
also  pollute the  environment, do  not decay but persist ir
definitely, though their location and forms in the systei
may change with time.
  The greatest pollution danger arises from the addition c
persistent materials to those ecosystems with slow circuit
tions. Under these conditions, the waste concentration wi
increase slowly until a steady-state level is reached. If circL

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                                                                          Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/231
lation is more rapid, the system will reach steady-state more
quickly, but the concentration for a given rate of addition
will  be less.  If the  material is not persistent, the rate of
decomposition may be more important than circulation in
determining the steady-state concentration. If the  products
of decomposition are persistent, however, these will accumu-
late  to levels greater than those in the original discharge.
Local concentrations, such as can be found in the deeper
waters of stratified systems or in trapping embayments, may
be more significant than the average concentration for  the
whole  system.  In short, the recommendations  cannot  be
used to determine the permissible amount of a pollutant to
be added  or a rate of addition without detailed  knowledge
of the specific system which is to receive the waste.

Mixing Zones
  When a liquid discharge is made to a receiving system,
a zone of mixing is  created. In the past, these zones have
frequently been approved as sites of accepted loss, exempted
from the  water quality  standard  for the receiving water.
Physical description, biological assessment, and  manage-
ment of such zones have posed many  difficult  problems.
The following discussion deals with criteria for assuring that
no significant damage to marine aquatic life occurs in such
mixing zones. Although recent public,  administrative, and
scientific emphasis has focused on mixing zones for the  dis-
persion of waste heat, other uses of the mixing zone concept
are also included in these considerations.
  Definition of a Mixing Zone  A  mixing   zone is a
region in which  an effluent is in transit from  the outfall
source of  the receiving waters. The effluent is progressively
diluted, but its concentration is higher than in the receiving
waters.
  Approach to the Recommendation   Mixing zones
must be considered on  a case-by-case basis  because each
proposed  site involves a unique set  of pertinent considera-
tions.  These include the nature, quantity,  and  concentra-
tion of the effluent material; the physical, chemical and bio-
logical characteristics of the  mixing  area  and  receiving
waters; and the  desired uses of the waters. However,  the
following general recommendation  can be established  for
the purpose of protecting aquatic life in areas where effluents
are mixing with receiving waters:

     The  total time-toxicity exposure  history must not cause dele-
     terious effects  in  affected  populations of important species,
     including the post-exposure effects.

   Meeting the Recommendation  Special  circum-
stances distinguish  the mixing zone  from  the  receiving
waters. In the zone, the duration of exposure to an effluent
may be quite  brief,  and it is usually substantially shorter
than in the receiving waters, so that assays involving long
periods of exposure are not as helpful in predicting damage.
 In addition, the concentration of effluent is higher than in
receiving waters. Therefore,  the  development  of specific
requirements for a specific mixing zone must be based upon
the probable duration of the esposure of organisms to the
effluent as well as on the toxicity of the pollutant.
  The recommendation can be  met in two ways: use of a
probably-safe concentration requirement for all parts of the
mixing zone; or accurate determination of the real concen-
trations and duration of exposures for important species and
good  evidence that  this  time-toxicity exposure is  not de-
leterious. The latter, more precise approach to  meeting the
recommentation will require:

    • determination of the pattern of exposure  of impor-
      tant species to the effluent in terms of time and con-
      centration in the mixing zone;
    • establishment of the summed effects on important
      species;
    • determination that deleterious effects do not occur.

  Complexities in the Marine  Environment  Some
of the problems involved in protecting marine aquatic life
are similar to those in lacustrine and fluvial fresh waters and,
in general, the recommendations in Section III, pp. 112-
115 are applicable to marine situations. There are, however,
special  complexities in evaluating mixing  zones  in coastal
and oceanic  waters. These include:

    •  the exceptional importance of sessile species, espe-
       cially in estuaries and near shore, where effluents
       originate;
    •  the presence of almost all species  in the plankton at
       some  stage in the life history of  each, so that they
       may be entrained in the diluting waters;
    •  obligate seasonal migrations by many fish and some
       invertebrates;
    •  oscillation in tidal currents, mixing  mechanisms and
       in resulting concentrations,  dilution rates, and dis-
       persion patterns.

  None of these affect the general recommendation, but
they do contribute to the difficulty of applying it.
  Theoretical Approach to Meeting the Recom-
mendation   Any  measure  of detrimental effects of  a
given concentration of a waste component on aquatic  or
marine organisms is dependent upon the time of exposure
to  that waste concentration, at least over some restricted
but definable period of time. For a given  species and sub-
stance,  under a given set of environmental  conditions, there
will be  some critical concentration below which a particular
measure of detrimental effects will not be observed, regard-
less of the duration of exposure. Above the critical concen-
tration, the detrimental effects  will be observed if the ex-
posure  time  is sufficiently long.  The greater the concentra-
tion of the  substance, the shorter  the time of exposure to
cause  a specified degree  of damage.  The water quality
characteristics for mixing zones are defined so that the or-
ganisms to be protected will be carried or move through the

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 232/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
zone without being subjected to a time-exposure  history
that would produce unacceptable effects on the population
of these species in the water body.
   In order to quantify this statement, the following quanti-
ties are defined:

     T50,C,E = time of exposure  of a  critical  aquatic  or
               marine species  to  a concentration, C, of a
               given pollutant, under a constant set of en-
               vironmental conditions, E, which  produces
               50 per cent  mortality of the critical species.
     TO,C',E = time of exposure  of a  critical  aquatic  or
               marine species  to a concentration, C', of a
               given pollutant, under a constant set of en-
               vironmental conditions, E, which  produces
               no unacceptable effects on the critical species.

   For some pollutants, G and  C' for a  given time of expo-
sure may be  related by:

                      G' = C-AC0

where AC0 is the amount by which the concentration which
produces a 50 per cent mortality must be decreased in order
that no unacceptable effects of the pollutant on a given  critical
species will occur.  For example, in the case of temperature,
it  has been shown that  at  temperatures  2 G below those
which  produce  a  50  per  cent  mortality, no  observable
detrimental effects occur. For  temperature, then, 2 C is a
conservative  value of AC0.
   For other  pollutants,  notably  chemical toxicants, G'  is
related to C  by the relationship:

                        G' = k-C

where k is the ratio of the concentration at  which 720 un-
acceptable effects occur to the concentration which  produces
a  50 per cent mortality  with  both concentrations  deter-
mined over the same exposure  time.
   It is difficult to  establish  with statistical confidence a re-
lationship between TO, C', E and C', for a large number of
species, by direct laboratory experiments.  However,  labora-
tory experiments can be used to  determine, for  the  critical
species of the receiving waterbody, the relationship between
pollutant concentration  and the  time  period of  exposure
necessary to produce a  50  per cent mortality.  Thus, it  is
necessary to  obtain, by experiment, the form and constants
of a function of the pollutant concentration,  fi(C),  such
that
                    T50, C, E =
Conservative estimates of ACo or of k can be obtained c
pendent upon decisions as to acceptable effects from adc
tional laboratory studies.  Once AC0 or k have been esta
lished, the relationship C' = C—AC0, or the relationshi
C' = k-C, depending on  the properties of  the  particul
waste materials, can be combined with the above equatii
relating T50, C, E and C, 1:0 produce an equation relati
TO, C', Eand C'.  That is:

                    TO, C'., E = f2(G').
  This equation gives the maximum time that a particul
species could be exposed to a concentration  C' without i
suiting  in unacceptable effects on the population of tl
species. The water quality recommendations for the mixii
zone are satisfied if, for any  organisms carried through t
mixing zone with  the flow or purposefully moving throui
the zone, the time of exposure satisfies the relationship

                     time of exposure
                    "     fTfC7)

where C' is the concentration of a specified pollutant in t
mixing zone.
  Because, in fact,  the concentration in the mixing  zo
decreases with distance from the point of discharge,  ai
hence  organisms carried  through the plume will be su
jected  to concentrations which are continually decreasii
with time,  a more suitable quantitative statement of wat
quality characteristics necessary for the mixing zone is:
                     AT2    ATS
ATn
            f2(C'o  f2(c'2)  fa(c'3)''  'f2(c'n)
where the time of exposure of an organism passing throus
the mixing zone has been broken into n increments,  AT
AT2, ATS, etc. long. The organism is considered to be e
posed to concentration C'i during the time interval ATI,
concentration C'2  during the time interval AT2, etc. Tl
sum of the individual ratios must then not exceed unity.
  The above theory is applied in the recommendations ar
examples in  Section III  on  Freshwater Aquatic Life ar
Wildlife, pp.  112-115,  and  in  the Freshwater  Append
II-A, pp. 403-407.

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                                       METHODS  OF  ASSESSMENT
  It is  the  purpose of this discussion  to  explain  the  ap-
proaches considered in deriving the recommendations given
in this Section. Because the biological effects of a pollutant
are manifest in a variety  of ways, the specific technique to
be used in estimating biological  impact must be tailored to
each specific problem. For example, acute or lethal toxicity
of a given pollutant to a marine species can be evaluated by
short-term  bioassay in the laboratory designed to  deter-
mine the concentration of the material which is lethal to
half of the  selected population  in a fixed period  of time,
commonly four days  (LC50-96  hours). The "safe" limit
will be  much lower than the concentration derived in such
a bioassay, and appropriate safety factors must be  applied.
The safe limit should permit reproduction, growth, and all
normal life processes in the natural habitat.
  When a pollutant is discharged to the environment at a
safe concentration  determined in this  way,  the living  or-
ganisms are exposed to a  chronic, sublethal  concentration.
Some stages of the life cycle of the species to be protected,
such as the eggs or larvae, may be more sensitive than the
adult stages. It  is sometimes possible to identify the critical
life stage which can then be used in a bioassay. Long-term
bioassays covering a substantial part of the life cycle of the
organism can be conducted in the laboratory to determine
chronic sublethal effects  of pollutants.  Various  processes
of  the  organism, such  as respiration,  photosynthesis, or
activity may  be used to  evaluate sublethal  effects.  Some
longtcrm chronic effects may be more subtle and more diffi-
cult to evaluate under laboratory conditions.  Examples of
this type include changes in breeding or migratory behavior
or the development of a general debility making the orga-
nisms more suceptible to disease, predation, or to  environ-
mental stresses.
  A pollutant in the marine environment may also have an
effect on the ecosystem not directly associated with its effect
on  an  individual  species.  Ecosystem interactions are diffi-
cult to assess in the laboratory, and techniques for evaluat-
ing them in the field  are not completely satisfactory. Such
interactions must  be considered,  however,  in  applying
recommendations to  any specific situation.
ACUTE TOXICITIES—BIOASSAYS

  Detailed methods for laboratory bioassays are described
in Section  III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and
can serve as guidlincs for application to the marine system.
The ability to extrapolate from results of bioassay  tests is
limited, and the need for safety factors in their application
to the environment must be emphasized. The methodologies
discussed are illustrative and should be considered as guide-
lines for meaningful bioassays.
  The most important uses of bioassays for evaluating water
quality are:
    •  analysis of the concentration of a specific material in
       natural waters by means of a biological response;
    •  detection of toxic  substances  in organisms used as
       food for man;
    •  analysis of the suitability of natural waters  for the
       support of a given species or ecosystem;
    •  determination of critical toxic levels of substances to
       selected species;
    •  evaluation  of bio-stimulation effects by  materials
       such as nutrients.

  These purposes  fall  into  two  general categories: bio-
analysis  and biorcsponse.

BIOANALYSIS

  Bioanalysis has been used for  many  years to measure
effects of substances on organisms. These assays may give
quantitative measurements, such as weight per volume, or
be  expressed  in arbitrary units defined  by the degree of
response. They are most  valuable when  the organism re-
sponds to  a lower  concentration than can  be  detected by
available chemical or physical techniques.  Such  bioassays
require carefully controlled procedures, and organisms and
experimental  conditions must  be standardized.  Responses
are used that have been shown to have a correlation with
the amount  of test substance  present.  Preparation  of test
materials is  rigidly controlled to  avoid  problems  arising
from  synergists or antagonists administered with the  test
                                                        233

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 234/Section IV— Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
material. This is difficult and often impossible in  the bio-
assay of materials obtained from the environment.
  Bioanalysis has potential in measuring pollutants in ma-
terials to be discharged to the environment. For toxic ma-
terials, the amount of material relative to the biomass of the
test  organism  must usually be controlled, because most
toxicants exhibit a  threshold effect. It is usual to determine
the concentration of material at which some fraction of the
maximal effect (commonly 50 per cent) occurs in a popula-
tion of known  and constant biomass.  The  fact that far
lower concentrations present for a  longer time might ulti-
mately  produce  the  same effect does  not invalidate this
type of assay,  because quantitation is  obtained by com-
parison with standard curves. It should, however,  be real-
ized that  in the presence of detoxification mechanisms, the
assay should be conducted for a period of time at which the
desired effect (such as 50 per cent inhibition) occurs at the
lowest possible concentration.
  In assays of materials for which an organism has a natural
or induced requirement, it must first be established that of
all substances which could be present in the sample, onlv
one  can produce the response measured. Second,  no sub-
stances  present  should reduce the  availability  of the ma-
terial. If the first of these conditions is satisfied, the second
can often be approached using a "system of adds" in which
a graded series of concentrations of standard material  are
added to the unknown amount of  material in the sample.
The intercept of the response curve with the concentration
axis is a measure of the amount present in the sample.
  If zero response is at a finite concentration, a biologically
effective threshold concentration (zero) must be used which
has been derived from a separate experimental series in the
same medium devoid of unknown amounts of test material.

BIORESPONSE

  Bioassays which  measure  the biological  effect of a sub-
stance or mixture on a single organism or artificial ecosystem
can  be used  to establish water quality criteria, to monitor
compliance with standards  stated  in terms  of biological
effect, or to measure the relative effects of various materials.
Natural processes of equilibration,  chemical degradation,
and  physical adsorption are specifically  desired, because it
is the biological effect rather than the amount of test material
that is of concern. The observed effect will be determined by
the availability  of  the material, the rate of formation  or
degradation, and the  effect of chemical by-products; and
by alterations of the environment caused by addition of the
material.  Whether  conducted in the laboratory or in  the
field, this type of bioassay is performed on time scales vary-
ing from determinations of  acute  toxicity  (commonly 96
hours or  less)  through determinations of incipient LC50
levels (Sprague 1969,94 197196), and on time scales which
include multiple generation  chronic  exposures. Each  of
these has its own utility and limitations.
   Short-term determinations of TLm or TL50 values  a
primarily of value in comparing toxicities  of a number
formulations which have similar modes of action. They  a
also useful in determining  the dilution  to  be employed
long-term,  flow-through   exposure  and  in   comparii
sensitivities of various life stages of the  same organism.
practical terms, each life stage must be considered a physi
logically distinct organism with its own  particular enviro
mental requirements:  immature  stages commonly  ha'
quite a different habitat and may have different sensitivit
   It has been common practice to use information fro
acute toxicity studies to establish concentrations toleral;
for natural waters. This is done by multiplying the le\
found in the bioassay by some more or less arbitrary "app
cation factor" (Henderson  1957,91 Tarzwell 196297).  R
cently, there have been  attempts to establish the applicatii
factor experimentally (Mount 1968,92 Brungs 196990). A
plication factors arc discussed in  Section  III,  Freshwat
Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and that discussion is applicah
to the marine system. If, in the process of conducting the
assays, organisms are  periodically removed  to  an unco
taminated  medium, the time of exposure which the org
nism can withstand and still survive, should it  escape  tl
pollutant or should the pollutant degrade  rapidly after
single addition,  can also be estimated.
   Determination of incipient LC50 is a valid measureme
of acute toxicity, because the assay is continued until ma>
mum effect is  observed at any given concentration (Spragi
1969,94 1970,96 197196).  These bioassays must be conduct.
under conditions of continuous flow, because the degree
response cannot be limited  by the absolute  amount of to)
cant available in the system or by the relationship betwei
biomass and absolute amount. In practice,  the technique
most applicable to compounds  which  reach equilibriu
rapidly. Otherwise, it takes a long time to achieve maximu
effect at low toxicant levels. Here, too,  application factc
are needed to use data from bioassayed concentrations
estimating levels  for environmental protection.  Theore
cally, application factors account for variations in sensitivi
between the life stage tested and that life stage  or develc
mental period during which the organism  is  most sensiti
to the compound  or conditions. Application factors shou
also safely  permit a range  of naturally-occurring enviro
mental variations  that would increase sensitivity.
   Long-term  bioassay,  in  which  the  organism is  ke
through at least one complete life cycle under conditions
continuous-flow exposure,  is perhaps the closest but me
conservative laboratory approach to estimating enviro
mental hazards. Where a chemical  or physical attractii
occurs or where the population is sessile or restricted
hydrographic  features,  continuous  exposure   to  fresh
added material  will be a realistic model. However, whe
the organism  might escape in nature, such  a  captive  e
posure will be  unrealistic.  The experimental   conditio
chosen may either be held constant or  varied  to appro:

-------
                                                                                           Methods of Assessment/235
mate local natural changes or intermittent discharges to be
expected. Adequate modelling of a particular environmental
circumstance often requires varying degrees of delay be-
tween the time of test material addition and exposure of the
organisms.
  Duration of chronic toxicity studies is determined by the
life span  and reproductive cycle of the organism chosen.
Micro-organisms have  relatively short life cycles but may
require several  generations to deplete metabolite reserves
and show maximum response. A greater variety of measure-
ments can be used in long-term than in short-term testing.
This variety, together with the  longer period available for
response and the certainty of testing the most sensitive life
stage,  serves to  increase both the sensitivity and relevance
of such tests. Differences in sensitivity between species, that
may be evident in short-term tests, tend to narrow  as the
tests approach a full life cycle.
  The  maintenance  of a  resident population  of  sensitive
organisms in an effluent  stream or portion of a natural
stream receiving  effluent, can  create  a long-term  flow-
through bioassay. This technique is primarily useful as a
verification of safety based on other estimates,  but because
the response time may be long, the results are of little use
where rapid feedback of information is essential.

DESIGN OF BIOASSAYS

  The bioassay system may be compartmentalized for pur-
poses of design into (1) the substance to be tested, (2) the
environment into which it will be introduced,  (3) the orga-
nism (s) which will be exposed to the resultant  system, and
(4) the observations to be made. Each affects and is affected
by the others.
  The chemical and  physical nature of the material  to be
tested has a bearing on the way it will distribute in nature
and in  the test system—and thus on which  organisms will
encounter it and in what form it  will be. For example, a
pure substance, highly soluble in water, may  be tested for
its effect directly on organisms inhabiting the water column.
A material  which  precipitates rapidly may  be  readily
available  to organisms which  ingest the precipitate  and
resolubilize  it under conditions prevailing in the digestive
tract. Materials which are only slightly soluble are  often
readily available  to  micro-organisms which have  a high
surface-area-to-volume ratio and are  capable of taking
up  some  substances at exceedingly low (10 8 to  10~10 M)
concentrations.  A highly  hydrophobic  material  which  is
readily adsorbed to sediments or  detritus may appear in
free solution to only a limited extent or for a  short time and
exert a prolonged direct  effect  mainly on those organisms
which inhabit sediments  or which  process  sediments or
detritus for food.  Valid interpretation  of bioassay results
requires sensitive and highly specific analytical chemistry as
part of the procedure. Results obtained for any bioassay
organism  are subject to question if anomalous  behavior of
the substance tested or the organisms used are subsequently
established.
  The organism for bioassay should be chosen on the basis
of the relationship of its life stages to the various  toxicant
compartments and information desired. Organisms will be
useful if they are  readily available and can be reared and
propagated in the laboratory. The size of the organisms in
relation  to available facilities will in part dictate a choice.
All too often, these have been the primary if not  the only
considerations. There is a temptation to give priority to or-
ganisms  that are  available from standard sources with a
known genetic line or from a single clone. This  approach is
essential when using  bioassay  as an  analytical tool. How-
ever, it is a distinct liability when performing measurements
of biological effect in natural environmental situations. Such
organisms  have necessarily undergone  selection  for  traits
that favor survival in artificial environments with no selec-
tive advantage given to the capacity to adapt to alterations
in  those environments.  Furthermore,  physiologically dis-
tinct races often develop in nature in response to character-
istics of different localities.  Maintenance of laboratory
stocks may be necessary, but these stocks should be fre-
quenth  renewed  from fresh isolates  representing the gene
pool and enzymatic adaptations of the inhabitants of the
particular water mass to which recommendations arc to be
applied.
  The organisms used should be drawn from those that are
most sensitive or respond most quickly to the substance or
condition being tested.  Bioassay s of various life stages of
these sensitive organisms are  desirable.  It is especially im-
portant that life stages to be  tested include those that will
most probably encounter the test material as it is expected
to be found in the environment, and that the test organisms
be  acclimated to the  test system until the characteristics to
be  measured become constant.
  Some  of the foregoing recommendations for selection as-
sume that the developmental biology of the test organism is
known. This is not often so in marine biology. Organisms
should not be excluded from consideration if their absence
would leave no representatives of local species which tolerate
the  extremes in ranges of natural  environmental  stress or
which fill an important ecological niche.
  Once an understanding of both the test material and the
bioassay  organism is established, a test system  usually can
be designed that will permit the organism to encounter the
test  material under circumstances  approximating  those in
nature. In some cases it will be necessary to go to the natural
water system or to impoundments, live cars, or  plastic bags
in order to obtain a  workable approximation  of environ-
mental exposure.  Care should be taken that the  physical
system does  not interfere with the distribution of the test
material or the behavior of the  organism. The system se-
lected should reflect in all important aspects the habitat to
which the test organism has become adapted. Factors of im-
portance include feeding behavior, opportunity for diurnal

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 236/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 behavior alterations, emergence, salinity variations,  turb-
 idity, water movement, and other factors, depending on the
 organisms being studied.
   The  response or responses to be observed during  long-
 term testing must be carefully chosen. A prime requirement
 is that  the response being measured bear a demonstrable
 and preferably quantitative relationship to the survival and
 productivity of the test organism or of an organism which is
 directly or indirectly dependent on its activities. For ex-
 ample,  a correlation may exist between the level of a test
 material and the amount of an  enzyme present in some tis-
 sue. This  is clear evidence that the organism's  pattern of
 energy  utilization has changed, but it should be demon-
 strated  that the change in enzyme level is correlated with or
 predictive of changes in growth,  behavior, reproduction,
 quality of flesh, or some other manifestation to provide an
 immediately meaningful interpretation.
   The degree to which a response can be reported in quan-
 titative terms affects its usefulness. Behavior, because of a
 high degree of variability,  is  much more difficult to express
 numerically than growth; and  growth measurements are
 usually disruptive of the system or destructive of the orga-
 nism. A balance must  be sought  for each system  so  that
 enough organisms and replicate treatments can be used to
 assure  an  acceptable level of statistical confidence in the
 results.  Considerations of equipment  required,  rapidity,
 and simplicity of  measurements,  the  inherent  (control)
 variability of the characteristic being measured, and possible
 interference with the measurement by the substance being
 tested must enter into the choice of measurements and  their
 frequency.
  Biological characteristics that can be measured are in-
 numerable, but some ma>  be singled  out as  being more
 basic than others. When a given characteristic reflects many
 diverse  processes, it is most useful in  interpreting  results in
 terms of environmental protection. Thus, measurements ol
 reproductive success,  growth, life span, adaptation to en-
vironmental stress, feeding behavior, morphology, respira-
tion, histology, genetic alterations,  and  biochemical anom-
 alies occupy a descending  scale in  order of the confidence
that can be placed in their interpretation. This is  not to say
that profound changes in the structure and function of an
ecosystem  cannot result from subtle, prolonged,  low in-
tensity effects on  some cellular process.  The elimination ol
important  species by low  intensity selective factors is no
less serious than instantaneous death  of those species.  In a
sense, it is more serious, because  it is less likely to be noticed
and traced to its  source in time to permit recovery of the
ecosystem.

 SUBLETHAL EFFECTS

  Many biological effects of pollution may not show up in
the bioassay test for acute toxicity. This would be true if the
effect were slow to develop, or if the effect were to produce
 a general debility that might interfere with some of t
 normal life functions of the organism rather than killing
 directly. Long-term exposure  to  sublethal concentratk
 may be necessary to produce the  effect, and evaluation
 this type of action is difficult in a laboratory analysis. Th<
 are a number of ways in which pollutants might affeci
 given population without being lethal to the adult organ!
 used in the test such as:

 Migrations
   Sublethal concentrations  may interfere with the norn
 migration patterns of organisms. The mechanisms used
 orientation and navigation by migrating organisms are t
 well  known, but in some cases chemotaxis clearly plays
 important  role.  For  example,  salmon and  many  otl
 anadromous fishes  have been  excluded from  their  hoi
 streams by pollution, though it is not known whether 1
 reason is that a  chemical cue has  been masked or becai
 the general chemical  environment of pollution is offens
 to the fish.

 Behavior
   Much of the day-to-day  behavior of species may also
 mediated by means of chemotaxic responses. The findi
 and  capture of food or the finding of  a  mate during t
 breeding season  would be included in this category of ;
 tivity. Again, any pollutant that interfered with the chert
 receptors of the  organism would interfere with  behavio
 patterns essential to the survival of the population.

 Incidence of Disease

   Long-term exposure to sublethal concentrations of pol
 tants may make an organism more susceptible to a disea
 It is also possible that some pollutants which are organic,
 nature  may provide an environment suitable  for the t
 velopment of disease-producing bacteria or viruses. In  su
 cases, even though the pollutant is not directly toxic to t
 adult organism, it could have a profound effect on the pop
 lation of the species over a longer period of time.

 Life Cycle
   The larval forms of many species of organisms  are mu
 more sensitive to pollution  than are the adults,  which i
 commonly used in the bioassay. In  many aquatic spec
 millions of eggs  are  produced and fertilized, but only t<
 of the larvae produced need 1o grow to maturity and bre
 in order to maintain the standing  stock of the species. ?
 these  species the pre-adult mortality is enormous even unc
 the best of natural  conditions.  Because of an additior
 stress on the developing  organisms, enough  individu
 might fail to  survive  to  maintain the  population of t
 species. Interrupting any stage of  the life cycle  can be
disastrous for the population as would death of the adu
 because of acute toxicity.

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                                                                                           Methods of Assessment/'237
Physiological Processes
   Interference with various physiological processes, with-
out necessarily causing death in a bioassay test, may also
interfere with the survival of the species. If photosynthesis
of the phytoplankton is inhibited, algal growth will be de-
creased,  and the population may be grazed to extinction
without being directly killed by the toxin.
   Respiration or various other enzymatic processes might
also  be advcrselv affected  by  sublethal concentrations of
pollutants. The effect of DDT and  its decomposition pro-
ducts on  the shells of bird eggs is  probably the result of
interference with enzyme systems (Ackefors et  al.  1970).8S
Mercury  is a general protoplasmic poison, but it  has  its
most damaging effect on the nervous system of mammals.

Genetic Effects
   Mam  pollutants produce genetic effects that can have
long range significance for the survival of a species.  Oil and
other organic pollutants may include both  mutagenic and
carcinogenic compounds. Radioactive contamination can
cause mutations directly by the action of the radiation  on
the genetic material.  From  genetic studies in general, it is
known that a large majority of mutations are detrimental
to the survival  of the young, and man) are lethal.  Little is
known about the intensity or frequency of genetic effects of
pollutants, except for radioactive materials where the muta-
tion rates have been measured in some cases.  Induction of
mutation  by contaminants  should be reviewed in the con-
text of the increase of total mutation from all causes.

Nutrition  and Food Chains
   Pollutants may  interfere with the nutrition of organisms
by affecting the ability of an organism to find  its prey,  by
interfering with digestion or assimilation of food, or by con-
taminating the prey species  so that it is not accepted by the
predator. On the other hand, if predator species are elimi-
nated by  pollution, the prey species may have an improved
chance of survival. An example of the latter effect was
shown for the kelp resurgence after the oil spill in Tampico
Bay, California (North 1967).93 The oil killed the sea urchins
which used young, newly developing kelp as food. When the
urchins were killed, the  kelp  beds developed luxurious
growth within a few months (see p. 258).

Effects on the Ecosystem
  The effects of pollution on the aquatic ecosystem are the
most difficult to evaluate  and establish. Each environment
is somewhat  different, but the species inhabiting any given
environment have evolved over long periods of time, and
each individual species  in a community plays its own role.
Any additional  stress, whether natural or man-made, ap-
plied to any environment will tend to eliminate some species
leaving only  the more tolerant forms to survive. The effect
may be either direct on  the species involved  or indirect
through the elimination of some  species valuable as a food
supply. For some of the species in the system  the result may-
be beneficial by the removal of their predators or by stimu-
lated and accelerated growth of their prey.

Food  Value for Human Use
  Sublethal  concentrations of pollutants  can so taint sea-
food that  it  becomes useless as a source of food. Oil can be
ingested by marine organisms, pass through the wall  of the
gut, and  accumulate in  the lipid  pool. Blumcr (1971)89
stated that oil in the tissues of shellfish has been shown to
persist for months after an oil spill; the  oil-polluted area
was closed for shellfishing for a period of 18 months. Sea-
food may be rendered unfit  for human  consumption be-
cause of the accumulation of pollutants. California mackeral
and coho salmon from Lake  Michigan were condemned
because they contained more DDT than the  permissible
amount in human  food (5 mg/'kg). Likewise tuna fish and
swordfish were removed  from the market, because the
mercury  content of the flesh  exceeded the allowable con-
centration (0.5 mg/'kg). There was no evidence that these
concentrations had any adverse effect on the fish, or  in the
case of mercury that the concentrations in tuna  and sword-
fish resulted from pollution;  nevertheless  their removal
from the market has adversely affected the economics  of the
fisheries.

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                                     CATEGORIES  OF POLLUTANTS
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

  An extensive discussion of heat and temperature is pre-
sented in Section III  on Freshwater  Aquatic Life and
Wildlife  (pp. 151-171). Although we accept those  recom-
mendations concerning temperature, there are certain char-
acteristics of the marine environment that are unique and
require enumeration. Some  of the characteristics  of the
marine environment have been discussed in the introduction
to this Section showing that  the  range  of variability  is
greatest  in  the estuary, considerably less in the  coastal
waters, and even  less in  the surface waters of the open
ocean; and that conditions in the deep ocean are virtually
constant. Among the most important variables shown in the
changes  is temperature, although  salinity  variations  are
equally important under certain conditions.
  The seasonal range of temperature variations  is greatest
in the temperate regions and becomes less as one approaches
either  the tropics  or the poles.  In  the  United States, the
maximum seasonal temperature variation is found in the
coastal waters on  the southern side of Cape Cod,  Massa-
chusetts, where in winter  the  water may be freezing at
— 2.8 C  and in summer the inshore  coastal waters reach
temperatures of 23 C, or even 25 C over wide shoal areas.
At the same latitude on the Pacific coast, the water is  neither
so cold in the winter nor so warm  in the summer. North
of Cape Cod, the  water is as cold in the winter time, but it
does not reach as  high  a summer temperature;  and south
of Cape  Cod the  waters rarely reach a freezing point in
winter.
  Hutchins  (1947)100 discusses  these  ranges of  variations
and illustrates how they affect geographical  distribution of
marine species on  the Atlantic European coasts and on the
east and west coasts of the United States. As is obvious from
the above comments, Cape Cod is a  geographical boundary
in the  summertime but not in winter.  Because temperature
can control  both  the breeding  cycle and  survival of orga-
nisms, a variety of different geographical  distributions can
be dominated  by the  temperature variations at various
locations along the coast (Hutchins  1947).100
  There is increasing pressure  to site power plants in the
coastal zone because of the large available supply of water
for cooling purposes. In 1969 there were over 86 fossil fi
power plants in the eastern coastal zones (Sorge 1969)
and  32 on  the  west  coast  (Adams 1969).98  In additk
nuclear power plants are in  operation, and many more a
planned for siting on the coast in the future. Provided ti-
the temperatures are kept  within  the limit  prescribed
the recommendations and  that the recommendations i
mixing zones (pp. 228-232) are complied with, these heat
effluents may  have no  serious impact on the marine e
vironment. However, organisms passing through the cooli
system of the power plants may be killed either by the dire
effect of temperature, by pressure changes in the system,
by chlorination if it is used  to keep the cooling system fr
of attached growth.
  In the tropics, disposal of waste  heat in the marine e
vironment  may  be impossible  in the  summertime.  Bad
and Roessler (1972)" discussed  the temperature problei
created by  the power plants at Turkey Point,  near Mian
Florida.  Thorhaug et al.  (1972)102 showed  that tropic
marine  organisms  live  precariously close to their  upp
thermal limit and  are thus  susceptible to the stress  of a
ditional thermal effluents.  To abide  by the temperati,
recommendations in tropical waters, it is generally  neo
sary  to  prohibit discharge of heated effluents during t
summertime.
  It is clear from  this and  from the discussion in Secti
III that additional studies will be needed on the temperati,
tolerances of the species directly involved. Organisms frc
estuaries and  marine  waters have not  been studied
extensively as have freshwater fishes, but some data &
included in the  tabular material in the freshwater repo
On the basis  of information available  at  this  time, t
marine  panel  finds that the recommendations  in Secti>
III, Freshwater  Aquatic Lift; and  Wildlife,  appear to
valid for the estuarine and marine  waters as well (see p
160,  161, 164,  165,  and  166-171 of  Section III).

INORGANIC CHEMICALS, INCLUDING HEAVY  METAL
AND  pH

  The hazardous and biologically active inorganic chen
cals are a source of both local and world-wide threats
                                                       238

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                                                                                             Categories of Pollutants/'239
the marine environment. Certain  of these chemicals may
pose  no immediate  danger  but may lead  to undesirable
long-term changes. Others, such as boron, may pose serious
health hazards and yet have poorly understood biological
effects in the marine environment. Nevertheless, they can
be  a  significant constituent in certain waste waters  and
should be discussed here.
  The inorganic  chemicals that have  been  considered in
this study are listed alphabetically in Table IV-2; those
most significant to the protection of the marine environment
are discussed below.
TABLE IV-2—Inorganic Chemicals to be Considered in Water
Quality Criteria for Aquatic Life in the Marine Environment
    Elements
                  Equilibrium species (reaction)
                                       Natural concentration   Pollution
                                        msea water"/ig'l   categories6
Aluminum
Ammonia
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium

Calcium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper


Cyanide
Fluoride
Gold
Hydrogen Ion (Acids)

Iron
Lead

Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Nickel
Nitrate
Phosphorus

Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sulfide
Thallium
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadium
Zinc

AI(OH),, solubility of AhO,, appro*. 300,,g 1
NH,!, NHi+
Sb(OH)r
As 0 is oxidized to HAsO,-
Ba?+
Be'OH) . solubility of BeO approx. 10Mg/l
Bi(OHX solubility of BizOj is unknown (low)
B(OH),, B(OH),-
Br«, HBrO, Br
CdCI' . CdCb, CtfCI - (the last two are probably
the main forms)
Ca^
Cl<>, HCIO
Cn OH) solubility of Cr :0 unknown (low)
Co!+
Cu-'. CuOH , CuHCO *, CuCOi (probably main
torm) CuCI1, complexed also by dissolved
ammo acids
HCN(90';), CN-(10',)
F-(56',), MgF+(50',')
AuCh-
10

0.45
2.6
20
0.0006
0.02
4.5X10'
6.7X10"
0.02

4.1X10=

0.04
0.4
1



1340
.01-2
HCI+HCOr^HsO+Cr+CCh pH=8 (alk=0.0024 M)
H2SO,+2HC03- '- *2H!0+SrW-+2CO!
Fei OH) solubility of FeOOH approx. 5 /ij/l
Pb5+, PbOH+, PbHCO,+, PbCOj, PbS04, PbCI+
(probabiy mam form)
Mg«
Mn«
HgClj, HgClr, HgCU!~ (mam form)
MoOi=-
Ni'+
NOr
Red phosphorus reacts slowly to phosphate
HsPOrandHPOr^-
SeO,2-
SI(OH),, SIO(OH)r
AgCb-
S2~~
TI +
Ti(OH)i, solubility of TiO- unknown (low)
U(h(CO,),,<-
VO..OH-
Zn2+, ZnOH+, ZnCO^, ZnCI+ (probably mam
form)

10
0 02

1.3X10"
2
0.1
10
7
6.7X102


0.45
3X10!
0.3

0.1
2
3
2
2

IV c
IV c
IV c?
Me
IV c
IV c?
IV c?
IV c
IV c
lie

IV c
IV c
We?
IV c
IV c


Illc
IV c
IV c
Illc

IV c
la

IV c
IV c
Ib
IV c
Illc
Illc


Illc?
IV c
Illc
He
Illc
IV b?
Illc
IV a?
Illc

 " These values are approximate but they are representative for low levels in unpolluted sea water
 *1-IV order of decreasing menace, a-worldwide, b-regional, c-local (coastal, bays estuaries, single dumpings).
? indicates some question of the ranking as a menace and/or whether the pollutional effect is local, regional, or world-
wide.
 Adapted and modified from the Report of the Seminar on Methods of Detection, Measurement and Monitoring of
Pollutants in the Marine Environment. Food and Agriculture Organization 19711".
Forms of Chemical and Environmental Interactions

  The form in which a chemical appears in the environment
depends on the  chemical and physical characteristics of the
element, its stability, and the characteristics of the environ-
ment in which it is found. An element that is easily reduced
or oxidized will undergo rapid  changes,  especially in  sedi-
ments that alternate between oxidized and  reduced states;
while an element  that is highly stable,  such  as gold, will
retain its elemental identity in  virtually  all environmental
conditions.  Most elements  are  found in combined states,
such  as ore which can  be a sulfide or a complex mineral
containing oxygen, silica, and sulfur.
  Certain elements are released into the environment  by
the processing of ores. Cadmium, for example, is not found
uncombined  in nature  to  any  large extent but is a com-
mercial by-product  of  zinc smelting.  Other  metallic  ele-
ments can be  brought into solution by the action  of bacteria.
Contamination  from  base  metals may arise in  abandoned
mines, where tailings or slag heaps are attacked  by physical
and chemical weathering  processes and bacteria to allow
leaching  of metallic ions  into receiving waters. In  strip
mining, sulfides are oxidized to produce sulfuric  acid, which
may be a pollutant in itself or help to bring certain elements
into solution.
  The  action of bacteria also transforms metals in another
way. In anaerobic  sediments,  bacteria can convert  in-
organic metallic mercury into methyl mercury compounds.
Such organo-metallic complexes are highly toxic to mam-
mals, including man.

Biological Effects

  Acute  toxicity data for inorganic chemical  compounds
under controlled laboratory conditions,  as  represented  for
example  by 96-hour LC50, are presented in Appendix III,
Table 1,  (pp. 449-460). Because of the lack  of marine data,
most of the  information is  based on freshwater bioassay
data, which provide some measure of acute toxicity for  the
marine environment as well.
  The  concentrations  of   elements at  which   sublethal,
chronic effects  become manifest are also important.  Sub-
lethal concentrations of pollutants can have serious conse-
quences in estuaries where migrating  anadromous fishes
linger to become  acclimatized to changing  salinities.  Al-
though the fish may not  be killed outright, the stress of
the sublethal concentrations may  cause  biochemical and
physiological  deficiencies that  could  impair  life  processes
of the fish, preventing migrating adults from reaching their
spawning grounds  or reproducing. Pippy and Hare (1969)247
suggested that heavy metals put fish under stress and may
lead  to infestation  by diseases.  Appendix III,  Table 2
(pp. 461-468), summarizes data on  the  sublethal chronic
effects  of inorganic  chemicals  on fish and other aquatic
organisms.  As in Appendix III, Table  1,  information  on
freshwater  organisms  has been included  because  of the

-------
 240/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 paucity of tests  in  sea  water.  There is  a clear  need foi
 toxicological work on the sublethal effects of pollutants on
 marine organisms.
   At low  concentrations, many elements  are necessary to
 life  processes,  while at  higher concentrations  the same
 elements may  be toxic.  The effects of long-term  exposure
 to low  levels of most chemicals, singly or in combination.
 arc generally unknown.
   Laboratory  bioassays  are conducted  under controlled
 conditions usually with single chemicals. Such tests provide
 toxicological information that  must  precede studies  with
 mixtures closer to actual conditions.  These  mixtures must
 reflect the conditions and the composition of water in specific-
 areas of discharge,  because substances are rarely isolated
 when found in the environment. The  probabilities of syner-
 gism and antagonism are enhanced by increased complexity
 of effluents. Synergism and  antagonism in the environment
 are poorly understood. Copper is more toxic in soft water
 than in hard water where the calcium and the magnesium
 salts contributing to water hardness  tend to limit or an-
 tagonize copper toxicity. Arsenic renders selenium less toxic
 and has been added to feeds for cattle and poultry in areas
 high in selenium. As  examples  of  synergism,  copper is
 considerably more toxic in  the presence  of mercury, zinc,
 or cadmium salts (LaRoche 1972),211  and  cadmium makes
 zinc and cyanide more  toxic.  Synergism or  antagonism is
 expected to occur  more frequently   in water containing
 numerous  chemical  compounds than in one  with  few  such
 compounds. Therefore, a complex chemical medium  such
 as sea water can increase the  probability of synergism or
 antagonism when a  pollutant is introduced.
  The effects of  pollutants  can be considered in terms of
 their biological  end points.  Such  irreversible  effects  as
 carcinogenesis,  mutagenesis,  and  teratogenesis   provide
 identifiable end points in terms of biological consequences
 of pollutants.  The  effects  of  substances  may  vary  with
 species  or  with  stages  of the  life cycle  (See Methods of
 Assessment, p.  233).
  A distinction must be made  between the  effects of pol-
 lutants harmful to the quality of an organism as a product
 for human consumption  and those harmful to the organism
 itself. While the  levels  of mercury that render fish unac-
 ceptable for marketing do not, on the basis  of the limited
 information available at this  time,  appear to have  any
 adverse effect on the fish themselves, they cause  condem-
 nation of the  product for human consumption. This  may
 also  be true for other elements  that lend themselves to bio-
 accumulation.  Elemental phosphorus leads  to illness  and
 eventual mortality of  fish themselves (Jangaard  1970).191
 At the concentrations of phosphorus found in the liver and
 other vital organs, the fish may have  been toxic to human
 beings as well.  The recommendations for the elements  sub-
ject to biological  accumulation in the marine environment
 must be set at  a  low level to protect  the organisms. There
 is also need to establish recommendations based on human
health, and a need to protect the economic value of fisheri
affected by accumulations of some of these elements.
   Data on the accumulation of inorganic chemicals  I
aquatic organisms are given  in  Appendix III,  Table
(pp. 469-480). The maximum permissible concentratio
of inorganic chemicals in food and water, as prescribed \
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and by drinkir
water standards of various agencies, are given in Append
III. Table 4 (pp. 481-482).
   The elements essential  to plant and  animal nutrition
the marine environments ru.ve been  included in Tab
IV-2.  They constitute some of the ordinary nutrients, e.s
silicon and nitrate, as well a? the micro-constituents,  sue
as iron, molybdenum, and cobalt.  Although it is recognize
that these  elements are required for algal nutrition.  01
must  not  be caught in the misconception  that "if a  lilt
is good, a lot is better."

Metals

   Metals reach the marine environment through a  varie
of routes, including natural weathering as well as municip
and industrial discharges. Metals arc particularly susceptib
to concentration by invertebrates. Vinogradox's  (1953);
classic work on the accumulation of metals by organisi
in the marine environment  has been  expanded in mo
recent treatises (Fukai  and  Meinke 1962,lii(i  Polikarpe
1966,-4!) Bowen et al.  1971,1"9 Lowman et al. 1971).221
   Metals  present  in the  marine environment in  an a
similable form usually  undergo bioaccumulation throm
the food chain. Thus, elements present in low concentratio
in the water may be accumulated many thousandfold
certain organisms. Established maximum permissible lev
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                                                                                         Categories of Pollutants 7241
important  behavioral reactions stimulated by low concen-
trations of some of the metals.
  In the following review of different inorganic constituents,
the total amount of each element is considered in the dis-
cussion and  recommendation,  unless  otherwise  stated.
Whereas some of (he methods of analysis for  constituents
recommended for fresh  water and waste water can also be
used in marine environments, the  interference from salt
demands other  specialized techniques for many elements
(Strickland and Parsons  l%8,'->7!  Food  and  Agriculture
Organization  19711114).
  Not  only has  the recent literature been reviewed in this
examination of the properties and effects of inorganic con-
stituents,  but  various  bibliographic and  other standard
references have been liberally consulted (The Merck Index
I960.--'' McKcc  and Wolf 1963,22'1 Wilber  1969.''9'1  XRC
Committee on Oceanography 1971,237 U.S. Department of
the Interior Federal Water  Pollution Control Adminis-
tration 1968,2S7  Canada Interdepartmental Committee on
Water 1971l;i('j.

Alkalinity  or Buffer Capacity, Carbon Dioxide, and pH
  The chemistry of sen  water differs  from that of fresh
water  largely  because of the presence  of  salts, the major
constituents of \\ hich are present in sea water  in constant
proportion. 'I he weak-acid salts, such as the  carbonates,
bicarbonates,  and borates, contribute to the high buffering
capacity or alkalinity oi  sea  water. This  buffering power
renders many wastes of a highly acidic or alkaline nature,
which  are  often highly  toxic in fresh water, comparatively
innocuous  after  mixing  with sea water.
  The complex carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate sys-
tem in (he  sea is described in standard textbooks (Sverdrup
et al. 1946,276 Skirrow 196521'1') Alkalinity and the hydrogen-
ion concentration, as expressed  by pH  (Strickland and
Parsons  1968),27" are the best measure  of  the effects  of
highly acidic or highly  alkaline wastes.
  European  Inland   Fisheries   Advisory    Commission
(1969)lr's and Kemp (1971)2"2 reviewed  the  pli require-
ments  of freshwater fishes. Because of the  large difference
in buffer capacities, techniques for measurement and defi-
nitions of alkalinity are  quite different for marine and fresh
waters The normal range of pH encountered in fresh water
is considerably wider than that found in sea water,  and for
this reason, freshwater communities are adapted to greater
pH extremes than are marine communities.
  Sea  water normally varies in pH from surface to  bottom
because of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate  equi-
libria.  Photosynthetic and respiratory processes also con-
tribute to  variations in pH.  At the sea  surface, the pH
normally varies  from 8.0  to 8.3,  depending on the partial
pressure  of carbon  dioxide  in the atmosphere and the
salinity and temperature  of the water. A  large uptake  of
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis in the euphotic zone
leads to high pH values exceeding 8.5 in exceptional cases.
Release of carbon dioxide during decomposition  in inter-
mediate  and bottom waters results in a lowering of pH.
In shallow, biologically-active waters, particularly in warm
tropical  and subtropical areas,  there  is a  large  diurnal
variation in pH with values ranging from a high of 9.5 in
the daytime to a low of 7.3 at night or in (he early morning.
  The toxicity of most pollutants increases  as the pH in-
creases or decreases from neutral (pH  7). This is true for
complex mixtures, such  as pulp mill effluents (Howard
and Walclen 1965),ls;i for constituents  which dissociate at
different pH (e.g., H2S and HCN), and for heavy metals.
The toxicity of certain  complexes can change drastically
with pH. Nickel cyanide exhibits a thousandfold increase
in toxicity with a 1.5  unit decrease in  pH from 8.0 to 6.5
(Robert  A.  Taft  Sanitary Engineering  Center  1953,"5
Doudoroff et al. 1966Ul2).  pH  may  also  determine  the
degree of dissociation of salts, some of which  are more toxic
in  the molecular form  than in  the ionic  form.  Sodium
sulfidc is increasingly  toxic  with decreasing  pH as S°" and
HS- ions are converted  to  HUS (Jones 1948).200 The  toler-
ance of fish to low concentrations of dissolved oxygen, high
temperatures, cations, and  anions varies with pH. There-
fore, non-injurious pH deviations and ranges depend on
local conditions.
   There are large fluctuations in natural pi I in the marine
environment. Changes in pH indicate that the buffering
capacity of the sea water has been altered and the carbon
dioxide equilibria have shifted. The time required for mixing
of an effluent with a large volume of sea water is exceedingly
important. When the pH of the receiving sea water under-
goes an increase  or decrease, its duration can be important
to  the survival  of organisms. At present,  there  are  not
sufficient data with which  to assign  time;  limits to  large
departures of pH.
   Fish tolerate moderately large  pH changes in the middle
of their normal pH ranges.  Small pH changes at the limits
of their ranges and also  in the presence of some pollutants
can have significant deleterious effects.
   Plankton and  benthic  invertebrates  are  probably  more
sensitive  than fish to  changes in pH. Oysters appear to
perform  best in brackish waters when the pH is about 7.0.
At  a pH of 6.5  and lower,  the  rate of pumping decreases
notably,  and the time the  shells remain open is reduced
by  90 per cent (Loosanoff and Tommers 1948,219 Korringa
19522"7).  Oyster  larvae are  impaired at a pH of 9.0 and
killed at  9.1  in a few hours (Gaarder  1932).167 The upper
pH limit for crabs is 10.2 (Meinck et al. 1956).227

Recommendation
  Changes in sea water pH should be avoided. The
effects of pH alteration depend on the specific con-
ditions. In any case,  the normal range of pH in
either direction  should  not  be extended by more
than 0.2 units. Within  the normal range,  the pH
should not vary by more than 0.5 pH units.  Ad-

-------
242/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
dition of foreign material should not drop the pH
below 6.5 or raise it above 8.5.

Aluminum
  Aluminum, one of  the most  abundant elements in the
earth's crust, does not  occur in its elemental form in nature.
It is found as a constituent in all soils, plants, and animal
tissues. Aluminum is  an  amphoteric metal; it may be in
solution as  a weak acid,  or it may assume the form of a
flocculent hydroxide, depending on the pH. In the alumi-
num sulfate form  (alum), it is used in water treatment as a
coagulant for suspended solids, including colloidal materials
and microorganisms.
  Aluminum may  be adsorbed on plant organisms, but
very little ingested by animals is  absorbed  through the
alimentary  canal. Goldberg et  al. (1971)172 reported  an
aluminum  concentration factor for phytoplankton  (Sar-
gassum) ash of 65 and for zooplankton ash of 300. However,
Lowman et  al. (1971),221 in their compilation of concen-
tration factors for various elements, noted that aluminum
was reported to be concentrated 15,000  times in benthic
algae,  10,000 times in plankton (phyto-  and zoo-), 9,000
times in the soft parts of molluscs, 12,000 times in crustacean
muscle, and 10,000 times in fish muscle.
  In fresh water,  the toxicity of aluminum salts varies with
hardness, turbidity, and pH.  Jones  (1939)198  found the
lethal  threshold   of  aluminum  nitrate  for  stickleback
(Gasterosteus  aculeatus)  in very soft water to be 0.07 mg/1.
Using  tap water  with the  same compound tested  on the
same species, Anderson (1948)112 reported a toxic threshold
of less  than  5X10~5 molar aluminum chloride (1.35  mg/1
Al). Average survival  times of stickleback in different con-
centrations of aluminum  in the nitrate  form have  been
reported as one day at 0.3 mg/1 and one week at 0.1  mg/1
(Doudoroff and Katz 1953).160  It was noted by the  same
authors that 0.27 mg/1 aluminum in the nitrate form did
not apparently  harm young eels in 50 hours' exposure.
  Because of the  slightly  basic nature of sea water, alumi-
num salts tend  to precipitate in the marine environment.
These salts have exhibited comparatively low toxicities with
96-hour LCSO's of 17.8 mg/1 for redfish tested in sea water
with aluminum chloride  (Pulley 1950).252  Concentrations
of 8.9 mg/1 of aluminum (from AlCls) did not have a lethal
effect on marine fish and oysters tested (Cynoscion nebulosus,
Sciaenops oscellatus,  Fundulus grandis, Fundulus sitmlis, Cypnndon
variegatus, Ostrea  virginica)  (Pulley  1950).262 The  floes of
precipitated   aluminum  hydroxide  may  affect  rooted
aquatics and invertebrate benthos. Wilder  (1952)300 noted
no significant effect on lobsters (Homarus americanus) of a
tank lined with  an aluminum alloy (Mn, 1 to 1.5 per cent;
Fe, 0.7 per cent; Si, 0.6 per cent; Cu, 0.2 per cent, and Zn,
0.1  per cent).
  Aluminum hydroxide  can have an adverse effect on
bottom communities.  Special precautions should be taken
to avoid  disposal  of aluminum-containing wastes in  water
supporting  commercial  populations  of clams,  scallop;
oysters,  shrimps, lobsters, crabs, or bottom fishes.

Recommendation
  Because aluminum tends to be concentrated b
marine organisms,  it  is  recommended  that  a
application factor of  0,01 be applied to marin
96-hour LC50 data for  the appropriate organism
most sensitive to aluminum. On the basis of dat
available at this time,  it is suggested that concen
trations  of aluminum  exceeding  1.5 mg/1 consti
tute a hazard in  the  marine environment,  an
levels less than 0.2 mg/1 present minimal risk  c
deleterious effects.

Ammonia
  Most of the available information on toxicity of ammoni
is for freshwater organisms. For this reason, the reader
referred to  the  discussion  of ammonia  in Section  III o
Freshwater  Aquatic Life and Wildlife (p.  186). Because (
the slightly higher alkalinity of sea water and  the largt
proportion of un-ionized ammonium hydroxide, ammoni
may  be more  toxic in sea  water than in  fresh watt
(Doudoroff and Katz  1961).I51 Holland et al.  (I960)1
noted a reduction in growth and  a loss of equilibrium  i
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus Ishawytscha) at  concentratior
3.5 to 10 mg/1 of ammonia. Dissolved oxygen  and carbo
dioxide  decrease the  toxicity  of ammonia (U.K. Depari
ment of Science and Research 1961).284 Lloyd and Or
(1969),21V  in their studies  on (he  effect  of un-ionized air
monia at a  pH of 8 to  10, found  100  per cent mortalit
with 0.44  mg/1  NH3 in  3  hours for rainbow trout  (Salrr,
gairdnen).  This  confirmed  earlier  results of 100 per  cer
mortality  in 24 hours at 0.4 ing/1. The toxicity increase
with pH between 7.0 and 8.2.

Recommendation
  It is  recommended that an application  factor o
0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50  data for th
appropriate organisms most sensitive to ammonia
On  the basis  of freshwater data available at  thi
time, it  is suggested that concentrations of  un
ionized ammonia equal to or exceeding  0.4 mg/
constitute a hazard to the marine biota, and level
less than 0.01 mg/1 present minimal risk of dele
terious effects.

Antimony
  Antimony occurs chiefly as sulfide (stibnite)  or  as th<
oxides cervantite (Sb2O4)  and valentinite (Sb2O3)  and  i
used for alloys  and  other  metallurgical purposes.  It ha
also  been used  in a variety of medicinal preparations am
in numerous industrial  applications. Antimony salts an
used in  the fireworks, rubber, textile, ceramic,  glass  anc
paint industries.

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                                                                                      Categories of Pollutants/243
  Few of the salts of antimony have been tested on fish in
bioassays, particularly  in  sea water. However, antimony
potassium tartrate ("tartar emetic") gave a 96-hour LC50
as antimony of 20 mg/1 in soft water and 12 mg/1 in hard
water (Tarzwell  and Henderson 1956,277 I960278). Cellular
division of green algae was  hindered  at 3.5 mg/1, and
movement of Daphnia was retarded at 9 mg/1 (Bringmann
and  Kuhn 1959a).131 Antimony  trichloride, used in acid
solution as a mordant for patent leather and in dyeing, was
examined  in  exploratory  tests   on  fathead  minnows
(Pimephales promelas)  and gave  a 96-hour LC50 as antimony
of 9 mg/1 in soft water and 17 mg/1 in hard water (Tarzwell
and Henderson I960).278 Applegate et al.  (1957)114 reported
that rainbow trout (Salmo gmrdneri), bluegill sunfish (Lepomis
macrochirus), and  sea lamprey (Pertomyzon marinus)  were un-
affected by 5 mg/1 of SbCl3 or SbCl5 in Lake Huron water
at 13 C, saturated with dissolved oxygen, and pH 7.5 to 8.2.
Jernejcic (1969)193 noted that  as little as 1.0 mg/1 of anti-
mony in the form of tartar emetic caused projectile vomiting
in large mouth bass  (Micropterus salmoides).
  Antimony can be concentrated by various marine forms
to over 300 times the amount present in sea water (Goldberg
1957,17' Noddack and Noddack 1939240).

Recommendation
  Because of the  hazard of antimony poisoning  to
humans and the possible concentration of  anti-
mony by edible  marine  organisms,  it  is recom-
mended  that an  application  factor of 0.02 be ap-
plied  to marine  96-hour LC50 data for  the ap-
propriate organisms most sensitive  to antimony.
On the basis of data  available at this time, it is
suggested that concentrations of antimony equal
to or exceeding 0.2 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the
marine environment. There  are insufficient data
available at  this  time  to  recommend a level that
would present minimal risk of deleterious effects.

Arsenic
  Arsenic occurs in nature mostly as arsenides or pyrites.
It is  also found  occasionally in  the elemental form.  Its
consumption  in the  U.S.  in 1968 amounted to 25,000 tons
as AS2O3 (U.S.   Department of  the Interior, Bureau  of
Mines 1969).289 Arsenic is used in the manufacture of glass,
pigments, textiles,  paper,  metal  adhesives,  ceramics,  li-
noleum,  and mirrors (Sullivan 1969),274 and its compounds
are  used  in  pesticides, wood preservatives, paints, and
electrical  semiconductors. Because of its  poisonous  action
on microorganisms  and lower forms of destructive aquatic
organisms, it has been used in wood preservatives, paints,
insecticides, and  herbicides. Sodium arsentite has been used
for weed control in lakes and in  electrical semiconductors.
  In small concentrations, arsenic is found naturally in
some bodies of water.  In its  different forms, including its
valence states, arsenic  varies  in toxicity.  Trivalent arsenic
is considerably more toxic than the pentavalent species in
the inorganic form.  It is acutely toxic to invertebrates and
for  this reason has found  application in the control of
Teredo  and other woodborers in the  AS+3 form. Arsenious
trioxide (As2O3) has been used  for control of the shipworm
Bankia  setacia. In the arscnate form (As+5), it is of relatively
low toxicity,  Daphnia  being just  immobilized  at  18  to 31
mg/1 sodium arsenate, or 4.3  to 7.5  mg/1 as arsenic, in
Lake Erie  water (Anderson 1944,110  1946111).  The  lethal
threshold of sodium  arsenate for minnows has been reported
as 234  mg/1 as arsenic at 16 to 20 C (Wilber 1969).299
  Arsenic is normally present in sea water at concentrations
of 2 to  3 Mg/1 and tends to be accumulated by oysters  and
other molluscan shellfish (Sautet et al.  1964,268  Lowman
et al. 1971221). Wilber (1969)299 reported concentrations of
100 mg/kg in shellfish. Arsenic is a cumulative poison  and
has long-term chronic effects on  both aquatic organisms
and on mammalian  species. A succession of small doses may
add up to a final lethal dose (Buchanan 1962).136 The acute
effects  of arsenic and  its compounds on aquatic organisms
have been investigated, but little has been done on the sub-
lethal chronic effects.
  Surber and Meehan (1931)276 found that fish-food orga-
nisms generally can withstand concentrations  of approxi-
mately  1.73 mg/1 of arsenious  trioxide in sodium arsenite
solution. Meinck et  al. (1956)227 reported that arsenic con-
centrations were toxic at 1.1  to  2.2 mg/1 to pike  perch
(Stizostedion vitreum)  in 2 days, 2.2 mg/1 to bleak in 3 days,
3.1  mg/1 to carp (Cynnus carpio) in 4 to 6 days and to eels
in 3 days, and 4.3 mg/1 to crabs in 11  days.

Recommendation
  Because of the  tendency  of arsenic to be concen-
trated by aquatic  organisms, it  is recommended
that  an application factor  of  0.01 be  applied to
marine 96-hour  LC50  data  for  the appropriate
organisms most sensitive to arsenic. On the  basis
of freshwater  and  marine toxicity data available,
it is suggested that concentrations of arsenic equal
to or  exceeding  0.05 mg/1 constitute a  hazard in
the marine environment, and levels less than 0.01
mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects.

Barium
  Barium comes largely from  ores (BaSO4, BaCO3). It is
being used increasingly in industry. The  U.S. consumption
in 1968 was  1.6 million  tons,  a  growth of 78  per cent in
20  years  (U.S.  Department of the  Interior, Bureau of
Mines  1969).289  Barium is used  in a variety  of industrial
applications, including paper manufacturing, fabric printing
and dyeing, and synthetic rubber production.
  All water- or acid-soluble barium compounds are  poi-
sonous. However, in  sea water the  sulfate and carbonate
present tend  to  precipitate barium. The concentration of
barium in sea water is generally accepted at about 20 pig/1

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    /Section IT—-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Goldberg ct al. 1971),172 although it has been reported as
low as 6.2 pig/I (Bowcn 1956).128 \Volgernuth and Broecker
(1970)303 reported  a range of 8 to  14 pig/I in the Atlantic
and 8 to 31 pig /! in  the Paeific, with the lower values in
surface  waters. Barium ions are  thought  to  be rapidly
precipitated or removed from solution  by adsorption and
sedimentation.
  Bijan and  Deschiens  (1956)123 reported  that 10  to  15
mg/1  of barium chloride were lethal to an aquatic plant
and two species of snails. Bioassays with barium chloride
showed that a  72-hour exposure to 50  mg/1 harmed  the
nervous system of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutth) and
158 mg 1 killed 90 per cent of the test species (ORSANCO
I960).24'"' Barium can be concentrated in goldfish (Carassms
auratus)  by a  factor  of 150  (Templeton 1958).279 Soviet
marine radioactivity studies showed accumulation of radio-
active barium in  organs, bones,  scales,  and gills  of  fish
from  the Northeast  Pacific  (Moiseev  and  Kardashev
196423n).  Lowman et  al. (1971)22! listed a concentration
factor for barium of 17,000 in phytoplankton, 900 in zoo-
plankton, and 8 in fish muscle.
  In  view of the widespread  use of barium, the effects of
low closes of this element and  its  compounds on marine
organisms under different environmental conditions should
be determined. Disposal of barium-containing wastes into
waters when  precipitates could affect rooted aquatics and
benthic invertebrates should be avoided.

Recommendation
  Because of the apparent concentration of barium
by  aquatic  organisms  and the resultant  human
health hazard, it is recommended that an appli-
cation factor of  0.05 be applied to marine 96-hour
LC50 data  for  the appropriate  organisms most
sensitive to barium. On the basis of data available
at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of
barium equal to or exceeding 1.0  mg/1 constitute
a hazard in the marine  environment,  and  levels
less  than  0.5 mg/1 present minimal risk of dele-
terious effects.

Beryllium
  Beryllium  is found mainly  in the mineral beryl  and is
almost nonexistent in natural waters. Its concentration in
sea water is 6XIO~' pig/1. Beryllium is used in a number of
manufacturing processes, in electroplating, and as a catalyst
in organic chemical  manufacture.  It has also been used
experimentally  in  rocket fuels and in nuclear reactors
(Council on Environmental Quality 1971).144 In 1968,  the
U.S. consumption  of beryllium was 8,719 tons, a 500  per
cent increase  over  1948 (U.S. Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Mines 1969).289
  Beryllium has been shown to inhibit photosynthesis in
terrestrial plants (Bollard and Butler 1966).127 It would  be
of interest to  know if there  is any inhibition  of  photo-
synthesis by beryllium compounds in the marine environ
ment.
  Beryllium chloride and  nil rate are  highly  soluble ii
water, and the sulfate is moderately so.  The carbonate am
hydroxide are almost insoluble in cold water. Toxicity test
gave a 96-hour LC50 for beryllium chloride of 0.15 mg/
as beryllium for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) i
soft water;  15  mg/1 for the same species  in hard wate
(Tarzwcll  and  Henderson  I960);278 and  31.0  mg/1  fo
Fundulus heterochtus (Jackim et al. 1970).190
  Beryllium has been reported  to be  concentrated 1001
times in marine plants and animals (Goldberg et al. 1971).i:

Recommendation
  In  the absence  of data  specifically  related  ti
effects of beryllium on marine organisms, and be
cause of  its  accumulation by marine  organism
and its apparent toxicity to humans, it is recom
mended  that an application factor of 0.01 be ap
plied to marine 96-hour LC50 data  for the appropri
ate organisms most sensitive to  beryllium. On th
basis of  data available  for hard fresh water, it i
suggested that concentrations of  beryllium  equa
to or exceeding 1.5  mg/1  constitute  a hazard  t<
marine  organisms,  and levels less than  0.1  mg/
present minimal risk of deleterious effects.

Bismuth
  Bismuth is used in  the  manufacture of bismuth salts
fusible alloys,   electrical fuses,  low-melting solders,  am
fusible boiler plugs,  and in tempering baths  for steel, ii
"silvering" mirrors, and in dental work. Bismuth salts an
used in analytical chemical  laboratories  and  common!1
formulated in pharmaceuticals.
  The concentration of bismuth in sea  water is low, abou
0.02  ptg/lj probably because of the insolubility of its salts
It is unknown how much bismuth actually gets into the se;
from man-made sources, but the quantity is probably small
The  total  U.S.  production  in  1969 as subcarbonali
(Bi2O2CO3)2-H2O was  57 short tons  (U.S. Department o
Commerce 1971).285
  There are no bioassay data on which to base recommeri
dations for bismuth in the marine environment.

Boron
  Boron is riot  found in its elemental  form in  nature; i
normally  occurs  in  mineral  deposits  as  sodium  boratc
(borax) or calcium borate (colemanite). The concentrator
of boron  in sea water  is 4.5 rag/1 as one  of the 8  rnajoi
constituents in  the form of borate. Boron  has  long beer
used in metallurgy to harden other metals. It is now beint
used in the elemental form as a neutron  absorber in nucleai
installations.
  Available data on toxicity of boron to aquatic organism;
are from fresh water (Wurtz 1945,306 Turnbull et al. 1954,28

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                                                                                        Categories of Pollutants/245
LeGlcrc  and Dcvlaminck  1955,214  \Vallen  et al.  1957,2%
LeClerc  I960213).  Boric  acid  at  a  concentration  of 2000
mg/1 showed no effect on one trout and one rudd (Scardimus
erythrtiphthalmus)', at 5000 mg, 1 it  caused a discoloration of
the skin of the trout, and at 80,000 mg/1 the trout became
immobile and  lost its balance in a few  minutes (\Vurtz
1945).WMl The minimum lethal  close for minnows exposed to
boric acid  at 20 C for 6 hours was reported to  be 18,000
to 19,000 mg/1 in distilled water and 19,000 to  19,500 mg 1
in hard water (LeClerc  and Devlaminck  1955,211  LeClerc
I960213).  Testing  mosquito fish (Ganibusia affmis) at 20 to
26 C and a pH range of 5.4 to 9.1, Wallen et  al. (1957)MC
established 96-hour LC50's of 5,600 mg 1 for boric acid and
3,600 mg 1 for sodium borate.
  Since the toxicity is slightly  lower in hard watei than in
distilled water,  it is anticipated that boric acid and borates
would be less toxic to marine aquatic life than to fresh\\ater
organisms.  In the  absence  of  sea water bioassay data,  an
estimate  of 500 mg 1 of boron as boric acid and 250 mg 1
as sodium  borate  is considered hazardous to  marine ani-
mals, based  on freshwater data  (\Vallen et  al.  I957).29C
Concentrations of 50  mg/l and 25 mg 1,  respectively,  are
expected to have minimal effects on marine fauna
  An uncertainty  exists concerning the effect  of boron  on
marine vegetation. In view of harm that can be caused to
terrestrial  plants  by boron in excess  of  1  mg  I  (\\ilber
1969),2"  special precautions should  be taken  to maintain
boron at normal levels near eel grass (^osleia), kelp (Macro-
cystic),  and other  seaweed  beds  to minimize damage to
these plants.

Recommendation
  On the basis of data  available at  this  time, it is
suggested that concentrations of boron equal to or
exceeding 5.0 mg/1 constitute  a hazard  in  the
marine  environment, and  levels less than 5.0 mg/1
present minimal risk  of deleterious effects.  An
application factor of 0.1 is recommended for boron
compounds applied to  marine 96-hour  LC50 data
for  the appropriate organisms most  sensitive  to
boron.

Bromine
  In concentrated form, bromine is a strong oxidizing agent
and will  attack all metals and organic materials. It is  one
of the  major constituents  in sea water,  present at about
67 mg  1 in  bromatc, and is commercially extracted from the
sea.
  Bromine  is used medicinally  and  for  sterilization of
swimming  pools. It is also  used in the preparation of dye-
stuffs and  anti-knock  compounds for gasolines.  Molecular
bromine  may be discharged in effluents from salt  works and
certain chemical industries. Bromination of certain organic
substances,  such  as  phenols  and  amines,  may  impart
offensive taste  and make  waters  more  toxic  to  aquatic
organisms.
  Kott et al.  (1966)'~os found that Chlorella pyrenuulosa, when
exposed to  0.42 mg 1  bromine for 4 days,  \\ere reduced in
concentration from 2,383 cells/mm2 to 270 cells,  but re-
mained virtually unchanged at 0.18 mg  1 bromine (2,383
cells, mm2 in  controls  compared to 2,100 cells, nun2 in the
exposed sample).
  At concentrations of 10 mg 1 in soft water, bromine killed
Daphnia magna (Ellis 1937),K)l'  and at  20  mg 1 in water of
18 to 23 C, goldfish (Cata^ius auiatus) were killed (Jones
1957).-01  A violent irritant response  in  marine  fish was
observed at  10 mg 1  bromine,  but  no such acti\ ity was
perceived at 1 mg  1 (Hiatt et al. 1953).1M
  The salts  of  bromine  are  relati\ely  innocuous.  The,
threshold of  immobilization for  Daphnia magna  was 210
mg 1  of sodium  bromate (NaBrOs) and 8200  mg ']  of
sodium bromide (XaBr) (Anderson  1946)."1

Recommendation
  It is recommended that free (molecular) bromine
in the marine environment not exceed 0.1  mg/1
and that ionic bromine in the form  of bromate be
maintained below 100 mg/1.

Cadmium
  U S. consumption of cadmium was 6,662 short tons in
1968  (U.S. Department of the Interior,  Bureau of Mines
1969).2h<) These  quantities  indicate that cadmium might be
a significant pollutant.
  Pure cadmium is not found in commercial quantities in
nature.  It  is obtained as a by-product  of smelting  zinc.
Cadmium salts in high concentrations  have been found in a
Missouri spring originating from a mine (up to 1,000 mg 'ml
cadmium)  (ORSAXCO  1955),-11 and up to  50 to  170
mg kg of cadmium are found  in superphosphate fertilizers
(Athanassiaclis  1969)."" Cadmium is  also present  in some
pesticides.  It is being used  in  increasing amounts by in-
dustry (Council on Environmental Quality 1971).'" Water-
carrying pipes  are  also a source of cadmium  (Schroeder
1970)2.vi as  is fooc|  (Nilsson  1969).1'1'9  Cadmium is present
in most drainage waters (Kroner and Kopp 1965)2"9 and
may be contributing substantially to the  cadmium present
in inshore coastal waters. It is not known, however,  whether
man's input  has resulted  in higher levels of cadmium in
estuarine or  coastal  waters.  In sea  water,  cadmium  is
generally present at about 0.1 /ug '1 (Goldberg et al.  1971).m
  Cadmium pollution resulting in the "Itai-itai" disease in
the human population has  been documented  (Yamagata
and  Shigcmatsu 1970).™ Schroeder  et al. (1967)2"" have
found that oysters  may  concentrate  cadmium from very
low levels  in ambient water. Cadmium concentrations in
some  marine plants and animals have been given by Mullin
and Riley (1956).233
  Concern exists that cadmium may enter the diet, like

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246/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
mercury, through seafood. Cadmium, like  mercury, could
conceivably form organic compounds which might be highly
toxic or lead to mutagenic or teratogenic effects.
  Cadmium  has  marked  acute  and  chronic effects on
aquatic organisms. It  also acts syncrgistically with other
metals. A 15-week LC50 of 0.1 mg/1 and inhibition of shell
growth for Crassostrea vngimca (Pringle et al.  1968),2il° and
a 96-hour LC50 of 0.03 mg/1 cadmium in combination with
0.15 mg/1  zinc  for  fry of chinook  salmon  (Oncorhynchus
Ishaivytsclia) (Hublou et al. 1954)184 have been reported.
  Fundulus lietewchtus exposed to 50 mg/1 cadmium showed
pathological changes in the  intestinal  tract after  1-hour
exposure, in  the kidney  after 12 hours, and  in  the  gill
filaments and respiratory lamellae after  20  hours (Gardner
and Yevich 1970).170 Copper and zinc, when present  at
1 mg/1  or  more,  substantially  increase  the  toxicity  of
cadmium (LaRoche 1972).211
  Cadmium is concentrated by marine organisms, particu-
larly the molluscs  (e.g.,  Pecten nora~ellandicae), which ac-
cumulated  cadmium in the  calcareous tissues  and in the
viscera  (Brooks  and  Rumbsby 1965).13:! Lowman  et al.
(1971)221 reported a concentration factor of  100(1 for cad-
mium in fish muscle.
  Cadmium levels in tissues  of Ashy Petrel  (Oceanodroama
homochroa) from coastal  waters of California were approxi-
mately twice as high as in tissues of Wilson's Petrel (Oceamtes
oceamcus) obtained in Antarctica, which  had  summered in
the North  Atlantic  and  Australian  regions,  respectively.
Cadmium levels in tissues of the  Snow  Petrel (Pelagodroma
mvea), a species which does not leave the Antarctic ice pack
region, obtained at Hallett .Station, Antarctica, were of the
same order of magnitude as  those in the Wilson's  Petrel.
Cadmium levels  in eggs  of the  Common  Tern  (Sterna
hnundci) from  Long Island Sound were in the order  of 0.2
mg/kg dry weight, not appreciably higher than those in the
Antarctic 7"ern  (Sterna nttata) from the  Antarctic  with
levels in the order of 0.1 mg-'kg (Anderlini et al. in press)™
Cadmium pollution may theiefore be significant locally in
estuaries, but on the basis of these limited data, it does not
appear to be a problem in more remote marine ecosystems.
However, in view  of the comparatively unknown effects of
cadmium on  the marine  ecosystem,  its  apparent concen-
tration by marine organisms, and the human  health risk
involved in  consumption  of cadmium-contaminated sea-
food, it is suggested that there be no artificial additions of
cadmium to the marine environment.

Recommendation
  The panel recommends that an  application fac-
tor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data
for appropriate organisms most sensitive to cad-
mium. On the basis of data available at this time,
it is  suggested  that concentrations  of cadmium
equal to or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute a hazard
in  the marine environment  as  well as to human
populations,  and levels less  than 0.2 ^g/1 present
minimal risk of deleterious effects. In the presena
of copper and/or zinc at 1 mg/1  or more, there is
evidence that the application factor  for cadmiurr
should be lower by at least one order of magnitude
  In the absence of sufficient data on the effect!
of cadmium upon wildlife, it is recommended thai
cadmium  criteria for  aquatic  life  apply also  t<
wildlife.

Chlorine

  Chlorine is generally present in the  stable chloride forn
which constitutes about  1.9 per cent of  sea  water. Ele
mental chlorine,  which is a poisonous gas  at normal tern
perature and pressure, is produced by electrolysis of a brim
solution. Among  its many uses are the bleaching of pulp
paper and textiles, and the manufacture of chemicals.
  Chlorine is used to kill so-called nuisance organisms tha
might interfere with the proper functioning of hydraulic
systems.  Chlorine disinfection is also used  in public watei
supplies and in sewage effluents to insure that an acceptable
degree of coliform reduction is achieved before the effluent;
enter various bodies of water. In all instances the intent is
;o eliminate undesirable levels  of organisms  that  would
(iegrade  water uses.  This  goal  is only partially reached.
 jecause  the  effect of chlorine  on desirable species is  a
serious hazard.
  When dissolved in water, chlorine completely hydrolizes
10 form hypochlorous acid (HOC1) or its dissociated ions;
at concentrations below 1000 mg/1, no chlorine exists in
solution as Ck The dissociation  of HOC1 to  H+ and OC1~
depends  on the pH: 4 per cent  is dissociated at pH  6.  25
per cent at pH 7, and 97 per cent  at pH  9. The unclissociated
iorm  is  the  most  toxic (Moore  1951).231  Although free
chlorine  is  toxic  in  itself to aquatic  organisms, combi-
nations of chlorine with ammonia,  cyanide, and organic
compounds, such as phenols and  amines, may be even more
toxic  and can impart undesirable flavors to seafood.
  Chlorine at 0.05 mg/1 was the critical  level for  young
Pacific salmon exposed for 23 days (Holland et  al. I960).182
The  lethal  threshold for chinook  salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshauytscha) and coho salmon (0. kisutcK)  for 72-hour ex-
posure was noted by these  investigators to  be less than 0.1
rig/1  chlorine. In aerated freshwater, monochloramines
were more toxic than chlorine aid dichloramine more toxic
than monochloramine. Studies ofirritant responses of marine
f shes to different chemicals (Hiatt et al. 1953)181 showed a
sight irritant activity at 1 mg/1 and violent irritant activity
at 10  mg/1. Oysters are sensitive  to chlorine concentrations
of 0.01 to 0.05 mg/1 and react  by reducing pumping ac-
t vity. At C12 concentrations of [ .0 mg/1 effective pumping
could not be maintained (Galtsoff 1946).169
  Preliminary results show that at 15 C, salinity 30  parts
per thousand (%o)>  mature copepods (Acartia tonsa and

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                                                                                        Categories of Pollutants,/247
TABLE IV-3—Copepod Mortality from  Chlorine  Exposure
                     Acartia Tonsa
      Chlorine mg/1
                   Exposure time in minutes to give
                      50 percent mortality
Exposure time in minutes to give
   100 percent mortality
1.0
2.5
50
10.0
220
8.5
1.2
0.6
>500
120
10 0
1 0
                   Eurytemona Affinis
      Chlorine me/1
                   Exposure time in minutes to give
                      50 percent mortality
Exposure time in minutes to give
   100 percent mortality
2.5 33
5.0 3 6
10.0 2 0
125
30.0
5.0
 Gentile (unpublished data) 1972.312

Eurytemona qffinis) have great difficulty in surviving exposures
to chlorine (Table IV-3).
   Clcndenning and North (I960)141  noted  that at 5 to  10
mg/I chlorine, the photosynthetic capacity of bottom fronds
of the giant kelp (Macrocystis pvnferd) was reduced by 10 to
15 per cent after  2 days and 50  to 70 per cent after 5 to 7
days.
   Chlorination in seawater conduits to  a  residual of 2.5
mg/1 killed all fouling organisms tested (anemones, mussels,
barnacles, Mogula, Bugula) in 5 to 8 days;  but with 1.0
mg/1 a  few barnacles and all  anemones  survived 15 days'
exposure (Turner et al.  1948).282
   It should be further  stressed  that chlorine applications
may often be  accompanied  by entrainments  where  the
organisms are exposed  to strong biocidal  chlorine doses,
intense  turbulence, and heat  (Gonzales et al. unpublished
1971).313 Consideration should  also  be given to the for-
mation  of  chlorinated  products, such as  chloramines  or
other pollutants,  which  may  have  far  greater and more
persistent toxicity than the original chlorine applications.
Recommendation
   It is  recommended that an application factor  of
0.1 be used with 96-hour LC50 data from seawater
bioassays for the most sensitive species to be pro-
tected.
  However, it is suggested that free residual chlo-
rine in sea  water  in excess of 0.01  mg/1 can be
hazardous to marine life. In the absence of data
on the in  situ production of  toxic chlorinated
products, it appears  to be  premature  to advance
recommendations.
Chromium
  Most of the available information on toxicity of chromium
is  for freshwater organisms, and it is discussed in Section
III, p. 180.
  Chromium concentrations in seawater average about 0.04
Mg/1 (Food and  Agriculture Organization 1971),164 and
concentration factors of 1,600  in benthic  algae,  2,300  in
phytoplankton, 1,900 in zooplankton,  440  in soft parts of
molluscs, 100 in crustacean muscle, and  70 in fish muscle
have been reported (Lowman et al. 1971).221
  The toxicity of chromium to aquatic life will vary with
valence state, form,  pH, synergistic or antagonistic effects
from  other constituents, and the species of organism in-
volved.
  In long-term studies  on the  effects  of heavy metals on
oysters, Hayclu (unpublished data)314 showed  that mortalities
occur at concentrations of 10 to  12 Mg/1 chromium,  with
highest mortality  during May,  June, and  July.  Raymont
and Shields (1964)253 reported  threshold toxicity levels of
5 mg/1 chromium  for  small prawns   (Leander sqmlla), 20
mg/1  chromium in the  form NaoCrO4 for  the shore  crab
(Carcmas maenuf),  and  1  mg/1 for the  polychaete \ereis
mren-,. Pringle et al.  (1968)2SO showed that  chromium con-
centrations of 0.1  and 0.2 mg '],  in the  form of K2CroO7,
produced the same  mortality with molluscs as the controls.
Doudoroff  and Katz (1953)1SI) investigated the  effect  of
KoCr-jOT on mummichogs (Fimdulus lieleroditus)  and found
that they tolerated a concentration of 200  mg/1 in sea water
for  over a week.
  Holland  et al.  (1960)1S2 reported  that 31.8  mg/1  of
chromium  as  potassium chromate in  sea water gave 100
per cent mortality to coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutcli).
Gooding (1954)17-! found that 1 7.8 ing 1 of hexavalent chro-
mium was toxic to the same species in sea water.
  Clendenning and North (I960)141 showed  that hexavalent
chromium  at  5.0 mg/1  chromium reduced photosynthesis
in the giant kelp (Macrocf\tis jiyrijerd) by 50  per cent during
4 days exposure.

Recommendation
  Because  of  the sensitivity of  lower forms of
aquatic life to chromium and its  accumulation at
all  trophic levels, it is recommended that an appli-
cation factor of 0.01  be applied to marine 96-hour
LC50  data  for  the  appropriate  organisms  most
sensitive to chromium. On the basis  of data avail-
able  at this time, it is suggested that concentra-
tions  of chromium equal to or exceeding 0.1 mg/1
constitute a  hazard  to the marine environment,
and levels less than 0.05 mg/1 present  minimal risk
of deleterious effects.  In oyster areas, concentra-
tions should be maintained at less than 0.01 mg/1.

Copper
  Copper has been used as a pesticide for eliminating algae
in water, and its salts have bactericidal properties. Copper
is toxic to invertebrates and is  used extensively in marine
antifouling paints which release it to the water. It  is also
toxic to juvenile stages of salmon and other  sensitive species

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 248/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 (Sprague  1964,267,  1965,268  Sigler ct  al. 1966,20'3  Cope
 1966142).
   Copper was the fifth metal in U.S. consumption during
 1968, following  iron, manganese, zinc,  and barium  (U.S.
 Department  of  the Interior  Bureau  of  Mines  1969).289
 Copper is used for such products as high transmission wires,
 containers, utensils, and currency because oi its noncor-
 roding properties.
   Copper is widely distributed  in nature and is present in
 sea water in concentrations ranging from  1 to 25 Mg/1. In
 small amounts, copper is nonlethal to aquatic organisms;
 in fact, it is essential to some of the respiratory pigments in
 animals  (Wilber 1969).299  Copper chelatecl  by  lignin or
 citrate has been reported to be as effective as copper ion in
 controlling algae,  but  apparently it is not as toxic to fish
 (Ingols   1955).1SI'  Copper  affected  the polychaete  ,\eie.ts
 virens at  levels of approximately 0.1 mg 1  (Raymont and
 Shields 1964)2"'3 and the shore crab (Catcinus maenus) at 1 to
 2 mg/1 (\Vilber  1969).2"  Copper at concentrations of 0.06
 mg/1 inhibited photosynthesis of the giant  kelp (Macrocystis
pynfera) by 30 per cent in 2 days and 70 per cent in 4 clays
 (Clendcnning and North I960).141
   Copper is toxic to some  oysters at concentrations above
 0.1 mg '1 (Galtsoff 1932)168 and lethal to oysters at 3  mg/1
 (Wilber  1969).'299 The American oyster (Crassositca virgimca)
 is  apparently more sensitive to copper than the Japanese
 species (Crassostrea gtgai) (Rcish 1964).2;'4 The 96-hour LC50
 for Japanese  oysters exposed  to copper has been  reported
 as 1.9 mg/1 (Fujiya I960).165 However, oysters exposed to
 concentrations as low as 0.13 mg/1 turn green in about 21
 days  (Galtsoff 1932).168 Although such concentrations  of
 copper are neither lethal  to  the  oysters nor, apparently,
 harmful  to man, green oysters are unmarketable because
 of appearance. Therefore, in the vicinity of oyster grounds,
 the  recommendation  for   maximum  permissible concen-
 trations of copper in the water is based on marketability,
 and it is  recommended that copper not be introduced into
 areas where shellfish may be contaminated or where seaweed
 is  harvested.
   Copper  acts  synergistically  when  present  \\ith  zinc
 (Wilber  1969),299 zinc and cadmium  (LaRoche  1972),211
 mercury  (Corner and  Sparrow 1956),143 and  with penta-
 chlorophenate (Cervenka  1959).137 Studies  on  sublethal
 effects of copper show that Atlantic  salmon  (Salmo  salar)
 will avoid concentrations  of 0.0024  mg  1 in  laboratory
 experiments (Sprague et al. 1965,27" Saunclers  and Sprague
 1967,2:'7 Sprague  19712'19).
   Copper is accumulated  by  marine organisms, with con-
 centration factors of 30,000 in phytoplankton, 5,000 in  the
 soft tissues of molluscs, and 1000  in fish muscle  (Lowman
 et al. 1971).221
   Bryan and Hummerstone (1971)131reported that the poly-
 chaete Nereis diversicolor shows a high takeup of copper from
 copper-rich sediments and develops  a tolerance. Mobile
 predators feeding on this species could receive doses toxic
 .o themselves or accumulate concentrations that would Ix
 .oxic to higher trophic levels.

 Recommendation
  It is recommended that an application factor ol
0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for ths
appropriate  organisms most  sensitive to  copper.
On the basis of data available  at this time, it  is
suggested that concentrations of copper equal to
or exceeding 0.05 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the
marine environment, and levels less than 0.01 mg/1
present minimal risk of deleterious effects.

Cyanides
  Most of the available information on toxicity of cyanides
is for freshwater organisms, e.nd is discussed in the Fresh-
water Aquatic Life and Wildlife section, p. 189.

Recommendation
  As a guideline in the absence of data for marine
organisms the  panel recommends that an appli-
cation factor of 0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour
LC50  data  for the appropriate organisms  most
sensitive to cyanide. On the basis of data available
at this time it is suggested that concentrations of
cyanide equal to or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute
a hazard  in the  marine  environment, arid  levels
less than  0.005  mg/1 present minimal risk of dele-
terious effects.

Fluorides
  Fluorides have been brought i.o public attention in recent
years because of their effects at low concentrations in human
cental  development and in prevention of decay.  However,
i. must be remembered  that  fluorides at higher concen-
trations are poisons afflicting human and other mammalian
skeletal structures with fluorosis (see Section II, p. 66).
  Fluorine  is the most reactive non-metal  and does not
cccur free  in nature. It is found in  sedimentary rocks  as
f iiorspar, calcium fluoride, ancl in igneous rocks as cryolite,
sodium aluminum fluoride. Seldom found in  high concen-
t Cations in  natural  surface waters because of their origin
only in certain rocks in certs in regions, fluorides may be
found in detrimental concentrations in ground waters.
  Fluorides are emitted to the atmosphere and into effluents
from electrolytic  reduction  plants producing phosphorus
ancl aluminum.  They are also used for disinfection,  as
insecticides, as a flux for steel manufacture,  for  manu-
facture of glass and enamels, for preserving wood, and for
assorted chemical purposes.
  A review of fluoride in the environment  (Marier and
Rose 1971)22"' indicates that the concentration of unbound
ionic fluoride  (F~)  in sea water  ranges between 0.4 and
0.7 mg/1. Approximately 50 per cent of the total seawater

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                                                                                        Categories of Pollutants,'249
fluoride (0.77 to 1.40 nig, 1) is  bound as the double ion
MgF+.
  Concentrations as  low  as  1.5  mg''l  of  fluoride  have
affected hatching of fish eggs (Ellis et al. 1946) ,1''7 and 2.3
mg 1, introduced as sodium fluoride,  was lethal to rainbow
trout  (Salmo gaix/nen) at 18 C (Angelovic et  al.  1961 )."3
X'irtually no information exists on long-term chronic effects
of low concentrations  of fluorides in sea water.

Recommendation
  In  the absence of data on  the sublethal effects
of fluorides in the marine environment, it is recom-
mended that an application factor of 0.1  be applied
to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the  appropriate
organisms most sensitive to fluoride. On the basis
of data available at this time it is  suggested  that
concentrations of fluoride equal to or exceeding 1.5
mg/1 constitute  a  hazard in the marine environ-
ment, and levels less than 0.5 mg/1 present minimal
risk of deleterious effects.

Iron
  Because  of the widespread use  of iron by  man for his
many industrial  activities,  iron is a common contaminant
in the aquatic en\ ironmcnt. Iron may enter water naturally
from  iron ore deposits;  but iron is more often introduced
from acid mine drainage, mineral processing, steel pickling,
and corrosion. Iron  usually occurs  in  the  ferrous  form,
when it is released from processing plants or in mine drain-
age, but becomes rapidly  oxidized  to the ferric form  in
natural  surface  waters. The ferric  salts form gelatinous
hydroxides, agglomerate and flocculate,  settling out on the
bottom or becoming adsorbed on various surfaces. Depend-
ing on the  pH and Eh, groundwafer may contain a  con-
siderable amount of iron in  solution, but well aerated waters
seldom contain high, dissolved iron. In the marine environ-
ment, iron  is frequently present in organic  complexes and
in adsorbed form on participate matter.
  Most of  the investigations on biological effects of iron
have  been   clone in fresh  \\ater (Knight  1901,21'4  Bandt
1948,"7 Minkina 1946,'"9 Southgate 1948,2fi:>  Leu is I960,215
ORSANCO  I9602'"1).  Deposition  of iron  hydroxides on
spawning  grounds  may  smother  fish eggs, and the hy-
droxides may irritate the  gills and  block the respiratory
channels of fishes (Southgate 1948,2r'5 Lewis I960-15). Direct
toxicity of  iron depends on its valence state and whether
it is in solution or suspension.
  Warnick and  Bell (1969)-"'7 examined the  effects of iron
on  mayflies, stoneflies. and caddisflies  and  obtained  a
96-hour LC50 of 0.32 mg  1 for the three insects. Dowclen
and Bennett (1965)1"'3 examined the effect of ferric chloride
to  Ddphma  magna in static acute bioassays.  They noted
LCSO's  of  36, 21, and  15  mg 1 for  1, 2, and 4 days, re-
spectively.
  Ferric hydroxide  floes removed the diatoms in the process
of flocculation and settling, coating  the  bottom; and the
iron precipitate  coated the gills  of  white perch (M or one
amencana), minnows, and  silversides  in upper  Chesapeake
Bay (Olson et al. 1941)."2
  Tests on three types  of fish gave a  lethality threshold for
iron at 0.2 mg 1  (Minkina 1946)229 and on carp at 0.9 mg']
if the pH was 5.5 or lower.  Ebeling (1928)m found that
10 mg I of iron  caused serious injury or death to rainbow
trout  (Salmo  gatrdnen)  in  5  minutes.  La  Roze  (1955)212
reported that dogfish were killed in 3 hours at 5 mg '1 iron,
whereas other research (National Council for  Stream Im-
provement 1953)2U indicated no  deaths  during  one week
at 1 to 2 nig '1.
  Because of the slightly  alkaline condition of sea  water,
much of the  iron introduced to the  sea precipitates. This
adds  a  further  problem  of iron hydroxide floes contami-
nating bottom  sediments where  rooted  aquatics and in-
vertebrates could be affected.
  Special  consideration should be given  to avoiding dis-
charge of iron-containing  effluents into waters  where com-
mercially  important  bottom  species or  important  food
organisms dwell (e.g.,  oysters,  clams,  scallops, lobsters,
crabs, shrimp, halibut,  flounder, and  demersal fish eggs and
lar\ ae).

Recommendation
  On the basis of data available at this  time, it  is
suggested that concentrations of iron equal to  or
exceeding  0.3 mg/1 constitute a hazard to  the
marine environment, and levels  less than 0.05 mg/1
present minimal risk of deleterious effects.

Lead
  The  present rate of input of lead  into the  oceans  is
approximately ten times the rate of introduction by natural
weathering, and concentrations of lead  in surface sea water
are greater  than in deeper waters  (Chow and  Patterson
1966).13!l The isotope  composition of the lead  in surface
waters and in recent precipitation is more similar to  that of
mined ore than to that  in marine sediments (Chow 1968).138
There are, almost no data, however, that would suggest that
the higher concentrations of lead in  surface sea  water de-
rived from lead transported through the atmosphere have
resulted in higher lead concentrations in marine wildlife.
Lead concentrations in Greenland snow have  been shown
to be  16 times higher in 1964 than in  1904 (Murozumi et  al.
1969).2r> In 1968 an estimated 1.8X105  tons of  lead were
introduced to the atmosphere as a result of the combustion
of leaded  gasoline  (Council  on  Environmental Quality
1971).141 This represents 14 per cent of the total lead con-
sumption of the United States for that year. Lead poisoning
of zoo animals in New York Cit\ was  attributed to their
breathing lead-contaminated air (Bazell  1971).119
  Blood serum aldolase activity in higher animals exposed
to small amounts of lead increased, although there were  no

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250/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
overt signs or symptoms of poisoning (Yaverbaum 1963,308
Wilber 1969299). Chronic lead poisoning in man is sympto-
matically similar  to multiple  sclerosis (Falkowska  et  al.
1964).159 Muscular dystrophy has been reported as occurring
in fishes and amphibians (Stolk 1962,272 Wilber 1969299) and
in view of these findings could, in fact, be unnatural.
  Data are  needed on the sublethal, lons;-tcrm  effects of
lead on aquatic organisms, particularly those in sea water.
Evidence of deleterious effect  to freshwater fish  has been
reported  for concentrations of lead as low as  0.1  mg/1
(Jones 1938).197
  Wilder (1952)300 reported lobster dying in 6 to 20 days
when held  in lead-lined tanks. Pringle (unpublished data)'^''
observed a  12-week LC50  of 0.5 mg 1 lead and an 18-week
LG50 of 0.3 mg/1 lead with the oyster (Crassostrea virgimcd).
There  was noticeable change in gonadal and mantle tissue
following  12 weeks  exposure  at concentrations  of  0.1 to
0.2 mg/1 of lead.  Calabrese et  al. (unpublished data)':ln found
a 48-hour LC25  of 1.73 mg'l and an LC50 of 2.45 mg 1
for oyster eggs of the same species.
  North and Clendenning (1958)241 reported  that lead
nitrate at 4.1 mg/1 of lead showed no deleterious effect on
the photosynthesis rate in  kelp (Macrocvstispvrifera) exposed
for four  days.  They concluded  that lead is  less toxic to
kelp than  mercury, copper, hexavalent chromium, zinc,
and nickel.
Recommendation
   In the absence of more definitive information on
the long-term chronic  effect  of lead on  marine
organisms, it is recommended that concentrations
of  lead  in sea water should  not exceed 0.02 of the
96-hr LC50 for  the most sensitive species, and that
the 24-hour average concentration should not ex-
ceed 0.01 of the 96-hour  LC50. On the basis of data
available  at this time  it is suggested that concen-
trations of lead equal to or  exceeding  0.05 mg/1
constitute a  hazard in  the marine environment,
and levels  less than 0.01 mg/1 present minimal
risk of deleterious effects. Special effort should be
made to reduce lead levels even further in oyster-
growing areas.
  Lead  recommendations for  the  protection  of
wildlife are included in the discussion  of Marine
Wildlife p. 227.

Manganese
  Manganese is one of the most  commonly used  metals in
industry. It occurs widely  in ores on land and in nodules in
the deep sea.  U.S. consumption  in 1958  exceeded  2.2
million tons, a  45  per cent  increase in 20 years  (U.S.
Department  of Interior,  Bureau of Mines  1969).289 The
metal  is alloyed with iron to produce steel and in smaller
quantities with copper for manganese bronze.  Its salts are
used in inks and dyes,  in glass and ceramics, in matches
and fireworks, for dry-cell batteries, and in the manufacture
of paints and varnishes.
  Manganese is often found  v/ith iron in ground waters
and it can be leached from  soil and occur in drainage ir
high concentrations.  The  carbonates,  oxides,  and  hy
droxides  are slightly  soluble,  so  that  manganous  anc
manganic ions are rarely prcse.it in surface water in exces
Df 1 mg/1. Manganese is present in sea water at about 2 jug/
in the Mn+2 form, and is concentrated through biochemica
processes to form manganese  nodules, found mainly in th<
deep sea.
  Manganese may have different effects on the lower trophic
levels in  fresh water  and sea water.  Concentrations  o
manganese abo\e 0.005 mg'l had a toxic effect on cerlah
algae in reservoirs (Guseva i 937,m 193917-'), while 0.000!
mg'l in sea water stimulated growth and multiplicatioi
of  certain  phytoplankton  (Harvey   !947).17S  Ancleisoi
(1944)11" reported the threshokl of immobilization of Da/>/im<
magna as  0.63  mg 1 of KMnO, and the threshold coneeri
tration  for immobilization of Daphnia magna in  Lake Eric
water as 50 ing'l of MnCb (\nderson 1948).II2 Bringmani
and Kuhii (195')a)lp:1 reported the  threshold effect for th<
same species as 50 ing 1 of MnCl.j as manganese in  Rive'
Havel water at 23 C.
  For  the fiatworm Pnlyielr; i.igra, the threshold concen
tration  of manganese was reported as 700 mg  1  as man
ganesc chloride and 660  mg '] as  manganese nitrate (Jone
1940).199  Tests  on organisms  on  which  fish  feed, i e
Crustacea, worms, and inseci larvae, showed no  apparen
harm at  15 mg 1 of manganese  during  a  7-day  exposure
(Schweiger 1957).261 River era/fish were found to tolerate
1 mg'l  (Meinck et al. 1956"! '"7
  The toxicity of manganese to fish depends on a numbei
jf factors which may vary from  one situation to  another
There is an apparent  antago fistic action  of  manganest
;oward   nickel   toxicity  for  fish   (Blabaum and  Nichols
1956).125 This  may be true also for cobalt and  manganese.
:n combination, as noted for terrestrial plant life  (Ahmed
and Twyman  1953).1(K
  Stickleback  survived 50 mg/1 manganese as  manganese
sulphate for 3 days, \\hereas eels withstood 2700 mg  '1 for
50 hours (Doudoroff and Katz 1953).1:>" The lethal concen-
tration  of manganese for stickleback was given  as  40 mg/1
by Jones (1939),19S and he noted  that the toxic action was
slow. The minimum lethal  concentration  of  manganese
nitrate  for sticklebacks in tap water has been reported  to
be  40 mg 1 as manganese  (Anderson  1948,"2 Murdock
1953).231
  The average survival  times of stickelback in manganous
nitrate  solution were one week  at 50  mg/1, four days at
100 mg/1, two days at 150 mg '1, and one day at 300 mg-'l.
ell measured as manganese (Murdock 1953).234  Young eels
tolerated  1500 mg/1 manganous sulphate for more than 25
hours (Doudoroff and Katz 1953).150 Oshima (1931)24fi and
Iwao (1936)189 reported the lethal thresholds of manganous

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                                                                                       Categories of Pollutants 7251
chloride and manganous sulphate for fish in Japan to be
about  2400 and  1240 mg/1 of manganese, respectively.
They found that  permanganates (Mn+7) killed fish at  2.2
to 4.1  mg/1 manganese  in  8  to  18 hours,  but this high
oxidation  form is quite  unstable in water.  Tench, carp,
and  trout tolerated 15 mg/1 of manganese during 7 days
exposure (Schweiger 1957).2S1
  Manganous chloride was found to be lethal to minnows
(Fundulus) in fresh water in six days  at 12 mg/1 MnCL; for
the small freshwater fish Orizias, the 24 hour  lethal concen-
tration was about 7850 mg 1 (Doudoroffand  Katz 1953) ;150
and  for  other fish  5500 mg 1  (Oshima  1931,24G Iwao,
19361S'').  The  highest concenlration tolerated by  eels  for
50 hours  was 6300 mg/1 (Doudoroff  and Katz  1953).150
Mcinck et al.  (1956)22V noted the first toxic  effects for  fish
of MnQ.) at 330 mg 1,  with  the lethal concentration at
800 mg/1.
   Only a few studies of sublethal effects of  manganese on
fish  have  been reported. Ludemann (1953)222 noted some
of the symptoms of toxicity of manganese  to  fish, crabs,
and  fish food organisms. Abou-Donia and Menzel (1967)103
noted an effect of 1.25X10~4 M manganese  (6.9 mg ''!) on
the enzyme acetylcholinesterase in shiner perch
   In studies on the uptake  of radionuclides  on the Pacific
testing grounds of Bikini and Eniwetok. it was found that
the neutron-induced isotope of manganese 31Mn was con-
centrated by as much as 4000 in phytoplankton and 12,000
in the muscle or soft tissue of mollusks (Lowman I960,220
Lowman  et al. 1971221).  Goldberg  et al.  (1971 )m list  the
concentration factor of manganese in  marine  plants  and
animals as approximately 3000.

Recommendation
   In view of  the  evidence for concentration  of
manganese  by marine organisms, an application
factor of 0.02 of the 96 hr LC50 for the most sensitive
species to be protected is recommended.
   Until more complete  information on acute and
sublethal  effects  of  manganese on marine orga-
nisms is available, it  is  suggested that concen-
trations of 0.1 mg/1  or more  of  total manganese
in the marine environment  may constitute a haz-
ard, and  concentrations  of less  than 0.02 mg/1
present minimal risk.

Mercury
   Mercury naturally leaches from cinnabar (HgS) deposits.
Man-made sources of mercury have been in  plastics manu-
facture, where mercury oxide is used as a catalyst, chlor-
alkali  plants  where  mercury  cells are  used,  mercurial
slimacides used in the pulp  and paper  industry and in
other forest product anti-fungal applications, seed dressings
used in combatting smuts and other fungal diseases afflicting
seeds,  and in anti-fouling paints. An estimated 5000  tons
of mercury per year arc  transferred from  the continents to
the oceans as a result  of  continental weathering (Klein
and  Goldberg 1970).203 Global production  of mercury is
currently about twice as high, in  the order of 9000 metric
tons  per year (Hammond 1971).176 The burning of  pe-
troleum releases  in the order  of 1600 tons of mercury into
the atmosphere  per year (Bertine and Goldberg 1971).122
A conservative estimate of the amount of mercury released
per year into the global environment from the  burning of
coal  is in the order  of 3000  tons (Joensuu  1971) 195 The
total amount of mercury estimated to be in the oceans is
in the order of 108 metric tons, approximately three orders
of magnitude higher than the total  amount of mercury
consumed in the United States  since 1900. Mercury in
marine  organisms  is,  therefore, most probably of natural
origin except in localized areas.
   One hundred and eleven persons were reported poisoned,
41 died, and  others suffered serious neurological damage as
a  result of eating fish and shellfish which had been con-
taminated  with  mercury  discharged  into Minamata  Bay
by a plastics manufacturing plant between  1950 and 1960
(Irukayama  1967).187 In 1965, another poisoning  incident
was  reported in  Niigata, Japan,  where 5 people died  and
26 suffered irreversible neurological damage (Ui  I967).292
In Minamata it was also found  that cats eating the con-
taminated fish and shellfish took  suicidal plunges  into the
sea,  an uncommon  occurrence with these  mammals  (Ui
and  Kitamura 1970).293
   Metallic mercury  can  be  converted  by  bacteria  into
methyl  mercury (Jensen and Jernclov  1969,192 Jernelov
 1969,194 Lofroth  196921S). Organometallic mercury is much
more toxic than the metallic mercury and enters  the food
cycle through uptake  by  aquatic  plants,  lower forms of
animal  life, and fish (Jernelov 1969).194 The concentration
factor of mercury in fish was reported as 3,000 and higher
(Hannerz  1968,177  Johncls and  Westermark  1969196). A
voluntary form  of control  was imposed  in  Sweden  where
anglers were requested not to eat more  than one fish per
week from a given lake to minimize human intake.
   High  mercury concentrations  in  birds  and fish  were
reported on the Canadian prairies in 1969 (Fimreite 1970,160
Wobeser et al.  1970,301 Bligh 1971I2(i). The source  of the
mercury in the birds was apparently mercurial seed dressing
consumed with grain by the birds; whereas in fish,  mercury
came largely from emissions of a  chlor-alkali plant using a
mercury cell.
   The Food  and Drug  Directorate of Canada set a level of
0.5 parts per million as the maximum permissible concen-
tration  in fish products. The 0.5 parts per million level was
set as an interim guideline, not a regulation based on  any
known  safe  level  for  mercury (Canada  Food and  Drug
Directorate,  personal  communication).311  A  similar guideline
was adopted in the U.S. (Kolbye  1970).20S These limits were
based on the lethal concentrations found in Minamata Bay,
Japan,  and on the levels set by the World Health Organi-
zation  (WHO)  in cooperation with  the  Food and Agri-

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252/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
cultural Organization (FAO). The level set by WHO/FAO
was  0.05 ppm, based on total food (WHO  1967).305 The
concentrations  which were found lethal  to  the  Japanese
consuming fish  and shellfish contaminated by mercury were
10 to 50 ing/kg total mercury (Birke et  al.  1968).m The
Swedish limit was 1.0 ppm  of mercury in fish (Berglund
and  Wretling  1967)121   based on  dry weight,  which  is
equivalent  to 0.2 ppm wet weight (Wallace et al.  1971).295
  Although the emphasis has been on the effects of mercury
on man, aquatic  organisms  can be  affected  by various
mercury compounds. Mercury markedly alters  the epi-
thelium of skin  and gills in  fishes  (Schweiger  1957).261
Mercuric chloride in water containing developing eggs  of
Paracentrolus hvidis brought about a severe disturbance of de-
velopment  at 10 jug/I (Soyer 1963).2fi(i A concentration  of
5 /ug.'l retarded development markedly. These studies sug-
gested that the threshold  for harmful effects of mercuric
chloride on developing eggs of Paracentrolus was  around 2
to 3  jug/1 (Soyer 1963).266 Studies conducted on developing
salmon eggs (Oncorliynchus nerka  and 0.  gorbuscha) at the
International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission  Lab-
oratory in  Cultus  Lake, B.C., showed that concentrations
of mercury at levels exceeding 3 /ng 1 mercury derived from
mercuric sulfate led to  severe deformities (Servizi,  unpub-
lished rtW
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                                                                                         Categories of Pollutants/253
molybdenum for the manufacture of special tool steels. It
is  available in a number  of oxide  forms as well as the
disulphide. Molyhdic acid is used in  a number of chemical
applications and in make-up  of glazes for ceramics
  Molybdenum has not  been considered  as  a serious pol-
lutant, but it  is a biologically active metal.  It may be  an
important element insofar as  protection of the ecosystem is
concerned  because  of its role in algal physiology. Certain
species of algae can concentrate molybdenum  by a factor
up to 15 (Lackey 1959).21" Bioassay  tests in  fresh water  on
the fathead minnow gave a 96-hour LC50 for  molybdic
anhydride  (MoO3)  of 70 nig 1 in soft water  and  370 mg/1
in hard water. Although molybdenum is essential for the
growth of the  alga  Scenedesmus, the threshold concentration
for a deleterious effect  is 54 mg/1.  Molybdenum concen-
tration factors for marine  species have been reported  as:
8 in benthic algae; 26 in zooplankton; 60 in soft parts of
molluscs:  10 in crustacean muscles;  and  10  in fish muscle
(Lo\\man et al. 1971).221

Recommendation
   The  panel recommends that the concentration
of molybdenum  in sea water not exceed 0.05 of the
96-hour  LC50 at any time  for  the  most sensitive
species in sea water,  and that the 24-hour average
not exceed 0.02 of the 96-hour LC50.

Nickel
   Nickel docs not occur naturally in elemental form. It is
present  as  a constituent  in many  ores,  minerals  and soils,
particularly in serpentine-rock-clerived soils.
   Nickel is comparatively inert and is used in corrosion-
resistant materials, long-lived batteries, electrical contacts,
spark plugs, and electrodes. Nickel is used as a catalyst in
hydrogenation of oils and other organic  substances.  Its
salts are used  for dyes in ceramic, fabric, and ink manu-
facturing.  Nickel  may  enter  waters from  mine  wastes,
electroplating  plants, and from atmospheric emissions.
  Nickel ions  are toxic, particularly  to plant life, and may
exhibit synergism  when  present with other  metallic ions.
Nickel salts  in combination with  a  cyanide salt  form
moderately toxic cyanide complexes which, as nickel sulfatc
combined with sodium cyanide,  gave a 48-hour LC50 of
2.5 ing/l and  a 96-hour  LC50 of 0.95 mg •'! as CN~,  using
fathead  minnows (Pimephales  promelas) at  20  C (Doudoroff
1956).11S Alkaline conditions reduced toxicity of a nickel
cyanide complex considerably, with  concentrations below
100 nig  1 showing no apparent toxic effect on fish.
  Nickel salts can substantially inhibit  the biochemical
oxidation  of  sewage  (Malaney et  al. 1959).223 In  fresh
waters, nickel  has  been reported to be less toxic to fish
and  river  crabs  than  zinc,  copper,  and iron (Podubsky
and Stedronsky 1948).M However, other investigators found
nickel to be more  toxic  to fish  than iron and manganese
(Doudoroff and Katz 1953). 1:'°
  Ellis  (1937)166 reported that  nickelous  chloride from
electroplating wastes did not kill goldfish (Carassius auratus)
at 10 mg/1 during a 200-hour exposure in very soft water.
Wood (1964)304 reported that  12 mg/1  of  nickel ion kill
fish in 1  day and 0.8 mg/1 kill fish in 10 days. Doudoroff
and Katz (1953)150 reported survival of stickleback (Gastero-
steus  aculeatus) for 1  week in 1  mg/1 of nickel as Ni(NO3)2.
  The lethal limit  of nickel to sticklebacks has been re-
ported as 0.8 mg/1 (Murdock 1953)234 and 1.0 mg/1 (Jones
1939).19S The median lethal concentration of nickel chloride
(NiCl2,6H2O) was reported as 4.8 mg 1 for guppies (Recilia
reliculala) (Shaw and Lowrancc 1956).262 Goldfish (Carassius
auratus) were killed by nickel chloride at 4.5 mg/1 as nickel
in 200 hours (Rudolfs et al. 1953).256 Tarzwell and Hender-
son (I960)278 reported 96-hour LCSO's for fathead minnows
(Pimephalespromelas) as 4.0 mg/1 in soft water and 24 mg/1
in hard water, expressed as NiGl2,6112O. Anderson (1948)112
reported a  threshold  concentration  of nickel chloride for
immobilization of Daphma in Lake Erie \vater at 25 G to
be less than 0.7 mg 1 in 64 hours of exposure. Bringmann
and  Kuhn (1959a,131 1959I)132)  reported  nickel chloride
threshold concentrations as nickel of 1.5 mg/1 for Sceriedemms,
0.1 mg/1 for Eschenclna coli, and 0.05 mg/1 for Microregma.
   Nickel is present in sea water at 5 to  7 jug 1, in  marine
plants at up to 3 mg/1, and in marine animals at about
0.4 mg/1.
   Marine  toxicity  data for  nickel  are  limited. The top
minnow Fundulus was found to  survive in concentrations of
100  mg/1 Nickel from the chloride in salt water, although
the same species was killed  by 8.1  mg/1 of the salt  (3.7
mg/1 Ni) in tap water (Thomas cited by Doudoroff and
Katz  1953).1M Long-term studies on  oysters (Haydu un-
published data)31* showed substantial  mortality at a nickel
concentration of 0.12 mg/1. Calabrese  et  al. (unpublished
data)"10 found 1.54 mg/1 of nickel to be the LC50 for eggs
of the oyster (Ciassoslrea virgimca).

Recommendation
   It is recommended that  an application factor of
0.02 be applied to  96-hour LC50 data  on the most
sensitive  marine species to be protected. Although
limited data are available  on the marine environ-
ment, it is suggested that concentrations of nickel
in excess of 0.1 mg/1 would pose a hazard to marine
organisms, and  0.002 mg/1  should pose minimal
risk.

Phosphorus
   Phosphorus as phosphate is  one of the major nutrients
required for algal nutrition. In this form it is not normally
toxic to  aquatic organisms or to man. Phosphate in large
quantities  in natural  waters, particularly in fresh  waters,
can lead to nuisance  algal growths and  to eutrophication.
This is particularly true if there is a sufficient amount of
nitrate  or  other nitrogen compounds  to supplement the

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 254/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 phosphate. Thus,  there is a need for control of phosphate
 input  into marine waters. See Sewage and  Nutrients, p.
 275, for a discussion of the effects of phosphate as a nutrient.
   Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic
 and subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as
 mercury  (Ackman et al. 1970,104 Fletcher 1971162). Isom
 (1960) 188 reported an LC50 of 0.105 mg/1 at 48 hours and
 0.025 mg/1 at 163 hours for bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macro-
 chirus) exposed to yellow phosphorus in distilled water at
 26 C and pH 7.
   Phosphorus poisoning of fish occurred  on the coast of
 Newfoundland in 1969 and demonstrated what can happen
 when the form of an element entering the sea is unknown
 or at least not properly recognized (Idler 1969,185 Jangaard
 1970,191 Mann and Sprague 1970224). The elemental phos-
 phorus was  released in colloidal form and  remained in
 suspension (Addison and Ackman 1970).105 After the release
 of phosphorus was initiated, red herrings began to appear.
 The red discoloration was caused by haemolysis, typical of
 phosphorus poisoning in herring (Clupea harengus), and ele-
 mental phosphorus was found in  herring,  among  other
 fishes,  collected 15  miles away  (Idler 1969,185 Jangaard
 1970m).
   Fish will concentrate phosphorus from water containing
 as little asoneyug/1 (Idler 1969).185 In one set of experiments,
 a  cod swimming in water containing one /zg/1 elemental
 phosphorus  for 18  hours  was sacrificed  and  the tissues
 analyzed. The white muscle contained about  50 Mg/kg, the
 brown, fat tissue about 150 Mg/kg, and the liver  25,000 jug/'l
 (Idler 1969,185 Jangaard 1970191). The experimental findings
 showed that  phosphorus is quite stable in the  fish tissues.
 Fish with concentrated phosphorus  in their  tissues  could
 swim for considerable distances before succumbing. In ad-
 dition  to the red surface  discoloration in herring,  other
 diagnostic features of phosphorus poisoning included  green
 discoloration of the liver and a  breakdown of the epithelial
 lining of the lamellae of the gill (Idler 1969).185
   A school of herring came into  the harbor one and one-
 half months  after  the phosphorus plant  had been closed
 down.  These  herring spawned on the wharf and rocks near
 the effluent pipe, and many of them turned red and died.
A  few days later, "red" herring were caught  at the mouth
of the  harbor on  their way out. The herring  picked up
phosphorus from the bottom sediments which  contained
high concentrations near the  effluent pipeline (Ackman
et al.  1970).104 Subsequently,  this  area  was dredged by
suction pipeline, and the mud was pumped to settling and
 treatment ponds. No further instances of red  herring were
reported after the  dredging operation, and the water was
 comparatively free of elemental phosphorus (Addison et al.
 1971).106
   Reports of  red  cod caught  in the Placentia Bay  area
 were investigated, and it was found that no phosphorus was
 present in the cod tissues. Surveys of various fishing areas
 in Newfoundland  established that  red cod are no  more
prevalent in  Placentia Bay than in other areas.  In labora
tory studies, cocl exposed to ele mental phosphorus have nc
shown  the  red  discoloration  observed  in  herring an
salmonids. However, cod do concentrate phosphorus in th
muscle  tissue as  well  as in the liver  and can  eventual!
succumb to phosphorus poisoning  (Dyer et al. 1970).lr>4
   It was demonstrated by f.eld investigations and labors
tory experiments  (Ackman et  al.  1970,104 Fletcher et  a
1970,"13  Li  et al.  1970,216 Zitko  et  al. 1970,309 Fletche
1971162) that elemental phosp/iorus accounted for the fis
mortalities in Placentia Bay  This is not to say  that olhe
pollutants, such as fluorides, cyanides, and ammonia, weir
not present (Idler 1969).185
   The conclusion  was  reached by  the scientists working o
the problem  that  elemental phosphorus in conccntratior
so low that they  would be barely within  the limits  of dt
tection are capable of being concentrated by fish. Furthe
work is needed on the effects  of  very  low concentratior
of phosphorus on  fish  over extended periods. Discharge  c
elemental phosphorus  into the sea is not recommended.

Recommendation
   It is recommended that an application  factor o
0.01 be applied to  marine 96-hour LC50  data fo
the appropriate organisms most  sensitive to ele
mental phosphorus. On the basis of data  available
at this time it  is suggested that concentrations  o
elemental phosphorus equal to or exceeding  1 ^g/
constitute a hazard to the  marine environment.

Selenium
   Selenium  has been  regarded as one of the  dangerou
chemicals reaching  the aquatic  environment  Seleniur
occurs naturally in certain pasture areas. Toxicity  of s<_
lenium is sometimes counteracted by the addition of arseni
which  acts as  an antagonist. Selenium occurs  in  nalur
chiefly in combination  with  heavy  metals.  It exists   i
several forms including amorphous, colloidal,  crystalline
and  grey.  Each  physical state has different character!'
tics,  soluble in one form, but  insoluble in another. Th
crystalline  and grey  forms conduct  electricity, and th
conductivity  is increased by  light. This  property   makt
the element suitable for photoelectric cells and other phc
tometry  uses. Selenium  is also used  in the manufactur
of ruby glass, in wireless telegraphy and  photography,  i:
vulcanizing  rubber,  in insecticidal preparations, and  ii
flameproofing electric cables  The  amorphous form is use<
as a catalyst in determination of nitrogen and for dehydroge
nation of organic  compounds.
  Ellis (1937)15"  showed  that  goldfish (Carassius auratus
could survive for 98 to 144 hours in soft water of pH rangin;
from 6.4 to 7.3 at 10 mg/1  sodium  selenite.  Other dat;
(ORSANGO  1950)243  showed that 2.0 mg/1 of seleniun
administered as sodium selenite was toxic in 8 days, affectim
appetite  and equilibrium,  and  lethal in  18 to 46  days

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                                                                                        Categories of Pollutants/255
More work is required to test for effects of selenium com-
pounds under  different  conditions.  Daphnia exhibited a
threshold  effect at 2.5 mg/1 of selenium in  a 48-hour ex-
posure at  23  C (Bringmann and Kuhn 1959a).131 Barnhart
(1958)m  reported  that  mortalities  of  fish  stocked in a
Colorado  reservoir were  caused  by selenium  leached from
bottom deposits,  passed  through the food chain, and ac-
cumulated to lethal concentrations by the fish in their liver.

Recommendation
  In view of the  possibility  that selenium may be
passed through the food chain and accumulated in
fish, it is recommended that an application factor
of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for
the  appropriate  organisms  most  sensitive  to  se-
lenium. On the basis of data available at this time,
it is suggested  that  concentrations of  selenium
equal to  or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute a hazard
in the marine  environment, and  levels  less than
0.005  mg/1  present  minimal risk of  deleterious
effects.

Silver
  Silver is one of the more commercially important metals;
4,938 tons were consumed in the U.S. during 1968, exclud-
ing that used for  monetary purposes  (U.S  Department of
the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969).-^ It is the best known
conductor of heat and electricity. Although not oxidized by
air,  silver is readily affected  by hydrogen sulfide  to form
the black  silver sulfide.
  Silver has many uses. In addition to making currency, it
is used for photographic  purposes,  for various chemical
purposes,  and also  in jewelry  making and in siherplating
of cutlery.
  Silver is toxic to aquatic animals.  Concentrations of 400
US, 1 killed 90 per cent of test barnacles  (Balanus balanoides)
in 48 hours (Clarke  1947).14n Concentrations of silver nitrate
from 10 to 100 jug 1 caused abnormal or inhibited develop-
ment of eggs  of Puracentrotus and  concentrations of 2 /ug  1 of
silver nitrate  delayed development and caused deformation
of the resulting plutei (Soyer  1963).21'6 Adverse effects oc-
curred  at concentrations below  0.25 /f!>/l °f silver nitrate,
and  several days were required to eliminate  adverse effects
by placing organisms in clean water  (Soyer 1963).260 Silver
nitrate effects on development of Arbana  have been reported
at approximately 0.5 jug/1  (Soyer 1963,2fi(; Wilber  1969299).
In combination with silver, copper  acts additively on the
development of Paracentiotus eggs (Soyer 1963).2GG On a
comparative  basis on studies on Echinoderm eggs (Soyer
1963),-'''''  silver has been found to  be  about 80  times as
toxic as zinc, 20 times as toxic as copper, and  10  times as
toxic as mercury.
  Calabrese et al. (unpublished manuscript)310 noted an LC50
of 0.006 mg'l silver for eggs of the American oyster (Cras-
sostrea virginica). Jones  (1948)200 reported that the lethal
concentration limit of silver, applied  as silver nitrate,  for
sticklebacks  (Gasterosleus aculeatus)  at 15 to 18 C was 0.003
mg/1, which was  confirmed approximately by  Anderson
(1948),112 who found 0.0048  mg/1  to be the toxic threshold
for  sticklebacks. Jackim et  al.  (1970)190  reported  adverse
effects on the liver enzymes of the killifish Fundulus heterochtus
at 0.04 mg/1 of silver.
  The sublethal  responses  to silver  compounds may be
great, in view of the effects on developing eggs; and further
research should be conducted on effects of sublethal concen-
trations of silver compounds by themselves and  in combi-
nation with other chemicals. The disruption  of normal
embryology  or  of  nutrition  could be  of much greater  im-
portance than direct mortality in the perpetuation of the
species.
  Concentrations  of silver  cannot exceed  that  permitted
by  the low solubility product of silver chloride.  However,
silver complexes may be present,  and their effects are  un-
known.

Recommendation
  It  is recommended that the concentrations of
silver in marine waters  not exceed  0.05 of the  96-
hour LC50 for the appropriate species most sensi-
tive to silver. On the basis of data available at this
time, it  is suggested  that concentrations of silver
equal to or exceeding 5 /ug/1 constitute a hazard to
the marine  environment, and  levels less than  1
Mg/1 present minimal risk of  deleterious effects.

Sulfides
  Sulfides in the form of hydrogen sulfide have the odor of
rotten eggs and are quite toxic. Hydrogen sulfide is soluble
in water to  the extent of 4000 mg/1 at 20 C and 1 atmos-
phere. Sulfides are produced as a by-product in tanneries,
chemical  plants, and petroleum refineries, and are used in
pulp  mills,  chemical precipitation, and  in  chemical  pro-
duction. Hydrogen sulfide is produced in natural decompo-
sition processes and  in anaerobic digestion of sewage and
industrial wastes. Sulfate in  sea water is reduced to sulfide
in the absence of oxygen. In the presence of certain sulfur-
utilizing   bacteria, sulficles  can  be oxidized  to colloidal
sulfur. At the normal pH and oxidation-reduction potential
of aerated sea water, sulfides quickly oxidize to sulfates.
  Hydrogen sulfide  dissociates into its constituent ions in
two equilibrium  stages,  which  are  dependent  on  pH
(McKee  and Wolf 1963).22e
  The toxicity of sulfides  to  fish increases as  the pH  is
lowered because of the HS~ or H2S molecule  (Southgate
1948).2C5 Inorganic sulfides are fatal to sensitive species such
as  trout  at  concentrations  of 0.05 to 1.0 mg/1,  even in
neutral   and  somewhat  alkaline  solutions  (Doudoroff
1957).149 Hydrogen sulfide generated from bottom deposits
was reported to be lethal to  oysters (de Oliveira  1924).145
  Bioassays  with  species of Pacific  salmon (Oncorhynchus

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2 56/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
tshauytscha, 0. kisutch) and sea-run trout (Salmo darkii clarkii)
showed toxicity of hydrogen sulfide at 1.0 mg/1 and survival
without injury at 0.3 mg/1 (Van Horn et al. 1949,291 Dimick
1952,147 Haydu et al. 1952,179 Murdock 1953,234 Van Horn
1959290).  Holland et al.  (I960)182 reported that  1  mg/1 of
sulfide caused loss of equilibrium in 2  hours, first kills in
3  hours,  and  100  per  cent mortality in 72 hours  with
Pacific salmon.
   Hydrogen sulfide in  bottom sediments can  affect the
maintenance of benthic invertebrate populations  (Thiede
et al.  1969).280  The eggs and juvenile stages of most aquatic
organisms appear to be more sensitive to sulfides  than do
the adults. Adelman and Smith (1970)107 noted that hy-
drogen sulfide concentrations  of 0.063 and  0.020 mg/1
killed northern pike (Esox lucius) eggs and fry, respectively;
and at 0.018 and 0.006 mg/1, respectively, reduced survival,
increased anatomical malformations, or decreased length
were reported.
Recommendation
   It is recommended that an application  factor of
0.1 be applied to marine  96-hour LC50  for the
appropriate  organisms  most sensitive  to sulfide.
On the  basis of data available at  this  time, it is
suggested that concentrations  of sulfide  equal to
or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the
marine  environment,  and  levels  less than  0.095
mg/1 present minimal risk of  deleterious  effects,
with the pH  maintained within  a range of 6.5 to 8.5.
Thallium
   Thallium salts are  used as  poison for  rats and  other
rodents and are cumulative poisons.  They are also used for
dyes,  pigments in fireworks, optical glass, and  as  a de-
pilatory.
   Thallium forms alloys with  other metals  and readily
amalgamates with mercury.  It  is used in a wide variety of
compounds. Nehring (1963)238 reported that thallium ions
were toxic to fishes and  aquatic invertebrates. The response
of fishes to thallium poisoning is similar to that of man, an
elevation in blood pressure.  In  both the fish and  inverte-
brates, thallium appears  to act  as a neuro-poison  (Wilber
1969) .2"
  Adverse effects of thallium nitrate have been reported for
rainbow  trout  (Salmo gairdneri)  at levels of 10  to 15 mg/1;
for perch (Perca fluviatihs) at levels of 60 mg/1;  for roach
(Rutilus rutihs) at levels of 40  to 60 mg/1; for water flea
(Daphnia  sp.) at levels of 2 to 4 mg/1; and for Gammarus sp.
at levels  of 4 mg/1. The damage was shown within three
days for the various aquatic organisms tested. Damage also
resulted if the fish were  exposed  to  much  lower  concen-
trations for longer periods of time (Wilber  1969) .2"
Recommendation
   Because of a chronic effect of long-term exposure
of fish to thallium,  tests should be conducted for
at least  20 days  on sensitive  species.  Technique
should  measure  circulatory disturbances (bloo
pressure) and other sublethal effects  in order  t
determine harmful concentrations. The  concen
tration in sea water should not exceed 0.05 of thi
concentration.  On the basis of data available  2
this  time, it is suggested that concentrations  (
thallium equal to or exceeding 0.1 mg/1 constitul
a hazard in  the  marine  environment, and leve
less than 0.05 mg/1 present minimal risk of del*
terious effects.

Uranium
  Uranium is present in wastes  from uranium mines an
nuclear fuel processing plants, and the  uranyl ion mz
naturally  occur in drainage waters  from  uranium-bearir
ore deposits. Small  amounts may also arise from its use i
tracer work, chemical processes, photography, painting an
glazing porcelain, coloring glass, and in  the hard  steel
high tensile strength used for gun barrels.
  Many of the salts of uranium are soluble in water, an
it is present at about  3  fig 1  in sea water.  A  significat
proportion of the uranium in  sea water  is in the form i
stable complexes with anionic constituents. It  has  bee
estimated  that uranium  has a residence time of 3XK
years in the oceans (Goldberg et al. 1971),172 a span th;
makes it one of the elements with the slowest turnover tim
Uranium  is stabilized by hydrolysis which tends to protet
it against  chemical  and physical interaction and thus pn
vents its removal from sea water. The salts are considere
to be 4 times as germicidal  as phenol to aquatic organism
  Natural uranium  (U-238) is concentrated from water  f
the algae Ochromonas by a factor of 330 in 48 hours (Morga
1961).232 Using River Havel water,  Bringmann and Kuh
(1959a,m  1959b132) determined the threshold effect of uran-
nitrate, expressed as uranium, at 28 mg/1 on a protozoa
(Microregma), 1.7  to 2.2 mg/1 on Eschenchia  Coli, 22  mg
on the alga Scenedesmus, and 13 mg/1 on Daphnia. Tarzwe
and  Henderson (1956)277 found the sulfate, nitrate, an
acetate salts of uranium considerably more toxic to fathea
minnows  (Pimephales promelas) on 96-hour exposure in so
water than in hard water, the 96-hr LC50 for uranyl sulfal
being 2.8  mg/1 in soft water and 135 mg/1 in hard wate
  The sparse data foi uranium toxicity in  sea water suggc,
that uranyl salts are less toxic to marine organisms than t
freshwater organisms. Yeasts in the Black Sea were fouri
to be more active than the bacteria in  taking up uraniur
(Pshenin   I960).261 Studies by Koenuma  (1956)205 showe
that  the formation of the fertilization membrane of L'rech
eggs was  inhibited  by  250 mg/1 of uranyl nitrate in se
water, and that this concentration led to polyspermy.

Recommendation
  It is recommended that an application factor o
0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour  LC50  data fo

-------
                                                                                      Categories of Pollutants/257
the  appropriate  organisms  most  sensitive  to
uranium.  On  the basis  of data  available at this
time it is suggested that concentrations of uranium
equal to or exceeding 0.5 mg/1 constitute a hazard
in  the marine environment, and levels  less than
0.1 mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects.

Vanadium
  Vanadium occurs  in various minerals, such as  chileite
and vanadinite. It is used in  the manufacture of vanadium
steel.  Vanadates were used at  one time to a small extent
for  medicinal purposes. Vanadium has been concentrated
by  certain marine organisms during the formation of oil-
bearing strata in geological time. Consequently, vanadium
enters  the  atmosphere  through  the combustion of fossil
fuels,  particularly oil. In addition,  eighteen compounds ol
vanadium are used widely in commercial processes (Council
on  Emironmental Quality 1971).ul

Recommendation
  It  is  recommended  that  the  concentration of
vanadium in sea water not  exceed 0.05 of the 96-
hour LC50 for the most sensitive  species.

Zinc
  Most of the available information on zinc  toxicity is for
freshwater  organisms,  and for this reason the reader is
referred to the discussion of zinc in Section III, p. 182.

Recommendation
  Because of the bioaccumulation of zinc through
the food web,  with high concentrations  occurring
particularly  in the invertebrates, it  is  recom-
mended that an application factor of 0.01  be ap-
plied  to marine 96-hour  LC50 data  for the  ap-
propriate  organisms most sensitive to zinc. On the
basis of data available at this time, it is  suggested
that  concentrations of zinc  equal to or  exceeding
0.1 mg/1  constitute a  hazard  in the marine  en-
vironment, and levels less than 0.02  mg/1 present
minimal risk of deleterious effects.
  It should  be  noted  that there is  a synergistic
effect when zinc is present with other heavy metals,
e.g.,  Cu and  Cd,  in which case the  application
factor  may  have  to be  lowered  by an order of
magnitude (LaRoche 1972).2"

OIL IN  THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

  Oil is becoming one of the most widespread contaminants
of the ocean. BJumer (1969)3'9 has  estimated that between
1 and  10 million metric  tons  of oil may be entering  the
oceans from all sources. Most of this influx takes place in
coastal regions, but oil slicks and tar balls have also been
observed on  the  high  seas  (Horn et  al. 1970,334 Morris
1971343). Collections  of tar balls were made by towing a
neuston net which skims the surface, and the investigators
found that the tar  balls were  more abundant than the
normal sargassum weed in the open Atlantic, and that their
nets quickly became  so coated with tar  and oil that they
were unusable. Thus, oil pollution of the sea has become a
global problem of great, even though as yet inadequately
assessed, significance  to the fisheries of the world.

Sources of Oil Pollution

  Although accidental oil spills  are spectacular events and
attract the most public attention, they constitute only about
10 per cent of the total amount of oil entering the marine
environment. The other 90 per cent originates from the
normal operation of  oil-carrying tankers, other ships, off-
shore  production, refinery operations, and the disposal  of
oil-waste materials (Table IV-4).
  Two sources of oil  contamination of the sea not listed  in
Table  IV-4 are the seepage of oil from  underwater oil
reservoirs  through natural causes  and the  transport of oil
in the atmosphere from which it precipitates to the surface
of the sea. Natural seepage is probably small compared  to
the direct input to  the ocean  (Blumer  1972);320 but the
atmospheric transport,  which includes hydrocarbons  that
have evaporated or been emitted by engines after incomplete
combustion, may be  greater than  the direct input.
  Some of these sources of oil pollution  can  be controlled
more  rigorously than others, but without  application  of
adequate  controls wherever possible the  amount  of pe-
troleum hydrocarbons entering  the sea  will increase.  Our
technology is based upon an expanding  use of petroleum;
and the production of oil from submarine reservoirs and
the use  of the  sea to transport oil will both increase.  It is
estimated  that the world production of  crude  oil in 1969
was nearly 2 billion  tons; on this basis  total losses to the
sea are  somewhat over 0.1  per  cent of world production.
  TABLE IV-4—Estimated Direct Petroleum Hydrocarbon
     Losses to the Marine  Environment (Airborne
      Hydrocarbons Deposited on the Sea Surface are
                    Not Included)
                   (Millions of tons)


1. Tankers
2. Other ships
3. Offshore production
4. Refinery operations
5. Oil wastes
G. Accidental spills
TOTAL
Total Crude Oil Production
1969

.530
.500
.100
.300
.550
.200
2.180
1820
1975 (estimate)'
Mm
.056
.705
.160
.200
.825
.300
2.246

Max
805
.705
.320
.450
.825
.300
3.405
2700
1980 (estimate)
Mm
.075
.940
.230
.440
1.200
.440
3.325

Max
1.0G2
.940
.460
.650
1.200
.400
4.752
4000
 «The minimum estimates assume full use ol known technology; the maximums assume continuation ol presen
practices.
 Revelle et al. 1972'".

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258/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Some losses in the exploitation, transportation, and use of a
natural resource are inevitable; but if this loss ratio cannot
be radically improved, the oil pollution of the ocean will
increase as our utilization increases.

Biological  Effects  of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
  Description of Oil Pollution  Oil  is  a mixture of
many  compounds, and there are  conflicting views  con-
cerning its  toxicity to marine organisms. Crude oils may
contain thousands of compounds, and will differ markedly
in their composition and in such physical  properties as
specific gravity, viscosity, and boiling-point  distribution.
The hydrocarbons in oil  cover a wide range of molecular
weights from  16 (methane) to over 20,000. Structurally,
they  include   aliphatic  compounds  with   straight   and
branched chains, olefins, and the aromatic ring compounds.
Crude oils differ mainly  in the relative concentrations of
the individual members of these series of compounds. The
various refinery processes to which oil is subjected are de-
signed to isolate specific parts of the broad  spectrum of
crude oil compounds,  but the refined products themselves
remain complex mixtures of many types of hydrocarbons.
  In spite  of the many differences among them, crude oils
and their refined products all contain compounds that are
toxic to species of marine organisms. When released to the
marine environment,  these compounds react differently.
Some are soluble  in the water; others evaporate from the
sea surface, form extensive oil slicks, or settle to the bottom
if sand becomes  incorporated in  the  oil globule.  More
complete  understanding  of  toxicity  and the  ecological
effects of oil spills will require studies of the  effects of indi-
vidual components, or at least of classes of components, of
the complex mixture that  made up the original oil. The
recent development of gas  chromatography has made  it
possible to isolate and identify various fractions of oil and
to follow  their entry into  the  marine  system  and  their
transfer from organism to organism.
  An oil slick  on  the  sea surface can be  visually detected
by  iridescence  or  color, the first trace of which is  formed
when  100 gallons of oil  spread over 1  square  mile (146
liters/km2)  (American  Petroleum Institute   1949).117  The
average thickness of such a film is 0.145 microns. Under
ideal laboratory conditions, a film 0.038 microns thick can
be detected visually (American Petroleum Institute 1963).318
For remote sensing purposes, oil films with a thickness of
100 microns can  be detected using  dual polarized  radi-
ometers, 1  micron using radar imagery,  and 0.1  microns
using multispectral imagery in the UV  region (Catoe and
Orthlieb 1971).323 A summary of remote  sensing capabilities
is presented in Table  IV—5. Because remote  sensing is less
effective than the eye  in detecting surface oil, any concen-
tration of oil detectable by remote means currently available
will exceed the recommendations given  below.
   The death of marine birds from oiling is one of the earliest
and most  obvious effects of oil slicks on the sea surface.
Thousands of seabirds of all varieties are often involved i
a large spill.  Even when the birds are cleaned, they frc
quently die because  the toxic: oil is ingested in preenin
their feathers. Dead oiled  birds are often found along th
coast when no known major oil spill has occurred, and th
cause of death remains unknoivn.
  When an  oil spill occurs near  shore  or  an oil  slick
brought to the intertidal zone and beaches,  extensive moi
tality  of marine  organisms occurs. When  the  Tarnpic
Maru  ran aground  off Baja  California in 1957,  aboi_
60,000 barrels of spilled diesel fuel caused widespread cleat
among lobsters,  abalones,  sea  urchins,  starfish,  mussel
clams, and hosts of smaller forms (North 1967).344 A bent
ficial side effect of this accident  was also noted  by NorU
When  the sea urchins that grazed on the economically irr
portant kelp beds of the area were killed in massive numbei
by the oil spill, huge canopies of kelp returned within a fe'
months (see p. 237).  The oil spills  from  the wreck  of tln
tanker  Torrey Canyon  and  (he Santa  Barbara  oil we
blowout both  involved  crude oil,  and  in  both cases  o
reached the  beaches in variable amounts some  time afu
release. The  oil may thus have  been diluted and modifie
by  evaporation or  sinking  before  it reached  the bead
In  the Santa Barbara  spill many  birds  died,  and entir
plant and animal communities in  the intertidal  zone wer
killed  by a layer of  encrusti iu oil often 1 or 2 centimetei
thick  (Holmes 1967).i;i! At locations where ihe oil film wi
not so obvious,  intertidal  organisms \\ere not  severel
damaged  (Foster ct  al. 1970).:l27 In the case of the Torre
Canyon, the deleterious effects have been attributed mor
to the detergents  and dispersants used to  control  the  o
than to the oil itself (Smith 1968).347
  A relatively small oil spill in West Falmouth,  Mass?
chusetts. occurred within  a few miles of the Woods Hoi
Oceanographic Institution  in   September  1969.  An  o
barge, the Florida, was driven onto (he Buzzards Bay Shor
where it released  between 650 and 700 tons of  No. 2 fu<
oil  into the  coastal  waters. Studies of the  biological  an
chemical effects of this spill are continuing,  mote than tw
years  after  the  event  (Blumer  1969,119  Hampson  an
Sanders 1969,3S1 Blumer et al.  1970,3~  Blumer and Sa:
1972321). Massive destruction of a wide range of fish, she]
fish, worms, crabs, other crustaceans, and invertebrates o(
curred in the region immediately after the accident. Botton
living  fish and lobsters were killed  and washed  ashore
Dredge samples taken  in  10 feet  of water  soon after th
spill showed that 95  per cent of the animals  recovered wer
dead  and the others moribund. Much of the evidence  c
this immediate toxicity disappeared within a  few day:
either  because of  the breaking  up  of the soft parts of th
organism, burial  in  the sediments, or dispersal  by wate
currents. Careful  chemical and  biological analyses revea
however, that not only has the damaged  area been slow  i:
recover but the extent of the damage has been expandin
with time. A year and  a  half  after the spill, identifiabl

-------
                                                                            Categories of Pollutants/'259




TABLE IV-5—Summary of Remote Sensor Characteristics For Oil Detection
Wave length
Ultraviolet; <0.4pm)






























Visible (0.4 to .7 Mm)






























Infrared
Near Infrared (0.6 to
0.1 „!»)
Far Infrared (8 to 14
din)

Possible sensor configuration
Detection mechanism Performance suniniarv ^ _^ -__^_^-_^^^_^^_^^^^__^_^^^^^^^^_ ^^^^^^^^_
Type Resolution Weight Volume
Reflectance differential (Oil/ Reflective signature UV Vidicon 500 lines/frame 33 Ibs. 2 cu. ft.
Water contrast) a. Repeatabie positive response from thin (high scene il-
slicks (~. 1 micron). lummation)
Fluorescence b. Variable response from thicker slicks 100-200 lines/frame
dependent upon oil type, water quality (low scene illumina-
and illummati on conditions. tion)
c. Atmospheric haze limitations major.
d. Signal limitations prevent night-time
detection.
Fluorescence signature UV Scanner 2mr 90 Ibs. 3. 5cu.lt.
1. Artificial Excitation (narrow-band) Pulsed Laser 1 mr 150 Ibs. 4cu.lt.
i. Spectral character strongly correlated
to oil thickness.
b. Intensity strongly correlated to oil type
(API) and oil thickness, weakly corre-
lated to temperature.
c. Decay characteristics moderately to
strongly correlated to oil type, uncor-
related to oil thickness.
d. All characteristics independent of am-
bient illumination conditions.
2. Solar excitation (broad-band)
a. Spectral character moderately to
weakly correlated to oil type and thick-
ness.
b. Intensity strongly correlated to oil
type, oil thickness and ambient illumi -
nation conditions.
c. Decay characteristics not detectable.
d. Signal limitations prevent operation
except under strong solar illumination.
Reflectance Differential (0.1/ Reflect! ve Signature Aerial Cameras
Water Contrast) a. Variable response from all slicks de- RC-8 2(1.0. 10 K 190 Ibs. 11.76cu.lt.'
pendent upon thickness, oil type, water
quality and illumination conditions
b. Signal limitations prevent moonless 500-EL 3.5ft.@10K 16 Ibs. .4cu.lt
nighttime detection.

c. False alarm problem significant. KA-62 " " 61. 5 Ibs. 5. 24 cu.lt.
d. Atmospheric haze limitation major.
e. Maximum contrast between oil and
water occurs at ( 38 to 45Mm) and ( 6 Vidicon 500 lines/frame 33 Ibs. 2cu.lt.
to.68Mm).
f. Minimum contrast between oil and
water occurs at (. 45 to . 58 ^m)
g. Best contrast achieved with overcast
sky.















Reflective Signature
Reflectance Differential (0.1 / a. Repeatabie posjtive response from all Line Scanner 2mr 90 Ibs. 4. Ocu.lt.
Water Contrast) slicks under all conditions.
Thermal Emission Differential b. Moonless night-time detection capa- Framing Scanner 4rnr 220 Ibs 3. 5cu.lt.
bihty.
c. False alarm problems negligible.
Swath width Comments
40° FOV (727 ft Developedequipmentavail-
@10K) able for UV vidicon and/
or scanner. Integrates
well with CRT display.


Line scanner may require
data butter for high reso-
lution, real time display,
2. 7 mi @ 10 K or film processor
10 ft @ 10 K Effective against thin and
thick slicks under solar, or
artificial illumination.

Active laser system sensi-
tivity limitations hinder
use in detection 01 map-
ping mode. Identifica-
tion capability very
good, with moderate to
good thickness deter-
mination.










74° FOV Aerial cameras real time
3. 5 mi. @ 10 K display not possible.

Sensitivity limitations
prevent night-time oper-
ations.
Compensation for atmos-
pheric haze difficult.

40° FOV with UV photography great po-
zoom lens 7270 tential for detecting oil.
ft. at 10 K Color is good; however,
sunlight gives false re-
sponse. Panchromatic,
IR and color photog-
raphy and TV give good
results only when oil is
thick and ropy.
Vidicon useful for real-
time detection and map-
ping at various wave
lengths, giving option
for good detection with
negligible false alarms
for day operation and
fair-to-good detection
with low false alarms
for night operation. Dis-
play characteristics op-
timum for surveillance.

2.7 mi@ 10 K line scanner oil-slick re-
sponse variable but es-
25° FOV sentially predictable, but
may hive some false
alarm problems.
        d. Atmospheric haze limitation moderate.

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260/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife

                     TABLE IV-5—Summary of Remote Sensor Characteristics For Oil Detection—Continued
    Wave length
                    Detection mechanism
                                           Performance summary
                                                                                                    Possible sensor configuration
                                                                     Type
                                                                                Resolution
                                                                                               Weight
                                                                                                           Volume
                                                                                                                       Swath width
                                                                                                                                      Comments
Microwave.
                Emissive Differential (Oil/
                  Water Contrast)
                Wave Structure Modification
Radar
                Wave Structure Modification
                Scattering Cross-section
                Differential
Thermal Signature
 a. Variable response dependent grossly
   upon oil type and dependent signifi-
   cantly upon thickness and solar heat-
   ing.  Variability predictable to sig-
   nificant degree (slicks > 10 ^m)
 b. Day, night detection independent of il-
   lumination conditions.
 c. False alarm problem slight.
 d. Atmospheric haze limitations moder-
   ate to slight.

Emissive Signature                Line Scanning    1.4°            68 Ins.         3cu.U.        2.7mi@10K
 a. Emissivity  of petroleum products is   Imager
   significantly higher than that of a calm
   sea surface
 b. Crude oil pollutants have decreasing
   dielectric constants (increasing emis-
   sivity) with increasing API gravity.
 c. Microwave signature of oil lilm in-
   versely proportional to sensor wave
   length.
 d. The horizontal polarized microwave
   signature of oil is twice the vertically
   polarized signature of an oil slick on a
   flat water surface.
 e. Detection improves with decreasing
   sensor wave  lengths and  becomes
   poorer as the sea state increases.
 f. Atmospheric cloud limitations moder-
   ate to slight.
 g. Can  effectively detect slicks less than
   0 1 mm at viewing.
 h. Dual frequency microwave techniques
   show great promise in measuring oil
   slick thickness.

Reflective Signature                Forward Scann ng  100X10011.=      —GOO Ins.       1Dcu.fl.       38mi@12K
 a. Oil film on surface of water suppresses   (35 GH.)
   capillary which results in a significant
   difference in energy back scattered
   from contaminated surface and that
   scattered from surrounding clean wa-
   ter (from oil slicks very little energy Synthetic Apera-   100X100 lt»      —1500 Ibs      17cu.fl.       150 mil/. 36 K
   back scattered by three orders of mag-   ture (3.3 61- z)
   mtude)
 b. Vertical polarization capable of detect-
   ing and mapping oil slick less than 1
   micron.
 c. Atmospheric cloud limitations slight.
                                                                                                                                 Day/night detection um
                                                                                                                                  VFR conditions.

                                                                                                                                 Real lime display capa-
                                                                                                                                  bilities good but
                                                                                                                                  limited to "single-loci
                                                                                                                                  display generation.

                                                                                                                                 Developed equipment
                                                                                                                                  available.
Clouds that are raining
 between sensor and
 slick as well as very
 high sea states hampe
 perlormance.

Technology for equipme
 development available

Real time display consis
 of facsimile and/or
 CRT.
Technology exists for
 equipment developmei
 of forward scanning ai
 synthetic aperature
 radar.

Real lime display possib
 for forward scanning
 radar via facsimile am
 or CRT; synthetic
 aperature radar re-
 quires optical process.1
fractions of the source oil were  found in organisms that still
survived on  the  perimeter  of the area.  Hydrocarbons  in-
gested by marine organisms may  pass through the  wall ol
the gut  and  become part of the  lipid pool  (Blumer  et al.
1970).322 When  dissolved  within  the  fatty  tissues of  the
organisms,  even  relatively  unstable  hydrocarbons are pre-
served.  They are protected from  bacterial  attack and can
be transferred from food organism  to predators and possibly
to  man.
   The catastrophic ecological effects of the oil spills of  the
Tampico Maru,  and the Florida  appear  to be more severe
than  those reported from other oil spills such as the Torrey
Canyon  and the Santa  Barbara  blowout.  The Tampico
Maru and  the  Florida  accidents  both released refined  oils
                                       (in one case cliesel oil and in  the other, No. 2 fuel oil)  an
                                       both occurred closer to shore than either the Torrey Canyo
                                       or  the Santa  Barbara accidents which released crude oi
                                       The differences in the character of the oil  and the proximil
                                       to shore  may  account for  the  more  dramatic  effects of tl~
                                       first two  accidents,  but  it  is clear that any  release of oil  i
                                       the  marine  environment  car-ies a  threat of  destructio
                                       and constitutes a danger to  world fisheries.  •
                                          Persistence  of  Oil in  the Ocean   As   mentione
                                       above,  oil can be ingested by  marine organisms and it
                                       corporated in their lipid pool. Hydrocarbons in  the sea at
                                       also  degraded  by marine  microorganisms.  Very little
                                       known  as  yet about  the rate  of this degradation,  but  it
                                       known  that no  single microbial species  will  degrade  an

-------
                                                                                           Categories of Pollutants/261
whole crude oil. Bacteria are highly specific, and several
species \\ill probably be necessary to decompose the numer-
ous types of hydrocarbons in  a crude oil. In the process of
decomposition,  intermediate  products will  be formed and
different species of bacteria and other microorganisms may
be required to attack these decomposition products (ZoBell
1969).'!ls
  The oxygen requirement of micro!>ial oil decomposition
is severe. The complete oxidation of one gallon of crude oil
requires  all  (lie  dissolved oxygen in '320,000 gallons of air-
saturated sea water (/.oBell  19f>9).lMS It is clear that oxi-
dation might be slo\\  in an area where previous pollution
has depleted the oxygen content.  E\en when decomposition
of oil proceeds rapidly, the depletion of the oxygen content
of the water by  the  microorganisms degrading (lie oil may
ha\ e secondary deleterious ecological effects. Unfortunately,
(he most readily attacked fraction  of crude  oil is  the least
toxic, i e.. the normal paralhns.  The more toxic aromatic
hydrocarbons, especially, the  carcinogenic polynuclear aro-
matics. are not rapidly degraded.
  That our coastal  waters are not  devoid of marine life.
after  decades of contamination with oil,  indicates that  the
sea  is capable  of reco\ cry from (his pollution. However,
increasing stress is being  placed on the estuarine and coastal
environment because  ot  more frequent oil  pollution inci-
dents near shore: and once  the recovery  capacity  of an
environment is  exceeded, deterioration  may be rapid and
catastrophic. It is not known ho\\  much oil  pollution  the
ocean can accept and  recover from, or whether the present
rate of addition approaches (he limit of the natural system.
  It appears that the oceans have  recovered  from the oil
spilled during   the  six years of the second  World  War,
(hough  some unexplained  recent oil slicks have  been at-
tributed  to the slow  corrosion of ships  sunk during that
conflict.  It has  been estimated (SCI'LP)!lr'  that during  the
war,  the United Slates  lost 98 vessels with a  total oil  ca-
pacity of about 1 million tons, and that another 3 million
tons of oil were lost through the sinking of ships of  other
combatants during  the  same period. These losses  were
large in  the  context of  the  1910's,  but the total for that
period was only about  twice the  annual direct influx  to
the ocean at the present time. Although no extensive dele-
terious  effects  of these  sinkings and oil releases on  the
fisheries  catch  of the  world  have  been found, it  must be
emphasized again that when a pollutant is increasing yearly
in magnitude past history  is  not a  reliable source of pre-
diction of future effects.
  The Toxicity of Oil  There is a dearth of dependable
observations  on the  toxicity of oil to marine organisms. It
is dilhcult to evaluate the toxieity of this complex mixture
of compounds which is not miscible with sea water, A variety
of techniques have been used  which are  not intercom-
parable.  In some experiments, oil is floated on the water in
the test container, and the concentration given is derived
from the total  quantity  of oil and  the  total quantity  of
water. This is clearly not (he concentration to which the
organism  has been exposed. In other experiments, extracts
of oil with hot  water or with various solvents have been
added to the test jar without identification of the oil fraction
being tested. In still other cases, care has  been taken to
produce a fine emulsion of oil  in sea water more representa-
tive of the actual concentration to which (he test organism
is exposed. Considering the differences in the meaning ot
''concentration" in these  tests and  the variation in sensi-
tivity of the test  organisms,  it is not surprising that the
ranges of toxicity that can be found in the  literature vary
by several orders of magnitude.
  Studies of the biological effects of oil have been reviewed
by Clark  (1971).''-:' Mironov  (1971)li42 carried out toxicity
studies by comparable techniques using a variety of marine
organisms. In testing eleven  species of phytoplankton, he
found that cell division was delayed or inhibited by concen-
trations of crude oil  (unspecified type) ranging from 0.01
to 1000 ppm.  He  also showed that some copepods were
sensitive to a 1  ppm suspension of fresh or weathered crude
oil and of diesel oil.  Freegarde et al. (1970)32S found  that
the larvae of ttallanus ballanoides and adult Calanus copepods
maintained  in   a  suspension  of crude oil  ingest, without
apparent  harm, droplets  of  oil that later  appear  in the
feces. Mironov  (19b7):iu found  100 per  cent mortality of
developing flounder spawn at concentrations of three types
of oil ranging from 1 to 100 ppm and an increased abnor-
mality of development at longer periods of time in concen-
trations as low as 0.01 ppm. In contrast other experimenters
have found  that concentrations  of several  per cent are
necessary to kill adult fish in  a period of a few days  (Chip-
man and  Gallsolf 1919,:!24 Griffith 1970329).
  The  evidence is clearer that a combination  of oil and
detergents is  more  toxic than  oil  alone.  This was  first
definitely established in studies of the Torrey Canyon spill
(Smith 1968),:m and the toxicity of the various detergents
used in this operation is discussed by Corner et al. (1968).326
The four  detergents tested were all more toxic than Kuwait
crude oil, and  all showed signs of toxicity between 2 and
10 ppm. The solvents used with these detergents were also
highly  toxic but  tended  to  lose their toxicity over time
through evaporation. A  bioassay test carried  out by the
Michigan Department of Natural Resources (1969)338 re-
vealed that the least toxic detergent mixed with oil could
be a hundred   times as concentrated  (1800 ppm)  as the
most toxic  (14  ppm)  and  cause the same toxic  effect.
La Roche et al. (1970)337 defined  bioassay  procedures for
oil and  oil dispersant toxicity  evaluation using fish, Fundulus
heteroclitus, and  the sandworm, Nereis virens (Table IV-6).
  The mortality of seabirds  as a result of oil  pollution is
direct and immediate, and in a major oil spill, is measured
in the thousands. The diving birds which  spend most of
their life at sea  are most prone to death from oil pollution,
but any bird that feeds from  the sea or settles on it  is vul-
nerable. In oil-matted plumage air is replaced  by water

-------
 262/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
  TABLE IV-6—Determinations (Summarized) of Acute
   Toxicities of 10 Chemical Dispersants  Alone and  in
    Combination with Crude Oil  to Sandworm (Nereis
     virens) and Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus)
               in Laboratory Bioassay Tests
          Substance
                                   96 hour LC50 (ml/1)
                               Nereis            Fundulus
Crude oil A
Crude oil B
Oil and dispersants" .
Dispersants

6.1
.055-. 781
.007-7.10
16.5
82
.187-1
.008-2
 " Ranges of values for 10 dispersants mixed 1 part dispersant to 10 parts of oil by volume.
 LaRoche et al. 1970"'.
causing loss of both insulation  and buoyancy, and oil in-
gested during preening can have toxic effects.
   Hartung and Hunt  (1966)332  fed oils directly to birds by
stomach tube and  later  analyzed the  pathological  and
physiological  effects through autopsies. The lethal dose for
three types of oil  ranged from  1 ml to 4 ml per kilogram
(ml/kg) when the birds were kept outdoors under environ-
mental stress. The experimenters  concluded  that a  duck
could  typically  acquire a coating of 7  grams of oil  and
would be expected to preen approximately 50 per cent of
the polluting  oil from  its feathers within  the first  few days.
Enough of this could easily be  ingested to  meet the lethal
dosage of 1 to 4 ml/kg. Thus, birds that do not die promptly
from exposure to cold or by drowning  as  a  result of oil
pollution may succumb later from  the effects of ingestion.

Corrective Measures
   The only effective measure for control  of oil pollution in
the  marine environment  is prevention  of all  spills  and
releases. The time-lag involved in corrective methods means
that some  damage  will inevitably occur before  the  cor-
rective measures take effect. Furthermore, the soluble parts
of the  oil already in the water will not be removed by any
of the  present methods of post-spill cleanup.
   Control measures have been introduced that appreciably
reduce excessive oil pollution from normal tanker operations
(see  Table  IV-4). The  load on  top (LOT) process concen-
trates waste oil that is ultimately discharged with the  new
cargo (IMCO 1965a,335 1965b336). This procedure recovers
somewhat more than 98 per cent of oil that would otherwise
be released to the sea.  It has been estimated (Revelle et al.
j 972) 345 tnat go per cent of the world fleet uses these control
measures today, and if they continue to do  so  faithfully
these ships will  contribute only 3.0X104 tons of the  total
tonnage of oil loss. In  contrast,  the 20 per cent of the fleet
not using these  control measures contributes 5X106 tons.
If these control measures were not in use by a major fraction
of the  tanker  fleet, the contamination of the sea from  this
source would  be about five times greater  than  it is today.
   Among the earliest  methods  for the cleanup of spilled
oil was to pick up or bury the material that came  asho
while disregarding the oil that remained at sea. It was four
that the use of straw to  absorb the  oil made this cleam
procedure easier,  and in  the cleanup of the Arrow oil sp
(Ministry  of Transport,  Canada  1970),34°  peat moss w
found to be an effective absorbent for Bunker C oil. Rece
studies promise mechanical means for handling and cleanii
sand contaminated with  oil by use of earth moving  equi
ment, fluid-bed, and froth flotation techniques (Gumtz at
Meloy 1971,i30 Mikolaj  and  Curran 1971,339 Sartor at
Foget 1971).346
   The use of detergents to  treat oil  slicks is essential
cosmetic. It removes the obvious evidence  of oil and f
that reason appeals  to the polluter.  However,  after tre,:
ment with detergent, the oi] i; dispersed in the form of fii
droplets and becomes even more available to  the biota
the  sea than  it would lie if it were  left in  the form of
surface film. Because of the finer degree of dispersion, tl
soluble toxic fractions  dissolve more  rapidly  and  rea<
higher concentrations in  sea water than would  result fro
natural dispersal.  The clrop'ets themselves may be ingest*
by filter-feeding organisms and  thus become an integr
part of the marine  food  chain. Some of the oil may p.i
through the gut in the feces of these organisms, but Blum
et al. (1970)3'-2 have shown lhat it can pass through the p
wall and be incorporated in the organism's lipid pool.
can thus be transferred  from  organism to organism an
potentially, into the food that man  takes  from the ocec
for his use.
   Sinking  of oil has  been achieved  by scattering talc  i
chalk  on the  oil causing it to agglutinate  into  globules
greater density than sea water. Such sunken oil tends to k
bottom fauna before even the  motile  bottom dwellers ha>
time  to move  away. The sessile forms of commercial in
portance, such as clams, oysters and scallops, cannot escap
and other  motile organisms   such   as lobsters (Homar
amencanus) may actually be attracted  in the direction
the  spill where exposure will  contaminate or kill  ther
Little  is known about the rate  of  degradation of- oil  i
bottom sediments, but it  is known that some fractions wi
persist for over two years (Blumer  1969,319 Blumer an
Sass 1972321).  Chipman and Galtsoff (1949)32' showed th;
the  toxicity of oil  is  not diminished by  adsorption  a
carbonized sand which can be  used as a sinking agent.
   Efforts were made  to  burn  the oil in both the Torn:
Canyon and the \Vafra, which  was wrecked off the coast  c
South Africa  in 1971.  When oxidation is  complete, oil
converted to carbon  dioxide and water and removed as
pollutant. Burning oil within a  tanker, however, is difliculi
and it has not been successful even when oxidants are addec
Volatile fractions may burn off quickly, but most of  the o
resists  combustion. Incomplete combustion is therefore nc
only more  common,  but the smoke and volatile oils  their
selves  become atmospheric pollutants many of which ult
mately return to the  sea through precipitation and accurm

-------
                                                                                   Categories of Pollutants/263
lation on the water surface. Oil can be burned on the surface
of the sea by using wicks or small  glass beads to which the
oil clings thus removing itself from the quenching effects of
the water. The use of "seabeads" was successful in burning
Bunker  C  oil on the beach and moderately successful in
burning a slick in two to three foot  seas in the cleanup
following the  wreck  of the Arrow  (Ministry of Transport,
Canada 1970).34° However, during burning, the elevated
temperature of the oil increases the solubility  in water of
the most toxic components, and  this can  cause greater
biological damage than if the oil is left unburncd.
  Mechanical  containment and removal of oil appear to
be ideal from the point of view of avoiding long-term bio-
logical damage, but  however promptly such measures are
taken, some of the soluble components of the oil will enter
the water and it will not be possible to remove them. A
variety of mechanisms for containing  oil have been pro-
posed, such as booms with skirts extending into the water.
Various surface skimmers to collect oil and pump it into a
standby tanker have been conceived.  Unfortunately,  most
wrecks occur during less than ideal  weather conditions
which makes  delivery  and deployment of mechanical de-
vices difficult. Floating booms are ineffective in  a rough sea,
because even  if they remain properly  deployed, oil can be
carried over the top  of them by wind  and splashing waves
or under them by currents. In protected waters, however,
recovery can be quite effective, and among the methods of
oil removal used today, booms are one of the most effective
if conditions for their use arc favorable.
  Microbiological degradation  is the ultimate fate of all oil
left in the sea, but as was mentioned previously, the oxygen
requirement for this  is severe. There is also the problem of
providing other nutrients, such  as nitrogen and  phosphorus,
for  the degrading bacteria. Nevertheless,  this  process is a
"natural"  one, and research into increasing  the rate of
bacteriological degradation without undesirable side effects
is to be encouraged.
  Although an ultimate solution to the cleanup of oil spills
is desperately needed, prevention of spills remains the most
effective measure. When wrecks occur, every effort should
be made to offload the oil before  it enters the marine en-
vironment.  Oil spills that occur in harbors during transfer
of oil to a refinery or of refined oil to a tanker should be
more easily controlled.  Portable booms could  confine any
oil  released and make possible recovery of most harbor
spillage. Available technology is adequate to prevent most
accidental spills from offshore  well drilling  or operations.
It is necessary to require that such technology  be faithfully
employed.

Recommendations
  No  oil  or petroleum  products should be  dis-
charged into estuarine or coastal waters that:
     • can be detected as a visible  film, sheen, or
       discoloration of the  surface, or by odor;
    • can cause tainting of fish or edible inverte-
      brates or damage to the biota;
    • can form an oil  deposit on  the  shores or
      bottom of the receiving body of water.
In this context, discharge of oil is meant to include
accidental releases that could have been prevented
by technically feasible controls.
  Accidental releases of oil to the marine environ-
ment  should  be  reclaimed or  treated  as expe-
ditiously as  possible  using  procedures at  least
equivalent to those provided in The National Con-
tingency Plan of  1970.  The  following recommen-
dations  should be followed  to minimize  damage
to the marine biota.

    • Oil on the sea surface should be contained
      by booms and recovered by the use of surface
      skimmers or similar techniques.
    • In the event of a tanker wreck, the oil re-
      maining in  the hulk should be off-loaded.
    • Oil on beaches should be mechanically re-
      moved using straw, peat moss, other highly
      absorbent  material,  or  other  appropriate
      techniques  that will produce minimal dele-
      terious effects  on the biota.
    • Failing  recovery of  oil from the sea surface
      or from a wrecked tanker,  efforts  should be
      made to burn  it in  place, provided the con-
      tamination is  at  a safe distance from shore
      facilities. If successful,  this  will  minimize
      damage to the marine biota.
    • Dispersants should be used  only when neces-
      sary and should be of minimal potential
      toxicity to avoid even  greater hazard to  the
      environment.
    • Sinking of oil is not recommended.

  All vessels using U.S. port facilities for the pur-
pose  of transporting  oil  or petroleum  products
should be required to demonstrate  that effective
procedures or devices,  at  least equivalent to  the
"Load  on Top" procedure, are used to  minimize
oil releases associated with tank cleaning.
  In order to protect marine wildlife:
    • recommendations listed above should be fol-
      lowed ;
    • a  monitoring  program should follow long-
      term trends in petroleum tar accumulation
      in selected areas of  the oceans;
    • no oil exploration or drilling should be per-
      mitted within existing or proposed  sanctu-
      aries, parks, reserves or other protected areas,
      or in their contiguous waters,  in a manner
      which may  deleteriously affect their biota;

-------
 264/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
     • oil exploration or drilling should not be con-
       ducted in a manner which may deleteriously
       affect species subject to interstate or inter-
       national agreements.

TOXIC  ORGANICS

  The toxic organics constitute a considerable variety of
chemical  compounds,  almost all of which are synthetic.
The total production of synthetic organic chemicals in the
U.S. in 1968 was 120,000 million pounds, a 15 per cent
increase over 1967; 135,000 million pounds were produced
in 1969, a 12 per cent increase over 1968 (United States
Tariff Commission 1970).377 This figure, in the order of
5X 1013 grams, may be compared with the total productivity
of the sea, which is in the order of 2X 1016 grams of carbon
incorporated into phytoplankton per year (Ryther 1969).373
When considered in a global and future context, the pro-
duction of synthetic chemicals by man cannot be considered
an insignificant fraction of nature's productivity.
  The  majority  of the  synthetic organic chemicals,  in-
cluding those considered  toxic, are readily degradable to
elementary  materials which reenter the chemical cycles in
the biosphere. These pose no long-term hazard if  applied
or released  into the environment in quantities sufficiently
small to meet the recommendations for mixing zones  (see
p. 231).
  The chemicals of most concern are the more stable com-
pounds that enter the environment, whether they are intro-
duced incidentally as waste materials or deliberately through
their use.  The toxicity, chemical stability,  and resistance to
biological degradation of such chemicals are factors that
must be considered in assessing their  potential effects  on
ecosystems.  Moreover, because of the partitioning  of non-
polar compounds among the components of marine eco-
systems, relatively high concentrations of these, including
halogenated  hydrocarbons,  are frequently found in orga-
nisms.
  Only recently it was discovered that polychlorinated bi-
phenyls (PCB), a class of chlorinated hydrocarbons  used in
a variety  of industrial applications, were  widespread con-
taminants in marine ecosystems (Duke et al.).354a Concen-
trations up to or higher than 1000 ppm in the body fat of
estuarine  birds have been recorded in both  Europe and
North  America  (Risebrough et al. 1968,371 Jensen et  al.
1969360). Moreover, both DDT and PCB have been found
in organisms from depths of 3200 meters in the open North
Atlantic Ocean (Harvey et al. 1972).359
  The discovery of a man-made contaminant such as PCB,
unknown  in the environment  a few years  ago, in  such
unexpectedly  high  concentrations  in  marine  organisms
raises several questions.  Are the concentrations of these
compounds  still  increasing in the  marine environment and
at what rate, and what are the long-term effects upon the
marine communities? Is it  possible that other pollutants,
undetected by  the methodologies that measure the chlor
nated hydrocarbons, are present in comparable amounts?
  Criteria employed in the past to protect freshwater ecc
systems were based on data now seen to be inadequate an
on an approach that looked at pollutant concentrations i
waste water  effluents rather than in the receiving systen
Evidently it is necessary to attempt to relate the amounts <
input into the  ecosystem  to the levels in the various con
ponents  of the ecosystem, including indicator organism
The concentrations of a persislent pollutant in an indicate
organism are considered the best way of following accurm
lation trends in an aqueous ecosystem that serves  as a sin
for  the pollutant, once the capacity  of the ecosystem (
absorb the pollutant has  beer determined. If  the concer
trations in the indicator organisms exceed those considerc
safe  for the  ecosystem, input  should then  be reduced, r<
stricted,  or  eliminated until environmental  levels are a(
ceptable on the basis of established criteria. Inputs of pei
sistent pollutants into the marine  environment, howeve
are in many cases indirect  and not immediately controllabli
e.g.  river runoffs, atmospheric fallout,  and dumping b
foreign and  domestic ships. The sources of the chemicals i
atmospheric fallout may be located anywhere in the work
  Different  recommendations  must therefore be devclope>
to protect the marine environment from increasing amount
and varieties of organic pollutants that might be anticipate1
over the next century.  The same recommendations may b
applied to estuaries, but these must also be protected fror
a variety of chemicals that are less persistent and pose n
long-term hazard, but that may, because of toxic effect
upon organisms,  cause unacceptable amounts  of  damage
These include many of the pesticides, components of sewage
biological wastes  from slaughter houses, and other organ i
wastes from industry.
  Acute toxicity  values and subacute effects of pesticide
on marine life  are listed in Appendix Ill-Table 6, and i
Table  IV-7, p.  265.  Table  [V-7  is a summary of th
"most sensitive" organisms taken from Appendix III—Tabl
6 and  includes a list of chemicals  that are  considered ti
have potential environmental importance  in estuarine o
marine ecosystems. The list includes many of the pesticide
that are readily degradable in 1he environment  but becaus
of their high toxicity are potentially dangerous  to estuarin
ecosystems. The list,  which should be revised as new dat;
become available, proposes a  minimum  number of sue!
chemicals. Appendix Ill-Table 6 includes the following in
formation relative to the potential importance of each ma
terial as coastal and marine contaminants, (a)  Productiot
figures, which are taken from  [he 1969 Tariff Commissior
reports, are  listed in the  second  column. The  productior
figures provide a useful clue to the compounds that are o
potential importance as marine pollutants. The order of the
chemicals generally follows that of the Tariff Commission
reports and is not intended to  be a ranking in order of im-
portance,  (b) The third column of  the  table  indicates

-------
                                                                                                                                                     Categories of Pollutants/265

                                 TABLE IV-7—Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals  in  the Marine System

Chemical
(1)

PESTICIDES, Totai
Fungicides
Fungicides, total
Pentachlorophenol

2,4,5-Tnchlorophenol

U.S. production
pounds, gal./yr
(2)

1.1x109lb

1.4X108
4.6X107

Not available
(1969)28X10;
Presence in sea
water or marine
organisms
(3)



Expected

Unknown

Trophic
accumulation
(4)




Unknown

Unknown

Most sensitive
organisms tested
(5)




Insufficient data for
marine organisms
Crassostrea virgmica
American oyster
Cone, (ppb active Method of
Formulation ingredient in water) assessment Test procedure Reference
(6) (7) (8) (9) (10)






600 TLM 48 hr static lab Davis and Hidu
bioassay 1969'"
                            (1968)
  Nabam (Ethylene bis[dithio-  1 9X10°          Unlikely
    carbamic acid I, disodium
    salt)
  Hexachlorobenzene         Not available      Expected
Herbicides
  Herbicides, total            3.9X10*
  Amitrole (3-aimno-1,2,4-    Not available
    triazole)
  Chloramben (3-ammo-2,5-   Not available
    dichlorobenzoic acid,
    sodium salt)
  Picloram (4-ammo-3,5,6-    Not available
    tnchloropicolinic acid)
    (Tordonl!)
  Simazme [2-chloro-4,6-bis-   Not available
   (ethylamino)-s-tnazine]
 Atrazme [2-chloro-4-ethyl-   Not available
   amjno-6-isopropyl-amino-
   s-tnazmel
Monuron [3-(p-chloro-       Not available
  phen>l)-1,1-dimethylureaj
 Diuron[3-(3,4,-dichloro-    No) available
   pnenyl)-!,1-dimethylureaI
Maleic hydrazide [1,2-di-    2.8V101' Ib.
  hydropyndazme-3,6-dioneI
Fenuron [l.l-dimethyl-3-    Not available
  phenylureal
Ametryne [2-ethylamino-4-   Not available
  isopropylammo-E-methyl-
  mercapto-s-triazine|
                                          Unlikely

                                          Unlikely
                                          Unlikely
                                          Unlikely
                                          Unlikely
                                           Unlikely
                                          Unlikely
                                           Unlikely

                                           Unlikely
                                           Unlikely
                                                           Unlikely
                                                                            Dunaliella tertiolecta
                                                                                                                   100
. 270.0. D. expt/O.D.  10 day growth test   Ukeles 1962"
  control
                                                           Detected in birds   Insufficient data for
                                                             (Vos et al.,        marine organisms
                                                             1968>™
                                                           Koeman and
                                                             Genderen, 1970)"3
Unlikely
Unlikely


Unlikely




Unlikely





Unlikely






Unlikely








Unlikely





Unlikely
Unlikely






Unlikely







Insufficient data
Chlorococcum sp Methyl ester 2.5X10'
Phaeodactylum tricornu-
turn
Isochrysis galbana 1X10'

5X10'


Isochrysis galbana Technical acid 500


Phaeodactylum tricornu- Technical aid 500
turn

Chlorococcum sp.. Technical acid 100
Chlamydomonas sp.,
Monochrysislutheri
Isochrysis galbana Technical acid 100

Phaeodactylum tricornu- Technical acid 100
turn
Protococcus sp. 20


Dunaliella tertiolecta 20


Phaeodactylum tri- 20
cornutum

Protococcus . 0.02


Monochrysislutheri 0.02


Insufficient data
Chlorococcum sp Technical acid 750

Isochrysis galbana Technical acid 750

Monochrysis lutheri . 290


Chlorococcum sp. Technical acid 10


Isochrysis galbana Technical acid 10

Monochrysislutheri
Phaeodactylum tri- Technical acid 10
cornutum

50% decrease in
growth

50% decrease in 02
evolution*
50% decrease in
growth

50%. decrease in
growth

50% decrease in
growth

50% decrease in
growth

50% decrease in Oj
evolution*
50% decrease in 02
evolution*
.00 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
.00 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
.00 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
.52 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt OEN
control
.00 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control

50% decrease in
growth
50% decrease in
growth
.67 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
50% decrease in
growth

50% decrease in Qi
evolution*

50% decrease in 02
evolution*

Growth measured as
ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days


Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
tOdys
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days




10 day growth test


10 day growth test


10 day growth test


10 day growth test


10 day growth test



10 day growth test

10 day growth test

10 day growth test


Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days






Walsh 1972s"


Walsh 1972s'9

Walsh 1972"9


Walsh 1972'"


Walsh 1972'"


Walsfi 1972»»


Walsh 1972s"

Walsh 1972s"

Ukeles 1962s"


Wa Ish 1972s"


Ukeles 1962™


Ukeles 1962s"


Ukeles 1962s"



Walsh 1972'"

Walsh 1972'"

Ukeles 1962'"


Walsh 1972'"


Walsn 1972!»


Walsh 1972s"

*  0: evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes.

-------
266/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife


                 TABLE IV-7—Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine System—Continued
Chemical
(1)
Herbicides, cont.
Endothal [7-oxabicyclo-
(2.2.1) heptane-2,3-di-
carboxylicacid.rjisodium
salt]
MCPA [4-chloro-2-methyl-
phenoxyacetic acid]
2,4-D 8 derivatives


2, 4, 5-T& derivatives
[2,4,5-trictilorophenoxy-
acetic acid]


Silvex|2-(2,4,5-trichloro-
phenoxy)propionic acid!

Diquat|6,7-Dihydrodipyrido
(1,2-a:2',1'-c)pyrazidi-
inium dibromide






Paraquat [1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-
dipyridilium dichloride]



Trifluralm[a a,a-Tnfluoro-
2,6-dirtino-N,N-dipropyl-
p-toluidine]






Cacodylic acid [Hydroxydi-
methyl arsme oxide]
Insecticides
Insecticides, total (includes
rodentjcides)
Heptachlor [Heptachloro-
tetrahydro-endo-methano-
indene] (includes hepta-
chlor epoxide)
Endrin [Hexachloro-epoxy-
octahydro-endo-endo-di-
methanoraphthalene)



DieidrinlHexachloro-epoxy-
octahydro-endo-exo-
dimethanonaphthalenel







Aldrin [Hexachloro-hexa-
hydro-endo-exo-dimetti-
anonaphthalene]
Chlordane [Octochloro-
hexahydro-methanoin-
U.S. production
pounds, gal./yr
(2)

Not available



Not available

UXIOMb


2.8X10' Ib




1.6X106


Not avail able








Not available




Not available








Not available


5.7X10»lb

Not available



Not available





Not available









Not available


Not available

Presence in sea
water or marine
organisms
(3)

Unlikely



Unlikely

Unknown


Unknown




Unlikely


Unlikely








Unlikely




Unlikely








Unlikely




Oysters (Bugg
et al. 1967)»»


Oysters (Bugg et
al. 1967,«»
Casper, 1967,'"
Rowe et al.
1971)"!

Oysters (Bugg et
al. 1967,»«
Casper, 1967,'«
Rowe et al.
1971)""





Oysters (Bugg et
al. 1967)'M

Oysters (Bugg et
al. 1967)»»
Trophic
accumulation
(4)

Unlikely



Unlikely

Unknown


Unknown




Unlikely


Unlikely








Unlikely




Unlikely








Unlikely




Bald Eagles
(Krantz et al.
1970)'"

Brown Pelican
(Schreiber and
Risebrough
1972,"* Rise-
brough et al.
1968)J"
Most sensitive
organisms tested Formulation
(5) (6)

Mercenaria mercenaria
Hard clam


Crassostrea virginica
American oyster
Crassostrea virginica Ester
American oyster
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana Technical acid

Phaeodactylum tri- Technical acid
cornutum

Crassostrea virginica
American oyster
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Chlorococcum sp. Dibromide

Dunaliella tertiolecta Dibromide

Isochrysis galbana Dibromide


Phaeodactylum tri- Dibromide
cornutum
Dunaliella tertiolecta Dichloride

Isochrysis galbana Dichloride


Chlorococcum sp. Technical acid


Isochrysis galbana Technical acid


Phaeodactylum tri- Technical acid
cornutum

Insufficient data




Thalassoma bifasciatum 100',,
Bluehead


Mugil cephalus 100%
Striped mullet
Menidia memdia 100%
Atlantic silverside


Bald eagles (Krantz Anguilla rostrata 100%
etal. 1970)**
Grey Whale,
Sperm Whale
(Wolman and
Wilson 1970)'™
Brown Pelican
(Schreiber and
Risebrough
1972)''*
Unlikely, converts
to dieldrin
(Korschgen
Expected

American eel








Palaemon macrodactylui Technical
Korean shrimp

Palaemon macrodactylus 100%
Korean shrimp
Cone, (ppb active Method of
ingredient in water) assessment
(7) (8)

1.25X10* TLM



1.56X10* TLM

740 TLM


5X10* 50% decrease in 0,
evolutio"*
5X10* 50% decrease in
growth


710 TLM

5X106 50% decrease m 02
evolution*
5X10° 50% decrease in 02
evolution*
1.5X10* 50% decrease in
growth

i- 'O6 50% decrease in 02
evolution*
'"6 50% decrease in 02
evolution*
5X10' 50% decrease in
growth

2.5X10S 50% decreasi! in
growth

2.5X10' 50%decieasein
growth

2.5X10' 50%decieasein
growth






0.8 LC-50



0.3 LC-50

0.05 LC-50



0.9 LC-50









0.74 (0.51-1.08) TL-50


18 (10-38) TL-50

Test procedure
(9)

12 day static lab
bioassay


48 hr static lab
bioassay
14 day static lab
bioassay



Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days

14 day static lab
bioassay




Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days




Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS
(525 mu) after
10 days





96 hr static lab
bioassay


96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay


96 hr static lab
bioassay








96 hr static lab
bioassay

96 hr static lab
bioassay
Reference
(10)

Davis and Hidu
1969"'


Davis and Hidu
1969s"
Davis and Hidu
1969"*

Walsh 1972'"

Walsh 1972s"



Davis and Hidu
1969'*'
Walsh 1972'"

Walsh 1972s"

Walsh 1972s'9


Walsh 1972'"

Walsh 1972'"

Walsh 1972"'


Walsh 1972!"


Walsh 1972!"


Walsh 1972s"







Eisler 1970b";



Eisler 1970b"»

Eisler 1970b>"



Eisler 1970b»-









Earnest (unpub-
lished)'82

Earnest (unpub-
lished)"1
   dene]
*/0. evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes.

-------
                                                                                                                               Categories of Pollutants/'267

                   TABLE IV-7—Presence and  Toxicity of Organic  Chemicals in  the Marine System—Continued
Chemical
(1)
Insecticides, cont.
Strobane" [polychlorinated
terpenesl
Toxaphene [Chlorinated
camphene]


DDT compounds



p,p'-DDT[1,1,1-Tri-
chloro-2, 2-bis(p-chloro-
phenyl) ethane
p,p'-DDD(p,p'-TDE)
|1.I-Dichloro-2,2-bis
(p-chlorophenyl)ethane
p,p-DDE[1,1-DiGhloro-
2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)
ethylene
Mirex [Dodecachloro-octa-
hydro-1,3,4-metheno-2H-
cyclobuta[cd]pentalene]
Benzene hexachlonde
[Hexachlorocyclohexane]
Lmdane [gamma-hexa-
chlorocyclohexane]


Endosulfan (Hexachloro-
hexahydro-methano-
benzo-dioxathiepm-3-
oxide|(ThiodanR)

Methoxychlor[1,1,1-Tn-
chloro-2, 2, bis(p-
methoxy-phenyl)ethane|
Carbaryl(Sevm)[l-
naphthyl-N-methylcarba-
mate]


Coumaphos(Co-ral)[0,0-
Diethyl-0-(3-chloro-4-
methyl-2-oxo-2H-1-benzo-
pyran-7-yl)-pho$phoro-
thioatel
Diazmon|0,0-Diethyl-0-
(2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6-
pyrimidinyOphosphoro-
Ihioale]
Parathion[0,0-Diethyl-0-
p-nitrophenyl-phosphoro
tbioate]


Dursban 10. 0 Diethyl-0-
3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl-
phosphorothioatel
Fenthion [0, 0-Dimethyl-O-
(4-methylthio-m-tolyl)
phosphorothioatel (Baytex)
Methyl parathion [0,0,-
Dimethyl-0-p-nitrophenyl-
phosphorothioate]
Guthion[0,0-Dimethyl-S-
(4-oxo- 1,2, 3-benzotri-
U.S. production
pounds, gal. /yr
(2)

Not available

Not available



1.2X108lb.












Not available


Not available

Not available



Not available




Not available


Not available




Not available




Not available



Not available




Not available


Not available


5.1X10' Ib


Not available

Presence in sea Trophic
water or marine accumulation
organisms (4)
(3)

Expected Expected

Bay mussel Expected
(Modm, 1969);J«>
Oysters (Bug? et
al. 1967p°
Jensen et al
1969,160 Rise-
brough et al.
1968«i
(References cited above)





(References cited above)


Expected Expected


Southern hemisphere sea birds
(Tatton and Ruzicka 1967)"'
Oysters (Bugget Expected
al. 1967,=-" Sand shrimp
Casper 1967)'"

Bay mussel (Koe- Sandwich Tern,
man and Common Eider
Genderen (Koeman and
1970)"" Genderen
1970)3"
Oysters (Bugg et Unlikely
al. 1967)3s»

Unikely Unlikely




Unlikely Unlikely




Unlikely Unlikely



Unlikely Unlikely




Unlikely Unlikely


Unlikely Unlikely


Unlikely Unlikely


Unlikely Unlikely

Most sensitive
organisms tested Formulation
(5) (6)

Insufficient data for
marine species
Gasterosteus aculeatus 100%
threespme stickle-back






Penaeus duorarum Technical
Pink shrimp 77%

Palaemon macrodactylus 99%


Falco peregrmus
Peregrine Falcon

Penaeus duorarum Technical
Pink shrimp

Penaeus setiferus 8.1%
White shrimp
Crangon septemspincsa 100%
Sand shrimp
Pagurus longicarpus 100%
Hermit crab
Palaemon macrodactylus 96%
Korean shrimp



Palaemon macrodactylus 89.5%


Palaemon macrodactylus 100%


Cancer magister 80%
Dungeness crab
Crassostrea virgmica
American oyster



Insufficient data



Cypnnodon variegatus
Sheepshead minnow



Palaemon macrodactylus
Korean shrimp

Palaemon macrodactylus


Crangon septemspmosa 100%
Sand shrimp

Gasterosteus aculeatus 93%
threespme stickle-back
Cone, (ppb active Method of
ingredient in water) assessment
(7) (8)



7.8 TIM







0.12 TL-50
0.17 (0.09-0.32) TL-50

2.5(1.6-4.0) TL-50


Eggshell thinning


1.0 100% paralysis/
death in 11 days

2.8 TLM

5 LC-50

5 LC-50

3.4 (1.8-6.5) TL-50




0.44 (0.21-0.93) TL-50


7.0(1.5-28) TL-50


6 Prevention of hatch-
ing and molti ng
110 TLM








10 Acetylcholinesterase
activity in control
vs. expt groups.
Control =1.36;
Expt.=0.120
0.01 (0.002-0.046) TL-50


3.0 (1.5-60) TL-50


2 LC-50


4.8 TLM

Test procedure
(9)



96 hr static lab
bioassay






28 day bioassay
96 hr intermittent
flow lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent
How lab bioassay

DDE in eggs
highly correlated
with shell thinning
Flowing water bio-
assay

24 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr intermittent
flow lab bioassay



96 hr static lab
bioassay

96 hr intermittent
bioassay

24 hr static lab
bioassay
48 hr static lab
bioassay







72 hr static exposure




96 hr intermittent
flow bioassay

96 hr intermittent
flow bioassay

96 hr static lab
bioassay

96 hr static lab
bioassay
Reference
(10)



Katz 1961"*







Nimmoetal.1970»>
Earnest (unpub-
lished)382
Earnest (unpub-
lished)382

Cadeetal 1970s"


Lowe etal. 1971™


Chin and Allen
19583"
Eisler 1969JS5

Eisler 19691"

Earnest (unpub-
lished)382



Earnest (unpub-
lished)'"

Earnest (unpub-
lished)382

Buchanan et al.
19703"
Davis and Hidu
1969'"







Coppage (unpub-
lished)381



Earnest (unpub-
lished)382

Earnest (unpub-
lished)382

Eisler 1969355


Katz 1961362

 aano-3-methyl)phosphoro-
 dithioatel
Dioxathion (Delnav) [2,3-p-  Not available
 Dioxane-S,S-bis(0,0-
 diethylphosphorodithioatel
Unlikely        Unlikely         Crangon septemspinosa  100%
                              Sand shrimp
                             Fundulus heteroclitus    100%
                              Mummichog
                             Menidia menidia       100%
                              Atlantic silverside
38

 6
LC-50

LC-50

LC-50
96 hr static lab      Eisler 19693"
  bioassay
96 hr static lab      Eisler 1970a««
  bioassay
96 hr static lab      Eisler 1970b'"
  bioassay

-------
268/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife





               TABLE IV-7—Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine System—Continued
Chemical
0)
Insecticides, cont.
Phosdrin [1-methoxycar-
bonyl-1-propen-2-yl di-
methylphosphate]
Malathion [S-(1, 2-dicar-
bethoxyethyl)-0,0-di-
methyldithiophosphate]
Phosphamidon [2-Chloro-
N,N-diethyl-3-hydroxy-
crotonamide dimethyl
phosphate]
Phorate[0,0 Diethyl-S-
(|Ethylthio]methyl)-phos-
phorodittnoate]


DDVP[0,0-Dimethyl-0-
(2,2-dichlorovmyl)phos-
phate]
Tnchlorfon [0, 0-Dimethyl-
1-hydroxy-2,2,2-tnchloro-
ethylphosphonate]
(Dipterex)
TEPP [Tetraethyl pyro-
phosphate]
Related products
DBCP[1,2-Dibromo-3-
U.S. production
pounds, gal./yr
(2)

Not available


Not available


Not available



Not available




Not available


Not available



Not available


8.6x10Hb
Presence in sea
water or marine
organisms
(3)

Unlikely


Unlikely


Unlikely



Unlikely




Unlikely


Unlikely



Unlikely


Unknown
Trophic
accumulation
(4)

Unlikely


Unlikely


Unlikely



Unlikely




Unlikely


Unlikely



Unlikely


Unknown
chloropropane] (Nemagon11)
Methyl bromide
TAR AND TAR CRUDES
Benzene
Toluene
Xylene
Naphthalene
PLASTICIZERS
Phthalic anhydride esters,
total
Adipid acid esters, total
SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS
Dodecylbenzenesulfonates,
total
Lignmsulfonates, total
Nitnlotnacetic acid



2.0X10' Ib

1.2X10' gal.
7.6X108gal
3.8X10»gal.
8.5X108 gal.

8.8X108 Ib.

6.6X10'

5.7X108 Ib.
(1968)
4. 4X108 Ib.
Not available



Unknown

Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown

Expected

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown
Unknown



Unknown

Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unlikely

Unknown
Unlikely



Most sensitive
organisms tested Formulation
(5) (6)

Crangon sepemspmosa 100%
Sand shrimp

Thalasomma bifasciatun 100' ,
Bluehead

Insufficient data



Cypnnodon variegatus
Sheepshead minnow



Crangon septemspmosa
Sand shrimp

Crassostrea virgimca
American oyster


Crassostiea virginica


Mercenana mercenana
Hard clam
Insufficient data

Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data

Insufficient data

Insufficient data

Insufficient data

Insufficient data
Cyclotella nana Monohydrated
sodium salt
Homarusamericanus Monohydrated
Amer i can lobster sodium salt
Cone, (ppb active Method of
ingredient in water) assessment
(7) (8)

11 LC-50


27 LC-50






5 Acetylcholmesterase
activity" in control
vs expl groups.
Contrnl= 1.36;
ExpL== 0.086
4 LC-50


1,000 TLM



>1XW TLM


780 TLM















5X103 38% growth as com-
pared lo controls
1X105 100% mortality

Test procedure
(9)

96 hr static lab
bioassay

96 hr static lab
bioassay





72 hr static exposure




96 hr static lab
bioassay

48 hr static lab
bioassay


U day static lab
bioassay

12 day static lab
bioassay














72 hr static lab
bioassay
7 day static lab
bioassay
Reference
(10)

Eisler 1969'-


Eisler 1970b':»






Coppage (unpub-
lished)™



Eisler 1969JM


Davis and Hidu
19693"


Davis and Hidu
19693"

Davis and Hidu
1969"'














Erickson etal. 1950=

NMWQL 1970''"

HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
Carbon tetrachlonde
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Ethylene dichlonde
Aliphatic chlorinated hydro-
carbon wastes of vinyl
chloride production



Polychlorinated biphenyl



Polychlormated ter-
phenyl
Brommatedbiphenyls
CYCLIC INTERMEDIATES
Monochlorobenzene
Phenol

7.6X10' Ib (1968)
3.3X10' (1968)
4.8X10»(1968)
3X10' Ib (esti-
mated as 1% of
vinyl chloride
production)


Not available



Not available

Not available

6.0x108lb
1.7x10»lb

Unknown
Unknown
Expected
Surface waters
and marine orga-
nisms of North
Atlantic and
North Sea (Jen-
sen etal. 1970P
Jensen et al.
1969", Rise-
broughetal.
19683"
Expected

Unknown

Expected
Expected

Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unknown




i




Expected

Expected

Unlikely
Unlikely

Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Gadus morrhua 67% 1,1, 2-tri-
Cod chloroethane,
20%1,2-di-
ethane


Penaeus duorarum Aroclor 1254
P.nk shrimp


Insufficient data

Insufficient data

Insufficient data
Mercenana mercenana
Hard Clam



10,000 LC-50





0.94 51% mortality








5.3X10' TLM




10 hr lab bioassay





15 day chronic ex-
posure in flowing
seawater






48 hr static lab
bioassay



Jensen etal. 1970'"





Nimmoetal. 1971«t








Davis and Hidu
19693M
MISCELLANEOUS CHEMICALS
Tetraethyl lead
4.9X108
Unlikely
Unlikely
Insufficient data



 * ACh hydrolysed/hr/mg brain.

-------
                                                                                   Categories of Pollutants/269
whether or not the  compound has  been detected in sea
water or in marine organisms. Compounds which  have
been detected are of greater immediate concern than those
which have not. Frequently, because of their low solubility
in water, some of the non-polar compounds which are bio-
logically accumulated can be  detected in an organism but
not  in the water itself,  (c) The fourth column, trophic ac-
cumulation,  indicates  whether the  compound  has  been
shown to pass through the food web from prey species to
predator. Compounds that are so accumulated are of greater
concern than compounds of comparable toxicity which are
not. Final!}, the species thought to be most sensitive to the
compound are indicated in the final columns with reference
to original studies in  the scientific literature. These data are
useful as a guide onl) and arc not sufficient in themselves
for definitive evaluation of the environmental significance of
each compound.
  The report, "The  Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic  Life,
vol. 3,  Environmental  Protection Agency, Water Quality
Office,  1971," has been useful as a guide to the available
toxicity data of industrial chemicals  on  marine organisms.
Appendix III—Table 6  is a compendium of data on toxicity
of pesticides to marine organisms. These sources are incom-
plete and should be  continually revised.

Bases for Recommendations
  1.  In order to provide an adequate level of protection
for  commercially important marine species and for species
considered important in the maintenance of stability of the
ecosystem,  an application factor of one one-hundredth
(0.01) is used when pesticides or organic wastes that are not
trophically accumulated in food webs  arc applied or re-
leased in estuarinc 01 marine environments. This factor  is
arbitrary and was derived from data available on marine
and freshwater organisms. (See Section III, p. 121.) It
assumes that a concentration  of one  one-hundredth (0.01)
of that  causing harm  to  the most sensitive species  to be
protected  will  not damage this species or the ecosystem.
Future studies may show  that the application factor  must
be decreased or increased  in magnitude.
  2.  The  application  factor may  also  be used for the
compounds that are  trophically accumulated in food  webs
in order to protect  fish and  invertebrates to  which  these
compounds are toxic. It cannot be used, however, to protect
fish-eating birds and mammals which may trophically ac-
cumulate these compounds from their prey species, in part
because sublethal effects  such as eggshell thinning  and
hormone imbalance  may adversely affect reproductive ca-
pacity and therefore the long term survival of  populations.
Levels  that would protect fish-eating birds and mammals
against  the effects of compounds that are trophically ac-
cumulated from prey species are given in the discussion of
Marine Wildlife (see pp. 224-228).
  The  recommendations  below apply  to all organics of
both proved and potential toxicity.
Recommendations
  In general, marine life with the exception of fish-
eating  birds and mammals should be protected
where the maximum concentration of the chemical
in the  water does  not exceed one one-hundredth
(0.01) of the LC50 values listed in Column  7, Table
IV-7, pp. 265 268. If new data indicate that an eco-
system can adequately degrade a particular  pollu-
tant, a higher application factor for this pollutant
may be used.
  In order to maintain the integrity  of the eco-
system to the fullest possible extent, it is essential
to consider  effects on all  non-target organisms
when applying pesticides  to estuarine habitats  in
order to control one or more of the noxious species.
For those occasions when  chemicals must  be used,
the following guidelines are offered :
    • a compound which is the most  specific for
      the intended purpose should be preferred
      over  a compound that has broad spectrum
      effects;
    • a compound of low  persistence should  be
      used in preference to  a compound of greater
      persistence;
    • a compound of lower toxicity to non-target
      organisms should be used in preference  to
      one of higher toxicity;
    • water samples to be analyzed should include
      all suspended paniculate and solid material:
      residues  associated  with these should  there-
      fore be considered as present in the water;
    • when  a  derivative  such  as  p,p'-DDE  or
       1-napthol is  measured with or instead of the
      parent compound,  the  toxicity  of  the de-
      rivative should  be considered separately: if
      the toxicity  of a derivative such  as  an ionic
      species of a pesticide is considered equivalent
      to that  of the  original parent  compound,
      concentrations should be expressed as equiv-
      alents of the parent compound.
  It is  recommended  that the chemicals  listed  in
Table IV-7 and all chemicals subsequently added
to this list be considered  as  toxic organic com-
pounds potentially harmful to the marine  environ-
ment.  It is  emphasized  that the  data  in Table
IV-7 are not sufficient in themselves for final evalu-
ation  of the environmental significance  of each
compound.

OXYGEN
  An extensive review and discussion of the present  in-
formation on biological responses to variations in dissolved
oxygen  has  been published  recently by Doudoroff and

-------
 270/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Shumway (1970).38,3 This review has been used in develop-
ing oxygen recommendations by both the Freshwater and
Marine Panels in their reports. On the basis of this  large
body of information, recommendations for "levels of pro-
tection" for freshwater fish populations have been devel-
oped.  Estuarine  and marine organisms  have not  been
studied as extensively, and the present information is inade-
quate for satisfactory analysis of the response of communi-
ties to temporal and spatial variations in dissolved oxygen
concentrations.
  The generalizations presented by the Freshwater  Panel
appear to be  valid, with  qualifications, for estuarine and
marine situations.
   1  A reduction in dissolved oxygen concentration reduces
the rate of oxygen uptake by aquatic plants and animals.
However,  as noted by Doudoroff and  Shumway, the ob-
served response of many organisms under laboratory condi-
tions measured in such terms as growth  rate,  swimming
speed, or hatching weight, shows fractional or percentage
reductions that approximately correlate with the logarithm
of the deviation of the dissolved oxygen concentration from
equilibrium with the atmosphere, under conditions of con-
stant dissolved oxygen concentrations. Thus, reduction in
the dissolved  oxygen  concentration by  1  mg/1 from the
saturation value has much less  effect than  reduction by 1
mg/1 from the 50 per cent of saturation value.
  2  The non-threshold character of these responses means
that some risk of effect on the aquatic populations is associ-
ated with any reduction in the dissolved oxygen concentra-
tions. As noted above, the risk of damage increases as dis-
solved oxygen concentrations  decrease  from  saturation
values. Selection of risk acceptance is a social and economic
evaluation involving other uses of any  particular environ-
ment that must precede recommendations derived using the
risk acceptance and the pertinent scientific information.
  3  Consideration of the effects of dissolved oxygen con-
centrations on  aquatic life must include the responses of
developing  eggs and larvae, as well as the maturing and
adult individuals. Species that have limited spawning  areas
should be identified and the biological risk of decreased
oxygen  concentrations evaluated accordingly.
  For estuaries and coastal waters, consideration must  be
given to the distribution of dissolved oxygen with depth,
since even under natural conditions low oxygen concentra-
tions may be found in the deeper waters. Special considera-
tion should be given to estuary type, topography, currents,
and seasonal development of pycnoclines.
  Many estuaries and coastal regions are highly productive,
and  the characteristic pattern with photosynthesis in the
upper-water layer or adjacent marshes leads to large popu-
lation densities in the upper layers and loss of oxygen to the
atmosphere from the supersaturated surface waters or the
marsh plants. Subsequent decomposition of these organisms
and their wastes in the deeper waters leads to oxygen deple-
tion. Several deeper coastal plain estuaries and fjords  show
oxygen depletion from this sequence. Addition of miner
and organic plant nutrients to such  regions may intensi
the production and subsequent decomposition  processe
The effects of particular additions will depend on the wal
depths and rate of vertical mixing, and it is necessary
construct an oxygen balance  model for each case. Sewas
treatment that consists of partial or nearly complete mine
alization of the organic materials may still produce a di
charge that will damage the aquatic system, i.e., an amou
of organic  matter nearly equal in oxygen demand to tl
original sewage is produced in the environment. The princ
pal effect of  many "secondary" treatment systems is tl
trading of an intense local effect near the outfall for a  mo
widespread effect  at greater  distances. One of the maj<
considerations in  defining water quality recommendatioi
for nutrients in any estuarine or coastal region should be tl
risk  associated  with oxygen  depletions  from  increase
production. Deliberate moderate additions of nutrients
increase the yield of some fishery should also give due rcgai
to this secondary effect.

Recommendation
   Each proposed  change in the dissolved oxyge
concentration  in  estuaries  and  coastal watei
should be reviewed for risk of damage to aquati
life. The  limited laboratory data and field  obsei
vations on  marine organisms suggest  that easil
observed effects, which are in many cases deleter
ous,  occur  with dissolved  oxygen concentratior
of 4 to 5 mg/1 as daily minimum values for periot
of several days. As a guideline, therefore, reductio
of  the dissolved oxygen  concentration to  valu<
below 4 mg/1 can be expected to change the kinc
and abundances of the aquatic organisms in tt
affected volume of water  and area of bottom.  Pai
ticular attention should be directed toward ident
fying species with restricted spawning and nursei
areas and conservatism should be used in applyin
guidelines to these areas. (See  the expanded dii
cussion in Section III, pp. 131-135.)


RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE AQUATIC
ENVIRONMENT

  This section considers radioactivity in all surface wate
inhabited by plants and animals including fresh,  estuarin
and marine waters of the U.S. The subject matter pertaii
primarily to the  impact of environmental radioactivity c
aquatic organisms, although it also contains some discussic
of human radiation exposure  from aquatic  food  chains.
recent report by the National Academy of Sciences (1971)3
presented a review of radioactivity in the marine enviroi
ment, and  that  review  has been used extensively in tl"
preparation of this report.

-------
                                                                                         Categories of Pollutants/21 \
Characteristics and Sources of Radioactivity

  Radiation is the  energy emitted spontaneously in the
process of decay  of  unstable atoms of radioisotopes. This
energy can exist either in the form of electromagnetic rays
or subatomic  particles and cannot be detected by man's
senses. Radiation can be detected, however, by means of
electronic instruments, and quantities  present at very low
levels in the environment can be measured with remarkable
accuracy. Radioactivity which occurs  naturally in the en-
vironment originates from primordial radioisotopes and
their decay products (daughters) and from reactions be-
tween cosmic rays from  outer space and elements in the
atmosphere or in the earth. Some of the more abundant
primordial radioisotopes  in terms of their radioactivity are
potassiun-   (40K),  palladium   (234Pd),  rubidium  (87Rb),
uranium (238U) and  thorium (237T), the first accounting for
90 per  cent of the natural radiation in the oceans. While
beryllium (7Be) is the most abundant radioisotope produced
by cosmic rays, carbon (14C) and hydrogen (3H)  (tritium)
are biologically the most interesting. The presence of natural
radioactivity was unknown until 1896 when Becquerel dis-
covered uranium. Until  the  development  of the atomic
bomb during World War II, virtually^ all  of the radio-
activity on earth came from natural sources.
  The first man-made radioisotopes were not released into
the environment in any significant amounts until the atomic
bomb was tested and used in war even though the uranium
235  atom was first  split  (fissioned)  by neutron bombard-
ment in 1938. While the  release of radioisotopes was dras-
tically reduced with the halting of nuclear weapons testing
in the  atmosphere  by signatories  of  the test  ban treaty,
radioactive  wastes continue to be released  from nuclear
powered ships and submarines, nuclear power plants, nu-
clear fuel reprocessing plants,  and to  a lesser extent from
laboratories and hospitals. Two methods have been used in
handling radioactive wastes. High levels have been concen-
trated and held in special storage tanks, while low levels of
radioactive  wastes in small volumes have been diluted and
dispersed  in the aquatic  environment—particularly in the
oceans. Some manmade radioisotopes,  such as strontium 90
and cesium  137, are  the debris of split atoms and are called
fission products. Other radioisotopes, such as zinc 65 and
cobalt 60, are activation  products, produced  when stray
neutrons from the fission  process strike the atoms  of stable
elements.
  Cycling  of Radioactive  Materials   The  physical,
chemical, and physiological behavior of radioisotopes is es-
sentially identical with that of the stable isotopes of the same
element—at least until disintegration  occurs.  It should be
pointed out, however, that in  some instances the physical
and  chemical states of a radioisotope introduced into the
aquatic environment may vary from that of the stable ele-
ment in water. At the time of disintegration, the  decaying
atoms change into different types of atoms of the same ele-
ment or into atoms of a different element. If the behavior
of a particular element in an ecosystem is known,  the be-
havior of the radioisotopes of that element can be predicted.
The reverse also is true, and radioisotopes can serve as ex-
cellent  tracers in following  the  movement of elements
through complex  environmental   systems.  Radioactive
wastes in the aquatic environment may be cycled through
water, sediment, and the biota. Each radioisotope tends  to
take a characteristic route and has its own rate of movement
through various temporary reservoirs. The route taken by
tritium is different from that of other radioisotopes. Tritium
becomes incorporated in the water molecule and cannot be
removed by present waste treatment practices. It is not con-
centrated appreciably by either biota or sediments.
  When radioactive materials enter surface waters they are
diluted and dispersed by the same forces that mix and dis-
tribute  other soluble or  suspended  materials (National
Academy of Sciences 1957).393  The dominant forces are
mechanical dilution that mixes  radioisotopes in the waste
stream as it leaves an outfall structure; advection and turbu-
lent diffusion that mix materials in  the receiving  waters;
and major transport currents that move masses of water
over relatively long distances. On the other hand, precipita-
tion and  sedimentation tend to restrict the area of dis-
persion. When first introduced into fresh or marine water,
a substantial part of the materials  present in radioactive
wastes becomes associated with solids that settle to the bot-
tom,  and many of the radioisotopes are bound chemically
to the sediments. The sediments may also be moved geo-
graphically by currents. Even  though  in some instances
sediments remove large quantities of radioisotopes from the
water,  and thus prevent their  immediate uptake by the
biota,  this sediment-associated  radioactivity  may  later
leach back to the water and again become available for up-
take by the biota.
  Plants and animals, to be of any significance in the pas-
sage of radioisotopes through a food web  in the  aquatic
environment,  must accumulate  the  radioisotope, retain  it,
be  eaten by another organism, and be digested. Radioiso-
topes may  be passed through several trophic levels of a food
web, and  concentrations can either increase or  decrease
from one trophic level  to  the next, depending upon the
radioisotope  and the particular prey-predator organisms.
This variation among trophic levels occurs because different
organisms  within the  same  trophic  level  have different
levels of concentration and different retention times, which
depend upon their metabolism or capacity to concentrate a
given radioisotope. The concentration of a radioisotope by
an  organism is usually discussed  in terms of a concentration
factor:  the ratio of the concentration of the radioisotope in
the organism  to that in its source, that is,  the amount  in
water or food. Radioisotopes with short half-lives  are less
likely to be highly concentrated  in the higher trophic levels
of the food chain because of the time required to move from
the water to plants,  to herbivores, and eventually to carni-

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 Ill/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 vores. Organisms that concentrate radioisotopes to  a high
 level and retain  them for long periods of time have  been
 referred to as "biological indicators for radioactivity." These
 organisms are  of value in showing  the presence of radio-
 active materials even though the concentrations in the water
 may be less than detectable limits.

 Exposure Pathways

   The radiation emitted by radioisotopes that are present in
 aquatic ecosystems can  irradiate the organisms in many
 different ways.  In order to evaluate the total radiation dose
 received by the aquatic organisms, and thus the risk of their
 being injured, all sources of exposure must be considered.
 These sources include both natural  and man-made radia-
 tion, both external and internal.
   Major Sources of External Radiation   1 Radioiso-
 topes in the surrounding water that tend to remain  in
 solution, or at least suspended in the water, become associ-
 ated more readily with aquatic organisms than the radio-
 isotopes that settle out.
   2   Radioisotopes present on or fixed to sediments are
 significant to aquatic life, particularly to benthic organisms
 in the vicinity of  existing major atomic energy plants.
   3   Radioisotopes attached to the  outer surfaces of orga-
 nisms arc of greater significance to micro-organisms, which
 have a larger surface-to-volume ratios, than shellfish or fish.
   4   Cosmic-rays are of relatively  minor  importance  to
 aquatic life  that  lives a few feet or  more below the water
 surface, because of the shielding afforded by the water.
   Major Sources of Internal Radiation   1 Radioiso-
 topes in the  gastrointestinal tract frequently are not assimi-
lated, but during their residence in the tract expose nearby
 internal organs to radiation.
   2   Assimilated  radioisotopes  arc  absorbed  from water
through the integument or from food and water through the
walls of the  gastrointestinal tract, metabolized, and are in-
corporated  into  tissues  where  they remain  for  varying
periods  of time.  Aquatic  plants, including algae absorb
radioactive materials from the ambient water and from the
 interstitial water within the sediments.
   It is  difficult to  measure the  amount of radiation ab-
sorbed by aquatic organisms  in  the environment because
they are simultaneously irradiated by radioisotopes within
their body, on the surface of their body, in other organisms,
in the water, and  in sediments.  Exposure thus depends on an
organism's position in relation  to the  sediments and to other
organisms, and to movement of some species in and out of
the contaminated area.

 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation

   Ionizing radiation absorbed by plant  and animal tissue
may cause damage at the cellular and molecular levels. The
degree of radiation damage to an organism depends upon
 the source (external or internal), the type (electromagnetic
or particulate), the dose  rate (intensity per unit of time)
and the total dose.  Possible effects to the individual orga
nism may include death, inhibition or stimulation of growth
physiological damage, changes in behavioral patterns, de
velopmental abnormalities, and shortening of life span. Ir
addition, the extent of biological damage from radiation cat
be modified by environmental stresses such as changes it
temperature and salinity.  Under certain conditions, irradia
tion can cause gross pathological changes which are easib
observed, or more subtle changes which are difficult or im
possible  to  detect.  In addition to  somatic changes whicl
affect the individual, genetic changes also may occur whicl
may affect the offspring for many generations. At one time
it was widely  believed that there was a threshold radiatior
dose below which damage did not occur,  but now the con
sensus of most radiobiologists is that any increase over back
ground radiation will have some biological  effect.  Whili
the non-existence of a threshold  dose is difficult to  prove
most radiation biologists agree that even background level
of radiation from primordial radioisotopes and cosmic ray
have resulted in some genetic changes over the ages. Thesi
radiation-induced changes usually constitute less than 1 pe
cent of all spontaneously occurring mutations (Asimov anc
Dobzhansky 1966).3S4
  The amount of radiation absorbed by an organism can b<
expressed in various ways. The rad  (radiation absorbec
dose) is the unit used to measure the absorbed dose of radia
tion and refers to the absorption of 100 ergs of energy pe
gram of irradiated material. Because a rad of alpha or neu
tron radiation  produces greater biological damage than ;
rad of gamma radiation, another unit called the rem (roent
gen equivalent man) also is used. To obtain the rem, or dosi
equivalent,  the number of rads absorbed by the tissue  i
multiplied by the quality factor and other necessary modify
ing factors to compensate for the effects of different types o
radiation. The acute doses of radiation required to produo
somatic damage to many  species of aquatic organisms hav-
been established within broad iimits (National Academy c
Sciences  1971).397  Some  bacteria and algae can tolerat
doses of many  thousands  of rads, but the mean lethal dos<
(LD50 —30 days) for fish is in the range of several hundrec
to  a few thousand  rads.  Eggs and early developmenta
stages are more sensitive  them are  adults. By comparison
the mean lethal dose for humans is about  300 rads.
  The acute mean lethal dose has little value in placing re
strictions on the amounts  of radioactive material present ii
aquatic environments. Much more meaningful is the highes
level of chronic exposure that results in  no demonstrabli
damage to aquatic populations. A vast amount of researcl
on dose-effect relationships for warm-blooded animals ha
led to the recommendations on human radiation exposure
People who work with radiation may receive no more thar
5 rem  in any  one  year.  The recommended  limit for th<
general public  is 0.5 rem  in one year for individuals but i:
restricted to only 0.17 rem per year as an average for popu

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                                                                                         Categories of Pollutants/273
lations. The lower level permitted for populations is to re-
duce the possibility of genetic changes becoming established.
   Compared  with  the  experimental  data available for
warm-blooded animals, only a meager amount of informa-
tion is  available  on chronic dose-effect relationships for
aquatic forms. The  preponderance of available data  indi-
cates, however, that  no effects are discernible on either indi-
vidual aquatic organisms or on populations of organisms at
dose rates as high as several rads per week. In populations of
wild species, genetic damage may be removed by  natural
selection and  somatically weakened  individuals  are prob-
ably eaten by predators. Consequently, aquatic organisms
adversely affected by radiation are not readily recognized
in the field.
  The natural populations of fish that have probably sus-
tained the greatest exposure  to man-made radioactive ma-
terials are those near major atomic energy installations, for
example,  in the Columbia River near Hanford; in White
Oak Creek and White Oak Lake, near Oak Ridge; and in
the Irish  Sea  near Windscale, England.  Small fish which
received chronic irradiation of about 10.9 rads per day from
radioisotopes in the sediments of White Oak Creek produced
larger broods  but with a higher incidence of abnormal em-
bryos (Blaylock and Mitchell 1969).385 Chironomid larvae
living in  the  bottom sediments and  receiving  about five
rads per week had an increased frequency of chromosomal
aberrations but the  abundance of the worms was not af-
fected. The stocks of plaice in the vicinity of the Windscale
outfall have been unaffected  by annual dose rates of about
10  rads  per year—primarily from  the bottom  sediments
(Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Fisheries  and  Food  1967).392
Columbia  River salmon spawning  in the  vicinity of the
Hanford outfalls have been unaffected by doses in the range
of 100 to 200 millirads per week (Watson and Templeton
in press).402 These observations  on  chronic  exposure  of
aquatic organisms provide  a  subjective assessment of radia-
tion sensitivities in natural populations but are not  suffi-
ciently definitive to  form the basis for the development of
water quality recommendations.

Restrictions on Radioactive Materials
   The amounts of radioactive materials present in water
must be restricted in order to assure that populations of or-
ganisms are not damaged by ionizing radiation and also to
limit the amount of radioactive material reaching man via
aquatic food chains. Permissible rates of intake of the  vari-
ous radioisotopes by man have been calculated so that the
resulting annual dose is no greater than the recommended
limit. Therefore, when the rate of consumption of  aquatic
organisms is determined, e.g., pounds offish or shellfish per
year, maximum concentrations of radionuclides permissible
in the edible parts of the organisms can be computed. These
maximum concentrations are well below the concentrations
which have produced detectable effects on natural  aquatic
populations. It is probable  that the aquatic  environment
will  be protected by the restrictions currently imposed on
the basis of human health.
  The regulations which serve to protect man from radia-
tion exposure are the result of years of intensive studies on
the biological effects of radiation. Vast amounts of informa-
tion have been considered by the International Commission
on   Radiological  Protection  (ICRP)  (I960,389   1964,390
1965391), the National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements  (NCRP) (1959,398  1971399), and  the U.S.
Federal  Radiation  Council  (FRC) (I960,387 1961388),  in
developing recommendations on  the maximum  doses  of
radiation that  people may  be allowed to receive under
various circumstances or that may occur  in water.  The
Drinking Water Standards  (U.S.  Department of  Health,
Education  and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962400) and
the Code of Federal Regulations (1967)386 are responsive to
the recommendations of the  FRC,  ICRP, and NCRP, and
provide appropriate protection against unacceptable radia-
tion dose levels to people where drinking water is the only
significant  source of exposure above natural background.
Where  fish or  other  fresh or  marine products that have
accumulated radioactive materials  are used as food by hu-
mans,  the  concentrations of  the radiosiotopes in the water
must be further restricted to ensure that the total intake of
radioisotopes from all sources will not exceed the recom-
mended levels.

Conclusions

  Previous attempts  to  restrict radioactive discharges  to
marine environments have resulted in  recommended maxi-
mum permissible  concentrations  in  sea water (National
Academy of  Sciences 1959a,394  1959b,395 1962,396  1971397).
These  recommendations are  most useful as  a first  approxi-
mation in  predicting  safe rates of discharge of radioactive
wastes, but their applicability as water quality recommenda-
tions is limited and they are not intended for general use in
fresh or estuarine waters where the concentrations of a great
variety of chemical elements vary widely.
  Three approaches to the control  of levels  of radioactivity
in the aquatic environment have been used: (1) controlling
the release of radioactivity  based upon the specific activity
approach—the  ratio of the amount of radioactive isotope
present to the total amount of the element (microcuries per
milligram)  (National Academy of Sciences 1962),396  (2)
relating  the  effects of radiation upon aquatic  organisms
caused by  a given concentration of a radioisotope or com-
binations of radioisotopes in the water, and (3) restricting
concentrations of radioisotopes to those permitted in water
and food for human consumption.
  Since  concentrations  of  stable elements  vary from  one
body of water to another, and with time, and since adequate
data are not available  to relate effects  of radiation upon
aquatic organisms to  specific levels of radioactivity in the
water,  restrictions contained  in the Code of Federal Regu-

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274/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
lations (1967)386 on liquid effluents are considered adequate
to safeguard aquatic organisms.
  Because it is  not practical to generalize on the extent to
which many of the important radioisotopes will be concen-
trated by aquatic organisms, nor on the extent  to  which
they will be used for food by people, no attempt is made
here to specify maximum permissible concentrations (MFC)
for water in reference to uptake by the organisms. Rather,
each case requires a separate evaluation that takes into ac-
count the peculiar features of the region. Such an evaluation
should be approved  by an  agency of the State  or Federal
Government in each instance of  radioactivity contamina-
tion  in the environment. In each particular instance of pro-
posed contamination, there must be a determination of the
organisms present,  the extent  to which these organisms
concentrate  the ratioisotopes, and the extent to which  man
uses  the  organisms as food. The  rates of release of radio-
isotopes must be based on this information.

Recommendation
  Aquatic  organisms concentrate radioisotopes to
various degrees in their tissues. The concentration
in sea water should be low enough so that the con-
centration in any aquatic species will not  exceed
Radiation  Protection Guides of the  U.S. Federal
Radiation  Council (1961)401 for organisms harvested
for  use as human food.  This  recommendation is
based upon  the assumption that radiation  levels
which are  acceptable as human food will not injure
the aquatic organisms including wildlife.

SEWAGE AND NUTRIENTS

Magnitude  of the Problem
  The discharge of municipal sewage is a  major factor
affecting the water  quality of receiving systems. Because
the amount  of municipal waste produced is directly related
to the human population, the unit emission rates together
with information on the number of people using a system
provide an accurate estimate of the load that is imposed on
a particular estuary or section of coastal water.
  The effect of sewage discharges on water quality varies
widely and  depends on (1)  its composition and content of
toxic materials, (2) the type and  degree of treatment prior
to discharge, (3) the  amount released,  (4) the hydrody-
namics of the receiving waters, and (5) the response of the
ecosystem.  Increasing  human population and affluence
have resulted in increasing amounts of domestic  and in-
dustrial wastes. However, because the kind and degree of
treatment often can be improved, it should be possible to
cope with this pollution problem and to maintain or im-
prove the quality of the marine environment.
   In most  cases the discharge of sewage effluent is inten-
tional and  the source of sewage  and sewage treatment.
products entering marine ecosystems can be described  more
   TABLE IV-8—Average Sewage Emissions for a Densely
                    Populated Area
        Constituent
                      Mass emission rate (tons/day)" Unit emission rate (Ib/capita/da
Dissolved solids
Suspended solids
BOD
Total nitrogen (N)
Phosphate (Po<)
:|,600
565
560
1E5
100
1.03
0.162
0.160
0.047
0.029
 « For 700 mgd of sewage; population of 7 million.
 NAS-NRC Committee on Oceanography 1970"'.
accurately than the sources of other pollutants entering th
ecosystem. The volume of discharges and certain aspects c
their composition,  specifically, the amount of organic mai
ter and the inorganic nutrients, can be monitored contim.
ously  by existing automated methods. Average  values fc
some  important constituents  and their emission  rates in
densely populated  coastal area are given in Table IV-8.
  Runoff from agriculture areas is an important factor i
the nutrient enrichment of freshwater systems, but it is le
important to marine systems because relatively fewer farn
are concentrated on estuaries and coasts. Nevertheless, agr
cultural  practices  should  be considered. Pesticides, ferti
izers  and animal  wastes  may be carried by  rivers int
estuaries. Runoff from duck farms was involved  in a stud
on  excessive  nutrient enrichment  by Ryther   (1954).4
Commoner  (1970)404  has  emphasized that in the  Unite
States during  the last twenty-live years the amount of n
trogen used in agriculture has increased fourteenfold whi
the amount of nitrogen released via sewage  has increase
only seventy per cent.
  In addition  to degradable organic materials derived froi
fecal  and food wastes, municipal sewage also contains
wide variety of''exotic" or synthetic materials that are noi
degradable or  degrade slowly and only under  special cond
tions  (e.g., petroleum residues, dissolved metals, detergent
dyes,  solvents, and plasticizers).  Some of these adverse
affect the biota of receiving waters, and many interfere wi1
the biological  degradation of organic  matter either in ti-
treatment plant  or in the  environment.  Because was
treatment technology  currently in use is designed to  tre;
the fecal and  food materials derived from organic waste
an operational definition of municipal sewage "exotics"
all those materials not derived from fecal or food source
If the exotic materials accumulate in the receiving ecosy
tern,  the capacity for recycling of the degradable organ
materials may be reduced.

Oxygen Depletion

  Efficient biological  degradation of organic materials n
quires dissolved oxygen, and overload of sewage in receivir
waters can result in oxygen depletion and secondary effec
such  as objectionable odors, plant and animal die-off, an

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                                                                                        Categories of Pollutants/'21'5
generally decreased  rates of biological degradation. Such
effects can also  be created  by excessive algal growth  and
subsequent die-off.
  The most widely used method for estimating the organic
pollution load of a waste is the 5 day Biochemical Oxygen
Demand Test (BOD5). Discussions of the test  (Fair et al.
1968,407  Standard Methods  1971403)  and  its limitations
(Wilhm  and Dorris 1968426) are available. Among the im-
portant limitations of the BOD5 are: it does not indicate the
presence of organics which are not degraded under the  pre-
scribed conditions; it assumes that no toxic or inhibitory
materials will affect microbial  activity; and it  does  not
measure  the nitrogeneous oxygen demand  of the organic
waste. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an alternate
procedure for determining the amount of oxidizable  ma-
terial in  a water sample.  However, it does not indicate the
nature of biological oxygen consumption in a given time,
and  it does  not  distinguish  between inorganically and or-
ganically oxidizable  materials.  Both  BOD6  and  COD
measurements must  be recognized  as being  only partial
descriptions of the sewage load of a receiving water. While
BOD& and COD measurements are useful  for evaluating
treatment systems, these  two measurements do  not ade-
quately assess the environmental impact of a given sewage
load (Wilhm and Dorris  1968).426

Excessive Nutrient Enrichment
  Marine plants, like those  on land and in fresh water, re-
quire fertilizing elements essential for their growth and re-
production.  These essential elements are natural constitu-
ents  of municipal sewage and the amount that can be added
to the marine environment without deleterious effect is de-
termined by the stimulated  growth of aquatic plants. Even
if the major share of the organic material is removed from
the  sewage  in treatment  plants, the  growth of normal
marine plants can increase if the fertilizing elements present
in sewage are added  to the environment. Sewage treatment
plants are designed to remove the organic material and the
suspended solids  and to  decrease the bacterial population
by disinfection. In most cases,  this is done by processes  that
release or "mineralize" the plant nutrients which then stim-
ulate the growth  of algae in the receiving waters.  In only a
few cases have efforts been made to remove  these fertilizers
from the effluent to prevent or reduce  the excessive growth
of plants in  the aquatic environment.
   In the marine environment, growth of phytoplankton is
commonly limited by the availability of essential nutrients,
the most important of which are phosphorus and nitrogen
in available forms. In some cases, shortages of silicate can
inhibit the growth of the diatoms and encourage growth of
other species. In  certain limited areas, other elements such
as iron  and  manganese  have been  reported  as limiting
growth  of algae, and the  presence  or absence of other
growth stimulating substances, such as vitamin B12, can in-
fluence both the  amount and the character of plant species
capable of growing. It should be noted that in the marine
environment, several  elements essential  for plant growth
such as potassium, magnesium,  and sulfur,  are present in
great excess.
  Organic material  produced by natural phytoplankton
populations produces an oxygen demand when the material
is consumed or decomposed.  Oxygen is produced  by the
process of photosynthesis, but this production occurs only
near the surface during daylight when the amount of light
penetrating the water is adequate. Due to the sedimentation
of dead organic particulate material, decomposition usually
takes place in the deep waters where photosynthetically pro-
duced  oxygen is not available.
  The amount of organic material which can be produced
by  marine phytoplankton as a result of the addition of
fertilizing elements is dependent upon the composition of
the organic material.  Redfield et al. (1963)420 give the fol-
lowing ratios as characteristic of living  populations in the
sea and of the changes which occur in amounts of various
elements left in water as a result  of algal growth
 AO:     AC:
276:     106:
138:     40:
                        AN  :     AP =
                         16  :       1 by atoms or
                          7J^:       1 by weight
In addition to the readily available forms of phosphorus
and  nitrogen (dissolved orthophosphate, ammonia, nitrite,
and  nitrate), organic forms of phosphorus and nitrogen may
be made available by bacterial decomposition. Some dis-
solved organic nitrogen compounds are also available  for
direct assimilation.
  It should be emphasized  that  these ratios are not con-
stant in the rigorous sense of the stoichiometric ratios in
chemistry.  The plant cells can both  enjoy a "luxury" con-
sumption of each element (Lund  1950)414 or survive nutri-
tional deficiencies (Ketchum  1939,410  Ketchum  et  al.
1949411). In terms of the  total  production of organic ma-
terial these variations are important only when concentra-
tions of the elements are unusually low. It has been shown,
for example, in New England coastal waters that nitrogen is
almost completely removed from  the sea water when there
is still a considerable amount of phosphorus available in the
system.  Under these circumstances the plants will continue
to assimilate phosphorus,  even  though total production of
organic matter  is limited  by  the  nitrogen  deficiency
(Ketchum  et al. 1958,412 Ryther and  Dunstan 197 1423).
  The amount of oxygen dissolved  in sea water  at equi-
librium with the  atmosphere is  determined by salinity and
temperature. Nutrient elements added to the  marine en-
vironment  should be limited so that oxygen content of the
water is not decreased below the criteria given in the dis-
cussion of Dissolved Oxygen in this Section. In many pol-
luted estuaries, the amount of fertilizing elements added in
municipal  sewage is sufficient to  produce enough organic
material to completely  exhaust the  oxygen supply during
decomposition. The oxygen content of  sea water  and of

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 276/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 fresh water at equilibrium with the atmosphere is presented
 for different temperatures in Table IV-9. For the purposes
 of this  table,  a sea water of 30 parts  per thousand (9f)o)
 salinity has been used, which is characteristic of the near-
 shore coastal waters. The salinity effect on concentration of
 oxygen at saturation is minor compared  to effects of tem-
 perature in the normal ranges found in coastal waters.
  From the ratios of elements given above and the satura-
 tion values for oxygen, one can derive the effect of nutrient
 enrichment of marine waters. For example, from an addi-
 tion of  phosphorus and available nitrogen to final concen-
 trations of 50 and 362.5  micrograms per liter respectively
 in the receiving water, enough organic material  could be
 produced to remove 6.9 milligrams per liter of oxygen from
 the water. Data in Table  IV-9 indicate that sea water with
 a salinity  of 30 %o and a temperature of 25 C will contain,
 at saturation,  6.8 milligrams of oxygen per liter.  This con-
 centration of nutrients would thus permit the system to be-
 come anoxic and would violate the requirement that oxygen
 not be  changed beyond levels expressed in the section on
 Dissolved Oxygen. Fresh water would contain 8.1 mg/1 of
 oxygen  at saturation at 25 C, so that the same amount of
 nutrient addition would remove 84 per cent of the available
 oxygen.
  The example used might be considered to set  an upper
 limit on the amount of these  nutrients added to water. The
 actual situation  is, of course,  much more complicated. It is
clear from the data in Table IV-9 that summer conditions
 place the  most stringent restrictions on nutrient additions to
 the aquatic environment. Furthermore, the normal content
of nutrients in the natural environment has to be considered.
If these were  already high,  the amount  of nutrients that
could be  added would have  to be  reduced. As mentioned
above, the ratio of elements present in the natural environ-
ment would also be important. Nitrogen is frequently the
element in minimum supply  relative to the requirement of
the phy toplankton, and addition of excess phosphorus under
these circumstances has less influence than addition of nitro-
gen. Differences in the ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus may
also  modify the type of species present. Ryther  (1954),422
for example, found  that  unusually low nitrogen  to  phos-
phorus  ratios  in Moriches Bay and  Great South Bay on
Long Island,  New York,  encourage the growth  of micro-
TABLE IV-9—Effects of Salinity and Temperature on the
   Oxygen Content of Water in Equilibrium with Air at
                 Atmospheric Pressure
 Temperature C
Salinity o/oo
                       Oxygen mg/l
                                   Salinity °/oo
                                              Oxygen mg/l
25
20
10
0
30
30
30
30
6.8 0
7.4 0
9.1 0
11.65 0
1.1
8.9
10.9
14.15
 Richards and Corwin 1956«>.
scopic forms of Nannochloris atomus at  the expense of tl
diatoms normally inhabiting this estuary.
   Many forms of blue-green algae are capable of fixii
nitrogen from the gaseous nitrogen dissolved in  sea watt
Nitrogen deficiencies could be replenished by this mech
nism so that decrease in  phosphorus content without co
comitant  decrease in  nitrogen content might still lead
overenrichment, as well as shift the dominant phytoplar
ton population.
   Oxygen content of upper water layers can be increased
exchanges with the atmosphere. This process is proportioi
to the partial pressure of oxygen in the two systems so ti-
the  more oxygen deficient the water  becomes, the me
rapid is the rate of replacement of oxygen in the water
atmospheric  oxygen. Finally, mixing and dilution of t
contaminated water with adjacent bodies of water COL
make  additional  oxygen  available. All of these variab
must be considered  in order 10 determine acceptable lev
at which nutrients present  in sewage can be added to
aquatic environment.  In  fad,  many polluted estuaries
ready contain excessive amouits of these fertilizing clcmci
as a  result of pollution by  municipal sewage.
   The effects of ratios of elements discussed above have
very important bearing upon  some of the methods of cc
trol. For example, the removal of phosphates alone from t
sewage will  have an  effect upon the processes of ovi
enrichment only if phosphorus is indeed the element lim
ing production of organic matter. When  nitrogen is lim
ing,  as it  is  in New England coastal waters according
Ryther and  Dunstan  (1971),423  the replacement of phi
phorus by nitrogen compounds, such  as nitrilotriacet;
(NTA) could be more damaging to the ecosystem than cc
tinued use of phosphate-basei 1 detergents.

Pathogenic  Microorganisms
   The fecal coliform index  is  the most  widely used mic
biological index of  sanitary quality of an  estuary. Fc
coliform indices represent & compromise between the id
of direct determination of bacterial and viral pathogens
time-consuming  laboratory  procedures, and the indire
less indicative but practical exigencies. Laboratory methc
for quantitative  enumeration  of virus currently are bei
developed and  their present status is one of promise,  t
more time is needed  for their evaluation. Bacterial pathoe
detection frequently  requires special laboratory attention.
   Virus, in  general, may exhibit considerably longer si
vival times  in water  and shellfish as  compared  to fei
coliform bacteria. Under these circumstances a negative
coli test can  give a false impression of the absence of vi
pathogens (Slanetz et al. 1965,424 Metcalf and Stiles 196841
Fecal coliform multiplication may possibly occur in p
luted waters  leading to further difficulties in interpret!
sanitary quality.
   Disinfection of waste water1 by  chlorine is effective in i
moving most pathogenic bacteria but unpredictable in i

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                                                                                         Categories of Pollutants/211
ducing  the number of viruses. Differences in resistance of
bacteria and virus to chlorination may result in the appear-
ance of infectious virus in treated effluents devoid of bac-
teria. Failure to demonstrate the presence of viruses would
be the best way to insure their absence, but such capability
awaits development of methods adequate  for quantitative
enumeration of virus in water.
  The pollution of estuaries with waste products has led to
the contamination  of  shellfish  with human pathogenic
bacteria and viruses. Outbreaks of infectious hepatitis and
acute gastroenteritis derived from polluted  shellfish have
reinforced concern over the dangers to public health associ-
ated with the pollution of shellfish waters. The seriousness of
viral hepatitis as a world problem has been documented by
Mosle\  and Kenclrick (1969).416 Transmission of infectious
hepatitis as a consequence of sewage-polluted estuaries has
occurred through consumption of virus-containing shellfish,
cither raw or improperly  cooked. Nine outbreaks of infec-
tious hepatitis have been attributed to shellfish (Liu 1970).413
Contamination of water b\ sewage leads to  the closing of
oyster beds  to  commercial harvesting, clem ing public use
of a natural  resource and causing economic  repercussions
in the shellfish  industry. (See the discussion of Shellfish in
Section  I on  Recreation and Aesthetics.)

Sludge  Disposal into Marine Waters
  Dumping of sewage sludge in the ocean continues and this
practice, although  at present  indispensable,  constitutes a
loss of one resource and  potential danger for another.  A
study 011 the New York  Bight sludge and spoil dumping
area has sho\\n that an accumulation of toxic metals and
petroleum materials appear to have reduced the abundance
of the benthic invertebrates that normally rework  the sedi-
ments in a health} bottom community (Pearcc 1969).4UI

Deep Sea Dumping
  Biological degradation of organic waste materials is gcn-
eralK affected  by micro-biota and chcmophysical  environ-
mental  factors. The deep sea is increasingly considered for
the disposal  of organic  \\aste materials.  A  recent study
( Jannnsch et al. 1971)41'1' has shown  that rates of bacterial
activitx  in degrading  organic materials  was slowed  by
about t\\o orders of magnitude at depths of 5,000 to 15,000
feet as  compared  to samples  kept at equal temperatures
(38 F) in  the laboratory.  Since fa) the disposal of organic
wastes should be designed on the basis of rapid decomposi-
tion and rec\clin», and (b) there is no control of the pro-
cesses following deep-sea disposal, this environment cannot
be considered a suitable or safe dumping site.

Potential Beneficial  Uses  of Sewage
  Light loads of cither organic-rich raw sewage or nutrient-
rich biological  treatment  (secondary) effluent increase bio-
logical productivity. Except for short-term data on increased
fish and shellfish production, beneficial effects have rarely-
been sufficiently documented, but at the present time several
active  research programs are underway. Some degree  of
nutrient enrichment exists today in most estuaries close  to
centers of populations. These estuaries remain  relatively
productive and useful for fishing and recreation. Certain
levels of ecosystem modification via organic and nutrient
enrichment appear to be compatible with current water
uses; however, subtle changes in ecosystems may be accom-
panied by later, more extensive change.
  The possibility  of intensive use of essential plant nutrients
in waste material to increase  the harvestable productivity
of estuarine coastal systems has  been suggested as a logical
way to treat sewage and simultaneously derive an economic
benefit. Aquaculture  systems  would essentially  be an ex-
tension of the waste treatment process.  Conceptually, aqua-
culture is a form of advanced treatment. The limiting factor
involves  problems presented by toxic  synthetic  chemicals,
petroleum,  metals,  and pathogenic  microorganisms   in
effluents of conventional biological treatment plants.

Rationale for Establishing Recommendations
  It is conceptually difficult to  propose a level of nutrient
enrichment that  will not alter the  natural  flora because
seasonal phytoplankton blooms with complex patterns  of
species succession are  an integral part  of the  ecology  of
estuarine and coastal waters.  The timing and intensity  of
blooms vary from year to year and patterns of species suc-
cession  are frequently different in  successive years. The
highly productive and variable ecology of estuaries makes it
difficult to differentiate between the early symptoms of arti-
ficial nutrient enrichment and  natural cyclic phenomena.
In  addition,  there have already  been major quantitative
and qualitative changes in the flora of marine waters close
to centers of population.  These changes are superimposed
on the normal patterns of growth and may not in themselves
impair the recreational and commercial use of waters.
  Simulation modeling has been  used to predict the total
phytoplankton response to given nutrient inputs with success
by  O'Connor (1965)418 and DiToro ct al. (1971)4or' in the
San Joaquin  Estuary and by  Dugdale  and  Whitledge
(1970)406 for an  ocean outfall.  Their models  predict the
phytoplankton  response  from the interaction of the kind
and rate  of nutrient  loading  and the hydrodynamic dis-
persal rates. This  technique, although not perfect, facilitates
evaluation of the  ecological impact of given nutrient loads,
but does not help in deciding what degree of artificial en-
richment is safe or acceptable.

Recommendations
  • Untreated  or treated  municipal sewage dis-
charges should be recognized as a major source of
toxic substances. Recommendations for these con-
stituents will limit the amount of  sewage effluent
that  can  be  dispersed into  estuaries.  Reduced
degradation rates  of  highly dispersed  materials

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 278/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife

 should  be considered if the effluent contains re-
 fractory organic material. Undegradable synthetic
 organic compounds do not cause oxygen depletion
 but can still adversely affect the ecosystem. Main-
 tenance of dissolved oxygen standards will not pre-
 vent the  potentially harmful  buildup of  these
 materials. Specific quantitative  analyses should be
 done to identify and assess the abundance of these
 compounds.
  • The addition of any organic waste to the ma-
 rine environment should be carefully controlled to
 avoid decomposition which would reduce the oxy-
 gen content of the water below  the levels specified
 in the recommendations for oxygen.
  • Neither organic matter nor fertilizers should
 be added that will induce the production of organic
 matter by normal biota to an  extent causing an
 increase in  the size  of any natural anoxic zone in
 the deeper waters  of an  estuary.
  • The natural ratios of  available  nitrogen to
 total phosphorus should be evaluated under each
 condition, and the element actually limiting plant
 production  should be determined. Control  of the
 amount of the limiting element  added to the water
 will generally control enrichment.
  . If the maximum amounts of available nitrogen
 and phosphorus in  domestic waste  increase  the
 concentration in receiving waters to levels of 50
 micrograms per liter of phosphorus and 360 micro-
 grams per liter of nitrogen, enough organic matter
 would be produced to exhaust the oxygen content
 of the water, at the warmest time of the year under
 conditions of poor circulation, to levels below those
 recommended (see p. 275). These concentrations of
 nutrients  are clearly excessive.
  •  The potential  presence of pathogenic bacteria
 and viruses must be  considered in waters receiving
untreated or treated municipal sewage effluents.
The present quality  standards  for fecal coliform
 counts  (see pp.  31-32)   should  be  observed.  The
procedures for the examination of seawater  and
shellfish as  recommended by Hosty et al. (1970)408
should be  used.
  •  Disposal of sludge into coastal waters may ad-
versely  affect aquatic  organisms,  especially the
bottom  fauna.  Periodic  examination samples
should determine the spread of  such  an operation
 to aid in the control of local waste material loads.
The probable transport by currents should be care-
fully considered.  The   dumping  of   sludge into
marine waters should be recognized as a temporary
practice.
  •  Disposal of organic wastes into the deep-sea is
not recommended until further studies on their
fate,  their effect on the deep-sea fauna, and the
 controllability of such a procedure have been com-
 pleted.

 SOLID WASTES, PARTICULATE MATTER, AND
 OCEAN DUMPING

  Disposal of solid wastes has become one of the most ur-
 gent  and  difficult  problems  in  crowded urban  centers
 Ocean disposal of  these waste  materials  is receiving in-
 creased attention as land suitable for disposal becomes in-
 creasingly difficult to find.
  Solid wastes are  of many types and  each may have a
 different impact on the  marine  environment. Household
 and commercial rubbish as wel1 as automobiles and sewage
 sludge are disposed  of at sea. Industrial wastes  may be
 either solid or dissolved material, of varying  toxicity. Har-
 bor channels need  continuous dredging,  temporarily in-
 creasing the  suspended sediment load, and the spoils often
 are dumped in coastal waters. Building rubble  and stone
 also often are placed in the sea. The impact of disposal oi
 these  different materials  into the ocean will range from
 innocuous to seriously damaging.
  Particulate material is also discharged to  the ocean by
 surface runoff, sewage outfalls, and  storm sewers (Muni-
 cipality of  Metropolitan Seattle 1965).464 Much of this
 material settles to the bottom  at or near the  discharge site
 (Gross 1970).443 An increasingly important method of dis-
 posal  is that of barging  solids offshore  to be dumped in
 coastal areas. Table IV-10 shows compilation of the amounts
 of wastes barged to sea in  1968  on  the Pacific, Atlantic,
 and Gulf Coasts (Smith and Brown 1969).476

 Dredge Spoils

  Dredge spoils make  up a major  share of sea  disposal
 operations.  Their composition depends upon  the source
 from which they were obtained. Saila et al. (1968)472 were
 z ble to differentiate between dredged  spoil from Providence
 Harbor dumped offshore and sediments of the  natural
 bottom in the dumping area (Rhode  Island Sound). Gross
 (1970)443 suggests that dredge spoil generally consists of a
 mixture of sands, silts, and wastes which form the surface
 deposits in harbors. He compared minor element  conccn-
TABLE IV-10~Ocean Dumping: Types and Amounts,  1968
       Waste type
                       (In tons)
                     Atlantic
                              Gulf
                                      Pacific
                                              Total
Dredge spoils
Industrial wastes
Sewage sludge
Construction and demolition debris
Solid waste.
E> plosives

   Total
                     15,808.000   15,300,000   7,320,0!
                                            33,428,000
3,013,200
4,477,000
574,000
0
15,200
696,000
0
0
0
0
981,300
0
0
26,000
0
4,690,500
4,477,000
574,000
26,000
15,200
                     23,887,400
                             15,966,000    8,327,300   48,210,700
                                                      Council on Environmental Quality 1970'".

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                                                                                          Categories of Pollutants/279
trations in harbor sediments,  dredged wastes, and  conti-
nental shelf sediments. The median values of observed con-
centrations were clearly different, although the ranges of
concentrations overlapped.
  The proportion of dredging  spoils from polluted areas is
illustrated in Table IV-11.
  A variety of coastal  engineering projects involve changes
in  suspended loads  and  sedimentation  (Ippen  1966,447
Wicker 1965480).  Because important biotic  communities
may inhabit the sites  selected for these  projects, conflicts
arise concerning navigational, recreational, fisheries, con-
servation, and municipal uses of the  areas  (Cronin et al.
1969).436  Although  our  knowledge about  the  effects  is
limited and  the literature is  widely  scattered, Copeland
and Dickens  (1969)433 have attempted to construct a picture
of how dredging affects estuarinc ecosystems from informa-
tion gathered in  the  upper Chesapeake Bay, Maryland,
Redfish Bay, Texas,  and  an  intracoastal canal  in  South
Carolina.
  The biological effects of suspended loads, sedimentation,
dredging methods and spoil disposal may range from gross
damage, such as  habitat  destruction and smothering,  to
more  subtle  effects under low but chronic  conditions  of
sedimentation over long periods of exposure. The channeli-
zation, dumping of spoils,  dredging, and filling in the Gulf
Coast  estuaries had  destroyed roughly  200,000  acres  of
swamp, marsh,  and bay bottom areas by 1968 (Chapman
1968,432 Marshall  1968459).
  Mixtures of clays,  silts, fine sands, and organic matter,
sometimes referred to  as "faunally rich muddy sand," tend
to support larger benthic populations than coarse clean un-
stable  sands, gravels, or soft muds (Carrikcr  1967)430 over
or  through  which locomotion  may  be difficult  (Yonge
1953).482 Close  relationships exist between the presence of
organic matter, the mechanical nature  of sediments,  and
infaunal feeding habits (Sanders 1956,473  1958,474 McNulty
et al. 1962,461 Brett cited by Carriker 196743rt).
  Ten years after dredging Boca Ciega  Ba\  invertebrate
recolonization of canal sediments (92 per cent  silt and clay;
3.4 per cent carbon) was negligible. None of 49 fish species
caught in  these canals (as compared to 80 species  in un-
dredged areas)  was demersal, apparently because  of  the
lack of benthic  fish food organisms on or in  the  canal  de-


      TABLE IV-11—Estimated Polluted Dredge Spoils


Atlantic Coast
Gulf Coast
Pacific Coast.
Total
Total spoils (in tons)

15,808,000
15,300,000
7,320,000
38,428,000
Estimated percent of
total polluted spoils"
45
31
19
34
Total polluted spoils
(in tons)
7,120,000
4,740,000
1,390,000
13,250,000
  ° Estimates of polluted dredge spoils consider chlorine demand; BOD; COD; volatile solids; oil and grease;
 concentrations of phosphorous, nitrogen, and iron; silica content; and color and odor of the spoils.
  Council on Environmental Quality 1970"'
posits  (Taylor and  Saloman  1968).477  Breuer  (1962)429
noted that layers of dead oyster shell in  South Bay corre-
sponded to layers of deposited spoil from dredging and re-
dredging of the Brownsville Ship Channel. He thought that
this suggested destruction of South Bay oyster populations
with each dredging operation.
  Pfitzenmeyer (1970)470 and Flemcr et al. (1967)441 noted
a 71 per cent reduction in average number of individuals
and a marked reduction in diversity and  biomass in a spoil
area in upper Chesapeake Bay after dredging ceased. One
and one half years after dredging, the number of individuals
and species diversity of the spoil disposal area, but not in
the channel, were  the same as those of the surrounding
area.
  In lower Chesapeake Ba\, Harrison et al. (1964)444 ob-
served a transitory effect of a dredging and spoil disposal
operation on infauna. Resettlement of the dredged and dis-
posal areas was very rapid by  active migration and hydro-
dynamic distribution of juveniles.
  Mock (1967)463 noted that  an unaltered  shore in Clear
Lake,  Texas, produced  2.5 times more post larval and ju-
venile brown shrimp (Penaein, aztecus) and 14 times more post
larval  and juvenile  white  shrimp (Pcnaeus seltferus) than a
similar bulkhcaded shore. In a laboratory study using simi-
lar substrates,  Williams' (1958)481  data suggested that the
type of substrate max exert its influence through its effect
on available cover,  although a contributing factor may be
the different food content of the substrate.
  Ba\less  (1968)'1'27  observed   higher  average hatches of
striped bass eggs (Alorone saxatillis) on coarse sand (58.9 per
cent) and  a plain plastic pan  (60.3 per cent) than on silt-
sand  (21 per  cent), silt-clay-sand  (4 per cent) or muck
detritus (none). These  results  tend to support Mansucti's
(1962)458 and  Huct's (1965)44'1 contention that deposition
of suspended  matter ma\ interfere with  or prevent fish
reproduction  by destruction  of demersal  eggs  in  upper
estuarine areas.

Sewage Sludges
  Sewage  sludges  contain about  5 per cent solids which
consist of  about 55 per cent  organic matter, 45  per cent
aluminosilicates, and  tend  to contain  concentrations of
some heavy metals at least ten times those of natural sedi-
ments (Gross  1970).443
  Sewage  sludge has been dumped off New York Harbor
since 1924 in the same area.  Studies by Pearce (1970a,46j
b) 166  show that the normal bottom populations in an area
of about 10 square miles have  been eliminated and that the
benthic community has been altered over an area of approxi-
mately 20  square  miles.  Even the  nematodes, unusually
tolerant to pollution, are relatively scarce in the smaller
area. In areas adjacent to the sewage sludge disposal area
the  sea clams have been found to  be  contaminated by
enteric bacteria and the harvest of these  clams in  this area
has been prohibited. The oxygen content of the water near

-------
 280/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 the bottom is very low, less than  10 per cent of saturation
 in August, the warmest time of year. Chemical analysis of
 the sludge deposits have shown not only high organic con-
 tent but  also  high concentrations  of  heavy  metah and
 petrochemicals. In this area of the New York Bight, fin-rot
 disease of fish has been observed and is being  investigated
 (Pearce 1970b).466 In laboratory  tests  it has  been shown
 that sludge deposits can cause necrosis  of lobster (Hnmarus
 amencamis) and crab shells and tend to clog their gills so
 that survival of these species in contact  with the sludge de-
 posits is very brief. In other laboratory experiments, orga-
 nisms given a choice of substrate  tend  to avoid the sludge
 material in favor of the walls of the container or other sur-
 faces  that  were made available  (Pearce 1970b).466 These
 studies  have indicated that the disposal of sewage sludge
 has had disastrous  ecological  effects  on the  populations
 living on or near the bottom.
  Many aspects associated with  sludge dumping  in  the
 New  York Bight  require further investigation. It is  not
 known, for example, how  much of the  material  being
 dumped there  is accumulating and how much is being de-
 composed. The effects of heavy metals,  of oxygen-demand-
 ing materials,  and  of other  components  are imperfectly
 understood. When the rate of deliver) of organic  waste
 materials to an aquatic environment exceeds its capacity to
 recover, the rate of deterioration can be rapid.  If, or when,
 sewage sludge  disposal in this particular area of the New
 York Bight is terminated studies could  determine whether
 the bottom populations can repopulale the area.

 Solid Wastes
  The amount of household and commercial rubbish to be
 disposed of in  the United States is about 5 Ibs per capita
 per clay and is expected to increase to  7-J/2 I'38 Pcr capita
 per day (for a larger population),  by the end of the present
 decade.  Proposals  have been  made to collect  and  bale
waste  for  transportation  to  the  sea where it would  be
dumped in waters 1000 meters deep or more.  It would  be
necessary that the bales be compacted to a  density greater
than sea water so  that they would sink, and that no loose
floating objects would be released from the bale.  Among
the suggestions  made is that the bales be wrapped in plastic
to avoid any leaching from the contents.
  Pearce (1971)4()S reports that bales of compacted garbage
wrapped in plastic and reinforced  paper disintegrated in a
few weeks when placed in water 10 to  20 meters deep off
the coast of New Jersey.  Compacted bales  of refuse were
also anchored at a depth of 200 meters off the Virgin Islands
Pearce  (1970c).167  These were  retrieved  and  inspected after
approximately three months of exposure. Little  growth had
occurred on the surface of the bales, but some polychaete
worms had penetrated the bales to a depth of 2-3 cm., and
the material within the bale had decomposed to a  limited
extent.  Relatively high counts of total coliform bacteria
(96,000 Most Probable Number, MPN) and of fecal coli-
forms (1,300 MPN) were found in materials retrieved fror
the interior of the bales, indicating prolonged  survival o
growth of these nonmarine forms and suggesting a possibl
hazard  of introduction of pathogens to the sea. The ecc
logical  effects  of  disposing oi these materials  are inade
quately known.
   Disposal of solid  wastes,  including  dredging spoils an
sewage sludge into the deep waters off the edge of the Cont;
nental Shelf (more  than 200 meters)  has been frequent!
suggested as a way  to protect the inshore biota. Howevei
the rate of decomposition of organic material at the hig
pressure and low temperature of the deep sea is very muc
slower than  it would be at the same low temperature a
atmospheric  pressure (Jannasch et al.  1971).4'19 The orga
nisms in the deep sea have evolved in an extremely constan
environment. They are, therefore, unaccustomed to the un
usual stresses which confront organisms  in  more variabl
situations typical of coastal waters.  Biologists interested i
studying  the bottom populations of the  deep sea are e:*
tremely concerned about altering these populations befor
there is an opportunity to study them thorough!1,'.

Industrial Wastes

   A wide variety of industrial  waste  is being dumped a
sea. If this is discharged as a solution or slurry from a mov
ing ship or  barge it will be diluted in  the turbulent wak
and by the normal turbulence of the sea (Ford and Ketchur
1952).4I'2  The recommendations for mixing zones (p. 23 I
and for the constituents of specific waste material includei
should be applied to each such operation.
   One such  operation which has  been extensively studiei
is the disposal  of acid-iron wastes in the New York Bigh
(Redfield and \Valford  1951,4n Ketchum et al.  1951,"•'
Yacarro ct al.  1972,47S \Vicbe et al. in [ires'!  1972479). Evei
though this disposal lias proceeded  for over twenty year;
no adverse effects on the marine biota have been demon
strated. The acid is rapidly neutralized by sea water and th
iron is precipitated as nontoxic ferric hydroxide. This is
flocculant precipitate and  1he  only accumulation abov
normal background  levels in the sediments appears to be ii
the upper end of the Hudson Cam on, close to the specific!
dumping  area. The  so-called "acid grounds" have becoin
a  favored area  among local  blue  fishermen.  More toxi
materials would clearly present an entirely different set o
problems. This illustrates the need for a rational approacl
to problems of ocean dumping,

Other Solid Wastes

   Automobiles are sometimes  dumped at  sea, and somi
work has  been done on an experimental basis in an effor
to determine whether artificial  reefs can be created frori
them  to improve sport fishing. There is evidence that  thi
number of fish caught over these  artificial reefs is greate
than over a flat level bottom, but it is not yet certain whethe

-------
                                                                                          Categories of Pollutants; 281
this represents an aggregation of fishes already in the area
or an actual increase in productivity.
  Disposal of building rubble (brick,  stone, and  mortar)
at sea is not widely practiced.  Presumably, this material
could form artificial reefs and attract  populations of fish,
both  as a  feeding ground and by providing some species
with cover. Obviously, the bottom organisms present would
be crushed or buried,  but Pearce  (1970a,465  b)466 found no
permanent detrimental effects in  the building rubble  dis-
posal site off New York City.

Suspended Particulate Materials

  In  addition  to specific waste disposal operations,  sus-
pended particulate material, scston,  may be derived from
other sources, and have a variety of biological effects. Par-
ticulate material  can  originate from  detritus carried  by
rivers, atmospheric fallout, biological activity, chemical re-
actions, and  resuspension from the  bottom  as a result of
currents, storms, or dredging operations. The  particles intro-
duced by rivers can be rock, mineral fragments, and clay
serving as  a substrate for microorganisms or  affecting light
transmission  in  the water column.  In addition,  organic
matter  fragments, which make up  20 to 40 per cent of
particles in coastal waters (Biggs  1970,12S Manheim et al.
19704;'7) may comprise 50 per cent to 80 per cent of  sus-
pended material further offshore. Particle  concentrations
generally range from 1  to 30 mg  1 in coastal \\ aters to about
0.1 to 1 mg/1 at the surface in the open ocean. Higher con-
centrations occur near the bottom.
  The estimated yearly sediment load from rivers to  the
world oceans is estimated at 20 to 36  X 10s tons \sith 80 per
cent originating in Asia (Holeman  1968).44:' Much of  this
load is trapped in estuaries and held  inshore  b\ the general
landward direction  of subsurface  coastal currents  (Meade
1969).46'2 Gross (1970)443 suggests that 90 per cent or more
of particles originating  from rivers  or discharged to  the
oceans settles out at the discharge site or never leaves the
coastal zone.
  Average seston values may more than double from natural
causes during a tidal c\cle.  Biggs  (1970)42S  observed con-
centrations in the upper Chesapeake Bay ranging from less
than 20 mg 1 to greater than 100 mg 1  during a single day.
Resuspension of bottom sediments by storm waves and cur-
rents  induced by wind were  responsible for this range of
concentrations. Masch and Espey (1967) 16° found that the
total  suspended  material concentrations in Galvcston Bay,
Texas, ranged from 72  mg/1  in  the surface water of the
ship channel to  over 150 g/1 six inches above the bay bot-
tom near dredging operations. Normal background concen-
trations in  Galvcston Bay during times of strong wind action
were  200  to 400 mg/1.  Background  values  observed  by
Mackin (1961)456 in Louisiana marshes ranged from 20 to
200 mg/1.  Depending on the amount of overburden, opera-
tion   times, and  rate  of discharges,  Masch  and Espey
(1967)460 recorded suspended fixed solids concentrations in
dredge discharges ranging from 3,000 to 29,100 mg/1.
  The basic relationships between physical and chemical
aspects of suspended  and deposited sediments and the re-
sponses of estuarinc and marine organisms are poorly under-
stood (Shcrk  1971).47;> However, there  is general agree-
ment that particulate material in suspension or settling on
the bottom  can afifect aquatic organisms both  directly and
indirectly, by mortality or decreased yield.
  Particles  suspended in the water column can decrease
light  penetration by  absorption and  scattering and thus
limit  primary productivity.  Resuspcnclecl sediments exert
an oxygen demand on the order of eight times that  of the
same material  in bottom deposits  (Isaac  1965).41S  Jitts
(1959)45" found that 80 to 90 per cent of phosphate in solu-
tion  was absorbed by  silt  suspensions  which  might also
modify the rate of primary production. However, exchange
rates  and capacity of sediment can maintain a favorable
level  of phosphate (1 micromole 1) for plant production
(Pomcroy ct al.  1965)."'9 Carritt  and  Goodgal  (1954)431
postulated a mechanism for phosphate removal, transport,
and regeneration by the sediment-phosphate sorption com-
plex at different temperatures, pH values, and salinities.
  Evidence  tends to  support the contention that nutrient
fertilization  and possible release of toxic materials can occur
with resuspension of bottom material in the water column
(Gross 1970).413 This may occur during  dredging,  disposal
and  dumping  operations,  reagitation  during storms  or
floods and from beach  erosion. In upper Chesapeake Bay
total  phosphate  and  nitrogen were  observed  to  increase
over ambient levels by factors of 50 to 1,000 near an over-
board spoil  disposal project, but no gross effects were ob-
served in samples  incubated  with water  from the spoil
effluent (Flemer et  al. 1967,441  Flemer 197044").
  Oyster and clam eggs and larvae demonstrate a  remark-
able ability  to tolerate the variable turbidities of the estu-
arine environment at concentrations up to 4.0 g  1 (Carriker
1967,430 Davis and  Hidu 196943S).  Survival and growth of
these egg and  larval  stages reported by Davis  (I960)437
and  Loosanoff (1962),4r>2 however, indicated  a significant
effect on survival at suspended  particle concentrations of as
little as 125  mg/1. Earlier life stages of the oyster tend to be
more sensitive  to lower concentrations  of suspended ma-
terial than  adults.  However,  the effects on  survival  and
growth cannot wholly be attributed to particle sizes  and
concentrations  since  different  particle  t\ pes  may  have
markedly different effects at similar concentrations. The
adult American oyster (Ctauvstrea vngnuca)  appears to be a
remarkably  silt-tolerant organism when not directly smoth-
ered by deposited sediments (Lunz 1938,1''4 1942lr>r>). Sig-
nificantly, mortality of adult oysters was not evident with
suspended sediment concentrations as  high as 700  mg/1
(Mackin 1961),456  but there was a drastic  reduction in
pumping rates  (57  per cent at  100 mg/1  of silt)  observed
by  Loosanoff  and Tommers   (1948)453 and  Loosanoff

-------
 2ti2/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
 (1962452). Apparently adult oysters may pump at reduced
 rates throughout most of their lives when the background
 suspended particulate matter persists at values observed by
 Biggs (1970)428 and Masch and Espey (1967460).
  Organisms that colonize hard surfaces must contend with
 a sediment mat of varying thickness. While motile fauna
 may be able to adjust to short range vertical bottom altera-
 tions from scour or deposition, ". . . the capacity and be-
 havior of less  motile estuarine benthos in  adjustment to
 relatively rapid fluctuations in the  bottom  level are little
 known. Fixed  epifauna, like oysters and barnacles, perish
 when covered  by  sediment, adjustment occurring only in-
 directly through later  repopulation of the area from else-
 where" (Carriker 1967).430
  The highly  variable nature of suspended  loads  (Biggs
 1970),428 the resuspension of bottom accumulations by cur-
 rents, tidal action and wind, and  the  feeding and filtering
 activities of benthic organisms complicate the determination
 of threshold values or  limiting conditions for aquatic  or-
 ganisms. Data are difficult to compare because of differences
 in methods and approaches. This may indicate  a lack of
 understanding of  sedimentation and the difficulty in dis-
 tinguishing between the effect of light attenuation by sus-
 pended particles and the effects of these particles on growth
 and physiology of estuarine and marine organisms (Muni-
 cipality  of Metropolitan Seattle  1965).464  The observed
 responses of organisms may not be due to turbidity or total
 suspended sediment concentration,  but  to  the number of
 particles,  their densities, sizes,  shapes, types, presence and
 types of organic matter and the sorptive properties of the
 particles.
  Physical alterations  in estuaries and  offshore  dumping
 have had  obvious effects on estuarine and marine biological
 resources. These effects have been  given little consideration
 in project planning, however, and little information exists
 concerning the magnitude of biological change because few
 adequate  studies  have been  attempted  (Sherk   1971).47f>
Areas of high  biological value, such as nursery grounds or
habitats for commercially important species, must be pro-
tected from sediment damage (Municipality of Metropoli-
tan Seattle  1965).464 For example, the exceptionally high
value of the Upper Chesapeake as a low salinity fish nursery
area has been  demonstrated (Dovel  1970).439 Larvae and
eggs are particularly sensitive to environmental conditions,
and sediment-producing activities in this t>pe of area should
be restricted to seasons or periods of least probable effects.
  Results reported from the study of this area, concerning
seasonal patterns of biota, the  nature of the sediments, and
physical  hydrography  of the area, can be  applied to the
other areas being considered  for  dredging,  disposal, and
dumping. These data, in addition to careful pre-decision
surveys or research conducted at the site under considera-
tion should provide a guide to efforts to minimize damage
and  enhance   desirable features  of the  system  (Cronin
 1970).435
  Adequate knowledge of local conditions at sites selectee
for  any sediment-producing  activity is essential, however
This will generally require preproject  surveys for each sitt
selected because knowledge of ecological impacts of thes(
activities  is  limited.  Data  should be  obtained  on th<
". . . biological values of the areas involved, seasonal pat
terns  of the  biota, the nature  of the sediments,  physica
hydrography of the area, and  the  precise location of pn>
ductive or potential  shellfish beds, fish  nursery areas anc
other areas of exceptional importance to human uses. . .'
which are close to  or in the site selected (Cronin 1 970).435
  Appropriate  laboratory experiments  are also required
These should have value in predicting effects of sedimenta
tion in advance of dredging  operations.  Eventually, th<
results of these experiments  and field observations  shouk
yield sets of environmental conditions and criteria, for ade
quate coastal zone management and competent guidance tc
preproject  decision making (Sherk  1971).47"'
  The  presence of major benthic resources (e.g., oystei
beds,  clam beds)  in  or  near (he selected area should b<
cause for  establishment  of a safety zone or  distance limi
between them  and the  sediment-producing  activity. Thi.
would control mortality caused by excessive  deposition o
suspended  particulate material on the  beds and  preven
spread of spoil onto the beds from the disposal or dumpim
sites.  Biggs (1970)428  found  that the maximum  slope  o
deposited spoil was 1 :100 and the average slope was  1:50(
in the Upper Chesapeake. These slopes may prove useful it
estimating safety zone limits on relatively flat bottoms. A
times,  the  safety zone would have to be quite large. Fo
example, the areas in New York Bight which  are devoid o
naturally   occurring  benthos  in the  sewage  sludge anc
dredging spoil disposal areas were attributed to toxins, lov
dissolved oxygen, and the spreading of the deposits (Pearci
1970a).46'i  The presence or  g.bsence of bottom currents  o
density flows should  be determined  (Masch  and  Espe-;
1967).460 If these  are  present,  measures must be  taken  t<
orevent transport  of deposits ashore  or to areas of majo
oenthic resources.
  Tolerable suspended sediment levels or ranges should ac
commodate the most sensitive life stages of biologically im
portant species. The present state of knowledge dictates tha
ihe critical organism must be  selected for each site when
environmental modification is  proposed.

Recommendations

  The  disposal  of waste materials at  sea, or the
transport of materials for  the purpose  of disposal
at sea  should  be controlled. Such  disposal should
be permitted only when reasonable evidence is pre-
sented that the proposed  disposal will not seriously
damage the marine biota, interfere with fisheries
operations  or  with other uses of the marine en-
vironment  such as navigation and recreation,  or

-------
                                                                            Categories of Pollutants/283
cause hazards to human health and welfare. The
following guidelines are suggested:

    • Disposal at sea of potentially hazardous ma-
      terials  such as highly radioactive material
      or agents  of chemical or biological warfare
      should be  avoided.
    • Toxic wastes should not be discharged at sea
      in a  way  which would adversely affect the
      marine biota. The toxicity of such materials
      should be  established by bioassay tests and
      the concentrations produced should conform
      to the conditions specified in the discussion
      of mixing  zones (pp. 231-232).
    • Disposal of materials containing settleable
      solids or substances that may precipitate out
      in quantities adversely affecting the  biota
      should be avoided  in estuarine  or  coastal
      waters.
    • Solid waste disposal at sea should be avoided
      if  floating material might accumulate in
      harbors or on the beaches or if such  ma-
      terials  might accumulate on  the bottom or
      in the  water column  in a manner that will
      deleteriously affect deep sea biota.

  In connection  with dredging operations or other
physical modifications of  harbors  and estuaries
which would increase the suspended sediment load,
the following types of  investigations  should be
undertaken:

    • Evaluation of the range and  types of parti-
      cles  to  be  resuspended  and  transported,
      where they will settle, and what substratum
      changes or modifications may be created by
      the proposed activities in both the dredged
      and the disposal areas.
    • Determination of  the biological  activity of
      the water column, the sediment-water inter-
      face, and  the  substrate material to depths
      which contain burrowing organisms.
    • Estimation of the  potential release into the
      water column of sediments, those substances
      originally  dissolved  or  complexed  in the
      interstitial water of the sediments, and the
      beneficial  or detrimental chemicals sorbed
      or otherwise associated with particles which
      may be released wholly or  partially after
      resuspension.
    • Establish the expected relationship between
      properties of  the  suspended  load  and the
      permanent resident species of the area and
      their ability to repopulate the area, and the
      transitory species which use the area only at
      certain seasons of the year.

-------
                                                      LITERATURE   CITED
INTRODUCTION

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''Lauff,  G.  H.,  ed.  (1967), Estuaries. Publication 83,  American As-
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7 Sykes, J. E.  (1968), Proceedings  of marsh and  estuary management
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References Cited
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NATURE  OF  THE ECOSYSTEM
9  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineering and  Stanford University
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     University,  Department  of Civil Engineering, Stanford,  Cali-
    fornia.
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 FISHERIES

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-------
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337 La Roche, G., R. Eisler, and C. M. Tarzwell (1970), Bioassay pro-
    cedures  for oil  and oil dispersant toxicity  evaluation. J.  Water
    Pnllut. Contr. Fed. 42(11):1982-1989.
338 Michigan Department of Natural Resources (1969),  A biological
    evaluation of six chemicals used to disperse oil spills (Lansing).
339 Mikolaj, P.  G. and E. J. Curran  (1971), A  hot water fluidization
    process for cleaning oil-contaminated beach sand, in  Proceedings
    of the joint conference on prevention  and  control  of oil spills (American
    Petroleum Institute, Washington, D. C.), pp. 533-539.
340 Ministry of Transport,  Canada (1970),  Report  of the  Scientific
    Coordination Team to the Head of the Task Force Operation
    Oil  (The ARROW Incident,  July,  1970,  Compiled at Atlantic
    Oceanographic Laboratory, Bedford Institute of Oceanography,
    Darmouth, Nova Scotia, Volume II, issued by the Ministry of
    Transport).
341 Mironov,  O. G. (1967), [Effects of low concentrations of petroleum
    and its products on the development of roe of the Black Sea flat-
    fish.] Vop.  Ikhtiol. 7(3):577-580.
342 Mironov,  O. G. (1971), The effect of oil pollution on  flora and
    fauna of the Black Sea, no. E-92 in Report of the FAO technical con-
    ference on marine pollution and its effects on living resources and fishing
    [FAO fisheries report 99] (Food and Agricultural Organization
    of the United Nations, Rome), p. 172.
343 Morris, B. F.  (1971), Petroleum: tar quantities  floating in the
    northwestern Atlantic  taken with a new  quantitative Neuston
    net.  Science 173-430-432.
344 North, W. J. (1967), Tampico:  a study of destruction and restora-
    tion. Sea Frontiers 13:212-217.
346Revelle, R., E. Wenk, B. II. Ketchum and  E.  R. Corino (1972),
    Ocean pollution by petroleum  hydrocarbons.  Man's  impact on
    terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems. Part I, Chapter 4,  Mathews,  Smith
    and  Goldberg, eds., pp. 59-79.
346 Sartor, J.  D. and C. R. Foget (1971), Evaluation of selected earth-
    moving  equipment  for the  restoration  of  oil-contaminated
    beaches, in Proceedings of the joint conference on prevention and control
    of oil spills (American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D. C.),
    pp. 505-522.
347 Smith, J.  E.  ed.  (1968),  'Torrey Canyon' pollution  and marine life
    (Cambridge University Press,  Cambridge), 196 p.
348ZoBell,  C. E.  (1969), Microbial modification of crude  oil in the
    sea,  in Proceedings of the joint conference on prevention and control of
    oil spills (American Petroleum  Institute,  Washington, D.  C.),
    pp. 317-326.
TOXIC  ORGANICS

349 Buchanan, D. V., R. E. Millernan  and N. E. Stewart  (1970), Ef
     fects of the insecticide  Sevin on survival  and  growth of th<
     Dungeness crab Gamer magister J.  Fish Res. Bd.  Canada 27(1)
     93-104.
350Bugg, J. C., J. E. Higgins and E. A.  Robertson (1967), Chlori
     nated pesticide levels in the eastern oyster  (Crasmslrea virginica
     from selected  areas of the South  Atlantic  and Gulf of Mexicc
     Pesticides Monitoring J.  1:9-12.
351 Cade, T. J., J. L. Lincer, C. M. White, D. G. Roseneau, and L. G
     Swartz  (1970), DDE residues and  eggshell changes  in Alaska
     falcons and hawks. Suence 172; ')55-957.
362 Casper, V.  L.  (1967), Galveston Bay pesticide study—water nn>
     oyster samples analyzed  for peslicide residues following mosquit
     control program. Pesticides Monitoring J. 1:13—15
353 Chin, E. and D. M. Allen (1958), Toxicity of an insecticide to tw
     species of shrimp, Penaeus aztecus and Penaeus setiferus  Te\. J. Sc
     9(3)-270-278.
364 Davis, H. C. and H Ilidu (1969) Effects of pesticides on embryoni
     development of clams  and oysters and on survival and growth c
     the larvae. Fish. Bull 67(2):39?-404.
354»Duke, T.  W., J. I Lowe and A.  J. Wilson,  Jr. (1970). A  pol>
     chlorinated  biphenyl  (Aroclor   1254) in  the water,  sedimem
     and biota of  Escambia  Bay,  Florida  The Fin/1. En; it on Contan
     Toxicol. 5(2)'171- 180
365 Eisler, R. (1969), Acute toxicities of insecticides to marine decapo
     crustaceans. Crustaceana 16(:?):302-310.
366 Eisler, R.  (1970a),  Factors affecting pesticide-induced toxieity  i
     an cstuarine fish. Technical Papers of Bui. Sport Fish. II'iM. 4.r>:20 7
357 Eisler, R. (1970b), Acute toxicities of organochlorine and organc
     phosphorus insecticides  to estuarine fishes.  Technical  Papers  r
     Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl. 46:12 p.
368Erickson, S. J., T. E. Maloney and J. H. Gentile (1970)  Effect c
     nitrilotriacetic acid on the  growth  and metabolism  of estuarin
     phytoplankton.  J. Water Pollution  Control Feder itioii 42(8)
     R-329-335, Part 2.
369 Harvey, G. R., V. T. Bowen, R.  H.  Backus and G. D. Grice (1072;
     Chlorinated  hydrocarbons  in open-ocean  Atlantic  organism!
     Proceedings of the Colloquium "7/7'p Changing Chemistiv 'f the Oceans
     (In press).
360 Jensen, S., A. G. Johnels, M. Olsson,  and G. Otteilind (1969]
     DDT and PCB in marine animals  from Swedish waters. .Vatut
     224:247-250.
361 Jensen, S., A. Jernelov, R. Lange, and K   TT. Palmork (1970)
     Chlorinated byproducts from vinyl chloride production: A nei
     source of marine pollution. F. A. O. Technical Conference Mariri
     Pollution  and its Effects  on Livi.ig Resources and Fishing. Romr
     Italy, December, 1970.
362 Katz,  M.  (1961), Acute  toxicity of  some organic  insecticides  t<
     three  species  of  salmonids and  to  the  threespine  stickleback
     Trans. Amer. Fish. Sac.  90(3) :264-268.
363 Koernan, J. II., and H.  Genderen (1970), Tissue levels in animal
     and  effects  caused  by chlorinated  hydrocarbon  insecticides
     biphenyls and mercury in  the marine environment along the
     Netherlands coast. F.  A. O.  Technical conference  on  Marine
     Pollution and  its Effects on Living Resources and Fishing. Rome
     Italy, December, 1970.
1)64 Korschen,  L. J.  (1970) Soil-food-chain-pesticide wildlife relation-
     ships in alclrin treated  fields. J. Wildl. Manag. 34-186-199.
•166 Krantz, W. C., B. M. Mulhern, G. F. Baglcy, A. Sprunt,  IV, F. J
     Ligas, and W. B. Robertson   Jr., (1970), Organochlorine and
     heavy metal residue in Bald Eagle Eggs. Pesticides Monitoring J.
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367 Modin, J.  C. (1964)  Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in Cali-
    fornia bays and estuaries.  Pesticides Monitoring J. 3 1-7.
368 National Marine Water Quality Laboratory  (NMWOL)  (1970)
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    Organisms. Progress  report F. W.  Q. A.  Project  18080 GJY.
369Nimmo,  D. R., A. J. Wilson,  Jr.  and R.  R. Blackman  (1970),
    Localization of DDT in the body organs of pink and white shrimp.
    Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and  Toxicology 5(4):333-341.
370Nimmo, D. R.,  P. D.  Wilson, R. R. Blackman and A. J. Wilson,
     Jr.  (1971), Polychlorinatcd  biphenl  absorbed  from sediments
    by fiddler crabs and pink shrimp, \uture 231:50-52.
371 Risebrough, R.  W., P. Riechc, D. B.  Peakall,  S.  G. Herman, and
    M. N. Kirvcn (1968), Polychlorinated  biphenyls in the  global
    ecosystem, .\aturf 220:1098-1102.
372 Rowe, D. R., L. W. Canter, P. J. Snyder and J. W. Mason (1971),
    Dieldrin  and endrin  concentrations in  a  Louisiana  estuary.
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373 Ryther, J. H.  (1969), Photosynthesis and fish production in  the
    sea. Science 166:72—76.
374 Schreiber,  R. W. and  R. W. Risebrough (1972. in press), Studies of
    the Brown Pelican Pelecanus occidentals.  \\~iLson Bulletin.
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378 Vos, J. G., H. A. Brecman and H. Benschop (1968), The occurcnce
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OXYGEN

383 DoudorofT, P. and D. L. Shumway (1970), Dissolved oxygen require-
    ments  oj fieshwaler fishes  [Food  and  Agricultural Organization
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RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

384 Asimov, Issac  and Theodosius Dobzhansky (1966), The genetic
    effects of radiation. Understanding the Atom  Series (USAEC  Di-
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     coastal  waters. National  Academy of Sciences—National Research
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396 National   Academy   of  Sciences—National   Research Council
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     (1959), Maximum  permissible  body burdens  and maximum per-
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294/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
SEWAGE  AND  NUTRIENTS

403 American Public Health Association, American Water Works As-
    sociation,  and Water  Pollution  Control  Federation   (1971),
    Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 13th ed.
    (American Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.), 874
    P-
404 Commoner, B.  (1970), Threats to  the  integrity  of  the  nitrogen
    cycle: nitrogen compounds in soil, water atmosphere and precipi-
    tation,  in Global effects of environmental pollution, S. F.  Singer, ed.
    (D. Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, Holland), pp. 70-95.
406 Di  Tori,  D. M., D. J. O'Connor,  and R. V. Thomann (1971), A
    dynamic  model of the phytoplankton population in the  Sacra-
    mento-San Joaquin  Delta. In: Nonequihbnum Systems in  Natural
    Water Chemistry, R.  F. Gould  (ed) American Chemical  Society,
    Washington, D. C. pp. 131-180.
406Dugdale, R. C. and T. Whitledge (1970), Computer  simulation of
    phytoplankton growth near  a marine sewage outfall.  Rev. Int.
    Oceanogr. Med. 17:201-210.
407 Fair, G. M., J. C. Geyer, and D. A. Okun (1968), Water purifica-
    tion and wastewater treatment and disposal, vol. 2 of Water and waste-
    water engineering (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York), 668 p.
408 Hosty,  T. S., W. J. Beck,  C. B. Kelly, T. G. Metcalf, A.  Salinger,
    R.  Shelton, L.  W. Slanetz, and A.  D. Tennant (1970),  Recom-
    mended procedures for the examination of sea water and shellfish,  4th ed.
    (American Public Health  Association,  New York),  105  p.
409 Jannasch, H. W., K. Eimhjellen,  C. O. Wirsen, and A.  Farman-
    farmaian (1971),  Microbial  degradation of organic matter in
    the deep sea.  Science  171:672-675.
410 Ketchum, B.  H.  (1939), The development and restoration of de-
    ficiencies in  the phosphorus and  nitrogen composition  of uni-
    cellar plants.  J. Cell. Comp. Phynol. 13(3):373-381.
411 Ketchum, B. H., L. Lillick, and A. C. Redfield  (1949), The  growth
    and optimum yields  of unicellular algae in mass culture.  J. Cell.
    Comft. Physiol. 33(3):267-279.
412 Ketchum, B. H., R. F. Vaccaro, and N. Corwin  (1958), The an-
    nual  cycle of phosphorus  and nitrogen in New  England  coastal
    waters.  J. Mar. Res.  17:282-301.
413 Liu,  O.  C. (1970),  Viral pollution and depuration of shellfish.
    Proc.  National Specialty Conference on Disinfection (American  Society
    of Civil Engineers, New York) pp. 397-428.
414 Lund,  J. W. G. (1950),  Studies on Astenonella formosa Hass. II.
    Nutrient  depletion and the spring maximum. J. Ecol. 38:15-35.
416 Metcalf,  T. G. and W. C.  Stiles (1968), Enteroviruses within an
    estuarine environment. Amer. J. Epidermal. 88:379—391.
416Mosley, J. W.  and M. A. Kendrick (1969), Hepatitis as a world
    problem. Bull. N. T. Acad. Med. 45:143-166.
417 National  Academy  of Sciences-National Research Council Com-
    mittee on Oceanography,  and National Academy of Engineering
    Committee  on Ocean  Engineering  (1970),  Wastes management
    concepts  for the coastal zone (The National  Academy of Sciences,
    Washington,  D. C.), 126 p.
418 O'Connor, D.  J. (1965), Estuarine distribution of nonconservative
    substances. J. Samt. Eng. Div. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. 91(SAl):23-32.
419 Pearce, J. B. (1969), The effects of waste disposal  m New York  Bight—
    interim  report  for January  1, 1970  (U.S. Department of the In-
    terior, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, Highlands, New Jersey),
    103 p.
420 Redfield, A. C., B.  H. Ketchum, and F. A. Richards (1963), The
    influence of organisms on the composition of sea-water, in The
    sea, M. N. Hill, ed.  (Interscience Publishers, New York), vol. 2,
    pp. 26-77.
421 Richards, F. A. and  N. Corwin (1956), Some oceanographic ap-
    plications of recent determinations of the solubility of oxygen in
    sea water. Limnology  and Oceanography I. 4:263-267.
422 Ryther,  J. H.  (1954), The ecology of phytoplankton blooms in
     Moriches Bay and Great  Sourh Bay,  Long Island,  New Yoi
     Rial. Bull.  106:198-209.
423 Ryther, J. II. and W. M. Dunstan  (1971), Nitrogen, phosphon
     and eutrophication in  the coastal marine environment.  Sciei
     171:1008-1013.
424 Slanetz, L. W., C. H. Bartley  and T. G. Metcalf (1965), Correl
     tion of colifoun and fecal  stieptococcal indices with the presen
     of salmonellae and enteric viruses in sea water and shellfish,
     Advance! in water pollution  research, proceedings 2nd international  ci
    ference, E  A. Pearson, ed.  (Pergamon Press, London), vol. 3,  p
     27-35.
426 Standard methods (1971)
     American  Public  Health  Association,  American Water  Wor
     Association, and  Water  Pollution Control Federation  (1971
     Standard methods for the  examination of water and waste wat<
     13th  ed.   (American  Public   Health Association,  Washingto
     D.  C.), 874 p.
426Wilhm,  J. S. and T. C.  Dorris (1968), Biological parameters  f
     water quality criteria. Biosciencf  18(6):477-480.
SOLID WASTES

427 Bayless, J. D.  (1968), Striped bass hatching and hybridization e
    perimcnts. Proc. S. E. Game and Fish Commissioners Annu. Conf. 2
    233-244.
428 Biggs, R. B.  (1970), Geology  and hydrography, in Gross physic
    biological effects of overboard spoil disposal  in upper Chesapeake  Ba
    Final report to the U.S. Bureau ,->f Sport Fisheries and Wildlife [Speci,
    report no. 3; Contribution  397] (University of Maryland,  N;
    tural Resources Institute, College Park),  pp. 7-15
429 Breuer,  J. P.  (1962), An ecological survey of the  lower Lagun
    Madrc of Texas,  1953-1959. Publ.  Inst.  Mar. Sci.  Univ.  Tex.  f
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430 Carriker, M.  R. (1967),  Ecology of  estuarine  benthic invert*
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    Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D. C.
    pp. 442-487.
431 Carritt, D. E.  and S. Goodgal (1954), Sorption reactions  and som
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432 Chapman, C. (1968), Channelization and spoiling in Gulf Coa:
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    symposium proceedings, J. D.  Newsom,  ed.  (T.  J.  Moran's Son
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433 Copeland, B.  J.  and F. Dickens (1969),  Systems  resulting froi
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    H. T. Odum, B. J. Copeland, and E. A. McMahan, cds. (Feder;
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    pp. 1084-1100. mimeograph.
434 Council  on  Environmental  Quality   (1970),  National oil  an
    hazardous materials contingency plan.   (June 1970).  Fed  Re^
    35(106):8508-8514.
436 Cronin, L. E. (1970),  Summary, conclusions  and  recommend.!
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    upper Chesapeake Bay. Final report  to the  U.S. Bureau of Sport Fishent
    and Wildlife  [Special report no. 3; Contribution 397  (Universit
    of Maryland, Natural Resources Institute,  College Park), pp
    1-6.
436 Cronin, L. E., G.  Gunter, and  S. H. Hopkins (1969), Effects a
    engineering activities on coastal ecology. Interim report to the Office of th
    Chief of Engineers,  U.S.  Army Corps  of  Engineers, Washington
    D.C., 40 p.
437 Davis,  H. C.  (1960),  Effects  of turbidity-producing materials  ii
    sea water  on  eggs and larv.ic  of the clam Venus, (Mercenaria
    mercenana. Biol. Bull. 118(1)-A 8-54.
438 Davis,  H. C.  and H. Hidu (1969), Effects of turbidity-producing

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                                                                                                                   Literature Cited/235
     substances  in sea water of eggs and  larvae  of  three genera of
     bivalve mollusks. The Veliger 11(4) :316-323.
439 Dovel, W. L. (1970), Fish eggs and larvae, in Gross physical biological
     effects of overboard spoil disposal in upper  Chesapeake Bay. Final report
     to the  U.S.  Bureau of Sport Fisheries  and Wildlife [Special report
     no 3; Contribution  397]  (University of Maryland, Natural Re-
     sources Institute, College Park), pp. 42-49.
440 Flcmer, D.  A. (1970), Phytoplankton,  in Gross physical  biological
     effects of overboard spoil disposal in upper  Chesapeake Bay. Final report
     to the U.S.  Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife [Special report no.
     3;  Contribution  397]  (University  of Maryland, Natural Re-
     sources Institute, College Park), pp. 16-25.
441 Flemer, D. A., W.  L. Dovel, H. T. Pfitzcnmcyer, and D. E Ritchie,
     Jr. (1967), Spoil disposal in upper Chesapeake  Bay.  II.  Pre-
     liminary analysis of biological  effects, in National symposium on
     esluanne pollution, P.  L.  McCarty  and  R.  Kennedy,  chairmen
     (Stanford  University Press, Stanford,  California), pp.  152-187.
442 Ford, W. L. and B. H. Ketchurn  (1952), Rate of dispersion in the
     wake of a barge at  sea.  Transactions  oj Air American  Geophysical
     Union 33(5)-680-684.
443 Gross, M. G. (1970), Waste removal and recycling by sedimentary
     processes. FAO Technical Conference on Marine  Pollution and
     its Effects on Living  Resources,  12 pp.
444 Harrison, W., M. P.  Lynch, and A. G. Altschaeffl (1964), Sedi-
     ments of lower Chesapeake Bay, with  emphasis  on mass proper-
     ties  J. Sediment.  Petrol. 34(4):727-755.
445 Holeman, J. N. (1968), The sediment yield of major rivers of the
     world.  Water Resour  Res. 4:737-747.
446 Hurt, M. (1965),  Water  quality  criteria for fish life, in  Biological
     problems in  water pollution. Third seminar, C.  M.  Tarzwell,  ed.
     (U.S  Department of Health,  Education  and  Welfare,  Public
     Health Service, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control.
     Cincinnati, Ohio), pp. 160-1(>7.
447 Ippen, A. T. cd. (1966), Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics (McGraw-
     Hill Book  Co., Inc.,  New York).
448 Isaac, P. C.  G.  (1965), The contribution  of bottom muds to the
     depletion of oxygen in  rivers  and suggested  standards for sus-
     pended solids, in Biological problems in water pollution  Third semi-
     nar, C. M. Tarzwell, cd.  (U.S  Department of Health, Educa-
     tion  and  Welfare,   Public  Health  Service,  Division  of Water
     Supply and Pollution Control,  Cincinnati, Ohio), pp.  346-354.
449 Jannasch, II. W., K.  Eimhjellen, C  O. Wirsen,  and A.  Farman-
     farmaian (1971), Microbial degradation of organic matter in the
     deep sea. Science  171:672-675.
450Jitts,  II.  R. (1959),  The  adsorption of phosphate by  cstuarine
     bottom deposits. Aust. jf. Mai  Freshwater Res.  10 7-21.
461Ketchum, B.  H.,  A.  C.  Redfield and  J. P. Aycrs (1951),  The
     oceanography of the New York Bight,  papers in physical ocean-
     ography and meteorology  (M I T. and  W.H O.I , Woods Hole,
     Mass.),  12(1):46.
452 Loosanoff, V. L.  (1962), Effects  of turbidity on some  larval and
     adult bivalves. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Prof  14:80-95.
463 Loosanoff, V. L. and  F. D.  Tommers (1948), Effect of suspended
     silt and other substances on rate of feeding of oysters. Science 107-
     69-70.
454Lunz,  R. G. (1938), Part I. Oyster  culture  with reference to
     dredging operations in  South Carolina  Part II.  The  effects of
     flooding of the Santee River in April 1936 on oysters in  the Cape
     Roinain area of South  Carolina.  Rcpt. to  the U.S.  Engineer
     Office, Charleston, S. C.
455 Lunz,  R. G. (1942),  Investigation of  the effects of dredging  on
     oyster  leases in  Duval County, Florida, in Handbook  of oyster
     survey,  intracoastal  waterway Cumberland Sound to St. Johns
     River.  Special rept.  U.S. Army Corps of Engineer, Jacksonville,
     Florida.
466 Mackin, J. G. (1961), Canal dredging  and silting in Louisiana
    bays. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci.  Univ. Tex. 7:262-319.
467 Manheim,  F.  T., R.  H. Meade,  and G. C. Bond  (1970),  Sus-
    pended  matter in  surface  waters of the  Atlantic  continental
    margin from Cape Cod to the Florida Keys. Science 167:371—376.
158 Mansueti, R. J. (1962), Effects of civilization on striped bass and
    other  estuarine biota in  Chesapeake Bay  and tributaries.  Gulf
    and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Proc. 14:110-136.
459 Marshall, A. R. (1968), Dredging and filling, in Marsh and estuary
    management symposium proceedings,  J.  D. Newsom,  ed.  (T.  J.
    Moran's Sons, Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana), pp. 107-113.
460Masch,  F.  D.  and W. H. Espey (1967),  Shell dredging—a factor in
    sedimentation in Galveslon Bay [Technical report CRWR-7]  (Center
    for Research in Water Resources, Hydraulic Engineering Labora-
    tory, University of Texas,  Austin), 168 p.
461 McNulty, J. K., R. C. Work, and H. B. Moore (1962), Some rela-
    tionships between the infauna of the  level bottom and the sedi-
    ment in South Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean. 12(3):
    322-332.
462 Meade,  R. H. (1969), Landward transport of bottom sediment in
    estuaries of the  Atlantic coastal plain. J. Sediment. Petrol.  39:222-
    234.
463 Mock, C.  R.  (1967), Natural and altered estuarine habitats of
    penaeid shrimp. Gulf and Caribbean  Fisheries Institute, Proc.  19:
    86-98.
464 Municipality of Metropolitan  Seattle (1965), Disposal of digested
    sludge  to  Puget Sound, the engineering and  water quality as-
    pects.  July 1965. Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle,  Seattle,
    Washington.
465 Pearce,  J. B. (1970a), The effects of solid waste disposal on benthic
    communities  in the New York Bight.  FAO  Technical Conference
    on Marine Pollution  and its F'ffects on Living Resources and Fishing.
    Rome. 12 pp.
466 Pearce,  J. B.  (1970b), The effects of  waste disposal in the  New
    York Bight. Interim report. Sandy Hook  Marine  Laboratory,
    U.S. Bur. Sport Fisheries  and Wildlife.
467 Pearce,  J.  B.  (1970c), Biological survey  of compacted refuse sub-
    merged for three months in 200 meters of water off Virgin Gorda,
    British Virgin Islands,  Sandy Hook  Marine Laboratory, High-
    lands, N.J.
468 Pearce,  J.  B. (1971), The effects of solid  waste disposal on benthic
    communities in the New York Bight, paper E-99 in Marine pollu-
     tion and its effects on living resources and  fishing (Food and  Agri-
    cultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome), p.  175.
469Pomeroy, L. R., E. E. Smith, and C. M. Grant (1965),  The ex-
    change  of phosphate  between  estuarine  water  and sediments.
    Limnol. Oceanogr. 10(2): 167-172.
470 Pfitzenmeyer,  H. T.  (1970), Benthos, in Gross physical biological ef-
    fects of overboard spoil disposal in upper Chesapeake Bay. Final report
    to the U.S. Bureau of Sport  Fisheries and Wildlife [Special report no.
     3;  Contribution  397]  (University of  Maryland,  Natural  Re-
    sources Institute, College  Park),  pp. 26-38.
471 Redfield, A. C. and  L. A. Walford (1951), A study of the  disposal
    of chemical waste  at sea.  Report of the Committee for Investiga-
    tion of Waste  Disposal.  National Research Council—National
    Academy of Sciences, Publication NRC 201, 49 p.
472 Saila, S. B., T. T.  Polgar, and B. A. Rogers (1968), Results of
    studies related  to  dredged sediment  dumping  in Rhode Island
    Sound. Annual Northeastern Regional Antipollution conference,
    proc. July 22-24, 1968, pp. 71-80.
473 Sanders, H. L.  (1956),  Oceanography  of  Long Island  Sound,
     1952-1954. X. The biology of marine bottom communities.  Bull.
    Bmgham Oceanogr. Coll.  15:345-414.
474 Sanders, H. L. (1958), Benthic studies in Buzzards Bay. I. Animal-
    sediment relationships. Limnol. Oceanogr. 3:245-258.
476Sherk, J. A.,  Jr.  (1971), The effects of suspended  and  deposited sedi-

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296/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and  Wildlife
    merits on  estuarine organisms—literature summary  and research needs
     [Contribution 443 ]  (University of Maryland, Natural Resources
    Institute, College Park), 73 p.
476 Smith, D.  D.  and R.  P. Brown (1969), Marine disposal of solid
    wastes: an interim summary. Dillingham Corporation, La Jolla,
    California.
477 Taylor, J. L. and C. H. Saloman (1968), Some effects of hydraulic
    dreding and coastal development in Boca  Ciega Bay,  Florida.
    U.S. Fish Wildlife Sen. Fish. Bull. 67(2):213-241.
478 Vacarro, R. S., G. D. Gruce, G.  T. Rowe, and P. H. Wiebe (1972),
    Acid iron wastes disposal and the summer distribution of standing
    crops in the  New York Bight. Water Research, 6:231-256, Perga-
    mon Press.
479Weibe, P. H., A. D. Grice and E. Hoagland  (1972), in press, Acic
    iron waste as a factor effecting the distribution and abundana
    of Zooplankton in the New York Bight Part  II. Spatial varia
    tions in the field and implications for monitoring studies.
480 Wicker,  C. F., ed.  (1965), Evaluation of present state of knowledge o
    factors  affecting tidal hydraulics and related phenomena [Report no. 3
    (Committee on Tidal  Hydraulics, U.S.  Army Corps of Engi
    neers,  Vicksburg, Mississippi), n.p.
481 Williams, A.  B. (1958), Substrates as  a factor in shrimp distribu
    tion. Linmol. Oceanogr. 3:283—390.
482 yonge; c. M. (1953), Aspects of life on muddy shores, in, Essays i;
    Marine Biology, S. M. Marshall and  A. P. Orr, eds.  (Oliver am
    Boyd,  London), pp.  29-49.

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                Section  V—AGRICULTURAL  USES OF  WATER
                                      TABLE  OF CONTENTS
                                              Page
INTRODUCTION	    300
GENERAL FARMSTEAD USES OF WATER...   301
    WATER FOR HOUSEHOLD USES AND DRINKING . .   302
    WATER FOR WASHING AND COOLING RAW FARM
      PRODUCTS	   302
    WATER FOR WASHING MILK-HANDLING  EQUIP-
      MENT AND  COOLING  DAIRY PRODUCTS	   302
          Recommendations	   303
WATER FOR LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISES....   304
    WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR LIVESTOCK 	   304
        Water Consumption of Animals	   305
    RELATION OF NUTRIENT ELEMENTS IN WATER
      TO TOTAL DIET	   305
    EFFECT OF SALINITY ON LIVESTOCK	   307
          Recommendation	   308
    Toxic SUBSTANCES IN  LIVESTOCK  WATERS.  . .   309
        Toxic Elements and Ions	   309
        Aluminum	   309
          Recommendation	   309
        Arsenic	   309
          Recommendation	   310
        Beryllium	   310
        Boron	   310
          Recommendation	   310
        Cadmium	   310
          Recommendation	   311
        Chromium	   311
          Recommendation	   311
        Cobalt	   311
          Recommendation	   311
        Copper	   311
          Recommendation	   312
        Fluorine	   312
          Recommendation	   312
        Iron	   312
        Lead	   312
          Recommendation	   313
        Manganese	   313
        Mercury	   313
          Recommendation	   314
        Molybdenum	   314
          Conclusion	   314
        Nitrates and Nitrites	
          Recommendation	
        Selenium	
          Recommendation 	
        Vanadium	
          Recommendation 	
        Zinc	
          Recommendation 	
        Toxic Algae	
          Recommendation 	
        Radionuclides	
          Recommendation 	
    PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR LIVESTOCK)	
        Entry of Pesticides into Water	
        Pesticides Occurrence in Water	
        Toxicological  Effects  of Pesticides  on
          Livestock	
        Pesticides in Drinking Water for Livestock.
        Fish as Indicators of Water Safety	
          Recommendation	
    PATHOGENS AND PARASITIC ORGANISMS	
        Microbial Pathogens	
        Parasitic Organisms	
WATER FOR IRRIGATION	
    WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR IRRIGA-
      TION	
        Effects on Plant Growth	
        Crop Tolerance to Salinity	
        Nutritional Effects	
          Recommendation	
        Temperature	
          Conclusion	
        Chlorides	
          Conclusion	
        Bicarbonates	
          Conclusion	
        Sodium	
        Nitrate	
          Conclusion	
        Effects on Soils	
          Recommendation	
Pr.
3
3
3!
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

31
31
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
33
                                                 298

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                                            Page
    Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and
      Soil Aeration	     330
    Acidity and Alkalinity	   330
      Recommendation	   332
    Suspended Solids	   332
    Effect on Animals  or Humans	   332
    Radionuclides	   332
      Recommendation	   332
SPECIFIC IRRIGATION WATER CONSIDERATIONS. .   333
    Irrigation Water  Quality for  Arid and
      Semiarid Regions	   333
      Recommendation	   335
    Irrigation Water Quality for Humid Re-
      gions 	   336
      Recommendation	   338
PHYTOTOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS	   338
    Aluminum	   339
      Recommendations	   340
    Arsenic	   340
      Recommendations	   341
    Beryllium  	   341
      Recommendations	   341
    Boron	   341
      Recommendations	   341
    Cadmium	   342
      Recommendations	   342
    Chromium	   342
      Recommendations	   342
    Cobalt	   342
      Recommendations	   342
    Copper	   342
      Recommendations	   343
    Fluoride	   343
      Recommendations	   343
                                                 Page
        Iron  	    343
          Recommendations	    343
        Lead	    343
          Recommendations	    343
        Lithium	    343
          Recommendations	    344
        Manganese	     344
          Recommendations	    344
        Molybdenum	    344
          Recommendations	    344
        Nickel	    344
          Recommendations	    344
        Selenium	    345
          Recommendation	    345
        Tin, Tungsten, and Titanium	    345
        Vanadium	    345
          Recommendations	    345
        Zinc	    345
          Recommendations	    345
    PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR IRRIGATION)	    345
        Insecticides in Irrigation Water	    346
        Herbicides in Irrigation Water	    346
        Residues in Crops	    347
          Recommendation	    348
    PATHOGENS	     348
        Plant  Pathogens	     348
        Human and Animal Pathogens	    350
          Recommendation	    351
    THE USE OF WASTEWATER FOR IRRIGATION. ...    351
        Wastewater  From  Municipal Treatment
          Systems	    351
        Wastewater  From Food Processing Plants
          and Animal Waste Disposal Systems. .. .    353
          Recommendations	    353
LITERATURE CITED    	   354
                                                299

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                                               INTRODUCTION
  Modern  agriculture  increasingly depends  upon  the
quality  of its water to  achieve  the fullest production of
domestic plants and animals and satisfy general farmstead
needs.  The quality  of its water is  important to modern
agriculture  not only in determining the productivity of
plants and animals, but also as it affects the health and wel-
fare of the human farm population.
  Irrigation  is one of the largest consumers of water for
agricultural use.  Differences in crop sensitivity  to salinity
and  toxic substances  necessitate the need for  evaluating
water quality  criteria  for irrigational  purposes.  Polluted
water can be detrimental to animal health and to the safety
and value of agricultural products.  Good water quality is
an important  factor in the health  and comfort of rural
families  needing water for drinking,  food  preparation,
bathing, and laundering.
  Discussions of  water quality requirements relate in turn
to problems of pollution posed by  urban, industrial,  and
agricultural wastes.  Some naturally occuring constituents,
present in surface and groundwaters, can also adversely af-
fect agricultural uses of water.  Among these substances are
suspended solids,  dissolved organic and inorganic substances,
and living organisms such as toxic algae and organisms as-
sociated with food spoilage. Where  undesirable natural or
foreign  substances interfere with  optimum water use, man-
agement  and  treatment practices  must be implemented.
Often there are simple but effective  things that a farmer or
rancher can do to manage and improve the quality of his
water  supply. Although  considerations of water  supply
management are important, such matters  are beyond the
scope of this section on Agricultural Uses of Water, whi
is  restricted to  the  quality requirements of  water  i
domestic and other farmstead uses, for livestock,  and for
rigation of crops.
  Farmsteads typically require water  at point  of use,
quality equivalent to that demanded by urban populatioi
particularly for  household uses, washing and cooling pt
duce, and production of milk. Water of such high quality
frequently not readily available to  the farmstead and oft
can be obtained only through water treatment. In the ne
future, water treatment facilities may be a routine install
tion in any well-designed farmstead operation. It is not t
purpose of this section to elaborate  upon treatment altern
tives, but  satisfactory treatment  possibilities do exist  1
producing from most raw water a supply that will satis
the quality needed for most agricultural uses.
  The task of evaluating criteria  and developing recoi
mendations is complicated by the need to consider num<
ous complex interactions. For example, it is not practi(
to discuss water quality criteria for irrigation without cc
sidering crop responses to climatic and soil factors and th
interrelationships with water Evaluation of water qual
requirements  for  livestock drinking water is also com]:
cated by interactions of  such variables as the quantity
water consumed and an animal's sex, size, age, and diet.
should, therefore, be emphasized that evaluating criteria i
complex task, and that using the recommendations in t
report made on the basis of those criteria must be guided
expert judgment.
                                                         •iOO

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                               GENERAL  FARMSTEAD  USES  OF  WATER
  This section considers quality requirements of water for
use by the human farm population and for other uses as-
sociated with agricultural  operations exclusive of livestock
production  and crop irrigation.  Included  are water for
household uses, drinking water, and  water for preparing
produce and milk for marketing. For these purposes finished
water of quality at least comparable  to that intended for
urban users is required at point of use.
  Farmers and ranchers usually do not have access to the
large, well-controlled water supplies of most municipalities
and typically must make the best use of available surface or
groundwater supplies. But there are  problems associated
with the use  of these waters, which often contain objection-
able natural constituents.  These may be classified as sus-
pended solids,  dissolved inorganic salts and minerals, dis-
solved  organic constituents, and living organisms, all of
which occur naturally and  are not introduced by man or as
a result of his activities.
  Suspended solids are organic and inorganic  particles
found in water supplies. They include sand, which is com-
monly associated with well supplies, and silt and clay fre-
quantly found in  untreated surface waters.  Dissolved in-
organic salts and  minerals are found  in both surface and
groundwaters. Most of these are soluble salts consisting of
calcium, magnesium, and  sodium with associated anions
(i.e., carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride). Great-
est concentrations  are found in the waters of arid and semi-
arid regions and in brackish waters along the sea coasts. In
some western rivers total dissolved solids exceed 5,000 milli-
grams  per liter (mg/1),  although many contain less than
2,000 mg/1 (Livingstone 1963).24* Surface waters draining
from areas high in organic materials  such  as swamps and
bogs often contain dissolved organic constituents composed
mainly of hydroxy-carboxylic acids (Lamar  and  Goerlitz
1966,21 Lamar 196820) that impart a yellow  or brown color
to the water.  Coloration  often  ranges from 100 to 800
platinum cobalt units compared to the 15 recommended by
the  federal  Drinking Water  Standards  (Environmental
Protection Agency 1972n).t Living organisms in standing
bodies of water that impart objectionable  odors  and tastes
for human consumption include algae, diatoms, and proto-
zoa.
  Because  these constituents even in a properly protected
supply of raw water used on farmsteads cause water quality
that  does  not satisfactorily approximate  the quality  of
potable water,  it may be necessary to resort to water treat-
ment. The wide range of quality characteristics  associated
with raw agricultural water supplies is matched by a broad
range of water  treatment methods. Microbial contaminants
such as pathogenic or food  spoilage bacteria,  often present
in surface waters, indicate that treatment is required to pro-
duce suitable water supplies. Treatments available include
the use of halogens or sodium hypochlorite (Bauman and
Ludwig  1962,5 Black et al. 1965,7 Kjellander and  Lund
1965,17 Water Systems Council 1965-1966,41 Oliver  1966,30
Laubusch   197122),  ozone  (O'Donovan   1965),29   silver
(Shaw  1966,32 Behrman  19686),  ultraviolet  sterilization
(Kristoffersen 1958,19 Huff  et al. 196514), and heat  (Shaw
1966)32. Reviews of some of the problems associated with
farmstead water supplies and possible methods of treatment
are given by Wright (1956),42 Davis (I960),8 Malaney et  al.
(1962),26 James (1965),15 Water  Systems  Council  (1965-
1966),41 Elms (1966),10 Kabler and Kreissl (1966),16 Stover
(1966),33 and Atherton (1970).2 Farmers, however,  should
seek  expert advice in selecting from various treatment alter-
natives  in  order to achieve the  desired quality of finished
water.
  A  troublesome aspect of water quality for general farm-
stead uses, particularly  regarding the handling of produce
and  milk,  involves nonpathogenic  bacterial contaminants.
Many such microorganisms including algae are found even
in properly protected agricultural water supplies (Thomas
1949,34  Walters 1964),40 and various kinds contribute  to
problems of color, odor, taste, and to rapid spoilage of con-
  * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superscript numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
f Throughout this report, all references to the federal Drinking Water
    Standards are to those published  by  the Environmental Pro-
    tection Agency, 1972.11
                                                        301

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 302/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
 laminated products (American Water Works Assoc. Com-
 mittee on Tastes and Odors 1970,1 Mackenthun and Keup
 1970).25 For example, offensive odors are often attributable
 to  sulfate-reducing bacteria  (Lewis  1965).23  Victoreen
 (1969)39 discussed  water coloration  probloms  caused by
 Arthrobacter, a  species  of soil bacteria. Growths of "iron
 bacteria" in pipes may result in  slimy masses that  clog
 pipes and produce  undesirable flavors (Kabler and Kreissl
 1966).16 Ropy milk, i.e., milk that forms threads or viscous
 masses when poured or dipped, is a typical problem often
 attributable to contaminated water (Thomas 1949,34 Davis
 I9608).
   Psychrophilic bacteria can affect the storage quality of
 milk and other food products (Davis  I960,8 Malaney et al.
 1962,26  Ayres  1963,4  Thomas  et  al.  1966).36 Similarly,
 thermoduric microorganisms are a problem in some farm-
 stead water supplies, since they can withstand milk  pas-
 teurization  temperatures and lead to spoilage (Thomas
 1949,34  Davis  I960,8 Malaney  et  al.  1962).26  Numerical
 recommendations for permissible levels of these and other
 nonpathogenic  organisms  have  little  current  usefulness,
 because approximately 170 species of bacteria arc known to
 occur in raw water supplies,  and only half of them  are ob-
 served during routine bacteriological examinations (Thomas
 1949,34 Malaney et al. 196226). Similarly minimal contami-
 nation of perishable raw food materials with small residues
 of rinse  water or splash can result in rapid  growth under
 suitable temperature conditions to cause early spoilage of a
 high quality product.
   Malaney et  al. (1962)26 stated that simple,  commonly
 used water  treatment processes render  raw water supplies
 suitable for farmstead  uses including handling of produce
 and milk.

 WATER  FOR HOUSEHOLD  USES  AND DRINKING
  Every farm should have a dependable water supply  that
 is  palatable and safe for domestic use. This requirement
 dictates that the finished water be of quality comparable to
 that designated  by  the federal Drinking Water  Standards
 for water supply systems used by interstate  carriers  and
 others  subject  to federal  quarantine regulations.  These
 standards have been found to be reasonable in terms of both
the possibility of compliance and the acceptability of such
water for domestic farmstead  uses.
  Groundwater sources are generally regarded as providing
 a more dependable  supply and as being  less variable in
 composition than surface water sources.  However,  many
 groundwater supplies contain excessive concentrations of
 soluble salts composed of calcium, magnesium, and associ-
 ated anions  (carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride),
 or hydrogen sulfide. They can cause taste, odor, acidity,
 and staining problems  (Wright  1956,42  Dougan  1966,9
 Kabler and  Kreissl 1966,16 Klumb  1966,18 Behrman 19686).
 In the ground waters of western states high concentrations
 of nitrates may occur. Levels may exceed the concentration
 of 10 mg/1 of nitrate-nitrogen recommended by Section I'
 on Public Water Supplies.
   Because all supplies  are subject to contamination, can
 must be exercised in both the installation and maintenanci
 of water systems. Raw water should be free  of impuritie
 that are offensive to sight, smell, and taste (Wright 1956V
 and free of significant  concentrations of substances anc
 organisms detrimental to public health (see Section II).

 WATER FOR WASHING AND COOLING RAW
 FARM  PRODUCTS

   Many  root  crops,  fruits, and  vegetables are  washe<
 before  leaving the farm for  the  market. Changes in frui
 production associated with mechanical harvesting and bull
 handling and an ever-increasing emphasis on quality hav
 made  the washing  and  hydrocooling of raw  produce  ,
 common  farm practice. Water for such uses  should be c
 the same quality as that for drinking and household put
 poses,  and as such should  conform to Drinking  Wate
 Standards. It is  important that  water for processing ra\
 produce be  of  good quality bacteriologically  (Geldreic
 and Bordner 1971)13 and free of substances imparting coloi
 off-flavor, and off-odor (Mercer  1971).27

 WATER FOR WASHING MILK-HANDLING
 EQUIPMENT AND COOLING DAIRY PRODUCTS

   Water used to clean milk utensils may greatly affect th
 quality of milk  (Athcrton et al.  1962),3 and since moder
 methods  of  milk  production  require  large  volumes  c
 water, its quality must not be detrimental to  milk.  Steac
 ily increasing demands  for water  due to intensified agr
 cultural production have required many farm operatoi
 to develop secondary  sources of  water  often  of inferic
 quality (Esmay et al.  1955.12 Pavelis and Gertel  1963).
 Such supplies should be treated before use in milk-handlin
 equipment (Thomas 1949,34  Thomas et al.  195337).
  The  Grade  "A"  Pasteurized Milk Ordinance  of th
 United States Public Health Service (U.S. Department (
 Health,  Education,  and Welfare.  Public Health Servic
 1965)38 is accepted as the basic sanitation standard for rai
 milk supplies. Farm water supplies  may meet these potab]
 standards yet have a detrimental effect on the quality c
 modern milk supply. Rinse waters which are potable bu
contain  psychrophylic  microorganisms,  excessive   hard
 ness, or iron or copper can have a very deleterious  effect o
 dairy sanitation and milk quality unless properly treated t
remove such contaminants  (Davis I960,8 Atherton  et a
 1962,3 Atherton  1970,2 Moore 197128). The traditional con
cepts of potability and softness no longer suffice in this era c
mechanized milk-handling systems.  Lengthy storage of ra\
milk prior to pasturization and the possible breakdown  c
normal milk constituents by organisms able to  grow  a
refrigeration  temperatures  may   produce  unacceptabl
changes in the quality of fluid milk or other manufacture!

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                                                                       General Farmstead Uses of Water/303
dairy products (Thomas 1958,35 Davis I960,8 Thomas et al.
196636).
  Water of quality comparable to that described in Drink-
ing Water Standards typically suffices for the production of
milk. However, it is important that the water at  point of
use be clear, colorless,  palatable,  free  of harmful micro-
organisms,  noncorrosive,  and nonscale-forming  (Moore
1971).28

Recommendations

  For general farmstead uses of water, including
drinking, other household uses, and  handling of
produce and milk, it is recommended that water
of the quality designated by the federal Drinking
Water Standards be used. Raw water supplies not
meeting these requirements should be treated to
yield a finished product  of quality comparable to
drinking water. In general, raw waters should be
free of impurities that are offensive to sight, smell,
and taste. At point of use, they should be free of
significant concentrations of substances and orga-
nisms harmful to public health  (see Section II:
Public  Water  Supplies)  and detrimental  to the
market value of agricultural  products.

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                                WATER  FOR LIVESTOCK  ENTERPRISES
  Domestic animals  represent an  important  segment of
agriculture and are a vital  source of food.  Like  man and
many other life forms, they are  affected by pollutants in
their  environment. This section  is  concerned  primarily
with considerations of livestock water quality  and factors
affecting it. These include the presence of ions causing ex-
cessive salinity, elements and  ions which arc toxic,  bio-
logically produced toxins, radionuclides, pesticide residues,
and pathogenic and parasitic organisms.
  Of importance in determining recommendations for these
substances in  livestock water supplies are the  quantity of
water an animal consumes  per day and the concentration
of the mineral elements in the water supply from which he
consumes it. Water is universally needed and consumed by
farm animals, but  it does not account for their entire daily
intake of a particular substance. Consequently,  tolerance
levels established for  many  substances in livestock feed do
not accurately take into consideration the tolerance levels
for  those substances in water. Concentrations  of nutrients
and toxic substances in water affect an animal  on the basis
of the total amount consumed. Because  of this,  some assess-
ment of the amounts  of water consumed by live-stock on a
daily basis and a knowledge of the probable quantity of ele-
ments in  water and how they  satisfy daily nutritional re-
quirements  are needed  for  determining possible toxicity
levels.

WATER  REQUIREMENTS FOR  LIVESTOCK
  The water content of animal bodies is  relatively constant:
68 per cent to 72 per  cent of the total weight on a fat-free
basis. The level of water in the body usually cannot change
appreciably without  dire   consequences to the animal;
therefore, the minimal requirement for water is a reflection
of water  excreted  from the body  plus a component for
growth in young animals (Robinson and McCance  1952,53
Mitchell 196246).
  Water is excreted from the body in urine and feces, in
evaporation from the  lungs and skin, in sweat,  and in pro-
ductive  secretions  such as milk and eggs.  Anything that
influences any of these modes of water loss affects the mini-
mal water requirement of the animal.
  The urine contains the  soluble products of metabolisr
that must  be eliminated.  The  amount of urine excrete
daily varies with the feed, work, external temperature, wate
consumption, and other factors. The hormone vasopressi
(antidiuretic hormone) controls the  amount of urine b
affecting the reabsorption of water from the kidney tubuk
and ducts. Under conditions  of water scarcity, an anim;
may concentrate its urine to some extent by reabsorbing
greater amount of water than usual, thereby lowering th
animal's requirement for water. This capacity for concer
tration, however, is usually limited. If an animal consume
excess  salt  or a high protein diet, the excretion of urine
increased to  eliminate the  salt or the end products of prc
tein metabolism,  and  the  water requirement is thereb
increased.
  The amount of water lost in  the fcccs varies dependin
upon diet  and species. Cattle,  for instance,  excrete  fec<
with  a high moisture content while  sheep,  horses,  an
chickens excrete relatively  dry feces. Substances in the di(
that have  a  diuretic effect will  increase water loss by th
route.
  Water lost by  evaporation  .from the  skin and  lungs (ir
sensible water loss) may  account for a large part  of th
body's water loss approaching, and in some cases exceeding
that lost in the urine.  If the environmental temperature
increased,  the water lost by  this route is also  increasec
Water lost  through sweating may be considerable, especial!
in the case of horses, depending  on the environmental  terr
perature and the activity of the animal.
  All these factors and their interrelation make a minims
water requirement  difficult to assess.  There is also the ac
ditional complication  that  a  minimal  water requiremer,
does not have to be  supplied entirely  by drinking  watei
The animal  has available to it  the water  contained i
feeds, the  metabolic water formed from the oxidation c
nutrients, water liberated by  polymerization,  dehydration
or synthesis within  the  body,  and preformed  water associ
ated with nutrients undergoing  oxidation when the energ
balance is  negative.  All  of these may vary. The  wate
available from the feed will vary with the kind of feed am
with the amount consumed. The metabolic water formec
                                                      304

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                                                                                   Water for Livestock Enterprises ,/305
from the oxidation of nutrients may be calculated by the use
of factors obtained from equations of oxidation of typical
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. There are  41,  107, and
60 grams (g) of water formed per 100 g of protein, fat, and
carbohydrate oxidized,  respectively. In fasting animals, or
those subsisting on a protein deficient diet, water may  be
formed from the destruction of tissue protein.  In general, it
is assumed that tissue protein is associated with three times
its weight  of water, so that per gram  of tissue protein
metabolized, three grams of water are released.
  It has  been found  by careful water balance trials that the
water requirement of various species  is a function of body
surface area rather than weight. This implies that the re-
quirements  are a  function  of energy  metabolism,  and
Adolph (1933)43 found that a convenient liberal standard ol
total water intake is 1 milliliter (ml) per caloric (cal) of heat
produced.  This method  automatically  included  the in-
creased requirement associated with activity. Cattle require
somewhat higher amounts of water (1.29 to 2.05 g-'cal)  than
other animals. However, when cattle's  large excretion of
water in the feces is  taken into account,  the values are ap-
proximately a gram per calorie.
  For  practical purposes, water requirements  can be meas-
ured as the amount of  water consumed voluntarily under
specified conditions. This implies that thirst  is  a result of
need.

Water  Consumption  of Animals
  In dry roughage and  concentrate  feeding programs the
water present in the  feed is so small relative to the animal's
needs  that  it  may  be  ignored  (Winchester and Morris
1956).r>r'
  Beef Cattle.  Data calculated by Winchester and Mor-
ris  (1956)5'"'  indicated that values for  water intake  vary
widely depending primarily  on ambient temperature and
dry  matter intake.  European  breeds consumed  approxi-
mately 3.5, 5.3, 7.0, and 17  liters of water daily per  kilo-
gram (kg) dry matter ingested at 40,  70, 90, 100 F, respec-
tively.  Thus at an atmospheric temperature of 21 C (70 F),
a 450  kg steer on  a  9.4  kg daily dry matter  ration would
consume approximately 50 liters of water per  day, while at
32 C (90 F) the expected daily water intake  would be  66
liters.
  Dairy  Cattle.  The calculations of Winchester  and
Morris (1956)55 showed how water  requirements varied
with weight of cow,  fat  content of milk,  ambient tempera-
ture, and amount needed per kilogram of milk daily. These
investigations indicated  that at 21 C (70 F) a cow weighing
approximately 450 kg would consume about 4.5 liters of
water per kilogram dry feed plus 2.7 I/kg of milk produced.
Dairy  heifers  fed  alfalfa  and silage obtained about 20 per
cent of their water requirements in the  feed.  Dairy cattle
suffer  more  quickly  from a lack  of water   than from a
shortage of any other nutrient and will drink 3.0 to 4.0 kg of
water  per kilogram of dry matter consumed (National Re-
search Council, Committee on Animal Nutrition, hereafter
referred to as NRC 197 la).52 Cows producing 40 kg of milk
per day  may  drink up to 110 kg of water when fed dry
feeds.
   Sheep.  Generally water consumption by sheep amounts
to two times the weight of dry matter feed  intake  (NRC
1968b).61  But many factors may  alter  this value, e.g.,
ambient  temperature, activity,  age,  stage of production,
plane of nutrition, composition of feed, and type of pasture.
Ewes on  dry  feed  in winter require four liters  per head
daily before lambing and six or more liters per day when
nursing lambs (Morrison 1959).48
   Swine.  Pigs require 2 to 2.5 kg of water per kilogram
of dry feed, but voluntary consumption may be as much as
4 to 4.5  kg in high ambient temperature (NRC 1968a).M
Mount ct al. (1971)49 reported the mean water:fced ratios
were  between 2.1  and 2.7 at temperatures between 7 and
22 C, and between 2.8 and  5.0 at 30 and 33 C. The range
of mean  water consumption extended  from 0.092 to 0.184
I/kg body weight per day.  Leitch and Thomson (1944)4"'
cited  studies that demonstrated that a water-to-mash ratio
of 3 :1 gave the best results.
   Horses.  Leitch and Thomson (1944)45 cited data that
horses needed two to three liters of water per kg dry ration.
Morrison (1936)47 obtained  data  of a horse going at a trot
that gave off 9.4  kg  of water  vapor. This amount was
nearly twice that given off when walking with  the same
load,  and more than three times as much as when resting
during the same period.
   Poultry.   James and Wheeler  (1949)44 observed that
more water was  consumed  by poultry when protein was
increased in the diet; and more water was consumed with
meat scrap, fish meal, and dried whey diets than with an
all-plant  diet. Poultry  generally consumed 2  to 3 kg of
water per kilogram of  dry  feed.  Sunde  (1967)54 observed
that when laying hens,  at 67 percent  production, were de-
prived of water  for approximately  36 hours,  production
dropped  to eight  per cent within five days and did not re-
turn to the production of the controlled hens until 25-30
days later. Sunde (personal communication 1971)56 prepared a
table  that showed  that broilers increased on daily water
consumption from 6.4 to 211 liters per 1,000 birds between
two and  35 days  of age, respectively.  Corresponding water
intake values for replacement pullets were 5.7 to 88.5 liters.

RELATION OF NUTRIENT ELEMENTS  IN  WATER
TO TOTAL DIET

  All the  mineral  elements  essential  as dietary nutrients
occur to  some extent in water  (Shirley 1970).66 Generally
the elements are  in solution, but some may be present in
suspended materials. Lawrence (1968)59 sampled the Chat-
tahoochee River system at six different reservoirs and river
and creek inlets and found about 1, 3, 22, 39,  61,  and 68
per cent of the total calcium, magnesium, zinc, manganese,

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      ection F— Agricultural Uses of Water
copper, and iron  present in suspended materials, respec-
tively. Any given water supply requires analysis if dietary
decisions are to be most effective.
  In  the  Systems for  Technical Data (STORET)  of the
Water Programs Office of  the Environmental Protection
Agency,  data   (1971)69 were   accumulated from surface
water  analyses obtained in the United States during the
period  1957-1969. These data included  values for  the
mean, maximum,  and minimum  concentrations  of  the
nutrient elements  (see Table V-l). These values obviously
include many  samples from calcium-magnesium, sulfate-
chloride  and sodium-potassium,  sulfate-chloride type of
water  as well  as the  more common  calcium-magnesium,
carbonate-bicarbonate  type.  For  this  reason the  mean
values for sodium, chloride, and sulfate may appear some-
what high.
  Table V-2 gives the estimated average intake of drinking
water  of selected categories of various species  of farm  ani-
mals expressed  as liters per day. Three values for each of
calcium and salt  are  given for illustrative purposes. One
column expresses the National Academy of Sciences value
for daily requirement of the nutrient per day; the  second
gives the amount of the element contributed by the average
concentration  of  the  element  (calculated from data in
Table V-l)  in  the average quantity  of water  consumed
daily; the  third column gives the approximate percentage
of the daily requirements contributed by the water  drunk
each day for each species of animal.
  Magnesium, calculated as in Table  V-2, was found to be
present in quantities that would provide 4 to 11 per cent of
the requirements  for beef and dairy  cattle, sheep,  swine,
horses, chickens, and turkeys.
  Cobalt  (Co)  concentrations obtained by Durum et al.
(1971)58 were calculated, as they were more typical of water
available  to livestock than  current  values  reported in
STORET (1971).69 A sufficient amount of Co was present
at the median level to  supply  approximately three to 13
 TABLE V-l—Water Composition, United States, 1957-69
            (STORET) (Collected at 140 stations)
TABLE V-2—Daily Requirements of Average Concentratio,
    of Calcium and Salt in Water for Various Animals
Substance
Phosphorus, mg/l .
Calcium, mg/l
Magnesium, mg/l .
Sodium, mg/l
Potassium, mg/l
Chloride, mg/l
Sulfaie, mg/l
Copper, ni/\
lron,/ug/l
Manganese, Mg/l
Zinc, ^/l
Selenium, ^g/l
Iodine", Mgl
Cobalt'-, M«l ..
Mean
0.087
57.1
14.J
55.1
4.3
478.0
135.9
13.8
43.9
29.4
51.8
0.016
46.1
1.0
Maximum
5.0
173.0
137.0
7,5000
370.0
19,000.0
3,383.0
280.0
4,600.0
3,230.0
1,183.0
1.0
336.0
5.0
Minimum
0.001
11.0
8.5
0.2
0.06
0.000
0.000
0.8
0.10
0.20
1.0
0.01
4.0
0.000
No Detns.
1,729
510
1,143
1,801
1,804
37,355
30,229
1,871
1,836
1,818
1,883
234
15
720

Animal



Beef cattle 450 kg body wt.
Nursing cow
Finishing steer
Dairy cattle 450 kg body wt.
Lactating cow
Growing heifer
Maintenance, cow
Sheep
Lactating ewe, 64 kg
Fattening lamb, 45 kg
Swine
Growing, 30 kg
Fattening, 60 to 100 kg
Lactating sows, 200-250 kg
Horses 450 kg body wt
Medium work
Lactating
Poultry
Chickens, 8 weeks old
Laying hen
Turkey
Daily"
water
intake, 1



60
60

90
60
60

6
4

6
8
14

40
50

0.2
0.2
0.2


Required1
daily gm


28
21

76
15
12

6.8
3.1

10.2
16.5
33.0

14
30

1.0
3.4
1.2
Calcium
Average^
jmt. in
drinking
water, gm

3.4
3.4

5.1
3.4
3.4

0.3
0.2

0.34
0.46
0.80

2.3
2.9

0.011
0.011
0.011

Approi
percentage
of Req. in
water

12
16

7
22
28

5
7

3
3
2

16
10

1
<1
1

Salt-*

Amt. in« Percen
Required'
daily gm


25
24

66
21
21

13
10

4.3
4.3
28.0

90
90

0.38
0.44
0.38
drinking of Req
water, gm


8.5
8 5

12.7
8.5
8.5

0.9
0.6

0.84
1.12
1.96

5.6
7 1

0.03
0.03
0.03
watt


34
35

19
40
40

1
S

20
26
/

6
8

8
li
"
 " Dantzman and Breland (1970)".
 o Durum etaL (1971)".
 « See discussion on Water Consumption in text for sources of these values.
  ' Sources of values are the National Academy of Sciences, NRC Bulletins on Nutrient requirements.
 'Calculated from Table 1.
 d Based on sodium in water.
per cent of the dietary requirements of beef and dairy cattl
sheep, and horses. The NRC (197la,65 1968b(il) does n
state  what  the cobalt requirements  were for poultry at
swine.
  Sulfur values demonstraled that approximately 29 p>
cent of beef cattle requirements were met at average co
centrations; dairy cattle 21 to 45 per cent; sheep 10 to
per cent; and horses 18 to 23 per cent of their  requiremen
The NRC (197la,66 1968b61) do not give sulfur requiremer
for  poultry  and swine.
  Iodine was not among the elements in the STORE
accumulation,  but  values obtained by  Dantzman  at
Breland (1970)57 for  15 rivers and lakes in Florida can 1
used as illustrative values. Iodine was present in sufficie
amounts to exceed  the requirements of beef cattle ar
nonlactating horses  and to meet 8 to 10 per  cent  of tl
requirements of sheep) and 24 i o 26 per cent of those of her
Phosphorus, potassium, copper, iron, zinc, manganese, ar
selenium, when present at mean concentrations (Table V-l
would supply daily only one to four per cent  or less of th
recommended by the NRC (1966,60 1968a,61 1968b,621970,
1971a,64 1971b65)  for beef and dairy cattle,  sheep,  swin
horses, and poultry at normal water consumption levels.
  If the maximum values shown in Table V-l are presen
some water would contain the dietary requirements of son
species  in the case of sodium chloride, sulfur, and iodin
Appreciable amounts  of  calcium, copper,  cobalt,  iro

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                                                                                    Water for Livestock Enterprises ,307
manganese, zinc, and selenium would be present, if water
were  supplied with  the maximum levels present.  On the
other hand, if the water has only the minimum concentra-
tion of any of the elements present,  it would supply very
little of the daily requirements.
  It is generally believed  that  elements in water solution
are available to  the animal that consumes the water, at
least as much as when present in solid feeds or dry salt
mixes. This was indicated when  Shirley  ct al.  (1951,67
195768) found that P32 and Ca4r>, dissolved in aqueous solu-
tion as salts and administered as a drench, were absorbed at
equivalent levels to  the isotopes, when they were  incor-
porated in forage as  fertilizer and fed to steers, respectively.
Many isotope studies have demonstrated that minerals in
water consumed by animals are readily absorbed, deposited
in their tissues, and  excreted.

EFFECT OF SALINITY  ON LIVESTOCK

   It is well known that excessively saline waters can cause
physiological upset  or death of livestock.  The  ions most
commonly involved in causing excessive salinity arc calcium,
magnesium, sodium,  sulfate,  bicarbonate,  and  chloride.
Others may contribute significantly  in unusual  situations,
and these may also exert specific toxicities separate from the
osmotic effects of excessive salinity.  (See Toxic Elements
and Ions  below.)
   Early in this  century,  Larsen and Bailey (1913)80 re-
ported that a natural  water  varying from 4,546 to 7,369
mg/1 of total salts, with sodium and sulfate ions predomi-
nating, caused mild  diarrhea but no symptoms of toxicity in
dairy cattle over a two-year period. Later, Ramsay (1924)91
reported from his observations that cattle could thrive on
water containing 11,400 mg/1 of total salts,  that they could
live under  certain conditions on  water containing 1 7,120
mg/1, and  that horses thrived  on water with 5,720 mg/1
and were  sustained  when not  worked too  hard on water
with 9,140 mg/1.
   The first extensive studies of saline water effects  on rats
and on livestock were made in Oklahoma (Heller and Lar-
wood 1930,76 Heller 1932,74 1933).75 Rats were fed waters
of various sodium chloride concentrations, and it was found
among other things that (a) water consumption increased
with salt concentration but only to a point  after which the
animals finally refused to drink until thirst drove them to it,
at which time they drank  a large amount at  one time and
then died; (b) older animals were more resistant to the ef-
fects of the salt than  were the young;  (c) the effects of salin-
ity were osmotic rather than related to any specific  ion;
(d) reproduction and lactation were affected before growth
effects were noted;   (e) there  appeared, in  time, to be a
physiological adjustment to saline waters; and (f) 15,000-
17,000 mg/1 of total salts seemed the maximum that could
be tolerated, some adverse effects being noted at concen-
trations lower than  this. With laying hens, 10,000 mg/1 of
sodium chloride in the drinking water greatly delayed the
onset of egg production, but 15,000 mg/1 or more were re-
quired  to affect growth over a 10-week period. In swine,
15,000  mg/1  of  sodium chloride  in the drinking  water
caused  death  in the smaller animals, some  leg stiffness in
the larger, but 10,000  mg/1 did not appear particularly in-
jurious  once they  became accustomed to it. Sheep existed
on  water containing  25,000 mg/1  of sodium  or  calcium
chloride or 30,000 mg/1 of magnesium sulfate but not with-
out some deleterious effects. Cattle were somewhat less re-
sistant,  and it was concluded that 10,000 mg/1 of total salts
should  be considered  the upper  limit under which  their
maintenance could be  expected. A lower limit was suggested
for lactating animals.  It was further observed that the ani-
mals would not drink  highly saline solutions if water of low
salt content was available,  and  that animals showing  ef-
fects of saline waters returned quickly to normal when  al-
lowed a water of low  salt content.
   Frens  (1946)72  reported  that  10,000  mg/1  of  sodium
chloride in the drinking water of dairy cattle produced no
symptoms of  toxicity,  while 15,000 mg/1 caused a loss of
appetite,  decreased milk production, and increased water
consumption  with  symptoms of salt poisoning  in  12 c!a\s.
   In studies  with  beef heifers, Embry  ct  al. (1959)7i  re-
ported  that the addition of 10,000 mg/1 of sodium sulfate
to the  drinking water caused  severe  reduction  in its con-
sumption, loss of  weight, and  symptoms of dehydration.
Either 4,000 or 7,000 mg '1 of added sodium sulfate increased
water intake  but had  no effect on  rate of gain or general
health. Similar observations were made using waters with
added  sodium chloride or a mixture of salts,  except that
symptoms of  dehydration were noted, and the mixed salts
caused no increase in water consumption.  Levels  of up to
6,300 mg/1 of added mixed  salts increased water consump-
tion in  weanling pigs,  but no harmful effects were observed
over a  three-month period.
   In Australia,  Pcirce  (1957,83  1959,84  I960,85  1962,86
1963,87 1966,88 1968a,s!) 1968b90) conducted a number of
experiments on the salt tolerance of Merino wethers. Only
minor  harmful effects were observed in these sheep when
they  were confined to  waters containing  13,000  mg/1 or
less of various salt mixtures.
   Nevada workers have reported several studies on the ef-
fects  of saline waters  on  beef heifers.  They found that
20,000  mg/1  of sodium chloride caused  severe  anorexia,
weight loss, anhydremia, collapse,  and certain other symp-
toms, while 10,000 mg/1 had no effects over a 30-day period
other  than to increase water consumption  and  decrease
blood urea (Weeth et al. I960).97 Additional experiments
(Weeth and Haverland 1961)98 again showed 10,000 mg/1
to cause  no symptoms  of toxicity; while at  12,000  mg/1
adverse effects were noted,  and these intensified  with  in-
creasing salt concentration in the drinking water. At a con-
centration of 15,000 mg/1,  sodium chloride increased the
ratio of  urine excretion  to  water  intake (Weeth  and

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^QQ/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
Lesperancc  1965),100 and  a prompt  and  distinct diuresis
occurred when the heifers consumed water containing 5,000
or 6,000 mg/l following  water deprivation  (Weeth et al.
1968).I01 While with waters containing about 5,000 mg/1
(Weeth and Hunter  1971)" or even less (Weeth and Capps
1971)95 of sodium sulfate no specific ion effects were noted,
heifers drank less, lost weight, and had increased methemo-
globin and sulfhemoglobin levels. A later study (Weeth and
Capps 1972)96 gave similar results, but in addition suggested
that the sulfate ion itself, at concentrations as low as  2150
mg/1 had adverse effects.
  In addition to the Oklahoma work, several studies on the
effects  of  saline  water  on poultry have  been reported.
Selye (1943)93 found that  chicks 19 days old when placed
on experiment had diarrhea, edema, weakness, and respira-
tory problems during the first  10 days on water containing
9,000 mg/1  of sodium  chloride. Later,  the edema disap-
peared,  but  nephrosclerotic  changes  were  noted. Water-
containing 3,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride was not toxic to
four-week-old chicks.
  Others (Kare and Biely 1948)77  observed that with two-
day-old  chicks on water  containing 9,000  mg/1 of added
sodium chloride there were a few deaths, some edema, and
certain  other symptoms of toxicity. A  solution with 18,000
mg/1 of the salt was not toxic; however, when replaced on
alternate days by  fresh water, neither was it  readily con-
sumed.
  Scrivner (1946)92 found that sodium chloride in the drink-
ing water of day-old  poults at a concentration of 5,000 mg/l
caused  death and  varying degrees of edema and ascites in
over half of the birds in about  two weeks. Sodium bicarbo-
nate  at  a  concentration of 1,000  mg/1  was  not  toxic, at
3,000 mg/1 caused some deaths and edema; and as the con-
centration  increased above this, the effects were more pro-
nounced. A  solution containing 1,000 mg/l of sodium hy-
droxide caused death in two of 31 poults by 13 days, but the
remainder  survived  without   effects,  and  7,500 mg/l of
sodium citrate, iodide,  carbonate,  or sulfate each  caused
edema and many deaths.
  South Dakota workers  (Krista et al. 1961)78 studied the
effects of sodium chloride  in water on laying hens, turkey
poults, and ducklings. At 4,000 mg/l,  the salt caused some
increased water consumption, watery droppings, decreased
feed  consumption and  growth,  and  increased mortality.
These effects were more pronounced at a higher concentra-
tion,  10,000 mg/l, causing death in all of the  turkey poults
at two weeks, some symptons of dehydration in the chicks,
and decreased egg production in the hens. Experiments with
laying hens  restricted to water containing  10,000 mg/l of
sodium or magnesium sulfate  gave results  similar to those
for  sodium chloride.
  In addition to  the experimental work, there have  been
reports  in the literature of field observations relating to the
effects  of  excessively  saline  water  (Ballantyne  1957,70
Gastler and  Olson 1957,73  Spafford 194194), and a number
     TABLE V-3—Guide to the. Use of Saline Waters for
                   Livestock and Poultry
 Total soluble salts
 content of waters
    (mg/l)
                     Comment
Less than 1,000
1,000-2,999

3,000-4,999
5,000-6,999

7,000-10,000
Over 10.000
Relatively low level of salinity. Erallent for all classes of livestock and poultry.
Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry. May cause temporary and i
 diarrhea in livestock not accustomed to them or watery droppings in poultry.
Satisfactory for livestock, but may cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at first by
 mals not accustomed to them. Poor waters for poultry, often causing water feces, mere;
 mortality, and decreased growth, especially in turkeys.
Can be used with reasonable safety for dairy and beef cattle, for sheep, swine, and hor
 Avoid use (or pregnant or lactatmg animals. Not acceptable for poultry.
Unfit for poultry and probably for swine. Considerable risk in using for pregnant or lacta
 cows, horses, or sheep, or lor the young of these species. In general, use should be avoi
 although older ruminants, horses, poultry, and swine may subsist on them under cer
 conditions
Risks with these highly saline waters are so great that they cannot be recommended for
 under any conditions.
of guides to  the use of these waters for livestock have bee
published (Ballantyne 1957,70 Embry et al. 1959,71  Kris
et al.  1962,79 McKee  and  Wolf,  1963,81  Officers  of  tl
Department of Agriculture and the Government Chemic
Laboratories 1950,ffl Spafford, 194194). Table V-3 is bas<
on the available published information. Among other thine
the following items are suggested  for consideration in usii
this table:
    • Animals drink little, if any,  highly saline  water
       water of low salt content is available to them.
    • Unless they have been previously deprived of wate
       animals can consume moderate amounts of  high
       saline water for a few days without being harmed
    • Abrupt changes from \vater of low salinity to  high
       saline \\ater cause  more  problems  than a gradu
       change.
    • Depressed  water intake is  very likely to  be accot
       panied by depressed feed intake.
   Table  V-3 was developed because  in  arid or  semiar
regions the use of highly saline waters may often be necc
sary. It has built  into it a  very small margin of safety, ai
its use probably does not eliminate all risk of economic lo;
   Criteria for desirability  of a livestock water are a som
what  different .matter. These should probably be such  th
the risk of economic loss from using the water for any speci
or age of animals, lactating or not, on any normal feedii
program, and regardless  of climatic conditions, is almc
nonexistent.  On the other  band,  they should be made i
more severe  than necessary to insure this  small  risk.

Recommendation
   From the standpoint of salinity and its osmot
effects, waters containing 3,000 mg of soluble sal
per liter or less should be satisfactory for livestot
under almost any circumstance. While some min<
physiological upset  resulting  from  waters  wil

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                                                                                   Water for Livestock Enterprises 309
 salinities  near  this limit may be  observed, eco-
 nomic losses or serious physiological disturbances
 should rarely, if ever, result from their use.

 TOXIC SUBSTANCES  IN LIVESTOCK  WATERS

   There are  many  substances  dissolved or suspended in
 waters that may be toxic. These include inorganic elements
 and their salts, certain organic wastes from man's activities,
 pathogens  and parasitic organisms, herbicide and pesticide
•residues, some  biologically  produced  toxins,  and radio-
 nuclidcs.
   For any of the above,  the concentrations at which they
 render a water undesirable for use for livestock is  subject
 to a number  of variables. These include age,  sex, species,
 and physiological state of the animals; water intake,  diet
 and its composition, the chemical form of any toxic element
 present, and the temperature of the environment. Naturally,
 if feeds and waters both contain a toxic substance, this must
 be taken into  account. Both short and long term effects  and
 interactions with other ions or compounds must also be con-
 sidered.
   The development of recommendations for safe concentra-
 tions of toxic  substances in water  for livestock  is extremely
 difficult. Careful attention must be  given to the discussion
 that follows as well as the recommendations and to any ad-
 ditional experimental findings that may develop.  Based on
 available research,  an appropriate margin of safety, under
 almost all  conditions,  of specific toxic substances harmful
 to livestock that drink the waters and to man who consumes
 the livestock or their products, is reviewed below. Although
 the margin of safety recommended is usually large, the cri-
 teria suggested cannot be used as  a  guide in diagnosing
 livestock losses, since they are well below  toxic levels for
 domestic animals.
 Toxic  Elements and Ions
   Those ions largely  responsible  for  salinity  in water
 (sodium, calcium,  magnesium, chloride,  sulfate, and bi-
 carbonate)  are in  themselves not very toxic. There  are,
 however, a number  of others that  occur naturally or as the
 result  of man's activities  at troublesome concentrations. If
 feeds and water both contain a toxic ion, both must be con-
 sidered. Interactions with other ions,  if known, must be
 taken  into  account.  Elements or ions become objectionable
 in water when they are at levels toxic to animals, where they
 seriously reduce the palatability of the water, or when they
 accumulate excessively in tissues or body fluids, rendering
 the meat, milk, eggs, or other edible product unsafe or unfit
 for human use.

 Aluminum
   Soluble  aluminum has been  found in  surface waters of
 the United States in amounts to 3 mg/1, but its occurrence
 at such concentrations is rare because it readily precipitates
 as the hydroxide (Kopp and Kroner 1970).182
  Most edible  grasses contain  about 15-20 mg/kg of the
element. However, there is no  evidence that it  is essential
for animal growth, and very little is found deposited in ani-
mal  tissues  (Underwood  1971).254 It is  not  highly toxic
(McKee and Wolf 1963,193 Underwood 1971),254 but Deo-
bald and Elvchjem (1935)138 found that a level of 4,000 mg
aluminum per kilogram  of diet  caused  phosphorus de-
ficiency in chicks.  Its occurrence in water should not cause
problems  for livestock, except under  unusual  conditions
and with acid waters.

Recommendation
  Livestock should be protected where natural
drinking waters  contain no  more  than 5 mg/1
aluminum.

Arsenic
  Arsenic has long been notorious as a poison. Nevertheless.
it is present  in all living  tissues in the inorganic and  in
certain  organic forms. It  has also  been used mcdicinallv
It  is accepted as  a safe feed additive for certain domestic
animals. It has not been shown to be a required nutrienr
for animals, possibly because its ubiquity has precluded tin*
compounding of deficient diets  (Frost 1967).149
  The toxicity of arsenic can depend on its chemical form.
its inorganic oxides being  considerably  more  toxic than
organic forms occurring in living  tissues  or used  as feed
additives. Differences in toxicities  of the various forms are
clearly related to  the rate of their  excretion, the least toxic
being the most rapidly eliminated (Frost 1967,14'J  Under-
wood 1971).--'1 Except in unusual cases,  this element should
occur in waters largely as inorganic oxides. In waters carry-
ing or in contact with natural colloidal material,  the soluble
arsenic content may be decreased to a very low level by ad-
sorption.
  \Vadsworth (1952)26" gave the acute toxiciu of inorganic
arsenic for farm animals as  follows: poultry, 0.05-0.10 g per
animal; swine, 0.5-1.0 g  per  animal; sheep, goats, and
horses,  10.0-15.0 g  per animal;  and cattle,  15-30 g per
animal. Franke and Moxon (1936)14S concluded that the
minimum dose required to kill 75 per cent of rats  given
intraperitoneal  injections of arscnate was  14-18 mg arsenic
per kilogram, while for arscnite it  was 4.25-4.75 mg/kg  of
body weight.
  When mice were given drinking water containing 5 mg/1
of arsenic as  arsenite from  weaning to natural death, there
was some accumulation of the clement  in  the tissues  of
several  organs, a  somewhat shortened life span,  but  no
carcinogenic  effect (Schroeder  and  Balassa 1967).233 In a
similar  study with rats (Schroeder et al. 1968b),236 neither
toxicity nor carcinogenic effects were observed,  but large
amounts accumulated in the tissues.
  Peoples (1964)220 fed arsenic acid at levels up to 1.25 mg/
kg of body weight  per day for  eight  weeks to lactating
cows. This is equivalent to an  intake of 60 liters of water

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    '/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
containing 5.5 mg/1  of arsenic (10.4 mg of arsenic acid)
daily by a 500  kg animal.  His results  indicated that  this
form of arsenic is absorbed and  rapidly excreted in the
urine. Thus there was little tissue storage of the element;
at no level of the added arsenic  was there an increased
arsenic content of the milk,  and no toxicity was observed.
  According to Frost  (1967),149 there is no evidence that
10 parts per million (ppm) of arsenic in the diet is toxic to
any  animal.
  Arsenicals have  been accused of  being carcinogenic. This
matter  has been thoroughly reviewed by Frost (1967),149
who concluded  that they appear  remarkably  free of  this
property.
  Most human foods  contain less than 0.5 ppm of arsenic,
but certain marine animals  used as human food may con-
centrate it and may contain over  100 ppm  (Frost 1967,149
Underwood 197125'1).  Permissible  levels of the element in
muscle  meats  is 0.5 ppm; in edible  meat by-products, 1.0
ppm; and in eggs, 0.5 ppm (U.S. Dept.  of Health, Educa-
tion,  and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration 1963,25!i
1964256). Federal Drinking Water Standards list 0.05 mg/1 as
the upper allowable limit to humans for arsenic, but McK.ee
and Wolf (1963)193 suggested 1.0  mg'1  as the  upper limit
for livestock drinking  water. The possible role of biological
methylation in increasing  the toxicity (Chemical Engineer-
ing News 1971)12'' suggested added caution, however,  and
natural waters seldom contain more than 0.2 mg 1  (Durum
et al. 1971).U1

Recommendation
  To provide the necessary caution, and in view of
available data, an upper limit of 0.2 mg/1 of arsenic
in water is recommended.

Beryllium
  Beryllium was found to occur in natural  surface waters
only  at very low levels, usually below  1 /ug/1  (Kopp  and
Kroner  1970).182  Conceivably,  however, it  could  enter
waters  in effluents from  certain metallurgical plants. Its
salts are not highly toxic, laboratory rats having survived
for two years on a diet that supplied the element at a level
of about 18 mg/kg of body weight  daily. Pomelee (1953)223
calculated  that a  cow could drink  almost  1,000 liters of
water containing 6,000 mg/1 without harm, if these data
for rats are transposablc to cattle. This type of extrapolation
must, however, be  used with caution,  and the paucity of
additional data  on the toxicity of beryllium to livestock
precludes recommending at this time a limit  for its concen-
tration in livestock waters.

Boron
  The toxicity of boron, its  occurrence in foods and  feeds,
and  its role in animal nutrition  have  been reviewed by
McClure  (1949),190  McKee  and  Wolf  (1963),193  and
Underwood (1971).264  Although essential for plants, there
is no evidence that boron is required by animals. It has
relatively low order of toxicity. In the dairy cow, 16-20
of boric  acid per day for 40  days produced no ill effeci
(McKee  and Wolf 1963).193
  There  is  no evidence that boron accumulates to  an
great extent in body  tissues. Apparently,  most natur;
waters could be expected  to  contain concentrations  we
below the level of 5.0 mg/1. This was  the maximum amour
found in 1,546 samples of  river and lake waters  frot
various parts of the United States,  the mean value bein
0.1  mg/1 (Kopp and Kroner 1970).1S2 Ground waters coul
contain substantially more than this  at certain places.

Recommendation
  Experimental  evidence  concerning the toxicit
of  this  element  is meager.  Therefore, to offer
large margin of safety, an upper limit of 5.0 mg/
of boron in livestock waters is recommended.

Cadmium
  Cadmium (Cd)  is  normally found in  natural waters a
very  low levels. A nation-wide  reconnaissance  of surfac
waters of the United States (Durum  et al. 1971)"41 reveale
that of over 720 samples, about four per cent contained  ove
10 /ig/'l of this element, and the highest level was 110 ^g/
Ground  water on  Long Islam:!, New York, contained 3.
mg/1 as the result of contamination by waste from the elcc
troplating industry, and mine  waters in Missouri containe<
1,000 mg/1  (McKee and Wolf 1963).193
  Research to date suggests that cadmium is not an essenti.;
element.  It is, on the other hand, quite toxic. Man has bee
sickened  by about 15 ppm in  popsicles, 67 ppm in punch
300 ppm in a cold drink, 530 ppm in gelatin, and 14.5 m
taken orally;  although a family of four  whose  drinkin
water was reported  to contain 47 ppm had no history of ii
effects (McKee and Wolf 1963).193
  Extensive tests have been made on the effects of variou
levels of  cadmium in  the drinking water on rats and dog
(McKee  and Wolf 1963).193 Because  of the accumlatioi
and retention of the clement in the liver and kidney, it wa
recommended that a limit of 100 jug/1, or preferably less, 1>
used for drinking waters.
  Parizek (I960)219 found that a single dose of 4.5 mg Cd/ks
of body weight produced permanent sterility in  male rats
At a level of 5 mg/1  in the drinking water of rats (Schroedci
et al. 1963a)23s or mice (Schroeder et al. 1963b),"9 reduce.:
longevity was observed. Intravenous injection of cadmiun"
sulfate into  pregnant  hamsters at a  level of 2  rng Cd/kp
of body weight on day eight of gestation caused malforma-
tions in the  fetuses (Mulvihill  et al.  1970).200
  Miller  (1971)196 studied cadmium  absorption and distri-
bution in ruminants.  Fie found  that only a small part ol
ingested cadmium was absorbed, and that most of what  was
tvent to the kidneys and liver.  Once  absorbed, its turnover
-ate was  very slow. The cow is very  efficient in  keeping

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                                                                                  Water for Livestock Enterprises 311
cadmium out of its milk, and Miller concluded that most
major animal products, including meat and milk, seemed
quite well protected against cadmium accumulation.
   Interactions  of cadmium with  several  other  trace ele-
ments (Hill et al. 1963,172 Gunn and Gould 1967,159 Mason
and Young 1967)189 somewhat confuse the matter of estab-
lishing criteria.

Recommendation

   From  the  available data  on the  occurrence  of
cadmium in natural waters, its toxicity,  and  its
accumulation in body tissues, an upper limit  of
50  jug/1 allows  an  adequate  margin  of  safety for
livestock and is recommended.

Chromium

   In  a five-year survey of lake  and river waters of  the
United States (Kopp and Kroner 1970),182 the highest level
found in over 1,500 samples was about 0.1 mg 1, the average
being about 0.001 mg/1.  In another similar survey  (Durum
et al.  1971)141 of 700 samples, none contained over 0.05 mg, 1
of chromium VI and only 11 contained more  than  0.005
mg 1. A number of industrial processes however use  the
element, which then may be discharged as waste into sur-
face waters, possibly at rather high levels.
   Even in  its most soluble forms,  the element is not readily
absorbed  by  animals, being largely excreted in the  feces;
and it  does not appear to concentrate in any  particular
mammalian tissue or to increase in these tissues with age
(Mertz 1967,194 Underwood 19712'"'1).
   Hexavalcnt chromium is generally considered more toxic
than  the trivalent form  (Mertz 1967).194 However, in their
review of this clement, McKee and Wolf (1963)19J suggested
that it has a rather low order of toxicity. Further, Gross and
Heller (1946)Ij8 found that for rats the maximum nontoxic
level, based on growth, for chromium VI  in the drinking
water was 500 mg 1. They also found that this concentration
of the element in the water did not affect feed utilization  by
rabbits. Romoser et  al.  (1961)226  found that 100 ppm of
chromium  VI in chick diets had no effect on the perform-
ance  of the birds over a 21-day period.
  In  a series  of experiments, Schroeder et al.  (1963a,238
1963b,23!) 1964,234 196523r')  administered water  containing
5 mg  1 of chromium III to rats and mice on low-chromium
diets  over  a life span. At this level, the  element was not
toxic, but instead it had some beneficial effects. Tissue levels
did not increase significantly with age.
  As  a result of their review of chromium toxicity, McKee
and Wolf (1963)193 suggested that up to 5 mg/1 of chromium
III or VI in livestock drinking water should not be harm-
ful. While this may be reasonable, it may be unnecessarily-
high when the  usual concentrations of the element in nat-
ural waters is considered.
Recommendation

  An upper allowable limit of 1.0 mg/1 for livestock
drinking waters is recommended. This provides a
suitable margin of safety.

Cobalt
  In a recent survey of surface waters in the United States
(Durum et al. 1971)141 63 per cent of over 720 samples were
found to contain less than 0.001 mg '1 of cobalt. One sample
contained 4.5 mg  1, one contained 0.11 mg/1,  and three
contained 0.05-0.10 mg 1.
  Underwood  (1971)"4 reviewed  the role  of  cobalt  in
animal  nutrition. This clement is  part of the vitamin Bi2
molecule, and as such it is an essential nutrient. Ruminants
synthesized  their own  vitamin BI;. if they were given oral
cobalt. For cattle and sheep a diet containing about 0.1 ppm
of the  element seemed nutritionally adequate. A wide
margin  of safety existed between  the required  and toxic
levels for sheep and cattle, which were levels of 100 times
those usually found in adequate diets being well tolerated.
  Xonruminants required  preformed  vitamin  Bi2. When
administered to these animals in amounts well beyond those
present  in  foods and feeds,  cobalt induced polycythcmia
(Underwood 1971 ).2:'4 This was also true in calves prior to
rumen development;  about 1.1 mg of the element per  kg
of bocl>  weight administered  daily caused depression of ap-
petite and loss of weight.
  Cobalt toxicity  was  also  summarized by  McKcc and
Wolf (1963).I9:i

Recommendation
  In view  of  the data available on the occurrence
and toxicity of cobalt, an upper limit for cobalt  in
livestock waters of 1.0 mg/1  offers a satisfactory
margin of safety,  and  should  be met  by most
natural waters.

Copper
  The examination of over  1,500 river and lake waters  in
the United  States  (Kopp  and Kroner 1970)182  yielded,  at
the highest,  0.28 mg  1 of copper and an average value  of
0.015 mg 1.  These rather low values were probably due  in
part to the relative insolubility of the copper ion in alkaline
medium and to its ready adsorbability on colloids (McKee
and Wolf 1963).I93 Where higher values than those reported
above are found, pollution from industrial sources or mines
can be suspected.
  Copper is  an essential trace element. The requirement for
chicks and turkey poults from zero to eight weeks of age is
4 ppm  in the  diet  (NRG  1971b).20«  For  beef cattle on
rations low  in molybdenum and sulfur, 4 ppm in the diet
is adequate; but when these elements arc high, the copper
requirement is doubled or tripled (NRG 1970).204 A dietary
level of  5 ppm in the forage is suggested for pregnant and

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312/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
lactating ewes and their lambs  (NRG 1968b203). A level of
6 ppm in the diet is considered adequate for swine (NRC
1968a).202
  Swine are apparently very  tolerant of high  levels  of
copper, and 250 ppm or more  in the diet have been used
to improve liveweight gains and feed efficiency (Nutrition
Reviews 1966a210; NRC 1968a).202 On the other hand, sheep
were  very susceptible  to copper  poisoning  (Underwood
1971),254 and for these animals a diet containing 25 ppm
was considered toxic. About 9 mg per animal per day was
considered the safe tolerance level  (NRG 1968b).203
  Several reviews of copper requirements and toxicity have
been  presented (McKee and Wolf ]963,1B3 Nutrition Re-
views 1966a,2II) Underwood 1971).254 There is very little ex-
perimental data on the effects of copper in the water supply
on animals, and its toxicity must be judged largely from the
results of trials where copper was fed. The element docs not
appear to accumulate at excessive levels in muscle  tissues,
and it is very readily eliminated once its administration is
stopped. While most livestock  tolerate  rather high levels,
sheep do not (NRC 1968b).203

Recommendation

  It is recommended that the upper limit for cop-
per in livestock waters be 0.5 mg/1. Very few natural
waters should fail to meet this.

Fluorine

  The role of fluorine as a nutrient and as a toxin has been
thoroughly  reviewed by Underwood  (1971).254  (Unless
otherwise indicated, the following discussion,  exclusive of
the recommendation, is based upon this  review.)  While
there   is no  doubt that dietary  fluoride  in  appropriate
amounts improved the caries resistance of teeth, the element
has not yet been found essential to animals.  If it is a dietary
essential,  its requirement must be very low. Its  ubiquity
probably  insures a continuously adequate intake by  ani-
mals.
  Chronic fluoride poisoning of livestock has, on the other
hand, been observed in several areas of the world,  resulting
in some cases from the consumption of waters of high fluoride
content. These waters come from wells in rock from which
the element  has been  leached, and  they often contain
10-15 mg/1. Surface waters, on the other hand, usually con-
tain considerably less than 1 mg/1.
  Concentrations of 30-50  ppm  of fluoride in the total
ration of dairy  cows is  considered the  upper safe limit,
higher  values being suggested for other  animals  (NRC
197la).205 Maximum levels of the element in waters that are
tolerated by livestock are difficult to define from available
experimental work. The species, volume, and continuity of
water consumption, other dietary fluoride, and age of the
animals, all have an effect. It appears,  however, that as little
as 2 mg/1 may cause tooth mottling under some circum-
stances. At least a several-fold increase in its concentratio
seems, however, required to produce other injurious effecl
  Fluoride from waters apparently does not accumulate i
soft tissues to a significant degree. It is transferred to a ver
small extent into the milk and to a somewhat greater degre
into eggs.
  McKee and Wolf (1963)19f have also reviewed the matte
of livestock poisoning by fluoride, concluding that 1.0 mg/
of the element in their drinking water did not harm thes
animals. Other more recent resorts presented data suggest
ing that even considerably higher concentrations of fluoricl
in the water may,  with the  exception  of tooth  mottling
caused no  animal health problems (Harris et al. 1963,"
Shupe et al.  1964,246  Nutrition Reviews 1966b,211 Savill
1967,231 Schroeder et al.  1968a237).

Recommendation
  An upper limit for fluorides in livestock drinkinj
waters of 2.0 mg/1 is recommended. Although  thi
level may result  in  some tooth mottling it shouk
not be excessive from the standpoint  of anima
health or  the deposition  of the  element in meat
milk, or eggs.

Iron
  It is well known that iron (Fe) is  essential to animal life
Further, it has a low order of toxicity. Ueobald and Elveh
jem (1935)138 found that iron  salts added at a  level o
9,000 mg Fe/kg of diet caused a phosphorus deficiency it
chicks. This could be overcome by adding phosphate to th(
diet.  Campbell (1961)124 found that soluble iron  salt ad
ministered to baby pigs by stomach tube at a level of 600 rm
Fe/kg of body weight caused death within six hours. O'Don
ovan et al.  (1963)212 found very high levels of iron in th(
diet (4,000 and 5,000 mg/kg) to cause phosphorus deficienc;
and to be toxic to weanling pigs Lower levels (3,000 mg/kg^
apparently were not toxic. The intake of water by livestock
.may be  inhibited by high levels of this element (Tayloi
1935).250 However, this should not be a common or a seriou:
oroblem. While iron  occurs  in natural  waters  as ferroui
salts which are very soluble, on contact  with  air it is oxi-
dized and it precipitates as ferric oxide, rendering it essen-
dally harmless to animal  health.
  It is not considered necessary to set an upper limit of ac-
ceptability for iron  in water.  It should be noted,  however.
i;hat even a few parts per million of iron can cause clogging
of lines to stock watering equipment or an undesirable stain-
ing and deposit on the equipment itself.

Lead
  Lake and river waters of the United States usually contain
Jess than "0.05 mg/1 of lead (Pb), although concentrations in
excess of this have been reported (Durum et al. 1971,141
Kopp and Kroner  1970).182 Some natural waters in areas
where galena is found have had as much as 0.8 mg/1 of the

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                                                                                   Water for Livestock Enterprises/'313
element. It may  also be introduced into waters in the ef-
fluents from various industries, as the result of action of the
water  on lead pipes (McKcc and Wolf  1963),193  or by
deposition  from polluted air (NRG 1972).2"7
  A nutritional need for lead by animals has not been
demonstrated, but its toxicity is well known. A rather com-
plete review of the matter of lead poisoning by McKec and
Wolf  (1963)193 suggested that for livestock  the toxicity  of
the element had not been clearly established from a quanti-
tative standpoint. Even with more recent data (Donawick
1966,139  Link  and  Pensinger  1966,186  Harbourne  ct al.
1968,1" Damron ct al. 1969,131 Hatch and Funnell 1969,168
Egaii  and O'Cuill 1970,143 Aronsoii 1971),1()8 it is difficult to
establish clearly at what level of intake lead becomes toxic,
although a daily intake of 6-7 rng Pb/kg of body weight has
been  suggested as the minimum that eventually gave rise
to signs of poisoning in  cattle  (Hammond and  Aronson
1964).164 Apparently, cattle and sheep are considerably more
resistant to lead toxicosis than are horses, being remarkably
tolerant to the continuous intake of relatively large  amounts
of the clement (Hammond and Aronson  1964,"''' Garner
1967,l:'- Aronson  1971108;  NRO 1972-07). However, there is
some  tendency for it to accumulate in tissues and  to  be
transferred to the milk at levels that could be toxic to man
(Hammond and Aronson 1964)."i4
   There is  some agreement that 0.5 mg/1 of lead  in the
drinking water of livestock is a safe level (McKee and Wolf
1963);193 and the findings of Schroeder and  his associates
with laboratory animals are in agreement with this (1963a,238
1963b,239 1964,234 196523r>).  Using  10 times this  level,  or
5 mg 1, of lead in the drinking water of rats and mice over
their  life spans, these authors observed no obvious direct
toxic  effects but did find  an increase in death rates in the
older animals, especially in  the males.  Schroeder  et  al.
(1965)23'1, observed  that the  increased mortality  was not
caused  by overt lead poisoning,  but rather by an increased
susceptibility  to  spontaneous infections.  Hemphill  et  al.
(1971)171 later reported that mice treated with subclinical
doses of lead nitrate were more susceptible to challenge with
Salmonella typhimurium.

Recommendation

   In  view of the lack of information  concerning
the chronic  toxicity of  lead,  its apparent  role  in
reducing disease resistance,  and the very low inci-
dence  in natural waters of lead contents exceeding
the 0.05 mg/1 level,  an upper limit of 0.1 mg/1 for
lead  in livestock waters  is recommended.

Manganese

   Like iron, manganese is a required trace element,  occurs
in natural waters at only low levels as manganous salts, and
is precipitated in the presence  of air as manganic  oxide.
While it can be toxic when administered in the feed at high
levels (Underwood  1971),254 it is improbable that it would
be found at toxic levels in waters.
  It is doubtful that setting an upper limit of acceptability
is necessary for manganese, but as with iron, a few milli-
grams per  liter in water can  cause  objectionable deposits
on stock watering equipment.

Mercury

  Natural  waters may  contain  mercury  originating  from
the activities  of man or from naturally occurring geological
stores (Wcrshaw 1970,262 White et al. 1970).263 The element
tends to sorb  readily on a variety of materials, including the
bottom sediments of streams, greatly reducing the levels
that might otherwise remain in solution (Hem  1970) 17°
Thus,  surface waters in  the  United  States have usually
been found to contain much  less  than 5 jug/1  of mercury
(Durum et al. 1971).H1 In areas harboring mercury  de-
posits, their biological methylation occurs in bottom sedi-
ments (Jensen and  Jcrnelov  1969)176 resulting in a con-
tinuous presence of the element in solution (Greeson 1970).156
   In comparison to  the relative instability of organic com-
pounds such  as salts of phenyl mercury and methoxyethyl
mercury (Gage and Swan 1961,151 Miller  et  al. 1961,195
Daniel and  Gage   1969,132 Daniel et al.  1971133)  alkyl
mercury compounds including methyl mercury (CHsHg+)
have a high  degree of stability in  the  body (Gage 1964,150
Miller et al. 1961)I9:> resulting in an  accumulative  effect.
This relative stability, together with efficient absorption from
the  gut, contributes  to the somewhat greater toxicity of
orally administered methyl mercury as compared to poorly
absorbed inorganic mercury salts (Swensson  et  al. 1959).249
   The  biological half-life  of methyl mercury  varies from
about 20 to  70 days in most species (Bergrund and Berlin
1969).113 Brain, liver, and  kidney were the organs that ac-
cumulated the highest levels of the element, with the distri-
bution of methyl and other alkyl mercury compounds favor-
ing nerve tissue and inorganic mercury favoring the kidney
(Malishcvskaya ct al. 1966,188 Platonow 1968,222 Aberg et al.
1969).102
   Transfer of methyl mercury (Curley et al. 1971),13°  but
not  mercuric mercury (Berlin and Ullberg 1963),114 to the
fetus has been observed. The element  also appeared in the
eggs of poultry  (Kiwimae et al.  1969)180 and wild  birds
(Borg et al. 1969,118 Dustman et al. 1970)142 but did not seem
to concentrate there much above levels found in the tissues
of the adult. Data concerning levels of mercury  that may be
detrimental to hatchability of eggs are too meager to sup-
port conclusions at this time. Also, data concerning transfer
of mercury to milk is lacking.
   The animal organs representing the principal tissues for
mercury concentration are brain, liver,  and kidney.  It is
desirable that the maximum allowable limit  for mercury in
livestock waters should result in less than 0.5  ppm of ac-
cumulated mercury in these tissues. This is the  level now in

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31 ^/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
use as the maximum allowable in fish used for human con-
sumption.
  Few data are available  quantitatively  relating  dietary
mercury  levels  with accumulation in  animal tissues. The
ratios between  blood and brain levels  of methyl mercury
appeared to range from 10  for rats to 0.2 for monkeys and
dogs (International  Committee on Maximum Allowable
Concentrations  of Mercury Compounds 1969).m In addi-
tion, blood levels of mercury appeared to increase approxi-
mately in proportion to increases  in dietary intake (Birke
et al. 1967m; Tejning 1967251).
  Assuming a 0.2 or more blood-to-tissuc (brain or other tis-
sue) ratio for mercury in livestock, the  maintenance of less
than 0.5 ppm mercury in all tissues necessitates maintaining
blood mercury levels below  0.1 ppm. This would indicate a
maximum daily intake  of 2.3 fig of  mercury per kilogram
body weight. Based upon daily water consumption by meat
animals in the range of up  to about eight per cent  of body
weight,  it is estimated  that water may contain almost 30
fig/], of mercury as methyl mercury without the limits of
these criteria being exceeded. Support  for this approxima-
tion was provided in part by the calculations of Aberg et al.
(1969)102 showing that after  "infinite" time the body burden
of mercury in man will approximate 15.2 times the weekly
intake of methyl mercury. Applying these data to meat ani-
mals consuming water  equivalent  to eight per cent  of body
weight and containing  30 jug/I  of mercury would result in
an average of 0.25 ppm mercury in the  whole animal body.

Recommendation
  Until specific data become available  for the vari-
ous species, adherence to an upper limit of  10 /ng/1
of mercury in water for livestock is recommended,
and  this limit  provides  an  adequate margin  of
safety  to humans who will  subsequently  not  be
exposed to as  much  as 0.5 ppm of mercury through
the consumption of animal tissue.

Molybdenum
  Underwood  (1971)254  reviewed the  matter  of  molyb-
denum's  role in animal nutrition.  While the evidence that
it is an essential  element is good,  the amount of molybdenum
required  has not been established. For  cattle, for instance,
no minimum requirement has been set,  but it is believed to
be low,  possibly less than 0.01  ppm of the dry diet (NRG
1970).204
  McKee and Wolf (1963)193 reviewed the matter of toxicity
of molybdenum  to animals,  but  Underwood (1971)254
pointed  out that many of the studies on its toxicity arc ot
limited value because a number of factors known to influence
its metabolism were not taken into account in making these
studies.   These  factors included  the  chemical form  ot
molybdenum, the copper status and intake of the  animal,
the form and amount  of sulfur in the  diet, and other less
well defined matters. In spite  of  these, there  are  data to
support real species differences in terms of tolerance to th<
element. Cattle seem the least tolerant, sheep a little mor
so, and horses and swine considerably more tolerant.
  While Shirley et al. (1950)24!l found that drenching steer
daily with sodium molybdate  in an amount  equialent  ti
about 200 ppm of molybdenum in the diet for a period c
seven months resulted in no marked symptoms of toxicitv
cattle on pastures where the herbage contained 20-100 ppn
of molybdenum on a dry basis developed  a toxicosis knowi
as teart.  Copper additions to the  diet have  been  used  ti
control this (Underwood 1971).254
  Cox et al. (I960)127 reported (hat rats fed diets containing
500 and  800 ppm of added rrolybdenum showed  toxicit1
symptoms and had increased levels of the element  in thei
livers. Some effects of the molybdenum in the diets  on live
enzymes  in the rats were not observed in calves that ha(
been maintained on diets containing up to 400 ppm of thi
element.
  Apparently, natural surface waters very rarely containet
levels of  this element of over 1  rng/1 (Kopp and  Krone
1970),182  which seemed  to offer no problem.

Conclusion
  Because there are  many factors influencing tox-
icity of molybdenum, selling an upper allowable
limit  for its  concentration  in livestock  waters  is
not possible at  this time.

Nitrates and Nitrites
  Livestock poisoning by nitrates  or nitrites  is dependem
upon the intake of these ions from  all  sources. Thus, watei
3r forage may independently or together contain levels thai
are toxic. Of the  two,  nitrite is considerably more  toxic
Usually it is formed  through the biological reduction  o
litrate in the rumen of cattle or sheep, in freshly chopped
"orage, in moistened feeds, or in waters contaminated witr
organic matter to the extent that they are capable of sup
sorting microbial growth. While natural waters often con-
tain high levels of nitrate, their nitrite content is usually
very low.
  While some nitrate was transferred  to the milk, Davisor
and his associates  (1964)135 found  that for dairy cattle fed
150 mg NO3N/kg of body weight the milk contained about
3 ppm of NO3N.  They concluded that  nitrates in  cattle
feeds  did not appear to constitute a hazard to  human
health, and that animals fed nitrate continuously developed
some degree of adaptation to it.
  The LD50 of nitrate  nitrogen for ruminants was found
to be about  75 mg NO3N/kg of  body  weight when ad-
ministered as a drench  (Bradley et al. 1940)119 and about
255 mg/kg of body weight when  sprayed on forage and
feed (Crawford and  Kennedy I960).128  Levels of 60 mg
NO3N/kg of body weight as a drench (Sapiro et al.  1949)230
and  150 mg NO3N/kg of body weight in the  diet (Prewitt
and  Median 1958;224 Davison et  al.  1964135) had no de-

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                                                                                  Water for Livestock Enterprises 315
leterious effects. Lewis (1951)184 found that 60 per cent con-
version of  hemoglobin  to  methemoglobin occurred  in
mature sheep from 4.0 g of NO3N or 2.0 g of NO2N placed
in the rumen, or 0.4 g NO2N injected intravenously. As an
oral drench, 90 mg NO3N/kg of body weight gave peak
methemoglobin levels of 5-6 g/100 ml of blood  in sheep,
while intravenous injection of 6 mg NO2N/kg of body weight
gave similar results  (Emerick et al. 1965).144
  Nitrate-induced  abortions in cattle and  sheep have
generally  required  amounts  approaching  lethal  levels
(Simon et al.  1959,247 Davison et al. 1962,136 Winter and
Hokanson 1964,266 Davison et al. 1965137).
  Some  experiments have  demonstrated  reductions  in
plasma or liver vitamin A values resulting from the feeding
of nitrate to ruminants (Jordan et  al. 1961,178 Goodrich
et al.  1964,153 Newland  and  Deans  1964,™  Hoar  et  al.
1968173). The destructive  effect of nitrites on  carotene
(Olson et al. 1963213) and vitamin A (Pugh  and Garner
1963225) under acid conditions that existed  in silage or in
the gastric stomach have also  been noted. On the other
hand,  nitrate  levels of about 0.15  per  cent  in  the feed
(equivalent  to about 1 per cent of potassium nitrate) have
not been shown to  influence liver vitamin A  levels (Hale
et al. 1962,161 Wcichenthal  et al.  1963,261  Mitchell et  al.
1967197) nor to have other deleterious  effects in controlled
experiments, except for a possible slight decrease in produc-
tion.
  Assuming a maximum water consumption in dairy cat-
tle  of 3 to 4 times the dry matter intake (NRG 197la205),
the concentration of  nitrate to  be tolerated in the water
should be about one-fourth of that  tolerated  in  the feed.
This would  be about 300 mg, 1 of NO3N.
  Gwatkin  and Plummer  (1946)160  drenched  pigs with
potassium nitrate solutions,  finding that it  required  in ex-
cess of 300 mg NOsN/'kg of body weight to cause erosion
and hemorrhage of the gastric mucosa and  subsequent
death. Lower levels of this salt had  no effect when  ad-
ministered daily for 30 days. Losses in swine due to metho-
globinemia  have occurred  only with  the consumption of
preformed  nitrite and not with nitrate  (Mclntosh et  al.
1943,192  Gwatkin  and  Plummer  1946,160  Winks   ct  al.
1950263). Nitrate administered orally as a  single  dose was
found to be acutely toxic at 13 mg NO2N/kg of body weight,
8.7 mg/kg of body weight  producing moderate methemo-
globinemia  (Winks et al. 1950).265 Emerick  et al. (1965)144
produced moderate methemoglobinemia in pigs with intra-
venous injections of 6.0 mg  NOoN/kg of body weight and
found that the animals under one week of age were no more
susceptible to poisoning than older ones.
   Drinking  water containing 330 mg/1 NO3N fed continu-
ously to growing pigs and to  gilts from weaning through two
farrowing seasons had  no adverse effects  (Seerley et  al.
1965).242 Further,  100 mg/1 of NO2N in  drinking water
had no effect on performance or liver vitamin A values of
pigs over a 105-day  experimental  period,  and methemo-
globin values  remained low. This  level of nitrite greatly
exceeded the maximum of 13 mg/1 NO2N found to form
in waters in galvanized watering equipment and in  the
presence of considerable organic matter containing up to
300 mg/1 NO3N.
  In special situations involving the presence of high levels
of nitrates  in  aqueous slurries  of plant or animal tissues,
nitrite accumulation reached a peak of about one-fourth to
one-half the initial  nitrate concentration (Mclntosh et al.
1943,192 Winks etal. 1950,266 Barnctt 1952).10!) This situation
was unusual, but since wet mixtures are sometimes used for
swine, it must be  considered  in establishing criteria for
water.
  Levels of nitrate up to 300 mg/1 NO3N or of nitrite up to
200 mg/1 of NO2N  were added to drinking waters without
adverse effects on the growth  of chicks or production of
laying hens (Adams et al. 1966).104 At  200 mg/1 NO2N,
nitrite decreased growth in turkey poults and reduced the
liver  storage  of vitamin  A in  chicks, laying hens,   and
turkeys. At 50 mg/1 NO2N, no  effects were observed on  any
of the birds. Kienholz et al. (1966)179 found that  150 mg/1
of NO3N in the drinking water or in the feed of chicks or
poults had  no  detrimental effect on growth, feed efficiency,
methemoglobin  level,  or  thyroid weight,  while  Sell  and
Roberts (1963)243 found that 0.12 per cent (1,200 ppm) of
NO2N in chick diets lowered vitamin A stores in the liver
and caused hypertrophy of the thyroid. Other studies have
shown poultry to tolerate  levels of nitrate or nitrite similar
to or greater  than  those  mentioned above (Adams et al.
1967,105 Crawford et al. 1969129). Up to 450 mg/1 of NO3N
in the drinking water of turkeys did not significantly affect
meat color  (Mugler et al. 1970).'"
  Some have  suggested that nitrate  or nitrite can cause a
chronic or subclinical toxicity (Simon  et  al.  1959,247
Mcllwain  and Schipper  1963,m Pfander  1961,221 Beeson
1964,m Case 1957125). Some degree of thyroid hypertrophy
may occur in some species with the consumption of subtoxic
levels of nitrate or nitrite (Bloomfield ct al.  1961,"7 Sell and
Roberts 1963),24;i but possibly not in all (Jainudeen et al.
1965).m In the human newborn, a chronic type of mcthe-
globinemia  ma)- result from feeding waters of low NO3N
content (Armstrong ct  al. 1958).ul7 It appears,  however,
that all classes of livestock and poultry that have been studied
under controlled experimental conditions  can tolerate the
continued ingestion of waters containing up to 300 mg  1 of
NO3N or 100  mg 1 of NO2N.

Recommendation
   In order to provide a reasonable margin of safety
to allow for unusual situations such as extremely
high water intake or nitrite formation in slurries,
the NO3N plus NO2N  content in drinking waters
for livestock and poultry should be limited to  100
ppm or less, and  the NO2N content alone be limited
to 10 ppm or less.

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    /Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
Selenium

  Rosenfeld and Beath (1964)227 have reviewed the prob-
lems of selenium poisoning in livestock. Of the three types
of this poisoning described, the "alkali disease" syndrome
required  the lowest level of the element in the feed for its
causation. Moxon (1937)198 placed this level at about 5 ppm,
and subsequent  research confirmed this figure. Later work
established that the toxicity of selenium was very similar
when the  element was fed  as it occurs in plants, as seleno-
methionine  or selenocystine,  or as inorganic selenite or
selenate  (Halverson et al.  1962,162 Rosenfeld and Beath
1964,227 Halverson et al. 1966163). Ruminant animals may
tolerate more  as inorganic salts than do monogastric  ani-
mals because of the salts' reduction to insoluble elemental
form  by  rumen  microorganisms  (Butler  and   Peterson
1961).m
  A study with  rats (Schroeder 1967)232  revealed that sele-
nite, but not selenate,  in the drinking water caused deaths
at a level of 2  mg/1 and was somewhat more toxic than
selenite administered in the diet. However,  the  results  of
drenching studies with cattle and sheep  (Maag and Glenn
1967)187 indicated that selenium concentration in  the water
should be slight, if it is any more toxic in the same chemical
form administered in the feed.  If there are differences with
respect to the effect of mode of ingestion on toxicity, they are
probably small.
  To date, no substantiated cases of selenium  poisoning  in
livestock  by waters have  been  reported, although some
spring and  irrigation  waters have  been found to  contain
over 1 mg/1 of the  element (Byers 1935,122 Williams  and
Byers 1935,264 Beath 1943110).  As a rule, well, surface,  and
ocean  waters  appeared  to contain less than 0.05 mg/1,
usually considerably less. Byers  et al. (1938)123 explained
the low selenium content as a result of precipitation of the
selenite ion with ferric hydroxide. Microbial activity, how-
ever,  removed  either  selenite  or selenate  from water
(Abu-Erreish 1967);103 this may be  another explanation.
  In addition to its toxicity, the essential role of selenium
in animal nutrition (Thompson and Scott 1970)2'"'2 must be
considered. Between 0.1 and 0.2 ppm in the diet have been
recommended as necessary to  insure against a deficiency
in poultry (Scott and Thompson  1969),241 against white
muscle disease  in ruminants  (Muth  1963),201 and other
diseases in  other animals  (Hartley  and Grant  1961).167
Selenium  therapy suggests  it as a requirement for livestock
in general. Inorganic  selenium was not incorporated  into
tissues to  the  same  extent  as  it occurred in  plant tissue
(Halverson  et  al. 1962,162  1966,163 Rosenfeld and Beath
1964227).  It is doubtful that 0.2 ppm or less of added inor-
ganic selenium appreciably increased the amount found in
the tissue  of animals ingesting it. The data of Kubota et al.
(1967)183 regarding the occurrence of selenium poisoning
suggested that over a good part  of the  United States live-
stock were receiving as much as 0.5 ppm or even more  of
naturally  occurring  selenium in their  diets continuously,
without harm to them and without accumulating levels of
(he element in their tissues  that make meats  or  livestock
products unfit for human use.

Recommendation

   It  is  recommended  that the  upper limit for
selenium in livestock waters be 0.05 mg/1.

Vanadium

   Vanadium  has been  present in surface waters  in  the
United States in concentrations up to  0.3 mg/1,  although
most of the analyses  showed less than 0.05 mg/1 (Kopp anc
Kroner 1970).182
   Recently, vanadium was  determined  essential for  the
growing  rat,  physiologically required levels appearing tc
x at or below  0.1  ppm of  the diet  (Schwarz and Milne
1971).240 It became  toxic to chicks  when incorporated intc
:he diet as ammonium metavanadate at concentrations
over about 10 ppm  of the element  (Romoscr et al. 1961,221
Nelson et al. 1962,208 Berg 1963,m Hathcock et al. 1964169)
Schroeder and Balassa (1967)23;! found that when mice were
allowed drinking water containing 5 mg/1 of vanadium as
v'anadyl  sulfate  over a life spai, no toxic effects  were  ob-
served, but  the  element  did  accumulate to some  extent ir
certain organs.

Recommendation
   It  is  recommended  that the  upper limit  foi
vanadium in  drinking water  for livestock be  0.1
mg/1.

Zinc
   There are many opportunities for the  contamination o
waters by zinc. In some  areas where it is mined, this meta
ias been found in natural waters in concentrations as higlt
as 50  mg/1.  It  occurs in significant amounts in effluent!
from certain industries.  Galvanized pipes and tanks maj
also contribute zinc  to acidic waters.  In a recent  survey o
surface waters, most  contained less than 0.05 mg/1  but some
exceeded 5.0 mg/1, the highest value being 42 mg/1 (Duruir
et al.  1971).141
   Zinc is  relatively nontoxic  for animals.   Swine have
lolerated 1,000 ppm  of dietary zinc  (Grimmet et al. 1937,16'
Sampson  et al.  1942,229  Lewis et  al. 1957,185  Brink et al.
1959120),  while 2,000 ppm or more have been found to be
1oxic (Brink et al. 1959).120  Similar findings have been re-
ported for poultry (Klussendorf and Pensack 1958,181 John-
son et  al. 1962,177 Vohra and Kratzer  1968259) where zinc
was added to  the feed. Adding 2,320 mg/1 of the element
lo water  for chickens reduced water consumption, egg pro-
duction, and body weight. Aftei zinc withdrawal (here were
no symptoms of toxicity  in chickens (Sturkie 1956).248 In  a
number  of studies with ruminants, Ott  et al.  (1966a,21£

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                                                                                   Water for Livestock Enterprises /317
b,216 c,217 d218) found zinc added to diets as the oxide to be
toxic, but at levels over 500 mg kg of diet.
  While an increased zinc  intake reflected an increase in
level of the element in the body tissues, the tendency for its
accumulation was not great (Drinker et al. 1927,140 Thomp-
son et al. 1927,253 Sadasivan 1951,228 Lewis et al. 1957),m
and tissue levels fell rapidly after zinc dosing was stopped
(Drinker et  al. 1927,140 Johnson et al. 1962177).
  Zinc is a dietary requirement of all poultry and livestock.
National Research Council  recommendation for  poults up
to eight weeks was 70 mg kg of diet; for chicks up to eight
weeks, it was 50 mg/kg of diet (NRG  1971b);206  for swine,
50 mg'kg-of diet (NRC 1968a).202 There is no established
requirement for ruminants, but  zinc deficiencies were re-
ported in cattle grazing forage with zinc contents ranging
between 18 and 83 ppm  (Underwood  1971).264 There is
also no established requirement for sheep, but lambs fed a
purified  diet containing 3 ppm  of the element  developed
symptoms of a deficiency that were prevented  by  adding 15
ppm of zinc to the diet; 30 ppm was required to  give max-
imum growth (Ott ct al. 1965).2H
  Cereal grains contained on the average 30-40 ppm  and
protein  concentrates from  20  to  over  100  ppm  (Davis
1966).134 In view of this, and  in view of the  low order of
toxicity of zinc and  its requirement by animals,  a limit in
livestock waters of 25 mg  zinc 1 would have a  very large
margin of safety. A  higher  limit does not seem  necessary,
since  there would be few instances where natural  waters
would carry in excess of this.

Recommendation
  It is recommended that  the upper limit for zinc
in livestock waters be 25 mg/1.

Toxic Algae
  The term "water  bloom" refers to heavy scums of blue-
green algae that form on waters under certain conditions.
Perhaps the first report of livestock poisoning by toxic algae
was that of Francis (1878)147 who described the problem in
southern Australia. Fitch et al. (1934)146 reviewed  a number
of cases  of algal poisoning  in  farm animals in Minnesota
between 1882 and  1933. All were associated with certain
blue-green algae often concentrated by the wind at one  end
of the lake. Losses in cattle, sheep, and poultry were re-
ported. The algae were found  toxic to laboratory animals
on  ingestion or intraperitoneal injection.
  According to  Gorham (1964)155 six species of blue-green
algae have been incriminated,  as follows:

               Nodulana spumigena
               Microsysiis aeruginosa
               Coelosphaerium Kuetzingianum
               Gloeotrichia echinulata
               Anabaena flos-aquae
               Ajphanizpmenon flos-aquae
  Of the  above,  Gorham states that Microcystis and Ana-
baena have most often been blamed for  serious poisonings
and  algal  blooms consisting of one or more of these species
vary  considerably  in  their  toxicity  (Gorham  1964).155
According to  Gorham  (I960),104 this variability seems  to
depend upon a number of factors,  e.g., species and strains
of algae that are  predominant, types and numbers of bac-
terial associates, the  conditions of growth, collection and
decomposition, the degree of  animal  starvation and sus-
ceptibility, and the amount consumed. To date, only one
toxin from blue-green algae has been isolated and identified,
only from a few species and streams. This was a cyclic poly-
peptidc containing  10 amino acid residues, one of which
was  the unnatural  amino  acid D-scrine  (Bishop  et  al.
1959).n6 This is also referred to as FDF (fast-death factor),
since it causes death more quickly  than SDF  (slow-death
factor) toxins produced in water blooms.
  Shilo (1967)244 pointed out that the sudden decomposition
of algal blooms often preceded mass mortality of fish, and
similar observations were made with livestock  poisonings.
This suggests that the lysis of the  algae  may be important
in the release of the toxins, but it also suggests that in some
circumstances botulism may  be involved. The lack of oxy-
gen  may  have caused the  fish kill and  must  also be con-
sidered.
  Predeath symptoms in livestock have  not been carefully
observed  and  described. Post-mortem examination is ap-
parently of no  help in diagnosis  (Fitch  et  al.  1934).146
Feeding or injecting algal suspensions or water from suspect
waters have been used to some extent, but the occasional
fleeting toxicity of these materials makes this procedure of
limited value. Identification  of any of the  toxic blue-green
algae species in suspect waters does no  more than suggest
the possibility that  they caused livestock deaths.
  In view of the many unknowns and unresolved problems
relating blooms of toxic algae, it is impossible to suggest
any  recommendations  insuring against  the occurrence  of
toxic algae in livestock waters.

Recommendation
  The use  for livestock of waters bearing heavy
growths  of blue green algae should be avoided.

Radionuclides
  Surface  and groundwaters  acquire  radioactivity  from
natural sources, from fallout  resulting  from  atmospheric
nuclear detonations,  from  mining  or processing uranium,
or as the result of the use of isotopes in medicine, scientific
research, or industry.
  All radiation is regarded as harmful, and  any unnecessary
exposure to it should be avoided. Experimental work on the
biological half-lives of radionuclides and their somatic and
genetic effects on animals have been  briefly  reviewed by
McKee and Wolf (1963).193 Because the rate of decay of a
radionuclide is a physical constant that cannot be changed,

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318/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
radioactive isotopes must be disposed of by dilution or by
storage and natural decay. In view of the variability in half-
lives of the many radioisotopes, the nature of their radioac-
tive emissions, and the differences in metabolism of various
elements by different  animals, the results of animal experi-
mentation do not lend themselves easily to the development
of recommendations.
  Based  on the  recommendations of the  U.  S. Federal
Radiation Council (I960,257 1961258), the  Environmental
Protection Agency will  set drinking water standards  for
radionuclides (1972),145 to establish  the intake of radioac-
tivity from waters that when added to the amount from all
other sources will not likely be harmful to man.

Recommendation
  In view of the limited knowledge of the effect of
radionuclides in water on domestic  animals, it is
recommended  that the Federal  Drinking  Water
Standards be used for farm animals as well as for
man.

PESTICIDES  (IN WATER FOR LIVESTOCK)
  Pesticides include a large number of organic and inorganic
compounds.  The United  States  production of synthetic
organic pesticides in  1970 was  1,060 million pounds con-
sisting almost entirely of insecticides (501 million pounds),
herbicides (391 million pounds), and fungicides (168 million
pounds).  Production  data  for  inorganic  pesticides  was
limited.  Based on  production,  acreage  treated, and  use
patterns, insecticides and  herbicides  comprise  the major
agricultural pesticides (Fowler  1972).279 Of these, some can
be detrimental to livestock. Some have  low solubility in
water, but all  cause problems  if accidental spillage pro-
duces high concentrations  in water, or if they become  ad-
sorbed  on colloidal  particles   subsequently dispersed  in
water.
  Insecticides are subdivided  into three major  classes of
compounds including methylcarbamates, organophosphatcs
and  chlorinated  hydrocarbons.  Many  of these  substances
produce no serious pollution hazards, because they are non-
persistent. Others, such as the  chlorinated  hydrocarbons,
are quite persistent in the environment and are the pesti-
cides most frequently encountered in water.

Entry of Pesticides into Water
  Pesticides enter water from soil runoff, direct application,
drift, rainfall,  spills,  or faulty  waste  disposal  techniques.
Movement by erosion of soil particles with  adsorbed pesti-
cides is one of the principal means of entry into water. The
amount carried in runoff water is influenced by rates of  ap-
plication, soil  type,  vegetation,  topography,  and other
factors. Because of strong binding of some pesticides on  soil
particles, water pollution by pesticides is thought to occur
largely through the transport of chemicals adsorbed to  soil
particles (Lichtenstcin et al. 1966).281 This mechanism m;
not always be a major roui.e. Bradley et  al.  (1972)269 ol
served that when 13.4 kg/hectare DDT and 26.8 kg/hectaj
toxophcne were applied to colton fields, only 1.3 and 0.(
per cent, respectively, of the amounts applied were detecte
in natural runoff water over an 8-month period.
  Pesticides can also enter the aquatic environment by dire
application to surface waters.  Generally, this use is to coi
trol mosquito larvae,  nuisance  aquatic weeds, and, as
several  southern states, to control selected aquatic  faur
such as  snails (Chesters and Konrad  1971).271  Both of the,
pathways generally result in contamination of surface wale
rather than groundwaters.
  Precipitation, accidental sp 11s, and faulty waste clispos
are less  important entry routes.  Pesticides  detected in rail
water include DDT, DDD, DDF, dicldrin, alpha-BHC an
gamma-BHC in extremely  minute concentrations (i e., i
the order of 10""1'-  parts or the nanograms per liter leve
(Weibcl et al.  1966,2'1-' Cohen and  Pinkerton  1966,274 Ta
rant and Tatton 19682'"). Spills and faulty waste dispos,
techniques are usually responsible for short-term, high-lev
contamination.
   The  amount of  pesticide actually in solution, howevc
is governed  by a  number of factors, the most importar
probably being the solubility  of the  molecule. Chlorinate
hydrocarbon insecticides, for  example, have low solubilit
in water  (Freshwater  Appendix II-D). Cationic pesticid<
(i.e.,  paraquat and diquat) are rapidly and tightly  bouti
to  soil  particles and are  inactivated  (Weed  Society <
America  1970).204 Most arsenical pesticides form insolubl
salts and  are inactivated (\Voolson et al. 1971).297 A  survc
of the water  and soil layers in farm ponds indicates  highc
concentrates  of pesticides  are associated with the soil layei
that interface with  water  than in the water per sc. In  an e>
tensive  survey of farm water sources (U. S. Dept. of Agr
culture, Agricultural Research  Service 1969a,2C'2 hereafu
referred  to  as  Agriculture  Research  Service 1969a267
analysis of sediment  -showed residues in the magnitude c
decimal fractions of a microgram per gram (,ug 'g) to  a hig
of 4.90 /xg-g DDT and  its DDE  and  DDD  degradatio
compounds.  These were  the principal pesticides found i
sediment. Dieldrin and endrin  were also detected in sedi
ment in  two study areas where surface drainage  wate
entered farm ponds from  an adjacent field.

Pesticides Occurrence in  Water
   Chlorinated  hydrocarbon insecticides are the pesticide
most  frequently encountered in water. They include DDT
and its degradation  products DDE and  DDD, dieldrin
endrin,  chlordane, aldrin, and lindane. In a pesticide moni
toring program conducted from 1957 to 1965, Breidenbacl
et al. (1967)270 concluded that  dieldrin was present in al
sampled river  basins  at  levels  from 1 to 22  nanogrami
(ng)/liter. DDT and its metabolites were found to occur ir
most  surface waters, while levels of endrin in the  lowei

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                                                                                    Water for Livestock Enterprises '319
Mississippi decreased from a high of 214 ng/1 in 1963 to a
range  of  15 to 116 ng/1 in  1965.  Results  of  monitoring
studies conducted by the U. S.  Department of Agriculture
(Agricultural  Research  Service  1969a)267 from  1965  to
1967 indicated that only very small amounts of pesticides
were present in any of the sources sampled. The most preva-
lent pesticides in water were DDT, its metabolites DDD and
DDE,  and  dieldrin.  Levels detected were  usually  below
one part  per  billion.  The  DDT  family, dieldrin, endrin,
chlordane,  lindane, heptachlor epoxide, trifluralin, and
2,4-D, were detected in  the range of 0.1  to 0.01 /ig/1. In a
major  survey  of surface  waters in the United  States con-
ducted from 1965 to 1968 for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesti-
cides  (Lichtenberg et  al. 1969),2*2 dieldrin and DDT  (in-
cluding DDE and DDD) were the compounds most  fre-
quently detected throughout the 5-ycar period. After reach-
ing a peak in 1966, the  total  number of occurrences of all
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides decreased  sharply in
1967 and 1968.
  A list  of pesticides most  likely to occur in the  environ-
ment and,  consequently,  recommended  for inclusion in
monitoring studies, was  developed  by the former Federal
Committee on Pesticide  Control (now Working Group on
Pesticides).  This list  was revised (Schechtcr 1971)29" and
expanded to include those compounds (1) whose persistence
is of relatively long-term duration;  (2) whose use  pattern?
is large scale  in  terms of acreage;  or (3)  whose  inherent
toxicity is hazardous  enough  to  merit close surveillance.
The primary list includes 32 pesticides or classes of pesticides
(i.e.  arsenical pesticides, mercurial  pesticides, and several
dithiocarbamate fungicides) recommended to be monitored
in water.  A secondary list of 1 7 compounds was developed
for consideration,  if monitoring activities are expanded in
the future. The pesticides found on  the primary list would
be those most likely to be encountered in farm water sup-
plies (see  Freshwater Appendix  II-D).

lexicological Effects of  Pesticides on Livestock
  Mammals generally have a greater tolerance to pesticides
than birds and fish. However,  the increased use of pesticides
in agriculture, particularly the insecticides, presents a poten-
tial hazard to livestock.  Some compounds such as the or-
ganophosphorous insecticides  can be extremely dangerous,
especially when mishandled or wrongly used. To date, how-
ever,  there actually have been very few verified  cases of
livestock poisoning from pesticides (Papworth 1967).2" In
the few instances reported, the cause of livestock poisoning
usually has been attributed  to human negligence. For live-
stock, pesticide classes that  may pose possible hazards are
the acaricides, fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, mollus-
cides, and rodenticides (Papworth 1967).287
  Acaricides intended for use on crops  and trees usually
have  low toxicity  to  livestock.  Some,  such as technical
chlorobenzilate, have significant toxicity for mammals. The
acute oral LD50 in rats  is 0.7 g/kg  of  body weight  (Pap-
worth 1967).287 With fungicides, the main  hazard to live-
stock apparently is not from the water route, but from their
use as seed dressings for grain. Of the types used, the organo-
mercury compounds  and thiram are potentially  the most
dangerous (McEntee 1950,283 Weibel et al. 1966295). The
use  of all organomercury fungicides is restricted  by the
Environmental Protection  Agency (Office of Pesticides,
Pesticides Regulation Division 1972).277 Consequently, the
possible hazard to livestock from these  compounds has, for
most purposes, been eliminated.
  Of the  herbicides in current use,  the dinitro compounds
pose  the  greatest hazard  to  livestock.  Dinitroorthocresol
(DNC or DNOC)  is probably the most used member of
this group.  In  ruminants,  however,  DNC is  destroyed
rapidly by the rumen organisms (Papworth 1967).287 These
compounds are very persistent, up to  two  years, and for
livestock the greatest hazard is from spillages, contamina-
tion of vegetation, or water. In contrast, the phcnoxyacetic
acid derivatives (2,4-D, MCPA) are comparatively harm-
less.  Fertig  (1953)278 states that  suspected poisoning of
livestock  or  wildlife  by  phcnoxy  herbicides could  not be
substantiated in all cases carefully  surveyed. 'I he hazards
to  livestock  from hormone weed killers are discussed  by
Rowe and  Hymas (1955),289 and dinitrocompounds  by
McGirr  and Papworth  (1953)284  and  Edson   (1954).276
The possible hazards  from other herbicides are reviewed by
Papworth (1967)287 and Radeleff (1970).2SS
  Of the classes of insecticides in use, some pose a potential
hazard to livestock,  while others  do  not.  Insecticides of
vegetable origin such as pyrethrins and  rotenones, are prac-
tically non-toxic to livestock. Most chlorinated hydrocarbons
are not highly toxic to livestock, and none  is known to ac-
cumulate in vital organs. DDT, DDD, dilan, methoxychlor,
and perthanc are not highly toxic to mammals,  but some
other chlorinated hydrocarbons are quite  toxic (Papworth
1967,287 Radeleff' 19702SS). The  insecticides that are  poten-
tially the most hazardous  are  the organophosphorus com-
pounds causing chlorinestcrase inhibition.  Some, such as
mipafax,  induce  pathological changes  not  directly  related
to  cholinesterase inhibition (Barnes  and  Denz  1953).268
Liquid organophosphorus  insecticides are absorbed by all
routes, and the lethal dose for most of these compounds is
low (Papworth 1967,2*7 Radeleff 19702S!i).

Pesticides in Drinking Water for Livestock
  The subgroup  on  contamination in the  Report  of the
Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and Their Relation-
ship to Environmental Health (U.S. Dept. of Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare 1969)293 examined the present knowl-
edge -on mechanisms  for dissemination  of pesticides in the
environment, including the water route. There have been
no  reported cases of livestock toxicity resulting  from pesti-
cides in water. However, they conclude that the possibility
of contamination and toxicity from pesticides is real because
of indiscriminate, uncontrolled and excessive use.

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 32Q/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
   Pesticide residues in farm water supplies for livestock and
related enterprises are undesirable and must be reduced or
eliminated whenever  possible. The primary problem of
reducing levels of pesticides in water is to locate the source
of contamination. Once located,  appropriate steps should
be taken to eliminate the source.
  Some of the properties and concentrations of pesticides
found  in water are shown  in  Table V-4. Although many
pesticides are readily broken down and eliminated by live-
stock with no subsequent toxicological effect,  the inherent
problems associated with pesticide use include the accumu-
lation  and secretion of either  the parent compound or its
degradation  products in edible tissues and milk (Kutches
et al. 1970).28" Consequently, pesticides consumed by live-
stock through drinking water may result in residues in fat
and  certain produce  (milk, eggs,  wool), depending on  the
level of exposure and the nature  of the pesticide. There is
also  a  possibility of interactions  between insecticides  and
drugs,  especially in animal feeds  (Conney and Hitchings
1969).275
  Nonpolar  lipophilic  pesticides  such as the  chlorinated
hydrocarbon  insecticides   (DDT,  lindane,  endrin,  and
others) tend  to  accumulate  in fatty  tissue  and may  re-
sult  in measurable  residues. Polar, water soluble pesticides
and  their metabolic derivatives are generally excreted in
the urine soon after ingestion.  Examples of this class would
include most of the  phosphate insecticides and the acid
herbicides  (2,4-D; 2,4,5-T; and others). Approximately
96 per cent of a dose of 2,4-D fed to sheep was excreted
unchanged in the urine and 1.4 per cent in the feccs in 72
hours (Clark et al.  1964).273 Feeding studies (Claborn et al.
I960)272 have shown that when insecticides were fed to beef
cattle and sheep as a contaminant in their feed at dosages
that  occur as residues on forage crops,  all except methoxy-
chlor were stored in the fat. The levels of these insecticides
in fat decreased after the insecticides were removed from  the
animals'  diets. When poultry were  exposed to pesticides
either by ingestion of contaminated food or through the use
of pesticides in poultry houses,  Whitehead  (1971)2'J6 ob-

TABLE V-4—Some Properties, Criteria, and Concentrations
               of Pesticides Found in Water
                  Solubility ^
                               Toxicity LD50 mg/kg  Maximum concentration11
                                                MS/I
aldnn
dieldrm
endrin .
heptachlor
heptachlor epoxide
DDT
DDE
ODD
2,4-D*

110
160
56
350
1.2


60,000
38
46
10
130

113


300-1000
0.085
0.407
0.133
0.048
0.067
0.316
0.050
0.840

 " Maximum concentration of pesticide found in surface waters in the United States, from lichtenberg etal.
(1969)282.
 ' Refers to the herbicide family 2,4-D; 2,4,5-T; and 2,4,5-TP.
served that the toxicities  to birds  of the  substances  use
varied greatly. However, nonlethal doses may affect growl
rate, feed conversion  efficiency, egg  production,  egg siz
shell thickness, and viability of the young. Although the e
fects of large  doses may be considerable, Whitehead coi
eluded that little is known  about the impairment of produ
tion at low  rates commonly used in agricultural practice.
  Elimination of fat  soluble pesticides from contaminate
animals  is  slow.  Urinary excretion  is insignificant  ar
elimination in feces is slow. The primary route of excretic
in a lactating  animal is throng ti milk. The lowest concentr,
tions of pesticides in feeds that lead to detectable residues i
animal tissues or  products  exceed the amounts  found i
water by a  factor  of 10,000. However, at the comparative
high dosage rates given in feeds, certain trends are apparen
Cows fed DDT in  their diet at  rates of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, an
5.0 mg/kg  exhibited residues  in milk at all feeding leve
except at 0.5 mg/kg. As  the DDT feed levels increase!
contamination increased (Zweig et al. 1961).298 When  cov
were removed from  contaminated  feeds,  the amount <
time required for several pesticides to reach the non-detec
able level was recorded (Moubry  et  al. 1968).586 Dicldri
had the longest retention  time in milk, approximately 1C
days. DDT and its  analogs,  BHC, lindane, endrin,  an
methoxychlor followed in  that order. It should be emph?
sized that levels found in farm water supplies  do not make
significant contribution to animal body burdens of pesticid<
compared to amounts accumulated  in feeds.
  Table V-4  shows the toxicity of some important pest
cides. Assuming the average concentration of any  pesticid
in water is 0.1 jug/1, ar>d the average daily consumption c
water by dairy or beef cattle 'S  60 liters per day,  then th
average daily intake of DDT would be 0.006 mg. Furthei
assuming that the average  body weight for dairy or beef ca
tic  is 450  kg and the LD50  for DDT is 113  mg. kg  (Tab!
V-4), then 50 grams would  have to be consumed to approac
the dose that would be lethal to 50 per cent of the animals.
a steer were maintained on this water for 1,000 days, then
would  have ingested about 1/10,000 of the reported LD5(
For endrin (LD50= 10 mg/kg), cattle would ingest 1/1,00
of the established  LD50.  The safety margin  is  probabl
greater than indicated, because the calculations assume the
all  of the insecticide  is retained unaltered  during the tot;
ingestion period. DDT is known to be degraded to a limite<
extent  by bovine  rumen fluid and  by rumen microorgan
isms. For sheep, swine, horsey  and  poultry, the averag
daily water intake in liters is about 5, 10,  40, and 0.2, re
spectively. Consequently, their intake would be substantiall
less.

Fish as Indicators of Water Safety
  The presence of fish may be an excellent monitor fo
toxic levels  of pesticides in livestock water supplies. Ther
are numerous and well documented examples in the litera
ture of the  biological magnification of persistent pesticide

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                                                                                    Water for Livestock Enterprises /321
    TABLE V-5—Examples of Fish as Indicators of Water
                   Safety for Livestock
     Material
                Toxic-levels mg/l (or fish
                                     Toxic effects on animals
Aldrin
Chlordane
Dieldrm
Dipterex
Endnn
Ferban, fermate
Methoxychlor
Parattiion
Pentachlorophenol
Pyrethrum (allethrin)
Silvex
Toxaphene
0.02
I.O(sunfish)
0.025 (trout)
50.0
0.003 (bass)
1 0 to 4 0
0.2 (bass)
2.0 (goldfish)
0.35(bluegill)
2 0 to 10.0
50
O.I (bass)
3 mg/kg loot (poultry).
91 me/kg body weight in food (cattle).
25 mg/kg food (rats).
10 0 mg/kg body weight in foorJ (calves).
3 5 mg/kg body weight in food (chicks).

14 mg/kg alfalfa hay, not toxic (cattle).
75 mg/kg body weight in food (cattle).
60 mg 'I drinking water not toxic (cattle).
1 . 400 to 2, 800 mg/kg body weight in food (rats).
500 to 2.000 mg/kg body weight in food (chicks).
35 to 110 mg/kg body weight in food (cattle).
 McKee and Wolf, 1963M5.

by fish and  other aquatic organisms  (Sec Sections III and
IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.)
Because  of  the lower  tolerance levels  of these  aquatic
organisms for persistent  pesticides such as  chlorinated hy-
drocarbon insecticides,  mercurial compounds,  and heavy
metal fungicides, the presence of living fish in agricultural
water  supplies  would indicate  their safety  for  livestock
(McKee and  Wolf 1963).2s:' Some examples  of individual
effects of pesticides upon fish compared  to animal species
are shown in Table V-5. These data indicate  that fish gen-
erally have much lower tolerance for commonly used pesti-
cides than do livestock and  poultry.

Recommendation
  Feeding studies indicate no deleterious effects of
reported pesticide residues  in  livestock drinking
water on animal health. To prevent  unacceptable
residues in animal products, the maximum levels
proposed in the  pesticide  section of  the Panel  of
Public Water  Supplies are recommended for farm
animal  water  supplies.

PATHOGENS  AND PARASITIC ORGANISMS

Microbial Pathogens
  One of the most significant factors in the  spread  of infec-
tious diseases of domesticated animals is  the quality  of
water which  they consume. In  many instances  the  only
water available  to livestock is from surface  sources such as
ponds, waterholes, lakes,  rivers and creeks. Not infrequently
these sources are contaminated by  animals  which  wade to
drink or stand  in them  seeking refuge from pests. Con-
tamination  with  potential  disease-producing organisms
comes from surface drainage  originating in corrals,  feed
lots,  or pastures in which either sick or carrier animals are
kept.
  Direct evidence relating the occurence of animal patho-
gens in surface  waters  and disease  outbreaks is  limited.
However, water may be a  source for listeriosis caused  by
Listeria monocytogenes (Larsen  1964)302 and erysipelas caused
by  Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (Wood and  Packer in press
1972).310 Tularemia of animals is not normally waterborne,
but the organism Pasteurella tularensis has been isolated from
waters in the United States (Parker et al.  1951,303 Seghetti
1952).305  Enteric  microorganisms,  including  the vibrios
(Wilson  and Miles 1966)309 and amoebae, have a  long
record as water polluting agents.
  The Eschericlria-Enterobacter-Klebsalla  group  of enterics
arc widely distributed in feed,  water, and the general en-
vironment (Breed  et  al. 1957).299 They sometimes cause
urinary disease, abscesses, and mastitis in  livestock.  Sal-
monella are very invasive and the carrier state is easily  pro-
duced and persistent, often without any general evidence of
disease. Spread of the enterics  outside the yards, pens, or
pastures  of infected livestock is a possibility, but the epi-
demiology and  ecology of this problem are not clear.
  In  the  United States, leptospirosis is probably the most
intimately water-related  disease problem  (Gillespie et al.
1957,3nl Crawford  et al. 19693on). The pathogenic leptospira
leave the infected host through urine and lack  protection
against drying.  Direct animal-to-animal spread  can occur
through  urine splashed to the eyes and  nostrils of another
animal.
  Infection by  leptospirosis from water  often is direct; that
is, contaminated water infects  animals that consume  it or
come into contact with it.
  Van Thiel (1948)308 and Gillespie ct al.  (1957)301 pointed
out that mineral composition and pH of water are factors
affecting  continued mobility of voided leptospira.  Most
episodes  of leptospirosis  can  be  traced to ponds, ricefields,
and natural waters of suitable pH and mineral composition.
For leptospira  control,  livestock must  not  be  allowed to
wade in  contaminated  water.  Indirect contamination of
water through  sewage  is  unlikely, although   free-living
leptospira may occur in  such an environment.
  The Genus  Cloflridium is comprised  of many species
(Breed ct al. 1957),2" some  of  which have  no pathogenic
characteristics.  Some such as Clostridium perfngens  and Cl.
tetam  may become adapted to an enteric existence in ani-
mals. Almost all of them are soil adapted. Water  has a  vital
role in environments favorable for anaerobic  infections
caused by Clostndia.
  Management of water to avoid oxygen depletion serves
to control the anaerobic problem. Temporary or permanent
areas of anaerobic  water environment are dangerous  to
livestock.  Domestic animals should be prevented  from  con-
suming water not adequately oxygenated.
  One of the best examples of water-related disease is bacil-
lary hcmoglobinuria, caused  by  an organism Cl. hemolyticum
found in western areas of North and South America. It has
been  linked with liver fluke injury, but is not dependent on
the presence of flukes. Of particular concern has been the
spread of this disease to new  areas in the western states. As
described by Van Ness  and  Erickson (1964),307  each  new

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322/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
premise is an endemic area which has an alkaline, anaerobic
soil-water  environment  suitable  for  the organism.  This
disease has made its appearance in new areas of the West
when these areas  are  cleared  of  brush and irrigated. To
avoid this problem, western irrigation waters should  be
managed to  avoid  cattail  marshes,  hummock  grasses, and
other environments of prolonged saturation.
  Anthrax in livestock is a disease of considerable concern.
The organism causing  anthrax, Bacillus anthrads, may occur
in soils with  pH  above 6.0. The  organism forms spores
which, in  the presence  of adequate  soil nutrients, vege-
tate and grov\. The spread of disease by drinking water
containing spores has never been proved. Bits of hide and
hair waste may be floated by water downstream from manu-
facturing plants, but very few outbreaks have been reported
from these sources.  The disease is associated with the water
from pastures where the grass has  been killed (Van Ness
1971).306 The killed grass is brown rather than blackened, a
significant difference  from water drowned  vegetation  in
general.
  The epidemiology of virus infections tends  to incriminate
direct  contact; e.g.,  fomites,  mechanical,  and  biological
vectors,  but  seldom water supplies. Water  used to wash
away manure prior to the  use of disinfectants or other bio-
logical control procedure may carry viruses  to the general
environment.
  Viruses are classified by size, type of nucleic acid, struc-
ture, ether sensitivity,  tissue effects  (which includes viruses
long known to cause recognizable diseases, such as pox and
hog cholera), and by other criteria. Only the ether-resistant
viruses, such  as those causing polio and foot and mouth
disease in  cattle,  appear  to present problems in natural
water (Prier  1966).304

Parasitic Organisms
  Parasitic protozoa include numerous forms which are
capable of causing serious livestock losses. Most outbreaks
follow direct spread among animals. Water contaminated
with  these organisms  or  their  cysts becomes an  indirect
factor in spread of infection.
  Some of the most important parasitic forms  are the various
flukes which  develop as adult forms in man and livestock.
Important ecological factors include presence of snails and
vegetation in the water, or vegetation  covered by intermit-
tent overflow. This problem is very serious in irrigated areas
but only when snails or other intermediate hosts are avail
able for  the  complete life  cycle. Fluke eggs passed by th
host, usually in the manure (some species, in the urine"
enter the water and hatch into miracidia. These seek out
snail or  other  invertebrate host where they develop  int
sporocysts. These transform into redia which in turn ma
form other redia or several cercariae. The cercariae leave th
snail and swim about the  water where they may find th
final host,  or may  encyst or vegetation to be eaten later
The life  cycle is completed by maturing in a suitable  ho-
and establishment of an exit for eggs from the site of the at
tachment.
  Roundworms include  numerous species which may us
water pathways in their life cycle. Free-living nematocle
can sometimes be found in a piped water supply, but ar
probably of  little health  significance.  Moisture is  an im
portant factor in the life cycle o.'many parasitic roundworm
and livestock are maintained in an environment where eon
lamination of water supplies frequently occurs. It  is usuall'
thought that  roundworm egg? are eaten but water-saturatec
environments provide ideal conditions for maintaining popu
lations of these organisms arcl their eggs.
  Parasitic roundworms probably  evolved through cvolu
tionary cvcles  exemplified by the behavior of  the genu
Strongyltndes. Stro>ie}'loi(/ef spread along clrainagcways tlirougl
the washdown  of  concrete  feeding  platforms and othe
housing facilities for livestock.
  The Guinea worm, Dtacunculits, is dependent upon water
because  the  adult  lays eggs only when the host  comes  ii
contact witli water. Man, dogs, cats,  or various wild mam
mals may  harbor  the adult,  and  the larvae  develop  ii
Cyclo/is. The life cycle is thus maintained in a water environ
ment when the Cyclops is swallowed  by another suitable host
  Eggs of "horsehair worms" are laid by the adult in wate
or moist  soil. The larvae encyst and if eaten by an  nppropri
ate insect  \\ill continue development  to the adult stage
Worms do not  leave the insect unless they can enter water
  The prevention  of water-borne diseases and parasitism
in domestic  animals  depends on interruption of  the  orga
nisms'  life  cycle. The most effective means is to keep  live
stock out of contaminated water. Treatment for the remova
of the pathogen or  parasite from the host and destruction c
the intermediate host are measures of control.

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                                         WATER  FOR  IRRIGATION
  Irrigation  farming  increases productivity of croplands
and provides flexibility in alternating crops to meet market
demands. Early irrigation  developments  in the  arid  and
semiarid West were  largely along  streams where only a
small  part of the  total annual flow was put to use. Such
streams contained  dissolved solids accumulated through the
normal leaching and  weathering processes with only slight
additions or increases  in concentrations resulting from man's
activities. Additional  uses of water resources have  in many
cases concentrated the existing dissolved solids, added  new
salts, contributed toxic elements, microbiologically polluted
the streams, or in  some other way degraded the quality of
the water for irrigation. Water quality criteria for irrigation
has become increasingly significant as new developments in
water resources occur.
  Soil, plant, and climate variables and  interactions must be
considered in developing criteria for evaluation  of irriga-
tion water quality. A wide  range of suitable water charac-
teristics is possible even when only a few variables arc con-
sidered.  These variables are important in determining  the
qualiu   of water  that can  be used for  irrigation  under
specific conditions.
   The physicochemical properties of a soil determine  the
root environment  that a plant encounters following irriga-
tion. The soil consists of an organo-mineral complex  that
has the ability to react both physically and chemically with
constituents  present  in  irrigation water.  The  degree to
which  these added constituents will leach out  of a soil, re-
main available to plants in the soil, or become fixed  and
unavailable to plants, depends large!)  on the soil charac-
teristics.
  Evapotranspiration by plants removes water  from  the
soil leaving  the  salts behind. Since uptake  by  plants is
negligible, salts accumulate in  the soil in arid and semiarid
areas. A favorable salt balance in the root zone can  be main-
tained by leaching, through the use of irrigation  water in
excess  of plant needs. Good drainage is essential to prevent
a rising water table and salt accumulation in the soil surface
and to maintain adequate soil  aeration.
  In irrigated areas, a water frequently exists at some depth
below  the ground surface,  with  an unsaturated  condition
existing above it. During and immediately following periods
of  precipitation or  irrigation,  water  moves  downward
through the soil to the water table. At other times, water is
lost through evaporation from the soil surface, and trans-
piration from plants  (evapotranspiration) may reverse the
direction of flow in the soil, so that water moves upward
from the water  table by capillary flow.  The rate of move-
ment is dependent upon water content, soil texture,  and
structure. In humid  and subhumid regions,  this capillary
rise of water in the soil is a valuable water source for use by-
crops during periods of drought.
  Even under favorable  conditions of soil,  drainage,  and
environmental  factors, too  sparing  applications  of high
quality water with total dissolved solids of less than 100 mg/1
would ultimately damage sensitive crops  such as citrus fruit;
whereas with  adequate leaching, waters containing  500  to
1,000 mg 71 might be used safely. Under the same conditions,
certain salt-tolerant field crops might produce economic re-
turns using water with more than  4,000 mg/1.  Criteria for
judging water quality must take these factors into  account.
  The need for irrigation for optimum plant growth is de-
termined  also  by  rainfall and  snow distribution; and by
temperature, radiation, and humidity.  Irrigation  must be
used  for intensive  crop production  in  arid  and  semiarid
areas and  must supplement rainfall  in  humid areas. (See
Specific Irrigation Water Considerations below.)
  The effects of water quality characteristics on soils and on
plant  growth are  directly related to  the frequency  and
amount of irrigation water applied. The rate at which water
is  lost  from soils  through evapotranspiration  is  a direct
function of temperature, solar radiation,  wind, and humid-
ity. Soil and plant characteristics also influence this water
loss. Aside from water loss considerations, water stress in a
plant, as affected by the rate of  evapotranspiration,  will
determine the plant's reaction to a given soil condition. For
example,  in a saline soil  at a given water content, a plant
will usually suffer more in a hot, dry climate than in  a cool,
humid one. Considering the wide variation in the climatic
and soil variables over the United States, it is apparent that
water quality requirements also vary considerably.
   Successful sustained irrigated agriculture, whether in arid
                                                        323

-------
 324/Section F—Agricultural Uses of Water
 regions  or  in  subhumid regions,  or other areas, requires
 skillful water application based upon the characteristics of
 the land, water, and the requirements of the crop. Through
 proper timing  and adjustment of frequency and volumes of
 water applied, detrimental effects of poor quality water may
 often be mitigated.

 WATER  QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS
 FOR  IRRIGATION

 Effects on Plant Growth
   Plants may  be adversely affected directly by either the
 development of high osmotic conditions in the plant sub-
 strate  or by the presence of a phytotoxic constituent in the
 water. In general, plants are more susceptible to injury from
 dissolved constituents during germination and  early growth
 than at maturity  (Bernstein  and Hay ward 1958).31'' Plants
 affected  during early growth may result in complete crop
 failure or severe  yield  reductions. Effects of undesirable
 constituents  may be manifested  in suppressed vegetative
 growth, reduced fruit development, impaired quality of the
 marketable  product, or a combination  of these  factors.
 The presence  of sediment,  pesticides,  or pathogenic or-
 ganisms  in  irrigation water, which may not specifically
 affect  plant growth, can affect  the acceptability of the
 product. Another aspect to be considered is the presence of
 elements  in  irrigation water that are not detrimental  to
 crop production but may accumulate in crops  to levels that
 may be harmful to animals or humans.
   Where sprinkler irrigation is used, foliar absorption  or
 adsorption of constituents in the water may be detrimental
 to plant growth or to the consumption of affected plants by
 man or  animals.  Where surface  or sprinkler irrigation is
 practiced, the effect of  a  given  water quality  on  plant
 growth is determined by the composition  of the  soil solu-
 tion. This is the growth medium available to roots after soil
 and water have reacted.
   Plant growth may be  affected indirectly through the in-
 fluence of water quality on soil. For example, the absorption
 by the soil of sodium from water will result in a dispersion
 of the  clay fraction. The degree of dispersion will  depend
 on the clay minerals present. This decreases soil permeabil-
 ity and often results in a surface crust formation that deters
 seed germination  and  emergence. Soils irrigated  with
highly saline water will  tend to  be flocculated and have
relatively high infiltration rates (Bower and  \Vilcox 1965).316
A change to waters of sufficiently lower salt content  reduces
soil permeability and rates of infiltration by  dispersion of the
clay fraction in the  soil.  This hazard increases when  com-
bined  with  high  sodium content  in the water. Much de-
pends  upon whether a given irrigation  water  is used  con-
tinuously or occasionally.

 Crop Tolerance to Salinity
   The effect of salinity, or total dissolved solids, on the os-
motic  pressure of the soil solution is one  of the  most im-
portant  water quality considerations. This  relates to th>
availability of water  for plant  consumption.  Plants  hav
been observed to wilt in fields apparently having adequat
water content. This is usually the result of high soil salinit-
creating a physiological drought condition. Specifically, th
ability of a plant to extract water from a soil is determine!
by the following relationship:

                      TSS=MS + SS

In this equation, (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Salinit
Laboratory Staff 1954337 hereafter referred  to as  Salinit
Laboratory 195433:>) the total soil suction (TSS) represent
the force with which water in the soil is withheld from plan
uptake.  In simplified form, this factor is the sum of th
matric suction (MS)  or the physical  attraction of soil fo
water, and the solute suction (SS) or  the osmotic  prcssur
of the soil water.
   As the water content of the soil decreases  due to cvapc
transpiration, the water film surrounding the soil particle
becomes thinner and  the remaining water is held  with in
crcasingly greater  force  (MS).  Since only pure  water  i
lost  to the atmosphere during evapotranspiration,  the sal
concentration  of soil solution  increases  rapidly  durin
the  drying process.  Since the matric  suction  of a soil in
creases  exponentially  on drying, the  combined effects c
these two  factors can produce  critical conditions with re
gard to soil water availability.
   In assessing the problem of  plant  growth,  the salinii
level of the soil solution must be evaluated. It is difficult t
extract the soil solution from a tnoist soil within the range c
water content available to plants. It has been demonstrated
however, that  salinity levels of the soil solution and  thci
resultant effects upon  plant growth may be correlated wit]
salinity levels of soil moisture at saturation. The quantity c
water held in the soil between field capacity and the wiltin
point varies considerably from relatively low values fo
sandy soils to high values for soils high in clay content.
   The U.S.  Salinity  Laboratory Staff (1954)33" develops
the  technique  of using a saturation  extract to meet thi
need. Dcmineralized water is added to a soil  sample to
point at  which the soil paste glistens as it reflects light am
flows slightly when the container is tipped. The amount c
water added is reasonably related to  the soil  texture. Fo
many soils, the water content of the  soil paste is  rough]
twice that of the soil at field capacity and four times that a
the wilting point. This water content is called  the saturatioi
percentage. When the saturated  paste is filtered, the result
ant solution is referred to as the saturation extract. The sal
content of the saturation  extract  does not give an  exac
indication  of salinity in the soil solution under  field condi
tions, because soil structure has  been destroyed; nor docs i
give a true picture of salinity gradients within the soil result
ing from water extraction b^ roots. Although not truly de
picting salinity in the  immediate root environment, it  doe
give a usable parameter that represents a soil  salinity valu
that can be correlated with  plant growth.

-------
                                                                                                        Water for Irrigation/325
   TABLE V-6— Relative Tolerance of Crop Plants to Salt,
          (Listed in Decreasing Order of Tolerance")
High salt tolerance

EC,.X10'=12
Garden beets
Kale
Asparagus
Spinach









EC,_X10'=10

ECeX10'=16
Barley (gram)
Sugar beet
Rape
Cotton





ECX10'=10
Medium salt tolerance
VEGETABLE CROPS
ECcX10»=10
Tomato
Broccoli
Cabbage
Bell pepper
Cauliflower
Lettuce
Sweet corn
Potatoes (White Rose)
Carrot
Onion
Peas
Squash
Cucumber
EC,.X1(P=4
FIELD CROPS
EC,X10^10
Rye (gram)
Wheat (gram)
Oats (gram)
Rice
Sorghum (gram)
Corn (field)
Flax
Sunflower
Castorbeans
EC,X103=6
Low salt tolerance

EC,,X10'=4
Radish
Celery
Green beans










EC,.XW=3

ECX10J=4
Field beans









FRUIT CROPS
Date palm











Pomegranate
Fig
Olive
Grape
Cantaloupe







Pear
Apple
Orange
Grapefruit
Prune
Plum
Almond
Apricot
Peach
Strawberry
Lemon
Avocado
FORAGE CROPS (in decreasing order tolerance)
ECVX1IT— 18
Alkali sacaton
Saltgrass
Nuttall alkahgrass
Bermuda grass
Rhodes grass
Rescue grass
Canada wildrye
Western wheatgrass
Barley (hay)
Bndsfoot trefoil













ECCX10!=12
ECtX10'=12
White sweet clover
Yellow sweet clover
Perennial ryegrass
Mountain brome
Strawberry clover
Dallis grass
Sudan grass
Hubam clover
Alfalfa (California common)
Tall fescue
Rye (hay)
Wheat (hay)
Oats (hay)
Orchardgrass
Blue grama
Meadow fescue
Reed canary
Big trefoi 1
Smooth brome
Tall meadow oatgrass
Cicer mi Ikvetch
Sourclover
Sickle milkvetch
ECCX101=4
White Dutch clover
Meadow foxtail
Alsike clover
Red clover
Ladmo clover
Burnet

















EC,,X10'=2
   Salinity is  most readily  measured by determining the
electrical  conductivity  (EC)  of a  solution. This method re-
lates to the ability of salts in solution to conduct electricity
and  results are  expressed  as millimhos  (mhosXlO"3) per
centimeter (cm) at 25  C. Salinity of irrigation water is ex-
pressed in terms of EC, and  soil salinity is indicated by the
electrical  conductivity  of the saturation extract (EC,.). See
Table V-6.
   Temperature and wind effects are especially important as
they directly  affect  evapotranspiration.  Periods  of high
temperature or other  factors such as dry winds, which in-
crease  evapotranspiration rates,  not only tend to  increase
soil  salinity but also create a greater water stress in the plant.
The effect of climate  conditions  on  plant response  to
salinity was  demonstrated by  Magistad  and his  associates
(1943).3-1 Some  of these effects can be alleviated  by  more
frequent irrigation to maintain safer levels of soil salinity.
   Plants  vary in their tolerance  to  soil salinity, and  there
are  many ways  in which salt  tolerance  can  be appraised.
Hayward and Bernstein (1958)321 point out three:  (l)-Tcst
the  ability of a plant to survive on saline soils. Salt tolerance
based primarily  on this criterion  of survival has limited ap-
plication  in  irrigation  agriculture  but is a method of ap-
praisal  that  has  been  used  widely  by ecologists.   (2)  Test
the  absolute yield of a plant on a saline  soil.  This criterion
has  the greatest agronomic significance. (3) Relate the yield
on saline  soil  to  nonsaline soil. This criterion is  useful for
comparing dissimilar crops whose absolute yields cannot be
compared directly.
   The U. S.  Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954)335 has  used the
third criterion in establishing the list of salt tolerance of
various crops  shown  in Table V-6.  These  salt tolerance
values  are based upon the conductivity of the saturation ex-
tract (EC,.) expressed  in mmhos/cm at which a 50  per cent
decrement in  yield may be expected  when compared to
                                                                    TABLE V-7—Soil Salinities in Root Zone at which Yield
                                                                                 Reductions become Significant
                                                                                 Crop
                                                                  Date palm
                                                                  Pomegranate ^
                                                                  Fig
                                                                  Olive
                                                                  Grape
                                                                  Muskmelon
                                                                  Orange, grapefruit, lemonc
                                                                  Apple, pear
                                                                  Plum, prune, peach, apricot, almond
                                                                  Boysenberry, blackberry, raspberry
                                                                  Avocado
                                                                  Strawberry
                                                                                                   Electrical conductivity of saturation extracts (EC,.) at
                                                                                                     which yields decrease by about 10 per cent"
                                           mmh/cm at 25 C
                                               8

                                               4-6*

                                               4
                                               3.5
                                               3-2.5
                                               2.5
                                               2.5
                                             2.5-1.5
                                               2
                                               1.5
 - The numbers following ECrX103 are the electrical conductivity values of the saturation extract in millimhos per
centimeter at 25 C associated with 50-per cent decrease in yield.
 Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954'-' •.
 • In gypsiferous soils, ECe readings for given soil salinities are about 2 mmh/cm higher than for nongypsiferous
soils. Date palm would be affected at 10 mmh/cm, grapes at 6 mmh/cm, etc. on gypsiferous soils.
 1 Estimated.
 ' Lemon is more sensitive than orange and grapefruit, raspberry more than boysenberry  and blackberry.
Bernstein 1965b">.

-------
 326/Seclion  V—Agricultural Uses of Water
      TABLE V-8—Salt Tolerance of Ornamental Shrubs
                        (Maximum ECe's tolerated)
                                  KC( in mmho/(_m, at 25 C

                           0   2  4   6   8   10 12  14 16 18 20 22
      Tolerant
                  Moderately tolerant
                                     Sensitive
                                                  Very sensitive
6-10
Carissa grandiflora
(Natal plum)
Bougamvilleaspectabilis
(Bogainvillea)
Nerium oleander
(oleander)
Rosmarinus lockwoodi
(Rosmary)
Dodonea viscosa atropur-
purea

Calhstemon viminalis
(bottlebrush)





4-6
Dracaena endivisa

Thuja oriental!*
(arbor vitae)
Juniperus chmensis
(spreading juniper)
Euonymus japonica
grandiflora
lantana camara
Elaeagnus pungens
(silverberry)
Xylosma senticosa
Pittosporum tobira
Pyracantha Graben
Ligustrum lucidum
(Texas privet)
Buxus microphylla japonica
(Japanese boxwood)
2-4
Hibiscus rosa-smensis
var. Bnlliante
Nandina domestica
(heavenly bamboo)
Trachelospermum jas-
minoides (star jasmine)
Viburnum tmus robustum











2
Ilex cornuta Burford
(Burford holly)
Hedera canariensis
(Algerian ivy)
Feijoa sellowiana
(pineapple guava)
Rosa sp. (var. Grenoble
rose on Dr. Huey root)










  Bernstein 1965b'".
 yields of that plant grown on a nonsaline soil under com-
 parable growing conditions. Work has been done by many
 investigators, based upon  both  field  and  greenhouse re-
 search, to evaluate salt tolerance of a broad variety of plants.
 In general, where comparable criteria were used  to assess
 salt tolerance, results obtained were most often in agreement.
 Recent work on the salt tolerance of fruit crops is shown in
 Table V-7, and for ornamentals in Table V-8.
   Bernstein (1965a313) gave ECe values causing 10,  25, and
 50 per cent yield decrements for a variety of field and forage
 crops from late  seeding stage to  maturity, assuming  that
 sodium  or chloride  toxicity  was  not a  growth deterrent.
 These values are shown in Figures V-l, V-2, and V-3.  The
 data suggested that the effects of EC,, values producing  10
 to 50 per cent decrements  (within a range of EC,, values of
 8  to 10  mmh/cm for many crops) may  be considered ap-
 proximately linear, but for nearly all crops the rate of change

      Ay
ECe ---- ,  either  steepens or flattens slightly  as  the yield
decrements increase from less than 25 to more than 25 per
cent. Bernstein  (1965a)313 also pointed out that most fruit
crops  were  more  sensitive to  salinity  than  were  field,
forage, or vegetable crops.  The data also  illustrated the
highly  variable effect  of EC,, values  upon different  crops
and the nonlinear response of some crops to increasing con-
centrations of salt.
   In considering salt  tolerances  of crops,  ECe values were
used.  These  values were  correlated  with yields  at field
moisture content. If soils were allowed  to dry out excessively
between irrigations,  yield  reductions  were  much  greater,
since the total soil  water stress is a function of both matric
suction and solute suction  and  increases  exponentially on
                                                                                                           ~T"•
                                                                                          -L7Z
 Saftlowcr
  Rye

'Vhcatb
  Oats
                                                                Sorghum
                                                                Soybean
                                                                Sesbamab
                                                                Rice0
Hroadbean

Max
  Sunflower
  Castor bean

lieans
    The indicated salt  tolerances apply to the period of rapid plant
growth and maturation, from the late seeding stage upward  Crops in
each category are ranked m order of decree sing salt tolerance  Width of
tie bar next to each crop indicates the effect of increasing salinity on
yield. Crosslmes are placed at 10, 25, and !>0 per cent yield reductions
Approximate rank in order of decreasing salt tolerance is indicated for
additional crops for most of which complete data are lacking (Bower
personal communication 1972)2,18

    Less tolerant during seec'lmg stage Salinity at this stage should not
exceed 4 or 5 mmho/cm, ECe
    Sensitive  during  germination
mmho/cm during germination

    Less  tolerant dunng flowering
seedling  stage  Salinity  at  sensil
mmho/cm, ECe of soil water
                           Salinity  should  not
and seed set as well at> during the
^e stages  should  not  exceed  4
        FIGURE V-l—Salt Tolerance of Field Crops*

drying (Bernstein  1965a).313  Good irrigation management
can minimize this hazard.

Nutritional Effects
   Plants require a  blanced  nutrient  content  in the  soil
solution to maintain optimum growth. Use of saline water
for irrigation may or may not significantly upset this nutri-
tional balance depending upon the composition, concentra-
tion, and volume of irrigation water  applied.

-------
                                                                                                     Water for Irrigation/'327
  Some of the possible nutritional effects were summarized
by Bernstein (1965a)313 as follows:

       High concentrations of calcium  ions in the solution
     may prevent the plant from absorbing enough potas-
     sium, or high concentrations of other ions  may affect
     the uptake of sufficient calcium.
       Different crops vary widely in their requirements for
     given nutrients  and in  their  ability to  absorb them.
     Nutritional effects of  salinity,  therefore, appear only
     in  certain  crops and only when a particular type  of
     saline condition  exists.
       Some varieties of a particular crop may be immune
     to  nutritional disturbances, while other varieties are
     severely affected.  High  levels of soluble sulfate cause
     internal browning  (a calcium deficiency symptom)  in
     some lettuce varieties,  but not  in others.  Similarly,
                                                                B«tsb
                                                                 Kale
                                                                Spinach
                                                                Tomato

                                                                Cabbage
                                                                 Cauliflower
                                                                                                     ECC in mmho/cm at 25 C
                                                                                                                 10 12 H 16
                                   H     T~4a»
                                                                Potato
                                                                Corn
                                                                Sweetpotato
Bermuda grass
 \lkali sdfc
                                                                                                     : 50% Yield Reduction
                                                                                                     25%
                                                                                                    III    II
                                                                   aSee Figure V-l. (Bower personal communication 1972)338


                                                                   Sensitive during germination  Salinity should not exceed  3
                                                                mmho/cm ECe during germination.
Birdsfoot trefoil -

Beardless wildrye
  Strawberrx clover
  Dalhs grass, Sudan grass
  Hubam clover

Alfalta
  Rye ha\, Oat ha>
  Wheat hayb
Orihdrdgrass	
  Blue grama
Middow foxtail
  Rted tanary, Big trefoil
  Smooth brome, Milkvetch
  I all meadow oatgrass, Burnet

Clovers, alsikc t  red 	
                                                                     FIGURE V-3—Salt Tolerance of Vegetable Crops"
                                     IlSSSil
                            u&i"
                               ':  50°o Yield Reduction
                               25%
                              10%

                              1   1   1   1   1   1   1   1   1    1  1
  dSee Figure V-l (Bower personal (Ommunicatton 1972)338


  bLess tolerant during seedling stage Salinity at this state should
not exceed 4 or 5 mmho/cm, ECe
      FIGURE V-2—Salt Tolerance of Forage
     high  levels of calcium  cause  greater nutritional dis-
     turbances in  some carrot varieties  than  in  others.
     Chemical analysis of the plant is useful in diagnosing
     these effects.
       At a given level  of salinity, growth and yield are
     depressed more when nutrition is disturbed than when
     nutrition is normal. Nutritional  effects,  fortunately,
     are not important  in  most crops under saline con-
     ditions; when they do occur, the use of better adapted
     varieties may be advisable.

Recommendation

  Crops vary considerably in their tolerance to soil
salinity in the root zone, and  the factors affecting

-------
328/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
the soil solution and crop tolerance are varied and
complex. Therefore,  no  recommendation  can  be
given for these. For specific  crops, however, it is
recommended  that the salt tolerance values (ECe)
for  a saturation  extract established  by  the U.S.
Salinity Laboratory  Staff  be used  as a guide for
production.

Temperature
  The temperature  of irrigation  water has a direct  and
indirect effect on plant growth.  Each  occurs when plant
physiological functions are impaired by excessively high or
excessively low temperatures. The exact  water temperatures
at which growth is severely restricted depends on method of
water application, atmospheric conditions at the time of
application,  frequency  of application,  and plant species.
All plant species have a  ternpeature range in which they
develop  best. These temperature limits  vary with plant
species.
  Direct effect on plant growth from  extreme temperature
of the irrigation water occurs when the water is first applied.
Plant damage results only from direct  contact.  Normally,
few problems arise when excessively warm water is applied
by sprinkler irrigation. The effect of the temperature of the
water on the temperature of the  soil is negligible.  It has
been demonstrated  that  warm water  applied  through a
sprinkler system has attained ambient temperatures at the
time it reaches the soil surface (Cline et al. 1969).318 Water
as warm as 130  F can be safely used in this manner. Cold
water is harmful to  plant growth  when applied through a
sprinkler system.  It does not change in  temperature nearly
so much as the  warm water. However, its  effect  is rarely
lethal.
  Surface applied water  that is  either very cold or very
warm poses greater  problems. Excessive warm water can-
not be used  for  surface irrigation and  cold water affects
plant growth. The  adverse effects of cold water on  the
growth of rice were suddenly brought  to the attention of
rice growers  when cold water  was first released from the
Shasta Reservoir in California (Raney  1963).33'2  Summer
water temperatures  were suddenly  dropped from  about
61 F to 45 F. Research is still proceeding, and some of the
available information was recently reviewed by Raney and
Mihara  (1967).334 Dams such as the Oroville Dam are now
being planned so that water can  be  withdrawn from  any
reservoir depth to avoid the cold-water problem. Warming
basins have been used (Raney  1959).333 There are oppor-
tunities in planning to separate waters—the warm waters for
recreation and agriculture, the cold waters for cold-water
fish,  salmon spawning, and other uses. The exact nature of
the mechanisms by which damage occurs is not completely
understood.
  Indirect effect  of the temperature  of irrigation water on
plant growth occurs  as a result  of its influence on the tem-
perature of the  soil.  The latter affects the rate of water
uptake, nutrient uptake, translocation of metabolites, am
indirectly, such factors as stomatal opening and plant watt
stress. All these phenomena are well documented. The effe<
of the temperature of the  applied irrigation water on  th
temperature of the soil is not well described. This effect
probably quite small.

Conclusion
  Present literature does not provide adequate dat
to establish specific temperature recommendation
for irrigation waters. Therefore, no specific recom
mendations can be made at  this time.

Chlorides
  Chlorides in irrigation waters are not generally toxic t
crops. Certain fruit crops are, however, sensitive to chloride
Bernstein (1967)312 indicated that maximum  perrnissibl
chloride concentrations  in  the soil range from  10 to 5
milliequivalents  (meq)/l for  certain sensitive fruit crop
(Table  V-9).  In  terms of  permissible chloride concentr.;
tions in irrigation water, values up to 20 meq/1 can be uscc
depending upon environmental conditions, crops, and irrigg
tion management  practices.
  Foliar absorption of chlorides  can be of importance i
sprinkler irrigation (Eaton  and Harding 1959,319 Ehlig an>
Bernstein 1959320). The adverse effects vary between evapt
TABLE V-9—Salt  Tolerance of Fruit Crop  Varieties an
 Rootstocks and Tolerable Chloride Levels in the Saturation
                        Extracts
Crop
Citrus
Stone fruit
Avocado
Rootstock oi variety
Rootstocks
Rangpur lime, Cleopatra mandarin
• Rough lemon, tangelo, sour orange
Sweet orange, citrange
f Marianna
-; Lovell, Shalil
I Yunnan
/ West Indian
, Mexican
Tolerable levels ol
chloride in saturatio
extract
meq/l
25
15
10
25
10
7
8
5
                    Varieties (V) and Rootstocks (R)
Grape
Salt Creek, 1613-3      1 R
Dog Ridge          1
Thompson Seedless, Perlette j V
Cardinal, Black Rose     J
40
30
20
10
                         Vaiieties
Berries

Strawberry
Boysenberry
Olallie blackberry
Indian Summer raspberry
Lassen
Shasta
10
10
 5
 i
 5
                                                           Bernstein 1967"=.

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                                                                                           Water for Irrigation t'329
rative  conditions of day and  night  and  the  amount of
evaporation that can  occur between successive wettings
(i.e., time after each pass with a slowly revolving sprinkler).
There  is less effect with nightime sprinkling and less effect
with fixed sprinklers  (applying  water  at a rapid  rate).
Concentrations as low  as 3 meq/1 of chloride in irrigation
water have been found harmful when used on citrus, stone
fruits, and almonds (Bernstein 1967).312

Conclusion
  Permissible chloride concentrations depend upon
type of crop, environmental conditions and man-
agement practices. A single value cannot be given,
and no limits should be established, because detri-
mental effects from salinity per se ordinarily deter
crop growth first.
Bicarbonates
  High bicarbonate water  may induce iron chlorisis  by
making iron  unavailable to plants (Brown and Wadleigh
1955).:il7 Problems have been noted with apples and pears
(Pratt  1966)33" and  with some ornamentals (Lunt  et  al.
1956) m:i  Although concentrations  of 10 to 20 meq/1 of
bicarbonate can cause chlorosis in some  plants,  it is of little
concern in the field where precipitation of calcium carbo-
nate minimizes this hazard.

Conclusion
  Specific recommendations for bicarbonates can-
not be given without consideration of  other soil
and water constituents.

Sodium
  The presence of relatively high concentration of sodium
in irrigation  waters affects irrigated crops in many ways.
In addition to its effect on soil  structure and permeability,
sodium has been found  by Lillelancl et al.  (1945)322 and
A\ers  et al. (1952)311 to  be absorbed by plants and cause
leaf burn in almonds, avocados, and in stone fruits grown
in culture solutions. Bernstein (1967)312  has indicated that
water having SAR* values of four to eight  may injure sodium-
sensitive plants. It is difficult to separate the specific toxic
effects  of sodium from the effect of adsorbed sodium on soil
structure. (This factor will be discussed later.)
  As has  been noted, the complex interactions  of the total
and  relative  concentrations of  these common ions upon
various crops preclude  their  consideration as  individual
components for  general  irrigation use,  except  for sodium
and  possibly  chlorides in areas  where fruit would be  im-
portant.

Nitrate
  The  presence of nitrate in natural irrigation waters may
be considered an asset rather than  a  liability with respect

* For definition of SAR, Sodium Adsorption Ratio, see p. 330.
to plant growth. Concentrations high enough to adversely
affect plant growth or composition  are  seldom,  if ever,
found. In arid regions, high nitrate  water may result in
nitrate accumulations in the soil in much the same manner
as salt accumulates. The same soil and water management
practices that minimize salt accumulation will also minimize
nitrate accumulation. There is some concern over the high
nitrate content of food and feed crops.  Many factors such as
plant  species  characteristics,  climate  conditions,  and
growth stage are just as significant in determining nitrate
accumulations in plants as the  amount present in  the soil.
It is unlikely that any nitrate added  in natural irrigation
water could be a significant factor.
   Problems may arise where waste waters containing rela-
tively large  amounts of nitrogenous materials are used for
irrigation. Larger  amounts are usually applied than that
actually required for plant growth. These wastes, however,
usually contain nitrogen in a form that is slowly converted
to nitrate. Nevertheless, it is possible  that high nitrate ac-
cumulations in plants may occur although little evidence is
available to indicate this.

Conclusion
   Since  nitrate  in  natural  irrigation  waters  is
usually an  asset for plant  growth  and there is
little evidence  indicating  that it will accumulate
to toxic levels  in irrigated  plants  consumed  by
animals, there appears to be no  need for a recom-
mendation.

Effects on Soils
   Sodium Hazard   Sodium  in irrigation water may be-
come a problem in the soil solution as a component of total
salinity, which can increase the osmotic concentration,  and
as a specific source of injury  to  fruits. The  problems of
sodium mainly occur in soil structure, infiltration, and per-
meability rates. Since good drainage is essential for manage-
ment of salinity  in irrigation and for  reclamation of saline
lands, good soil structure and  permeability must be main-
tained. A high percentage of exchangeable sodium in a soil
containing swelling-type clays results in a dispersed condi-
tion, which is unfavorable for water movement and plant
growth. Anything that alters  the composition of the  soil
solution,  such as  irrigation or fertilization, disturbs  the
equilibrium and alters the distribution of adsorbed ions in
the soil. \Vhen calcium is the predominant cation adsorbed
on the soil  exchange  complex, the soil tends to have a
granular structure that is easily worked and readily perme-
eablc. When the amount of adsorbed sodium exceeds 10 to
15 per cent of the total cations on the exchange complex,
the clay becomes dispersed and slowly permeable,  unless a
high concentration of total salts causes flocculation. Where
soils have a high exchangeable  sodium content and  are
flocculated because of the presence of free salts  in solution,
subsequent removal of salts by leaching will cause sodium

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 330/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
dispersal, unless leaching is accomplished by adding calcium
or calcium-producing amendments.
  Adsorption of sodium from a given irrigation water is a
function of the proportion  of sodium  to divalent cations
(calcium and magnesium) in that water. To estimate the
degree to which sodium will be adsorbed by a soil from a
given water when  brought into equilibrium with it, the
Salinity Laboratory (1954)335 proposed the sodium adsorp-
tion ratio (SAR):
              Na+
             Ca+++Mg->
                                      Expressed as me/1
As soils tend to dry, the SAR value of the soil solution in-
creases even though the relative concentrations of the ca-
tions  remain the same. This is apparent from  the  SAR
equation, where the denominator is a square-root function.
This is a significant factor in  estimating sodium effects on
soils.
  The SAR value  can  be related to the amount of ex-
changeable  cation content. This latter  value  is called  the
exchangeable sodium  percentage (ESP). From empirical
determinations,  the U.  S. Salinity Laboratory  (1954)335
obtained an equation for predicting a soil ESP value based
on the SAR value of a water in equilibrium with it. This is
expressed as follows:

                 Egp_[100 a+b(SAR)]
                       "[l+a + b(SAR)]

The constants "a" (intercept representing experimental er-
ror)  and "b"  (slope of the  regression  line)  were deter-
mined statistically by various  investigators who found "a"
to be in the order of —0.06 to 0.01 and "b" to be within the
range of 0.014 to 0.016. This relationship is shown in  the
nomogram (Figure V-4) developed  by the U. S. Salinity
Laboratory  (1954).335 For sensitive  fruits, the  tolerance
limit for SAR of irrigation  water is about four. For general
crops, a limit of eight to  18 is generally considered within a
usable range, although this depends  to some degree on  the
type of clay  mineral, electrolyte concentration  in the water,
and other variables.
  The ESP value that significantly affects soil properties
varies according  to the proportion  of  swelling and  non-
swelling clay minerals. An ESP of 10 to 15 per cent is
considered excessive, if a high percentage of swelling clay
minerals such as montmorillonite are  present. Fair  crop
growth  of alfalfa, cotton, and even  olives, have  been ob-
served in soils of the San Joaquin Valley  (California) with
ESP values  ranging from  60 to 70 percent  (Schoonover
1963).336
  Prediction of the equilibrium ESP from SAR values  of ir-
rigation waters is complicated by the fact that  the salt con-
tent of irrigation  water becomes more concentrated in  the
soil solution. According to the  U.  S. Salinity Laboratory
 (1954),33r> shallow ground waters  10  times as saline as tr
 irrigation waters may be found within depths of 10 feet, an
 a  salt concentration  two  to three times that of irrigatio
 water may be  reasonably expected in the first-foot deptl
 Under conditions where precipitation of salts and rainfa
 may  be neglected, the salt content of irrigation water wi
 increase to higher concentrations in the soil solution withoi
 change in relative  composition.  The SAR increases  i
 proportion to the square root of the  concentration; there
 fore,  the SAR  applicable for calculating equilibrium  ES
 in the upper root zone may be assumed  to be two to thre
 times that of the irrigation water.

 Recommendation
   To reduce the sodium hazard  in irrigation wate
 for a specific crop,  it is recommended that the SA1
 value be within the tolerance  limits determined b;
 the U.S. Soil Salinity Laboratory Staff.

 Biochemical Oxygen  Demand (BOD) and
 Soil Aeration
   The need for adequate oxygen  in  the soil for optimur
 plant growth is well  recognized.  To meet the oxygen rt
 quirement of the  plant, soil structure (porosity) and so
 water contents  must be adequate  to permit good  aeratior
 Conditions that develop immediately following  irrigatio
 are not clearly  understood.
   Soil aeration and oxygen availability normally present 11
 problem  on well-structured soils with good quality watei
 Where drainage  is  poor,  oxygen may become  limiting
 Utilization of waters having high BOD or Chemical Oxyge
 Demand (COD)  values could aggravate the condition b
 further depleting available oxygen. Aside from detriment,:
 effects of oxygen  deficiency for  plant growth, reduction c
 elements such as  iron and manganese to the more solubl
 divalent forms may create toxic conditions. Other biologies
 and chemical equilibria may also  be  affected.
   There  is very little information regarding the effect c
 using  irrigation waters with  high BOD values  on plar
 growth. Between  source of contamination  and point of it
 rigation,  considerable reduction in BOD value may resuli
 Sprinkler  irrigation may further reduce  the  BOD  value c
water. Infiltration into well-drained soils can also decrcas
the BOD  value of the water without serious depleting th
oxygen available  for plant growth.

 Acidity and Alkalinity
   The pH of normal irrigation  water has  little direct sig
nificance.  Since water itself is unbuffered, and the soil is ;
 buffered  system (except for  extremely sandy soils low ii
organic matter), the pH of the soil will not be significantly
affected by application of irrigation water. There are, how
ever,  some extremes and indirect effects.
   Water having pH values below  4.8 applied to acid  soil
over  a period  of time may possibly render soluble iron

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                                                                                             Water for Irrigation /331
             Salinity Laboratory 1954 335

FIGURE V-4—Nomogram for Determining the SAR Value of Irrigation Water and for Estimating the Corresponding ESP
                                 Value of a Soil That is at Equilibrium with the Water

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      ection V—Agricultural Uses of Water
aluminum, or manganese in concentrations large enough to
be  toxic to  plant growth.  Similarly,  additions  of saline
waters to acid soils could result in a decrease in soil pH and
an increase in the solubility of aluminum and manganese.
In some areas where acid mine drainage contaminates water
sources, pH values as low as 1.8 have been reported. Waters
having unusually  low pH values such as this would  be
strongly suspect of containing  toxic quantities of certain
heavy metals or other elements.
  Waters  having  pH  values in  excess  of 8.3  are highly
alkaline and  may contain high  concentrations  of sodium,
carbonates, and bicarbonates. These constituents affect soils
and plant  growth directly or indirectly,  (see "Effects  on
Plant Growth" above).

Recommendation

  Because most of the effects of acidity and alka-
linity in irrigation waters on soils and plant growth
are  indirect,  no specific pH  values can be recom-
mended.  However,  water with pH  values  in  the
range of 4.5 to 9.0  should be usable provided that
care is taken  to detect the development of harmful
indirect effects.

Suspended Solids

  Deposition of colloidal particles on the soil surface can
produce crusts  that inhibit water infiltration and  seedling
emergence. This same deposition and crusting  can reduce
soil  aeration and  impede  plant development. High col-
loidal content in water used for  sprinkler irrigation could
result in deposition of films on leaf surfaces that could re-
duce photosynthetic activity and thereby deter  growth.
Where sprinkler irrigation is used for leafy vegetable crops
such as lettuce,  sediment may accumulate on the  growing
plant affecting the marketability of these products.
  In surface  irrigation, suspended solids can interfere with
the flow  of water in  conveyance systems and structures,
Deposition  of sediment not only reduces the capacity  of
these systems to carry and  distribute water  but  can  also
decrease reservoir storage capacity. For sprinkler irrigation,
suspended mineral solids may cause undue wear on irriga-
tion  pumps and sprinkler nozzles (as well as plugging up the
latter), thereby reducing irrigation efficiency.
  Soils are specifically affected by deposition of these sus-
pended solids,  especially when  they  consist  primarily  of
clays or colloidal  material.  These cause crust  formations
that reduce seedling emergence.  In addition, these crusts
reduce infiltration and hinder the leaching of saline soils.
The scouring action of sediment  in streams has also been
found to affect soils adversely by contributing to the dissolu-
tion  and increase of salts in some areas (Pillsbury and Blaney
1966).331 Conversely, sediment high in silt may improve the
texture, consistency, and water-holding capacity of a sandy
soil.
Effect on Animals or Humans

  The effects of irrigation water quality on soils and plan
has been discussed. However, since the quality of irrigatk
water is variable and originates from different sources, the
may be natural or added substances in the water which po
a hazard to animals or humais consuming irrigated crop
These  substances may be accumulated in certain cereal
pasture plants, or fruit and  vegetable  crops without  air
apparent injury.  Of concern, however,  is  that the concei
tration  of  these  substances may be  toxic or harmful
humans or animals consuming the plants. Many substanc
in irrigation waters such  as  inorganic salts and mineral
pesticides, human and animal pathogens have recommend,
tions to protect the desired resource.  For  radionuclides r
such recommendation exists.

Radionuclides

  There are no generally  accepted standards for control
radioactive contamination in irrigation water.  For  mo
radionuclides, the use of federal Drinking \Vater Standard
should be reasonable for irrigation water.
  The limiting factor for  radioactive contamination in i
rigation  is  its  transfer  to foods and  eventual  intake I
humans. Such  a level of contamination would  be reachc
long before any damage to plants themselves could be ol
served.  Plants  can absorb radionuclides  from irrigatic
water in two ways: direct  contamination of foliage throus
sprinkler irrigation, and indirectly through soil contamin,
tion. The  latter presents  many complex problems  sin<
eventual concentration in the soil will depend on  the  ra
of water application, the  rate of radioactive decay,  ar
other losses of the radionuclide from the soil.  Some studk
relating to these factors have been reported (Menzel et i
1963,326 Moorby and Squire 1963,328 Perrin 1963,329 Mcnz
1965,325 Milbourn and Taylor 1965327).
  It is estimated that concentrations of strontium-90  ar
radium-226 in  fresh produce would  approximate  those
the irrigation water for the crop if there was negligible uj
take of these radionuclides from the soil. With flood or fu
row irrigation only, one or more decades  of continuous i
rigation with contaminated water would be required befoi
the concentrations  of strontium-90 or  radium-226 in tl
produce equalled those in the water  (Menzel personal con
munication 1972).339

Recommendation

  In view of the lack of experimental evidence con
cerning the  long-term  accumulation and  avail
ability of strontium-90 and radium-226 in irrigate
soils and  to provide an adequate margin of  safetj
it is recommended that Federal Drinking Wate
Standards be used for  irrigation water.

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                                                                                               Water for Irrigation /'333
 SPECIFIC IRRIGATION  WATER CONSIDERATIONS

 Irrigation Water Quality for Arid and Semiarid Regions
   Climate. Climatic variability exists in arid and semiarid re-
 gions. There can be heavy winter precipitation, generally in-
 creasing from south to north  and increasing with elevation.
 Summer showers  are common, increasing north and  east
 from California. Common through the  western part  of the
 country is the inadequacy of precipitation during the grow-
 ing season. In most areas of the West, intensive agriculture is
 not  possible without  irrigation. Irrigation must supply at
 least one-half of all the soil water  required annually for
 crops  for periods ranging  from three to  12 months.
   Annual precipitation  varies in  the western United  States
 from practically zero in the  southwestern deserts  to more
 than 100 inches in  the  upper western slope of the Pacific
 Northwest.  The distribution of precipitation throughout the
 year also varies, with no rainfall during  extended periods in
 many locales. Often the rainfall occurs  during nongrowing
 seasons.
   The amount of precipitation and its distribution  is  one of
 the principal variables in determining the diversion require-
 ment or demand for irrigation water.
   Land. Soils in the semiarid and arid regions were developed
 under dry climatic conditions with little leaching of weather-
 able minerals in the  surface horizon.  Consequently, these
 soils are better  supplied with most nutrient  elements.  The
 pH  of these soils varies from being slightly acidic to neutral
 or alkaline.  The presence of silicate clay minerals of the
 montmorillonite and h\drous mica groups in many of these
 soils gives them a higher  exchange  capacity than  those of
 the southeast, which contain kaolinitc minerals of lower ex-
 change capaciH.  However,  organic matter and nitrogen
 contents of  arid soil are  usually lower.  Plant deficiencies of
 trace elements such as zinc, iron, manganese are more fre-
 quently encountered.  Because of the less frequent passage
 of water through arid soils, they are more apt to be saline.
   The nature of the surface  horizon (plow layer)  and the
 subsoil is especially important for irrigation.  During  soil
 formation a  profile can  develop consisting of various hori-
 zons. The horizons  consist of genetically related layers of
soil  or soil material parallel to the land surface, and thc\
differ in their chemical,  physical,  and biological properties.
The productivity of a soil  is largely determined by the na-
 ture of these horizons.  Soils  available  for irrigation with
restrictive  or impervious  horizons  present management
problems (e.g.,  drainage, aeration, salt accumulation in
root zone, changes in soil  structure) and consequent!)  are
not the best for  irrigated agriculture.
   Other land and  soil factors of importance, to irrigation are
 topography and slope, which max  influence the choice of
 irrigation method, and  soil characteristics. The latter are
 extreznely important  because they  determine  the usable
 depth  of water  that can be stored in the root zone of the
 crop and the erodability and intake  rate of the soil.
  Water. Each river system within the arid and semiarid por-
tion of the United States has quality characteristics peculiar
to its geologic origin and climatic environment. In consider-
ing water quality characteristics as related to irrigation, both
historic and current data for the stream  and location in
question  should  be used  with care  because of the large
seasonal and sporadic variations that occur.
  The range of sediment concentrations of a river through-
out the year is usually much greater than the range of dis-
solved solids concentrations. Maximum sediment concentra-
tions may range from  10 to more than a thousand times the
minimum concentrations.  Usually, the sediment concentra-
tions are higher during high flow than during low flow.
This differs inversely from  dissolvcd-solids concentrations
that are usually lower during high flows.
  Four  general  designations of  water have  been  used
(Rainwater 19G2):!Gl based on their chemical composition:
(1)   calcium-magnesium,  carbonate-bicarbonate; (2) cal-
cium-magnesium, sulfate-chloridc; (2) sodium-potassium,
carbonate-bicarbonate; and  (4)  sodium-potassium, sulfate-
chloride.  This t\pc of classification characterizes  the chem-
ical properties of the water and would be  indicative of re-
actions  that could be expected with soil when used for ir-
rigation.  Although a  listing  of data  for each stream and
tributary is beyond the scope of this report, an indication of
ranges in dissolved-solids concentrations, chemical type, and
sediment concentration is given in  Table V-10 (Rainwater
19G2).3M
  Customarily, each irrigation project diverts water at one
point in the river and the return flow comes back into the
mainstream somewhere below the  system. This return flow
consists in the main  of (1) regulatory water, which  is the
unused  part of the  diverted water required  so  that each
farmer irrigating can  have the exact  flow  he has ordered;
TABLE V-10—Variations in Dissolved Solids, Chemical Type,
 and Sediment in Rivers in Arid and Semiarid United States
Region

Columbia River Basin
Northern California
Southern California
Colorado River Basin
Rio Grande Basin
Pecos River Basin
Western Gulf of Mexico Basins
Red River Basin
Arkansas River Basin
Platle River
Upper Missouri River Basin
Dissolved solids
concentrations,
mg/l
From
<100
<100
<100
<100
<100
100
100

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      ection V—Agricultural Uses of Water
(2) tail water, which is that portion of the water that runs
off the ends of the fields; and  (3) underground drainage,
required to provide adequate application and salt balance
in all parts of the fields. The initial flush of tail water may
be somewhat more saline than later but rapidly approaches
the same quality as the applied water (Reeve et al. 1955).362
  Drainage and Leaching Requirements.  In all irrigation  agri-
culture some water must pass through the soil  to remove
salts brought to .the soil in the water. In semiarid areas, or
in the transition zone between arid and humid regions, this
drainage water is usually obtained as a result  of rainfall
during periods of low  evapotranspiration, and no excess
irrigation water is needed to provide the drainage required.
In  many arid  regions, the  needed leaching must  be ob-
tained by  adding excess  water.  In all cases, the required
drainage volume is related  to the amount of salt in the ir-
rigation water. That drainage volume is called the leaching
requirement (LR).
  It is possible to predict the approximate salt concentra-
tion that would occur in the soil after a number of irriga-
tions by estimating the proportion of applied water that will
percolate below the root zone.  In any steady-state leaching
formula, the following assumptions are made:
     • No  precipitation of salts occurs in the soil;
     • Ion uptake by plants is negligible;
     • There is uniform distribution of soil moisture through
       the profile and uniform concentration of salts in the
       soil moisture;
     • Complete  and  uniform  mixing of irrigation water
       with soil moisture takes place before any of the mois-
       ture percolates below the root zone  and
     • Residual soil moisture is negligible.

  A steady state  leaching  requirement formula has  been
developed  by the U.S.  Salinity Laboratory (1954)363 de-
signed to estimate that  fraction of the irrigation water that
must be leached through the root zone to control soil salin-
ity  at  any  specified level. This is given as:
                         Ddw    ECiw
                   LR =
                         Div
ECd
where LR is the leaching requirement; Ddw, the depth of
drainage water; DJW, the depth of irrigation water;  ECiw,
the salinity of irrigation water; and ECdw,  the  salinity of
water percolating past root zone.
  Hence, if ECdw is determined by the salt tolerance of the
crop to be grown, and the salt content of the irrigation
water  EC,W is known,  the  desired LR can  be calculated.
This leaching fraction  will then be  the ratio of depth of
drainage volume to the depth of irrigation water applied.
  Because the permissible values for ECdw for various yield
decrements for various crops are  not known,  the  ECe for
50 per cent yield reduction has been substituted for  ECdw
The actual yield reduction will probably be less  than  50
per cent (Bernstein 1966).340 This ECe is the assumed aver-
age electrical conductivity for the soil water at saturation fc
the whole root zone. When  it is substituted for the ECdv
the actual  ECe encountered in the  root zone  will be le;
than this value because, in  many near steady state situ,:
tions, the salinity increases  progressively  with increase  i
depth in the profile and is maximum at the bottom of th
root zone.
  Bernstein  (1967)341 has developed  a  leaching fractio
formula  that takes into consideration factors that contrt
leaching rates such as infiltration rate, climate (evapotram
piration), frequency and  duration  of irrigation, and,  c
course,  the salt tolerance of the  crops. He  defines th
leaching fraction as LF = 1 — ETc/ITi where LF is the leach
ing  fraction or  proportion  of applied water percolatini
below the root zone;  E, the average rate of evapotranspira
tion during the irrigation cycle, T0;  and  I, the average in
filtration rate during the period of infiltration, TI. By utiliz
ing both the required leaching derived from the steady stati
formula

                       LR= -;——

and the leaching fraction based upon infiltration rates anc
evapotranspiration during the irrigation cycle, it is possiblt
to estimate whether  adequate leaching can  be attained  01
whether adjustments must  be made  in  the crops to  be
grown to permit higher salinity concentrations.
  In addition  to  determination  of crops  to  be grown.
leaching requirements  may  be used to indicate the total
quantities of water required. For example, irrigation water
with a conductivity of two mmhos requires one-sixth more
water  to maintain root  zone salt  concentrations within
eight mmhos than would water with a salt concentration of
one mmhos under the same conditions of use.
  There are a number of problems in applying the leaching
requirement concept in actual practice. Some of these relate
to the basic assumptions involved and others derive from
water application problems and soil variability.
     •  Considerable precipitation of calcium carbonate oc-
       curs as many irrigation waters enter the soil causing a
       reduction in the total  soluble  salt load.  In many
       crops, or crop rotations, crop removal of such  ions
       as chloride  was a  significant fraction of the total
       added in  waters of medium to low salinity.  (Pratt
       et al. 1967)359
     •  It is not practical to apply water with complete uni-
       formity.
     •  Soils are far from uniform, particularly with respect
       to vertical hydraulic conductivity.
     •  The  effluent from tile or ditch drains may not be
       representative of the salinity of water at the bottom
       of the root zones

  Also, there is a considerable variation in drainage outflow
that has no relation to leaching requirement when different

-------
                                                                                             Water for Irrigation /335
crops are irrigated (Pillsbury and Johnston 1965).:!57 This
results from variations in irrigation practices for the different
crops.
  The leaching  requirement concept, while  very useful,
should not be used as a sole guide in the field. The leaching
requirement  is a long-period  average value that can  be
departed  from for short periods with  adequately  drained
soils to make temporary use of water poorer in quality than
customarily applied.
  The exact  manner in which  leaching occurs and the ap-
propriate  values  to  be   used  in  leaching requirement
formulas require  further study.  The many variables and  as-
sumptions involved preclude a  precise determination under
field conditions.
  Salinity Hazard.  Waters with total dissolved solids (TDS)
less than about 500 mg/1 are usually used by farmers with-
out  awareness of any salinity  problem, unless,  of course,
there is  a high water  table. Also,  without dilution from
precipitation or an alternative  supply, waters with TDS of
about  5,000  mg/1 usually have little  value for irrigation
(Pillsbury and Blancy 1966).356 Within these limits, the value
of the  water appears to decrease as the salinity increases.
Where water is to be used regularly for the irrigation of
relatively impervious soil,  its value is limited if the TDS
is in the range of 2,000 mg/1 or higher.

Recommendation

  In spite of the facts that (1) any TDS limits used
in  classifying  the  salinity  hazard of waters are
somewhat arbitrary; (2) the hazard  is related not
only to  the TDS but  also to the individual ions
involved; and (3) no exact hazard can be assessed
unless the  soil, crop,  and  acceptable yield  reduc-
tions are known, Table V-ll suggests classifications
for general purposes for arid and semiarid regions.

  Permeability Hazard. Two criteria used to  evaluate the ef-
fect  of salts in irrigation water  on soil permeability are:
(1)  the sodium adsorption ratio  (SAR) and its relation to
the exchangeable sodium  percentage,  and  (2) the bicarbo-
nate hazard that  is particularly applicable to waters of arid
regions. Another  factor related to the permeability hazard
is that the permeability tends to increase, and the  stability
of a soil  at  any  exchangeable sodium percentage  (ESP)
increases  as the salinity of the  water increases (Quirk and
Schofield 1955).360
  Eaton (1950),347 Doneen (1959),346 and Christiansen and
Thorne  (1966)345 have recognized  that the permeability
hazard  of irrigation waters containing  bicarbonate was
greater than  indicated by their SAR values. Bower and
Wilcox (I965)343 found  that  the  tendency for  calcium
carbonate to precipitate in soils was related to the Langelier
index (Langelier  1936)349 and to the fraction of the irriga-
tion water evapotranspired from  the soil. Bower  et  al.
(1965,344 1968)342 modified the Langelier index or precipita-
   TABLE V-ll—Recommended Guidelines for Salinity in
                    Irrigation Water
              Classification
                                     TDS mj/l
                                               EC mmhos/cm
Water for which no detrimental effects are usually noticed          500         0 75
Water that can have detrimental effects on sensitive crops         500-1,000     0.75-1.50
Water that can have adverse effects on many crops; requires carelu!   1,000-2,000     1.50-3 00
 management practices
Water that can be used for tolerant plants on permeable soils w ith care-   2,000-5,000     3.00-7.50
 ful management practices
tion index (PI)  to the soil system and presented simplified
means for calculation. The PI was 8.4-pH,,, where 8.4 was
the pH of the soil and pH0, the pH that would be found in a
calcium  carbonate suspension that would have the  same
calcium  and bicarbonate concentrations as those in the ir-
rigation  water. For the soil system

          pHc = pK2-pKc+p(Ca+Mg)+pAlk

where pK2  and pKc are the negative logarithms,  respec-
tively, of the second dissociation constant for carbonic acid
and the solubility constant for  calcite; p(Ca+Mg)  and
pAlk are the negative logarithms, respectively, of the molar
concentrations of (Ca + Mg)  and the  titrable  alkalinity.
Magnesium is included primarily because it reacts, through
cation exchange, to maintain the calcium concentration in
solution. The PI combines empirically with the SAR in the
following equation

               SAR» = SAR1W VC(1+PI)
where SARKe and  SAR1W are for the saturation extract and
the  irrigation water, respectively,  C  is the concentration
factor or the reciprocal  of the leaching  fraction, and PI is
8.4-pHc. Bower et al. (1968)342 and Pratt and Bair (1969),358
using lysimeter experiments, have shown a high correlation
between the predicted and measured SARSO with waters of
various bicarbonate concentrations. The information avail-
able suggested a high utility of this equation for calculating
permeability or  sodium hazard of waters. In cases where C
is not known, a value of 4, corresponding to a leaching frac-
tion of 0.25, can be used  to give relative comparisons among
waters. In this case the equation is

                SARSO = 2SAR1W(1+PI).
  Data  can be  used to  prepare  graphs,  from which the
values for pK2 —pKc,  p(Ca+Mg), and pAlk can  be ob-
tained for easy calculation of pHc. The  calculation  of pH0
is described by Bower et al. (1965).34i
  Soils have individual responses in reduction in permeabil-
ity  as the SAR or calculated SAR  values increase,  but ad-
verse effects usually  begin to appear as  the SAR value
passes through the range from 8 to 18.  Above an SAR of
18 the effects are usually adverse.
  Suspended  Solids. Suspended organic  solids  in   surface
water  supplies seldom  give  trouble  in  ditch distribution

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336/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
systems except for occasional clogging  of gates. They can
also carry  weed  seeds onto fields where their subsequent
growth can have a severely adverse effect on the crop or
can have a beneficial effect by reducing seepage losses. Where
surface water supplies are distributed through pipelines, it
is  often necessary to  have self-cleaning screens to prevent
clogging of the pipe  system appliances.  Finer screening is
usually required  where water enters pressure-pipe systems
for sprinkler irrigation.
   There are waters   diverted  for  irrigation  that  carry
heavy inorganic sediment loads. The effects that these loads
might have depend in part on the particle size and  distri-
bution of the suspended  material. For example, the ability
of sandy soils to store  moisture is greatly improved after the
soils are irrigated with muddy water for a period of years.
More commonly, sediment tends to fill  canals and ditches,
causing serious cleaning and dredging  problems.  It also
tends to further reduce the already low infiltration charac-
teristics of slowly permeable soils.

Irrigation Water Quality  For Humid Regions

   Climate  The most striking feature of the climate  of the
humid region that contrasts with that of the far  West and
intermountain areas is the larger amount of and less season-
able distribution of the  precipitation.  Abundant rainfall,
rather than lack of  it,  is  the  normal expectation.  Yet,
droughts are common enough to require that attention be
given to supplemental irrigation. These  times of shortage of
water  for optimum plant growth can occur at irregular in-
tervals and at almost  any stage of plant growth.
   Water demands  per week or day  are  not as high  in
humid as in  arid  lands. But rainfall is not easily predicted.
Thus a crop may be  irrigated and immediately  thereafter
receive a rain of one or  two inches. Supplying the proper
amount of supplemental irrigation water at the right time
is  not easy  even  with adequate equipment and a  good
water  supply. There  can be  periods of several  successive
years when supplemental irrigation is not required for most
crops in the humid areas. There are times however,  when
supplemental water can increase yield or avert a crop failure.
Supplemental irrigation  for high-value crops will undoubt-
edly increase in humid areas in spite of the fact that  much
capital is tied up in  irrigation equipment during years  in
which little or no use is  made of it.
   The range of temperatures in the humid region in which
supplemental irrigation is needed is almost as great as that
for arid and semiarid  areas. It ranges from that of the short
growing season of upstate New York and Michigan to the
continuous growing season of southern  Florida. But in the
whole of this area, the most  unpredictable factor in crop
production  is the need for additional water for optimum
crop production.
   Soils The soils of the humid region contrast with those
of the  West primarily in  being lower in  available  nutrients.
They are generally more acid and may have problems wit
exchangeable aluminum. The texture of soils is  similar t
that found in the West and ranges from sands to clays. Som
are too permeable, while others take water very slowly.
  Soils of the humid region generally have clay minerals (
lower exchange capacity than soils of the arid arid semiari
regions and hence lower buffer capacity. They are mot
easily saturated with anions and cations.  This  is an  irr
portant consideration if irrigation with brackish water
necessary to supplement natural  rainfall. Organic  matte
content ranges from practically none on some of the Florid
sands to 50 per cent or  more in irrigated peats.
  One of the most important characteristics of many of th
soils of the humid Southeast is 1 he unfavorable root enviror
ment of the  deeper   horizons  containing exchangeabl
aluminum and having  a strong acid reaction. In fact, th
lack of root penetration  of these: horizons by most farm crop
is the primary reason for the need for supplemental irriga
tion during short droughts.
  Specific  Difference Between  Humid and Arit
Regions   The effect of a specific water quality deterrer
on  plant  growth is governed by  related factors. Basi
principles involved are  almost  universally applicable,  bu
the ultimate effect must take  into consideration these as
sociated variables. \Vater quality criteria for  supplementa
irrigation in humid  areas ma>  differ  from those indicate!
for arid and semiarid areas where the water requirement
of the growing plant are met almost entirely by irrigation.
  When irrigation water containing a deterrent  is used, it
effect on plant growth  may vary, however, with the stag1
of growth at which the water is applied. In arid areas, plant
may be subjected to the influence of irrigation water qualit'
continuously from germination  to harvest. Where water i
used for  supplemental  irrigation only, the effect on plant
depends not only  upon the growth stage at which applied
but to the length  of time that the deterrent remains in tht
root zone (Lunin  et al. 1963)/152  Leaching effects of inter-
vening rainfall must  be taken  into consideration.
  Climatic differences between humid and arid regions alsc
influence criteria for use of irrigation water. The  amount o
rainfall determines in  part ihe degree to which  a giver
constituent will accumulate  in the  soil. Other factors as-
sociated with salt accumulation in the  soil are those climatic
conditions relating to evapotranspiration. In  humid areas,
evapotranspiration is generally less than in  arid  regions,
and plants are not as readily subjected to water stress. The
importance of climatic conditions in relation to salinity was
demonstrated  by  Magistad  et al.  (1943).365 In general,
criteria regarding salinity for  supplemental  irrigation in.
humid areas can be more flexible  than for arid areas.
  Soil characteristics represen! another significant difference
between  arid  and humid regions.  These were discussed
previously.
  Mineralogical composition will also vary. The composi-
tion of soil water available for absorption by plant roots

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                                                                                               Water for Irrigation /337
represents the results of an interaction between the constitu-
ents of the irrigation water and the soil complex. The final
result  may be that a given quality deterrent present in the
water  could be rendered harmless by  the soil  (remaining
readily available), or that the dissolved  constituents of a
water may render soluble toxic concentrations of an clement
that was not present in the irrigation water. An  example of
this would be the addition of a saline water  to an acid soil
resulting  in  a  decrease  in pH and  a possible  increase in
solubility of elements such as iron, aluminum, and manga-
nese (Eriksson  1952).;i48
  General relationships previously derived for SAR and ad-
sorbed sodium in neutral or alkaline soils of arid areas do
not  apply  equally  well  to  acid soils found  in  humid
regions (Lunin and Batcheldcr I960).350  Furthermore, the
effect of a given  level of adsorbed sodium (ESP)  on plant
growth is determined  to some degree by  the associated
adsorbed cations. The  amount of adsorbed calcium  and
magnesium relative to adsorbed sodium is of considerable
consequence, especially when comparing acidic soils to ones
that are  neutral  or alkaline.  Another  example would be
the presence of a  (race element in the irrigation water that
might  be rendered insoluble when applied to a neutral or
alkaline  soil, but  retained  in  a soluble, available form in
acid soils. For these reasons, soil characteristics, which differ
grcatlv between arid and humid areas,  must be taken into
consideration.
  Certain economic factors  also  influence  water quality
criteria for supplemental irrigation. Although the ultimate
objective of irrigation is to insure  efficient  and economic
crop production, there ma}- be instances where an  adequate
supply of good quality water is unavailable to achieve this.
A farmer may be faced with the need to use irrigation water
of inferior quality to get some economic return and prevent
a complete crop  failure.  This can occur in humid areas
during periods  of prolonged drought. Water quality criteria
are generally designed for optimum production,  but con-
sideration must be given also to supplying  guidelines for use
of water  of inferior quality to avert a crop failure.
  Specific Quality Criteria for Supplemental Irri-
gation   A previous discussion (see  "Water Quality Con-
siderations for Irrigation" above) of potential quality deter-
rents contained a long list of factors  indicating the current
state of our knowledge as to how they might  relate to plant
growth. Criteria can be established by  determining a con-
centration of a given deterrent, which, when adsorbed on
or absorbed by a  leaf during sprinkler irrigation, results in
adverse plant growth, and by evaluating  the direct or in-
direct effects (or both) that a given concentration of a qual-
ity deterrent has on the plant root environment as irriga-
tion water enters the soil. Neither evaluation is simple, but
the latter is more complex because so  many variables are
involved. Since sprinkler application in humid areas is most
common for supplemental irrigation, both types of evalua-
tion have considerable  significance.  The  following discus-
sion relates only to those quality criteria that are specifically
applicable to supplemental irrigation.
  Salinity. General concepts regarding soil salinity as pre-
viously discussed  are applicable. Actual levels of  salinity
that can be tolerated for supplemental irrigation must take
into consideration the leaching effect of rainfall and the fact
that soils arc  usually  nonsaline at spring planting. The
amount of irrigation water having a given level of salinity
that can be applied  to the crop will depend upon the num-
ber of irrigations between leaching rains, the salt tolerance
of the  crop, and  the salt content of the soil prior to irriga-
tion.
  Since it is not realistic to set a single salinity value or even
a range that would take these variables into consideration, a
guide was developed to aid farmers in safely using saline or
brackish waters (Lunin and Gallatin I960).361 The following
equation was used as a basis for this guide:
                                 n(EClw)
                ECC(fS =ECC(,H     -

where ECc(n is the electrical conductivity of the saturation
extract after irrigation is  completed; ECP{,), the electrical
conductivity of the soil saturation extract before irrigation;
ECm,  the electrical conductivity  of  the irrigation  water;
and n, the number  of irrigations.
  To utilize this guide, the salt tolerance of the crop to be
grown and the soil  salinity level (EC(.(f))  that will  result
in a 15 or 50 per cent yield decrement for that crop must be
considered. After evaluating the level of soil salinity prior to
irrigation (EC(,(1)) and the salinity of the irrigation water,
the  maximum number of permissible irrigations can  be
calculated. These numbers  are  based  on  the assumption
that no intervening rainfall occurs in quantities large enough
to leach salts from the root zone.  Should leaching rainfall
occur, the situation  could  be reevaluated using a new value
for ECc(i).
  Categorizing the  salt tolerance of crops as highly salt
tolerant, moderately salt tolerant, and slightly salt tolerant,
the guide shown in Table V-12 was prepared to indicate

TABLE V-12—Permissible  Number of Irrigations in Humid
    Areas with  Saline Water between Leaching Rains for
            Crops of Different Salt Tolerance"
        Irrigation water
                               Number of irrigations for crops having
Total salts mg/l
640
1,280
1,920
2,560
3,200
3,840
4,480
5,120.
Electrical conductivity Low salt tolerance
mmhos/cm at 25 C
1 7
2 4
3 2
4 2
5 1
6 1
7
8
Moderate salt
tolerance
IS
7
4-5
3
2-3
2
1-2
1
High salt tolerance

11
7
5
4
3
2-3
2
 " Based on a 50 per cent yield decrement.
 Lunmetal. 1960'5<.

-------
338/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
the number of permissible irrigations using water of varying
salt concentrations. This guide is based on two assumptions:
     • no leaching rainfall occurs between irrigations.
     • there is no salt accumulation in the soil  at the start
       of the irrigation period. If leaching rains occur be-
       tween  irrigations,  the effect  of the  added  salt  is
       minimized. If there is an accumulation of salt in the
       soil initially,  such as might occur when  irrigating a
       fall crop on land to which saline water had been ap-
       plied during  a spring crop, the soil should  be tested
       for salt content, and the irrigation recommendations
       modified accordingly.

Recommendation
  Since it is not realistic to set a single  salinity
value or even a range that would take all variables
into consideration, Table V-12 developed by Lunin
et  al. (I960),354 should be  used as a guide to aid
farmers in safely using  saline or  brackish waters
for supplemental irrigation in humid areas.

  SAR values and exchangeable sodium. The principles relating
to SAR values and the degree to which sodium  is  adsorbed
from water by soils are generally applicable in both arid and
humid  regions.  Some  evidence is  available (Lunin and
Batchelder  I960),350 however, to indicate that,  for a given
water quality, less sodium was  adsorbed by an  acid soil
than by a base-saturated soil. For a given level of exchange-
able sodium,  preliminary evidence indicated  more detri-
mental effects on acid soils than  on  base-saturated soils
(Lunin et al.  1964).353
  Experimental  evidence is not conclusive, so the detri-
mental limits  for SAR values listed previously  should also
apply to supplemental irrigation in humid  regions. (See the
recommendation in  this section following the discussion of
sodium hazard under Water Quality Considerations for Ir-
rigation.)
  Acidity and  alkalinity. The only  consideration  not pre-
viously discussed relates  to soil  acidity,  which  is more
prevalent in humid  regions where  supplemental irrigation
is practiced. Any factor that drops the pH below 4.8 may
render soluble toxic  concentrations of iron, aluminum, and
manganese. This might result from application  of a highly
acidic water or from a saline solution applied to an  acidic
soil.  (See the recommendation in this section following the
discussion of acidity and alkalinity under Water Quality
Considerations for Irrigation.)
  Trace elements.  Criteria and related factors discussed  in
the section  on Phytotoxic Trace Elements are equally ap-
plicable to supplemental irrigation in humid regions. Cer-
tain related qualifications must  be kept in mind,  however.
First, foliar absorption of trace elements in toxic amounts is
directly related to sprinkler irrigation. Critical levels estab-
lished for soil or culture solutions would not apply to direct
foliar injury. Regarding trace element concentrations in the
soil resulting from irrigation water application, the volum
of the water applied by sprinkler as supplemental irrigatio
is much less than that applied by furrow or flood irrigatio
in arid regions.
   In  assessing trace element concentrations  in  irrigatio
water, total volume of water applied and the physicochem
cal characteristics of the soil must  be  taken into considers
tion. Both factors could result in different criteria for suppk
mental irrigation as compared with surface irrigation in ari
regions.
   Suspended solids. Certain factors regarding suspended solid
must  be taken into consideration  for sprinkler irrigatior
The first deals with the plugging up of sprinkler nozzles b
these  sediments.  Size  of sediment  is a definite factor, bu
no specific particle  size limit can  be established. If som
larger sediment particles pass through  the sprinkler, the
can often be washed off certain leafy vegetable crops. Som
of the finer fractions, suspended colloidal  material, couli
accumulate on the leaves and, once dry, become extremel
difficult to wash  off, thereby impairing the quality of th
product.

PHYTOTOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS

   In addition to the effect of total salinity on plant growth
individual  ions may cause growth  reductions. Ions of bott
major and trace  elements occur in irrigation water. Traci
elements are those that normally  occur in waters or soi
solutions in concentrations less than a few mg/1 with usua
concentrations less than 100 microgram (Mg)/l- Some ma;
be essential for plant growth, while others are nonessential
   When an element is added to the  soil, it may  combim
with it to decrease its concentration and increase the store
of that element in the soil. If the process of adding irrigatior
water containing a toxic level of the element continues, th<
capacity of the  soil  to  react  with  the element will  be
saturated. A steady state may be approached in which thf
amount of the element leaving the soil in the drainage water
equals the amount added with the irrigation water, with nc
further  change in concentration in  the soil. Removal in
narvested crops can also be a factor in decreasing the ac-
cumulation of trace  elements in soils.
   In many cases, soils have high  capacities  to react with
trace elements. Therefore, irrigation water containing toxic
levels of trace elements may be added for many years before
a steady state  is approached. Thus, a situation exists where
loxicities may develop in years, decades, or even centuries
from  the continued  addition of  pollutants  to irrigation
waters. The time  would depend on soil and plant factors as
well as on the concentration of trace elements in the water.
   Variability among species is well recognized. Recent in-
vestigations by Foy et al.  (1965),402  and Kerridge et  al.
(1971)425 working with soluble  aluminum  in  soils and in
nutrient solutions,  have  demonstrated  that  there is also
variability  among varieties within a given species

-------
                                                                                              Water for Irrigation/'339
   Comprehensive reviews of literature  dealing with trace
element effects on plants are provided by McKee and Wolf
(1963),436  Holland and Butler  (1966),378 and Chapman
(1966).386  Hodgson (1963)417  presented  a review  dealing
with reactions of trace elements in soils.
   In developing a workable program to determine accept-
able limits for  trace  elements in  irrigation  waters,  three
considerations should  be recognized:

    •  Many  factors affect the uptake of and tolerance to
       trace elements. The most important of these are the
       natural variability in  tolerances of plants and of
       animals that consume plants, in reactions within the
       soil, and in nutrient interactions, particularly in the
       plant.
    •  A system of tolerance limits should  provide sufficient
       flexibility to cope with the more serious factors listed
       above.
    •  At  the same time,  restrictions must  be denned as
       precisely as possible using  presently  available,  but
       limited, research information.

   Both the concentration of the element in the soil solution,
assuming that steady state may be approached, and  the
total amount  of the element added in relation to quantities
that have been shown to produce toxicities were used in ar-
riving  at recommended maximum concentrations. A water
application rate of 3 acre feet/acre/year was used to calcu-
late the yearly  rate of trace elements added in irrigation
water.
   The  suggested maximum trace element concentrations
for irrigation  waters are shown in Table  V-13.
   The suggested maximum concentrations for continuous
use on  all soils  are set for  those sandy soils  that have  low
capacities  to react with the element in  question. They are
generally set at levels  less than the concentrations that pro-
duce toxicities when the most sensitive plants are grown in
nutrient solutions or sand cultures. This level is set, recog-
nizing that concentration increases in the soil as water is
evapotranspired, and that the  effective concentration in the
soil solution, at near steady state, is higher than in the irriga-
tion water. The criteria for short-term use are suggested for
soils that have high capacitites to remove  from solution the
element or elements being considered.
   The work of Hodgson  (1963)417  showed that the general
tolerance  of  the soil-plant system to manganese, cobalt,
zinc,  copper, and boron increased  as the  pH  increased,
primarily  because  of  the positive  correlation between  the
capacity of the soil to inactivate  these ions and the pH.
This same relationship exists with aluminum and probably
exists with other elements such as nickel (Pratt et al. 1964)449
and boron (Sims and Bingham 1968).465 However, the abil-
ity of the soil to inactivate molybdenum decreases with in-
crease  in pH, such that the amount of this element that
could be added without producing excesses  was higher in
acid soils.
TABLE  V-13—Recommended  Maximum Concentrations  of
             Trace Elements in Irrigation Waters'1
Element
Aluminum
Arsenic
Beryllium
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluoride
Iron
Lead
Lithium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Tm«.
Titanium'
Tungsten--
Vanadium
Zinc .
For waters used continuously
on afl soil
mj/l
5.0
0 10
0.10
0.75
0.010
0.10
0.050
0.20
1.0
5.0
5.0
2.5'
0.20
0.010
0.20
0.020



0.10
2.0
For use up to 20 years on fine
textured sails al pHS.O to 8.5
mj/l
20.0
2.0
0.50
2.0
0.050
1.0
5.0
50
15.0
20.0
10.0
2.5<>
10.0
0.050-'
2.0
0.020



1.0
10.0
 "These levels will normally not adversely affect plants or soils.
 '• Recommended maximum concentration for irrigating citrus is 0.075 me/I.
 ' See text for a discussion of these elements.
 d For only acid fine textured soils or acid soils with relatively high iron oxide contents.
  In addition to pH control (i.e., liming acid soils), another
important management factor that has a large effect on the
capacity of soils to adsorb some trace elements without de-
velopment of plant toxicities is the available phosphorus
level. Large applications of phosphate are known to induce
deficiencies of such elements as copper and zinc and greatly
reduce aluminum toxicity (Chapman 1966).386
  The concentrations  given  in Table V-13 are  for ionic
and soluble forms of  the  elements. If insoluble forms are
present as particulate matter, these should be removed  by
filtration before the water is analyzed.

Aluminum
  The toxicity of this ion is considered to be one of the main
causes of  nonproductivity in  acid  soils (Coleman  and
Thomas 1967,392  Reeve  and Sumner  1970,453  Hoyt  and
Nyborg 197 la419).
  At  pH values from about 5.5  to  8.0, soils have great
capacities to precipitate soluble aluminum and to eliminate
its toxicity. Most irrigated soils are naturally alkaline, and
many are highly  buffered  with calcium carbonate. In these
situations aluminum toxicity is effectively prevented.
  With only a few exceptions, as soils become more  acid
(pH<5.5), exchangeable and soluble aluminum develop  by
dissolution of oxides and  hydroxides  or by decomposition
of clay minerals. Thus, without the introduction of alumi-
num, a toxicity of this  element usually develops as soils are
acidified, and limestone  must be added to keep  the soil
productive.

-------
 WQ / Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
   In nutrient solutions toxicities are reported for a number
 of plants  at  aluminum concentrations of 1  mg/1  (Pratt
 1966),448 whereas wheat is reported to show growth  reduc-
 tions at  0.1 mg/1 (Barnette 1923).37° Liebig et al. (1942)432
 found growth depressions  of orange seedlings at 0.1 mg/1.
 Ligon and Pierre  (1932)433 showed growth reductions of
 60, 22, and 13 per cent for barley, corn, and sorghum, re-
 spectively, at  1 mg/1.
   In spite of the potential  toxicity of aluminum, this is not
 the basis for the  establishment of maximum concentrations
 in irrigation waters, because ground limestone can be added
 where needed to  control  aluminum  solubility in soils.
 Nevertheless,  two disadvantages  remain. One is that  the
 salts  that  are the sources  of soluble aluminum in  waters
 acidify the soil  and  contribute to the  requirement  for
 ground limestone to prevent the accumulation  or develop-
 ment of  soluble aluminum. This is a disadvantage only in
 acid soils.  The other disadvantage is a greater fixation of
 phosphate fertilizer  by  freshly  precipitated   aluminum
 hydroxides.
   In determining a recommendation for maximum levels
 of aluminum in irrigation water using 5.0  mg/1 for waters
 to be.used continuously on all soils and 20 mg/1 for up to
 20 years  on fine-textured soils, the following was considered.
 At rates of 3 acre feet of water per acre per year  the calcium
 carbonate  equivalent of the 5 rag/l concentration used for
 100 years would be 11.5 tons per acre; the 20 mg'l concen-
 tration for 20 years  would be equivalent to 9 tons of CaCOs
 per acre. In  most irrigated soils this amount of limestone
 would not have to be added, because the soils have sufficient
 buffer capacity to neutralize  the aluminum salts. In acid
 soils that are already near  the pH where limestone should
 be used,  the aluminum added in the water would contribute
 these quantities to  the  lime requirements.
   Amounts of limestone needed for control of soluble alumi-
 num in acid soils can be estimated by a method that is based
 on pH control (Shoemaker et al. 1961).463 A method based
 on the amount of soluble and  exchangeable aluminum was
 developed  by Kamprath (1970).424

 Recommendations
  Recommended maximum concentrations are 5.0
 mg/1 aluminum for continuous use on all soils and
20 mg/1 for use on fine textured neutral to alkaline
soils over a period of 20 years.

Arsenic
  Albert and Arndt (1931)368 found that arsenic at 0.5 mg/1
in nutrient solutions reduced the growth  of roots  of cowpeas,
 and at 1.0 mg/1 it reduced the growth of both roots and tops.
They reported that 1.0 mg/1 of soluble arsenic was fre-
quently  found in the  solution obtained from  soils with
demonstrated toxic  levels of arsenic. Rasmussen and Henry
 (1965)451 found that arsenic at 0.5 mg/1 in nutrient solu-
tions produced toxicity symptoms in seedlings of the pine-
 apple and orange. Below this concentration no symptoms <
 toxicity were found. Clements and Heggeness (1939)390 r<
 ported that  0.5 mg/1 arsenic  as arsenite in  nutrient soli
 tions produced an 80 per cent yield reduction in tomatoe
 Liebig et  al. (1959)431 found  that  10 mg/1  of arsenic ;
 arsenate or  5 mg/1 as arsenite  caused marked reductio
 in growth of tops and roots of citrus grown in  nutrient soh
 tions. Machlis (1941)434 found lhat concentrations of 1.2 an
 12 mg/1 caused growth suppression in beans and Sudan gra
 respectively.
  However,  the most definite work with arsenic toxicity i
 soils has been aimed at determining  the amounts that ca
 be added to various t\pcs of soils without reduction in yielc
 of sensitive crops. The experiments of Cooper et al. (1932),1'1
 Vandecaveye et al. (1936),472 Crafts and Rosenfels (1939),'
 Dorman and Colman  (1939),M6 Dorman et  al (1939),:l
 Clements and  Munson  (1947),391 Benson  (1953),372 Chii
 holm et al. (1955),388 Jacobs el al. (1970),422 Woolson et a
 (1971)481 showed that the amount of total arsenic that prc
 duced the initiation of toxicity varied with  soil texture an
 other factors that influenced the adsorptive  capacity. Ai
 suming that  the added arsenic is  mixed with the surface si
 inches of soil and that it is in the arsenate form, the amouni
 that produce toxicity for sensitive plants  vary from  10
 pounds (lb)/acre for sandy soils to 300 Ib/acre for claye
 soils. Data from Crafts  and Rosenfels (1939)394 for 80 soil
 showed that for a 50 per cent  yield reduction with barley
 120, 190, 230, and  290 Ib arsenic/acre were required  fo
 sandy  loams, loams, clay loams, and clays,  respectively
 These amounts of arsenic  indicated the amounts adsorbei
 into soils of different adsorptive capacities before ihe toxicit
 level was reached.
  With long periods of time involved, such as  would be th
 case with  accumulations  from  irrigation  water,  possibl
 leaching in sandy soils (Jacobs et al.  1970)422  and reversioi
 to less soluble and less toxic forms of arsenic (Crafts am
 Rosenfels 1939)394 allow extensions of  the amounts requiret
 for toxicity. Perhaps a factor of at least two could be used
 giving a limit of 200 Ib in  sandy  soils and a limit of 600 11
 m clayey soils over many years.  Using these  limits, a con
 centration of 0.1 mg 1 could be used for  100 years on sand;
 soils, and a concentration of 2 mg/'l used for a period of 2(
 years or 0.5 mg/'l used for 100 years  on clayey soils wouk
 provide an adequate margin of safety. This is assuming I
 acre feet of water are. vised per acre per year (1 mg/1 equal;
 2.71  Ib/acre  foot of water or 8.13 lb/3 acre feet), and thai
the added arsenic becomes mixed in  a 6-inch layer of soil.
 Removal of small amounts in harvested crops provides an
additional safety factor.
  The only effective management practice known for soih
 lhat have accumulated toxic levels of arsenic is to change to
 more tolerant  crops.  Benson  and   Reisenauer (1951)373
 developed a list of plants of three  levels of tolerance. Work
 by Reed and Sturgis  (1936)462 suggested that rice cm flooded
 s oils was extremely sensitive to small amounts of arsenic, and

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                                                                                          Water for Irrigation/341
 that the suggested  maximum concentrations listed below
 were too high for this crop.

 Recommendations
   Recommendations  are that  maximum concen-
 trations of arsenic in irrigation water be 0.10 mg/1
 for continuous use on all soils and 2 mg/1 for use
 up to 20 years on fine textured neutral to alkaline
 soils.

 Beryllium
   Haas (1932)408 reported that some varieties of citrus seed-
 lings showed  toxicities  at 2.5 mg/1 of  beryllium whereas
 others  showed toxicity  at  5 mg 1  in nutrient  solutions.
 Romnev et  al. (1962)4r'-'  found that beryllium at 0.5 mg/1
 in nutrient  solutions  reduced the growth of bush  beans.
 Romnev and  Childress  (1965)4M found that 2  mg/1 or
 greater in nutrient  solutions reduced the growth of toma-
 toes, peas, soybeans, lettuce,  and  alfalfa plants. Additions of
 soluble beryllium salts at levels equivalent to 4 per cent ol
 the cation-adsorption capacity of two acid soils reduced the
 yields of ladino clover. Beryllium carbonate  and ber\ Ilium
 oxide at the same levels  did not reduce yields. These results
 suggest that beryllium in calcareous soils might be much less
 active and less toxic  than in acid soils. Williams and LcRiche
 (1968VS(1 found that beryllium at 2  mg''l in nutrient solu-
 tions was toxic to mustard, whereas 5 mg/1 was required for
growth reductions with kale.
  It seems reasonable to recommend low levels of benl-
lium in view of the fact that, at 0.1  mg/1, 80 pounds of
 bervllium would be added in 100 years using 3 acre feet of
water per acre per \ear. In 20 \ears, at  0.5 mg  1, water at
 the same rate  would acid 80 pounds.

 Recommendations
  In view of toxicities in nutrient solutions and in
soils,  it is recommended that  maximum concen-
 trations of beryllium in irrigation waters be 0.10
mg/1 for continuous  use on  all soils and 0.50 mg/1
for use on neutral to alkaline fine  textured  soils
for a 20-year period.

Boron
  Boron is an essential  element  for the growth  of plants.
Optimum yields of some plants are obtained at  concentra-
tions (jf a few  tenths mg/1 in nutrient solutions   However,
at concentrations of 1 mg/1,  boron is toxic to a  number of
sensitive plants. Eaton  (1935,40(1 19444M)  determined  the
boron tolerance of a large number of plants and developed
lists of sensitive, semitolerant, and tolerant species.  These
lists, slightly modified,  are  also given  in  the  LJ.S.D.A.
Handbook 60  (Salinity  Laboratory  1954)1'''9 and are pre-
sented  in  Table V-14. In general, sensitive crops showed
toxicities at 1 mg/1 or less, semitolerant crops at 1 to 2 mg/1,
and tolerant crops at 2 to 4 mg/1. At concentrations above
    TABLE V-14—Relative Tolerance of Plants to Boron
    (In each group the plants first named are considered as being more tolerant and the last named
    more sensitive.)
Tolerant
Athel (Tamarix asphylla)
Asparagus
Palm (Phoenix cananensis)
Date palm (P. dactylifera)
Sugar beet
Mangel
Garden beet
Alfalfa
Gladiolus
Broadbean
Onion
Turnip
Cabbage
Lettuce
Carrot





Semitolerant
Sunflower (native)
Potato
Acala cotton
Pi ma cotton
Tomato
Sweetpea
Radish
Field pea
Ragged Robin rose
Olive
Barley
Wheat
Corn
Mllo
Oat
Zinnia
Pumpkin
Bell pepper
Sweet potato
Lima bean
Sensitive
Pecan
Black Walnut
Persian (English) walnut
Jerusalem artichoke
Navy bean
American elm
Plum
Pear
Apple
Grape (Sultanina and Malaga)
Kadota fig
Persimmon
Cherry
Peach
Apricot
Thornless blackberry
Orange
Avocado
Grapefruit
Lemon
 Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954"
4 mg/1, the irrigation water was generally unsatisfactory for
most   crops.
  Bradford (1966),379 in a review of boron deficiencies and
toxicities, stated that when the boron content of irrigation
waters was greater than 0.75  mg/1, some sensitive plants,
such as citrus,  begin  to show injury. Chapman (1968)387
concluded that citrus showed some mild toxicity symptoms
when irrigation waters have 0.5 to 1.0 mg/1, and that when
the concentration  was greater than  10 mg/1 pronounced
toxicities were found.
  Biggar  and  Fireman  (I960)375 and  Hatcher and Bower
(1958)1U showed that the accumulation of boron in soils is
an adsorption process, and that before soluble levels of 1 or
2 mg  1 can be found,  the adsorptive capacity must be
saturated. With neutral and alkaline soils of high adsorption
capacities water of 2  mg 1 might  be used for some time
without injury to sensitive plants.

Recommendations
  From  the  extensive work on citrus, one of  the
most sensitive crops, the maximum concentration
of 0.75 mg boron/1 for use on sensitive crops on all
soils   seems  justified. Recommended  maximum
concentrations  for   semitolerant  and  tolerant
plants are considered to  be 1 and 2 mg/1 respec-
tively.
  For neutral and  alkaline fine textured  soils  the
recommended maximum  concentration of boron
in irrigation  water  used  for a 20-year period on
sensitive crops is 2.0  mg/1. With tolerant plants or
for shorter periods of time higher boron concen-
trations are acceptable.

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        on F—Agricultural Uses of Water
Cadmium

  Data by Page  et al.  in press (1972)444 showed that the
yields of beans, beets, and turnips were reduced about 25
per cent  by 0.10 mg cadmium/1  in  nutrient solutions;
whereas cabbage and barley gave yield decreases of 20 to 50
per cent at  1.0 mg/1. Corn and lettuce were intermediate
in response with less than 25 per cent yield reductions at
0.10 mg/1 and greater than 50  per cent at 1.0  mg/1. Cad-
mium contents of plants grown in soils containing 0.11 to
0.56 mg/1 acid extractable cadmium (Lagerwerff 1971)427
were of the same order of magnitude as the plants grown by
Page et al. in control nutrient solutions.
  Because of the phytotoxicity of cadmium to plants,  its
accumulation in plants, lack  of soils information, and the
potential problems with this element in foods and feeds, a
conservative approach is taken.

Recommendations

  Maximum concentrations for cadmium in irriga-
tion waters of 0.010 mg/1 for continuous use on all
soils  and 0.050  mg/1 on neutral and alkaline fine
textured  soils  for a 20-year period are recom-
mended.

Chromium

  Even though a number of investigators have found small
increases in  yields with  small additions of this element,  it
has not become recognized  as an essential element. The
primary concern of soil and plant scientists is with its toxic-
ity. Soane and Saunders (1959)466 found that  10 mg/1 of
chromium in sand cultures was toxic to corn, and that for
tobacco 5 mg/1 of chromium caused reduced growth and
1.0 mg/1 reduced stem  elongation. Scharrer and Schropp
(1935)461 found that  chromium,  as  chromic  sulfate, was
toxic  to  corn  at 5  mg/1 in  nutrient solutions. Hewitt
(1953)412 found  that  8 mg/1  chromium  as  chromic  or
chromate ions produced iron chlorosis on sugar beets  grown
in sand cultures. Hewitt also  found that the chromate ion
was more toxic than the chromic ion. Hunter and Vergnano
(1953)4-1 found that 5 mg/1 of chromium in nutrient solu-
tions produced iron  deficiencies in  plants.  Turner and
Rust (1971)470 found that  chromium treatments as low as
0.5  mg/1 in water cultures and 10 mg/kg in soil cultures
significantly reduced the yields of two varieties of soybeans.
  Because  little is  known  about  the accumulation  of
chromium in soils in relation to its toxicity, a concentration
of less than 1.0 mg/1 in irrigation waters is desirable. At this
concentration, using 3 acre feet water/acre/yr, more than
80 Ib of chromium would  be  added per acre in 100  years,
and using a concentration of 1.0 mg/1 for a period of 20 years
and applying water at the same rate, about 160 pounds of
chromium would be added to the soil.
Recommendations

   In view of  the  lack of  knowledge  concerning
chromium accumulation  and toxicity, a maximun
concentration of 0.1 mg/1 is recommended for con
tinuous  use on all soils and 1.0 mg/1  on  neutra
and alkaline fine textured soils for a 20-year periot
is recommended.

Cobalt
   Ahmed and Twyman (1953)36'' found that tomato plant
showed toxicity  from cobalt  at 0.1  mg/1,  and Vergnam
and Hunter (1953)47"' found that cobalt at  5 mg/1 was highb
toxic  to oats.  Scharrer  and Schropp (1933)460 found tha
cobalt at a few mg/1 in sand and solution  cultures was toxi<
to peas, beans, oats, rye, wheat, barley, and corn,  and tha
the tolerance to cobalt increased in the order listed. Vanse
low (1966a)473 found  additions  of 100 mg/kg to soils wen
not toxic to citrus.
   The literature indicates that a concentration of 0.10 mg/
for cobalt  is  near the threshold toxicity level in nutrien
solutions. Thus, a concentration of 0.05 mg/1 appears to be
satisfactory for continuous use on all soils. However, because
xhe reaction of this element with soils is  strong at neutra',
and alkaline pH  values and it increases with time (Hodgsor
I960),41f) a concentration of 5.0  mg 1 might be tolerated b>
fine textured neutral and alkaline soils when it is added in
i.mall yearly incrcmcms.

Recommendations
   Recommended maximum concentrations for co-
balt are set at  0.050 mg/1 for continuous use on all
>soils and 5.0  mg/1 for neutral and  alkaline fine
textured soils for a 20-year  period.

Copper
   Copper concentrations of 0.1 to  1.0  mg/1 in  nutrient
solutions have been fotmd  to be toxic to a large number of
plants (Piper  1939,447 Liebig et al.   1942,432 Frolich  ct al.
1966,403 Nollendorfs  1969,442  Struckmeyer  et al.  1969,4M
Scillac 19714C2). Westgate (1952)478 found  copper toxiciU in
soils that  had accumulated BOO Ib/acre from the  use of
Bordeaux  sprays. Field studies  in sanely soils of Florida
(Reuther and Smith 1954)137 showed that toxicity to  citrus
resulted when copper levels reached  1.6 mg/meq of cation-
exchange capacity per 100 g of dry soil.
   The management procedures  that reduce copper toxicity
include liming the soil if it is acid, using  ample phosphate
fertilizer, and adding iron  salts  (Reuther  and  Labanauskas
1966).456
   Toxicity levels in nutrient solutions and limited data on
soils suggest a concentration  of 0.20 mg/1  for continuous
use on all soils. This level used at a rate of 3 acre feet of
water per year would add about 160 pounds of copper in
100 years,  which  is  approaching  the  recorded levels of

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                                                                                        Water jor Irrigation/343
toxicity in acid sandy soils. A safety margin can be obtained
by liming these soils. A concentration of copper at 5.0 mg/1
applied in irrigation water at the rate of 3 acre feet of water
per year for a 20-year period would  add 800 pounds  of
copper in 20 years.

Recommendations
  Based on toxicity levels in nutrient solutions and
the limited soils data available,  a maximum con-
centration of 0.20 mg/1 copper is recommended for
continuous use on all soils. On neutral and alkaline
fine textured soils for use over a  20-year period, a
maximum concentration  of  5.0 mg/1  is  recom-
mended.

Fluoride
  Applications of soluble fluoride  salts  to acid  soils can
produce toxicity to plants. Prince et al. (1949)450 found that
360 pounds fluoride  per acre, added  as sodium fluoride,
reduced the yields of buckwheat at pH 4.5, but at pH values
above 5.5 this rate produced no injury.
  Maclntire et al. (1942)435 found that  1,150 pounds  of
fluoride in superphosphate,  575 pounds of fluoride in slag,
or 2,300 pounds of fluoride as calcium fluoride per acre had
no detrimental effects on germination or plant growth on
well-limed neutral soils, and that vegetation grown on these
soils showed only a slight increase in fluoride as compared to
those grown in acid soils. However, Shirley ct al.  (1970)464
found that bones of cows that had grazed pastures fertilized
with raw rock and colloidal phosphate, which contained ap-
proximately two  to three per cent fluorides, for seven to  16
vcars  averaged  approximately 2,900 and 2,300  mg  of
fluorine per kilogram of bone, respectively. The bones  of
cows that had grazed on pastures fertilized with  relatively
fluorine free superphosphate, concentrated superphosphate,
and basic slag fertilizer contained only 1400 mg/kg fluorine.

Recommendations
  Because of the capacity  of neutral and alkaline
soils to  inactivate  fluoride, a relatively  high maxi-
mum  concentration  for continuous  use on these
soils  is  recommended.  Recommended maximum
concentrations are 1.0 mg/1 for continuous use on
all soils and 15 mg/1 for use for a 20-year period on
neutral and alkaline  fine textured soils.

Iron
  Iron in irrigation waters is not likely to create a problem
of plant toxicities. It is so insoluble in aerated soils  at all pH
values in which plants grow well, that it is not  toxic. In fact,
the problems with this element are deficiencies in alkaline
soils. In reduced  (flooded) soils soluble ferrous ions develop
from inherent compounds in  soils,  so  that quantities that
might be added in waters would be of no concern. However,
Rhoads (1971)468 found  large reductions in the quality  of
cigar wrapper tobacco when plants were sprinkler irrigated
with water containing 5 or more mg soluble iron/1, because
of precipitation of iron oxides  on the leaves. Rhoad's ex-
perience would suggest caution when irrigating  any crops
using sprinkler systems and waters having sufficient reducing
conditions to produce reduced and soluble ferrous iron.
  The disadvantages of soluble iron salts in waters are that
these would contribute to soil acidification, and the precipi-
tated iron would increase the fixation of such essential ele-
ments as phosphorous and molybdenum.

Recommendations
  A maximum concentration of 5.0 mg/1 is recom-
mended  for continuous use on all soils,  and  a
maximum concentration  of 20  mg/1  is recom-
mended  on neutral to alkaline soils for a 20-year
period. The use of waters with large concentrations
of suspended freshly precipitated iron oxides and
hydroxides  is  not recommended,  because  these
materials also increase the fixation of phosphorous
and molybdenum.

Lead
  The phy to toxicity of lead is relatively low. Berry (1924)374
found that a concentration of lead  nitrate of 25 mg/1 was
required for toxicity to oats and tomato plants. At a concen-
tration of 50  mg/1,  death  of plants occurred. Hopper
(1937)418 found that 30  mg/1  of lead in  nutrient solutions
was toxic  to bean plants. Wilkins (1957)479 found that lead
at 10 mg/1 as lead nitrate reduced root growth. Since soluble
lead contents in soils were usually from 0.05 to 5.0  mg/kg
(Brewer  1966),383 little  toxicity  can be  expected.  It was
shown that the principal entry  of lead into plants was from
aerial deposits rather than from absorption from soils (Page
et al.  1971)445 indicating that lead that falls onto the soil is
not available to plants.
  In a summary on the  effects of lead on plants, the Com-
mittee on the  Biological  Effects  of Atmosphere  Pollutants
(NRG 1972)441 concluded that there is not sufficient evidence
to indicate that lead, as it occurs in nature, is toxic to vege-
tation. However, in studies using roots of some plants and
very high  concentrations of lead, this element was reported
to be  concentrated in cell walls and nuclei during mitosis
and to inhibit cell proliferation.

Recommendations
  Recommended  maximum concentrations of lead
are 5.0 mg/1 for continuous use on  all soils and 10
mg/1 for a 20-year period on neutral and alkaline
fine textured soils.

Lithium
  Most crops can tolerate lithium in nutrient solutions at
concentrations up to 5 mg/1 (Oertli  1962,443 Bingham et al.
1964,377 Bollard and Butler 1966378). But research revealed

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344/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
that citrus was more sensitive (Aldrich et al. 1951,369 Brad-
ford 1963b,381 Hilgeman et al. 1970«5).  Hilgeman et al.
(1970)416 found that grapefruit  developed severe symptoms
of lithium toxicity when irrigated with waters containing
lithium at 0.18 to 0.25 mg/1. Bradford (1963a)380 reported
that experience in  California  indicated  slight toxicity of
lithium to citrus at 0.06 to 0.10  mg/1 in the water.
  Lithium is one  of the most mobile  of cations in soils. It
tends to be replaced by other cations in waters or fertilizers
and is  removed by leaching. On the  other hand, it is not
precipitated  by any known process.

Recommendations
  Recommendations for maximum concentrations
of lithium, based on its phytotoxicity, are 2.5 mg/1
for continuous use on all  soils,  except for citrus
where the  recommended maximum  concentration
is 0.075 mg/1 for all soils.  For short-term use on
fine textured soils the same maximum concentra-
tions are recommended because of lack of inactiva-
tion in soils.

Manganese
  Manganese concentrations at a few  tenths to a few milli-
grams per liter in nutrient solutions are toxic to a number of
crops as shown by Morris and Pierre (1949),440 Adams and
Wear  (1957),3IU Hewitt  (1965),4U and others.  However,
toxicities of this element are associated with  acid soils, and
applications  of proper quantities of ground  limestone suc-
cessfully eliminated the problem. Increasing the pH to the
5.5 to  6.0 range usually reduced the  active manganese to
below the toxic level (Adams and Wear 1957).364 Hoyt and
Nyborg (1971b)420 found that available manganese in the
soil and manganese content of  plants were negatively cor-
related with soil pH. However, the definite association of
toxicity with soil pH as found with aluminum was not found
with manganese,  which has a  more  complex chemistry.
Thus, more care must be taken in setting water quality cri-
teria for manganese than for aluminum (i.e., management
for control of toxicities is not certain).

Recommendations
  Recommended  maximum  concentrations  for
manganese in irrigation waters are set at 0.20 mg/1
for continued use on all soils and 10 mg/1 for use up
to 20  years on neutral and alkaline fine textured
soils. Concentrations for continued use can be in-
creased with alkaline or calcareous soils, and also
with crops  that have higher tolerance levels.

Molybdenum
  This element presents no problems of toxicity to plants at
concentrations usually found in  soils and waters. The prob-
lem  is  one of toxicity  to animals from molybdenum in-
gested  from  forage that has been grown in soils with rela-
tively high amounts of avaiable  molybdenum. Dye am
O'Hara (1959)398 reported that the molybdenum concentra
tion in forage that produced toxicity in ruminants was 5 t
30  mg/kg. Lesperance and Bohman (1963)430 found tha
toxicity was not simply associated with the molybdenun
content of forage but was influenced by the amounts c
other elements, particularly copper. Jensen and Lcsperanc
(1971)423 found that the accumulation of molybdenum ii
plants was proportional to the amount of the element addec
to the soil.
  Kubota et al. (1963)126 found that molybdenum concert
trations of 0.01 mg/1 or greater in soil solutions were as
sociated with animal toxicity levels of this element in alsiki
clover. Bingham et al. (1970) "fl reported that molybdosis o
cattle was associated with sods that had  0.01 to  0.10 ma,/
of molybdenum in saturation  extracts of soils.

Recommendations
  The  recommended maximum  concentration  o
molybdenum for continued  use of water on  al
soils,  based  on animal toxicities from forage,  i;
0.010 mg/1. For short term use on  soils that react
with this element, a concentration of 0.050 mg/1
is recommended.

Nickel
  According  to  Vanselow  (1966b),474 many  experiments
with sand and solution cultures have shown that nickel al
0.5 to 1.0 mg/1 is toxic to a  lumber of plants. Chang and
Sherman  (1953)385  found that  tomato  seedlings were in-
jured by 0.5 mg/1. Millikan (1949)437 found that 0.5 to 5.0
mg/1 were toxic to flax. Brenchley (1938)38'2  reported toxic-
ity  to  barley and beans from  2  mg/1.  Crooke (1954)39!
found that 2.5 mg/1 was toxic to oats. Legg and Ormerod
(1958)429 found that  1.0 mg/1  produced toxicily in hop
plants. Vergnano and Hunter  (1953)475 found that 1.0 mg/1
in solutions flushed through sand cultures was toxic to oats.
Soane and Saunders  (1959)466 found that  tobacco plants
showed  no toxicity  at 30 mg/1,, and that corn showed no
toxicity  at 2 mg/1 but showed toxicity at 10 mg''l.
  Work by Mizuno  (1968)439  and  Halstead  et al. (1969)409
and the review of Vanselow (1966b)47* showed thait increas-
ing the pH of soils reduces the toxicity of added nickel.
  Halstead et al. (1969)4"9 found the greatest capacity to ad-
sorb nickel without  development of toxicity was by a soil
with 21  per cent organic matter.

Recommendations
  Based on both toxicity in  nutrient solutions and
on  quantities that produce toxicities  in soils, the
recommended maximum  concentration of nickel
in irrigation waters is 0.20 mg/1 for continued use
on  all  soils.  For  neutral  fine textured soils for a
period up to 20 years, the recommended maximum
is 2.0 mg/1.

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                                                                                         Water for Irrigation/345
 Selenium

   Selenium is toxic at low concentrations in nutrient solu-
 tions, and  only small amounts added to soils  increase the
 selenium content of forages to a level toxic  to livestock.
 Broycr ct al. (1966)384 found that selenium at 0.025 mg'1
 in nutrient solutions decreased the yields of alfalfa.
   The best evidence for use in setting water quality criteria
 for this element is application rates in relation to  toxicity in
 forages  Amounts of selenium in forages required  to prevent
 selenium  deficiencies in  cattle  (Alla\va\  et  al.  1967)3'1''1
 ranged between 0.03 and 0.10 mg kg (depending on other
 factors),  whereas  concentrations above 3 or 4  mg kg were
 considered toxic (Underwood 1966) m A number of investi-
 gator (Hamilton  and Beath 1963,41n Grant 1965, «" Allaway
 et al.  1 966)31'7 have shown that small applications of selenium
 to soils at a rate  of a few kilograms per hectare produced
 plant concentrations of selenium that were toxic to animals.
 Gissel-Nielson and  Bisbjerg  (1970)400 found that applica-
 tions of approximately 0.2 kg hectare of selenium produced
 from  1.0 to 10.5  mg/kg in  tissues of forage and vegetable
 crops

 Recommendation
   With  the low levels of  selenium  required to pro-
 duce  toxic levels in  forages,  the  recommended
 maximum  concentration  in irrigation waters is
 0.02 mg/1 for continuous use on all soils. At a rate
 of 3 acre feet of water per acre per year this concen-
 tration  represents 3.2 pounds per acre in  20 years.
 The same recommended maximum concentration
 should be used on neutral and alkaline fine textured
 soils until greater information  is obtained on soil
 reactions. The relative mobility of this element in
 soils in comparison to  other trace elements and
 slow removal in harvested crops provide a sufficient
 safety margin.

 Tin, Tungsten, and Titanium
  Tin, tungsten, and titantium are effectively  excluded by
 plants. The first  two can  undoubtedly  be introduced to
 plants under conditions that can produce specific toxicities.
 However, not enough is known at this time about  any of the
 three to prescribe tolerance limits. (This is true with other
 trace  elements such as silver.) Titantium is very  insoluble,
 at present it is not of great concern.

Vanadium
  Gericke and Rcnncnkampff (1939)40-5  found  that vanad-
ium at 0.1, 1.0, and 2.0 mg'l added to nutrient solutions as
calcium vanadate slightly increased  the growth  of barley,
whereas at 10 mg/1 vanadium was toxic to both tops and
 roots and that vanadium chloride at  1.0 mg/1 of vanadium
was toxic. \Varington (1954,476 1956477) found that flax, soy-
 beans, and peas showed toxicity  to vanadium in the con-
centration range of 0.5 to 2.5 mg, 1. Chiu (1953)389 found
that 560 pounds per acre of vanadium added as ammonium
metavanadatc to rice paddy soils produced toxicity to rice.
Recommendations
   Considering the toxicity of vanadium in nutrient
solutions and  in soils and the lack of information
on the reaction  of this element with soils, a maxi-
mum concentration of 0.10 mg/1 for continued use
on all soils is  recommended. For a  20-year period
on neutral and  alkaline fine textured  the recom-
mended maximum concentration is 1.0 mg/1.

Zinc
   Toxicities of zinc in nutrient solutions have been demon-
strated for a number of plants. Hewitt (1948)41S found that
zinc at  16  to 32 mg/1 produced iron deficiencies in sugar
beets. Hunter and  Vergnano (1953)41>1 found toxicity to oats
at 25 mg'[. Millikan (1947)438 found that 2.5 mg/1 produced
iron deficiency  in oats.  Barley  (1943)399 found  that  the
Peking variety of soybeans was killed at 0.4 mg/1, whereas
the Manchu variety was killed at 1.6 mg/1.
   The toxicity of zinc in soils is related to soil pH, and liming
acid soil has a large effect in reducing toxicity (Barnette
1936,371 Gall and  Barnette 1940,lnl  Pecch 1941,w> Stakcr
and Cummings 1941,1GS  Staker  1942,467  Lee and Page
I967'28). Amounts  of added zinc that produce toxicity are
highest in cla\ and peat soils and smallest in sands.
   On acid sand}'  soils the amounts required for toxicity
would suggest a recommended maximum concentration of
zinc of 1 mg ''1 for  continuous use. This concentration at a
water application rate of 3 acre feet/acre/year would add
813  pounds per  acre in  100 years. However, if acid  sandy
soils arc limed to pH values of six or above, the tolerance
level  is  increased  by at  least a factor  of two (Gall and
Barnette 1940).4"1
Recommendations
   Assuming adequate  use of liming materials to
keep pH  values high  (six  or above), the  recom-
mended  maximum concentration for  continuous
use on all soils is 2.0 mg/1. For a 20-year period on
neutral and alkaline soils the recommended maxi-
mum is 10 mg/1. On  fine textured calcareous soils
and on organic soils, the concentrations can exceed
this  limit by  a  factor of two  or  three with low
probability of  toxicities in a 20-year period.

PESTICIDES  (IN  WATER  FOR IRRIGATION)

   Pesticies are used widely in water  for irrigation on com-
mercial crops in the United States (Sheets 1967).502 Figures
on production, acreage treated,  and use patterns indicate
insecticides and herbicides comprise the major agricultural
pesticides. There are over 320 insecticides and 127 herbi-
cides registered for agricultural use (Fowler  1972).498

-------
 346/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
   Along with the many benefits to agriculture, pesticides
 can have detrimental effects. Of concern for irrigated agri-
 culture is the possible effects of pesticide residues in irriga-
 tion water on the growth and market quality of forages and
 crops.  Pesticides most  likely  to be found in agricultural
 water supplies are listed in the Freshwater Appendix II-D.

 Insecticides in Irrigation Water
   The route of entry of insecticides into waters is discussed
 in the  pesticide  section  under Water for Livestock Enter-
 prises.  For  example, Miller et  al. (1967)500  observed the
 movement of parathion from treated cranberry bogs  into a
 nearby irrigation ditch and drainage canal, and Sparr et al.
 (1966)503 monitored endrin in waste irrigation water used
 three days after spraying. In monitoring pesticides in water
 used  to irrigate  areas near Tule Lake and lower Klamath
 Lake Wildlife Refuges  in northern California, Godsil  and
 Johnson  (1968)49!l  detected high levels of endrin  compared
 to other pesticides. They observed  that  the concentrations
 of pesticides in irrigation waters varied  directly  with agri-
 cultural activities.
   In monitoring  pesticides  residues from  1965 to  1967
 (Agricultural Research  Service 1969a),483 the U. S.  Depart-
 ment of Agriculture detected the following pesticides in ir-
 rigation waters  at a sampling area near Yuma, Arizona:
 the DDT complex, dieldrin,  methyl  parathion,  endrin,
 endosulfan,  ethyl  parathion, dicofol, s ,s ,s,-tributyl  phos-
 phorotrithiate (DBF), and demeton. Insecticides most com-
 monly  detected  were DDT, endrin, and dieldrin.  For the
 most part,  all residues  in  water were  less than 1.0 Mg/l.
 A further examination of the irrigation water at  the Yuma
 sampling area showed that water entering it contained rela-
 tively low amounts of insecticide residues while water leav-
 ing contained greater concentrations. It was concluded that
 some insecticides were picked up from the soil by irrigation
 water and carried  out of the fields.
   Crops at the same location were also sampled for insecti-
 cide residues. With the  exception of somewhat higher con-
 centrations of DDT and dicofol  in cotton stalks and canta-
 loupe vines,  respectively, residues in crop plants were rela-
 tively small.  The  mean concentrations, where  detected,
 were 2.6 /ig/'g combined DDT, 0.01 jug/g endrin,  0.40 jig/g
 dieldrin, 0.05 /ug/g lindane,  5.0 jug/'g dicofol, and 1.8 jug/g
 combined parathion. The  larger  residues for DDT and
 dicofol were apparently from foliage applications.  Sampling
 of harvested  crops showed that residues were generally  less
 than 0.30 /ug/g and  occurred  primarily  in lettuce  and in
cantaloupe pulp, seeds, and rind. DDT, dicofol, and endrin
were applied to crops during the survey, and from 2.0 to
 6.0 Ib/acre of DDT were applied to the soil before 1965.
  Some crops do not absorb measurable amounts of insecti-
cides  but  others  translocate the  chemicals  in various
amounts. At  the levels (less than 1.0 jug/1) monitored by  the
U. S. Department of Agriculture in irrigation waters (Agri-
cultural Research Service 1969a),483 there is little evidence
 indicating  that insecticide residues in the water are detr
 mental to plant growth or accumulate to undesirable or i
 legal concentrations in food or feed crops.

 Herbicides in Irrigation Water
   In contrast to insecticides, misuse  of herbicides  can prc
 sent a greater hazard to crop growth. Herbicides are likel
 to be found in irrigation water under the following circurr
 stances: (1) during their purposeful introduction into irriga
 tion water  to control submersed weeds; of (2)  incidental t
 herbicide treatment  for control of weeds on banks of irriga
 tion canals. Attempts  are seldom made to prevent wate
 containing herbicides such as sylene  or acrolein from beini
 diverted onto cropland during irrigation. In most instances
 however, water-use  restrictions do apply  when herbicide
 are  used in reservoirs of irrigation  water. The herbicide
 used in reservoirs  are more persistent and inherently mor<
 phytotoxic  at low  levels than  are  xylcne and acrolein.
   The tolerances of a number of crops to various herbicide
 used in and around water are listed in Table V-15. Residui
 levels  tolerated by most crops are usually much higher thai
 the  concentrations found  in water following normal use o
 the  herbicides.  Aromatic  solvent (xylenc)  and acrolein  an
 widely used in western states for  keeping  irrigation canal
 free of submersed  weeds and algae and are not harmful tc
 crops  at  concentrations needed for  weed  control. (U.  S
 Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service
 1963,504  hereafter referred to  as Agricultural Research
 Service 1963).18- Xylcne, which is non-polar, is lost rapidl)
 from water (50 per cent in 3 to  -1 hours) b\  volatility (Frank
 et al. 1970).497 Acrolein, a pola- compound, ma\ remain ir
 flowing water for periods of 24 hours or more at Levels thai
 are  phytotoxic  onh  to  submersed aquatic, weeds. Copper
 sulfatc is  used frequently to control algae. It has also  been
 bund effective  on  submersed vascular weeds when applied
 continuously to irrigation  water at low  levels  (Bartlev
 1969).487
   The herbicides that have been used  most widely on irriga-
 tion ditchbanks are 2,4-D, dalapon, TCA, and silvex. The
 application of herbicides ma>  be restricted to a swath of a
 few  feet along the  margin of the water,  or it may cover a
 swath  15 feet or more wide. A variable overlap of the spray
 pattern at the water margin is unavoidable and  accounts
 for most of the herbicide residues that  occur in water during
 citchbank treatments. Rates of application vary from 2 Ib
 p>er acre for 2,4-D to 20 Ib per acre for dalapon.  For ex-
 amples of residue  levels that occur  in  water  from these
 treatments see Table V-l 6. The residues generally occur only
 during the periods when ditchbanks  are  treated.
   The rates of dissipation of herbicides in  irrigation water
were reported recently by Frank et al. (1970).4
-------
                                                                                                              Water for Irrigation/347

                      TABLE V-15—Tolerance of Crops to Various Herbicides Used In and Around Waters"
          Herbicide
                                Site of use
                                                      Formulation
                                                                           Treatment rate
                                                                                             Concentration that may occur in
                                                                                                 irrigation water'
                                                 Crop injury threshold in
                                                 irrigation water (mg/l)c
Acrolein
Aromatic solvents uyfene)
                          Irrigation canals
                                              Liquid
                          Flowing water in canals or drains  Emulsiliable liquid
                                                                    15 mg/lfor 4 hours
0.6 me/I for 8 hours

0.1 mg/l for 46 hours
5 to 10 gal/cfs (350 to 750 mg/l)
 applied in 30-60 minutes
                                                                                           10 to 0.1 mg/l
                                                                                           0.4 to 0.02 mg/l

                                                                                           0.05 to 0.1 mg/l
                                                                                           700 mg/l or less
Flood or furrow; beans-60, corn-60,
 cotton-80, soybeans-20, sugar beets-
 CD.
Sprinkler; corn-60, soybeans-15,
 sugar beets-15.

Alfalfa> 1,600, beans-1,200, carrots-
 1,600,corn-3,000 cotton-1,600,
 gram sorghum >800, oats-2,400,
 potatoes-1,300, wheat > 1,200.
Copper sulfate



Dalapon
Diquat

Dfuron

Dichlobenil

Endothall

Endotriall amme salts

Fenac

Monuron

Silvei




TEA
2,4-D amine





Picloram

Canals or reservoirs



Banks of canals and ditches
Injected into water or sprayed
over surface
Banks and bottoms of small dry
powder ditches
Bottoms of dry canals

Ponds and reservoirs

Reservoirs and static-wafer
canals
Bottoms of dry canals

Banks and bottoms of small dry
powder ditches
Woody plants and brambles on
floodways, along canal, stream,
or reservoir banks
Floating and emersed weeds in
southern waterways
Banks of canals and ditches
On banks of canals and ditches



Floating and emersed weeds in
southern canals and ditches
For control of brush on water-
sheds
Pentahydrate crystals



Water soluble salt
Liquid

Wettable powder

Granules or wettable powder

Water soluble Na or K salts

Liquid or granules

Liquid or granules

Wettable powder

Esters in liquid lorm




Water soluble salt
Liquid





Liquids or granules

Continuous treatment 0 5 to 3.0
mg/l, slug treatment-1 to 1 1b
(0. 15 to 0.45 kg) per cfs water
flow
15 to 30 Ib/A or 17 to 34 kg/ha
3 to 5 mg/l, 1 to 1 5 Ibs/A, or
1.2to1.7kg/ha
Up to 64 Ib/A or 72 kg/ha

7to10lb/Aor7.9to12.6kg/ha

1 to 4 mg/l

0.5 to 2 5 mg/l

10 to 20 Ib/A or 12. 6 to 25.2
kg/ha
Up to 64 Ib/A or 72 kg/ ha

2 to 4 Ib/A or 2 2 to 4. 4 kg/ha


2 to 8 Ib/A or 2 2 to 8. 8 kg/ha

Up to 64 Ib/A or 72 kg/ha
Ho 4 Ib/A or 1.1 to 4/4 kg/ha



2 to 4 Ib/A or 2 2 to 4 4 kg/ha

1 to 3 Ib/A or 1 1 to 3 3 kg/ha

0.04toO 8 mg/l during first 10
miles, 0.08 to 9.0 mg/l during
first 10 to 20 miles.

Less than 0 2 mg/l
Usually less than 0.1 mg/l

No data

No data

Absent or only traces

Absent or only traces

Absent or only traces

No data

No data. Probably well under
0 1 mg/l

0 01 to 1 6 mg/l 1 day after appli-
cation
Usually less than 0 1 mg/l
0 01 to 0.10 mg/l



No data. Probably less than
8 1 mg/l
No data

Threshold is above these levels.



Beets > 7.0, corn >0 35
Beans-5.0, corn-125

No data

Alfalfa-10, corn>10, soybeans-1.0,
sugar beets-I.Oto 10.
Corn-25, field beans-1 0, Alfalfa
>10 0
Corn>25, soybeans>25, sugar beets-
25
Alfalfa-1.0, corn-10, soybeans-0.1,
sugar beets-0.1 to 10
No data

Corn > 5 0, sugar beets and soybeans
>0.02.

"

No injury observed at levels used.
Field beans -1.0, grapes-0 7, sugar
beets>0.2, soybeans>0 02, corn-
10, cucumbers, potatoes, sorghum,
alfalfa, peppers>1.0.
"

Corn-10, field beans 0.1, sugar
beets>1 0
 "Sources of data included in this table are-US Departmentof Agriculture.Agricultural Research Service (1969)505, Arleand McRae (1959,«s I960181), Brans (1954,™ 1957 «° 1964,'" 1969<^), Bruns and Clore(1958),«! Bruns
and Dawson (1959),"" Bruns et al. (1955,«51964,«f> unpublished data 1971s™) Frank et al. (1970),«' Veo (1959)607.
 ' Herbicide concentrations given in this column are the highest concentrations that have been found in irrigation water, but these levels seldom remain in the water when it reaches the crop.
 c Unless indicated otherwise, alt crop tolerance data were obtained by flood or furrow irrigation. Threshold of injury is the lowest concentration causing temporary or permanent injury to crop plants even though, in many instances,
neither crop yield nor quality was aflected.
are designed to deliver a certain volume of water to be used
on a specific area of cropland.  Water  is diverted from  the
canals at regular intervals, and this svstcmatically  reduces
the  volume  of flow. Consequently. little  or no water  re-
mains  at the ends  of most canals where  disposal of water
containing herbicides might be troublesome.

Residues in Crops
   Successful application of herbicides  for control  of algae
and  submersed  vascular  weeds  in  irrigation  channels is
dependent  upon  a  continuous flow  of water.  Because it is
impractical to interrupt the flow and  use of water  during
the application of herbicides in canals or on canal banks,  the
herbicide-bearing water is usually diverted onto  croplands.
Under  these  circumstances,   measurable levels  of  certain
herbicides may occur in crops.
   Copper  sulfate  is  used  most  frequently  for control  o*
 algae at concentrations that are often less than the suggested
 tolerance for this  herbicide  in potable  water.  Application
 rates ma\ range from one third pound of copper sulfate per
 cubic-fcet-second  (cfs)  of water flow to  two  pounds per cfs
 of  water  flow   (Agriculture  Research Service   1963).482
 Xylene is a common formulating ingredient for many pesti-
 cides and as such is often applied direct!}' to crop plants. The
 distribution by furrow  or sprinkler of irrigation water con-
 taining acrolein contributes  to the rapid loss of this herbi-
 cide. Copper sulfate,  xylene, and acrolein arc  of minor im-
 portance as sources of  objectionable residues in crops.
   Phenoxy herbicides,  dalapon,  TCA,  and  amitrole  are
 most persistent  in irrigation water  (Bartley and  Hattrup
 1970).488 It is possible to calculate the maximum amount of
 a herbicide such as 2,4-D that might  be applied  to  crop-

-------
      ection V—Agricultural Uses of Water
   TABLE V-16—Maximum Levels of Herbicide Residues
         Found in Irrigation Water as a Result of
                 Ditchbank Treatment"
Herbicide and canal treated
DALAPON
Five-mile Lateral
Lateral No. 4
Manard Lateral
Yolo Lateral
TCA
Lateral No. 4
Manard Lateral
Yolo Lateral
2,4-D AMINE SALT
Lateral No. 4
Manard Lateral
Yolo Lateral
Treatment rate, Ib/A

20
6 7
9 6
10.5

3.8
5.4
5.9

1.9
2.7
3.0
Water flow in cfs

15
290
37
26

290
37
26

290
37
26
Maximum concentration
of residue, jig/ 1

365'
23
39
162

12
20
69

5
13
36













 «Frank etal. (1970)"'.
 '• High level of residue probably due to atypical treatment.
land following its use on an irrigation bank. A four-mile-
long body of irrigation  water contaminated  with  2,4-D
and  flowing at a velocity of one mile per hour,  would be
diverted onto an adjacent field for a period of 4 hours. A
diversion rate of two acre inches of water in 10 hours would
deliver  0.8 inch  of contaminated  water per acre.  If this
amount of water contained  50  /*g/l of 2 ,4-D (a higher con-
centration than is usually observed), it would deposit slightly
less than 0.009 Ib of 2 ,4-D per acre of cropland. Levels of
2,4-D residues of greater magnitude  have not caused  in-
jury to irrigated crops (see Table V-15).
  The manner in which irrigation water containing herbi-
cides is applied to  croplands  may influence the presence
and  amounts of residues in  crops (Stanford Research Insti-
tute  1970).509 For example, residues in leafy crops ma> be
greater  when sprinkler irrigated  than when  furrow irri-
gated, and the converse may be true with root crops.
  If there is  accidental contamination of field, forage, or
vegetable crops by polluted irrigation water, the time inter-
val  between  exposure and harvesting of the  crop  is im-
portant, especially with crops used for human consumption.
Factors  to be considered with those  mentioned above  in-
clude the intensity of the application, stage of growth, dilu-
tion,  and pesticide degradability  in  order to assess the
amount of pesticide that may reach the ultimate consumer
(U.  S.  Department  of Health, Education and  Welfare
1969).506 Pesticides  applied to growing  plants may  affect
the market quality by  causing changes in the chemical com-
position, appearance,  texture, and  flavor  of the product
harvested for human  consumption  (NRC 1968).501

Recommendation
  Pesticide residues in irrigation waters are variable
depending upon land and  crop management prac-
tices. Recent data indicate pesticide residues are
declining in irrigation waters, with  concentrations
less than  1.0  ^g/1 being detected. To date there
have been no documented toxic effects on crops
irrigated with waters  containing insecticide resi-
dues.  Because of  these factors and  the  marked
variability in crop sensitivity, no recommendation
is given for insecticide residues in irrigation waters.
For selected  herbicides In  irrigation water, it is
recommended that levels at  the crop not exceed
the recommended maximum concentration listed
in Table V-16.

PATHOGENS

Plant Pathogens
  The  availability of "high quality" irrigation water may
lead to  the  reuse of runoff water  or tailwater and subse-
quently lead to a serious but generally unrecognized prob-
lem, that of the distribution of plant pathogenic organisms
such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and  possibly viruses.
This is most serious when it occurs on previously nonfarmed
lands.
  Distribution of Nematodes  Wide  distribution  of
plant-nematodes in irrigation waters of south central Wash-
ington  and the Columbia Basin of eastern Washington was
demonstrated by Faulkner and Bolander (1966,51;> 1970316).
When surface drainage from agricultural fields is collected
and reintroduced into irrigation systems, without first being
impounded  in settling basins,  large numbers of nematodes
can be transferred. Faulkner and Bolander's data indicated
that an acre of land in the Lower Yakima Valley may re-
ceive  from  4  million  to  over  10 million  plant-parasitic
nematodes with each irrigation.  Numbers of nematodes
transported  vary with the  growing season,  but  some thai
were detectable in irrigation water and demonstrated to be
iifective were ^Icloidagyne ha}>la, Heteiodeia .\chachtn, Pratylen-
chus sp., and Tylenchorhynchus sp.
  Meaghcr  (1967)5-6 found  that plant-parasitic nematodes
such as the  citrus nematode, 7 ylenc/mlus semipenetrans, may
be spread  by subsoil drainage  water reused for irrigation.
  Thomason and Van  Gundy  (1961)53"  showed another
means  by which nematodes may  possibly enter  irrigation
sjpplies. Two species of  rootknot nematode, Meloidogyne
incognita and M. javanica, were found reproducing on arrow-
weed, Pluchea seritea, at the edge of sandbars in the Colorado
River at Blythe, California.  \o conclusive evidence that
nematodes entered the river was presented, but infested soil
and infected roots were in  direct contact with the water.
  Plant-parasitic nematodes arc essentially aquatic animals
and  may  survive for days  or weeks immersed  in  water.
Unless  provisions are made for excluding  them from  or
settling  them out of irrigation water,  they  may seriously
deteriorate water quality in areas of the United  States de-
pendent on  irrigation for crop production.
  Distribution of Fungi  Surveys were conducted to de-
termine the origins  and prevalence of Phytophthora sp., a

-------
                                                                                             Water for Irrigation/^'-)
fungus pathogenic to citrus, in  open irrigation canals  and
reservoirs in five southern California counties by Klotz et
al. (1959).523 Phytophthora progagules were detected by trap-
ping them on healthy lemon fruits suspended in the water.
  Of the  12 canals tested from September 1957 to Septem-
ber 1958,  all yielded  Phytophthora sp. at one time or another,
some more consistently  than others.  Phytophthora citrophthora
was the most common and was  recovered from 11 canals.
  In the five canals where it was possible to set the lemon
traps at the source of the water, no  Phytophthora  sp. were
recovered. However, as the canals passed through  citrus
areas \\herc excess  irrigation water or rain runoff could
drain into the canals, the fungi ^crc readily isolated.  Soil
samples collected from  paths of runoff water that drained
into irrigation canals yielded P. citrophtliora, indicating  that
Phytuphthora zoospores from infested citrus groves can  be in-
troduced  into canals.
  One of three  reservoirs was found to be infested with P.
parantica.  Application  of copper  sulfate effectively con-
trolled the fungus under the static  condition of the water
in  the  reservoir.  Chlorination  (2  mg/1 for  2  minutes)
effectively killed the infective zoospores of Phytophthora sp.
under laboratory conditions.
  Mclntosh  (1966)M5  established that  Phytophthora cacto-
rum, which causes collar-rot of fruit trees  in  British  Co-
lumbia, contaminates the water of many irrigation systems
in  the  Okanagan  and Similkamen Valleys.  The fungus
was isolated from  15  sources including  ponds, reservoirs,
rivers, creeks, and canals. It had been established previously
that P.  cactonirn was widespread in irrigated orchard  soils
of the area,  but  could  not be readily  detected in non-
irrigated  soils.
  Mam  plant-pathogenic fungi normally produce fruiting
bodies that are widely disseminated by wind. A number
do  not, however, and  these could  easily be disseminated
by irrigation water.
  Distribution of Viruses  Most plant pathogenic  vi-
ruses do not remain infestive in the soil outside the host or
vector.  Two exceptions may  be  tobacco  mosaic virus
(TMV) and tobacco necrosis virus  (TXV).  There is some
evidence  that these  persist in association with  soil colloids
and can gain entry to plant roots through wounds. Hewitt
et al. (1958)52"  demonstrated that fan leaf  virus of grape
is transmitted by  a  dagger nematode,  Xiphinerna  index. To
date, three  genera  of  nematodcs,  Xip/iincma, Longuioruf,
and 7 nchodorus are known  to  transmit  viruses.  The  first
two  of  these genera  transmit  polyhedral  viruses of the
Arabis  mosaic  group.   Truhdorus spp.  transmit tubular
viruses of the Tobacco  Rattles group.
  Infective viruses are  known to persist in the nematode
vector  for months in   the  absence  of  a host  plant. This
information, coupled with Faulkner and Bolander's (1966,MIi
1970)1'"' proof of the distribution of nematodes in  irrigation
water,  suggested the possibility  that certain plant viruses
could be distributed in  their nematode  vectors in  irrigation
water. To date, no direct evidence for this has been pub-
lished.
  Several other  soil-borne  plant-pathogenic viruses are
transmitted  to hosts by soil fungi. The ability of the fungus
Olpidium brassicae to carry and  transmit Lettuce Big Vein
Virus (LBVV) was recently demonstrated (Grogan et al.
1958,M<) Campbell  1962,513 Teakle  1969529).  It is carried
within the  zoospore into fresh  roots and there  released.
The most likely  vehicle for  its distribution in irrigation
water would be resting sporangia carried in runoff water
from  infested fields. The resting sporangia are  released
into the soil from  decaying  roots of  host plants.  Another
economically important virus transmitted by a soil fungus
is  Wheat Mosaic  Virus carried by  the  fungus  Polymyxa
gramims (Teakle 1969).529
  Another means of spread  of plant  viruses (such as To-
bacco  Rattles Virus and  Arabis Mosaic  Viruses  that are
vectored by nematodes)  is  through virus-infected  weed
seed carried in irrigation water.
  Distribution of Bacteria  Bacterial  plant  pathogens
would appear to be easily transported in  irrigation water.
However, relatively  few  data  have  been published con-
cerning  these pathogens. Kelman (1953)522 reported the
spread of the bacterial wilt organism of tobacco in drainage
water from  fields and in water from shallow wells. He also
noted spread of the disease along an irrigation canal carry-
ing water from a forested area, but no direct  evidence of
the bacterium in the water was presented. Local spread in
runoff water is substantiated  but not in  major irrigation
systems.
   Controlling plant disease  organisms in irrigation  water
should  be  preventive rather than  an attempt to remove
them once they are introduced.  In assuring that irrigation
water  does  not  serve for  the dispersal of important plant
pathogens,  efforts  should be directed to those organisms
that are  not readily  disseminated by wind,  insects,  or
other means. Attention  should  be focused on those soil-
borne nematodes, fungi, viruses,  and bacteria that do not
spread rapidly in nature.
  Two major  means of introduction of  plant pathogens
into irrigation systems  are apparent.  The most common is
natural  runoff from infested  fields and  orchards during
heavy rainfall and floods. The other is collection of irriga-
tion runoff  or tailwatcr and its return to  irrigation canals.
If it is necessary  to trap surface water, either from rainfall
or irrigation drainage, provisions should  be made  to im-
pound the  water for sufficient time  to allow settling out
of nematodcs and possibly other organisms.
  Water may  be assayed for plant  pathogens, but there
are thousands, or perhaps millions of harmless microorgan-
isms for every one  that causes a plant disease. However,
plant pathogenic nematodes,  and  perhaps certain  fungi,
can be readily trapped from irrigation water, easily identi-
fied, and used as indicators of contamination (Klotz et al.
1959,623 Faulkner and Bolander 1966,616 Mclntosh  1966526).

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350/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
  Plant infection is not considered serious unless an eco-
nomically  important percentage  of  the  crop is affected.
The real  danger is that a trace  of  plant  disease can  be
spread by water to an  uninfected area, where it can then
be  spread  by other means and become important.  It  is
unlikely that any method of water examination would  be
as effective in preventing this  as  would the  prohibitions
such as those suggested above.

Human and Animal Pathogens
  Many  microorganisms, pathogenic for  either animals or
humans,  or  both,  may  be carried in  irrigation water,
particularly that derived from surface  sources. The list
comprises a large variety of bacteria, spirochetes, protozoa,
helminths, and  viruses which find  their way into irriga-
tion water from municipal and industrial wastes, including
food-processing  plants,  slaughterhouses, poultry-processing
operations, and  feedlots. The diseases associated  with these
organisms  include  bacillary and  amebic  dysentery, Sal-
monella  gastroenteritis,  typhoid  and paratyphoid fevers,
leptospirosis,  cholera,  vibriosis, and infectious  hepatitis.
Other less common infections are tuberculosis, brucellosis,
listeriosis,  coccidiosis,  swine erysipelas,  ascariasis,  cysti-
cercosis and  tapeworm  disease,  fascioliasis, and schisto-
somiasis.
  Of the types of irrigation commonly practiced, sprinkling
requires  the best quality of water from  a  microbiological
point of a view, as  the  water and organisms are frequently
applied directly to that portion  of the plant  above the
ground,  especially fruits  and  leafy  crops  such  as  straw-
berries, lettuce,  cabbage, alfalfa, and clover which may be
consumed  raw by  humans or  animals. Flooding the field
may pose the  same microbiological problems if the crop is
eaten without thorough cooking. Subirrigation and furrow
irrigation present fewer problems as the water rarely reaches
the upper portions of the plant; and root crops, as well  as
normal leafy  crops and  fruits, ordinarily  do not permit
penetration of the plant by animal and human pathogens.
Criteria for these latter types  may also  depend  upon the
characteristics of the soil, climate and other  variables which
affect survival of the microorganisms.
  Benefits  can be obtained  by coordinating operation  of
reservoir  releases  with downstream  inflows  to provide
sedimentation  and  dilution factors to  markedly  reduce
the concentrations  of pathogens  in  irrigation water (Le-
Bosquet  I945,624 Camp et al. 1949612).
  The common liver  fluke, Fasciola hepatica, the ova  of
which are spread from the  feces of many animals,  com-
monly affects  cattle and sheep (Allison 1930,610 U.S. Dept.
Agriculture 1961531), and may affect man. The intermediate
hosts, certain  species of snails, live in springs, slow-moving
swampy  waters, and on the banks of ponds, streams, and
irrigation ditches. After development in the snail, the cer-
carial forms emerge and encyst on grasses,  plants, bark,  or
soil.  Cattle and sheep become infected by  ingestion  ol
grasses, plants,  or water  IE  damp or  irrigated  pastun
where vegetation  is  infested  with metacercariae.  Ma
contracts the disease by ingesting plants such as watercre:
or lettuce containing the encysted metacercariae.
  Ascans ova are also spread from the feces of infected an
mals and man and are found in  irrigation water (Wang an
Dunlop 1954).632 Cattle and  hogs are commonly  infectec
where the adult worms mature in the intestinal tract, some
times blocking the bile ducts.  Ascaris  ova have  been rt
ported to survive for 2 years in irrigated soil and have bee
found on irrigated vegetables  even when chlorinated el
fluent was  used  for  irrigalion  (Gaertner and  Muetin
1951).517
  Schistosomiasis, although riot yet prevalent in the Unitei
States except in immigrants  from areas where the diseas
exists, should be considered  because infected individual
may move about the country and spread the disease.  Th
life cycle of these schistosomes is similar to that of the live
fluke, in that eggs from the feces or urine of infected indi
viduals are spread from domestic wastes  and may read
surface irrigation water where  the miracidial forms ente
certain snails and  multiply,  releasing cercariae. Althougl
these cercariae may produce disease if ingested by man, th<
more common method of infection is through the skin o
individuals  working  in  infested  streams and irrigatiot
ditches. Such infections are most common in Egypt (Barlov
1937)511 and other irrigated areas where workers wade in th(
water without boots.  It is unlikely that the cercariae woulc
survive long  on plants after harvest.
  Little is known of the possibility that enteric viruses such
as polioviruses,  Coxsackie, ECHO, and  infectious  hepatitis
viruses may be spread through irrigation practices. Murph)
and his co-workers (Murphy et al. 1958)827 tested the sur-
vival of polioviruses in the root  environment of tomato anc
pea plants in  modified hydro ponic culture.  In a seconc
paper, Murphy and Syverton (1958)628 studied the recover)
and distribution of a  variety of viruses  in growing plants
The authors  conclude that it is unlikely that plants or plan!
fruits serve as reservoirs and carriers of poliovirus. How-
ever, their findings of significant absorption of a mammalian
virus in the roots of the plants suggest that more research is
needed in this area.
  Many microorganisms other  than those specifically men-
tioned in this section may be transmitted to plants, animals,
and humans through irrigation practices.  One of the more
serious of these is vibriosis. In some cases, definitive infor-
mation on microorganisms is lacking. Although others, such
as the cholera organisms, are significant  in other parts of
the world, they are no  longer important in the United
States.
  Direct search for  the  presence of pathogenic micro-
organisms in streams, reservoirs, irrigation water,  or on ir-
rigated plants is too slow and cumbersome for routine con-
trol or assessment of quality.  Instead,   accepted  index
organisms such as the coliform group and fecal coli (Kabler

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                                                                                           Water Jor Irrigation/'351
et al. 1964),621 which are usually far more numerous from
these sources, and other biological or chemical tests,  are
used to assess water quality.
  Recent studies have emphasized the value of the fecal
coliform in assessing the occurrence of salmonella, the most
common bacterial pathogen in irrigation water. Geldreich
and  Bordner (1971)518 reviewed field studies involving ir-
rigation water, field crops,  and soils, and stated that when
the fecal coliform density  per  100  ml was above  1,000
organisms in various  stream  waters, Salmonella occurrence
reached  a  frequency  of 96.4 per  cent. Below  1,000 fecal
coliforms per 100 ml (range  1-1000) the  occurence  of
Salmonella was 53.5 per cent.
  Further support for the limit of 1,000 fecal coliforms per
100 ml of water is shown in the recent studies of Cheng et al.
(1971 ),514 who reported that  as the fecal coliforms density
reached less than 810 per 100 ml. downstream from a sewage
treatment plant, Salmonella  were not  recovered.

Recommendation
   Irrigation waters below the fecal coliform den-
sity of 1,000/100 ml should contain sufficiently low
concentrations of pathogenic microorganisms that
no hazards to animals or man result from their
use or  from  consumption of raw crops irrigated
with such waters.

THE USE OF WASTEWATER FOR IRRIGATION

  An expanding population requires new sources of water
for irrigation of  crops and development of disposal systems
for municipal and other wastewaters that will not result in
the contamination of streams, lakes,  and oceans. Irrigation
of crops with wastewater will probably be widely practiced
because it meets both needs simultaneously.

Wastewater From Municipal  Treatment Systems
  Various human and animal pathogens carried in munici-
pal wastewater need  to be nullified. Pathogens carried in
municipal wastewater include various bacteria, spirochetes,
helminths, protozoa, and viruses (Dunlop 1968).:'3S Tanner
(1944)558 and Rudolfs et al.  (1950)556  have reviewed the
literature on the occurrence and survival of pathogenic and
nonpathogenic enteric bacteria in soil, water, sewage, and
sludges, and on vegetation irrigated or fertilized with these
materials.  It would  appear from  these reviews that fruits
and vegetables growing in infected  soil can become con-
taminated with pathogenic  bacteria and that  these bacteria
may survive for periods of a few days to several weeks or
more in the soil, depending upon local conditions, weather,
and the degree of contamination. However,  Geldreich and
Bordner (1971)541 noted that pathogens are seldom detected
on  farm produce unless the plant samples are  grossly con-
taminated with sewage or are observed to have fecal particles
clinging to them. The level of pathogen recovery  depends
upon the incidence of waterborne disease in the area, the
soil  type,  soil  pH,  soil moisture  content, soil  nutrient
levels, antagonistic effects of other organisms, temperature,
humidity, and length of exposure to sunlight.
  Norman and Kabler  (1953)561  made coliform and other
bacterial counts in  samples  of sewage-contamination  river
and  ditch waters and of soil and vegetable samples in the
fields to which these waters were  applied. They found that
although the bacterial contents of both river and ditch waters
were very high, both soil and vegetable washings had much
lower counts. For  example, where irrigation  water had
coliform counts of  230,000/100  ml, leafy vegetables had
counts of 39,000/100 grams  and smooth vegetables, such as
tomatoes and peppers, only  1,000/100 grams. High entero-
coccus counts accompanied  high coliform counts in  water
samples, but enterococcus counts  did not appear to be cor-
related in any way with coliform counts in soil and vegetable
washings.
  Dunlop  and Wang (1961)539  have  also endeavored to
study the problem under actual field conditions in Colorado.
Salmonella,  Ascans ova,  and Entamoeba coh cysts  were re-
covered from more than 50 per cent of irrigation  water
samples contaminated with  either raw sewage or  primary-
treated, chlorinated effluents. Only one of 97 samples of
vegetables irrigated with this water yielded Salmonella, but
Ascans ova were recovered from two of 34 of the vegetable
samples. Although cysts of the human pathogen, Entamoeba
histolytua, were not recovered in this work, probably due to
a low carrier rate in Colorado;  their similar resistance to
the environment would  suggest that these organisms would
also survive in irrigation water  for a considerable  period of
time. It should be pointed out, however, that this work was
done entirely with furrow  irrigation on a sandy soil in a
semiarid region, and the low  recoveries from vegetables
cannot necessarily be applied to other regions or to sprinkler
irrigation of similar crops. In fact, Muller (1957)650 has re-
ported  that two places  near Hamburg, Germany, where
sprinkler irrigation was  used, Salmonella organisms were iso-
lated 40 days after sprinkling on soil and on  potatoes, 10
days on carrots, and 5 days on cabbage  and gooseberries.
  Muller (1955)549 has  also reported that 69  of 204 grass
samples receiving raw sewage  by sprinkling were positive
for organisms of the typhoid-paratyphoid group (Salmonella).
The bacteria began to die off 3 weeks after sewage applica-
tion ; but 6 weeks after  application, 5 per cent of the sam-
ples were still infected. These  findings emphasize the im-
portance of having good quality  water for sprinkler irriga-
tion.
  Tubercle bacilli have apparently not been looked  for on
irrigated  crops  in  the United  States.  However,   Sepp
(1963)667 stated that several investigations on tuberculosis
infection of cattle pasturing on sewage-irrigated land have
been carried out in Germany. The investigators are in gen-
eral agreement that if sewage application is stopped 14 days
before pasturing, there is no danger that the cattle will con-

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352/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
tract  bovine  tuberculosis through  grazing.  In  contrast,
Dedie (1955)537 reported  that these  organisms can remain
infective for 3 months in waste waters and up to 6 months
in soil. The  recent findings  of  a typical mycobacteria in
intestinal lesions of cattle  with concurrent tuberculin sensi-
tivity in the United States may possibly be due to ingcstion
of these organisms either from soil or irrigated pastures.
  Both animals and human beings are subject to helminth
infections—ascariasis, fascioliasis, cysticerosis and  tapeworm
infection, and schistosomiasis—all of which may be trans-
mitted through surface irrigation water and plants infected
with the ova or intermediate forms  of the organisms. The
ova  and parasitic worms are  quite resistant  to sewage
treatment processes as well as to chlorination (Borts 1949)r>33
and have been studied quite extensively in the application
of sewage  and  irrigation water  to  various crops  (Otter
1951,553 Selitrennikova and Shakhurina 1953,556 Wang and
Dunlop 1954560). Epidemics have been traced to  crop con-
tamination  with raw sewage but not to irrigation  with
treated effluents (Dunlop 1968).53S
  The chances of contamination  of crops can be further re-
duced by using furrow or subirrigation instead of  sprinklers,
by stopping  irrigation as long  as possible before harvest
begins, and by educating farm workers on sanitation prac-
tices  for harvest  (Geldreich and Bordner 1971).641  It is
better to restrict irrigation with  sewage water to  crops that
are adequately processed  before  sale and to crops that are
not used for human consumption.
   Standards are needed to establish  the point where irriga-
tion  waters that contain  some  sewage water must  be re-
stricted and to indicate the level to which wastewater must
be treated  before it can be used  for  unrestricted  irrigation.
  The direct isolation of pathogens  is too slow  and com-
plicated  for  routine analyses  of water quality (Geldreich
and Bordner 1971).541 A quantitative method for  Salmonella
detection has  been  developed   recently  (Cheng  et al.
1971).536 However,  the   minimum  number of  Salmonella
required to cause infection are not known, and data are not
available to correlate incidence  of Salmonella with the  inci-
dence  of other pathogens (Geldreich 1970).540  The fecal
coliform  group has a high  positive  correlation with fecal
contamination from warm-blooded animals and  should be
used as an indicator of pollution  until more direct methods
can be developed.
  Information is  available  indicating the  levels of fecal
coliform at which pathogens can  no longer be isolated from
irrigation water.  Salmonella were consistently  recovered in
the Red River of the north when fecal coliform levels were
1000/100 ml or higher, but were not detected at  fecal  coli-
form levels  of 218 and 49/100 ml  (ORSANCO Water Users
Committee 1971).562 Cheng et al. (1971)536 reported num-
bers  of fecal coliform at various distances  downstream,
and  Salmonella was not isolated from samples containing
less than 810 fecal coliforms/100 ml. Geldreich and Bordner
(1971)541 presented data  from nationwide field  investiga-
tions  showing  the  relationship  between  Salmonella  o<
currence  and  fecal coliform  densities.  Salmonella occu
rence was 53.5 per cent for streams with less than 1,000 fee,
coliforms  per 100 m]  and 96 4 per cent for streams wit
more than 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml. A maximui
level of 1,000 fecal coliforms  per  100 ml of water appca
to be a realistic standard for v/ater used for unrestricted i
rigation.
  Secondary sewage effluent can be chlorinated to rcduc
the fecal coliform bacteria below the 1,000 per ml limit, bi
viruses may survive chlorination. Wastewater used for ui
restricted  irrigation should receive at  least primary  an
biological secondary treatment  before chlorination Filtn
tion through soil is another effective  way to remove fee;
bacteria  (Merrell et al.  1967.H8 Bouwer 1968/'34 Bouwc
and Lance 1970,535 Lance arid Whislcr 1972).544
  The elimination of health hazards has been (lie  primar
consideration regulating  the  use of sewage water in th
past. But control of nutrient loads must also be a prime cor
cern.  The nutrients applied to the land must be balance
against the nutrient removal capacity of the soil-plant sy;
tern to  minimize  groundwater  contamination.  Kard<.
(1968)542  reported that various crops removed only 20 t
60 per cent of the phosphorus .applied in sewage water, bu
the total removal by the soil-plant system was about 99 pe
cent.
  Many biological reactions account for nitrogen  remova
from wastewater, but  heavy applications of sewage wate
can result in  the movement  of nitrogen below the root zon
(Lance543 m press 1972).
  Work with a high-rate groundwater recharge system uti
lizing sewage water resulted in 30 per cent nitrogen  remova
from the sewage water (Lance and Whislcr  1972).Jl44
  Nitrate can accumulate in plants supplied with nitrogei
in excess of their needs to the point that  they are a hazan
to livestock. Nitrate usually accumulates  in stems and leave
rather than in seeds (Victs 1965).669
  The concentration of trace elements in sewage water usec
for  irrigation should meet the general requirements estab
lished for  other irrigation waters. Damage to  plants by toxit
elements has  not yet been a problem on lands irrigated wit!
sewage water in the United  States. Problems couLd develof
in some areas, however, if industries release potentially toxii
elements such as zinc or copper into sewage treatment sys
terns in large quantities. The concentration of boron ir
sewage water may become a problem if the  use of  this ele-
ment in detergents continues to increase. The guidelines foi
salinity in irrigation water also apply to  sewage water usec
for  irrigation.
  The organic matter content of secondary sewage water
does no"t appear to be a problem limiting its use in irrigation
Secondary sewage effluent  has been infiltrated into river
sand at a  rate of 100 meters per year in Arizona (Bouwer
and Lance 1970).535 The COD of this water was consistently
.-educed from 50 mg/1 to 17 mg/1 or the same COD as the

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                                                                                      Water j"or Irrigation/353
native groundwater of the area. The organic load might be
a factor in causing clogging of soils used for maximum irri-
gation to promote groundwater recharge. Suspended solids
have not been reported to be a problem during irrigation
with treated effluents.

Wastewater From  Food  Processing Plants  and Animal
    Waste Disposal Systems

  Wastewater from food  processing plants,  dairy plants,
and  lagoons  used for treatment of wastes  from  feedlots,
poultry houses, and swine operations, may also be used for ir-
rigation.  Some food processing wastewater  is high in salt
content and the guidelines for salinity control concerning
unrestricted irrigation in the Section, Irrigation Quality for
Arid Regions, should be followed (Pearson m /;?m 1972'"4).
Effluents from plants using a lye-peeling process  are gen-
erally unsuitable for irrigation due to  their high sodium
content.  All  of  the wastewaters  mentioned  above are
usually much higher in organic  content than secondary
sewage effluent.  This can result in clogging of the soil
surface, if  application rates are excessive  (Lawton ct al.
1960,:'«  Law 1968/45  Law et  al.  1970).r>4°  Only well
drained soils should  be irrigated, and runoff should be pre-
vented unless a  closely managed  spray-runoff treatment
system is  used. The nutrient  content of the wastewaters
varies considerably. The  nutrient load  applied should be
balanced against the nutrient removal capacity of the soil.
Food processing wastes present no pathogenic problem and
may be used for unrestricted irrigation. Since some animal
pathogens also infect  humans, water containing  animal
wastes should not be applied with sprinkler systems to crops
that are consumed raw.

Recommendations
• Raw sewage  should  not be used in  the United
  States for irrigation  or land disposal.
• Sewage  water  that has received  primary treat-
  ment  may be used on crops not used for human
  consumption.  Primary  effluents  should be free
  of phytotoxic materials.
• Sewage  water that has received secondary treat-
  ment  may also be used to irrigate crops that are
  canned  or similarly  processed before sale.
• Fecal  coliform standard for  unrestricted  irri-
  gation water should  be a maximum of 1,000/100
  ml.
• The amount of wastewater that  can be applied
  is determined  by balancing the nutrient load of
  the  wastewater  against  the  nutrient  removal
  capacity of the soil.
• Phosphorus will probably not limit sewage appli-
  cation because of  the tremendous adsorption
  capacity of the soil.
• The nitrogen  load  should be balanced against
  crop removal within  30 per cent unless additional
  removal can be demonstrated.

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                                                     LITERATURE  CITED
GENERAL FARMSTEAD USES

1 American Water Works  Association. Committee  on  Tastes  and
    Odors (1970), Committee report:  research on tastes and odors.
    J. Amer. Water. Works Ass. 62(1): 59-62.
2Atherton, H. V.  (1970), Comparison of methods of sanitizing water.
    ASAE Paper 70-759. 1970 Winter Meeting. Am. Sac. Ag. Eng.
    Chicago.
* Atherton, H. V., D. A. Klein, and R. N. Mullen (1962), Symposium
    on water treatment and use. Farm water supplies, their influence on milk
    quality [Paper 62-206] (American Society of Agricultural En-
    gineers, St.  Joseph, Michigan), 9 p.
4 Ayres,  J.  C.  (1963), Low  temperature  organisms as indexes  of
    quality of fresh  meat, in Microbiological quality  of foods,  L.  W.
    Slanetz, C. O. Chichester, A. R. Gaufin, and Z. J. Ordal, eds.
    (Academic  Press, New York), pp.  132-148.
6Baumann, E. R. and D. D. Ludwig (1962), Free available chlorine
    residuals  for  small nonpublic water supplies.  J.  Amer. Water
     Works Ass.  54(11):1379-1388.
6 Behrman, A.  S.  (1968),  Water is everybody's business: the chemistry of
    water purification (Doubleday and Company,  Inc., Garden City,
    New York), pp.  1-18.
' Black, A. P., R. N. Kinman, W.  C.  Thomas, Jr., G. F. Freund, and
    E. D. Bird  (1965), Use of iodine for disinfection. J. Amer. Water
    Works Ass. 57(11): 1401-1421.
8 Davis, J. G.  (1960), The microbiological control of water in  dairies
    and food factories. II. Dairy Ind. 25(12)'913-918.
9 Dougan, R.  S. (1966), The quantity-quality challenge of water in
    rural  areas,  in  Proceedings, Farmstead water quality improvement
    seminar [PROC-I67] (American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
    St. Joseph,  Michigan), pp. 47-48.
10 Elms, D. R. (1966), Neutralization, sequestration, oxidation and
    adsorption,  in Proceedings, farmstead water quality  improvement semi-
    nar [PROC-167]  (American  Society of Agricultural  Engineers,
    St. Joseph,  Michigan), pp. 24-26,  50.
11 Environmental Protection Agency draft, Drinking Water Standards,
    1972 revision.
12 Esmay,  M. L., B. E. Guyer,  M. D.  Shanklin,  and L. H. Tempel
    (1955), Treatment of surface water supplies for  the farm home.
    Mo. Agr. Exfi. Sta. Res. Bull. no.  589, 36 p.
13 Geldreich,  E.  E. and R.  H. Bordner (1971), Fecal contamination
    of fruits and vegetables  during cultivation  and processing for
    market. A review. J. Milk Food  Technol. 34(4):184-195.
14 Huff, C. B., H. F. Smith, W. D. Boring, and N. A.  Clark (1965), A
    study of ultraviolet disinfection of water and factors in treatment
    efficiency. Public Health Reports 80:695-704.
16 James,  G. V. (1965), Water treatment,  3rd ed. (The  Technical Press,
    Ltd., London), 307 p.
16 Kabler, P. W. and J. F. Kreissl (1966), Biological  and radiological
    properties of  water, in Proceedings,  farmstead water quality improve-
    ment seminar  [PROC-167]   (American  Society of Agriculture
    Engineers, St. Joseph,  Michigan), pp. 9-11, 17.
17 Kjellander,  J. O., and E. Lund (1965), Sensitivity of escherichi
    coli and poliovirus  to  different forms of combined chlorine. ^
    Amer. Water Works Ass. 57(7):893-900.
18 Klumb, G.  H.  (1966),  Nature  of  water:  physical and  chemic;
    properties, in  Proceedings, farmstead water quality improvement semint
    [PROC-167]  (American  Society  of Agricultural  Engineers, S
    Joseph, Michigan),  pp. 5-8.
19 Kristoffersen, T. (1958), A  psychrophilic strain relatively resistar
    to hypochlorite-type sanitizers. J. Dairy Sci. 41(7):1003.
20 Lamar, W. L. (1968), Evaluation of organic color and iron in natural sui
    face waters [Geological Survey professional paper 600-D] (Goverr
    ment Printing Office,  Washington,  D. C.), pp. 24-29.
21 Lamar, W.  L. and D. F. Goerlit;:  (1966), Organic acids in naturall
    colored  surface waters  [Geological Survey  water  supply  pape
    1817-A] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 17 p
22 Laubusch, E.  J. (1971), Chlorination and other  disinfection proc
    esses, in  Water  quality ami treatment,  3rd  ed.,  prepared  by  th
    American Water  Works  Association (McGraw-Hill Book Co.
    New York), pp. 158-224.
23 Lewis, R. F. (1965), Control oi sulfate-reducing bacteria. J. Amet
    Water  Works Ass. 57(8):1011-1015.
24 Livingstone,  D.  A.  (1963), Chemical  composition of rivers  am
    lakes [Geological  Survey professional paper 400-G], in Data  a
    geochemistry, 6th cd.,  M. Fleischer, ed.  (Government Printin]
    Office, Washington, D. C.),  64 p.
26 Mackenthun, K. M. and L. E. Keup (1970), Biological  problem
    encountered in  water  supplies. J.  Amer.   Water  Works Ass.  62
    520-526.
« Malaney, G. W., H. H. Weiser, R. O. Turner, and M. Van I [on
    (1962), Coliforms, enterococci, therrnophiles, and psychrophilc
    in untreated farm pond waters. Appl. Microbwl. 10(1):44-51.
27 Mercer, W. A. (1971),  F'ood processing without pollution. Presentee
    at  the  64th convention  of  the  National  Canners Association
    January 26, 1971.
"Moore, M.  J. (1971),  Rural water  supplies.  Vermont Extension  Cir
    145.
*9 O'Donovan, D.  C. (1965), Treatment with ozone.  J. Amer. Watel
    Works Ass. 57(9):1167-1194.
50 Oliver, R. P. (1966), Comparison of chlorine, bromine  and iodine
    for use in Farmstead water treatment. A. S. A. E. Conference Pro-
    ceedings Farmstead  Water  Quality  Improvement Seminar,  Columbus.
    Ohio. ASAE. Publ. Proc-167.
11 Pavelis, G. A. and K.  Gertel (1963), The management  and use o)
    water, in A place to  live:  the yea] book of agriculture J903 (Govern-
    ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.),  pp.  88, 90.
12 Shaw, M. D. (1966), Water disinfecting processes. Heat, silver, and
    ultraviolet, in Proceedings, farmstead water quality improvement seminar
                                                                  354

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     Amer. J. Vet. Res. 15:622-629'.
290 Schechter, M. S.  (1971),  Revised chemicals monitoring guide ft
     the national pesticide monitoring program. Pestic. Momt. J. 5(1
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2MTarrant, K.  R. and J. O'G. Tatlon (1968), Organochlorine pest
     cides in  rainwater in the British Isles. .Nature 219:725-727.
292 U.S.  Department  of Agriculture.  Agriculture  Research Servic
     (1969),  Monitoring agricultural  pesticide  residues  1965-196
     (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 97 p.
293 U.S.  Department  of Health,  Education  and Welfare (1969),  R,
    port of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and  their Relationship •
     Environmental Health (Government Printing Office,  Washingtor
     D.  C.),  677  p.
294 Weed Society of  America (1970), Herbicide Handbook. 2nd ed., W. \
     Humphrey Press Inc., Geneva, N. Y.
296 Weibel, S. R., R. B. Weidner, J. M. Cohen, and A. G.  Christianso
     (1966),  Pesticides and other contaminants in rainfall and runofl
    J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58(8): 1074-1084.
296 Whitehead,  C. C.  (1971), The effects of pesticides on productioi
     in poultry. Vet Rec. 88:114-1 17.
297Woolson, E. A.,  J. H. Axley,  and P. C. Kearney (1971), Correla
    tion. between available soil arsenic, estimated by six methods, an<
    response of corn  (^_ea mays L.). Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 35(1):101
     105.
298Zweig,  G., L.  M. Smith, S. A. Peoples, and R. Cox (1961), DD'l
    residues  in milk  from dairy cows fed low  levels of DDT in  thei
    daily rations. J. Agr. Food Chem. 9(6):481-484.

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 PATHOGENS AND PARASITIC ORGANISMS

 299 Breed, R. S., E. G. D. Murray, and N. R  Smith (1957), Sergey's
     manual of determinative bacteriology,  7th ed.  (Williams & Wilkins
     Co . Baltimore, Maryland), 104') p.
 3»» Crawford,  R. P., W. F. McCulloch,  F.  H. Top, and  S  L. Diesch
     (1969), Epidcmiologic studies of sporadic human cases oflepto-
     spirosis in Iowa  1965-1968. Journal American  Veterinary Medical
     Association 155:2084.
 301 Gillcspie, R. W. 11 , S. G Kenzy, L. M. Ringcn, and F. K. Bracken
     (1957), Studies on bovine leptospirosis. III.  Isolation of Leplo-
     spira pomana from  surface waters. Amer. J.  Vel. Ret. 18(6(i)'76-80.
 302 Larson, II. E  (1964),  Investigations on the epidemiology of lis-
     tcriosis- the distribution  of Listeria  monocytogenes in environments
     in which clinical  outbreaks have not been diagnosed. Nord  \7el
     Met! 10 8DO-909.
 303 parkcTi R.  R.;  E. A. Steinhaus, G. M. Kohls, and W. L. Jelhson
     (1951), Contamination of natural  waters and mud with Pasleur-
     elln  litlaienin   and tularemia  in  beaxers and  muskrats in  the
     northwestern  L1  S. .\ational Institute of Health Hull   No   193.
     pp 1-61.
 3M Prior,  J. E., eel. (1966),   Saw medical  virology (The  Williams  &
     Wilkins Co , Baltimore,  Maryland), 715 p.
 305 Seghctti, L  (1952), The  recovery  of  Paiteuretla  tularcnsis  from
     natural waters by guinea pig inoculation. Cornell Vel. 42:462-463.
 306 Van Ness, G B. (1971), Ecology of anthrax. Science 172:1303-1307.
 307 Van Ness,  G.  B.  and K.  Erickson  (19G4), Ecology of bacillary
     hemoglobinuria  Journal  of Am Vet. Med. Aswc. 144-492 496.
 3«8Van Thiel, P.  II   (1948), The leptospiroses, Universitairc  Pers.
     Leiden, The Netherlands.
 309 Wilson, G.  S. and A  A. Miles (1966),  Topley and Wilsons principles
     of bacteriology  and immunity, 5th ed. 2563 p
 310 Wood, R. L  and R  A. Packer (1972), in press,  Isolation of Erysi-
     pfliithnx rhufiopathiae  from  soil and  manure  of swine-r,using
     premises. Amer. Jour. Vet. Re's.
WATER  QUALITY  CONSIDERATIONS  FOR  IRRIGATION

""Ayres,  A. D.,  J. W.  Brown,  and C.  H.  Wadleigh  (1952),  Salt
     tolerance  of  barley  and  wheat  in  soil  plots receiving  several
     salimzation regimes. Agron. J 44:307—310.
312 Bernstein, L. (1967), Qiiantitative assessment  of irrigation water quality
     [Special technical publication 416] (American Society for testing
     and Materials, Philadelphia), pp. 51-65.
313 Bernstein, L. (1965a), Salt tolerance of plants [Agricultural informa-
     tion  bulletin 283]  (Government Printing  Office,  Washington,
     D. C.), 23 p.
314 Bernstein, L. (1965b), Salt tolerance of fruit crops  [Agricultural in-
     formation bulletin 292] (Government Printing Office, Washing-
     ton, D. C.), 8 p.
315 Bernstein,  L.  and  H. E.  Hayward  (1958),  Physiology  of salt
     tolerance. Annu. Rev. Plant Physwl. 9:25-46.
316 Bower, C. A. and L. V. Wilcox (1965), Precipitation and solution
     of calcium carbonate in irrigation operations. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
     Proc. 29(l):93-94.
317 Brown,  J.  W.  and C.  W.  Wadleigh  (1955), Influence of sodium
     bicarbonate on the growth and chlorsis of garden beets. Hot.  Gat.
     116(3):201-209.
318 Cline, J. F., M. A. Wolfe, and F. P. Hungatc (1969), Evaporative
     cooling  of heated  irrigation  water  by sprinkler application.
     Water Resources Research 5:401-407.
319 Eaton, F.  M.  and R. B.   Harding (1959), Foliar uptake of salt
     constituents of water by citrus plants during intermittent sprink-
     ling and immersion. Plant Physiol. 34:22-26.
320 Ehlig,  C. F. and L. Bernstein  (1959), Foliar  absorption of sodium
     and chloride  as a factor in sprinkler irrigation. Proc. Amer. Soc.
     Hort. Sci.  74:661-670.
321 Hayward, H. E. and L. Bernstein (1958), Plant-growth relation-
     ships on salt-affected soils. Bot. Ren. 24:584-635.
322 Lilleland, O., J. G.  Brown,  and  C.  Swanson (1945), Research
     shows sodium may cause leaf tip burn. Almond Facts 9(2) :1, 5.
323 Lunt, O. R., H. C. Kohl, and A.  M. Kofranek (1956), The effect
     of bicarbonate and  other constituents of irrigation water on the
     growth of azaleas. Proc.  Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 68:537-544.
324 Magistad, O. C., A. D.  Ayers, C.  H. Wadleigh, and H. G. Gauch
     (1943), Effect of salt concentration,  kind of salt and climate on
     plant growth  in sand cultures. Plant  Physwl. 18:151-166.
325 Mcnzel, R. G.  (1965),  Soil-paint relationships  of radioactive  ele-
     ments.  Health Pbys.  11:1325-1332.
32GMenzel, R. G.,  II. Roberts, Jr., E. II.  Stewart, and A. J. Mac-
     Kenzie (1963), Strontium-90 accumulation on plant foliage dur-
     ing rainfall. Science 142:576-577.
327 Milbourn,  G. M.  and  R. Taylor (1965), The contamination of
     grassland  with radioactive strontium:  I. Initial  retention  and
     loss  Radial. Bot. 5:337-347.
328 Moorby, J. and H. M.  Squire (1963), The loss of radioactive iso-
     topes from leaves of plants in dry conditions.  Radiat.  Bot. 3:163-
     167.
329 pcrl'in, F. (1963), Experimental study of the radioactive contami-
     nation  of cultures,  especially by irrigation water. C. R. Seances
     Acad. Agric. Fr. 49:611-620.
330 Pratt,  P.  F. (1966), Carbonate  and  bicarbonate, in Diagnostic
     cnlena for plants  and soils, H.  D. Chapman,  ed.  (University of
     California, Division of Agricultural Science, Berkeley), pp. 93-97.
331 Pillsbury, A. F. and  H. F. Blaney (1966), Salinity problems  and
     management  in river-systems. J. Irr. Dram. Div. Amer. Soc. Civil.
     Kng 92(IR l)-77-90.
332 Raney, F. C. (1963), Rice water temperature. Calif. Agr. 17(9), 6-7.
333Raney,  F.  C.  (1959),  Warming  basins  and water temperature.
     California Rice Research Symposium. Proc. Albany, California.
334 Raney, F.  C. and Y.  Mihara (1967), Water and soil temperature.
     Amer. Sec. Agron.  Agron.  11:1024-1036.
335 Salinity  Laboratory  (1954).  U.S. Department  of  Agriculture.
     Salinity  Laboratory Staff (1954),  Diagnosis and improvement
     of saline  and alkali soils [Handbook 60] (Government Printing
     Office,  Washington, D.  C.),  160 p.
336 Schoonover, W. R. (1963), A report on water quality in lower  San
     Joaquin  River as  related to agriculture. Report to the U.S.
     Bureau of Reclamation.
337 U.S. Department of Agriculture.  Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954),
     Diagnosis  and  improvement of saline and alkali soils [Handbook  60]
     (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 160 p.

References  Cited
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     cultural  Research  Service,  U.S. Department  of  Agriculture,
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339 Menzel, R. G.  (1972), personal communication, Water Quality Man-
     agement  Laboratory, Agriculture Research  Service, U.S.  De-
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SPECIFIC  IRRIGATION WATER  CONSIDERATIONS

340 Bernstein.  L. (1966), Rc-usc  of  agricultural waste waters  for ir-
     rigation in relation  to the salt tolerance of crops. Report No. 10:
     185-189,  Los  Angeles.
341 Bernstein, L. (1967),  Quantitative  assessment of irrigation water quality
     (Special technical publication 416) (American Society for testing
     and Materials, Philadelphia), pp. 51-65.

-------
 362/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
 342 Bower, C. A., G. Ogata, and J. M. Tucker (1968), Sodium hazard
     of irrigation waters as influenced by leaching  fraction and  by
     precipitation or solution of calcium carbonate. Soil Sci.  106(1):
     29-34.
 343 Bower, C. A.  and L.  V. Wilcox (1965), Precipitation and solution
     of calcium carbonate in irrigation operations. Soil Set. Soc. Amer.
     Proc. 29(l):93-94.
 344 Bower, C. A., L. V. Wilcox, G. W. Akin, and M. C. Keyes (1965),
     An  index  of the tendency of CaCOs to precipitate from irriga-
     tion waters.  Soil Set. Soc. Amer. Proc.  29(l):91-92.
 346 Christiansen, J. E. and J. P. Thome  (1966), Discussion of Paper,
     "Salinity  problems and management in river systems." Amer.
     Soc. Civil Eng.  Proc.  92:84-86.
 346 Doneen, L.  D. (1959), Appendix C. Feasibility of reclamation of
     water  from wastes in the  Los Angeles metropolitan  area. Cali-
     fornia State Department of Water Resources, Bulletin 80, Depart-
     ment of Water Resources Staff,  155  p. and appendixes.
 347 Eaton, F. M. (1950), Significance of carbonates in irrigation waters.
     Soil Sci. 69:123-133.
 348 Eriksson, E. (1952), Cation-exchange  equilibria on clay minerals.
     Soil Sci. 74:103-113.
 349 Langelier, W. F.  (1936), The analytical control of anticorrosion
     water  treatment. J. Amer.  Water Works Ass. 28:1500-1521.
 360 Lunin, J. and A.  R.  Batchelder  (1960), Cation exchange in acid
     soils upon treatment with saline solutions.  Trans. Int. Conf. Soil
     Sci.,7th, Madison, Wisconsin 1:507-515.
 351 Lunin, J. and M. H.  Gallatin (1960), Brackish water for irrigation
     in humid regions. U.S. Department  of Agriculture ARS 41-29.
 362 Lunin, J., M. H. Gallatin, and  A. R. Batchelder  (1963), Saline
     irrigation  of several vegetable crops  at various growth stages. I.
     Effect  on yields.  Agron. J.  55(22):107-110.
263 Lunin, J., M. H. Gallatin  and  A. R. Batchelder  (1964), Inter-
     active  effects of base saturation  and exchangeable sodium on the
     growth and cation composition of beans. Soil Science 97:25-33.
 364 Lunin, J., M. H. Gallatin, C. A.  Bower, and L. V. Wilcox  (1960),
     Brackish water for  irrigation in humid regions. U.S. Deft. Agr.
     Agr. Inform. Bull. 213:1-5.
366 Magistad, O. C., A. D. Ayers, C.  H. Wadleigh, and H. G. Gauch
     (1943), Effect  of salt concentration,  kind of salt and  climate on
     plant growth in sand cultures. Plant  Physiol. 18:151-166.
 366 Pillsbury, A. F.  and  H. F. Blaney (1966), Salinity problems and
     management in river-systems. J. Irrigation Drainage Div. Amer. Soc.
     Civil. Eng.  92(IR1):77-90.
367 Pillsbury, A. F. and W. R. Johnston (1965),  Tile drainage in the San
    Joaqum Valley  of California  [Contribution 97] (Water Resources
     Center, University of California, Los Angeles).
368 Pratt, P. F.  and F. L. Bair (1969), Sodium hazard of bicarbonate
    irrigation waters. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.  Proc. 33(6):880-883.
369 Pratt, P. F., G. H. Cannell, M. J. Garber, and F. L. Bair (1967),
    Effects of three nitrogen fertilizers on gains, losses, and distribu-
    tion of various elements in irrigated lysimeters. Hilgardia 38(8):
    265-283.
360 Quirk, J. P. and R. K. Schofield  (1955), The effect of electrolyte
    concentration on soil permeability. J. Soil Sci. 6:163-178.
361 Rainwater, F. H. (1962), Stream composition of the conterminous
     United States, in U.S.  Geological Survey atlas (Government Print-
    ing Office, Washington, D. C.), plate HA-61.
 362 Reeve, R. C.,  A. F. Pillsbury, and L. V. Wilcox (1955), Reclama-
     tion of saline  and high-boron soil in the  Coachella  Valley  of
    California. Hilgardia 24:69-91.
363 Salinity   Laboratory  (1954).  U.S.  Department  of Agriculture.
     Salinity  Laboratory Staff  (1954),  Diagnosis  and  improvement  of
    saline and alkali soils [Handbook 60] (Government Printing Office,
    Washington, D.C.),  160 p.
PHYTOTOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS

364 Adams, F. and Wear, J.  I. (1957), Manganese toxicity and so
     acidity in relation to crinkle leaf of cotton. Soil Sci. Soc. Ame
     Proc. 21:305-308.
365 Ahmed, M. B. and E. S. Twyman (1953), The relative toxicity <
     manganese and  cobalt to the tomato plant. J. Exp. Bot.  4:164
     172.
366 Allaway, W. H., E. E. Cary, ami C. F. Ehlig (1967), The cyclin
     of low levels of selenium in soils, plants and animals, in Symftosiun
     selenium  in  bwmedicme, O. H   Muth, J. E. Oldfield, and P. 1
     Weswig,  eds.  (AVI  Publishing  Co.,  Westport,  Connecticut
     pp. 273-276.
367 Allaway, W. H., P. D. Moore, J. E. Oldfield,  and O.  II. Mut
     (1966), Movement of physiological  levels of selenium from soi
     through plants to animals. J. J\'utr. 88:411-418.
368 Albert, W. B. and C.  H.  Arndt (1931),  Concentrations of solub!
     arsenic as an index of arsenic toxicity to plants. S. Car. Agr. f'xj
     Sta. 44th Ann. Rfpt. pp. 47-48.
3MAldrich,  D.  G.,  A. P. Vansclow,  and  G. R.  Bradford  (1951
     Lithium toxicity in citrus. Soil Sci.  71:291—295.
370 Barnettc, R. M.  (1923), The inilucnce of soluble aluminum sal
     on the growth of wheat seedlings  in Shives RsC3 solution. A'. J
     Agr. Exp. Sta. Annual Reft. 255-258.
371 Barnette,  R.  M.  (1936),  The occurrence  and  behavior  of  Ie:
     abundant elements in soils. Fl'inda  Univ.  Agr. Expt. Sta.  Annut
     Report.
372 Benson, N. R. (1953), Effect of season, phosphate,  and acidity o
     plant growth in  arsenic-toxic soils. Soil  Sci. 76:215—224.
373 Benson, N.  R. and H. M. Reisenauer (1951), Use and manage
     ment of unproductive "ex-orchard" soils. Wash Agr.  Exp. Stc
     Cue. no. 175, 3 p.
374 Berry, R.  A. (1924),  The  mammal properties of lead nitrate, j
     Agr. Sci. (London) 14:58-65.
375 Biggar, J. W. and M. Fireman (1960), Boron absorption and re
     lease by soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.  Proc. 24(2) :11.5-120.
376 Bingham, F. T., R. J. Arkley, N. T. Coleman,  and G. R.  Bradforc
     (1970),  Characteristics  of Ugh  boron soils in  western  Ken
     County. Hilgardia 40(7):193-2()4.
377 Bingham, F. T., A. L. Page, and G. R. Bradford (1964), Tolerano
     of plants to lithium. Sod Sci. 98(1):
378 Bollard, E.  G. and G. W.  Butler  (1966), Mineral  nutrition o
     plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 17:77-112.
379 Bradford,  G.  R.  (1966),  Boron  [toxicity,  indicator  plants], ii
     Diagnostic criteria for plants and toils,  H.  D. Chapman, ed.  (Uni
     versity of California, Division of Agricultural Science, Berkeley)
     pp. 33-61.
380 Bradford, G. R. (1963a), Lithium in California's water resources
     Calif. Agr. 17(5):6-8.
381 Bradford,  G. R.  (1963b), Lithium survey  of California's  wate
     resources. Soil Sci. 96(2):77-81.
382 Brenchlcy,  W.  E. (1938),  Comparative  effects  of cobalt,  nicke
     and copper on plant growth.  Ann.  Appl. fiwl. 25:671-694.
383 Brewer, R. F. (1966), Lead  [toxicity, indicator plants],  in Diag
     noshc criteria for plants and soils, H.  D. Chapman, ed. (University
     of California,  Division of  Agricultural  Science, Berkeley),  pp
     213-217.
384Broyer, T.  C., D.  C. Lee, and C. J. Asher  (1966), Selenium nu-
     trition of green plants. Effect of selenite supply on  growth anc
     selenium content of alfalfa and subterranean clover. Plant Physiol
     41 (9): 1425-1428.
386 Chang, A.  T. and G. D. Sherman (1953), The nickel content oi
     some Hawaiian  soils  and plants and the relation of nickel tc
     plant growth. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 19:3-25.
388 Chapman, H. D. (1966), Diagnostic criteria for plants and soils  (Uni-

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387 Chapman, H. D. (1968), Mineral nutrition of citrus, in The citrus
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388Chisholm, D., A. W.  MacPhee, and C. R.  MacEachern (1955)
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389 Chiu, T. F.  (1953), The effect of vanadium application on paddy
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398 Dye, W.  B. and J.  L  O'Hara  (1959),  Molybdosis. Nevada Agr.
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399 Earley,  E. B. (1943),  Minor element studies  with  soybeans:  I.
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400 Eaton, F. M.  (1935), Boron in soils and irrigation waters and its
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401 Eaton, F. M. (1944),  Deficiency,  toxicity,  and  accumulation of
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402 Foy,  C. D., W. H. Armiger, L. W. Briggle, and D. A. Reid (1965),
     Differential  aluminum  tolerance of wheat  and  barley  varieties
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404 Gail, O. E. and R. M. Barnette (1940), Toxic limits of replaceable
     zinc to corn and cowpeas grown  on three Florida soils. J. Amer.
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40BGericke,  S. and E. V.  Rennenkampff  (1939), Effect of the trace
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406 Gissel-Nielson, G. and  B. Bisbjerg  (1970), The uptake  of applied
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407 Grant, A. B. (1965), Pasture top-dressing with selenium. New ^eal.
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408 Haas, A. R. C. (1932), Nutritional aspects in mottleleaf and other
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411 Hatcher, J. T. and C. A. Bower (1958), Equilibria and dynamics
    of boron absorption by soils. Soil Sci. 85:319-323.
412 Hewitt,  E. J.  (1953), Metal interrelationships in plant nutrition.
    I. Effects of some metal  toxicities on sugar beet, tomato, oat,
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413 Hewitt,  E. J.  (1948),  Relation of manganese  and  some other
    metals to the iron status of plants. Nature 161:489-490.
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415 Hilgeman, R.  II., W. H.  Fuller, L. F. True, G. G. Sharpless, and
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416 Hodgson,  J.  F.  (1960),  Cobalt reactions with  montmorillonite.
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417 Hodgson, J. F. (1963), Chemistry of the rnicronutricnt elements in
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421 Hunter, J. G. and O. Vergnano (1953), Trace-element toxicities
    in oat  plants. Ann. Appl. Bwl. 40:761-777.
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    Control Administration, Washington, D. C.
549 Muller, G. (1955), Pollution of irrigated grass with  bacteria of the
    typhoid-paratypoid group. Komn/.  Wirtschraft 8:409.
660 Muller, G. (1957),  The  infection  of growing  vegetables  with
    domestic drainage. Stadtehyg. 8:30-32.
"'Norman, N. N. and P. W. Kabler (1953), Bacteriological study of
    irrigated vegetables. Sewage Indust. Wastes 25:605-609.
652ORSANCO  [Ohio  River  Valley  Sanitation  Commission] Water
    Users Committee (1971), Totel eoliform: fecal coliform ratio for
    evaluation of raw  water bacterial quality. J.  Water Pollut. Contr.
    Fed. 43:630-640.
Bi3 Otter,  H.  (1951), Sewage treatment plant  of the town of Munster.
    Munster, Westphalia.  Wass.  V. Boden 3:211.
654 Pearson, G. A. (1972), in press  Suitability for irrigation  of waste-
    water from  food-processing  plants.  Journal  oj Environmental
    Quality.
6'-6 Rudolfs, W., L. L.  Falk, and R. A.  Ragotzkie (1950), Literature
    review on the occurrence and survival of enteric, pathogenic, and
    relative  organisms in  soil, water, sewage, and sludges, and  on
    vegetation. I. Bacterial and virus diseases.  Sewage Indust. Wastes
    22(10):1261-1281.
6116 Selitrennikova, M.  B.  and E.  A. Shakhurina (1953),  Result of
    organization of fields for sewage in hot climate  of Uzbekistan.
    Gig. Sanit. 7:17-19.
6(7 Sepp, E. (1963), The use of sewage for irrigation. A literature re-
    view.  (Bureau  of Sanitary  Engineering,  California State  De-
    partment of Public Health, Berkeley, California), p.  6.
668 Tanner,  F. W.  (1944),  The  microbiology  oj foods  (Garrad Press,
    Champaign, Illinois),  pp. 649-664.
""Viets,  F.  G. (1965), The plant's need for and use  of  nitrogen.
    Amer. Soc. Agr on. Agr on.  10:503-549.
560 Wang, W.  L. and S. G.  Dunlop  (1954), Animal parasites in sewage
    and irrigation water. Sewage Indust.  Wastes 26:1020-1032.

-------
                   Section  VI—INDUSTRIAL  WATER  SUPPLIES
                                       TABLE  OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION	
    WATER USE	
    SCOPE	
    WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS .
    CONCLUSIONS	
        Recommendations	
BASIC WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES.
    EXTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES. .
        Group A Processes	
        Group B Processes	
        Group C Processes	
    INTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES. ...
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER	
    STEAM GENERATION AND COOLING	
        Description of the Industry	
        Processes Utilizing Water	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality.. .
        Water Treatment Processes	
    TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS (SIC 22)	
        Description of the Industry	
        Processes Utilizing Water 	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
        Water Treatment Processes   	
    LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS (SIC 24)	
        Description of  the Industry and Processes
          Utilizing Water	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
        Water Treatment Processes	
    PAPER AND ALLIED  PRODUCTS (SIC 26)	
        Description of the Industry	
        Processes Utilizing Water	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
    CHEMICAL AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC 28)....
Page
369
369
370
370
371
371

372
372
372
373
375
375

376
376
376
377
378
379
379
379
380
380
381
381

381
382
382
382
382
382
383
384
        Description of the Industry	
        Processes Utilizing Water	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality.. .
        Water Treatment Processes	
    PETROLEUM REFINING (SIC 2911)	
        Description of the Industry	
        Refinery Water Consumption Trends	
        Processes Utilizing Water	
        Process Water Properties	
        Process Water Trealment	
    PRIMARY METALS INDUSTRIES (SIC 33)	
        Description of the Industry	
        Processes Utilizing Water	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
        Water Treatment Processes	
    FOOD CANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 2032 and 2033).
        Description of the Industry	
        Processes Utilizing Water	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality.. .
        Water Treatment Processes	
    BOTTLED AND CANNED SOFT DRINKS (SIC 2086).
        Description of the Industry	
        Processes Utilizing Water	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
        Water Treatment Processes	
    TANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 3111)	
        Description of the Industry	
        Processes Utilizing Water	
        Significant Indicators of Water Quality.. .
        Water Treatment Processes	
    MINING AND CEMENT INDUSTRIES (SIC 10)	
        Mining	
        Cement	

LITERATURE CITED	
Pag
384
384
384
38;
ss;
38^
ss;
386
38C
387
388
388
388
38G
389
389
389
390
391
391
392
392
392
392
393
393
393
392
394
394
394
394
395

396
                                                   368

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                                                INTRODUCTION
WATER  USE
  Since  the advent of  the  industrial  era,  the use  and
availability of water has been of primary concern to industry
both in the selection and design of plant sites and in plant
operation. By  1968 the water withdrawal of industry—
including both industrial manufacturing plants and inves-
tor-owned thermal electric  utilities—had reached a  total of
approximately 84,000  billion gallons per year  (bgy). Of
these, about 93 per  cent or 78,000 bgy was used for  cooling
or condensing purposes; 5 per cent or nearly  4,300  bgy
was  used  for processing,  including water  that came  in
contact with the product as steam or coolant; and less than
2 per cent or 1,000 bgy was used as boiler-feed water (U. S.
Department of Commerce, Bureau  of  the  Census 197119
hereafter referred to as Bureau of the Census 1971).5 *
  Of the total intake nearly 30 per cent or 25,000 bgy was
brackish water containing  more than  1,000 milligrams per
liter  (mg/'l) of  dissolved  solids.  The  freshwater   intake
amounted to 59,000 bgy;  56,000 of these took the  form of
surface water delivered by water systems owned by the  user
company. Groundwater amounted to 2,300 bgy, a relatively
small percentage of the total intake,  but its significance and
importance cannot be overlooked in view of the number of
industrial plants that use it for part or all of their supply.
  Thirty per cent of the approximately  4,000 bgy used by
the manufacturing processes in 1968 was treated or secured
from a public water supply. Ninety per cent of all the water
the manufacturing industry used  for  boiler feed and  pro-
cessing was represented in  this figure.  Water for cooling or
condensing represented over 90 per  cent of total industrial
water use. The largest part of this was on  a once-through
basis where only a minimum of treatment was economically
feasible.
  Table VI-1 summarizes the information on water intake,
recycling, and consumption for each industrial group  con-
sidered in this Section. Recycling may include reuse for dif-
ferent cooling or process systems, recirculation through cool-
ing towers or cooling ponds, recharge of water to an under-
ground aquifer,  or reuse of effluents from sewage or waste
treatment plants.
 TABLE VI-1—Industrial Plant and Investor-Owned Thermal Electric Plant Water Intake, Reuse, and Consumption, 1968
                                         Water intake (bgy)
SIC      Industrial group
                                       Purpose
                      Cooling and condensing    Boiler feed,        Process
                                   sanitary service, etc.
                        Gross water use,
            Water recycled (bgy)  including recycling   Water consumed   Water discharged
                           (bgy)         (bgy)         (bgy)
                                                                Total
20
22
24
26
28
29
31
33





Food and kindred products
Textile mill products
Lumber and wood products
Paper and a Hied products
Chemicals and allied products
Petroleum and coal products
Leather and leather products
Primary metal industry
Subtotal
Other Industries
Total Industry
Thermal electric plants
TOTAL
427
24
62
652
3,533
1,230
1
3,632
9,561
574
10,135
68,200
78,335
93
22
20
123
210
111
1
165
745
291
1,036
W
1,036 (4)
290
109
37
1,478
733
95
14
1,207
3,963
332
4,295

4,295
810
155
119
2,253
4,476
1,436
16
5,004
14,269
1,197
15,466
68,200
83.666
535
174
87
4,270
4,940
5,855
4
2,780
18,645
1,589
20,234
8,525
28,759
1,345
329
206
6,523
9,416
7,291
20
7,784
32,914
2,786
35,700
76,725
112,425
57
19
26
175
301
219
1
308
1,106
84
1,190
100
1,290
753
136
93
2,078
4,175
1,217
15
4,696
13,163
1,113
14,276
68,100
82,376
 »Boiler-feed water use by thermal electric plants estimated to be equivalent to industrial sanitary service, etc., water use.
 1 Total boiler-feed water.
 Buinau of the Census 19715
  * Literature citations appear at the end of the Section. They can be located alphabetically or by superscript number.

                                                          369

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370/Section VI—-Industrial Water Supplies
SCOPE

  After describing industry's use of water in steam genera-
tion and  cooling, the panel on  Industrial  Water Supplies
examined ten groups of one or more industries as defined by
the Standard  Industrial  Classification (SIC)  coding  used
by the Bureau of the Census (U. S. Executive Office of the
President, Bureau of the Budget  1967).22
  The industries included  textile mills  (SIC  22), lumber
and wood (SIC 24), pulp and paper (SIC  26), chemical and
allied products (SIC 28), petroleum refining  (SIC 2911),
primary  metals (SIC 33), food canning  (SIC  2032 and
2033), bottled and canned  soft drinks (SIC 2086), tanning
(SIC 3111), and mining and cement (SIC 10). Only the
                        major users of water were included, representing a variety
                        of industries in order to insure that a wide cross section o
                        water qualities would be described.
                           Industrial effluents cause  water quality  changes  in  the
                        receiving systems, but  consideration of these changes wa:
                        not  part of the charge to  the Panel  on  Industrial  Watei
                        Supplies. The other Sections in this  Report include con
                        sideration of the effects of many specific constituents of suet
                        effluents as related to various water uses.

                        WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

                           Water quality requirements differ widely for the broac
                        variety of industrial  uses, but modern water treatment tech
TABLE VI-2—Summary of Specific Quality Characteristics of Surface Waters That Have Been Used as Sources for Industria
                                                     Water Supplies
                            (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/l and values are maximum*. No one water will have all the maximum values Shawn)
              Boiler Makeup water
Cooling Water
                                                                                      Process Water





Silica (SlO::)
Alum mum (Al)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Copper (Cu)
Calcium (Ca)

Magnesium (Mg)
Sodium & potassium
(Na+K)
Ammonia (NHj)
Bicarbonate (HCOj)
Su Hale (SO,)
Chloride (Cl)
Fluoride (F)
Nitrate (NOj)
Phosphate (P0<)
Dissolved Solids
Suspended Solids
Hardness (CaCOi)
Alkalinity (CaCOi)
Acidity (CaCO.j
pH, units
Color, units
Orgamcs:
Methylene blue ac-
tive substances
Carbon tetrachlonde
extract
Chemical oxygen de-
mand (COD)
Hydrogen sulfide(H2S)
Temperature, F

0 to 1 500
psig


150
3
60
10







600
1,400
19,000



35,000
15,000
5,000
500
1,000

i,200

23 mm diameter.
  ' One mg/l for pressures above 700 psig.
  ' No floating oil.
  i Applies to bleached chemical pulp and paper only.
  a 12,000 mg/l Fe includes 6,000 Fe+; and 6,000 Fe++.
  ASTM Standards 1970' or Standard Methods 1971"

-------
                                                                                                  Introduction/37 \
nology is capable of treating almost any raw water to render
it suitable  for any  industrial use. The treatment may be
costly, and may require  large ground space not  always
available at otherwise suitable  plant locations. Sometimes
the substitution  of a more expensive  alternative supply is
necessary.  Nevertheless, in most  cases, the costs involved
are but a small part of the total production and  marketing
costs" of the industrial product in  question.
  It is evident that the more nearly the composition of an
available water supply approaches the particular composi-
tion needed, the more  desirable  that  water is,  and,  con-
versely, the more such compositions differ, the more difficult
and expensive it is  to modify the water for use. Improper
operation or malfunction of control instruments or water
treating equipment may cause a deterioration of the treated
water, and this, in  turn, can cause deterioration or loss of
product and damage to equipment. The poorer the quality
of the raw water, the more serious the consequences of such
malfunctions.
  Improving the quality of a given water supply will only
incrementally decrease the cost of treatment for an industrial
installation, because it is often too late to make economical
alterations in the existing water treatment facilities.  For the
same reason, if the quality characteristics of the water supply
are allowed to deteriorate  from their  usual range, the  cost
for treatment can be substantially increased. On the other
hand, improved water supply characteristics at a given  site
may mean lower water treatment costs for other industries
subsequently established there.
  Table VI-2 summarizes  quality characteristics of surface
waters at the point of intake that  have been used as sources
of boiler makeup, cooling,  and process water.

CONCLUSIONS

    • Industry is diversified in kind, size,  and product. It
       incorporates  many processes,  including different
      ones to achieve the same ends. Water quality require-
      ments for different industries, for various industrial
      processes  within  a single plant,  and for the same
      process  in different plants vary widely.
    • Water quality requirements at point  of  use,  as dis-
      tinguished from requirements at point of intake,  are
      established for a number of industrial processes but
      are inadequately defined or nonexistent for others.
    • Modern water treatment technology  permits water
      of virtually any quality to be treated  to provide the
      characteristics desired by industry  at point  of use.
      Occasionally,  this may be costly; but in  general the
      cost of  treating water  for specific processes  is  ac-
      ceptable to industry,  because it is only a small part
      of total  production and marketing costs.
    • Although water quality at point of use is critical for
      many  industrial processes, industry's  intake water
      quality  requirements are not as stringent as those
      for public water supplies, recreational   or  agricul-
      tural use, or support of aquatic life.
    • Because of the diversity of industrial water quality
      requirements,  it is not possible to state specific values
      for intake water quality characteristics for industrial
      use. Ordinarily  these values lie between those that
      have been used by industries for sources of water
      (Table  VI-2)  and  the  quality  recommended  for
      other uses in other sections of this book.

Recommendations
  Desirable intake water quality characteristics for
industrial water  supplies  can  be  meaningfully
designated as a range lying between the values that
have been used by industry for sources of water
(Table VI-2) and the quality characteristics recom-
mended for  other water uses in other chapters of
this Section. Values that exceed those in Table VI-2
would  ordinarily not be acceptable to  industry.

-------
                                BASIC  WATER  TREATMENT  PROCESSES
  A wide range of treatment processes is available to pro-
duce water of the required quality for industry at the point
of use. Treatment methods fall into two general categories:
external and  internal.  External  treatment refers to pro-
cesses utilized in altering water quality prior to the point of
use. The typical household water softening unit is an external
treatment. Internal treatment  refers to processes  limited
basically to chemical additives utilized to alter water quality
at the point of use or within the process. Water softening
compounds used in laundering are forms of internal treat-
ment. Water treatment  processes are in themselves users of
water. Normally, 2  to 10 per cent of the feed water ends up
as waste generated by treatment processes (see Table VI-3).
Thus,  the actual water intake  is greater than the  treated
water produced.

EXTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

  Figure VI-1 is a schematic diagram of the most common
external water treatment processes.  Properly applied, alone
or in various combinations, these processes can convert any-
incoming water quality  to a usable quality. A dramatic ex-
ample is the conversion of brackish water  to a water that
exceeds the quality of distilled water.
  Note that the flow chart illustrates many processes and
that a particular process is applied to remove  a  particular
contaminant.  If that  contaminant does not appear in the
water or is harmless for  the intended use of the water, that
process would  not be used.  For example, a clear well water
might  not need filtration  prior to further treatment.  In
addition, the water use determines the extent of treatment.
For  example,  to use  Mississippi River water  for  cooling,
rough screening  to remove the floating debris  may be suf-
ficient for some applications, whereas clarification and filtra-
tion may be required for other uses. To use that same water
for makeup for a super critical pressure boiler would require
further treatment by ion exchange, perhaps strong  cation,
strong anion, and mixed bed exchangers.
  As previously stated, industry's need for water can be met
even  under the poorest conditions.  However,  the  use c
water treatment systems is riot without consequence. Ex
ternal water treatment processes concentrate a particula
contaminant or contaminants.  Thus, in the quest for pun
water, a waste product is generated. The waste product is ;
Qollutant and the cost of its disposal must be considered a
-aart of the overall cost of water treatment.
  The estimates of waste volume and solids in Table VI-;
are based on treating a water with an analysis such as showr
in Table VI-4. Table VI-4 also illustrates an analysis  o
several common forms of water treatment. The estimate;
are thus typical only  of the water described and will var;
with different water supplies. Waste volumes are stated as ;
percentage of inlet flow. Thus,  a 2,000 gallon per minutt
(gpm) clarifier will discharge 40 to 100 gpm of sludge.
  The following paragraphs briefly  describe the available
treatment methods, outline their capabilities, and combinec
with Table  VI-3, provide a general  idea of the waste pro
duced. (The groupings A, B, and C do not imply treatmeni
schemes or  necessarily indicate a  sequence of treatment.)
The processes are  applicable to various water characteris-
tics; it is immaterial whether the supply is surface or grounc
water. Since the equipment used can be of appreciable size,
available land area can be an important factor in the selec-
tion of a particular process.

Group A Processes
  Rough Screens   Generally installed at the actual point
of intake,  rough screens are simple  bars  or mesh screens
used to  trap large objects and prevent damage to pumps
&nd other mechanical equipment.
  Sedimentation   This process takes place in large open
basins used to reduce the  water velocity so  that heavier
suspended particles can settle out.
  Clarification   Chemical additives  (e.g.,  aluminum
salts,  iron salts, lime)  are used in large open basins so that
practically  all suspended matter, color, odors,  and organic
compounds can be removed efficiently.
  Lime Softening (cold)  The equipment  used here is
                                                       372

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                                                                                                   Basic  Water  Treatment Processes/373
similar to that used for clarification. In addition to floccu-
lent chemicals, lime and sometimes soda ash are used in
large open basins. Clarification is obtained, and a large
portion of the calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are
removed.
Lime Softening (hot) The process is, in general, the
same as cold except that it is carried out at or above 212 F.
The results are the same but with the added benefit of silica
removal. The characteristics of wastes are the same but at a
high temperature. Note that further treatment of hot lime
TABLE VI-3— Waste Generated by Treatment Processes
Example of waste
Treatment process" Character of waste produced Waste volume weight6 dry basis
percentage flow pounds solids 1 , 000
gal processed
Rough screens Large objects, debris
Sedimentation Sand, mud slurry 5-10
Clarification Usually acidic chemical sludge 2-5 1.3
and settled matter
Cold h me softening Alkaline chemical sludge and 2-5 1.7
settled matter
Hot lime sof tenmg(+212 F) Alkaline chemical sludge and 2-5 1.7
settled matter
Aeration Gaseous, possible air pollutant,
such as hydrogen sulfide
Filtration, gravity, or pressure Sludge, suspended solids 2-5 0.1-0.2
(for packed bed units)
Adsorption, activated carbon for Exhausted carbon if not re- 2-5
TABLE VI-4 — Typical Raw Water Analyses and Operating
Results (mg/l,, unless otherwise indicated)
Constituent
Cations11
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Total Cations
Anions"
Bicarbonate
Carbonate .
Hydroxide
Sulfate
Chloride
Nitrate
Total Anions
Iron"
Silica"
Color''
Turbidity1
pH«
a Taken from Livingstone 1963s
' Developed by the Panel for illi
Expressed Raw water"
as
CaCO: 51 5
19.5
18.6
1 8
91 4
568
0
0
21.8
12 0
0.8
91 4
Fe 0 16
SiO 9 0
units 15.0
100 0
65-75
After
clarification
and
filtration
51.5
19 5
18. 6
1.8
91.4
47 8
0
0
30 8
12.0
0 8
91 4
Nil
90
2-5
0-2
6 0-8 0
After
cold lime
softening
and
filtration
38.7
17 5
18 6
1 8
76 6
0
33 0
0
30 8
120
0 8
76 6
Nil
9 0
2-5
0-2
9 0-11.0
After
clarification,
filtration,
and sodii/m-
cation
exchange
softening
1 0
1.0
87.6
1 8
91.4
478
0
0
30 8
12.0
0 8
91 4
Nil
9 0
Nil
Nil
6 0-80
After
clarification,
filtration,
and
demmerali-
zation
0
0
1-2
0
1-2
0
0
1-2
0
0
0
1-2
Nil
0 01
Nil
Nil
7.0-9 0
, adjusted slightly for ion balance and for expression as CaCO equivalents.
jstrative purposes.
 Odors, tastes, color, organics
Manganese zeolite, for iron
 removal
Miscellaneous, e.g., precoat,
 membrane, dual media filtra-
 tion fine straining
Reverse osmosis'
Electrodialysis'


Distillation

Ion exchange processes^
 Sodium cation

 2-bed demineralization

 Mixed bed demineralization

Internal processes
 generated. Small amounts
 carbon fines and other solids
 can appear in backwash
 Carbon regeneration is sepa-
 rate process (usually thermal)
 in which air pollution prob-
 lems must be met
Iron oxide suspended solids

As in other filters Precoat
 waste includes precoat ma-
 terials
Suspended and 90-99 percent
 of dissolved solids plus chem-
 ical pretreatment if required
Suspended and 80-95 percent
 of dissolved solids plus chem-
 ical prelreatment if required
Concentrated dissolved and
 suspended solids

Dissolved calcium, magnesium
 and sodium chlorides
Dissolved solids from feed plus
 regenerants
Dissolved solids from feed plus
 regenerants
Chemicals are added directly
 into operating cycle  At least a
 portion of process steam con-
 taming added chemicals, dis-
 solved and suspended solids
 from feed, and possibly con-
 tamination from process can
 be extracted from the cycle for
 disposal or treatment and re-
 cycle.
Similar to other
 filtration prodesses
      1-5
                                              10-50
                                              10-50
     10-75
     4-6
     10-14
     10-14
                  0.1-0 2
              (plus precoat ma-
              terials when used)
                  1.0-2.0
1.0-2.0


  1.5


  1 3

  4-5

>5
 " Processes are used alone or in various combinations, depending upon need.
 6 Amounts based on application of process to raw water shown in Table VI-4. These values do not necessarily apply
  when these processes are used in combinations.
 ' Feed must be relatively free of suspended matter.
 J There are many variations, listed here are a few of the most important.
effluent is generally limited to filtration and sodium  cation
exchange.
   Aeration   This process,  which  can  be in  several  dif-
ferent physical forms, is applied to reduce the concentration
of carbon dioxide,  thereby reducing the chemicals required
for cold  lime softening. Aeration oxidizes iron and manga-
nese to allow their removal by clarification, lime softening,
or filtration. No  solid wastes flow from an  aerator,  but  re-
leased gases such as hydrogen sulfide can  present a problem.
   Miscellaneous  There  are other  special variations of
all  the primary  treatment  methods  that  can  be  applied
under specific circumstances.

Group B  Processes

   Filtration  This  process uses gravity or pressure units
in which  traces of suspended matter  are removed by pas-
sage through a  bed of sand, anthracite coal, or other granu-
lar material.  In  general,  the effluent  at  the primary stage
must be  filtered prior to  further treatment.  Some  waters
can be filtered without primary treatment. A filter is cleaned
by reversing the  direction of the water flow (backwashing).
   Adsorption  This is  a separation process  designed pri-
marily  to  remove  dissolved  organic  materials  including
odor,  taste, and  color-producing  compounds.  Activated
carbon is generally used  for this  purpose.  Backwaslu'ng of
fixed adsorption  units produces small  amounts of solids as
the  feed  has generally been  filtered  prior  to  passage over
the  carbon. Expanded bed adsorption units do not require
regular backwashing.  Chemical or  thermal regeneration of

-------
    VI—Industrial Water Supplies
                          (Items not enclosed in boxes indicate typical water
                                  uses for treatment methods shown.)
                             Rjw Water Supply
Clear Waler. Pap
Cooling,
Rinsing, Potable
Beverage
         Medjum Pressure Boilers •«-	
                          FIGURE VI-1—External Water Treatment Processes

         (Items not enclosed in boxes indicate typical water uses for treatment methods shown.)

-------
                                                                                Basic Water Treatment Processes/37 5
carbon can remove adsorbed impurities and restore adsorp-
tive efficiency and capacity.
   Manganese Zeolite  This process, specifically used for
iron removal, is a special combined form of oxidation  and
filtration with a feed of potassium permanganate.
   Miscellaneous Many specialized forms applicable to
specific conditions are available. These include precoated
filters, membrane filters, strainers, and dual media filters.

Group C Processes
   Ultrafiltration Various types of pressure filters in-
cluding membranes, cartridges,  and discs  can remove  sus-
pended solids larger than 0.1 to 1.0 micron, depending on
the application.
   Reverse  Osmosis  This relatively new development
uses high pressures to force water through a membrane, pre-
venting the passage of all suspended matter and up to  90-
99 per cent of dissolved solids. The product water can be
used directly or may  require further treatment by  ion ex-
change. The influent  must be essentially free of suspended
solids.
   Electrodialysis  A relatively new  development,  this
process uses cationic and  anionic membranes with applied
direct current to remove dissolved solids. The product water
can be used  directly or may require further treatment by
ion exchange. The feed must be essentially free of suspended
matter.
  Distillation   This  process  uses thermal  evaporation
and condensation of water so that the condensate is free of
suspended solids and 98-99 per  cent of the dissolved solids
arc removed.  Certain conditions may require the addition
of special chemicals. The product water can be used directly
or may require further treatment by ion exchange. The feed
must be relatively free of suspended matter.
   Ion Exchange  Ion exchange is a versatile process with
several dozen variations. Ion exchange technology is rapidly
advancing. New resins, regeneration techniques, and opera-
tion modes are being introduced. Some of the more common
applications arc shown  in Table VI-3. The exact arrange-
ment  of an ion exchange system depends  upon raw water
quality,  desired  treated  water  quality,  flow rate,  and
economies. Total demineralization can remove in excess of
99 per cent of dissolved solids with feeds  as high as 2,000
parts  per million (ppm) or more. The waste produced by
an ion exchanger includes the backwash and rinse waters,
the regeneration effluent containing the exchanged ions,  and
the excess regenerative chemical. In general, the feed to  any
ion exchanger should  contain no or only small quantities of
suspended matter, color, and organics.
   Cation   Cation exchange  removes cations  from  the
water  and  replaces them with other  cations from  an  ion
exchanger. When in the hydrogen or acid form, strong ca-
tion (i.e.,  strong acid) can exchange hydrogen ions for the
cations of either weak or strong acids, whereas weak cation
(i.e., weak acid) exchanges hydrogen only for that fraction
of cations equivalent to the weakly acidic anions present,
such as bicarbonate.
   Sodium Cation  This is the simplest form of ion ex-
change. Sodium ions are exchanged for hardness ions (e.g.,
calcium, magnesium).
   Anion   Anion exchange removes anions from the water
and replaces them with other anions from the ion exchanger.
When in the base form, strong anion exchangers are capable
of exchanging hydroxyl ions for the anions of either weak or
strong acids, whereas weak anion exchangers exchange only
with anions of strong acids.
   Demineralization  In  industrial water treatment, de-
mineralization  refers to a sequence of cation  exchange in
which hydrogen ions are substituted for other cations fol-
lowed by anion exchange in which hydroxyl ions are substi-
tuted for other anions. The  product is H+ plus OH~;  i.e.,
water.
   Mixed  Bed  Mixed  bed exchange  provides  complete
demineralization in one step by the use of an intimate mix-
ture of cation and anion resin  in one unit. It is generally
used for the polishing service step of high purity water. A
cation-anion exchange system might produce a water con-
taining  1.0 ppm of dissolved  solids. After treatment  by
mixed bed,  the solids would be down as low as 0.01 ppm.
   Miscellaneous   There  are  several  specialty ion ex-
changers including: dealkalizers—chloride anion  exchange
for the removal of alkalinity; desilicizers—hydroxide anion
exchange for the removal of silica (without previous hydro-
gen  cation). Degasification  equipment is used to remove
carbon dioxide in order to  reduce the work of the strong
anion units  that follow.

INTERNAL WATER TREATMENT  PROCESSES

   Internal water treatment processes are numerous. They
include  the addition of acid and alkali  for pH control;
polyphosphates, phosphonates, or polyelectrolytes for scale
control; polymers for dispersal of sediment; phosphates and
alkali for precipitation of  hardness; amines,  chromates,
zinc,  or silicates for corrosion control; sulfites or hydrazine
for oxygen scavenging;  and polyphosphates for sequestra-
tion of iron  or manganese. Here again, the chemical feed is
determined  by the requirements.  The industrial user pro-
duces the  water quality  that is needed, but a problem can
be created when the user must dispose of all or part of the
treated water.  The choice of chemicals added to water must
be considered in light of their potential as pollutants.

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                                MAJOR  INDUSTRIAL USES  OF  WATER
STEAM GENERATION AND COOLING

Description of the Industry
  Steam generation and cooling are required in most in-
dustries.  Waters used for these  purposes  are in Standard
Industry Classifications 20 through 39 (with the exception
of 23 and 27), plus the electric utility industry and mining
(U. S. Executive Office of the President, Bureau of the Bud-
get  1967).22 (Water used as makeup for generation of steam
that comes into direct contact with a product and cooling
water that comes into direct contact with a product were
considered to be process  waters and, therefore, were not
included in this Section.)
  Both steam generation and cooling are encountered under
a wide variety of conditions  that require a correspondingly
broad range  of  water quality recommendations.  For ex-
ample, steam may  be generated in boilers that operate at
pressures ranging from less than  10 pounds per square inch
gauge (psig) for space heating to more than 3,500 psig for
electric  power  generation.  For  any particular operating
pressure, the required boiler water quality recommenda-
tions depend upon many factors in addition to the water
temperature in the steam generator.  Thus, the amount of
potentially scale-forming  hardness present in  the  makeup
water to a low pressure boiler is of far less importance when
the steam is used for space heating than when it is used for
humidification of air. In the first  case, virtually all  of the
steam is returned to the boiler as condensate so that there
is only limited change in the amount of potential scale.  In
the second case,  no condensate returns to  the boiler so that
scale-forming salts entering with  the makeup water are con-
centrated.
  The general recommendations for water to be used for
boiler feed water could not  be applied directly to  an indi-
vidual boiler without consideration of boiler design, operat-
ing practices, operating temperatures and pressures, makeup
rates, and steam  uses.  All  of these affect the nature of
water-caused problems that might be anticipated in a boiler
and its auxiliaries. These statements apply equally to water
at source and at point of use.
  Most high pressure boiler plants (Table VI-5)  use some
form of ion exchange in treatment of water for boiler feed.
A few  components of raw waters can cause abnormal dif-
ficulties  and  expense in these treatment plants.  Large
organic molecules may block the  exchange groups of the
ion exchange resins and cannot  be removed by  normal
regeneration  procedures. Oily matter, especially  of petrol-
eum origin, will  irreversibly coat ion exchange  materials
and filter media.  Certain forms of  silica may also block ion
exchange resins irreversibly. Strong oxidants in polluted
water have been known to destroy ion exchange resins in a
surprisingly short time. Although most  of these  problems
can be solved by available pretreatment methods, the equip-
ment  needed for  such treatment may require more space
than is available.  This is especially true in industrial plants
located in cities.
  Cooling water  uses  are similarly  diverse. They may  be
once-through or recirculated. Once-through cooling waters
are drawn from amply large sources such as  rivers, lakes,
estuaries, or the sea. They are returned to these sources  or
to other large bodies of water after having passed through
heat exchange equipment just once. The quantities of water
required for  once-through  cooling  are so  huge  that  it is
rarely  economically feasible to alter their quality by treat-
ment. Therefore,  when a plant uses water  for cooling on a
once-through basis, the construction materials for the cool-
ing system must be selected to withstand corrosion by the
water available at the site. In such cases, the quality, as well
as quantity, of available water may affect plant  site selec-
tion.
  The treatments commonly applied to once-through cool-
ing waters are (a) screening for removal of debris, plants,
or fish that can interfere with water flow, and  (b) chlorina-
tion for control of biological organisms that interfere with
water flow or heat transfer and contribute  to localized cor-
rosion. A few components of the  intake water have been
known to cause catastrophic failures in once-through  cool-
ing equipment.  Damaging  substances include  hydrogen
sulfide, oil,  and  suspended  solids.  Particularly pernicious
are plastic containers usually originating from garbage dis-
posal  operations,  or  sheets of flexible plastic that can  pass
through a pump  and  then  spread across a tube sheet in-
                                                       376

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                                                                                      Major Industrial Uses of Water/377

    TABLE VI-5—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use for Steam Generation and Cooling in Heat Exchangers
                     (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values that normally should not be exceeded. No one water will have all the maximum values shown.)
                                                  Boiler leedwater
                                                                                              Cooling water
                                  Quality of water prior to the addition ol chemicals used for internal conditioning
Characteristic
Silica (SiO:)
Aluminum (Al) . .
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Ammonia (NH<)
Bicarbonate (HCO )
Sulfate ($04)
Chloride (CO
Dissolved solids
Copper (Cu)
Zinc (Zn)
Hardness (CaCO.,)
Alkalinity (CaCO,)
pH, units
Organics:
Methylene blue active substances
Carbon tetractiloride extract
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Hydrogen sulfide(H2S)
Dissolved oxygen (Oj)
Temperature, F
Suspended solids

Low pressure
0 to 150 piig
30
1
1
0.3
(*)
(ft)
0.1
170
(ft)
(ft)
700
0.5
(ft)
350
350
7.0-10.0

1
1
5
(ft)
2.5
(ft)
10
Industrial
Intermediate
pressure
150 to 700 psig
10
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.25
0.1
120
(ft)
(ft)
500
0.05
0.01
1.0
100
8. 2-1 0.0

1
1
5
(*)
0.007
(ft)
5

High pressure
700to1,500psig
0.7
0.01
0.05
0 01
0.01
001
0.1
48
(«)
(ft)
200
0.05
0.01
0.07
40
8.2-9.0

0.5
0.5
1.0
(ft)
0.007
(ft)
0.5
Electric utilities
1,500to5,000psig
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
.07
0.5
«
(ft.rf)
0.5
0.01
0.01
0.07
1
8.8-9.4

0.1
(ft.t)
1.0
(ft)
0.007
(ft)
0.05
Once through
Fresh
50
(ft)
(ft)
(6)
200
(ft)
(ft)
600
680
600
1,000
(ft)
(ft)
850
500
5.0-8.3

(ft)
w
75

present
(«)
5,000
Brackish"
25
(*)
(«)
(ft)
420
(ft)
(ft)
140
2,700
19,000
35,000
(ft)
(«)
6,250
115
6.0-8.3

(ft)
w
75

present
(ft)
2,500
Makeup for recirculation
Fresh
50
0.1
0.5
0.5
50
(ft)
(*)
24
200
500
500
(ft)
(ft)
650
350
(ft)

1
1
75
(ft)
(*)
(*)
100
Brackish"
25
0.1
0.5
0.02
420
(ft)
(*)
140
2,700
19,000
35,000
(ft)
(ft)
6,250
115
(ft)

1
2
75
(ft)
<*)
(ft)
100
 " Brackish water—dissolved solids more than 1,000 mg/l by definition 1963 Census of Manufacturers.
 * Accepted as received (if meeting other limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations encountered.
 ' Zero, not detectable by test.
 J Controlled by treatment for other constituents.
 * No floating oil.
 ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971l:
stantaneously shutting off a substantial part of the cooling
water flow.
  Treatment of once-through cooling waters drawn from
underground aquifers is further limited if the water is con-
served by  return  to an aquifer through recharge wells. In
such cases  treatment must not create changes that can cause
clogging of the return aquifer.
  When cooling ponds are used for heat rejection, the eco-
nomics of water treatment are similar to those encountered
with once-through cooling waters. On the other hand, most
recirculating cooling  water systems utilize  cooling towers,
and in these the water withdrawn from surface, ground, or
municipal  sources is small in comparison with the rate  of
circulation through the heat transfer  equipment.  Under
these conditions,  water treatment is  economically feasible.
Indeed,  it becomes a necessity because of the changes  in
water composition produced by evaporation, air  scrubbing,
and other  processes occuring during recirculation.
  As in  the  case of steam generation, there is such a great
variety of  materials and operating conditions encountered
in industrial heat exchange equipment, such a wide range
of chemical and physical changes that can take place in the
recirculated  cooling water,  and  such a  variety  of water
treatment  and conditioning methods,  that quality recom-
mendations  for  makeup water for recirculating  cooling
systems can  have only very limited practical  significance.
The needs of any specific system must be established on the
basis of the makeup water composition  and the construction
and operating characteristics of each system. In general, the
lower the hardness  and  alkalinity of the water supply, the
more acceptable it is for cooling tower  makeup.

Processes  Utilizing  Water
   Steam Generation  In  1968,  manufacturing  plants
used about  1,036  billion gallons of water for boiler  feed
(makeup), sanitary service, and uses other than process  or
cooling (Bureau  of the Census 1971).6 No basis  is given for a
breakdown of this  figure  into its components, but boiler
feed is the largest part.
   Boiler makeup requirements of steam electric powerplants
are small compared with their cooling water requirements.
They are estimated to be only about 0.3 million gallons per
day for a 1 million kilowatt  plant  operating at full  load
(Water Resources Council  1968).24

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378/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
  Based on the 1970 figures of 281 million kilowatts capacity
of steam electric plants, a maximum of about 31 billion
gallons of water was the total intake for steam generation in
these plants (Edison Electric Institute personal communication
1970).26 It is estimated that this quantity approximates the
"sanitary service  and other uses" in the industrial require-
ments, so that of the 1,036 billion gallons for combined
"boiler feed and  sanitary services" (Bureau of the Census
1971) s the intake for steam generation alone in  1968  is as-
sumed to have been approximately 1,000 billion gallons.
  Recycling condensed steam back to the boiler will vary
from zero for some industrial uses and district steam generat-
ing plants to almost 100 per cent for thermal power genera-
tion plants.
  Boiler makeup  will vary from negligible losses and blow-
down in the thermal power plants to substantially  the total
water intake in district steam generating plants with no re-
turn of steam condensate. Even for these district steam gen-
erating plants, the condensate usually goes to a sewer from
which it ultimately returns to a surface water course and so
cannot be said to have been consumed. It is estimated that
10 per cent  of the intake water used for boiler feed in in-
dustrial plants is either lost to the atmosphere  or incor-
porated in products. Thus, the total water consumption for
steam generation  is  about 100 bgy.
  Discharge is boiler blowdown and steam condensate that
is lost to sewers. This corresponds to the difference between
intake and consumption or 900 bgy  (Bureau of the Census
1971). 5
  Cooling Waters  Once-through cooling water use dur-
ing 1968 in industry other  than commercial power genera-
tion was at the rate of approximately 3,000 bgy for steam
electric power generation, and 7,000 bgy for  other  uses
(Bureau  of the Census 1971). 6  It is  estimated that water
recirculation for cooling in these plants was at least 20,000
      TABLE VI-6—Total Water Quantities Vsed For
                 Once-Through Cooling
               Use
                                       Water quantities (bgy)
  Total cooling water drawn from source by commercial
steam  electric power plants  approximated  58,200 bg in
1970,  including  the  Tennessee  Valley  Authority and a
number  of other publicly owned  steam electric plants
(Federal Power  Commission 197 1).6 Recirculating cooling
systems in these plants are estimated  to provide  10 to 15
per cent of the total cooling requirements for this industry,
which  represents a small proportion of the total water in-
take. The use of recirculating cooling water  systems is ex-
pected to  increase rapidly as cooling water volume require-
ments increase and as restrictions become more stringent on
maximum discharge temperatures.
  Including  sea water, approximately one-third of the
water  used for once-through  cooling  was brackish. Some
plants  recirculate brackish water, but because of the limited
number of such  operations, water quantities have not been
established for this type of cooling.
  Recirculating  cooling water systems  require  a much
smaller withdrawal for makeup than the amount withdrawn
Industrial steam-electric generator!
Otter
Commercial power

   TOTAL
3,000
7,000
58,000
for once-through cooling systems of  equivalent  heat re-
moval capacity. Although the rate of recirculation is fre-
quently only two or three times as high as the once-through
flow rate  for equivalent cooling,  the  withdrawal rate for
o ace-through cooling may be 20 to 80 times as high as that
required for makeup to a cooling tower system of equivalent
cooling capacity. The actual reduction in volume of water
drawn from source by recirculation depends upon the tem-
perature difference across the cooling tower and the chemical
composition of the recirculating water. No data  are avail-
able to provide  actual  totals of water  withdrawn  from
sources for cooling tower makeup or returned as cooling
tower blowdown.
  An increasing number of plants use municipal sewage
treatment plant effluent or industrial waste treatment plant
effluent as makeup water for recirculation through cooling
towers. This, in effect, is a double recirculation of available
water supplies  or, from another viewpoint, an elimination
of most water withdrawal from natural sources. The use of
such  treatment plant effluenl as cooling tower makeup
must be approached with caution since inadequate removal
of organic matter,  particularly detergents,  nitrogen  com-
pounds, and phosphates, in the treatment plant can create
severe operating difficulties  in cooling towers  as a result of
foaming,  excessive  microbiological  growths,  or calcium
phosphate deposits.

Significant Indicators of Water Quality
  Table VI-2  shows the quality characteristics  of waters
that have  been treated  by existing processes to produce
waters acceptable for boiler makeup and cooling. In general
terms, the water fed to a steam boiler should be of such qual-
ity that it:
    • forms no scale or other deposits;
    • causes no corrosion of the metals present in the boiler,
       feedwater system, or condensate return system;
    • does not foam or prime;
    • does not contain enough silica to form turbine blade
       deposits in high-pressure boilers.

   In order to  produce waters meeting these  requirements,
the waters from  available supplies  are first  processed
through external  water treatment  equipment,  such  as
filters  or  ion exchangers, and then internal  conditioning
chemicals are  added.  Table VI-5 shows quality require-

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                                                                                  Major Industrial Uses of Water/379
ments for boiler  feed waters that have already been  pro-
cessed through a  required external water treatment equip-
ment, but have not yet received any required application of
internal conditioning chemicals.
  The values for boiler feed water  quality requirements
must be considered  only as rough guides.  Usually, more
liberal maximum concentrations are acceptable  in  feed
water for boilers  operating  at lower pressures within each
range. However,  even here there are many deviations  in
practice because of differences in the construction and opera-
tion of different boilers. For example, all other things being
equal, the higher  the makeup rate, the higher the quality of
the makeup water should be.
  Ideally, cooling waters should be:

     • nonscaling with reference to such  limited solubility
       compounds as calcium carbonate, sulfate, and phos-
       phate;
     • nonfouling as a result of formation of sedimentary
       deposits or of biological growths;
     • noncorrosive at operating flow rates and skin tem-
       peratures to materials of construction  in the system,
       including  metals, wood, concrete, asbestos-cement,
       and plastics.
  Table VI-5 shows quality requirements for cooling waters
both once-through and  makeup for recirculation, subse-
quent to any required external  treatment (other than so-
called  side stream niters or centrifugal separators for re-
moval of suspended  matter from  recirculating  cooling
waters) but  prior to  the addition of any internal treatment
chemicals.
  For both steam generation and cooling, the more nearly
the  composition  of water at the source (Table VI-2) ap-
proaches the quality required at point of use (Table VI-5),
the more desirable it is. However, in some instances it  may
be  preferable to  resort  to a lower-quality,  lower-cost raw
water, if economic treatment can be expected to yield  a
lower overall cost.

Water Treatment  Processes
  The water treatment processes marked by an X in Table
VI-7 are used in producing water of the appropriate quality
for either cooling or  boiler makeup. In addition to  external
treatment processes  outlined  in Figure  VI-1,  commonly
used internal conditioning  processes  are also  included  in
Table VI-7.  Not all of these processes  are used for the
treatment of any individual intake water. Only those  pro-
cesses to produce the quality required are used.
  The fact that external water treatment processes may be a
source of potential waste water problems has been men-
tioned. The blowdown from evaporative systems, both boiler
waters and  recirculated  cooling water, can become one of
these potential problems. This can be caused by increased
concentration of  dissolved solids from the evaporative pro-
cess, by increased suspended solids scrubbed from the air or
TABLE VI-7—Processes Used in Treating Water for Cooling or
                     Boiler Makeup

Suspended solids and colloids removal:
Straining
Sedimentation
Coagulation
Filtration
Aeration
Dissolved solids modification Softening
Cold lime
Hot lime soda
Hot lime zeolite
Cation exchange Sodium
Alkalinity Reduction Cation exchange
hydrogen
Cation exchange hydrogen and sodium
Amon exchange
Dissolved solids removal:
Evaporation
Demmeralization ,
Dissolved gases removal:
Degasification
mechanical
vacuum
heat
Internal conditioning:
pH adjustment
Hardness sequestering
Hardness precipitation
Corrosion inhibition General
Embnttleroenl
Oxygen reduction
Sludge dispersal
Biological control
Cooling
Once through Recirculated

X X
X X
X
X
X

X


X

X
X



X


X
X


X X
X X

X


X X
X X
Boiler makeup

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X


X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

developed by growth of biological organisms, or by chemi-
cals added to the recirculated water for control of scale, cor-
rosion, or biological growths.

TEXTILE  MILL PRODUCTS (SIC 22)

Description of the Industry
   In the 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census
1971),5 the textile industry was reported to employ 929,000
individuals in 7,080 plants, adding over $8 billion  of value
annually through manufacturing. The  Statistical Abstract of
the United States: 1969 (U.  S.  Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the  Census  1969)18 reported that the industry
invested over $1 billion in new facilities during that year.
   Cotton is the most important  fiber in American textiles
and represents  about one-half of the total fiber used. Wool
and rayon approximate 10-15 per cent  of the consumption,
and uses of noncellulosic  synthetic  fibers  are increasing
rapidly.
   The basic processes involved in finishing textiles include
scouring, dyeing and printing, bleaching, and special finish-
ing (U. S. Department of The Interior Federal  Water Pol-
lution Control  Administration  1968).21 Wool is usually
scoured before being woven into cloth. Cotton is woven in
the dry state except for  stiffening of the warp, known as

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 380/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
 sizing. Subsequently, the cloth is scoured to remove size and
 natural impurities before bleaching and dyeing. Synthetic
 fibers do not require scouring, but cloth made from blends
 of  synthetics  and  natural  fibers may be scoured before
 finishing.
  Water of proper quantity and quality is essential to the
 textile industry. Most of the early mills in the United States
 were located in New England, where rivers were capable of
 providing water for power and  ample high quality process
 water with only minimum treatment. In  recent years the
 trend has been for textile plants to move  to the Southeast
 and locate  closer to the raw material (cotton). Need for
 water as a source of energy has diminished because of the
 ability to operate with  various fuels and  electricity.  Raw
 water quality has become less important, because develop-
 ments in treatment  technology  have made it economically
 possible to produce water of adequate quality with the exist-
 ing wide range of raw water characteristics. This combina-
 tion of circumstances makes raw water supply and quality
 less  vital  in determining  plant location  today, although
 emphasis on treatment to correct deficiencies in raw water
 quality continues.

 Processes Utilizing Water
  Total 1967 water intake for textile industries using over
 20  million gallons  annually (684 plants)  was  154 billion
 gallons, 71 per cent  of which was used as process water. Of
 all water intake by the industry, 51 per cent is derived from
 company-developed  surface supplies,  10  per  cent  from
 ground water, 1 per cent brackish, and 38 per cent from pub-
 lic supplies. Gross water use by textile plants totalled 328 bg,
 174  bg of which was reused in 353  of the 684 facilities
 (Bureau of the Census  1971).5 Trends in new textile tech-
 nology are toward increased reuse of water.
  Cotton and wool finishing plants use 30,000 to 70,000 gal-
 lons per 1,000 pounds of cloth. Synthetic finishing mills use
 considerably less (3,000-29,000 gal/1,000 Ib), because lack
 of natural impurities reduces washing requirements.
  Wool usually is scoured  by moving it through a  two- to
 six-bowl "train," the first one or two of which contain de-
 tergents or soaps, and alkalis at 30-50 C. Subsequent bowls
 are for rinsing and often may be operated in counterflow
 pattern to conserve water. Usually scouring  solutions are not
 recycled, although effluent rinse waters may be used to make
 up scouring baths.
  Cotton scouring removes natural impurities, as  well as
 sizes added during conversion of fibers into cloth. Scouring
operations  in  series  of tanks ("J"  boxes)  are  carried out
under highly alkaline conditions (pH 12) and temperatures
of 80-120 C and must be followed by thorough rinsing to
remove residual color  and other chemicals. Mercerizing
cotton has involved a major use of water in  many mills, but
mercerizing is decreasing with increased adoption of cotton
and synthetic blends.
  Bleaching cotton is done generally with chlorine, while
 hydrogen peroxide is used for wool and blends containing
 synthetic fibers. Chlorine is used under slightly alkaline
 solution (pH 9) and hydrogen peroxide under acid condi-
 tions (pH 2.5-3.0). Rinsing of bleached fiber or cloth re-
 quires high quality water.
   Dyeing also requires high quality water. Specific require-
 ments and process  conditions vary  widely depending on
 types of fibers and characteristics of dyes employed. Cotton
 generally is dyed  at moderately high pH,  wool  at slightly
 acidic pH, and synthetics under  various conditions depend-
 ent  upon character of fiber. Dyeing operations constitute
 major uses of water in the textile industry.

 Significant Indicators of Water Quality

   The textile industry employs a great  variety of raw ma-
 terials, chemical additives, and manufacturing processes to
 meet a broad range of finished product specifications. Ac-
 cordingly, water quality requirements in this industry vary
 extensively,  depending  on circumstances  attending  uses,
 and no single listing of recommendations could be meaning-
 ful for the industry as a  whole.
   To be desirable for use in the textile  industry,  water
 should be low in iron, manganese,  and other heavy metals,
 dissolved solids, turbidity, color,  and hardness; it should be
 free from  undesirable  biological  forms (Nordell  1961,13
 McKee  and Wolf 1963)!l. Although  raw water supplies of
 rather undesirable quality have been employed successfully
 by textile industries (see Table VI-2)  with appropriate
 treatment  to  correct deficiencies,  it is  apparent that the
 more closely raw water quality approaches requirements at
 the  point of  use  (Table VI-8). the more  desirable that
 source would  be.
   Turbidity and color are objectionable in water used in
 textile industries, because they can cause streaking and stain-
 ing. Iron and manganese stain or  cause other process dif-
 ficulties at low concentrations. Hardness is objectionable in
 many operations,  especially  in scouring where soap curds
 may be produced, and in processes where deposits of pre-
 cipitated calcium  and magnesium  may  adhere to the ma-
 terial. In wool processing, all scouring, rinsing, and dyeing
 operations may require zero hardness water. Zeolite-softened
 or deionized water  may be  used  for manufacturing syn-
 thetic fibers (Nordell  1961).13 Nitrates and nitrites  have
 been reported as injurious  in  dyeing  of wool  and  silk
 (Michel  1942).10
   In Table VI-8 typical  ranges of desirable maximum con-
centrations  of constituents that  have been suggested for
waters used in textile production are summarized (Mussey
 1957,12 Nordell  1961,13  McKee and  Wolf  1963,9 Ontario
Water Resources Commission 197014). The values relate to
water quality at point  of use before addition of internal
conditioning or manufacturing process chemicals.  Although
data in Table VI-8  may give general guidelines to water
quality requirements in  this  industry, each plant must be

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                                                                                    Major Industrial Uses of Water/381
TABLE VJ-8—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of
               Use by the Textile Industry
              Characteristic
                                       Typical maximum ranees
Iron, mi/I fe
Manganese, me/I Mn .
Copper, me/I Cu
Dissolved solids, me/I
Suspended matter, me/1
Hardness, mg I as CaCOi
Color, units
Turbidity, units
Sultate, mg I
Chlorides, me/I
Alkalinity, mg I as CaCO
Aluminum oxide, me/I AhOs
Silica, mg I SiO
Organic growths
0.0-0.3
0.01-0.05
0.01-5
100-200
  0-5
  0-50
  0-5
0.3-5
  100
  100
 50-200
   8
  25
 absent
 - Water quality prior to addition of substances used for internal conditioning.

considered in light of the manufacturing processes and other
circumstances specific  to that installation.

Wafer Treatment Processes
  Some  ground  supplies  are capable of furnishing large
quantities of water having quality consistent with industry
requirements. However, in many instances other factors de-
sirable in plant location can make it necessary to use a raw
water supply of quality not meeting process requirements.
In particular, most surface sources  are not capable  of sup-
plying water suitable for textile industry uses without treat-
ment.
  The 1967 Census  of  Manufacturers (Bureau  of the  Census
1971)s indicated that of 154 bg water intake (for plants using
over 20 million gallons annually),  89 bg  were  treated  in
some fashion. Table VI-9 summarizes the total quantity of
water  and  water  treatment  method  employed  by each
process for 1971 and the number of establishments employ-
ing them.
  Another approach employed by  many textile industries
is to obtain  potable water through purchase from public
supplies. Although  this  often  provides  a satisfactory ar-
rangement, it must be noted that some waters adequate in

  TABLE VI-9—Water  Treatment Processes Employed by
         Textile Industrial Establishments in 1971
           Type of process
                                 bey treated
                                           Number of establishments
Aeration
Coagulation
Filtration
Softening
Ion exchange
Corrosion control
pH adjustment
Settling
Other
Total employing treatment
No treatment performed .
2
52
70
33
9
30
48
33
7


16
116
184
209
27
121
132
64
45
408
276
 Bureau of the Census 1971'
quality for potable purposes do not meet requirements for
some types of textile processing. Also, methods of treatment
employed in some public systems may have adverse effects
on water quality for use in the textile industry.
  The  1967  Census of Manufacturers reported discharge of
136  bg by  the  textile  industry,  leaving 18 bg  (12 per
cent) evaporation or incorporation into products (Bureau of
the Census  1971).5 Of the  136 bg discharged,  54 bg re-
ceived some degree of treatment prior to discharge.

LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS (SIC 24)

Description of the Industry and Processes Utilizing Water
  The total amount of lumber used for various purposes in
the United States has not changed significantly  in  the past
three decades  (Landsberg et al. 1963).7 There have, how-
ever, been some important shifts in the end products manu-
factured by the industry.  The use of pulpwood for veneer
logs has shown steady increases. Lumber for use in wooden
containers has been declining, as has wood used  for fuel,
although fuel wood still accounts for almost  15 per cent of
lumber use.
  In recent years, about 40 per cent of wood consumption
has been for building purposes and 20 per cent for the manu-
facture of a variety of wooden and paperboard  containers,
furniture, and other wood products. Paper products, other
than containers, account  for about 12  per cent of lumber
consumption. The remaining 13 per cent is used in a variety
of wood-related products such as  charcoal, synthetic fibers,
and distillation products.
  The wood and lumber products industry is a relatively
small water user. Of the 36,795 establishments surveyed in
the  1967 Census of Manufacturers  (Bureau of the Census
1971),5 only 0.5 per cent or a total of 188 reported the use
of 20 million gallons of water or more in 1968. Total water
withdrawn by plants using 20 million gallons or more per
year showed a decrease from 151  billion gallons in 1964 to
118  billion  gallons in  1968.  Less  than 10 per cent of the
water withdrawn by these larger water using plants is given
any form of treatment prior to use.
  In general,  the  lumber industry collects  logs from the
forest and prepares them for use by sawing the logs into
various shapes. Earlier in this country's history, logs were
cut  in  the winter  when the snow was on the ground to
facilitate their transfer by  dragging them overland to rivers.
The rivers transported the logs to millsites.  The logs were
frequently left in the water,  if they could be fenced off or
driven into a backwater to prevent them from going further
downstream. While the log was floating, the water prevented
it from drying and cracking at the cut end.
  Today, lumber may be transported  to  a  mill that may
not  be  near a river. If the logs accumulate, the ends are
moistened by floating them in a pond or by spraying the log
pile to prevent cracking. The log  is frequently debarked by
water jets before it is cut into the  desired shape.

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382/Section  VI—Industrial Water Supplies
TABLE VI-10—Quality Characteristics of Waters That Have
            Been Used by the Lumber Industry
                  TABLE VI-11—Basic Categories of the Pulp and Paper
                                        Industry
                Characteristic
                                               Value
                                                                            Type ol plant
                                                                                                       Number ol plants in
                                                                                                       United States 1969
Suspended Solids
pH, units
3 mm, diameter
5 to 9
 ASTM I97CH or Standard Methods 1971"
  Some  lumber  is treated with  chemicals to reduce  fire
hazards, retard insect invasion, or prevent dry rot. These
preservative  processes  use small volumes  of  water in  a
preparation  of chromates,  cupric  ions,  aluminum ions,
silicates,  fluorides,  arsenates,  and   pentachlorophenates.
Some forest products are processed mechanically or chem-
ically to make a variety of consumer products.

Significant Indicators of Water Quality
  There are few significant indicators of water quality for
the lumber industry. The suspended solids should  be  less
than 3 millimeters in diameter and the pH should  prefer-
ably be between 5.0 and 9.0 to minimize  corrosion of the
equipment (Table VI-10). (Water used for transportation
does not qualify  as process water.)
  Water used to prepare solutions for treatment of lumber
should  be reasonably free of turbidity and  precipitating
ions. Frequently, because of the highly toxic nature of these
solutions, efforts are made to recycle as much solution as
possible. Thus, makeup water is required to compensate for
the portion of the solution lost when forced into the lumber
under pressure, and thus evaporated during seasoning.

Water Treatment Processes
  For the lumber production phase only, straining may be
required. Clarification may be practiced for water used in
lumber preservation, but  this would be necessary in  only
very small volume.

PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC  26)

Description of the Industry
  The United States is the world's  largest producer and
user of paper and allied products. The industry's net  sales
in 1970 were over $21  billion with over 52 million  tons of
product  produced (American Paper  Institute  1970).' The
per capita consumption of paper  products  in  1969  was
roughly 560  pounds per person,  an increase of more  than
100 pounds per person  in the past decade.  It is anticipated
that close to 62 million tons of paper and  paperboard  will
be produced in the United States in 1980, as compared with
44 million tons in 1965 (Miller Freeman Publications un-
dated).11
  The pulp  and  paper industries described  encompass a
number  of basic manufacturing  processes  involved in the
               Paper and paperboard
               Pulp mills .
               Integrated pulp and paper mills
               Roofing paper mills
               Converting plants (units owned by pulp and paper companies)
               Headquarters, offices, research and engineeri ng labs (separate from mills)

                  Totals  .
              493
               48
              228
               77
              787
              152

             1,785
               production  of a wide variety of paperboard  and  pap
               products. These include packaging, building materials, ar
               paper products ranging from newsprint to coated and u.
               coated writing papers, tissues, and a number of other speci
               types of paper and paperboard for domestic and industri
               purposes. Table VI-11  shows  the basic categories of tl
               industry.

               Processes Utilizing Water
                 The manufacture of pulp and paper is highly depender
               upon an  abundant  supply of water. The  major proce
               water uses  are for preparation of cooking and bleachir
               chemicals, washing, transportation of the pulp fibers to tl"
               next processing step,  and formation of the pulp into the dr
               product.
                 The industries involved in the manufacture of paper an
               allied products rank third in  the withdrawal of water fc
               manufacturing purposes  (behind primary metal industrii
               and chemical and allied products). Of the 5,890 plan
               surveyed  by the  1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of tl"
               Census  1971),r> 619 plants reported withdrawing 20 millio
               gallons  of water or more in 1968. Table VI-12 shows tl"
               amount of  water withdrawn in  1964 and 1968  for  thos
               plants using more  than 20 million gallons per year. Moi
               than half of the water withdrawn in  1968 was treated  pric
               to use and recirculated about three times before dischargi
               Less than 10 per cent of the water withdrawn was consume
               in the manufacturing processes.
               TABLE VI-12—Total Water Intake and Use—Paper and Allie
                                Products (billion gallons}
                          Water intake
                   Total
               Treated prior to use
               Gross water used (Includes recirculated water)
                                                  1968
2,252
1,311
6,522
                                                                1964
2,064
 987
5,491
Water discharged
Total
1968
2,078
1964
1,942
                                                             Bureau of the Census 19715

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                                                                                    Major Industrial Uses of Water/383
TABLE VI-13—Water Process Used by  Paper and Allied
                 Products Manufacturing
         Manufacturing process
                               Typical water use in 1,000 gallons/ton product'
Wood Preparation
Hydraulic barking
Drum barking
Wood washing
Groundwood Pulp
Stone groundwood
Refiner groundwood
Cold soda pulp
Neutral Sulfite Semicriemical
No recovery
With recovery
Kraft and Soda Pulping
Prehydrolysis
Kraft Bleaching
Semibleach
Highbleach
Dissolving grades (soft wood)
Dissolving grades (hard wood)
Acid Sulfite Pulping
No recovery
MgO recovery
NHt recovery
Sulfite Pulp Bleaching
Paper grade
Dissolving grade
De-irking Pulp
Magazine & ledger
News
Paper Making
Coarse paper
Fine paper
Book paper
Tissue paper
Specialties''
Waste Paperboard
Building Products
Building papers
Felts
Insulating board
Hardhoard
Exploded

3
0.3
0.2

5
5
3

15
10
25
2

25
25
50
50

70
9
8

20
45

28
28

10
30
10
30

10

10
3
15
13
1
 0 Figures shown represent averages over two-week period with 90 percent frequency.
 ' Varies widely depending upon product.
 Environmental Protection Agency, unpublished data'
  Approximately 70 per cent of the water used in the in-
dustry was withdrawn from  surface supplies. Other water
sources were ground water supplies (about 1 7 per cent) and
public water supplies (about 11 per cent).  Tidewater  ac-
counted for  the remainder of the water used. Water with-
drawn for process purposes constituted the largest  percent-
age of water used by the industry (about 65 per cent) while
the other major water uses were for cooling purposes.
  While the industry has been aptly categorized in general
terms by SIC code numbers, a typical plant falling under an
SIC code may be engaged in a variety of individual manu-
facturing processes. For this  reason, a clearer picture may
be obtained by describing water  use in terms of manufactur-
ing processes rather than by SIC subcategories. Table VI-13
classifies the  processes used in producing pulp and paper
products manufactured in the United States.
  These  processes have  been  categorized  based  on  the
logical  sequence in production along with the use of water
made by each process. Presenting the information in  this
fashion makes it possible to estimate water requirements for
any individual mill based on  the manufacturing processes
employed and the  tons of product produced.

Significant Indicators of Water Quality
  A survey by the Technical  Association of the Pulp  and
Paper Industry  (TAPPI Water  Supply  and  Treatment
Committee unpublished data 1970," Walter  1971)23  of water
quality requirements for the paper industry revealed a total
of 23  specific  water quality problems resulting from im-
purities in the raw water source. The primary causes of the
problems centered on hardness, alkalinity, turbidity, color,
and iron. In addition, manganese along with iron and color
was reported as having an adverse effect on bleaching  pro-
cesses; manganese also produced black spots on paper. In
some cases,  algae  and bacteria interfered with the paper
machine operations by causing slime. In addition to causing
scale  in the mill water supply, high hardness interferes with
washing operations and  causes fouling in resin sizing and
digesting processes. Suspended matter and turbidity inter-
fere with the brightness of the  product and cause difficulties
by  clogging wires and felts in the paper machines. Highly
colored waters have an adverse effect on paper brightness
and are  particularly undesirable for white and dyed papers
as well as pulps. Control of pH of the water supply at the
mill is important to avoid corrosion  of the equipment and
for effective use of  fillers,  sizes, and dyes in  the process
water.
  To  avoid some  of the problems mentioned above, the
1967 Census of Manufacturers reported that in 1968 more than
one half of the water withdrawn for use  by plants in the
pulp  and paper industry  utilizing  more  than  20 million
gallons per day was treated  prior  to use  (Bureau of the
Census 1971).5 The treatment consisted of the various pro-
cesses shown in Table VI-14.
  The source of water and its composition vary widely de-
pending on plant location. The treatment of the mill water
supply consequently varies. In general,  however, TAPPI
 TABLE VI-14—Water Treatment Processes—Paper and Allied
                         Products
           Process
                            Billion gallons treated
                                           Number of establishments
 Aeration
 Coagulation
 Filtration
 Softening
 Ion exchange
 Corrosion control
 pH adjustment
 Settling
 Other

    Total
62.8
821.8
890.4
116.)
53.5
187.5
357 5
494.5
93.1
28
194
272
239
148
126
119
107
45
                                1,311.4
                                                 466
                                                             Bureau of the Census 1971''

-------
      ection VI—Industrial Water Supplies
    TABLE VI-15—Summary of TAPPI Specifications for
        Chemical Composition of Process Water for
                      Manufacture
Substance-max ppm
Turbidity (SiOi) . .
Color In platinum units
Total hardness (CaCOi)
Calcium hardness (CaCO.:)
Alkalinity to M.O. (CaCOj) •
Iron (Fe)
Manpnese (Mn)
Residual chlorine (Ch)
Silica (soluble) (SiOz)
Total dissolved solids
Free carbon dioxide (CO:)
Chlorides (Cl) .
Magnesium hardness (CaCOO
Fine paper
10
5
100
50
. 75
0.1
0.03
2.0
20
200
10


Kraft paper
Bleached
40
25
100

75
0.2
0.1

50
300
10
200

Unbleached
100
100
200

150
1.0
0.5

10D
500
10
200

Groundwood
- papers
50
30
200

150
0.3
0.1

50
500
10
75

Soda and
sulfite pulp
25
5
100
50
75
0.1
0.05

20
250
10
75
50
 Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry 1957"

indicates that the chemical  composition of process  water
for use  by the paper and allied products industry should
have the specifications shown in Table VI-15. The produc-
tion of  some specialty papers, however, requires water of
considerably higher quality.

CHEMICAL  AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC 28)

Description  of the Industry
  The chemical and allied products industry is quite com-
plex because of its wide range  of products and processes.
This  industry  produces  more  than  10,000  commercial
products covering a broad range of uses. Most  of the prod-
ucts are converted to another form by other industries be-
fore reaching the consumer. Thus, many are little known or
understood  by the general public.

Processes Utilizing Water
  The Bureau of the Census subdivides chemical and allied
products into 27 industries.  Many of these are shown in
Table VI-16, along with estimates of the water intake for
process  uses by each industry.
  Water is essential to most of the processes used in chemical
manufacturing.  It can  be used to separate one  chemical
from another or  to remove a chemical  from a gas stream.
It can be the medium in which a chemical reaction occurs.
It can be employed as a carrier to introduce materials into a
reaction system or to  dissolve or  wash  impurities from  a
product. It often  is part of the final product. Water can also
be used in the vapor form as steam heat to facilitate chem-
ical reactions or  process operations. It  can be used in the
liquid form  to remove heat generated by other chemical re-
actions  or operations.  Water is also the product  of some
chemical reactions.
  Generally, the minimum  water quality  required  for  a
specific  process  has  been determined through experience
and is discussed below. In some cases the minimum quali
has never been established  because the available water
use is acceptable and not necessarily the minimum quali
that can be used.

Significant Indicators of Water Quality
  The number and diversity of manufacturing facilities
the chemical and allied products industry and their wid
spread geographical locations in the United States are sui
that the waters used for process applications vary widely
chemical constituents.  Table VI-17 lists some of the quali
characteristics in raw water supplies that have been used
provide water for process use in this industry. The figures
Table VI-17 represent extremes, and no water would ha1
all the values shown.
  Because of the multitude of products and processes in tl
chemical industry, only general characteristics can be a
plied  for process water quality required at the point of us
The ranges of quality are so wide, even for similar produd
that specific characteristics are  not  meaningful.  In  tl
manufacture of plastic materials  and resins, for exampl
some  products require water equivalent to potable wati
with a maximum total dissolved solids limit of 500 mg/
while other products require a high level of treatment (i.e
clarification, demineralization, sterilization, and membrar
filtration) with  a  maximum  total solids limit well belo
1 mg/1.
  Low turbidity is the key quality requirement for most i
the process water used in the chemical and allied produc
industries. Other general quality requirements may invoh
TABLE VI-16—Process Water Intake by Chemical and Allie
    Product Industries with Total Water Intake of 20 or
                  More bg During 1968
SIC
2E12
2813
2815
2816
2818
2819
2821
2822
2823
2824
2833
2834
2841
2861
2871
2892


28
Industry group and industry
Alkalies and Chlorine 	
Industrial Gas . 	
Cyclic Intermediates and Crudes .
Inorganic Pigments
Organic Chemicals, n.e ; '
Inorganic Chemicals, n.e.c.'
Plastic Materials and Resins
Synthetic Rubber
Cellulosic Man-made Fibers
Organic Fibers, noncellulosic
Medicmals anil Botanicals
Pharmaceutical Preparations
Soap and Other Detergents
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Fertilizers . 	
Explosives
Subtotal ....
Nonlisted Industries 	
Chemicals and Allied Products 	
Process water intake"
bg
18.9
5.3
19.3
21.2
394.0
75.2
50.9
15.1
30 5
7.7
2.7
3.9
1.9
0.8
24.2
28.0
699.6
33.8
733.4
per cent
2.6
0 7
2.6
2.9
53.7
10.3
6.9
2.1
4.2
1.0
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.1
3.3
3.8
95.4
4.6
100.0
 " Not including use for sanitary, boiler feed, or cooling water purposes.
 » Not elsewhere classified.

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                                                                                      Major Industrial Uses of Water/385
TABLE VI-17—Quality Characteristics of Waters That Have
  Been Used by the Chemical and Allied Products Industry
(Unless otherwise indicated, units ate mg '1 and values are maximum:. No one water will have all the maximum
values shown.)
           Characteristic
                                        Concentration
Silica (SiO_)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Ms)
Ammonia (NHi)
Bicarbonate (HCO )
Sulfate (SO )
Chloride (CD
Dissolved Solids
Suspended Solids
Hardness (CaCOj)
Alkalinity (CaCO,)
pH, units
Color, units
Odor threshold number
BOD SO >
COD(0;)
Tempera ure
DO ((h)
  w
   10
    2
  250
  100
  (a)
  600
  850
  500
 2,500
 10,000
 1,000
  500
5.5-9.0
  500
 " Accepted as received (if meeting other limiting values), has never been a problem at concentrations encountered
 ASTM 1970< or Standard Methods 1971"
total   dissolved  solids,  hardness,  alkalinity,  iron,  and
manganese.  Where these  latter requirements apply, they
generally fall in the range of the Drinking Water Standards
(U.  S. Dcpt. of Health, Education,  and  Welfare,  Public
Health Service 1962).20 Thus, water from public and private
drinking water systems is widely used  without further treat-
ment for process applications in the chemical industry. The
rigorous water quality requirements for certain products can
include nearly all  of  the characteristics  used  in  describing
water quality; however, this high quality represents a very
small  fraction of the  industry's total  water use for process
purposes.
  Table VI-18 shows an example of  the quality of process
water at point of use  in  a  large chemical plant that  manu-
facture^ a wide variety of  products. The distribution  of
water processes used  is not to be considered typical  for the
industry. The table is presented to show the levels of treat-
TABLE  VI-18—Quality Characteristics of Process Water at
    Point of Use in a Large Multiproduct Chemical Plant
Treatment process

Raw water (screened)"
Clarification, filtration, and chlonnatioir
Softening (ion exchange)"
Demmeralization (Ion exchange)
percent

71
10
14
5
Dissolved solids
mg/l
95
95
95
<1
Hardness (mg/l as
CaCO;)
50
50
<0.5
	
  " Dissolved solids and hardness are actual values at this plant location. In most cases water of higher dissolved
 solids (500 mg/l max) and higher hardness (250 mg/l max) would be acceptable.
  '' Turbidity less than one unit.
  * Includes steam and boiler feed water used in processes.
ment applied in merely one multiproduct plant. The pro-
cess water usage in that plant is 1.2 gallons per pound  of
product. This is only 2 per cent of the plant's gross water
usage; cooling water accounts for all but a slight amount of
the balance.

Water Treatment Processes
  The  normal  water purification process for raw surface
water supplies  usually  involves  clarification  (coagulation,
sedimentation,  filtration). This  may be  supplemented by
softening,  demincralization, and  other special  treatment
processes.  However, most of the treatment methods shown
in Figure  VI-1  could be used.
  In many cases waters from public supplies or from private
wells are acceptable as received and are used without treat-
ment. This constitutes  a large portion  of the total process
water used in the chemical industry.
  Generally, the cost of process  water treatment is a small
part of the overall cost of manufacturing in the chemical
industry because of the modest water quality requirements
acceptable for many process uses.  By contrast, certain  pro-
cesses require exceedingly  high-quality water resulting  in
water treatment costs that can be more  than a significant
share of the manufacturing costs.

PETROLEUM REFINING (SIC 2911)

Description of the Industry
  The principal use of water in the petroleum industry is in
refining.  Other operations, such  as  crude oil production
and  marketing, rely on water  but do not  use significant
amounts.  Some water is used in the exploration branch for
drilling wells and  some is used in the operation of natural
gasoline plants, but the amount is insignificant in relation
to that used for the refining process.

Refinery Water Consumption Trends
  The 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the  Census
 1971)5 indicated a  gross water use (including recycle) of
7,290 bg.  This  represented an 18 per cent increase over the
 1964 usage. However, the water intake to refineries report-
ing both in 1964 and 1967 was indicated to be 1,400 bg.
  This stable demand can be attributed to the increased use
of  air for cooling  purposes,  resulting  from increasingly
scarce fresh water. In  addition, the growing cost of water
quality improvement prior to use and prior to final dis-
posal encourages conservation and reuse.  Of those  refineries
included in the 1967 census report, 91 per cent are reusing
water.
  The total discharge from these  refineries was about
 1,210 bg,  a 7 per cent decrease from 1964.
  About  13 per cent of the total water intake by  refineries
comes from public water supplies, and the remaining 87 per
cent comes from company-owned facilities. The company-
owned water supply comes from surface (53  per cent),

-------
 386/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
 TABLE VI-19—Summary of Specific Quality Characteristics
    of Surface Waters That Have Been Used as Sources for
                 Petroleum Water Supplies
              Characteristic
                                          Concentration mf/l
 Silica(Si02)	
 Iron(Fe)	
 Cakaum(Ca) 	
 Magnesium (Mg)      	
 Sodium and Potassium (Na and K) .
 Ammonia (NH3)	
 Bicarbonate (HCOa)	
 Sulfate(SO.)	
 Chlonde(CI)  	
 Fluoride (F)   	
 Nitrate (NOs)  	
 Dissolved Soiids  	
 Suspended Solids  	
 Hardness (CaCOs)	
 Alkalinity (CaC03) .
 pH, units	
 Color, units
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (02) . .
 Hydrogen SulfidefHjS)	
  85
  15
 220
  85
 230
  40
 480
 900
1600
  1.2
  8
3500
5000
 900
 500
6.0-9.0
  25
1000
  20
ground (9 per cent), and tidewater (38 per cent). The use
of ground water is being phased out in many locations in
favor of impounded surface water. The quality character-
istics of surface waters treated to produce waters acceptable
for process use are given in Table VI-19.

Processes Utilizing Water
  Of the total water intake to all refineries, 86 per cent is
used for heat removal by either once-through or recirculat-
ing cooling systems, 7 per cent is used for steam generation
and sanitary purposes,  and 7 per cent for processing. The
water distribution in a hypothetical refinery limited to fresh-
water makeup is shown in Figure VI-2. Here, the distribu-
tion is about 56 per cent for cooling, 24 per cent for boilers
and sanitary purposes, and 20 per cent for processing. These
values differ from  the overall average, because  the cooling
water is circulated.
Process Water Properties

   Process water used in refineries may be characterized 1:
the physical and chemical properties of the water. The rel
vant properties are  described in the following paragrapl
and in Table VI-20.
   A. Inorganic  salts that cause deposition and corrosic
can be removed from crude  oil by a solvent action. Desal
ing by intimate contact with water is the preferred methoi
Oil  products are frequently  purified by washing with ac
or caustic solution;  diluent  water and afterwash water
used in these processes.  Catalytic cracking produces quant
ties  of ammonia and carbon  dioxide that form deposi
unless water is injected into (he system to keep them in soli
tion.
   B. To  transfer heat in numerous operations, barometr
condensers  are used  to create low  pressure conditions i
fractional distillation.  Some catalytic processes  requii
quenching  of furnace  effluents. Hot water is  sometimj
pumped through pipelines to facilitate the transfer of hig]
viscosity petroleum products.
   C. Chemical reactions can occur in  process water. Whe
quicklime is used in water softening, water enters into tlr
slaking process.  At certain times in platforming, water
introduced  to chemically condition the catalyst.
   D. Water used merely as a carrier must  be considerec
such as in the periodic cleaning of the plant or in transpor
ing solids through pipelines.
   E. Kinetic energy in the form of hydraulically operate
cutters is used  in decoking  furnaces and descaling boilt
tubes. Hydraulically operated brushes are  used to  clea
condenser tubes.
   F.  Some processes use more than one of these propertii
simultaneously;  e.g., water  can be  introduced  into  frai
tionator overhead lines both  as  a solvent and  as  a carrie
Ion exchange backwash also relies on these two properties i
water.
        Use
                                   TABLE VI-20—Process Water Uses in Oil Refineries
                    Quantity used gal/bbl°
                                      Property (see above)
                                                     Treatment (see page 387)
                                                                                         Recommendations
Washing
Desalting
Barometric condenser . .



Caustic dilutanl
Absorber injection 	
Flue Gas quench
Water wash after caustic . . .
Tank ballast 	
Furnace quench 	
Fractional O.H. injection . .
Pipelines . 	
Lime slaking 	
Ion exchange backwash
1.5-6.0
2.0-8.0
3.0-6.0



0.1-0.5
0.4-1.5
0.5-2.0
C.1-0.4


01-03

30-70
01-03
Oil
A
B



A
A
B
A

B
A&D
B&C
C
A&D
1
T
1



2
2
3
2

2
3
2
1
2
Recycled plant effluent is satisfactory.
Precipitation of calcium and magnesium salts are undesirable in this process.
Recycled plant effluent may be satisfactory. Caution should be exercised because components in 1
effluent can react with components in Itie gaseous material being condensed. These reactions, i
curnng in intimate contact with water, can result in the formation of stable emulsions and/or calciu
soaps, which would require downstream chemical treatment.
Calcium, magnesium, carbonate, and bicarbonate! are undesirable
Calcium salts are undesirable.
Deionized water or steam condensate must be used in this process.
Calcium and magnesium salts are undesirable.
Sea water is satisfactory.
Recycl ed steam condensate employed lor this process.
Deionized water or steam condensate must be employed in this process.
Raw water supply with Ryznar Index adjusted below 6.0.
Raw water supply satisfactory. Recycled plant effluent not satisfactory.
Raw water supply or ion exchanged water, depending upon type of ion exchange.
 ° Gallons of water per barrel of crude oil processed. Hennery capacities are in the range of 20,000 to 180,00 barrels of crude oil per day.

-------
                                                                                 Major Industrial Uses of Water/387
Process Water Treatment

  The treatments of refinery process water before use gen-
erally fall into three categories. These are shown below and
in Table VI-20.
  1. No treatment needed. The dissolved and suspended
solids are limited  only by the restrictions on the plant
effluent. In many instances, the plant waste discharge can
be recycled.
  2. Some treatment,  external or internal, needed. Some
normal  constituents of  water  undergo  physicochemical
changes, e.g., calcium carbonate is precipitated by heat.
These must be removed or neutralized.
  3. Complete of removal solids needed.  Usually, these
                                                             Figures in 1,000's gallons water/day
                                                                                Circulating
                                                                              cooling water
                                                                                  (750)
                               Cooling
                                tower
                             .blowdown
                                (750)
  Total
  water
 (4150)
                                                      COOLING TOWERS !
                                                                ISSSSSSS
                        Process water
                           to waste
                            (850)
                                                                                    Condensate
                                                                                     to waste
                                                                                       (400)
Total
Plant
Waste
(2100)
                Makeup
                 (1000)

FIGURE VI-2—Water Distribution in a Hypothetical $55 Million Refinery That Processes 50,000 bbl./Day of Crude (Courtesy
                                        of Chemical Engineering Magazine)

-------
388/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
waters are vaporized and any water soluble salts remaining
are undesirable.  These waters may be deionized water or
steam condensate.

PRIMARY METALS  INDUSTRIES (SIC 33}

Description of the Industry

  The primary metals industrial group  is defined in the
SIC Manual as those "establishments engaged in the smelt-
ing and refining of ferrous and nonferrous metals from ore,
pig,  or scrap; in the rolling, drawing, and alloying of fer-
rous and nonferrous metals; in the manufacture of castings,
forgings, and other basic products of ferrous and nonferrous
metals; and in the manufacture of nails, spikes, and  insu-
lated wire and cable. The major group also includes the
production of coke." (U. S. Executive Office of the Presi-
dent, Bureau of the  Budget 1967).22
  Process water utilization by  the primary metals industry
as given  in the 7967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the
Census 1971)5 is summarized in Table VI-21. The produc-
tion  of iron and steel utilized almost 88 per cent of all pro-
cess  water used  by the  industry.  For this  reason,  water
quality requirements have been included only for this seg-
ment of the industry.

Processes Utilizing Water

  The iron and  steel industry as defined for this report
includes pig iron production, coke production, steel making,
rolling operations, and those finishing operations common to
steel mills, such as coke reduction, tin plating,  and galvaniz-
ing.  Although many steel companies operate  mines for ore
and  coal,  this Section does not dismiss ore beneficiation
plants, coal  cleaning plants,  or fabricating plants for  a
variety of specialty steel products.
  Most of the iron and steel making facilities  in the United
States are centered  in integrated plants. These  have gen-
erally been located in the Midwest and East where major
water sources arc available. A  few mills have been built in
water-short areas because of  economic  advantages that
outweighed the increased  cost of recirculating water. The
major processes involved in the manufacture of steel require
process water, some  in several  ways. The succeeding para-
         TABLE VI-21—Process Water Utilization
            Industry
                                 SIC No.      Process water used, 1968
Iron and steel production
Iron and steel foundries
Copper industry
Aluminum industry
All other primary metal industries
Total process water, primary metals
331
332
3331;3351
3334; 3352

33
1,049
12
50
36
60
1,207
 Bureau otthe Census 1971'
graphs  present a  brief description of the process and rt
process use of water.
  The production of coke involves the heating of coal in tlr
absence of air to  rid the  coal  of tar  and  other  volati
products. Process water is used in the direct  cooling of t?
incandescent coke  after  removal from the coke oven  in
process called coke quenching. This quenching- process
nothing more than dousing the coke with copious amoun
of water.
  Pig iron production is accomplished in the blast furnac
Process water is used to  cool  or quench the slag when it
removed from the furnace.  The major use of process wati
in the blast furnace  is for  gas cleaning in  wet scrubber
Steel is manufactured in open hearth or basic  oxygen fu
naces.  Process water may be used in gas cleaners for eitln
of these furnaces.
  The  major products of  the steel  making processes ai
ingots.  Ingots, after  temperature conditioning, arc rolk
into blooms,  slabs, or  billets depending upon the  fin
product desired. These shapes are referred to as semifinishc
steel. Water is used for cooling and  lubricating the roll
These  semifinished products  are used in  finishing  mills 1
produce a variety  of products such as  plates,  rails, strui
tural shapes, bars, wire,  tubes, and hot strip. Hot strip is
major product, and the manufacturing process for this  itei
will be  briefly described.
  The continuous hot strip mill receives temperature cond
tioned slabs from reheating furnaces. Oxide scale is loosene
from the slabs by mechanical  action and removed  by  hig
pressure jets of water prior  to  a rough rolling stand, whic
produces a section that can be further reduced by the finisl
ing stand  of rollers. A second scale breaker arid series i
high pressure \vater  sprays precede this  stand of  rolls i
which final size reductions are made. Cooling water is  use
after rolling for cooling the  strip prior to coiling. Most ho
rolled strip is pickled by passing the strip through solutioi
of mineral acids and inhibitors The strip is then rinsed  wit
water.
  Much hot-rolled strip is further reduced in thickness int
cold rolls in which the heat generated by working the met;
is dissipated by water sprays. Palm oil or synthetic  oils at
added to the water for lubrication. After cold  reduction, th
strip is often cleaned by using an alkaline wash and rins<
  Tin  plate  is made from cold-rolled  strip by either  a
electrolytic  or  hot-dip  process,  more commonly  by  th
former. The electrolytic process consists of cleaning the stri
using alkaline cleaners, rinsing with water, light picklim
rinsing, plating, rinsing, heat  treating, cooling with wate
(quenching), drying, and coating with oil. The  galvanizin
or coating of steel strip with various other products is  cat
ried out basically by the same general scheme as tinning.
  The volume of water used in the manufacture of steel is
variable that depends on the  quantity and quality of th
available water supply. The quantity presently being usei
varies from a minimum of about 1,500 gal/ton  of producl

-------
                                                                                     Major Industrial Uses of Water/389
where water is reused intensively,  to about 65,000 gal/ton,
where water is used on only a once-through basis. Both of
these figures include total water utilized, not just process
water. These figures contrast the range of water intake be-
tween plants in areas having extremely limited water  sup-
plies  and those in  areas with almost unlimited water  sup-
plies.
  Data on the  amount  of process water  required as com-
pared with other water uses indicate that only 24 per  cent
of the water  taken into a steel plant is termed process water
(Bureau of the Census  1971).5  Representatives  of the in-
dustry have indicated that process water may account for as
much as 30 to 40 per cent of the total water intake.
  Recycling of water is receiving much attention from the
industry as a method to  reduce water utilization, reduce
stream pollution, and minimize the cost of controlling this
pollution. Although individual plants within the iron  and
steel industry have  been practicing reuse of water to varying
degrees for some years, the major changes are yet to  come.
According to the 7.967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the
Census 197!),•''  the gross water  used in the iron and  steel
industry  (SIC 331) in  1968 was approximately 6,500 billion
gallons. This gross  water use when compared with a water
intake of about 4,400  billion  gallons indicates  that 2,100
billion gallons were reused. This quantity reflects total water
reuse, not just of process water. The consumption of water
by  the industry amounted to approximately 263 billion
gallons in 1968. (No corresponding calculation can be made
because no data on process water  discharge are available.)

Significant Indicators of Water  Quality
  The quality of surface waters that arc  being utilized by
the iron and steel  industry varies considerably from plant
to plant. The desired quality of water for various process
TABLE 22—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use
          for the Iron and Steel Industry (SIC 33)
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg I and values that normally should not be exceeded. Table indicates quality
         of the water prior to the addition of substances used for internal conditioning.)
    Characteristics
Quenching,
hot rolling,
gas cleaning
                                         Se lected rinse waters
                            Cold rolling
                                    Partially Softened   Demineralized
Settleable solids
Suspended solids
Dissolved solids
Alkalinity (CaCO;)
Hardness (CaCO.)
pH, units
Chloride (Cl)
Dissolved Oxygen (0;)
Temperature, F
Oil
100
(«)
(«>
(*)
(ft)
5-9
M
(<)
100
W
5 0
10
(«)
(ft)
(*)
5-9
w
(r)
100
1.0
5 0
5 0
W
(ft)
100
6-9
W
«
100
1.0
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.5
0.1
M
0.1
W
100
0.02
  ' Accepted as received if meeting other limiting values: has never been a problem at concentrations encountered.
  '< Controlled by treatment for other constituents.
  •- Minimum to maintain aerobic conditions.
  >'• Concentration not known.
  ASTM wm< or Standard Methods 1971'6
uses is difficult to define. For a few processes using relatively
small quantities of water, limits on some constituents are
known. For most of the process water used, however, only a
few of the water  quality characteristics have been recog-
nized as  a  cause of operational problems.  For the other
characteristics or  properties neither the technological nor
economical  limits are known.  (However, the quality of the
water  available has  been much  less  important than the
quantity in  determining where a steel mill should be built.)
Ranges of values for the selected quality characteristics for
existing supplies are listed in Table VI-22. The water qual-
ity indicators that are considered important to the industry
are settleable, suspended, and dissolved solids; acidity and
alkalinity;  hardness;  pH;  chlorides; dissolved  oxygen;
temperature; oil; and floating materials.

Water Treatment Processes
  Most integrated steel  plants  have two or more process
water systems. One system is the general plant water supply.
It receives  only mechanical  skimming and  straining for
control of floating and suspended materials that could harm
pumps  and  possibly  internal conditioning. This  water is
used for such diverse tasks as coke quenching, slag quench-
ing, gas cleaning, and in the hot-rolling operations.  For
some of  these  operations,  many  mills use  effluent from
another process or recycle water  in the same process, and
the water might actually be of very poor quality. However,
the only limits for these process uses which could be estab-
lished based on  present  knowledge  are those listed  in
Table VI-22. The other process  waters  used by the  steel
industry comprise only 2 to 5 per cent of the total volume
but often require considerably improved  quality.
  Almost universally, one of these two improved supplies is
clarified while the second is, in  addition,  either  softened or
demineralized. The clarified water is usually a coagulated,
settled, and filtered supply that is either treated by the steel
company or  purchased from  a municipality. The use for
this water is mainly in the cold-rolling  or reduction mill
where surface properties of the  product are particularly
important.
  The softened or demineralized water is required for rinse
waters  following  some  pickling and cleansing  operations.
The more particular processes from a water quality point of
view are the coating operations,  such as tin plating, gal-
vanizing, and organic  coating. Some plants use softened
and others demineralized water for identical purposes. The
quality limits desired for these two types  of water, softened
and demineralized, are given  in Table VI-22.

FOOD  CANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 2032  AND  2033)

Description of the Industry
  The U. S.  canning industry is comprised of about 1,700
canneries. These  plants  produce  some 1,400  canned food
items such as fruits, vegetables, juices, juice drinks, seafoods,

-------
 Z90/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
 meats, soups, and specialty products. In 1970, canned foods
 amounted to about 28 billion pounds packed in 938 million
 standard  cases. The quantities of the major products are:
 vegetables, 294 million cases; fruits, 153 million cases; juices,
 130 million cases; fish, 26 million cases.

 Processes Utilizing Water
   One  of the  most important  operations  in commercial
 canning is thorough cleaning of the raw foods.  The pro-
 cedures of cleaning vary with the nature of the food, but all
 raw foods must be freed of adhering soil, dried juices, in-
 sects,  and chemical residues.  This is accomplished by sub-
jecting the raw foods  to high-pressure water sprays  while
 being conveyed on moving belts  or passed through revolv-
 ing screens. The wash water may be fresh or reclaimed from
 an in-plant operation,  but it must contain no chemicals or
 other  materials in concentrations that adversely  affect the
 quality  or wholesomeness of the food product.
  Washed raw products are transported to  and from the
 various  operations by means of belts, flumes, and pumping
 systems. These involve major  uses of water. Although the
 freshwater makeup  must be of potable quality, recirculation
 is practiced to reduce water intake. Chlorination is used to
 maintain  recycled waters in a sanitary condition.
  Another major use of water  is for  rinsing chemically
 peeled fruits and vegetables to  remove excess peel and caus-
 tic residue. Water of potable  quality must be used in the
 final rinsing operation.
  Green vegetables are immersed in hot water, exposed to
 live steam or other sources of heat  to inactivate enzymes
 and to  wilt leafy vegetables,  thus facilitating their filling
 into cans or jars. Blanching waters are recirculated, but
 makeup waters must be of potable quality.  Steam genera-
 tion, representing about 15 per cent of water intake, when
 used for blancing or injection into the product must be pro-
duced from potable waters free  of volatile  or toxic  com-
 pounds. Syrup, brine,  or water used as a packing medium
must be of high quality and free  of chlorine.
  After  heat processing,  the  cans or jars are cooled with
large volumes of water. This water must be chlorinated to
 prevent spoilage of the canned foods by microorganisms in
case cooling water is aspirated during formation of a vacuum
in the can.
  Figure  VI-3  shows  a flow  sheet of the various uses of
water and origin of waste streams.
  Most  fruit and vegetable canning, as opposed to canning
of specialty  products,  is highly seasonal. The demand for
water may  vary 100-fold throughout the months of the
year.  The water-demand variation  may  be  severalfold
even for  plants that  pack substantial quantities of  non-
seasonal items.
  The gross quantities of water  used per ton of product
vary widely among products, among canneries, and during
years in the same cannery. The proportion  of gross water
 supplied by recirculation has increased over  the years, and
FIGURE VI-3—Uses of Water in Food Canning Industry

-------
                                                                                        Major Industrial Uses of Water/391
 TABLE VI-23—Gross Water Intake (annual use over 20 mg)
                     for Canning Plants
           Item
                           Water quantity (bgy)
                                            Percent of intake quantity
Intake
Reuse
Consumption
Discharge
59
35
6
53
100
59
10
90
the  trend is expected  to continue. A tendency has been
noted to use more water per ton of product as the proportion
of recirculated water increases. New methods of processing
are  being evaluated that will reduce the  amount of water
being used  for a given operation  and  will  discharge less
organic matter into the wastewater. The trend toward more
recirculation of water will continue  to increase. As recircu-
lation increases, methods will be employed to  improve the
quality of the recirculated water and to  reduce the amount
of fresh  water added  to the  system.  Unfortunately, the
maximum use of reclaimed  water  is  hindered by specific
federal and state regulations originally adopted for  other
guiding principles that do not now necessarily apply.
  The same  problem  occurs  with  water  conservation,
whereby   regulations in  certain instances  demand  fixed
volumes  of water use that, because of process and equip-
ment changes, are no longer necessary.
  Table VI-23, gives the rate of gross water intake as based
on the 7967 Census of Manufacturers  (Bureau  of the  Census
1971)5 for canning plants.
  A breakdown  of  the quantities  and  percentages  of the
total water used in the  various process operations based on
data from the National Canners Association is as follows,
Table VI-24.

     TABLE VI-24—Total Water Use in Canning Plants
         In-plant use
                            Water quantity (bjy)
                                              Percent of total use
Raw product washing .
Product transport"
Product preparation''
Incorporation in product"
Steam and water sterilization of containers
Container cooline
Plant cleanup
14.1
9.4
9.4
5.6
14.1
33.9
7.5
15
10
10
6
15
36
1
 ° Pluming and pumping of raw product.
 '• Blanching, heating, and soaking of product.
 ' Preparation of syrups and brines that enter the container.
Significant Indicators of Water Quality

  Of the 48 billion gallons of water intake for canned and
cured  seafoods and canned fruits and vegetables 24 billion
gallons were drawn from public surface water supplies and
more  than 20 billion  gallons from  groundwater  sources.
Approximately 4 billion gallons came from private surface
water  supplies.
  The quality  of raw waters  for use  in  the food canning
industry should be  that  prescribed  in  Section II  on Public
Water Supplies in this Report.
  Table VI-25 has  been prepared to indicate the quality
characteristics of raw waters that are now being treated for
use as process  waters in food canning plants. The values
given are not intended to imply that  better quality waters
are not desirable or that poorer quality waters could not be
used  in  specific cases.  Significant  water quality require-
ments for water at point of use are  given in Table VI-26.
  Although the quality characteristics indicated in Table
VI-26 may be desirable, it is recognized that many sources
of water supplies contain chemicals and other materials  in
excess of the indicated levels,  but with advance  treatment
these waters may also provide any quality desired at a price.
  If the water needs of the nation are projected into the
future, the  time may come when a  completely closed-cycle
system will be required  in some areas. This means that the
waste effluent from a food plant may have to be treated  to
achieve a high quality water for reuse.

Water Treatment Processes

  Surface waters used by the food canning industry require
treatment before use as  process  waters. Usually,  this treat-
ment involves  coagulation, sedimentation, filtration,  and
disinfection. More extensive treatment may be required for
those waters incorporated in the product.
  Container cooling waters are routinely  treated by heavy
chlorination to render them free of significant types of  bac-
TABLE VI-25—Qualify Characteristics of Surf ace Waters That
       Have Been Used by the Food Canning Industry
           (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values are maximums.)
                                                                          Characteristic
                                                                                                      Concentration mg/l
Alkalinity (CaCO:1)
pH, units
Hardness (CaCO.,)
Calcium (Ca)
Chlorides (Cl)
Su Hates (SO,)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Silica (SiOO dissolved
Phenols
Nitrate (N03)
Nitrite (NO-)
Fluoride (F)
Organics: carbon chloroform extract
Chemical oxygen demand (0:)
Odor, threshold number
Taste, threshold number
Color, units
Dissolved solids
Suspended solids
Coliform, count/100 ml
300
 8.5
310
120
300
250
 0.4
 0.2
 50
 to
 45
 w
 (a)
 0.3
 (*)
 to
 to
 5
550
 12
 to
 «As specified in Water Quality Recommendatiom for Public Water Supply in this Report.
 ' Accepted as received (if meeting other limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations encountered
 * Not detectable by test
 ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971.it

-------
    /Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
TABLE VI-26—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of
      Use by the Canned, Dried, and Frozen Fruits and
                     Vegetables Industry
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg /I and values that normally should not be exceeded. The Table indicates
quality of water prior to the addition of substances used for internal conditioning.)
             Characteristic
   Canned specialties (SIC 2032)
Canned fruits and vegetables (SIC 2033)
Dried fruits and vegetables (SIC 2032)
Frozen fruits and vegetables (SIC 2037)
          mg/l
Acidil> (H-SO,)
Alkalinity (CaC03)
pH, units
Hardness (CaCO::)
Calcium (Ca)
Chlorides (Cl)
Sulfates (SO,)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Chlorine (Cl)
Fluorides (F)
Silica (SiO •)
Phenols
Nitrates (NO.)
Nitrites (NO.:)
Orgamcs:
Carbon tetrachloride extractables
Odor, threshold number
Taste, threshold number
Turbidity
Color, units
Dissolved solids
Suspended solids
Conform, count/1 00 ml
Total bacteria, count/100 ml
0
250
6.5-8.5
250
100
250
250
0.2
0.2
(a)
1 W
50
(3, 4)
10(4)
«

0.2 W
w
w
(/)
5
500
10
(/)
(?)
 »Process waters for food canning are purposely chlorinated to a selected, uniform level. An unchlormated supply
must be available for preparation of canning syrups.
 '' Waters used in the processing and formulation of foods for babies should be low in fluorides concentration. Be-
cause high nitrate intake is alleged to be involved in infant illnesses, the concentration of nitrates in waters used for
processing baby foods should be low.
 " Not detectable by test.
 •' Because chlermation of food processing waters is a desirable and widespread practice, the phenol content of
intake waters must be considered. Phenol and chlorine in water can react to form chlorephenol, which even in trace
amounts can impart a medicinal off-flavor to foods.
 • Maximum permissible concentration may be lower depending on type of substance and its effect on odor and
taste.
 / As required by U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service (1962=").
 ' The total bacterial count must be considered as a quality requirement for waters used in certain food processing
operations. Other than aesthetic considerations, high bacterial concentration in waters coming in contact with frozen
foods may significantly increase the count per gram fer the food. Waters used to cool heat-sterilized cans or jars of
food must be low in total count for bacteria to prevent serious spoilage due to aspiration of organisms through con-
tainer seams. Chlorination is widely practiced to assure low bacterial counts on container cooling waters.
 ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971"
teria. Waters used for washing and transporting raw foods
are generally chlorinated, particularly if all or a portion
of the water is recirculated. In some cases, waters  in which
vegetables are blanched may  require treatment to reduce
hardness.

BOTTLED  AND  CANNED  SOFT DRINKS (SIC  2086)

Description of the Industry
   Since 1954  there has been a marked reduction in the
number of plants producing soft  drinks—from  5,469  in
1954 with a production of 1,176,674,000 cases to  3,230  in
1969 with a production of 2,913,110,000 cases (National
Soft Drink Association).* It is obvious that numerous sma
plants have been discontinued as producing units. This tren
continues.

Processes Utilizing Water
   In the production of soft clrinks, water is used not only i
the finished  product itself but also for washing container
cleaning production equipment, cooling refrigeration an
air compressors, plant  clean-up, truck washing,  sanitat
purposes  (restrooms and showers),   lawn watering,  lov
pressure heating boilers, and air conditioning.
   Estimates  of the total water quantities utilized in the so
drink industry for  all purposes  are:  intake, approximate!
18 bgy; recycle, 4 bgy; consumption,  4 bgy; and dischargi
14 bgy  (Bureau of the Census 1971).5
   The figure of 18 bgy intake is based upon production (
2.9 billion cases per year and an average of  6 gallons <
water used per case by the 130 largest plants surveyed the
represent only 5 per cent of the plants in the industry. (Th
figure of 6 gallons per case is based on the limited data no1
available.)
   The 7967 Census of Manufacturers lists the gross water usag
in 1968, including recycle,  as 9 billion gallons and tots
water intake as  8  billion gallons (Bureau of  the Censt
1971).5  The  reuse of water within the industry has  for som
years  increased and  is  still  increasing  as the older an
smaller  plants are replaced by new and larger plants the
use recirculating rather  than once-through cooling wate
equipment, modern bottle washers that use less water  pe
case than older equipment and other devices. The increase
use of nonreturnable containers in recent years has resultei
in lower quantities of water used for bottle washing.
   The consumption figure of 4 billion gallons is  based upo
the water  content  of the total  quantity  of beverage prc
ducedin 1968.
   The discharge figure of 14 billion gallons is the differenc
between the estimated 18 billion gallons of intake and th
4  billion gallons of product water.

Significant Indicators of Water Quality
   Water that is mixed with flavoring materials to  produc
the final product must be potable.  Likewise, potable wate
is  needed for washing fillers,  syrup lines, and other produc
handling equipment. The water used for washing  produc
containers  must also be potable. Although  other wate
uses do  not require potability, it has not been customary t<
use nonpotable water for any purpose in a soft drink plant
   The water that becomes a part of the final  product mus
not only be  potable, but must also contain no substance
that will alter the taste, appearance, or shelf life of the bever
age (Table VI-27).  Because beverages are made  from man\
                             * A case is defined as 24 bottles each containing 8 ounces of beverage
                             In the above figures, bottles larger or smaller than 8 ounces have beer
                             converted to 8 ounce equivalents.

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                                                                                            Major Industrial Uses of Water/393
 TABLE VI-27—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of
          Use by the Soft Drink Industry (SIC 2086)°
 (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/l and values that normally should not be exceeded. The Table indicates
        the quality of water prior to the addition ol substances used for internal conditioning.)
             Characteristic
                                          Concentration mg/l
Alkalinity (CaCO,)
pH, units
Hardness (CaCO )
Chlorides (Cl)
Sulfates (SO<)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Fluoride (F)
Total dissolved solids
Organics, CCE
Coliform ba teria
Color, units
Taste
Odor
85
(*)
(*)
500 (c)
500 (<•)
0.3
0.05
W
W
0.2 W
(«0
5
(', /)
(', n
  " The more important parameters are listed. Although not included in the table, all Drinking Water Standards
 (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962)*° for potability apply.
  6 Controlled by treatment for other constituents.
   If present with equivalent quantities of Mg end Ca as sulfates and chlorides, the permissible limit may be some-
 what below 500 mg/l.
  •i Not greater than PHS Drinking Water Standards (1962)'°.
  «In general, public water supplies are coagulated, chlorinated, and filtered through sand and granular activated
 carbon to insure very low organic content and freedom from taste and odor.
  .' Not detectable by lest.
  ASTM 1970* or Standard Methods 1971«.
 different syrup bases, however, the concentration and type
 of substances that affect taste, or  other characteristics, are
 not the  same for all beverages.  For  this  reason, a  single
 standard cannot apply to all types of soft drinks.
   The majority of plants use only  water from a public sup-
 ply. Some use  water from private wells. None use  water
 directly from  surface sources. The  quality  characteristics
 for intake water are essentially the same as requirements for
 potable water.

 Water Treatment  Processes
   There are  few, if any,  public  water  supplies that are
 suitable as product water without some in-plant processing.
 Almost 100 per cent of the bottling plants have as minimum
 treatment sand nitration and activated carbon purification.
About 80 per cent of the plants also coagulate and  super-
chlorinate  the water  preceding sand  filtration and  carbon
purification. When the total alkalinity of the intake water is
too high, lime is used to precipitate the alkaline salts.
   There are very few bottling plants  whose intake water is
so highly mineralized  that the  brackish  taste  affects  soft
drinks. Among the reasons are the facts that flavoring com-
ponents in  soft drinks  mask  the  taste of many brackish
waters without altering the  taste of the  drink  and  that
towns with highly mineralized  water supplies  are  either
avoided as locations for bottling plants or suitable private
supplies are used.
   Uniformity of water composition is  most desirable. Con-
trol of in-plant  processing is difficult when the composition
of the water varies from  day to day. Surface waters that are
 subject to heavy biological growths or heavy pollution from
 organic chemicals are also difficult to process.
   Except for process water,  most public water supplies are
 suitable for all other  usages  without external  treatment.
 Occasionally,  cation exchangers are  used  to soften  water
 for  bottle washing,  cooling,  and boiler  feed water, but in-
 ternal conditioning  is used  in most  plants for scale  and
 corrosion control.

 TANNING INDUSTRY  (SIC  3111)

 Description  of the Industry
   The  leather tanning industry is many industries, as each
 type  of leather constitutes  a  different  process.  Basically,
 there are only three or four  types  of tannage (vegetable,
 mineral, combination of vegetable-mineral, and synthetics)
 but many finishing  processes.

 Processes Utilizing  Water
   Water  is  used in all  processes of storage, sorting, trim-
 ming,  soaking,  green  fleshing, unhairing,  neutralizing,
 pickling,   tanning,   retanning,  fat-liquoring, drying,  and
 finishing  of the  hides.  It  is  an  essential  factor in  each
 process. The chemical composition of the water is considered
 critical in obtaining the desired quality  of leather. There is
 limited reuse of process water in the tanning industry.
   Data on  water utilization  by the  leather tanning  and
 finishing  industry as reported in the  1967 Census of Manu-
facturers (Bureau of the Census  1971)5  includes  14.8  bgy
 intake,  3.7 bgy  reuse and recirculation, and 0.8 bgy con-
 sumption.
 TABLE VI-28—Quality Requirements  of Water at Point of
       Use by Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry
                           (SIC 3111)
 (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/l and values that normally should not be exceeded. Table indicates
         the quality of water prior to addition of substances used for internal conditioning.)
Characteristic
Alkalinity (CaCO.)
pH, units
Hardness (CaCO::)
Calcium(Ca) 	
Chloride (Cl)
Sulfate (SO,)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Organics' carbon chloroform extract . .
Color, units
Coliform bacteria
Turbidity
Tanning processes
W
6.0-8.0
150
60
250
250
50
W
W
5
(/)
(c)
General finishing
processes
W
6.0-8.0
(»)
<*)
250
250
0.3
0.2
0.2
5
(/)
W
Coloring
W
6.0-8.0
(c,d)
(c,d)
W
W
0.1
0.01
W
5
W
W
 ° Accepted as received (if meeting other listed limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations
encountered.
 '' Lime softened.
 ' Not detectable by test
 < Demmeralized or distilled water.
 • Concentration not known at which problems occur.
 / PHS Drinking Water Standards (1962)."'
ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971"

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      ection VI—Industrial Water Supplies
 Significant Indicators of Water Quality

   The chemical composition of the water is important in
 producing high-quality leather. For some processes, such as
 the finishing of leather, distilled or demineralized water is
 best. The microbiological content of the water is equally im-
 portant, but this can be controlled by use of disinfectants.
 The quality requirements at point of use are shown in Table
 VI-28.

 Water Treatment Processes
   Most tanning and leather product industries are located
 in urban areas and use  public water supplies  or ground
 water. A  few tanneries use surface supplies, usually chlori-
 nated. They may  also need  additional treatment  such as
 clarification, and iron and manganese removal.
   A limited volume of water, whether  from  the public
 water supply or company-owned systems, may be softened,
 distilled, or demineralized.

 MINING AND CEMENT INDUSTRIES (SIC 10)

 Mining

   Description of the Industry  Industrial usage of the
 term mining is  broad and includes mining operations and
 quarrying; extraction of minerals,  petroleum, and  natural
 gas; well  operations  and milling (e.g.,  crushing, screening,
washing,  froth  flotation);  and other  processing used  to
render minerals marketable.
   Processes  Utilizing  Water   Mining operations  are
numerous, and many of them involve the use  of water.
However, the amount of water used is often relatively small,
or its use  is simply that of providing a  suspending medium
 (as in coal washing) with minimal requirements of water
quality. The principal consideration in these operations is
that water acidity be relatively low so that  corrosion of
equipment is kept to a minimum.
   On the other hand, a number of the operations involved
in this general category require the use of large quantities of
water with certain  quality requirements  relating to  im-
purity, type, and level. These operations are froth flotation,
mine dump leaching, and secondary oil recovery. With re-
gard to  froth flotation, an operation extensively used to re-
cover valuable  minerals  from  low-grade ores,  large  ton-
nages of material are processed each day. For example, in
one large plant, 100,000 tons  of copper  ore per day  are
treated for recovery of copper sulfide. Generally,  flotation is
carried out at approximately 25 per cent  solids  by weight,
and freshwater makeup constitutes  about 25 per cent of the
total water requirement. In such systems, water is normally
recycled so that the  impurity level of both inorganic and
organic  constituents builds up with repeated reuse. It is not
possible to list maximal limits of impurity levels for such
waters,  but the levels found in  the processing water of one
operating plant  (i.e., a copper sulfide concentrator)  are
TABLE VI-29—Analysis of Typical Freshwater Makeup a
      Process Water for a Copper Sulfide Concentrator
   Water type
                             Constituent (mg/1)
                                    SO;    Cl     TDS   pH
Freshwater makeup   100    87    104        .   16     8     140    8.
Process water      1530   1510    415     345    1634    12    2100   II.
 ° H is total hardness expressed as CaC03; Ca is total calcium hardness expressed as CaC03; M is total alkal
expressed as CaCO:i; 0 is total hydrate expressed as CaCO,; SO. is total sulfate; Cl is total chloride; TDS is
dissolved solids.
listed in Table VI-29. Also listed is the analysis of the fre;
water makeup that is added to the recycled water. This co
bination provides the total process water used for this pla
  This  fresh  water is excellent for flotation. The acti
process water used can probably be best described as o
bordering on being problematic. The high Ca+"1" concent!
tion together with the high content of hydroxides of hea
metals (column 0) place this water in  this category.
  Another process that is used extensively in the industry
the leaching of mine waste for recovery of copper.  Lat
quantities  of leach  solution—approximately  225 milli
gallons  per day—are added to properties  located  in  tl
country. Most of the properties are located in arid  are,
so that water  reuse is mandatory. Solutions  returned  to t
mine dumps for leaching have been subjected to  treatme
for  copper recovery  by replacement with metallic iron  ai
then to further treatment to  set the level of iron in solutic
The analysis  of a typical leach solution  is  presented
Table VI-30.  Of these species, the  amount  of ferric  ion
perhaps the most critical, in that if the concentration is t
high, precipitation of basic  iron sulfate occurs within t
dump and renders the dump impermeable to solution flo
In this regard it is also important that there be no conce
tration of suspended solids in such  leach solutions as th
too  render the dump impermeable to flow of solution. As
result,  these solutions are filtered prior to introduction
the mine dump.
  Secondary oil recovery has assumed great importance
the  oil industry. One of the techniques used in recoverii
oil  is water flooding of a formation. With  this  techniqi
water is pumped into a formation under high pressure, and
mixture of water and  oil is  then recovered from anoth
well drilled into the formation.  Such a process requir

TABLE  VI-30—Typical Analysis of Leach Solution in Dun
                   Leaching of Copper
            Constituent
                                     Concentration (mg/1)
Al4^- 	
ME~ 	
Fe++ 	
Fe-"* 	
SOi™
DH 	
.... 12,000
	 12,000
	 6,000
	 6,000
	 64,000
	 3-3.5

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                                                                                   Major Industrial Uses of Water/395
careful consideration  of a number of factors, including
permeability of the rock of which the formation is composed;
type and amount of clay in the rock; ionic composition of
the connate  water; and composition, solids,  and bacterial
content of the water injected into the formation. If the clay
content of the host rock is of a bentonitic nature (i.e.,  a
swelling type clay, which when used with fresh water is not
in equilibrium with the ions contained in the connate water),
the clay will swell and render the formation impermeable to
water  flow. An  effective means of obviating this is  to re-
inject the same water, filtered of solids, into the formation.
Another means is to keep the salt content of the water high.
  Stabilization of the  water exiting from the formation
must be  considered,  because gases such  as carbon  dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are released from the
water.  If these gases are not added to the water prior to re-
injection into the formation, the water will not be in equilib-
rium with the connate water, salts, and rock  of the forma-
tion. Precipitation of compounds may result, and permeabil-
ity will be altered.
  Waters that  are  conveniently  available   are  used for
water  injection.  In  addition  to formation and surface
waters, sea water is often used. The composition  of sea water
and a water from a sand formation are listed in Table VI-31.
  Anaerobic bacteria are also a problem in water flooding,
since they are capable  of producing such compounds as
hydrogen sulfide in the  water. Effective  bactericides are
available  to control this potential problem.
  The quantity of water used in water flooding depends on
the production of the well involved. A commonly added
quantity  would  be 400 to 500 barrels  per  day,  which is
equivalent to 16,800 to 21,000 gallons per day. In view of
all  of  the secondary  oil  production using this technique,
then, extremely  large quantities of water are  involved. For
example,  in  1960 approximately 634 million  barrels of oil
were produced by injection techniques  in California, Illi-
nois, Louisiana,  Oklahoma, Texas, and  Wyoming  (Ostroff
1965).15
TABLE VI-31—Composition of Sea Water and a Formation
                 Water Expressed as mg/l.
         Constituent
                             Sea water
                                           Margmuia sand (La.)
cor 	
HCOs". . .
so<- .
cr . ..
Ca++ 	
Mr"
Na++K+
Fe (total)
Ba++ .
IDS 	
pH . ...

142
2,560
18,980
400
1,272
10,840
0.02

34,292

0
281
42
72,782
2,727
655
42,000
13
24
118,524
^.5
Ostroff 1965"


Cement

  The manufacture of cement involves combining lime-
stone with silica sand,  alumina, and  iron oxide, crushing
and  grinding this mixture, burning at  high temperature,
cooling, and regrinding clinker to fine size. If water is used
at all, it is used in the initial  grinding step. In terms of
water consumed, approximately 200 gallons are used per
ton of finished cement.
  Because  of the high  temperatures used in  the  burning
process (approximately 2500 F), water  quality requirements
are minimal. The alkali content of the  process water can be
a problem, however, if it is present in relatively high con-
centration, because the alkali oxides  are  volatilized and
condensed  on the fine particulate matter produced during
the burning  process.  If the amount of  oxide is relatively
high, oxide will build up as the fine particulate matter is
recycled to the kiln. Alkali oxide may be removed from the
fine particulate matter by water leaching, but this  practice
results in the problem of disposing of water very high in
alkali salts. Even if water leaching is not used, the problem
of disposing  of the oxide-bearing particulate matter also
exists.

-------
                                                      LITERATURE  CITED
"American  Paper Institute (1970), Annual report: a test of stamina—
     action taken and results obtained by  the American Paper Institute in a
    year of recession (New York),  12 p.
2 American  Public Health Association,  American Water Works As-
     sociation,  and  Water  Pollution  Control  Federation  (1971),
     Standard methods for the examination  of water and wastewater, 13th ed.
     (American Public  Health  Association,  Washington,  D.  C.),
     874 p.
3 American  Society for  Testing and  Materials  (1970),  Water and
     atmospheric analysis, part 23 of American Society for Testing and
     Materials book of standards (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania),  1052  p.
4 ASTM standards (1970) (see citation 3 above.)
5 Bureau of the Census (1971)  (see citation 19 below.)
6 Federal Power Commission  (1971), Data compiled from FPC form
     67:  Steam-electric plant air  and  water control  data, for the year ended
     December 31, J9[70]. [This information is available for inspection
     and copying  in the reference room of the Office of Public In-
     formation,  Federal Power  Commission, Washington, D.  C.
     20426. ]
'Landsberg, H. H.,  L.  L. Fischman, and J.  L. Fisher  (1963), Re-
     sources in America's future (Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore), 1017 p.
8 Livingstone, D. A. (1963), Chemical composition of rivers and lakes
     [Geological Survey professional  paper 440-G],  in  Data of geo-
     chemistry, 6th  ed., M. Fleischer,  ed.  (Government Printing Of-
     fice, Washington, D. C.),  64 p.
9 McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, eds. (1963), Water quality criteria, 2nd
     ed.  (California  State Water Quality  Control  Board, Sacra-
     mento), 548 p.
10 Michel, R. (1942), Water as the cause of poor colors  and failures
     in dyeing. Farb. u. Chemischrein 89.
11 Miller Freeman Publications (undated), The pulp and paper market:
     an  analysis oj the industry by Miller  Freeman Publications,  publishers
     of Pulp  and paper magazine (San Francisco).
12 Mussey,  O.  D.  (1957), Water requirements  of the  rayon- and
     acetate-fiber  industry [Geological Survey water supply paper
     1330-D], in Study of manufacturing processes with emphasis on present
     water use and future  water requirements. Water requirements  of selected
     industries.  (Government  Printing Office,  Washington, D. C.),
     p  141-179.
13 Nordell, E. (1961), Water treatment for industrial and other uses, 2nd
     (Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York), 598 p.
14 Ontario Water Resources Commission (1970), Guidelines and cril
    for water quality management :n Ontario (Toronto,  Ontario).
15 Ostroff, A. G. (1965), Introduction to oilfield water technology (Prenti
     Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliff's, New Jersey), pp.  5, 7.
16 Standard methods (1971)  (see citation 2 above.)
17 Technical  Association of the  Pulp and  Paper  Industry (19:
     Water technology in  the pulp and paper industry [TAPPI Monogrj
     Series No. 18] (New York), Appendix, p. 162.
18 U.S.  Department  of Commerce.  Bureau  of  the Census (196
     Statistical abstract of the United States:  1969, 90th  ed.  (Governm<
     Printing Office, Washington, D. C.),  1032 p.
19 U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census (1971), Wa
     use in manufacturing, section MC67(l)-7 of J967 census of ma
     facturers: industrial  division  (Government  Printing Office,  Wa
     ington, D. C.), 361 p.
20 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  Public Hea
     Service  (1962), Public Health Service drinking water  standards, i
     1962 [PHS Pub. 956] (Government Printing Office, Washingt.
     D. C.), 61 p.
21 U.S.  Department of  the  Interior. Federal  Water Pollution Cont
     Administration  (1968), Textile  mill  products, in The  cost
     clean water, vol. 3: Industrial waste profiles (Government Printi
     Office,  Washington, D.C.), 133 p.
22 U.S.  Executive  Office of the  President.  Bureau  of the Bud|
     (1967),  Standard   industrial  classification  manual   (Governm<
     Printing Office, Washington, B.C.), 615 p.
23 Walter, J. W. (1971), Water quality requirements  for  the  paj
     industry. J. Amer.  Water  Works  Ass. 63(3): 165-168.
24 Water  Resources  Council  (1968),  Electric  power  uses, part
     chapter 3 of  The  nations water  resources  (Government Printi
     Office,  Washington, D.C.), p. 4-3-2.
25 Edison Electric  Institute (1970),  Personal communication  (Rich.=
     Thorssell, 750 3rd Avenue,  Mew York, New York).
26 Environmental Protection Agency (1971), Unpublished data, Geoi
     Webster, Office of Water Quality Programs, Washington,  D.C
27 TAPPI: Water  Supply  and Treatment  Committee (1970),  t
     published data, presented at the TAPPI Air and Water Conferer
     June 8-10/70.
                                                                   396

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             Appendix I—RECREATION AND  AESTHETICS
                              TABLE OF  CONTENTS
QUANTIFYING AESTHETIC AND RECREA-            Nonmonetary benefit evaluations	   39)
  TIONAL  VALUES  ASSOCIATED  WITH         CURRENT LEAST-COST EVALUATIONS	   401
  WATER QUALITY	  399     SPECIAL EVALUATION PROBLEMS	   401
   EVALUATION TECHNIQUES	  399
      Monetary benefit evaluations	  399  LITERATURE CITED	   40
                                        398

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           QUANTIFYING  AESTHETIC AND  RECREATIONAL VALUES  ASSOCIATED
                                         WITH  WATER  QUALITY
  Provisions  of  the  Wild and Scenic Rivers Act  (U.  S.
Congress 1968),13 The National Environmental Policy Act
(U.S. Congress  1970a),14 and  the Flood Control Act, Sec-
tion 209 (U.S. Congress 1970b),15 have added impetus to
the need for quantification of aesthetic and recreational
values associated with water quality.

Evaluation Techniques
  The two techniques necessary to assess total aesthetic and
recreational values are (a) monetary benefit evaluations,
and (b)  nonmonetary benefit evaluations.
  Monetary benefit evaluations usually start  by  determining
costs of visiting  a site from various distances and adopt a
weighted average based on calculations  of individual costs
to visit a particular site from various zones and the number
of visitors from each zone. The representative unit cost is
then multiplied  by the total  number of expected visitors
(the demand) to  determine the total minimum benefit. (Sec
Hotelling  (1949),5  Trice and Wood  (1958),12  Clawson
(1959),2  and  Knetsch  (1963).6)  Another  procedure   for
imputing  dollar  values  to  benefits  is  to  presume that
benefits  are equal to  foregone costs of doing the same thing
another way. Frankel (1965)4 showed that the cost of down-
stream removal of coliforms at a water treatment plant was
less than the upstream cost of  disinfection at a waste water
treatment plant.  The conclusion to  be drawn was that the
benefits of chlorination at the  particular waste water treat-
ment plant were not equal to  the costs saved downstream,
and hence  the practice could be discontinued at the waste
water treatment  plant.
  Nonmonetary benefit  evaluations attempt to  attach quantita-
tive scales  in terms of dollars and  dimensionless  scores to
nonmonetary recreational and aesthetic values. These  at-
tempts fall  into three categories.
  1  Waste treatment evaluation techniques  Son-
nen (1967)11 devised  a scheme  of multipliers ranging from 0
to about 10 that, when multiplied by the identifiable mone-
tary benefits of waste treatment, yielded an  estimate of  in-
tangible benefits. The value of the multipliers was a function
of:  (a)  the downstream  users' local, regional, or national
scope; (b) the private or public affiliation of the downstream
users; (c) the number of people involved in each downstream
use; and (d) the relative importance of each constituent in
the waste that might influence the enjoyment or use of the
water. Only the subfactor for constituent influence was re-
calculated for  each constituent to be partially removed by
the alternative treatment processes under consideration. The
objective was a benefit-cost analysis of waste treatment al-
ternatives  with  intangible  benefits given  quantitative
weight. It was shown  in  a hypothetical stream discharge
case that net  benefits  calculated  with  monetary  benefits
alone were maximized  by a less complete removal process
than was optimal when nonmonetary benefits were included
in the analysis. Partial  removals of 27 constituents to serve
five downstream users,  including recreational and aesthetic
use, were evaluated.
  Water Resources Engineers,  Inc. (1968)16 modified this
procedure  to  evaluate alternatives for:  (1)  wastewater
reclamation to protect  current recreation benefits and to
provide more; and (2)  protection  of a particular water to
levels (of coliforms) suitable  for harvesting  shellfish  while
other competing uses  of  the water  predominated (WRE
1969).17  Ralph  Stone  and Co.  (1969),10  in assessing  the
value of cleaning up San Diego Bay, asked 27 knowledgeable
people to rank the Bay's 12  possible uses, giving weights
from  1  to  10  to  both  the economic value and the  social
value of each use  to  the community as the interviewee
perceived that value. In both the  economic  and the  social
value responses, tourism, fishing, marina activities, and park
and recreation use ranked highest while industrial activity
rated low, and waste disposal rated last  in both responses.
  2   Water  Resource  Project Recreation  Evalu-
ation  WRE (1970)18 devised two methods for evaluating
intangible benefits  as  functions of the  monetary  benefits
identified:   a   "benefits  foregone—subjective  decision"
method,  and  a "nonmonetary  expression of benefits"
method.  In the former the intangible  benefits  associated
with wild, undeveloped streams are presumed to be  equal
to the foregone monetary benefits that would accrue to other
users  if the streams were fully developed.  In the latter in-
tangible, aesthetic benefits are presumed to be estimable
fractions of the  identifiable monetary benefits. These two
WRE  methods have been demonstrated  for both a wild
river area and a developed stream in the Pacific Northwest.
                                                       399

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 WO/Appendix I—Recreation and Aesthetics
   3   Ecological Impact Analysis  Six notable studies
 in recent  years  derived evaluation methods that  require
 ranking sites on  various scales, with constant upper and
 lower limits.  (1) Whitman  (1968)19 developed a  rating
 scheme for streams in urban areas based on seven factors
 related to the environment:  three factors are  assigned 20
 per cent relative weights,  and four 10 per cent relative
 weights. Each stream is to be given a rating from 0 to the
 upper limit  for each  factor  on the  basis  of  how uniquely
 each of the subjective  criteria is satisfied.  (2) Dearinger
 (1968)3 developed weighted ratings for subfactors encom-
 passing a range of environmental characteristics including
 climate, scenery, hydrology,  user  characteristics, and water
 quality. (3) Leopold (1969)7 ranked scenic values by placing
 each stream in categories that measure the site's uniqueness
 with respect to all others evaluated. His three  major cate-
 gories embraced  physical  factors,  biological  and  water
 quality factors, and human  use  and interest  factors. No
 superior-inferior ranking was implied for any category.
   (4)  Morisawa and  Murie  (1969)9 presented a 1  to 10
 value-rating scale to apply quantitative weight to otherwise
 subjective  stream characteristics,  placing major emphasis
 on total dissolved solids content and sediment load with
 respect to water quality. (5)  Leopold et al. (1971)8 devised
 a  3'X3' score sheet on which  86 "existing  characteristics
 and conditions of the environment" are scored according to
 how they will be affected by any  of 98 possible "actions
 which may cause environmental impact." Of the 86 charac-
 teristics, water quality was only one, although(temperature
 was given a  row of its own too. Unfortunately, no explicit
 score is given to the goodness or badness of the scores, and
 much subjective decision-making remains after these analy-
 ses have contributed what objectivity they can. (6) Battelle-
 Columbus (1971)1 desired a hierarchical arrangement of
 critical environmental quality  characteristics arranged in
 four major categories:  ecology,  environmental pollution,
 aesthetics,  and human interest. The system  measures en-
 vironmental   impacts  in  environmental  quality   units
 (EQU); each analysis  produces  a  total score in EQU based
 on the magnitude of specific environmental impacts ex-
 pressed by the relative importance of various quality char-
 acteristics as prescribed by a predetermined weighting and
 ranking scheme.

 Current Least-Cost Evaluations

   The economic objective for water-quality-oriented pro-
jects, such as water and waste  treatment  plants,  has  been
 to meet  stipulated water quality standards  or criteria at
 least cost. However, least-cost analysis, which is important
 and proper at the design stage, has entered  water quality
 management evaluations too  soon on most occasions. The
 hasty assumptions are made that  (1) certain uses are to be
 provided or protected, and (2) water quality criteria to pro-
 tect those uses are absolutely correct both with respect to
 constituents  named   and concentrations  assigned.   But
 caveats by  the experts throughout this  book about lack of
 scientific  evidence to  support meaningful criteria attest to
 ihe  fallacy of these  assumptions.  Clearly if some  prior
 analysis, such as a benefit-cost analysis  including aesthetic
 values, could  demonstrate  (hat secondary treatment  oi
 wastes  would  provide  adequate protection  of  the  most
justifiable mix of downstream uses in a specific set of circum-
 stances, then least-cost analysis would be the proper tool to
 determine  the cheapest secondary  treatment process  to
 install.  Unfortunately, the biggest stumbling  block to this
 more nearly ideal sequence of analyses has been the lack oi
 procedures  for quantifying all the relevant values discussed
 above,  including  both monetary and nonmonetary  ones.
 But  it should be recognized that least-cost analysis is prop-
 erly applied only  after  the  uses  to  be  protected and  the
 quality criteria to protect  them have been  determined
 through prior evaluation.

 Special Evaluation Problems
   There are problems that have not  yet been  addressed by
 researchers.

     • The  perception of median value by  the average
       person enjoying himself or his surroundings has not
       been normalized. The average recreator is not aware
       of  his environment in terms of the silt  load or coli-
       form organism measure? that the scientists use  to
       characterize the environment.
     • A  related  problem is  that of vicarious pleasure and
       its  benefit to society as a whole.
     • There is no method available that defines absolute
       and  relative uniqueness.  Methods that rank relative
       uniqueness on  scales of 1 to  10  do not answer the
       optimal questions of water resource use,  and methods
       like WRE's (1970)18 cannot claim validity for more
       that  comparative  evaluations of projects  within a
       single river basin.
     • There is no single,  meaningful  measure  of water
       quality that can be related to the costs of attaining
       it and the benefits stemming from it. In his study oi
       waste treatment  alternatives,  Sonnen  (1967)11  was
       unsuccessful  at separating the  benefits that over-
       lapped from removal of one  constituent and  were
       undoubtedly counted again in assessing the benefits
       of removal  of others.
     • The  quantification of  aesthetic  and  recreational
       values associated  with marine and estuarine waters
       demands particular attention.

  Further research must attempt to determine the levels of
each constituent that  enhance, preserve, reduce,  or elimi-
nate use of  water.  With these quality-use spectra, sociolo-
gists,  psychologists,  economists, engineers,  and politicians
will eventually  be  able to characterize objectively  the aver-
age, normative response of the populace to the environment
and to deduce the values and relative values people wish to
place on the conditions to be found there.

-------
                                                       LITERATURE  CITED
1 Battelle-Columbus  (1971),  Design of an environmental  evaluation  sys-
     tem,  Final Report to Bureau of Reclamation  (U.S. Department of
     the Interior, Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio),
     61 p.
2 Clawson, M. (1959), Methods for measuring the demand for and value of
     outdoor recreation  (Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.),
     36 p.
3 Dearinger, J.  A.  (1968), Esthetic and  recreational  potential of small
     naturalistic streams near urban arras, Research Report  No. 13 (Uni-
     versity  of  Kentucky  Water  Resources  Institute,  Lexington),
     260 p
4 Frankel, R. J.  (1965), Economic evaluation of Water—An engineeting-
     economic model for  water  quality management,  First Annual  Report
     (University  of  California, Sanitary  Engineering Research  La-
     boratory Report No. 65-3) 167 p.
6 Hotelling, H.  (1949),  [Letter],  in The  economics of public  if creation-
     an economic study of the monetary  evaluation of recreation in the national
    park1,  (U.S.  Department of the  Interior, Washington,  D.C.),
     pp. 8-9.
6 Knetsch, J. L.  (1963), Outdoor  recreation  demands  and benefits.
     Land Economics 39:387-396.
7 Leopold, L. B.  (1969), Qjiantitative comparison of some aesthetic factors
     among  rivers  [Geological  Survey  circular  620]  (Government
     Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 16 p.
8 Leopold, L  B., F.  E.  Clarke,  B. B. Hanshaw and J  R  Balsey
     (1971),  A procedure  for evaluating  environmental impact (Geological
     Survey Circular 645, Washington, DC),  13 p.
9 Morisawa,  M.  and M. Murie  (1969),  Evaluation  of natural rivers-
    final  report [U.S. Department  of  the Interior,  Office of Water
     Resources Research, research project C-1314]  (Antioch College,
     Yellow Springs, Ohio), 143 p.
10 Ralph  Stone  and  Company,  Inc.,  Engineers  (1969),  Estuarme-
     onented community planning for  San  Diego Bay,  prepared for the
     Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,  178 p.
11 Sonncn, M. B. (1967),  Evaluation of  alternative waste treatment
     facilities,  Ph.D  dissertation,  University  of  Illinois, Sanitary
     Engineering Series No  41,  Urban.), Illinois,  180 p.
12 Trice, A  II. and  S. E. Wood (1958), Measurement of recreational
     benefits:  a  rejoinder.  Land Economics 3^-367-369.
13 U.S  Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers  Act, Public Law
     90-542, S.  1075,  October 2,  1968,  12 p.
14 U.S. Congress (1970a), National Environmental Policy Act of 1969,
     Public  Law 91-190, S. 1075, 5 p.
15 U.S.  Congress (1970b),  Flood  Control act of 1970,  Public Law
     91-611, Title II,  91st Congress, H.R. 19877, pp. 7-18
16 Water  Resources Engineers,  Inc  (1968),  Waste water reclamation
     potential for  the Laguna  de  Rosa, Report to the  California State
     Water  Resources Control Board, 86  p.
17 Water  Resources Engineers,  Inc  (1969),  Evaluation  of alternative
     water quality  control plans  for  Elkhorn  Slough and Moss Landing
     Haibot,  presented  to   the  California State  Water  Resources
     Control Board, 63 p.
18 Water Resources  Engineers, Inc. (1970), Wild rivers—methods for
     evaluation,  prepared for the  LT.S.  Department  of  the Interior,
     Office of  Water Resources Research, 106 p.
19 Whitman, I.  L.  (19G8),  Uses of small urban river  valleys, Baltimore
     Corps  of Engineers  [Ph.D.  dissertation]  The Johns Hopkins
     University, 299 p.
                                                                   401

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     Appendix  II—FRESHWATER  AQUATIC  LIFE  AND WILDLIFE
                                TABLE OF  CONTENTS
APPENDIX II-A
   MIXING ZONES .
APPENDIX II-B
   COMMUNITY  STRUCTURE  AND DIVERSITY  IN-
     DICES 	

APPENDIX II-G
   THERMAL TABLES	
APPENDIX II-D
  PESTICIDES TABLES .
    APPENDIX II-E
403      GUIDELINES FOR TOXICOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON
         PESTICIDES	

    APPENDIX II-F
408      PESTICIDES RECOMMENDED FOR MONITORING IN
         THE ENVIRONMENT	

410  APPENDIX II-G
        TOXICANTS IN FISHERY MANAGEMENT	
420   LITERATURE CITED.
43


44

44
44
                                          402

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                                               APPENDIX  II-A
 MIXING ZONES

 A. Mathematical Model References

   Mathematical models based, in part, on the considera-
 tions  delineated  in  General  Physical Consideration  of
 Mixing Zones are available for prediction of heated-water
 discharge from power plants into large lakes (Wada, 1966;32
 Carter, 1969;6 Edinger and  Polk 1969,10 Sundaram  et al.
 1969,30 Csanady, 1970,7 Motz and Benedict 1970,22 Pritch-
 ard  1971,27 Stolzenbach and  Harleman 1971,29 Zeller et al.
 1971,36 Policastro and Tokar in press)?6 cooling ponds and
 impoundments (Brady et al.  1969,4 D'Arezzo and Masch
 1970),8 rivers  (Jaske and Spurgeon 1968,17 Water Resources
 Engineers  1968,35 Parker and Krenkel  1969,25 Kolesar and
 Sonnichsen 1971),19 estuaries  (Ward and Espey 1971)33 and
 ocean  outfalls (Baumgartner  and Trent 1970).3
   Mathematical  models of the distribution of non-thermal
 discharges  into various receiving systems are also available
 for diffusion in lakes, reservoirs and  oceans (scale effects)
 (Brooks I960,5 Allan Hancock Foundation  19651), diffusion
 in bays and estuaries where tidal oscillations  and density
 stratification   are  factors  (O'Connor  1965,23  Masch and
 Shankar,  1969,21 Fischer 1970,12  Leendertse  1970),20 and
 dispersion  in  open channels and rivers  (Glover  1964,13
 Bella and  Dobbins,  1968,2 Dresnack and  Dobbins,  1968,9
 Fischer 1968,11 Thackston and Krenkel  1969,31 Jobson and
 Sayre  1970,18 O'Connor and Toro 1970).24
  Time-of-exposure  models  are discussed  by Pritchard
 (1971).2'

 B. Development  of Integrated Time-Exposure Data For a
   Hypothetical Field Situation

   1. A proposed  discharge of a  waste containing  alkyl-
 benzene  sulfonates (ABS)  to a lake containing rainbow
trout is under consideration. The trout regularly swim paral-
lel to the shoreline where the shallows  drop off to deeper
water.  The expected plume configuration, estimated ABS
concentrations, and time of exposure for a  swimming  trout
 to various  concentrations are shown in Figure II-A-1. No
 avoidance  or attraction behavior is assumed. It is decided
 that an ET2 is appropriate for this situation  (see Comment
 a. below).
   2. To  test if this  mixing  zone meets  necessary water
 quality characteristics,  toxicity  bioassays  with  rainbow
 trout are performed  (see Section III, pp. 118-123).  Ob-
 serve mortality after  each exposure to selected concentra-
 tions at time intervals of approximate geometric or logarith-
 mic progression: i.e.,  10, 15, 30 and 60 minutes; 2, 4, 8,
 between 12 and 16, 24, and between 30 and 36 hours; 2, 3, 4,
 and if desired  7, 10 or more  days. While only the shorter
 time periods are involved in this  example, greater periods
 are necessary in some cases. After exposure, trout should be
 held in uncontaminated water for extended periods so that
 delayed effects of exposure can be evaluated.  While mor-
 tality was selected in  this example as the response to be
 assessed, a more conservative physiological  or behavioral
 response would provide a more positive factor of safety.
   3. Plot percentage mortality on a probability (probit)
 scale with time on  a logarithmic scale as in Figure II-A-2,
 and fit  by eye a straight line to the  set of points for  ach
 concentration.  The object  of this  is to determine for each
 concentration the median lethal time where  the fitted line
 crosses 50 per cent  mortality (the  ET50) and the ET2, the
 time causing 2 per cent mortality.
   4. Plot the sets of ET50 and ET2 values on  logarithmic
 paper and fit each set of points to create the toxicity curves
 as in Figure  II-A-3.
   5. Substitute  the information on  plume  characteristics
 and time of passage (Figure II-A-1) and the toxicity curves
 (Figure II-A-3) in the summation of effects formula:
                             T,
ET2 at
             ET2 at C2    ET3 at C3
               ET2 at Cn
                                                    <1
6
52
13
                                \2
                                52
                                      11
  Since the total  is slightly over 1.0 a mortality  greater
than 2 per cent is expected, and the recommendation is not
met. If the total was 1 .0 or less, a mortality of 2 per cent or
less would be expected and the recommendation would be
met.
                                                       403

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 404I'Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                 Average Concentration = 8 mg/1

                                                 ET2 =  °° (greater than 4 days)
    Shoreline  •'//////•'///.
                                        Average concentration
                                        = 30 mg/I
                                        E'1'2 = 1 7 min.
               Average concentration
               = 15 mg/1
               ET2 = 52 min.
FIGURE II-A-1—Predicted Concentrations of ABS in an Effluent Plume, and Times of Passage of Migrating Fish. Hypothetica
Comments

  a. Use of the ET(X). A probability distribution is involved
in mortality, and it is therefore impossible to give  any valid
estimate of an exposure time which  would cause zero per
cent mortality.  The probability  of  mortality  merely be-
comes  increasingly smaller as the exposure time becomes
less. Therefore it is necessary to choose some arbitrary per-
centage mortality as equivalent to negligible effect. Two
per cent was chosen as a useful level in the example above
since it is a low number yet still high enough that  the ex-
trapolation  of the probit line to that value has reasonable
validity. Other mortality levels can be selected to fit given
situations.
  When mortality is the response measured rather than a
more  conservative one, a  safety factor can  be utilized  by
requiring the sum of the integrated time-exposure effects t
equal less than unity.
  b. Toxicity Curves. For other toxicants, the curves ma
be greatly different from those shown in Figure II-A-3, e.g.
complex  reflex  or  rectangular  hyperbolas.  Further dis
cussion of toxicity curves, and illustration of curves of var
ious shapes is given by Warren (1971,34  pp.  199-203) am
Sprague (1969).28
  It is possible to calculate equations for the toxicity curves
or portions of them, as was done for  temperature-mortalit;
data (pp. 151 ff.).  However,  the  equations for many toxi
cants are cumbersome because of logarithms or other trans
formation. Since the  equations  are merely the result  o
empirically fitting  the observed experimental curves, it  i
easier and about equally effective to  read values of interes
directly from a graph  such  as Figure II-A-3.

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Appendix II-A—Mixing ^ones/405

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406/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife


   100
 3
 0
 ffi
    10
O
 V
 s
 H
    0.1
                                                   50% mortality
                                                 \
                                          2% mortality
                                                       \
                                                         \
                        J	I
I   I
I  I  I
                                                            I	I
                                                                              minutes

                                                                                60

                                                                                50


                                                                                40



                                                                                30



                                                                                20



                                                                                10
I    I    I   I  I  I  I
                                           10
                                                                             100
                                                  Concentration, mg/1
The
                             FIGURE II-A-3—Toxicity Curves for ABS to Rainbow Trout.

    times to 50 per cent mortality and times to 2 per cent mortality have been read from the lines fitted in Figure H-A-2.

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                                                                                   Appendix II-A—Mixing
  c. Threshold Effective Time. Organisms may survive for
30 minutes, an hour, or sometimes several hours, even in
extremely high concentrations of the pollutant (see caveat
under d).

  d. Lethal Threshold  Concentration.  Survival for an in-
definitely long period may be possible at the lethal threshold
concentration which may be close to concentrations which
are quickly lethal. Organisms which exhibit an abrupt lethal
threshold or a long threshold  effective time  may be es-
pecially vulnerable to sublethal effects and careful investiga-
tion  of this possibility should be made.

  e.  Need for  Experimental Determination of ET(X). Al-
though it would be convenient to have some rule of thumb
for estimating the ET(X) from the ET50, as is done by the
"2°  rule"  for  short-term  exposure to  high  temperature
(see  Section III,  pp. 161—162), there does  not seem to be
any  such simple  generalization which  can  be applied to
toxicants in general. The relatively few examples which can
be found in the literature indicate variable relationships. A
series of comparisons between toxicity curves for 5 per cent
and 50 per cent mortality are given by Herbert  (1961,14
196515) and Herbert and Shurben  (1964).16 The ratios be-
tween LC5 and LC50 for the same exposure times are as
follows: fluoride 0.4; a demulsifier 0.55; ammonium chlor-
ide 0.55  (high  concentrations) and 0.8  (low  concentra-
tions);  washing powders 0.75, and a corrosion inhibitor
0.88.  Even for the same pollutant the ratio is different for
different concentrations when the time-concentration  rela-
tion is curved, as it is for many substances. A difference is
also found when the toxicity curves are not parallel, as for
ABS in Figure II-A-3. The LC2/LC50 ratio for  ABS varies
from  0.46 to 0.72 at high concentrations and short times,
and increases to 0,87 for the 96-hour exposures.
  Because of this variability, no simple rule of  thumb can
be proposed for estimating, from the 50 per cent values, the
concentrations which will produce negligible mortality or
the exposure times for negligible mortality. It is necessary to
determine this empirically by the steps used in constructing
Figure II-A-2.

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                                               APPENDIX  II-B
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE  AND DIVERSITY INDICES

Evaluation Systems for Protection
   There are two basic approaches in evaluating the effects
of pollution on aquatic life:  the first by a taxonomic group-
ing of organisms; the second by identifying the community
of aquatic organisms.
   First,  the saprobian  system of Kolkwitz  and  Marsson
(1908,49 1909'>°), modified and used by Richardson  (1928),63
Gaufin (1956),44 Hynes (1962)48 and Beck (1954,38 195539),
depended upon a taxonomic grouping of organisms related
to their habitat in clean water, polluted water, or both. This
approach requires a precise identification of organisms.  It
is  based on the fact that different organisms have  different
ranges of tolerance to the same stress. Patrick (1951)59 and
Wurtz (1955)67 used  a system of histograms to report the
results of stream surveys based on the differences  in toler-
ance of various  groups of aquatic organisms to pollution.
Beck  (1955)3<) developed a biotic index  as  a method  of
evaluating the effects of pollution  on bottom fauna or-
ganisms.  The  biotic index is calculated  by multiplying the
number of intolerant species by two and then adding the
number of facultative organisms. Beck designated a biotic
index value greater than 10 to indicate clean water and a
value less than 10 to indicate polluted water. Other tech-
niques based on the tolerance of aquatic organisms to pol-
lution  have been  reported  by Gaufin  (1958)45 and Beak
(1965).37
  The breakdown of an  assemblage  of organisms into pol-
lution-tolerant, -intolerant,  and  -facultative categories  is
somewhat  subjective, because  tolerance for  the  same
organisms may vary under a different set of environmental
conditions. Needham (1938)58 observed that environmental
conditions other than pollution may  influence the distribu-
tion of organisms.  Pollution-tolerant  organisms  are also
found in clean water areas (Gaufin and Tarzwell, 1952).46
Therefore, the concept of the use of taxonomic groupings of
organisms to evaluate water quality biologically has certain
difficulties and is not commonly accepted  today.
  The second  approach  is to use the community structure
of associations or  populations  of aquatic  organisms  to
evaluate pollution. Hairston  (1959)47 defined community
structure  in  terms of frequency of species per unit area
spatial distribution of individuals, and numerical abundanct
of species. Gaufin  (1956)44 found that the community struc
ture of bcnthic invertebrates provided a more reliable cri
terion of  organic  enrichment  than presence of a specific
species.
   Diversity indices that permit the summarization of large
amounts of information about the  numbers  and kinds o1
organisms have  begun to replace the long  descriptive  list;
common to  early pollution  survey work.  These  diversit>
indices  result in  a  numerical expression that can be used tc
make  comparisons  between  communities of  organisms.
Some of these have been developed  to express the relation-
ships of numbers  of species in  various communities  and
overlap of species  between communities.
   The Jaccard Index  is one of the commonest used  to ex-
press species  overlap.  Other indices such as the Shannon-
Weincr information theory (Shannon and Weaver 1963)64
have been used  to express the evenness of distribution of
individuals in species composing a community. The divers-
ity index increases as evenness increases (Margalef 1958,M
Hairston 1959,47 MacArthur and MacArthur 1961,55  and
Mac Arthur 1964:>3). Various methods have  been developed
for comparing the diversity of  communities and for  de-
termining the relationship of  the  actual  diversity to  the
maximum or minimum diversity that might occur within a
given number of  species. Methods  have been thoroughly
discussed by  Lloyd and Ghelardi (1964),61 Patten  (1962),60
MacArthur (1965),54  Pielou  (1966,61  196962),  Mclntosh
(1967)57, Mathis (1965)56, Wilhrn (1965),65 and Wilhm and
Dorris (1968)66 as  to what indices are appropriate for what
kinds of samples.  An index  for diversity of community
structure also has been developed  by  Cairns, Jr.  et al.
(.968)40 and  Cairns, Jr. and Dickson (1971)41 based on  a
modification  of the sign test and theory  runs of Dixon and
Massey (1951).42
  Diversity indices derived from information theory were
first  used  by Margalef (1958)5'! to analyze natural  com-
munities. This technique equates diversity with  informa-
tion. Maximum diversity, and thus maximum information,
                                                       408

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                                                           Appendix II-B—Community Structure and Diversity Indices/409
exists in a community of organisms when each individual
belongs to a different species. Minimum diversity (or high
redundancy) exists when all individuals belong to the same
species. Thus,  mathematical  expressions can  be used for
diversity and redundancy  that describe community struc-
ture.
  As  pointed out by Wilhm  and Dorris (1968),66 natural
biotic  communities  typically are  characterized  by  the
presence of a few species with many individuals and many
species  with a few  individuals.  An unfavorable limiting
factor such as pollution results in detectable changes in com-
munity structure. As it relates to  information theory, more
information (diversity) is contained in a natural community
than in a polluted community. A polluted system is simpli-
fied, and those  species that survive encounter less competi-
tion and therefore may increase in numbers. Redundancy in
this case is high, because the probability that an individual
belongs to a species previously recognized is increased, and
the amount of information per individual is reduced.
   The relative value of using indices or models to interpret
data depends upon the information sought. To see the rela-
tive distribution of population sizes among species, a model
is  often more illuminating than an index. To determine in-
formation for a number of different kinds of communities,
diversity indices are more appropriate. Many indices over-
emphasize the  dominance of one or a  few species and thus
it is often difficult to determine, as in the use of the Shannon-
Weiner information theory, the difference between a com-
munity composed of one  or two dominants and a few rare
species, or one composed  of one or two dominants and one
or two rare species. Under such conditions, an index such as
that discussed  by Fisher, Corbet and  Williams (1943)43  is
more appropriate. To use the Shannon-Weiner index, much
more information about  the community is obtained if  a
diversity index is plotted.
   This  section is  the  basis for the criteria  on change of
diversity given in the sections  on  Suspended Solids and
Hardness, Temperature, and Dissolved Oxygen.

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                                                        APPENDIX  II-C
THERMAL  TABLES—Time-temperature  relationships  and lethal threshold  temperatures  for  resistance  of aquatic
organisms (principally fish)  to extreme temperatures  (from Coutant, in press75 1972). Column  headings, where not self-
explanatory, are identified in footnotes.  LD50 data obtained for single  times only were included only when they amplified
                                                  temperature-time information.
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Abudeldul saxa- Adult
tilis (Sargent
major)
Adima lenica Adult
(diamond Killi-
lish)

Athermops affims Juvenile 6. 0-6. 2 cm
(topsmel!)




Brevoortia tyran- larval 17-34 mm Mixed
nus (Atlantic
menhaden)


Brevoortia tyran- Young-of-the-
nus (Atlantic year
menhaden)

Brevoortia tyran- Yearling
nus (Atlantic
menhaden)
Crassius auratus Juvenile 2gave Mixed
(goldfish)







Catostomus com- Adult (1-2 yr) .. 10-19.9 Mixed
mersonni (white (mode)
sucker)




Location
Northern Gulf
of California

Jefferson Co.,
Texas


LaJolla, Calif.





Beaufort Har-
bor, North
Carolina
(36°N)

Beaufort;
N.C.


Beaufort,
N.C.

Commercial
dealer
(Toronto)






Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario




Reference
Heath, W. G.
(1967)»»

Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)"

Doudoroff
(1945")




Lewis (1965)"




Lewis and Hef-
tier (1966)"


Lewis and Het-
tler (196!)92

Fry, Brett, &
Clawson
(1942)« (and
Fry, Hart, &
Walker,
1946)"



Hart (19478')






Eitreme
Upper


Udper



Upper

Lower



Lower
"
"
"
"
Upper

Lower

Upper


Upper





Lower


Upper




Lower

Acclimation log time=a+ti (temp.) Data
/<
Temp«
32


35
35
35
35
18.0
20
14.5
18.6
20
255
7.0
10 0
12.5
15.0
20.0
21
27
16
18
21
22-23

1-2
10
17
24
32
38
19
24
38
5
10
15
20
25
20
25
Time a
42 9005


(0°/oi))« 21.9337
(5 »/oo)« 27 7919
(10Voo)« 26.8121
(20 o/0o)« 28.3930

42.2531


-0.4667

0.961U
0 7572
0 6602
0.5675
0 2620
(5VoJ 57.9980
(5 Voo) 85 1837
(26-30 °/oo)
(10 Voo)
(5 Voo) 357158
(4-6 Voo) 21.8083





20.0213
21.9234



33.6957
19.9890
31.9007
27.0023
22.2209


b
-0.0934


-0.4866
-0 6159
-0.5899
-0.6290

-1.2215


0.3926

0.2564
0.2526
0.2786
0.2321
0.1817
-0.1643
-2.3521


-1.0468
-0.6342





-0.4523
-0.4773



-1.1797
-0.6410
-1.0034
-0.8068
-0.6277


N<-
3


6
6
6
6

9


7

9
12
12
14
3
2
2


3
10





2
2



2
3
2
4
7



upper
-0.9945 37.0


-0.9930 43.0
-0.9841 43.5
-0.9829 43.5
-0 9734 43.5

-0.9836 33 5


0.9765 11 0

0.9607 4.0
0 9452 5.0
0.9852 5.5
0.9306 7.0
0.9612 4.0
35.0
35.0
7.0
7.0
-0.9174 34
-0.9216 35





41.0
43.0



27.5
-0.6857 29
30
-0.9606 31.5
-0.9888 32.5


limits
'C)
lower
36.0


40.5
41.0
41.0
41.0

31.5


5.0


-1.0



34.0
34.5
3.0
3.0
33
31





39.0
41.0



27.0
28
29.5
30
29.5


L050







30.5(24)

7.6(24)
8.8(24)

13.5(24)












28 (14)
31 (14)
34 (14)
36 (14)
39.2(14)
41.0(14)
1.0(14)
5.0(H)
15.5(14)







Lethal
threshold''
(°C)








31.0


10.5

5.0
6.0
>7.0
>8.0



6.5
6.5

32.5






41.0



26.3
27.7
29.3
29.3
29.3
2.5
6.0
 " It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
 * Number ot median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
 ' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line= 1.0).
•i = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)."
• Salinity.
/ Log time in hours to 50% mortality. Includes 2-3 hr. required tor test bath to reach the test temperature.
                                                                 410

-------
                                                                                                                                                                    Appendix 7/-C/411
                                                                        THERMAL  TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex Location
Coregonus astedii Juvenile
(Cisco)








Coregonus hoyi Juvenile 60.0mm
(bloater) (age 1) 5.0. 5.B



Cypnnodon varie- Adult
gatus (sheeps-
head mmnow)

Cyprmodon vane- Adult
gatus vanegatus
(sneepshead
minnow)
Dorosoma cepedi- Underyearling
anum (gizzard
shad)




Dorosoma cepedi- Underyearling
anum (gizzard
shad)
Esox lucius Juvenile Minimum
(Northern Pike) 5.0cm

Esox masqumongy Juvenile Minimum
(Muskellunge) 5.0cm


Esox hybrid Juvenile 5.0cm
(luciusx masqui- minimum
nongy)
Fundulus chryso- Adult
tus (golden top-
minnow
Fundulus diapha- Adult
nus (banded
killifish)

Fundulus grandis Adult
(gulf killifish)


Fundulus hetero- Adult
clitus (mummic-
hog)

Mixed Pickerel
Lake,«
Washtenaw
Co., Mich.






Mixed Lake Michi-
gan at/
Kenosha,
Wise.

Jefferson
County,
Texas

Galveston
Island, Gal- , . .
Reference Extremt
Edsall and Upper
Colby,
1970i»2


Lower




Edsall, Rottiers Upper
& Brown,
1970™


Strawn and Upper
Dunn
(1967SS)

Simmons Upper
(1971)"
Acclimation
Temp
2
5
10
20
25
2
5
10
20
25
5
10
15
20
25
35
35
35
35
30

» Time
8wks
4wks
>2wks
2wks
Swks
Swks
4wks
>2wks
2wks
Swks
11 da
5 da
5 da
5 da
5 da
(0 0, on)
(5 o/oo)
(10 »/oo)
(20<>/i)>)
700 hrs.»
(from 21 3 C)
log time=a+b (temp.)
a
16.5135
10.2799
12.4993
17.2967
15. 1204


2 7355
2.5090
1.7154
15.8243
9.0700
17 1908
28.6392
21.3511
27.9021
35.3415
30.0910
30.0394
35.0420

b
-0.6689
-0.3645
-0 4098
-0.5333
-0.4493


0.3381
0.2685
0.1652
-0 5831
-0.2896
-0 5707
-0 9458
-0.6594
-0.6217
-0.7858
-0.6629
-0.6594
-0.8025

N* r=
4 -0.9789
3 -0.9264
6 -0 9734
8 -0.9487
7 -0.9764


5 0.9021
6 0.9637
9 0.9175
5 -0 9095
6 -0.9516
4 -0 9960
4 -0 9692
5 -0.9958
6 -0.9783
6 -0.9787
6 -0.9950
4 -0 9982
2

Data
- C
upper
23.0
24.0
28.0
30.0
30.0
1.5
1.0
3.0
4.5
9.5
26.0
30 0
28.0
29.0
30.0
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.5
41.4

limits Lethal
:'C) LD50 threshold-'
t°r\
lower
19.0
20.0
24.0
26.0
25 5
0.3
0 5
0.5
0 5
0.5
22.0
23.0
24 5
25 5
26.5
40.5
41.0
41.5
41.5
40.8

V "/
. 19.7
21.7
24.2
26.2
25.7(u)
<0.3
<0.5
3.0
4.7
9.7
22.2
23 6
24 8
26 2
26.7

40.5




veston, Texas

Put-m-Bay,
Ohio





Knoxville,
Tenn.

Maple, On-

Hart(1952)«» Upper



Lower


Hart (1952)1" Upper


Scott (We Upper
tario, Canada

Deerlake
Hatchery
Ontario,
Canada
Maple, On-

Scott (1964)>« Upper



Scott (1964)« Upper
tario, Canada

Jefferson
County,
Texas
Halifax Co.
and Annapo-
lis Co., Nova
Scotia
Jefferson
County,
Texas

Halifax Co.
and Annapo-
lis Co., Nova
Scotia

Strawn & Dunn Upper
(1967)"

Garside and Upper
Jordan
(1968)«<

Strawn & Upper
Dunn
(1967)>»

Garside and Upper
Jordan
(1968)8<


25

30
35
25
30
35
25
30
35
25.0
27 5
30.0
25 0
27 5
30.0

25.0
27.5
30.0
35
35
35
15
15
15

35
35
35
35
15
15
15


field &
3-4 da
"
"
















(0 o/oo)-
(5°/(»)-
(20 o/oo)-
(0 O/M)'
(14 %to)
(32 o/oo)

(0 Voo)
(5 Voo)
(10 »/»)
(20 Voo)
(Oo/oo))
(14 Voo)
(32 o/oo)


47.1163

38.0656
31.5434



32.1348
41.1030
33.2846
17.3066
17.4439
17.0961
18.8879
20.0817
18 9506

18.6533
20.7834
19.6126
23 7284
21.2575
21.8635




22.9809
27.6447
24.9072
23.4251





-1 3010

-0.9694
-0.7710



-0.8698
-0.0547
-0 8176
-0.4523
-0.4490
-0.4319
-0 5035
-0.5283
-0.4851

-0.4926
-0.5460
-0.5032
-0.5219
-0 4601
-0 4759




-0.5179
-0.6220
-0.5535
-0 5169





3 -0.9975

4 -0 9921
5 -9.9642



2
4 -0.9991
6 -0 9896
5 -0.9990
5 -0 9985
5 -0.9971
5 -0.9742
5 -0.9911
5 -0.9972

4 -0.9941
5 -0.9995
5 -0.9951
9 -0.9968
7 -0.9969
8 -0.9905




8 -0 9782
7 -0.9967
9 -0.9926
8 -0.9970





35.5

38.0
39.0



35.5
38.0
39
34.5
35.0
35.5
34.5
35.0
35.5

34.5
35.0
35.5
43.0
43.5
43.5




42.0
42.5
43.0
43.0





34 5

36.5
37.0



35.0
36.5
36.5
32.5
33.0
33.5
32.5
33.0
33.5

33 0
33.0
33.5
39.0
40 0
40.0




38.5
39.5
39.0
39.5





34.0

36.0
36.5(U)
10.8
14.5
. 20.0
. 34.5
36.0
36.5
. 32.25
32.75
. 33.25(u)
. 32.25
32.75
33.25
00
32.5
32.75
33.25
00
38.5


. 27.5
33.5
27.5





28.0
34.0
31.5

  " It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
  6 Number ol median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
  « Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression lme= 1.0).
  1 mo.
'• Acclimated and tested at 10 °/oo salinity.
• Tested in three salinities.
> Tested at 3 levels of salinity.

-------
412/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and  Wildlife

                                                             THERMAL  TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/ate Length Weight Set
Fundulus par- Adult 6-7 cm . Mined
vipmnis (Cali-
fornia killifish)
(tested in seawaler
except as noted)


Location
Mission Bay,
Calif, (sea-
water)




Reference
Doudoroff
(1945)"





Acclimation
Extreme
Tempo
Upper 14
20
28
Lower 14
20
20
20
Time






(into 45%
log time=a+b (temp.)
a
23.3781
50.6021
24.5437
2.1908
2.7381
2.5635
2.6552
b
-0.6439
-1.3457
-0.5801
1.0751
0.2169
0.3481
0.4014
N''
4
11
7
3
6
4
8
F
-0.9845
-0.9236
-0.9960
0.9449
0.9469
0.8291
0.7348
Data limits
(°C) LD!
upper
34.0
37.0
40.0
1.6
7.0
4.0
4.0
lower
32.0
34.0 .
36.0
0.4
2.0
2.0
2.0 . .
Lethal
fl threshold'
CO
32.3
34.4
36.5
1.2
5.6
3.6
. . 3.8
sea water 1 day before

Fundulus pul- Adult
vereus (bayou
killifish)

Fundulus similis Adult
(longnose kirn-
fish)

Gambusia affims Adult Mixed
affmis (mosquito-
fish)
Gambusia affims Adult
(mosquitofish)
(freshwater)

Gambusia affims Adult
(mosquitofish)
(saltwater)

Gambusia aflinis Adult Mixed
holbrooki
(mosquitofish)




Garmannia Adult
chiquita (goby)

Gasterosteus acu- Adult 37mmave. 0.50 gave. Mixed
leatus (three-
spine stickle-
back)

Girella nigricans Juvenile 7.1-8.0 cm Mixed
(opaleye)




Ictalurus
(Amicurus) neb-
ulosus (brown
bullhead)






Ictalurus puncta- Juvenile Mixed
(us (channel (44-57 da
catfish) old)

. Jefferson
County,
Texas

Jefferson
County,
Texas

Knoxville,
Tenn.

Jefferson Co.,
Texas


Jefferson Co.,
Texas


Welaka,
Florida





Northern Gulf
of California
Coast
Columbia
River near
Prescott,
Oregon

LaJolla, Cali-

Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)»»

Strawn and
Dunn
(T967)»»

Hart (1952)'"


Strawn &
Dunn
(1967)»

Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)»9

Hart (1952)88






Heath (1967)8"


Blahm and
Parente
(1970)1"1 un-
published
data
Doudoroff
fornia (33°N) (1942)™




Florida to On-
tario (4 lo-
cations) com
bined






Centerton,
Ark.
(hatchery)




Hart (1952)»8









Allen &
Strawn
(1968)'2
testing)
Upper 35
35
35
35
Upper 35
35
35
35
Upper 25
30
35
Upper 35
35
35
35
Upper 35
35
35
35
Upper 15
20
30
35
Lower 15
20
35
Upper 32


Upper 19




Upper 12
20
28
Lower 12
20
28
Upper 5
10
15
20
25
30
34
Lower 20
25
30
Upper 26
30
34

(OVoo)
(5°/oo)
(10 %o)
(20 o/00)
(0 o/oo).
(5 Voo)
(10 Voo)
(20 «/oo)



(0 Voo>
(5 Voo)
(10 <>/oo)
(20 Voo)
(0 Voo)'
(5 »/oo)
(10 Voo)
(20 Voo)



































28.1418
29.3774
25.0890
30.4702
22.9485
25 6165
26.4675
26.5612
39.0004
30.1523
23.8110
22.4434
23.1338
23 4977
22.1994
17.6144
18.9339
23 0784
22.8663
32.4692
38.3139
31.4312
28 1212



21.7179


19.3491




21.1277
19.2641
24.7273
1.4851
-1.3878
-0.1238
14.6802
16.4227
28.3281
23.9586
22.4970
24.2203
19.3194



34 7119
32.1736
26.4204

-0.6304
-0.6514
-0.5477
-0.6745
-0.5113
-0.5690
-0.5863
-0.5879
-0.9771
-0.7143
-0.5408
-0.5108
-0.5214
-0.5304
-0.5001
-0.3909
-0.4182
-0.5165
-0 5124
-0.8507
-0.9673
-0.7477
-0.6564



-0.5166


-9.5940




-0.6339
-0 5080
-0.6740
0.4886
0.6248
0.2614
-0.4539
-0.4842
-0.8239
-0.6473
-0.5732
-0.5917
-0.4500



-0.8816
-0.7811
-0.6149

8
7
5
>
6
6
6
6
2
6
6
5
5
8
6
5
5
7
6
3
3
5
5



3


3




6
7
4
8
6
6
4
10
3
11
12
19
5



13
U
2D

-0.9741
-0.9931
-0.9956
-0.9849
-0.9892
-0.9984
-0.9925
-0.9953

-0.9938
-0.9978
-0.9600
-0.9825
-0.9852
-0.9881
-0.9822
-0.9990
-0.9982
-0.9957
-0.9813
-0.9843
-0.9995
-0.9909



-0 9905


-0.9998




-0.9338
-0.9930
-0.9822
0.955C
0.9895
0.9720
-0.9782
-0.9526
-0.9881
-0.9712
-0.9794
-0.9938
-0.9912



-0.9793
-0.9510
-0.9638

43.0
43.5
43.5
43.5
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.0
39
40
41.5
42.0
42.5
42.5
42 5
42.5
42.5
42.5
42 5
37
38.5
40
40



37.0


32




31.0
35.0
33.0
5.0
8.0
13.0
29.5
31.5
33.0
35.0
37.0
38.5
37.5



39.0
40.6
42.0

39.0
40.0
41.5
40.0
40.5
41.0
41.0
40.5
38
37.5
39
40.0
40.5
40.0
40.0
40.5 .
40.5
39.5
40.0
36
37.5
38
38.5



36.0


26 ...




27.0
31.0 .
31.0
1.0
5.0
6.0
28.0
29.5
32.5
32.5
34.0
35.5
36.0



36.6
37.4
38.0

38.5







.. 37.0
37.0
37.0(u)








355
. 37.0
37.0
37.0(u)
1.5
5.5
. . 14.5



25 8




. 28.7
. 31.4
. 31.4
5.5
8.5
. 13.5
. 27.8
. 29.0
.. 31.0
32.5
. 33.8
34.8
. . 34.8
0.5
4.0
6.8
36.6
. 37.8
. 38.0
  "Ids assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
  * Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
'• Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line-
<' -Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).";
• Salinity.
                                                                                                                                             1.0).

-------
                                                                                                                                                      Appendix  II-C/413
                                                                THERMAL  TABLES—Continued

Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex

Ictalurus puncta- Juvenile
(us (channel (11. 5 mo)
catfish)


Ictalurus pimcta- Adult Mixed
(us (1. lanistris)
(channel catfish)



Lepomis macro- Adult Mixed
chirus purpures-
cens (bluegill)





Lepomis macro- Adult Mixed
chirus (bluegill)
Lepomis megalotis Juvenile >12mm Mixed
(longear sunfish)

Lepomis sym- Adult
metricus (ban-
tam sunfish)
Lucania parva Adult
(rainwater killi-
fish)

Memdia memdia 8. 3-9. 2cm 4. 3-5-2 gm Mixed
(common sil«er- (average (average
side) for test for test
groups) groups)




Micropterus sal- 9-11 mo. age
moides flori-
danus (large-
mouth bass)


Micropterus sal-
moides (large-
mouth bass)


Micropterus sal- Under yearling
moides (large-
mouth bass)
Micropterus sal-
moides (large-
mouth bass)
Mysis rehcta Adult Mixed
(Opposum
shrimp)


Location

Joe Hogan
State Fish
Hatchery,
Lonoke,
Arkansas
Welaka, Fla.
and Put-m-
Bay, Ohio



Welaka,
Florida






Lake Mendota,
Wisconsin
Middle Fork,
White River,
Arkansas
Jefferson Co ,
Texas

Jefferson Co.,
Texas


New Jersey
(40°N)






Welaka,
Florida




Put-m-Bay,
Ohio



Knoxville,
Tenn

Lake Men-
dota, Wis-
consin
Trout Lake,
Cook
County,
Minnesota

Reference Extreme -

Allen & Upper
Strawn
(19W)«


Hart(1952)»8 Upper


lower


Hart(1952)»« Upper



Lower



Hart(1952)88 Upper

Neill, Strawn & Upper
Dunn
(H66)»s
Strawn & Upper
Dunn
(1967)"
Strawn and Upper
Dunn
(1967)"

Holt & West- Upper
man (1966)»°


Lower



Hart (1952)88 Upper


Lower


Hart(1952)8» Upper


Lower

Hart (1952)" Upper


Hart (1952)™ Upper


Smith (1970)" Upper



Acclimation log time-a-l-b (temp.)
Temp"

25
30
35


15
20
25
15
20
25
15
20
25
30
15
20
25
30
20-23
30
25
30
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
7
14
21
29
7
14
21
28
20
25
30
20
25
30
20
25
30
20
30
30
35

22
30

7.5C



Time a

34.5554
17.7125
28.3031


34.7829
39 4967
46.2155



. 25.2708
28.0663
23.8733
25 7732




38.6247
30.1609
35 4953
20.5981
30.7245
(Oo/M)« 20.7487
(5»/oo) 23.5649
(20 Voo) 10 4421
(0»/oo> 21.2616
(5»/oo) 24.3076
(100/00) 24.3118
(20°/oo) 21.1302
19.8801
18.7499
65 7350
37.6032
-9.8144
-1 2884
-1.4801
-8.2366
35.5107
19.9918
17.5645



50.8091
26.3169
29.0213


36.0620
23.9185

34.3649
35.2777

>1wk 6.1302



b

0.8854
-0.4058
-0.6554


-1.0637
-1.1234
-1.2899



-0.7348
-0.7826
-0.6320
-0 6581




-1.0581
-0.7657
-0.9331
-0 4978
-9.7257
-0.4686
-0 5354
-0.2243
-0 4762
-0.5460
-0.5467
-0.4697
-0.7391
-0.6001
-2.0387
-1.0582
8.9079
2.5597
1.1484
1.3586
-1.0112
-0.5123
-0.4200



-1.4638
-0.6846
-0.7150


-0.9055
-0.5632

-0.9789
-0 9084

-0.1470



N'-

5
4
4


3
4
5



5
6
10
5




4
4
14
22
43
7
6
5
9
8
8
7
5
6
6
5
5
6
6
5
5
8
8



2
3
4


4
6

4
4

3



r

-0.9746
-0.9934
-0 9906


-0.9999
-0.9980
-0 9925



-0.9946
-0.9978
-0.9750
-0.9965




-0.8892
-0.9401
-0.9827
-0.9625
-0.9664
-0.9747
-0.9975
-0.9873
-0.9844
-0.9846
-0.9904
-0 9940
-0.9398
-0.9616
-0.9626
-0 8872
0.8274
0.8594
0.9531
0 9830
-0.9787
-0 9972
-0.9920




-0.9973
-0 9959


-0.9788
-0.9958

-0.9789
-0.9845

0.9245



Data limits Lethal
(°C) LD50 thrMhnUlt


upper
37.5
40.0
41.0


31.5
34.0
35.0



33.0
34.5
36.0
38




35.5
38.0
36.9
39.0
41.5
42.0
42.0
41.5
42.5
42.5
42 5
42.5
24.0
27.0
32.0
34.0
2
5
7
15
34
36.5
38



34
36.5
38.5


38.5
40

33.8
37.5

26




lower
35.5
37.5
38.0


30.5
33.0
34.0



31.0
32.5
33.0
34.5




34.0
36.0
35.4
36.5
37.3
39.0
39.0
39.5
38.5
39.0
39.0
39.5
20
23.0
28.0
30
1
1
2
7
32
33
34.5



33
35
37


37
37.5

32.0
35.5

16



CO

. 35.5
. 37.0
. 38


. 30.4
32.8
. 33.5
0.0
0.0
0 0
. 30.5
. 32.0
. 33.0
. 33.8
2 5
5.0
7.5
. 11.0


35.6
36.8
. 375







22.0
25.0
30.4
32.5
1.5
2.0
4.3
8.7
32
. 33
33 7(U)
5 2
7.0
. 10.5
32.5
. 34.5
36.4(11)
5.5
. 11.8
36.4
36.4(u)

31.5


. 16



  a It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
  '' Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
rf=Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).83
• Salinity.

-------
414:/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife

                                                                   THERMAL  TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Neomysis awat- Adult >7mm . Mixed
schensis (opos-
sum shrimp)

Notemiionus Adult
crysoleucas
(golden shiner)






Notropis atheri- Juvenile 0-1. 9 g.mode Mixed
noides (emerald «1yr)
shiner)





Notropis cornutus Adult
(common shiner)





Notropis cornutus Adult 4. 0-5. 9 g Mixed
(common (mostly 2 yr) (mode)
shiner)




Notropis cornutus Adult
(common shiner)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 3. 81 ±0.29 0.30±0.15g Mixed
gorbuscha (pink water fry cm
salmon) (3. 8 mo.)


Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 5.44±0.89 1.62±1.03g Mixed
keta (chum water fry cm
salmon) (4 9 mo.)







Oncorhynchus Juvenile
keta (chum
salmon)
Location Reference
Sacramento- Hair (1971)"
San Joaquin
delta, Cali-
fornia

Composite Hart (1952)88
of 1. Welaka,
Fla. 2. Put-
in-Bay, Ohio
3. Algonquin
Park, On-
tario


Chippewa Hart (1947)"
Creek, Wei-
land, Ontario





Toronto, On- Hart(1952)88
tario





Don River, Hart(1947)8'
Thornhill,
Ontario




. Knoxville, Hart(1952>=8
Tenn.
Dungeness, Brett (1952)"
Wash.
(hatchery)


Nile Creek. Brett (1952)'4
B.C.
(hatchery)







Big Creek Blahm and
Hatchery, Parente
Hoodsport, (1970)111
Extreme
Upper

Upper




Lower



Upper




Lower


Upper






Upper




tower

Upper

Upper




Upper




lower




Upper


Acclimation
Temp« Time
10 3'
11.0
15.1
18 3
19.0
19.0
21.7
22.0
22.4
10
15
20
25
30
15
20
25
30
5
10
15
20
25
15
20
25
10
15
20
25(win-
ter)
25
30
5
10
15
20
25
20
25
25
30
5
10
15
20
24
5
10
15
20
23
5
10
15
20
23
9 10%'
50%
90%
log time=afb (temp.)

8
a
4694
b
-0.2150
N'
2
"
Data
- ('
upper
i limits Lethal
'C) LD50 threshol
lower
v *•)
73 (48)
72.5(48)
73.8(48)
76.1(48)
74.0(48)
24. 2-25 .
77.0(48)
. 77.5(48)
76.0(48)
42
30
31
34
26




7095
.2861
.0275
.2505
.3829




20.9532
36.5023
47.4849
33
26




.4714
.7096




45.4331
34.5324
24 9620

28,

.5059
28.1261


40.7738
45.0972
34
24.


5324
9620


25.5152
24.
11.
11
9660
1827
9021
12.8937
16.
14.
14.
14.
15
16.
15.





16.
15.
16.
2444
7111
3829
1773
8911
1894
3825





9245
9272
8763
-1.3507
-0.8933
-0.8722
-0.9226
-0.6615




-0.7959
-1.2736
-1.5441
-0.9858
-0.7337




-1.3979
-1.0116
-0 6878

-0 7741
-0.7316

-1.3522
-1 3874
-1.0116
-0.6878


-0.6794
-0 6297
-0.4215
-0 3865
-0.4074
-0 4074
-0 4459
-0.5320
-0 4766
-0 5252
-0.5168
-0.4721





-0.5995
-0.5575
-0.5881
3
4
15
9
10




3
2
3
3
6



1
2
4
5

B
6

3
J
4
S


6
10
4
H
H
7
K
'1
II
1!
a
4





t
4
4
-0.9998
-0.9844
-0.9869
-0 9665
-0.9940




-0.9519

-0.9803
-0.9805
-0.9753





-0.9560
-0.9915

-0.9973
-0.9946

-0.9729
-0.9999
-0.9560
-0 9915


-0.9938
-0.9978
-0.9573
-0.9840
-0.9884
-0.9681
-0.9690
-0.9839
-0.8665
-0.9070
-0.9750
-0.9652





-0.9927
-0 9972
-0.9995
305
32.5
34.5
36.0
37.5




24.5
27.5
30.5
32.5
34.0



29.0
31.5
33.0
34.0

35.5
36.5

30.0
32.0
33 0
34.0


35.5
38.0
24.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27 5
24 0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27.0

1
5
7
8
29
29
29
29.5
31.0
32.0
34
35




23.5
27.0
29.5
31.5
31 5



29.0
31.0
31.5
32 0

32.0
34.0

29.0 ..
3t.O
31.5
32.0


33.0
34.5
22.0
23.0
23.5
24.0
24 5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0





17
17
17
29.5
30.5
32.0
33.5
34.5
1.5
4.0
7.0
. 11.2
. 23.3
26.7
28.9
30.7
30.7
1.6
5.2
8.0
29.0
30.5
31.0
. 31.0

31.0
31 0(u
26.7
28.6
30.3
31.0
31.0
3.7
7 8
33 0
33 5(11
21.3±0
22 5±0
23 1±0
23.9±0.
23 9
21.8
22.6
23 1±0.
23.7
23.8±0.<

0.5
4 7
6.5
7.3
22.0
23.2
. 23.6
                                                                   Wash,'-       unpublished
                                                                               data

  ° It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
  »Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
  ' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression lme=1.0).
  * = Incipient etlhal temperature ot Fry, et al, (1S46)><
  ' All temperatures estimated from a graph.
                                                                                              ' For maximum of 48 hr exposure. The lower temperature is uncorrected for heavy mortality of control animals at
                                                                                            "acclimation" temperatures above about 216.
                                                                                              ' The author concluded that there were no geographic differences. The Welaka, Florida subspecies was N.c. bosii,
                                                                                            the others N.c. auratus, based on morphology.
                                                                                              1 Tested in Columbia River Water at Prescott, Oregon.
                                                                                              •  Mortality Value.

-------
                                                                        THERMAL  TABLES—Continued
                                                                                                                                                                     Appendix 7/-C/415
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4.78±0.6 1.37±0.62g Mixed
Kisutch (coho water fry cm
salmon) (5. 2 mo.)







Oncorhynchus Juvenile
kisutch (coho
salmon)



Oncorhynchus Adult a 570 mm a 2500 g ave. Mixed
kisutch (coho ave
salmon)

Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4.49±0.84 0.87±0 45g Mixed
nerka (sockeye water fry cm
salmon) (4. 7 mo)







Oncorhynchus Juvenile 67 mm ave. Mixed
nerka (sockeye (under
salmon) yearling)



Oncorhynchus Juvenile 100-105 mm Mixed
nerka (sockeye (yearling) are for test
salmon) groups











Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4. 44±0 40 1.03±0.27g Mixed
tshawytscha water fry cm
(Chinook (3. 6 mo.)
salmon)





Location Reference
Nile Creek, Brett (1952)"
B.C.
(hatchery)







Kalama Falls, Blahm 8,
Wash. McConnell
(hatchery)« (1970)"»
unpublished
dala

Columbia Coutant
River at (1970)76
Priest Rap-
ids Dam
Issaquah, Brett (1952)"
Wash.
(hatchery)







National Fish McConnell &
Hatchery* Blahm
Leaven- (1970)"»
worth, unpublished
Wash. data

National Fish McConnell &
Hatchery Blahm
Leaven- (1970)i»3
worth, unpublished
Wash.- data









Dungeness, Brett (1952)"
Wash.
(hatchery)






Acclimation
Temp°
Upper 5
10
15
20
23
Lower 5
10
15
20
23
Upper 10


141


Upper 17»



Upper 5
10
15
20
23
Lower 5
10
15
20
23
Upper 10


20


Upper 10 1°C
per day rise
to accl. temp.


12"


15.5"


17"


Upper 5
10
15
20
24
Lower 10
15
20
23
Time










(10%X
(50%)
(90%)
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)














10%'
50%
90%
10%
50%
90%
(1C%)>


(50%)
(90%)
00%)
(50%)
(90%)
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)









log Cme=a+b (temp.)
a
21.3050
19.5721
20 4066
20.4022
18.9736





15.4616
18.4136
15.9026
8.5307
8.5195

5.9068



17.7887
14.7319
15.8799
19.3821
20.0020





18.4771
18.5833
20.6289
17 5227
16.7328
15 7823
6.4771


9.0438
9.0628
13.2412
18.1322
17.5427
12.1763
13.6666
12 7165
17.4210
17.2432
17.2393
9.3155
16.4595
16.4454
22.9065
18.9940




b
-0.7970
-0.6820
-0.6858
-0.6713
-0.6013





-0.5522
-0.6410
-0.5423
-0.2969
-0.2433

-0.1630



-0.6623
-0.4988
-0.5210
-0.6378
-0.6496





-0.6458
-0.6437
-0.7166
-0.5861
-0.5473
-0.5061
-0.2118


-0.2922
-0.2859
-0 4475
-0.6178
-0.5900
-0.4004
-0.4432
-0.4057
-0.6114
-0.5885
-0.5769
-0.3107
-0.5575
-0.5364
-0 7611
-0.5992




N»
2
4
6
4
5





6
6
4
10
10

5



4
8
7
5
4





6
6
6
6
6
6
4


4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
5
4
4
6
5
4
7
9




,'

-0.9847
-0.9681
-0.9985
-0.9956





-0.8533
-0.9705
-0.9730
-0.9063
-0.8483

-0.9767



-0.9383
-0.9833
-0.9126
-0.9602
-C.9981





-0.9671
-0.9750
-0.9553
-0.9739
-0.9552
-0.9539
-0.9887


-0.9392
-0.9534
-0.9955
-0.9598
-0.9533
-0.9443
-0.9720
-0.9748
-0.9549
-0.9450
-0.9364
-0.9847
-0.9996
-0.9906
-0.9850
-0.9923




Data
C
upper
24.0
26.0
27.0
27.5
27.5

1
3
5
7
29
29
29
29
29

30



24.0
26.5
27.5
27.5
26.5
0
4
5
5
7
29
29
29
29
29
29
32


32
32
29
29
29
32
32
32
29
29
29
25.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27.5
1.0
3.0
5.0
8.0
limits Lethal
C) LD50 threshold-'
lower
23.0
24.5
24.5
25.5
25.0




1.0
1.7
17.0
17.0
14.0 ...
0.14

26



22.5
23.5
24.5
24.5
24.5
0
0
0
0
1.0
17
17
17
21
21
21
14


14
14
17
17
17
17
17
17 .
20
20
20
22.5
245
25.5
25.0
25.0
0
0.5
0.5
1.0
\ w
. 22.9±0.3
. . 23.7
. 24.3±0.3
. 25.0±0.2
. 25.0±0.2
0.2
1.7
3.5
4.5
6.4
23.2
23.5
23.7
.... 14.0
. 17.0
22.0
7



. 22.2±0.3
23.4±0.3
. 24.4±0.3
. 24.8±0.3
24.8±0.3
0
3.1
4.1
4.7
6.7
. 21.5
. 22.5
23.0
. 23.5
. 23.5
23.5



23.5


. 23.5


. 22.5


23.5

21.5
. 24.3±0.1
25.0±0.1
25.1±0.1
25.1±0.1
0.8
2.5
4.5
7.4
  " It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
  '' Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
  •- Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line- 1.0).
  d = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).83
  • 10 C—acclimated fish came directly from the hatchery.
  i Data were presented allowing calculation of 10% and 90% mortality.
  »14 C—acclimated fish were collected from the Columbia River 4-6 wks following release from the hatchery
(and may have included a few fish from other upstream sources). River water was supersaturated with Nitrogen,
and 14-C fish showed signs of gas-bubble disease during tests.
  * River temp, during fall migration.
  < Tested in Columbia River water at Prescott, Oregon.
  > Per cent mortalities.

-------
 416/Appendix II—Freshwater  Aquatic Life and  Wildlife

                                                                       THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species State/age Length Weigh! Sex
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 39-124 mm . Mixed
tshawytscha averages
(Chinook for various
salmon) test groups









Oncorhynchus Juvenile 84 mm ave. 6.3gave. Mixed
tshawytscha
(Chinook salmon
spring run)





Oncorhynchus Juvenile 40 mm. ave. Mixed
tshawytscha
(Chinook salmon)







Oncorhynchus Juvenile 90. 6 mm ave. 7. 8 gave. Mixed
tshawytscha
(chmook salmon
fall run)





Oncorhynchus "Jacks" 2500 mm ave. 2000 g. ave. Males
tshawytscha 1-2 yrs old
(Chinook
salmon)
Perca flavescens Juvenile 49 mm ave. 1.2 gave. Mixed
(yellow perch)



Perca flavescens Adult (4 yr .. 8.0-9.9 g Mixed
(yellow perch) mode) mode



Petromyzon Prolarvae
marinus (sea
lamprey, land-
locked)
Location
Columbia
River at
Prescott,
Oregon









Little White
Salmon,
River
Hatchery,
Cook,
Washington



Eggs from
Seattle,
Wash.
raised from
yolk-sac
stage in
Columbia
River water
at Prescott,
Oregon
Little White
Salmon
Riverhatch-
ery, Cook,
Washington




Columbia
River at
Reference
Snyder &
Blahm
(1970)i°5
unpublished
data








Blahm &
McConnell
(1970)™
unpublished
data




Snyder &
Blahm
(1970)10*
unpublished
data





Blahm &
McConnell
(1970)i°»
unpublished
data




Coutant
(1970)'«
Acclimation
Extreme
Temp0 Time
Upper 10<
(10%0
(9o<;;)
10»
on1;?)
(9of,;)
12
13
do':;)
(90',;)
18»
do?;)
(90";)
Upper 11 2-3-wks
10%.
50%
90%
20 1C/day rise
from IOC
10%
50%
90%
Upper 4
(10%)'
(90%)'







Upper 11 2-3 wks
10%i
50%
90%
Upper 20 1C day use
from IOC
10%
50%
90%
Upper 17'
19'
log time=j+b (temp.)
a
16.8109
18.9770
17.0278
15.7101
15.1583
15.2525
18.2574
12.4058
10.1410
12.7366
13.3175
11.5122
14 2456

13.3696
14.6268
19.2211


22.6664
21.3981
20.9294
13.5019
8.9126
10.6491








18.6889
20.5471
20.8960


21.6756
22.2124
20.5162
13.2502
9.4683
b
-0.57C7
-0.66?1
-0.5845
-0.5403
-0.5312
-0.5130
-0.6149
-0.3974
-0.3218
-0.4040
-0.4240
-0.3745
-0.4434

-0 4691
-0.5066
-0.6679


-0.7797
-0.725J
-0.7024
-0.4874
-0.31911
-0.3771








-0.6569
-0.7147
-0.7231


-0.743!
-0.752t
-0.6860
-0 4121
-0 2504
N'
3
i
3
8
8"
8
5"
6
7
6
11
12
10

4
4
4


4
3
3
4
6
6








5
4
4


4
4
3
4
4
rc
-0.9998
-0.9918
-0.9997
-0.9255
-0.9439
-0.9360
-0.9821
-0.9608
-0.9496
-0.9753
-0.9550
-0.9413
-0.9620

-0.9504
-0 9843
-0.9295


-0.9747
-0.9579
-0.9463
-0.9845
-0.9618
-0.9997








-0.9618
-0.9283
-0.9240


-0.9550
-0.9738
-0.9475
-0.8206
-0.9952
Dati
- (
upper
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
32
32
32
30
30
30

29
29
29


29
29
29
29
29
29








29
29
29


29
29
29
30
26
i limits Letha
°C) LD50 threshc
lower
25
23
25
20
20
20
23
17
17
17
20
20
20

17
17
17


21
21
21
8
8
8








17
17
17


21
21
21
26
22
v w
24.5
22.9
24.5
23. S
20.5
23.5
. 20.5
20.0
19. S
23.0
20.5
. 20.0
23.5

23.0
23.5
. 23.8


23.8
24.7
24.8
20
13.5
?








23.5
24.2
24.5


. 24.5
24.5
24.5
?
22
Grand Rapids
Dam
Columbia
River near
Prescott,
Ore.

Black Creek,
Lake Sim-
coe, Ontario


. Great Lakes




Blahm and
Parente
(1970)i°i
unpublished
data
Hart (1947)"




McCauley
(1963)"



Uppei 19 field plus
4 da.



Upper 5
11
15
25
Lower 25
Upper 15 and 20"




15.3601




7.0095
17.6536
12.4149
21.2718

17 5642




-0 4126




-0.2214
-0.6021
-0.3641
-0.5909

-0.4680




2




9
2
5
6

18









-0.9904

-0.9994
-0.9698

-0.9683




38




26.5
26.5
30.5
33.0

34




32




22.0
26.0
28.5 ..
30.0

29




?




21.3
25.0
27.7
29.7
3.7
28.5



  • It is assumed in this We that the acclimation temperature reported is a title acclimation in the context ot Brett
(1952)."
  11 Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
  ' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression lme=1.0).
  * = Incipient lethal temperature oi Fry, et al., (1946)."
  < Fish tested shortly after capture by beach seine.
  / Data were also available for calculation of 10% and 90% mortality of June test groups.
»These were likely syliergistic effects oi high N2 snpursalniation in these tests.
*Excluding apparent long-term secondary mortality.
* Data were available for 10% and 90% mortality as well as 50%.
' Data also available on 10% and 90%  mortality.
'•• Data available for 10% and 90% mortality as well ai 50%.
' River temperatures during fall migrations two different years.
"> No difference was shown so data are lumped.

-------
                                                                                                                                                                  Appendix 7/-C/417
                                                                      THERMAL  TABLES—Continued

Species St3gB/3ge Length Weight Sex

Pimephales Adult (mostly mostly 0-2 g Mixed
(Hyborhynchus) 1 yr)
notatus (blunt-
nose minnow)




Pimephales Adult (1 yr) 2. 0-3 9 g Mixed
promelas (fat- mode
head minnow)


Poecilia latipmna Adult
(Sailfm molly)


Pontoporeia affmis Adult Mixed



Pseudopleuro- 6. 0-7.1 cm 3 4-4. 2 g Mixed
nectes amen- (averages (averages
canus (winter for test for test
flounder) groups) groups)




Rhimchthys Adult
atratulus
(blacknose dace)
Rhimchthys Adult (?)
atratulus (black-
nose dace)

Rhimchthys Adult 2.0-3 9 Mixed
atratulus (Black- (mode)
nose dace)




Salmo gairdnern Juvenile 4.5.1.04cm Mixed
(Rainbow trout)

Salmo gairdnern Yearling
(rainbow trout)








Salmo gairdnern Juvenile 9.4±EOcm Mixed
(rainbow trout) and15.5±
1.8cm

oca ion

Etobicoke Cr.,
Ontario






Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario


Jefferson Co.,
Texas


Lake Superior
near Two
Harbors,
Minn.
New Jersey
(40°N)






Knoxville,
Tenn.

Toronto,
Ontario


Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario




Britain


East end of
Lake
Superior







London,
England
(Hatchery)



Hart (1947)8'







Hart (1947)8'




Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)"

Smith (1971)i<»
unpublished
data

Hoff & West-
man (1966)")






Hart (1952)88


Hart (1952)88



Hart (1947)8'






Alabaster &
Welcomme
(1962)'»
Craigie, D.E.
(1963)"








Alabaster &
Downing
(1966)"
Acclimation
T

Upper 5
10
15
20
25
Lower 15
20
25
Upper 10
20
30
Lower 20
30
Upper 35 (0 »/oo>
35 (5 »/oo)
35 (10 °/oo)
35 (20 »/oo)
Upper 6
9


Upper 7
14
21
28
Lower 7
14
21
28
Upper 20
25
28
Upper 5
15
20
25
Upper 5
10
15
20
25
Lower 20
25
Upper 18
18-

Raised in soft water
Upper 20 (tested in soft
water)
20 (tested in hard
water)
Raised in hard water
20 (tested in soft
water)
20 (tested in hard
water)
Upper 15
20

log time- a+b (temp.)


24.6417
55.8357
28.0377
34.3240
50.8212



60.7782
6.9970
41.3696


27.4296
25 6936
28 8808
27.1988
9 1790



28.2986
24.3020
49.0231
60.8070


2.4924
2 2145
21 2115
19 6451
21 3360

19.8158
24.5749
20.1840
77.1877
49 1469
19.6975
26.5952
23.5765


18 4654
13 6531



14.6405

15.0392


15.1473

12.8718
15.6500
19.6250

b

-0.8602
-1.8588
-0.8337
-0.9682
-1.4181



-2.0000
-0 1560
-1.1317


-0.6279
-0.5753
-0.6535
-0.6146
-0 5017



-1.1405
-0.8762
-1.6915
-1.9610


0.8165
0.2344
-0.5958
-0.5224
-0 5651

-0.5771
-0.7061
-0.5389
-2.7959
-1.6021
-0.5734
-0 7719
-0 6629


-0.5801
-0 4264



-0.4470

-0.4561


-0.4683

-0.3837
-0.500
-0.6250

Nb

2
2
3
4
3



2
4
5


6
6
7
3
2



4
6
5
4


3
3
7
10
7

4
7
8
2
3
4
8
9


5
5



3

3


3

3
2»
2





-0.9974
-0.9329
-0.9490




-0 7448
-0.9670


-0.9902
-0.9835
-0.9949
-0.9791




-0.9852
-0.9507
-0.9237
-0.9181


0 7816
0.9970
-0.9935
-0.9979
-0.9946

-0.9632
-0.9926
-0.9968

-0.8521
-0.9571
-0.9897
-0.9937


-0.9787
-0 9742



-0.9787

-0.9917


-0.9781

-0.9841



Data limits
(°f\ i nun
Lethal
thvflphnlil/i
\ **) LU3U UIIVHIWIU-
fOn\
upper
27.0
29.5
32.0
34.0
35.0



30.0
33.0
36.0


42.5
42 5
42.0
42.5
12



24.0
26.0
29.0
30.0
1.0
2.0
6.0
7.0
33
35
35.5
27
31.5
33
35
27.5
30 5
31.5
33 5
34.0


29.6
29.1



29

29


29

29



lower
26.5
29.0
31.0
32.5
34.0



29.5
28.5
34.0


38.5
39.0
39.0
39.5
10 8
10.4
(30 da)

20.0
23.0
26.0
29.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
4.0
30
30.5
32.5
27 27(1 hr)
30.0
30.0
32.0
27.0
29.5
30.0
295
30.0


26.3
26.3



27

27


27

27 .



V «/
26.0
28.3
30.6
31.7
33.3
10
4.2
7.5
28.2
31.7
33.2
1.5
10.5




10.5



22.0
23.7
27.0
29.1
1 0
1.0
14
6.0
293
29.3
29.3

29.3
293
293
26.5
28.8
29.6
29.3
29.3
2.2
5.0
26.5
26.5














  " It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
  '• Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
  ' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line  1.0).
  J = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).-'
« Salinity.
.' Dissolved oxygen Cone. 7.4 mg/l.
« Dissolved oxygen Cone. 3.8 mg/l.
h See note (under Salmo salar) about Alabaster 1967.-

-------
418/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life  and  Wildlife

                                                                    THERMAL TABLES—Continued

Species Stage/age Length Weight

Salmo gairdnerh Adult 2650 mm 4000 g ave.
(anadromous) ave.
(Steelhead
trout)
Salmosalar Smolts(1-2 About 16 cm
(Atlantic salmon) yrs) ave.










Salmo salar Newly hatched
(Atlantic salmon) larvae



Salmosalar 30 da after
(Atlantic salmon) hatching



Salmosalar Parr(lyr) 10 cm ave.
(Atlantic salmon)

Salmosalar Smo«s(l-2 11.7±1.5cm
(Atlantic salmon) yrs)
Salmo salar Smolts (1-2 14. 6±1 . 3 cm
(Atlantic salmon) yrs)

Salmo trutta Newly hatched
(brown trout) fry



Salmo trutta 30 da after
(Brown trout, hatching
searun)


Salmo trutta Juvenile 10.1±0.8cm
(brown trout, 7.4±4.5
searun) cm
Salmo trutta Smolts (2 yr.) About 21 cm
(brown trout, ave.
searun)
Salvelinus fonli- Juvenile ...
nalis (Brook
trout)





cay
36 A

Mixed



Mixed











Mixed




Mixed




Mixed


Mixed



Columbia
River at
Priest
Rapids Dam
River Axe,
Devon,
England









Cullercoats
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
Cullercoats,
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
River Axe,
Devon,
England
River North



Coutant
(1970)"


Alabaster
(1967)6»










Bishai (I960)"




Bishai (1960)"




Alabaster
(1967)«8

Alabaster
Acclimation
Extreme
Temp« Time

Upper



Upper











Upper




Upper




Upper


Upper

19«



9 2 (field)
9.3"
10.9"
Tested in 30% seawater
9. 2 (field)
Tested in 100% sea-
water
9. 2 (field)
Acclimated 7 hr in sea-
water; tested in sea-
water
9. 2 (field)
6 (brought up to
test temp, in
6 hours)


5
10
20


9. 3 (field)
10. 9 (field)

11.7
log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits Lethal
/°l*\ I ncn IL...I — i
a

10.9677



43.6667
23.7273
126.5000

44.6667


14.7368



36.9999
13.59




8.9631
15.7280
11.5471


33.3750
28.0000

25.9091
b

-0.332!)



-1.6667
-0.9091
-5.000

-1.6667


-0.5263



-1.42811
-0.4287




-0.2877
-0.5396
-0.3406


-1.2500
-1.0000

-0.9091
	 ^ Ml LUt
N*1 r*

upper lower
7 -0.9910 29 21



V . (/) (/)
2


2


2



2
6 -0.9678 28.0 20.0




4 -0.9791 25.0 22
3 -0.9689 26.0 22
3 -0.9143 26.0 22


2'
2

2o
w IIIIC3IIUI

. 21















22.0




22.2
. 23.3
. 23.5






Esk, Scotland (1967)"
Mixed


Mixed




Mixed




Mixed


Mixed










River Severn
Gloucester,
England
Cullercoats,
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
Cullercaats,
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
London,
England
(hatchery)
River Axe,
Devon,
England
. Pleasant
Mount
Hatchery,
Wayne Co.,
Penna. and
Chatsworth
Hatchery,
Ontario'1
Alabaster
(1967)«8

Bishai (I960)"




Bishai (I960)"




Alabaster &
Downing
(1966)"
Alabaster
(1967)«s

McCauley
(1958)»>






Upper


Upper




Upper




Upper


Uppe


Upper







16.7


6 (raised to test
temp, over 6 hr
period)


5
10
20


6
15
20
9. 3 (field)
10.9"

10
20






14.5909




12.7756


15.2944
23.5131
14.6978


36.1429
21.5714
17.6667
18.4667
33.0000

17.5260
20.2457






-0.4545




-0.4010


-0.5299
-0.8406
-0.4665


-1.4286
-0.7143
-0.5556
-0.6667
-1.2500

-0.6033
-0.6671






2o




6 -0.9747 28.0 20.0


4 -0.8783 25.0 22.0
3 -0.9702 26.0 22.0
3 -0.9797 26.0 22.0


2»
2
2
2o
2

C -0.9254 25.5 24.5
1 -0.9723 27.0 25.0











. 22.0


22.2
. 23.4
23.5
















  "His assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
  6 Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
  « Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
  '=Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)."'
  > River temp, during fall migration
  / Alabaster fitted by eye, a straight line to median death times plotted on semilog paper (log lime), then reportei
only the 100 and 1000 min intercepts. These intercepts are the basis for the equation presented here.
  o See note for Alabaster 1967.««
  * Results did not differ so data were combined.

-------
                                                                                                                                                       Appendix 7/-C/419
                                                                THERMAL  TABLES—Continued
Species State/age Length Weight Sex
Salvelmus fonti- Yearling X=7.88g Mixed
nalis (brook range 2-
trout) 25 g




Salvelinus fonti- Juvenile
nalis (namaycush
hybrid)
Salvelinus 1-2 yr. old 27. 7 gm ave. Mixed
namaycush (1yr)«2.8
(Lake trout) gm ave.
(2yr)
Scardmius Adult 10cm Mixed
erythrophthala-
mus (rudd)
Semotilus alro- Adult 2.0-3. 9 gm Mixed
maculatus mode
(Creek chub)




Semotilus alro- Adult
maculatus
(Creek chub)


Sphaeroides annu- Adult
latus (Puffer)

Sphaeroides macu- 13. 8-15. 9 cm 62. 3-79. 3 gm Mixed
latus (Northern (average) (average)
purler)




Thaleichthys Sexually 161 mm ave. 31gmave. Mixed
paciticus Mature
(Eulachon or
Columbia River
Smell)
Tilapia mossam- A months 8. 0-12. Ocm 10. 0-17. 0 gm
bica (Mozam-
bique mouth-
breeder)




Tinea tinea Juvenile 4.6=1-0. 4 cm Mixed
(tench)

Location
Codrington,
On), (hatch-
ery




Ontario,
Canada

Hatcheries in
Ontario


Britain (field)


Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario




Toronto,
Ontario
Knoxville,
Tenn.

Northern Gulf
of Calif.
Coast
New Jersey
(40 N)





Cowlitz River,
Wash.



Transvaal
Africa






England


Reference Extreme -
Fry, Hart & Upper
Walker
(1946)8»




Fry and Gib- Upper
son (1953)82

Gibson and Upper
Fry (1954)»s


Alabaster & Upper
Downing
(1966)"
Hart (1947)" Upper




Lower

Hart(1952)»» Upper




Heath (1967)" Upper


Holland West- Upper
man (1966)'°


Lower


Blahm & Upper
McConnell
(1 970)i oo
unpublished
data
Allanson & Upper
Noble
(1964)"





Alabaster & Upper
Downing"
(1966)
Acclimation
Temp" Time
3
11
15
20
22
24
25
10
15
20
8 Iwk
15
20

20


5
10
15
20
25
20
25
10 (Toronto only)
15 (Toronto only)
20 (Toronto only)
25
30
32.0


10
14
21
28
14
21
28
5 river temp.




22
26
28
29
30
32
34
36
15
20
25
log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits
toi*\ i nj
a b
13.4325 -0.4556
14.6256 -0.4728
15.1846 -0.4833
15.0331 -0.4661
17.1967 -0.5367
17.8467 -0.5567
17.8467 -0.5567
13.2634 -0 4381
16.9596 -0.5540
19.4449 -0.6342
14.4820 -0.5142
14 5123 -0.4866
17.3684 -0.5818

26.9999 -0.7692


42.1859 -1 6021
31.0755 -1.0414
20.8055 -0.6226
21.0274 -0.5933
16.8951 -0.4499



20.8055 -0.6226
19.1315 -0.5328
19.3186 -0.4717
228982 -0.5844
25.4649 -0.6088


11.3999 -0.2821
35.5191 -1.0751
21.5353 -0.5746
23 7582 -0.6183
-1.7104 0.6141
-3.9939 0.7300
-7.4513 0.8498
7. 7440 -0 2740




313.3830 -8.3878
14.0458 -0.2800
41 1610 -0.9950
94.8243 -2.4125
41.3233 -1.0018
34.0769 -0.8123
123.1504 -3.1223
68.6764 -1.7094
33.2000 1.0000
29.6667 0.8333
27.1429 0.7143
W>
3
6
9
7
6
10
3
6
8
9
4
5
5

2«


3
3
3
7
9



3
6
18
19
3


3
3
3
3
4
6
5
7




4
5
4
5
6
4
3
6
2«
3
2

upper lower
-0.9997 26.0 23.5
28.0 25.0
28.5 25.5
29.0 25.5
29.0 26.5 .
30.0 25.5
29.0 26.0
-0.9852 26.5 24.0
-0.9652 28.0 24.5
-0.9744 28.0 24.5
-0.9936 26 23
-0.9989 27 24
-0.9951 27 24




-0.9408 26.0 25.0
-0.8628 29.0 28.0
-0.9969 31 0 30.0
-0.9844 33.5 30.5 ..
-0.9911 35.0 31.0


29 28
-0.9969 31 30
-0.9856 33 30.5
-0.9921 36 32
-0.99S1 37 33
-0.9716 37.0 36.0


-0.9988 30.0 25.0
-0.9449 32 0 27.0
-0.9914 32.0 30.0
-0.9239 33.5 31.1
0.9760 10.0 6.0
0.9310 12.0 8.0
0.9738 16.0 10.0 .
-0.9142 29.0 8.0




-0.8898 37.10 36.5
-0.2140 37.92 37.5
-0.3107 38.09 37.9
-0.7781 38.10 37.0
-0.9724 38.50 37.6
-0.9209 38.4 37.6
-0.9938 38.4 38.2
-0.9053 38.77 37.9 .



Lethal
SO threshold'
<°C)
. 23.5
. 24.6
25.0
. 25.3
. 25.5
25.5
. 25.5
23.5-24.0
?
. 24.0-24.5
22 7
23.5
. 23.5




24.7
27.3
29.3
. 30.3
30.3
0.7
4.5
27.5
29
30.5
31.5
. 31.5



. 27.5
30.2
. 31.2
. 32.5
8.8
10.7
. 13.0
. 10.5




36.94
. 37.7
. 37.89
. 37.91
. 37.59
. 37.6
38.25
38.2



  ° It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)"
  » Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line-1.0).
rf = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).-1
' See previous note for Alabaster 1967."

-------
   APPENDIX  II-D
Organochlorine Insecticides
Pesticide Organism
ALDRIN . . . CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus lasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus brevicaudus
Daphnia pulei
Simocephalus serrulatus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys California
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuna pacifica
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdnen
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscna .
DDT . . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus lascialus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma puiex
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
TDE (ODD) Rhothane® . . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus breviacaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
Acute toxicity LC50
rt/liter

9100
4300
50
8
28
23

1.3
180
200

28
13
17.7
45.9
7.5

1.0
0.8
2.3
0.24
4.0
2.5
0.36

7.0
1.9
3 5

19
8
5
2
7

2
4
9
16
5

0.64
0 86
0.68
10.0
4.5
3.2

380
Sub-acute effects
/if/liter
hours

96 ....
96
96
96
48
48

96
96 2.5^g/liter(30dayLC50)
96 22rf/liter(30dayLC50) .

96
96
96
96
96

96
96
96
96
96
48
48

96
96
96

96
96
96
96
96
0.26/4/1 (15 day LC50)
96
96
96
96
96

96
96
96
96
48
48

96
Reference

Sanders 1969'-
Sanders in press'1'
"
"
Sanders and Cope196612'
"

. Sanders and Cope 1968128
Jensen and Gaufin 1966""
Jensen and Gaufin 1966""

Henderson etal. 1959'"
"
Katz 1961H9
"
"

Sanders 1969'=<
Sanders in press12'
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966127
"

Sanders and Cope 1S68™
"
"

Macek and McAllister 1970''-'
"
"
"
"
FPRL Annual Report"7
Macek and McAllister 1970"i
"
"
"
"

Sanders 1969i24
Sanders in press'1-"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'27
"

Sanders and Cope 1968"8
          420

-------
                                                          Appendix 7/-D/421
Organochlorine Insecticides—Continued


DIELDRIN CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simoceplialus serrulatus
Daphma pulei
INSECTS
Pteronarcys cahfornica
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuna pacifica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas .
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo jairdnen
Oncorhynchus kisuteh
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
Poecillia latipipna
Poecillia latipipna

Lepomis gibbosus

Ictaluras punctatus
CHLORDANE CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
ENDOSULFAN THIODAN CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
INSECT
Pteronarcys cahformca
Ischnura sp
FISH
Salmo gairdneri
Catastomus commersom
ENDRIN CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcys California
Acroneuna pacifica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
HEPTACHLOR CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
Acute toxicity LC50
fig/liter

460
EDO
20
740
5
190
250

O.b
39
24
0.5
0.58

IE
8
10
11
6



6.7

4.5

2E
40
4.0
20
29

15

52
22
44
56
57

5.8
52.9

2.3
71.8

0.3
3.0

3.0
0.9
0.4
3.2
1.5
2E
20

0.25
2.4
0.32
0.54
0.76

1.0
O.E
O.E
0.5
1.2

29
40
1 8
7.8
47
42

hours

96
96
96
96
96
48
48

96
96
96
96
9E

96
9E
9E
96
9E



96

9E

96
96
96
48
48

96

96
96
96
96
96

96
96

96
96

9E
9E

96
120
120
96
96
48
48

96
96
96
96
96

96
9E
9E
96
96

96
96
96
96
48
48
Sub-acute effects
	 /ig/liter Reference

Sanders 1969'"
Sanders in press126
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"

Sanders and Cope 1968™
2.0 (30 day LC50) Jensen and Gaufln 1966"»
0.2(30dayLC50)
Sanders and Cope 1968™
"

Henderson etal.1959113

Katz 1961119
"
"
3.0 (19 week LC50) Lane and Livingston 1970™
0.75 (reduced growth & reproduction— 34 "
week)
1.7 (affect swimming ability and oxygen con- Cairns and Scheir 1964""
sumption— 100-day)
FPRL'"

Sanders I969;=i
Sanders in press128
2.5(120hourLC50)
Sanders and Cope 19E6127
"

Sanders and Cope 1968™

Henderson etal.1959'11
"
Katr 19S1»»
"
"

Sanders 19691M
Schoettger 197012»

Sanders and Cope 1968™
Schoettger 1970129

. . Schoettger 19701!»
"

Sanders 196912<
Sanders in press126
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"

Sanders and Cope 1968™
1 . 2 (30 day LC50) Jensen and Gaufin 1 966" »
0.03(39dayLC50)
Sanders and Cope 1968™
"

Henderson etal.1959"3
"
KatzlSEI1"
"
"

Sanders 196912<
Sanders in press126
"
"
. Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"

-------
422/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife




                                       Organochlorine Insecticides—Continued
Pesticide

HEPTACHLOR










LINDANE 	


















METHOXYCHLOR 	


















TOXAPHENE




















Q 1*03 |jjs ft)

INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca 	
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Salmo gairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus . . .
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys calilornica . . . .
FISH
Pimephales promelas . 	
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdneri ....
Salmo Irutta 	
Oncorhynchus kisutch 	
Perca (lavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris . . . .
Gammarus fasciatus . .
Palaemonetes kadiakensis . .
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus 	
Daphnia pulex . .
INSECT
Pteronarcys calilornica
Taeniopteryi nivalis
Stenonema spp
FISH
Pimephales promelas ..
Lepomis macrochirus . . .
Salmo tairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha .
Perca flavescens 	
.. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris ..
Gammarus fasciatus .
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas..
Lepomos macrochirus
lepomis microlophus 	
Micropterus salmoides . .
Salmo gairdnerii
Salmo trutta.
Oncorhynchus kisutch 	
Perca flavescens .
Ictalurus punctatus 	
Ictalurus melas 	
Acute toxicityLCM
Mg/liler

1.1
0.9
2.8

56
19
17
19
59
17

48
10
10
520
460

4.5

87
61
83
32
27
2
41
68
44
64

0.8
1.9
1.0
0.5
3.2
5
0.78

1.4
0.98
0.63

7.5
62.0
62.6
66.2
27.9
20.0

26
6
28
10
15

2.3
3.0
1.3

14
18
13
2
11
3
8
12
13
5
Sub-acute effect:
HIT /liter
wt/"™
hours

96 	
96 . .
96 	

96 . . 	
96 	 	
96
96 . . 	
96 	
96 ...

96 . . 	
96 	
96 	
48 . . 	
48 .... 	

96 . 	

96 . . 	
96
96
96
96 ....
96 	
96 	
96 	
96
96

96 	
96 	
96 	 	
96
96
48 	
48 . . . . .

96
96 ...
96

96 0.125 (reduced e« hatchabilit))..
96
96 	
96 .... ....
96 .... 	
96 0.6 (reduced (rowth) 8 months 	

96 	
96 	
96 	
48 ... ....
48 	

96
96 	
96 ...

96 	
96 	
96 	
96 	
96 	
96 	
96 	
96 	
96 	
96 	
Reference


. .. Sanders and Cope 1968"'
"
"

. . Henderson etal. 19591"
"
. Bridies 19611"
Katz l96Ui»
. . . "
"

	 Sanders 19691"
. Sanders in press126
"
. . Sanders and Cope 19661"
"

. . Sanders and Cope 1968"!

Macek and McAllister 19701"
"
„
„
„
"
a
"
n
„

. . Sanders 19691"
. . Sanders in press126
"
"
„
.... Sanders and Cope 1966"'
"

Sanders and Cope 1968i2«
Merna unpublished data'1'
Merna "

. .. Merna unpublished data'"
. . Henderson etal. 1959'"
. .. Katz,1961ii»
"
"
Merna unpublished data™

... . Sanders 1969™
. . Sanders in press126
"
. . . Sanders and Cope 1966"'
"

Sanders and Cope 19(tm

"

. ... Macek and McAllister 1970«
l>
. '.'..
"
. Mankind McAllister 1970'"
"
"
"
"
"

-------
                                                    Appendix 7/-D/423
Organophosphate Insecticides
Pesticide
ABATE®





AZINPHOSMETHYL GUTHION®























AZINPHOSETHYL ETHYL GUTHION®




CARBOPHENOTHION THITHION®



CHLOROTHION.





CIODHIN®







COUMAPHOS CO-RAL ®












DEMETON SYSTOX®




Organism —
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
FISH
Salmo tairdnen
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Gammarus pseudolimneaus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus brevicaudus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys dorsata
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuna lycorias
Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis
Hydropsyche bettoni
Ephemerella subvana
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisiitch
Perca llavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
CRUSTACEANS
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
FISH
Salmo gairdneri
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lactustris
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus brevicaudus
CRUSTACEAN
Daphma magna

FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus (asciatus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdneri
Ictalurus punctatus
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus tasciatus
Daphma magna

INSECTS
Hydropsyche sp.
Hexagema sp.
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus fasciatus
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Acute toxicity LCSO
jug/liter

82

10

158

0.15
0.10

1.2
21.0

12.1
1.5

12.0



33
5.2
52
5
14
4
17
13
3290
3500

4
3.2

19

5.2
1.2
1100

4.5


2800
700

15
11

250
1100
55
2500

0.07
0.15
1.0


5
430

18000
180
1500
15000

27

3200
100
Sub-acute effects No effect
up 'liter uff 'liter
A**/""" MS/ "IBI
hours

96

90

96

96
96
0.10-30 day
120 0.1 6 (20 day LCSO)
96

96 4.9(30dayLC50)
96
1.5 (30 day LCSO) 1.36-30 day
96 2. 2 (30 day LCSO) 1.73-30 day
7. 4 (30 day LCSO) 4. 94-30 day
4. 5 (30 day LCSO) 2. 50-30 day

96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96

48
48

96

96
96
96

48


96
96

96
96

96
96
96
96

96
96
48


24
24

96
96
96 . 	
96 ....

96 ....

96 ....
96 ... 	
Reference

Sanders 1969"'-'

Sanders and Cope 1968™

FPRL"'

Sanders 19691M
Sanders in press'1
Bell unpublished data'"
Sanders in press126


Bell unpublished data"'
Sanders and Cope 1968™
Bell unpublished data'"
"
"
"

Katz1961"»
"
Macek and McAllister 1970121
"
"
"
"
Macek and McAllister 197012'
"
"

Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"

FPRL"'

Sanders 1969""
Sanders in press126
"

Wafer Qua/iy Criteria
1968

Pickering etal. 1962i»
"

Sanders 196912<
Sanders in press126

FPRL"'
FPRL"'
FPRL1"
"

Sanders 196912<
Sanders in press126
Wafer Qualify Criteria
1968

Carlson 1966110
"

Kab 1961'11
"
"
"

Sanders in press12'

Pickering etal. 1962>"
"

-------
424/'Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife





                                       Organophosphate Insecticides—Continued
pactiririp
rBSUCIBc
DIAZINON 	












DICHLORVOS DDVP VAPONA®.








DIOXATHION DEINAV® 	







DISULFOTON DI-SYSTON® . . .










DURSBAN®









ETHION NIALATE® 	











EPN








. CRUSTACEANS
Gammatus pseudolimneaus
Gammarus lacustris
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
Daphnia magna
INSECTS
Pleronarcys California
Pteronarcys dorsata
Acroneuria lyconas . .
OphioEomphus rupmsulensis
Hydropsyche beltoni
Ephemerelia subvana . .
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus [aciatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys catifornica . . .
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus 	
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris . . .
Gammarus fasciatus .. ..
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus . ...
Lepomis cyanellus . . .
Mitropterus satmoides ....
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris 	
Gammarus fasciatus . . .
Palaemonetes kadiakensis .
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuria panlica
FISH
Pimephales promelas .
Lepomis macrochirus ...
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus lasciatus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassema sabulosa
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus ....
Salmo gairdnen . .
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris .
Gammarus lasciatus ....
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica . .
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus. . . .
Micropterus salmoides 	
Salmo gairdnen 	
Salmo clarkii . 	
Iclalurus punctatus . . .
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris 	
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
FISH
Pimephales promelas . .
Lepomis macrochirus ...
Acute loxicity LC50
jig/liter


200
1.4
0.90


25

1.7




0.50
0.40
0.26
0.07

o.to

869

270
8.6

9300
34
61
36

52
21
38

5
24
8.2

3700
63

0.11
0.32

10
0.38
0.57

2.6
11

1.8
9.4
5.7

2.8

220
150
560
720
7500

15
7
0.56

110000
100
Sub-acute effects No effect
ng/liter /ig/hter
hours

0.27(30day LC50) 0.20 (30 day)
96
48
48
0.26 (21 day)

96
4.6(30dayLC50) 3. 29 (30 day)
96 1.25(30dayLC50) 0.83 (30 day)
2.2 " 1.29 "
3.54 " 1.79 "
. . 1.05 " 0.42 "

96 ...
96 ....
48
48 	

96 .. . .

96 	 	

96
96 ... ...

96
96
96 .. 	
96 . 	

96 .....
96 . 	
96 . ...

96 . . 	
96 1.9(30dayLC50) 	
!6 1.4(30dayLC50) 	

96 . .. 	
96 . . 	

96
96 . ... ....

96 . . ....
96 ... ...
96 . . 	

36 ....
96 	

36 	
96 . ...
36

36 . ...

96 	
96 . . 	
96 	
96 	
96 	

16
36 . 	
96

96 	
96 . 	

Reference

Bell unpublished data114
Sanders 1969124
Sanders and Cope 1966127
"
. Biesinger unpublished data1"

Sanders and Cope 1968128
. Bell unpublished data134

"
"


. Sanders 1969124
Sanders in press126
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"

. Sanders and Cope 1968128

. . FPRL»'

Sanders 1969124
Sanders in press126

Pickering et al. 1962"=
"
.
"

Sanders 19691"
. . Sanders in press126
"

. Sanders and Cope 196812«
Jensen and Gaufm 1964"'


. Pickering etal. 19621"
"

. . Sanders 1969124
Sanders in press126

... Sanders and Cope 1968'"
"
"

. . FPRL1"
FPRL137

. Sanders 19G91"
Sanders in press126
Sanders in press12'

Sanders and Cope 1968128

FPRL1"
"
"
"
. . "

Sanders 1969124
. . Sanders in press126
"

Solon and Nair 19701'°
. Pickering etal. 19621"

-------
                                                         Appendix 7/-D/425
Organophosphate Insecticides—Continued
Pesticide
FENTHION BAYTEX®




















MALATHION































METHYL PARATHION BAYER E601










MEVIKPHOS PHOSDRIN®






Organism —
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammatus lasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocepnalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microloptius
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavesens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus pseudolimneaus
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus semilatus
Daphnia pulex
Daphnia magna
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcys dorsata
Acroneuna lyconas
Pteronarcella badia
Classenia sabulosa
Boyeria vmosa
Ophiogomphus rupmsulensis
Hydropsyche bettoni
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus

Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Iclalurus melas
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens
Italurus punctatus
Italurus melas
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus lasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus brevicandus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
Acute toxicity LC50
jjg/liter

8.4
110
5
50
1800
0.62
0 80

4.5

2440
1380
1880
1540
930
1330
1320
1650
1680
1620


1.0
0.76
12
180
3000
3.5
1 8


10

1.0
1.1
2.8




9000
110

120
170
265
170
200
101
263
8970
12900

8900
5720
5170
5220
2750
4740
5300
3060
5710
6640

130
2.8
12
56
0.43
0.16

hours

96
96
120
96
96
48
48

96

96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96


96
96
96
96
96
48
48


96


96
96




96
96

96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
95

96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96

96
96
96
96
48
48
Sub-acute effects No effect
UK/liter MK/liter Reference


Sanders 1969124
Sanders in press126
1.5(20dayLC50)
"
"
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"

Sanders and Cope 1968128

Macekand McAllister 19701-1
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"


0.023 (30 day LC50) 0.008-30 day Bell unpublished data"*
Sanders 1969™
0.5 (120 hour LC50) Sanders in press''*
9.0
"
"
Sanders and Cope 19661-7
"
0.6-21 day Biesmger unpublished data1"

Sanders and Cope 1968'™
11.1 (30 day LC50) 9.4-30 day Bell unpublished data"'
0.3(30dayLC50) 0.17-30 day
Sanders and Cope 1968128
"
2 3 (30 day LC50) 1 . 65-30 day Bell unpublished data"<
052 " 0.28-30 day
0.34 " 0.24-30 day

580 (spinal deformity 10 month) 200-10 month exposure Mount and Stephen 1967m
7. 4 (spinal deformity several 3.6-11 months Eaton 1971111
months)
Pickering etal.19621"
Macek and McAllister 1970121

"
"
"
"
"


Macek and McAllister 1970"'"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
•

Sanders 1969'-'
Sanders in press126
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"

-------
426/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife




                                      Organophosphate Insecticides—Continued
Pesticide

MEVINPHOS PHOSDRIN®.




NALEDDIBROM®












OXYDEMETON METHYL META-
SYSTOX®.






PARATHION . . .

















Ormiism

INSECTS
Pteronarcys California
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus . ...
Micropterus salmoides
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris .
Gammanisfastiatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus .
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex 	
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus .
Salmo gairdnen
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus ....
Salmo gairdneri .
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris . . .
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex . .
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys California
Pteronarcys dorsata .
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
Acroneuna pacifica
Acroneuria lycorias
Ephemerella subvana
Ophigomphus rupmsulensis
Hydropsyche bettom
Acute lonicity LC50
Mj/liter

5.0

70
110

110
14
90
1800
230
1.1
0.35

8.0

180
132

190
1000

35

14000
4000

3.5
2.1
1.5
0.37
0.60
0.04
600

36
3.0
4.2
1.5
3.0

0.16
3.25

Sub-acute effects
	 /ig/liter
hours

96

96
96 ...

96
96 ...
96
96
96
48
48

96

96
96 . .

96 ...
96

96 .. . .

96 ...
96 	

96
96 1.6 (120 hour LC50)
96 ..
48
48
96
96 .. .

96 2.2(30dayLC50)
96 0.90(30dayLC50)
96
96
96 (M4 (30 day LC50)
0.013 (30 day LC50)
96 0.056 (30 day LC50)
96 0.22
0.45
No effect
/xg/liter Reference

Sanders and Cope 1968128

. . FPRLw
. FPRL'K

Sanders 1969'21
. . Sanders in press12'
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966127


	 Sanders and Cope 1968™

. . . FPRL1"
	 FPRL'K

	 Sanders 1969'='
Sanders in press1-"

. . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1968'"

	 FPRl1"
.... FPRL'"

.. . Sanders 1969^
Sanders in press1"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'='
"
	 Sanders in press121
"

Jensen and Gaufin 1964"'
Bell unpublished dab1"
. Sanders and Cope 1968>»
"
. . . Jensen and Gaufin 1964117
Bell unpublished data'"
Bell unpublished data1"
"
"

-------
                                                          Appendix II-D/427
Organophosphate Insecticides—Continued
Pesticide
PARATHION




PHORATE THIMET®



PHOSPHAMIDON











ROIINEL

TEPP





TRICHLOROPHON DIPTEREX
DYLOX











Organism
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis maccochirus
Lepomis cyanellus
Micropterus salmoides
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Orconecles nais
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Orconectes nais
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Ictalurus punctatus
FISH
Pimephales promelas
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus iacustns
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuna pacifica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Acute toiicitylCM
Ml/liter

1410
65
425
190

9
0.60
50

2.8
16
7500
6.6
8.8

1SO

100000
4500
70000

305

39
210

1900
1100

40
0 32
0.18

69
35
16.5
11
22

109000
3800
Sub-acute effects
up 'liter
	 MK/11101
hours

96
96
96
96

96
96
96

96 . .. .
96
96
49
48

96

96
96
96

96

96
96

96 . .
96 . .

96
48
48

96 9.8(30day LC50)
96
96 8.7(30dayLC50) .
96
96

96
96
No effect
Ml/liter Reference

Solon and Nair 19701"
Pickering el al. 19621"
"
"

Sanders 1969'"
Sanders in press1!'
"

Sanders 1969'"
. Sanders in press1"
"
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"

Sanders and Cope )968>!«

FPRL1"
"
"

Solon and Nair 1970"°

. Sanders 1969^
. Sanders in press1"

Pickering et al. 1962121
"

Sanders 1969"'
Sanders and Cope 19661!B
"

Jensen and Gaufln 1964"'
Sanders and Cope 19681'8
Jensen and Gaufin 1964"'
. Sanders and Cope 1968'"
. . Sanders and Cope 1968128

. Pickering et al. 19621M
"

-------
428/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                      Carbatnate

Pesticide

CARBARYL SEVIN® 	



























BAYGON ....




AMINOCARBMETACIL... .

BAYER 37344

ZECTRAN 	



















Organism

CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus (asciatus
Falaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus setrulatus
Daphnia pulex
Daphnia magna
INSECTS
Pteronarcys California
Pteronarcys dorsata
Pleronarcella badia
Claassema sabulosa
Acroneuria lyconas
Hydropsyche bettoni
FISH
Pimephales promelas .

Lepomis macrochirus .
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta . . .
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca (lavescens
Ictalurus punctatus .
Ictalurus melas
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
INSECT
Pteronarcys califormca
. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys calilornica
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
Acute toxicityLCSO


rt/Mer

16
26
5.6
8.6
240
7.6
6.4


4.8

1.7
S.6



9000

6760
11200
6400
4340
1950
764
745
15800
20000

34
50

13

12

5.4

46
40
83
13
10

10

17000
11200
16700
14700
10200
8100
1730
2480
11400
16700
Sub-acute effects No effect
iifl 'lltpr ir /litor
/tg/iiiBi /zg/iiier
lours

96
96
96
96
96 . .
48
48
5.0 63 day

96
23. 0(30 day LCM) 11.530 day
96
96
2.2(30day LC50) 1.3 30 day
2. 7 (30 day LCM) 1.8 30 day

96 680 (delme survival and re- 210 (6 month)
production 6 months)
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96

96 ....
96

96

96

96

96
96
96 25 (20 day IC50)
48
48

96

96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96 ... . .
96
96

Reference


Sanders 1969'-'
Sanders in press'-''

"
"
Sanders and Cope 196612'
"
Biesinger unpublished data11'

Sanders and Cope 1968"»
Bell unpublished data"'
. Sanders and Cope 1968'='
"
.. Bell unpublished data'"
"

Carlson unpublished data1*'

. Macek and McAllister 1970"i
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

Sanders I969™
Sanders in press126

Sanders and Cope m>™

Sanders 1969™

Sanders and Cope 1968'"

Sanders 1969'2<
Sanders in press121
"
Sanders and Cope 1966"'
"

. Sanders and Cope 1968™

Macek and McAllister 1970'"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

-------
                                                         Appendix II-D/429
Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants



ACROLEIN AQUALIN



AMINOTRIAZOLEAMITROL









BALAN

BENSULFIDE

CHLOROXURON

CIPC

DACTHAL

DALAPON (SODIUM SALT)








DEF



DEXON



DICAMBA









DICHLOBENILCASARON®





















FISH
Lepotnis macrochirus
Salmo Irutta
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Oncorhyncus kisutch
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus laciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus laciatus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
FISH
Lepomis macrocliirus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Simocephaltis serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys califormca
FISH
Pimephalespromelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Oncorhynchus kisutch
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
INSECT
Pteronarcys califormca
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
INSECT
Pteronarcys califormca
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia magna
Cypndopsisvidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes karJiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Hyallellaazteca
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulei
Daphnia magna
Cypndopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
Tendipedidae
Callibacles sp.
Limnephilus
Enallegma
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Acute toiicity LC50

Ml/liter

80
46
79


30000
32000





325000

1100

1400

25000

8000

700000

16000
11000



290000
290000
340000

100

2100

3700

24000

3900







20000

11000
10000
8500
5800
3700
10000
7800
34000
9000
22000

7000
7800
10300
13000
20700

20000


hours

24
24
24


48
48





48

96

96

48

48

48

48
48



96
96
48

96

96

96

96

96







48

96
96
96
48
48
48
48
48
48
48

96
96
96
96
9G

48
Sub-acute effects No effect







100, 000 Ml/1 48 hr.


100, 000 Ml/1 48 hr.
100,000Mg/l48hr.
I00,000^g/I48hr.

100, 000 /ii/H8 hr.















100,000Mg/l96lir.














100,000,ig/l48hr.
100,000 Mj/l«hr.
100,000Mg/l48hr.
100,000Mg/M8hr.
100,000 Ml/I 48 hr.
100,OOOMZ/l48hr.

























Bond et al. 1%0»«
Burdicketal. 1964"»
"

Sanders 1970125
"
"
"
"
"

Sanders 1970'25
Bond el al 1960><»

. . Sanders 1970125

Sanders 19701"

Hughes and Davis 1964"=

Hughes and Davis 1964™

Hughes and Davis 1964m

Sanders and Cope1966m
"

Sanders and Cope 1968"

Siirber and Pickering 1962111
"
Bond et al. I960'"'

Sanders 1969124

Sanders and Cope 1968t28

Sanders 1969I2<

Sanders and Cope 1968>»

Sanders 1969'"
Sanders 1970'M
"
"
"
'
"

Hughes and Davis 19621"

Sanders 1969124
Sanders 1970«5
Wilson and Bond 1969"1
Sanders and Cope 19681M
"
Sanders 1970'!s

"
"
"

Sanders and Cope 1968' !s
Wilson and Bond 1969>»
"

"



-------
430/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife




                                     Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants—Continued
Pftctirirla
rnuQDB
DICHLONE PHYGON XL










DIQUAT . . .














DIURON .. ..








DIFOLITAN 	



DINITROBUTYL PHENOL

DIPHENAMID 	






DURSBAN 	





2,4-D(PGBE) 	







J,4-D(BEE) 	










Organism
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus bcustris .
Gammarus fasciatus .
Daphnia magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus . . .
Palaemonetes kadiakensit
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus salmoides
. CRUSTACEAN
Hyallella azteca
INSECTS
Callibaetes sp. .
Limnephilus .
Tendipedidae
Enallagma
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirui .
Micropterus salmoides
ESDI lucius
Srjzostedion vitreum vitreum .
Salmo fairdneri
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris .
Gammarus fasciatus
Simocephahis serrulatus
Daphnia pulex .
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Oncorhynchut kisutch .. .
. . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris .
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lasciatus
. . . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia majna .
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
CRUSTACEAN
Gunmarui luustns . . .
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
. . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris ..
Gammarus lasciatus
Dapbma magna . . .
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonttes kadiakemis 	
Orconectes nais
... . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris .. .
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia mijna
Cypridopsis vidua . ...
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
INSECT
Pteronarcys calitornica . .
Acute toiitity LC50
rt/liter

1100
100
25
120
200
450
3200

70
120

48

16400
33000
> 100000
> 100000

14000
35000
7100
16000
2100
11200
28500

160
700
2000
1400

1200

16000

NO

40

1800


56000
50000

58000


0.11

10
0.38
0.57

1600
2500
100
320
2200
2700


440
5900
5600
1800
3200
1400


1600

hours

96
96
48
48
48
48
48

48
48

96

96
96
96
96

96
96
96
48
96
48
48

96
96
48
48

96

48

96

16

16


48
48

48


96

96
96
96

P6
$6
48
48
48
41


96
96
41
48
4)
41


9>
Sub-acute effects No effect
uf /1 1 1 fir u& / li ter R of ere nee


. . Sanders 1969^
. . . Sanders 1970'"
"
"
"
"
"

. . . Bond (til. 1960""
Hughes and Davis 1362"i

Wilson and Bond 1969"-

. . . Wilson and Bond 1969>^
"
"
"

Surber and Pickering 1962'"
Gilderhus 1967"=
. . Surber and Pickering 1962"'
Gilderhus 1967"2
"
"
.... Bond et al. I960""

.... . . Sanders 1969121
Sanders 1970>-s
Sanders and Cope 1966"'
"

	 	 Sanders and Cope 1968"»

	 . . Bond etal. 19601*

Sanders 1969'"

	 . Sanders and Cope ISSt™

. Sanders 1970'"

100,000 (it/I 48 hr. Sanders 1970" 5
"
"
100,000,.!'! 48 hr.
"
	 100,000|;.l/l48hr.

	 Sanders 19691M

	 ... . Sanders and Cope 19681X
"
"

Sanders 1969"'
. Sanders 1970™
"
	 	 "
"
"
	 100,000 *.J/1 48 hr. .

	 Sanders 1 969" '
... . . . Sanders 1970iJI>
"
... . - "
"
.
	 100,000^8/1 48-hr

	 . Sanders and CopeW

-------
                                                             Appendix //-D/431
Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants—Continued

Pesticide

2,4-0 (BEE)


2,4-D(IOE)

2,4-D(DIETHYLAMINESAlT)







ENDOTHALLDI SODIUM SALT






ENDOTHALL DIPOTASSIUM SALT




EPTAM

FENAC (SODIUM SALT)













HYAMINE1622



HYAMINE 2389


HYDROTHAL47

HVDROTHAL191


HYDROTHALPLUS

IPC




KVRON


MCPA

MOLINATE









FISH
Pimephales promelas

CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasoatus
Daphnia mapa
Crypidopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Pimephales notalus
Lepomis macrochirus
Microplerus lafmoides
Notropis umbratilus
Micropterus salmoides
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus .
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia pules
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia magna
Cypndopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
FISH
Lepomis
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Oncorhynctius kisutch
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus tasciatus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulei
. CRUSTACEAN
Simocephalus serrulitus
Daphnia pulei
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus .
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia majna
Asellus brevicaudus
Pilaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectet nait
Acute toxioty LC50

in /liter

5600


2400



4000
eooo




110000
125000
120000
95000
200000
136000



320000
160000

23000

12000

4500
6600






55000

15000

1600
1400
53000

2400
1200

$10

500
480

3500

10000
19000
10000
10000

2400
2000

1500

4500
300
600
400
1000
5600


hours

96


96



48
48




96
96
9G
96
96
96



96
96

96

96

48
48






96

48

96
96
96

96
96

96

96
96

48

96
96
48
48

48
48

48

96
96
48
48
48
41
Sub-acute effects No effect
iiv/litef ittt /liter
	 pX/"1"' /iK/niei

1500 rf/l lethal to eggs in 48 300 *>g/l 10 mo.
hour exposure




100,000rt/l48hr.


100,000/i|/l48lH.
100,000*>!/l48hr.
100.000Mg MSrir.








100,000 Ml/1 96 hr.







100, 000 Mt/M8 hr.


100, 000 ,4/1 48 hr.
100, 000 Ml/I 48 hr.
100,000 Mi/l 48 hr.
100,000fig/l48hr.





































Reference


Mount and Stephan 1967":


Sanders 1969"<

Sanders 1969"<
Sanders 1970'"
"
"
"
"
"

Walker 1964>"
"
"
"
Bond et al. t960"»


Sanders 1969"='

Surber and Pickering 1962'"
"

Sanders 19701"

Sanders 1969"<
Sanders 1970>"
Sanders and Cope 1966'='
"
Sanders 1970"s
"
"
"


Sanders and Cope 1968'"

Hushes and Davis 1962'"

Surber and Pickering 1962"'
"
Bond etal. I960"'

Surber and Pickering 1962'"
"

Sanders 1970'"

Sanders 1969'"
Sanders 1970"'

Hugnei and Davis 1964'"

Sanders 1969'"
Sanders 1970"'
. Sanders and Cope 1966>"
"

Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"

Hujhes and Davis 1964"'

. Sanders 1969'"
. Sanders 1970i"
"
"
"
"

-------
432 /Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife




                                     Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants—Continued




MONURON

PARAQUAT





PEBULATE

PICLORAM



PROPANIL

SILVEX (BEE)








SILVEX (PGBE)








SILVEX (IDE)

SILVEX (POTASSIUM SALT)

SIMAZINE









TRIFLURALIN











VERNOLATE











FISH
Oncorhynchus kisutch
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus .
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Oncorhynchus kisutch
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Daphma pulex
Simocephalus serrulatus
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus bravicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais



fig/htf

110000

11000
4000
3700



10000

27000

48000

16000

250
2100
4900
40000
8000
60000

1100

840
180
200
500
3200


16600

16000

83000

13000

1000
3200




6600

2200
1000
560
240
450
250
200
1200
50000

3000

1800
13000
1100
240
5600
1900
24000
Acute toiicity LC50


ir luurs

48

96
48
48



96

96

96

96

96
48
48
48
48
48

46

96
48
48
18
18


•18

48

'18

!I6

•18
48




48

96
96
48
48
48
48
48
48
4!

to

96
9i
43
44
44
4H
4»
Sub-acute effects No effect

~ ME/""" /ig/nier KBrerence


Bond etal. 19601°°

Sanders 1969>"
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"

100, 000 ni;\ 96 hr. Sanders and Cope 1968128

Sanders 1970 -;

Sanders 1969' -'

. . Sanders and Cope \m™

. . Sanders 1970™

Sanders 1 970' M
.
"
"
"
"

Hughes and Davis 1963"1

Sanders 1970'2s
"
"
"
"
100,000 tnl\ 48 hr.

Hughes and Davis 1963"*

Hughes and Davis 1963u5

Hughes and Davis 1963"'

Sanders 1969i»
. 100,000 ,jj/l 48 hr. . Sanders 1970™


100,000 ,ig/l 48 hr. Sanders 1970'"
100,000 ,.8/1 48 hr.
I00,000,ig/I48hr.

Bond et al. 1960""'

Sanders 1969ra
Sanders 1970"'*
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"
Sanders 1970"*
"
"
"

Sanders and Cope 1968'-'8

Sanders 1969i21
Sanders WO™
"
"
"
"
"

-------
                                             Appendix 7/-D/433
Botanicals

Pfisticid6 Orcanism

ALLETHRIN CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus lasciatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdnen
PYRETHRUM CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex . .
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
ROTENONE CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Acute toxicity LC50

/ug/liter

11
8
56
21

2.1

56
19

12
11
42
25

1.0

2600
190
100

380
Sub-acute effects
u2 'liter
hours

96
96
48
48

96

96
96

96
96
48
48

96

96
48
48

96
No effect
uZ /liter RfiferenC6


Sanders 1969™
Sanders in press126
Sanders and Cope 1 966' -7
"

Sanders and Cope1966128

FPRLi"
"

Sanders 1969"4
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"

Sanders and Copr mt™

Sanders 196b-'
Sanders anil Cope 196G -•
"

Sanders and Cope I968'28

-------
                                                APPENDIX  II-E
GUIDELINES FOR AQUATIC TOXICOLOGICAL
RESEARCH ON PESTICIDES

  More than one billion pounds of pesticides were produced
in the United States in 1969 (Fowler et al. 1971).152 How-
ever,  before such materials can be transported in interstate
commerce, they must be registed according to provisions of
the Federal  Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide  Act
and amendments. Responsibility for implementing this act
is vested in the Pesticide Regulation Division of the  En-
vironmental Protection  Agency. Properties  of pesticides
that must be considered in the registration process include:
efficacy on the intended pest; safety to the applicator  and
to the consumer of treated products; and effects on non-
target species including those of aquatic ecosystems.
   Guidelines  for research   into  effects  of  pesticides  on
aquatic life are of concern  to this Panel. In view of docu-
mented effects  of pesticides on aquatic life and the appar-
ently  ubiquitous distribution of certain  pesticides  in  fish
(Johnson  1968,158 Henderson, Johnson and  Inglis 1969,155
Mollison 1970172), it seems reasonable to conclude that exist-
ing guidelines are not sufficient.  Mount (1967)173 reported
that  there  were  numerous studies on toxicological  and
physiological effects of pesticides in fish, but  that the data
were  inadequate because of several common deficiencies.
Further, he concluded that there was a paucity of data that
could  be used  to correlate toxicological, physiological, or
analytical findings with significant damage to aquatic forms.
Therefore, research guidelines for predicting potential haz-
ards of pesticides to be used in, or those with a high probabil-
ity for contamination of aquatic communities must result in
findings that are  relatable  within the scientific disciplines
concerned.
  Guidelines for research and objectives suggested  by  this
Panel are:

    (1)  to provide a research framework that  generates
         anticipatory rather than documentary information
         concerning effects  of pesticides on  aquatic com-
         munities ;
     (2)  to encourage research that is directly applicable
         to the process of pesticide registration.
  The framework (Figure II-E-1) is designed with fish  a
the primary test animal(s). However, it is also compatibl
with parallel  investigations  intended to provide data es
sential to the protection of fish-food organisms. In all cases
sufficient numbers of individuals  and replications must b
included to estimate statistical significance of results. A:
studies  should report  sources,  physical  quality,  diseas
treatments, and holding conditions (photoperiod, diet am
feeding rate,  water quality) of test  animals.  The  Pane
recommends that chemical analyses  be performed on tes
animals, diets,  and holding  waters  to  document   pre
exposure of test animals to pesticides or other contaminants
Analytical methods should include results for reagent blanks
and  they should  document limits  of sensitivity, detection
reproducibility, and recovery efficiency for extracts.
  The guidelines are general and are not intended to limi
research nor to present specific methods. If pesticide investi
Cations can be tailored,  at  least in  part,  along acceptec
guidelines, then a  much greater reservoir of interrelatec
anticipatory data will become available for the  purpose  o
registering pesticides and establishing water quality criteria
\\l, or parts of the guidelines, may be utilized by an investi
gator depending  upon: the capacity of his laboratory anc
staff; extent and applicability of biological or chemical dat;
already available; intended use pattern(s) and target(s)  o
the pesticides; or research objectives other than registration

I.   PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS

A. Acute Toxicity:  Static Bioassay  (Litchfield  and  Wil-
coxon   1949,164  Lennon  &  Walker   1964,163 Nebeker  &
Gaufin 1964,176 Sanders and Cope 1966,180 Burdick 1967,14'
Sprague 1969,182 Schoettger 1970,181 Environmental Protec-
lion Agency 1971).15(l
   1. Purpose
  The  limitations  of static  bioassays are  recognized;
however, they do provide the first, and probably quickest,
index of relative toxicity. Further, they are useful in  esti-
mating the relative influence  of variables  such as  species
susceptibility,  temperature, pH, water quality, and rate  of
chemical deactivation on toxicity. Thus, acute  static  bio-
                                                        434

-------
                                                                                                Appendix 7/-£/435
 a
 H
 C/3
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C/3

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PH


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     OS
                                                                                              B)
                                                                                              U  O,

                                                                                              el
                                                                                              J3
                                                                                              a.

-------
436/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
assays are essential to delineate  prerequisites for chronic
studies.
   2. Scope
     a.  Initial bioassay
          These studies are conducted with technical  and
        formulated  pesticides using  one  type   of  water
        (reconstituted). The 96-hour LG50 (tolerance limit
        for 50 per cent of the test animals) is determined for
        rainbow trout  (Salmo gairdneri) at 12 C, and for
        bluegills (Lepomis  machrochirus), fathead  minnows
        (Pimephales promelas), and  channel catfish (Ictalurus
        punctatus) at 22 C. Suggested species of invertebrates
        included daphnids (Daphnia magna), glass shrimp
        (Palaemonetes  kadiakensis),  scud  (Gammarus  pseudo-
        limnaeus), and midge larvae  (Chironomusplumosus).
     b.  Definitive bioassay
          Bioassays conducted as described above.  Trout
        are tested at  7 C and 17 C, whereas bluegills,  fat-
        head minnows,  and channel  catfish  are  tested at
        17 C  and  27 C. Water quality  (reconstituted)  is
        modified to include soft and hard waters, and water
        of ca.  pH 6 and 9 (Marking and  Hogan 1967,167
        Berger,  Lennon and  Hogan  1969).I39 Other tem-
        peratures and potentially threatened species must
        be added or  substituted depending upon specific
        conditions under which  the pesticide is to be used.
    c.  Deactivation  index
          Several series  of test concentrations as  in a or b
        are prepared  and  stored for appropriate  intervals,
        such  as 1,  2, 4, 8, 16 N  days. After storage,  the
        solutions are  bioassay conducted at the same time.
        Division of the reference 96-hour LC50  values by
        the values for stored solutions gives an estimate of
        rate of pesticide deactivation when plotted against
        storage  time. Additional trials may be required to
        determine effects of variables such as pH,  tempera-
        ture,  light. Residue  analyses  of  stored  solutions
        provide excellent  support  data  for measures of
        biological deactivation.

B. Acute  Toxicity: Intermittent-flow Bioassay Jensen &
Gaufin  1964,157  Mount  and Brungs  1967,174 (Standard
Methods 1971).185
   1.  Purpose
   Intermittent-flow bioassays are  designed to minimize or
overcome deficiencies characteristic of static bioassays,  and
are particularly suited for  long exposures  of test animals to
pesticides with low  water solubilities. Specialized apparatus
is  required for such studies, but results are generally con-
sidered  more  reliable, and more representative  of  actual
toxicity than those derived from static bioassay. Neverthe-
less, the speed and flexibility of the latter make them essen-
tial in establishing  operational designs (e.g., water quality,
temperature, species) for the former method.
  2. Scope
     a.  96-hour LC50
          This is a standard btoassay and is obtained witl
        any water  supply (analyzed for chemical charac
        teristics) suitable to the selected test species. Whei
        variables such as temperature or water quality a(
        feet toxicity (as determined in sections IA2b am
        IA2c), flowing  bioassays must be designed accord
        ingly. In some instances, a design consistent witl
        water quality and species in the  locality of pesti
        cide use may be appropriate.  Because intermittent
        flow   bioassays  require  analyzed  concentration
        (rather than calculated values), analytical method
        must  be developed prior to the start of bioassays
        The  use of radio-labeled pesticides  greatly assist
        analysis. Also, test animals treated with radioactivi
        pesticides are invaluable for preliminary estimate
        of pesticide uptake, storage, and excretion.  In  ad
        dition,  gross  observations   should  be  made  foi
        pathological and behavioral changes.
     b.  Lethal threshold concentration (Threshold  LC5(T
        The  Threshold  LC50 is estimated  subsequent  tc
        determination of the 96-hour LC50 and may re-
        quire lower concentrations.  In general,  the  bio-
        assay is conducted as in IB2a, but continecl in  48-
        hour increments after the 96-hour observation  per-
        iod.  The  Threshold  LC50 is determined wher
        further mortality has  ceased in all test tanks, com-
        pared to the control.  If toxicant-related mortality
        continues beyond 30  to  60  days, the bioassay mav
        be discontinued and the LC50 reported according
        to the test  duration. Pesticide uptake, storage, and
        excretion studies may be more meaningful, when
        conducted  on test animals,  from these studies than
        on those exposed for only 96 hours.

C. Growth and  Reproductive Screening: Aquarium Fishes
(Hisaoka  and Firh't  1962,166  Clark  and  Clark 1964,146
Breeder and  Rosen 1966142).
  1.  Purpose
  Mount (1967)173  indicated that growth and reproduction
of fish were  important in assessing  safe concentrations of
pesticides, and could be determined within one year. How-
ever, when estimates  of potential hazards  are needed for  a
relatively large number of pesticides, and space and time
are limited,  tests using fish with short life  cycles may be
desirable for establishing priorities for later research. Species
such as  the  ovoviviparous  guppy  (Poecilia  reticulata)  and
oviparous zebrafish (Brachydamo reno) produce numerous
progeny  that  may reach sexual  maturity within six weeks
under laboratory conditions. Thus, effects of pesticides may
be followed through several generations within a short time.
  2. Scope
  Zebrafish and guppies are exposed to pesticides in inter-
mittent-flow  diluters.  Also, the pesticide may be  incor-

-------
                                                                                                 Appendix 7/-E/437
porated  into their  diets if food chain studies  suggest that
dietary uptake is a  potentially significant route of exposure.
Observations are made on mortality, growth,  egg  produc-
tion, and hatchability, and on incidence of offspring anom-
alies (e.g., terata, mutations).

D. Chronic Effects: Diluter and Feeding  exposures  (Bur-
dick, et al., 1964,145 Macek 1968,165 Eaton 1970,148 Environ-
mental Protection Agency 1971,16° Johnson ct al.  19711M).
   1.  Purpose
   In general, these studies are conducted as in  IC2 and are
central to predicting  safe concentrations of pesticides to
sport,  commercial, or forage fishes, and to fish-food or-
ganisms.
   2.  Scope
   Chronic studies  may either  include the complete life
cycle  or  a portion of the cycle.  Full  chronic studies are
conducted currently with fathead minnows, daphnids, and
scuds and involve  continuous exposures of eggs, juveniles
and adults. Rainbow trout, brook trout (Satvelinusfontinalis),
channel catfish, bluegills, and largemouth bass (Aticropterus
salmorndes) are  used in partial chronics, and adults arc ex-
posed  continuously through  spawning. Flow-through bio-
assays  arc  performed by exposing the test animals  to pesti-
cides (or degradation products) in water, in their  diets, or
both,   depending upon  relative  stability of the pesticide
and its tendency to accumulate in fish-food organisms. Where
profiles of pesticide degradation in water are established,
studies simulating degradation should be incorporated into
the concentration spectra by periodic modification of toxi-
cant solutions (concentration and composition).  Exposures
should include  the reproductive phase or a selected interval
prior  to  reproduction  depending  upon species and antici-
pated  time of pesticide application. Chronic studies should
evaluate  effects on growth, and on natural and artificial
reproduction.   Studies with  invertebrates  should  include
measured  effects on  metamorphosis  and  reproduction.
Clinical  observations  on physiological, biochemical, and
pathological effects, as well as analyses for residues, degra-
dation products, and residue kinetics should be  correlated
with effects on growth and reproduction.

E. Pond   and  Stream  Ecosystem Studies (Cope, et  al.
1970,147  Kennedy  et  al.  1970,1B1  Kennedy  and Walsh
1970,"''"Lennon and Bcrger 1970162).
   1.  Purpose
   Laboratory estimates of safe pesticide applications must
be confirmed  by controlled research  in lentic and  lotic
ecosystems. Therefore,  ponds or  artificial streams are in-
valuable in studying the impact of pesticides  under inter-
acting physical, chemical, and biological conditions.
   2.  Scope
   Applications of pesticides are made according to antici-
pated rate and  use patterns. However, concentration spectra
should include both excessive rates, and rates  estimated to
be safe in  laboratory  studies.  Species used  in  the  studies
should approximate those found in intended areas of pesti-
cide usage. Factors to be studied include:

     a.  mortality
     b.  growth
     c.  reproductive success
     d.  gross behavior
     e.  clinical physiology,  biochemistry and pathology
     f.  invertebrate metamorphosis
     g.  species diversity
     h.  trophic level production
     i.  energy transfer
     j.  fate of the chemical

II.   SUPPORT SYSTEMS

A.  Chemical  Methods Development

  1.  Purpose
  Residue  analyses of water and  of fish and fish-food or-
ganisms  exposed  to pesticides are  potent indicators of
probable biological  accumulation or degradation of these
chemicals.  Biological systems used in the primary research
framework easily provide study materials which  permit cor-
relations between biological effects and residues. The use of
radio-labeled  pesticides early  in  the  research  framework
quickly pinpointed location  of the pesticide and degradation
products  and  greatly  assisted refinement  of  analytical
methods. Various combinations of isolation and identifica-
tion techniques are required  to analyze metabolites or
degradation products in test animals exposed chronically to
pesticides.
  2.  Scope
  Methods may begin  with  acute, static bioassays for deac-
tivation indexes (IA2c) or  later with acute, intermittent-
flow bioassays. The studies are  expanded as dictated by in-
terpretation of results. Concentrations of 14C-, 86C1-,  32P-, or
33S-labeled pesticides are determined radiometrically with-
out  extraction and cleanup  (Hansen and  Bush  1967,1M
Nuclear-Chicago Corporation  1967,177 Biros  1970aHO). At
least four test animals (including  fish) should be collected
at five intervals during the pesticide exposure  to estimate
uptake and degradation  rates. For smaller  organisms,  a
minimum  of  100 milligrams of wet sample are required.
After development and refinement of analytical methods,
spot checks of radioactive  samples will confirm residues.
Analyses of metabolites and degradation products require
that sample extracts be cleaned up with gel  permeation or
adsorption chromatography (U. S. Department of  Health
Education and Welfare 1968,187 1969,188 Stalling,  Tindle and
Johnson 1971,m Tindle 1971 ).186 Radioactive residues must
be  characterized by TLC  autoradiography, and further
identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-
MS) or  other spectroscopic   methods   (Biros 1970b,141
Stalling 1971).183

-------
438/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
B. Uptake, Storage and Excretion
   1.  Purpose
   Investigations of chemical residues are undertaken early
in the research framework to obtain a working perspective
of pesticide persistence, degradation, and bioconcentration
in aquatic organisms. The studies should attempt to corre-
late  residue kinetics  with toxicology  and  chronic  effects.
Thus,  later research can be better  designed to assess inter-
actions of pesticides  with fish,  fish-food  organisms,  and
water quality (113).
   2.  Scope
   The studies should include:
     a.  radiomctric or chemical analyses or both, of test
        animals at intervals during  acute,  intermittent-
        flow bioassays to determine rates of accumulation
        and residue plateaus;
     b.  determination of biological half-life  of accumulated
        residues after termination  of exposure (Macek et
        al. 1970) ;166
     c.  determination of degree of pesticide degradation in
        water and test animals by comparing residues of
        radioactive materials with  concentration of parent
        chemical,  measured  chemically (Johnson et  al.
        1971,159 Rodgers and Stalling  1971179). (Autoradio-
        grams  of  thin-layer  chromatographic  plates may
        provide the initial data on degradation products.)

C. Food-Chain Accumulation (Brock  1966,143 Johnson et
al. 1971,1'5'JMctcalfct al. 1971).m
   1.  Purpose
   The functions of laboratory food chain studies include:
estimates  of propensity for  pesticide (or  its  degradation
product),  uptake by each member of a 3-component food
chain, estimates of potential pesticide  transfer to higher
trophic levels, and determinations of residue concentrations
likely to be encountered in forage  of fish. (Residue values
are used in formulating pesticide-containing  diets,  section
1C and ID.)
   2.   Scope
   A  suggested laboratory food chain may be composed of:
an appropriate primary producer  (green  algae)  such as
Scenedesmus, Ankistrodesmus and Chlorella Spp.; or decomposers
(bacteria)  such as Aerobader, Bacillus, Achromobacter, Flavo-
bacter, Aeromonas Spp.; a primary consumer  such as Daphnia
magna, D.  pulex, or other  suitable microcrustacea; and  a
secondary consumer such as fathead minnows or small blue-
gills, largemouth bass, rainbow trout. Members of the food
chain  are  exposed to radio-labeled  pesticides in  diluters
(or other constant-flow devices) at concentrations appropri-
ate for the most sensitive element. Rate of uptake and resi-
due plateau are measured radiometrically and the identities
of parent compound or degradation products are confirmed
by chemical methods,  whenever possible.  The potentials
for biotransfer and biomagnification are  determined  by
feeding pesticide-treated lower members to  higher trophic
levels with  and without  concurrent water  exposures. Ai
alternative,  but less desirable, type of feeding  trial wouk
utilize artificial foods fortified with appropriate amounts o
pesticide.

D. Clinical: Physiology,  Biochemistry,  Pathology  (Mat
tingly 1962,169  Mattenheimer  1966,168 Natelson 1968,17
Pickford and Grant 1968,m Grant and  Mehrle 1970,15
Mehrle 1970171).
   1.  Purpose
   Clinical studies are most closely associated with chronii
investigations of pesticidal effects on growth and reproduc
tion.  It is likely that these effects are expressions of earlier
more subtle  physiological,  biochemical,  or pathologica
dysfunctions. Thus,  selected clinical examinations may re
veal correlations that are useful in early  detection of ad-
verse effects. These studies may also reveal impaired homeo-
stasis mechanisms for  compensating ephemeral environ-
mental stresses (e.g., oxygen deficiency, starvation, exercise,
rapid changes in  temperature,  pH, salinity) that are nol
otherwise anticipated in this reserach framework.
   2.  Scope
   Routine  clinical  studies  are  impractical  during  full
chronic  investigations with  fathead  minnows  (and other
small test animals),  because of their small size and the dif-
ficulty in collection of adequate amounts of tissue. However,
at hatching, young  are observed for incidence of abnor-
rnalcy; and other young  removed for thinning, should be
used  in histocytological examinations and stress tests. The
latter tests measure  relative survival under stresses such  as
those mentioned in  IID1  above.  Individuals from partial
chronic and pond or stream studies are also examined and
tested as in  full chronic studies.  Because of larger  size, they
are useful in clinical  studies. These studies, however, are not
recessarily intended as ends in themselves. Examples of ap-
propriate clinical examinations include:
    a.  stress  response—induced production of cortisol by
        injection of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (purified
        mammalian AGTH);
    b.  thyroid activity—12Siodine (126I) uptake;
    c.  osmoregulatory ability—serum sodium,  chloride,
        and osmolality;
    d.  diagnostic enzymology—clinical analyses for ac-
        tivities of liver  and  serum glutamate-oxaloacetate
        transaminase,   glutamate-pyruvate  transaminase,
        glutamate  dehydrogenase,  alkaline phosphatase,
        and lactate  dehydrogenase;
    e.  ammonia  detoxifying mechanism  (brain  and liver
        glutamate dehydrogenase, brain glutamine synthe-
        tase, and ammonia concentrations in brain  and
        serum);
    f.  cholinesterase activity of serum and brain;
    g.  general nutritional state and activity of microsomal
        and mitochondrial enzymes—injection of  ucarbon-

-------
                                                                                                 Appendix 7/-£/439
        labeled glucose and relative evolution of 14CC>2 by
        liver; and
    h.  histocytological examinations of liver, brain, pan-
        creas, gill,  and  kidney  by  light  and electron
        microscopy.

E. Fate of the Chemical
   1.   Purpose
  The environmental fate of a pesticide is determined by its
interactions with physicochemical and biological processes.
Its distribution is the result of partition between the biota
and  sedimentation  processes,  and  degradation rates as-
sociated with each of these. Segmentally, these  studies at-
tempt to predict the relative  ecodistribution of  pesticides,
identify physicochemical and  biological degradation prod-
ucts,  and describe their kinetics. Biological effects  of these
compounds must be correlated with residues in order to
anticipate their  ecological impact under the conditions of
use.
  2.   Scope
    a.  Biodegradation and Residue Kinetics
          Fish and  invertebrates—these  studies on  residue
        degradation and  uptake are more definitive  than
        the initial uptake studies involved in acute inter-
        mittent-flow bioassays. Equilibrium of the  residues
        (parent  compound or  metabolites or both) in the
        organisms  during the  exposure period must be
        documented to strengthen correlation of exposure
        concentrations  and biological effects. Special con-
        sideration must be given to multiple component
        pesticides. Both the composition  and isomer ratios
        can be altered and should be included in determin-
        ing safe levels of pesticide exposure. The chemical
        burden and kinetics of uptake in the test organism
        are determined by sampling at not less than four
        intervals during the test  exposures.  No less  than
        three fish or other samples per concentration are
        analyzed at each sampling period.
          Gas-liquid chromatography   (GLC)  and  Gas-
        liquid chromatography-mass spectrograph  (GLC-
        MS) analyses are then made  on each  sample to
        determine which fractions of the radioactive resi-
        dues are  attributed to  the  parent  compound(s)
        and what changes occurred in the composition  and
        isomer-ratios of the pesticide. Thin layer  chromato-
        graphic  examination  of nonvolatile metabolites is
        recommended  for  compounds  which  cannot be
        analyzed by GLC  (Biros 1970b,141 Johnson et al.
        1971169).
          Chemical information obtained from the various
        invertebrate organisms is examined in light of pos-
        sible impact on the food chain  of fish  and other
   organisms. These data give an estimate of the rela-
   tive  importance of bioconcentration,  biopassage,
   and biodegradation in the various trophic levels in
   predicting the  effect  on  ecosystems (Eberhardt,
   Meeks, and Peterle 1971).149
     Microorganisms—These  studies are designed to
   ascertain whether or not a pesticide or its degrada-
   tion product(s) is biodegradable by microorganisms
   in an  aquatic  environment  (Faculty of American
   Bacteriologists  1957).151 Benthic muds are incu-
   bated with the pesticide (or degradation product(s)
   or both) in liquid culture. One sample is sterilized
   to distinguish chemical or biological degradation,
   or both.  Variables  investigated  concerning   the
   basic  microorganism-pesticide  interaction  during
   incubation are:

     • duration:  1-3-7-14-21-30 days;
     •  temperature: 15-25-35 C;
     •  pH: 5.0-7.0-9.0;
     • oxygen tension:  aerobic or anaerobic (nitro-
        gen overlay).

b. Physicochemical Interactions
     These studies are designed to determine the in-
   teractions  of water quality  factors as  they affect
   rates of sorption, desorption,  and loss of chemicals
   from  the  aquatic system,  and chemical  modifica-
   tions of the parent compound.  These data permit
   accurate assessment of the biological availability to,
   and effects of the subject chemical on,  the aquatic
   biota.
     Sediment binding studies  (i.e., sorption, desorp-
   tion  rates) should consider the effects  of as many
   combinations of the following as possible:

     • pH: 6, 7.5, 9;
     • hardness:  10, 45, 300 ppm as CaCO3;
     •  temperature: 7, 17, 27 C;
     • sediment  type (heavy,  light,  high/low-or-
       ganic) ; binding profile,  i.e., degree of binding
        as a function of particle size and composition.

     Chemical degradation rates as influenced by the
   previous characteristics should also be analyzed.
   In addition, the importance of photodegradation
   (visible and  ultraviolet)  must  also  be examined.
   Product  identification  will  utilize analyses  by
   GLC,  mass spectrometry, and  infrared spectrom-
   etry.  Degradation products will  be  synthesized
   where necessary for biological or chemical testing.
   Volatization and loss of pesticides from the aqueous
   system must also be considered, particularly where
   factors of pH or temperature are important.

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                                                                                      APPENDIX   II-F
                                                     Pesticides Recommended for Monitoring in the Environmentf
              Common or trade name
Aldnn
Amitrole
Arsenic-containing pesticides (Inorganic and organic)
Atrazme
Azmphosmethyl (Guthion®)

Benzene hexachloride (BHC)
Captan

Chlordane
2,4-D (including salts, esters, and other derivatives)
DDT (including its isomers and  dehydrochlormation
  products)

Dicamba
Dieldnn
Dithiocaroamate pesticides:
   Maneb
   Ferbam
   Zmeb
Endrin
Heptachlor

Heptachlor epoxide

Lindane

Malalhion	

Mercury-containing pesticides (Inorganic and organic)
Methoxychlor

Methyl parathion
Mirex

Nitralm (Pianavm®)
Parathion
PCNB
Picloram
Silvex (including salts, esters, and other derivatives)
Strobane®
2,4,5-T (including salts, esters, and other derivatives)
TDE (ODD) (including its isomers and dehydrochlorma-
  tion products)
Toraphene
Triliuralm
                                                                    Chemical name"
not less than 95 percent of 1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-
  1,4,4a, 5,8,8a-hexahydro-1,4-endo-exo-S, 8-dimetha-
  no-naphthalene
3-ammo-s-triazole

2-chloro-4-(ethylammo)-6-(isopropylamino)-s-tnazine
0,0-dimethyl  phosphorodithioate S-ester with 3-(mer-
  captomethyl)-1,2,3-benzotnazin-4(3H)-one
1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane,consisting of several
  isomers and contain ing a specified percentage of gamma
  isomer*
N-[(trichloromethyl)tnio]-4-cycionexene-1,2-dicarboxi-
  mide
at  least 60 percent of 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-3a,4,
  7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-methanomdan and not over  40
  percent of  related compounds
(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)3Cetic acid
1,1,1 -tnchloro-2.2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane, technical
  DDT consists of a mixture of the p.p'-isomer and the
  o, p'-isomer (in a ratio of about 3 or 4 to 1)
3,6-dichioro-o-anisicacid
not less  than 85 percent of 1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-
  6,7 - epoxy -1,4,4a, 5,6,7,8,8a • octa hydro-1,4- endo-
  exo-5,8-dimethanonaphthalene

[ethylenebis(dithiocarbamato)]manganese;
tns(dimethyldithiocarbamato)iron,
[ethylenebis(dithiocarbamato)|zinc,
1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,7-epoxy-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,
  8a-octahydro-1,4-endo-endo-5,8-dimethanonaphtha-
  lene
1,4,5,6,7,8,8-heptachloro-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-
  methanoindene
1,4,5,6,7,8,8-heptachloro-2,3-epoxy-3a, 4,7,7a-tetra-
  hydro-4,7-methanoindan
1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane, gamma isomer of
  not less than 99 percent purity
diethyl mercaptosuccmate  S-ester with 0,0-dimethyl
  phosphorodithioate

1,1,1-tnchloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxyphenyl)ethane; tech-
  nical methoxychlor contains some o.p'-isomer also
0,0-dimethyl O-(p-mtrophenyl) phosphorothioate
dodecachlorooctahydro • 1,3,4 - metheno -1H • cyclobuta
  [cdlpentalene
4-(methylsulfonyl)-2,6-dinitro-N,N-diproylamline
0,0-diethyl O-(p-mtrophenyl) phosphorothioate
pentachloronitrobenzene
4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolimc acid
2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy)propiomc acid
terpene polychlormates containing 65 percent chlorine
(2,4,5-tnchlorophenoxy)acetic acid
1,1- dichloro - 2,2 - bis(p • chlorophenyl)ethane; technical
  TDE contains some o, p'-isomer also
chlorinated camphene containing 67-69 percent chlorine
a, a, a-tnfluoro-2,6-dmitro-N, N-dipropyl-p-toluidine
                                                                    Common or trade name                                 Chemical name"

                                                                                     Secondary List of Chemicals for Monitoring
DCNA(Botran®)
Carbaryl
Dernetron (Systox®)

Diazmon

Disulfoton (Di-Syston®)
Diuron
Eidosulfan (Thiodan®)

Funac"
Fluometuron
Inorganic bromide  from bromine-containing pesticides
Li!ad-contammg pesticides such as lead arsenate
Linuron    ....
PiIP
Piopamh'
Tnazme-type herbicides-':
  Simazme
  Propazme
  Prometryne
TIIA
2,6-dichloro-4-nitroanihne
1-naphthy! methylcarbamate
mixture of 0,0-diethyl S (and 0)-[2-(ethylthio)ethyl]
  phosphorothioates
0,0-diethyl  0-(2-isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinyl)
  phosphorothioate
0,0-diethyl S-(2-ethylthio)ethyl]phosphorodithioate
3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea
1,4,5,6,7,7-hexachloro-5-norbornene-2,3-dimethanol
  cyclic sulfite
(2,3,6-tnchlorophenyl)aceticacid
l,1-dimethyl-3-(a, a, a-tnfluoro-m-tolyl)urea
,i-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-methoxy-1-methylurea
lientachlorophenol
:i',4'-dichloropropionanilide

;!-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-tnazirie;
;'-cliloro-4,6-bis(isopropylamino)-s-triazine;
:',4-bis(isopropylamino)-6-(methyltlii  Chemical names are in accordance with Chemical Abstracts.
  '  Report individual isomers when possible.
  >  Some compounds are used primarily on one or two crops or in certain regions rather than country-wide; for ex-
ample, the herbicidesfenac and propanil are used mainly en sugar cane and rice, respectively.
  '  Note that atrazme has been moved to the Primary List.
  <  This list contains chemicals which, although not considered to be pesticides themselves, are of special interest in
monitoring studies.
  /  Schechter, 1971.1"
                                                                                                   440

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                                               APPENDIX  M-G
TOXICANTS IN FISHERY MANAGEMENT

  There is  much  evidence  that  primitive people in Asia
and South America used poisonous plants to capture fresh-
water and saltwater fishes for food. In China, extracts from
toxic plants have been employed for thousands of years to
remove undesirable  fish from  ponds under  intensive fish
culture. The practice of applying toxicants in sport fishery
management of waters by  poisoning  non-game  fish has
been used as a management tool (Prevost  I960).193 Some of
the many causes and instances of fishes in pest situations were
discussed by Lennon (1970).191
  A survey commissioned by  the Food  and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations in  1970 disclosed that
29 countries on the five continents are using toxicants in the
culture  or management of food and game fishes (Lennon
et al. 1970).192 Forty-nine of the  50 states in the  United
States and most provinces in Canada have used or are using
piscicides in fishery programs. The toxicants arc employed
to correct various problems in farm, ranch, and fish-produc-
tion ponds;  in natural lakes and reservoirs; and  in streams
and rivers.
  The chemicals that  served most  commonly as fish toxi-
cants since the 1930's were basically insecticides in nature
and formulation. Rotenonc and  toxaphene,  for example,
were applied  predominantly as  piscicides in the  United
States and Canada in 1966 (Stroud and  Martin 1968),1'14
but  several dozens of chemicals including natural poisons,
inorganics,  chlorinated  hydrocarbons, and  organophos-
phates have had testing or  use to kill fish (Lennon et  al.
1970).192
  There is a significant change in the  use of toxicants in
fishery  management. Increasing  concerns by the public
and government  regarding broad spectrum,  persistent
pesticides have resulted in stiff requirements for registration
of fish toxicants and regulation of their use in public waters.
Well justified emphasis is being placed now on the develop-
ment and use of piscicides that  are specific to fish, harmless
at use levels  to non-target plants and animals, non-persistent
in the aquatic environment, and safe to handle and apply.
An enormous amount of research is required now to secure
or retain registration of a fish toxicant. The research in-
cludes long-term studies on safety to man and mammals, on
efficacy to target fish, on residues in fish and other aquatic
life, and on degradation or dcactivation of the toxicant in
the environment.
  Programs for the management of public waters are being
more  closely scrutinized for any temporary or long-term ef-
fects they will have on the environment. More emphasis is
being placed on the enhancement and protection of the in-
tegrity of ecosystems as the main goal for management of
our living  resources. The  importance of  preserving a  di-
versity  of aquatic habitats and natural  communities as
important gene pools, which may be of inestimable value to
mankind in the future, as well as for education, research,
and  aesthetic enjoyment must  be clearly  recognized.  If
control  measures are undertaken which  will kill non-target
aquatic species (fish or invertebrates), then  careful con-
sideration should be given to preserving populations of these
species for restrocking in order to reestablish stability of the
community. Furthermore, more attention should be given to
beneficial use of nuisance populations of aquatic organisms
and efficient harvesting methods should  be developed as
part of  any integrated  control program.
  There are five divisions of the management process that
must  be considered by  fishery managers and project review
boards.  They are:

Demonstration of need
  A fishery problem is at  first presumed to  exist,  then
studied  and defined, and proven or disprovcn. If proven, the
need  for immediate or eventual correction is assessed  and
weighed against all possible environmental, scientific,  and
political considerations. The need then  is  documented  and
demonstrated to those  in a decision-making capacity.

Selection of method(s) for solution of problem
  All possible solutions to the problem  by means of chem-
ical, biological, physical,  and integrated  approaches must
be considered and evaluated  in terms  of effectiveness  on
target fishes, safety to  non-target plants and animals, and
environmental impact.  An important rule of thumb is that a
toxicant should be used only as a last resort.
                                                       441

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 442/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
   The selection of an approach to solve the problem, there-
fore, must be accomplished on the basis of  sound fact-find-
ing and judgment.  Every opportunity for exploiting an
integrated approach to management  and control deserves
consideration to protect the integrity  of ecosystems.
   The selection of an approach to management of  native
fish populations and  control  of  exotic species  should be
approved by an impartial  board of review.

Selection of a toxicant

   If a chemical approach to solution  of  the  problem  is
chosen, the next major step is selection of the correct toxi-
cant. The toxicant must be one registered for the use, specific
to the target species,  and relatively  compatible with the
environmental situation.

Method of Application

  The proximity of application transects on lakes or meter-
ing stations on streams is an important  consideration.  Ap-
plication  points must be  close enough together to  avoid
locally excessive concentrations that  may  be harmful to
non-target life.
  Every  opportunity to achieve  selective action on  target
organisms  by adjusting the application method or  timing
should be exploited.

Pre- and post-treatment assessments

   Careful  surveys and  assessments of the target and non-
target life in  the problem area are needed prior  to a treat-
ment. The  data must be  quantitatively and qualitatively
representative.
  The actual application must be preceded by competent
ecosystem study of the habitat 1o be treated. Moreover, on-
gite bioassays of the candidate toxicant must be conducted
against representative target and non-target organisms col-
lected in the problem area. The dose (concentration plus
duration of exposure) of toxicjmt needed for the reclama-
tion is calculated from the results of the on-site bioassays.
  Following an  application,  ihorough  ecosystem studies
and assessments of target and non-target life must be made
in the problem area. Some surveys should be accomplishec
 mmediately; others  should  be prosecuted periodically  for
1 to 2 years to evaluate the effect of the treatment to deter-
••nine if the  original problem was corrected, and to detecl
any long-term and/or adverse effects  on non-target  lift
and the environment in general.
  All chemical  treatments of  public waters should  be  re-
viewed by impartial boards at appropriate state and federal
levels. Resource administrators, managers and scientists in
fisheries, wildlife, ecology,  and recreation should be repre-
sented on the boards, and they should call in advisors from
ihe private and  public sectors as necessary to evaluate pro-
posed projects realistically and fairly. A board must have
decision-making  authority at  each step of the  treatment
process; thus, a smoothly working system for getting facts
irom the field to the board and its decisions back to the field
is necessary. Furthermore, a review board must have con-
tinuity so that it can assess  the- results of preceding treat-
ments and  apply the experience obtained  to  subsequent
management activities.

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                                                     LITERATURE  CITED
APPENDIX  II-A

'Allan  Hancock Foundation (1965), An investigation on the fate of
     organic and inorganic wastes discharged into the marine, environ-
     ment. Publication  29 (University of Southern  California,  Cali-
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2 Bella,  D. A.  and W.  E. Dobbins (1968), Difference  modeling of
     stream pollution.  Journal  of the  Sanitary Engineering  Division,
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3 Baumgartner, D. J. and D. S  Trent (1970), Ocean outfall design,
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4 Brady, D. K.,  W. L Graves and J. C. Geyer (1969),  Surface heat
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'Brooks, N. H.  (1960),  Diffusion of sewage effluent  in an ocean cur-
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6 Carter, H. H. (1969), A preliminary report on the characteristics
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'Csanady, G. T.  (1970), Disposal of effluents in the Great Lakes.
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8D'Arezzo, A. J. and F. D. Masch (1970), Analysis and predictions
     of  conservative  mass transport in  impoundments.  Hydraulic
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9Dresnack,  Robert  and  William E. Dobbins  (1968), Numerical
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10 Edinger, J. E. and E.  M. Polk, Jr. (1969), Initial mixing of thermal
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12 Fischer, H. B. (1970), A method for predicting pollutant  transport
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13 Glover,  Robert E. (1964),  Dispersion  of dissolved or suspended
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27 Pritchard, D. W.  (1971),  Design  and siting  criteria  for  once-
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29 Stolzenbach,  K. and D.  R.  F. Harleman (1971),  An  analytical
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                                                                 443

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444/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
30 Sundaram, T. R., C. C. Easterbrook, K R. Piech and G. Rudingc-r
     (1969), An investigation of the physical effects of thermal dis-
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31 Thackston,  Edward L.  and Peter A. Krcnkel (1969), Reaeration
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32 Wada, Akira  (1966), A study on phenomena of flow and thermal
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16 Mathis,  B.  J.  (1965)  Community structure  of benthic macroin-
    vertibrates in an intermittent stream receiving oil  field  brines.
    Ph D. Thesis, Oklahoma State University, 52 p.
"Mclntosh, R  P. (1967). An index of diversity and the relation of
    certain concepts to diversity.  Ecology 48(3):392-404.
£8Needham, P R. (1938), 'front  striams: conditions that determine their
    productivity and suggestions for stieam  and lake management  (Corn-
    stock Publishing Co., Inc., Ithaca,  New  York),  233 p
19 Patrick. R. (19')1), A proposed  bio'ogical measure of stream condi-
    tions.  Verh. Int.  Ver.  Limnol. 11 :  299-307.
60 Patten, B. C.  (1962),  Species  diversity in net phytoplankton  of
    Raritan Bay. J.  Mar. Res. 20 (1) 57-75.
61 Pielou,  E. C.  (1966),  The  measurement  of  diversity  in different
    types of biological collections. J. Theor.  Bio!. 13:131-144.
62 Pielou,  E. C.  (1969),  An introduction to mathematical ecology  (fohn
    Wiley & Sons, New  York), 28n p.
63 Richardson, R. E  (1928), The  bottom fauna  of the middle  Illinois
    River,  1913-1925. ///  Stale AW. Hut. Sum.  Bull. 17:387-475.
64 Shannon, C. E and W. Weaver (1963),  The mathematical  theory oj
    communication (University of Illinois Press, Urbana).
65 Wilhm, J. L. (1965), Species diversi'y  of benthic macromverfebrates in a
    slieam leceiving domestic and oil refinery ejfluents [Ph.O.  dissertation]
    Oklahoma State University, Si illwater, 49 p.
63 Wilhm, J  S. and T.  C Dorris (1968), Biological parameters for
    water quality criteria litoscifnce 18(6):477-480.
6'Wurtz, C  B  (1955),  Stream bi:Dta  and stream pollution   Sewage
    Imliisl Wastes 27(11): 1270-1278.

APPENDIX  II-C

6i Alabaster,  J.  S. (1967), The survival  of  salmon  (Salmo solar L.)
    and sea trout  (S. Itutta  L.)  in  fresh and  saline  water  at high
    temperatures Watei  Res. 1 (10):7 17-730.
'"Alabaster,  J. S. and A  L. Downing  (1966), A field and laboratory
    investigation of the  effect of heated effluents on fish.  Fish. Mm.
    Agr. Eish Food (Great Britain) Ser. I Sea Fish 6(4): 1-42.
71 Alabaster, J. S. and R.  L. Welcomme  (1962), Effect of concentration
    of  dissolved oxygen  on  survival  of trout  and roach in lethal
    temperatures. Nature 194:107.
71 Allanson, B. R. and R. G. Noble (1964), The high  temperature
    tolerance  of Tilapia  mossambica (Peters).  Trans.  Amer.  Fish.
    Soc. 93(4):323-332.
"Allen, K.  O. and K.  Strawn  (1968),  Heat  tolerance of  channel
    catfish Ictalurus punctalus, in Proceedings of the, 21il annual conference
    of the  Southeastern Association of Game  and Fish Commissioners (The
    Association,  Columbia, South Carolina), pp. 399-41 I.
7: Bishai,  H. M.  (1960), Upper  lethal temperatures  for  larval sal-
    monids. J. Cons. Cons. Perma. Int. Explor. Mer 25(2):129-133.
'' Brett, J.  R. (1952), Temperature tolerance  of young Pacific sal-
    mon,  genus  Oncorhynchus. J. Fish.  Res. Board  of Can.,  9(6):
    265-323.
7£ Coutant, C.  C.  (1972).  Time-t?mberature relationships for  thermal
    resistances of  aquatic organisms, principally  fish [ORNL-EIS  72-27]
    Oak Ridge National Laboratory.  Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
7f Coutant, C. C. (1970),  Thermal  resistance of adult coho  salmon
     (Oncorhynchus kisutch)  and jack  chinook (O.  ishawytscha)  salmon

-------
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77 Craigie,  D. E. (1963), An  effect of water hardness in the thermal
     resistance of the rainbow trout, Salmo Gairdneni,  Can.  J. ^ool.
     41(5):825-830.
78 Doudoroff, P. (1942), The resistance and acclimatization of marine
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79 Doudoroflf, P. (1945), The resistance and acclimatization of marine
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80Edsall, T.  A., D.  V.  Rottiers, and E. II. Brown (1970), Tempera-
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81 Fry, F.  E. J., J. R. Brett and G. II.  Clawson (1942) Lethal limits
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82 Fry, F.  E. J.,  and M. B  Gibson  (1953),  Lethal temperature ex-
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83 Fry, F.  E. J.,  J.  S.  Hart and  K. F. Walker (1046),  Lethal tem-
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84Garside, E. T.  and C. M.  Jordan (1968),  Upper lethal tempera-
     tures at various levels of salinity in the euryhalinc Cyprinodon-
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     tion. J.  Fish. Res.  Board Can. 25(12) :2717-2720.
86 Gibson,  E. S.  and F. E. J.  Fry (1954),  The performance  of the
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86 Hair, J. R.  (1971),  Upper  lethal  temperature  and  thermal shock
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87 Hart, J. S. (1947), Lethal  temperature relations  of certain  fish of
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88 Hart, J.  S.  (1952),  Geographic  variations  of some physiological  and
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     Toronto  biology  series  no.  60]  ('I he  University  of  Toronto
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89 Heath, W. G. (1967), Ecological  significance of temperature tol-
     erance in Gulf of California  shore  fishes.  J. Ariz.  Acad. Sci.
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90 Hoff,  J. G. and J. R. Westman (1966), The  temperature tolerances
     of three species of  marine fishes, J. Afar  Res  24(2)'131-140.
91 Lewis, R. M. (1965), The  effect of minimum temperature on the
     survival of larval  Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus.  Trans.
     Amer.  Fish. Soc  94(4):409-412.
92 Lewis, R. M. and W. F. Hettler,  Jr.  (1968), Effect of temperature
     and salinity on the survival  of  young Atlantic menhaden,  Rre-
     rooitia tyrannus.  Trans.  Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4):344-349.
93 McCauley, R.  W.  (1958), Thermal relations of geographic races of
     Salvelinus.  Can.  J.  ^ool. 36(5) 655-662.
94 McCauley, R.  W.  (1963),  Lethal temperatures of the  develop-
     mental stages of the sea  lampiey, Petrorny^ori  rnannus L. J. Fish.
     Res. Board Can. 20(2):483-49().
95Neill, W. II., Jr., K. Strawn, and J.  E. Dunn (1966), Heat resist-
     ance   experiments  with  the  longear sunfish, Lepomis  miegalo/is
     (Rafincsquc). Arkansas  Acad Sa Proc. 20  39-49.
96 Scott, D.  P.  (1964), Thermal  resistance of pike (Rsox lucius  L.)
     muskcllungc  (E. masqmnongy)  Mitchill,  and  their F,  hybrids.
     J. Fish.  Res. Board Can. 21 (5):1043-1049.
97 Simmons,  H. B.  (1971), Thermal resistance and acclimation  at
     various salinities in the sheepshcad minnow (Cypnnodon vanegatus
     Lacepede). Texas A&M  Univ. Soc. No. TAMU-SG-71-205.
98 Smith, W. E.  (1970), Tolerance of Mysis relicta to thermal shock
     and light. Trans.  Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(2):418-422.
"Strawn, K. and J. E. Dunn  (1967), Resistance of Texas salt- and
     freshwater  marsh fishes  to  heat  death  at various  salinities,
     Texas-T. Series, 1967:57-76.

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     Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.

APPENDIX II-D

106 Bond, C. E.,  R.  H. Lewis and J.  L. Fryer. (1960), Toxicity of
     various hcrbicidal materials to fish. Second seminar on Biological
     problems in water pollution. R. A. Taft San. Eng. Cen. Tech.
     Rept. W60-3. pp  96-101
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     Third  Seminar.  (1961)  U.S.P.H.S. Pub.  No. 999-WP-25, pp.
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™Burdick,  G. E,  H.  J.  Dean,  and E. J.  Harris  (1964), Toxicity
     of aqualin to  fingcrling brown trout  and  bluegills. N.Y.  Fish
     Game J. 11(2) 106-114.
109 Cairns, J., Jr. and  A. Scheier (1964), The effect upon the pump-
     kinseed sunfish Lepomis gibbosus (Linn.) of chronic exposure  to
     lethal  and sublethal  concentrations of dieldrin. Xotidae  .Vatur.
     (Philadelphia) no. 370:1-10.
110 Carlson,  C.  A. (1966),  Effects of three organophosphorus insecti-
     cides on immature Ifftagema and Ilydropsyche of the upper Missis-
     sippi River.  Irons. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95(l)'l-5.
111 Eaton,  J. G.  (1971), Chronic  malathion toxicity of the bluegill
     (Lepomis  maciochmis  Rafinsque).  Water research,  Vol. 4, pp.
     673-684.
112 Gilclcrhus, P.  A.  (1967), Effects of diquat on  bluegills and their
     food organisms. Progr. Fish-Cult. 29(2)-67-74.
113Hendeison,  C.,  Q. H.  Pickering.and  C. M. Tarzwcll (1959),
     Relative  toxicity  of  ten  chlorinated  hydrocarbon  insecticides
     to four species of fish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88(l)'23-32.
114 Hughes,  J.  S  and J. T. Davis (1962),  Comparative toxicity to
     bluegill sunfish of granular  and liquid herbicides. Proceedings
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     missioners, pp. 319-323.
116 Hughes,  J. S. and  J. T. Davis (1963), Variations in toxicity to
     bluegill sunfish of phenoxy herbicides.  Weeds ll(l):50-53.
116 Hughes,  J. S. and  J. T. Davis  (1964), Effects of selected herbi-

-------
 446/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
     cides  on bluegill  and sunfish. Proceedings  Eighteenth Annual
     Conference, Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish  Commissioners,
     Oct. 18-21, 1964,  pp. 480-482.
117 Jensen,  L. D. and  A. R.  Gaufin  (1964),  Long-term  effects  of
     organic insecticides on two species of stonefly naiads.  Trans.
     Amer.  Fish.  Soc. 93(4):357-363.
118 Jensen,  L. D. and  A. R.  Gaufin  (1966), Acute and long-term
     effects of organic  insecticides on two species of  stonefly  naiads.
     J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 38(8):1273-1286.
119 Katz, M. (1961), Acute  toxicity  of some  organic insecticides  to
     three  species of salmonids  and  to the  threespinc stickleback.
     Trans. Amer. Fish.  Sac. 90(3)'264-268.
120 Lane, C. E. and R. E. Livingston  (1970). Some acute and chronic
     effects of dieldrin  on the sailfin  molly, Poecilia  lalipinna.  Trans.
     Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3)-489-495.
121 Macek,  K. J. and W. A. McAllister  (1970), Insecticide suscepti-
     bility  of some common fish family representatives.  Trans. Amer.
     Fish. Soc. 99(l):20-27.
122 Mount,  D. I. and C. E. Stephen (1967),  A method of establishing
     acceptable  toxicant limits for fish—malathion and the butoxy-
     ethanol ester of 2,  4-D. Transactions American Fisheries Society.
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123 Pickering, Q.  II., C. Henderson  and A. E.  Lemke  (1962), The
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     warmwater fishes  Trans. Amer. Fish.  Soc.  Vol 91, No 2, pp.
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124 Sanders,  H. O.  (1969), Toxicity of pesticides to the  crustacean,  Gam-
     marus laaislns [Bureau of Sport Fisheries  and Wildlife  technical
     paper  25]  (Government  Printing  Office, Washington,  D.C.),
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126 Sanders, H. O. (1970), Toxicitics of some herbicides to six species
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126 Sanders, H. O. 1972, In press. Fish  Pesticide Res.  Lab. Columbia,
     Mo. Buieau of Spt. Fish, and Wildlife.  The toxicities of some
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127 Sanders, H. O. and  O. B. Cope (1966), Toxicities  of several pesti-
     cides to two species of cladocerans. Trans. Amei.  Fish Soc. 95(2):
     165-169.
128 Sanders, H. O. and  O. B. Cope (1968),  The relative toxicities  of
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129 Schoettger, R. A. (1970),  To\icology of  t/nodan in ser/ial fith and
     aquatic  invertebrates  [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in-
     vestigation  in fish control  35]   (Government  Printing  Office,
     Washington, B.C.), 31 p.
130 Solon, J. M. and J.  H. Nair, III. (1970), The effect of a  sublethal
     concentration of LAS on the acute toxicity of various phosphate
     pesticides to the Fathead Minnow Pimephales promelas Rafmesquc.
     Bull. Envr.  Contain  and Toxico. Vol. 5, No. 5,  pp. 408-413.
131 Surber, E. W. and Q. H. Pickering (1962),  Acute toxicity ofcndo-
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132 Walker, C. R. (1964), Toxicological effects of Herbicides  on the
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135 Biesinger, K.  E., unpublished adla (1971), National Water Quality
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136 Carlson,  C. A., unpublished date  (1971) National Water Quality
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I37FPRL, unpublished data (1971), Fish  Pesticide Res.  Lab. Annual
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138Merna, J.  W.,  unpublished data (1971), Institute for Fisheries Re-
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    Arbor,  Michigan E.P A. gram:  # 18050-DLO.


APPENDIX  II-E

 39Berger, B. L., R  E. Lennon, and J. W. Hogan, (1969), Labora-
    tory studies on  antimycin A as a fish toxicant.  U.S. Bureau ol
    Sport  Fisheries  and Wildlife,  Investigations  in Fish  Control
    No. 26: 21 p
 40 Biros, F. J.  (1970a), A  comparative study  of the recovery  oi
    metabolized  radiolabeled pesticides from  animal tissues.  Inter-
    American Corif.  on Toxicology and Occupational  Medicine
    Aug., 1970; p. 75-82.
 41 Biros, F  J  (1970b), Enhancement of mass spectral dala bv  means
    of a time  averaging computer Anal. Chcm. Vol. 42: p. 537-540
 42 Breeder,  C  M  and  D. E. Rosen, (1966),  Modes of Reproduetior
    in Fishes. The Natural  History Press, New York, 941 p.
 43 Brock, 1" D. (1966),  Principles  of Microbial  Ecology. Prentice-
    Hall, Inc., Englewood  Cliffs, N>w Jersey; 306 p.
 44 Burdick,  G. E. (1967), l_ se of buastays in determining levels of lo\it
    wailes  harmful to  aqun/ic oiga^nnn  [American Fisheries Society
    special  publication no.  4]  (The  Society, Washington, D.C.)
    pp.  7-12.
 45 Burdick,  G. E., H. J. Dean and E. J. Harris (1964), Toxicity o
    aqualin to fingerling brown trout and bluegills. .V.)". Fis/i Can,,
    1.  11(2):I06-114.
 46 Clark, J  R  and R. L,.  Clark (1964), Sea-water  sterns for  <\pcr,
    mental aqiiaimms [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife researcf
    report  631  (Government Printing  Office, Washington, D.C.)
    192 p.
147 Cope, O. B, E  M  Wood, and G. H.  Wallen (1970),  Chionit
    effects  of 2,4-D  on the blueEill  (Leponus  macroclurus).  'ham
    Amei. Fnh Soc. 99(1) 1   12.
 48 Eaton, J. G. (1970),  Chronic malathion  toxicity to the bluegil
    (Lepomis  maooc/mits  Rafinesque).  Water  Research, Vol.  4.  pi
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'49Ebcrhaidt,  L  L., R L   Mecks, and T  J. Peteile (1971), Food
    chain  model  for  DDT kinetics in a freshwater marsh,  \aturi
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150 EPA, (1971),  Chronic toxicity studies, test procedure,  Bioassaj
    methods  for the evaluation c>f  toxicity of industrial wastes anc
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151 Faculty  of  American  Bacterio'ogists  (1957),  Manual  of Micro
    biological Methods. McGraw-Hill Co. New York, 315 p.
152 Fowler,  D  L,  J. N.  Mahan, and H. H.  Shepard  (1971),  Th(
    pesticide  review,  1970. U.S.  Agricultural  Stabilization  anc
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'•"Grant, B. R  and P  M   Mehrle (1970),  Pesticide effects on fisl
    endocrine function, in  Progress  in spot! fishety research,  1070 (Gov
    eminent Printing Office, Washington, D.C.).
164 Hansen,  D. L.  and E. T.  Bush  (1967), Improved solubilizatior
    procedures  for  liquid  scintillation counting  of biological  ma
    terials.  Anal. Biochem. 18(2):320-332.
165 Henderson, C, W.  L. Johnson,  and  A.  Inglis  (1969), Organo-
    chlorine insecticide residues in  fish (Nat'l. Pesticide Monitorinp
    Program). Pesticides Monitoring Journal,  Vol. 3,  No.  3,  pi
    145-171.
156 Hisaoka,  K.. K. and C. E. Firh't, (1962), Ovarian cycle  and egp
    production in the zebrafish, Brachycla mo rerw. Copeii, Vol. 4.
167 Jensen, L.  D. and A R. Gaufi i  (1964), Effects often insecticides

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                                                                                                                     Literature Cz'W/447
     on  two species of stonefly naiads. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.  93(1):
     27-34.
 168 Johnson, D. W. (1968), Pesticides and fishes—a review of selected
     literature.  Transactions  of the American Fisheries Society, Vol.
     97. No  4;  p.  398-424.
 169 Johnson, B.  T., R. Saundrrs,  II. O. Sanders, and R.  S Campbell
     (1971), Biological  magnification  and degradation of DDT and
     nldrin  by  freshwater invertebrates  Journal of  the  Fisheries
     Research Board of Canada.  (In press)
 16(1 Kennedy, II. D. and D. F. Walsh,  (1970), Effects of malathion on
     two freshwater fishes and aquatic invertebrates in ponds. U.S.
     Bur of Spt. Fish, and Wildlife, Tech  Paper 55;  13 p.
 161 Kennedy. H. D., L.  L. Filer, and D. F  Walsh, (1970). Chronic
     effects of mcthoxychlor  on  bluegills and aquatic invertebrates.
     I' S Bur. Spt. Fish, and Wildlife, Tech.  Paper 53, 18  p.
 162 Lcnnon, R E. and B L. Bcrger. (1970), A resume of field applica-
     tions of antimyein  A to control Fish U  S. Bur  Spt. Fish, and
     Wildlife, Investigations in Fish Control, No. 40;  19 p.
 161 Lcnnon,  R.  E.  and C. R.  Walker  (I<)(i4),  Iturstigalimn in fish con-
     trol  I  Laboratories anil  methods fin  screening fi\ii-rim/io! chemicals
     [Bureau of Sport Fisheries  and  Wildlife service  circular 185]
     (Government  Printing Office, Washington, D.C ), 18 p.
 161 Litchfield, J. T., Jr. and F. Wilcoxoii  (1949), A simplified method
     of evaluating  dose-effect experiments. Journal of Pharmacology
     and Experimental Therapeutics, Vol 96; pp. 99-113.
 166 M.icek,  K  J.  (1968),  Reproduction in  brook  trout (Salvelinus
     fon//fuilis} fed  sublethal  concentrations  of  DOT.  J  l'*ish.  Res.
     Board Can 25(9) 1787-1 79(,.
 1MMacek, K J., C. A.  Rodgers, D. L Stalling  and S. Korn (1970).
     The uptake, distribution  and elimination of dietaiy "C-DDT and
     "C-dieldrin in i ambo\v  trout  I rans Amei   Fish. Soc , Vol. 99,
     No  '1, p ()89  t>9~>
"'Marking.  L.  E.  and  J  W  Ilogan (19(i7), Tnvci/v of Haver 73  to
     fish  [Bureau of  Sport Fisheiies  and Wildlife investigations in
     fish  control 19| (Government Printing Office, Washington,  D.C!.
     13 p
lf)8 Mattenheimer,  11  (196ti),  Miuoinetlwds fin the clinical-chemical and
     hioihcmica! laboratory (Ann Arbor  Science Publishers, Inc , Ann
     Ai bor, Michigan), 232 p.
169 Mattingly, D. (1962), A simple fluorimetric  method  for the esti-
     mation  of free 1 l-hydro\y corticoids in human plasma. J. dm.
     r/ilhnl.  15:374-579.
170 Metealf, R. E.,  K  S.  Gurcharan, and I. P.  Kapoor (1971), Model
     ecosystem for  the  evaluation of pesticide biodegradabihty and
     ecological magnification.  ES&'F 5(8): 709-713.
171 Mehrle, P M. (ll*70), Annno acid metabolism of rainbow trout (Salmo
     gairdneri) as affected by clnorue dieldini  exposure [Ph D. dissertation]
     1.  mversity of Missouri, Columbia, 7(> p.
172 Molhson,  W.  R. (1970),  Effects of herbicides on water and  its
     inhabitants. Weed Science, Yol 18, p. 738-750
173 Mount, D I. (1967),  Considerations for acceptable concentrations
     of pesticides for fish  production.  In. A  Symposium on  Water
     Quality  Criteria to  Protect Aquatic  Life,  Annual Meeting,
     Kansas  City,  Missouri, Sept  1966,  Edwin E. Cooper, Editor.
     Ameiican Fisheries  Society Special Publication No.  4; p.  3-6
174 Mount, D. I. and W  A. Brnngs (1967),  A simplified closing ap-
     paratus  for fish toxicology studies  l\'ater Res. 1(1) 21-29.
175 Natelson,  S. (1968), Microtechniques of Clinical  Chemistry,  C. C.
     1  homas Co ,  Springfield, 111. 578 p.
176 Nebeker,  A V.  and A. R.  Gaufin (1964), Bioassays to determine
     pesticide toxicity to the atnphipocl crustacean, Gamniarus lacustns.
     Proc. ['/ah Acart. Set  Arts Letter* 41 (l):64-67.
177 Nuclear-Chicago Corporation  (1967),  Preparation of samples for
     liquid  scintillation  counting.  (The Corporation, Des Plaines,
     Illinois), loose-leaf.
 ™Pickford, G. E.  and  B.  F.  Grant  (1968),  Response  of  hypophy-
     sectomized  male  kilifish   (Fundulus heter ochtus')  to  thyrotropin
     preparations and to the  bovine heterothyrotropic factor.  Gen.
     Camp. Endocnnol. 10(1)  1-7.
 I79Roclgers, C. A.  and D.  L.  Stalling (1971), Dynamics of an ester
     of 2,4-D  in organs  of  three fish species. Weeds. (In press).
 180 Sanders, H. O. and O. B. Cope (196(5),  Toxicities of several pesti-
     cides to two species  of  cladocerans.  Trans. Amer. Ftsk. Sor. 95(2):
     165-169.
 181 Schoettger, R. A. (1970), Toxicity of tlno/lan in several fish and aquatic
     invertebrates [Bureau  of  Sport Fisheries  and Wildlife  investigation
     in fish control  35]  (Government  Printing Office, Washington,
     D.C.), 31 p.
 182 Sprague,  J. B  (1969), Measurement of pollutant  toxicity to  fish.
     I. Bioassay methods for acute toxicity. Water Research, Vol.  3;
     p. 793-821.
 183 Stalling, D L. (1971), Analysis of organochlorine residues in  fish:
     Current  research of the  Fish-Pesticide  Research  Laboratory.
     Proc  2nd.  Intn.  Conf on Pesticide  Chem.,  Tel  Aviv, Israel
     (In press).
 184 Stalling. D. L , R. C. Tindle and J.  L.  Johnson (1971), Pesticide
     and PCB cleanup  by gel permeation  chromatograph. Jour.
     Assn  Official Anal. Chem , (In press).
 185 Standard methods  (1971),  American Public Health Association,
     American Water Works Association, and  Water Pollution Con-
     trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the  examination
     of water  and waste water, 13th ed  (American  Public Health
     Association, Washington, D.C.), 874 p
 186 Tindle,  R   C.  (1971),  Handbook  of  procedures  for  pesticide
     residue analyses. U.S  Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,
     Fish-Pesticide Research in press.
 187 U.S.  Department of  Health,  Education and Welfare. Food  and
     Drug Administration   (1968),  FDA guidelines [or chemistry and
     residue  data requirements  of pesticide petitions (Government Printing
     Office, Washinbton, D.C.), 22 p.
 188 U.S.  Department of Health,  Education  and  Welfare  (1969),
     Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Relationship
     to Environmental Health (Government Printing Office, Washington,
     D C.), 677 p.

 APPENDIX II-F

 189 Schechtcr,  M S.  (1971), Revised chemicals monitoring guide for
     the National  Pesticide  Monitoring  Program Journal. Vol.  5,
     No. 1,  p. 68-71

 APPENDIX  II-G

 191 Lennon,  R. E. (1970), Fishes in pest situations, p. 6-41  In C. E.
     Palm  (chrm). Principles in plant and  animal pest control,  vol.
     5: Vertebrate pests: Problems and  Control. National Academy
     of Sciences, Wash., D.C.
 192 Lennon,  R. E.,  J. S.  Hunn, R. A.  Schnick, and  R.  M. Burress
     (1970),  Reclamation of ponds,  lakes, and streams with  fish
     toxicants: a review.  Fisheries  Technical Paper  100, Food and
     Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome: 99 p.
193 pr^vost, G., (I960), Use offish toxicants in the Province of Quebec.
     Can. Fish. Culturist, Vol.  28,  13-35.
194 Stroud, R.  H. and R. G. Martin (1968), Fish conservation high-
     lights  1963-1967. (Sport Fishing  Institute, Washington,  D.C.),
     147 p.

-------
        Appendix  III—MARINE  AQUATIC LIFE  AND  WILDLIFE
                                  TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE	   449  TABLE 4.
TATST F                                           MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATIONS OF IN-
                                                   ORGANIC CHEMICALS IN FOOD AND WATER ...   48
   ACUTE  DOSE OF  INORGANIC  CHEMICALS  FOR
     AQUATIC ORGANISMS	   450  TABLE 5.
-^ A T>T T- r,                                          TOTAL ANNUAL  PRODUCTION OF  INORGANIC
TABLE /.                                           „             TT o \                  AO-
             ^       T         _,                   CHEMICALS IN THE U.S.A	   48.
   SUBLETHAL  DOSES OF INORGANIC  CHEMICALS
     FOR AQUATIC ORGANISMS	   461  TABLE 6.
                                                 ORGANIC   CHEMICALS TOXICITY  DATA  FOR
TABLE 3.                                           .       „                            .n
                           „.                       AQUATIC ORGANISMS	   48'
   ACCUMULATION OF INORGANIC CHEMICALS FOR
     AQUATIC ORGANISMS	   469  LITERATURE CITED	   511
                                            448

-------
                                 APPENDIX  III—MARINE TABLES  1-6
PREFACE

   Tables 1-3 in this Appendix have been compiled to pro-
vide information on the effects of inorganic constituents on
marine organisms. Data on bioassay tests with fresh water
organisms  are  included, especially when the information
concerning marine organisms is inadequate.  This was also
done  when the same investigator studied both fresh water
and marine organisms  The substances tested are listed in
alphabetical order, generally based upon the constituent in
the compound considered to be critical. The  entries are ar-
ranged within substances by year of publication and author.
The units used  are those presented in the original publica-
tion.  In some cases it is impossible to know whether the
concentration is expressed  in  terms  of the element or the
compound tested,  but if the  information was presented in
the original publication, it is so  indicated.  The organism
used  in the test is identified  as in the original  reference,
giving the specific  name wherever it is available. Very ab-
breviated descriptions of the conditions of the test are pre-
sented. The value of the compilation is to indicate the range
of concentrations tested, the species used, and the references
to the original  work The  reader is urged to refer to the
original  reference  for more precise  details about the test
conditions  or to the author  if the necessary details  were
omitted in the publication.
   Generally, in Table 1 the acute dose for a  96 hr LC50 is
presented. If the time of the test was different, it is indicated
in parentheses after  the concentration listed, for example,
(48 hr).


     L = Laboratory bioassay
           BS = bioassay static
         BGF = bioassay continuous flow
          BA = bioassay acute
        BGH = bioassay chronic
     a = water temperature
     b = ambient air temperature
     c = pH
     d = alkalinity (total, phenolphthalein or caustic)
     e = dissolved oxygen
     f= hardness (total, carbonate, Mg or CaO)
     g = turbidity
     h = oxidation reduction potential
     i = chloride as Cl
     j=BOD, 5 day; (J)=BOD,  short-term
     k = COD
     1 = Nitrogen (as NO2 or NO3)
    m = ammonia nitrogen as NH3
     n = phosphate (total, ortho-, or poly)
     o = solids (total, fixed, volatile, or suspended)
     p = G02
        BOD = biochemical oxygen demand
                                                       449

-------
450/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife




                        TABLE  1—Acute dose  of  inorganic chemicals for aquatic organisms
Constituent
Aluminum
(Al)

















Ammonia
(NH3)






















































Acute dose 96 hr LC50
250 ppm



Uppm(fewHrs)
17.8 mg/l (short
time)
235 mg/l



133 mg/l

240 ppm (48 hr)


135 mg/l (48 hr)


18. 5 mg/l (48 hrs)

15 mg/l (48 hr)

6.0 ppm



JOO mi/1 (6 hrs)

4000-50QO mg/l
(6 hrs)
8.0 mg/l (time not
specified)
17. 5 mg/l (48 hr)

7.7 ppm



248 mg/l

490 mg/l

240 mg/l



114ms 1

1290 mg/l



240 mg/l

136 mg/l
37 mg/l

910 mg/l (24 hr)

238 ppm (2 day)



238 ppm (2 day)

510 ppm (2 day)


270 ppm (2 day)





Species
Micropterus sal-
moides
fish and river crab

Sebastes marmus
Sebastes marmus

Gambusia alfinis



Gambusia aflinis

Gambusia alfinis


Gambusia affmis


Lepomis
macrocluus
"

Lepomis
macrochirus


minnows

minnows

Daphma

Pimephales
promelas
Lepomis
macrochirus


Gambusia affims

Gambusia affims

"



Gambusia affims

Gambusia aflinis



Gambusia alfinis

"
Gambusia alfinis

Gambusia affmis

Gambusia affinis



Gambusia affims

Gambusia aflinis


Gambusia affinis



"

Conditions
AKSO,),:; 18 HB0; pH
7.2-7.6; 64-8 ppm



AlClj; sea water

19-22 C; turbid water;
turbidity 235 to 25
mg/l; AlstSOOv
18H.Q
highly turbid water

AI;CI , static acute bio-
assay turbid water;
a,c,d,e,g
AI2CI-,, static acute bio-
assay turbid water;
a,M,e,8
lap water, reoxygenated
20 C; NHjOH
cone, as NH(OH; tap
water; 20 C.
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a,c,e,f;
aerated distilled
NHiCI
hard water, NH.CI

distilled water; NHiCI



cone. asNHjOH,
tap water;
NH,CI; distilled aerated
water, static acute bio-
assay, a,c,d,f. NH.CI
asN;
21 C, in turbid water
using (NHOsS
in turbid water; NMI

using (NHi)2S03 H20:
20-21 C; turbidity
lowered from 220 to
25mj /I
using NHiSCN; turbid
water 16-23 C
turbid water; 20-21 C
using (NHOzSOi, re-
duced turbidity from
240-25 mg/l
highly turbid water,
(NH,)2Cr04
" (NH4)2Cr;Oj
turbid water

using NHiSCN, turbid
water 1 6-23 C

static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,g, ammonium
acetate; high turbidity
PH7.6-8 8
same as above using
(NH)jCOj
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,g, high tur-
bidity; NH.CI
static acute bioassay,
a,c,e,f,d, high tur-
bidity; ammonium
chromate
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,f, high fur-
Literature citation*
Sanborn 1945108

Podubsky and Sled-
ronsky 1948"
Pulley 1950'°°
Pulley 1950""

Walleri et al.
1957>33


Wallen et al.
1957»3
Wallen et al
1957"'

Wallen etal.
1957'33

Turnbull et al.
1954""
"

Cairns Jr. and
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Ammonia 212 ppm (2 day)
(NH3)
37 ppm (2 day)


1,4000 ppm (2 day)



248 ppm (2 day)



240 ppm (2 day)


420 ppm (2 day)



3.1 mg/l

3. 4 mg/l
23.7mg,l
Scheier unpub- j 24. 4 mg/l
lished 19551 ••

LeClerc and Deva-
mirrck 1955"
LeClercand Devj-
mi nek 1955"
Meinck et al
1956"
Black etal. 1957-'

Cairns Jr. and
Sctaer 1957»


Wallen et al.
1957'33
Wallen et al.
1957'S3
"



Wallen et al.
1957'33
Wallen etal.
1957'33


Wallen et al.
1957«3
"
Wallen et al.
1957'33
Wallen et al.
1957"33

Wallen et al.
1957'33


"

Wallen et al.
1957'33

Wallen et al.
1957«3


"
90 mg/l
94.5mg;l
133. 9 mg/l
6 mg/l

8. 2 ppm

5. 2 ppm

fl.4(24hr)





24. 6 ppm (2 day)

202 ppm (1 day)


161 ppm (2 day)
50 ppm
139 ppm
725 ppm (1-4 day)

241 ppm (1 day)
173 ppm (2 day)
70 ppm
60 ppm (1 day)



32 ppm (2 day)
20 ppm
423 ppm (1 day)




433 (2 day)
292 ppm
299 ppm (1 day)



273 ppm (2 day)
203 ppm
200 mg/l (4 days)
300 mg/l (4 days)
160 mg/l (4 days)
\ 73. 4 mg/l (2 days)
Species


"


Gambusia aflinis



Gambusia affims



"






Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
"
Priysa heteiostropha

"
Lepomis
macrocmcus
Pimephales
promelas
Pimephales
promelas
Salmo gairdnen





Salmogairdnen

Carassiuscarassius


"
"
Daphnia magna
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea, sp (eggs)


Daphnia magna



"
Daphnia magna




a
n
"



"
"
Cyprmus carpio
gudgeon
Rhodeus senceus
Daphnia
Conditions
bidity, ammonium
dichromate
static acute bioassay;
a, c,d,e,g, highly turbid
water; NH OH
static acute bioassay;
a,c; ammonium sul-
fate; d.e.g, highly
turbid water
ammonium sulfide;
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g; highly
turbid water used
same as above, but
ammonium sulfite
used.
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g, Ammonium
thiocyanate, highly
turbid
soft water, 30 C

soft water; 20 C
hard water; 30 C
hard water, 20 C
soft water, 20 C
soft water, 30 C
hard water, 20 & 30 C
In standard distilled
water; KHiCI
static acute bioassay; in
hard water; c.d.e.l
static acute bioassay;
soft water, c,d,e,f.
unionized NH,: static
acute bioassay;
a,b,c,d,e toxicity in-
creased with increas-
ing pH (from 7.0 to
8 2)
static acute bioassay.
a,c,d,fNHtClasN;
static acute bioassay;
a,c, "standard refer-
ence water" NH;CI

"
•
"



"
a,c; NH,OH; static
acute bioassay,
"standard reference
water"
"
static acute bioassay,
a,c, standard refer-
ence water and lake
water using ammon-
ium sultate

n
static acute bioassay;
a.c, standard reference
water; ammonium
sulfite
"
"
(NH<)2S04
"
"

Literature citation


"


Wallen et al.
1957'33


Wallen et al.
1957'33


"


"



Academy of Natur
Sciences I9602
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

Henderson et al.
1960^
"

Lloyd and Herbert
1960"




Herbert and Shur-
ben 1964r>3
Oowden and Ben-
nett 19653'

"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"



"
»




"
"
"



"
"
Malacca 196678
"
"
"
* Citations are listed at the end of the Appendix. They can be located alphabetically within tables or by their superior numbers which run consecutively across the tables for the entire Appendix.

-------
                                       Appendix HI—Table 7/451
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent
Ammonia
(MHS)
















Antimony
(Sb)
















Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
0.4 ppm (7 days)

0 29 ppm (7 days)
0.35 ppm (5 days)
0.36 ppm (6 days)

0 41 ppm (2 day)
34-47 ppm (2 days)

6.3 mg/l (48 hr)
420 ppm (5 day)

90.0 ppm
3. 4 ppm

0 44 ppm (3 hr)


12 ppm



20 ppm

17 ppm


9 ppm


80 ppm


80 ppm


(See sodium arsemte also)
Arsenic 48 ppm (24 hr)
(As)




Barium
(Ba)















Beryllium
(Be)











29 ppm (48 hr)
27 ppm (72 hr)


100 mg 1 (4 days)
160 mg/l (4 days)
5 mg 'I (2 days)
2083 mg 1 (36 hr)

200 ppm (time not
given)
100 ppm (time not
given)
11 ppm (time not
given)
1640 mg/l

4440 mg/l (24 hr)
10, 000 ppm (2 day)



3, 200 ppm (2 day)

1 3 mg 

"
"
"


Brown 1968"

Brown 1968"
Patrick et al.
Consbtuent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
Beryllium 11 ppm
(Be)

0.2 ppm

31 0 mg/l


(See sodium borate, also)
Boron 15, 000 mg/l
(B) (24 hr)
196891 18, 000-19, 000 mg/l
"
"

Lloyd and Orr
1969"

Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 19601"


"

"


"





"

(6hr)

19,000-19,500 mg/l
(6hr)
18, 000 mg/l
(24 hr)
5, 600 mg/l
12,000 mg/l
(24 hr)
8, 200 mg/l (48 hr)
3, 600 mg/l
10, 500 ppm (2 day)



Cadmium 45 mg/l
(Cd)
0.056 mg/l

5 ppm


0.9 ppm
j
Boschetti and Mc-
Loughlm 1957'-'
'/
Holland et al.
1960"

Malacca 1966"
Doudoroff and Katz
1953"
Bijan and Des-
chiens 195612
"

Bijan and Des-
chiens 195612
Wallenetal.
1957133
"
Wallen et al.
19571"


"

Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1956123
"
"


"

"


"

1.05 mg/l
72 6 mg/l

1.94 mg/l

1.27 mg/l
2. 84 mg/l
66 0 mg/l

0 17 ppm







0.008-0. 01 ppm
(7 day)

30 mg/l (1 day)
30 ppm (1 day)

0.1 2 mg/l (4-8
weeks)

27.0 mg/l


0.2 mg/l (8 wk)

0.1 mg/l (15 wk)
Calcium 8, 400 mg/l (24 hr)
(Ca)
10, 000 mg/l

10, 000 ppm

"


"

Fundulus
heteroclitus


Lepomis
macrochirus
minnows


"

Gambusia affmis

''
"

"
"
Gambusia affims



Onzias

guppy

Pimephales
promelas

"


"

Lepomis
macrochirus

Lebistes reticulatus
Lepomis cyanellus

Pimephales
promelas






Salmo gairdneri


"
"

Crassostrea
virgmica

Fundulus
heteroclitus

Crassostrea
virgmica
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
"

Conditions
same as above but using
hard water and
beryllium sulfate
same as above but using
soft water
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hrs;
aerated water

20 C;borontifluonde

in distilled water; 20 C;


in hard water; 20 C;

boric acid; 20-23 C;
pH 5 4-7 3
"
sodium borate, 22-26 C;
pH8 6-9.1
"
"
boric acid, static acute
bioassay, a,c,d,e,g;
highly turbid water
20-23 C
Cd(NOi)i 4 H20

cone, as Cd, using
Cd(NO,i). 4 H,0
static acute bioassay,
a.c.d.f, hard water;
cadmium chloride
same as above, using
soft water
static acute bioassay,
c.d.e.f, soft water,
CdCI ' cone, as Cd.
same as above; using
no waiei
static acute bioassay;
c,d,e,f, soft water
CdCIs cone as Cd
same as above
same as above
same as above, but
using hard water
cadmium cyanide com-
plex, sodium cyanide
(439 ppm CN) and
cadmium sulfate
(528 ppm Cd) Syn-
thetic soft water;
static acute bioassay;
a.c; cone, as CN
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a,b,f; hard
water
»
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a,b,f
in flowing water; 20 C
salinity 31 ppt; CdCI-;.
2.5 HiO
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hr
aerated water.





20 C; Ca(N03)2

Ca*NO;) :,- static acute
bioassay; a,d,e,f
Literature citation'
„


"

Jackim et al.
1970"


Turnbull et al.
1954™
LeClerc and Deva-
mmck 1950",
1955"


Wallenetal.
1957i»
"
"

"
"
Wallen et al.
1957i>3


Doudorofl and
Katz 1953"
Shaw and Lowrance
1956' lz
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1960124

"

Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965"
"



"

Doudoroff et al.
1966"






Ball 1967>


"
Velsen and Alder-
dice 1967i>2
Shusterand Pringle
1969U3

Jackim et al.
1970"

Pringle (in press)'9

"
Doudoroff and
Katz 1953"
Trama 1954bt"

"


-------
452/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 1—Continued
Consb'tuent
Calcium
(Ci)






















































Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
10, 650 ppm



9, 500 ppm





11, 300 ppm

7, 752 mg/l (22-
27 hr)
160 mg/l

56, 000 ppm



13,400 ppm (2 day)


220 ppm (2 day)


240 ppm (1 day)
56, 000 ppm (2 day)


11, 300 ppm



saturation


5% (time not
given)

3, 526 ppm (f day)


3, 005 ppm (2 day)
8, 350 ppm (1 day)

4, 485 ppm (1 day)
3, 094 (2 day)
2, 373 ppm (3 day)
3, 200 ppm (5 day)

2, 980 ppm

3, 130 ppm (5 day)

10,650 ppm
„



"





"

Carassius auratus

Gambusia affinis

"



"


"


"
"


Lepomis
macrochirus


"


Gambusia atfinis


Daphnia magna


"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea sp (Eggs)
"
"
Nitzschia Imearis

Lepomis
macrochirus
Nitzschia Imearis

Lepomis macrochirus
(See also potassium chloride and sodium chloride)
Chloride 0.08 ppm (7 day) Salmo gairdneri
(CI)









10 ppm (24 hi)
19.25 ppm (16 hr)




Sphaerodes maculatus
lingering silvers

Conditions
CaCh; a,d,e,f, static
acute bioassay in
standard water

continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a;c;ef,
aerated water; small
fish used.


same as above except
large fish used
in distilled water

Ca(OH)2

CaCO,;;a,c,d,e,g,
turbid water static
acute bioassay 13-
21 C
CaCh; turbid water;
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g
Ca(OH)i; a,c,d,e,g;
static acute bioassay,
turbid water, 21-23 C
"
CaSO,: a,c,d,e,g, turbid
water; static acute
bioassay 21-25 C
a,c,d,e,i; aerated water;
CaCI: large fish used
;: 14. 24 cm long;
static acute bioassay.
18-20 C; in soft water;
CaSO,

20-23 C: DO 0 18-0.22
ppm(CO==13.75-
69. 30 ppm) CaCI;
CaCI ; a,c. static acute
bioassay; standard
reference water
same as above
same as above

same as above
same as above
same as above
static acute bioassay;
a,c,e; CaSO:
same as above

static acute bioassay;
a,c,e, CaCh
same as above
continuous flow acute
bioassay; a,c,e; from
mono and dichlor-

amines. 20C;23Voo
salinity pHS.O
cone, as residual CI

Literature citation*
„
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955,"=
1958,2» 1959"
Industrial Wastes
1956"
Industrial Wastes
1956"
Jones 1957"

Wallen et al
1957i:»
"



"





"
"


Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1957,26
1958"

Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
1960'-
Ahllja 1964'


Dowrjen and Ben-
nett 19653'

"
"

"
"
"
Patrick et al.
1968"
"

Patrick et al.
1968"
"
Merkens 1958"



Eisler and Edmunds
1 QCC4 ,
1 30 tP
Holland etal.

(See potassium chromate and dichromate and sodium chromate and dichromate also)
Chromium
(Cr)









300 mg/l (24 hi)
145 mg/l (24 hr)
213 mg/l (48 hr)

82 mg/l


Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
"

Gambusia affinis


22±0 2 C

Na2Cr04
Na:Cr-0
Na-CrOr

turbid water, 19-23 C;
pH 7. 5-7. 8; 240 mg/l
ammonium chromate
Abegg 19501

Abegg 19501
"
Turnbull et al.
1954"»
Wallen et al.
1957"3

Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
Chromium 56 mg/l
(Cr)


104 mg 1


96 mg/l


135 mg/l


92 mg/l


103 mg 1


40.0 pom (48 hr)
320 ppm

382 ppm
369 ppm
196 mg,l (time not
given)
110 ppm



110 mg/l

170 mg/l

100 mg/l

113 mg/l


135 mg/l
0.21 IDE '1 (time
not given)

0.25mg l(time
not given)
17.3mg'l(time
not given)

40 6 mg/l (time
not given)
HOmg-'l

75 mg/l (48 hr)


60 mg/l (12 days)
0.01 mg/l (48 hr)
0.1 mg/l (48 hr)
0.1 ppm(1 day)



0.03 ppm (2 day)
0.2ppm(1 day)
5. 07 mg/l



67.4 mg/:

7. 46 mg/l

71. 9 mg/l
4. 10 mg/l


,/






"


"


"


Lepomis
macrochirus

"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
Micropterus
salmoidos
Lepomis
macrochirus


"

sunfish

Salmo gairdneri

sunfish


sunfish
Navicula


"

snail


"

sunfish

Polycehs mgra


Carcmus maen.is
Daphnia nugna
Daphnia magna



Lymnaea sp (Eggs)
Pimephales
promelas


"

Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Carassius auratus
Lebistes
reticulate
Conditions
turbid water, 18-20 C;
pH 5.7-7.4; ammon-
ium dichtomate (136
mg/l)
turbid water; 17-21 C;
pH 7.6-8.1 potassium
chromate (400 mg/l)
turbid water, 21-30 C;
pH 5.4-6 7 potassium
dichromate (280 mg/l)
turbid water; 20-22 C;
pH 7 7-8 6 sodium
chromate, (420 mg/l)
turbid water; 24-27 C;
pH 6.0-7 9 sodium
dichromate (264 mg/l)
KzCrjO?



in soft water; 18 C and
30 C
in hard water; 18 C
in hard water, 30 C


Cr hexavalent; static
acute bioassay; a,c,d,f,
g soft water, alkali
and hardness toxicity
dichromate

K;Cr;07

K-CrOj

KjCr.O?


in hard water, K?Cr>07
22 C; time value; soft
water

22 C; ", hard water

time value, 20 C, soft
water

"; hard water

KzCrjO?

20 C; hard water



chromic acid
potassium bichromate
chromic sulfate; a,c;
standard reference

water; static acute

bioassay
same as above
same as above
chromium potassium
sulfate, c,d,e,f soft
water; static acute
bioassay; cone, as Cr
same as above using
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
hard water
using soft water
same as above using
soft water
Literature citatioi
„






"





"


Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958;«
1959"



"
"
Fromm and Schif
man 1958'2
Trama and Benoil
1958128


Trama and Benoil
1958'2»
Trama and Benoit
1958'28
Schiffman and
Fromm 1959UCl
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602

Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
1960=
"

Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
"

Trama and Benoit
1960129
Raymount and
Shields 1962,™
1964i«s
"
Meletsea 1963s"
Dowden and Ben
nett 196539



"
Pickering and Hen
derson 1965»




"

"
„
"


-------
                                        Appendix Ill—Table 7/453
TABLE I—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Chromium 67. 4-71. 9 me/I
(Cr)
3. 33-7. 46 mg 1


27. 3-133 mg/l


17 6-118 mi '1


45.8mg/l


180 ppm

1500 ppm
4 74 ppm





0.26 ppm




170 ppm




Copper 1.0 ppm (6. 5 day)
(Cu)
0.23 mi 'l(6l>r)

0.46m8'l(6hr)
3 3 mg '1 (24 hr)

0 74 ppm


7 0 mg '1 (48 hr)

0.18 ppm

84 ppm (2 day)


75 mg 1


56, 000 ppm (2 day)


38 ppm (1 day)

1 25 mg'lftime
not given)

48 hr

1 9 ppm
1 9mg'l

1.4 ppm


0 05 ppm

10 ppm

0.2 ppm

1.9 mg/l
0. 40 pom
Species
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pimelometopon
pulchrum (fat-
head)
minnows, Carassius
auratus




"


zebra damo adults

zebra danio eggs
Lepomis
macrochirus




Lepomis
macrochirus



Lepomis
macrochirus



Gasterostens
aculeatus
Balanus balanoides

" crenatus
Orizias

Lepomis
macrochirus

"

Pimephales
promelas
Gambusia affims


Gambusia affims


Gambusia affims


Salmo gairdnen
dry)
Lepomis
macrochirus

Dapbma magna

Japanese oyster
oysters

Pimephales
promelas

"

Lepomis
macrochirus


oysters
Limnodnlus hoff-
Conditions
Hard water, pH 8 2
Alk. 300 mg/l
soft water; pH 7. 5
Alk 18 mg 1

hard water; pH 8.2
K2Cr;0;, Alk. 300
mg 1
soft water; pH 7.5
K2Cr20;; Alk. 18
mg/l
soft water, pH 7 5
K;Cr207; Alk 18
mg '1
cone as Cr (KjCr-tM

"
a, c.d.e,; static acute bio-
assay fish acclima-
tized for 2 weeks in a
synthetic dilution
water using chrom-
ium-cyanide mixture
a.c.d.e, static acute bio-
assay fish acclima-
tized for 2 weeks in a
synthetic dilution
water.
static acute bioassay.
a,c,d,f,g; dichromate,
fish were acclimated
for 2 weeks in syn-
thetic dilution.
static acute bioassay,
a,c, using Cu(NOi);
hypertonic seawater


CuCb2H,0

static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e, distilled
aerated water
20 C, pH 8 3

static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,f, CuSO,
static acute bioassay,
turbid water,
a.c.d.e.g, CuSO,
24-27 C; using copper
sulfate in highly
turbid water
cupric oxide, static acute
bioassay a,c,d,e,g,
turbid water 19-20 C
CuSOt, a,c,e,f,i,p,
static acute bioassay
in soft water; 18-20 C,
CuCI:



Copper sulfate
pH8 2, 12 C

static acute bioassay;
a, c,d,f, hard water,
CuSO
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
hard wter
same as above using
soft water
CuCI; 2 H-0
static acute bioassay;
Literature citation*
Pickering and Hen-
derson 19669*
"


Pickering and Hen-
derson 196694

"





Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 19682-

Cairns, Jr. and
Scheier 196828




Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1968"



Trama and Benoit
19581"



Jones 1938ES

Pyefinch and Molt
1948101
"
Doudoroff and
Katz 1953"
Trama 1954a'26
Constituent Acute dose 96 br LC50
Copper
(Cu)
0.425 ppm


0,27 ppm

1.5 mg/l (2-3 d)

0.27 ppm

0.050 ppm
0.56 ppm (1 day)


90 ppm (1 day)

15 ppm (1 day)

10 ppm (2 days)
5 ppm (3 days)
20 ppm (3 day)
40 ppm (1 day)
2 ppm (1 day)
0.1 ppm

2 ppm (2 hr)

0.2 ppm (48 hr)
1.5 ppm

.19 ppm (12 days)

0.980 ppm

2. 8 ppm

0 8 ppm (2 day)

0 034 ppm (1 day)

I
j
Turnbull etal.
1954"»
Palmer and Ma-
loney 1955™
Wallen et al.
1957>33

Wallen etal.
19571"

Wallen etal
1957"'

TurnbulI-Kemp
1958'Si
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
1960'-
Cabeiszek and
Stasiak I96022
Fujiya 1960"
Fujiya I960,"
1961"
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson I960124



"

"

Fujiya 196114
32 fig '1 (time not
given)
0.150 ppm (2 day)

2 800 ppm (2 day)

1.5 ppm



1.2 ppm

1.14 mg/l

10. 2 mg/l

0.048 ppm

3.0 ppm



1.0ppm(1 day)

1.0 ppm (6 day)

1.0 ppm (6 day)





0.25 mg/l
Wurtz and Bridges
Species
meisten

Gyraulus
circumstriatiis

Physa
heterostropha
Nereis

Physa heterostropba

"
"


Carassius auratus
Poecilia reticulata
toad and frog
tadpoles
"
/;
Dragon fly larvae
"
Dapbma longispma
Nereis virens

Salmo gairdnen


GammarUs lacustris

Nereis virens

Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Salmo gairdnen

Salmo salar



juvenile salmon

Salmo gairdnen

Lepomis
macrochirus
Pimephales
promelas


"

Pimelometopon
pulchrum
Lepomis
macroctunis
Salmo salar

Orconectes rusticus



"

"

"





Oroconectes rusti-
cus embryo
Conditions
hard water CuSOi;
a,c,d,i
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,i; hard water;
CuSO,
same as above



21 C hard water as
CuSO;
same as above, young
static acute bioassay;
a,c,f, CuSOi hard and
soft water.
cone, as copper sulfite

Cone, as copper sulfite

"

cone, as copper sulfite
"
"
time not specified

CuSO! 5H:0

"
static acute bioassay;
a,e, CuSO
time not specified

CuCI

static acute bioassay;
CuSO,, a
a,c,e,f,l,m; field study
in a river
continuous flow, acute
bioassay g,c,f; with
3 Mg/l Zn anil 2/ig/l
Cu
in very soft water
(14 mg/l hardness)
static acute bioassay, a,
CuSO,
same as above

as CN~ using copper
cyanide complex;
static acute bioassay;
a,c; soft water
same as above except
cone as Cu
in hard water; CuSO,-
5H20
in hard water "

BSA.a, incipient lethal
level with 0 600 Zn
continuous flow acute
bioassay, a,c,e,f,
20 C, mtermolting
stage
same as above; adult
crayfish used
same as above; juvenile
crayfish used
same as above; re-
cently hatched young
which remained cling-
ing to pleopods of
female during 1st
molt were used.
time not given

Literature citation*
1961 1«

"


"

Raymount and
Shields 1962' '
Wurtz 19621*°

"
Wurtz 1962"°


Floch etal, 1963"

Floch et al. 1963"

"
"
Floch etal. 1963
-------
454/'Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent
Copper
(Cu)




























































Acute dose 96 hr LC50
0.57mg/l(2hr)

3. 85 mg/l (2 hr)

0.51 mg/l (2 hr)

2. 9 mg/l (2 hr)

22. 5 mg/l (2 hr)

0.4-0. 5 ppm
(2 day)
1.25 ppm



1.04ppm



26.0 ppm


5.2ppm




5. 2 ppm


430 mg/l
470 mg/l

84.0 Ml/I

75M8/I

0.795-0.815 ppm
(5 day)
1.25 ppm

0.2 mg/l (48 hr)

30 mg/l (48 hr)
100mg/l"
1 mg/l"
430 M8/I

470 Mg/l

1.7 mg/l

0.039 mg/l

0.20 mg/l

48 hr

3. 2 mg/l


Species
Wattersipora

Bugula

Spirorbis

Galeolana

Mytilus

Salmo gairdneri

Lepomis
macrochirus


"



Lepomis
macrochirus

"




"


adult minnows
Pimephales
promelas
Pimelometopon
pulchrum
"

Nitzschia linearis

Lepomis
nucrochirus
Psnaeus duorarum

Penaeus aztecus
shore crab
cockle
Pimelometopon
pulchrum
"

Capeloma decisum

Physa Integra

Gammarus pseudo-
limnaeus
Salmo gairdneri

Fundulus
heterochtus

Conditions
copper sodium citrate
PH7.0-8 2
copper sodium citrate
PH7.0-8.2
copper sodium citrate
pH7 0-8.2
coper sodium citrate
PH7.0-8.2
copper sodium citrate
pH 7. 2-8.2
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,f
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e; CU++; fish
acclimatized 2 wks. in
syn. dil. water.
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e; fish acclima-
tized 2 wks in syn.
dil. water copper-
copper acetic acid; all
fish acclimatized 2
wks. in syn. dil. water.
a,c,d,e, static acute bio-
assay same as above
except that copper -
acetaldehyde was
used.
same as above except
that acetone; copper
mixture was used
static test
continuous flow bioassay

soft water; static bio-
assay
" continuous flow
bioassay
static acute bioassay,
a,c,e; CuCh
same as above

in the dark; 15 C;
CuSO,
"
"
"
static bioassay; hard
water
continuous flow bio-
assay, hard water
soft water

soft water

soft water



20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hrs.
aerated water
Literature citation*
Wisely and Blick
19671"
Wisely and Blick
1967"'
"

"

"

Brown 1968"

Cairns Jr. and
Scheier «»"•


"



Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1968"

"




"


Mount 1968>"
Mount 1968"

Mount and Stephen
196984
"

Patrick et al.
196891
"

Portmann 1968"

"
"
"
Mount and Stephen
1969"
Mount and Stephen
1969"
Arthur and Leon-
ard 1970s
Arthur and Leon-
ard 1970s
"

Brown and Dalton
1970i«
Jackim et al.
1970'4

(See also potassium and sodium cyanides.)
Cyanide.
(CM-)












0.3 ppm (5. 25-
1.5 hi.)

0.33 mg/l (14 min.)

0.18 mg/l (24 hr)

0. 06 ppm (1 day)


0.01-0. 06 ppm
«1 day)
0.05-0. 06 ppm
«1 day)
Rhimchthys atratu-
lus and Semotilus
atromaculatus
Coregonus artedii
adult
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis auntus


Lepomis
macrochirus
"

ferro- and ferncyanides
used. Cone, as cya-
nide used; daylight


in soft water

continuous flow and
static acute bioassays;
a
same as above; static
only
same as above; contin-
uous flow
Burdick and Lip-
scheutz 1348"

Wuhrmann and
Woker 19481"
Turnbulletal.
1954130
Renn 1955>««


"

"

Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Cyanide 0 06 ppm < 1 day
(CN-)
0.05-0. 07 ppm
«1 day)
0.02-0. 04 ppm
«1 day)
0.25 ppm (24 hr)

0.24 ppm (48 hr)
0 23 ppm
0.20 ppm (24 hr)

0.19 ppm (48 hr)

0.18 ppm

0.23 ppm (24
hours)
0.21 ppm (48 hr)

0.17 ppm

0.2mg,'l(11 min)
0 12-0. 18 mg/l


0.16 mg/l

0.01 mg/l (48 hr)
0.18 ppm



0.026 ppm



0.019 ppm

4.74 ppm


0.026 ppm
3.90 ppm

0.432 ppm

0 18 ppm

(See also Manganese (Mn))
Fluorine 64 mg/l (10 days)
(F)
2.7-4.6 mg/l
(218 hrs)
75-91 mg/l

222-273 ppm
(424 hrs)
242-261 ppm
(214 hrs)
2.3-7 3 mg/l (time
not given)
2.6-6.0 mg/l (time
not given)
5. 9-1. 5 mg/l (trait
not given)
Gold . 0.40 mg/l (time
(Au) not given)
Iron 74 ppm (2 day)
(Fe)

133 ppm (2 day)


10, 000 ppm (2 day)


Species
Micropterus
salmoides
Pomoxis 3>nnularis

Pomoxisannularis

Pimephales
promelas
"
"
"

"

Pimephales
promelas
"

"



Salmo gairdneri
Lepomis
macrochirus

"

Salmo gairdneri
Lepomis
macroctiirus






"

"


"
"

Physa heterostropha

Lepomis
macrochirus.

fish

Salmo gaiidneri

Cyprmus carpio

Salmo gaiidnen

"

Salmo gaiidneri

"

"

stickleback

Gambusia aHmis


Gambusia affims


"


Conditions
static acute bioassay, a

static acute bioassay; a

continuous flow bio-
assay; a
NaCN, cone, as CN;
20 C
"
"
cone, as CN ; NaCN;
plus 0.14 ppm Zn
cone, as CN'; NaCN;
plus 0.13 ppm Zn
cone, as CN , NaCN

" plus 0.12 ppm
Cd
"plus 0.11 ppm
Cd
"plus 0.09 ppm
Cd

in hard water and soft
soft water

cone, as HCN


static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e; all fish ac-
climatized 2 weeks in
syn. dil. water
all fish acclimatized 2
weeks in syn. sil.
water, static acute
bioassay; a,c,d,e
same as above; CN-Cr
complex used
same as above, CN-
napthemc acid mix-
ture
same as above; CN used
same as above, CN-Zn
complex used
static acute bioassay;
a,c,e
asme as above


using KF

using NaF; 55 C; 3.0
ppmCa
using NaF; 3 ppm Ca
and Mg; 65-75 F
3 ppm Ca and Mg, 46 F

3 ppm Ca and Mg; 55 F

18 C, in soft water using
NcF
13 C; in soft water using
NaF
1.5C;raso(t water
using NaF


static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,g high tur-
bidity; Fed:
static acute bioassay;
Fe2(S04)aa,c,d,e,g;
turbid water; 19-23 C
static acute bioassay;
Fe»0j; a,c,d,e,g;
turbid water; 16-23 C
Literature cibtioi
„

"

"

Doudoroff et al.
1966'8
"
"
"

"

"

"

"

"

Neil 1957"
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Doudoroff et al.
1966"
Brown 1968"
Cairns Jr and
Scheier 1968»


"



"

"


"
"

Patrick et al.
1968"



Tauwell 195713'

Neuhold and Sigl
1960»«
"

"

"

Angelovic et al.
1967'
"

"

Jones 19391"'

Wallen et at.
1957i33

"






-------
                                         Appendix Ill—Table 7/455
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Iron 10, 000 ppm (2 day)
(Fe)

350 ppm (2 day)


36 ppm (1 day)


21 ppm (2 day)
15 ppm


Lead 0 3 ppm (4 '4 days)
(Pb)
1.4 mg/l (48 hr)

2.0 mg/l (24 hr)
6.3mg'l(24&
46 his)
10 mg 1 (24 & 46
hrs)
240 mg/l
75 mg 1
3. 2 mg/l

>100 mg/l

26 mg/l (time not
given)
240 ppm (2 days)


56,000 ppm (2 day)


0.34 mg/l (48 hr)


0.41 mg'l(24hr)

0.53mg l(24hf)

>75 ppm


2 4 ppm (24 hrs)

7.48 mg/l




5 58 mg/l


482.0mg'l

23 8 mg/l

442 0 mg/l

31 5 mg/l

20. 6 mg/l

49. 0 ppm (1 day)

27. 5 ppm (1 day)
27. 5 ppm (1 day)

3 12 mg/l


1-3 ppm (48 hrs)
Species
n


"


Daphma magna



"
mayflies, stonefhes,
caddisflies
Gasterosteus
aculeatus
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"

"
Gambusia affmis
Pimephales
promelas
„

»

Carassiusauratus

Gambusia aflims


Gambusia affims


stickleback,
Oncorhynchus
kisutch
Oncorhynchus
kisutch
sticklebacks

Pimephales
promelas



Pimephales
promelas &
Lepomis
macrochirus

Pimepnales
promelas

"

Lepomis
macrochirus
"

Carassius auratus

Lebistes reticulatus

tubi field worms

tubi ficid worms
tubificid worms

Salvelmus fontinalis
Fundulus
neteroclitus
Salmo gairdneri
Conditions
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,g; FeS; turbid
water; 20-26 C
same as above except
comp'd used was
FeSOi 20-21 C.
static acute bioassay;
a,c, standard ref
water; Fed
"

constant 02, pH and
hardness
static acute bioassay;
a,c, using Pb(N Oj)2
in tap water

"
"

", Pb(NO,,)2
PbiNO i.usedm
highly turbid water
in hard water
in soft water, PbCb
used
in hard water; PbCb
used
PbSOi used

static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e, turbid water
Pb(NO,)?
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,e, PbO, high
turbidity
1000-3000 mg '1 of dis-
solved solids

1000-3000 mg '1 dis-
solved solids
1000-3000 mg 1 dis-
solved solids
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,f, hard water;
PbCh
same as above using
soft water
static acute bioassay,
c,d,e,f, soft water,
lead acetate 7 8 mg/l
DO.Umj'l Alk;
20 mg I hardness
static acute bioassay,
c,d,e,f, cone as Pb;
PbCI used, soft water
same as above with hard
water
same as above with soft
water
same as above with hard
water
same as above with soft
water
same as above with soft
water
static acute bioassay;
a,c; PbiNO,) pH 6.5
"
static acute bioassay;
a,c, Pb(NO.,)2




Literature citation*
Wallen et a!.
1957»i>

"


Dowden and Ben-
net 1965"

"

Warmck and Bell
1969'«
Jones 1938"

Turnbul! et al.
195413"
"
"

"
Wallen et al
19571's
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1956,i"
I960124


»

Jones 1957"

Wallen et al.
1957»3




Gill etal. I960"




Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Lead
(Pb)
188.0 mg/l


Magnesium 16, 500 mg/l
(Ml)
17, 750 ppm (2 day)

15, 500 ppm (2 day)

3, 391 ppm (1 day)


3, 489 ppm
3, 803 ppm


19, 000 ppm (1 day)

10, 530 ppm (1 day)
(See also Potassium permanganate)
Manganese 5500 mg/l (24 hrs)
(Mn)
500 mg '1(48 hrs)
1000 mg/l (time not
given)
7, 850 mg/l (24 hrs)

1,400 ppm


Mercury 5 mg/l (75 hr)
(Hg)
0 05 mg/l (2 5hr)

0.30 mg /ID
800mg'l(")
40 mg 1 (22 hr)

0.9-60 mg/l

" , 0 027 mg/l (time

Tarzwell and Hen-
derson I960'"

"

Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965,»3
1966"


Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965"

'•



"

"

"

Whitley 1968i»

"
Whitley 1968i«

Dorfman and Whit-
worth 1969^

Kanyaetal. 1969"
not given)
0 04 mg/l
0.05 mg/l
O.SOmg-l
0 02mg-l
0.15mg, l(48hr)
2. 6 ppm (24 hr)

6.5X10-' M

9.0X10-* M

5 0X10 'M
(2 hours)
1.0X10-'M
(2 hours)
7.0X10-' M
(2 hours)
6.0X10-' M
(2 hours)
9.0X10-' M
(2 hours)
0.1 mg/l (48 hr)
6 mg/l (48 hr)
1 mg/l (48 hr)

10 mg/l (48 hr)
26 ppm (24 hr)


0.23 mg/l


Species
stonefhes, mayflies

Fundulus
heteroclitus

Gambusia affmis

Gambusia affmis

Gambusia affmis

Daphma magna


"
"


Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea sp. (eggs)
fish, young eels
Tinea tinea
fish

Onzias

CypNnus carpio,
killifish, Daphma,
Salmo gairdneri
Artemia salma

Acttia clausi

Elmimus
Artemia
Artemia salina

phytoplankton

bivalve larvae

Rhodeus sericeus
gudgeon
Cyprmus carpio
minnow
Daphma
Ambassis safgha

Mytilus eduols
planulatus
Crassostrea com-
mercialis
Wattersipora
cucultata
Buluga neritma

Spirorbis lamellosa

Galeolana com-
mercialis
Artermia sanna

Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Hemigrapsis
oregonensis
Clmocardium nuttalli
Daphma magna
Ambassia safgha

Fundulus
heteroclitiis

Conditions
02; pH and hardness
are constant
20-22 C; no feeding dur-
ing 96 hours; aerated
water
in turbid water;
MgCI 6H;0
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water MgCb
BSA, a,c,e,d,g; turbid
water MgSO.
BSA; a,c, standard
reference water;
MgCI-2

BSA; a,c, standard
reference water;
MgSOt
same as above

same as above
MnCL
MnFz
MnSOi HO; cone, as
Mn
MnCI:




cone, as Hg using
Hgl;;pH8.1
cone asHgpH 8.1

cone. asHgpH 8.1
cone asHgpH 8.1
cone, as Hg using
HgCbpHB.I


HgCfz (0.02 mg/l of
Hg)





cone, as HgCI2

pH 7 8-8.2, HgCI2

pH7 8-8.2, HgCl2

PH7.8-8.2, HgCh

pH7 8-8.2;HgCh

pH 7. 8-8.2, HgClz

pH7.8-8.2;HgCl2

pH7.8-8.2;KgCl2

15;mtliedark;HgCl2
15 C; in the dark; HgCU


"
Lake Erie water in
sealed containers;
HgCh
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hrs,
aerated water
Literature citation*
Warnick and Bell
19691"
Jackim et al.
1970"

Wallen et al.
1957iJ>


"

Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"

"
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"

"

"
Iwao 193663
Oshima19318»
Simonm and Pier-
ron 193711*
Meinck et al.
1956"
Doudoroff and
Katz19533'
Tabata 1969m


Corner and Spar-
row 19563!
Corner and Spar-
row 1956"

"
"

Hueper I960"

Woelke 1961"«

Malacea 1966"
Malacca 1966"
"
"
"
Ballard and Oliff
1969'"
Wisely and Blick
1967>w
"

Wisely and Blick
19671"
Wisely and Blick
1967"'
"

"

"

Portmann 1968"
"
"

"
Ballard and Olift
1969"

Jackim et al.
19706*


-------
456/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE I—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
Molybdenum 70 me/I
(Mo)

370 me/I


Nickel 0.8 mg/l (time not
(Ni) given)
0.95 mg/l


1.0 mg/l (time not
given)
24 ppm


4 ppm

25 ppm (2 day)

5.18 mg/l


42. 4 me/I

5.18 mg/l

39. 6 me/I

9. 82 mg/l

4.45 mg/l

160 ppm (2 day)
270 ppm (2 day)

242 ppm (2 day)
75 ppm (2 day)

165 ppm (2 day)
495 ppm (2 day)

200 me/I (48 hr)

150 me/I (48 hrs)
300 me/I (48 hrs)

500 mg/l (48 hfs)

48 hrs

See also sodium nitrate
Nitrate 64 hours
(Nor)
8.1 mg/l (24 hours)

9. 5 me/I (48 &
96 hr)

pH 1.3 ppm (45 mm)


1.4 ppm (45 mm)

0.07 ppm (2 day)

10 mg/l
pH 4.0 (lime not
given)
pH 3. 65 (3 day)


0.069 ppm (1 day)





Pimephales
promelas

"


sticklebacks

Pimephales
promelas

sticklebacks

Pimephales
promelas

"

Salmo gairdneri

Pimephates
promelas

"

Lepomis
macrochirus
"

Carassiusauratus

Lebistes reticulatus

Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta

Salvelmus fontmalis
Salvelmus
namaycush
Ictalurus punctalus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Penaeus duorarum

Penaeus aztecus
Hemigrapsis oreeo-
nensis
Chnocardium
nuttalli
Salmo gairdneri

Daphnia magna
Gambusia affmis



Ictalurus punctatus


"

Salmo gairdneri

trout
Carassius auratus

Lepomis
macrochirus

Lagondon
rhomboides

"


Conditions
Mo0.i, pH7.4;Alk. 18
mg/l; hardness 20
mg/l; soft water
MoO : pH 8 2; Alk.
360 mg/l, hardness
400 mg/l; hard water
concentration as Ni;
NliNO !:
BSA; a,c,d; nickei cya-
nide complex syn.
soft water
concentration as Ni,
15-18 C
BSA; a,c,d,f; hard
water mckelous
chloride
same as above using
soil water
field study on a river;
a,c,e,f,l,m
BSA, c,d,e,1; soft water;
nickel chloride; cone.
asNi
same as above using
hard water


same as above using
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
soft water
BSA.a.f, NiSO
BSA; a.f; NlSOi

same as above
same as above

same as above
same as above

15 C; in the dark;
NiSO
"
"

"



25 C; Lake Erie water;
daphnids 8-hours old
21-24 C, in highly turbid
water; NaNO :


static acute bioassay;
a, c, HS; Using ad-
vanced fingerlmgs
same as above, using
adults
static acute bioassay;
HCN;a,c,d,e,f,o



continuous flow, acute
bioassay HCI; a,c,e,f

static acute bioassay;
HCN; aerated sea
water, a;
aerated sea water;
static acute bioassay
HCN
Literature citation*
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1956123

"


Murdock 1953" •

Doudoroff et al.
196638

Jones 19576'

Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 19601"



Herbert et ai.
196552
Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965,93
1966"
"

"

"

"

"

Willford 1966136
Willford 1966<36

"
"


"

Portmann 1968"

"
"

"

Brown and Dalton
197018
Anderson 19486
Wallenetal.
1957133


Bonn and Follis
1967"

"

Brown 19681;

Beldmg 1927"
Jones 19396:

Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955>42
Consbtuent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
pH 282 ppm (2 day)


pH10.5

pH3.5



4-6 mg/l (6 hr)
100-110 me/I
(6 hrs)
0 16 ppm (3 day)


1.0 ppm (20 mm)

Phosphate 24 hours
(P0.3-)
720 mg/l

1380 mg.l

151 me/I

138 ppm (2 day)


Phosphorus 0 105 ppm (2 day)
(P)


0.053 ppm (3 day)
0.025 ppm
Potassium 2 0 ppm (2 day)
(K)
0.5 ppm (2 day)
2010 ppm

3, 000 ppm

450 ppm



630 ppm



5. 50 ppm

0. 22 ppm (1 day)
0.45 ppm
320 ppm
4, 200 ppm (2 day)

480 ppm (2 day)


1.6 ppm (2 day)

320 ppm (2 day)

324 ppm (2 day)

12 ppm (2 day.)

0.45 ppm

Daugherty and Gar- 0. 12 ppm
rett 19513s

Garrett1957«



1.08 ppm

0.48 ppm

Gambusia affims


Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus


minnows
minnows

Lepomis
macrochirus

Ictalurus punctatus
fingerhnijs
Lepomis
macrochirus
Gambussia affims

"



"


Lepomis
macrochirus


"
"
Hydropsyche

Stenonema
Lepomis
macrochuus
"

"



"



"

Rhinichithy!>
alratulus
meleagns
Lepomis
macrochirus

Gambusia alfmis

"


"

Gambusia af'ims

Gambusia aflinis

Gambusia aflinis

Lepomis
macrochirus
"

Physa hetero'itropha

Physa heterostropha

Conditions
static acute bioassay;
HCI, turbid water;
a,c,d,e,g
maximum pH

a,c,d,e,i; dist aerated
water; large fish
used; 14 24 cm
length 20 C
in distilled water; HCI
in hard water, HCI

juveniles used, HCN;
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,f,p,
static acute bioassay;
a.c, HjS
22±0.2C

turbid water; 19-23 C;
NaH.PO,
turbid water; 19-24 C;
NaiPiO, 10H.O
turbid water, 17-22 C;
Na PO
BSA, a.c.d.e.g. turbid
water phosphoric
acid, 22-24 C
BSA, a,c,d,e,f,e,h,i,|,k,
n.o; colloidal pre-
moved; 26 C; cone.
asP
same as above
same as above
BSA; a, soft water;
KCN
"
BSA,a,c,d,e,f,KC!

BSA, a,d,e,f; KNO :
syn. dilution water
a,c,e,f; aerated dist
water; K.CrO , small
fish; continuous flow
acute bioassay
continuous flow, acute
bioassay K.CrOi;
medium size lish
a,c,e,l, pH 7.9 to 8.6
same as above using
large fish
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a,c,e, KCN
BSA, a.c.e. KCN
BSA;a,c,e, faCr^O?
BSA; a.c.d.e.g. turbid
water KCI
BSA; a,c,d,e,e; highly
turbid water;
K;Cr04
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; KCN,
turbid water
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water; KiCrsO?
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water KNO
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water KMnO,
BSA, a.e, KCN; 5-9
ppm oxygen
BSA. a, e, KCN, 2 ppm
DO
BSA; a.e; KCN, 5-9
ppm DO
BSA; a.e; KCN 2 ppm
DO
Literature citatio
Wallen et al.
1957«3

Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958'-'
Cairns Jr and
Scheier 1959"


LeClerc 1960"
"

Doudoroff et al.
1966"

Bonn and Follis
1967"
Abegg 19501

Wallen et al.
19571"
"

"

Wallen et al.
1957133

Isom 1960s=



"
"
Roback 1965i<>'

"
Trama 1954»m

"

Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955"'

"



"

Lipschuetz and
Cooper 1955"
Cairns Jr. 19572
Cairns Jr. 19572
Wallen et al.
1957133
Wallenetal.
1957«3

Wallen et al.
1957133
Wallen et al.
1957133
Wallenetal.
1957133
Wallen et al.
195713.'
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958^
"

"

"


-------
                                        Appendix HI—Table 7/457
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Potassium 320 ppm
(K)


320 ppm
320 ppm
195 ppm

1,337 ppm (5 day)

940 ppm

2,010 ppm
7. 8 ppm (5 day)

16 8 ppm

168 8 ppm

550 ppm



0 57 ppm




320 ppm

382 ppm

369 ppm
320 ppm



100 ppm (1 day)

0.43 ppm


0.45 ppm

0.12 ppm

1 OS ppm


0.48 ppm

320 ppm


320 ppm

0.49 ppm (2 days)


117 ppm (2 day)



0.16 ppm (2 day)

180 ppm (2 day)


1500 ppm (2 day)

440 ppm (2 day)

679 ppm (1 day)

5, 500 ppm (1 day)

1,941 ppm (1 day)
Species
Lepomis
macrochirus


"
"
Micropterus
salmoides
Nitzschia lineans

Lepomis
macrochirus
Physa heterostropha
Nitzschia lineans

Physa heterostropha

Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macfochirus


Lepomis
macrochirus





"

"
"



Salmo gairdnen

Lepomis
macrochirus

'

"

Physa heterostropha




Lepomis
macrochirus

"

Brachydamo rerio


Brachydamo rerio



Lepomis
macrochirus
Brachydamo rerio


"

"

Daphma magna

Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea sp.
Conditions
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, K /Cr -0 ;
aerated distilled water
pH 6 2, a,c,e,(,
BSA; a,e,, 5-9 ppm DO
" 2 ppm DO
BSA; a,c,d,e, KjCr04

BSA; a.c.e, KCI

same as above

same as above
BSA, a,c,e, K CrO,

same as above

same as above

BSA, a,c,d,e,i, aerated
dist. water, K.CrOj;
large fish used, 14-24
cm long
BSA, a,b,c,d,e,i,
aerated distilled
water, large fish used
14. 24 cm in length,
KCN
BSA; a,c,d,e,f, 18-30
C, K;Cr20;
same except in hard
water at 18 C
" at 30 C
distilled aerated water,
BSA, a,c,d,e,i;
K5CrjO;;fish14.24
cm
BSA; a,c,d,g, K CrO,

BSA; a,c,d,e,f, KCN


BSA, a,e, KCN, normal
oxygen content
BSA; a,e; KCN. ICTI
oxygen content
BSA;a,e, KCN, normal
oxygen content m
water
BSA.a.e, KCN, low
oxygen content
BSA, a,e, K-Cr*;
normal DO content
in water
BSA, a,e; KjCr-O?; low
DO content in water
BSA, a,c,d,e,f; dist
water adults KCN;
24 C; 5-9 ppm
BSA, a,c,d,e,f, KCN,
eggs 24 C; 5-9 ppm
DO; distilled aerated
water.
same as above (not
eggs)
BSA, a,c,d,e,f, K Cr-O-;
24 C, 5-9 ppm DO
adults
same as above using
eggs
same as above not
using eggs
BSA, a,c, standard tef.
water KCI
same as above

same as above
Literature citation*
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier1958M


"
"
Fromm and Schifl-
man 1958«
Patrick et al
1968"
"

"
Patrick et al.
1968«
Patrick et al.
1968"
"

Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1959"


"








"
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Potassium . 2 ppm (1 day)
(K)
0.7 ppm (3 day)

0.4 ppm

796 ppm (1 day)

147 ppm (3 day)

130 ppm
705 ppm (1 day)


0.4 ppm
739 ppm (1 day)

905 ppm (1 day)


549 ppm (2 day)
0 6 ppm (3 day)
0.1 ppm
900 ppm


45 6 mg/l

17.6 mg/l

27.3mg

118. Omg/l
1



Schiffman and
Fromm 1959U°
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955'«
Cairns Jr. 1965M

"






"


"

Cairns Jr. et al.
19652"





"

"


"

"

Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"
Dowden and Ben-
net 1965»
"
133. Omg I

37. 5 mg/l

30.0 mg/l

28 0 ppm (2 day)

3. 5 ppm (2 day)
4 2 ppm (4 day)

3 7 ppm

0.208 ppm

17.3 ppm
113.0 ppm

Selenium 2 5 mg I
(Se)
Silver 0.0043 mg/l (time
(Ag) not given)

0.04 mg/l


Sodium . 12, 946 ppm
(Na)

12, 000 ppm



0.23 ppm


45 ppm (1 day)

29 ppm (2 day)
27 ppm (3 day)
8, 200 ppm (2 day)


Species
Daphma magna

"

"

Lymnaea sp.

Lymnaea sp.

"
Carassius carassius


Daphma magna
Lepomis
macrochirus
Daphma magna


Daphma magna
"
"
"


Pimephales
promelas
Pimephales
' promelas
"

Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Carassius auratus

Lebistes reticulatus

Hydropsyche and
Stenonema
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Semotilus
atromaculatus
Nitzschia linearis

Physa heterostropha
Lepomis
macrochirus
Daphma

guppies


Fundulus
heteroclitus

Lepomis
mactochirus

Lepomis
macrochirus


Pimephales
promelas

Notropsis hudsonius

Notropsis hudsonius
"
Gambusia affims


Conditions
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water, KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; KCN

BSA; a,c; standard
reference water
KzCrzO:
same as above
"

KiFe(CN),;BSA;a,c;
standard reference
water
same as above
same as above
same as above
BSA, a,c; KNO ;
standard reference
water
BSA; c,d,e,f, soft water,
K.CrOjConc. asCr
BSA; c,d,e,f, soft water;
K»Cri07 cone, as Cr
same as above using
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a; soft water;
K;Cr>07
"
BSA; KMnO;

BSA; KMnO:

BSA; a;c;e; foC^O?

BSA, a,c; KjCr-O,
same as above

23 C; cone as Se; added
sodium selemte
cone, of Ag, placed in
water as silver
nitrate
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hours;
aerated water
static acute bioassay;
a,d,e,(, synthetic
dilution water; NaCI
static acute bioassay;
a,c,e,f, synthetic
dilution water; NaNOa
20 C
BSA; a,c, NaCN; syn.
soft water; cone, as
CN
BSA, a,c,d,e, NaAs02

"
"
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g; Na'jBiO;
used; turbid water
Literature citation*
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"
"

"

Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965M
"

"
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"

"
"

Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"

"
"
"
"


Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965'M
"

"

Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965'3




"

Roback 1965>°'

"
Kempetal. 1966«'

"

Patrick et al.
1968»i
"
"

Bringmann and
Kuhn 1959"
Shaw and Lowrance
1956»2

Jackim et al.
1970"

Trama1954b1"


Trama1954bi«



Doudoroff et al.
1966s8

Boschetti and Mc-
Loughlin 1957"
"
"
Wallen et al.
1957"'


-------
458/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Sodium 18,100 ppm (2 day)
(Ni)
500 ppm (2 day)

420 ppm (2 day)

925 ppm (2 day)

10, 000 ppm (2 day)


2, 400 ppm (2 day)

750 ppm (2 day)

9, 500 ppm


9, 000 ppm


0. 35 ppm

0.23 ppm

0.15 ppm

0,78 percent NaCI
72 hts.
0.33 percent NaCI
(24 hrs)
0.50 percent NaCI
(72 hrs)
5.9-7. 5 ppm
(2 days)

2.6-6.0 ppm
(2 day)
6,200 ppm

7, 500 ppm
6, 150 ppm
3, 200 ppm

3, 500 ppm

5, 100 ppm
6, 200 ppm

1,100 ppm
1,150 ppm
8, 250 ppm
24, 000 ppm

1.0 percent
(36 mins)
60.0 ppm (2 day)

26 ppm

30 ppm

45 ppm
14,120 ppm (1 day)




11, 723 ppm (2 day)

22 ppm

0.15 ppm




Species
n

Gambusia affinis

"

'

"


"

"

Lepomis
macrochirus

Lepomis
macrochirus

Pimephales
promelas
"

Lepomis
macrochirus
Daptima magna

Daphnia magna

Daphnia magna

Salmo gairdneri


"

Limnodnlus
hoftmeister
"
Erpobdella punctata
Helisoma
campanulata
Gyrauliis
circumstnstus
Physa heterostropha
Physa heterostropha

Sphaenumct. tenue
"
Asellus communis
Argia sp.

Nais sp.

Carcinus maenas

Salmo gairdnen

Lepomis
macrochirus
Pteronarcys
Daphnia magna




Daphnia magna

Daphnia magna

"




Conditions
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water, using NaCI
BSA; a,c,d,e,g;
Na-CrO;; turbid water
BSA; Na-CrjOT;
a,c,d,e,g; turbid water
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; NaF;
turbid water
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g; turbid water;
NaNOj
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water, NaSiO
BSA, a,c,d,e,g; NajS;
turbid water
a,c,e,f; NaNO ; aerated
distilled water

BSA; a, c,d,e,i, aerated
water; distilled;
NaNO:; large fish
BSA; c.d.e.f, NaCN
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
hard water
NaCI at 25 C

NaCI at 25 C

NaCI at 50 C

BSA; a; 45 F; NaF


BSA; a; 55 C; NaF

BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI



BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI




BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI




same as above using
hard water
BSA; a,f; hard water;
NaCI
BSA, a, NazCrOi

BSA; a; NaAsO;;
55-75 F
BSA; a; NaAsO-;
55-75 F
BSA; a; NaAsCh; 60 F
static acute bioassay;
a,c, standard reference
water; cone, as
NaSiO ; plus 950 ppm
NaHSO;
same as above, but with
785 ppm NaHSO;
same as above, but with
15 ppm NaHSO,
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; cone.
as NazCrOi; plus
187 ppm Na;COs plus
88 ppm NaSiO ,
Literature citation*
„

"

"

"

"


"

"

Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958,"
1959"



Henderson et al.
1959"
"

Henderson et al.
1959"
Prasad 1959"

Prasad 1959"

Prasad 1959"

Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
1960=
"

Wurlz and Bridges
19611"
"
"
"

"

"
Wurtz and Bridges
1961"'
"
"
"
"

Learner and Ed-
wards 1963'°
Raymount and
Shields 1962'°:
Cope 1965"

"

Cope 1965"
Dowrjen and Ben-
nett 1965"
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Sodium 0.19 ppm
(Na)



76 ppm




9, 000 ppm (2 day)

2, 500 ppm (2 day)
13,750 ppm (1 day)

10,500 ppm (1 day)
6, 447 ppm (1 day)

14,125 ppm (1 day)

3,412 ppm (1 day)
18, 735 ppm (1 day)
0.21 ppm


0.28 ppm


22 ppm (1 day)

4, 206 ppm


12, 800 ppm (1 day)

6, 375 ppm (1 day)
5, 950 ppm (2 day)

3, 251 ppm
895 ppm (1 day)

630 ppm (1-4 days)

16 ppm (1 day)

13 ppm (2 day)
9 ppm
36. 5 ppm (2 day)

44.0 ppm (2 day)

80.0 ppm (2 day)

1.8 ppm (2 day)

1.4 ppm (2 day)

44 ppm (LC50)

60 ppm (LC50)

25 ppm

34 ppm
35 ppm

0.036 ppm

2800 ppm (1 day)

1800 ppm (2 day)
0. 7 ppm (1 day)
"
2,430 ppm (5 day)




12,940 ppm

Species
Daphnia magna




Daphnia magna




Hydropsyclie

Stenonemii
Carassius rarassius

Culex sp (lame)
Daphnia magna

Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea !,p (eggs)
Mollienesa latopinna
Daphnia magna


"


Daphnia magna

Daphnia magna


Lepomis
macrochirui
Lymnaea sp. (eggs)
"

"
Amphipoda

Lymnaea sp. (eggs)

Daphnia magna

"
"
Salmo gairdneri

Lepomis
macrochirus
Pteronarcys
calif ornica
Daptima magna

Simocephalui
serrula'lus
Lepomis
macrocliirus
Salmo gairdneri



Carassius auratus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pteronarcys
calilornica
Salmo gairdneri

"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Nibschia linearis

Lepomis
macrochirus
Conditions
BSA; a,c; standard ref.
water; cone, as Na«-
CrO,; plus 240 ppm
Na=CO, plus2,078
ppm Na.SOi
BSA; a,c; standard ref.
water; cone, as Na-
Sid; plus 161 ppm
Na .CO:; plus 1,396
ppm Na^SCh
BSA; a; NaCI; soft
water
"
BSA; a; c; NaCI;
standard ref. water
"
BSA; a,c; NaCI;
standard ref. water
"

"
"
BSA; a,c; standard ref.
water; Na.CrO,; plus
130 ppm NaSiO :
same as above; cone, as
Na»CrOiplus3,044
ppm Na :SOi
BSA; a,c; NajCr,0;;
standard ref. water
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water;
NaNO
BSA, a,c, NaNO,;
standard ref. water
"
BSA; a,c; NaNOa;
standard ref. water
"
BSA; a,c; NaSiO ;
standard ref. water
BSA; a,c, NaSiOs;
standard ref. water
standard ref. water;
NaiS, a,c; BSA;
"
"
static acute bioassay; a,
NaAsO:
same as above

same as above

same as above

same as above

BSA; a,c,d,i,g; NaAslh

BSA; NaAsO:; a,c,d,i,g

Field study-river;
a,c,f,i,m; NaAsO-
same as above
same as above

static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,f; NaAsO 2
static acute bioassay;
a,e Na
-------
                                      Appendix HI—Table 7/459
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent
Sulphide
Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species


Conditions

Literature citation*

(See sodium sulphide and hydrogen sulphide under sodium and hydrogen (H+))
Titanium
(Ti)



Uranium
(U)







Vanadium
(V)










Zinc . .
(Zn)















































. 120 ppm


8.2 ppm

3. 7 ppm


3.1 ppm

135 ppm

2. 8 ppm

55 ppm

13 ppm

30 ppm

4.8 ppm

55 ppm

6 ppm

0. 7 ppm (4. 5 days)

0.072 ppm (64 hr)
2-6 ppm (24 hr)

3-4 ppm (48 hr)

13 ppm

4.8 ppm

1.4 ppm

0.58 ppm

0.6 ppm



2. 86-3. 63 ppm

10-12 ppm
7. 20 mg/l


3.5mf/l

8.02 mg/l
10-12 ppm


2.9-3. 8 ppm

10-12 ppm

1.9-3. 6 ppm

8.02 ppm

4. 9 ppm

0.79-1. 27 ppm

2. 66-5. 57 ppm

0.62-0. 78 ppm

2. 36-6. 36 ppm

Pimephales
promelas

"

Pimephales
promelas

"

"

"

Pimephales
promelas
"

"

"

Lepomis
macrechirus
"

Gasterosteus
aculeatus
Daphnia mama
Salmo gairdneri
fingerlings
"

Biomphalana biossyi

"

"

Biomphalaria biossyi

Salmo gairdneri
fingerlings


Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Lepomis
macrochirus

"

"
Lepomis
macrochirus

adult

Lepomis
macrochirus
"
(adult)
Lepomis
macrochirus
"

Physa heterostropha

"

"

"

BSA; a,c,d,f; titanium
sulfate; hard water

same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c,d,f; uranyl
acetate soft water

same as above using
uranyl nitrate
BSA, a,c,d,f, uranyl
sulfate hard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c; vanadium
pentoxide hard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c; vanadyl
sulfate hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
bard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c; zinc sulphate

Lake Erie water; 25 C

hard water

hard water
14C;pH7.S±0.2;
oxygenated tap water
17C;pH7.8±0 2;
oxygenated tap water
20C;pH7.8±0.2;
oxygenated tap water
23C;pH7.8±0.2;
oxygenated
zinc chlorate and sulfate
used. 17.5 C, diluted,
well water used; 4.5
ppmCa
18-30 C; soft water

18-30 C, hard water
standard dilution water;
20 C; ZnCI 2 concen-
tration
standard dilution water;
20 C
standard dilution water
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,f,i,n,g;18C;
hard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c,d,e.f,i; 30 C;
hard water
"; soft water

BSA; a,e; ZnCI2; cone.
as Zn« 5-9 ppm DO;
same as above using
2 ppm DO
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; 20 C;
Zn ion soft water
same as above using
hard water
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; 30 C;
Zn ion soft water
same as above using
hard water
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1956i»,
1960124
"

Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 195612',
1 960i*>
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Jones 19391"

Anderson 1948°

Goodman 1951"

Goodman 1951"
Hodman and
Zakhary 1951"
"

"

Hoffman and
Zakhary 195156
Lloyd I960"



Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1957"*
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958,2«
1959"
" 19582«

"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier W

"

Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958"
"

Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958"
"

"

"

"

"

Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Zinc. . 6.91 ppm
(Zn)


3.5mg/l


4.2mg/l


12.5-12.9 mg/l


6.91 ppm



20 ppm
0. 6 ppm



4 ppm (48 hrs)


10 ppm

14 ppm
38. 5 ppm
56 ppm
4. 2 ppm (1 day)
1.9 ppm (2 day)

1.9 ppm (3 day)
1.9 ppm
49. 0 ppm (1 day)

49 ppm (2 day)

13. 4 ppm (38. 4
day)
10-12 ppm (48 hr)

10-15 ppm (48 hr)
10 ppm (48 hr)
3. 86 ppm (2 day)

26-40 ppm (48 hr)





27 ppm-85 ppm
(48 hr)


13. 4 ppm


3. 85 ppm


0.04-2 00 ppm
(1 day)


2.9-13.3 ppm

0.6^g



2. 86-3. 78 ppm

0.90-2. 10 ppm

Species
Lepomis
macrochirus


Lepomis
macrochirus

"


"


Lepemis
macrochirus


"
Lepomis
macrochirus
fingerlings

Lepomis
macrochirus

Limnodrilus hoff-
meisten
Physa beterostropha
Asellus commums
Argia sp.
Physa heterostropha
"

"
Physa heterostropha
Helisoma
companulata
Helisoma
companulata
"

Cypnnus carpio

Tilapia mossambica
Danio sp
Salmo gairdneri

Salmo gairdneri
smolts




Salmo gairdneri



Helisoma
campanulata

"


Salmo salar



aquab'c animals

Salmo salar



Lepomis
macrochirus
"

Conditions
BSA; a,c,d,e,i; ZnCI,;
cone, as Zn+2;
aerated distilled
water; large fish
soft water; 30 C


soft water; 20 C


hard water; 20 & 30 C


continuous flow, acute
bioassay; a,c,e,f;
ZnCI-; aerated dis-
tilled water
BSA, a.c.e, ZnCb
zinc chlorate and sulfate
used; 17.5 C, diluted,
well water used, 4.5
ppmCa
LD50 value, BSA; a.c.d;
zinc sulphate cone, as
Zn
BSA; a,c,d,i; zinc sulfate

same as above
same as above
same as above
BSA; am sulphate
static acute bioassay,
zinc sulfate
static acute bioassay zinc
same as above
same as above

static acute bioassay
zinc
same as above

pH 7. 0-7. 2; 28-30 C
8 8 mg/l CO
"
"
BSA; a,c,d,f; zinc
sulphate
cone, as Zn using
ZnSO*; changing per-
cent salinity; hard-
ness 320 ppm; alk
240 ppm; aerated
water
cone, as Zn. using
ZnSOi; hardness 320
ppm; alk. 240 ppm;
aerated water, pH7.8
13 C; hard water;
zinc sulfate (3. 03 ppm
Zn) time not given
13 C, in soft water
ZnSOi; 0.87 ppm Zn
time not given
continuous flow acute
bioassay a,c,f; lab
waterhad3/ig/IZn
and 2 ^g /I Cu


cone, as Zn, LC50
Value; Zn added as
ZnSOt continuous flow
bioassay; a,c,d,e,f
18 C; in soft water;
BSA; a,f
30 C; in soil water;
BSA; 3,1
Literature citation*
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1959"


Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
I960'
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955K2

Cairns Jr. 195725
Lloyd 1960"



Herbert 1961"


Wurt! and Bridges
1961H1
"
"
"
Wurtz 1962"°
"

"
"
"

Wurtz 1962»»

"

Sreenivasan and
Raj 1963i»
"
"
Herbert and
Shurben 1964"
Herbert and Wake-
ford 1964-'




"



Raymount and
Shields 1964»«

"


Schoenthal 1964'"



Skidmore 1964»«

Sprague 1964m



Cairns Jr. 1965"

"


-------
460/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Zinc 6. 60-9 47 ppm
(Zn)
6.18-9.50 ppm

28 ppm (2 day)



105 ppm (2 day)
5. 2 ppm (2 day)



3. 9 ppm (2 day)

0 96 mg/l


33. 4 mg/l

5 46 mg/!

40. 9 mg/l

6. 44 mg/l

1 27 mg/l

0 88 mg/l


5 37 mg/l


1.69 mg/l (12 days)

3.95 ppm (1 day)

2 55 ppm (2 day)
1.83 ppm
1.71 ppm (7 day)
1.63 ppm (12 day)
0.95 ppm (1 day)

0.95 ppm (2 day)
0.87 ppm
0. 87 ppm (7 day)
4 9 ppm

32. 3 ppm


Species
«

"

Brachydamo rerio
(adult)


"(eggs)
Lepomis
macrochirus


Salmo gairdnen

Pimephales
promelas

"

Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepom s
macrochirus
Carassius carassius

Lebistes reticulatus

Pimephales
promelas

Lepomis
macrochirus

Pimephales
promelas (eggs)
Pimephales
promelas
"
"
"
"
"

"
"
Pimephales
promelas

"


Conditions Literature citation*
18 C; in hard water; "
BSA; a,f
30 C, in hard water, "
BSA; a, I
BSA, a,c,d,e,f; distilled Cairns Jr. et al.
water, aerated, 24 C; 196529
5-9 ppm DO, ZnCI>,
cone, as Zn
same as above "
BSA, a,c,d,e,f, aerated "
distilled water,
ZnCb;conc asZn,
24 C; 5-9 ppm DO
field study, river, Herbert etal.
a,c,e,l,l,m. 1965''-
BSA, c,d,e,1; soft water Pickering and Hen-
zinc sulfate, cone, as derson 196593
Zn
same as above using "
hard water
same as above using "
soft water
same as above using "
hard water
same as above using "
soft water
same as above using "
hard water
BSA, c,d,e,f, zinc ace- Pickering and Hen-
late, soft water, cone. derson 196593
asZn 1966"
BSA, c,d,e,f; soft water; Pickering and Hen-
ZnCb; cone as Zn derson 196593,
1966"
Pickering and Vigor
196595
BSA, a,c,d, zinc sulfate; "
tap water for eggs
same as above "
same as above "
same as above "
same as above "
BSA; a, c,d, zinc sulfate; "
tap water, minnow fry
same as above "
same as above "
same as above "
continuous flow acute Mount 1966s2
bioassay a,c,d,e, hard-
ness 50 mg I, pH 8.0
same as above with "
hardness 200 mg/l
and pH 6.0
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Zinc 4. 6 ppm
(Zn)
16 0 ppm (5 days)
17.3 ppm (5 days)
8. 4 ppm (7 days)
14.3 ppm (5 day)


5X10 4M to
7. 5X10-1 M



2. 8-3. 5 ppm
4.2 ppm



1 ppm (32 hrs)

0.75 ppm (63 hrs)
0.56 ppm (96 hrs)
4. 3 ppm (5 day)

0.79-1 27 ppm

2. 86-3. 78 ppm

7. 2 ppm (20 day)



12.0 ppm (20 day)

10 0 mg 'I (48 hr)

100 mg/l (48 hr)
12mg'l(48hr)


200 mg/l (48 hr)

46 0 ppm

7 5 ppm

7. 6 ppm
12 0 ppm
46 ppm (24 hr)
9. 2 mg/l
promelas
10 ppm
Species
Salmo gair Inefi

Perca fluinitilis
Rutilus rutilus
Gobio gobio
Abramis biama
juvenile salmon

bryozoans, tube-
worms, tiivalve
molluscs
Salmo gairiinen

"
Lepomis
macrochirus


Lebistes reticulatus

Lebistes reticulatus
Lebistes reticulatus
Nitzschia Imearis

Physa heterostropha

Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus


"

Penaens duorarum

Penaeus aztecus
Hemigrapsis

oregonensis
Clmocardium
nuttalli
tubificid wcrm

Pimephales
promelas
Xiphophorus
tubificid worm
Pimephales

Daphnia
Conditions
static acute bioassay,
c,e; zinc sulfate
same as above
same as above
same as above
same as above





alkylbenzene sulphonate
used
BSA; a,c,d,e,f,o
BSA; a.c.d.e, Zn++; all
fish acclimatized For
2weeksinsyn dil.
water
BSA, a,c,f,n,o

BSA; a,c,f,n,o
BSA; a,c,f,n,o
BSA, a,c,e; ZnCb

BSA; a,c,e; ZnCI :

BSA, a,c,e, ZnCh

same as above; contin-
uous flow acute bio-
assay. 1 8 mg/l DO;
a,c,d,e,f
same as above with
5. 6 mg/l DO
15 C; in the dark, ZnSOi
cone, as Zn




"

static acute bioassay,
a,c, zinc sulfate


23 C (inbred strains)
23 C"
pH7.5


TLm. Zn'+
Literature citation'
Ball 1967'

"
"
"
«
Srpague and Ram
sey1965»9
Wisely and Blick
19671"

Brown 1968n

Brown et al. 1968"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 19682^


Chen and Selleck
I968;"
"
"
Patrick et al
1968"
Patrick et al
1968"
"

Pickering 196892



"

Portmann1968"

»
//


"

Whitley 19B81"'

Rachlm and Perl-
mutter 1968i»!

Whitley 1968"-
Brungs 1969-"

Tabata 1959121

-------
                                                                     Appendix III—Table 2/461




APPENDIX III-TABLE 2—Sublethal doses of inorganic chemicals for aquatic organisms
Constituent Chronic dose
Aluminum 106 mg/l
(Al)

190 ppm



206 ppm



136 ppm

<6.7ppm


Ammonia <134 ppm or
(NH3) 91 mg/l


<8 75 ppm


<106ppm


8.75 mg/l


17 ppm

1000 ppm




1000 ppm


50 ppm


3000 ppm


1000 ppm

100 ppm


1000 ppm



3000 ppm



1000 ppm



100 ppm



91 ppm


3.1 mg/l

86 mg 'I
75 mg/l

Species
Daphnia magna


Daphnia magna



Daphnia magna



Daphnia magna

Daphnia magna


Daphnia magna






"


"


Steurastrum
paradoxum
Salmo gairdnen




"


"


"


'




Salmo gairdnen



"



"



"



Daphnia magna


Leptodora kindtu

Cyclops vernalis
Mesocyclops
leukarti
Conditions Literature Citation
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1944'«
tion, in Lake Erie
water, AWSO,).t
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1944"-'
tion, a,e, BSA; alumi-
num ammonium sul-
fate
threshold of immobiliza- "
tion, BSA, a,e, using
aluminum potassium
sulfate
same, using aluminum "
sulfate
threshold of immobiliza- " 19481",
tion after 64 hrs, 19501K
Constituent Chronic dose
Ammonia 5 mg/l
(NH3)
152 mg/l

13 mg '1

0.04N

0.01 N


jl mg'l

420 mg 1

Al Cl , BSA, a: 25 C
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1944'19
tion m 64 hr. BSA,
a,e, ammonium chlo-
ride, 25 C
BSA, a,e; threshold of
immobilization, am-
monium hydroxide
threshold of immobiliza- "
tion; ammonium sul-
fate BSA, a,c
threshold cone of im-
mobilization using
NHjQH,25C
inhibition of growth Chu 1942""

loss of equilibrium in Gnndley 1946''-
27 3 mm in tap
water, ammonium
chloride, cone as am-
monia, a,c,e,f
420 mg'l


320 mg/l


420 mg/l


410 mgil


350 mg/l


420 mg'l



5.0-8.0 ppm (NH.,)
same as above, loss of " |
equilibrium m 52 5
mm
same as above, loss of
equilibrium in >1000
mm
same as above using
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium in 292 min
same as above using


3.5-10 Oppm




Antimony
(Stj) (See also Nal
distilled water, loss of ' 	 	 ' J7 m
equilibrium in 725 mm.
same as above using "
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium in 4,320
mms
loss of equilibrium in Gnndley 1946™

15 mg, I

3. 5 mg/l
29 8 mm, tap water,
BSA, a,c,e,f. ammon-
ium sulfate, cone as
NH,
same as above using "
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium in 318
mms
same as above using "
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium in 847
mms
same as above using "
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium m -5.760
mms.
BSA, a threshold of im- Anderson 1948I: '
mobilization in 64 hrs.
ammonium chloride;
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1948151
tion
" "
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1948"1
tion
1.0 mg'l


Arsenic
Species
Diaptomus
oregonensis
Daphnia magna

Diaptomus
oregonensis
Gasterosteus
aculeatus
"


Daphnia magna

Navicula semmulum





"


"


"





"



Oncorhynchus
kisutch


Oncorhynchus
tshanytscha





Daphnia magna

protozoans

green algae
Daphnia

Micropterus
salmoides


Conditions Literature Citation
„

threshold of immobiliza- "
tion, using ( NH;) 'SO;
same as above "

immediate negative Jones 1948-'"
response
reactions are slow, some "
are overcome by the
exposure
threshold of immobilize- Anderson 1950IS!
tion, 25 C, NH Cl
50 percent reduction of Academy of Nat-
growth, soft water, ural Sciences
22 C 1960i«
50 percent reduction of "
growth, hard water,
22 C
50 percent reduction of "
growth, soft water,
28 C
50 percent reduction of "
growth, hard water,
28 C
50 percent reduction of "
growth, soft water,
30 C
50 percent reduction of "
growth, hard water,
30 C
22 C m hard and soft "
water 50 percent re-
duction m division
(growth)
in aerated fresh water. Holland et al.
loss in equilibrium I96019"
spasms with gills and
jaws gaping
in aerated salt water, "I960199
reduction in growth,
loss of equilibrium,
Alk 112 ppm, DO
8 4 ppm


thresho'd of immobile- Anderson 1948l!il
tion, antimony tri-
chloride, BSA; a
K'ShOiC H 0 , Inn- Bringmannand
drance ot food intake Kuhn 1959"
" hindrance of cell
division
" hindrance of "
movement
caused projectile vomit- Jernejcic )969!M
ingSbOH(C,HjO,,K!)
used


(As) (See also Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K))
20 ppm


250 ppm


30-35 ppm




4-10 Mg

0.5-2Mg


Salmo gairdnen and
minnows




minnows




Mytilus edules

Mytilus edules


cone of arsenic using Gnndley 194615»
sodium arsemte, fish
overturned m 36 hrs.
cone of arsenic using "
sodium arsenate, fish
overturned in 16 hrs
fins, scales damaged, Boschetti and Me-
diarrhea, heavy Loughlm 1957'"
breathing and hem-
orrhage around (in
areas
amount of As retained Sautet et al.
in flesh 1964™
amount of As retained in
shell when exposed to
100 g I of As

-------
462/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 2—Continued
Constituent Chronic dose
Arsenic
(As)






Barium
(Ba)
100 2/1 As

100e/IAs

1.8 mg/l



<83 ppm

Species
"



Stizostedion vitreum
vitreum (walleye)


Daphma magna

Conditions
bysuss accumulated
250-500 p(
excreta contained 550-
800 Mg
as As (3 0 ml of arse-
nous acid) regurgita-
tion of stomach con-
tents into throat
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BaCb; BSA;a;c
Literature Citation
»

"

Jernejcic 1969204



Anderson 1944149

* (see also Sodium (Na) I Potassium iK))








Beryllium
(Be)




Boron





Bromine
(Br>«





Cadmium
(Cd)

















Calcium
(Ca)

















12 mg/l

133 me/1

5000 mg/l
29 ppm


3 rag/1



10-HO-' M

5000 mg/l

80,000mg/!


10 mg/l

(see also Na)
<0.0026ppm


10.0 ppm


0.0026 mg/l

0 05-0. 10 mi/I


',42 ppm


0.1-0. 2 ppm




50 ppm



10-5-10-2 M

1,332 ppm

920 ppm


1730 mg/l


1440 mg/l

22,080 mg/l
12,060 mg/l
8, 400 ppm






Leptodora kindtn

Cyclops vernalis

lish
Daphnia magna


Carassius auratus



Fundulus
heteroclitus
Salmo gairdnen

"


marine fish

Daphnia magna


marine fish


Daphnia magna

Australorbis
glabratus

Sewage organisms


Crassostrea
virgimca



Fundulus
heteroclitus


Fundulus
heteroclitus
Daphnia magna

"


Cyclops vernalis


Mesocyclops
leukarti
white fish fry
pickerel fry
Lepomis
macrochirus





threshold of immobiliza-
tion; 20-25 C; BaCh
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, 20-25 C; Bad-
same as above
BSA; a, threshold of im-
mobilization; Bad:;
25 C
using lagoon wastes
from Be plant fish be-
came sluggish after 21
days
cone, affecting liver en-
zyme activity
slight darkening of the
skin using boric acid
caused immobilization
and loss of equilibrium
of fish; using boric acid
violent irritant response

threshold of immobiliza-
tion; CaCl2, BSA, a;
in 64 hrs.
violent irritant activity
caused by irritation of
respiratory enzymes
threshold of immobiliza-
tion
produced distress syn-
dromes; distilled
water.
50 percent inhibition of
0: utilization, BOD,
a; CdSO
20-week exposure; little
shell growth lost pig-
mentation of mantle
edge; coloration of
digestive diverticulae
pathological changes in
•ntestmal tract, kid-
ney, and gills; changes
in essosmophil lineage
cone affecting liver en-
zyme activity
threshold of immobiliza-
tion; CaCI BSA: a;c
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, CaClj, BSA;
a;c, 20-25 C
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, 20-25 C using
CaCI.
same as above

same as above
same as above
CaCI 1 34 percent loss
of tissue fluid; pH
8 3; 22.5 C, dissolu-
tion of mucous cover-
ing of body causing
dehydration of muscu-
lature
Anderson 19481"

Anderson 1948'sl

"
Anderson 1948,'s'
19501M

Pomelee 1953^



Jackimetal. 1970™

Wurtz 1945256




Hiattetai. 195319'

Anderson 1948lrl


Hiatt et al. 1953"'


Anderson 1948"1,
1950'"
Harry and Aldrich
1958"'

Hermann 1S5919S


Sinister and Prmgle
1969M«



Gardner and Yevic It
19701*'


Jackim et al.
1970!M
Anderson 1944'49

Anderson 19481"


Anderson 1948'"


"

"
"
Abegg 1950'«



Constituent Chronic dose
Calcium 1. 25X10-" M
(Ca)
Chlorine 0.3 ppm
(Cl)


10 mg/l (5 days)

Chloride (see also sodium and potassium)
(CI-) 2 mM

Chromium
(Cr) (see also sodium and potassium)
<0.6ppm


<3.6ppm


6. 4-16.0 ppm


3. 2-6.4 ppm

3. 2-6. 4 ppm

0 32-1. 6 ppm
728 ppm




1.0 ppm


0.2 ppm



0.21 mg/l

not given



2-4 mg/l

2. 5 ppm




10-50 ppm


Cobalt > 26 ppm
(Co)

>3.1 ppm


2. 8 mg/l


5 mg/l

2. 5 mg/l
1.0 mg/l
0.5 mg/l
64.0 ppm


5 mg/l

0.5, 0.05, and
5 mg/l
Species
Cymnogaster ag-
gregata
trout



Macrocystis pyrifera


Salmo gain! nen



Daphnia mjgna


»


Chlorococcum
vanegatus

Chlorococcum
humicola
Scenedesmus
obliquus
Lepocinchssteimi
Lepomis
macrochirus



BOD


fish



Microregma

Salmo gairdnen



Salmo gairilnen

»




fish


Daphma mngna


Daphnia m.igna


Daphnia imigna


Daphnia

E. coh
Scenedesmus
Mtcroregmii
Sewage orginisms


Saphrolegma

Cyprmus carpio
(young)
Conditions
activation of brain
acetylcholinesterase
symptoms of restless-
ness, dyspnea, loss of
equilibrium & spastic
convulsions
10-15 percent reduction
in photosynthesis

change in respiration
rate


chromic acid, threshold
of immobilization,
BSAa;c;
threshold of immobiliza-
tion; chromic chlonde,
BSA; a, 64 hrs
complete inhibition of
growth for 56 days,
Cr as dtchromate
same as above

same as above

same as above
hydration of tissues of
body due to coagula-
tion of mucous cover-
ing body; 22. 5 C;
pH5.9
10 percent reduction in
02 utilization; lab
bioassay; j; chromic
sulfate.
retarded rate of growth
and resulted in in-
creased mortality
(Cr«)
threshold eltect

change in erythrocyte
surface area and in-
crease or decrease in
haematocrit value
raising of hematocnts

Cr as chromate, lab bio-
assay; tap water; glu-
cose transport by gut
segments reduced 40
percent from controls.
decreased extractable
protein content of
blended fish muscle
cobaltous chloride; BSA;
a,c, threshold of im-
mobilization.
threshold of immobiliza-
tion for 64 hr exposure
BSA; a; CoCI:
threshold of immobiliza-
tion using CoCb

threshold effects CoCI:

«
//
//
50 percent inhibition of
Oz utilization; BOD;
a, CoCI:
suppression of growth

inhibition of growth in
small carp
Literature Citatioi
Abou-Donia and
Menzel 1967>«
Cole 1941'"



Clendenning and
North I960'"

Amend et al.
1956i'8


Anderson 1944'"


" 194815'


Hervey 1949"6


/

,;

//
Abegg 19M'«




Ingols 1955M2


U.S. Dept of
Commerce
19582'-

Bnngmann and
Kuhn 1959""
Haisband and
Haisband
1963"°

Scmtfman and
Fromm 19592"
Fromm and Stoke!
1962180



Castell et al.
1970W3

Anderson 1944'"


Anderson 19481"


Ohio River Valley
Water Commis-
sion 1950™
Bnngmann and
Kuhn 19591^
-/
a
,i
Hermann 195919S


Shabalma 1964'-"

«


-------
                                         Appendix 111—Table 2/463
TABLE 2—Continued
Constituent Chronic dose
Cobalt 5 mg/l
(Co) 10-50 ppm


Copper 1 Mg/l Cu
(Cu)

2. 5-. 0 (ig/l


0 1 mg/l Cu

2.0 ppm


0.13 ppm

0.096 mg/l


0.1 ppm


>0.2mg/l


0.02-0 3 mg/l

<0.2-0 3 mg/l
<0 2 mg/l

0.027 ppm


2.7mg/l

1.9 mg/l

0.0024 mg/l

0.178 mg/l


metal sheet; 45
percent Ni 55
percent Cu
0.027 mg/l


0 16 mg/l

0.1 mg/l

21 ppm


1 0 mg/l


0.1-0 5 ppm



0.563 ppm
1 00 ppm


16 ppm

1.1 ppm


0.044 ppm
Species
Saprolegnea
fish


Chlorella
pyrenoidosa

Chlorella
pyrenoidosa
Nitzchia palea
roach

large mouth black
bass

Crassostrea
virgmica
Daphma magna


Daphma magna


Bugula netntma


barnacles

Bugula nentma
'

Daphma magna


Cyclops vernalis

Mesocyclops
leukarti
Diaptomus
oregonensis
Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha

Balanus amphitnte


Daphma magna


sea urchin

Australorbis
glabratus
Sewage organisms


Sphaerotilus


oyster



Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha
(young)
Oncorhynchus
kisuthh silver
salmon
Rana pipiens

Salmo gairdneri


Salmo gairdneri
Conditions
suppressed growth
decreased extractable
protein content of
blended fish muscle
suppressed growth; 4-hr
exposure 20 C, GMg/l
Fe
decreased photosyn-
thetic rate

cannot withstand cone.
greater than given
in distilled water,
CuSO i lethal thres-
hold
turn green in 21 days
(unmarketable1)
threshold cone, of im-
mobilization using
cupnc chloride
threshold of immobiliza-
tion using CuSO
BSA,a;c
complete inhibition of
growth of attached
fauna
growth of young
barnacles is inhibited
retarded growth
retarded polypide forma-
tion
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, cupnc chloride;
BSA,a;(64hrs)
threshold of immobiliza-
tion


"

loss of equilibrium and
initial mortalities,
Cu(NO,)
malformation of the shell
bases; edges scalloped
not smooth
threshold cone of im-
mobilization using
cupnc chloride
as Cu, abnormalities
occur in eggs
produced distress syn-
drome.
50 percent inhibition of
0" utilization ,BOD;
copper sulphate, a,
inhibition of growth,
cone, of CuSO,

changes in digestive di-
verticuium tissues
with desquamation
and necrosis of
stomach epithelium.
loss of equilibrium and
initial mortalities in
19 hrs, cone as Cu
pH 7 9; Cu(NO,>>
survival, growth, repro-
ductive and feeding
responses
chronic static bioassay;
a,c, copper sulfate
water, copper sulfate as
Cu, BSA,a,e;p; 3
days, 3.5ppmZn
same as above using
Literature Citation
»
Castell et al.
19701"3

Nielsen 1939= »


"


Nielsen 1939"3

Cole 1941i«


Galtsoff 19431M

Anderson 1944"'


Anderson 1944i«


Miller 1946=i5


Miller 19462^

Miller 1946=i5
"

Anderson 1948'5i


Anderson 1948-

"



"


Weis 1948255


Anderson 19501'=


Cleland 19531'"

Harry and Aldnch
1958HI
Hermann 1959"''


Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19601"'
Fuiiya 1960182



Holland etal.
I960"'
Holland et al.
1960iw

Kaplan and Yoh
196121"
Lloyd 1961b2»


Lloyd 1961b2"
Constituent Chronic dose
Copper
(Cu)
35-45 percent of
incipient lethal
level
0.1 mg I



1-2 mg/l

2.3Mg'l

0 42M8'I



0 7 ppm



1-5 ppm CuSOi







10-20Mg'l



30 MB 'I
0 01-0 1 ppm



20 Mg 1

0 05 ppm

1. 25X10'i M


160Mg"

0.06 ppm

0.02 mg/l

<1 Oppm







<1 0 ppm
0.35-0. 43 toxic
units
0.056 ppm

5 6ug 1
0.055-0 265Mg/ml
0.025-0 05 ppm




33M8/1

10-50 ppm


Species


Salmo salar


Nereis virens



Carcmus

Salmo salar

"



goby



Dncomelama
formosana






sea urchin



sea urchin
Helix pomaiha



oysters

"

Cymalogaster
aggregata

common guppy

Salmo salar

Oncorhynchus

crayfish Orconectes
rusticus






crayfish
Salmo salar

Daphma

Salmo gairdneri
dmoflagellates
oysters




Pimephales
promelas
fish


Conditions
0 56 ppm Zn; and
soft water (7 days)
inhibition of migratory
habits

threshold of toxicity,
cone as Cu accumu-
lation in gut and
body wall
threshold of toxicity,
11-12 day exposure
as Cu , threshold for
avoidance for parr
as Cu, plus B.1 Mg 1
Zn, fish are 9 5-15.3
cm in length, avoid-
ance
reduced appetite and re-
duced 0? consumption
freshwater; pH 7 2,
still water
decrease in food con-
sumption, concentra-
tion of Cu along wall
of digestive gland and
in the loose spongy
connective tissue of
the stomach and
proximal intestine
retards body growth of
pluteal larvae, regress-
ing of arms is re-
tarded
affects growth of arms
increase in mucous
secretion and no
response to tactile
stimuli
green color in oysters

inhibition of self
purification
acetylcholmesterase
activity is inhibited
by Cu*=
reduction in number of
mucous cells
chronic static bieassay,
CuSO,, as Cu.
sublethal effects on
fmgerlings
inhibition of respiratory
enzymes degenerative
effect of cells and
tissues including dis-
ruption of gluthathi-
one equilibrium
continuous flow bio-
assay
same as above
reduction in number of
spawning salmon
inhibition of growth

threshold avoidance level
growth inhibition at 20 C
bodies became bluish-
green in color, and
shell showed excellent
growth, mantle edge
pigmentation in-
creased, and mortal-
ities increased
prevention of spawning
hard water
decreased extractable
protein content of
blended fish muscle
Literature Citation


Sprague and
Saunders 1963216

Raymount and
Shields 1964'2s


Reish 1964=='

Sprague et al
19642"
"



Syazuki 1964™



Wmkler and Chi
1964=55






Bougis 196515S



"
DeClaventi 1965™



Sprague et al
1965=15


Abou-Doma and
Menzel 1967»<

Cusick 19671"

Grande 19671 s'

Grande 1967""

Hubschman1967!»»







Saunders and
Sprague 1967=='
Mueck and Adema
19682"!
Sprague 1968=u
Mandelh 19692"
Shuster and
Prmgle 1969236




Mount and
Stephen 19692"
Castell et al.
1970i«3


-------
Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                           TABLE ^—Continued
Constituent Chronic dose
Copper
(Cu)


Cyanide
(CN-)












































Fluorine
(F)













Iron
(Fe)








0.2 mg/l

10-9-10-1 M

0.1-0. 3 ppm

0.126 mg/l


0.1 5 mg/l

0.7 mg/l

1 ppm





5X10-J M



7300 mg/l

0.1 mg/l
1 ppm


0.25 ppm



10 mg/l







not given



2 mM CN-




270 mg/l
95 mg/l

226 mg/l
180 mg/l

500 ppm





150 ppm



2.0 mg/l

< 152 ppm

130 ppm

< 38 ppm


5.0ppm(1 day)
Species
Oncorhynchus
tshanytscha
Kilhfish

Crassius auratus

trout


trout

Salmo gairdnen

fish





Mayoreila
palestmensis


Chlorella

fish
fish


goby, perch, mullet



Lepomis
macrochirus






Cypnnus carpio
minnow, gudgeon
Rhodeus senceus

squid




Daphma
Scenedesmus

Microregma
Eschenchia coh

Oncorhynchus
kisutch




Salmo gairdnen



trout, salmon,
roach
Daphma magna

"

Daphma magna


goby
Conditions
inhibition of growth

change in liver enzyme
activity
hard water using KCN;
respiratory depressant
overturned in 170 mms.


overturned in 170 mms.
CN-
fish overturned

gills become brighter m
colour due to inhibi-
tion by cyanide of the
oxidase responsible for
transfer of 0> from
blood to tissues
increased respiration of
organism in glucose-
containing solutions,
a.c, BSA,
Inhibition of photosyn-
thesis
fish overturned
respiratory depressant-
gills became brighter
in color
change m 0; uptake;
reduction in appetite
of some still water,
pH8 2 KCN
3 0 mg'llree CO^;
cone as CN~ super-
ficial coagulation of
mucous, Alk 1 5
tug I resulting in
death of some, pH
6 0; CN- complexed
with silver,
loss of equilibrium,
nervous system and
respiration are ef-
fected
affects the Ca efflux in
the axons; after 90-
150 mm rate constant
for loss of Ca was in-
creased 5-10 fold
23 C using NaF
threshold effect
24 C using NaF
threshold effect
27 C using NaF
threshold effect
Alk 47. 5 ppm, DO 8.4
ppm, after 72 hr ex-
posure survivors were
in poor condition, dark
m color with light
colored spots at end ol
snout
90 percent mortality in
21 days; BSA; a.d;

iidiu water
blockage of gills; Fe203

BSA; a, c; threshold of
immobilization FeSOi
BSA, a; c; threshold of
immobilization Fed;
BSA; a; threshold of
mobilization in 64
hrs;
reduction in appetite in
Literature Citation
Hazel and Meith
197011'
Jackim et al
1970='"
Cole 1941'"

Ohio River Valley
Water Commis-
sion 195022i
Southgate 1950™

Herbert and Mer-
ken 1952'93
Southgate 1 953™





Reich 19552=o



Reich 1955226

Neil 1956=' s
Jones 1964'™


Syazuki 1964™



Doudoroff et al
1966'"






Malacca 1966="



Blaustem and
Hodgkm 1969'"



Brmgmann and
Kuhn 1959'59



Holland etal.
I960'99




Herbert and Shur-
ben 1964191


Nielsen 1939219

Anderson 1944149

Anderson 1944149,
1950 "2
Anderson 19481",
1950152

Syazuki 1964249
Constituent Chronic dose
'ron
(Fe)
27 MS/I

1. 25X10-' M

10-100 mg/l











.Bad 5 mg/l
(Pb)



1.25 ppm


0 33-644 mg/l

0.04N



50 mg/l




30. 6 ppm


1.0 mg/l


1.25 ppm



2.0 ppm



1. 25X10-4 M

25 ppm



150 ppm







1000 ppm





10, 20, 40 mg/l

25 mg/l

Species


Phaeodactyhm
tricornutum
CymatogasttT
aggregata
Carassius auratus











fish




Daphma mai'na


tadpoles

Gasterosteu!,
aculeatus


cattish




barnacles


Cypnnus canio


Poecilia reticulata



Lebistes retieulatus



Cymatogaster
aggregata
Rana pipierr,



"







Rana pipiens





Lepomis cyar ellus

Salvelinus malma

Conditions
1 day exposure using
ferrous sulfate
Severe clumping of
diatom cells
inhibition of AChE
activity
epithelial edema, hyper-
secretion of mucous,
inflammation, capil-
lary congestion de-
struction of respiratory
epithelium, blockage
of gill filaments and
lamellae by micro-
ferruginous ppt and
occurrence of mtra-
cellular iron m epi-
thelial cells
precipitation of mucous
of gills decreasing
permeability of gills to
dissolved 0- (00^
6 2 ppm)
threshold cl immobiliza-
tion, 64- hrs PbCI>
BSA, a
negative reaction, lead
nitrate
Fish reacted negatively
then positively due to
osmotic pressure of
solution
iniury to blood cells
during exposure up to
183 days, cone as
lead acetate, in tap
water
deformation of shells
due to growth on un-
favorable substrates
harmed serum during
long exposure; cone.
asPb
retardation of growth,
increase m mortality,
delayed sexual matur-
ity
chronic static bioassay
Pb(NO); retardation
of growth, delay in
sexual maturity and
increased mortality
27 percent in 90 days.
inhibition of acetyl-
chlonesterase activity
Sloughing of the skin
after 20-days, loss of

righting reflexes, loss
of normal semi-erect
posture
total loss of righting re-
flexes, excitement,
salivation, and muscu-
lar twitchmgs present
upon 1st exposure;
darkening of liver,
gall bladder spleen &

kidney observed
for 48 hrs gastric
mucosa eroded red
blood cell and white
blood cell counts de-
creased with increas-
ing Pb.
avoided these concen-
trations
reduction of growth

Literature Citation


Davies 1966"2

ftftou-Donia and
Menzell 1967'"
Ashley 1970'='











Westfall 1945=51




Anderson 1948IS1


Jones 19482»5

Jones 1948213



Doudoroff and Katz
1953"-



Stubbmgs 1959"'


Fujiya 1961'83


Crandall and Good
night 1962'"


Crandall and Good-
night 19621"


Abou-Doma and
Menzel 1967'«
Kaplan et al.
1967»



"







Kaplan et al.
19672M




Summerfeit and
Lewis 1967218
Dorfman and Whit-
worth 19691"

-------
                                         Appendix III—Table 2/465
TABLE 2—Continued
Constituent
Lead
(Pb)



Magnesium
(Mg)



Manganese
Chronic dose
10-7-10-2 M

0.1-0.2 mg/l


50 ppm

740 ppm

7. 2 ppm

Species
Killifish

Crassostrea
virgmica

Staurastrum
paracloxum
Daphnia magna

Botryococcus

Conditions
change in liver enzyme
activity
induced changes in
mantle & gonad
tissue.
certain inhibition of
growth using MgSOj
BSA, a; threshold of
immobilization MgCh
inhibition of growth

Literature Citation
Jackim et al.
19702<»
Pnngle (unpub-
lished)^8

Chu 1942i«

Anderson 1948'"

"

(Mn) (see also Potassium (K) and Sodium (NaV)








Mercury
(Hg)














Molybdenum
(Mo)
Nickel
(Ni)





















Nitrate




PH


50 ppm
50 mg/l
1.25X10-4

10,000 ppm


10, 000 ppm
1,000 ppm
<0. 006 ppm

O.S1 ppm


3.2X10-= mg/hr
0.01 ppm




0.1 ppm

0.1 ppm
10-MO-2 M

54 mg/l

<0.7 ppm


0.7 mg 'I

1.5 mg/l

0 1 mg/l

0.05 mg/l

1.25X10-4 M

10 ppm





100 ppm

10 ppm
0 5-10 mg/l
0.0007N
1. 25X10-1 M

10, 20-40 mg/l

pH9 0
pH4.0

Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Cymatogaster
aggregata

Lebistes reticulatus


Bufo valliceps
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna

Sewage organisms


Japanese eel.
Crassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus




Bufo valliceps

Daphnia magna
killifish

Scenedesmus

Daphnia magna


Daphnia

Scenedesmus

E. coh

Microregma

Cymatogaster
aggregata
Lebistes reticulatus





Bufo valliceps

Daphnia magna
Cyanophyta
minnow
Cymatogaster
aggregata
Lepomis cyanellus

oyster larvae
fish

threshold of immobiliza-
tion, MnCI; BSA, a
as Mn, threshold of im-
mobilization; 23 C
activation of acetyl-
cholmesterase

inhibition of essential
sulfhydryl groups at-
tached to key enzyme,
lab bioassay
same as above; using
tadpoles
as above
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, HgCUa.BSA,
50 percent inhibition of
0 utilization, HgCh
BOD, a,
accumulation in the
kidney
cation combined with
essential sulfhydryl
group attached to a
key enzyme to cause
inhibition, a,c,e, BSA
same as above using
tadpoles
same as above
change in liver enzyme
activity
threshold cone for
deleterious effect
threshold of immobiliza-
tion Nl(NH,)>(SOi).
BSA, a,
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, NiCI
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, NiCI
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, NiCI
threshold of immobiliza-
tion. NiCI>
inhibition of acetyl-
cholmesterase activity
bioassay, a,c,e, cation
combined with essen-
tial snlfhydryl group
attached to key en-
zyme to cause inhibi-
tion
same as above, using
tadpoles
same as above.
growth inhibition
as Pb(NO,)'., showed
negative response
Pb(NO,);; caused 73
percent inhibition of
AChE activity
avoided these concen-
trations

injury to larvae
coagulation of proteins
of epithelial cells
Anderson 19481"
195015=
Bnngmann and
Kuhn 19591'9
Abou-Donia and
Menzel 1967i«

Shaw and Grushkm
1967--M

"
Anderson 19481"

Hermann 1959'85


Hibiyaand Ogun
1961"8
Shaw and Grushkm
1967"'



11


Jackim etal
1970!'"
Bnngmann and
Kuhn1959'ss
Anderson 1948r>i


Anderson 1950IW

Brmgmann and
Kuhn 1959ii8


"

Abou-Donia and
Menzel 1967'"
Shaw and Grushkm
19672-1




"


Sparling 19683«
Jones 1948™=
Abou-Ooma and
Menzel 1967"'
Summerfeitand
Lewis 1967"8

Gaardner 19321"'
Cole 19411"

Constituent Chronic dose
pH 62 ppm

pH2 8

pH5 4


pH11.4
pH6.5
pH 5 51 (3 day)

50-150 ppm

Potassium
(K)
0 6 ppm


0.63 ppm

373 ppm


1000 pom



200 ppm


2000 ppm



1000 ppm


20 ppm



432 ppm


10 5 ppm

15 ppm


17 0 ppm


0 072 ppm

Selenium >800 ppm
(Se)

2. 5 mg/l of Se


2 5 mg lot Se

90 mg 'I of Se

183 mg/l of Se
Sliver 6X10-«
(Ag) 3.3X10-1 M
0.0051 ppm


Species
Daphnia magna

Crassius auratus

Gasterosteus
aculeatus


oyster
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha
short-necked clam


Daphnia magna


Daphnia magna

Daphnia magna


Salmo gairdnen



Salmo gairdnen


Salmo gairdnen



/,


"



Daphnia magna


Sewage organisms

sewage organisms


sewage organisms


Rabora hetero-
morpha
fresh-water fish


Daphnia


Scenedesmus

Eschenchia coh

Microregma
Bacterium coh

Daphma magna


Conditions
threshold of immobiliza
tion.HCIBSA, a,c
coagulation of mucous
on gills, HjSOi
reacted negatively to pH
less than 5 4 and
greater than 11 4
"
pumping is reduced
0 1 NHCI, critical level,
flowing-salt
0; uptake became ab-
normal, increase in
consumption with 24-
hr exposure
inhibition of growth
threshold of immobiliza-
tion K'Cr>0- BSA

threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, a,c,
KMnOi
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, a,c, KCI
loss of equilibrium in
23 8 mms K .Cr^OT,
BSA. a.c.e.f
loss ot equilibrium in
54 6 mms, BSA,
KjCnO, tap water,
cone as Cr
loss of equilibrium in
188 mm BSA,
KjCnO- tap water
cone as Cr
loss of equilibrium, in
42 Omms, K:Cr04;
BSA, a,c,e,f, cone, as
Cr
loss of equilibrium in 79
irms BSA K.CrO,;
cine as Cr, a.c.e.l
loss of equilibrium in
3580 mm, BSA;
KjCrOiConc asCr,
a,c,e,l
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, a.c, KCI
for 64 hrs
50 percent reduction of
BOD values, KjCrOi
50 percent inhibition of
Oj utilization, BOD,
KCN, a
50 percent inhibition of
0. utilization, BOD,
a K'Cr>0:
20 percent mortality in
7 days, KCN, BSA
accumulation of Se in
liver, from bottom
deposits in reservoir
medium threshold effect
using sodium selemte,
23 C
median threshold level;
using sodium selemte,
24 C
median threshold level,
using sodium selemte,
27 C
median threshold level,
using sodium selemte
inhibits enzymes,
20CAg;SOi
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, (64 hrs)
silver nitrate, a,
Literature Citatum
Anderson 1944"=

Westfall 19452"

Jones \m»n


"
Korrmga19522«9
Holland et al
19601"
Syazuki 1964'-18

Chu 1942'e<
Anderson 1944n»


Anderson 1944"9

Anderson 1944"9
Grindley 1946188

"



Grindley 1946i*8


Grmdley1946i88



//


'•



Anderson 1948i'i


Sheets 1957"'

Hermann 1959i95


Hermann 19591"


Abr3m1964l'5

Barnhart1958'"


Bnngmann and
Kuhn 1959i'9

"



"
Yudkm 19372"

Anderson 1948- '



-------
466
• Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                TABLE 2—Confirmed
Constituent Chronic dose
Silver 0.03 mg/l
(Ag)
0 03 mg 'I
0.05 mg/l
0.04 mg/l
0.15x6,1
10-100 Mg/l


2ME/I



0.25 Mg/l

0.50 ^/l

0 1 ppm




0.1 ppm

0 1 ppm
10-HO-2 M

Sodium 6143 ppm NaCI
(Na)
8500 ppm


<3.4ppm

5000 ppm



9. 4 ppm

<0.32ppm

8200 ppm
210 ppm

9.1 ppm

953 ppm




290 ppm



17. 8 ppm



<20ppm


2970 ppm



820 ppm




234 ppm



Species
Daphnia

Microregma
Scenedesmus
Eschericha coli
Echimd larvae
Paracentrotus


"



"

Arbacia

Lebistes reticulatus




Bufo valliceps

Daphnia magna
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Daphnia magna

Daphnia magna


Daphnia magna

"



a

Daphnia magna

"


Daphnia magna

Phoxinus phoxinus




"



"



Daphnia magna


Phoxinus phoxinus



'•




"



Conditions
median threshold effect

"
"
"

as AgNOi, abnormalities
or inhibition of growth
of eggs
as AgNOi, delay in de-
velopment and de-
formation of resulting
plutei
threshold cone for ef-
fect, as AgNO,
threshold cone, for ef-
fect for eggs
cation combines with es-
sential sulfhdryl group
attached to key en-
zyme causing inhibi-
tion; BSA; a;c,e
same as above using
tadpoles
same as above
change m liver enzyme
activity
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA; NaCI: a, c
BSA; a;c, threshold of
immobilization.
NaNO,
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, NaCN
threshold for immobiliza-
tion, unfavorable
osmotic effect exerted;
BSA, NaNO,
cone causing immobili-
zation, BSA; Na.S
Threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, Na-CrOj
same as above using
NaBr
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, NaBrO,
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, NaAsO;
loss of equilibrium in
54 6 mm, BSA, a,c;
e,f, NaAsO;; tap or
disi water; cone as
Us
loss of equilibrium m
186 mm, BSA,a,c,e;
f; NaAsO ; tap water
or dist. water
loss of equilibrium in
2174 mins; BSA,
a,c;e,f; NaAsO;, tap or
dist water
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, sodium
arsenate
lost equilibrium in 205
mins BSA; a,c,e;f;
dist or tap water,
sodium arsenate dist.
or tap water
lost equilibrium in 467
mins, BSA, sodium

1 ' ' ' '
dist or tap water
lost equilibrium,
a;c;e;f; dist or tap
water; 951 mm
sodium arsenate
Literature Citation
Brmemann and
Constituent Chronic dose
Sodium 3680 ppm
Kuhn 19591SS (Na)
0.007 N
"
"
Soyer1963«»
"



2. 47 ppm


"



"



158 ppm




0.0003 N
i
Shaw and Grushkm
1967"'



"

"
Jackimetal.
197C201
Anderson 1944"=
0.201 ppm





0.276 ppm




Anderson 1944"' 0.159 ppm


Anderson 1946"°

Anderson 1946"o 0.33 ppm




Anderson 1946' ••"
85 ppm
Anderson 1946""

Anderson 1946"° 86 ppm
Anderson 1946""

Anderson 1946""


Gnndley 1946 -^ 0.195 ppm




I
" ! 73 ppm



"


0.35 ppm


Anderson 1946""


Gnndley 1946™ 82 ppm



427 ppm





" 0.286 ppm



Species Conditions
Daphnia magn; threshold of immobiliza-
tion, NaCI BSA a;c;
Gasterosteus fish displayed distress,
aculeatus tap water; BSA; c,e;
pH6 8 with H. SO,,
Na;S
Daphnia majn; 50 percent are im-
mobilized in 100 hr
exposure, BSA; a;c;
Na.SiO
" 50 percent are im-
mobilized in 100 hr
exposure; BSA; a,c;
Na SiO , plus
2 899 ppm N3 'SO
Gasterosteus survival time of 72 hrs
aculeatus tap water. BSA; c;e;
pH 6 8; Na S
Daphnia magna 50 percent immobiliza-
tion; BSA, 100 hr ex-
posure a, c, Na CrO,;
plus 119 ppm
Na SiO: 8. 2180 ppm
Na.SO,
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion during 100 hr
exposure BSA; a,c,
NajCrOi, plus 2984
ppm Na.SO
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion for 100 hr expo-
sure, BSA, a,c,
Na:CrO,, plus 93 ppm
Na SiO
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion during 100 hr
exposure Na^CrO*
plus 408 ppmNa CO ;
BSA, a:c.
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, 100-hr exposure;
a;c; BSA, Na.SiOj
plus 180 ppm Na SO
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, 100 hr exposure;
a.c.BSA. NajSiO
plus 182 ppm Na CO :
plus 0.146 ppm
Na.Crd
Daphnia magna 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, 100 hr exposure,
a,c BSA, Na.'CrO,
plus 240 ppm Na CO:
and 2079 Na;SOj
50 percent immobiliza-
tion, 100 hr exposure;
a,c; BSA, Na;SiOi
plus 155 ppm Na CO,
and 1343 ppm Na2SOi
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion; Na CrO,, BSA;
a,c, 100 hr exposure;
plus 87 ppm sodium bi-
sulfate and 440 ppm
sodium carbonate
cone asNa.CrO
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, Na_SiO ; BSA;
a,c; 100-hr exposure;
plus38ppmNaHS03;
and 194 pom NazCOs
Daphma manna 50 percent immobiliza-
tion; NajSiOjBSA,

a;c; 100 hr exposure,
plus 177 ppm NaHSO:
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, Na.CrO:, BSA;
a;c, 100 hr exposure;
70 ppm NaHSOi
Literature Citatio
Anderson 19481"

Jones 19482»s



Freeman and
Fowler 19531"


a




Jones 1948»o5


Freeman and
Fowler 1953'"




//




"




Freeman and
Fowler 19531"



"


-




"




"




"





"



Freeman and
Fowler 19531"



"




-------
                                        Appendix Ill—Table 2/467
TABLE 2—Continued
Constituent
Sodium
(Na)





































Sullide
(S-)










Titanium
(TO



Uranium.
(U)










Zinc .
(Zn)


Chronic dose
126 ppm





506 ppm



0.306 ppm




0.42 ppm


1.0 ppm


3. 6 ppm


100 ppm


4 ppm

4 ppm
4 ppm
4 ppm

6. 5 ppm


1.4 ppm


1.8 ppm
5.0 ppm

0.86 ppm
3. 8 ppm
4. 3 ppm
6. 3 ppm
3. 2 mg/l

3. 2 mg/l

3.2mg/l

4. 6 mg/l of Ti

2.0 mg/l of Ti

4.0mg'l oITi
13 mg/l

22 mg/l

1.7-2. 2 mg/l

28 mg/l of U

0. 5 mg/l of U



O.lmg'1
48 ppm


Species
"









»




"


sewage organisms


sewage organisms


sewage organisms


Cladopnora

Spirogyra zygnema
Potamogeton (plant)
zooplankton

Daphma magna


Simocephalus
serrulatus

Daphma magna
suckers

sunfish
Salvehnus malma
Crassius auratus
Cyprmus carpio
trout

trout

trout

Daphma

Scenedesmus

Microregma
Daphma

Scenedesmus

Eschenchia coh

Microregma

Eschenchia coll



roach
Daphma magna


Conditions Literature Citation
50 percent immobiliza- "
tion Na<$iO::; BSA;
a;c, 100 hr exposure;
+52 ppm NaHSO.i
and 2308 ppm Na2-
SO:
50 percent immobiliza- "
tion Na:SiO BSA,
a,c; 100 hr exposure;
plus 144 ppm NaHSO
and 0.861 ppm
Na=CrOj
50 percent immobiliza- "
tion Na.'CiO,; BSA;
a,c, 100 hr exposure,
plus 75 ppm NaHS04
and 3312 ppm Na2S04
50 percent immobiliza- "
tion; BSA, 100 hr ex-
posure, a,c; NajCrOi
j, 100 percent reduction Ingols 1955202
in D! utilization BOD;
Na_CrOi
reduction by 50 percent Sheets 195721S
in the BOD values,
BOD, NaCN
50 percent inhibition of Hermann 1959"5
0> utilization, BOD;
a, sodium arsenate
complete decomposition Cowell 1365'"
in 2 weeks, field study
in lake, a;c; NaAsOj
same as above Cowell 19651SS
same as above "
NaAsO :: field study in
lake, a,c, significant
reduction evident
median immobilization Crosby and Tucker
concentration: a,c,d; 1966;v"
i;g, BSA, NaAsO:
threshold of immobiliza Sanders and Cope
tion, NaAsOj; BSA, 1966™
78 F
same as above "
causes respiratory paral- Cole 194U"
ysis
" "
" "

" "
overturned in 2 hrs, Southgate 19482"
pH90
overturned in 10 mins., "
pH7 8
overturned in 4 mins.; "
pH6 0
median threshold level, Bringmann and
23 C Kuhn 1959"»
median threshold effect, "
24 C
median threshold level; "
threshold effect of Bringmann and
uranyl nitrate; as U Kuhn 1959 v<
threshold effect of
uranyl nitrate, as U
threshold effect of "
uranyl nitrate; as U
threshold effect of "
uranyl nitrate '
disturbs Oj balance ot Guskova and
water and inhibits Gnffein 1964189
development of en-
teric bacteria
cannot withstand Nielson 1939219
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1944"'-'
tion, BSA, a;c, zinc
sulfate (
Constituent Chronic dose
Zinc 25 ppm
(Zn)


24 mg/l

0.15 mg/l of Zn

0.04 mg/l of Zn


0 16 mg/l




1 mg/l

920 ppm


55 ppm



0.75 ppm



1.8 mg/l
1.4-2 3 mg/l
1.0-1. 4 mg/l
0.33mg-'l
1 25 ppm &
230 ppm



35-45 percent of
incipient lethal
level.

100 mg/l



00-50 ppm








53 3 mg, I



53 mg/l

12 6 ppm




30 ppm



0.15 ppm


Species
Salmo gairdneri



fish

Daphma magna

rainbow trout


Psammechmus
miciavis



Planorbis and
Bulmus (snails)
sewage organisms


sewage organisms



sewage organisms



Daphma magna
Eschenchia coll
Scenedesmus
Microregma
Poecilia reticulata
(common guppy)



Salmo salar



lobster



Lepomis
mactochiras
Lepiosteus osseus
Dorosoma petenense
Dorosoma
cepedianum
Alosa chrysochlons
Cyprmus carpio
Carassius auratus
Salmo salar



Salmo salar

shellfish




goby



oysters


Conditions
loss of equilibrium in
133 mm, a,c;e,f; zinc
sulfate, cone, as Zn;
BSA;
avoidance concentration
ofZnSOi 7H20
threshold cone, of zinc
immobilization using
?nf un ^
in(,nu^j
prevention ot hatching of
rainbow trout eggs in
sell water
abnormalities of fertili-
zation cleavage of eggs
of urchins when in
zinc sulfate, cone
of Zn


reduction in BOD
values by 50 percent
zinc sulfate
reduction of BOD value
by 50 percent in an
unbuffered system,
zinc borofluonde
reduction ot BOD
value by 50 percent
in an unbuffered sys-
tem; zinc cyanide
median threshold effect;
as Zn
same as above
same as above
same as above
retardation of growth,
increased maturity
and delayed sexual
maturity, as Zn,
ZnSOi
migration of salmon is
disturbed when cop-
per-zinc pollution ex-
ceeds this dosage
causes increase in Zn
levels in urine, excre-
tory organs, hepato-
pancreas and gills
continuous flow bioassay,
acute, a,c,(, accumu-
lation of Zn in bones
and gills





avoidance response in
50 percent of fish;
BSA, a,c,d,e,f, cone.
as Zn
avoidance cone, for parr;
cone, as Zn.
decrease in Q-i uptake
in presence of Zn
sulfate as Zn, 1 hr
exposure in polluted
sea water.
rate of 0^ uptake is de-
creased, reduction of
appetite, as zinc, 1
day exposure
green color evident,
cause inhibition of
selt-puntatvon
Literature Citation
Gnndley 1946188



Jones 19482IB

Anderson 1950152

Affleck 19521'7


Cleland 19531"




Deschiens el al.
1957'»
Sheets 1957^'


Sheets 19572'^



Sheets 19572"



Bringmann and
Kuhn 1959159

"
Crandall and Good-
night 19621'"



Sprague and
Saunders 19632«


Bryan 19641S2



Mount 19642"'








Sprague 1964242



Sprague et al.
19642"
Syazuki 19642"




Syazuki19642»



"



-------
468/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                              TABLE 2~Continued
Constituent Chronic dose
Zinc 160 ME/I
(Zn)




157 & 180 ppm




lO.Oppm




10.0 ppm

1 . 0 ppm
0.35-0. 43 toxic
units



Species Conditions Literature Citation
Poeciha reticulata zinc damaged epithelium Cusick 19S711'
Constituent Chronic dose
	 	 — -
Zinc O.Smgl
of gills, reduction in ' (Zn)
the number of mucous j
cells, pH 6, distilled

water, high mortality 100 ME/I
rate
Fundulus as Zn, sluggish and un- Eisler 1967178

heteroclitus coordinated after 2
hrs, DO. 7 2-7.4 , 5 6^g/l
ppm, 20 C; pH 8.0;

salinity 25 "/CD \
Lebistes reticulatus bioassay, a,e,c, com- Shaw and Grush-
bines with essential km 1967"'
sulfhydryl group at-
tached to a key en-
zyme.
5. 6 ME/I

0.18mg/l

Bufo valliceps same as above (using "
tadpoles)
Daphma magna same as above "
Salmo salar reduction in number of Saunders and
salmon reaching Sprague1967!29
spawning grounds
(avoidance reactions
of migrating salmon)
18 0 ppm


32.0 ppm

16 ppm (24 hr)

Species
Salmo gain! ner-



freshwater mussels



Cyanophyta



Salmo gairdnen

Pimphales
promelas

Salmo gairdien


Salmo gairdneri

Cyprmus carpio

Conditions
histological damage to
gills; Zn added along
with alkylbenzene
sulfonate
accumulation of Zn in
Leydig cells and
mucous cells of the
epithelial layers
avoidance reactions to
sub-lethal cone, of
Zn. low avoidance
threshold
avoidance reactions

reproduction inhibited,
no effect on survival
growth or maturation.
reduction of nutotic in-
dex of gcnadal cells
by 70 percent
complete inhibition of
mitotic division
hardness 25 ppm Ca;
asZn
Literature Citatior
Brown et al.
ISM""


Pauley and
Nakatam 1968="


SpraEue1968MI



SpraEue 1968-'"

Brungs1969>«


Rachlm and
Perlmutter
1969253
»

Tabata1969M"


-------
                                                                   Appendix III—Table 3/469




APPENDIX HI-TABLE 3—Accumulation of inorganic chemicals for aquatic organisms
Constituent
Barmm(Ba)
Cadmium
(Cd)






































Calcium
(Ca)























Chromium
(Cr)







Concentration in sea water

used
12 MC/l+2 mg/l stable
Cd "






12MC/I+20
Mg I stable
Cd
"
"
"
"
"
"
used
12 juc/l+20 rf/l stable
Cd


"

"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

16 mg/l (5 days)
8 mg/l (30 days)
20 mg/l (20 days)
38 mg 100 ml CaCh
946 jrf/201 22 C
not measured
8.52XWcpm/ml
9.42X104cpm/ml
7.37X105cpm/ml
not measured
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
1 /jc Ca4sClz


7.37X10scpm/ml
105cpm/ml




10s cpm/ml
10-13. OMC injected into air
bladder







Species
Gracilana fohifera

Chasmychthys gulosus
"
"
"
"
"
"

Ulva pertusa
Venerupis philippmarum

"
"
"
Leander sp.
"
"

Strongylocentrotus
pulchernmus

"
"
Chasmychthys gulosus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Venerupis phitippmaium

"

"
Lepomis macrochirus
"
"
Daphmds
Tilapia mossambica
Lebistes

Lebistes
"
"

"

"
"
"
"
"
Fucus vesiculosus
Ceramium rubrum
Enteromorpha intestmalis
Lebistes (15 days)
"
"
"
"
"
Damo
Crassius auratus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Tissue or organ


viscera
dig. tract
gill
skin
scales
vertebrae
muscle
tieadandlms
whole
mantle gill

adductor
other viscera
shell
viscera
muscle
shell

digestive tract

gonad
anstotle's lantern
test
viscera
digestive tract
gill
skin
scales
vertebrae
muscles
head and fins
SHI
mantle
adductor
other viscera
shell
gill


fresh weight after 48 IKS.
fish tissue
spine
body
body

Carcass
head
viscera
muscle
spine
carcass
head
viscera
muscle
thallus
"

Whole
spine (10 days)
head (10 days)
total (10 days)
viscera (10 days)
muscle (10 days)
whole (22 days)
intestine
liver
pancreas
spleen
kidney
head Kidney
gill
muscle
backbone
Concentration in tissue






































634f4''l(i
252 MS. kg
484 MS 'kg
138.3mg,100g
2 7X10~!MC,gm













90 percent uptake in 24 hours


5.5X101' cpm, 10 mg
2.8X105cpm 100 mg
1.7x10scpm, 100 mg
1.4X10* com/100 raj
1.2X10" cpm, 100 mg
.2X10*cpm/100mg
2.8X105 cpm 100 mg
25 cpm/mg
25-40 cpm mg
25-40 cpm 'mg
60-100 cpm 'mg
200 cpm/mg
275 cpm/mg
40-60 cpm/mg
10 cpm/mg
30-40 cpm/mg
Concentration factor
1,200-13,000

3. 6 (6 days)
15 (3 days)
3 0 (2 days)
0 3 (2 days)
2 2 (10 days)
0.18 (3 days)
0.077 (3 days)
0.37 (8 days)
11 (4 days)
58 (8 days)
>100(3days)
8 3 (3 days)
52 (8 days)
>3
>250
0 38 (1 day)
725

110(1 5 days)

>8
>3
>10
>10
>6
11 (6 days)
0.92 (6 days)
0 80 (5 days)
0 22 (3 days)
0.1 6 (4 days)
0 96 (9 days)
19 (1 day)
9. 8 (1.5 days)
5. 1(3 days)
8 3 (1.5 days)
>1




Ca.0.6
62. ±0.4
0 7J±0.01
0.72±0 003 (10 days)
0 82±0.004 "
1 00±0 045 "
1.07±0.039 "
0 59±0 087 "
0.102±0.024 "
1 87±0 10
100.0±2.92
21.3±1.12
7.3±0.48
3.7±0 31

100-300
100-300
















Literature Citation
Bedrosinn 1962="

Hiyama and Shimizu 19E4-«"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"

"
"
"
"

Hiyama and Shimizu 1964280

"
"

"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"


"
Mount and Stephan 1967294
"
"
Korpmcmkov et. al. 1956™
Boroughs et al. 1957»4
Rosenthal 1957»M
"
Rosenthal 19573UO
"
"
"
"


"
"
"
"
Swift and Taylor 1960305
Taylor and Odum I960306
"
Rosenthat 1963301
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hibiya and Ogun 1961278
"
"
"
"

"
"
"

-------
470/'Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent
Chromium
(Cr)

Chromium
(Cr")


































Chromium
(Cr)
















Cobalt
(Co)

















Concentration in sea water Species
Crassius auratus
"
0. 204 pCi ,/ml Lampsilis radiata
17,804cpm/8 Hermione
17,833cpm/e
18,226cpm/e
0.31M8/I "

"
"
"
"
O.IMK/I
0.3^/1
0.3/jg/l "
" "
" "
0.3^8/1 "
" "
" "
" "
3.0/j?/l "
" "
" "
" "
to^g/i "
" "
" "
" "
" "
10|ig/l Hermione
100/ig/l "
" "
" "
" "
500"
" "

" "
1=conc. of phytoplankton Mummichog
culture— Cr transferred down "
food chain "
"
"
"
(132 MCi/mg=imtial cone, in Zooplankton, post-larvae fish
phytoplankton culture.)

1 MCi CrClj/l Podophthalmus vigil
" "

" "
" "

S.SMCI "
51 CrCI; injected

Gadus macrocephalus
Chelidomchthys kumu
Evynms japonica
Lateolabrai japomcus
Senola qumqueradiata
Germo germo
Katsuworms vagans
Scomber japomcus
Cololabis saira
Sardmops melanosticta
Cleipea pallasu
Stichopus tremulus
Palmurus sp.
Polypus sp.
Ommastrephes sloani
Ostrea gigas
Pecten yessoensis
Meretrix meretrix lusoria
Porphora sp.
Tissue or organ
gonad
air bladder
soft tissues
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
''
''
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
gonad
muscle
gills
spleen
lirer
dig. tract
whole

"
gills
muscle

midgut gland
carapace
blood
gills
midgut gland!






whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Concentration in tissue
30-60 cpm/mg
I.OOOcpm, mg
89.BpCi/g
10,373cpm/g(9day)
5,410cpm g (11 day)
3,713 cpm/8 (22 day)






8lM8/gdday)(dry)
0.4Mg'g(2day)(live)
0.7Mi'8(3day)(live)
0 9 Mi 'i (5 day) (live)
1 1 Mi 'i 0 (ay) (live)
1.3,4/8 (9 day) (live)
1. 7 Mi 'i 02 day) (live)
2. 3 Mi/8 05 day) (live)
2 7 Mi/8 09 day) (live)
14.0 Mg g (4 day) (live)
22 0 Mi '8 (8 day) (live)
26 0,4 '8 m (ay) (live)
34.0,4 '8 (15 (ay) (live)
24 Ml X (2 (ay)
40 " (4 (fay)
53 " (6 day)
68 " (8 day)
84 "(11 day)
106 Mi i 03 day)
206 " (3 day)
288 " (6 day)
428 "(11 day)
495 " (14 day)
856 " (3 day)
11 39 "(6 day)
1436 "(11 day)
1834 "(14 day)









5000 dpm mg(max) (2 days)
79-80 dpm mg (")
(2-4 days)
75 dpm /mg (max) (6 days)
50 dpm/mg(max) (14 days)
10 dpm/mg(max) (16 days)
3000 (max) (16 days)
1000 (max) (5 days)
800 dpm/mg(max) (0-8 days)



















Concentration factor Literature Citation
Hibiya and Ogun 1961!;::
"
440 Harvey 1969-"
0.59 Chipman 1967268
0.31
0.21
3.0(5(Jys)
3. 5 (7. 5 days)
5. 0(9.0 days)
7 5 (12. 5 days)
8.0 1.15.0 days)
12.0 (19.0 days)
"
"
"
"
"
Chipman 19672"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Chipman 19672ES
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
9 0 Baptist and lewis 19672"
0.5
1.7
6 9
1.7
2.2
9.9
73.
6.2
Sather 1967'«
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
36 lcmkawa196VM
82
20
30
14
28
84
28
84
64
26
240
4,000
52
62
170
190
200
64

-------
                                        Appendix III—Table 3/471
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent
Cobalt
(Co)






































































Copper
(Cu)




Concentration in sea water


2«rl

"

"
"
2.54dpm ml

25.4 dpm ml
254 dpm ml
2540 dpm 'ml

25, 400 dpm 'ml
254, 000 dpm, ml
2 54 dpm ml
25 4 dpm -ml
254 dpm ml
2540 dpm ml
25 400 dpm m
254, 000 dpm m
6. 8IX105 dpm 'animal
(average)


"
"
"
Black Sea
N. W. Pacific
Black Sea
N. W. Pacific
Black Sea
N W. Pacific
0 0006-0 015ppm
0 0008-.0240ppm
0 0023-0.0026
0.027 p Ci 'ml
Alakanuk

Alaska
"
"
"

Kenai, Alaska
"



Seward




4 5X10-VCi/125ml


4.5X10-5MCl/125ml
o°Co pCi/l




0.47pCi/l»Co


1.2pCi/l
60fJo


0.002Nsol'n
"
"
"
"
"
Species
Laminana sp.
Monostroma sp.
Chasmichtnys gulosus
Chasmichthys gulosus
Chasmichthyseulosus
Chasmichthys gulosus
Chasmichthys gulosus
Chasmichthys gulosus
Cambarus longulus longerostris
0.60g
" 0.49g
" 0.54g
Cambarus longulus longerostris
0 45?
" 0.65g
" C.55g
" 0 60?
" 0 Wi
" 0 54g
" 0.45g
" 0.55?
" 0.43g
Cambarus longulus longerostns

"
"


"
Ulva rigida
Ulva persuda
Cystoseira barbata
Sargassum thumbergn
Leander adspersus
Leander pacificus
Crassostrea vigimca
Crassostrea viginica

Lampsiles radiata
Oncorhunchus tshawytscha
(King salmon)

Oncorhynchusketa
Chum salmon


Oncorhynchus nerka
(Sockeye Salmon)
Salmon
Oncorhynchus nerka
Salmon
Oncorhynchus kisulch
(silver salmon)
"
"

Plectonema boryanum
"
"
Plectonema boryanum
Tndacna crocea
Plankton
Sea invertebrates
Fish
Algae
Plankton
Sea Invertebrates
Fish
Plankton
Algae
Sea invertebrates
Fish
Fundulus heteroclitus
"
"


"
Tissue or organ
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"

whole



"


"
"
"
"
"
"
"
gut

blood
muscle
gonad
integument
hepatopanoreas
whole
"
"
"
"
"
flesh
flesh
"
sot (tissues
muscle F. & M.

liver
roe
muscle
liver
roe
muscle M.
muscle F.
liver
roe
bone

muscle f.
muscle M.
livers
roe
whole cell
"
"
whole cell
kidney
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
kidney
liver
dried flesh
"
"
undried flesh
"
"
Concentration in tissue








IE6 dpm animal

1,OJ1 dpm animal
8, 984 dpm, animal
46, 000 dpm animal

785, 000 dpm animal
8, 761, 000 dpm 'animal
793 dpm, animal
3921 dpm animal
23, 322 dpm animal
78, 881 dpm, animal
35. 814, 000 dpm animal
26, 900, 000 dpm, animal
1.12X105dpm'g

2 93X10' dpm, g
3 09X10' dpm, g
2 97X10ldpm/g
2. 28X10= dpm g
1 96X10sdpm,g






99.3-1153ppm
313-3174 ppm
361-863 ppm
21 3 p Ci, g

















0.36MCi/g (7 days)
0.32nCi'g "
0 2!/
-------
472/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                              TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent
Copper
(Cu)









Gold
(Au)




























Iron
(Fe)
































Concentration in sea water Species
N lOOOsol'n. Tautoga omtis
CuSO<
" "
" "
" "


.004N Fundulus heteroclitus
CuSo sol'n "

0 7/ig/l Lampsilis radiata
oral dose blue crab



"



" croaker

,

" croaker

"

,/ //

"

"

"

" blue crab

// /

" "

1.1X10-' mg/ml Dactyolpteruc volitans
(Gurnard)
Mackerel
Melanogrammus aeglefinus
(Haddock)
Whiting
Plaice
Cod
0.01 mg/l Trachurus japomcus
" Pleuronectes sp
" Scomber japomcus
Cololabis saira
" Lateolabrax japomcus
' Chrysophyrus major
" Sardmops maleanostncta
Theragra chalcosramma
" Clupea pallasii
" Acanthogobius flanmanus
" Anthocidans crassispma
" Stichopus japomcus
1 Panuhrus lobster
" Penaeus (common shrimp)
" Paneaeopsis sp shrimp
" Parahthodes camtschatica
" Neptunus marine crab
" Octopus fangsiai,o
" Turbo cornutus
0.01 mg/l Hahotus gigantea
" Hahotus diversicolor
" Meretrix meretrix lusoria
Venerupis japomca
Ostrea gigas
Porphyra tenera
Gelidiumamansn
Tissu: or organ
whole (dry)
blood system
alimentary tr.ict
residue
flesh


dried flesfi
"
"
soft tissues
gills

muscle

carapace

blood

kidney

gills

skin (scales)

liver

muscle

heart

spleen

gonad

dig gland

stomach-gut

gonads

flesh

flesh
flesh

flesh
flesh
flesh
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

"
"
intestme
"
"
"







Whole
"
"
"
Concentration in tissue Concentration factor
0.008 percent . .
0.010 percent Cu Dry
0.003 percent "
0 005 percent "
0.009 percent "
percent by weight of Cu
in dried flesh
0 0160 percent (1 hr)
0 0156 percent (2 hr)
0.0201 percent (3 hr)
1.6f.g g 228.5
.7 percent of oral dose after
4 days
. 6 percent of oral dose after 	
4 days
.08 percent of oral dose after
4 days
04 percent of oral dose after
4 days
0.01 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.056 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.009 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.02 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.03 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.0008 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.042 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.001 percent of oral dose .
alter 148 hours
12 percent of oral dose after
4 days
3 percent of oral dose after
4 days
. 8 percent of oral dose after
4 days
0.9X10-5 mj/t of Fish

1.0x10-5 "
6X10-3

0 4X10-= "
2X10-5
1.2X1.0mg/i "
700
600
1,800
3,000
3,000
400
2,000
400
1,800
2,000
10.00D
78,009
1,000
1,000
4,000
4,000
2,000
6,000
9,000
3,000
17,001)
13,001)
7,000
8,000
2,000
4,000
Literature Citation
„
"
"
"
"


"
"
"
Harvey 19692"
Dukeetal. 1966"2

"

"

"

"

"

Duke et al. 1966"*

"

"

"

"

"

"

"



Atenetal. I961!M

"
"

"
"
"
Ichikawa1961«»
"
"

"
"
"
Ichikawa 19612M
"
"
Icliikawa 19S1'8
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
''
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

-------
TABLE 3—Continued
                                        Appendix III—Table 3/473
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Iron
(Fe)

0.00004 nCi/kg
0. 00004 nCi kg
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Black sea
N. W. Pacific
750 cpm/g


380 cpm/8


4.5X10-5 jjCi/125 ml

"
"
3.3 mg/l Fe
3.4 days I.Omj'l
I.Omg'l
3.3 raj/I
1.0 mg/l
3.3m?/l
1.0 mg/l
3.3 mg/l
124 pCi/l of 65Fe

"
Manganese
(Mn)













1000 fig/I for 15 flays, animals
were starved














1000,,8 IMn

absorption in 72 hours
"
"
"
"
"
absorption in 72 hours
Species
Lammaria sp
Undario pmnatifida
Hizikia fusiforme
Phytoplankton
Euphausids
Mytilus
kelp
Lepas (barnacle)
squid
squid
purple sea cucumber
sea urchins
Ulva ngida
Ulva persuda
quahog


clam


Plectonema boryanum

"

Mytilus eduhs
"
Mytilus edulis L
"
"
"
"
"
Algae, fish
"
"
Clupea harengus
Gadus sp
Scomber sp
Pleuronectes sp
Stichopus regahs
Sepia oflicinalis
Octopus vulgans
Hahotus tubercalata
Pectan jacobaeus
Ostrea eduhs
Mactra coralhna
Ulva lactuca
Enteromorpha sp.
Lammaria saccharma
Fucus serratus
Homarus vulgans
" 200-350 g








Homarus vulgans
200-350 g.



Homarus vulgans 200-350 g.
Homarus vulgans
Homarus vulgaris
"(728g)
"
"
"
"
"
Homarus vulgaris
Tissue or organ
whole
"
"
"
"
"

"
muscle
liver
whole
whole
whole
whole
shell
tissue
feces
shell
tissue
feces
whole cell
"
"
"
soft tissue
"
digestive gland
"
gills
gills
mantle
mantle
whole
muscle
liver
whole


"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
whole blood
abdominal muscle
hepalopancreas
gills
shell
teeth of gastric mill
stomach fluids
hind gut and rectum
excretory organs
ovary
whole blood
abdominal muscle
hepalopancreas
gills
shell
teeth of gastric mill
Carapace edge
whole blood
urine
stomach fluid
abdominal muscles
hepatopancreas
gills
excretory organs
ossicles and teeth
Concentratom in tissue



O.SnCi kg
1.5nCi/kg
0.36nCi/kg
0.03 "
140.0 "
0.76 "
8 6
76.0 "
0 48 "


9.5X103cpm/g
670 cpm/g
1.2X10' cpm/g
1.1X103
2.3X10'
1.7X10=
0.18MCi/g(2day)
0.17MCi/s(2day)
0.21MCi/g(2day)
0 23MCi/g(2day)

UMJ/J






480 p Cl/g
80 pCl/g
264,OOOpCi/g















3 9 Mg/g wet tissue 15 day
0.8"
4.1 Mg/g wet tissue 15 day
26 9"
207"
106"
1.6"
3.4"
5.1"
3.3"
2 4 ug g wet tissue 15 day
0.8"
4.8"
20.8"
225"
155 Mg/g wet tissue
236Mg/g








Concentration factor
5,800
1,300
2,900









730
100






2,600(250)
2, 400 (30 C)
2,700(350)
3,200(400)
5 5
1 5
5. (3-4 day) (max)
5. 4 (2-3 day) (max)
1.3 (average)
1.8(max)(0 3 day)
1.0(max)(1day)
.4 (max) (2 7 day)



95
320
80
70
200
10,000
50,000
750
10,000
1,500
62C
1,300
1,500
300
7,500

















1 42
0.66
0.18
0.15
2.30
2.14
1.91
1.42
Literature Citation
Ichikawa 1961284
"

Palmer and Beasley 1967295
Palmer and Beasley 1967295
"
"

"
"
"
"
Pohkarpovetal. 1967!!r>

Andrews and Warren 19692S>
"
"


"
Harvey 19692"
"

"
Hobden 19692«i
"
Hobden 1969'-»i
"
"
"
"
"
Welander 19693"'
"
"
Ichikawa 1961="-
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"


'
"
"
Bryan and Ward 1965»
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Bryan and Ward 1965"'
"
"
"
"
Bryan and Ward 1965?"
Bryan and Ward 1965="
Bryan and Ward 19652"
"
"
"
"
"
"


-------
474/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Manganese 2.0/iC/l absorption in 72 hours
(Mn)
"
"
2.0,jC 1 in sea watei plus
10 mg Mn in stomach ab-
sorption in 72 hrs.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

2. OMC I m sea water plus 10
mg Mn in stomach absorption
m 72 hrs.
2/i2/l normal sea water speci-
mens; unstarved
10 mg Mn pipetted into stomach
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
0.3^Ci/IMn"

"
0.3^Ci/IMn"+C.1ppmMn
"

"
0 033 ppm stable Mn
"
"
"
"
0.033 ppm stable Mn
"
0.033 ppm
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
0.0004 pCi/ml"Mn


0.2 ppm stable Mn

0. 00015 pCi ml '-'Mn

0. 00015 pCi/ml
MnM
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
0.004 pCi/ml
Mn"
"
"
Species
Homarus vuleans (728 g)

"
"
Homarus vu leans (744 e)
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Homarus vulgaris (744 g)


Homarus vulgaris 200-350 g.
"
Homarus vulgaris 320 g.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
'
Anodonta nuttalliana
"
"
Anodonta nuttalliana
"


Unio
5. 1-6. Ocm


"
Umo6 1-7. Ocm
"
Umo 6 1-7 0 cm
"
"
Umo 7. 1-8. Ocm
"
"
"
"
Umo5.1-G.0cm
"
"
Umo 7. 1-8 Ocm
"
Umo 4. 1-5. Ocm
"
Umo 4. 1-5. Ocm
"
Umo 5. 1-6. Ocm
"
"
"
Umo 6. 1-7 Ocm
"
"
"
Unio 7 1-8. Ocm
"
"
"
Unio 5. 1-6. Ocm
Unio 6. 1-7. Ocm
"
"
Tissue or organ
shell carapace
shell claw
shell telson
whole animal
whole blood
urine
stomach fluid
abdominal mus:le
hepalopancieas
gills
excretory 01 gans
ossicles and teeth
shell, carapace
shell, claw
shell, telsoni
whole animal


excretory 01 gans
ovary
blood
hepatopancieas
stomach fluid
urine
muscle
shell
ossicles and teeth
excretory organs
gills
calcareous tissue
mantle
gills
adductor muscl;
dig gland and stomach
gonad and intestine
body fluid
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscle
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscli!
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscle
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscli!
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
visceral sac
shell
gills
mantle
Concentration in tissue
96 7 muc/g
18.7"
181.0"
52 5"
27 4"
12 3"
3 8"
2 1"
6 1 "
36 7"
17 3"
31 8"
134 0"
85 6"
151 0"
59 5m/jc 8


3 7Mg g
1.6"
<7hr)65Mg 8
(2") 165"
(2 hr) 385 "
(7 ") 85 "
(7") 10"
(7 ") 205 "
(2") 130"
(7 ") 100 "
(7 hr) 55 "
97,000cpm/e
45,000 cpm.'g
29,000cpm/gm
14,000cpm/g
18,000cpm/g
11.000cpm,g
3,000cpm'g
7621-9 5Mg'g
14185+12"
13088+1470 "
3571 J.835 "
2539±411 "
892±13.0"
18257+1179"
17765±581 Mg/g
4308±307 "
2565±296 "
956±21.0"
20737 il 972"
19659+984"
5034±622"
3067+319"



5070+1095 Mg/g
2514+504"




















Concentration factor Literature Citation
7 06 Bryan and Ward 19652"
1 37
13.2
3.82
2.20
0 99
0.31
0.17
0.49
2.96
1.40
2 56
10 8
6 91
12 2
4.80 Bryan and Ward 19652"


Bryan and Ward 1965267
"
"
"
"


"
"
"
"
Harrison 1967"«

"
Harrison 19672™


"
2.3X10' Merlmi 1967«i
6 OxIO1
5.5X10*
1 5XIO<
1 1
2.6XIO'
7.7XIO'
75X10" Merlmi 1967«»
1 8XIO'
1 1X10'
2.8X10'
8 8X10'
83X10' "
21X10'
1.3X10'
0.82X10'
36X10'
30X10'
7.6X10'
1.8X10'
1.9X10'
43.0X10'
22.0X10' Merlmi 19672"1
5.6X'0'
1.6X'0'
35.0X10'
26.0X10'
9.5X10'
2 OX Oi
30.0X10'
28.0X10'
s.ex'iO'
1.8X10'
30.0X104
23.0X10'
76X'0'
1.1X1D1
0.68X10'
3.1X104
3 7X10<

-------
                                        Appendix III—Table 3/475
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Manganese 0 004 pCi/ml
(Mn) Mn<"
"

"
0 02 ppm stable Mn
"
"

"

"
"
"
0.02 ppm stable Mn
"
"

"
"
"
"
Cahf.
Calif
1 4M?'I
4.5X10-5
MCi /125ml
"
"
0.013 pCi ,/ml
"
Mercury 0.2 mg/l using HgCh
(Hg) 1000 mg '1 using HgCh
50 mg 1 Hg using HgCh
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
10 jug/IHj injected in 0.01 ml
sea water as HgCh


10 Mg/l Hg injected in 0.01 ml
sea water as HgCh

"
7. 6 MC injected dose into air
bladder
"
"
"
"
"
"
'
"
"
0.06ng/g Hg using mercuric
nitrate
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Species
Unio 6. 1-7. Ocm
Unio 7. 1-8. 0 cm

"

Unio 5 1-6 0 cm
"
"
"

Unio 4 1-6 1 cm
"
"

Unio 6 1-7 1 cm
"
"
"
"
Unio 7. 1-8. Ocm
"
"
Mytilus edulis
Mytilus califormcus
Lammaria digitata
Plectonema boryanum

"
"
Lampsiles radiata
"
Elmmius
Artemia
Leander serratus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Leander serratus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Crassius auratus
"
"
"


"
"
"

"
Cod
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Tissue or organ
visceral sac
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscle
shell
gills
mantle
adductor muscle
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscle
shell
gill
mantle
whole
whole
plant
whole cell

"

soft tissue
clam shell
whole body
whole body
Branchiostegite
Pfeopods
dorsal chitm
Eills
antennary gland
hepatopancreas
central nervous system
muscle
branchiostegite
pleopods
dorsal chitm
gills
antennary gland
hepatopancreas
central nervous system
muscle
intestine
liver
pancreas
spleen
kidney
head kidney
gill
muscle
backbone
gonad
air bladder
blood
heart
liver
spleen
gonads
kidneys
stomach
brains
eyes
gills
fins
scales
muscles
bones
heart
Concentration in tissue





299±64 0 Mg/g
1254±1292 "
7576±986 "
2154±212"
2008±29"
225±5.6"
11391±649"
4805±48° "
1104i115"
378±26.0Mg/g
18154±1562"
15008±1288"
4964±553 "
205S±135 "
515±31.5Mg'g
20279±616"
16316±703"


0.33/jg'g
0.13MCi/g
0 16"
0.19"
0 17"
30 9 pCi 'g
15 0"
0 92 mg- 1 dry wt.
0.47 mg/l "
4 3 mg 'g dry wt.
0 48 mg/g dry wt.
0 13 "
0 49 mg/g "
0.32mg'g "
0.02 mg/g "
0.04mgg "
000 mg/g "
13 OMg'gdry wt.
2.2 "
3.4 "
29.3 "
13. 3 Mg/g dry wt.
4.4 "
3.5 "
2 7 "
1000 cpm/mg
1000 "
1500 "
1500 "
11000 "
2500-3000 "
200-300 "
100-200 "
100-200 "
400-700 "
900-1400 "
2.511ng/g(7days)
4.574
0.876
1.998 "
0.4412
1.529
1.248
0.190
0.270
234 784
7.173
5.620
0.21162
0.675 5 days
1.711
Concentration factor Literature Citation
1.1X10' Merlini 1967291
0.53x10"
3.8X101
4 OX10i
1 1X10i
1 5X10i
8 7X10i
5.3X101
1 5X101
1.4X101
1 1X101
8 0X101
3 4X101
0 77X101
1.9X101 Merlini 1967^
13.0X10'
10.0X10"
3.5X101
1.4X10'
2.5X101
14.0X101
11 0X10"
830 Polikarpov et al. 1967286
800-830
236 Bryan 1969="'
15,350(250 Harvey 19692"
27, 700 (30 C)
35, 300 (35 C)
27, 900 (40 C)
2380 ' Harvey 19692"
1150
Corner and Rigler 1958™
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Corner and Rigler 19582"'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hibiya and Oguri 1961™
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
39.2 Hannerz 1968«s
71.47
13.69
31.22
6.89
23.89
19.50
2.97
4.22
3668.20
112.08
87.81
3.38
10.55
19.72

-------
476/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent
Mercury .
(Hg)

























































Nickel
(Ni)

Silver
(Ag)









Concentration in sea water Species
0.06 ng/g Hg using mercuric Cod
nitrate "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
0.05 ng/g Hg using mercuric Glossosiphonia complanata
chloride (mean value) Herpobdella octoculata
" sludge worms
" Planorbis sp.
" Lynmaea stagnahs
" Physa fontmahs
" Ephemeroptera larvae
" "
" Trichoptera larvae
" Tipula
" Ctoronomidae larvae
" "
0.05 ng/g Hg using HgCb damselfly nymphs
(mean value) Hydrophilidae larvae
" Coma sp.
" Notonecta glauca
" Gerns
" Planorbis sp.
" Lymnaea stagnahs
" Corixa sp.
0.30 ng/g Hg mercuric chloride Pike
" "
" "
0.30 ng/g Hg mercuric chloride Pike
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
0.06 ng/g Hg mercuric nitrate Cod
" "
" "
" "
" "
0.06 ng/g Hg mercuric nitrate Cod
" "
" "
" "
" "
"
" "
" "
8. 2±0. 2 cpm/g present in soil Tndacna crocea
Tridacna crocea
80.0±1.0 cpm/g present in soil "
7. 5 jic injected into air bladder Crassius auratus
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
7. 5 iix injected into air bladder Crassius auratus
" "
" "
" "
Tissue or organ
liver
spleen
gonads
kidneys
stomach
brains
eyes
gills
fins
stales
muscles
bones
whole

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
blood
heart
liver
spleen
gut
kidneys
gonads
eyes
brain
gills
scales
tins
muscles
bone
blood
heart
liver
spleen
kidneys
gut
brain
eyes
gills
Tins
scales
muscles
bones
kidney
kidney
kidney
intestine
liver
pancreas
spleen
kidney
head kidney
gill
muscle
backbone
gonad
air bladder
Concentration in tissue
0.365
0.913
0.487
0.798
0.670
(0 193)
0.153
147 818
3.443
3 865
0.105
0 250




















176 ng/g (8 days)
258 "
377 "
608 ng/g (8 days)
199 "
495 "
107 "
36
284 "
878 "
214 "
406 "
26
56
0.29 ng/g (2 days)
0 58 "
0 08 "
0 35 "
0 21 "
0.20 ng/g (2 days)
0.15 "
0.05 "
47.8 "
1.46 "
2 99 "
0.03
0.07 "
158. 0±2. 6 cpm/g
41.2±0 6 cpm/g
163.0±30 cpm/g
200-300 cpm/mg
2250 "
250-400 cpm/mg
200-500 "
~WO "
~400 "
-250 "
100 cpm/mg
150 "
200 "
500-2500 "
Concentration factor
5.70
14.2V
7.61
12.47
10.47
3 02
2 39
2309 70
53.79
60.39
1.64
3.91
670 (55 days)
534
517 "
414 "
293 "
637 (14 days)
138 (55 days)
28 (14 days)
513 (49 days)
517 "
175 "
362 (65 days)
655 "
603 "
414 "
483 "
431 "
560 (one month)
247 "
431 "
587
860
1,258
2.02J
663
1,653
357
120
947
2,928
713
1,35;
87
187
4.8
9.7
1.3
5.8
3.5
3.3
2.5
0.8
796.6
24.3
49.8
0.5
1.2

"












Literature Citation
Hannerz 19882"
"
"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"

''
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hannerz 1968«5
"
"
Hannerz 1968™
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hannerz 1968"=
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Beasley and Held 1963^
"
"
Hibiya and Ogun 1961*"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hibiya and Ogun 1961"*
"
"
"

-------
                                         Appendix Ill—Table 3/477
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water Species
Uranium 3. 0X10"' percent Charaphytae diatomae
(U) " tlsh
" "

" "

" "

" "

" "

" "

V //

Zinc 200,000cpm/l Meretrix meretrix luzona
(Zn)
" "
" "
" "
'' "
' "
" "
12,000 cpm/l "
45, 000 cpm /I (22 days) Cypnnus carpio
" "
" "
" "
" "
45, 000 cpm 1 (22 days) Cypnnus carpio
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
45, 000 cpm 1(3 day)
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
' "
5, 000 cpm (45 hrs) "
5, 000 cpm (45 hrs) Cyprmns carpio
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" '
" "
" "
" "
5, 000 cpm/l "
" '
" "
" "
" "
" "
5000 cpm/l Cyprmus carpio
" "
" "
" "
" "
20 ppm Salmo gairdnen
" "
injected dose 9 3 flc Crassius auratus
" "
" "
" "
"
" "
Tissue or organ
whole
whole
boned

kidney

gonads hard roe)

gonads (soft roe)

muscle

blood

brain

Kill
viscera (without liver)
mantle
liver
adductor muscle
siphon
marginal part of foot
central part of foot
ashed soft tissue
kidney
gill
scale
heart
skin
caudal fm
intestine
hepatopancreas
vertebrae
muscle
gall bladder
Rill
skin
scale
caudal fin
vertebrae
intestine
ga.l bladder
hepatopancreas
kidney
Bill
skin
scale
caudal fin
vertebrae
intestine
gall bladder
hepatopancreas
kidney
heart
muscle
gH
skin
scale
caudal fm
vertebrae
intestine
gall bladder
hepatopancreas
kidney
heart
muscle
tissue
gills
intestine
liver
pancreas
spleen
kidney
head kidney
Concentration in tissue Concentration factor
2 OX10-3 percent U
6.8X10-* percent U
5.4X10-6-1 2Xirr4
percent
i.05xim-9.4xirr«
percent
4.15X10^-3 7X10-5
percent
2.9X10-'-!. 9X10-6
percent
1.37X10-'-!. 32X10-6
percent
2 2X10-'-7.0X10-'
percent
3.22X10-7-1.0X10-=
percent
510cpm/g
275 "
270 "
245 "
165 "
165 "
145 "
140 "
15. 8 cpm/l 1.3
299 cpm/g
285 "
65 "
57 "
51 "
50 cpm/g
27 "
26 "
5 "
3 "
2 "
127 "
0 "
2 "
35 "
0 "
27 "
0 "
33 "
89 "
119 "
31 cpm/g
87 "
86 "
29 "
121 "
51 "
251 "
1180"
173 "
9 "
128 "
40 "
31 "
56 "
36 "
50 "
39 cpm/g
65 "
690 "
37 "
4 "
7. 4-12 ppm
60-63 ppm
475 cpm/mg 540-4400
250 "
200 "
75 " 	
130 "
175 "
Literature Citation
Kovalsky et al. 1967="'
"
"

"

"

"

''

"

"

Saiki and Mori 1955'02
"
"
'
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
"
"
Saiki and Mori 1955"'=
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Saiki and Mori 1955™
''
"
"
"
'

"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Saiki and Mori 1955"=
"
"

"
Lloyd 1960»i
"
Hibiya and Oguri 1961"*
"
"
"
"
"

-------
478/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 3~Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Zinc . injected dose 9 3 /ic
(Zn)
"
"
















(10.3,iC) 0.25 ppm Zn
" 0.5 ppm Zn
" 1.0 ppm Zn
(3. 08 ^c) 3.0 ppm Zn
(61.6;uC)6.0ppmZn
(10.3Mc)0.25ppmZn
(10. 3 ^00. 50 ppm Zn
(10. 3 ^c) 1.0 ppm Zn
(30.8 ^c) 3.0 ppm Zn
(61 6fiC)6.0ppmZn
8.5Mc/l;pH7.326hrs. in the
dark
8. 5Mc/l; 26 hrs in the light
pHS.6
8. SMC/I; 26 hrs.m the light
PH7.3
8 5/aC/l; m 26 hours pH 8. 6
in the dark
100 ,ug '115 day exposure
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
100/ig/l 15 day exposure
100 jig/1 43 day exposure
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
100 ME/I plus 6600 til Zn over
10 days (injected); 13 days in
sea water
"
1 00 ,
-------
                                         Appendix III—Table 3/479
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Zinc 3000 Mg Zn injected into
(Zn) stomach, 300 firs later,
2000 ngZn, 7 hrs after
injection
3000 ,ug injection 150 hrs later
"
0 004,,c I 44 days
0.4 g radioactive brine-shrimp
mjested-44 days
2.5MC/I
"

7Xirvc/ml




0.002MC'!
«Zn
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
0 43 c/g 6'Zn
"
"
0.43 c/g "Zn
"
"
"
13nc/IZn+15(i|/l stable Zn
6 Mc">Zn1, 860 ng/l+ stable
Zn
6 Mc «=Zn
60 ME/I stable
Zn
13 Mc/lt6Zn+15 MS/I stable
Zn

6MC/ls5Zn+1, 860 Mg/l stable
Zn

6 Mc '1 "Zn+60 ni/l stable
Zn

u.1MC/l«Zn



same as above
"
"
Same as above
"
"
"
"
"
"
25MCi6sZn/l(1.8nCi/Mg)
7 1 jug/I 25 day exposure
600 Mg/g alter 30-31 days
uptake
2.2/4/1
0.028pCi/ml
25MCi«Zn/l
0,104x10-2 pCi
Species
Homarus vulgans (300 g)
"


"
"
Paralichthys
"

Littorina obtusata
"
Fucus edentatus
Cartena sp , Witzschia
closterium

mullet
mullet
oysters
mud crabs
clams
snails
marsh grass
blue crabs
mummichogs
croakers
oysters
mud crabs
clams
snails
marsh grass
blue crabs
mummichogs
croakers
Oysters
Clams
mud clams
blue crabs
mummichogs
croakers
scallops
Ulva pertusa
Vernerupis philippmarum

"


Leander sp.


Stronglyocentrotus pulchernmus


"


Crassostrea virgmica
"
"
"
Mercenana mercenana
"
"
Aeqmpecten irradians
"
"
"
Panoplus herbstn

"
Aronyx sp
Lammaria digitata
"

"
Lampsilis radiata
PlatichUiys stellatus
Crassostrea gigas
Tissue or organ
hepatopancreas
blood


excretory organs
urine
whole animal
"

whole
"
whole
whole

whole

"
whole
"
"
"

"
"
"


"
"
"
"

"
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
visceral mass
shell
visceral mass

shell
viscera
muscle
exoskeleton
dig. tract
gonad
test
dig. tract
gonad
test
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
"
whole
whole

"
whole
whole
"
whole
whole plant
"


soft tissues
whole
"
Concentration in tissue
240 fig/g wet wt
27 "


117 Mg/g wet wt.
24 Mg/g wet wt.



6.5X10'cpm/g(3days)
21 ps/8 (of animal)
4.2x10'cpm/g(4 days)





77±21 MMC/g (1 day)
54±32 " (Iday)
39±17 " (Iday)
38±10 " "
35±11 " "
32±4 " "
26±9
13±3
73±8 " (66 days)
20±5
20±6
20±6
13±8
22±1 "
18±6
22±2
1,111±502(tday)
503±166wc/g
853±281 "
323±172w*/g(1daj)
37S±229 "
60±46
5, 561 ±578 "





























1t85(iCi/g(120hr)

350 Mg/g


114.2 pCl/g
40-90±37MgZn/g
0.99pCi/g-
Concentration factor






17
25




(15,900)

(13,200)
(230)
(135)























290 (4 days)
34 (3 day)
4 (3 day)
68 (4 days)

10
500
40
ISO
200 (11 days)
14 (14 days)
10
200
25 (1 day)
15
193
146
130
139
18
22
19
350
282
243
317
216
177
166

1800



4080

5.6X10-3-
Literature Citation
Bryan 19642"
"


"
"
Hoss 196428!
"

Mehran and Tremhlay 1965292
"

Regmer 1965298

"
"
"
Duke et al. 1966"?


"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"

"
"
"
Duke 19672"
"
"
Duke 1967"i
"
"




"


"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
Dukeetal. 19G6272
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Cross etal 19682^
Bryan 1969206
"


Harvey 19692"
Renlro and Osterberg 19692"
Salo and Leet 1969™

-------
480/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 3~Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water Species Tissue or organ
Zinc. 75MC/IZn65 Euphausids exoskeleton
(Zn) " " muscle
eyes
" " haemolymph
75/ic IZn« Prawns-shrimp exoskeleton
" " muscle
" " hepatopancreas
" " eyes
" " haemolymph
1.0(ig/l Crassostrea virginica soft tissue
" " mantle
gills
" " labial palps
" " muscle
" " dig. gland
" " remamiler
" " extracellular fluid
" " pallial fluid
Concentration in tissue Concentration factor
51.1±10.4cpm/mg
27.8±7.0 "
4.4±1.4 "
16.5±8.3 "
65.8±5.7cpm/mg
17.9±4.9 "
6.6±3.0 "
0.9±0.2 "
8.8±3.1 "
159.4±77.6ppm 1-2X10'
135 ppm
182"
123"
79 ppm
260 "
175"
6.5"
1.2"
Literature Citation
Fowler et al. 1970™
"
"
"
Fowler et al. 1970"'
"
"
"
"
Wolfe 1970»i
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

-------
                                                                                                                                                          Appendix III—Table 4/481

           APPENDIX HI-TABLE  4—Maximum  Permissible Concentrations  of Inorganic  Chemicals in  Food  and Water
           Constituent
                                 Maximum Permissible
                                     Concentration
                               Substance Allowed to Contain
                                   Given Concentration
                                                                                                               Conditions & Comments
                                                                                                                                                                       Reference
Ammonia 'NH }
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)


Boron (B)

Bromine (Br)

Bromine (Br)
 Bromine (Br)
Bromine (Br)



Cadmium (Cd)



Calcium (Ca)

Chromium (Cr)




Copper(Cu)
O.Smg'l

Sppm
3 5 mg 'Kg

0.1 mg/l
1.0mg/kg
0.2 mg/l

Sppm

1 0 mg/l
30ppm
Sppm
75ppm

50 ppm

40ppm
30ppm
25ppm
10 ppm
Sppm
SOppm

100 ppm
 25 ppm
 75 ppm
 325 ppm
 400 ppm
 25 ppm

 20 ppm
 15 ppm
 10 ppm
 Sppm
 60 ppm
 40 ppm
 25 ppm

 400 ppm
 125 ppm
 SOppm

 130 ppm
 125 ppm
 75 ppm
 50 ppm
25 ppm
0.1 mg/l

0 01 mg/l
0 05 ms/l
75 mg/l

0.05 mg/l
0 05 mg/l
O.OSmg/in2
                               1 0 mg/l
                               1.0 mg/l
                               0.05 mg/l
                               2 mg/l
                               7 mg/l
                               20 mg/kg
                               60 mg/kj
                               300 mg/kg
drinking water

apples and pears
truils and vegetables

ready-to-drink beverages
food
drinking water

certain foods

drinking water
recommended limit for domestic water supplies; concentra-  World Health Organization 1961"J (WHO 1961)
  tion as NHt(+)
tolerance for residues ammonium sulfate                 Food & Drug Administration 1971"«  (FDA 1971)
limit for residue on sprayed fruits & vegetables using copper  FDA 1971s1"
  arsenate, calcium arsentae & magnesium arsenate
limit for content                                     Food Standards Committee for England & Wales 1959s"
regulation  on content of food                           Food Standards Committee for England & Wales 195931<
recommended limit for domestic water supplies; cone, as  WH01961"'
                                                                                               maximum permissible content
                                                                                                maximum allowable limit
cotton seed
citrus fruits
vegetables, broccoli, carrots, melons, parsnips,
  potatoes
eggplant, okra,  summer  squash, sweet corn,
  sweet potatoes, tomatoes
pineapple
cucumber, lettuce, peppers
cottonseed, peanuts
asparagus, cauliflower
lima beans, strawberries
cereals

beans, bittermelons, cantalopes, bananas, citrus
  fruits, cucumber, guavas, litchi fruit, longan
  fruit,  mangoes,  papaya,  pepper, pineapple,
  zucchini,
cherries and  plums
malting of barley
parmesan & roquefort cheese
dried eggs, processed herbs and spices
raspberries, summer squash

citrus fruit
cherries and  plums
walnuts and strawberries
apricots, nectarines, peaches
eggplant
muskmelon, tomato
broccoli, cauliflower, peppers, pineapples, straw-
  berries
dog food
cereals
dehydrated citrus fruit for cattle

endive  and lettuce
bananas
almond hulls, carrots, celery, snap beans, turnip
almonds, brussel  sprouts,  broccoli,  cabbage,
  cauliflower, eggplant,melon,peanuts,peppers,
  pineapples, tomatoes
berries, cottonseed, cucumbers, grapes
drinking water

drinking water
drinking water
drinking water

drinking water
drinking water
for covering surface of food containers
closure area of packing containers

drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
ready-to-drink beverages
cider and concentrated soft drinks
most foods
yeast and yeast products
solid pectin
                                                   Department of National Health & Welfare, Canada 1971
                                                     (CANADA 1971)"3
                                                   U. S. Department of Health, Education & Welfare, Public
                                                     Health Service Drinking  Water Standards 1962 (PHS
                                                     1962)"'
residues from post-harvest application                   FDA 1971""
residues from post-harvest application                   FDA 1971318
tolerance for residues using nematocide ethylene dibromide;  FDA1971"6
  concentration as Br
tolerance for residues using nematocide ethylene dibromide;  FDA 1971"6
  cone, as Br
                                                                                               concentration as Bi tolerance for residues fumigated aftet
                                                                                                 harvest with dibromide
 bromate calculated as Br tolerance tor residues               "
 residues for Bromides calculated as Br                      "

 tolerance for residues of inorganic bromides; concentration  FDA 197131
  asBr
                                                                                                soil treatment with nematocide 1,2-dibromo 3,chloropro-
                                                                                                 pane tolerance for residues calculated as Br

                                                                                                tolerance for residues calculated as Br                       "

                                                                                                tolerance for residues calculated as Br                   FDA 1971"«
maximum permissible concentration of Cd in domestic sup-  Kirkor 195131S
  plies
mandatory limit of Cd in domestic supplies
tolerance limit of Cd in domestic supplies
permissible limit
mandatory limit for Cr' in domestic supplies
mandatory limit
limit not to be exceeded
concentration calculated as Cr using chromic chloride com-
  plexes
recommended limit
permissible limit for domestic water supplies
permissible limit for domestic water supplies
established limits
established limits
established limits
 PHS 1962"'
 WHO 196V"S
 World  Health  Organization  International  Standards for
  Drinking Water 1958 (WHO 195t)>"
 PHS 19623"
 WH019613"
FDA 1971«s
FDA 1971'!'.

 PHS 1962"7
 WH01958"8
 WH01961«
 British Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries ind Food 1956'"

-------
482/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                               TABLE 4~Continued
Constituent

Copper (Co)


Cyanide (CN)














Fluorine (F)





Fluorine (F)
Iron (Fe)



Lead (Pb)






Magnesium (Mg) .
Manganese (Mn) . .


Manganese (Mn)
Mercury (Hg) .

Nickel (Ni)
Nitrates .
Selenium (Se) .

Silver (Ag).
Zinc (Zn)





Zinc(Zn)









Maximum Permissible
Concentration
3 ppm

100 ppm
... 0.01 mg/l
0.01 mg/l
0.2 mg/l
25 ppm
250 ppm
100 ppm
25 ppm
125 ppm
90 ppm
50 ppm
20 ppm
0.1 5 percent
0.1 percent
0.095 percent
0.15 percent
1.2 mg/l
0.7 mg/l
1.5 mg/l
7 ppm


25 ppm
0.3 mg/l
0.3 mg/l
1.0 mg/l
0.1 mg/l
10 ppm

0.05 mg/l
0.1 mg/l
7 ppm


. 125 mi/I
0.05 mg/l
0.10 mg/l
0.50 mg/l
0.01 mg/l
0.005 mg/l
0.5 ppm
1.0 mg/l
50 mg/l
0.01 mg/l
0.05 mg/l
. 0.05 mg/l
5 mg/l
5 mg/l
65 ppm
25 ppm
15 ppm

. 10 ppm

7 ppm

5 ppm
2 ppm
0.5 ppm

0.1 ppm
30 ppm
Substance Allowed to Contain
Given Concentration
pears

certain foods
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
cereals and grains
spices
cereals
nuts, i.e. almonds, etc.
cereal flours
cereals cooked before eating
uncooked pork
cocoa
bakery products
egg white solids
frozen meat
yeast
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
apple, apricot, bean, beet, blackberries, blue-
berries, boysenbernes, broccoli, brussel
sprout, etc. most truits & vegetables
certain foods
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
certain foods

drinking water
drinking water
most fruit, i.e. apples, grapes, mangoes, peaches,
cherries, etc; tomatoes, young berries, rasp-
berries, peppers, 'etc.
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
certain foods
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
peanut, vine hay & sugar beets
straws of barley oats & rye, wheat
bananas, fodder of field corn, sweet corn and
popcorn
apples, celery, crabapples, fennel, pears, quinces,
papayas
cranberries,cucumbers,jrapes,summer squash,
tomatoes, melons
grains of barley, oats, rye and wheat
carrots, sugar beets
corn, grain, cotton seed, kidney, liver, onions,
peanuts
asparagus
peaches
Conditions & Comments

tolerance for residues completed copped for copper carbo-
nate, post-harvest use
maximum quantities
maximum allowable limit
recommended limit
mandatory limit
post-h.irvest application of CaCN
post-hiirvest fumigation with HCN; tolerances for residues
"
"
limits lot to be exceeded
residuus of HCN shall not exceed these limits
"
"
"
"
"
"
recommended control limits optimum; 50-53.7 F
at79.:-90.5F
recommended limit
tolerarce of combined fluorine for insecticidal fluorine com-
pourds, cryolite and synthetic cryolite

maximum
recommended limit
permissible limit
excessive limit
recommended limit
maximum permissible levels mandatory limit for domestic
water supplies
"
"
tolerance of combined lead using lead arsenate


recommended limit for domestic water supply
recommended limit lor domestic water supply
permissible limit for domestic water supply
excessive limit for domestic water supply
recommend limit for domestic water supply
maximum permissible concentration
interim guidelines
maximum permissible concentration
recommended limit for domestic water supply
mandatory limit for domestic water supply
"
"
recommended limit for domestic water supply
"
using Z lion calculated as Zn
"
pre & post-harvest use, Zn ion calculated as Zn

pre and post-harvest use, Zn ion calculated as Zn

usmj Zr ion calculated as Zn


"
"

"
toleram:e for residues of fungicide basic zinc sulfate
Reference

FDA 1971MC

CANADA 1971"'
WHO 1958,™ 1961311
PHS 1962317
'•
FDA 1971»16
FBA I971318




''
'
'
''
'
'
PHS 19623"
"
WHO 1961s"
FDA 1971"=


CANADA 1971»i»
PUS 1962317
WH01958318
"
WHO 1961'"
CANADA 1971"3

PHS I9623"
WHO 1958,318 1961'"
FI)A!971"«


WHO 1961s"
PHS 1962s"
WHO 1958318

WH01961319
Kirkoi 19513'5
CANADA 19713"
Kirkor 195131S
WH01961319
PHS 1962s"
WH01958,3"1961»»
PHS 19623"
"
WH01958,!1»1961»»
FDA 1971"«
"
"

FDA 1971«ii

"

"
"
"

"
"

-------
                                                                                                                  Appendix III—Table 5/483
                     APPENDIX HI-TABLE 5—Total Annual Production of Inorganic Chemicals in the U.S.A.

                                                     (U.S. Department ol Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 197I):«

Constituent

Aluminum
(Al)






Ammonia
(NH3>


Barium
(Ba)
Bismuth
(Bi)
Boron

Calcium
(Ca)

Chlorine



Chromium
(Of)
Copper
(Cu)


Form of Element

AhO — 100 percent
Aids-liquid 8, crystal

AICIi-(100 percent) anhydrous
AUCv 3 H20-100 percent
AIFj-(tech)
Al2(S04)3-(comm)
17 percent AI-O,
synthetic— anhydrous
byproduct liquor
NH4CI gray & white
NH,NO,-100 percent
(NH4)!S04-1W percent
BaCO -100 percent

subcarbonate 100 percent (bhChCOJ-mt)

boric acid— 100 percent
NaBtOrlOHjO
carbide-(Comm)
CaHPOi— animal feed grades 100 percent
CaHPOi— other grades
CaCOj— 100 percent
100 percent CI2 gas
calcium hypochlonte (75 percent Cl)
HCI-100 percent


chromic acid— 100 percent
sodium bichromate and chromate
CuO-100 percent
CuiO-100 percent
CuSO,- 5 H -0-100 percent
Total Annual
Production
(short tons)
6,639.891
23,838

39,511
325,767
143,131
1,243,803

12,917,842
14,000
26 615
5,891,234
1,915,721
79,002

57

138,969
624,257
856,039
496,027
416,096
206,078
9,413,885
42,941
1,910,757


24,859
152,593
1,910
1,742
47,163
Product
Code

2819511
2819611 &
2819615
2819617
2819625
2819627
2819651

2819131
2819131
2819141 &
2819143
2819151
2819157
2819904

28199-

2819411
2819724
2819912
2819919
2819920
2819913
2812111
2819211
2819441,
2819447

2819431
2819929 i
2819931
2819934
2819935
2819936

Year

1969
1969

1969
1969
1969

Constituent

Cyanide
(CN)


Fluorine
(F)
1969
I
1969
1969
1965*
1969
1969
1969

1969

1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
Hydrogen
(H+)

Iron
(Fe)
Manganese
(Mn)
Mercury
(Hg)
Nickel
(Ni)
Phosphorus
(P)

1969
5 ^


1969
1969
1968*
Sulphide



1969 Zinc.
1969
(Zn)

Form of Element

HCN-100 percent



HF— 100 percent anhydrous
NaF-100 percent
Na«SiF ,— 100 percent
HF-100 percent
HiSOi-100 percent


Fed —100 percent
FeSO,-100 percent
MnSO,-4H:0

mercury— redistilled

NiSO<- 6 HjO-100 percent

elemental— whi>e & red (tech)
POCIj-100 percent
PiS —100 percent
PCIr-100 percent
AgCN-100 percent
AgNOs-
NaSH 100 percent
NazS— 60-62 percent concentrated
Na S-60-62 percent concentrated crystal
& liquid (total)


2nd -100 percent
ZnSO,-7 H -0-1 00 percent
Total Annual
Production
(short tons)
205,208



221,536
6,885
48,975
17,206
29,536,914


66,674
192,020
40,806

475,688(lbs)

20,388

628,957
31,404
55,759
57,312
1,795
(thousand av oz.)
113,809
27 364
22,222
122,022


27,986
57,774
Product
Code

2819451



2819461
2819728
2819751
2819465
28193-


2819942
2819943
2819950

2819953

2819956

2819958 &
2819959
2819960
2819961
2819963
2819971
2819972
2819729
2819782
2819781,
2819782, &
2819783


2819984
2819987

Year

1969



1969
1969
1969
1969
1969


1969
1969
1969

1969

1969

1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969"
1969
1967*"
1969


1966*
1969
 • 1969 through 1966 figures withheld to avoid disclosing the figures lor individual companies.
** Includes unspecified amounts produced and shipped on contract basis.
"• combined with II and 13 (or 1969.

-------
484/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                    APPENDIX  HI-TABLE 6—Toxicit^
Substance Tested
Insecticides Organochloride
Aldrm
Aldrin
Aldrm
Aldrin
Aldrin .
Aldnn . .



Aldrin
Aldrin
Aldnn
Aldrin
Aldrin
Aldnn
Aldnn .
Aldrin
Aldrin
Aldrin .
Aldrm
Aldrm
Aldrm
Tri-6-Dust

Chlordane . .
Chlordane
Chlordane
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT 	
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT .


DDT
DDT .
DDT 	
DDT.. .
DDT 	
DDP . ...
Toxaphene
Parathion 	
Formulation

Technical
Technical
1DO percent
100 percent
100 percent




100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
Technical
Technical
Technical
Technical
Technical
81 percent
Benzene Hexachoride
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent











Wettable powder
Wettable powder
Wettable powder
Wettable powder
Wettable powder



Organism Tested

Palaemon macrodactylus*
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Mercenaria mercenaria



Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Memdia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Tnalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Anguilla rostrata
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Micrometrus minimus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus aztecus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
SKeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Cyclotella nana
Cyclotella nana


Protococcussp
Chlorella sp
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Crassostrea virgmica


Common Name

Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Sand slirimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
Hard clam



Miiminchog
Mumrriichog
Striped killifish
Atlantic silverside
Striped mullet
Bluehead
Northern puffer
American eel
Threespme stickleback
Shiner perch
Shiner perch
Dwarf perch
Dwarf perch
White shrimp
Brown shrimp
Korear shrimp
Korear shrimp
Threespine stickleback
















American oyster


Life Stage or Size
(mm)



26
31
3.5
Larvae
Larvae
Eggs
Larvae
42
55
49
57
85
80
168
56
22-44




41.6±5.9
11.9±.45


22-44
















27 mean height


Cone, (ppb act. ingred.)
in water

.74 (.51-1. 08)
3(1.1-!.})
8
9
33
500
1000
> 10000
410
4
8
17
13
100
12
36
5
27.4
7.4
2.26(1.09-4.74)
18
2.03(1-4.2)
35.
400"
18 (10-38)
11 (7-18)
160.
1000
100
10
1000
1000
100
10
1000
100


600
600
600
600
40
1.0
1.0
1.0
Methods of Assessment

TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
37 percent survival
00 percent
TLM
TIM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TL-50
Tl-50
TLM
42 percent reduction in 0« evolution
32 percent reduction in Oz evolution
30 percent reduction in Oz evolution
35 percent reduction in 0> evolubon
39 percent reduction in Oi evolution
32 percent reduction in 02 evolution
36 percent reduction in 02 evolution
33 percent reduction in Oi evolution
33 percent reduction in 0: evolution
Effect of toxicant on growth of phytoplanl
(on
0. 50 value a
1.00 ratio of O.D.
0.74olExpL/O.D.
0.91 control
0.57
Weight difference between control and e)
perimental oysters

DDT .
DDT
DDT
DDT ..
DDT . .
DDT
DDT
DDT . ..
DDT .
DDT . .
DDT ..
DDT . .
DDT ...
DDT.
DDT
DDT .. .
Technical Grade
77 percent
77 percent
P, P1 isomer
P, P1 isomer


P,
P,
P,
- P,
. . . P,
. .. P,
. P,
. P,
. . . P,
' isomer
1 isomer
1 isomer
1 isomer
1 isomer
1 isomer
' isomer
' isomer
' isomer
Penaeus duorarum
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Callinectes sapidus
Callmectes sapidus
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Pink shrimp
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Blue ciab
Blue crab
Hermit crab
Mummichog
Mummichog
Striped kihfish
Atlantic silverside
Striped mullet
American eel
Bluehead
Northern puffer
13. 3 mm (Aug.) 0.12
0.86(0.47-1.59)

26
31
Adult
Adult
3.5
42
55
40
59
46
56mm
80mm
140mm
0.17(0.09-0.32)
0.6
2.
19. (9.-3S.)
35. (21-57)
6
3
5
1
.4
.9
4
7
89.
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
  * N.B. Italic type fonts were not available in a suitable point size. Ed.
  " Concentration of Tri-6-dust.

-------
                                                                                                         Appendix HI—Table 6/485
Data for Organic Compounds
Test Procedure
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
10 day two-cell stage fertilized
10 day eggs introduced into test media
48 hr 50 percent ol eggs develop
normally
12 day 50 percent of larvae survive
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay

96 hr static bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay





0- production measured by Wmklet
Light-and-Dark Bottle Technique.
Length of test 4 hr.



Organisms grown in test media con-
taining pesticides for 10 days O.D.
measured at 530 m^


36 wk chronic lab bioassay









28 day flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
TempC
13-18
13-18
20±.S
20±.5
20± 5
24±1
24±1
24±1

24±1
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20±.5

13±1
14-18
13±1
14-18
17.4-22.3
17.4-22 3
13-18
13-18
20± 5











20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5-.k1
9-25









21-29
13-18
13-18
20
20
10
21
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Salinity °/o
12-30
12-30
24
24
24





24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25

28
25(25-26)
16
28
31 4
31 4
12-30
12-30
25











22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
27-29









24-33
12-30
12-30
24
24
8.6
8 6
2.4
24
24
24
24
U
24
24
24
Other Environmental Criteria
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb. 1-12JTU
pH8.0D.0.7.1-7.7mg/l
pH8 OD.0.7.1-7.7mg/l
pH 8.0 0.0. 7. 1-7.7 mg/l





pH 8. 00.0. 7. -7. 7 mg/l
pH8 ODD 7. -7. 7 mg/l
pH 8. 00.0. 7. -7. 7 mg/l
pH8 OD0.7. -7.7mi/l
pH8 0 D.0.7. -7. 7 mg/l
pHS.OD.0.7. -7. 7 mg/l
pHS.OD.O 7. -1.7 mg/l
pH 8 0 0.0 7. -7.7 mg/l
pH 6 8-7 4 Total alkalinity -
45-57 ppm
5.0 JTU Turbidity
Turbidity 7 (5-10) JTU
Turbidity 18 JTU
Turbidity 7 JTU
pH=8 15-8.2
pH=8.15-8 2
Turb 1-12 JTU
Turb. 1-12 JTU
pH 6.8-7 4 Total Alkalinity
as CaCo., 45-57 ppm

250 ft.-c for 4 hrs








500 ft -c continuous















Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8 0
pH=8 0


pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH = 8.0
pH = 8 0
pH=8.0
pH = 8.0
pH=8.0D07.1-7.8
pH=8.0D07.1-7.8
pH=8.CD07.1-7.8
Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mj kg
95 percent confidence intervals



















95 percent confidence
intervals 1 0(0.23-0.42)
0.38(0.22-0.54)

None
None
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None

t-values
Results analyzed 8 4
using Hailed 5.3
T-test significance 5 3
at 0.05 level 29
5.5
2.5
5.2
2.9
2.3
None
"
"

"
Mean in water weights were statistically DDE -13.0
different at 0. 05 after 22 wks. DDE - . 20
DDT=29.0
Toxaphene=9.0
Parathion=.007





95 percent confidence intervals 0. 19 (muscle)
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals

None SL
95 percent confidence 1.5
Interval/slope tune. 1.9
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Other Parameters













































Tissue changes
associated with
{ill, kidneys,
digestive tu-
bules, visceral
ganglion and
tissues beneath
gills. Mycehal
fungus also
present.
















Reference
Earnest (unpublished)"3
"
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1969s2'
Eisler 196912'
Davis and Hidu 1969824
Davis and Hidu 1969s24
Davis and Hidu 1969'-i

Davis and Hidu 19693"
Eislw 1970s32'
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970bS2»
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970b32'
Katz 1961s33

Earnest and Benville (unpublished)3"
"
"
"
Chin and Allen 1957323
Chin and Allen 1957=-'
Earnest (unpublished)353
Earnest (unpublished.)5*3
Katz 1961333


Derby and Ruber 1971«»
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Ukeles 1962s"
"
"
"
"
Lowe etal. 1971b3«









Nimmo et ai. (unpublished)""
Earnest (unpublished)3'3
Earnest (unpublished)3'3
Eisler 196932'
Eisler 196932!
Maboodetal.1970"2
Manoodetal. 19703"
Eisler 196932'
Eisler 1970a3M
Eisler 1970b3»
Eisler 1970bIM
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970bS2<>
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970b32=
  f> Mixture of 1.0 ppb of DDT, Toxaphene, Parattiion.
  •• Residue after 36 week exposure.

-------
486/'Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                        TABLE 6~
Substance Tested

DDT. . ..
DDT ... .
DDT ... .
DDT ...
DDT ..
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Formulation

P, P' isomer
Technical trade
Technical grade
P, P' isomer
P, P' isDmer
. 85 percent
85 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent


Organism Tested

Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Crassostrea virgmica
Nassa obsoleta
Common Name

Three'-pine stickleback
Shinei perch
Dwarf perch
Shinei perch
Dwarf perch
Korea i shrimp
Korea i shrimp
Sand .hrimp
Grass shrimp
Hernvt crab
American oyster
Muthnail
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
22-44 mm
48-104
48-104




26 mm
31 mm
3.5 mm
Egg
Adult
Cone. (p|ib act. mgred.)
in water
11.5
7.6
4.6
.45(0.21-0.94)
0.26(0.13-0.52)
16.9(10.8-33.4)
6.9(3.7-13.1)
7
50
18
E40.
1,000
Methods ol Assessment

TLM
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50


LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
No. egg cases deposited significant













le
than control. Control=1473 Expt.=18
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin

Dieldrin

Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Endrin
Endnn
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin

Endrin
Endrin
Endnn
Endnn . . .
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endnn
Endnn
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor . . .
Heptachlor
Heptachlor .
Heptachlor

. 100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
Technical
Technical
Technical
0.012 percent W/V

0.012 percent W/V

. Technical
Technical
99 percent
99 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent



100 percent
100 percent
Technical 98 percent
Technical 98 percent
Technical 98 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
Technical 90 percent
Powder 75 percent
Technical 98 percent
Technical 98 percent
Technical
Technical
Technical
Technical
99 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
, 100 percent
. 100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Angutlla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Poecilia latipmna

Poecilia latipmna

Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Nassa obsoleta

Crassostrea virgmica
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Fundulus similis
Brevoortia patronus
Mugil cephalus
Mugil cephalus
Memdia menidia
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Anguilla rostrata
Sphaeroides maculatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cyprmodon vareigatus
Leiostomus lantnurus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus beteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Mumimchog
Mumimchog
Striped kilhfish
Allantic silverside
Striped mullet
American eel
Bluehead
Northern puffer
Threespme stickleback
Slime perch
Dwarf perch
Sailfir mollie

Saillir mollie

Shinei perch
Dwarf perch
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Heririt crab
Mud snail

Amer can oyster
Mumimchog
Mummichog
Slnpi d kilhfish
Longnose killifish
Menhaden
Striped mullet
Stnpud mullet
Atlantic silverside
Bluet ead
American eel
Northern puffer
Threnspine stickleback
Threrspine stickleback
Stiee isfiead minnow
Spot
Shin: r perch
Dwarf perch
Shim r perch
Dwaif Perch
Korean shrimp
Sand shrimp
Bras; shrimp
Hermit crab
Murrmichog
Muirmichog
Strip ;d killifish
Atlarticsilierside
Stnpsd mullet
Amei ican eel
(Hue lead
37 mm
51 mm
40mm
57mm
85mm
57 mm
80 mm
168 mm
22-44
48-104
48-104
?







26 mm
31 mm
3.5
Adult

Egg
42 mm
51 mm
40 (mm)



83 (mm)
54 (mm)
90 (mm)
57 (mm)
131 (mm)
22-44
25-37


48-104
48-104
48-104
48-104

26
31
3 5
42
35
40
54
too
56
80
5
5
4
5
23
.9
6
34.
13.1
3.7
5.
7.5

6.
12.
1.9(0.71-3. 20)
2.44(1. 16-!). 11)
4.7(2.1-9.4)
.12(0.05-0.25)
1.7
1 8
12
1,000

790
0.6
.6
0.3
0.23
0.8
2.6
0.3
0.05
O.t
0.6
3.1
0.5
1.5
0.32
0.45
0 8
0 6
0.12(0.06-0.25)
0.13(0.06-0.27)
14.5(8.2-25.9)
8
440
55
50
50.0
32
3
194
10
.8
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TL-50
TL-50











Reduced reproduction control— young bo
65 Exp.— young born 37
SGOT activity'
increase
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-53
LC-50
No. egg cases deposited significantly
tton Control. Confrol=1473 E«pt=
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
IC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50










le
•2
































-------
                                                               Appendix HI—Table (5/487
Continued
Test Procedure
96 hr static lab bioassay
SB hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr inter, flow lab bioassay
96 hr inter (low lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr inter, flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr exposure to 1 .0 ppm then 133
day post exposure in clean water
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab biaassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
34 wk flowing water


48 hr flowing water test

96 hr inter, flow lab bioassay

96 hr inter flow lab bioassay

96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hi inter flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static exposure of adults to
1 0 ppm. 133 day post exposure in
clean water
48 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bi oassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr flowing lab bioassay
24 hr flowing lab bioassay
24 hr flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hi static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr flowing lab bioassay
24 hr (lowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay

Temp C
20±.5
I3±1
13±1
14-18
14-18
13-18
13-18
20
20
20
24±1
20± 5

20±.5
2fl±.5
2J±.5
2D±.5
2D±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20^.5
20±.5

13±1
13±1
17-30


27±1

14-18

14-18

13-18
13-18
20
20
20
20± 5


24±1
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
25
27
29
20±.5
20±.5
20i.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5

20
28
17
13±1
13±1
14-18
14-18
13-18
20± 5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20±.5

Salinity
25
26
28
18
27
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
?
24

24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25

15
29
25-30


1

28

12

12-30
12-30
24
24
24
24



24
24
24
19
29
21
24
24
24
24
24
25

25
29
23
26
18
28
28
12-30
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24

°/oo Other Environmental Criteria
Tot. Alk. as CaCoi 24-57 ppm
pH6.8-7 4

Turb. 12JTU
Turb 4 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8.0
pH=8.0
pH=8.0

pH=8 0

pH=8.0
pH=8 0
pH = 8.0
pH=8.0
pH=8.0
pH = 8.0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH6 8-7 4 Tot. AlkCaCo,
45-57 ppm







Turb 6 JTU

Turb 24 JTU

Turb 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=80
pH = 8.0
pH=8 0




pH=8.0
pH = 8 0









pH = B.8-7.4 Tot. Alk. as (CaCOj)
45-57







Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8 0
pH-8.0
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH=8.0007. -7.8

Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mg/kg
None

95 percent confidence intervals G.55(.44-.65) ppm
95 percent confidence intervals 1 .0(0.48-2.0) ppm

95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
None
None

No. of eg? cases deposited significantly
different at 0.001 level
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None

None
None
None Blood 11. 98
Brain 13.3
Gill 37. 6 ppm
Activity significantly greater at 0.05
level
95 percent confidence interval 2.33(0.00168-
0.00307) ppm
95 percent confidence interval 1 . 26(0. 00086-
0.0017)
95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
None
None
None
No. of egg cases deposited significantly
different at 0.001 level

None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None

None
None
None
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence interval 0.13(0.02-0.27)
95 percent confidence intervals 0.11(0.08-0.15)
95 percent confidence intervals
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None

Other Parameters Reference
Katz 1961'"
Earnest and Betmle (unpublished)'-"
Earnest and Benville (unpublished)3"
Earnest and Benville (unpublished)3'1'
"
Earnest (unpublished)"3
Earnest (unpublished)159
Eisler 1969'27
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Eisler 1970css»

Eisler 1970a™
Eisler 1970b«9
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970b3«
Eisler 1970bs»>
Eislei 1970b»
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970bSM
Katz 1961333

Earnest and Benville (unpublished)354
Earnest and Benville "
Lane and Livingston 1970335


Lane and Scura 1970"5

Earnest and Benville (unpublished)354

Earnest and Benville "

Earnest (unpublished)353
Earnest "
Eisler 19693"
Eisler 19693"
Eisler 19691"
Eisler 1970c33"


Davis and Hidu 1969324
Eisler 1970a»
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b»
Lowe19653»
Eisler 19700s"
Eisler 1970b3'9
Eisler 1970b3"
Eisler 1970b329
(CaCo3) 45-57 ppm

-------
488/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                            TABLE 6—
Substance Tested
Heptachlor .
Heptachlor


Lindane
Lmdane
Lmdane
Lmdane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lmdane
Lindane

Lmdine . ..
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane . ...
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane . .
Lmdane
Lindane
Lindane
Methoiychlor
Methoxychlor
Methoiychlor
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor .
Methoxychlor ... .
Methoxychlor .
Methoxychlor .
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor . .
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor .
Mirex 	
Mircx

Mirex 	

Mirex
Mirex
Mirex

Mirex
Mirex .

TDE
TDE
Toxaphene




Toxaphene
Toxaphene . .
Toxaphene . .


Toxaphene

Thiodan® .
Thiodan® 	
Formulation
100 percent
. 72 percent







100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent




100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 89. 5 percent
89. 5 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
100 percent
89. Si percent
Technical
Bait (.3 percent mirex)

Bait (.3 percent mirex)

Technical
Technical
Bait (0.3 percent mirex)

Bail (0.3 percent) mirex


99 percent
99 percent
Polychloro dicyclic Terpenes
with chlorated camphene
60 percent emulsion con-
centrate

100 percent

Polychloro bicyclic Terpenes
willt chlorinated camnhene
Predominatory
100 percent
67-69 percent CL
96 percent
96 percent
Organism Tested
Sphaeroides maculatiis
Gasterosteus aculeatus


Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp.
Dunahella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Nassa obsoleta

Crassostrea virgmica
Mercenaria mercenary
Mercenana mercenana
Fundulus heterochtus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalossoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculalus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Gasterosteu: aculeatus
Tetrahymena pyriformis
Penaeus a/tecus

Palaemonetes pugio

Penaeus dirorarum
Penaeus duorarum
UCA pugilator

Callinectes sapidus
Callinectes sapidus

Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Palaemon macrodactylus
Callinectes sapidus
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria

Gasterosteus aculeatus

Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Common Name
Northern purler
Threes jine stickleback







Korear shrimp
Korear shrimp
Sand sirimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
Mud snail

Eastern oyster
Hard clam
Hard clam
Mumirichog
Mummchog
Striped kilhfish
Atlanti . silverside
Striper mullet
American eel
Bluehead
Northern putter
Threespme stickleback
Koreai shrimp
Korear shrimp
Sand shrimp
Grass ihrimp
Hermrcrab
Mumimchog
Mnmmichog
Striper killifish
Atlantic silverside
Stripec mullet
American eel
Bluehead
Northern puffer
Threespme stickleback

Brown shrimp

Grass shrimp

Pink sirimp
Pink shrimp
Fiddle 'crab

Blue c'ab
Blueciab

Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp





Korean shrimp
Blue crab
Hard tlam
Hard i:lam

Threer.pine stickleback

Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
168
22-44









26
31
3.5
15

Egg
Egg
Larvae
42
55
49
57
85
56
90
168
22-44


26
31
3.5
42
55
40
57
too
56
86
203
22-44

24

25

55
55
20

23
Adult







...

Adult
Eggs
Larvae

22-44



Cone, (ppk act. ingred
in water
188
111. 9


5,000
5,000
9,000
5,000
5,000
12.5(4.7-32.7)
9. 2 (5. 8- 1 5. C)
5
10.
5.
10000

9100
> 10000
> 10000
20
60
28
9
66
56
14
35
50
.44(0.21-0.83)
6.7(4.37-10.7)
4.
12.
7.
35
35
30
33
63
12.
13.
150.
69.1
0 9
One particle of mirex
bait/shrimp
One particle of mirex
bait/shrimp
1.0
0.1
One particle of mirex
bait per crab
1 particle of bait/crab
5.6X104
(4.0-7.8)X10<
8.3(4.8-14.4)
2.5(1.6-4.0}
40
40
70
10
10
20.3(8.6-47.9)
370 (180-700)
1120
250

7.8

17.1(8.4-39 8)
3.4(1.8-8.5)
.) Methods of Assessment
LC-50
TLM
Ratio O.D. Expt.
Ratio O.D. Control
0.75 0 D. expt/O.D. control
0.57 O.D. exp/O.D. control
0.60 O.D. exp/O.D. control
0.30 O.D. expt/O.D. control
1.00 O.D. expt/O.D. control
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
Reduced deposition of egg cases from 147
by control to 749 by Expt.
TLM
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
16.03 percent decrease in population size
48 percent paralysis or death in 4 days

63 percent paralysis/or death in 4 days

100 percent paralysis/or death in 11 day;
36 percent paralysis/or death in 35 days
73 percent paralysis/or death in 14 days

84 percent paralysis/death in 20 days
TLM

TL-50
TL-50
.77 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.700.D. expt/O.D. control
53 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.54 O.D. expt/O.D. control
. 00 OD. expt/O.D. control
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TLM

TLM

TL-50
TL-50

-------
                                                                                       Appendix Ill—Table 6/489
Continued
Test Procedure
96 hi static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
Test organisms grown in test media
containing pesticides for ten days
Absorbance measured at 530 rry


96 br static lab bioassay
96 hr flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay. Acute toxicity
experiment followed by 133-day post
exposure in clean water.
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr intermittent-flow ab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr growth test


Static bioassay
Static bioassay
Flowing water bioassay
Flowing water bioassay
Flowing water bioassay
96 hr flowing water bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr flowing water lab bioassay
Test organisms grown in test media
for 10 days absorbance measured at
530 mi


96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr (lowmf water lab bioassay
TempC
28±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
13-18
13-18
20± 5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5


24±1
24±1
24±1
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
20± 5
20±.5
2D±.5
13-18
13-18
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20
20±.5
20±,5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5

26


22
25
17
14
29
29
21
13-18
13-18
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
13-18
21
24±1
24±1
20±.5
13-18
13-18
Salinity »/m>
24
25
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
24





24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25

0


21
33
29 o/oo
29 "/DO
27 o/oo
27
19.3
12-30
12-30
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
12-30
8 6


25
12-30
12-30
Other Environmental Criteria
pH=!.OD01.1-1.8
pH 6.8-7. 4 Total Alkalinity
500 ft c-contmuously




Turb 1-12 JTU

pH=8.0D.0.7.1-7.7
pH=8.0D0.7.1-7.7
pH=8.0D.0.7.1-7 7
pH=8.0





pH=8.0D.0. 7.1-7.7
pH=80DO 7 1-7.7
pH=8 OD.0.7.1-7.7
pH=8.00.D.7.1-7.7
pH=8.00D 7.1-7.7
pH=8.00D.7.1-7 7
pH=8 ODD 7.1-7.7
pH=8.00.D.7. 1-7.7
pH=B.OO.D.7 1-7.7
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8 ODD 7. -7 7
pH=8 ODD 7. -7.7
pH=8 OD07. -7 7
pH=8.0D07 -7.7
pH=8 ODD 7. -7.7
pH=8.0D07 -7.7
pH=8.0 DO 7. -7.7
pH=8 0007. -7.7
pH=8.0007. -7.7
pH=8.0D07 -7.7
pH=8.0D07. -7.7
pH=6 8-7 4 Total alkalinity
(CaCos) 45-57
Cultures grown in Tetrahymena
broth



None
None
None


Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU





Turbidity 1-12 JTU




Turb 1-12 JTU
Turn 1-12 ITU
Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mg kg
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
None
None
No. of eggs deposited significantly less at
0.001 level. X->10.8 Chi-square
analysis
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None

Measured effect is an average of the re-
sults ol tests in which a significant dif-
ference existed (P< 0.05)

1.1

. 0.26ppm
0.30 ppm
	 0.3
95 percent conMer.ce interval
95 percent confidence interval

None




95 percent confi dence interval
95 percent confidence interval



95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
Other Parameters Reference
Eisler 1970b!M
Katz 19613S3
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Earnest (unpublished)3*3
Earnest (unpublished)3*3
Eisler 1869-"2'
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 196932'
Eisler 1970c3s»


Davis and Hidu1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969-21
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Eisler 1970a32><
Eisler 1970D329
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970bs»
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 19700s"
Eisler 1970b32"
Eisler 1970b™
Katz 1861™
Earnest (unpublished)3"
Earnest "
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 196932'
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1970a3»
Eisler 1970bM»
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970I>32»
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b329
Katz 1961s33

Cooley et al. (unpublished)151


Loweetal. 1971a3M
Loweetal. 1971as<°
Loweetal. 197laIM
Lowe et al. 1971a"»
Loweetal. 1971as<°
	 Loweetal. 1971a"o
Mahooiletal.WO3*2
Earnest (unpublished)"3
Earnest "
Ukeles 1962s"
"

"
"
Earnest (unpublished)3'3
Mahood et al. 1970s"
Davis and Hidu 1969™
Davis and Hidu 1969S2<
Katz 19613SS
Earnest (unpublished)3"
Earnest "

-------
490/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                             TABLE 6-
Substance Tested

Formulation

Organism Tested

Common Name

Life Stage or Size
(mm)
Cone, (ppb act. mgred.) Methods of Assessment
in water

Insecticides Organophosphates
Abate
Abate
Abate
Abate
Abate .
Abate
Abate
Abate
Abate
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
CORAL
CO-RAL
CORAL . .
CO-RAL
CO-RAL
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
Delnav
Delnav
Delnav
Dicapthon
Dicapthon
Dioxathion
Dioxatliion
Dioxathion
Dioxalhion
Dioxathion
Dioxathion
Dioxathion
Dioxathion
Dipterex
Dipterex
Oipterex
Dipterex
Dipterex .
Dipterex
Dipterex
Dipterex
Di-syston
Di-syston
Di-syston .
Di-syston
Dursban .
Durshan .
Dursban
Dursban
Guthion
Guthion
Guthion






































100 percent
100 percent
100 percent


100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
50 percent soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder





Technical
Technical





Dunahella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Pbaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodaclylum tricornutum
Skelelonema costatum
Skeletonema costal™
Cyclotella nana
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Cyclotella nana
Cyclotella nana
Palaemon macrodactylus
. Palaemon macrodactylus
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassosttea virgmica
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenary mercenana
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgaris
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus neteroclitus
Fundulus maialis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides rnaculalus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgaris
Pagurus longicarpus
Mercenana mercenana
Mercenana mercenana
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majahs
Memdia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp
Chlorella sp
Monochrysis luthen
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgmica
Crassostrea nrgmica
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenana mercenana
Cymatogaster aggregate
Cymatogaster aggregate
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crassostrea virgmica
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria







Korean shrimp
Kornan shrimp











Korsan shrimp
Konan shrimp
Eastern oyster
Eas'ern oyster
Hard clam
Hard clam
Thr«spine stickleback
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
Munmichog
Munmichog
Striped kihlfish
Atlantic silvertide
Striped mullet
Am incan eel
Blu ihead
Northern puffer
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Heimit crab
Haid clam
Haidclam
Munmichog
Mummichog
Striped killifish
Atlinticsilverside
Striped mullet
American eel
Blushead
Noithern puffer







Am sncan oyster
American oyster
American oyster
Haidclam
Haidclam
Shiner perch
Shner perch
Korean shrimp
Koiean shrimp
American oyster
Haidclam
Haidclam






















Eg?
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
22-44
26
31
3.5
42
55
40
50
84
59
80
168
26
31
3.5
Eggs
Larvae
42
56
84
50
85
59
80
168







Larvae
Eggs
Lame
Eggs
Larvae
55
55


Eggs
Eggs
Larvae
1000
too
1000
100
1000
100
1000
2550 (934-D540)
249(72.5-853)
1000.
100
10
1000
100
10
1000
100
10
1000
100
5 3(3.13-11.92)
3.0(1.5-6 0)
110
>1000
9120
5210
1470
4
15
45
3700
2680
2300
1250
200
1800
1440
2250
38
285
82
3340
5740
6
20
15
6
39
6
35
75
50,000
50,000
100,00)
100,000
50,000
500,00)
50,000
1,000
5860
3670
55280
1390
3.5
3 7
0.25(0.10-0.63)
0.01 (II. 002-0.046)
620
860
860
36 percent reduction in 0. evolution
23 percent reduction in 0 evolution
38 percent reduction in 0> evolution
28 percent reduction in 0- evolution
55 percent reduction in 0 evolution
23 percent reduction in 0; evolution
80 percent reduction in 0 evolution
TL-50
TL-50
27 percent reduction in 0? evolution
27 percenl reduction in 0; evolution
16 percent reduction in Da evolution
29 percent reduction in 0': evolution
29 percent reduction in 0. evolution
35 percent reduction in 02 evolution
19 percent reduction in Q? evolution
51 percent reduction in On evolution
26 percent recuction in 0. evolution
50 percent reduction in 0? evolution
48 percent reduction in Oj evolution
TL-50
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
.54(0.0. expt/O.D cont.)
.85(O.D.expt/O.D cont)
39(00 expt/OD cont.)
.54(0.0. expt/O.D. cont.)
.70(0.0. expt/O.D. cont.)
.00(0.0. expt/O.D. cont.)
.55 (0.0. expt/O.D. cont.)
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TLM

-------
                                                                                                                                                       Appendix  III—Table 6/491
Continued
Test Procedure
02 evolution measured by Winkler
Light-and-Dark Bottle Technique
1 1. of culture incubated 20 hrs in
pesticide soln. then placed in test
bottles


96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
02 evolution measured by Winkler
Lijht-and-Oark Bottle Technique


1 1. of culture incubated 20 hrs in pesti-
cide soln. then placed m test bottles.





9G hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
48 br static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay

96 br static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 br static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 br static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
Organisms grown in test media con-
taining pesticide for 10 days optical
density measured at 530 m^




48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr flowing water lab bio.
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr. intermittent flow lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
Temp C







13-18
13-18











13-18
13-18
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20±.5

20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
24±1.
24±1.
20
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20± 5
20.5±1
205±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1

24±1.
24±1.
24±1.
24±1.
24±1.
20.5±1.
20.5±1.
13-18
13-18
24±1.
24±1.
24±1.
Salinity "







12-30
12-30











12-30
12-30
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
25

24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
22-28
22-28
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28





25
25
12-30
12-30



n,i Other Environmental Criteria
250 ft.-c for 4 hrs.






Turb. 1-12JTU

250 ft.-c for 4 hrs










Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb. 1-12 JTU




pH6 8-7. 4 total alkalinity
45-51 ppm
PH8.0D07. -7.7
pH 8.0 DO 7 -7.7
PH8.0D07. -7.7
pH 8. ODD 7. 0-7. 7
pH 8.0 DO 7. -7.7
PH8.0D07. -7.7
PH8.0D07. -7.7
PH8.0D07. -7.7
pH 8 8 DO 7 -77
pH 8. ODD 7. 1-7 7
pH8 0 DO 7. 1-7. 7
pH 8.0 DO 7 1-7 7
pH 8.0 DO 7 1-7.7
PH8.0D07 1-7.7


pHS.0007 0-7.7
pH8 0
pHS.O
pH8 0
pH8 0
pHS.O
pHS.O
pHS.O














Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb. 1-12 JTU



Statistical Evaluation
All percent t-6.1
significant t-4.1
at 0.05 t=3.8
level t=2.5
t=4.8
t=2.2
t=6.8
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
All percent t -5.4
siinificant t=6.7
at 0.05 t=2 6
level t=2.5
1=2.5
t=3.5
t=2.3
t=5.9
t=3.2
t=3.8
t=2.7
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
Nont
None
None
None

None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
None
None
None
                                                                                                                         Residue levels ing kg   other Parameters
                                                                                                                                                                           Reference
                                                                                                                                                              Derby and Ruber 1971'"
                                                                                                                                                              Earnest (unpublished)353
                                                                                                                                                              Earnest (unpublished)"3
                                                                                                                                                              Derby and Ruber 1971s26
                                                                                                                                                              Earnest (unpublished)355

                                                                                                                                                              Davis and Hidu1969324



                                                                                                                                                              Katz1961™

                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 19693"
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 19693"
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1969'"
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970a™
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b»
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b329
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b»>
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b»
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970bSM
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b3M
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 19701)™
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1969s"
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1969'"
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1969s"
                                                                                                                                                              Davis and Hidu 1969™
                                                                                                                                                              Davis and Hidu 1969'-'
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970a"-s
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970I1'9
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b»
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b»
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b'»
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b'!»
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b»»
                                                                                                                                                              Eisler 1970b'M
                                                                                                                                                              Ukeles 1962s"
                                                                                                                                                              Ukeles 1962'"
                                                                                                                                                              Ukeles 1962s"
                                                                                                                                                              UKeles1962'"
                                                                                                                                                              Ukeles 1962s"
                                                                                                                                                              Ukeles 1962s"
                                                                                                                                                              Ukeles 1962'"
                                                                                                                                                              Davis and Hidu 1969s"
                                                                                                                                                              Davis and Hidu 1869'-'
                                                                                                                                                               Millemann 1969'"
                                                                                                                                                               Millemann 1969MS
                                                                                                                                                               Earnest (unpublished)353
                                                                                                                                                               Earnest   "
                                                                                                                                                               Davis and Hidu 1969»4
                                                                                                                                                               Davis and Hidu 1969324
                                                                                                                                                               Davis and Hidu 196932<

-------
492/'Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6-
Substance Tested

Guthion


Guthion
Malathion

Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malattoon
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Paralhion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Patathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Parathion


Phorate


Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
Insecticides Carhamates
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Bayeon
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Formulation




93 percent


95 percent
95 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent


100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
57 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent

100
100
100
100
100
100
100






100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent





















Organism Tested

Cyprmodon variegatus


Gasterosteus aculeatus
Tetrahymena pynformis

Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgimca
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Memdia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Anguilla rostrata
Sphaeroides maculatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heterochtus
Fundulus ma/alis
Memdia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Cyprmodon vanegatus


Cyprmodon vanegatus


Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus ma/alis
Memdia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaercides maculatus
Protococcus sp.
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp.
Chlorella sp
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis luthen
Monochrysis lutheri
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgimca

Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum Incornutum
SKeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Cyclotella nana
Common Name

Sheepshead minnow


Thresspine stickleback


Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Sane shrimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
American oyster
American oyster
Mummichog
Mummichog
Striped kilhfish
Atlantic silverside
Striped mullet
Bluehead
American eel
Northern puffer
Tririespme stickleback
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Her mt crab
Mummichog
Mummichog
StrnedkriMsli
Atlantic silverside
Striped mullet
American eel
Blunhead
Northern puffer
Sheepshead minnow


Shespshead minnow


Sanl shrimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
Munmichog
MuTimichog
Strued killifish
Atlantic silverside
Strued mullet
American eel
Bluphead
Northern puffer








American oyster
American oyster











Life Stage or Size
(mm)
40-70


22-44
Log-phase



26
31
35
lit
Larvae
42
56
84
50
48
80
57
183
22-44
26
31
3.5
38
55
84
50
48
59
90
196
40-70


40-70


26
31
3.5
42
56
84
50
100
59
80
168








Egg
Larvae











Cone, (apb act. mgred.)
in water
2


4.8
10,000

81.5(111.6-26.1)
33.7(21.3-53.1)
33
82
83
9070
2660
70
80
250
125
550
27
82
3250
76.9
2
3
7
8,000
58,000
13,800
5,700
5,200
16,900
12,300
75,800
10


5


11
69
28
65
300
75
320
300
65
74
800
1X105
5X105
1X10=
3X105
3X105
1X105
1X105
3X105
>1X1D4
>1X1D<

1000
100
10
1000
100
10
1000
100
10
tooo
Methods of Assessment

Acetylchohnesterase activity' in cont
^-experimental groups contral=l
expt.=0.097
TLM
8.8 percent decrease in a population :
measured as absoibance at 540 n>
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
Acetylcholmesterase activity' in conl
vs.-expt. groups Control- 1.36 Exp
0.120
Acetylcholmesterase activity' in con*
vs-expt groups Control=1.36 Ex|
0.086
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
.62 OD expt/OD control
.00 OD expt/OD control
. 65 OD expt/OD control
.27 OD expt/OD control
.4900 expt/OD control
.58 OD expt/OD control
.83 OD expt/OD control
.38 OD expt/OD control
TLM
TLM

25 percent reduction in Oj evolution
32 percent reduction in devolution
27 percent reduction in Oi evolution
23 percent reduction in 0; evolution
28 percent reduction in 0: evolution
40 percent reduction in 02 evolution
30 percent reduction in 02 evolution
23 percent reduction in 02 evolution
29 percent reduction in 02 evolution
53 percent reduction in 02 evolution
  ' ACn hydrolysed/hr/mg. brain

-------
Appendix III—Table 6/493
Continued
Test Procedure
72 hr static exposure

96 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr growth test in Tetrahymena broth
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 In static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static exposure

72 hr static exposure

96 hr stall dab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
0 evolution measured by Wmkler
Light-and-Dark Bottle technique
1 1. of culture incubated 20 hrs in
pesticide solution, then placed in
test bottles 4 hrs






Temp C
21+2



26
13-18
13-18
20+ 5
20+. 5
20+ 5
24+1
24+1
20
20+.5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+.5
2D+.5
23+ 5
20+ 5

20+. 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+. 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
21+2

21+2.

20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20
20+ 5
20i 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20 5+1
20 5+1
20 5+1
20 5+1
20 5+1
20.5+-1
20 5+1
20 5i1
24+1
24+1











Salinity »/o
4

25

0
12-30
12-30
24
24
24


24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25

24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
4

4

24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28













a Other Environmental Criteria
pH=7 ±0 2

pH 6 8-7 4 Total Alkalinity as
Ca Co, 45-57

Turb1-12JTU
Turb1-12JTU
pH=8 ODD 7.1-7. 8
pH=80D07 1-7 8
pH = 8 ODD 7 1-7 8


pH=8 0 DO 7 0-7 7
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH = 8 0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH=6.8-7.4 45-57 Total alkalinity
as CaCo,
pH=8 0 DO 7. 1-7. 7
pH=8 ODD 7 1-7 7
pH=8 0007.1-7 7
pH=8 ODD 7. 0-7 7
pH = 8.0






pH7± 2

pH7i 2

pH=8.0DO=7 1-7.7
pH=8 000=7 -7 7
pH=8 0 00=7. -7.7
pH=8 0
pH = 8.0DO=7 -7 7
pH = 8 ODO=7 -7 7
pH=8.0DO=7. -7 7
pH=8 ODO = 7 -7.7
pH=8 000=7 -7 7
pH=8 000=7 -7 7
pH=8 ODO=7. -7 7
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous


250 ft.-c 4 hrs










Statistical Evaluation
Statistical difference at 0.001 level 1=
21.40
None

Statistical difference al 0 05 level
95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None

None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Statistically different at 0.001 level t -
21 0169
Statistically different at 0.001 level t -
4 603
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
All percent 1=4.5
significant t=4.6
at 0.05 t=6.8
level 1=1.9
t=2.5
1=3.8
1=4.3
1=2.1
1=2.9
t=11.0

Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
Coppage (unpublished)352

Katz 1961333

Cooley and Keltner (unpublished)350
Earnest (unpublished)353
Earnest (unpublished)353
Eisler 1969s27
Eisler 1969J«
Eisler 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969321
"
Eisler 1970aJ28
Eisler 1970b"9
Eisler 1970b!!9
Eisler 1970bs'9
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970b!«
Katz1961333

Eisler 1969-1"
Eisler 196912'
"
Eisler 1970aMS
Eisler 1970b'29
Eisler 1970b129
Eisler 1970b129
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970bS2»
Eisler 1970b12'
Eisler 19]OJ3i9
Coppage (unpublished)352

Coppage (unpublished)352

Eisler 196S-""
Eisler 19691"
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1970aM'
Eisler 1970b'»
Eisler 1970b129
Eisler 1970b'2'<
Eisler 1970b129
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970bs2»
Eisler 1970b329
Ukeles 1962J"
Ukeles 1962317
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s"
Davis and Hidu 196932<
Dam and Hiiu 19693'-'
Derby and Ruber 1971s'-1-1
Derby and Ruber 1971125
Derby and Ruber 1971s-'
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971s2*
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971325

-------
494/'Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                                          TABLE 6~
Substance Tested
Sevin® ...
Sevin®. .
Sevin® ..
Sevin® .
Sevin® .
Sevin®
Sevin® ...
Sevin® ..
Sevin®
Se«n® .
Sevin®
Sevin® .
Sevin®.

Sevin® .

Sevin®. ..

Sevin® . . .
Sevin®
Sevin® .
Sevin®
Sevin®. . .
Sevin®
Sevin®. ..

Sewn® 	
Sevin®
Sevin® .
Sevin®.
Sevin® 	

Sevin® ..
Sevin® 	
Sevin® .
Sevin® . .
Sevin® 	
Insecticides Miscellaneous
Apholate 	
Apholate ...
Apholaie .
Apholate .

Apholate

Apholate 	
Herbicides Benzole acid
Chloramben...
"
»

»
"
»

"
"
<<
"
»
n
Formulation
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
100 percent
100 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent

80 percent

80 percent





80 percent
80 percent
80 percent

80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
95 percent
98 percent

80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent










Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Organism Tested
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Monochrysis luthen
Chlorella sp.
Chlorella sp.
Protocols sp.
Protococcus sp.
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Upogebia pugettensis
Callianassa californiensis
Callianassa californiensis
Cancer magister

Hemigrapsis oregonensis

Crassostrea gigas

Crassostrea virgmica
. . Crassostrea virgimca
. Mercanaria mercenana
. . Mercenana mercenana
Clmocardium nuttall
Clmocardium nuttalli
Mytilus edulis

Parophrys vetuliis
Cymatogaster aggregate
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Leiostomus xanthurus

Onchorynchus keta
Cancer magister
Cancer magister
Cancer magister
Cancer magister

Palaemoneles vulgans
Palaemonetes vulgans
Nassa obsoleta
. Nassa obsoleta

Nassa obsoleta

. Fundulus majahs

Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Common Name







Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Mud shrimp
Ghost shrimp
Ghost shrimp
Dungeness crab

Store crab

Pacifii oyster

Ameri:an oyster
Amen an oyster
Hard :lam
Hard :lam
Cocklii clam
Cocklis clam
Bay nussel

English sole
Shine" perch
Threespme stickleback
Threespine stickleback
Spot

Chum salmon
Dungeness crab
Dungeness crab
Dungeness crab
Dungeness crab

Grass shrimp
Grass shrimp
Mud snail
Mud snail

Mud snail

Striped killifish















Life Stage or Size Cone, (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment
(mm) in water









3
3
Adult
Juvenile (male)

Adult (female)

Larvae

Eggs
Larvae
Eggs
Larvae
Adults
Juvenile
Larvae

Juvenile
Juvenile
Juvenile
22-44
18mm

Juvenile
egg/prezoeal
Zoea
Juvenile
Adult

29.5
29.5
13.4
13.76

12.71

41.5















1003
100
1000
1000
10,000
1000
10,000
. 12.0(8.5-135)
7 0(1.5-28)
40 (30-60)
30
130
600(590-6101

270 (60-690)

2200(1500-2100)

3,000
3,000
3,820
>2,500
7,300
3,850
2,300(1400-2900)

4,100(3;'00-5000)
3,900(3(100-4000)
6,700(5M)0-7700)
3,990
100

2,500(2:'00-2700)
6
10
280
180

>5XIOt
5.50X1C5
>3X10<
1.0X10'

1.0X10'

>5.X1(I=

1. 15X1C5
5.XW
1.5X10*
5.X101
1X10=
1.5X10<
1.0X10'
2.5XW
2.225X10=
4.X10'
2.75X10=
4.X10*
1.5X10'1
3.5X10"
.65 OD. expt/O.D control
«. 80 OD. expt/O.D. control
• .00 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.80 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.00 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.74 0 D. expt/O.D control
'.00 0 D. expt/O.D. control
TL-50
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TLM
EC-50 (Paralysis or death) loss of equilil
num
EC-50 (Paralysis loss, of equilibrium i
death)
EC-50 prevention of development
straight linge shell s'lage.
TIM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
EC-50 prevention of development to straigl
Imge shell stage.
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
65 percent survived in experimental ar
control test
TLM
Prevention of hatching and molting
Prevention of molting and death
Death or paralysis
Death or paralysis

TLM
Post exposure TLM
TLM
Reduction in the # of egg cases depositi
from 103 tor control to 70 for expL
Reduction m of egg cases deposited fro
103 by control to 16 by expt.
TLM

50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0; evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0; evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
• No growth but organisms were viable.

-------
                                                                                                                                    Appendix Ill—Table 6/495
Continued
Test Procedure
10 day srowtri test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent-flow lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
14 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay

5 months continuous flow chronic lab
bioassay

96 hi static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
50 days static conditions
96 hr static lab bioassay
100 day post exposure to 96 hr static
lab bioassay at 10 ppm.


96 hr static lab bioassay
f
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
f
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after todays
f
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 1 0 days
/•
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
f
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
Temp C Salinity °/oo Other Environmental Criteria
20 5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
13-18
13-18
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±2
24±1
24±1
24±1
Z4±1
20±2
20±1
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±.5

16-29


15
10±1
10±1
18±1
18
20
20
20
20

20

20
20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
12-30
12-30
25
25
25
25
25
25




25
25
25
25
25
25
25

24-30


25
25
25
25
25
24
24
24
24

24

24
30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
Turbidity 1-12 JTU
Turbidity 1-12 JTU
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1




pH 7. 9-8.1

pH7.9-8 1
pH 7 9-8 1
pH 7 9-8 1
PH7.9-8 1
pH=6.8-7 4 Total alkalinity
45-75 ppm








pH7 8
DH7.8
pH7 8
pHJ.8

pH7 8

PH7.8
pH=7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH = 7 3-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH = 7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12, 12

pH=7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH = 7. 9-8.1 6000lux12/12
pH=7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12

pH = 7.9-8 1 6000lux12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH = 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence limits
95 percent confidence limits
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None

None


None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Reduction significant at 0.01 level.
Analysis by Chi-square
Reduction significant at 0.01 level.
Analysis by Chi-square
None . .
Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method, 194733'
"

"
"

"
"

"
'

"
"

"
"

"
"

Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s41
Ukeles 1362s"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962341
Earnest (unpublished)153
Earnest (unpublished)1"
Stewart etal. 196734«
Stewart etal.1967346
Stewart etal.1967346
Stewart et al. 1967346
Stewart etal 196734«
Stewart etal. 19673«
Davis and Hidu 1969s24
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Stewart etal. 19673«
Butler etal.1968322
Stewart etal. 196734«
Stewart etal.196734'
Stewart etal. 1967s46
Stewart etal.1967346
Katz 1961333

No pathology; Lowe 1967339
mild AChE
inhibition.
Millemann 1969s*5
Buchanan etal 1969s'-1
Buchanan et al. 1969s-'
Buchanan et al. 1969s21
Buchanan et al. 1969321
Eisler 1966326
Eisler 1966SM
Eisler 1966'-"
Eisler 1966s26

Eisler 1966s-1'

. Eisler 1966326
Walsh 1972S4S
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Wa.sh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh
Walsh "

. Walsh "
Walsh "

.' 02 evolution measured fay Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes.

-------
496/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                        TABLE 6-
Substance Tested
»
«
"
«
"
Dipyridylium
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Nitrile
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Organochlorine
MCPA
MCPA
Phenoxyaceb'c acid
2,4-D
2,4-D ..
2,4-D
2,4-D
2,4-D ..
2,4-D .
2,4-D.
2,4-D .
2,4-D
2,4-D
Formulation
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Dibromide
Dibromide
Dibromide
Dibromide
Dibromide
Dibromide
. Dibromide
Dibromide
. Dichlonde
. Dichlonde
. Dichlonde
Dichlonde
. Dichloride
. Dichloride
Dichloride
Dichloride
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid

Ester
Ester
Salt
Salt
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical and
Technical acid
. . Technical acid
Technical acid
Organism Tested
Phaeodactylum tnrarautum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Crassostrea virgmica
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea virgmica
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea virgmica
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone, (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment
(mm) in water
3.25X10'
3.0X10«
2X10'
2.5X103
1. 75XW
5X10'
1.5X10'
5X10'
2.75X10:
5X10'
. . . . >.5X10"
2 X105
>5 X10<
3XW
>5X10«
1.5X1IH
>5XW
1.5X104
>5X106
5X104
2.5X10«
2X10<
5X10'
5X10'
3.5X10'
1.X104
9X10"
6X10'
. 1.25X10'
6X10<
1XW
6X10»
1.5X105
2.5X10*
Ameritan oyster Egg 1.562X10*
American oyster Larvae 3.13X10"
American oyster Egg 8X10'
American oyster Larvae 740
American oyster Egg 2.044X10'
American oyster Larvae 6.429X10*
6X10"
. . 5X10*
9X10<
7.5X10<
6X10'
5X10<
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oj evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Os evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0? evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
50 percent decrease in 0. evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
SO percent decrease in growth

-------
                                                                                                                         Appendix HI—Table 6/497
Continued
Test Procedure
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mil)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) alter
10 days
TempC
20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20
20

20
20

20
20

Salinity " o
30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30







30
30

30
30

30
30

o Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH=l. 9-3.1 6000 IUX12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH=7 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12 '12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'"
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 3-8. 16000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lUX 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lui 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

None
None
None
None
None
None
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method"7
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters
Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh 1972»
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

	 Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh '

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Reference



















































Davis and Hidu 1969s21
Davis and Hidu 1969I!<
Davis and Hidu 1969s-'
Davis and Hidu 1969121
Davis and Hidu 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969s"
Walsh 1972S«
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
. .. Walsh "










 / 02 evolution measured by Gilson differental respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes.

-------
498/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                          TABLE 6-
Substance Tested
2,4-D .
2,4-D .
2,4-D .
2,4-D . .
2,4-D ..
2,4-D .. .
2,4-D .
2,4-D
2,4-D . .
2,4-D
EMID
EMID
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
Phthalic
Endothall
Endothall
Endolhall
Endothall
Endothall.
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall ..
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall . .
Endothall .
Endothall....
Endothall
Endothall . .
Picolinic acid
Tordon®mi ...
Tordon® 101 ...
Tordon®101 .
Tordon® 101. .
Tordon® 101 .
Tordon® 101 .
Tordon® 101 .
Tordon® 101 ...
Formulation
Technical acid
Technical acid
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
. 2,4-Dcmpd
. 2,4-Dcmpd
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical aicd
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Amme salt
Amine salt
Amme salt
Amme salt
Amine salt
Amine salt
Amine salt
Amine salt





Organism Tested
Pnaeodacfytam tricornutum
Phaeodaclylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea Virginia
Cnlorococctim sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea virginica
Mercenary mercenaria
Mercenana mercenaria
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
.. Dunaliella tertiolecta
. Isochrysis galbana
. . Isochrysis galbana
. Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone, (npb act ingred.) Methods of Assessment
(mm) in water
6X10'
5X10'
1X105
7.5X10<
1X105
7.5X10'
1X105
7.5X10'
2X105
1.5X10''
American oyster Eggs 1.682X10'
American oyster Larvae 3.0X10'
1.5X10''
1.0X10'
1.5X10''
1.25X105
5X10'
5X10'
7.5X10'
5X10'
1X10=
5X10'
. 4.25X1«S
5X10'
6X10'
2.5X10''
7.5X10-'
1.5X10"
>1X10"
3X10"
>1X10*
4.5X10'
>1X103
2.25X13'
>1X10'
. . 2.5X10'
American oyster Egg 2.822X10'
American oyster Larvae 4.D08XIO*
Hard clam Egg 5.102X10'
Hard clam Larvae 1.25X1Q*
... . . . >2X10=
	 1X105
	 >2X10S
	 	 1.25X18'
	 . 1X105
	 5X10'
. . 	 >72XU1«
	 1X105
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
TLM
TLM
50 percent decrease in 02 Evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease iri growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease iri growth
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
SO percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth

-------
                                                                                                                         Appendix Ill—Table 6/499
Continued
Test Procedure
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
j
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) alter
10 days
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
1
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
41 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) liter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 nays
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
TempC
20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

24±1
24±1
20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

Salinity
30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30



30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30





30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

"/on Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12



pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 litchfield & Wilcoxon Method™
pH 7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-6. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 1 6000 lux 1 2/1 2 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method"1
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lul 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

None
None
. , None
None
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method"'
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 I1IX12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

Residue levels mj/kg Other Parameters Relerence
Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Davis and Hidu 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969J"
Walsh 1972"8
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

	 . Walsh "
. Walsh "

Walsh 1972"8
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Davis and Hidu 1969"'
Davis and Hidu 1969™
	 .. Davis and Hidu 1969*"
Davis and Hidu 1969»<
Walsh 1972"»
Walsh "

Walsh "
. . Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

   0: evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml ol culture in log phase. Test length 90 minutes

-------
500/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                           TABLE 6-
Substance Tested Formulation
Propimic acid
Dalapon
Dalapon .
Dalapon
Dalapon
Dalapon
Dalapon .
Dalapon
Dalapon
Silvex
Silvex .
Silvex
Silvex
Silvex
Silvex
Silvex
Silvex
Toluidme
Trifltiralin
Tnlluralm
Trifluralin
Trifluralin
Trilluralin
Trifluralin
Tnfluralin
Trifluralin
Triazine
Ametryne
Ametryne
Ametryne .
Ametryne
Ametryne .
Ametryne
Ametryne
Ametryne
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Prometone
Prometone..
Prometone.
Prometone
Prometone
Prometone .
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
. . . Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid

Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical and
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical and
Technical acid
Organism Tested
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Duruliella tertiolecb
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Crassostrea virgmica
Crassostrea virgimca
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone. (p|ib act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment
(mm) in water
2.5X10'
5X10*
2.5XHH
1.X10*
4X10'
2X10'
2.5X10"
2.5X10'
2.5X105
2.5X10'
2X105
2.5X104
2.5X105
5X10=
Ameri an oyster Egg 5.9X10'
Ameri'ian oyster larvae 710
5X10=
2.5X10'
>5X10=
5X10'
4X10'
2.5X10'
.... 	 >5X10S
2 5X10'
20
10
40
40
to
10
10
20
100
100
300
300
100
100
100
200
400
500
2X10'
1.5X10'
1X10'
1X10'
50 percent decrease in Oj evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0: evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0: evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
TLM
TIM
50 percent decrease in 0- evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 > evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0. evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0: evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0: evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0, evolution
50 percent decrease in growth

-------
                                                                                                                           Appendix III—Table 6/501
Continued
Test Procedure
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mil) alter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) alter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) alter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
48 hr static lab tuoassay
14 day static lab bioassay
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 day.
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) alter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
TempC
20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

24±1
24±1
20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20

Salinity °/oo
30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30



30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

30
30

Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7.3-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 160001m 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 "

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

None
None
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method1"
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method3"
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 1.9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12

Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Davis and Hidu ms™
Davis and Hidu 1969'21
Walsh 19723"
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh 1972*">
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

Walsh "
Walsh "

. .. Walsh '
Walsh "

 / 0: evolution measured by Gilson Differential Respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 min.

-------
502/'Appendix III—Marine Aquatic  Life and  Wildlife
                                                                                                                                                             TABLE 6-
Substance Tested
Prometone
Prometone
Simaime
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine .
Simazine
Formulation
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Organism Tested
Pbaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone, (ppb act. ingred.)
(mm) in water
100
250
2.5X10'
2X10'
4X10'
5X10'
600
500
600
500
Methods of Assessment
50 percent decrease in DJ evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in jrowlh
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0- evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0- evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
Herbicides Substituted urea compounds
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron .
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron

Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron . .
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron


. Technical
. Technical
. Technical
Technical
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical

Technical
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical




Technical acid
. Technical acid



Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid

Technical acid
Technical acid



Technical acid
Technical acid



. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical aicd
. Technical acid
. Technical acid


. Technical acid
. Technical acid

. Technical acid
Technical a~id


Protococcus
Chlorella sp
Dicratena inornata
Nanochlons sp
Chlcrocouum sp
Chlorococcum sp
Cltlorococcum sp
Chlorococcum sp
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella euchlora
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Monochrysis lutheri
Monochrysis lutheri

Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp
Chlorella sp
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella euchlora
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Monochrysis lutheri
Monochrysis lutheri
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Protococcus sp.
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertioleta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Monochrysis lutheri
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
0.02
4.00
?
(
10
?
20
10
10
20
g
0.4
?
10
10
c
0.02

0.4
. 4.0
10.
10.
2,900
290
2,900
1,000
750
2,000
1,250
1,500
290
1,250
750
290
2,900
290
1,250
750
1.
20
1.
100
100
too
90
150
1
20
100
130
1
90
100
.. 1
20
.52 OPT. DEN. expt/OPT DEN control
.34 OPT DEN. expt/OPT DEN control
32 3 percent decrease (CH:0)x
18.8 decrease (CH20)>
61 percent inhibition of growth
65.6 inhibition (CH20)
50 percent reduction 0- evolution '
50 percent reduction m growth
50 percent reduction 0 • evolution '
50 percent reduction in growth
17. 9 percent decrease (CHjO)x
.44 OPT. DEN. expt/OPT. DEN control
37.4 percent decrease fCH 0)x
50 percent reduction 0:> evolution/
50 percent reduction in growth
35.7 percent decrease (CH-0)
.00 optical density expt/ optical densit
control
.79 OPT. DEN expt/OPT DEN control
.00 OPT. DEN expt/OPT DEN control
50 percent reduction 0» evolution/
50 percent reduction in growth
.33 Opt. Den. Expt/ Opt Den Control
.82 Opt. Den. Expt/Opt Den. Control
.00 Opt. Den. Eipt Oft. Den. Control''
68 percent inhibition of growth
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in 0 _• evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
.46 Opt. Den. Expt/Opt. Den. Control
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease growth
67 Opt. Den. Expt/Opt. Den. Control
.00 Opt. Den Expt/Opl. Den. Control
.82 Opt. Den. Expt/Opt Den. Control
50 percent decrease 02 evolution
50 percent decrease growth
.90 OD expt/OD control
.00 00 expt/OD control*
.30 OD expt/OD control
54 percent inhibition of growth
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease 0; evolution
50 percent decrease growth
1.00 00 expt/OD control
.00 00 expt/OD control*
50 percent decrease 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
.83 OD expt/OD control
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
.6500 expt/OD control
.00 OD expt/OD control
 ' 0: evolution measured with a Gilson differential despirometer on 4 ml of culture in log-phase.
 ' Cone, which decrease growth by 50-75 percent as determined by Walsh and Grow Diuron 10 ppb; fenuron 1000 ppb; monuron 100 ppb; neburon 30 ppb.
 »No growth but organisms viable.

-------
                                                                                                                                                         Appendix HI—Table  (5/503
Continued
           Test Procedure
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
  10 days

Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
  10 days

Measured as APS. (525 mu) after
  10 days

Measured as APS. (525 mu) after
  10 days

Measured as APS. (525 mu) after
  todays
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10da» growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
today growth test

10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
lOday growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test

10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
        f
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test

10 day growth test

10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test

10 day growth test
10 day growth test

10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
TempC
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20±.5
20±.5
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20±.5
20
20
20
20
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5=H
20
20
20
20
20
20 5±1
20
20
20.5±1
2u.5±1
20.5±1
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20
20
:0
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
20
20
20.5±1
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
Salinity °/oo
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30


30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30

30
30
30
30



30
30



30
30
30
30
30

30
30


30
30
30



30
30
30
30
30


30
30

30
30


Other Environmental Criteria
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8 16000 lux 12/12


pH7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12

pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12



pH7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
PH7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
500 It.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
pH7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8 1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
500 ft -c continuous
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
pH7 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
pH 7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH = 7.9-8 1
pH=7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1
pH=7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
pH=7. 9-8.1
pH=7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
500 It.-c continuous
pH=7.9-8 1
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
500 It.-c continuous
500 It.-c continuous
Statistical Evaluation
„
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
»

None
None
Significant at 0.05 level
Significant at 0.05 level
None
Significant at 0.05 level
Litchfield & Wilcoion method1"
"
"
Significant at 0.05 level
None
None
Significant at 0.05 level
Litchfield & Wilcoxon method"'
"
Significant at 0.05 level

None
None
Litchfield and Wilcoion method1"
"
None
None
None
None
Litchfield 8, Wilcoxon method1"
"
"
"
"

None
None
None
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon method1"
"
None
None
None
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method1"
"
"
"
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method1"
"
"
None
Litchfield 8, Wilcoxon Method13'
"
None
None
Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh and Grow 1971="
Walsh and Grow 1971S«
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Ukeles'"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh and Grow 1971">
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh '
Walsh "
Walsh 1972s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"

-------
504/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                                         TABLE 6~
Substance Tested

Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Bactencides, Fungicides
Nematocides, and misc.
Aroclor

Aroclor
Aroclor
Aroclor
Aroclor
Chloramphenicol
Chloramphenico!
Delrad
Delrarl
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide G
Dowacide G
Giseofulvm
Giseofulvm
Lignasan
Lignasan
Lignasan
Lignasan
Lignasan
Nabam
Nabam
Nabam
Nabam
Natam
Nabam
Nabam
Nabam
Nemagon®
Nemagon®
Nitrofurazone
Nitrofurazone
Omazene
Omazene
Omazene
Omazene
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitrilotnacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitrilotnacetic acid
Nitrilotnacetic acid .
Nitnlotriacetic acid .
Nitrilotnacetic acid .
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Formulation



Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid

Technical acid
Technical acid


Technical acid
Technical acid


1254

1254
1254
1254
1254




97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent




6. 25 percent
6. 25 percent
6. 25 percent
6. 25 percent
6. 25 percent
















Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Mononydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Organism Tested

Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp
Chlorococcum sp
Dunahella tertiolecta
Punahella terlio lecta
Dunaliella euchlora
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Monochrysis lutheri
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum


Tetrahymena pynformis

Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus duorarum
Leiostomus xanthurus
Lagodon rhomboides
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Crassostrea virgmica
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp.
Dunahella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Mercenana mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenana mercenaria
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp.
Dunahella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp
Dunahella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis luthen
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Crassostrea virgmica
Mercenana mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria mercenaria
Crassostrea virgmica
Cfassostrea virgmica
Cyclotella nana
Tisbe lurcata
Acartia clausi
Trignopusjapomcus
Pseudodiaptimus coronatus
Eurjtemora atoms

Nereis virens
Common Name



















Pink s'uimp
Pmksmmp
Spot
Pmlist
Hard clam
Hard [lam
Hard [lam
American oyster





Hard i lam
Hard Ham
Hard Ham
Hard i lam
Hard tlam
Hard Mam










Hard clam
Hard clam
American oyster
Hard clam
Hard cam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
American oyster
American oyster






.Crabzuea
Sand worm
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
















Log-phase

25-38
95-125
24
30
Egg
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae





Eggs
Larvae
Eggs
Larvae
Egg
Larvae










Egg
Larvae
Egg
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Ett
Larvae







Adult
Cone. (p|in act. ingred.)
in water
40
40
30
20
30
20
40
40
20
30
40
40
40
30


10

0.94
3.5
5
5
7.429X1IH
5.XW
72
31
2.5X10*
5X10*
5XW
2.5X10'
2.5X10*
1X10'
750
<250
<250
<250
<1.X10!
6
6
6
0.6
6
1X10'
1X103
100
1X10'
100
<500
1.75X10'
<500
1X10<
780
>1X10*
>1X10*
81
378
78
340
5X10'
2.7X10'
1.35X10'
3.2X10'
7X105
1.25X10'
1.65X10"
5.5X10"
Methods of Assessment

.41 OD expt/OD control
.31 OD expt/OD control
68 percent inhibition in growth
50 percent decrease 0- evolution
50 percent decrease growth
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease growth
.47 OD expt/OD control
50 percent decrease 0 : evolution
50 percent decrease growth
.00 OD expt/OD control
.10 00 expt/OD contiol
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease growth


13.30 percent decrease in population si;
measure at 540 mM
51 percent mortality
50 percent mortality
50 percent mortality
50 percent mortality
TLM
TIM
TIM
TLM
.75 OD expt/OD control
.74 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.520.0. expt/O.D. control
.480.0. expt/0.0. control
. 22 O.D. expt/O.D. control
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
.000.0. expt/O.D. control
.000.0. expt/O.D. control
.31 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.55 O.D. expt/O.D, control
.00 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.53 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.630.0. expt/O.D. control
.27 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.00 O.D. expt/O.D. control *
.480.0. expt/O.D. control
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TIM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
38 percent growth as compared to control
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
 *No growth but organisms viable.

-------
                                                                                                                               Appemhx III—Table 6/505
Continued
Test Procedure
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
f
10 day growth test
/
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
. /
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
/
10 day growth test
Temp C
20 5±1
20.5±1
20
20
20
20
20
20.5±1
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
20
20
Salinity °/oo


30
30
30
30
30

30
30


30
30
Other Environmental Criteria
500 H.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
pH=7.9-8 UOOOIUX12/12
pH=7. 9-8.1
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8 1
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
500 II. -c continuous
pH=7.9-8 1
pH=7.9-8 16000 lux 12/12^
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
pH=7.9-8.1
pH=7 9-8.16000 lux 12, 12
Statistical Evaluation
None
None
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon method117


"
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon method3"
"
None
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method131
None
Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 19623"
Walsh and Grow 19713<»
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 19723"
Walsh "
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972"«
Walsh "
96 hr static lab bioassay
15 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-
water
35 day chronic exposure m flowing sea-
water
18 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-
water
12 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-
water
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
W day growth test
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr state lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
48 hr static lab bioasssy
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab hioassay
26
29

20

11-18

16-22

24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20 E±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24 ±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20
15(T)
15(t)
15(1)
15(1)
15(1)
15(1)
20
0 Grown in Tetrahymena broth
32

28

16-32

20-32





22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28






22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-2D
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28











32 250 ft-c 14 hrs on/10 hrs off
30
30
30
30
30
30
20
Decrease significant at 0.05 level
Significant at 005 level

Significant at 0.001 level

Significant at 0.05 level 46 ppm

13ppm

None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None








Cooley and Keltner (unpublished)"0
Nimmo et al. (unpublished)"'

Nimmo et al. (unpublished)355

Hansenetal. 1971s32

Hansenetal 19711"

Davis and Hidu 1969121
Davis and Hidu 1969321
Davis and Hidu 1969s21
Davis and Hidu 1969'-"'
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 1962'"
Davis and Hidu 19693-1
Davis and Hidu 1969!21
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969321
Davis and Hidu 1969™
Davis and Hidu 1969 ''
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukelesl962>"
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 1962";
Ukeles 1962 "•
Ukeles 1962
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 1962
Davis and Hidu 1969 >->
Davis and Hidu 1969"'
Davis and Hidu 1969 '
Davis and Hidu 1969 '-'
Davis and Hidu 1969"1
Davis and Hidu 1969-
Davis and Hidu 1969 ''
Davis and Hidu 1969'-"
Davis and Hidu 1969T'1
Davis and Hidu 19693-1
Davis and Hidu 1969 <-<
Enckson et al. 1970331
NMWQL197015'
NMWQL19703"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL1970'«
NMWQL19703"
NMWQL19TO'"
NMWQL19703"
• 0. evolution measured with a Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log-phase.

-------
506/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                                        TABLE
Substance Tested

Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid .
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid

Nitnlofriacetic aciif

Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid -
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlatnacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phygon®
Phygon®
Phygon®
Phygon®
PVP-lodme
PVP-lodme
PVP-lodme
PVP-lodme
PVP-lodme
Formulation

Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt

Monohydrated sodium salt

Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium sal!
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt

















Organism Tested

Nereis virens
Palaemonetes vulgans
Palaemonetes vulgans
Palaemonetes vulgans
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setilerus
Homarusamencanus

Homarus amencanus

Homarus amencanus
Uca pugilator
Uca pugilator
Pagurus longicarpus
Pagurus longicarpus

Nassa obsoleta
Nassa obsoleta
Mytilus edulis
Mytilus eduhs
Mercenary mercenary
Mercenana mercenary
Astenas forbesi
Astenas forbesi
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Stenotomus chrysops
Stenotomus chrysops
Roans saxatilis
Rocms saxatilis
Roccus saxatilis
Roccus saxatilis
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp.
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Crassostrea virgmica
Mercenana mercenary
Mercenana mercenaria
Mercenana mercenaria
Mercenana mercenaria
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgmica
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp.
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Common Name

Sand wtrm
Grass shrimp
Grass shrimp
Grass slmmp
White shrimp
White shrimp
American lobster

American lobster

American lobster
Fiddler ;rab
Fiddler :rab
Hermit :rab
Hermit :rab
Oyster
Mud snail
Mud snul
Bay muisel
Bay muisel
Hard dim
Hard dim
Starfish
Staifish
Mummchog
Mummishog
Mummijhog
SCUD
Scup
Striped bass
Striped bass
Striped bass
Striked bass





American oyster
Hard cl.im
Hard cl.im
Hard dim
Hard dim
American oyster
Amencen oyster





Lite Stage or Siz
(mm)
Adult
Adult
Adult

Sub-adult
Sub-adult
Sub-adult
(292 grams)
Sub-adult
(292 grams)
First larval stage
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Larvae
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Sub-adult
Sub-adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Sub-adult
Sub-adult
Juvenile (65 mm)
Juvenile (65 mm)
Juvenile (63 mm)
Juvenile (65 mm)





Egg
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae





e Cone, (ppb act. ii
in water
5.5X10"
4.1X10«
1.8X10"
1 OX10«
1X10'
5X10'>
3.8X10"

3 15X10'

1X10-'
1X10'
1X10"
5.5X10"
1 8X10«
3.5X10'
5.5X10«
5.1X10"
6 1X10"
3.4X10"
>1X10!
>1X10'
3X10"
3X10'
5.5X10"
5 5X10"
1X101
3 15X10"
3 15X10«
5.5X10"
5.5X10"
3X10«
10X10"
3X10'
3X10*
1X105
1X10-
1X105
5.825X10'
5.263X101
5.5X10'
14
1.75XW
14
41
1 X10=
2X10'
5X101
5XW
5X10i
igred.) Methods of Assessment

TL-50
H-50
TL-50
subjected to histopathologic examination
78 percent mortality
90 percent mortality
TL-50

TL-50

100 percent mortality
25 percent mortality
46 percent mortality
TL-50
TL-50
46 percent mortality
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
Examined lor histopathology
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-100, Histopathology
TL-0
.5900. expt/O.D. control
.63 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.51 O.D. expt/O.D. control
".000.0. expt/O.D. control
'•.00 O.D. eipt O.D. control
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
.59 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.65 O.D. expt/O.D. control
».OOO.D. expt/O.D. control
'•.00 O.D. eipt 0.0. control
. 61 O.D. expt/O.D. control
1 No growth but organisms viable.

-------
                                                                                                                                                            Appendix III—Table  6/507
 Continued


            Test Procedure



 168 hr static lab bioassay

 96 hr  static lab bioassay
 168 hr static lab bioassay

 166 hr static lab bioassay
 22 day chronic flowing lab bioassay
 96 hr  static lab bioassay
 96 hr  static lab bioassay

168 hr static lab bioassay

7 day  static lab bioassay

96 hr  static lab bioassay

45 day chronic flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
 1S8 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr  static lab bioassay
96 hr  static lab bioassay

168 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr  static lab bioassay

168 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr static lab bioassay

168 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr static lab bioassay

168 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr static lab bioassay

168 hr static lab bioassay

168 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr  static lab bioassay

 168 hr static lab bioassay

96 hr  static lab bioassay

 168 hr static lab bioassay

 168 hr static lab bioassay

 168 hr static lab bioassay

 10 day growth test
 10 day growth test
 10 day growth test
 10 day growth test
10 day growth test
48 hr  static lab bioassay
48 hr  static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr  static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
TempC
20

20
20

20
18-24
20
20

20

20
ambient
20
ambient
18-24
20
20
20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20.5=1=1
205±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
24±1
24±1
24i1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5t1
Salinity °/o
20

20
20

20
30
30
20

20

20

30

24-30
20
20
20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28







22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
o Other Environmental Criteria
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg/l; pH 7 8

Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg 1; pH 7 8



Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg/l; pH 7. 8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4mg'l, pH7.8







Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg 1, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg 1, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg 1, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg.lpH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O ca
4 mg 1 pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4mg lpH7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg 1, pH7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg 1, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4 mg 1, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg,l, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O ca
4 mg 1, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D 0 ca
4mg,l, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4 mg/l, pH7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg 1, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg.l,pH7.8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4 mg/l, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg/l; pH 7 8







































































No
No
No
Nc
No
No
No
Nc
Nc
No
No
Nc
No
No
No
No
Nc
Statistical Evaluation
                            Residue levels mg/kg   Other Parameters
                                                                               Reference
                           Digestive diverticulata histopathology
                                                 Intestinal
                                                   Pathology
                                                 Renal
                                                   Pathology
NMWQL 1970*"

NMWQL1970"4
NMWQL 1970s"

NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970'"
NMWQL 1970"4

NMWQL 19703'4

NMWQL 1970s"

NMWQL 1970s1'

NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970™
NMWQL 1970SS1
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s"

NMWQL 1970s"

NMWQL 1970™

NMWQL 1970™

NMWQL 1970s"

NMWQL 1970 <"

NMWQL 1970s"

NMWQL 1970s3'

NMWQL 1970!S1

NMWQL 1970SS<

NMWQL 19703S4

NMWQL 1970"

NMWQL 1970s"

NMWQL 1970s3'

NMWQL 1970'"

NMWQL 1970»<

NMWQL 1970s"

Ukeles 1962"'
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962347
Ukeles 1962s"
Davis and Hidu I9693-'
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969s"4
Davis and Hidu 19693»*
Davis and Hidu 1969321
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962"7
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962-

-------
508/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
                                                                                                          TABLE
Substance Tested Formulation
PVP-lodme
PVP-Iodme
Roccal®
Rocw!®
Sulmet Tinted
Sulmet Tinted
TCC
TCC
TCP
TCP
Organism Tested
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenary mcrcenaria
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria meicenaria
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria mercenana
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgimca
Common Name
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
American oyster
American oyster
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
Egg
Larvae
Eg!
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Cone, (ppli act. ingred.)
in water
1.71X10'
3.494X10'
190
140
1X10*
1X10'
32
37
600
1X103
Methods of Assessment
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM

-------
Appendix III—Table 6/509
Continued
Test Procedure
46 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
Temp C Salinity "on Other Environmental Criteria
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
Statistical Evaluation
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Residue levels tug kg Other Parameters Reference
Davis and Hidu 1969™
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969';'
Davis and Hidu 1969121
Davis and Hidu1969M4
Davis and Hidu 1969'-='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='

-------
                                                      LITERATURE  CITED
TABLE I

1 Abegg, R. (1950), Some effects of inorganic salts on the blood specific
     gravity and tissue fluids of the bluegill,  Lepomis macrochirus Raj.
     Physiol. 
     Roczn. Panstw. ^aki. ffig.,  Watt.:. 11:303-312.
23 Cairns, J., Jr. (1957), Environment and time in fish toxicity. Indus,
     Wastes'2(\):l~r>.
24 Cairns, J., Jr. (1965), Biological concepts  and industrial waste cli;
     posal problems. Proceedings of the 20th Industrial Waste Conferem
     Purdue University 49(4).49-59
26 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1957),  The effects of temperature an
     hardness of water upon the toxicity of zinc to the common bluegi
     (Lepomis mairorhirus Raf.). NotuloeNatw. (Philadelphia) no. 299 . I
     12.
26 Cairns, J  , Jr. and A. Scheier (1918),  The effects of temperature an
     hardness of  water upon  the toxicity  of zine to the  pond snai
     Physa heleroslropha (Say ). Notiilae Natur. (Philadelphia) no. 308:1
     11.
27 Cairns, J., Jr  and A.  Scheier (1959), The relationship of bluegi
     sunfish  body  size to tolerance for  some common  chemical
     Purdue Univ.  Eng.  Bull. Ext. Ser. no. 96:243-252.
28 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1968),  The comparison of the toxicil
     of some common industrial waste components tested individual!
     and combined. Progr. Fish-Cult 30(1) :3-8.
29 Cairns, J. A., Jr., A. Scheier, and J.  J. Loos (1965), A compariso
     of  the  sensitivity to  certain chemicals  of adult  zebra  danio
     Brachydamo reno (Hamilton-Buchman) and zebra dahio eggs wit
     that of adult  bluegill sunfish  Lepomis  macrochirus.  Raf.  Xotuli
     Naturae 381:1-9.
30 Chen, C. W. and R. E. Selleck (1968), A kinetic model offish toxic
     ity threshold. J. Water Pollut. Ci-ntr. Fed. 41 (8 part 2) 'R294-R30!
31 Cope, O. B. (1965),  Sport fishery investigation, in  Effects ofpestictj,
     on fish and wildlife:  1964 research findings of the  Fish and Wildlt,
     Service.  [U. S. Fish and Wildlife  Circular no. 226]  (Governmer
     Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), pp. 51-53.
32 Cope, O. B.  (1966), Contamination of the freshwater ecosystem b
     pesticides. J. Appl. Ecol. 3  (stipp) :33-44. Supplement 3 publishe
                                                                  510

-------
                                                                                                                   Literature Cited7511
     as Pesticides m the environment and then ejects on wildlife, N. W. Moore,
     ed. (Blackwell  Scientific Publications, Oxford).
 33 Corner, E. D. S. and B. W. Sparrow (1956), The modes of action of
     toxic agents. I. Observations on the poisoning of certain crusta-
     ceans by copper and mercury. J. Mar. Bwl. Ass. U. K. '55(3) -531-
     548
 34 Crosby, D. G. and R. K. Tucker (19Gb), Toxicity of aquatic herbi-
     cides to Daphnia magna  Science  154:289-291.
 35 Daugherty, F. M. and J. T. Garrett (1951), Toxicity levels of hydro-
     cyanic acid and  some  industrial by-products. Texas  Journal of
     Scienif 3:391.
 36 Dorfman, D. and  W. R. Whitworth (19G9), Effects of fluctuations of
     lead, temperature, and  dissolved oxygen on  the growth of brook
     ti out. J.  l-'ish Ret. Board Can 26(9) .2493-2501.
 •"Doudoioff,  P. and M. Kate (195!), Critical review ol literature on
     the toxieity of industrial wastes and their components to fish. II.
     The metals as salts  Sewage Indus!. Wastes 25(7) .802-839.
 38 DoudoiofT,  P , G.  Leduc and C. R Schneider (19(>G), Acute toxieity
     to fish of solutions containing complex metal cyanides in relation
     to  concentrations of moleculai  hydrocyanic  acid.  Transactions
     Ainnican Fisheries .Societ}  95(!)"6-22.
 39 Dowden, B. F. and H. J. Bennett  (19(i5), Toxicity of selected chem-
     icals  to certain  animals. J. Water Pollut. Conlr.  Fed. 37(9):1308-
     1316
 40 Eisler, R and P. H Edmunds (!%!>), Effects of endrm on blood and
     tissue chemistry of a marine fish Trans. Amei.  I''isk. Soc. 95(2) :153-
     1 59.
 41 Floch, H., R. Deschiens, and Y. Le Corroller (1963),  [The mollusci-
    'cidal properties of Chevreul's cuprosulphite salt in the prophylaxix
     of selnstosomosis | Bull.  Sac. Patliol. Exot. 56(2): 1 82-189.
 42 Fromm, P O. and R. H Schiffman (1958), Toxic action of hexavalent
     chromium on large mouth bass J. Wildlife Manage. 22(1) 40-44.
 43 Fujiya,  M.  (19bO), Studies on the effects of copper dissolved in sea
     water on oysters. Bulletin of the Japanese Sanely of Scientific Fisheries
     25(5)'462. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation 33:685.
 44 Fujiya.  M.  (19(>1), Use  of clectrophoretic serum separation m fish
     studies J. Wain Pollut.  Contr  l'\d 53:250-257.
 45 Gariett, J. T. (1957), Toxicity considerations in  pollution control.
     Indus!. Wastes 2-17-19.
 46 Gilderhus,  P. A. (1966), Some effects of sublethal concentrations of
     sodium arsemte on bluegills and the  aquatic environment.  'Irons.
     Amei  Fish. Soc 95(3) :289 -296
 47 Gill, J  M , J. H. Huguet, and E.  A.  Pearson (1960), Submarine
     dispersal  system for treated chemical  wastes, J.  Water.  Pollut.
     Con!i  Fed. 32:858-867.
48 Goodman,  J. (1951), Toxicity of  zinc for rainbow trout (Salmo
     gandneni). Calif. Fish Came 37(2) T91-194.
 49 Henderson, C , Q. H.  Pickering, and C. M. Tarzwell  (19.59), Rela-
     tive toxieity of  ten chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides to  four
     species of fish. 'Iions. Amei.  Fish. .Soc.  88(l):23-32.
 '"Hendeison, G., Q. H. Pickering,  and C. M. Tarzwell (1960),  The
     toxieity  of organic phosphoius  and  chlorinated  hydrocarbon
     insecticides to fish, m Biological pioblents in it'atei pollution, G. M
     Tar/well,  ed.  (U.  S. Department  of  Health, Education  and
     Welfare, Robert A. Taft  Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
     Ohio), pp 76-88.
 51 Herbert, D  W.  M.  (19(>1),  Freshwater  fisheries and  pollution
     control. Proceedings of the Society for Water Treatment and Examination
     10: 135-161.
 62 Herbert, D. W. M., D. H. M. Jordan, and R. Lloyd (1965), A study
     of some fishless rivers in the industrial midlands.  J. Proc.  Inst.
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 "Herbert, D. W. M.  and D. S. Shurben (1964), The toxieity to fish
     of mixtures of poisons. I. Salts  of ammonia and zinc. Ann. Appl.
     Bwl.  .53:33-41.
 64 Herbert, D. W.  M. and  J. M. Vandyke (1964), The toxieity to fish
     of mixtures of poisons. II.  Copper-ammonia  and  zinc-phenol
     mixtures. Ann. Appl. Biol. 53(3)'415-421.
 "Herbert, D. W. M. and A. C. Wakeford (1964), The susceptibility
     of salmonid fish  to poisons under estuarine  conditions.  I. Zinc
     sulphate. Air Wafer Pollut. 804)'251-256.
 56 Hoffman, D.  O. and R. Zakhary (1951), The effect of temperature
     on the molluscacidal activity of copper sulfate.  Science 114:521-
     523.
 57 Holland, G. A., J. E. Lasater, E. D. Neumann, and W. E. Eldridge
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200 Hubschman,  J.  H. (1967), Effects of copper  on the crayfish Ore
     nectes rusticus (Girard). I.  Acute toxicity. Crustaceana  12(l):3i-4
201 Hueck, H. J.  and D. M. Adcma (1968), Toxicological invcstigatioi
     bearing on  pollution problem;;  in the  North Sea.  TVO .Yzra.i
     23(2):58-64.
202 Ingols, R. S.  (1955), Evaluation  of toxicity.  Sewage fndust.  Wasl
     27(l):26-33.
203 Jackim, E.,  J. M. Hamlin arid S.  Sonis  (1970), Effects of met;
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204 Jernejcic, F.  (1969),  Use of emetics to collect stomach contents i
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     Co. Ltd. London),  212 p.

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                                                                                                                   Literature Cited/515
207 Kaplan, H. M. and L. Yoh (19(>1), Toxicity of copper for frogs.
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22
-------
516/'Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
253 \Veis, C. M. (1948), Observations on the abnormal development
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254 Westfall, B. A. (1945), Coagulation film anoxia in fishes. Ecology
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265 Winkler, L. R. and L. W. Chi (1964), Defensive mechanisms of the
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256 Wurtz,  A.  (1945), The action of boric  acid on  certain fish: trout,
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257 Yudkin, J.  (1937), The effect of silver ions on some enzymes of
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TABLE Ifl

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261 Baptist, J. P. and C. W. Lewis (1967), Transfer of "Zn and  61Cr
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262 Beasley, T. M. and E. E. Held (1969), Nickel-63 in  marine and ter-
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267 Bryan, G. W. and E. Ward (1965), The absorption and loss of radio-
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268 Chipman, W. A. (1967), Some aspects of the accumulation of  61Cr
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269 Cross,  F.  A.,  S. W.  Fowler,  J. M. Dean, L.  F. Small, and C. L.
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270 Corner, E. D. S. and F. H. Rigler (1958), The modes of action of
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272 Duke, T. W., J. N. Willis, and T. J. Price (1966),  Cycling of trace
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873 Fowler, S. W., L. F. Small, and J. M. Dean (1970), Distribution of
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274 Gutknecht,  J.  (1963), Zn66  uptake  by  benthic marine  alg;
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275 Hannerz, L.  (1968), Accumulation, retention, and elimination
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277 Harvey, R. S. (1969), Uptake and loss of radionuclides by the fres
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279 Hiyama, Y. and J. M. Khan (lr)64), On the concentration fact<
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280 Hiyama, Y. and M. Shimizu (1964), On the concentration factc
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281 Hobden, D. J. (1969), Iron metabolism in Mytilus edulis. II. Upta
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282 Holtzman, R. B.  (1969), Concentrations of the naturally occurri
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283 Hoss, D. E. (1964), Accumulation of 65An  by flounder of the gen
     Parahchthya. Trans.  Amer. Fish. Soc.  93(4) :364-368.
284 Ichikawa,  R. (1961),  On the  concentration factors  of some ii
     portant radionuclides in marine  food organisms.  Bull. Jap. S
     Sci. Fish. 27:66-74.
285 Jenkins, C. E. (1969). Radionuclide distribution in Pacific salmo
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286Johnels, A.  G., T. Westermark, W. Berg,  P. I. Persson,  and
     Sjostrand (1967), Pike  (Esox  lucius L.) and  some other aquai
     organisms in Sweden as indicators of mercury contamination
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287 Joyner, T. (1961), Exchange of zinc with environmental solutio
     by the brown bullhead. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.  90:444-448.
288 Joyner,  T. and R. Eisler (1961), Retention and translocation
     radioactive zinc by salmon fingerlings. Growth 25(i'):151-15(i.
289 Korpincnikov, V  S., A. N. Svttovidov and T.  S. Trosin  (195f
     Absorption and output of radioactive calcium by Daphnia cych
     and guppies. C. R. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R.  110:1122-1125; Nutr. Abs
     Rev. 27:869.
290 Kovalsky, V. V.,  I. E. Vorotnitskaya, and V. S. Lekarev (196/
     Biogeochemical food chains of uranium in aquatic and terraneo
     organisms,  in Radioecological concentration processes, B. Aberg ai
     F. P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon Press, New York), pp. 329-331
291 Lloyd, R.  (1960), Toxicity of  zinc sulfate to rainbow trout.  An
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292 Mehran, A.  R. and J. L. Tremblay (1965), [Metabolism of zii
     by Littorina obtusata L.  and Fucus edenlatus.} Rev. Can.  Biol. 24(3
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293 Merlini, M. (1967), The freshwater clam as a biological indicator
     radiomanganese, in Radioecological concentration processes, B.  Abei
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284 Mount, D. I. and  C. E. Stephan (1967),  A method for detectir
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296 Palmer,  H. E., and T. M. Beasley (1967), 56Fe in the marine ei

-------
                                                                                                                   Literature Cited/517
     vironment and  in  people who  consume ocean  fish,  in Radio-
     ecological concentration processes, B  Aberg and F.  P. Hungate, eds.
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296 Pohkarpov,  G.  G.,  Yu.  P.  Zaitscv,  G. V.  Barinov, and V.  P.
     Parchevsky (1967), General features of the concentration processes
     of radioactive substances by  hydrobionts in different seas of the
     world ocean, in Radwecological concentration processes, B. Aberg and
     F. P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon Press, New York), pp.  771-790.
297 preston, A (1967), The concentration of 66Zn in the flesh of oysters
     related to the discharge of cooling pond effluent from the C.E.G.B.
     nuclear power station at Bradwell-on-Sea, Essex, in Radwecological
     concentration processes, B. Aberg and F  P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon
     Press, New York), pp. 995-1004
298 Regnier, J  E  (196r)), Qnc-65 uptake in a  two-step marine food chain
     (Ph.D. dissertation] University of Florida, Gainesville,  175 p.
298 Renfro, W. C  and C. Osterberg (1969), Radiozinc decline in starry
     flounders  after  temporary shutdown of  Hanford  reactors,  in
     Proceedings of the, 2nd national symposium on radwecology, D. J. Nelson
     and F. C. Evans, eds. fUASEC Conf. 670503] (National technical
     Information Service, Springfield, Virginia), pp. 372-379
300 Rosenthal, H. L  (1957), The metabolism of strontium-90 and cal-
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301 Rosenthal, H.  L. (1963), Uptake, turnover, and transport of bone-
     seeking  elements in fishes.  Ann. \ew  York Acad  Set.  109(1) :278—
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302 Saiki, M  and T. Mori (1955), [Studies on the distribution of ad-
     ministered radioactive zinc in the tissues of fishes]. Bull. Jap.  Soc.
     Sa Fish. 21(8):945-949.
303 Salo, E O.  and W. L. Leet  (1969), The concentration of  65Zn  by
     oysters maintained in the discharge canal of  a  nuclear power
     plant, in  Proceedings of  the 2nd national symposium on radwecology,
     D. J. Nelson and  F.  C.  Evans, eds.  [USAEC  Conf. 67050'i]
     (National  Technical Information Service, Springfield,  Virginia),
     pp.  36V371.
304 Sathcr, B T. (1967), Chromium absorption and metabolism by the
     crab,  Podophthalnius  vigil,  in Radwecological concentration processes,
     B Aberg and F. P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon Press, New York),
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306 Swift, E. and W. R. Taylor (1960), Uptake and release of ealcium-
     45 by Fucus vesiculosus Biol. Bull  1 19:342.
306 Taylor, W. R. and E. P. Odum (1960), Uptake of iron-59  by marine
     benthic algae. Bwl. Bull. 119:343.
307Vogel,  F. S. (1959), The deposition of exogenous copper under
     experimental conditions with observations  on its neurotoxic  and
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308 Welander, A. D.  (1969), Distribution of  radionuclides  in the en-
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     F.  C. Evans,  eds  [USAEC  Conf.  670503]  (National  Technical
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309 White, G. F. and A. Thomas  (1912), Studies on  the absorption of
     metallic salts by fish in their natural habitat  I.  Absoiption  of
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310 Wiser, C. W. and I). J. Nelson (1964), Uptake and elimination of
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311 Wolfe,  D. A.  (1970), Levels of stable  zinc and 657n in  Crassostrea
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TABLE  IV

312 British Ministry Agriculture Fisheries and Food (1956), Copper in
     foods. Revised  recommendations for limits. Chemical Age 74:485.
313 Department of National Health and Welfare (1971), Food and Drug
     Directorate, Government of Canada.
314 Food Standards Committee for England and Wales (1959). Arsenic
    in food regulations, 1959. Chem. and Industry  (Brit.) p. 726
315 Kirkor, T. (1951),  Protecting public waters from pollution in the
    U.S.S.R. Sewage Indust.  Wastes 23(7) :938-940.
316 U. S. Department  of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and
    Drug Administration (1971), Code of Federal Regulations.
311 U.  S.  Department of  Health,  Education  and  Welfare.  Public
    Health Service (1962),  The Public Health Service  drinking water
    standards, rev.  1962 [PHS Pub. 956]  (Government Printing Office,
    Washington,  D.C.), 61 p.
sis World Health Organization (1958), International standards for drink-
    ing-water, 2nd ed. (Geneva), 206 p.
319 World Health  Organization (1961),  European  standards for drinking
    water (World  Health Organization, Geneva,  Switzerland).


TABLE  V

320 U. S. Department  of Commerce, Bureau  of the Census (1971),
    Current Industrial  Reports Inorganic  chemicals.  1969 M  28A
     (69)-14, 28 p.


TABLE  VI

321 Buchanan, D. V., R. E. Milleman and N.  E. Stewart (1969), Effects
    of the insecticide Sevin® on survival and growth of the Dungeness
    crab Cancer magister J. Fish Res. Bd. Canada 26.
322 Butler, P. A., R. E. Milleman, and N. E  Stewart  (1968), Effects of
    insecticide  Sevin on  survival  and  growth  of  the cockle clam
    Chnocardium miltalli. Journal Fish. Res. Bd.  Canada 25:1631-1635.
323 Chin, E. and D. M. Allen (1957), Toxicity of an insecticide to two
    species of shrimp, Penaeus a.ztecus and Penaeus setiferus. Texas J. Sci.
    9(3):270-278.
324 Davis, H. C. and H. Hidu (1969), Effects of pesticides on embryonic
    development  of clams and oysters and on survival and growth of
    the larvae.  Fish. Bull. 67(2) :383-404.
326 Derby, S  B.  (Sleeper) and E Ruber  (1971), Primary production:
    depression  of oxygen evolution in algal cultures by organophos-
    phorus insecticides. Bull.  Environ. Contam.  Tixocol.  5(6):553-558.
326 Eisler, R.  (1966),  Effects of apholate, an insect sterilant, on an
    estuarine fish, shrimp, and gastropod. Progr. Fish-Cult.  28(2)'154-
     158.
327 Eisler, R. (1969), Acute toxicitics of insecticides to marine decapod
    crustaceans. Crustaceana 16(3) :302-310.
328 Eisler,  R. (1970a),  Factors affecting  pesticide-induced toxicity in an
     estuarine fish  [Bureau  of Sport  Fisheries  and Wildlife  technical
     paper 45] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 20 p.
329 Eisler, R. (1970b),  Acute toxicities of organochlorme and organophosphor us
     insecticides to estuarine fishes [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
     technical paper 46] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
     D.C.), 12 p.
380 EisSer,  R. (1970c), Latent effects of insecticide intoxication to
     marine molluscs.  Hydrobiologia  36(3/4) :345-352.
331 Erickson, S. J., T.  E^ Maloney, and J. H. Gentile (1970), Effect of
     nitrilotriacetie  acid on  the growth and metabolism of estuarine
     phytoplankton  J.  Water Pollut. Contr.  Fed.  42(8 part  2) :R329-
     R335.
332 Hansen, D. J., P.  R. Parrish, J. I.  Lowe, A. J. Wilson, Jr., and
     P. D. Wilson (1971), Chronic toxicity,  uptake, and retention of a
     polychlorinated biphenyl  (Aroclor  1254) in two estuarine fishes.
     Bull.  Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6(2) :113-119.
333 Katz, M. (1961),  Acute toxicity of some  organic  insecticides to
     three species of  salmonids and to the three-spine   stickleback.
     Trans. Amer.  Fish. Soc. 90(3):264-268.
334 Katz, M. and  G. G. Chadwick  (1961), Toxicity  of endrin to some
     Pacific Northwest fishes.  Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.  90(4):394-397.
336 Lane, C. E.  and R. J. Livingston (1970), Some acute and chronic

-------
518/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
     effects of dieldrin on the sailfin molly, Poecilia  latipinna. Trans
     Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3):489^95.
336 Lane, C. E. and E. D. Scura (1970), Effects of dieldrin on glutamic
     oxaloacetic transaminase  in Poecilia latipinna. J.  Fish. Res.  Board
     Can. 27(10) :1869-1871.
337 Litchfield, J. T. and F. Wilcoxon (1947), A simplified method of
     evaluating dose-effect experiments. J. Pharmacol. Exp. 1 her.  96:
     99-113.
338 Lowe, J. I.  (1965), Some effects of endrin on estuarine fishes. Proc.
     Southeast Ass. Game Fish Commissioners 19:271 -276.
339 Lowe, J. I.  (196_7), Effects  of prolonged exposure to Sevin on an
     estuarine fish, Leiostomus xanthurus Lacepede. Bull. Environ. Contam.
     Toxicol. 2(3):147-155.
340 Lowe, J. I., P. R. Parrish, A. J. Wilson, Jr.,  P.  D. Wilson, and
     T. W. Duke (197la), Effects of mirex on selected estuarine orga-
     nisms, in Transactions of the 36th North American wildhje and natural
     resources  conference, J. B. Trefethen, ed. (Wildlife Management
     Institute, Washington, D.C.) vol. 36, pp 171-186.
341 Lowe, J. I., P. D. Wilson, A. J. Rick, and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (1971b),
     Chronic exposure of oysters to DDT,  toxaphene and parathion.
     Proc. Nat Shellfish Ass. 61:71-79.
342 Mahood, R. K., M. D. McKenzie, D. P. Middaugh, S. J. Bollar,
     J. R. Davis and D. Spitsbergen  (1970), A report  on the cooperative
     blue crab study—South Atlantic states (U. S.  Department of  the
     Interior, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries), 32 p.
343 Millemann,  R. E.  (1969), Effects of Dursban on shiner perch, in
     Effects of pesticides on estuarine organisms [Progress report, res. grant
     5 Rol CC 00303] U. S. Public Health Service,  National Com-
     municable Disease Center, pp. 63-76.
344 NMWQL (1970), National  Marine Water Quality  Laboratory, An
     evaluation  of the  toxicity of  nitrilotriacetic acid  to  marine
     organisms. Progress report F.W.Q.A. Project  18080 GJ4.
346Nimmo, D.  R., A. J. Wilson, Jr. and R.  R. Blackman  (1970),
     Localization of DDT  in  the body organs of pink  and white
     shrimp.  Bulletin  oj  Environmental Contamination  and  Toxicology.
     5(4):333-341.
346 Stewart, N. E., R. E. Millemann, and W. P. Breese (1967), Acul
    toxicity of the  insecticide Sevin and its  hydrolytic product '
    Naphtol to some marine organisms.  Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 96(1]
    25-30.
347 Ukelcs, R.  (1962), Growth of pure cultures of marine phytoplankto
    in the presence of toxicants. Appl. Microbiol. 10(6) :532-537.
348 Walsh,  G.  E. (1972),  Effects of herbicides on photosynthesis an
    growth of marine unicellular algae. Hyacinth Control J. 10:45-48
349 Walsh, G.  E. and T. E. Grow (1971), Depression of carbohydral
    in marine algae by urea herbicides  Weed Set. 19(5) 56!i-r)7().
References  Cited
350 Cooley, N. R. and  J  Keltner unpublished data  from Gulf Breez
    Laboratory,  Environmental Protection  Agency, Gulf Breez<
    Florida.
361 Cooley, N. R., J. Keltner and J. Forester, unpublished data  froi
    Gulf Breeze Laboratory,  Environmental  Protection  Agcnq
    Gulf Breeze, Florida
362 Goppagc, D. L. unpublished, Organophosphate Pesticides: Specif
    level of brain AChE  inhibition  related  to death in  Sheepshea
    minnows, (submitted  to Trans. Amer. Fish Soc.)
353 Earnest,  R., unpublished data (1971), Effects of pesticides on aqual
    animals in  the  estuarine  and  marine  environment,  in Annv,
    Progress Report 1970 (Fish-Pesticide Research  Laboratory,  Bu
    Sport Fish. Wildl.  U. S. Dcpt. Interior, Columbia, Mo.)
364 Earnest,  R. D. and  P.  Benville, unpublished, Acute  toxieity of foi
    organochlorine insecticides to two species  of surf perch. Unpul
    hshed data  Fish-Pesticide Research  Laboratory;  Bureau Spoi
    Fisheries and Wildlife;  U. S. D. I.;  Columbia, Missouri.
365 Nimmo, D. R., R. R. Blackman, A. J.  Wilson, Jr., and J. Foreste
    unpublished data, Toxicity  and distribution of  Aroclor®  1254 i
    pink shrimp (Penaeus duorarum). Gulf Breeze  Laboratory,  Ei
    vironmental Protection  Agency, Gulf Breeze, Florida.

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                                               GLOSSARY
absorption     penetration  of one  substance  into the
    body of another.
acclimation    the process of adjusting to change, e.g.
    temperatures, in an environment.
acute    involving  a stimulus  severe enough to rapidly
    induce a response; in bioassay tests, a  response ob-
    served within 96 hours typically is considered an acute
    one.
adsorption     the  taking up  of one substance  at the
    surface of another.
aerobic    the condition  associated with the presence of
    free oxygen in an environment.
aerobe    an organism that can  live  and grow only  in
    the presence of free oxygen.
allocthanous    said of food material reaching an aquatic
    community from  the  outside in  the  form of organic
    detritus.
alluvial     transported and deposited by running water.
amoebiasis     an infection caused by amoebas, especially
    by Entamoeba histolytica.
amphoteric    able to react as either acid or base.
anadromous fish    fish that typically  inhabit  seas  or
    lakes but ascend streams at more or less regular inter-
    vals  to spawn;  e.g.,  salmon, steelhead, or American
     shad.
anaerobic    the condition associated with  the  lack of
    free oxygen in an environment.
anaerobe     an organism for whose life processes a com-
     plete or nearly complete absence of oxygen is essential.
anhydremia     a  deficiency of water in the blood.
anorexia    loss of appetite.
anoxic     depleted of free oxygen; anaerobic.
antagonism     the  power of one toxic substance to  di-
     minish or eliminate the toxic effect of another; inter-
     actions  of organisms  growing in  close association, to
     the detriment of at least one  of them.
application factor    a factor applied to a short-term or
     acute toxicity test to estimate a concentration of waste
     that would  be safe in a receiving water.
 assimilation   the transformation and incorporation of
     substances (e.g., nutrients) by an organism  or ecosys-
     tem.
backwashing    cleaning a filter or ion exchanger by re-
    versing the flow of liquid  through  it and washing out
    captured matter.
benthic    aquatic bottom-dwelling organisms including:
    (1) sessile animals,  such  as the  sponges, barnacles,
    mussels, oysters,  some  worms,  and  many attached
    algae; (2) creeping forms, such  as insects, snails, and
    certain clams; and (3) burrowing forms which include
    most  clams and worms.
bioaccumulation    uptake and  retention of environ-
    mental substances by an organism from its environ-
    ment, as  opposed to uptake from  its food.
bioassay     a determination of the concentration or dose
    of a given material necessary to  affect  a test organism
    under stated conditions.
biomass     the living weight of a plant or animal popula-
    tion,  usually expressed on a unit area basis.
biotic index    a numerical index using  various aquatic
     organisms to determine  their degree  of  tolerance to
    differing  water conditions.
biotoxin    toxin produced  by  a living organism;  the
     biotoxin  which causes paralytic shellfish poisoning is
     produced by certain species of dinoflagellate algae.
black liquor    waste liquid remaining after digestion of
     rags, straw, and  pulp.
bloom     an unusually  large number of organisms per
     unit  of water, usually algae, made up of one or a few
     species; a bur of iron or steel, square or slightly oblong,
     rolled from an ingot to a  size intermediate between an
     ingot and a billet, generally in the range of 6"X6"
     to 10"XI2"  (Section VI).
 blowdown    the discharge of water from  a  boiler or
     cooling tower to dispose  of accumulated salts.
 body burden     the total amount of a substance present
     in the body tissues and fluids of an organism.
 boiler feedwater    water  provided to a boiler for con-
     version to  steam in the steam  generation  process;
     usually a mixture of make-up water and returned steam
     condensate.
 buffer capacity    the ability of  a  solution to maintain
     its pH when stressed chemically.
 capillary water    the water held in the small pores of a
                                                       519

-------
 520/Water Quality Criteria  1972
     soil, usually with a tension greater than 60 centimeters
     of water.
carrying capacity    the maximum biomass that a sys-
     tem is  capable of supporting continuously (Section
     IV); the number of user-use periods that a recreation
     resource can provide in a given time span without ap-
     preciable  biological or physical deterioration of that
     resource,  or without  appreciable impairment  of the
     recreation  experience  for the majority  of  the users
     (Section I).
catadromous fish     fishes that feed and grow in fresh
     water but return to the sea to spawn, e.g., the American
     eel.
chelate    to combine with a  metal ion and hold  it  in
     solution preventing it from forming an insoluble salt.
chemotaxis     orientation   or  movement  of  a   living
     organism in response to a chemical gradient.
chronic    involving a stimulus that lingers or continues
     for a long period of time, often  one-tenth of the life
     span or more.
climax community     the stage of ecological  develop-
     ment at which  a community  becomes stable,  self-
     perpetuating, and at equilibrium with the environment.
coagulation     a water treatment process in which chem-
     icals are added to combine with or trap suspended and
     colloidal particles to form rapidly settling aggregates.
coliform bacteria     a group of bacteria inhabiting the
     intestines  of animals  including  man,  but also found
     elsewhere.  It includes  all the  aerobic,  nonspore form-
     ing, rod-shaped  bacteria that produce  from  lactose
     fermentation within 48 hours at 37 C.
colloid    very small particles (10 anistroms to  1 micron)
     which tend  to  remain  suspended and  dispersed  in
     liquids.
colluvial    material that has moved down hill  by the
     force of gravity or frost action and local wash and ac-
     cumulated on lower slopes or at the bottom of the hill.
conjunctivitis    an inflammation  of the mucous mem-
     brane that lines the inner surface of the eyelid and the
     exposed surface of the  eyeball.
conservative pollutant     a  pollutant  that is relatively
     persistant and resistant to degradation,  such as  PCB
     and most chlorinated  hydrocarbon insecticides.
cumulative     brought about  or increased in strength  by
     successive additions.
demersal     living or hatching on the bottom, as fish eggs
     than sink  to the bottom.
detritus   unconsolidated sediments comprised of both
     inorganic and dead and decaying organic material.
diurnal    occurring once  a day,  i.e., with a  variation
     period of  1  day; occurring in  the daytime or during a
     day.
diversity     the abundance in numbers  of species in a
     specified location.
dredge spoils    the material  removed from the botto-
    during dredging operations.
drench     to administer orally with water a large dose of
    substance such as medicine  to an animal.
dystrophic     said  of brownwater  lakes  a ad strear
    usually with a low lime content and  a high organ
    content; often lacking in nutrients.
emesis    the act of vomiting.
enteric     of or originating in  the intestinal tract.
epilimnion     the surface waters in a thermally stratifu
    body of water; these waters are characteristically wt
    mixed.
epiphytic    living on the surface of other  plants.
euphotic zone     the lighted region that  extends  ve
    tically from  the water  surface to the level  at whk
    photosynthesis fails to occur because of ineffective ligl
    penetration.
eutrophic     abundant in nutrients and having high rat
    of productivity frequently resulting in oxygen  depletic
    below the surface layer.
evapotranspiration    the combined loss  of water froi
    a  given  area during a specified period of time 1;
    evaporation  from the soil  or  water surface and  1;
    transpiration from plants.
exchange capacity    the total ionic charge of the ac
    sorption complex active in the adsorption of  ions.
exophthalmos     an abnormal protrusion of the eyebal
external treatment    passage of water through equij
    ment such as a filter or \vater softener to meet desire
    quality requirements prior to point of use.
facultative     able to live  under  different  conditions, ,
    in facultative aerobes and facultative anaerobes.
fecal coliform bacteria    bacteria of the coliform grou
    of fecal origin (from intestines of warm-blooded  an
    mals) as opposed to coliforms from non-fecal  sources.
filial generation    the offspring of a cross mating.
finfish    that portion of the aquatic community made u
    of the true fishes as opposed to invertebrate shellfisl
flocculation    the process by which suspended colloid,
    or very fine particles are assembled into larger massi
    or floccules which eventually settle out of suspensioi
    the  stirring of water after  coagulant  chemicals ha\
    been added to promote the  formation of particles th;
    will settle (Section II).
food chain     the transfer  of food energy from plants c
    organic detritus through a series of organisms, usuall
    four or five, consuming and being consumed.
food web    the interlocking  pattern formed by a serif
    of interconnecting food  chains.
free residual chlorinatioii    chlorination that main
    tains the presence of  hypochlorous acid  (HOC1) c
    hypochlorite ion (OC1~) in  water.
fry     the stage in the life of a fish between the hatching c
    the egg and the absorption of the yolk sac  (Section

-------
                                                                                                     Glossary / ^\
     III and IV); in a broader sense, all immature stages
     of fishes.
groundwood     the raw  material  produced from both
     logs and chips,  used  mainly in the manufacture of
     newsprint,  toweling,  tissue,  wallpaper,  and  coated
     specialty papers.
half-life     the period of time in which a substance loses
     half of its  active  characteristics (used  especially in
     radiological work); the time required  to reduce the
     concentration of a material by half.
hemostasis    the  cessation  of the flow of blood  in the
     circulatory system.
histopathologic    occurring in tissue due to a diseased
     condition.
hydrophobic     unable to combine with or dissolve in
     water.
hydrophytic     growing  in  or in close  proximity to
     water; e.g., aquatic algae and emergent aquatic vascu-
     lar plants.
hypertrophy     nontumorous increase  in the size of an
     organ  as a result of enlargement of constituent cells
     without an increase in their number.
hypolimnion    the region of a body of water that ex-
     tends from below the thermocline to the bottom of the
     lake;  it  is thus  removed  from   much of the surface
     influence.
internal treatment    treating water by  addition of
     chemicals  to  meet desired  quality  requirements at
     point of use or within a process.
intraperitoneal     into the abdominal cavity.
kraf t process    producing pulp from wood chips in the
     manufacture of paper products; involves cooking the
     chips  in  a  strong solution  of caustic soda and sodium
     sulfidc.
labile    unstable and likely to change under certain in-
     fluences.
LC50    see median lethal concentration.
LD50     see median lethal dose.
lentic or lenitic environment     standing water and
     its various intergrades; e.g., lakes, ponds, and swamps.
leptospirosis     a disease of animals or man  caused by
     infection from an organism of the genus Leptospira.
lethal     involving  a stimulus  or   effect causing  death
     directly.
life  cycle     the series of life stages in the form and mode
     of life  of an  organism,  i.e., between successive  recur-
     rences of a certain  primary stage such  as  the  spore,
     fertilized egg, seed, or resting cell.
limnetic zone     the open-water  region of a lake, sup-
     porting plankton and fish  as the principal plants and
     animals.
lipophilic     having an affinity for fats or other lipids.
littoral zone     the shallow shoreward region of a body
    of water having light penetration to  the bottom; fre-
    quently occupied by rooted plants.
littoral zone     the  shoreward  or coastal  region  of a
    body of water.
lotic environment     running waters, such as streams or
    rivers.
lysimeter    a device to measure the quantity or rate of
    water movement  through or  from  a  block of soil,
    usually undisturbed and in situ, or to collect such perco-
    lated water for quality analysis.
macronutrient     a chemical element necessary in large
    amounts,  usually greater than  1 ppm, for the growth
    and development of plants.
macrophyte     the larger aquatic plants, as distinct from
    the microscopic plants, including aquatic mosses, liver-
    worts and larger algae  as well as  vascular plants; no
    precise  toxonomic  meaning;  generally used  synony-
    mously with aquatic vascular plants in this Report.
make-up water    water  added to boiler, cooling tower,
    or other systems to maintain the volume of water re-
    quired.
marl     an earthy, unconsolidated deposit formed in fresh-
    water lakes,  consisting  chiefly of calcium  carbonate
    mixed with clay or other impurities in varying propor-
    tions.
median lethal concentration (LC50)     the  concen-
    tration of a test material  that causes death to 50 per cent
    of a population within a given time period.
median lethal dose (LD50)     the  dose  of a test ma-
    terial, ingested or  injected, that kills  50 per cent of a
    group of test organisms.
median tolerance limit (TL50)     the concentration of
    a  test material  in a suitable diluent  (experimental
    water) at which just 50  per cent of the test animals are
    able to survive for a specified period of exposure.
mercerize     to  treat  cotton  thread with  sodium hy-
    droxide so as to shrink the fiber and increase its color
    absorption and luster.
mesotrophic     having a nutrient  load  resulting  in
    moderate  productivity.
metabolites     products of metabolic processes.
methemoglobinemia     poisoning  resulting  from  the
    oxidation  of ferrous iron of hemoglobin to the ferric
    state  where it is unable to  combine reversibly  with
    molecular oxygen; agents responsible include chlorates,
    nitrates,  ferricyanides,  sulfonamides, salicylates, and
    various other  substances.
methylation     combination  with the methyl radical
    (CH3).
mho     a unit of conductance reciprocal to the ohm
micelle    an aggregation  or cluster of molecules, ions, or
    minute submicroscopic particles.
micronutrient     chemical  element  necessary  in  only

-------
 522/Water Quality Criteria 7.972
     small  amounts for growth and  development;  also
     known as trace elements.
mouse unit    the amount of paralytic  shellfish poison
     that will produce a mean  death time of 15  minutes
     when  administered intraperitoneally to male mice, of
     a specific strain, weighing between 18 and 20 grams.
necrosis    the death of cellular material within the body
     of an organism.
nephrosclerosis    a hardening  of the tissues  of  the
     kidney.
nitrilotriacetate (NTA)     the salt  of nitrilotriacetic
     acid; has the ability to complex metal ions, and  has
     been proposed as  a builder for detergents.
nonconservative  pollutant     a pollutant   that  is
     quickly degraded  and lacks persistence,  such  as most
     organophosphate insecticides.
nonfouling     a property of cooling water  that allows it
     to flow over steam condenser surfaces without accumu-
     lation  of impediments.
nonpolar     a chemical term for any molecule or liquid
     that has  a  reasonable degree of electrical  symmetry
     such that there is little or no separation of charge; e.g.,
     benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and  the lower  paraffin
     hydrocarbons.
nutrients    organic and  inorganic chemicals necessary
     for the growth and reproduction of organisms.
oligotrophic    having a  small supply of nutrients and
     thus supporting little organic production, and seldom
     if every becoming depleted  of oxygen.
organoleptic     pertaining to or perceived  by a sensory
     organ.
parr    a  young fish, usually  a salmonid,  between  the
     larval stage and the time it begins migration  to the sea.
partition coefficient    the ratio  of the molecular con-
     centration of a substance in two solvents.
pCi—picocurie     a measure  of radioactivity equivalent
     to 3.70X10"2 atoms disintegrating per minute.
pelagic     occurring or living in the open ocean.
periphyton    associated  aquatic organisms attached or
     clinging to stems and leaves of rooted plants or other
     surfaces projecting above the bottom of a water body.
pesticide     any substance used to kill  plants,  insects,
     algae, fungi,  and other organisms; includes herbicides,
     insecticides, algalcides, fungicides, and other substances.
plankton     plants  (phytoplankton) and animals  (zoo-
     plankton), usually microscopic,  floating in  aquatic
     systems such as rivers, ponds, lakes, and seas.
point of supply    the location at which  water is ob-
     tained  from a specific source.
point of use    the location at which water is actually
     used in a process or incorporated into a product.
prime     to cause an explosive evolution of  steam from a
     heating surface, throwing water  into a steam space.
process water     water  that  comes in contact with an
     end product or with materials incorporated in an er
     product.
productivity     the rate of storage of organic matter
     tissue by organisms including that used by the orga
     isms in maintaining themselves.
pycnocline    a layer of water that exhibits rapid chanj
     in density, analogous to i.hermocline.
psychrophilic    thriving; at relatively low temperature
     usually at  or below  15 C.
recharge    to  add water to the zone  of saturation, as
     recharge of an aquifer, the term may also be appli(
     to the water added.
refractory    resisting ordinary treatment and difficult
     degrade.
rip-rapping     covering stream banks  and  dam fac
     with rock  or other material to  prevent erosion fro
     water contact.
safety factor     a numerical  value applied to short-ter
     data from other organisms in order to  approximate tl
     concentration of a substance that will  not harm or ir
     pair the organism being considered.
sessile  organism    motionless organisms that reside ir
     fixed state, attached or unattached to  a substrate.
SCSton     suspended  particles  and organisms  betwei
     0.0002 and 1 mm in  diameter.
shellfish    a group of mollusks usually enclosed in a se
     secreted shell; includes oysters and clams.
shoal water     shallow  water.
slaking    adding water to lessen the activity of a chemic
     reaction.
sludge     a solid waste  fraction precipitated  by a wat
     treatment process.
smolt     a young fish, usually a  salmonid,  as it begi
     and during the time it makes its seaward migration.
sorption    a general terra for the processes ofabsorptit
     and adsorption.
species diversity    a number which relates the densi
     of organisms of each type present in a habitat.
Standing crop biomass    the total weight of organist
     present at any one time.
Stoichiometric    the  mass relationship  in  a chemic
     reaction.
Stratification     the phenomenon occurring when a bo(
     of water becomes divided into distinguishable layers
subacute    involving a stimulus not severe enough
     bring about a response speedily.
sublethal    involving  a stimulus  below  the level th
     causes death.
succession    the orderly process of community chan;
     in  which  a  sequence of communities  replaces 01
     another in a given  area  until a  climax community
     reached.
sulfhemoglobin    the  reaction product of oxyhemogl
     bin and hydrogen sulfide.
sullage     waste materials; or refuse; sewage.

-------
                                                                                                      Glossary/523
superchlorination     chlorination wherein the doses are
    large enough to complete all chlorination reactions
    and to produce a free chlorine residual.
surfactant     a surface active agent altering the inter-
    facial tension of water and other liquids or solids, e.g. a
    detergent.
synergistic     interactions of two or more substances or
    organisms producing a  result that any  was incapable
    of independently.
tailwater    water, in a  river, or canal,  immediately
    downstream from a  structure; in irrigation, the water
    that reaches the lower end of a field.
teart     a  disease of cattle  caused  by excessive  molyb-
    denum intake characterized by profuse scouring, loss of
    pigmentation of the hair, and bone defects.
teratogen    a substance  that increases the incidence of
    birth defects.
thermocline     a layer in a thermally stratified body of
    water in which the temperature changes rapidly rela-
    tive to the remainder of the body.
TLm     see median tolerance limit.
trophic accumulation     passing of a substance through
    a food chain such that each organism retains all or a
    portion of the amount in its food and eventually  ac-
    quires a higher concentration in its flesh than  in  the
    food.
trophic level     a scheme of categorizing organisms  by
    the way they obtain food from primary producers or
    organic detritus involving the same number of inter-
    mediate steps.
true color     the color of water resulting from substances
    which are totally in solution; not to be mistaken for ap-
    parent  color  resulting from colloidal or  suspended
    matter.

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524/Water Quality Criteria 7972

                                         CONVERSION  FACTORS
                          Units                  Multiplied by                Equal
                Acres	   4.047XK)-1	   Hectares
                                           4.356X10"	   Square feet,
                                           4.047X103	   Square meters
                                           1.562X10-3  	   Square miles
                                           4.840XH)3	   Square yards
                Angstrom units	   IX 10~8	   Centimeters
                                           3.937X10-9	   Inches
                Barrels (oil)	    42	   Gallons (oil)
                                           1.590X102 	   Liters
                British thermal units	   7.776X102	   Foot pounds
                                           3.927X10^"	   Horse-power hours
                                           0.252	   Kilogram calories
                                           2.929X10-"	   Kilowatt hours
                Centimeters	   3.937X10"1	   Inches
                Degrees centigrade	   (°CXf) +32	   Farenheit degrees
                Degrees farenheit	   (°F —32)f	   Centigrade1 degrees
                Feet	   12	   Inches
                                           1.640X10-"	   Miles (nautical)
                                           1.894X10-"	   Miles (statute)
                                           0.305	   Meiers
                                           1/3	   Yards
                Gallons	   3.069X10~6  	   Acre feet
                                           3.785X103	   Cubic centimeters
                                           0.134	   Cubic feet
                                           2.31X10-	   Cubic inches
                                           3.785X10~3	   Cubic meters
                                           4.951 X10-3	   Cubic yards
                                           3.785	   Liters
                                           8	   Pints (liquid)
                                           4 	   Quarts (liquid)
                  (Imperial)	   1.201	   U. S. gallons
                  (U.S.)	   0.833	   Imp.-rial gallons
                  (Water)	   8.345	   Pounds  (Water: 39.2 F)
                Gallons/day	   5.570X10-'	   Cubic feet/hour
                                           3.785	   Liters/day
                Gallons/minute	   8.021	   Cubic; feet/hour
                                           2.228 X10-'	   Cubic feet/second
                                           6.308X10-1'	   Liters/second
                  (Water)	   6.009	   Tons (water: 39.2 F)/
                                                                       day
                Gallons/square foot/         40.74	    Liters/square meter/
                  minute                                                minute
                Gallons/square mile	   1.461	   Liters/square kilometer
                Gallons/ton (short)	   4.173	   Liters/ton (metric)
                Grams  	   3.527X10-'	   Ounces
                                           2.205X10~:	   Pounds
                Grams/liter	   58.41	:   Grains/gallon
                                           103	   Parts per million
                                    (assumes density of 1 gram/milliliter)

-------
                                                                        Conversion Factors/525

                   CONVERSION FACTORS—Continued
          Units                  Multiplied by                Equal
Grams/liter	   8.345X1Q-3  	   Pounds/gallon
                           0.243X10-2	   Pounds/cubic foot
Grams/cubic motor	   0.437	   Grains/cubic foot
Inches	   2.54  	   Centimeters
Kilograms	    2.20.")   	   Pounds
                           1.102X10-3	   Tons (short)
                           9.842X10-"	   Tons (long)
Kilometers	   3.281 X103	   Foot
                           3.937X104   	   Inches
                           0.021	   Miles (statute)
                           0.540	   Miles (nautical)
                           1.094X103	   Yards
Liters   	   1.000028 X103 	   Cubic; centimeters
                           3.532X10"2	   Cubic; feet
                           01.03	   Cubic inches
                           1.000028 X10~3	   Cubic motors
                           1.308 XIO-3  	   Cubic; yards
                           0.227	   Gallons
Liters 'square kilometer.     0.588	   Gallons/'square mile
Meters   	   3.281	   Feet
                           30.37	    Inches
                           5.400X10-"  	    Miles (nautical)
                           0.214X10-"	   Miles (statute)
                           1.094	   Yards
Microns	    104	   Angstrom units
                           10-4    	   Centimeters
                           3.281X10-6   	   Feet
                           3.937X10~:>  	   Inches
                           10-f>	   Motors
                           10~3     	   Millimeters
Miles (nautical) 	  0.070X103   	   Feet
                           1.852   	   Kilometers
                           1.852X103   	   Meters
                           1.151	   Miles (statute)
                           2.027X103	   Yards
Miles (statute)	  5.280XW    	   Feet
                            0.33GX104  	   Inches
                            1.609	   Kilometers
                            1.609X103	   Meters
                            0.809	   Miles (nautical)
                            1 .700X103	   Yards
Milligrams	   3.527X1Q-5	   Ounces
                            2.205X10-6	   Pounds
 Milliliters	   1.000028	  Cubic centimeters
                            0.102 X10-2  	   Cubic inches
                            3.381X10-2	   Ounces  (U. S.)
 Millimeters	   3.281X10"3	  Feet
                            3.937X10-2	  Inches
                            10-3 	  Motors
                            103  	  Microns
                            1.094X10-3	  Yards

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526/Water Quality Criteria 1972
                                   CONVERSION FACTORS—Continued
                          Units
Multiplied by
Equal
                Million gallons/day  	    1.547	   Cubic foot/second
                                           0.028	   Cubic mctcrs/.sccond
                                           28.32	     Liters 'second
                Pounds	    0.4.14	    Kilograms
                                           Hi	   Ounces
                                           4.4()4X10~4	   Tons (long)
                                           4..130X10"4	   Ton« (metric)
                                           .I.OXIO-4     	      Tons (short)
                Pounds/acre     	   1.122  	     Kilograms'hectare;
                Pounds/gallon   	   0.120	    Grams cubic centimeter
                                           7.480	    Pounds cubic foot-
                Pounds/square inch  ...   .   (i.80.">X10"~2	   -Ytmospheres
                                           .">. 171	    Centimeters of mercury
                                                                       (OC)
                                           70.31	   Centimeters of water
                                                                       (4C)
                                           0.89.">X104     	   Dynes square centi-
                                                                       meter
                                           70.31 	     Grams square centi-
                                                                       meter
                                           27.08	   Inches of water (39.2 F)
                                           2.036.    	   Inches of mercury
                                                                       (32 F)
                                           7.0.'}] XIO2	   Kilograms''.square meter
                                           1.440X102	   Pounds square foot
                Square feet      	   l>.29liX10"5	   Acres
                                           1.44X102     	     Square inches
                                           9.290X10-- 	   Square meters
                                           3.,187X10~8	   Square miles
                                           1  ii   	   Square yards
                Square meters	   2.471 X 10~4  	   Acres
                                           ]Q-4     	   Heel ares
                                           104    ...    	    Square centimeters
                                           10.70	   Square feet
                                           1 ..V>OX 103   	   Square inches
                                           3.801X10"7   	   Square miles
                                           1.190	   Square yards
                Square miles	   0.40X102  	   Acres
                                           2.590X102	   Hectares
                                           2.788X107	   Square foot
                                           2..">90	   Square kilometers
                                           3.098X10fi	   Square yards
                Tons (metric)	   103.      	   Kilograms
                                           3..V27X104	   Ounces
                                           2.20.-)X103	   Pounds
                                           0.984	   Tons  (long)
                                           1.102	   Tons  (short)
                Tons (short)	   8.897X108	    Dynes
                                           9.072X102   	   Kilograms
                                           3.2X104	   Ounces

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                                                                       Conversion Factors/527

                   CONVERSION  FACTORS—Continued
          Units                 Multiplied by                Equal

Tons (short)	   2X103	   Pounds
                           0.893	   Tons (long)
                           0.907	     Tons (metric)
Watts	   3.414	   BTU/hour
                           44.25 	   Foot-pounds/minute
                           1.341 X 10~3	   Horse power
                           1.434 X 10~2   	   Kilogram-calories/
                                                      minute
Yards	   91.44	   Centimeters
                           3	   Feet
                           36 	   Inches
                           0.914	   Meters
                           4.934X10"4	   Miles (nautical)
                           5.682X10~4  	   Miles (statute)

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                                    BIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES
Committee on Water Quality Criteria

GERARD A. ROHLICH is C. W. Cook Professor of Environ-
    mental Engineering and Professor at the Lyndon B.
    Johnson  School of Public Affairs at the University of
    Texas at  Austin. He received B.S. degrees from Cooper
    Union in 1934 and the University of Wisconsin in 1936,
    and an M.S. in 1937 and a Ph.D. in Sanitary Engineer-
    ing in 1940 from the University of Wisconsin. Dr. Rohl-
    ich's expertise is in wastcwater treatment and in eutro-
    phication and pollution of lakes and streams. He is a
    member  of the National Academy of Engineering.
ALFRED M. BEETON is Associate Director (Biology)  of the
    Center for Great Lakes Studies, and Professor of Zool-
    ogy at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. He
    received  a B.S. degree from the University of Michi-
    gan in 1952, an M.S. in 1954 and Ph.D. in Zoology in
    1958  from the University  of Michigan. Dr.  Beeton's
    major research interest is  the eutrophication  of the
    Great Lakes. He is Coordinator of the Water Quality
    Sub-program of the University of Wisconsin Sea Grant
    Program.
BOSTWICK  H.  KETCHUM is Associate Director of the Woods
    Hole  Oceanographic  Institution in  Woods  Hole,
    Massachusetts. He  received an A.B. in Biology from
    St. Stephens College, Columbia, in 1934, and a Ph.D.
    from  Harvard University  in  1938. A  specialist in
    nutrient  cycling and phytoplankton physiology, he  is
    the holder of two  Honorary  Sc.D.  degrees  and the
    1972 recipient of the David B. Stone Award.
CORNELIUS W. KRUSE  is Professor  and Chairman  of the
    Department of Environmental Health in the School of
    Hygiene  and  Public  Health  at  the Johns  Hopkins
    University. He received a B.S. in civil  engineering at
    the Missouri  School of Mines in 1934, an  M.S. in
    Sanitary Engineering at Harvard University  in 1940,
    and a Doctor  of Public Health from the University of
    Pittsburgh in  1961. Dr.  Kruse is a specialist on infec-
    tious and toxic agents in external environments.
THURSTON E.  LARSON received a B.S. in Chemical Engineer-
    ing in 1932  and a Ph.D.  in Sanitary  Chemistry in
    1937  from the University of Illinois.  He is a specialist
    in water chemistry and head of the Chemistry Sectioi
    of the Illinois State Water Survey.  Dr. Larson is ;
    past-president of the American Water Works Associa
    tion.
EMILIO A. SAVINELLI  is a specialist in water and wastewate
    treatment and Prcsidem; of Drew  Chemical Corpora
    Parsippany, New  Jersey.  He  received  a  B.C.E.  h
    Sanitary Engineering in 1950 from Manhattan Colleg'
    and  a M.S.E. in 1951 and a Ph.D. in Chemistry  ii
    1955 from  the University of Florida.
RAY L. SHIRLEY received his B.S. and  M.S. in agriculture
    at the University of West Virginia in 1937 and  1939
    respectively, and a Ph.D. in agricultural biochemistr
    from  Michigan  State University in 1949. Dr. Shirle1
    specializes  in animal nutrition and metabolism.  He i
    Professor of Animal Science and in charge of the Nu
    trition Laboratory at the  University of Florida, Gaines
    ville.

Panel On Recreation and Aesthetics

MICHAEL  CHUBB  is Associate Professor of  Environmenta
    and Recreational Geography at Michigan State Uni
    versity. He received a  B.Sc.F. from  the Faculty  o
    Forestry, University of Toronto  in  1955, a M.S.  ii
    resource development in 1964 and a Ph.D.  in Geog
    raphy from M.S.U. in 1967. He has been employed ii
    river development for the Ontario Department of thi
    Environment and has served as a recreation  planne
    with the Michigan Department of Natural Resources
    He is a specialist in recreation resource carrying capac
    ity and recreation survey research.
MILO A.  CHURCHILL is Chief, Water  Quality Branch
    Tennessee  Valley Authority.  He  received  a  B.S.  ir
    Civil  Engineering from  the University of Illinois  ir
    1933, and a Master of Public Health from The John
    Hopkins University in 1952. He is a specialist in effect
    of impoundment on water quality, bacterial  quality o
    streams and reservoirs, and stream reaeration.
NORMAN  E. JACKSON is Acting Assistant Chief,  Planning
    Division, Office  of the Chief of Engineers, Directoratt
    of Civil Works, Washington, D. C. He  received a B.S
                                                      528

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                                                                                             Biographical Notes 529
     in  Civil Engineering from  Vanderbilt University in
     1935 and  a M.S. in Sanitary Engineering  from The
     Johns Hopkins University in 1950. A former Director
     of  Sanitary Engineering,  District of Columbia, and
     Special Assistant to the Director, Department of En-
     vironmental Services, D.C., he specializes  in urban
     water and wastewatcr facilities and in  planning water
     resources in regional and basin settings.
WILLIAM L. KLEIN is chemist-biologist for the Ohio River
     Valley Water Sanitation  Commission at Cincinnati,
    •Ohio. He  received a B.S.  degree from Kent State in
     1949,  and  a Master of Public Health in 1957 in Sani-
     tary  Chemistry and Biology from  the University ol
     North Carolina.  He  is a specialist in water pollution
     control, water monitoring, and associated data evalua-
     tion.
PERCY H.  MCGAUHEY is  a professional consultant in civil
     and sanitary engineering  and  Director Emeritus of
     Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory,  Depart-
     ment  of Civil Engineering,  University of California,
     Berkeley. He received an  M.S. degree from the Uni-
     versity of Wisconsin  in  1941, and an honorary D.Sc.
     from Utah State University  in 1971. He is the author
     of  Engineering Water  Qiiahty Management  (McGraw-
     Hill,  1968). His specialties  are wastewatcr reclamation,
     organic  clogging  of soils,  economic  evaluation  of
     water, and solid wastes management.
ERIC W.  MOOD is Associate  Professor of Public  Health
     (Environmental  Health),  Yale  University  School of
     Medicine.  He received  a  B.S.  degree in engineering
     from  the  University of Connecticut in  1938 and  an
     M.P.H.  degree  from Yale  University in  1943.  For
     several years he has been chairman of  the Joint Com-
     mittee on Swimming Pools and Bathing Places, Ameri-
     can Public Health Association.  He is a member of the
     Expert Advisory Committee  on Environmental Health,
     World Health Organization, and is the recipient of an
     honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Upsala  College.
RALPH PORGES is Head of the Water Quality Branch of the
     Delaware  River Basin Commission. He received a B.S.
     in  Chemical  Engineering  from Rutgers University in
     1936 and spent four  years as a Research Fellow at the
     University of North Carolina. He was with the U.S.
     Public Health Service  for  26  years,  specializing in
     stream pollution and plague and typhus control. He is
     a holder  of  the William  D. Hatfield  Award of the
     Water Pollution  Control Federation.
LESLIE M. REID is Professor and Head of the Department of
     Recreation  and  Parks  at  Texas A&M LJniversity.
     He received a B.S.  in  Forestry from  the  Michigan
     Technological University in  1951, an M.S. in  Resource
     Development from Michigan State University in 1955,
     and  a Ph.D. in  Conservation in 1963 from the Uni-
     versity of Michigan. His major  research interest is in
     natural resources planning.  He is consultant with the
    National  Park  Service  and  a past-president of  the
    Society of Park and Recreation Educators.
MICHAEL B. SONNEN is  a Senior Engineer with Water Re-
    sources Engineers,  Inc.  in Walnut Creek, California.
    He received a B.E.  in Civil Engineering at Vanderbilt
    University in 1962, an M.S. in Sanitary Engineering in
    1965, and a Ph.D.  in Sanitary Engineering in  1967,
    both from the University of Illinois. His major research
    interest is the evaluation of costs and benefits accruing
    to water users supplied with various qualities of water.
ROBERT O.  SYLVESTER  is Professor and Head, Division of
    Water and Air Resources, Department of  Civil En-
    gineering, University  of Washington.  He received  a
    B.S. in  Civil Engineering from Harvard University in
    1941. His teaching,  research and professional interests
    have  centered around  water quality,  water  supply,
    and water resources-quality management.
C. WILLIAM THREINEN is Administrative Assistant, Depart-
    ment of Natural Resources, State of Wisconsin, Madi-
    son. He is also acting assistant director of the Bureau of
    Fish  Management  in  the  Department  of Natural
    Resources. He received  his B.S. degree from the Uni-
    versity of Wisconsin, and his M.S. in public administra-
    tion from Harvard  University. He specializes in rough
    fish problems in Wisconsin,  population dynamics of
    largemouth bass, lake use studies, \\ild rivers planning,
    and access site utilization and development.

Panel On Public Water Supplies

RUSSELL F.  CHRISTMAN  is Director, Division of Environ-
    mental Affairs and  Professor  of Applied Chemistry at
    the L'niversity of Washington. He received an M.S. in
    1960 and a Ph.D. in 1962 in Chemistry from the Uni-
    versity of Florida. His major research activities involve
    the  identification  of organic materials in  natural
    water systems.
PAUL D. HANEY is a member  of the firm of Black & Veatch,
    Consulting Engineers, Kansas City, Missouri. He re-
    ceived  a  B.S.  degree  in Chemical  Engineering from
    the University of Kansas in 1933, and an M.S. degree in
    Sanitary  Engineering  from  Harvard  University  in
    1937. He is a diplomate of the American Academy of
    Environmental Engineers and a past-president of the
    Water Pollution Control Federation.
ROBERT C.  MC\VHINNIE, Chief of Planning and Resource
    Development, Board of Water Commissioners, Denver,
    Colorado. He received a B.S. degree in civil engineer-
    ing from the University of Wyoming and  has  taken
    advanced courses  in  sanitary engineering  from  the
    University of Colorado. He is Director of the Metro-
    politan Denver Sewage Disposal District and chairman
    of the Technical Advisory Committee on Urban Flood
    Control. He specializes in odor, temperature, and phe-
    nolic compounds in public water supplies.

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 530/ Water Quality Criteria 1972
HENRY J. ONGERTH is  Chief of the  Bureau  of Sanitary
     Engineering,  State  Department  of  Public  Health,
     California. He received a B.S. degree from University
     of California  (Berkeley) in civil engineering (sanitary
     option) in 1935 and an M.P.H. in 1950 from the Uni-
     versity of Michigan. He was a member of the advisory
     committee of the 1962 revision of the Public  Health
     Service Drinking Water  Standards and  chairman  of
     the Public Advisory  Committee presently working on
     the  1972 revision of the Drinking Water  Standards.
     He is a member of the American Academy of Environ-
     mental Engineers and a specialist in fluorides, chlorides,
     and sulfates in water.
RANARD J. PICKERING is Chief of the Quality of Water
     Branch, Water Resources  Division,  U.S.  Geological
     Survey at Washington, D.C. He received an A.B. with
     Highest Honors in  1951  and  an M.A.  in 1952 from
     Indiana University, and  a Ph.D.  from Stanford Uni-
     versity in 1961, all in Geology. His specialties are low
     temperature geochemistry  and behavior  of radionu-
     clides in fluvial environments.
JOSEHP K. G. SILVEY is Distinguished Professor, Chairman
     of Biological  Sciences, and Director  of  the Institute
     for Environmental Studies  at North Texas State Uni-
     versity, Denton. He  received his  B.S. from Southern
     Methodist University in  1927, his M.A.  in 1928 and
     his Ph.D. in Zoology from the University of Michigan
     in 1932. He is a specialist in eutrophication and in reser-
     voir  ecology  with reference to  the  effect of micro-
     organisms on  taste and odors.
J. EDWARD SINGLEY is a Professor in the Department  of
     Environmental Engineering Sciences at the University
     of Florida. He received his B.S.  and M.S. degrees  in
     Chemistry from Georgia  Institute of Technology  in
     1950 and 1952, respectively, and  his Ph.D. degree  in
     Water Chemistry from the University of Florida  in
     1966.  He is a specialist in the chemistry of water and
     wastewater treatment.
RICHARD L. WOODWARD is Vice President of Camp Dresser
     & McKee Inc., consulting engineers in Boston, Massa-
     chusetts. He received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from
     Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, in 1935, an
     M.S. in Sanitary Engineering from Harvard  Univer-
     sity in 1948,  and a Ph.D.  in  Physics from the Ohio
     State  University  in  1952.  He specializes in  water
     quality problems and water and wastewater treatment.

Panel  on  Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife

JOHN CAIRNS, JR. is University Professor of Zoology  and
     Director of the Center  for Environmental Studies,
     Virginia Polytechnic Institute and  State University,
     Blackburg, Virginia. He received an A.B. from Swarth-
     more  College  in  1947, and an M.S.  in  1949 and a
     Ph.D. in 1953 from the  University of Pennsylvania. He
     is a  specialist in the effects of  stress  upon  aquatic
     organisms.
CHARLES  C. COUTANT is  Project Supervisor of Therma
     Effects Studies in the Environmental Sciences Divisior
     of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, I'en
     nessee. He received his B.S., M.S., and  Ph.D. degree
     in Biology from Lehigh University in 1960, 1962, anc
     1965, respectively.  A general aquatic  ecologist  b'
     training,  he specializes in  man's impacts on  aquatii
     life,  through impoundments,  pesticides,  general in
     dustrial pollution, and thermal additions.
ROLF HARTUNG  is Associate  Professor  of Environmenta
     and Industrial Health at the School of  Public Healtl
     at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. He re
     ceived a B.S. in 1960, an M.W.M.  in 1962, and a Ph.D
     in 1964 in Wildlife Management from the Universif
     of Michigan. He is a  specialist in toxicology,  and hi
     interests  include  diseases produced  by toxicants  h
     man  and wildlife.
HOWARD  E. JOHNSON is Associate Professor of Fisheries am
     Wildlife at  Michigan  State University. He received ;
     B.S. degree from Montana State University in 1959,  ai
     M.S. in 1961, and a Ph.D. in Fisheries in  1967 fron
     the University of Washington. His major research in
     terests are the effects of toxic materials on aquatic lif
     and the distribution of biocides in  aquatic systems.
RUTH PATRICK is Chairman and Curator of the Departmen
     of Limnology of the Academy of Natural Sciences o
     Philadelphia. She received a B.S. degree from Coke
     College in 1929, and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from thi
     University of Virginia in  1931 and  1934, respectively
     She  is also  Adjunct  Professor at  the  University  o
     Pennsylvania. In 1971 she was appointed a member o
     the Hazardous Materials Advisory Committee of th<
     Environmental Protection Agency,  and a member  o
     Governor  Shapp's  Science Advisory  Committee  ii
     1972. Her research is on the structure and functioning
     of aquatic communities of rivers and estuaries witl
     particular interest in diatoms.
LLOYD L.  SMITH, Jr. is Professor, Department of Entomol
     ogy,  Fisheries, arid Wildlife, University of Minnesto;
     at St.  Paul.  He  received  his B.S.  degree from thi
     University of Minnesota  in 1931,  his M.S. degree  ii
     1940, and his Ph.D. degree in 1942 from the Universif
     of Michigan. His areas of expertise are fishery dynam
     ics, effects of water quality on fish production,  anc
     aquatic biology. He has been chairman of ORSANCC
     aquatic life advisory committee since its formation.
JOHN B. SPRAGUE is Associate  Professor in the Departmen
     of Zoology at the University of Guelph, Ontario. Hi
     received a B.Sc. in 1953 from the University of Wester:
     Ontario with the University Gold  Medal and an M.A
     in 1954 and a Ph.D. in 19.39 in Zoology from the Uni
     versity of Toronto. He  served on the Fisheries Researcl
     Board of Canada,  studying  effects of  pollution  01

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                                                                                            Biographical Notes ,/S7>\
    aquatic organisms. He is a specialist in biological ef-
    fects of mine wastes and heavy metals and in methods
    of bioassay with aquatic organisms.

Panel on Marine Aquatic  Life and Wildlife

RICHARD T. BARBER is Associate Professor (Zoology  and
    Botany)  at  Duke University and  Director  of the
    Cooperative  Research  and  Training Program  in
    Oceanography at Duke  University  Marine Labora-
    tory. He received  a B S. degree from Utah State Uni-
    versity in  1962 and a  Ph.D. in  Oceanography from
    Stanford University in  1967. His  major research ef-
    fort is in  the Coastal  Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis
    program,  and his  specialties include growth of phyto-
    plankton in nutrient-rich systems, microbial oxidation
    of organic matter in  seawater, and organic-metal in-
    teractions in marine systems.
JAMES H.  CARPENTER  is an Associate Professor in the De-
    partment of Earth and Planetary Sciences at The Johns
    Hopkins University.  He is presently on  leave  at the
    National Science Foundation as Head,  Oceanography
    Section,  Division  of Environmental  Sciences.  He re-
    ceived a B.A. with a major in chemistry and a minor in
    biology from the University of Virginia in 1949, and an
    M.S. in  1952 and a Ph.D. in 1957 in  Oceanography
    from The Johns Hopkins University.  His research con-
    cerns the physical, chemical  and biological processes
    that influence nutrient and  metal concentrations in
    estuarine and coastal waters.
L. EUGKNE CRONIN is Director of the Chesapeake Biological
    Laboratory,  Natural  Resources  Institute,  University
    of Maryland, College  Park. He received his A.B. from
    Western Maryland College in 1938 and his M.S. in
     1942 and  Ph.D.  in 1946 in  Biology from Maryland
    University. His specialties arc estuarine ecology and
    the physiology and population dynamics of marine in-
    vertebrates.
HOLDER W. JANNASCH is Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole
    Occanographic Institution  in Woods Hole,  Massa-
     chusetts, where he heads the program in Marine Ecol-
     ogy at the Marine Biological Laboratory. He received
     his Ph.D.  in General Microbiology  at the University
     of Gottingen,  Germany.  His field  of  research is the
     physiology and ecology of aquatic microorganisms.
G. CARI.ETON RAY is Associate  Professor at The Johns
     Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. He received
     a Ph.D. degree in Zoology from Columbia L'niversity
     in 1960. Currently he is also a research associate at the
     Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural
     History  in  conjunction with the  Marine  Mammal
     Program of the International Biological Program under
     support of the National Science  Foundation. He  is an
     authority on physiological ecology, acoustics, and be-
     havior of marine mammals.
THEODORE R. RICE is Director of the  Atlantic Estuarine
    Fisheries  Center, National  Marine Fisheries  Service,
    Beaufort,  North Carolina. He received his A.B.  from
    Berea College in 1942, and his M.S. in 1947 and Ph.D.
    in 1949 in Biology-Ecology from Harvard University.
    His fields of research are radioecology, estuarine ecol-
    ogy,  and  environmental contaminants. He served on
    the National  Academy  of Sciences  Committee  that
    prepared  "Radioactivity in the Marine Environment."
ROBERT W. RISEBROUGH is an Associate Research Ecologist
    at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of the University of
    California. He received an A.B. in Zoology from Cornell
    University in  1956 and a Ph.D. in Molecular Biology
    from  Harvard University in 1962. His principal research
    interest is the  pollution ecology of coastal waters.
MICHAEL  W'ALDICHUK is Program Head,  Pacific Environ-
    ment  Institute, West Vancouver,  British  Columbia.
    He received a B.A. in  Chemistry in 1948 and an M.A.
    in 1950 from  the University of British Columbia, and
    a Ph.D. in Oceanography in 1955 from the University
    of Washington. From 1954 to 1969,  he specialized in
    oceanographic  studies related to  marine  pollution
    problems while with  the Fisheries Research Board's
    Biological Station in Nanaimo. He is Chairman of the
    IMCO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN
    Joint Group  of Experts  on the Scientific  Aspects of
    Marine Pollution (GESAMP).

Panel on  Agricultural Uses  of Water
HENRY  V. ATHERTON is Professor of Dairy Industry and
    Dairy Bacteriologist in  the  Animal  Sciences Depart-
    ment at the University of Vermont and the Vermont
    Agricultural Experiment Station. He received his B.S.
    degree and his M.S. degree from the University of
    Vermont in  1948  and  1951,  respectively,  and his
    Ph.D. in Dairy Technology and  Biochemistry from
    the Pennsylvania State University in 1953. His research
    interests  are  in  milk quality as influenced  by  bulk
    milk  cooling on farms, farm water supplies, and dairy
    sanitation.
ROBERT  D.  BLACKBURN is at the  Agricultural Research
     Station,  U.S.  Department of Agriculture, Plantation
     Laboratory, Ft. Lauderdale,  Florida. He graduated
    from Auburn University in 1959 with an  M.S. in
    Botany. He is an  authority on aquatic  weeds and  a
     consultant  to  the  U.S.  Navy,  FAO, and  the Puerto
     Rican  Water Resources Authority.  He  is editor of
     Hyacinth Control Journal.
PETER A. FRANK  is Research Plant Physiologist  with the
     Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department
     of Agriculture. He received a B.S.  in 1952, an M.S. in
      1953, and  a Ph.D. in Plant Physiology and Biochem-
     istry from  Michigan State University in 1955.  His
     interests  are the physiology, ecology, and management
     of aquatic vegetation.

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 532/Water Quality Criteria 1972
VICTOR L. HAUSER is an Agricultural Engineer, U.S. Water
     Quality Management  Laboratory, Agricultural  Re-
     search Service, U.S.  Department of  Agriculture,
     Durant, Oklahoma. He received his B.S. from Okla-
     homa State University in  1952 and his M.S. in Agri-
     cultural Engineering from  the University  of California
     in  1957.  He  is a specialist in water conservation in
     agriculture and in ground  water recharge. His current
     research is in the field of water quality management.
CHARLES H. HILL, JR. is in the Poultry Department, North
     Carolina  State  University, Raleigh. He  received  his
     B.S. in 1948 from  Colorado A&M College, and  his
     M.S. in 1949 and his Ph.D. in Nutrition Chemistry in
     1951  from Cornell University. His  specialties  include
     nutritional requirements of poultry and the roll of
     nutrients  in disease resistance.
PHILIP C. KEARNEY  is Leader of the Pesticide  Degradation
     Laboratory,  Agricultural Environmental  Quality In-
     stitute, National Agricultural Research Center, Belts-
     ville, Maryland. He received his B.S. from the  Uni-
     versity of Maryland in  1955, his M.S. in  1957  and his
     Ph.D. in Agriculture from  Cornell University in 1960.
     His research interests are in the environmental impli-
     cation of  pesticides and their biochemical transforma-
     tion.
JESSE LUNIN is  currently the Environmental Quality Special-
     ist  on the National  Program Staff  of the  Agricultural
     Research  Service. He  received a B.S. in  Soil  Science
     from  Oklahoma State  University in 1939, an M.S. in
     1947  and  a Ph.D. in 1949 from Cornell University in
     Soil Chemistry. His research interests are soil-water-
     plant relations and water quality and waste manage-
     ment.
LEWIS B. NELSON is  Manager of the Office of Agricultural
     and Chemical Development, Tencessee Valley Author-
     ity, Muscle Shoals,  Alabama.  He  received  a  B.S. in
     Agronomy at the University of Idaho in 1936, an M.S.
     in  1938 and a  Ph.D.  in 1940 in Soil Science at the
     University of Wisconsin.  His  interests  are soil and
     water conservation research, soil fertility, and fertilizer
     technology. He is head of TVA's  National  Fertilizer
     Development Center.
OSCAR E.  OLSON is Professor and Head of the Experimental
     Station, Biochemistry  Department  at South  Dakota
     State University, Brookings. He received his B.S. degree
     in 1936 and his M.S. degree in 1937 from South Dakota
     State University,  and his  Ph.D.  in Biochemistry in
     1948  from the University  of Wisconsin.  His research
     interests are selenium poisoning and nitrate poisoning.
PARKER F. PRATT is Professor of Soil Science and Chairman
     of the Department  of Soil Science and  Agricultural
     Engineering, University of California, Riverside. He
     received his B.S. degree from  Utah State University
     in 1948 and his Ph.D. in Soil Fertility from Iowa State
     University in  1950. He is a specialist in long-term  ef-
     fects of irrigation on soil properties and crop produc
     tivity, quality of irrigation  waters, and nitrates an
     salts in drainage waters.
GLENN B. VAN NESS is Senior Veterinarian, Animal Healt
     Diagnostic Laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland, APHIS
     U.S.  Department of Agriculture. He  received  h
     D.V.M. from  Kansas State University in  1940. H
     special interests arc in the ecology of infectious disesat
     of livestock, and he has published studies of ecology (
     anthrax and bacillary hernoglobinuria.

Panel on  Industial Water Supplies
IRVING B. DICK is a consulting chemical engineer. He n
     ceived  his BSE in  Chemical Engineering from th
     University of Michigan in  1926,  and after 42  yeai
     with  Consolidated Edison Company of New York h
     retired  in  1968 as Chief Chemical Engineer.  His ir
     terests are fuel oil additives, fuel combustion, and watc
     treatment for uses in power generation.
CHARLES  C.  DINKEL is the  Liirector  of Field  Services  c
     Drew Chemical Corporation, Parsippany, New Jersey
     He received a B.S. in Chemistry from Wagner Colleg
     in 1948. and an M.S. in Oceanography from the Scrip]:
     Institution of Oceanography at Lajolla in 1951.  He i
     a member of the American Chemical Society and
     specialist in water and wastewaler treatment.
MAURICE C. FUERSTENAU is Professor and Chairman of th
     Department of Metallurgical Engineering at the SoutJ
     Dakota School of Mines and Technology. He receive!
     his B.S. from the  South Dakota School  of  VTincs an<
     Technology in  1955, and an M.S. in 1957 and a Docto
     of Science in Metallurgy in  1961  from the  Massachu
     setts Institute of Technology. He is a specialist in inter
     facial phenomena  and extractive metallurgy.
ARTHUR W. FYNSK is a Senior Consultant in the Engineer™
     Service Division,  Engineering Department, of E.  I
     duPont de Nemours &  Company. He received a B.S
     in Civil  Engineering in 1950 and  an M.S. in Sanitan
     Engineering  in  1951, both  from the Massachusett
     Institute of Technology.  He is a specialist in industria
     water resources and treatment.
GEORGE J. HANKS, Jr. has been Manager —Environmenta
     Protection for  the Chemicals  and Plastics  Group o
     Union Carbide Corporation  since  1968. He received ;
     B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Princetoi
     University in 1942.
WILLIAM  A.  KEILBAUGH is Manager of Research and De
     velopment of the Cochrane Division of Crane Co.
     King of Prussia, Pennsylvania.  He received an A.B. ir
     Chemistry from Allegheny College, Meadville, Penn
     sylvania in 1939, and is a specialist in water and waste1'
     water treatment.
JAMES C. LAMB III is Professor of Sanitary Engineering ai
     the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. He
     received a B.S. in 1947 from Virginia Military Institute

-------
                                                                                            Biographical Notes/533
     and an M.S. in 1948 and an Sc.D. in 1953 in Sanitary
     Engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
     nology. His research specialties include treatment pro-
     cesses for industrial wastes and water quality manage-
     ment.
JAMES K. RICE is President and General Manager of Cyrus
     Wm. Rice  Division of NUS Corporation,  a firm  of
     consulting engineers and  scientists.  He  received  his
     B.S. and M.S. in Chemical Engineering from Carnegie-
     Mellon University in 1946 and 1947, respectively. His
     field of expertise is  industrial  water and wastewater
     treatment and reuse.
J. JAMES ROOSEN is Director of Environmental Studies for
     the Engineering Research  Department of The Detroit
     Edison Company, Detroit, Michigan.  He received his
     B.S. in Chemical Engineering in  1959 from the Uni-
     versity  of Detroit where  he also  conducted graduate
     studies. His expertise  is in water  systems  engineering
     and research as applied to the electric utility industry.
ROBERT  H. STEWART is  a partner of Hazen & Sawyer,
     New York City, a firm offering engineering services in
     management of water resources. He received his A.B.
     from Harvard College in  1953, his M.S. in 1958 and
     M. Eng. in 1959 from Harvard University. His special-
     ties  are the design and management of water supply
     systems for industries and  public utilities.
SIDNEY SUSSMAN is technical director, Water Treatment De-
     partment, Olin Corporation.  He received  a B.S.  in
     Chemistry from Polytechnic  Institute  of Brooklyn  in
     1934 and a Ph.D. in Chemistry from the Massachusetts
     Institute of Technology in 1937. He  is a specialist in
     industrial water technology and accredited as a Cor-
     rosion Specialist by the National  Association of Cor-
     rosion Engineers. He is the author of the chapter on
     water for cooling and steam generation in the Ameri-
     can  Water  Works Association's handbook and serves
     on the Association's Committee on Standard Methods.
CHARLES H. THORBORG is associated with Gulf Degremont,
     Inc., Liberty Corner, New Jersey. His B.S. degree in
     Mechanical Engineering  was received in 1961  from
     Fairleigh  Dickinson  University,   Rutherford,  New
     Jersey.  For the past ten years he  has been concerned
     with water and wastewater treatment.
BERNARD J. WACHTER is with WAPORA, Inc., Washington,
     D. C. He  is a biophysicist specializing  in industrial
     water treatment. Prior to joining WAPORA, he was
     editor of the journal, Industrial Water Engineering.
WALTER J. WEBER, JR. is Professor of Environmental and
     Water Resources  Engineering and Chairman  of the
     University Program in Water Resources at the Univer-
     sity  of Michigan at Ann Arbor. He received a Sc.B. in
     Engineering from Brown University in 1956, an M.S.E.
     in Sanitary Engineering  from Rutgers  University in
     1959, an A.M. in  Applied Chemistry in 1961 and a
     Ph.D.  in Water Resources Engineering in 1962 from
     Harvard University.  His professional interests are in
     municipal  and industrial water and waste treatment
     and the chemistry of natural  waters.

-------
                                                      AUTHOR   INDEX
APHA  (see American Public Health Associ-
  ation)
ASTM  (fee  American  Society  for  Testing
  and'Materials)
Abcgg,  R. (1950), 452, 456, 462
Abott, R.T. (1950), 27
Aberg, B. et  al.  (1969), 313, 314
Aboaba, F.O. (see Bruhn, H.D. ct al., 1971),
  26
Abou-Donia, M.E. (1967),  251,  462-465
Abram, F.S.H. (1964), 465
Abu-Errish, G.M. (1967), 316
Academy of Natural Sciences (1960),  450,
  452-454, 458, 459, 461, 463
Ackcfors, H.  et al. (1970), 237
Ackinan, R.G. (1970), 253, 254
—(tee Addison, R.F  et al.,  1971), 254
— (tee Dyer, VV.G. et al., 1970), 254
Aclarne, B. (tee England, B. et al.,  1967),92
Adams,  A.W. et al. (1966, 1967), 315
—(tee Mugler, U.J. et al., 1970), 315
Adams,  F. (1957), 344
Adams,  G R. (1969), 238
Addison, R.F. ct al. (1971), 254
—(tee Ackman, R.G. ct al.,  1970), 254
Acielman, I.R. (1970), 193,  256
Adema, D.M. (1968), 463
Adler, F.E W. (1944), 228
Adolph, E.F. (1933), 305
Affleck,  R.T. (1952), 467
Agriculture Research Service (1961), 180
    (1963), 346, 347
    (1969a), 318, 319, 349
    (1969b), 165
—(see alsn U.S.  Dept.  of Agriculture, Agri-
  culture Research Service)
Ahling,  B. (1970), 83
Ahmed, M.B. (1953), 250, 342
Ahuja, S.K. (1964), 452
Aiken, D.E. (see Zitko, V. et al., 1970),  254
Akin, G.W. (see Bower, C.A. et al., 1965), 335
Alabaster, J.S. (1962), 417
    (1966), 417-419
    (1967), 417, 418, 458
Albaugh,  D.W.   (see Cairns, J., Jr. et al.,
  1968), 408
—(see Cairns, J., Jr. et al.,  1969), 117
Albcrsmeyer, W. (1957), 147
    (1959), 147
Albert, W.B. (1931), 340
—(see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932), 340
Alderdice, D.F.  (1967),  118, 451
Aldous,  J.G. (1968), 130
Aldrich, D.G. ct al. (1951), 344
Aldrich, D.V. (1958), 462, 463
Alexander, G.V. (see Romncy, E.M. ct  al ,
   1962), 341
Allan Hancock Foundation (1965), 403
Allanson, B.R. (1964), 419
Allaway, W.H. et al. (1966, 1967), 345
-  (tee Kubota, J. et  al., 1963), 344
— (tee Kubota, J. et  al., 1967), 316
Alice, W.C. (1913),  135, 137
Allen, D.M. (1957),  485
     (1958), 267
Allen, H.L. (1971), 25
Allen, J.P. (1960), 196
Allen, K.O. (1968),  160, 412,  413
Allison, I.S. (1930),  350
AltschaefH,  A.G. (tee  Harrison, W. et  al.,
   1964), 279
Alvard, W. (1964), 124
Aly, O.M. (1971), 80
— (tec Faust, S.D. et  al., 1971), 80
Ambcrg, H.R. (see Haydu, E.P. et al., 1952),
  256
Amend, D.F. (1969), 173
Amend, D.R.  (1952), 78
— et al. (1969), 462
American Conference  of Governmental  In-
  dustrial Hygienists (1958), 59
American Paper Institute (1970), 382
American Petroleum Institute  (1949), 258
     (1963), 258
American Public Health Association  (1957),
  29
American Public Health Association, Ameri-
  can Water Works  Association, and Water
  Pollution Control Federation (1971), 21
— (see alto Standard Methods, 1971), 51, 119,
  275
American Public Health Association, Engi-
  neering Division and Conference of State
  Sanitary Engineers,  Joint Committee  on
  Bathing (1936, 1940), 29
American  Society   of  Civil  Engineering
  (1967), 220, 221
American Society of Limnology and  Ocean-
  ography (1972), 22
American Society of Testing & Materials
  Book of Standards, Part 23,  (1970)
    Table VI-2      370
    Table VI-5      377
    Table VI-10     382
    Table Vl-17     385
    Table VI-22 .    389
    Table VI-25     391
    Table VI-26     392
     Table VI-27      393
     Table VI-28      393
 American Water Works Association (1971),
   61, 68, 69, 71, 74, 89
     Committee on  Tastes and  Odors  (no
       date), 74
           (1970), 302
     Research Committee on Color Problems
       (1967), 63
     Task Group 2500R (1966), 74
 Ames, A.M.  (1944), 89
 Andeilim, V.C. et al. (1972), 226
 —ct al. (in press 1972), 246, 252
 — (tee  Connors, P.G. et al., in press  1972a,
   1972b), 226
 Andeison, B.G. (1944), 145, 243, 250, 461-
   467
     (1946), 243, 245, 466
     (1948),  124,  135,  242, 250,  255,  456,
       459, 461--466
     (1950), 119, 120, 461-465, 467
 — (see Duodoroff, P  et al., 1951), 121
 Ancle, son, B.T.  (1971), 24
 Anderson, D.W. (1968), 197, 227
     (1969), 176
     (1970), 197
 —et al. (1969), 227
 — (see Riscnbrough, R.W. et al., 1969, 1970),
   227
 -(see Connors,  P.G. et al., 1972a), 226
 Anderson, E.A.  et al. (1934), 93
 Anderson, G.C. (1960), 20
 Anderson, J.B. (see Van Horn, W.M. ct al.,
   1949), 256
 Anderson, J.M  (tee  Zitho, V. et al.,  1970),
   254
 Anderson, L.D. (see Bay,  E.G., 1965,  1966),
   18
 Anderson, P.W.  1968), 80
 —(tee Faust,  S.D. et  al., 1971), 80
 Anderson, R.B.  (1970), 225
 Anderson, R.O. (1959), 160
 Andres,  L.A.  (tee  Maddox,  D.M.  et  al.,
   1971), 26
 Andrew, R.W.  (tee  Biesingcr,  K.E. et  al.,
   1971), 180
 Andrews, H.L. (1969), 473
 Andrews, J.W. (1971), 149, 160
     (1972),  154
 Andujar, J.J. (1966), 29
 Anet, E.F. (see Bishop, C.T. et al., 1959), 317
 Angelovic, J.W. et al. (1961), 249
-  et al. (1967), 454
—(see Sigler,  W.F. et al., 1966), 248, 453
                                                                535

-------
 536/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
 Ansell, A.D. (1968), 155
 Applcby, W.G. (*ee Sparr, B.I. et al.,  1966),
   346
 Applcgate,  R.L. (see Ilannon, M.R.  ct al.,
   1970), 183
 Applegate, V.C. ct al. (1957), 243
 Ariel, I. (see Dupont, O. ct al., 1942),  56
 Arklcy, R.J. (see Bingham, F.T. ct al.,  1970),
   344
 Arlc, H.F. (1959, 1960), 347
 —(see Bruns, V.F. ct  al. 1955,  1964,  un-
   published data 1971), 347
 Armiger,  W.1I. (see Foy, C.D. et al.,  1965),
   338
 Armour, J.D  (1970), 175
 Armstrong, J.G. ct al. (1958), 315
 Arndt, C.I I. (1931), 340
 Arnholt, J.J. (see Kaplan, 1I.M. ct al.,  1967),
   464
 Arnold, F A. (see Leone, X C. et al., 1 954), 66
 Ainon, D I. (1953), 22, 252
 Aronovski,  I.  (tee  Wassermann,  M. ct al.,
   1970), 83
 Aronson, A L  (1964, 1971), 31 3
 Arthur, J.W.  (1970), 190, 454
     (1971), 189
 Aschncr, M. et al (1967), !47
 Asher, C.J. (see Broyer, T.C. et al., 1966), 344
 Ashley, L.M.  (1970),  464
 Ashton, P.G. (1969, 1971), 14
 Asimov, Isaac (1966), 272
 Aten, A.H.W. et al. (1961), 472
 Athanassiadis, Y C. (1969), 245
 Athcrton, H.V.  (1970),  301, 302
 -  ct al. (1962), 302
 Alton, F.M. (see Wobeser, G. ct al., 1970),
   173, 251
 Aub, J.C. (1942), 87
 Autian, J. (see Nematollahi, J. ct al., 1967),
   174, 175
 A vault, J.W. Jr. (1968), 26
 Avigan, J. (1968), 145
 Axlcy, J.I I. (see Woolson, E.A. et al., 1971),
   318, 340
 Avers, A.D. ct al. (1952), 329
 —(see Magistad,  O.G ct al., 1943), 324, 336
 Aycrs, J.C.  (1963), 302
 Aycrs, J.P. (1951),  230
—(see Ketchum, B.H. et al., 1951), 280

Backus, R.I1. (see Harvey, G.R. ct al., 1972),
   264
—(see Horn, M.H. et  al., 1970), 257
Bader, R.G. (1972), 15, 238
Bair, F.L. (1969), 335
—(tee Pratt, P.F. et al.,  1964), 339
—(see Pratt, P.F. ct al.,  1967), 335
Baglcy, G.E. (1967), 228
—ct al. (1970), 176
—(see Krantz, W.C. ct al., 1970), 266
—(see Mulhen, B.M. et  al., 1970), 227
Bagnall, L.D.  (1970),  26
Bailar, J.C., Jr. (1956),  74
Bailey, D.E. (1913), 307
Bailey, T.A. (1956), 26
Baker, M.N. (1949), 1
 Bakkum, W.C.M.  (see Aten, A.IIW.  et al.,
   1961), 472
 Balassa, J.J. (1961), 60, 70
     (1964,  1965), 311,  M3
     (1966), 56
     (1967), 245, 309, 316
     (1968), 312
 —(tee  Schrocder,  1T.A. et  al.,  1963a,b), 62,
   310, 311, 313
 Balch, R. (1955),  173
 Baldwin, N.S. (1957),  1(,0
 Baldwin, R.E. (see Konichgen, B.M.  ct al.,
   1970), 149
 Ball, I.R. (1967),  179, 1-S2, 187, 451, 460
     (1967a,b), 119
 Ball, L.B. (1945),  252
 Ball, R.C. (tee Hamelink,  J.L. et al.,  1971),
   183
 Ballantync,  E.E. (1957), 308
 Ballard, J.A. (1969), 45.'.
 Balsey, J.R. (see Leopold,  L.B. et al.,  1971),
   400
 Baiuback, K.  (see Kehoc, R.A. ct al.,  1940),
   70
 Bandt, II.H. (1948), 249
 Bandt, H.J. (193.3), 147
     (1955), 147, 148
 Banker,  R.F. (1968), 90
 Baptist, J.P. (1967), 470
 Baranowski, A. (1969),  25
 Barber, C.W. (tee Hill, C.II. ct al., 1963), 311
 Bardach, J.E. ct al (1965), 190
 Barclet, J. (1913),  72
 Barinov, G.V.  (see Polikarpov,  G.G. ct al
   1967), 471,  473, 475
 Barlow,  C.H.  (1937), 350
 Barnes,  D.K.  (see  Ilaivcy,   E.N.  et  al
   1944a.b), 135, 136
 Barnes, I. (see White, D. F,. ct al., 1970), 31 <>
 Barnes, J.M. (1953), 319
 Barnctt,  A J.G. (1952), M5
 Barncett, R  M  (1923),  340
    (1936,  1940)  345
 Barnhart, R.A. (1958),  255, 465
 Baroni, C. et al. (1963), 56
 Earth,  E.F.  (1970, 1971) 55
 —et al. (1966), 55
 Barthel, W.F. (tee Curley, A. ct al., 1971), 313
 Bartley C.H. (see Slanctz, L.W. et al., 1965),
  276
 Bartley, T.R. (1969), 34(,
    (1970),  347
Barton, M.A. (1969), 39
 Barton, E. (1932),  93
Bartrand, D. (see Deschiens, R. et al., 1957),
  467
Bartsch,  A.F. (1959), 18
 Basch,  R.E.  et al. (1971). 189
Basu, S.P. (1959),  139
Batchelder, A R. (1960), 337, 338
—(see Lunin, J. et al., 1963), 336
—(see Lunin, J. ct al., 1964), 338
Bates, R.R.  (see Courtney, K.D. et al., 1970),
  79
—(see Innes, I.R.M. et al.,  1969), 76
Battcllc-Columbus (1971),  400
 Bauer, H  ct al. (1961), 83
 Baumann, E.R. (1962), 301
 Baumgartner, D.J. (1970), 403
 Bay, E.G.  (1964, 1965, 1966),  18
     (unpublished data), 18
 Baylcss,  J.D. (1968), 279
 Bazell, R.J. (1971), 249
 Beadle, L.D. (1958), 18
 Beak, T.W. (1965), 408
 Bear, F.E. (we Prince A.L. et al., 1949), 34:
 Beard, J.W  (1967), 91
 Beaslcy,  T.M.  (1967), 473
     (1969), 476
 Becth, D.A.. (1943), 316
     (1962), 86
     (1963), 345
     (1964), 86, 316
 —(see Braclk-y, W.B. et al.,  1940), 314
 Bechtel Cor,:). (1969), 222
 Bcch, W.Ivf. (1954,  1955), 408
 Becker, D.E.  (see Brink, M.F. et  al., 1959).
   316
 Beck, W.J  . (see Hosty, T.S. ct al., 1970), 278
 Becker, C  D. ct al. (1971), 161
 Becker, E  (1964), 61, 70, 88, 89
 Beckman,  E.L.  (1963), 32
 Bccling, D.L. (1927), 456
 Beclrosinm, P.H. (1962), 469
 Beeson, W.M.  (1964), 315
     (1965, I966a,b,c), 317
 - (tee O'Donovan, P.B.  ct al., 1963), 312
 — (see Ott, E.A. et al., 1966a), 316
 Becton, A.M. (1969), 23, 124, 127, 230
     (1972), 19
 Bchnkc,  A.R., Jr. (1942), 137
 Behrman,  A.S. (1968), 301, 302
 Bciningen, K.T. (1968), 135
 Bclisle, A.A. (see Blus, L.J. et al.,  1972), 227
 -(see Mulhern, B.M. ct al.,  1970), 176, 227
 Bell, H.L.  (1969), 249, 455
 — (unpublished,  1971), 147, 148, 150, 423-
   426, 428
 Bell, J.F. <.-t al.  (1955), 196
 — (tee McKce,  M.T. et al., 1958), 196
 Bella, D.A. 11968), 403
 Bellrose, F.C. (1951,  1959), 228
 Bender, M.E. (1969),  183
 —ct al. (1970),  179
 Benedict, B.A.  (1970), 403
 Bennett,  B.M.  (1963), 56
 Bennett,  H.J.  (1965), 249,  450, 452, 455,
   457, 458
 Bcnoit, D.A. (1958), 452, 453
     (I960), 452
     (1971), 120, 122
—(unpublished data, 1971),  180, 181
Benoit, R.J. ct al. (1967), 127
Benschop,  H. (1968), 265
—(tee Vos, J.G. et al., 1968), 227
Benson, N  G. (1970), 27
Benson, N.R. (1951, 1953), 340
Bcnville,  P. (unpublished), 210, 485-487
Bergcr, D.D. (1970), 198
Berg, G.  (1967), 91
     (1971), 91, 92
—etal. (196"'), 91

-------
                                                                                                                   Author Index/537
 —et al.  (1968, 1971), 92
 —(see Clarke, N.A. ct al., 1962), 91
 Berg, L.R. (1963), 316
 Berg, W. et al. (1966), 252
 —(see Johnels, A.G. et al., 1967), 172
 Berg, W.E. et al. (1945), 138
 —(see Whitakcr, D.M. et al., 1945), 137
 Berger, B.L.  (1969), 435
     (1970), 437
 Berglund, R. (1967), 252
 Bergrund, F. (1969), 72, 313
 Berlin, M. (1963, 1969), 313
 Herman, D. (see Berg, G. et al., 1967), 91
 Bernstein, L. (1958), 324, 325
     (1959), 328
     (1965a), 326, 327
     (1965b), 325, 326
     (1966), 334
     (1967), 328, 329, 334
 Berry, R.A. (1924), 343
 Berryman, M.H. (see Mitrovic,  U.U. et al.,
   1968), 191
 Berrien,  P.L.  (see  Whitworth,  W.R. et al.,
   1968), 27
 Bcrtme, K.K. (1971), 72, 251
 Berwick, P. (1970), 79
 Beseh, K.W.T. (wZitho, V. ct al., 1970), 254
 Best, L.C.  (see  Geldreich, E.E. et al.,  1965,
   1968), 57
Bestougeff, M.A.  (1967), 144
Betson, R.P.  (1970),  39
Beulow, R. (1972), 75
Beycrlc, G.B. (1960). 154
Bhoota, B.V.  (see Camp, T.R. et al., 1940), 89
Bibr, B. (1970), 60
Bidstrup, P.L. (1950), 78
Biely, J.  (1948), 308
Biesinger, K.E. (1971), 119, 120,  122
—(unpublished data, 1971), 180-182,  424,
  425, 428
—et al  (unpublished data, 1971), 180
Biggar, J.W.  (1960), 341
Biggs, R.B. (1970), 281, 282
Bijan, H. (1956),  244, 451
Bingham, F.T.  (1968), 339
— et al. (1964), 343
—et al. (1970), 344
—(see Page, A.L. et  al., in  press, 1972), 342
Bird, E.D.  (see Black, A.P. ct al., 1965), 301
Birke, G. ct al.  (1967), 314
     (1968), 252
 Biros, F.J.  (1970a), 437
     (1970b), 437,  438
Bisbjerg, B. (1970), 345
Bischoff, A.I. (1960), 17, 18, 183
Bishai, H.M. (1960), 160, 418
 Bishop, C.T.  et al. (1959), 317
Bishop, L.M. (see Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934), 317
Bitman, J. et al. (1969), 198
Blabaum, CJ.  (1956), 250
Black, A.P. (1963a,b), 63
 —et al. (1963), 63
 —et al. (1965), 301
 Black, M.H. et  al.  (1957), 450
 Blackburn, R.D. et al. (1971), 26
 —(see Holm,  L.G., 1969), 26, 27
 —(see Maddox, D.M. et al.,  1971), 26
 Black, B.C. (1953), 161
 Blake, J.R. (;ee Williams, M.W. ct al., 1958),
   78
 Blackman,  R R.  (see Nirnmo,  D.R. ct al.,
   1970), 267
 — (•iff Nimmo, D R. et  al., 1971), 176,  268
 Blahn, T.H. (unpublished data, 1970), 412,
   414-416, 419
 Blaney, H.F. (1966), 332, 335
 Blankenstein,  E.  (see Miettinen,  V. et al.,
   1970), 172-174
 Blau, A.D.  (see Street, J.C. et al., 1968), 83,
   198, 226
 Blaustcin, M.P. (1969), 464
 Blaylock, E.G.  (1969), 273
 Blick,  A.P.  (1967), 460
 Bhck,  B. (1967), 455
 Bliek,  R.A.P. (1967), 454
 Bhgh, E.G.  (1971), 251
 Blinks, L.R. (1947), 136
 — (see  Whitaker, D.M. ct al., 1945), 137
 Bliss, C.I. (1937),  153
 Bloom, S.E. (see Pcakall, D B. et al., in press,
   1972), 225, 226
 Bloomfield,  R.A. ct al. (1961),  315
 Blumer, M. (1968), 145
     (1969,  1972),  257, 253, 262
     (1971), 144, 145, 237
 —et al. (1970), 258, 262
 Blus, L.J  et al  (1972), 227
 The  Boating  Industry (1971), 9
 Bodansky, M. (1923), 65
 Boetins, J.  (1954), 148,  14
-------
 538/'Water  Quality Criteria,  1972
Brcwerton,  H.V.  (see Hopkins,  C.L. et  al.,
   1966), 184
Bridges, C.H. (1961), 453, 458, 459
Bridges, W.R. (1961), 422
Brigglc, L.W. (see Foy, C.D. et al., 1965),  338
Brightbiil, C.K. (1961), 8
Bringmann, G.  (1959),  457,  461, 462, 464-
   467
     (1959,0, 243,  250, 253, 255, 256
     (1959b), 253,  256
Brink,  M.F. et al.  (1959), 316
Brinklcy, F.J. (1943), 139
British Ministry of Agriculture
   Fisheries & Food (1956), 481
Britton, S.W. (tee  Brand,  E.D. et al., 1951),
   138
Brock, T.D. (1966), 437
Brockway, D.R. (1950), 187
Broecker, W.S  (1970), 244
—(see Goldberg, E.D  et al., 1971), 241, 244,
   245, 251
Brookhaven National Lab. (1969), 165, 220
Brooks, N.H. (1960), 403
Brooks, R.R. (1965), 246
Brosz,  W.R. (see Embry,  L.B. ct al., 1959),
   307, 308
Brown, C.L. (1968), 124
Brown, E. et al. (1970), 51
Brown, E.H. (see Edsall, T.A. et al., 1970),
   411
Brown, G.W. (1970), 125
Brown, J.G. (see Lillcland, O. et al., 1945),
   329
Brown, J.W". (1955), 329
—(see Ayres, A.D.  et al., 1952), 329
Brown, R.P. (1969), 278
Brown, V.M. (1968), 120, 133, 142, 178, 181,
   451, 454,  456, 460
     (1970), 454, 456
—et al. (1968), 460, 468
—et al. (1969), 122
—(tee Mitrovic,  U.U. et al., 1968), 191
Broyer, T.C. et al. (1966), 345
Brues, A.M. (tee Ducoff, U.S. et al., 1948), 56
Bruhn, H.D. et al. (1971), 26
—(tee Koegcl, R.G. et al., 1972), 26
Brungs, W.A. (1967), 121, 435
     (1969),  120, 122, 182, 234, 460, 468
     (1972),  132, 176
—(unpublished data, 1971), 180
—(in preparation,  1972), 189
Bruns,  V.F.  (1954, 1955, 1957-1959,  1964,
   1969), 347
—(unpublished data, 1971), 347
—ct al. (1955, 1964), 347
Brust, H.F. (tee Olson, R.A. et al. 1941), 249
Bruvold,	 (1967), 90
Bryan, G.W. (1964), 467, 478, 479
     (1965),  473, 474
     (1969),  475, 479
Bryant, A.R. (see Chang,  S.L. et al.,  1958),
   91
Buchanan, D.V. et al. (1969), 267, 495
Buchanan, W.D. (1962), 56, 243
Bucher, CJ. (see Hovens, W.P. et al., 1941),
   29
Buck, D.H. (1956), 128
Buck, O.H. (1956), 16
Buck, W.B. (see Hemphill, F.E. et al., 1971),
   313
Buckingham, R.A. (1970), 39
Buehler, E.V. et al. (1971), 67
Bugbce, S.L. (1972), 18
Bugg, J.C. et al. (1967). 266, 267
Bullard, R.W. (1970),  32, 33
Bullock, T.H. (1955), 152
Burcar, P.J. (tee Wersaw, R.L. et al., 1969),
   183
Burden, R.P. (see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948), 55
Burdick, G.E. (1948),  1<>0, 454
     (1964), 184
     (1967), 434
—et al. (1958), 190
— et al. (1964), 429, 437
—et al. (1968), 184, 195
—(see Doudoroff, P.  et a]., 1951), 121
Bureau of the Census  (see U.S.  Dept.  of
   Commerce, Bureau of the Census)
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1971), 9
Burgess, F.J. (1967), 220, 222
Burke, J.A. (1970), 175
Burks,  B.D. (1953), 17
Burks,  S.L. (1972),  144
Burns,  J.  (1972), 28
Burnson, B. (1938), 89
Burrcss,  R.M. (see  Lemon,   R.E.  et  al.,
   1970), 440
Burrows, R.E. (1964),  140, 187, 188
Burttschcll, R.H. et al. (1959),  80
Busccmi, P.A. (1958), 2^
Busey,  F. (tee Cairns, J., Jr. ct al., 1968), 177,
   408
Bush, E.T. (1967), 437
Bush, R.M. (1972), 21
Bushland,  R.C. (see Cl.iborn,  H.V.  et  al ,
   1960), 320
Buss, C.I. (see Fitzhugh, O.G. et al., 1944), 86
Buswell, A.M. (1928),  6<>
Butcher, J.E  (see Harris, L.E.  et al., 1963),
   312
Butler, G. (1966), 55
Butler, G.D. (1959), 8
Butler, G.W. (1961), 316
     (1966), 244, 339, 343
Butler, P.A. (1966a,b;  1969), 37
—et al. (1968), 495
Butt, C.G. (1966), 29
Butterfield, C.T. (1946),  55, 89
     (1948), 55
—et al. (1943), 55
Bycrrum,  R.U. (see  Decker,   L.E.  et  al.,
   1958), 60
—(tee Mackenzie, R.D. ft al., 1958), 62
Byers, H.G. (1935), 316
—et al. (1938), 316
Byers, R.K. (1959), 70
Byran,  G.W. (1971), 248
Cabejszek, I. (I960), 453
Cade, T.J. et al. (1970), 227, 267
Cain, S.A. (1961), 27
Cairns, J. Jr. (1956), 180
     (1957), 450, 452, 456, 459
     (1958), 68, 145, 182, 452, 456-459
     (1959), 145, 452, 456-459
     (1963), 190
     (1964), 421
     (1965), 457, 459, 460
     (1967), 117
     (1968), 16, 126, 152, 408, 452-454, 460
     (1969), 117, 119
     (1971), 117, 408
—(unpublished data, 1955), 450, 452, 456
   457, 459
—et al. (1965), 457
—et al. ('968), 117
—(see Berioit, RJ. et al., 1967), 127
—(see Patrick, R. et al.  1967), 22
—(tee Patrick, R. ct al.,  1968), 119, 451, 452
   454, 457, 458, 460
—(see Sparks, R.E. et al., 1969), 117
Calabrcse, A. et al. (unpublished), 250, 255
Calandra.  J. C.  (see Frawley,  J.P.  ct  al.
   1963), 78
Calderwood,  H.N. (tee  Galtsoff, P.S. et  al.
   1947), 116, 147
Callicot, J.H., Jr. (1968), 29
Calvin, M. (see Hon, J. ct al., 1968), 145
Camarena,  V.M. (see,  Tracy, H.W.  et  al..
   1966), 90
Camp, A.A. (tee Couch, J.R. et al., 1963), 2(.
Camp, Dresser, McKee (1949), 350
Camp, T.R.  et al. (1940), 89
Campbell, A.G.  (see  Gibbard,  J.  et  al..
   1942), 36
Campbell, E.A. (1961),  312
Campbell, R.N. (1962), 349
Campbell, R.S.  (tee Johnson, B.T.  et  al.,
   1971), 436-438
Canada Focd & Drug Directorate (personal
   communication), 251
Canada  Interdepartmental Committee  on
   Water (1S'71), 241
Cangelosi, J.T. (1941), 60
Cannell, G.IL (see Pratt, P.P. et al.,  1967),
   334
Canter, L.W. (see Rowe, D.R. el al.,  1971),
   266
Cappel, J  (.;«« Treon, J.F. et al., 1955), 77
Capps, D.L.  (1971, 1972), 308
Carey, F.G. (1969), 138
Cargo, D.G.  (1971), 19
Carlisle, H. (1947), 79
Cailson, C.A. (1966), 423
     (1971), 427
Carlson, C.W.
—(ice Ad?ins, A.W. et al., 1966), 315
—(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307,  308
—(see Krista, L.M. et al., 1961), 195
—(see Krista, L.M. et al., 1962), 308
Carpenter, S.J. (1955), 25
Carriker, M R. (1967), 279, 281, 282
Carritt, D.E  (1954), 281
Carson, W.G. (1970), 145
Carter, H.H. (1969), 403
Carswell, J.K. (1972), 75
Castro, E. (see Creger, C.R. et al., 1963), 26

-------
                                                                                                                   Author Index/539
 Carter, D.L. (see Kubota, J. et al., 1967), 316
 Carter, R.F. (1965), 29
 Gary, E.E. (see Allaway, W.H. et al.,  1967),
   345
 — (see Kubota, J. et al., 1967), 316
 Case, A.A. (1957), 315
 Casper, V.L. (1967), 266, 267
 Cassard, D.W. (see Weeth, HJ. et al.,  1960),
   307
 Castell, C.H. et al. (1970), 462, 463
 Catoe, C.E. (1971), 258
 Cotzias, G.C. et al. (1961), 60
 Cecil,-H.C. (see Bitman, J. et al., 1969), 198
 Census of Manufacturers, 1967,  381, 382, 385,
   388, 389, 391-393
 Cerva, L. (1971), 29
 Cervenka,  R. (1959), 248
 Chadwick, G.G. (1961), 487
     (1971), 147
 Chalmers,  T.C. (see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967),
   36
 Chamberlain, T.K. (see  Lynch, J.J. et al.,
   1947), 24
 Chambers, C.W. (see Butterfield, C.T.  et al.,
   1943), 55
 Chambers, J.S. (1950), 38
 Chanay, M.D.  (see Cairns,  J.,  Jr.  et  al.,
   1968), 117,408
 Chang, A.T. (1953), 344
 Chang, S.L. (1959), 55
     (1967,  1968), 91
 —et al. (1958), 92
 —(see Berg, G et al., 1967), 91
 —(see Clarke, N.A. ct  al., 1962), 91
 —(see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948), 55
 Chapman,  C. (1968), 279
 Chapman,   G.A. (see  Bouck,  G.R. ct  al.,
   1971), 137
 Chapman,  H.D. (1966), 339
     (1968), 341
 —(see Liebig, G.F., Jr., 1942), 340, 342
 Chapman,  W.H. et al. (1968), 173
 Cheek, C.H. (see Swinnerton, J.W.  et  al.,
   1962),  138
 Chemical Engineering News,  (1971), 310
 Chen, C.W. (1968), 460
 Chen, K.P. (1962), 56
 Cheng, C.M. et al.  (1971), 351, 352
 Chesters, G. (1971), 318
—(see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968), 183
 Chi, L.W.  (1964), 463
 Childress, J.D.  (1965), 341
—(see Romney, E.M.  et al., 1962), 342
 Chin, E.  (1957), 485
     (1958), 267
 Chin, T.O.Y. et al. (1967), 91
Chipman, W.A., Jr. (1949), 261, 262
     (1967), 470
—(see Galtsoff,  P.S. et al., 1947), 116, 147
Chisholm, D. et al. (1955), 340
Chisholm, J.J., Jr.  (1964), 70
Chiu, T.F. (1953), 345
Cholak, J.  (see Kekoe,  R.A. et al., 1940), 70,
  87
Chorin-Kirsch,  T.  (see Aschncr,  M. et  al.,
  1967),  147
 Chow, T.J. (1962), 121
     (1966, 1968), 249
 —(see Murozumi, M. et al., 1969), 249
 Christensen, G.M. (1971), 119, 120, 122
 —(unpublished data, 1971), 180-182
 Christensen, R.E. (see Anderson, D.W. ct al.,
   1969), 176, 227
 Christiansen, J.E. (1966), 335
     (1970), 197
 Christiansen,  A.G.  (see Wcibel, S.R.  et al.,
   1966), 318, 319
 Christman, R.F. (1963a,b), 63
     (1966), 63, 80
 Chu, S.P.  (1942), 22, 461, 465
 Chubb, Michael (1969, 1971), 14
 Chupp, N.R.  (1964), 228
 Church, B.C. (see Kutches, A.G. et al.,  1970),
   320
 Churchill,  M.A.  (1959), 167
     (1969), 162
     (1972), 9
 Claborn, H.V. et al. (1960), 320
 Clapp, C.L.  (see Scholandcr, P.F.  ct  al.,
   1955), 138
 Clark, A. (see Owens, M. et al , 1969), 24
 Clark, D.E et al. (1964), 320
 Clark,  H.F.  (see  Gcldreich,  E.E. et  al.,
   1962a,b, 1965), 57
 —(see  Kabler, P.W. et al.,  1964), 351
 Clark, J. (1967), 221
 Clark, J R. (1964), 435
     (1969), 152
 Clark, N.A. (see Huff, C.B. ct al., 1965), 301
 Clark, R. (1968), 124
 —(see  Sapiro,  M.C. et al , 1949), 314
 Clark, R.B. (1971), 261
 Clark, R.L. (1964), 435
 Clark, R.M. (1967). 91
 —et al. (1967), 92
 — (see Berg, G. et al., 1967), 91
 Clark, R.T. (1943),  139
 Clarke, F.E. (see  Leopold, L.B. ct al., 1971),
  400
 Clarke, G.L. (1947), 255
 Clarke, N.A. (1959), 55
     (1961), 92
 -ct al (1962), 91, 92
 Clarke, W.E. (see Hunter, B.F. et al., 1970),
  196
 Clarkson, T.W. (1971), 72
 Clawson, G.H. (see Fry, F.E.J. et al.,  1942),
  161, 410
 Clawson, M. (1959), 399
 Cleland, K.W. (1953), 463, 467
 Clcmmens, H.P.  (1958, 1959), 173
 Clements, H.F. (1939,  1947), 340
 Clendenning, K.A. (1958), 250
     (1960), 247,  248, 252
— (see North, W.J. et al., 1965), 145
Clendenning, V.A.  (1960), 462
Cleveland,  F.P. (see Trcon, J.F. et al., 1955),
  76, 77
Clinc,  J.F.  et al.  (1969), 328
Clore,  W.J. (1958), 347
Close,  W.H.  (see  Mount, L.E. et  al.,  1971),
  305
 Cohen, J.M. (1961), 78
 —ct al. (1960), 64, 69, 71, 93
 —(see Hannah, S.A. et al., 1967), 89
 Coburn, D.R.  et al. (1951), 228
 Code of Federal Regulations, (1967), 273,  274
 Cohen, J.M. (1966), 318
 — (see also Weibcl, S.R. et al., 1966), 318, 319
 Colburn, William,  (1971), 14
 Colby, D. (see Burdick, J.E. et al., 1964), 184
 Colby, P.A. (unpublished data, 1970), 411
 Colby, P.J. (1967), 193
     (1970), 160
 Cole,	(1966), 76, 77
 Cole, A.E. (1941), 144, 462-464, 467
 Coleman, N.T. (1967), 339
 — (see Bingham, F.T. ct al., 1970), 344
 Coleman, P.R.  (see  Hunter,  B.F.  ct  al.,
   1970),
 Coleman, R. (1939),  340
 — (see Dorman, C et al., 1939), 340
 Collier, R.S. (see Calabrese, A.  ct al.,  un-
   published), 250, 254, 255
 Collins, T.F.X. (1971), 79
 Comes, R.D. (1967),  183
     (1970), 347, 348
 —(see Frank, P.A. et al., 1970), 346
 Comly, H.H. (1945), 73
 Commoner, B.  (1970), 274
 Conn, L.W. et  al. (1932), 62
 Conners,  P.G. et al. (1972a), 226
 —ct al (in press, 1972b), 226, 246, 252
 —(see  Andcrlin, V.C. et al., 1972), 226
 Conney, A.H. (1969),  320
 Cooch, F.G.  (1964), 197
 Cook, J.W.  (see  Williams, M.W.  et  al.,
   1958), 78
 Cook, R.S. (1966),  228
 Cook, S.F. (1969), 18
 Cooley, N.R. et al. (unpublished  data), 489,
   493, 505
 Cooper, A.C. (1962), 135, 137-139
 Cooper, AL. (1955), 456
 Cooper, E.L. (1953, 1960), 154
 Cooper, H.P. et al. (1932), 340
 Cooper, K.W.   (see  Harvey,  E.N.   ct  al.,
   1944a), 135
 Cope,  O.B. (1961), 119, 184
     (1965), 453, 458
     (1966), 248, 420- 434, 453, 458, 467
     (1968), 420-433
 —et al. (1970), 437
 Copeland, B.J.  (1964), 144
     (1969), 124, 279
 Coppagc, D.L.  (unpublished), 267, 268, 493
 Copson, H.R. (1963), 55
 Corbet, A.S.  (see Fisher, R.A. et al.,  1943),
  409
Corino, E.R. (see Revelle  R. et al.,  1972),
  257
Corneliussen, P.E. (1972), 77, 78
 Corner, E.D.S.  (1956), 248, 455, 475
     (1968), 261
Cordone,  A.J.   (see  Shapovalov,   L.  et  al.,
   1959), 27
Cornelius, W.O. (1933), 147

-------
 54Q/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
 Cort, W.W. (1928), 18
     (1950), 19
 Corwin, N. (1956), 276
 —(see Ketchum, B.H. ct al., 1958), 258
 Cottam, G. (1969), 24
 Couch, J.R. et al. (1963), 26
 —(see also Creger, C R. et al., 1963), 26
 Couch, R.E. (see Gunn, C.A. et al., 1971), 40
 Coulston, F. (see  Stein, A.A. ct al., 1965), 76,
   77
 Council on Environmental Quality  (1970),
   221, 278, 279
     (1971), 244, 249, 257
 Courchame, R.J. (1968),  55
 Courtenay, W.R.,   Jr. (see Lachner,  E.A.
   et al., 1970), 27
 Courtney,  K.D. (1971), 79
 —ct al. (1970), 79
 Coutant, C C. (1968), 137,  139, 152,  164
     (1969, 1971), 152
     (1970), 165, 415, 416, 418
     (1970,i), 152, 153, 161
     (1970b), 153
     (1970c), 152, 161, 169
 — (unpublished da a, 1971) 161
     (1972) 410
 —(see Becker, C.D. ct al., 1971), 16]
 Cowcll  B.C. (1965), 467
 Cowgill, P. (1971),  14
 Cowli-y, L.J. (see Acldison, R.F. ct  al., 1971),
   254
 Cox, D H. ct al.  (1960), 314
 Cox, R. (see Zwcig, G et al., 1961), 320
 Crabtree, D.G. (1970), 227
 Craighcad, F.C., Jr. (1966), 28
 Craigic, D.E. (1963), 417
 Crandall, C.A. (1962), 181, 464, 467
 Crawford,  J.S. ct al.  (1969), 315
 Crawford,  M.D.  (1967), 68, 70
 —ct al. (1968), 68
 Crawford,  R F (1960), 314
 Crawford,  R.P. ct al. (1969), 321
 Crawford,  T. (1967),  68
 Crcgcr, C.R. (1963), 26
— (see Couch, J R. ct al., 1963), 26
Crema, A  (1955), 56
Crofts, A.S. (1939), 340
Cromartie, E. (see Baglcy, G.E. ct al., 1970),
   176
—(see Mulhern, B.M. et al.,  1971),  176, 227
Cronin, L.E. (1967), 27
    (1970), 245,  246, 282
—et al  (1969), 279
Crooke, W.M. (1954), 344
Crosby, D.G. (1966),  458, 467
Cross, F.A. et al.  (1968), 479
Grossman,  R.A., Jr. (1970), 26
Csanady, G.T. (1970), 403
Csonka, E.  (see Miller, V.L. et al., 1961), 313
Cucuel, F.  (1934), 72
Cummings, R.W. (1941), 345
Curley, A.  et al.  (1971), 313
Curran, E.J. (1971), 262
Cusick, J. (1967), 463, 468

D'Agostino, A. (1969), 23
 Dahl, L.K. (1960), 88
 Dahling, D.R. (see Burge, G. et al., 1968), 92
 Daines,  R.H. (see Prince, A.L. et al. 1949),
   343
 Dale, W.E. et al. (1963), 76
 —(see Hayes, W.J., Jr. et al., 1971), 76
 Dalenberg, J.VV.  (tee Aten, A.H.W. et al.,
   1961), 472
 Dalkc, P.D. (1964), 228
 Dalton,  R A  (1970), 45 1, 456
 Damant, G.C.C. (1908) 137
 Dainron, B.L et al.  (19(>9), 313
 Dana, S.T. (1957), 14
 Daniel, J.W. (1969),  31 5
 —et al.  (1971),  313
 Dantzman, C.L. (1970), 306
 D'Arezzo,  A.J.  (1970), '03
 Dart, R.E. (see Galigan, D.J. ct al.. 1957), 66
 Das,  R.R. (1969), 25
 Dasmann, R.F.  (1966), 78
 Daughcrty, F.M. (1951), 456
 Davids,  H.W. (1951), 62
 Davidson,  D.F.  (1967), 86
 Davidson,   R.S.  (see  Kemp, H.T.  et  al ,
   1966), 457
 Davies,  A.  (see  Thomas,  S.B. et al,, 1966),
   302, 306
 Davies, A.G. (1966),  46^
 Davies, B  (see Harrcl, R.C. ct al., 1967), 144
 Davis, C.C. (1964), 23
 Davis,  E M.  (see Arigelovic, J.W.  et  al.,
   1967), 454
 Davis, G E (1971), 1 17
 Davis, O.K. (1951, 1957), 307
     (1966), 317
 —(see Gox, D.H  et al., I960), 314
 — (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1950), 314
 —(see Shirley, R L. et al., 1970), 343
 Davis, H.C.  (1969), 485 487, 489, 491, 493,
   495, 497, 499, 501, 505, 507, 509
 Davis, J. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1970),
   227
 Davis, J.J. (1960), 301-303
 Davis, J.R. (see  Mahood, R.K. et al., 1970),
   489
 Davis, J.T. (1962), 429-431
     (1963), 432
     (1964), 429
     (1967), 458
 Davis, Earry C.  (see Sonnen, Michael  B.
   et al.,  1970), 39
 Davies, R.O. (1958),  13<>
 Davison, K.L. ct al. (19(>2),  315
—ct al. (1964), 314
—ct al. (1965), 315
— (see Jainudcen, M.R. et al., 1965), 315
Dawley,  E.M. (see Ebel, W.J. et al., 1970),
   161
—(tee Ebel, W.J. et al., 1971), 137
Davis, H.C. (1960, 1969), 281
    (1969), 265-268
Derby, S.B. (Sleeper) (1971), 485, 491, 493
Dawson, J.1I. (1959), 347
Dawson, M.D.  (see  Kerridge,  P.O. et al.,
  1971), 338
 Dean, H.J. (tee Burdick, G.E. et al., 1964)
   429, 436
 —(see Burdick, G.E. et al., 1968), 183,  184
   190, 195
 Dean, H.T. (1936), 66
 Dean, J.M. (see Crows, F.A. et al, 1968), 475
 —(see Fowler, S.W. et al, 1970), 480
 Dean, R.B. (1970), 55
 — (see Berg, G. et al, 1968), 92
 Deans, R J. (1964), 315
 Dearingei, John A. (1968), 39, 400
 DcBoer, L.M.  (1961), 68
 Decker,  C.F. (see Decker, L.E. ct al, 1958)
   60
 - -(see Mackenzie, R.D. et al, 1958), 62
 Decker,  L.E. et al. (1958), 60
 DcClaventi, IB.  (1965), 463
 Deche, K.  (1955), 352
 De-Eds, F  (1950), 60
 Defoe, D.L. (see Ncbeker, A.V. et al, 1971)
   177
 Dejinal,  V. (1957). 56
 DeMann, J.G. (tceTurnbull, H. et al, 1954)
   145, 191, 244,  450-455
 Den-iint, R.J. (see Frank, P.A. et al, 1970)
   346, 347, 348
 DC Mont,  J.D. (in press), 135
 Denz, F.A. (1953), 319
 Deobald, H J.  (1935), 309, 312
 do Ohvcha, L.P.H. (1924),  255
 Department  of Lands & Forests, Ottawr
   (1968), 28
 Department of National  Health & Welfare
   [Canada] (1971), 481, 482
 Dcsehiens, R. (1956), 244, 451
     (1957), 467
 -  (tee Floch, H. et al, 1963),  453
 Devlaminck, F. (1950), 457
     (1955), 245,  450, 451
 DeVos, R.H. (see Koeman, J.H. ct al, 1969).
   83, 175
 —(sec Vos, J.G. et al, 1970),  198, 225, 226
 DeVries, D.M. (see Sparr, B.I. et al, 1966),
   346
 DeWolfe, T.A. (see Klotz, L.J. et al, 1959).
   349
 Dick, A.T. (1945), 252
 Dickens, F. (1969), 124, 279
 Dickson, K.L. (1971), 117, 408
 Diesch, S.L. (1966), 29
 —(see Crawford, R.P. et al,  1969), 321
 Dill, W.A. (see Shapovalov,  L. ct al, 1959),
   27
 Dillion, R.T.  (see  Van Slyke, D.D. et  al,
   1934), 138
 Dimick, R.E. (1952), 255
 —(see Haydu, E.P. et al,  1952), 256
 DiPalma, J.R.  (1965), 56
 Diskalenko, A.P.  (1968), 73
 DiToro, D.M. ct  al. (1971),  277
D'ltri, E.M. (unpublished data, 1971), 172
Dixon, W.J. (1951), 408
Dobbins, W.E.  (1968), 403
Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1966), 272
Doell, C.E. (1963), 8
Donawick  W.J. (1966), 313

-------
                                                                                                                  Author Index/541
 Doneen, L.D. (1959), 335
 Dorfman, D. (1969), 455, 464
 Dorman, C. (1939), 340
 —et al. (1939), 340
 Dorns, T.C. (1964, 1966), 144
     (1968), 35, 144,  275, 408, 409
 —(see Harrel, R.C. et al., 1967), 144
 Doudoroff,  P. (1942), 412
     (1945), 410, 412
     (1950), 139
     (1953), 177, 179, 180, 242, 247, 250, 251,
       253,  451, 453, 455, 464
     (1956), 189, 252, 314, 315, 330, 346
     (1957), 135, 139, 255
     (1961), 242
     (1965,  1967), 131
     (1969), 324
     (1970), 131-133, 139, 151
     (1971), 270
 —et al. (1951), 121
 —et al. (1966), 123, 140,  189, 241,  451, 453,
   454, 456,  457, 464
 — (see Hart, J.S. et al., 1945), 142
 —Off Hermann, R.B. et al., 1962), 132
 — (see Shumway, D.L. et  al., 1964), 132
 —(see Stewart, N.E. et al., 1967), 132
 Dougan, R.S. (1966), 302
 Douglas, F.D. (see Simon,  J. et al., 1959), 315
 Dovel, W.L. (1970), 282
 —(see Flcmer, D.A. et al., 1967), 279, 281
 Dowden,  B.F.  (1965), 249,  450,  452,  455,
   457, 458
 Downing, A.L.  (1966), 417-419
 Downing, K.M. (1954), 190
     (1955), 187,  243
     (1957), 187
 Drake, C.H. (tee  Favero,  M.S. ct al., 1964),
   31
 Dresnack, Robert (1968),  403
 Dressman, R.C. (see Lichtcnberg, J.J. et al.,
   1969), 319, 320
 — (see Lichtcnberg, J.J. et al., 1970), 182
 Drill, V.A.  (1953), 79
 Drinker, K.R. et al. (1927), 317
 —(see Thompson, P.K. et al., 1927), 317
 Droop, M.R. (1962),  22
 Druce, R.G. (see Thomas, S.B. et al., 1966),
   302, 306
 Drury, D.E. (1969), 189
 Du Bois, K.P. (1959), 56
 — (see Frawley,  J.P. et al., 1963), 78
DuCoff, H.S. et al. (1948), 56
 Dudley, R.G. (1969), 132
Dudley, W.A.  (see Romoser, G.L. et al.,
   1961), 311, 316
Duffy, J.R.  (see Sprague,  J.B. et al.,  1971),
   183
Dugdale, D.C. (1970), 277
Duggan, R.E. (1972), 77,  78
Duke, T.W. (1967), 479
—et al. (1966), 472, 479
—et al. (1970), 83, 176, 264
—et al. (1971a), 489
—(see Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971), 267
 Dunlap, L.  (1971),  172
 Dunlop, R.H. (see Wobeser, G. et al., 1970),
   173, 251
 Dunlop, S.G. (1954), 350, 352
     (1961), 351
     (1963), 188
     (1968), 351, 352
 Dunn, J.E. (1967), 410-417
 —(tee Neill, W.H., Jr. et al., 1966), 413
 Dunstan, W.M. (1971), 275, 276
 Dupont, O. et al. (1942), 56
 Dupuy, J.L. (1968), 38
 Durfor, C.N.  (1964), 61, 70, 88, 89
 Durham, W.F. (1962), 78
 Durnum, W.H. et al  (1971), 306, 310-313,
   316
 Duryee, F.L.  (see Kutches, A.J. et al., 1970),
   320
 Dustman, E.H. ct al. (1970), 198, 313
 Duthie, J.R. (1968), 74
 Dyer,  W.J. et al. (1970), 254
 Dye, W.B. (1959), 344

 EIFAC   (tee  European   Inland  Fisheries
   Advisory Commission)
 EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
     (1971), 434,  437
 Earlc, T.T. (1948), 27
 Earley, E.B. (1943), 345
 Earnest, R.D. (unpublished data, 1971), 266,
   267, 485-487, 489, 491, 493, 495
 Easterbrock, C.C. (see Sundaram, T.R. et al..
   1969), 403
 Eaton, F.M (1935, 1944), 341
     (1950), 335
     (1959), 328
 Eaton, J.G. (1970), 120, 122, 184, 185, 437
     (1971), 123,  189, 425
 —(unpublished data, 1971), 179, 180
 Ebcl, W.J. (1968), 135
     (1969), 135,  137
     (1971), 137
 -ct al. (1970), 160
 Ebeling, G. (1928), 249
 Eberhardt, L.L. et al. (1971),  439
 Edinger, J E.  (1969), 403
 Edison Electric Institute (1970),  378
 Edmondson, W.T. (1961, 1968, 1969), 20
     (1970), 20-22
     (1972), 19
 Edmunds,	(1966), 452
 Edsall, T.A. (1970),  160
—(unpublished data, 1970), 411
—et al. (1970), 411
Edson, E.F. (1954), 319
     (1957), 78
Edwards, H.E. (1967), 184
Edwards, R.W. (1963), 458
Egan, D.A. (1970),  313
Egusa, S. (1955), 137, 138
Ehlig,  C.F. (1959), 328
—(see Alloway, W.II. et al., 1967), 345
Eichelbcrger,  J.W.  (see Lichtenberg,   J.J.
  et al., 1969), 319, 320
—(see Lichtenberg, J.J. et al.,  1970), 182
Eimhjellen, K. (see Jannasch, H.W. et al.,
  1971), 277, 280
 Eippcr, A.W. (1959), 26
 Eisler, R. (1966), 452, 495
     (1967), 468
     (1969, 1970a,b), 266-268, 485, 487, 489,
       491, 493
     (1970c), 487, 489
 — (see LaRochc et al., 1970), 261
 Ekman, R.  (see Abcrg, B. ct al., 1969), 313,
   314
 Elder, J.B.  (tee Dustman, E.H. et al., 1970),
   198, 313
 El-Dib, M.A. (1971), 80
 Eldriclge, E.F.  (1960), 89
 Eldridge, W.E.  (see Holland, G.A. et  al ,
   1960), 242, 246, 247, 451, 452, 461, 463-
   465
 Eller, L.L. (see Kennedy, H.D. et al., 1970),
   195, 436
 Ellis, M.D. (see Ellis, M.M. et al., 1946), 249
 Ellis, M.M.  (1937), 22, 131,  139, 187, 191,
   245, 253, 254
 —et al. (1946), 249
 Elms, D.R. (1966), 301
 Elrod, R.P. (1942), 57
 Elson, P.F. (1965), 248
     (1967), 184
 — (see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1964), 463, 467
 — (tee Sprague, J.B. et al., 1965), 122, 463
 - (see Sprague, J.B. ct al., 1971), 183
 Elvehycn, C.A. (1935), 138, 309
 Embry, L B. et al. (1959), 307, 308
 — (see Emcrick, R.J. et al., 1965), 315
 —(see Goodrich, R.D.  et al., 1964), 315
 — (see Hoar, D.W. et al., 1968), 315
 - (see Wcichenthal, B.A. ct al., 1963), 315
 Emenck, R J.  et al. (1965), 315
 —(see Adams, A.W. et al., 1966), 315
 —(tee Goodrich, R.D.  et al., 1964), 314
 —(sec Hoar, D.W et al , 1968), 315
 — (tee Olson, O.E. ct al., 1963), 315
 —Off Weichcnthal, B.A. ct al., 1963), 315
 Emerson, J.L.  et al. (1970), 79
 Emery, R.M. et al. (1972), 20
 Enderson, J.H. (1970), 198
 Engelbert,  L.E.  Off  Lawton,  G.W. et  al.,
   1960), 353
 England, B. et  al. (1967), 92
 Engle, J.B.  (see Galtsoff,  P.S. ct al., 1947),
   116, 147
 Englehorn, O.R. (1943), 135
 English, J.N. ct al. (1961), 34
 —et al. (1963), 148
 —(see Booth, R.L. et al., 1965), 75
 —(see Surber, E.W. ct  al., 1965), 148
 Enns, W.R. (1968), 18
 Environmental  Protection Agency, 57, 58,  91
 —(unpublished data, 1971), 48
-(draft, 1972), 301
—(in press, 1972), 318
Div. of Water Hygiene, Water Quality Office
  (1971), 37
Office  of  Pesticides,  Pesticides Regulation
  Division (1972), 319
Episano, C. (fee Maloues, R. et al., 1972), 135
Eppson, H.F. (tee Bradley, W.B. et al., 1940),
  314

-------
 542/ Water Quality Criteria,  1972
Ericksson, E. (1952), 337
Erickson, K. (1964), 321
Ericksen, L.V. (1959), 147
Erickson, S.J. et al.  (1970), 268, 505
Erne, K. (see Borg, K. et al., 1969), 198, 252,
   313
Esmay, M.L. et al.  (1955), 302
Espey, W.H. (1967), 229, 281, 282
     (1971), 403
Ettinger, M.B. (1962), 55
—(see Earth, E.F. et al.,  1966), 55
—(see Burttschell, R.H. et al., 1959), 80
—(see Ludzack, F.J. et al., 1957),  145
European Island Fisheries  Advisory Com-
   mission (1965), 127
     (1969), 140, 241
Evans, A. (1969), 135, 136,  138
Evans, E.D.  (tee Stevens, N.P. et al., 1956),
   145
Evans, E.T.R.  (1946), 195
Everhart, W.H. (1953), 142
     (1971), 179, 181
Eye, J.D. (1968), 130
Eylar, O.K. (see Murphy, W.H. et al., 1958),
   350

FAO (see Food & Agricultural Organization)
FDA (see U.S. Department of Health, Edu-
   cation,  and  Welfare,  Food   and Drug
   Administration)
FPRL   Annual   Report  (unpublished data,
   1971), 420-424, 426, 427, 433
FRC (tee Federal Radiation Council)
FWPCA (see Federal Water Pollution Con-
   trol Administration)
Faber, R.A. et al. (1972), 227
Faculty of American Bacteriologists  (1947),
   439
Fagerstrom, T. (1971), 172
Fair, G.M. et al. (1948), 55
—et al. (1968), 275
Fairhall, L.T. (1942), 87
     (1957), 62
Falk, H.L. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
—(tee Courtney, R.D. et al., 1970), 79
Falk, L.L. (see Rudolph, W. et al., 1950), 89,
   351
Falk, R. (see Aberg, B. et al., 1969), 313, 314
Falkowska, Z. et al. (1964), 250
Farmanfarmaian, A. (see  Jannasch, H.W.
   et al., 1971), 277, 280
Farr, P.M.  (see Couch, J.R. et al., 1963), 26
Farr, F.M.  (see Grcger, C.R. et al., 1963), 26
Fast, A.W.  (3968), 165
—(unpublished data, 1971), 165
Faulkner, L.R. (1966), 348, 349
     (1970),  348, 349
Faust, S.D. (1968, 1971), 80
—et al. (1971), 80
Favero, M.S. et al. (1964), 31
Fay, L.D. (1964, 1966), 196
Federal Power  Commission (1971), 378
Federal Radiation Council (1960), 273
     (1961), 273, 274
—(see also U.S. Federal Radiation  Council)
Federal  Water  Pollution Control Adminis-
   tration (1963), 75
     (1966), 57
     (1968), 59,  91
Feltz, H.R. et al. (1971), 183
Fenderson, O.C. (1970), 225
Feng, T.P. (1946),  59
Ferguson, D.E. (1968),  184
Ferguson, H.F. (see Simons,  G.W., Jr. et al.,
   1972), 29
Perm, V.H. (tee  Mulvihill, J.E. et al., 1970),
   310
Fertig, S.N. (1953), 319
Fettcrolf, C.M. (1962),  147
     (1964), 148, 191
—et al. (1970), 18
—(see Basch, R.E. et al., 1971), 189
Field, H.I. (1946),  195
Fifield, C.W. (see Litsky, W. et al., 1953), 31
Fimreite, N. (1970), 251
—et al. (1970), 252
Finn, B.J. (tee Halsteac, R.L. et al., 1969),
  344
Finney, D.J. (1952), 121
Fireman, M. (1960), 341
Firh't, C.F. (1962), 435
Fischer, H.B. (1968, 1970), 403
Fischman, L.L.  (see Landsberg, H.H. et al.,
  1963), 381
Fishbein, L. (see Innes,  J.R.M. et al., 1969),
  76
Fisher, D.W. (see Likens, G.E. et al., 1970),
  125
Fisher,  H.L.
  1968), 173
Fisher,  J.L.
  1963), 381
Fisher, R.A. et al. (1942.), 409
Fisheries  Research Board  of Canada  (un-
  published, 1971), 179
Fishman, M.J. (see Brown, E. et al., 1970), 51
Fitch, C.P. et al. (1934), 317
Fitzhugh, O.G. (1941),  60
—et al. (1944), 86
Flemer, D.A. (1970), 281
—et al. (1967), 279, 281
Fletcher, J.L. (1971), 2f>4
—ct al. (1970), 254
—(see Dyer, W.J. et al., 1970), 254
Flinn, D.W. (1965), 1
Flis, J. (1968), 187
Florida State Board of Health (unpublished
  data),  18
Fleming,  R.H.  (see Sverdrup, H.V. et  al.,
  1942), 216
—(see Sverdrup, H.V. el al., 1946), 241
Floch, H. et al. (1963),  453
Foehrenbach, J. (1972), 37
Foget, C.R. (1971), 262
Follis, B.J. (1967), 193,  456
Food &  Agriculture  Organization  (1967),
  216
     (1971), 239, 241,  247
Food and  Drug   Administration  (unpub-
  lished data), 79
(see  Chapman,  W.H. et al.,

(see Landsberg,  H.H. et al.,
Food Standards Committee for England am
  Wales (1959), 481
Forbes, S.A.  (1913), 145
Ford, W.L. (1952), 280
Forester,  J.  (see Cooley,  N.R. et  al.,  un
  published data), 489
Foster, G.L. (see Sparr, B.I. et al., 1966), 34
Foster, M. ft al. (1970), 258
Foster, R.F. (1943),  21
     (1956, 1957), 180
Fowl, D.L. (1972), 318, 345
—et al. (1971), 434
Fowler, I. (1953), 466, 467
Fowler, M. (1965), 29
Fowler, S.W. et al.  (1970), 480
—(see Cross, F.A. et  al., 1968), 479
Fox, A.C. (see  Hannon, M.R. et al., 1970)
  183
Foy, C.D. ct al. (1965), 348
Foyn, E.  (1965), 222
Francis, G. (1878), 317
Frank, N. (1941), 57
Frank, P.A  (1967),  183
—ct al. (1970), 346-348
F'rank, R. (personal  communication), 175
Frank, K.W. (1935), 86
     (1936)  309
—(see Smith, M.I. et al., 1936), 86
Frankel, R.J. (1965), 399
Frant, S.  (1941), 60
Franklin,  P.M.  (see Thomas,  S.B.  et  al.
  1953), 302
Frens, A.M. (1946),  307
Fraser, M.H. et al.  (1956), 57
Frawley, J.P. et al. (1963), 78
—(see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958), 78
Frear, D.E.H. (1969), 80, 174
Frcdeen, F.H. (1964), 18
Freegarde, M. et al. (1970), 261
Freeman, L.  (1953), 466, 467
Freeman, P .A. (1971), 179
Fremling, C.R. (1960a,b),  17
French, C.R. (see Brand, E.D. et al., 1951)
  138
Freund, G.F.  (see Black, A.P. et al., 1965)
  301
Friend, M. (1970), 226
Fries, G.F. t«?cBitrnan, J. et al., 1969), 198
Frink, C.R. (1967), 24
Frisa, C. (see Burdick, G.E. et al., 1968), 183
  195
Frisch, N.W. (1960), 63
Frolich, E. ct al. (1966), 342
Fromm, P.O. (1958), 452,  457
     (1959), 457, 462
     (1962), 462
     (1970), 187
Frost, D.V. (1967),  56, 309, 310
—(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968b), 309
Fry, F.E.J. (1947), 120, 152
     (1951), 161
     (1953), 419
     (1954), 160, 419
     (1957), 139
     (1960), 131

-------
                                                                                                                   Author Index/543
     (1964), 152, 154
     (1967), 152, 161
—(unpublished, 1971), 154
—et al. (1942), 410
—et al. (1946), 153, 160, 170, 410-419
Fryer, J.L. (see Bond, C.E.  1960), 429-432
Fujuya, M. (1960). 248, 453, 363, 364
     (1961), 453
—(see Bardach, J.E. ct al.,  1965),  190
Fukai, R. (1962), 240
Fulkcrson, W.  (see  Wallace,  R.A.  ct  al.,
  1971), 72, 173, 240,  252
Fuller, R G.  (see Kemp, H.T.  et al., 1966),
  457
Fuller,  W.H.  (see Hilgcman,  R.H.  et  al.,
  1970), 344
Funnell, H.S.  (1969), 313
Fyfc, R.W. (see Fimreite, N. ct al., 1970),  252

Gaarder, T. (1932),  241, 465
Gaertner, H. (1951), 350
Gage, J.C. (1961, 1964, 1969, 1971), 313
Gage, S. De M. (see Simons, G.W., Jr. et al.,
  1922), 29
Gaines, T.B. (see Dale,  W.E. et al., 1963), 76
Gakstatter, J.L.  (1965), 183
Galagan, D.J. (1953, 1957), 66
Gall, O.K. (1940), 345
Gallatine, M.II. (1960), 337
—(see Lunin, J. et al.,  1960, 1964), 338
—(see Lunin, J. et al.,  1963), 336, 337
Galtsoff, P.S. (1931), 148
    (1932), 248
    (1943), 463
    (1946), 246
    (1949), 261, 262
    (1964), 148
—et al. (1935), 147
—et al. (1947), 116,  147
—(see Doudoroff, P.  ct al.,  1951), 121
Gamm,  S.H.  (see   Mulvihill,  J.E.  et  al.,
  1970), 310
Gammon, J.R. (1970), 128, 157
Gange, T.J. (see Page, A.L. et al., in press,
  1971), 343
Gannon, J.E.  (1969), 124,  127
Garbcr, M.J. (see Pratt, P.F. ct al.,  1967),  334
Gardner, G.R. (1970), 462
Gardner,  M.J. (see  Crawford, M.D. et  al.,
  1968), 68
Garner, G.B. (1963), 315
    (1970), 246
—(see Bloomfield, R.A. ct al., 1961), 315
Garrett, J.T. (1951,  1957), 456
Garrigou, F.  (1877), 72
Garsidc, E.T.  (1968), 411
Gart, J.J. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Cast, M. (in press),  179, 180
Gastler, G.F. (1957), 308
—(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308
Gauch,  H.G. (see   Magistad,  O.C.  et  al.,
  1943), 325,  336
Gaufin, A.R. (1952, 1956,  1958), 408
     (1953), 22
     (1964), 424, 426, 427,  435, 453
     (1966), 420, 421
—et al. (1965), 195
Gaylor,  D.W.  (see Courtney,  K.D.  et  al.,
  1970), 79
Gcbhards, S. (1970),  124
Ceiling, E.M.K. (1959), 56
Gciscr, P.B. (see Leone,  N.L. et al., 1954), 66
Geldreich, E.E. (1966),  31, 36
     (1970), 31, 36, 57,  352
     (1971), 16, 57, 302, 351, 352
—et al. (1962a,b, 1964, 1965,  1968), 57
— (see Kabler, P.W. ct al., 1921), 351
Gendcrcn, H. (1970), 265, 267
Gcnoway, R G. (1968), 137, 139
Gentile, J.H. (unpublished data,  1972), 247
— (see Erickson, S.J. et al., 1970), 268, 505
Gerbig,  C G.  (see Emerson,  J.L.  et  al.,
  1970), 79
Genckc,  S. (1939), 345
Gerlach,  A.R. (see Terricre,   L.C.  et  al.,
  1966), 183
Gcrlad, R.W. (see Potts,  A.M. et al., 1950), 60
Gerloff, G.R. (see Hansen,  O. ct al., 1954), 22
Gersh, I. et al. (1944), 137
Gcrtel, K. (1963),  302
Geycr, J.C.  (tee Brady, O.K.  ct al., 1969),
  403
—(iff Fair, G.M. et al., 1968), 275
Ghassemi, M. (1966), 63,  80
Ghelardi, R.J.  (1964), 408
Gibbard, J. et al. (1942),  36
Gibson, E.S. (1954), 160,  419
Gibson, M.B. (1953),  419
Gilbertson, M. (see Connors, P.G. et al , in
  press, 1972b), 226
Gilderhaus, P.A. (1967), 430, 458
Gill, J.M. et al. (1960), 455
Gill, S.L. (1946), 36
Gillespie,  R.W. et  al.  (1957), 321
Gillett, J.W. (1969), 185
Gillis, M.B. (see Nelson, T.S. et al., 1962), 316
Oilman, A Z. (1965),  56
Ginn, J T. (1944), 60
Girling, E.F. (see Curlcy, A. et al., 1971) 313
Gish, C D. (see Blus, L.J. et al., 1972), 227
Gissel-Nielson, G. (1970),  345
Glass,  G. (see Biesingcr, K.E.  et al., 1971),
  180
Glenn, M.W. (1967).  316
Glover, Robert E.  (1964), 403
Glueckauf, E. (1951), 135
Godsil, P.J. (1968), 346
Goepfert,  J.M. (see  Cheng,  C.M.  et  al.,
  1971), 351, 352
Goerlitz, D.F. (1963), 63
     (1966). 63, 301
Gohccn, A.C. (see Hewitt,  W.B. et al., 1958),
  349
Goldberg, E.D. (1957),  243
     (1970). 172, 251
     (1971), 72, 242, 244,  245
     (1972), 226
—et al. (1971), 251, 256
—(see Risebrough, R.W.  et al., 1968), 226,
  227
Goldberg,  M.C.  (see  Wcrsaw, R.L.  et  al.,
  1969), 183
Goldman, C.R. (1964, 1972), 23
Goldman, J.C. et al. (1971), 23
Goodgal, S. (1954), 281
Gooding, D. (1954), 247
Goodman, J. (1951), 459
Goodman, L.S. (1965), 56
Goodnight, C.J. (1962), 181, 464, 467
Goodrich, R D. et al. (1964), 315
Gomaa, H.M. (1971),  80
Gonzalez, J. et al. (unpublished, 1971), 247
Gorham, F.P.  (1898, 1899, 1904),  135
Gorham, P.R. (1960, 1964), 317
—(see Bishop, C.T ct al., 1959), 317
Gortner, R.A. (tee Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934),
  317
Gotsev, T. (1944), 59
Gouine, L. (see Fctterholf, C.M., 1970), 18
Gould, T.C. (1967 , 311
Gradv, G.F. (see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967), 36
Graetz, D.A. (see Lotsc, E.G. ct al., 1968),
  183
Graham, J.M.  (1949), 160
Graham, R.J  (1968),  144
Grande, M. (1967), 463
Graham, R. (see  Sampson,  J. ct al., 1942),
  316
Grant, A.B. (1961), 316
     (1965), 345
Grant, B.F. (1968), 438
--(unpublished, 1971), 176
Grant, B.R. (1970), 438
Grant, C.M. (see Pomeroy, L R. et al., 1965),
  281
Gravelle,  C.R.  (\ee Chin,  T.D.Y.  ct  al.,
  1967), 91
Graves, W.L. (see Brady, D.K. et al., 1969),
  403
[Great  Britain]  Dept.  of the Environment
  (1971), 51, 55
Green,  R.S. (see  Breidcnbach,  A.W. ct  al.,
  1967), 318
Greenbank,  J.  (w  Hart, J.S. et al , 1945),
  142
Greenwood, D.A  (see Harris, L.E.  et  al.,
  1963), 312
—(see Shupc, J.L. et al., 1964), 312
Grccr, W.C. (1957), 145
—(see Wallen, I.E. ct al., 1957), 245, 450-457
Greeson, P.E.  (1970), 313
Grcgorius, F. (1948), 62
Greiber, R.  (1972), 56
Greichus, Y.A.  (see Harmon, M.R.  et  al.,
  1970), 183
Greig, R.A. (1970), 198
Greitz,  U.  (see  Aberg, B. et al., 1969), 313,
  314
Gress, F. (see Schmidt,  T.T.  ct al., 1971), 83
Grice,  A.D.  (see Wcibe, P.H. et al., in press,
  1972), 280
Grice,  G.D. (see Harvey, G.R. et al., 1972),
  264
Griffin, A.E. (1960), 71
Griffin, J.J.  (see Risebrough, R.W.  et  al.,
  1968), 226, 227
Griffin, L.N. (1964), 467
Griffith, D. de G. (1970), 261

-------
 544/Water Quality Criteria,  1972
Griffith, W.H., Jr.  (1962-1963), 195
Grimmet, R.E.R. et al. (1937), 316
Grindlcy, J.  (1946), 461, 465-467
Grob, D.  (1950), 78
Grodhaus, G. (1963), 18
Grogan, R.G. et al. (1958), 349
Gross, M.G.  (1970), 278, 279, 281
—(see Goldberg, E.D. ct al., 1971), 241, 244,
  245, 251
Gross, W.G.  (1946), 62, 311
Grow, T.E. (1971), 503, 505
Grucc, G  D.  (see Vacarro, R.S. et al., 1972),
  280
Grudina,  L.M.  (see  Malcshevskaya,  A.S.
  c  al., 1966), 313
Gruminer, R.H.  (-ire  Lewis,  P.K.   et  al.,
  1957), 316, 317
Grushkin, B.  (1967), 465, 466, 468
Guess,  W.L.  (see  Nematollahi,  J.   et  al.,
  1967), 174, 175
Gumtz,  G.D. (1971), 262
Gunn, C.A. et al. (1971), 40
Gunn, S.A. (1967), 311
Gunncrson, C.B. (1966), 80
Gunnerson,   C.G.   (see  Breidenbach,  A.W.
  ct al., 1967), 318
Gunter, G. (see Cronin, L.E. et al., 1969), 279
Gunther, F.A. et al. (1968), 227
Gurcharan,  K.S. (see  Metcalf, R.L.  et  al.,
  1971), 437
Guseva, K.A. (1937, 1939), 250
Guskova, V.N.  (1964), 467
Guss, P.L. (see Ilalverson, A.W. 1962, 1966),
  316
Gustafson, G.G. (1970), 175-177
Gutknccht, J. (1963), 478
Guyer, B.E. (see Esmay, M.C. ct al.,  1955),
  302
Gwatkin, R.  (1946), 315

Haas, A.R.C. (1932), 341
Haegele, H.A. (1970),  198
Uaga, H.  (see Kariya, T. et al., 1969),
Ilaga, Y. (see Kariya, T. ct al., 1969), 455
Hair, J.R. (1971), 414
Hairston, N.G.  (1959), 408
Hale, W.H. et al. (1962), 315
Hall, A. (tee Bardach, J.E.  et al., 1965), 190
Hall, A.E. (see Applcgate, V.C. et al.,  1957),
  243
Hall, E.E. (see Cooper,  H.P. et al., 1932), 340
Hall, E.S. (1965), 63
Hall, T.F. (1961), 26
Halstead, B.W. (1965), 38
Halstead, R.L. et al. (1969), 344
Halverson, A.W. et al.  (1962, 1966), 316
Hamclink, J.L. et al. (1971), 183
Hamilton, A. (1971) 172
Hamilton, J.W. (1963), 345
     (1964), 86
flamlin, J.M. (see Jackim, E. et al.,  1970),
  244, 255, 451, 454, 455, 457, 462, 465, 466
Hammel,  W.D.  (see Anderson, E.A.  ct  al.
  1934), 93
Hammond, A.L. (1971), 251
Hammond, P.B. (1964), 313
Hampson, G.R. (1969), 258
Han, J. ct al. (1968), H5
Hanko, E. (see Borg, K.  ct al., 1969), 198,
   252, 313
Hannah, S.A. et al.  (1967), 89
Hannan, H.H. (1971), 24
Hannon, M.R. et al. (1970), 183
Ilannerz, L.  (1968),  172, 173,  251, 475, 476
Hansel, W. (1962), 315
—(wDavison, K.L. et al., 1964),  314
—(see Jamudeen, M.R. et al., 1965),  315
Hansen,  D.J. et al. (1971), 176, 177, 505
Hansen,  D.L. (1967), 4 57
Hansen,  O. et al. (1954),  22
llanshaw,  B B. (see  Leopold, L B.  et  al ,
   1971), 400
Ilapkirk,  C.S.M.  (iff Grimmett,  R.E.R.
  et al.,  1937), 316
Harbourne, J.F et al. (1968), 313
Harding, R.B.  (1959), 328
Hare, G.M. (1969),  239
Harleman, D R.F. (1971), 403
Harmcson, R.H. ct al. (1971), 73
Harms, R.H. (see Damron, B.L. et al., 1969),
  313
Harmstrom,  F.C. (1958),  18
Harre.1, R.C.  et al. (1967), 144
Harrington, R.B. (see On, E.A. ct al., 1965,
  1966b,c,d), 317
—(see Ott, E.A. ct al., 1965a), 316
Harris, E.J.  (see Bruclick,  G.E. et al., 1964),
  429, 436
— (see Brudick, G.E. et al.,  1968), 183, 184,
  190, 195
Harris, E.K.  (see Cohen, J.M. et al., 1960),
  64, 69, 71,  93
Harris, L.E. et al.  (1963), 312
Harris, M. Off Berg, W.L. et al., 1945), 138
—(see Whitcher, D.M. ct  al., 1945), 137
Harriss, R.C. et al. (1970), 173
Harris, R.H.  (1968), 89
—(see Singley, J.E. et al.,  1966), 63
Harris, S.J. (see Bitman, J. et al , 1969), 198
Harrison, F.  (1967),  474
Harrison, W. ct al. (1964), 279
Harry, ILW. (1958), 462, 463
Hart, E.R. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Hart, J.S. (1944), 139
     (1945), 142
     (1947), 160, 410, 414, 416, 417, 419
     (1952), 160, 411  414, 417, 419
—et al. (1945), 142
—(see Fry, F.E.J. et al., 1946), 153, 160, 170,
  410-419
Hart, W.B. (see Doudorof, P. et al., 1951), 121
Hartley, W.J. (1961), 3'6
Hartung, R.  (1965, 1967a), 196
     (1966), 196, 262
     (1967b), 197
     (1968), 145
     (1970), 196, 146, 183
Harvey, E.N. et al. (1944a), 135
     (1944b),  135, 136
     (1962), 95, 97, 99, 135
Harvey, G.R. et al. (1972), 264
Harvey, H.H. (1962), 1:6, 137-139
Harvey, H.W. (1947), 250
Harvey, R.S. (1969), 470-473, 475, 479
Haskell, D.C. (1958), 139
Ilasselrot, T.B. (1968),  172
Hasseltine,  H.E. (see Lumsden, L.L. et al,
   1925), 36
Hatch, R.C. (1969), 313
Hatcharcl, C.G.  (see Freegarde, M. et al.
   1970), 261
Hatcher, B.W. (see Maclntire, W.H. et al.
   1942), 343
Hatcher, J.T. (1958), 341
Hatchcock, J.N. ft al. (1964), 316
Hathrup, A.R. (1970),  347
Haverland, L.H. (1961), 307
—(see  Wecth, H.J. ct al., 1960), 307
Hawk, R.E (see Curlcy, A. et a'., 1971), 313
Hawkes, A.L. (1961), 196
TTawkinson G.E. (see Gersh, I. et al., 1944)
   137
llawksley, R.A. (1967),  181
Haydu, E.P. (1968), 117
—(unpublished data), 247, 253
—et al. (1952), 256
Hayes, B.W. (see Mitchell, G.E. et al., 1967)
   315
Hayes, W.J., Jr. (1962), 78
     (1963), 79
—et al. (1971), 75
—0«' Dale, W.E. ct al., 1963), 76
—(in press), 77
Haynes, W.S. (see Vigil, J. ct al., 1965), 73
Hays,  H. (1972), 226, 227
--(see Connors, P.G. et al., in press, 1972b)
   236
Ilayward, H.E. (1958), 324
Hazel, C.R (1970), 464
—et al. (1971), 187
Hazcn, A.  (1892, 1896), 63
     (1895), 69
Heath, A.G. (see Sparks, R.E.  ct al., 1969)
   117
Heath, R.G., 198
—et al. ('969), 197, 226
—et al. (in press, 1972), 226
Heath, W.G. (1967), 410, 412, 419
Hedstrom, C.E. (1967), 92
Heggeness, H.G. (1939), 340
lleidel, SG. (1971), 306
—(see Durum, W.H. ct  al., 1971), 306,  310-
   313, 316
Heinle, D.R. (1969), 162
Held, E.E. (1969), 476
Heller, VG. (1930, 1932, 1933), 307
     (1946), 62, 211
Helm,  W.T. (see Siglcr, W.F. et al., 1966).
   248, 453
Helminen,   M. (see  Henriksson,  K.  ct  al.,
   1966), 198, 252
Hem, J.D. (1960), 130
     (1970), 87, 313
—(see Durum, W.H. et  al., 1971), 306, 310-
   313, 316
Hemmingsen, E.A.  (1970), 136
Hemphill, F.E. et al. (1971), 313

-------
                                                                                                                   Author Index/54:5
 Henderson,  G.  (1956), 243, 256, 451, 455,
   456, 459
     (1957),  122, 234
     (1959),  458
     (1960),  243,  244,  253, 451, 453, 455,
       456, 459
     (1965),  451, 452, 455-457, 460
     (1966),  145, 180-182, 453, 455, 456, 460
—et al. (1959), 420-422
—et al. (1960), 190, 450
—ct al. (1969), 182, 434
—(see  Black,  H.H. ct al.,  1957), 450
— (see  English, J.N. et al., 1963), 148
—(see  Pickering, Q.H. ct  al.,  1962), 184,
   423-426
Henley, D.E. (1970), 147
—(see  Silvey, J.K. et al.,  1972), 82
Hennessey, R.D. (see Maddox, D.M.  et al.,
   1971), 26
Henrikson, K. et al. (1966), 198, 252
Henry, W.H. (1965), 340
Henson, E.B. (1966), 17
Hentges, J.F., Jr. (1970),  26
Herbert, D.W.M. (1952),  464
     (1960), 178, 187, 450
     (1961), 407, 459
     (1962), 143
     (1963), 459
     (1964), 122, 182, 403, 450, 453, 459, 464
     (1965), 122, 187, 407, 453
—et al. (1965), 455, 456,  460
Hermann, E.R.  (1959), 462, 463, 465, 467
Herman, S.G. (1968), 266-268
—(see  Risenbrough,  R.W. et al., 1968), 83,
   175, 198, 264
Herrmann, R.B. ct al.  (1962), 132
Hershkovitz,  G. (see Kott, Y. et al., 1966), 245
Hervcy, R.J. (1949), 180
Hess, A.D. (1956, 1958), 17
Hess, J.B. (see Kott, Y.  et al., 1966), 245
Hester, H R.  (see Sampson,  J. ct al., 1942),
   316
Hettler, W.F. (1968), 410
Hewitt, E.J.  (1948), 345
     (1953), 342
     (1966), 344
Hewitt, VV.B. et  al.  (1958), 349
—(see Grogan, R.G. et al., 1958), 349
Heyroth, F.F. (1952), 66
Hiatt,  R.W.  (1953), 462
—et al. (1953), 245,  246
—(see Boroughs, H. et al., 1957),  409
Hibiya, T. (1961), 465,  469, 470, 475-478
Hickcy, J.J.  (1968), 197,  226
     (1970), 197
—(see Anderson, D.W. ct al., 1969), 176, 227
Hicks,  D.B. (1971), 147
Hidu,  H. (1969),  265,  268, 281, 485, 487,
  489, 491, 493, 495, 497,  499, 501, 505, 507,
   509
Higgins,  J.E. (see Bugg,  J.G. et al.,  1967),
   266, 267
Hilgeman, R.H. et al. (1970), 344
Hill, C.H. (1963), 311
—(see  Hathcock, J.N. et al., 1964), 316
Hill, E V. (1947), 79
 Hill, M.N. (1964), 216
 Hill, W.R. (1939, 1947), 87
 Hillebrand, O. (1950), 24
 Hills, B.A. (1967), 136
 Hilscher, R. (see  Simons,  G.W., Jr. ct al.,
   1922), 29
 Hilsenhoff, W.L. (1959, 1968), 18
 Hiltibran, R.C. (1967), 26
 Hiltz, D.F. (see Dyer, VV.J. et al., 1970), 254
 Hmchliffe, M.C. (1952), 19
 Hinc, C.H  (1970), 181, 252
 Hmgley, H.J. (see Dyer, W.J. et al., 1970),
   254
 Hmgley, J.  (see Ackrnan, R G. et al., 1970),
   254
 Hmklc, M.E. (see White D.E. ct al., 1970),
   313
 Hinman, J.J., Jr. (1938), 93
 Hiratzka, T. (1953), 79
 Ilirohata,  T.  (tee Kuratsune, M   ct  al.,
   1969), 83
 Hiroki,  K. (see Theede, H.  ct al., 1969), 193,
   256
 Hirono, T  (see Murata, I. et al., 1970), 60
 Hisaoka, K.K.  (1962), 435
 Hissong, E.D. (see Prinzlc, B.II. et al., 1968),
   38, 246, 247
 Hitchings, G.H. (1969), 320
 Hiyama, Y. (1964), 469, 471
 Hoadley, A.W. (1968), 31
 Hoak, R.D. (1961), 89
 Hoagland, E.  (tee Weibe,  P.M. et  al.,  in
  press, 1972), 280
 Hoar, D.W. et al. (1968), 315
 Hobden, D.J. (1969), 473
 Hodges, E.M. (see Shirley, R.L. ct al., 1970),
   343
Hodgkin, A.L. (1969), 464
 Hodgson, J.F. (1960),  342
     (1963), 339
 Hodgson, J.M. (see Bruns, V.F. et al., 1955),
   347
 Hoekstra, W.G. (see Lewis, P.K. et al., 1957),
  316, 317
Hoclscher,  M.A   (see  Ernbry,  L.B.  et  al.,
   1959), 307, 308
 Hoff, J G. (1963), 147
     (1963), 148
     (1966), 160,  413, 417,  419
 Hoffman, D.O. (1951), 459
Hoflund, S. (see Sapiro,  M.L. et al., 1949),
  314
Hogan,  J.W. (1967), 435
—(see Berger, B.L. ct al., 1969), 435
Hogan,  M.D.  (see Courtney,  K.D.  ct  al.,
  1970), 79
Hoglund, B. (1972), 164
Hoglund, L.B. (1961), 139
Hokanson, J.F. (1964), 315
Hokanson, K.E.F. (1971), 190, 191
Holden, A.V. (1970), 55, 176, 225
Holden, P. (1958), 17
Holden, W.S. (1970), 83
Holeman, J.N.  (1968), 281
Holland, G.A. et al.  (1960), 242,  246,  247,
  256, 451, 452, 461, 463-465
 Holluta, J.  (1961), 7
 Holm, C.H. (see Meyers, J.J. et al., 1969), 32
 Holm, H.H. (see Patrick R. et al.,  1954), 116
 Holm, L.G. et al. (1969),  26, 27
 Holmes, C.W. (see Mount, L.E. et al., 1971),
   305
 Holmes, D.C. ct al. (1967), 83, 175
 Holmes, R.W. (1967), 258
 Holt, G. (1969), 198
 Hoopcs, J.A.  (see Zcller, R.W. et  al., 1971),
   403
 Hopkins, C.L. et al. (1966), 184
 Hopkins, S.H (see Cronin, L.E. et al., 1969),
   279
 Hopper, M.C. (1937), 343
 Hoppert, C A. (see Decker, L.E. et al., 1958),
   60
 -  (see Mackenzie, R.D. et al., 1958), 62
 Horn, M.1I. et al. (1970),  257
 Home,  D.A. (see Fletcher, G.L. et al., 1970),
   254
 Horncr, G.M. (see Vandccaveyc,  S.C. ct al.,
   1936), 340
 Horning, W.B. (1972), 160
 Hoss, D.E. (1964),  479
 Hosty, T.S. ct al. (1970),  278
 Hotchkiss. N.  (1967), 27
 Hotclling, H.  (1949), 399
 Hovens, W.P. ct al. (1941), 29
 Howard, T.E. (1965), 241
—(see Schaumburg, F.D. ct al., 1967), 120
 Howell,  J.H. (we  Applegate, V.C.  et  al.,
   1957), 243
 Hoycr, W H. (see McKce, M.T. et al., 1958),
   196
 Hoyle, R.J. (see Fletcher,  G.L. ct  al., 1970),
   254
Hoyt, P.B.  (1971), 339
     (1971b), 344
 Hubbard, W.M.  (see Kehoe, R.A.  ct  al.,
   1940), 70
Hubbcrt, F.,  Jr.   (see  Hale,  W.H.  et  al.,
   1962), 315
Hubert, A.A. (see Bell, J.F. et al., 1955), 196
 Hublow, W.F. et al. (1954), 245
 Hubschman, J.H.  (1967), 453, 463
Huckins, J.N. (1971), 175-177
 Hueck,  H.J. (1968), 463
Hucpcr, W.C. (1960), 455
     (1963), 56,  75
 Huet, M. (1965), 279
 Huff, C.B. et al. (1965), 301
—(see Gcldrcich, E.E. et al., 1962a,b; 1965),
   57
Iluggett, R.J. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al.,
   1968), 226,  227
 Hughes, D.F.  (see  Anderson, D.W.  et  al.,
   1969), 176,  227
 Hughes, J.S. (1962), 429-431
     (1963), 432
     (1964), 429
     (1967), 458
Huguct, J.H.  (see Gill, J.M. et al.,  1960), 455
 Hummerstone, L.G. (1971), 248
Hungate, P.P. (see  Cline,  J.F. et al., 1969),
   328

-------
546/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Hunn, J.S.  (tee Lennon, R.E. et al., 1970),
  440
Hunt, E.G.  (1960), 17, 18, 183
Hunt, G.S.  (1957), 145, 195
     (1962), 145
     (1966), 196, 262
Hunt, L.M. (see Clark, D.E. et al., 1964), 320
Hunter, Brian (unpublished data), 196
Hunter, B.F. et  al. (1970),  196
Hunter, C.G. (1967),  76
—et al.  (1969), 76
Hunter, F.T. et  al. (1942), 56
—(see Lowry, O.H. et al., 1942), 56
Hunter, J.E. (1971), 308
Hunter, J.G. (1953), 342, 344, 345
Hunter, J.V. (1971), 80
Hutchins, L.W.  (1947), 238
Hutchinson,	(1969), 19
Hutchinson, G.E. (1957), 142
     (1967), 23
Hutchinson, G.L.  (tee Stewart,  B.A. ct al.,
  1967), 73
Hymas, T.A. (1954), 79,  319
Hynes, H.B.N.  (1961), 184
     (1962),  408

ICRP   (see  International  Commission  on
  Radiological  Protection)
IMCO  (Intergovernmental Maritime Con-
  sultative Organization)
     (1965a,b),  262
Ichikawa, R. (1961), 470-473, 478
Ide, P.P. (1967), 184
Idler, D.R.  (1969), 254
Idyll, C.P. (1969), 28
Industrial Wastes (1956), 452
Ingle, R.M. (1952), 124
Inglis,  A. (see Henderson,  C.  et al., 1969),
  182, 434
Ingols, R.S. (1955), 248,  462, 467
Ingram, A.A. (1959, 1967), 18
—(see'Bay, E.G., 1966), 18
Ingram, W.M.  (1963), 55
     (1967), 17
—(see Kemp, L.E. et al., 1967), 35
—(see Ludzack,  F.J. et al., 1957), 145
Innes, J.R. et al. (1969), 76
Interdepartmental  Task   Force  on  PCB
  (1972), 82
International Commission  on  Radiological
  Protection (1960), 83, 273
     (1964, 1965), 273
International   Committee  on   Maximum
  Allowable  Concentrations  of  Mercury
  Compounds (1969), 314
Ippen, A.T. (1966), 279
Irukayama,  K.  (1967), 251
Irvine, J.W. (see Hunter, F.T. et al., 1942),
  56
—(see Lowry, O.H. et al., 1942), 56
Isaac, P.C.G. (1964),  281
Ishinishi, N. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969),
  83
Isom, B.C. (1960), 254, 456
Ison, H.C.K. (1966), 55
Ito, A. (see Yoshimura, H. et al.,  1971), 83
Ito, Y. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83
Ivanov, A.V. (1970), 75
Ivriani, I. (see Wassermann, M. et al., 1970),
  83
Iwao, T. (1936), 250, 251,  455
Jack, F.H. (see Cox, D.H. et al., 1960), 314
Jackim, E. et al. (1970), 244, 255, 451, 454,
  455, 457, 462, 465
Jackson,  M.D. (see  Bradley,  J.R.  et   al.,
  1972), 318
Jacobs, L.W. et al. (1970), 340
Jacobson,  L.O.  (see  Ducoff,  H.S.  et   al.,
  1948), 56
Jaglan, P.S. (see Gunther, F.A. et al., 1968),
  227
Jainudeen, M.R. et al. (1965), 315
James, E.G., Jr. (1949), 305
James, G.V.  (1965), 301
Jamnback, H.  (1945), 18
Jangaard, P.M. (1970), 254
Jannasch, H.W. et al. [1971), 277, 280
Jargaard, P.M. (1970) 240
Jaske, R.T. (1968), 403
     (1970), 160, 162
Jeffries, E.R. (see Hublow, W.F. et al., 1954),
  246
Jellison, W.L. (m Parker, R.R. et al., 1951),
  321
Jenkins, C.E.  (1969),  471
Jenkins, D.W.  (1964), 25
Jenne, E.A. (see Malcoln, R.L. et al., 1970),
  25
Jensen, A.II.  (see Brink,  M.F. et al., 1959),
  316
Jensen, A.L. et al. (1961)), 175, 176
     (1971), 162
Jensen, E.H. (1971),  3*4
Jensen, L.D. (1964), 424, 426, 427, 435
     (1966), 420, 421
—(see Gaufin, A.R. et U., 1965), 195
Jensen, S. (1969), 251, 264, 313
     (1970), 83
     (1972), 225, 226
—et al. (1969), 83, 172, 198, 226-268
—et al. (1970), 177, 268
Jensen, W.I. (1960), 196
Jensen-Holm, J. (see Nielson, K. et al., 1965),
  79
Jernejcia, F.  (1969), 2^3, 461, 462
Jernelov, A. (1969), 172, 198, 251, 313
     (1971), 172
     (1972), 174
—(see Jensen, S. et al. ' 970), 268
Jerstad, A.C. (see Miller, V.L. et al., 1961),
  313
Jitts, H.R. (1959), 281
Jobson, H.E. (1970),  403
Joensuu, O.I. (1971), "'2, 172, 251
Johansson, N.  (see  Jersen, S. et  al., 1970),
  177
Johnels, A.G.  (1969), 257
—et al. (1967), 172, 173, 175, 176
—(see Berg, W. et al., 1966), 252
—(see Birke, G. et al., 1968), 252
—(see Jensen, S.A. et al., 1969), 83, 198, 22(
  264, 267
The Johns Hopkins University
  Dept.  of Sanitary Engineering &  Wat<
  Resources (1956), 74
Johnson. A.H.  (see Conn, L.W. et al., 1932
  62
Johnson, B.T. et al. (1971), 437-439
Johnson, D., Jr. et al.  (1962), 316, 317
Johnson, D.W.  (1968), 184, 434
Johnson, H.E.  (1967, 1969), 184
Johnson, J.L. (unpublished data,  1970), 1"
— (see Stalling,  D.L. et al.,  1971),  437
Johnson, N.M. (see Likens,  G.E. et al., 1970
  125
Johnson,  M.W. (see Sverdrup, H.V. et 3.
  1942), 216
- (ice Sverdrup, H.V.  et al., 1946), 241
Johnson, W.C. (1968), 346
Johnson, W.K.  (1964), 55
Johnson,  W.L. (see Henderson,  C.  et a
  1969), 132, 434
Johnston, W.R. (1965), 335
Jones, B.  (1971), 164
Jones, J.R.E. (1938), 68, 242,  250, 453, 45;
    (1939), 181, 250, 253,  454, 456,  459
    (1940), 250
    (1948), 241, 255, 461,  464-467
    (19!>7'i, 245, 452, 455,  456
    (1964), 189, 464
Jopling, W.F. (see Merrell,  J.C. et al., 1967
  352
Jordan, C.M. (1968), 411
Jordan, D H.M. (1964), 122
—(see  Herbert,  D.W.M. et al., 1965), 45
  456
Jordan, H.A. et al. (1961), 315
Jordan, H M. (we Brown, V.M. et al., 1969
  122
Jordan, J.S. (1951, 1952),  228
Jordan, R A. (see Bender, M.E. et al., 1970
  179
Jorgensen, P.S. (see Williams, M.W. et a
  1958). 78
Joshi,  M.S. (see Page, A.L. et al., in  pres
  1971). 343
Joyner, T. (1961), 478
Kabler, P.W.  (1953), 351
     (1966'l, 301, 302
—ct al. (1964), 351
—(see Chang,  S.L. et al., 1958), 91
—(see Clarke,  N.A. et al., 1962), 91
—(see Geldeich, E.E. et al., 1962a,b; 1964
  57
Kaeberle, M.L. (see  Hemphill, F.E. et  a
  1971), 313
Kaempe, B. (see Nielson, K. et al., 1965), 7<
Kabrs, A.J. (see Adarns,  A.W. et al., 1967
  315
Kaiser, L.R. (see Vigil J. et al., 1965), 73
Kalmbach, E.R. (1934),  196, 197
Kalter, S.S. (1967), 91
Kamphake, L.J.  (see  Cohen,  J.M.  et  al
  1960), 64, 69, 71, 93

-------
                                                                                                                   Author Index/547
 Kamprath, E.J. (1970), 340
 Kanisawa, M. (1967), 56
     (1969), 60
 —(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968a), 312
 —(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968b), 309
 Kanwisher, J.W. (see Scholander, P.F. et al.,
   1955), 138
 Kaplan, H.M. (1961), 463
 —et al. (1967), 464
 Kapoor, I.P. (see Metcalf, R.L. et al., 1971),
   437
 Kardashev, A.V. (1964), 244
 Kardos, L.T. (1968), 352
 Kare, M.R. (1948),  308
 Kariya, T. et al. (1969), 455
 Karppanen, E.  (see Henriksson, K. ct al.,
   1966), 198, 252
 Katko, A. (see Merrell, J.C. et al., 1967), 352
 Kato, K. («« Yoshimura, H.etal., 1971), 83
 Katz, E.L. (see Pringle, B.H. et al., 1968), 38,
   246, 247
 Katz, M. (1950), 139
     (1953), 177,  179,  180,  242, 247,  250,
       251,253,451,453,455,464
     (1961), 242,  267,  420-423, 485,  487,
       489, 491, 493, 495
     (1967), 91
     (1969), 140
 —(see Van Horn et al., 1949), 256
 Kaupman, O.W. (1964), 196
 Kawahara,  F.K.  (see Breidenbach,  A.W.  et
   al., 1967), 318
 Kawalczyk, T. (see Simon, J. et al., 1959),
   315
 Kawano, S. (1969),  60
 Kay, H. (see Simon,  C. et al., 1964), 73
 Kearney,  P.C.  (see  Woolson,  E.A.  et al.,
   1971), 318, 340
 Keaton, C.M. (see Vandecaveye, S.C. et al.,
   1936), 340
 Keck,  R. (see Malous, R. et al.,  1972), 135
 Keen, D.J. (1953,  1955), 230
Keeney, D.R. (see Jacobs, L.W. et al., 1970),
   340
Kehoe, R.A. (1940a), 70, 87
     (1947, 1960a,b), 70
Kcimann,  H.A. (see Hovens, W.P.  et al.,
   1941), 29
Keith, J.A.  (1966), 198
—(see Fimreite, N. et al., 1970),  252
Keller, F.J. (1963), 125
Keller,  W.T.  (see  Whitworth W.R. et al.,
   1968), 27
Kelly, C.B. (see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278
 Kelly, S. (1958), 55
     (1964), 90
Kelman, A. (1953), 349
Keltncr, J. (unpublished data), 493, 505
—(see  Cooley,  N.R.  et al.,  unpublished
  data), 489
Kemeny, T. (1969),  76
Kemp, H.T. et al. (1966), 457
 Kemp, P.H. (1971),  140, 241
 Kemper,  W.D.  (see Stewart,  B.A.  et al.,
   1967), 73
 Kendrick, M.A. (1969), 277
 Kennedy, F.S. (tee Wood, J.M. et al., 1966),
   172
 Kennedy, H.D. (1970), 437
 —et al. (1970), 195, 437
 Kennedy, V.S. (1967), 152
 Kennedy, W.K. (1960), 314
 Kenner, B.A.  (see Geldreich, E.E.  et al.,
   1964, 1968), 57
 Kenzy, S.G.   (see  Gillespie,  R.W.  et al.,
   1957), '21
 Kerridge, P.C. ct al. (1971), 338
 Kcrswill, C.J. (1967),  184
 Ketchum, B.H. (1939), 275
     (1951, 1953, 1955), 230
     (1952), 230,  280
     (1967), 228,  229
 —et al. (1949,  1958), 275
 —et al. (1951), 280
 —(see Redfield, A. et al., 1963), 275
 —(see Revelle, R. et al , 1972), 257
 Kctz,	(1967), 91
 Keup, L.E.  (1970), 301
 —et al. (1967), 35
 Keys, M.C. (see Bower, C A. et al., 1965), 335
 Khan, J.M. (1964), 471
 Kienholz, E.W et al. (1966), 315
 Kiigemai, U. (see Terriere, L.C. et al., 1966),
  183
 Kimble,  K.A. (see  Grogan,  R.G. et  al.,
  1958), 349
 Kimerle, R A. (1968),  18
Kimura, K. (see Kariya, T. et al., 1969), 455
 King, D.L. (1970), 23
 King, J.E. (m Lynch,  J.J. ct al., 1947), 24
 King, P.II. (1970), 130
 King, W.R. (see Buchler, E.V.  et al., 1971),
  67
Kinnan,  R.N. (see Black, A.P. et al., 1965),
  301
Kinnc, O. (1963), 162
     (1970), 152,  162
 Kip, A.F. (see Lowry, O.H. et al., 1942), 56
—(see Hunter, F.T. et  al., 1942), 56
Kirk, W.G. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1970),
  343
Kirkor, T. (1951), 481, 482
Kirven, M.N. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al.,
  1968), 83, 175, 198,  264, 266-268
Kitamura, M. (1970),  251
Kiwimae, A. et al. (1969), 313
Kjellander, J.O. (1965), 301
Klavano, P.A. (see Miller, V.L. ct al., 1961),
  313
Kleeman, I. (1941), 60
Klein, D.A.  (see Atherton, H.V. et al., 1962),
  302
Klein, D.H. (1970), 172, 251
    (1971), 172
Klein, Louis (1957), 1
Klein, M. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Klingler, G.W. (1968), 145
    (1970), 146
Klingler, J.W.  (1970),  196
Klotz, L.J. et al.  (1959), 349
Klumb, G.H. (1966), 302
Klussendorf, R.C. (1958), 316
 Knetsch, J.L. (1963), 399
 Knight, A.P. (1901), 249
 Knowles, G. (see Owens, M. et al., 1969), 24
 Koegel, R.G. et al. (1972),  26
 Koehring, V. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1935),
   147
 Koeman, J.H.  (1970), 198, 225, 226, 265,
   267
 —et al. (1969),  83, 175
 —(see Vos, J.G. et al., 1970), 118, 225
 Koenuma, A. (1956), 256
 Koff, R S. et al. (1967), 36
 Kofoid, C.A. (1923), 89
 Kofranck, A.M. (see Lunt, O.R. et al., 1956),
   329
 Kohchi, S. (see Kwatsune, M. ct al., 1969), 83
 Kohe, H.C. (see  Lunt, O.R.  et al., 1956), 329
 Kohls, G.M. (see Parker, R.R.  ct al., 1951),
   321
 Kohlschutter, H.  (see  Meinck,  F.  et  al.,
   1956), 145, 241, 243, 250,  251, 450, 455
 Kolbye, A.C. (1970), 240, 251
 Kolesar, D.C. (1971), 403
 Kolkwitz, R. (1908, 1909), 408
 Konrad, J.G. (1971), 318
 Kopp, B.L.  (1969), 93
 Kopp, J.F.  (1965), 245
     (1969), 56, 59,  60, 62, 64, 70, 87
     (1970), 309-312, 314, 316
 Korn, S. (see Macck, K.J. et al , 1970), 436
Korpincnikov, V.S. et al. (1956), 469
Korringa, P  (1952), 27, 241
Korschen, L.J. (1970), 266
 Korschgcn,  B.M. et al. (1970),  149
 Kott, Y. ct al. (1966), 245
Kovalsky, V.V.  et al. (1969), 477
Kramer,  R.H. (see  Smith,  L.L.,  Jr. et  al.,
   1965),  128, 154
Krantz, W.C. ct al. (1970),  266
Kratzer, F.H. (1968), 316
 Kraus, E.J.  (1946), 79
Kraybill, H.F. (1969),  185
Kreitzer, J.F. et al. (in press, 1972), 226
—(see Heath, R.G. et al., 1969), 197, 198, 226
Kreider, M.B. (1964), 32
Kreissl, J.F. (1966), 301, 302
Krenkel, P.A. (1969), 152, 403
     (1969a), 152
Krishnawami, S.K. (1969),  147
Krista, L.M. (1962), 308
—et al. (1961), 195, 308
—(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308
Kristoffersen, T. (1958), 301
Krone, R.B. (1962), 16
     (1963), 127
Kroner, R.C. (1965), 245
     (1970), 309-312, 314, 316
Krook, L. (ireDavison, K.L. et al., 1964), 314
Krygier, J.T. (1970), 125
Kubota, J. ct al. (1967),  316, 344
Kuhn, R. (1959), 457,  461,  462, 464-467
     (1959a), 243, 250, 253,  255,  256
     (1959b), 253, 256
Kunin, R. (1960), 63
Kunitake,  E. (see  Kuratsune,  M. et  al.,
   1969), 83

-------
548/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Kunkle, S.H.  (1967), 39
Kupchanko, ^.E. (1969),  145, 147
Kuratsune, M. et al. (1969), 83
Kutches, A.J. ct al. (1970), 320

Labanauskas,  C.K. (1966), 342
Lackey,  J.B.  (1959), 252,  253
Lackncr, E.A. et al. (1970), 27, 28
La Casse, W.J. (1955),  25
Lagerwerff, J.V. (1971), 342
Lakin, H.W.  (1967), 86
—(see Bycrs, H.G  ct al., 1938), 316
Lamar, W.L.  (1963),  63
     (1966), 63, 301
     (1968), 301
Lament, T.G. (tee Mulhern, B.M. et al.,
   1970), 227
Lamson, G.G. (1953), 66
Lance, J.C. (1970), 352
—(in press, 1972), 352
Landsberg, J.ll. et ,d. (1963), 381
Lane, C.E. (1970), 481, 487
Lange, R (tee Jensen, S. et al., 1970 , 268
Langelier, W.F. (1936), 335
Langham,  R  F.  (see Decker,  L.E. ct al.,
   1958), 60
—(see MacKcnzic, R.D. et al., 1958), 62
Langille, L.M. (see Li, M.F. ct al., 1970), 254
LaQuc, F.L.  (1963), 55
Larghi, L.A.  (tee Trelles,  R.A. ct al., 1970),
   56
Lanmore, R. (1963),  124
LaRochc, G.  (1967), 262
     (1972), 240, 246, 248, 257
—et al. (1970), 261
Larochellc, L.R.  (see Sproul, O.T. et al.,
   1967), 92
LaRozc, A. (1955), 249
Larscn, C. (1913), 307
Larsen, ILL.  (1964), 321
Larson, T.E.  (1939), 55
     (1961), 68
     (1963), 89
—(see Harmeson,  R.H. et  al.,  1971), 73
Larwood, C.FI. (1930),  307
Lasater, J.E. (see Holland, G.A. ct al., 1960),
  242, 246, 247, 451, 452, 461, 463-465
Lasater,  R.  (see  Wallcn,  I.E. ct al.,  1957),
  145, 245, 450-457
Lassheva, M.M.   (tee  Malishevskaya, A.S.
  et al.,  1966), 313
Lathwell, D.J. ct  al. (1969), 24
Laubusch, E.J. (1971),  55, 301
Lauff, G.H. (1967), 216
Lavcntncr, C.  (see Aschncr, M. et al., 1967),
   147
Lau, J.P. (1968),  353
—et al. (1970), 353
Lawlcr, G.H.  (1965),  164
—(see Sunde, L.A. et al., 1970), 20
Lawrence, J.M. (1968), 26, 305
Lawton, G.W. et al.  (1960), 353
Lazar, V.A. (see Kubota, J. ct  al., 1967), 316
Leach, R.E. (see England,  B. et al.,  1967), 92
Leak, J.P. (see  Lumsden, L.L. ct al., 1925), 36
Learner, M.A. (1963), 458
LeBosquet, M. (1945), 550
LeClerc, E. (1950), 451
     (1955), 245, 450, 451
     (1960), 245, 456
LeCorrolla, Y. (see Flock, H. et al., 1963), 453
Leduc,  G. (see Doudoroff, P. et al.,  1966),
  123, 140, 189, 241, 451, 453, 455, 457, 464
Lee, C.R. (1967),  345
Lee, D.C. (see Broyer, T.C. ct al., 1966), 345
Lee, D.H.K. (1970), 73
Lee  G.B. (see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968), 183
Lee, G.F. (1962), 80
     (1971), 83
Lee, R.D (see McCabc, L.J. et al., 1970), 56,
  70
Leendertse, J.J. (1970) 403
Leet, W.L. (1969), 479
Lcfcvre,  P A. (see Dank 1, J.W. ct al., 1971),
  313
Legg, J.T. (1958), 344
Lehman, A.J. (1951), 79
     (1965), 76, 77, 79
Lehman, H C.  (1965),  3
Lcitch, I. (1944), 305
Lcka, [I.  (see Papavassiliou, J. ct al., 1967),
  57
Lckarev,  V.S.  (see Kovalsky,  V.V. et  al.,
  1967), 477
Lemke, A.E. (see Henderson, C. et al., 1960),
  190
—(see  Pickering,  O.H. ct al.,  1962),  184,
  423-426
Lcmke, A.L. (1970), 161
Lemon, E.R. (see Kubota, J. et al., 1963), 344
Lener, J. (1970),  60
Lcnglois, T.H.  (1941),  126
Lennon, R.E.  (1964), 434
     (1967), 119
     (1970), 437, 441
—et al. (1970), 441
—(see Bcrger, B.L. et al., 1969), 435
Leonard. E.N.  (1970),  454
Leonard, J.W. (1961), 27
Leone, LA. (see Prince, A.L. et al., 1949), 343
Leone, N.C. et al. (1954), 66
Leopold, A. (1953), 1
Leopold, L.B. (1971), 400
—et al. (1964), 22, 126
—et al. (1969), 400
Lcspcrance, A.L.  (1963 1971), 344
     (1965), 307
—(see Weeth, H.J. et a!., 1968), 307
LeRiche, H.H. (1968), 341
Leuschow, L.A. (see Machenthun,  K.M.  et
  al, 1960), 20
Lcvander, A.O. (1970), 86
Levy, M.D. (1923), 65
Lewis, C.W. (1967), 470
Lewis, D. (1951), 315
Lewis, K.H. (see McFanen, E.F. et al., 1965),
  38
Lewis, P.K. et al. (1957), 316, 317
Lewis, R.F. (1965), 302
Lewis, R.H.  (see  Bond. C.E.  et al., 1960),
  429-432
Lewis, R.M. (1965, 1968), 410
Lewis, W.M. (1960), 249, 464, 465
Li, M.F. et al.  (1970), 254
Lichtenberg, J.J. (1960), 74
     (1969), 320
     (1970), 182
—ct al. (1969), 319
—(see Brcidenback, A.W. et al., L967), 318
Lichtenstein, E.P. et al.  (1966), 318
Lieber, M. (1951), 62
     (1954), 60
Lieberman.  J.E.  (see Leone,  N.C.  et  al
   1954), 66
Liebig, G.F. et al. (1942), 340, 342
—et al. (1959), 340
Ligas,  FJ.  (see Krantz,  W.C.  et  al.,  1970]
   266
Lignon, W.S. (1932), 340
Likens, G.E. (1967), 22
—ct al. (1970), 125
Likosky, W'.H. (see Curlcy, A. et  al.,  1971]
   313
Lilleland, O. et al. (1945), 329
Lillick, L. (see Ketchum, B.H. et  al.,  1949]
   275
Lincer, J.L.  (1970), 175, 267
—(see Cadi, T.J. et al.,  1970), 227
—(.see  Peak all, P.B. et al., in press,  1972;
   225, 226
Lincoln, J.H. (1943), 21
Lind, C.T. (1969), 24
Lindroth, A. (1957), 135
Lindsay, N.L. (1958), 69, 71
Lindstrom, O. (see Swenson, A. et al.,  1959]
   313
Link, R.P. (1966), 313
Linn, D.W.  (see  Siglcr,  W F. ct  al.,  1966]
   248, 453
Linnenbom,  V.J. (see Swinnerton, J.W. e
   al., 19621, 138
Lipschuetz, M. (1948), 190, 454,  456
Litchfield, J.T.,  Jr.  (1949),  121, 434, 49J
   497, 499, 501, 503, 505
Litsky, W. ct al., (1953), 31
Little,  C.O. (see Mitchell, G.E. et al.,  1967]
   315
Little,  E.C.S. (1968), 26
Liu, O.C. (1970), 277
Livermoie, D.F. (1969),  26
—(see Bruhn, H.D. et al., 1971), 26
—(see Koegel, R.G. et al., 1972), 26
Livingston, R.E.  (1970),  421
Livingston, R.J. (1970),  487
Livingstone, D.A. (1963), 301,  373
Ljunggren, P. (1955),  59
Lloyd, M. (1964), 408
Lloyd, R.  (1960), 178,  179, 187, 450, 45?
   477
     (1961), 122,  133, 182, 187
     (1961a), 120
     (1961b), 120, 463
     (1962), 142
     (1964). 122
     (1969). 122,  187, 242, 451
—(see Herbert, D.W.M. ct al., 1965), 453
  456
Locke, L.N. (1967), 228

-------
                                                                                                                    Author Index/549
 —(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970), 227
 Lockhart, E.E. et al. (1955), 61, 89
 Loforth, G. (1969), 251
     (1970), 173
 —(see Ackefors, H. et al., 1970), 237
 Lombard, O.M. (1951), 56
 Longbottom,  J.E.  (see Lichtenberg,  J.J.  et
   al.,  1969), 319, 320
 —(see Lichtenberg, J.J. et al., 1970), 182
 Loos, J.J. (see Cairns, S., Jr. et al., 1965), 457
 Loosanoff, V.L. (1948), 241, 281
     (1962), 281, 282
 Lopinot,  A.C. (1962), 147
     (1972), 28
 Lorcnte, de No., R. (1946), 59
 Lotse, E.G. et al. (1968), 183
 Loveless,  L. (see Romoser, G.L.  et al., 1961),
   311, 316
 Low, J.B. (1970), 197
 Lowe, J.I. (1965),  37
     (1967), 495
     (1971), 267
 —et al. (1965), 487
 —et al. (1971a), 489
 —(see  Duke, T.W. et al., 1970),  83, 176, 177,
   264
 —(see H.msen, D.J  et al., 1971), 176,  505
 Lowman, F.G. (1960), 251, 253
 —et al. (1971), 240, 243, 244, 246-248
 Lowrance, B.R.  (1956), 253, 451, 457
 Lowry, O.H. et  al.  (1942), 56
 Lucas, R.C. (1964), 14
 Ludemann, D. (1953), 251
 Ludwig, D.D. (1962), 301
 Ludzach, FJ. (1962), 55
—ct al. (1957), 145
Lumsdcn, L.L. et al.  (1925), 36
 Lund, (1965), 301
     (1967), 92
Lund, J.W.G. (1950), 275
Lundgren, K.D. (fee Swensson A.  ct  al.,
   1959), 313
Lunin, J. (1960), 337, 338
— et al. (1960, 1964). 338
—et al. (1963), 336
Lunt, O.R. et al. (1956), 329
—(ire Frolich, E. ct al., 1966), 342
Lunz,  R G  (1938,  1942),  281
Lyle, W E.  (see Moubry,  R.J. ct al.,  1968),
   320
Lynch, J J. ct al. (1947), 24
Lynch, M.P. (see Harrison, W. ct al., 1964),
  279
Lyon,  W.S. (see Wallace, R.A.  et al.,  1971),
  72, 173, 240, 252

Maag, D.D. (1967), 316
Mace, H.H. (1953), 142
Macck, K.J. (1968), 184,  437
     (1970), 420-423, 425, 428, 438
—(unpublished data,  1971), 184
Macklin,  L.J. (see Romoser,   J.L.  et  al.,
   1961), 311, 316
Macklis, L. (1941), 340
Machenthun, K.M. (1963), 55
     (1967), 17, 18
     (1969), 17, 35
     (1970), 302
 —et al. (1960), 20
 —(see Keup, L.E. et al., 1967), 35
 Machin, J.G. (1961),  124, 281
 Machle, W. (1948), 62
 Maddox, D.M. et al. (1971), 26
 Madsen, M.A. (see Harris, L.E. et al., 1963),
   312
 Magistad, O.C. et al. (1943), 324, 336
 Magnusson, H.W.  (1950), 38
 Mahan, J.N. (see Fowler, D.L. et al., 1971),
   434
 Mahood,  R K. ct al. (1970), 489
 Malacca, I. (1963), 452
     (1966), 450, 451,  455, 464
 Malancy, G.W. (1959), 252
 — ct al. (1962), 301, 302
 Malcolm, J.F. (see Fraser, M.H. et al., 1956),
   57
 Malcolm, R.L. et al. (1970), 25
 Malherbe, H.H.  (1967), 92
 Malishcvskaya, A.S. et al.  (1966), 313
 Mailman,  W.L. (see Litsky, W. et al., 1953),
   31
 Malone, F.E. (1960), 1
 Maloney, T.E. (1955), 453
 —(w Erickson, S.J. et al., 1970), 268, 505
 Malous, R. et al. (1972), 135
 Mandclli. E.F. (1969), 87
 Manheim, F.T. ct al. (1970), 281
 Mann, K.H. (1970), 254
 Manny, B.A. (1971, 1972), 25
 Mansueti,  R.J. (1962), 279
 Manzke, H. (see Simon C. et al., 1964), 73
 Maramorosch, K. (1967), 91
 Marchetti, R. (1965), 190
 Margalef, R. (1958), 408
 Margaria,  R.  (see  Van  Slykc,  D.D. et al.,
   1934), 138
 Marion, J.R. (1971), 248
 Marisawa, M. (1969),  400
 Marking,  L L. (1967),  435
 Marsh, M. (see Drinker, K.R. ct al., 1927),
  317
 —(ice Thompson, P.K. et al., 1927), 317
 Marsh, M.C. (1904). 135
 Marshall, A.R. (1968),  279
 Marshall, R R. (1968), 124
 Marsson, M. (1908, 1909), 408
 Martin, A.G. (1939), 25
 Martin, D.J.  (fee Risebrough, R.W. et al.,
  1972), 225
 Martin, E.G. (1969), 124
Martin, J.1I. ct al.  (in  press, 1972), 252
— (see Andcrlini, V C. et al., 1972), 226, 246
— (see Gonners, P.G. et al.,  1972a), 226
Martin, R.G.  (1968), 8, 441
Martin, S.S. (see  Sigler, W.F.  ct al., 1966),
  248, 453
Masch, F.D. (1967), 281, 282
     (1969, 1970), 403
Mascoluk, D. (see  Addison, R.F. et al., 1971),
  254
Masironi,  R. (1969), 68
Mason, J.A. (1962), 36
 Mason, J.W. (see Rowe,  D.R. et al.,  1971),
   266
 Mason, K.E. (1967), 311
 Mason, W.P. (1910), 69
 Massey, F.J., Jr. (1951),  408
 Mathews, D.C.  (see Hiatt, R.W. et al., 1953),
   245, 246, 462
 Mathis, B.J. (1968), 144
 Mathis,  W.  (see School,  H.F. et al.,  1963),
   174
 Matrone, G. (see Hathcock, J.N. et al., 1964),
   316
 —(see Hill, C.H. et al., 1963), 311
 Matson,  W.R.   (see  Bender,  M.E.  et al.,
   1970), 179
 Matsuzaka,  J.  (see Huratsune, M. et al.,
   1969), 83
 Mattenheimer,  H. (1966), 438
 Matingly, D. (1962), 438
 Mauldmg, J.S.  (1968), 89
 — (see Black, A.P. et al , 1963), 63
 —(see Singley, J.E  et al., 1966), 63
 Maurer, D. (see Melons, R. et al., 1972), 135
 Mayer, F.L., Jr. (1970),  184
     (1972),  176
 Meaclc, R.H. (1969), 281
 —(see Manheim, F.T. et al., 1970), 281
 Mcagher, J.W.  (1967), 348
 Mcdcof, J.C. (1962), 38
 — (see Gibbard,  J et al.,  1942), 36
 Medvinskaya, K.G. (1946),  89
 Meehan, O.L. (1931), 243
 Meeks,  R.L. (sec  Eberhardt,  L.L.  et al.,
   1971), 439
 Mcgregian,  S  (see Butterfield,  G.T. et al.,
   1943), 55
 Mehran, A.H. (1965), 479
 Mchring, A.L., Jr. (see Johnson, D., Jr. ct al.,
   1962), 316, 317
 Mchrlc, P.M. (1970), 438
     (unpublished, 1971),  176
 Mciller, F.J. (1941), 60
 Mciman, J.R. (1967), 39
 Mcinck,  F. et al. (1956),  145, 241,  243, 250,
   251, 450, 455
 Mcith, S J. (1970), 464
 - (see Hazel, G.R. ct al., 1971), 187
 Meloy, T.P.  (1971), 262
 Menzel, B.W. (1969)   152
 Menzel, D.B. (1967),  251, 462-465
 —(see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1972),  225
 Menzel, R.G. (1965), 332
 —(personal communication,  1972), 332
 — ct al.  (1963), 332
 Menzie, C.M. (1969),  80
 Mercer, W.A. (1971),  302
 'Jhe Merck, IndeK of Chemicals & Drugs (1952),
  65
     (1960), 70,  72, 86, 241
 Mcrilan, C.P. (1958), 314
 Merkcns, J.C. (1952),  464
     (1955, 1957), 187
     (1958), 189, 452
Mcrlini, M. (1967), 474, 475
Mcrna, J.W. (unpublished data, 1971), 422
Merrell, J.C. et  al. (1967), 352

-------
550/ Water Quality Criteria,  1972
Mcrriman, D. et al. (1965), 157
Mcrritt, M.C.  (see Lockhart, E.E.  et  al.,
   1955), 61, 89
Mertz, W. (1967), 311
     (1969), 62
Mctcalf, R.L.  et al. (1971), 438
Metcalf, T.G.  (1968), 276
—(see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278
—(see Slanetz, L.W. ct al., 1965), 276
Metzler, D.W.  (see Coburn, D.R.  et  al.,
   1951), 228
Meyer,  K.F. (1937), 38
Meyers, J.J. et al. (1969),  32
Miale, J.B. (1972),  73
Michapoulos, G.  (see Papavassiliou, J. et al.,
   1967), 57
Michel, R. (1942), 380
Michigan  Dept. of  Agriculture  (personal
   communications,  1970),  184
Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources (1969),
   261
     (1970), 14
Middaugh, D.P.  (see Mahood, R.K. et  al.,
   1970), 489
Middlebrooks, E.J.  (see Goldman, J.C. et al.,
   1971), 23
Middleton, P.M. (1956, 1961b), 75
     (1960, 1.961 a),  74
     (1962), 80
—(w Braus, R. et al.,  1951), 74
—(see Burttschcl, R.H. et al., 1959), 80
—(see also Rosen, A.A. et al.,  1956), 75
Mienke, W.M. (1962), 240
Miettinen,  J.K.  (tee Miettinen, V.  et  al.,
   1970), 172-174
Miettinin, V. et al.  (1970), 172-174
Mihara, Y. (1967),  328
Mihursky, J.A. (1967),  152
Mikolaj, PG.  (1971), 262
Milbourn, G.M. (1965), 332
Miles, A.A. (1966), 321
Millar, J.D. (1965), 149
Millcmann, R.E. (1969), 491, 495
—(see Buchanan, D.V. et al., 1969), 267,  495
—(see Butler, P.A. et al., 1968), 495
—(see Stewart, N.E. et al., 1967), 495
Miller, C.W. et al.  (1967), 346
Miller Freeman  Publications  (undated),  382
Miller, J.P. (tee Leopold, L.B. et al., 1964).
   22, 126
Miller, J.T. (see Byers, II.G. et al., 1938),  316
Miller, M.A. (1946), 463
Miller, R.R. (1961), 27
Miller, R.W. (in press), 135
Miller, V.L. et al. (1961),  313
Miller, N.J. (1971), 310
Millikan, C.R. (1947), 435
     (1949), 344
Milne, D.B. (1971), 316
Milner, J.E. (1969), 56
Minakami,  S.  (see  Yoshimura,  H.  et  al.,
   1971), 83
Miner,  M.L. (see Shupe, J.L. et al., 1964),
   312
Ministry of Agriculture  Fisheries  &  Food
   (1967), 273
Ministry of Mansport, Canada (1970); 262,
  263
Minkina, A.L. (1946), 249
Minter, K.W. (1964), 144
Mironov, O.G. (1967), 261
     (1971), 261
Mitchell, G.E. et al. (1967), 315
Mitchell, H.H. (1962), 304
Mitchell, I. (see Courtney, K.D. et al., 1970),
  79
—(see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Mitchell, J.D.  (see Miegler,  D.J. et  al.,
  1970), 315
Mitchell, T.J. (1969), 2" 3
Mitchencr,  M. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al.,
  1968a), 312
—(see Schroeder,  H.A. et al., 1968b), 309
Mitrovic, U.U. et al. (1968), 191, 460
—(see Brown,  V.M. et al., 1968), 468
Mizuno, N. (1968), 344
Mock, C.R. (1967), 279
Modin, J.C. (1964), 26"'
Mocller, H.C. (1962, 1964), 78
—(see Williams, M.W. tt al., 1958), 78
Moffet, J.W. (1957), 27
Modin, J.C. (1969), 37
Moiseev, P.A. (1964). 214
Molinaii, V. (see Deschiens, R. et al., 1957),
  467
Mollison, W.R. (1970), 434
Molnar, G.W. (1946), 32
Monk, B.W. (see Ebel, W.J. et al., 1970), 161
—(see Ebel, W.J. et al., 1971), 137
Mood, E.W. (1968), 33
Moon, C.E. (see Emery, R.M. et al., 1972), 20
Moorby, J. (1963), 332
Moore, B. (1959), 30, 31
Moore, D.P. (see Kerridge, P.C. et al., 1971),
  338
Moore, E.W. (1951), 246
     (1952, 1958), 89
Moore,  H.B.  (see McNultey, J.K. et  al.,
  1967), 279
Moore, J.A. (1971), 79
Moore, M.J. (1971), 302
Moore, P.O. (see Allaway, W.H. et al., 1966),
  345
Moore, R.L. (1960), 18
Moore, W.A.  (see Black, H.II. et al., 1957),
  450
Moreng,  R.E. (see Kicnholz,  E.W. et  al.,
  1966), 315
Morgan, G.B. (1961), 256
Morgan, J.J.  (1962), 130
Morgan, J.M. (1969), 60
Morgan, R. (see Amend, D.R. et al., 1969),
  462
Mori, T.  (1955),  477
Morikawa,  Y. (see Kuratsune,  M. et  al.,
  1969), 83
Morris, B.F. (1971), 257
Morris, H.D. (1949), 344
Morris, J.C. (1962), 80
     (1971), 92
—(see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948), 55
Morris, J.N. (1967), 70
—(see Crawford, M.D. et al., 1968), 68
Morris, M.J. (1956), 305
Morris, V.C. (1970), 86
Morrison, F.B. (1936, 1959), 305
Morrison, S.R. (see Mount, L.E. et al., 1971'
  305
Mortimer, C.H. (1941),  21
Mosley, J.W. (1964a,b), 36
     (1967), 91
     (1969), 277
—(see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967), 36
Mosley, W.H. (see  Chin,  T.D.Y. et al., 1967]
  91
Mott, J.C. (1948), 453
Motz, L.H. (1970), 403
Moubry, R.J. et al.  (1968), 320
Moulton, F.R. (1942), 66
Mount, D.I. (1964), 467
     (1965), 121
     (1966), 68, 179, 460
     (1967)   120-122, 184,  185,  425, 431
      434, 435, 469
     (1968), 120, 122, 180, 184, 234, 454
     (1969)  180, 454, 463
     (1970). 160, 171
—(unpublished, 1971), 173, 174
—(personal communications, 1971), 173
Mount, L.E. et al. (1971), 305
Mt.  Pleasant, R.C. (1971), 55
Moxon, A.L. (1936), 309
     (1937). 316
Mrak, E.M. (1969),  182, 185
Mrowitz, G. (see Simon, C. et al., 1964), 73
Mueting, L. (1951),  350
Mugler,  D.J. et al. (1970), 315
Muhrcr, M.E. (see Bloomfield,  R.A. et al.
  1961), 315
Mulawka,  S.T. (see Pringle,  B.H.  et al.
  1968), 38, 246, 247
Mulbarger, M. (see Barth, E.F. et al., 1966)
  55
Mulhern, B.M. et  al. (1970), 227
—et al.  (1971), 176
—(tee Krantz, W.C.  et al., 1970),  266
Mullen,  R N.  (see  Atherton,  H.V. et al.
  1962), 302
Muller, G. (1955,  1957), 351
Mulligan, H.F. (1969), 25
—(see Larhwell, D.J. et al.,  1969), 24
Mullison, W.R. (1966), 79
Mullin, J.B.  (1956), 245
Mullison, W.R. (1970), 183
Mulvihill, J.E. ct al. (1970), 310
Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (1965)
  278
     (1963), 282
Munson, J. (1947), 340
Murata, 1. et al. (1970), 60
Muratori, A., Jr. (1968), 34
Murdal, G.R.  (see  Moubry,  R.J.  et al.
  1968), 320
Murdock, H.R. (1953), 250, 253, 256, 455
Murie, M. (1969), 400
Murozumi, M. et al. (1969), 249
Murphy, W.H. et  al. (1958), 350
Murphy, W.H., Jr. et al. (1958), 350

-------
                                                                                                                  Author Index/551
Murphy, W.J. (see  Williams,  H.R.  et  al.,
   1956), 29
Murray, G.D.  (see Breed, R.S. et al., 1957),
   321
Musil, J. (1957), 56
Muss, D.L. (1962), 68
Mussey,  O.D. (1957), 380
Muth, O.H. (1963), 316
— (see Allaway, W.H. et al., 1966), 345
—(see Oldfield, J.E. et al.,  1963), 86
Myers, L.H. (see Law, J.P. et al., 1970), 353

McAllister, F.F. (see  Meyers,  J.J.  et  al.,
   1969), 32
McAllister, W.A. (1970), 420, 422, 423, 425,
   428
MacArthur, J.W. (1961), 408
MacArthur, R.H. (1961, 1964, 1965), 408
McBride, J.M. (see Sparr, B.I. et al., 1966),
   346
McCabe, L.J. (1970), 70
—ct al. (1970), 56
—(see Winton,  E.F. et al., 1971), 73
McCall,  J.T. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1957),
   307
McCance,  R.A. (1952), 304
McCarthy, E.D. (see Han, J. et al , 1968), 145
McCarthy, H.  (1961), 26
McCauley, R.N.  (1964), 145
McCauley, R.W. (1958), 418
     (1963), 416
McClurc, F.J.  (1949), 310
     (1953), 66
McComish, T.S. (1971), 154, 160
McConnell, R.J. (1970), 415, 416, 419
McCormick, J.H. et al. (1971), 154, 160
McGormick, W.C.  (see Silvey, J.K.G. et al.,
   1950), 74, 89
McCrea, C.T.  (see Harbourne, J.F.  et  al.,
   1968), 313
McCroan,  J.E. (see Williams, H.R.  et  al.,
   1956), 29
McCulloch, W.F. (1966), 29
—(see Crawford, R.D. et al., 1969), 321
McDerrnott, G.N.  (see  Booth, R.L.  et  al.,
   1965), 75
—(see English, J.N. et al., 1963), 34, 148
—(see Surber, E.W. et al., 1965), 148
McDermott, N.G.  (see  Black,  H.H.  et  al.,
   1957), 450
MacEachern, C.R. (see Chisholm, D. ft al.,
   1955), 340
McElroy,  W.D.  (see Harvey,  E.N.  et  al.,
   1944a), 135
—(see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 136
McEntee, K. (1950), 319
     (1962), 314
     (1965), 315
—(see Davison, K.L. et al.,  1964), 314
MacFarlane, R.B.  (see Harriss,  R.C. et  al.,
   1970), 173
McFarren, E.F. et al. (1965), 38
McGovock, A.M. (1932), 138
McGirr,  J.L. (1953), 319
McGrath,  H.J.W. (see Hopkins, C.L. et al.,
   1966), 184
Mclllwain, P.K. (1963), 315
Maclnnes, J.R.  (see Calabrese, A.  et  al.,
  unpublished), 250, 253, 255
Maclntire, W.H. et  al.  (1942), 343
Mclntosh, D.L. (1966), 349
Mclntosh, I.G. et  al. (1943), 315
—(see Grimmett, R.E.R. et al., 1937), 316
Mclntosh, R.P. (1967), 408
Mclntyre, C.D. (1968), 165
McKee, J.E. (1963), 2, 55, 74, 144, 177, 179,
  189, 241, 255, 308-314, 317, 321, 339,  380
McKee, M.T. et al.  (1958), 196
McKendry,  J.B.J. (see Armstrong,  J.G. et
al., 1958), 315
MacKenzie,  A.J.  (see  Mcnzel, R.G. ct  al.,
  1963), 332
McKenzie, M.D.  (see Mahood, R.K. et  al.,
  1970), 489
MacKenzie, R.D.  et al. (1958), 62
McKim, J.M. (1971),  120, 122
^(unpublished data, 1971), 180
McKinley, P.W. (see Malcolm, R.L. et  al.,
  1970), 25
McKnight, D.E. (1970), 196
McLaran, J.K. (see Clark, D.E. et al., 1964),
  320
MacLean, A. (1939), 61
MacLean, A.J. (see llalstead, R.L.  ct  al.,
  1969), 344
McLean,  E.D.  (see Shoemaker, H.E. et  al.,
  1961), 340
McLean,  G.W. (see Pratt, P.F. ct al., 1964),
  339
McLean,  W.R. (1962), 36
MacLeod, J.C.  (see  Smith,  L.L , Jr. et  al.,
  1965), 218
McLoughlin, T.E. (1957), 451, 457, 461
McManus, R.G. (1953), 56
McNabb, C.D.  (see Mackenthun, K.M. et al.,
  1960), 20
McNary, R.R.  (tee Kehoe, R.A. et al., 1940),
  70
McNeil, W.J. (1956), 139
McNultey, J.K. et al. (1962),  279
MacPhee, A.W.  (see Chisholm,  D.  ct  al.,
  1955), 340
McQuillan, J. (1952), 57
McRae, G.N. (1959, 1960),  347

NAS (see National  Academy of Sciences)
NCRP (see National Council  on Radiation
  Protection  & Measurements)
NMWOL  (see  National   Marine   Water
  Quality Laboratory)
NRC (see  National Research Council)
Nagai, J.  (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83
Nair, J.H., III  (1970), 424,  427
Nakagawa, S. (see Murata, I. et al., 1970), 60
Nakatani, R.E. (1967), 137, 468
Narf, R.P. (1968), 18
Narver, D.W. (1970), 154
Nason,  A.P. (see  Schroeder,   H.A.  et  al.,
  1967), 245
—(see Schroeder, H.A.  et al., 1968a), 312
Natelson,  S. (1968), 438
National Academy of Engineering
     Committee  on   Ocean  Engineering
       (1970), 274
National Academy of Sciences (1969), 19, 172
     Committee on Effects of Atomic Radia-
       tion on  Oceanography and Fisheries
       (1957), 38
National  Academy of  Sciences—National
  Research Council (1957), 271
     (1959a,b; 1962), 273
     (1961), 270-273
     (1972), 70
     Committee on Oceanography (1970),
       220, 222, 274
     Committee on Pollution (1966), 4
National Council for  Streams Improvement
  (1953), 249
National Marine Water  Quality Laboratory
  (1970), 505, 507
     (1971), 268
National Radiation Protection and Measure-
  ments (1959), 273
National Research Council
     Agricultural Board (1968), 348
     Committee on Animal Nutrition (1966),
       306
           (1968a), 305, 311, 312, 317
           (1968b), 305, 306, 312
           (1970),  306, 311, 314
           (1971a), 305, 312, 315
           (1971b), 306, 311, 317
     Committee on  Biologic Effects of At-
       mospheric Pollutants (1972). 313, 343
National Research Council
     Committee  on  Oceanography (1971),
       241
     Food & Nutrition Board (1954), 88
National Water Quality  Laboratory (1971),
  154, 160
Naughton, J.J.  (see   Hiatt, R.W. et al.,
  1953), 245, 246, 462
Naumova, M.K.  (1965),  62
Neal, W. (tee Castell, C.H. ct al., 1970), 462,
  463
Ncal, W.B. (see Ducoff, U.S. et al., 1948), 56
Nebeker, A.V. (1964),  434, 453
     (1971), 133,  138, 164
—et al. (1971), 177
—(see Gaufin, A.R. et al., 1965), 195
Ncedham, P.R. (1938), 408
Needier, A.W.H.  (tee Gibbard,  J. ct al.,
  1942), 36
Neeley, H.C. (1970), 174
Nehring, D. (1963), 256
Neil, J.H. (1956, 1957),  464
Neill, W.H., Jr. ct al.  (1966), 413
Neller,  J.R.  (see  Shirley, R.L. et  al.,  1951,
  1957), 307
Nelson, A.A.  (see  Fitzhugh, O.G. et al.,
  1944), 86
Nelson, C. (see Page,  A.L.  et al.,  in  press,
  1972), 342
Nelson, D.A. (see Calabrese, A. et al., un-
  published), 250, 253, 255
Nelson, D.J. (1964), 471
Nelson, D.L. (see Olson,  O.E. et  al., 1963),
  315

-------
 552/ Water Quality Criteria,  1972
Nelson, N. (1971), 173, 174
Nelson, T. (see Gaufin, A.R. ct al., 1965), 195
Nelson, T.S. et al. (1962), 316
Nematollahi, J. et al. (1967), 174, 175
Nesheim, M.C. (1961), 86
Neuhold, J.M. (1960), 454
—(see Angelovic,  J.W. et al., 1961), 249
— (see Mayer, F.L., Jr. et al., 1970), 184
Neumann, E.D.  (see Holland, G.A.  et  al.,
  1960), 242, 246, 247, 451, 452, 461, 463-
  465
Nueshul, M.  (see Foster, M. ct al , 1970),  258
—(see North, W.J. et al., 1965), 145
Nevitt, G.A.  (see Galagan, D.J. et al., 1957),
  66
Xew Scientist (1966), 83
Newburgh, L.H.  (1949),  32
Newland, H.W.  (1964), 315
Ncwland, L.W. (see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968),
  183
Newmann, A.L.  (see Jordan,  H.A.  et  al.,
  1961), 315
Newmann,  E A.  (see Buchler, E.V.  et  al.,
  1971), 67
Newton, M.E. (1967), 147
     (1971), 149
—(sec Basch, R.E. et al.,  1971), 189
— (see Fettcrholf,  C.M., 1970), 18
Nichols,  M.S. (1956), 250
Nicholson, H.P. (see Fcltz, H.R. ct al., 1971),
  183
Niehaus, J.F. (1967), 91, 92
Nielsen,  N.O. (see Wobeser,  G. ct al., 1970),
  173, 251
Niclson,  K. et al  (1965), 79
Nielsen,  R.L. (see  Mclntosh,  I.J.  et  al.,
  1943), 315
Niclson,  S.S. (1939), 463, 464, 467
Nilsson, R. (1969), 245
     (1970), 179
     (1971), 74
Nimmo,  D.R. (unpublished  data), 485, 505
—et al. (1970), 267
—et al. (1971), 176, 268
Nishizumi, M. (see Kuratsune,  M.  et  al.,
  1969), 83
Noble, R G. (1964), 419
Nockles,  C.F. (see  Kienholz, E.W.  et  al.,
  1966), 315
Noddack, I. (1939), 243
Noddack, W.  (1939), 243
Nogawa, K. (1969), 60
Nollcndorfs, V. (1969), 342
Nordell,  E. (1961), 130, 380
Norgen,  R.L. (see Miller, C.W. et al., 1967),
  346
Norman, N.N. (1953), 351
North, W.J.  (1958), 250
     (1960), 247,  248, 252, 462
     (1967), 237,  258
—et al. (1965), 145
Norton, William  R. (see Sonnen,  Michael B.
  et al.,  1970), 39
Notomi,  A. (see Yoshimura,  H. et al., 1971),
  83
Nuclear-Chicago  Corp. (1967), 437
j\uhilinn Reviews (1966a,b), 312
Nyborg, M. (1971 a), 339
     (1971b), 344
O'Conner, D.J. (1965)  277, 403
     (1970), 403
—(.iff Di Toro, D.M. e: al., 1971), 277
O'Conner, O.T. et al. 11964), 179
O'Cuill, T.  (1970), 313
O'Donovan, D C. (196i), 301
O'Donovan, P.B. et al. (1963), 312
Odum, E.P. (1960), 46')
Odum, 1I.T. (1967, I9"'l), 220
Oerth, J.J.  (1962), 343
Officers of the Departn cut of Agriculture &
  the Government  Chemical Laboratories
  (1950),  308
Ogata, G. (see Bower,  C.A. et al., 1968), 335
Ogata, M.  (see Kuratsi nc, M. et al., 1969),
  83
Oglesby, R.T. (1969), 20
Oguri, M. (1961), 465, 469, 470, 475-478
O'Hara, J.L. (1959),  344
Ohio River Valley Sanitation  Commission
  (see  ORSANCO),  57
Ohio  River  Valley Water   Commission
  (1950),  462, 464
— (see  also  ORSANCO)
Oki, K. (see  Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83
Okun, D.A. (iff Fair,  G.M. ct al., 1968), 275
Olcott,  U.S. (see  Risebrough, R W. ct  al.,
  1972), 225
Old, H N. (1946), 36
Oldfield, J.E.  et al. (1963),  86
- (see Allaway, W.H. ei al., 1966), 345
Oliff, W.D.  (1969), 455
Oliver, 11. (see Sautel, J . et al., 1964), 461
Oliver, R.P. (1966), 301
Olivier, H.  (iff Sautet, J. et al., 1964), 243
Oliver, L. (1949), 18
Olsen, J.S (see Bowen, V.T. et al., 1971), 240
Olson, O.E. (1957), 308
     (1967), 86
—et al.  (1963), 315
—(see Embry, L.B. ct al., 1959), 307, 308
— (see Halvcrson, A.W. et  al., 1962), 316
—(see Krista, L.M. et al.,  1961), 195, 308
—(see Scerley, R.W. et al., 1965), 315
Olson, P.A. (1956, 1958), 180
Olson, R.A. et al. (1941), 249
Olson, T.A. (1967), 22C,  222
Olsson, M.  (1969), (see Jensen, S.A. ct  al.,
  1969), 83, 198,  226, 264, 267, 268
—(see Jensen, S.A. et al.,  1970), 177
Olsson, S. (see Jensen, S A. et al., 1969), 175,
  176
Ontario   Water   Rescurccs   Commission,
  (1970),  380
Orlob, Gerald  T. (see Sonnen, Michael B.
  ct al., 1970), 39
Onnerod, P.J. (1958), 344
Orr, L.D.  (1969), 122, 187, 242, 451
ORSANCO (1950), 254
     (1955), 245
     (1960), 244, 249
     (1971). 188
     Water Users Committee (1971), 57, 35
Orsanco Quality Monitor (1969), 34
Orthlieb, F.L. (1971), 258
Oseid, D. (1971), 193
Oshima, S. (1931), 250, 251, 455
Osmun, J.V. (see Sparr, B.I. et al., 1966), 34
Osterberg, C.L  (1969), 479
— (see Bowen, V.T. ct al., 1971). 240
— (iff Cross,  F.A. ct al., 1968), 479
Ostroff, A.G. (1965), 395
Otis, C.H. (1914), 25
Ott, E.A. et  al. (1965, 1966b,c,d), 317
—et al. (lS66a), 316
Otter, H. (1951), 352
Otterlincl, G. (1969), (see Gcnsen, S.A. et al
   1969), 83,  175, 176, 198, 226, 264, 267, 26
Outboard Boating Club  of America (1971'
   34
Owens, M. ct al. (1969), 24
Owens, R.D. (.iff Shirley, R.L. ct al., 1950;
   314
PUS  (see also  U.S. Department of Healtr
  Education,  and  Welfare, Public  Heall
  Service)
     (1962), 70, 90
Packer, R.A. (1972), 321
Packham, R.F.  (1965), 63
Paden, V/.R. (see Cooper, II.P. ct al., 1932}
  340
Pacz, L.J.P. (seeTrelles, R.A. et al., 1970), 5
Page, A.L. =t al. (in press, 1971), 343
—et al. (1972),  342
—(iff Bingham, F.T. et al., 1964),  343
Page, N.R. (1967), 345
Pahren,  H.R. (see Black, H.H. et  al., 1957)
  450
Palensky.	(unpublished data), 147, 148
  149
—(unpublished, 1971), 147, 148
Pallotta, A.J. (see Inncs, J.R.M. et al., 1969)
  76
Palmer, C.M. (1955), 453
Palmer,  H.E. (1967), 473
Palmer,  I.S.  (see  Halverson, A.W.  et  al.
  1966), 316
Palinork, K .H.  (see Jensen, S. et al., 1970)
  268
Papageorge, W.B. (1970), 175, 176, 205
Papavassiliou, J. et al. (1967), 57
Papworth, D.S. (1953, 1967), 319
Parchevsky,  V.P.  (see  Polikarpav,  G.G.
  1967), 471, 473, 475
Parente,  W.D.  (unpublished  data,  1970)
  412, 414, 416
Paris, J.A. (1820),  55
Parizck, J. (I960),  310
Parker, C.A. (see Frecgarde, M. et al., 1970)
  261
Parker, F.L. (1969), 152, 403
    (196')a'l, 152
Parker, H.E. (1965, 1966d), 317
— (see Otl, E.A. et al., 1966c), 317
Parker, R.R. et  al.  (1951), 321

-------
                                                                                                                    Author Index/553
 Parrish, P.R. (see Hansen, D.J. et al., 1971),
   176, 177, 505
 —(see Lowe, J.I.  et al., 1971), 267
 —(see Lowe, J.I.  et al., 1971 a), 489
 Parsons, T.R. (1968), 241
 Patrick, R. (1951), 408
     (1968), 120
 —(unpublished data,  1971), 180
 —et al. (1954),  116
 —et al. (1968),  119
 — (see Dourdoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121
 Patras, D. (1966), 29
 Patrick,	(1971), 190
 Patrick, R. (1949, 1966), 22
 —et al (1967), 22
 —et al. (1968), 451, 452, 454, 457, 458, 460
 Patt, J.M. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60
 Patten, B.C. (1962), 408
 Patterson, C. (1966), 249
 — (see  Murozumi, M. et  al , 1969), 249
 Patterson, W.L. (1968), 90
 Pauley, G.B. (1967), 137
     (1968), 468
 Pavelis, G.A. (1963), 302
 Payne, J.E (see Kaplan, H.M. et al.,  1967),
   464
 Payne, W.L. (see Hill, C.H. et al., 1963), 311
 Payne, W.W. (1963), 56, 75
 Peakall, D.B. (1968), 266-268
    (1970), 175,  226
    (1971), 226
 —et al. (in press,  1972),  225, 226
 —(see  Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 83,
  175, 198, 264
 Pearce, G.W. (see Date, W.E. et al., 1963), 76
 —(see  Schoof,  H.F. et al., 1963),  174
 Pearce, J.B. (1969),  277
    (1970), 222
    (1970a), 279, 281, 282
    (1970b), 279-281
    (1970c), 280
    (1971), 280
 Pearson, E.A. (see Gill, J.M. et al., 1960), 455
 Pearson, G.A. (in press, 1972), 353
 Pearson, R.E. (1972), 160
 Pease, D.C. (1947), 136
—(seeHarvey,  E.N.  et,   al., 1944a), 135
—(see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 316
— (see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 316
 Peck,  S.M. (1943), 83
 Pecor, C.  (1969), 184
 Peech, M. (1941), 345
Peek,  F.W. (1965), 160
Peeler, H.T. (see Nelson,  T.S. et al., 1962),
  316
Peirce, A.W. (1957,  1959, 1960, 1962, 1963,
  1966, 1968a, 1969b), 307
 Pelzman,  RJ. (1972), 27
 Penfound, W.T. (1948), 27
    (1953), 26
 Pensack, J.M. (1958), 316
 Pennsylvania Fish Commission (1971), 160
 Pensinger, R.R.  (1966), 313
 Pentelow, F.T.K.  (1935), 147
    (1936), 148
 Peoples, S.A. (1964), 309
 —(see Ziveig, G. et al., 1961), 320
 Pepper, S. (tee Thorhaug, H et al., 1972),
   238
 Pcretz, L.G. (1946), 89
 Perkins, P.J.  (see Hunter, B.F. et al., 1970),
   196
 Perlrnutter, A. (1968), 460
     (1969), 468
 Perrin, F  (1963), 332
 Persson, J. (see Aberg, B. et  al., 1969),  313,
   314
 Persson, P.I. (see Johnels, A.G. et al., 1967),
   172,  173
 Peterle, T J.  (see Eberhardt,  L L. et  al.,
   1971), 439
 Peterson, L.A  (see Struckmeyer, B.E. et al.,
   1969), 342
 Peterson, N.L. (1951), 89
 Peterson, P J.  (1961), 316
 Peterson, S.A.  (1971), 26
 Peter, J B. (see Rozen, A.A. ct al., 1962), 80
 Peters,  J. (tee Innes, J.R.M. ct al., 1969), 76
 Peters,  J.C. (1964), 124
 Petrucelli, L. (tee Innes, J.R.M. ct al., 1969),
   76
 Pctukhov,  N.I. (1970), 73
 Pfander, W.H  (1963), 315
 Pfitzenmeyer, H.T. (1970), 279
 —(see Flemer, D.A. et al  , 1967), 279, 281
 Pickering,  Q.II. (1959),  458
     (1962), 429, 431
     (1965), 451, 452, 455-457, 460
     (1966), 145,  180-182, 190, 453, 455, 456,
       460
     (1968), 182, 460
 —et al. (1962), 184, 423-426, 430
 —(unpublished, 1971), 180, 181
 —(in press), 179, 180
 —(see Henderson, C. ct al., 1959), 420-422
 —(see Henderson, C. et al., 1960), 190, 450
 Pickett, R.A.   (tee O'Donovan, P.B. et al.,
   1963), 312
 Pickford, G.E.  (1968), 438
 Piech,  K.R.  (see Sundaram, T.R.  et  al.,
   1969), 403
 Pielou,  E.C. (1966, 1969), 408
 Pierce, P.E. (see Curley, A. ct al., 1971), 313
 Pierce,  R.S. (see  Likens,  G.E. et al., 1970),
   125
 Pierre, W.H. (1932), 340
     (1949), 344
 Pierron, A. (1937), 455
 Pillsbury, A F.  (1965), 335
     (1966), 332,  335
—(see Reeve, R.C. et al., 1955), 334
 Pillsbury, D.M. (1939, 1957),  87
Pimentel, D. (1971), 185
Pinchot, G.B. (1967), 80
 Pinkerton, C. (1966), 318
 Pintler, H.E. (see Mcrrcll, J.C. et al., 1967),
   352
 Pinto, S.S. (1963), 56
Piper, C.S. (1939), 342
Pippy, J.II.C. (1969), 239
Pirkle, C.I. (see  Hayes,   W.J., Jr.  et  al.,
   1971), 76, 77
 Plantin, L.O. (see Birke, J. et al , 1968), 252
 Platonow, N. (1968), 313
 Plotkin, S.A. (1967), 91
 Plumlec, M.P.  (tee  O'Donovan, P.B. et  al.,
   1963), 312
 Plummer, P.J.G. (1946), 315
 Podubsky, V. (1948), 253, 450
 Polgar, T.T. (see Saila,  S.B. ct al., 1968), 278
 Policastro, A.J. (in press), 403
 Polikarpov, G G. (1966), 240
 — ct al.  (1967), 471, 473, 475
 Polk, E.M , Jr. (1949), 403
 Poltoracka, J. (1968), 165
 Pomelee, C.S. (1953), 310, 462
 Pomeroy, L.R. et al  (1965), 281
 Ponat, A.  (tee Thecde,  II. et al., 1969), 193,
   256
 Pond, S. (see Addison, R.F. et al., 1971), 254
 Porcella, D.B.  (tee  Goldman,  J.C  et  al.,
   1971), 23
 Porgcs, R. et al.  (1952), 11
 Porter, R.D. (1970),  197, 198, 226
 Portmann, J.E. (1968), 454-456, 460
 Postel, S. (tee Potts, A.M. et al.,  1950), 60
 Potts, A.M. et al. (1950), 60
 Potter, V. (1935), 86
 Powers,  E.B. (1943), 139
 Prakash, A. (1962),  38
 Prasad, G. (1959), 458
 Pratt, H M. (tee Faber, R.A. ct al., 1972), 227
 Pratt,  M.W.  (see Chapman, W.H  ct al.,
   1968), 173
 Pratt, P.F. (1966), 329, 340
     (1969), 335
 —ct al.  (1964), 339
 —ct al.  (1967), 334
 —(see Shoemaker, H.E. et al., 1961), 340
 Prentice, E.F. (see Becker, C.D.  et al., 1971),
   161
 Preston,  A. (1967), 471
 Prevost,  G. (1960), 441
 Prewitt,  R.D. (1958), 314
 Price, H.A. (1971), 83
 Price, T.J. (see Duke, T.W. et al., 1966), 472,
  479
 Prier, J.E. (1966), 322
     (1967), 92
 Prince, A.L.  et al. (1949), 343
 Pringle,  B.H. (1969), 451, 462, 463
     (in press, 1972),  451
 —(unpublished data), 250, 465
 —ct al. (1968), 38, 246, 247
 Pritchard, D.W.  (1971), 168, 169, 403
 Proust, J.L (1799),  72
 Prouty, R.M. (see Blus, L.J. et al., 1972), 227
—(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970), 227
 Provasoli, L. (1969), 23
 Provost,  M.W. (1958), 17, 18
 Pruter, A.T.  (unpublished, 1972), 216
 Prytherch, H.F.   (see Galtsoff,  P.S.  et  al.,
  1935), 147
 Pshenin, L.P. (1960), 256
Public Health Service  (see  PHS &  U.S.
  Department of Health, Education,  and
  Welfare, Public Health Service)
Public Works (1967),  33

-------
 554/ Water Quality Criteria,  1972
Publis, F.A. (see Nebcker, A.V. et al., 1971),
   177
Pugh, D.L.  (1963), 315
Pulley, T.E. (1950), 242, 450
Purdy, G.A. (1958), 144
Pyefinch, K.A. (1948), 453

Quicke, J. (see Sautet, J. et al., 1964), 243,
   461
Quillin, R.  (see Malaney, J.W. et al., 1959),
   252
Quinn,  J.I. (see Sapiro, M.L. et al., 1949),
   314
Quirk, J.P.  (1955), 335
Quortrup, E.R.  (1942), 196

Rachlin, J.W. (1968), 460
     (1969), 468
Radeleff,  R.D. (1970), 319
—(see Claborn, H.V. et al., 1960), 320
Ragatz, R.L. (1971), 29
Ragotzkie,  R.A.  (see  Rudolfs,  W. et  al.,
   1950), 89, 351
Rainwater, F.H. (1960), 51
     (1962), 333
Raj, R.S. (1963), 459
Raleigh, RJ.  (see  Harris, L.E. et al., 1963),
   312
Ralph Stone & Co., Inc., Engineers (1969),
   399
Ramsay, A.A. (1924), 307
Ramsey, B.A.  (1965), 453, 460
Randall, C.W. (1970), 130
Randall, D.J.  (1970a), 136
     (1970b), 138
Randall, G.B.  (see Favero, M.S. et al., 1964),
   31
Randall, J.S. (1956), 57
Raney, E.G. (1969), 152
Raney, F.C. (1959, 1963, 1967), 328
Ranson, G.  (1927), 147
Rapp, G.M. (1970), 32, 33
Raski, D.J.  (see Hewitt, W.B. et al., 1958),
   349
Rasrnussen,  G.K. (1965), 340
Ratcliffe,  D.A. (1970), 227
Rathbun, E.N. (see Gersh, I.etal., 1944), 137
Ravera, J. (see Bowen, V.T. et  al., 1971), 240
Rawls, C.K. (1964), 27
Raymount, J.E.G. (1962), 452, 453, 458
     (1963),  453
     (1964),  247, 248, 452, 459, 463
Redden,   D.R.  (see  Silvey, J.K.G. et al.,
   1950),  74, 89
Redfield, D.C. (1949), 275
     (1951),  280
—et al. (1963), 275
—(see Ketchum, B.H. et al., 1949), 230, 275
—(see Turner, H.J. et al., 1948), 247
Reed, D.J. (seeGunn, C.A. et al., 1971), 40
Reed, J.F. (1936), 340
Rees, J. (personal communication), 175
Reeve, N.G. (1970), 339
Reeve, R.C. et al.  (1955), 334
Regnier, J.E. (1965), 479
Reich, D.J.  (1964), 248, 463
Reichcl, W.L. (see Bagl=y, G.E. et al., 1970),
   176
—(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970, 1971), 227
Reinchenbach-Klinke, H.H. (1967), 187
Reid, B.L. (see CrawfoM, J.S. et al., 1969),
   315
Reid, D.A. (see Foy, C.D. et al., 1965), 338
Reid, G.K.  (1961), 142
Reid, W.B. (see Eraser, M.H. et al., 1956), 57
Reimer, C.W (1966), 22
—(see Benoit, R.J. et a ., 1967),  127
Reinert, R.E. (1970), 184,  197
Reinhard,  C.E. (see Aiderson,  E.A. et al.,
   1934), 93
Reisenauer, H.M. (1951), 340
Reish, K. (1955), 464
Renberg, L.  (1972), 225, 226
Renfro, W.C. (1933), 135
     (1969), 479
Renn, C.E.  (1955), 454
—(see O'Conner,  O.T. et al., 1964),  179
Rennenkampff, E.V. (1939), 345
Reuther, W. (1954, 1966),  342
Revelle, R. et al.  (1972), 257, 262
Reynolds, D.M.  (see Turner,  H.J. et al.,
   1948), 247
Reynolds, L.M. (1970). 227
     (1971), 175, 176
Reynolds, Reginald (1946), 1
Rhoads, F.M. (1971), 343
Rhoades, J.W. (1965), 149
Rhoades, L.I. (1970), 226
Rice, T.R. (see Lowrnan, F.G. et al., 1971),
   240, 243,  244, 246-248, 251, 253
Richards, F.A. (1956), 276
—(see Redfield, A.C. et al.,  1963), 275
Richards, F.A. (see Lowman,  F.G. et al.,
   1971), 240, 243, 244, 246-248,  251, 253
Richardson, R.E. (1913), 145
     (1928), 22, 408
Richter, C.P. (1939), 61
Riddick, T.M. et  al. (1958), 69,  71
Rider, J.A. (1962, 1964), 78
— (see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958), 78
Ricche, P.  (1968) (see Risebrough, R.W. et
   al., 1968), 83, 175, 19S, 264, 266-268
Rigler, F.H. (1958), 475
Riley, F. (1971), 221
Riley, G.A.  (1952), 230
—(see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932), 340
Riley, J.P. (1956), 245
Riley, R. (1967),  92
Ringen,  L.M.  (see Gillespie,  R.W.  et al.,
   1957), 321
Risebrough, R.W. (1963), 266-268
     (1969), 226
     (1970),  175, 176
     (1972), 226, 266
—(in press, 1972), 226, 227
—et al. (1968), 83, 175. 198, 226, 227, 264
—et al. (1970), 227
—et al. (1972), 225
—(see Anderlini, V.C. e: al., 1972), 226,  246,
  252
—(see Anderson, D.W. ct al., 1969), 176, 227
 —(see Conners, P.G. et al., in press, 1972b
   226
 —(see Faber, R.A. et al., 1972), 227
 —(see Schmidt, T.T. et al., 1971), 83
 — (see Spitzer, P., unpublished), 227
 Rissanen, K. (see Miettinen, V. et al., 1970
   172-174
 Ritchie, D.E. (tee Flemen, D.A. et al., 1967
   279, 281
 Rittinghouse, H. (1956), 196
 Roback, S.S. (1965), 456-458
 —(see Pptr.ck, R. et al., 1967), 22
 Rocbeck, G.G.  (s e  Hannah, S.A.  et  al
   1967), 89
 —(see McCabe, L.J. et al., 1970), 56, 70
 Robert  A.  Fait Sanitary Engineering Cent<
   (1953), 241
 Roberts, H., Jr.  (see  Menzel, R.G.  et  al
   1963), 332
 Roberts, M. (see Hunter,  C.G. et  al., 1969
   76, 77
 Roberts, W.K. (1963), 315
 Robertson, E.A. (see Bugg, J.C. et al., 1967
   266, 267
 Robertson, W.B., Jr. (see Krantz, W.C. et al
   1970), 266
 Robertson,  W.K.  (see Shirley, R.L.  et  al
   1957), 307
 Robins, C.R. (see Lachner, E.A. et al., 1970
   27
 Robinson, J. (1967), 75
 — (see Humer, C.G. et al., 1969), 75
 Robinson, J.G. (1968), 161
     (1970), 160
 Robinson, J.R. (1952), 304
 Robinson, J.W.  (see Korschgen, B.M. et al
   1970), 149
 Robinson, L.R. (1963), 63
 Robinson, S. (see Chin, T.D.Y. et  al., 1967'
   91
 Robinson,  V.B. (see  Imerson, J.L. et  al
   1970), 79
 Robinson, W.D. (see Mclntosh, I.G. et  al
   1943), 315
 Rodgers, C.A. (1971), 438
 — (see Micek, K.J. et al., 1970), 438
 Rodhe,  W. (1969), 21
 Roessler, M.A. (1972), 238
 Rogers, B.A. (see Saila, S.B. et al., 1968), 27
 Rogers, C.F. (see Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934), 31
 Rogers, W.B. (see Cooper, H.P. et  al., 1932;
   340
 Rohlich, G A. (1967), 19
 —(tee Lawton, G.W. et al., 1960), 353
—(see Zeller, R.W. et al.,  1971), 403
 Romney, E.M. et al. (1962, 1965), 342
 Romoser, G.L. et al. (1961), 311, 316
 Root, D.A. (see Camp, T.R. et al., 1940), 89
Rosata,  P. (1968), 184
Rose, D. (1971), 248
Rosen, A.A. (1956), 75
    (1962), 80
    (1966), 74
—(see Burttschell, R.H. et al., 1959), 80
Rosen, C.G.  (see Achefors, H. et al., 1970)
  237

-------
                                                                                                                   Author Index/555
 —(see Wood, J.M. et al., 1969), 172
 Rosen, D E. (1966),  162, 435
 Roseneau, D.G. (see  Cade, T.J. et al., 1970),
   227, 267
 Rosenfeld, D.  (see Wassermann, M.  et  al.,
   1970), 83
 Rosenfeld, I. (1964), 316
 Rosenfels, R.S. (1939), 340
 Rosenthal, H.L. (1957, 1963), 469
 Rottiers, D.V. (see Edsall, T.A. et al.,  1970),
   411
 Rqunsefell, G.B. (1953), 142
 Rourke, G.A. (see Cohen, J.M. et al.,  1961),
   78
 Rowe, D.R.ct al. (1971), 266
 Rowe, G.T.  (see Vaccaro, R.S. et al.,  1972),
   280
 Rowe, V.K.  (1954), 79
     (1955), 319
 Royal Society of London, (1971), 220, 222
 Rubcr, E. (1971), 485, 491, 493
 Rucker, R.R. (1951,  1969), 173
 Rudinger, G.  (see Sundaram,  T.R. ct al.,
   1969), 403
 Rudolfs, W. et al. (1950), 351
 —et al. (1953),  253
 Rudolfs, W. et al. (1950), 89
 Rumbsby, M.G. (1965), 246
 Russel, J.C. (see Silvey, J.K.G. et al., 1950),
   74, 89
 Russell-Hunter, W.D. (1970), 19
 Rust, R.H. (1971), 342
 Ruttner, F. (1963), 142
 Ruzicka, J.H.A. (1967), 267
 Rythcr, J.H. (1954),  274, 276
     (1969), 216, 217, 264
     (1971), 275, 276

 SCEP (see Study of Critical Environmental
   Problem)
 Soalfeld, R.W. (1956), 164
 Sadisivan, V. (1951), 317
 Saeki, Y.  (see Murata, I. et al., 1970), 60
 Saffiotti, U  (see Baroni, C et al., 1963), 56
 Saiki, M. (1955), 477
Saila, S.B. et al. (1968), 278
Salinger, A. (see  Hosty, T.S. ct al., 1970), 278
Salinity  Laboratory  (1954),  324, 325,  330,
   331, 333, 341
 -  (see also  U S.  Department of Agriculture,
   Salinity Laboratory)
 Salisbury,  R.M. (see  Winks,  W.R. ct  al.,
   1950), 315
 Salo, E O  (1969), 479
Saloman, C.H. (1968), 124,  279
Salotto, B V. (see Earth, E.F. et al., 1966), 55
Sampson, J. et al. (1942), 316
Sanboorn, N.H. (1945), 450
Sanders, H.L. (1956,  1958), 279
Sanders, H.O. (1966), 420-433, 458, 467
     (1968, 1969),  420-433
     (1970), 429-432
     (in press, 1972), 420-428, 433
—(see Johnson, B.T. et al., 1971), 436-438
Sanders, O. (1971), 175
Sanders, R.L. (1969), 258
 Sanderson, W.W. (1958), 55
      (1964), 90
 Santner, J F. (1966), 190
 Sapiro,  M.L. et al. (1949), 314
 Sartor, J.D. (1971), 262
 Saruta, N. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83
 Sass, J.  (1972), 258, 262
 — (see Blumer, M. et al.,  1970), 258, 260
 Sather, B.T. (1967), 470
 Sattlcmacher, P.G. (1962), 73
 Saunders, D.ll. (1959), 342, 344
 Saundcrs, H.O. (1966), 434
 — (in press), 176
 Saunders, R (see Johnson, B.T. et al.,  1971),
   436-438
 Saunders, R L.  (1963), 122, 463, 467
     (1967), 463, 468
 —(see Sprague,  J.B. et al., 1964), 463, 467
 —(see Sprague,  J.B. et al., 1965), 122, 463
 Sautet, J. et al. (1964), 243, 461
 Saville, P.D. (1967), 312
 Savino, FX.  (see Johnson, D. ct al.,  1962),
   316, 317
 Sawyer,  C.N. (1946), 55
     (1947), 20, 22
 Saycrs, W.T. (see Feltz,  II R. et al.,  1971),
   183
 Sayre, W.W (1970), 403
 Scharrer, K. (1933, 1935), 342
 Schaumburg, F.D. et al.  (1967), 120
 Schaut, G.G. (1939), 193
 Schechter, M.S. (1971), 319, 440
 Scheier,  A. (unpublished  data, 1955), 450,
   452, 456, 457, 459
     (1957), 450, 452, 459
     (1958), 68,  145, 182,  452, 456-459
     (1959), 452, 456-459
     (1963), 190
     (1964), 421
     (1968), 453, 454, 460
— (see Cairns, J., Jr. et al., 1965), 457
-(see Patrick ct al , 1968), 119,  451, 452,
   454, 457, 458, 460
Schields, J. (1962), 452, 453
     (1963), 453
     (1964), 452
Schiffman, R.H. (1958), 452, 457, 462
     (1959), 457
Schipper, LA. (1963), 315
Schislcr,  D.K.  (see Kienholz,  E.W. et al.,
   1966),  315
Schlickennecler, W  (1971), 55
Schlicper, C (see Thcecle, If. ct al.,  1969),
   193, 256
Schmidt,  E.L.  (see Murphy,  W.II. et al.,
   1958),  350
Schmidt, T.T. et al.  (1971), 83
Schneider, O.K.  (see Uoudoroff, P. et al.,
   1966),  123, 140, 189, 241, 451, 453, 456,
  457, 464
Schneider, Mark (no date), 136, 137
Schneider, P.W., Jr. (see Bouck, G.R. et al.,
   1971),  137
Schnich,  R.A. (see Lcnnon, R.E. et al., 1970),
  440
Schoenthal, N.D. (1964), 184, 459
 Schocttger, R.A. (1970), 421, 434
 Schoficld, R.K. (1955), 335
 Scholander, P.F. ct al. (1955), 138
 Schoof, H.F. ct al. (1963),  174
 Schoonover, W R. (1963),  330
 Schriebcr, R.W. (in press,  1972), 266
 — (see Connors, P.G. et al., 1972a), 226
 Schroeder, H H. (1961),  60, 70
     (1964), 311, 313
     (1965), 60, 311, 313
     (1966), 56
     (1967), 56, 309, 316
     (1968a), 312
     (1968b), 309
     (1969), 60
     (1970), 245
 -ct al  (1963a), 62, 310, 311, 313
 —et al. (1963b), 62, 311
 —ct al. (1967), 245
 Schroepfer, G.J. (1964), 55
 Schropp, W. (1933, 1935),  342
 Schubert,  J.R. (see  Oldficld,  J.E. ct al.,
   1963), 86
 Schults, W D.  (see Wallace,  R.A. et al ,
   1971), 72, 240, 252
 Schulz, K.II. (1968), 83
 — (see Bauer, H. et al.,  1961), 83
 Schulz,  K.R. (see  Lichenstein,  E.P. ct al.,
   1966), 318
 Schultz, L.P. (1971), 19
 Schulze, E. (1961), 148
 Schuster, C.N., Jr. (1969),  462,  463
 Schwartz,  L. (1943), 83
     (1960), 86
 Schwarz, K. (1971), 316
 Schweiger, G. (1957), 250-252
 Sciple, G.W. (see Bell, J F. et al., 1955), 196
 Scott, D.P. (1964), 42, 43, 411
 Scott, K.G. (1949), 87
 Scott, M.L. (1961), 86
     (1969, 1970),  316
 Scrivncr, L.H. (1946), 195,  308
 Sculthoipc, C.D.  (1967), 24-27
 Scura, E.D. (1970), 487
 Seagran, H.L. (1970), 198
 Sedlak, V.A. (see Curley, A.  et al., 1971), 313
 Sccrlcy, R.W. (see Emerick, R.J. ct al , 1965),
   315
 Seillac, P.  (1971),  342
 Scghctti, L. (1952), 321
 Selitrenmkova, M.B. (1953), 352
 Sell, J.L. (1963), 315
 Selleck, R.E. (1968), 460
 Sclleck, B.  (see Cotzias, G.C et al., 1961), 60
 Selye, H. (1963), 308
 Sepp, E. (1963), 351
 Serronc, D.M. (see Stein,  A.A. ct al., 1965),
   76, 77
 Servizi, 	 (unpublished data), 252
 Shabalina, A.A.  (1964), 462
 Shakhurina, E.A. (1953),  352
 Shankar, N.J. (1969), 403
 Shanklin,  M.D. (.see  Esmay, M.L.  ct  al.,
   1955), 302
Shannon, C.E. (1963), 408
Shapiro, J. (1964), 63

-------
556/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Shapovalov, L. et al. (1959), 27
Sharp, D.G. (1967), 91
Sharpless, G.G. (see Hilgeman, R.H. et  al.,
  1970), 344
Shaw, J.H. (1954), 66
Shaw, M.D. (1966), 301
Shaw, W.H.R. (1956), 253, 451, 457
     (1967), 465, 466, 468
Sheets, T.J. (1967), 345
—(see Bradley, J.R. et al ,  1972), 318
Sheets, VV.D  (1957), 465, 467
—(see Malaney, G.W. et  al.,  1959), 253
Shelbourn, J.E. (see Brett, J.R. et al., 1969),
  154, 160
Shelford, V.E.  (1913), 135, 137
Shell, E \V.  (see  Avault, J.W.,  Jr.  et  al ,
  1968), 26
Shelton, R. (ire Hosty, T.S et al.  1970), 278
Shelton, R.G.J. (1971), 144
Sheintab, A. (see Kott, Y. et al., 1966), 245
Shepard, H.H. (ire Fowler, D.L. et al., 1971),
  434
Shephard, F P. (1963), 17
Sherk, J.A., Jr. (1971), 229, 281, 282
Sherman, G.D. (1953), 344
Shields, J. (1962), 458
     (1964), 247, 248, 459,  463
Shigematsu, I.  (1970), 245
Shilo, M. (1967), 317
Shimizu, M. (1964), 469
Shnnkin, M.B. (tee Leone, N.C. et al., 1954),
  66
Shimono, O. (ire Kuratsune, M. ct al., 1969),
  83
Shiosaki, R. (see England, B. et al., 1967), 92
Shirakata, S. (1966), 135, 137, 138
Shirley, R.L. (1951), 307
     (1970), 305
—ct al.  (1950), 314
— et al  (1957), 307
—ct al.  (1970), 343
- (see Cox, D.H. et al., 1960), 314
Shoemaker, II E. et al. (1961), 340
Shoop, C T  (ire Brett, J R. ct al., 1969), 154,
  160
Shults, W.D. (ire Wallace, R.A. et al , 1971),
  173
Shumway, D.L. (1966), 147-149
     (1967), 131
     (1970),  131, 133,  139,  151
     (1971), 270
—(unpublished data, 1971), 147-149
—et al.  (1964), 132
—(see Stewart, X E. et al.,  1967), 132
Shupe, J.L. et al. (1964), 312
—(see Harris, L.E. ct al., 1963), 312
Shurben, D.G. (see  Mitrovic, U.U.  ct  al.,
  1968), 191
Shurben, D S. (1960), 187
     (1964), 182, 403, 450, 459, 464
Shuster, O.N., Jr. (1969), 451
Sigler, W.E. (1960), 316, 454
     (1961), 316
—ct al.  (1966), 248, 453
—(see Angelovic, J.W. ct al., 1961), 249
Sigworth, E.A. (1965), 78
Silva, F.J.  (ire McFarren, E.F. et al., 1965),
  38
Silvcy, J.K.G. (1953), 'M
    (1968), 79
—et al. (1950), 74, 89
—et al. (1972), 82
Simmons, II.B. (1971), 411
Simmons,  J.H.  (see Holmes, D.C.  ct  al.,
  1967), 175
Simon, C. et al.  (1964)  73
Simon, P.P. (see  Potts, A.M. et al , 1950), 60
Simon, J. et al.  (1959),  315
Simonm, P. (1937), 45?,
Simons, G.W., Jr. et al. (1922), 29
Simmons,  J.H.  (see Holmes, D C.  et  al.,
  1967), 83
Sims,  J R  (1968), 339
Simpson,  C.F.  (see  Damron,  B L.  et  al.,
  1969), 313
Sinclair, R.M. (1971),  27
Sincock, John L. (1968), 194
Smgley, J E. et al. (1966), 63
—(sre Black, A.P. et al , 1963), 63
Sjostrand, B. dee Berg, W. ct al., 1966), 252
—((re Birke, G. et al , 1968),  252
- (ire Johncls, A.G. rial., 1967), 172, 173
Skca,  J. (see Burdick, G.E ct al., 1968), 183,
  184, 195
Skidmore, J F. (1964), 177, 459
Skinner, G.E. (1941), 57
Skirrow, G. (1965), 241
Skoog, F. Ore llansen, O. et al., 1954), 22
Skougstad, M W (see B'own, E. ct al , 1970),
  sT
Skrentry,  R F.  (see  Lichenstein, E.P. ct al ,
  1966), 318
Slantez, LAV. et al. (1965), 276
— (see Hosty, T.S. ct al , 1970), 278
Slater, D.W. (1971), 9
    (1972), 8, 9
Slemon,  K.W.  (see Armstrong, J.G. et al.,
  1958), 315
Small, E.F. (see Cross, F.A. et al., 1968), 479
-(ire Fowler, J.W. et al., 1970),  480
Smith, A L  (see Lynch, J.J. ct al., 1947), 24
Smith, B Ore Costell, C*H. et al.,  1970), 462,
  463
Smith, n.D. (1969), 273
Smith, E.E. (see  Pomcroy, L.R. ct al., 1965),
  281
Smith, G S. (see  Gordan, H.A. et al., 1961),
  315
Smith, IFF. (sre  Huff, C.B. et al., 1965), 301
Smith, J.E. (1968), 258, 261
Smith, L.L , Jr.  (1960), 154
    (1967), 193
    (1970), 193, 256
    (1971), 190, 191, 193
    (i.i press, 1971), 153
—et al. (1965), 128
Smith, E.M. (iee Zwcig  G. et al., 1961), 320
Smith,  M.A.  (see Applegate, V.C.  ct  al.,
  1957), 243
Smith, M.I. (1937, 1941), 86
— et al. (1936), 86
Smith, N.R. Ore Breed,  R..S. et al., 1957), 321
Smith, O.M. (1944), 65
Smith, P.F  (1954), 342
—(see Hilgeman, R.H. et al., 1970), 344
Smith, P.W. (1963), 124
Smith, R.O. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1935]
  147
Smith, R.S. ct al. (1951, 1952, 1961), 31
Smith, S H. (1964), 27, 157
Smith, V/.E. (1956), 164
     (1970), 413
     (unpublished data, 1971), 417
Smith,  W.H.  Ore  Ott,  E.A.  et al.,  196:
  1966b,c,d), 317
— (ire O(t, E.A. et al., 1966a), 316
Smith, V/.W. (1944), 89
Smithen lan, R.O.  Ore  Avault, J.W.,  Ji
  et al., 1968), 26
Snccd, K.F,. (1958, 1959) 173
Sncgircff, L.S. (1951), 56
Snihs, J.O. Ore Abcrg, B. et al., 1969), 31:
  314 '
Snycler, G.R. (1970), 416
Snyder,  P.}. (see Rowc,  D R. ft al., 1971
  266
Soane, B.K. (1959), 342, 344
Sobkowicz, II.  (ire  Falkowska,  Z.  et  al
  1964), 250
Sollman, T.H. (1957), 56, 59, 64
Sollo, FAV , Jr. (sre Hauneson, R.H. et al
  1971), 73
Solon, J.M. (1970), 424, 427
Sommer, Fi. (1937), 38
Sommcrs, S.C.  (1953). 56
Sonis,  S.  (.re Jackim, E  ct al., 1970), 24-
  255, 451. 454, 455, 457, 462, 465, 466
Sonnen, Michael B. (1967), 399, 400
—et al. (IS 70), 39
Sonnichscn. J C.  (1971), 403
Sonoda, M. (sre Kuratsune, M. ct al., 1969'
  83
Sorgo, E.F. (1969), 238
Saunders,, R L. (1967), 248
— (ire Sprague, J.B. ct al., 1965), 248
Sonthgate, B.A. (1948), 249, 255, 467
     (1950, 1953), 464
Southward, A.J.  (sre Corner, K.D.S. et  al
  1968), 261
Southward, E.G. (see Corner, E.D.S. ct  al
  1968), 261
Souza, J. (tee Blumcr, M. ct al., 1970), 25i
  260
Soyer, J. (i 963), 252, 255, 466
Spafford, W J.  (1941), 308
Spann,  J.W. ct al. (1972), 226
— (see Heath, R.G. et al., 1969), 197, 198, 22
Sparks, A.K. (1968),  38
Sparks, R.E. et al. (1969), 117
Sparling, A.B. (1968), 465
Sparr, B.I. et al. (1966), 346
Sparrow, B.W.  (1956), 248, 252, 455
Spcctor, W.S.  (1955), 65
Spencer, N R.  Ore Maddox,  D.M.  ct  al
  1971), 26
Spiegelbcrg, U. (sre Bauer, II. et al., 1961), 8
Spigarelli,  S.A. (1972), 164

-------
                                                                                                                   Author Index/557
 Spitsbergen, D.  (see  Mahood, R.K. et al.,
   1970), 489
 Spitzer, P. (unpublished), 227
 Spooner, C.S. (1971), 39
 Sprague, J.B. (1963), 240, 463, 467
     (1964), 248, 467
     (1964a), 179
     (1964b), 179, 181
     (1965), 122, 240, 248, 453, 460
     (1967), 248, 463, 468
     (1968), 463, 468
     (1968a). 179, 182
     (1968b), 179
     (1969), 118-122, 189, 234, 404,  424
     (1970), 118-120, 145, 234, 254
     (1971), 118, 119, 183, 234, 248
—et al. (1964), 463, 467
—et al. (1965), 122, 248, 463
Sproul, O.J. et.al. (1967, 1972), 92
     (1972), 92
Sprunt, A.N. (see Krantz, W.C. et al., 1970),
  266
Spurgeon, J.L. (1968), 403
Squire, H.M. (1963),  332
Sreenivasan, A.  (1963),  459
Stadt,  Z.M. (see Galagan,  D.J. et al., 1957),
  66
Stake,  E. (1967, 1968), 25
Staker, E.V. (1941, 1942), 345
Stalling, D.L.  (1971), 175,  176, 438
     (1972), 174-176,  200, 201
—(unpublished, 1970), 175
—(unpublished, 1971), 177
—(in press,  1971), 175
—et al. (1971), 437
—(see Macek, R.J. et al., 1970), 438
Standard Methods (APHA) (1971), 435
    Table VI-2, 370
    Table VI-5, 377
    Table VI-10,  382
    Table VI-17,  385
    Table VI-22,  389
    Table VI-25,  391
    Table VI-26,  392
    Table VI-27-28,  393
Standard Methods (EPA)  (1971), 51, 52, 54,
  55, 63, 67, 74, 75, 80, 82, 90, 120, 190, 275,
  435
Stanford Research  Institute  (unpublished
  data, 1970), 348
Stanford University (see  American Society of
  Civil Engineering, 1967), 220, 221
Stark,  G.T.C.  (1967), 121
     (1968), 460
—(see Brown, V.M. et al.,  1968),  468
Starr, L.E. (see Williams, H.R. et al., 1956),
  29
Stasiak, M.  (1960), 453
Stearns, R.D. (see Thorhaug, A. et al., 1972),
  238
Stedronsky,  E. (1948), 253, 450
Steele, R.M. (1968), 164
Stein, A.A. et al. (1965), 75, 77
Steinhaus, E.A.  (see  Parker,  R.R.  et  al.,
  1951), 321
 Stephan, C.E.  (1967), 120, 184, 185
     (1969), 180, 452, 463, 469
 Stephan, C.F.  (1967), 122, 425, 431
 Stevenson,  C.A.  (see Leone,  N.C.  et  al.,
   1954), 66
 Stevenson, R.E. (see Chang, S.L. et al., 1962),
   91
 —(see Clarke, N.A. et al., 1962), 91, 92
 Stevens, D.J. (see Bouck, G.R. et al., 1971),
   137
 Stevens, N.P. et al. (1956), 145
 Stevenson, A.H. (see Smith, R.S. et al., 1951),
   31
 Stewart, B.A. et al. (1967), 73
 Stewart, E.H. (see Menzel, R.G. et al., 1963),
   332
 Stewart, K.M.  (1967), 19
 Stewart, N.E. et al. (1967), 132, 495
 —(see Buchanan, D.V. et al., 1969), 267, 495
 —(see Butler, P.A. et al., 1968), 495
 Stickel,	(unpublished data, 1972), 197
 Stickel, L.F.  (1970), 226
 —(tee Dustman, E.H. et al., 1970), 198, 313
 Stickney, J.C.  (1963), 136
 Stickney, R.R.  (1971), 149, 160
    (1972), 154
 Stiff, M.J. (1971), 179
 Stiles, W.C. (1968), 276
 Stob,  M.  (1965), 317
 —(see Ott, E.A. et al., 1966c), 317
 Stock, A. (1934, 1938), 72
 StofT, H.  (m Meinch, F. et al., 1956), 450,
   455
 Stoke, A. (1962), 250
 Stokes,  R.M. (1962),  462
 Stokinger, H.E. (1958), 59, 65
    (1963), 72
 Stolzenbach, K. (1971), 403
 Stoof, H. (see Meinck, F. et al., 1956), 241,
   243, 250, 251
 STORET, (see  Systems for Technical  Data)
 Story, R.V.  (see Kehoe, R.A. et al.,  1940),
   70,  87
 Stout, N. (1971), 9
 Stover,  H.E.  (1966), 301
 Straskraba, M.  (1965), 24
 Straube, R.L. (see Ducoff, H.S. et al.,  1948),
   56
 Strawn, K. (1967), 410-413, 417
    (1968), 412, 413
—(see Neill, W.H., Jr. et al.,  1966), 413
 Straun,  K. (1961), 154, 157, 160
    (1968), 160
    (1970), 154, 160
Street, J.C. et al. (1968), 198, 226
—et al.  (1969), 83
— (w Mayer, F.L., Jr. et al., 1970), 184
Strickland, J.D.H. (1968), 241
Strickland-Cholmley,  M. (1967), 92
Strong,  E.R. (see DoudorofT, P. ct al.,  1951),
   121
Stroud,  R.H. (1968),  9, 441
    (1969), 28
    (1971), 221
Struckmeyer, B.E. et al. (1969),  342
Stubbings, H.G. (1959), 464
 Study of Critical Environmental Problems,
   261
 Study Group on Mercury Hazards (1971), 72
 Stumm, W. (1962), 130
     (1963), 54
 Stunkard, H.W.  (1952),  19
 Stutz, H. (see Faust, S.D.etal., 1971), 80
 Sturgis, M.B.  (1936), 340
 Sturkie, P.O.  (1956), 316
 Sudheimer, R.L  (1942),  196
 Sugerman, J. (see Bay, E.G., 1965),  18
 Sullivan, R.J. (1969), 243
 Summerfiet, T.C. (1967), 464, 465
 Sumner, M.E. (1970), 339
 Sund, J.M. (tee Simon, J  et al., 1959), 315
 Sundaram,  T.R. et al. (1969), 403
 Sunde, L.A. et al. (1970), 20
 Sunde, M.L. (1967),  305
 —(personal communication, 1971), 305
 Surber, E.W.  (1931), 243
     (1959), 18
     (1961), 24
     (1962), 429-431
 —et al. (1965), 148
 —(see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951),  121
 —(see English, J.N. et al , 1963), 34
 Sutherland, A.K. (see Winks, W.R. et  al.,
   1950), 315
 Sutton,  D.L.  (see Blackburn, R.D.  et  al.,
   1971), 26
 Sverdrup. H.V. et al. (1942), 216
 —et al (1946), 241
 Svetovidov, A.N. (see, Korpincnikov, V.S.
   et al., 1956), 469
 Swader, J. (see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958),
   78
 Swain, P.M. (1956), 145
 Swan, A.A.B.  (1961), 313
 Swanson, C. (see Lilleland, O. et  al., 1945),
   329
 Swedish National Institute of Public Health
   (1971), 173
 Swensson, A. (1959),  313
 —(see Kiwimae, A. et al., 1969), 313
 Swartz, B.L. (tee Koff, R.S. et al.,  1967),  36
 Swartz, L.G.  (see Code,  T.J. et al., 1970),
   227, 267
 Sweeney, C. (see Burdick, G.E. et  al., 1968),
   195, 183
 Swift, E. (1960), 469
 Swift, M.N. (ste Potts, A.M. et al.,  1950),  60
 Swingle, H.S. (1947), 24
 Swinnerton, J.W. ct al. (1962), 138
 Swisher, R.D. (1967), 190
 Sy, S.H. (see Koegel, R.G. et al., 1972), 26
 Syazuki, K. (1964), 463-465, 467
 Sykcs, J.E. (1968), 216
 Sylvester, R.D. (1960), 20
 Symons, J.M.  (see  McCabe,  L.J. et  al.,
   1970), 56, 70
 Synoground, M.O. (1970), 160, 162
 Systems  for  Technical   Data   (STORET)
   (1971), 306
Syverton, J.T. (1958), 350
—(see Murphy, W.H. et al., 1958), 350

-------
 558/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
TAPPI  (see  Technical  Association of  the
   Pulp and Paper Industry)
Tabata, K. (1969), 455, 460, 468
Tagatz, M.E. (1961), 145
Tai,  F.H.  (we Struckmcyer,  B.E. et  al.,
   1969), 342
Takeuchi, T. (1970), 172
Takigawa, K. (see  Kuratsune, M. et  al.,
   1969), 83
Tanabe, H. (tee McFarrcn, E.F. ct al., 1965),
   38
Tanner, F.W. (1944), 351
Tardiff, R.G. (see Winton,  E.F. et al., 1971),
   73
Tarjan, R. (1969), 76
Tarrant, K.R. (1968), 83,  182, 227, 318
Tarzwell, C.M. (1952), 408
    (1953), 22
    (1956), 243, 256, 451,  455, 456, 459
    (1957), 454
    (1959), 458
    (1960), 243, 244, 253, 451, 453, 455, 459
    (1962), 122, 234
—(see Henderson, C. et al., 1959), 420, 422
—(see Henderson, C. et al., 1960), 450, 456
—(see LaRoche, G. et al., 1970), 261
Tatton, J.O.G. (1967), 267
    (1968), 83, 182, 227, 318
—(see Holmes, D.C. et al., 1967), 83, 175
Taylor, C.B.  (1951), 57
Taylor, J.L.  (1968), 124, 279
Taylor, N.H. (1935),  312
Taylor, N.W. (see Rosen, A.A. et al., 1956),
   75
Taylor, T. (see Blackburn, R.D. et al., 1971),
   26
Taylor, R. (1965), 332
Taylor, R.E. (see Hale, W.H. et al., 1962),
   315
Taylor, W.R. (1960), 469
Teakle, D.S.  (1969), 349
Teal, J.M. (1969), 138
—(see Horn, M.H. et al., 1970), 257
Technical  Association of  Pulp and Paper
   Industry (TAPPI)  (unpublished,  1970),
   384
    Water  Supply  and  Treatment Com-
       mittee (unpublished, 1970), 383
Teel, R.W. (see Garifin,  A.R. et al., 1965),
   195
Tejning, S. (1967), 314
Tempel, L.H. (see Esmay, M.L. et al., 1955),
   302
Templeton, W.L. (1958), 244
—(in press, 1971), 273
Ten Noevcr de Brauw, M.C. (see Koeman,
  J.H. etal,  1969), 83, 175
—(see Vos, J.G. et al., 1970), 198, 225, 226
Tennant, A.D. (see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970),
   278
Terricre, L.C. et al. (1966), 183
Terrill, S.W. (see Brink,  M.F. et al., 1959),
   316
Thackston, Edward L. (1969), 403
Thatcher, L.I.  (1960), 51
Thatcher, T.O. (1966, 1970), 190
Thaysen, A.C. (1935), 147
     (1936), 147, 148
Theede, H. et al. (1969), 193, 356
Thomann, R.V.  (see  DiToro, D.M.  et  al.,
   1971), 277
Thomas, A. (1912), 471
Thomas, B.F. (see Thomas, S.B. et al., 1953),
   302
Thomas, E.A. (1953), 22
Thomas, G.W. (1967), 339
Thomas, N.A. (1970), 18
     (1971), 147
Thomas, R.E. (1944), 85
—(see Law, J.P. et al., 1970), 353
Thomas, S.B. (1949),  301, 302
     (1952), 57
     (1958), 303
—et al. (1953), 302
—ct al. (1966), 302, 30;.
Thomas, W.C.,  Jr.  (see Black, A.P.  et  al.,
   1965), 301
Thompson, D.J.  (see  Emerson, J.L.  et  al.,
   1970), 79
Thomason, I.J. (1961), 348
Thompson, J.E. (1968), 74
Thompson, J.G. (see Maclntire, W.H. et al.,
   1942), 343
Thompson, J.N. (1969, 1970), 316
Thomson, J.S. (1944), '.iQS
Thompson, P.K. et al. (1927), 317
—(see Drinker, K.R. et al. 1927),  317
Thomson,  W. (see  Hazel, C.R. et al., 1971),
   187
Thorhaug, A. et al. (1972), 238
Thorne, J.P.  (1966), 335
Thorup, R.T. (see Sproul, O.J. et al., 1967),
   92
Tibbo, S.N. (see Zitko, V. et al., 1970), 254
Tilden, J.E. (see Fitch, (IP. et al., 1934), 317
Tillander, M. (see Mietinen, V. et al., 1970),
   172-174
Tiller,  B.A. (see  Brown, V.M. et  al.,  1969),
   122
Timmons, F.L. (1966), 25
—Cr«Bruns, V.F. etal., 1955), 347
Tindle, R.C.  (see Stalling, D.L. et al., 1971),
   437
Tipton, I.H.  (see  Schroeder, H.A. et  al.,
   1967), 245
Titus,  H.W.  (tee Johnson, D. et  al.,  1962),
   316, 317
Tobias, J.M.  (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60
Toerien, D.F.  (see Goldman,  J.C. et  al.,
   1971), 23
Tokar, J.V. (in press), 403
Tomassi, A. (1958), 69, 71
Tomlin, A.D. (1971),  183
Tomlinson, W.E.  (see Vtiller, C.W. et  al.,
   1967), 346
Tommcrs, F.D. (1948), 241, 281
Top, F.H.  (see Crawford, R.P. et  al.,  1969),
   321
Toro, D.M. (1970), 403
Townsley, S.J. (see Boroughs, H. et al., 1957),
   469
Tracey, H.W. et al. (1966), 90
Trainer, D.O. (1966), 228
     (1970), 226
Trama, F.R. (1954a), 453
     (1954b), 451, 456, 457
     (19515), 452, 453
     (1960), 452
Trautman, M.B. (1939), 124
Traxler, J.S. (see Li, M.F. et al., 1 970), 254
Freichler, R. (see Coburn, D.R. et al., 1951)
  228
Trelles, R.A. et al. (1970), 56
Tremblay, J.L.  (1965), 479
Trembley, F.J.  (1965), 160, 165
Trent, D.S. (1970), 403
Trcon, J.F. (1955), 77
—et al. (1955), 76
Tresslcr, W.L.  (see Olson, R.A. et al., 1941)
  249
Trice, A.H. (1958), 399
Trosin,  T.S. (see Korpincnikov, V.S. et al.
  1956), 469
Truchan,  J.G.  (see Basch, R.E. ft al., 1971)
  189
True, L.F. (see Hilgeman, R.H. et al., 1970)
  344
Tsai, C.F. (1968, 1970),  189
Tschenkes, L.A. (1967), 86
Tsuji, H.  (t'e Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 8!
Tsukano,  Y.  (see Lichenstein, E.P.  et  al.
  1966), 318
Tucker, G.L. (see Lockhart, E.E. et al., 1955)
  61, 89
Tucker, F.H. (see Dorman, C. et al., 1939)
  340
Tucker, J.M. (see Bower, C.A. et al., 1968)
  335
Tucker, R.K. (1966), 458, 467
     (1970). 198, 227
Tur, J.  (see Falkowska, Z. et al., 1964), 250
Turekian,  K.K.  (tee Goldberg, E.D. et al.
  1971), 241, 244, 245, 251
Turmbull, H. et al. (1954), 145,  191,  244
  450-455
Turnbull-Kemp, P. St. J. (1958), 453
Turner, H.J., Jr. et al. (1948), 247
Turner, M.A. (1971), 342
Turner, R.O.  (see Malaney, G.W.  et  al,
  1962), 301, 302
Tusing, T. (see Frawley, J.P. et al., 1963), 7:
Twitty, V.C. (see Berg, W.E. et  al.,  1945)
  137, 13.8
Twyrnan.  E,.S.  (1953), 250, 342
Tzannetis, S. (see Papavassiliou,  J.  et  al.
  1967), 57

Ueda, T.  (ste Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 8'
Uhler, F.M.  (1939), 25
Uhlig, H H. (1963), 64
Ui, J. (196'', 1970), 251
Ukeles,  R. (1962), 174, 265, 283,  485,  489
  491, 493, 495, 503, 505, 507
Ulfarson,  L. (see Kiwimae, A. et  al.,  1969)
  313
Ulland, B.M. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969)
  76
Ullberg, S. (1963), 313

-------
                                                                                                                   Author Index/559
 Underwood, E.J. (1971), 309-314, 317, 345
 United  Kingdom Ministry of Technology
   (1969), 120, 179
 U.S. Army, Coastal Engineering Research
   Center (1966), 17
 U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and  Wildlife
   (1972)
 —(see Stickel,	(unpublished data, 1972),
   194
 U.S. Congress  (1948), 2
     (1965), 2,  10
     (1968), 10, 39, 399
     (1970a,b), 399
 U.S. Department of Agriculture (1961), 350
     Agriculture Research Service,
       (1963), 346
       (1967), 86
       (1969), 318, 347
 —(see also Agriculture Research Service)
     Division of Economic Research, 2
     Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), 324
 —(see also Salinity Laboratory)
 U.S. Department of Commerce
     Bureau of the Census (1969),  377
       (1971), 244, 369, 377-383, 385, 388,
           389, 391-393, 483
       Table VI-1, 369
       Table VI-9, 381
       Table VI-12, 382
       Table VI-14, 383
       Table VI-21, 388
     Fisheries of the U.S.  (1971), 2
     National  Oceanographic  and  Atmos-
       pheric Administration, 2
     Office of Technical Services
       (1958), 462
 U.S. Department of Health, Education,  and
  Welfare (1966), 20
     (1969), 76, 78, 348, 437
     Education and Welfare (1969), 319
     Food and  Drug Administration (1963,
       1964), 310
       (1968), 437
       (1971), 240, 481, 482
     Public Health Service (1959), 66
       (1961), 73
       (1962),  50,  51,  273, 385,  392,  393,
           481. 482
       (1965), 36, 302
       (1968), 37
U.S. Department of Health, Education and
  Welfare—Public Health Service, and Ten-
  nessee.  Valley  Authority, Health & Safety
  Dept.  (1947), 25
U.S. Department of the Interior
     (1969), 221, 243-245, 248, 250, 255
     (1970), 221
     (1971), 8
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
       (1967), 9
       (1970), 39
     Federal   Water   Pollution   Control
       Administration (see also FWPCA)
       (1966), 57
       (1967), 18
       (1968), 2, 4, 31, 55, 80, 91, 195, 241,
            379
     Geological Survey (1970), 72
 U.S. Department of Science and Industrial
   Research (1961), 242
 U.S. Executive Office of the President
     Bureau of the Budget
       (1967), 369, 370, 376, 388
 U.S. Federal  Radiation Council (1960), 84,
   318
     (1961), 274, 318
     (1961a,b), 84
 —(see also Federal Radiation Council)
 U.S. Federal Security  Agency
     Public  Health  Service (1953), 62
 U.S. Geological Survey (1969), 91
 U.S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review
   Commission (1962), 39
 U.S. Tariff Commission (1970), 264
 Urry, F.M. (see Street, J.C  ct al., 1968), 83,
   198, 226
 Uspenskaya, V.I. (1946),  181
 LIzawa, H.  (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971),
   83

 Vaccaro,  R.F. (see  Ketchum, B.H.  et  al.,
   1958), 275
 Vacarro, R.S. et al. (1972), 280
 Valcrio,  M.G.  (see Innes, J.R.M.  et  al.,
   1969), 76
 Vallee, B.L. (1959), 93
 Valtonen, M.  (see Miettincn, V. et al., 1970),
   172-174
 Van Dam,  L. (see Scholander, P.F. et  al.,
   1955), 138
 Van  der Mass, H.L.  (see  Vos,  J.G. ct  al.,
   1970), 198,  225, 226
 Van Donsel, DJ. (see Gcldreich, E.E. et al.,
   1968), 57
 Vandyke, J.M. (1964), 122, 453
 van E,sch, G.J. (we Baroni, C. et al., 1963), 56
 Van Gundy, S.D. (1961), 348
 Van Hoevcn,  W. (see Han, J.  ct al., 1968),
   145
 Van  Horn,  M. (see Malaney,  G.W. et  al.,
   1962), 301,  302
 Van Horn, W.M. (1955),  173
     (1958), 193
     (1959), 256
 —et al.  (1949), 256
 — (see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121
 Van Lierc, E.J. (1963), 136
 Van Ness, G.B. (1964), 321
     (1971), 322
 Van Slyke, D.D. et al. (1934), 138
 VanThiel. P.H (1948), 321
 Vance, C.  (we Heath,  R.G. et al.,  in press,
  1972), 226
Vandecaveye,  S.C. et al. (1936), 340
Vanselow, A.P. (1959),  340
     (1966a), 342
     (1966b), 344
 —(see Aldrich, D.G. et al., 1951), 344
—(see Liebig, G.F. et al., 1942). 340, 342
Vatthauer,  R.J.  (see Jordan, H.A. et al.,
  1961), 315
 Veith, G.D. (1971), 83
 Veldee,  M.V.  (see Lumsden,  L.L.  et al.,
   1925), 36
 Vclscn, F.P J. (1967), 451
 Velz, C.J. (1934), 89
 Vergnano, B. (1953), 342, 344, 345
 Vermeer, K.  (1970),  227
 Vermillion, J.R. (1957), 66
 (see Galagan,  D.J. et al., 1957), 66
 Vernon, E.H. (1958), 164
 Verrctt, J. (1970),  83, 225
 Victoreen, J.T. (1969), 302
 Viets, F.G., Jr. (1965), 352
 (see Stewart, B A. et al., 1967), 73
 Vigil, J. et al. (1965), 73
 Vigor, W.N. (1965), 460
 Vinogradov, A.P. (1953), 240
 Vinton, W.H., Jr. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al.,
   1963a,b), 62, 310, 311, 313
 —(see Schroeder, H.A.  et al., 1964, 1965),
   311, 313
 Vohra, P. (1968), 316
 Volganev, M.N. (1967), 86
 Volker, J.F.  (1944), 60
 Vollenweider, R.A. (1968), 22
 Von Donsel, D.J. (1971), 16
 Voors, A.W. (1971), 68
 Vorotnitskaya, I.E. (see Kovalsky, V.V. et al.,
   1967), 477
 Vos, J.G. (1970), 198, 225, 226
     (in press, 1972),  225
 —et al. (1968),  225, 227
 —et al. (1970),  198, 225, 226

 WHO (see World Health Organization)
 WRE (see  Water  Resources  Engineering,
   Inc)
 Wada, Akira  (1966),  403
 Wadlcigh, C.H. (1955),  329
 — (see Ayres, A.D. et al., 1952), 329
 —(see Magistad, O.C. ct al., 1943), 324, 336
 Wadsworth, J.R. (1952), 309
 Wagstaff, D.J. (
-------
 560/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
 —et al. (1957), 145, 245, 450-457
 Waller, W.T. (1969),  117
 Walsh, D.F. (1970), 437
 —(tee Kennedy, H.D.  et al., 1970), 195, 437
 Walsh, G.E. (1971), 503, 505
     (1972), 265, 266, 495, 497,  499, 501,
       503, 505
 Walsh, L.M.  (see Jacobs, L.W. et al., 1970),
   340
 Walter, C.M. (1972),  18
 Walter, J.W. (1971), 383
 Walters, A.H. (1964), 301
 Walton, G  (1951),  73
 —(see  Braus, R. et al., 1951), 74
 Wang, P.P. (see Klotz, L.J. et al., 1959), 349
 Wang, W.L. (1954), 350, 352
     (1961), 351
 Wanntorp, H. (see Borg, K. et al., 1969), 198,
   252, 313
 Warburton, S. (see Vigil, J. et al., 1965), 73
 Ward, E. (1965), 473,  474
 Ward, G.II. (1971),  403
 Ward, M.K. (see Williams, H.R. et al., 1956),
   29
 Warington, K. (1954,  1956), 345
 Wark, J.W. (1963), 125
 Warner, R.E. (1965),  121
 Warnick, S.L. (1969), 249, 455
 Warren, C.E. (1965), 131
     (1971), 19, 117, 139, 404
 —(see  Hermann,  R.B.  et al., 1962), 132
 —(see  Shumway, D.L. et  al., 1964), 132
 Warren, S.  (1969), 473
 Wassermann, D. (see Wasserman, M. ct al.,
   1970), 83
 Wassermann, M. et al. (1970), 83
 Warren, S.L. (see Dupont, O. et  al.,  1942),
   56
 Water  Quality  Critena (1968), 423
 Water Resources Council (1968), 377
 Water Resources  Engineers, Inc. (1968), 399,
   403
     (1969), 399
     (1970), 399,  400
 Water Systems Council (1965, 1966), 301
 Watkinson,  J. (see  Harbourne, J.F.  et al.,
   1968), 313
 Watson, C.G. (in press, 1971), 273
 Wattie, E. (1946), 55,  89
 —(see Buttcrfield, C.T. et  al., 1943), 55
 Waybrant, R.C.  (see Hamelink, J.L.  et al.,
   1971), 183
 Wear,  J.I. (1957), 344
 Weaver, W. (1963),  403
Weber, C.W. (see  Crawford,  J.S.  et al.,
   1969), 315
Weber, W.J. (1963), 54
Webster, H.L. (see Conn,  L.W. et al.,  1932),
   62
Weed Society of America (1970), 318
Weeth, H.J. (1961), 307
    (1965, 1971,  1972), 308
—et al. (1960), 307
—ct al. (1968), 308
Weibel, S.R. et al. (1955), 319
—et al. (1966), 318
 Weichcnthal, B.A. et al. (1963), 315
 Weidner, R.B. (see Weibel, S.R. et al., 1966),
   318, 319
 Wcigle, O.M. (1932), 9;i
 Weil, I. (see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948),  55
 Weilcrstein, R.W. (see Williams, M.W. et al.,
   1958), 78
   Weir,  P.A. (1970), 181, 252
 Weir, R. (see Frawley, J.P. et al., 1963), 78
 Weiser,  H.I I. (see  Malaney,  G.W. et  al.,
   1962), 301, 302
 Weiss, C.M. (1965), 183, 463
 Weiss, Ray (no date), 138
 Welander, A.D. (1969), 471, 473
 Welch, E.B. (1969), 22
     (1972),  21
 —(see Emery, R.M. et al., 1972), 20
 Welch, P.S.  (1952), 130
 Welch, R.L. (1971), 83
 Welcomme,  R.L.  (1962), 417
 Wclsch,  C W. (see  Bloomfield, R.A. et  al.,
   1961), 315
 Welsch, W.F. (1954), 60
 Wcldon, L.W. (see Holm, L.G. et al., 1969),
   27
 Welker, B.D. (1967), 124
 Wcnk, E. (see Revelle, R. et al., 1972), 257
 Wentworth,  D.F.  (see .Sproul, O.J. et  al.,
   1967), 92
 Wcrsaw, R.L. et  al. (19(>9), 183
 Wershaw, R.L. (1970), 513
 Wessel, G. (1953), 22, 252
 West, J.L. (see Adams. A.W. etal., 1967),  315
 Westermark, T. (1969),  251
 —(see Berg, W. ct al., 1966), 252
 —(see Birkc, G. et al., 1968), 252
 —(see Johnels, H.G. et al., 1967), 172
 Wcstfall, B.A. (1945), 4(>4, 465
     (1937), 86
 —(see Elhs, M.M. et al.. 1946), 249
 —(see Smith, M.I. et al., 1936), 86
 Westgard, R.L. (1964), 137
 Westgate, P.J. (1952), 342
 Westlake, D.F. (1966), 24
 Westlake, W.E. (see Gunther, F.A. et  al.,
   1968), 227
 Westman, J.R. (1963), 147, 148
     (1966), 160,  413, 417, 419
 Weston, R.F. (see Turnbull, H. et al., 1954),
   145, 191, 244, 450-45!)
 Weston, J. (1966), 198
 —(see Kiwimae, A. et al., 1969), 313
 Wetmore, A. (1919), 227
 Wetzel, R.G. (1969, 1971), 25
 Wheeler, R.S. (1949), 305
 Whetzal, F.W. (see Weichenthal, B.A. et  al.,
   1963),  315
 Whipple, D.V. (1931), 148
 Whipple, G.C. (1907), d, 89
 Whipple, W.J. (1951), 173
 Whisler, F.D. (in press, 1972),  352
Whitledge, T. (1970), 2''7
Whitaker, D.M. et al. (1945), 137
—(see Berge, W.E. et al., 1945), 138
Whitaker, J.  (see Sunde, L.A. et al., 1970), 20
White, C.M. (see Cade, T.J. et al., 1970), 267
 White, D B. (see Harriss, R.C. et al., 1970),
   173
 White, D.E. et al., 1970), 313
 White, G.F. (1912), 471
 White, J.C., Jr. (see Angelovic, J.W. et al..
   1967), 454
 Whitehead,  C.C. (1971), 320
 Whitcley, A.H. (1944a), 135
 —(see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 136
 Whitley,  L.S. (1968), 455, 460
 Whittle, G.P. (see Black, A.P. et al., 1963), 6:
 Whitman, I.L. (1968), 40, 400
 Whitworth,  W.R. (1969), 455, 464
 —et al. C 968), 27
 Wicker, C.F. (1965), 279
 Wiebe, A.H. (1932), 138
 Wiebe, J.P. (1968), 162
 Wiebe, P.M. et al. (in press, 1972), 280
 —(see Vacarro, R.S.  et al.,  1972),  280
 Wiemeyer,  S.N.  (1970), 197, 198, 226
 Wilber, C.G. (1969), 241. 243, 245, 248, 250
   255, 256
 Wilcoxon, F. (1949), 434
 Wilcox, L.V. (1965), 324, 335
 —(see Lunin, J. et al., 1960), 337
 —(see Reeve, R.C. et al., 1955), 334
 Wilcoxon, F'. (1947), 495, 497, 499, 501, 503
   505
     (1949),  121
 Wilder, D.G. (1952), 242, 250
 Wilhm, J.L. (1965),  408
     (1966),  144
     (1968),  35
 Wilhm, J.S  (1968), 275, 408,  409
 Wilkms, D.A. (1957), 343
 Willford, W.A. (1966), 173,  456
 Williams, A.B. (1958), 279
 Williams, C.B. (see Fisher, R.A. et al., 1943)
   409
 Williams, C.H. (1971), 79
 Williams, H.R. et al. (1956), 29
 Williams, K.T. (1935), 316
 —(see  Byers, H.G. et al., 1938), 316
 Williams, M.W.  et al. (1958),  78
 Williams, R.J.B. (1968), 341
 Willis,  J.N.  (see  Duke, T.W.  et al., 1966)
   472, 479
 Willm, E  (1879), 72
 Wilson, A.J., Jr. (1970), 266
 —(see Duke.  T.W. et al., 1970), 83, 176, 264
 —(see  Hansen, D.J. et al.,  1971),  176,  177
   505
 —(see  Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971), 267
 —(see  Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971 a), 489
—(see Nirnmo,  D.R. et al., 1970), 267
—(see Nimmo, D.R. et al., 1971), 176, 268
Wilson, D.C. (1969), 184, 429, 430
Wilson, C.S. (1966),  321
Wilson, P.D. (see Flansen, D.J. et al., 1971),
   176, 268, 505
—(see Lowe, J.I.  et al., 1971),  267
—(see Lowe, J.I.  et al., 1971a), 489
—(see Nimmo, D.R. et al., 1971), 176, 268
Wilson, R.H. (1950), 60
Wilson, W.B.  (see McFarren,  E.F. et  al.,
   1965), 38

-------
                                                                                                                  Author Index/561
Winchester, C.F. (1956), 305
Wing, F. (see Tracy, H.W. et al., 1966), 90
Winkler, L.R. (1964), 463
Winks, W.R. et  al.  (1950), 315
Winter, A.J. (1964), 315
Winterbcrg, S.H. (see Maclntirc, W.H. et al.,
  1942), 343
Wintncr,  I.  (see O'Conner,  O.T. et al.,
  1964), 179
Winton, E.F. (1970), 73
—ct al.  (1971), 73
Wirsen, C.O. (see  Jannasch,  H.W. et al.,
  1971), 277, 280
Wisely, B. (1967), 454, 460
Wisely, R.A.P. (1967), 455
Wiser, C.W. (1964), 471
Wobeser, G. et al. (1970), 173, 251
Woelke, C.E. (1961), 252, 455
     (1967), 120
Wojtalik, T.A. (1969), 162
     (unpublished data, 1971), 163
Woker, H. (1948), 187, 454
     (1955), 190
—(see Wuhrmann, K. ct  al., 1947),  187
Wolf, H.H. (1963),  380
Wolf, H.W. (1963), 2,  55, 74,  144, 177, 179,
  189, 241, 255,  308-314, 317, 321,  339, 371
Wolfe, D.A. (1970), 480
Wolfe, M A. (see dine, J.F. et al., 1969), 328
Wolgemuth, K. (1970), 244
Wolman, A.A. (1970),  266
Wolman,  M.G.  (see Leopold, L.B. et al.,
  1964), 22, 126
Wood, C.S. (1964), 253
Wood, E.M. (see  Cope,  O.B. et al., 1970), 436
Wood, J.W. (1968), 138
—et al.  (1969), 172
—(see Hublow, W.F. et al., 1954), 245
Wood, R.L. (1972), 321
Wood, S.E. (1958), 399
Woodward, R.L. (1958), 59, 65
—(see Chang, S.L. et al., 1958),  91
—(tee Cohen, J.M. et al., 1960), 64, 69, 71, 93
— (see Cohen, J.M. et al.,  1961), 78
Woolsey, T.D.  (see  Smith, R.S. et al.,  1951,
  1952, 1961),  31
Woolson, E.A. ctal. (1971),  318, 340
Work, R.C. (see  McNultey,  J.K. et  al.,
  1962), 279
World Health  Organization  (1958,  1961),
  481, 482
     (1959), 18
     (1963, 1970), 65
     (1967), 252
Wretling, A. (1967), 252
Wright, F.B. (1956), 301, 302
Wright, M.J. (1962, 1965),  315
—(see Davison,  K.L. et al., 1964), 314
—(iff Simon, J. et al., 1959), 315
Wright, R.L. (1966), 149
Wu, H. (1962), 56
Wuhrmann, K. et al. (1947, 1952),  187
     (1948), 187, 454
     (1955), 190
Wunderlich, W.E. (1962), 27
     (1969), 26
Wurtz, A. (1945), 244, 245,  462
Wurtz, C.B. (1955), 408
     (1961), 453, 458, 459
     (1962), 453, 459
Wyatt, J.T. (see Silvey, J.K. et al., 1972), 82
Yae, Y. (see Yoshirnura, H. ct al., 1971), 83
Yamagata, N. (1970), 60, 245
Yamaguchi,  A.  (see Kuratsune,  M.  et al.,
  1969), 83
Yamamoto, II.  (see Yoshirnura,  H.  et al.,
  1971), 83
Yasutake, W.T.  (see Amend,  D.R. et al.,
  1969), 462
Yaverbaum, P.M. (1963), 250
Yeo, R.R. (1959), 347
— Off Bruns, V.F. ct al., 1964), 347
Yevich, P.P. (1970), 246, 462
Yoh, L. (1961), 463
Yonge, C.M. (1953), 279
Yoshimura,  H. et al. (1971), 83
Yoshimura,  T.  (see  Kuratsune, M. ct al ,
  1969),  83
Young, J.E. Off Clark, D.E. et al., 1964), 320
Young, J.O. (1967), 311
Younger, R.L. (see Clarke, D.E. et al., 1964),
  320
Yount, J.L.  (1963), 24
    (1970),  26
Yudkin, J. (1937), 465
Yule,  W.N.  (1971), 183
Yurovitskii, Yu.  G. (1964), 132

Zabik, M.J. (1969),  183
Zaitsev, Yu, P. (see Pohkarpov,  G.G. et al.,
  1967), 471, 473, 475
Zakhary, R. (1951),  459
Zehendcr,  F.  (tee  Wuhrmann, K. et al.,
  1947), 187
Zeller, R.W. et al (1971),  403
Zillich, J.A  (1969),  147
    (1972),  189
Zimmerman, E.R. (w  Leone, N.C. et al.,
  1954), 66
Zimmerman, J.E. (see Jordan, H.A. et al.,
  1961), 315
Zinc,  F.W. Off Grogan, R.G. ct al., 1958),
  349
Zingmark, R. (see Foster, M. et al., 1970), 258
Zitko, V. et  al. (1970), 254
ZoBcll, C.E. (1969),  261
Zweig, G. et al. (1961), 320

-------
                                                       SUBJECT  INDEX
2, 4, 5-TP (2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy-propionic
     acid), 79
2,4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), 79
  Livestock intake, 319
ABS (alkylbenzene sulfonate),  67, 190, 403
ABS concentrations
  Predictions, 404
  Rainbow trout mortality, 405
ABS toxicity curves, 406
Acanthamoeba, 29
Acartia tonsa, 246
Achromobacter, 438
Acid soils
  Aluminum toxicity, 339
Acipenser, 132
Actinastrum, 147
Actmomycetes, 147
Acute bioassay procedures
  Fish, 1'19
Acute gastroenteritis
  Polluted shellfish, 277
Adsorption
  Backwashing, 373
  Chemical regeneration of carbon, 373
  Organic materials removal, 373
  Thermal regeneration of carbon,  373,  375
Aeration
  Clarification, 373
  Carbon dioxide reduction, 373
  Filtration, 373
  Lime softening, 373
Aerobacter, 438
Aerobic waters
  Sulfonates, 67
Aeromonas,  438
Agricultural crops
  ECe values, 326
  Salt tolerance,  325, 326
Agricultural irrigation
  Arid regions, 323, 324
  Subhumid regions, 324
Agricultural waters
  Aquatic organisms
     Pesticide tolerance, 321
  Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides con-
       tent, 318
  Climate, 333
  Clostndium, 321
  Clostridium perfngens, 321
  Clostndium tctani, 321
  Disease-producing organisms, 32]
  Erysipelas, 321
  Escherichia-Enterobacter-Klebscilla, 321
  Listeriosis, 321
  Nutritional effects, 326
  Parasitic organisms, 321
  Pathogens, 321
  Salinity in irrigation, 324, 325
  Salmonella, 321
  Toxicity to livestock, 319
  Tularemia, 321
Agriculture
  Field crops
    Salt tolerance, 326
  Forage crops
    Salt tolerance, 327
  Fruit crops
    Salt tolerance, 325
  Herbicides, 345
  Insecticides, 345
  Iron bacteria, 302
  Irrigation, 300
  Irrigation waters, 33:>
  Milk storage, 302
  Ornamental shrubs
    Salt tolerance, 326
  Pesticides, 318
  Plant growth
    Temperature effects, 328
  Polluted water,  300
  Salt tolerance of crops, 337
  Soil bacteria
    Arthrobacter, 302
  Soil-irrigation effects, 333
  Soil salinities
    Root zone-yield significance, 325
  Summer showers, 33:i
  Trace elements  in soils, 338
  Vegetable crops
    Salt tolerance, 327
  Water for livestock, 304
  Water supply management, 300
  Winter precipitation, 333
Agriculture runoffs
  Freshwater nutrients, 274
Air-saturated scawater, 261
Alabama
  Water hyacinth, 27
Alga
  Uranium effects, 256
Algae
  Chromium toxicity, 180
  Copper toxicity, 180
  Manganese toxicity, 250
  Molybdenum concentration, 253
  Rad tolerance, 272
  Uranium concentrate, 256
Algae growth, 23, 275
Algal blooms, 317
Algal growth
  Artificial destratification, 165
  Temperature effects, 165
Algal nutrition
  Phosphates, 253
Algal-pH interaction, 141
Alkali disease
  Livestock, 316
Alkaline waters
  Calcium carbonate saluratation, 54
  Hardness, 54
  pH value, 54
  Taste, 54
Alkalinity
  Corrosive waters, 54
  Natural waters, 54
  Weak acid anions,  54
Alkalinity composition, 52
Aluminum-pH relationship, 242
America! Fisheries Society, 28
American Kestrels
  Egg shell thinning, 197
  Shell  thi cvning-DDE relationship, 226
American Oyster
  Silt tolerance, 281
American Public Health Association, 29, 3(
America a Society of Ichthyologists and He
    petologists, 28
Ammonia
  Corrosiveness, 55
  Groundwater, 55
  Public water supply, 65
  Rainbow trout mortality, 242
  Sewage treatment,  55
  Surface water,  55
  Water distribution  systems
    Algal nutrient, 55
    Microbial nutrient, 55
  Water disinfectant, 55
  Water solubility, 186
Ammonia-dissolved oxygen relationship, 24
Ammonia-pH  relationship, 188
Ammonia loxicity
  Fish species, 187
Amphibians
  Muscular dystrophy, 250
Anabaena ci/cinalis, 147
Anabaena flvs-aquae,  317
Anaerobic sediments, 239
Anaerobic soil-water environment, 322
Anas platjirhynchos, 196, 226
Anas tubripts, 195
Anas strepera, 228
                                                                  562

-------
                                                                                                                     Subject Index/563
Anemones
   Chlorine tolerance, 247
Animal protein
   Marine environment, 216
Animal protein consumption
   Fish source, 216
Animals
   Cadmium content, 245
   Drinking water intake, 306
   Water consumption, 308
   Water content
     Daily calcium requirements, 306
     Daily salt requirements, 306
   Water requirements
     Beef cattle, 305
     Dairy cattle,  305
     Horses, 305
     Sheep, 305
     Swine, 305
Anion exchange, 375
Ankistrodesmus, 438
Annual temperature cycle, 171
Anopheles Jreeborm, 25
Anopheles quadnmaculatus, 25
Antarctica
   Cadmium level, 246
Antarctica fowl
   Mercury  tolerance, 252
Antarctica Fern
   Cadmium levels, 246
   Mercury  tolerance, 252
Anthrax
   Bacillus anthracis, 322
Antimony
   Bioassay of fish, 243
   Green algae effects, 243
Antimony poisoning
   Humans, 243
Anus acula,  228
Anus sp., 228
Aphamzornmon flos-aquae, 317
Aquaculture,  277
Aquatic acclimation
   Ecological balance,  154
Aquatic animals
   Gas bubble disease, 132
   Ionizing radiation absorption, 145
   Manganese concentration, 250
   Oxygen uptake, 270
   PCB-reproduction  effects, 177
   Silver toxicity, 255
Aquatic birds
   Cl. bolulmum outbreaks, 196
Aquatic communities
   Alteration,  165
   Animal populations,  194
   Oxygen concentrations, 131
   Thermal  criteria, 166
   Thermal  patterns, 165
   Toxicants, 220
Aquatic  ecosystems (See also  Aquatic  orga-
     nisms)
   Artificial impoundments, 124
   Balance,  110
   Biota,  109
   Bogs-wildlife relationships,  194
  Community structure, 109, 110
  Dimethylmercury content, 172
  Dissolved solids,  142
  Environmental change, 109
  Estuaries, 219
  Habitats, 109
  Marshes-wildlife relationships, 194
  Monomercury content, 172
  Muskegs-wildlife relationships, 194
  Oxygen requirements, 132
  Pesticide contamination, 182
  Pollutants,  194
  Pollutants effects, 220
  Pollution effects, 237
  Seepage-wildlife relationship, 194
  Suspended solids interactions, 126
  Swamps-wildlife relationship, 194
  Temperature sensitivity, 157
  Wastes lethal toxicity, 117
  Water level fluctuation,  194
  Water pollutants, 109
  Water temperature, 151
  Water temperature  fluctuations,  160
Aquatic  ecosystem—wildlife relationship, 194
Aquatic  environment, 109
  Biological monitoring, 116
  Chemical structure, 110
  Dialkyl phthalate residues, 174
  Dredging effects, 124
  Iron contaminants,  249
  Mercury from coal burning, 172
  Mercury from industrial processes, 172
  Mercury from weathering processing, 171
  Organic mercury, 172
  Physical characteristics, 110
  Pollutant concentrations-disease relation-
       ship, 236
  Radioactive materials, 190, 270
  Radioactivity levels control, 273
  Radioisotope introduction, 271
  Radioisotopes-food  web  relationship, 271
  Selenium content 254
  Summer nutrient additions, 276
Aquatic food chains
  Mercury content, 174
Aquatic form
  Chronic radiation dose effects, 273
Aquatic habitats, 110
  Mercury contamination, 173
Aquatic invertebrates
  Thallium toxicity, 255
Aquatic life
  Asphyxiation, 137
  Behavior effects,  236
  Bioassay system,  235
  Bioresponse testing,  234
  Carbon dioxide  effects, 139
  Chlorine toxicity, 189
  Chromium sensitivity, 247
  Chromium  toxicity, 247
  Community structure, 408
  Detergent toxicity, 190
  Dissolved gas pressure, 135
  Extreme temperature exposure, 161
  Floating logs effects, 128
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity,  191, 193
  Inorganic chemicals-marine environment
       interactions, 239
  Lead concentration effects, 181
  Local habitats, 157
  Metal hydroxide toxicity,  179
  Metal toxicity, 179
  Migration temperature, 164
  Oil-detergents toxicity, 261
  Oil loss effects, 144
  Oil spills effects, 258
  Oily substances toxicity, 145
  Oxygen  requirements, 131
  pH  metals relationship, 179
  pli toxicity,  140
  Pesticide effects, 434
  Pollutants-genetic effects,  237
  Pollution effects evaluation, 408
  Reproduction water temperature relation-
       ships, 164
  Spawning temperatures, 164
  Supersaturation
     Physiological adaptation, 137
  Temperature acclimation, 171
  Thermal criteria, 157
  Thermal requirements, 164
  Thermal resistance, 161
  Thermal tolerance, 160
  Water temperature limits, 165
  Water temperature safety factor,  161
  Winter maxima temperature, 160
Aquatic macrophytcs
  Aesthetic values, 26
  Sports fishermen, 26
Aquatic mammals
  Surface oil hazards, 196
Aquatic microorganisms
  Bioassays, 235
  Water characteristics alteration, 127
Aquatic molluscs
  Mercury intake, 173
Aquatic organisms
  Aliphatic hydrocarbon synthesization, 145
  Arsenic chronic effects, 243
  Arsenic lethal doses, 243
  Arsenic poisoning, 243
  Average temperature tolerance, 170
  Bioassays, 109
  Boron toxicity, 244
  Bromine toxicity, 245
  Cadmium chrome effect, 246
  Chlorine exposure, 189
  Chlorine toxicity, 189, 246
  Chronic  exposure to mercury, 174
  Clean water  relationship, 408
  Community  diversity,  408
  Community  structure, 109
  Copper lethality, 248
  Diversity indices, 408
  Dredging effects, 124
  Environmental changes, 152
  Flavor impairing materials uptake, 148
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity,  256
  Inorganic chemicals
     Accumulation, 469-480
     Dosage, 450-460
     Sublethal doses, 461-468

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564/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
   Irradiation, 271
   Larvae pollution sensitivity, 236
   Lethal threshold temperatures, 410
   Mercury compounds, 252
   Mercury concentration in tissue, 174
   Migrations, 236
   Methylmercury intake, 172
   Mortality levels, 162
   Organic compounds
     Toxicity data, 484-509
   Organochlorine compounds
     Accumulation, 183
   Organochlorine  pesticide  accumulation,
       185
   pH effects, 141
   Paniculate material
     Bottom-settling effects, 281
   Phosphates-primary  production  effects,
       281
   Phosphates tolerance, 253
   Phytoplankton growth, 124
   Pollutant concentrations, 233
   Pollutant sublethal effects, 233
   Polluted water, 408
   Pollution-nutrition relationship,  237
   Polychlorinated byphenyls in  tissues, 177
   Polychlorinated byphenyls toxicity, 176
   Primary productivity, 281
   Radioactivity effects, 190, 270
   Radioisotope concentrations,  193, 271
   Radioisotope content, 192
   Reproductive  cycle-chronic  toxicity  ef-
       fects, 235
   Species protection,  109,  110
   Sublethal lead effects, 250
   Temperature changes, 151
   Temperature-reproduction  relationships,
       171
   Temperature resistance, 410
   Temperature tolerance,  151
   Testing,  119
   Thallium nitrate effects, 256
   Thermal criteria, 168
   Thermal responses, 152
   Thermal shock, 168
   Thermal shocks mix, 170
   Threshold values, 282
   Toxic concentrations acceptability, 118
   Uranium toxicity, 256
   Waste contamination, 109
   Waste exposure time, 231
   Water quality management, 109
   Water temperature, 151
Aquatic plant communities
   Bicarbonate alkalinity,  194, 195
Aquatic plant growth
   Cation requirement, 23
Aquatic plants
   Barium chloride lethality, 244
   Free oil effects,  144
   Ionizing radiation absorption, 195
   Mercury content, 251
   Oil emulsions effects, 144
   Oxygen requirements,  131
   Oxygen uptake, 270
   Silt deposits accumulation, 195
Aquatic pollution
  Larvae mortality, 236
Aquatic populations
  Dissolved oxygen concentrations, 270
  Thermal alterations,  152
Aquatic populations survival
  Water temperature elfects, 161
Aquatic species
  Critical temperatures, 171
  Harvest control, 110
  Hydrogen sulfide chronic  exposure level,
       193
Aquatic systems (See also Aquatic ecosystems
     and Aquatic organisms)
  Dissolved solids
     Animal growth, 142
     Plant growth, 142
  Herbicides content, 183
  Inorganic materials interaction, 111
  Organic material interaction, 111
  Pesticide distribution 183
  Physical factors
     Bottom contour, 111
     Currents, 111
     Depth, 111
     Flow velocity, 111
     Light penetration,  111
     Reacration capability, 111
     Temperature, 111
     Volume of water,  111
     Water exchange rate, 111
  Temperature-chemical reactions, 111
Aquatic test animals
  Daphma, 119
  Daphnia magna, 119
Aquatic testing organisms
  Acclimation, 120
Aquatic vascular plants
  Bicarbonate alkalinitv, 24
  Biomass for waterfowl, 27
  Biornass vs. boating, 27
  Carbon dioxide effects, 24
  Carbonate alkalinity  effects,  24
  Control methods, 26
  Current velocity effects, 24
  Dissolved oxygen effects, 24
  Evaporation effects,  24
  Harvest, 26
  Light penetration effects, 24
  Nutrient supplies effects, 24
  Oxygen balance, 24
  Prediction model, 24
  pH effects, 24
  Phytoplankton interaction, 25
  Sediment composition effects, 24
  Swimming tolerance, 63
  Water circulation, 24
Aquatic vectors
  Culexfatigans, 17
  Disease
     Encephalitis, 17
     Malaria, 17
     Schistosomiasis, 17. 18
  Midge production, 18
  Mosquitos, 17, 18
  Snails, 19
Aqueous ecosystem
  Persistent pollutants, 264
Arabis mosaic virus, 349
Arbacia
  Silver nitrate effects, 255
Arcatia tonsa
  Chlorine exposure times, 247
Ardea herodias, 227
Argentina
  Epidcmiological studies, 56
Arid regions
  Climate
     Irrigation waters, 333
  Drainage waters, 334
  Irrigation water quality, 333
  SAR values, 338
Arizona
  Fish fauna, 27
  Irrigation water, 352
Aroclor®, 176, 177, 226
Arrow oil spill, 262, 263
Arsenic
  Aquatic organisms poisoning, 243
  Biological oxidation, 56
  Chemical forms, 56
  Cumulative poison, 243
  Derma tological manifestations,  56
  Drinking water, 56
     Carcinogenic effects, 309
     Human consumption, 309
     Toxicity, 309
  Epidemiological studies, 56
  Farm animals
     Water toxicity, 309
  Food intake concentrations,  56
  Growth stimulant, 56
  Human chronic exposure, 56
  Human tolerance, 56
  Inorganic, 56
  Microorganism poisoning, 243
  Pentavalent inorganic form,  56
  Pesticides, 243
  Public water supply, 56
  Surface water, 56
  Toxicity in water, 309
  Toxicity to man, 56
  Toxicity variance, 243
  Water intake concentration,  56
Arsenic is carcinogen, 56
Arsenic poisoning
  Human icactions, 56
  Toxic symptoms, 56
Arsenic-selenium relationship,  240
Arsenicals, 310
Arthrobacter, 302
Arthropods
  Fish food, 193
Arthropods-hydrogen  sulfide   relationship
     193
Ashy petrel
  Cadmium effects, 246
  Mercury concentrations, 252
Asia
  Fishery management, 441
  Ocean sediments, 281

-------
                                                                                                                     Subject Index/565
 Asian clam (Corbicula mamlensis), 27
 Atlantic
   Barium concentration, 244
   Tar ball abundance, 257
 Atlantic Coast
   Fisheries, 221
   Waste disposal, 222,  278
 Atlantic coast streams
   Carbon dioxide content, 139
 Atlantic salmon
   Copper concentrations,  181
   Copper lethal effects, 248
   Zinc copper reactions, 240
 Atomic energy installations
   Radiation-aquatic life relationships, 273
 Au Sable River, 14
 Australia
   Water use
     Livestock, 307
 Aylhya qffines, 195
 Aylhya amencana, 195, 228
 Aythya collans, 228
 Aylhya ralimena, 195, 228

 BOD (r«? also biochemical oxygen demand),
     55, 330
 BOD test
   Effluent quality, 55
   Sewage treatment measurement, 55
 BOD5 (5-day Biochemical Oxygen  Demand
     test), 275
 Bacillus, 438
 Bacillus anlhracif, 322
 Back Bay, Virginia
   Aquatic plant production, 194
   Silt deposits, 195
 Bacteria
   Coliform index, 58
   Public water supply,  57
   Rad tolerance, 272
 Bacterial  pathogen detection, 276
Baha, California
   Sedimented oils, 145
   Tampico Maru  spill,  258
Bald Eagle
   Dieldrin accumulation effects, 227
 Bankia sttacia, 243
 Ballanus ballanoides, 261, 255
Baltimore, Maryland
   Urban streams, 40
 Banana waterlily
   Waterfowl food, 194
Barium
   Adverse physiological effects, 59
   Dust inhalation, 59
   Human dosage, 59
   Industrial use, 243
   Injection-toxic  effects, 59
   Muscle stimulant, 59
   Nerve block, 59
   Public water supply,  59
   Solubility, 59
   Vasoconstriction,  59
 Barium chloride
   Bioassays, 244
 Barnacles
  Chlorine tolerance, 247
  Silver toxicity, 255
Bathing beaches
  Bacteriological standards, 30
  Long Island Sound, 31
Bathing places
  Diseases, 29
  Water quality, 29
Bathing waters, 29
  Chemical quality, 33
  Contamination, 29
  Fecal coliform index, 31
  Illness incidences, 31
  Meningoenccphalitis, 29
  Water quality requirements, 30
Bays
  Nonthcrmal discharge distribution
    Mathematical model, 403
Beach quality
  Jetties and piers, 17
Bear River Migratory Bird Refuse
  Cl.  botuhnum outbreak, 196
Benthic communities
  Sedimented oils effects, 196
Beryllium
  Surface waters,  310
  Water solubility, 244
Bicarbonates
  Fruit crops, 329
Bilharziasis (schistosomiasis), 18
Bikini
  Manganese radionuclide uptake, 251
Bioaccumulation of mercury, 172
Bioassay design
  Biological characteristics, 236
Bioassay evaluation, 121
Bioassay methods
  Flow-through, 119
  Static, \ 19
Bioassay procedures, 120
Bioassay tests
  Physiological processes, 237
Bioassays
  Application factors,  121
  Aquatic life stages, 235
  Aquatic life tainting, 149
  Aquatic microorganisms, 235
  Chemical concentration, 123
  Continuous flow, 119
  Dissolved oxygen, 121
  Exposure effects, 236
  Laboratory experimentation,  119
  Lethal threshold concentrations, 122
  Long-term testing, 236
  Minnow mortality, 128
  Pollutants, 122
  Safe-lethal concentration ratios, 121, 122
  System design, 235
  Toxicant concentration, 121
  Toxicant mixtures
    Sublethal effects,  122, 123
  Toxicants
    Long-term effects, 118
  Toxicity measurements,  118
  Toxicity tests, 121
  Water quality, 118
  Water tainting, 149
Biochemical oxygen demand (seealsoftOT)), 34
Biographical notes
  (Committee and panel members), 528-533
Biological communities
  Canals, 171
  Embayments, 171
Biological methylation, 172
Biological monitoring program
  Bioassays,  116, 117
  Field surveys, 116
  In-plant, 116
  Simulation techniques, 116
Biological treatment procedures
  Virus removal, 92
Biological wastes
  Organic toxicants,  264
Biomonitoring procedures, 120
Btomphalana glabrata,  18
Bioresponses
  Long-term testing,  236
Biosphere
  Toxic organics hazards, 264
Biota temperature deviations, 151
Bird feathers
  Mercury concentrations, 252
Bird life
  Chlorinated hydrocarbon  pesticide  tox-
       icity, 227
  Lead ingestion effects, 228
Birds
  Mercury contamination, 198
  Mercury poisoning, 172
  PCB toxicity, 198
Bismuth
  Sea water, 244
Bivalve larvae
  Mercuric chloride lethality, 252
Black duck
  Winter food requirements, 195
Black flies-pH effects, 141
Black Sea
  Yeast uranium uptake, 256
Black waters oxygen content,  132
Blackfiy larvae, 18, 22
Bloodworms  (Chuononndae), 22
Bluegill sunfish
  Antimony  tolerance,  243
  Phosphorus toxicity,  254
Bluegills, 435, 437, 438
Blue-green algae, 22
  Anabaena, 22
  Anabaena flot-aquae,  317
  Aphaniynnenon flos-aquae, 317
  Coelnsphaenum keutzmgianum, 317
  Discharge  canals, 171
  Gloeotnchia echimdata,  317
  Microcoleus fagmatus, 22
  Microcystis aeruginosa,  22, 317
  Nitrogen-sea water relationship, 276
  Nodulana tpumigena, 317
  Schmothnx calcicola,  22
  Toxicity, 317
Blue-green algal
  Green Lake, Washington, 20

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566/Water Quality Criteria,  1972
  Lake Sammamish, Oregon, 20
  Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20
  Lake Washington, Washington, 20
  Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire, 20
  Livestock water intake, 317
Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), 37
Bluegills, 128
  Aroclor® exposure, 177
  Aroclor  toxicity, 176
  Cadmium lethality, 180
  Chromium toxicity, 180
  Hardwater—zinc toxicity, 182
  Hydrogen sulfide tolerance, 193
  Malathion exposure effects, 185
  pH effects, 141
  Pesticide synergisis, 184
  Phthalate ester toxicity, 175
  Phenol toxicity, 191
  Softwater-zinc toxicity, 182
Bluegill sunfish
  Cadmium lethality, 180
Blythe,  California
  Irrigation water, 348
Boating
  Social aesthetics, 14
Boca Cieza Bay
  Dredging effects, 279
Boilers
  Slowdown, 378
  Cooling waters, 379
     Once-through, 376
  Equipment damage, 376
  Feedwater, 377
  High-pressure, 376
  Heat transfer equipment, 377
  Ion exchange, 376
  Ion exchange resins, 376
  Low-pressure, 376
  Makeup treatment processes, 379
  Oily matter, 376
  Once-through cooling
     Underground aquifers, 377
  Oxidants, 376
  Recirculated water
     Biological  growths, 379
     Corrosion, 379
     Scale control, 379
  Recycling steam condensate, 378
  Regeneration, 376
  Scale-forming hardness, 376
  Silica, 376
  Waste water potential
     Biological  organisms, 379
     Suspended solids, 379
  Water makeup, 378
  Water quality requirements, 376,  377
Boilers evaporation process
  Dissolved solids concentrate, 379
Boilers feed water quality requirements, 379
Boric acid
  Minnow fatality, 245
Boron
  Groundwater, 310
  Natural waters, 310
  Public water supply,  59
  Sea water, 244
Boston
  Oil pollution, 145
Botanicals
  Recommended concentrations, 187
Bottled  and canned soft drinks
  Description of industry, 392
  Water composition, 333
  Water quality indicators, 392
  Water quality requirements
    Point of use, 393
  Water reuse,  392
  Water softening proctsses, 393
  Water treatment processes, 393
  Water use
    Consumption, 392
    Discharge, 392
    Intake, 392
    Recycle, 392
  Water use processes, 392
Bottom fauna
  Sunken oil effects, 262
Bottom materials resuspension
  Nutrient fertilization occurrence, 281
  Toxic materials release, 281
Bottom sediments
  Hydrogen sulfide content, 256
  Oil degradation, 262
Botulism
  Bird mortality, 197
Botulism epizootic areas, 196, 197
Botulism poisoning, 196
Boundary waters canoe  irea, 13
Brachydamo rerw, 435
Brackish waters
  Oyster-pH relationship, 241
Branla Canadensis, 228
British Columbia
  Irrigation water contJ minates, 349
Bromine
  Water taste effect, 245
Brook trout, 437
  Chromium chronic effects, 180
  Copper-reproduction effects,  180
  Hard water
    LC50 values, 181
  Mercury  toxicity, 173
  Methylrnercury content, 173
  Oxygen requirements, 131
  pH effects,  141
  Softwater
    LC50 values, 181
  Water temperature-mortality relationship,
       162
Brown pelican
  Heavy metals pollution,  226
  PCB-shell thinning relationship, 226
  Reproductive failure, 197
  Shell thinning-DDE relationship,  227
Brown trout (Salmo truttt,),  27
  pH effects,  141
Brownsville Ship Channel
  Spoil deposits, 279
Burbot
  pH effects, 141
Burea of Land Management, 9
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, '), 10
Bureau of Reclamation, 9
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 9
Di-n-butyl phthalate
  Toxicily to fish, 175
Buzzards Bay
  Fuel oil spill,  258

CAM  (Carbon absorption method), 75
CAM sampler
  Low-flow, 75
  High-flow, 75
CCE (Carbon-chloroform extract), 75
  Carcinogenic  properties, 75
  Drinking water, 75
  Water quality measurement, 75
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), 275, 33<
Cabot tein
  Oily water effects, 196
Caddis flies
  pH effects,  141
  Iron effects, 249
Caddo Lake, Texas, 26
Cadmium
  Absorption effects
     Ruminants, 310
  Cardiovascular disease, 60
  Cumulative poison,  179
  Drinking water, 310
  Electroplating plants,  60
  Ground water, 310
  Itai-itai cisease, 245
  Fish poisoning, 179
  Hepatic tissue, 60
  Mammal poisoning, 179
  Natural v.-aters, 310
  Pesticides, 245
  Poisoning, 60
  Public water supply, 60
  Renal (issue, 60
  Shell growth effects, 246
  Toxicity,  60, 310
  Water pollutant, 245
  Zinc smelting by-product, 239
Cadmium concentration
  Public Wciter supply, 60
CalanuSj 261
California
  Agriculture waters
     Climatic effects, 333
  Aquatic animal introduction, 28
  Fish fauna, 27
  Grasscarp introduction, 28
  Lithium toxicity, 344
California coastal waters
  Cadmium level, 246
  Mercury content, 252
California current,  32
California Fish and Game Commission, 28
California mackeral
  DDT contamination, 237
Cambarus, 173, 176
Canada
  Lakes, 21
  Pesticides use, 440

-------
                                                                                                                     Subject Index/567
 Canada Geese
   Lead ingestion effects, 228
 Canadian prairies
   Fish contamination, 240
   Mercuries in birds, 251
   Mercury in fish, 251
 Canals
   Cooling water, 171
   Herbicides content, 347
   Plant growth',  23
 Canvasback
   Lead ingestion effects, 228
   Winter food requirement, 195
 Cape Cod, Massachusetts
   Coastal waters-temperature effects, 238
 Caramus auralus,  141, 181, 187,  193, 244
 Carbamate insecticides
   Mammalian toxicity,  78
   Recommended concentrations,  186
 Carbon dioxide in water, 139
 Camnus rnaenus, 247,  248
 Carp (Cyprinus carpis), 27
   Ammonia exposure effects, 187
   Arsenic toxicity,  243
   Flavor impairing contaminants, 149
   Flavor tainting, 147
   Iron lethality threshold, 249
   pH  effects, 141
 Casmerodius albus, 227
 Castalia flaua, 194
 Castle Lake, 23
 Catfish
   pH effects, 141
 Cation-anion exchange,  375
 Cation exchange, 375
 Calos/omus commersonm, 193
 Cattail
   pi I effects, 141
 Cattle
   Drinking water
     Sodium chloride content, 307
   Molybdenum tolerance, 314
   Teart toxicosis, 314
   Water needs, 304,  305
Cattle feed
   Arsenic selenium relationship, 240
Caiurnix, 226
 Cement industry
   Description,  395
   Water leaching
     Oxide-bearing particulates, 395
   Water leaching processes, 395
   Water quality  requirements, 395
   Water use, 395
 Ceratophyllum, 24
 Cercariar, 322
 Cercaria stagnicotae, 19
 Channel catfish,  128, 435, 437
   Phthalate  ester toxicity, 175
   Flavor-impairing contaminants, 149
 Chattahoochee River, 305
 Chemical and allied  products
   Industry description, 384
   Manufacturing facilities, 384
   Plant locations, 384
   Process water usage, 385
   Treatment processes
     Chlorination, 385
     Clarification, 385
     Demineralization, 385
     Filtration, 385
     Ion exchange, 385
     Raw water,  385
     Softening, 385
   Water quality, 384
     Indicators, 384, 385
   Water quality  requirements
     Low turbidity,  384
   Water use, 384
Chemical and allied product industry
   Process water intake, 384
Chemical-environmental interaction, 239
Chemical industry
   Process water characteristics, 384
Chemical treatment procedure
   Virus removal, 92
Chesapeake Bay, 19
   Dredging effects,  279
   Eurasian milfoil, 27
   Ferric hydroxide content, 249
   Nitrogen content  effects, 281
   Phosphates contents effects, 281
   Spoil biomass,  279
Chicks
   Water salinity  intake,  308
Chile
   Aquatic animal introduction, 28
   Dcrmatological manifestations, 56
China
   Fishery management, 441
   Seaweed culture,  223
Chinook salmon
   Ammonia  concentrations, 242
   Cadmium-zinc effects,  246
   Chlorine lethal threshold, 246
   Chromium toxicity, 180
   Gas bubble disease, 138, 139
   Gill  hyperplasia-ammonia  relationship,
       187
Chtronomus plumontt,  435
Chlordla pyrenmdosa, 245
Chlorella Spp, 438
Chlorides
   Foliar absorption, 328
   Fruit crops sensitivity, 328
   Irrigation  water, 328
   Public water supply, 61
Chlorinated  hydrocarbons
   Insecticides,  318
     Human  intake, 77
     Water solubility, 318
   Pesticides,  197
Chlorination
   Bacteria resistence, 277
   Virus resistence, 277
Chlorine
   Aquatic organisms tolerance, 247
   Hydraulic  systems, 246
   Paper mill treatment,  189
   Potable water treatments, 189
   Power plant treatment,  189
   Sewage effluents  treatment, 189
  Textile mill treatment, 189
  Toxicity, 246
  Water solubility, 246
Chlorine disinfectant
  Public water supply, 50
Chlorine-pH relationship, 246
Chlorine pollutants
  Aquatic organism toxicity, 247
Chlorophenoxy herbicides
  Public water supply, 78, 79
  Recommended safe  levels, 79
  Toxicity, 79
Chlorophyll a, 21
Chlorosis, 329
Chromium
  Drinking water
     Ruminants use, 311
  Freshwater organisms sensitivity, 247
  Human toxieity, 62
  Lake waters, 311
  Oyster  mortality,  247
  Public water supply, 62
  River waters, 311
  Valence forms, 62
Chtyiaoia qiuiifjuecirrha
  Chesapeake Bay, 19
Clailophma, 20, 124
Clams
  Disease vectors, 36
Gloria* batrachin, 28
Clarification, 372
  Chemical additives,  372
Clear Lake, California
  Pesticides
     Trophic accumulation, 183
Clear Lake, Texas
  Brown shrimp production, 279
  White shrimp production, 279
Climate
  Agriculture waters,  333
  Humid-arid  regional differences, 336
  Irrigation waters, 333
Climate conditions
  Evapotranspiration, 336
Clostndium, 321
Cloitu/hiim holiiluntm, 196
Clostndium hemolvtium, 321
Clostndium perfrigetu, 321
Clostndium tetanic, 321
Coagulation process
  Public water supply, 50
Coastal contaminants,  264
Coastal engineering  projects
  Sedimentation,  279
  Suspended loads, 279
Coastal environment
  Contaminants, 217
  DDT compound pollutants,  226
Coastal marine environment
  Toxic wastes, 224
Coastal marine waters
  Recreational activities, 219
  Shell fish yields, 219
Coastal plain estuaries
  Oxygen depletion, 270

-------
 568/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
 Coastal regions
   Pollutant retention time, 230
 Coastal waters
   Cadmium content, 245
   Dissolved oxygen distribution, 270
   Eutrophy, 19
   Marine fish production, 217
   Marine life-oil contamination effects, 261
   Paniculate materials content, 281
   Persistent pollutants, 225
   Pollutant retention time, 230
   Pollution effects, 222
   Waste disposal sites, 221
   Waste disposals, 228
   Zones of passage, 115
 Coastal zone management
   Experiments, 282
 Cobalt
   Drinking water
     Farm animals use, 311
   Surface waters, 311
   Vitamin B12, 311
 Cod
   Phosphorus tolerance, 254
 Coelosphaernwi huet?jngianum, 317
 Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kuutch), 27
   Aroclor® toxieity, 176
   Barium chloride effects,  244
   Carbon dioxide concentrations, 139
   Chlorine lethal threshold, 246
   DDT contamination, 237
   Dissolved oxygen requirements, 139
   Oxygen requirements, 132
   Potassium chromate lethality, 247
Coho salmon fry
   Cadmium sensitivity, 180
Coke production
   Water use, 388
Coldwater fish
   Dissolved oxygen criteiia, 132
Coliform bacteria
   Public water supply
     Sanitary quality, 57
Coliform index
   Pathogenic microorganisms, 58
Color
   Public water supply, 63
Colorado reservoir
   Fish mortality-selenium effects, 255
Colorado River, 14, 40
   Ncmatode content, 348
Columbia Basin, Washington
   Irrigation waters, 348
Columbia River
   Atomic energy installations, 273
   Gas bubble disease, 135
   Salmon spawning, 273
Commercial fisheries
   Water temperature, 151
Committee  on   Bathing  Beach  Contami-
     nation, 29
Committee on Bathing Places, 29
Committee on The Biologic Effects of Atmos-
     phere Pollutants, 343
Committee  on  Exotic  Fishes  and  Other
     Aquatic Organisms, 28
 Common egret
   Dieldrm accumulation effects, 227
 Common tern
   Heavy metals pollution, 226
 Connecticut
   Fish fauna, 27
   Osprey shell thinning, 227
 Contaminated waters, 322
 Continental shelf
   Solid waste disposal, 280
   Water  quality-suspended solids  relation'
       ship, 222
 Continental weathering. 251
 Conversion tables, 524-527
 Cooling ponds, 377
   Power plant discharge, 403
 Cooling systems
   Recirculating, 377, 3^8
 Cooling tower makeup
   Organic matter removal, 378
 Cooling towers
   Operating difficulties, 378
 Cooling water, 377,  378
   Centrifugal separators, 379
   Noncorrosive, 379
   Nonfouling, 379
   Nonscaling, 379
   Rccirculated, 376
   Recirculating rate, 378
   Requirements, 377
   Source composition quality, 379
   Stream filteis, 379
   Treatment processes, 579
 Cooling water entrain m<;nt, 168
 Cooling water systems
   Cooling towers,  377,  j78
 Copepods
   Chlorine exposure, 246
   Crude oil effects, 261
   Diesel oil effects, 261
 Copper
   Algae controls, 247
   Difficiency in  humans, 64
   Drinking water
     Poultry, 311
   Ground water, 64
   Human metabolism,  (4
   Human toxieity, 312
   Lake waters. 311
   Nutritional  anemia,  64
   Public water supply,  (4
   River waters,  311
   Surface water, 64
   Swine, 312
  Trace element, 311
Copper uses, 248
Corbicula mamlensis, 27
Coregonm, 141
Coregonus artedu,  164, 184
Coregonui clupeaforrms, 164
Coregonur hayi,  184
Coregonus hiyi,  184
Corps of Engineers, 9
Cotton bleaching, 380
Crabs
  Arsenic toxieity, 243
   Chromium toxieity, 247
   Copper effect, 248
   pH sensitivity, 241
 Crappies, 128
 Crassius aMutus, 245, 252
 Crassostrea gtgus
   Copper toxieity, 248
 Crassostrea tirginua, 246, 248, 250, 253, 255
     281
 Crater Lake, Oregon, 16, 40
 Crayfish
   Aroclor® toxieity, 176
   Manganese tolerance, 250
   Mercury content, 173
 Cncotopus bi,:inctus, 18
 Crop contamination
   Polluted  irrigation waters, 348
   Raw sewage, 352
 Crop pathogens
   Fungi, 348
 Crops
   Herbicide residues,  347
   Herbicide tolerances, 346
   Insecticides residues, 346
   Manganese toxieity, 344
 Crude oil
   Aquatic life toxieity, 261
 Crude oil production, 257
 Clenopharyngodon idella, 27
 Culexfatigar,s, 17
 Cultus Lake, British Columbia
   Mercury levels, 252
 Currituck Sound, North Carolina
   Silt deposits,  195
 Cyanide
   Chlorination, 65
   Human toxieity, 65
   Industrial waste concentrations,  189
   Oral toxieity, 65
   Public water supply, 65
   Tempc -al urc- toxieity effects, 1 90
 Cyanide toxieity, 189
 Cyclops, 322
 Cyclolflla merfeghitnana,  22
 Cypnnus carfw, 27, 141, 147, 149, 187, 243
DDT
  Carcinogenic effects, 76
  Human exposure, 76
  Milk contamination, 320
DNC (Dinitroorthocresol), 319
DNOC (See  DNC)
Dairy sanitation, 302
  Daphma, 122, 141, 173, 243, 250
  Chromium chronic effects,  180
  Nickel chloride threshold, 253
  Selenium threshold, 255
  Uranium effects, 256
Daphnia magna, 435, 438
  Bromine mortality, 245
  Cadmium sensitivity, 180
  Copper tolerance, 180
  Ferric chloride effects, 249
  Lead toxieity, 181
  Nickel sensitivity, 181

-------
                                                                                                                     Subject Index I ^fy
   PCB-reproduction effects, 177
   Phthalate ester toxicity, 175
   Reproduction-zone effects, 182
 Daphma pulex, 438
 Daphrua sp., 256
   Gas bubble disease, 138
 Daphnids, 435
 Deep sea
   Manganese nodules, 250
   Organic waste disposal, 277
   Permanent thermocline, 217
   Solid wastes disposal, 280
 Deep sea  dumping, 277
 Deep water decomposition, 275
 Deep water-photosynthesis relationship, 275
 Defoliants
   Recommended concentration, 186
 Demineralization
   Cation  exchange, 375
 Dermatological manifestations
   Chile, 56
 Detergents
   Phosphates, 191
   Toxicity, 190
   Detroit River
   Duck refuge, 195
   Sedimented oil, 145
 Diatoms
   Cyanide, toxicity, 190
   Cyclotella menegfnmana, 22
   Gomphonema paivulum, 22
   Melosira vanans, 22
   Naincula cryptocephala, 22
   Niltchia palea, 22
 Diesel oil  spill
   Shell fish fatality, 258
 Dilution water
   Toxicants testing, 120
 Diquat  (1, l'-ethylene-2, 2'-dipyridylium di-
    bromide),  79
Discharge canals
   Blue-green algae, 171
Discharge temperature, 378
Dissolved  gases
   Cavitation, 136
   Partial  pressures, 135
Dissolved  gas-pressure criteria, 138
Dissolved  oxygen
   Anaerobic reduction prevention, 65
   Lakes, 65
   Reservoirs, 65
   Public water supply, 65
Dissolved  solids
   Public water supply, 90
 Distillation
   Thermal  evaporation, 375
   Water condensation, 375
Distilled water
   Ferrous iron  concentrate, 69
   Zinc taste threshold, 93
Ditch water
   Sewage contaminates, 351
 Ditchbank treatment,  346
 Domestic  wastes
   Phosphorus content, 22
 Dorosoma cepedianum,  139
Double-crested Cormorants
   Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
Dracunculus, 322
Dragonflies
   pH effects, 141
Drainage-soil erosion effects, 126
Drainage waters
   Arid regions,  334
   Cadmium content, 245
Drinking water
   CCE, 75
   Arsenic content effects, 56
     Humans, 309
     Mice, 309
     Rats, 309
   Barium content tolerance, 59
   Cadmium content, 60, 310
     Animals use,  310
   Carbamatc insecticides, 78
   Chemical content, 481, 482
   Chromium content, 62
   Copper content
     Farm animals use, 311
     Poultry, 311
   Cyanide content, 65
   Fluoride content, 66
   Insecticide contamination, 76
   Insecticides content, 76
   Lead content
     Livestock, 313
     Ruminants, 313
   Nitrates content, 315
   Nitnlotriacetate content, 74
   Nitrite content, 315
   Nitrite toxicity, 73
   Organoleptic properties, 80
   Organophosphorus insecticide, 78
   Pesticides content
     Livestock, 319
   Radionuclide  content, 85,  318
   Salinity, 195
   Selenium content, 86
     Farm animals, 316
     Rats, 316
   Sodium chloride content
     Cattle, 307
     Day-old poults, 308
     Laying hens, 307
     Sheep, 307
     Swine, 307
   Sodium content, 88
   Sodium sulfate content, 307
   Sulfate ions content, 89
   TDS  concentration, 90
   Vanadium content, 316
   Zinc content,  93
Drinking water quality, 31
Drinking water standards, 50, 51, 57, 59, 70,
     90, 91, 301-303, 310, 332

EC (electrical conductivity),  325
ECe (electrical conductivity of saturation ex-
     tract), 325
EIFAC (European  Inland Fisheries Advisory
     Commission), 127
EQU (environmental quality units), 400
 ESP (exchangeable sodium percentage), 330,
     335
 ESP values
   Soils, 331
 E. histolytical, 29
 Ecological impact analysis
   Environmental characteristics
     Climate, 400
     Hydrology, 400
     Scenery, 400
     Users, 400
     Water quality, 400
   Streams, 399
 Ecological problems
   Simulation techniques, 117
 Ecology, 400
 Ecosystems
   Biota, 219
   Hydrographic  patterns, 219
 Eggshell thinning-DDT relationship, 198
 Eel grass
     Boron effects, 245
 Eels
   Arsenic toxicity, 243
   Manganese tolerance, 250
 Kichhorma crasupn, 27
 Electrical semiconductors
   Arsenic content, 243
 Electrodialysis
   Anionic membrane, 375
   Canonic membrane,  375
   Ion  exchange,  375
 Electroplating industry
   Ground water
     Waste contamination, 310
 Elodea, 24
 Embayments
   Cooling waters, 171
   Plant growth, 23
 Emulsified Oils, 144
 Emulsified oils toxicity, 145
 Endothal (disodium 3, 6-endoxohexa-hydro-
     phlhalate), 79
 England
  Bathing waters, 29
  Salt water beaches, 31
 Eniwetok
  Manganese radio nuclide uptake, 251
 Entamofba coll, 351
 Enttijrioebii histolylica, 351
 Enteric viral contamination
  Sewage effluents, 91
Enterobacler (aerobacter) aerogenes,  57
Enterobacter cloacae, 57
 Environment
  Physical manipulation, 124
 Environmental conditions
  Laboratory experiments, 282
Environmental management
  Waste stream constituents, 116
Environmental pollution, 400
EPA
  Pesticide Regulation  Division, 434
Ephemera,  141
Ephemera simulans, 133
Epidemiological studies

-------
570/'Water Quality Criteria,  7972
  Argentina, 56
  Tiawan, 56
Erysipelas, 321
Erysyselolhnx rhusiopathtae, 321
Eschenca colt, 57
  Nickel concentrations, 253
  Uranium effects, 256
Eschenchia-Enterobacter-Klebscilla, 321
Esox lucius, 172, 193
Estuaries
  Cadmium pollution, 246
  Commercial fishing, 221
  Dissolved oxygen distribution, 270
  Eutrophy, 19
  Fertilization by man
     Algae growth, 20
     Slime organisms growth, 20
     Water weeds growth, 20
  Fertilizing pollutants, 276
  Fish breeding grounds, 217
  Fisheries support, 221
  Marine fish production, 216
  Migratory fishes, 217
  Motile benthos, 281
  Nonthermal discharges distribution
     Mathematical model, 403
  Nutrient enrichment, 277
  Organic pollutants, 264
  Overenrichment, 20
  Particulate transport, 16
  Plant growth, 23
  Pollutant distribution, 230
  Pollutant retention time, 228, 230
  Power plant discharge, 403
  River wastes, 221
  Sanitary quality, 276
  Sewage pollution, 275
  Shad spawning, 221
  Sport fishing, 221
  Sublethal pollutants, 239
  Tidal cycle, 216
  Tidal flow, 220
  Urban population, 219
  Waste disposal, 228
  Zones of passage, 115
Estuarine birds
  PCB Contamination, 264
Estuarine ecology, 277
Estuarine ecosystems
  Dredging effects, 279
  Pesticide toxicity, 264
Estuarine environment
  Oil pollution, 261
Estuarine fish
  PCB concentrations, 177
Estuarine organisms
  Oxygen needs, 270
Estuarine pollution
  Pesticides, 37
  Production reduction, 221
  Waste products, 277
Estuarine turbidity
  Clam eggs tolerance, 281
  Oyster tolerance, 281
Estuarine waters
  Cadmium content, 245
  Pesticide contamination, 37
Estuary Protection Act, 10
Estuary sediments, 127
Eulachon, 164
Eurasian milfoil
   (Myrtophyllum sptcatum I, 27
Europe
   Estuarine birds
     PCB Contamination, 264
   Marine aquaculture
     Oyster, 73
   Well waters
     Nitrates content, 73
European Atlantic coasts
   Temperature effects, 238
European Inland  Fisheries Advisory  Com-
     mission, 140
Eurytemona qffims, 247
   Chlorine exposure time, 247
Eutrophic lakes
   Green Lake, Oregon, 20
   Supersaturation, 136
Evaporation,  328,  329
Evapotranspiration,  324
   Humidity, 323
   Solar radiation, 323
   Temperature effects, 323, 325
   Wind effects, 323, 325
Evapotranspiration by plants
   Irrigation waters,  323
The Everglades, 40
Exaphtalmus, 137
External radiation, 271
   Sources, 194
FAO (see also Food and Agriculture Organi-
     zation), 131, 252
FDA (see also Food and Drug Administra-
     tion), 72
FRC (see also U.S. Federal Radiation Coun-
     cil), 273
PDF (fast-death factor),  317
FWPCA  (Federal Water Pollution Control
     Administration), 55
Falco pereginus, 197, 227
Falco sparuerius, 197, 226
Farm Animals
  Brain mercury content., 313
  Drinking  water copper content, 311
  Kidney mercury content, 313
  Liver mercury content, 313
  Methemoglobinemia, 51, 315
  Selenium  needs, 316
  Toxic water
     Arsenic, 309
  Vanadium toxicity, 316
  Zinc toxicity,  316
Farm ponds
  Pesticide contamination, 318
Farm water  supply
  Pesticide content, 320
Farmstead water
  Ground water, 302
  Federal quarantine regulations, 302
Fasicola hepattca,  350
Fathead minnows, 128, 435, 438
  Antimony effects, 243
  Aroclor® exposure, 177
  Beryllium chloride toxicity, 244
  Cadmium lethality, 179
  Chlorine toxicity, 189
  Chromium chronic effects, 180
  Copper-reproduction effects, 180
  Detergent toxicity, 191
  Hard water
    LC50 values,  181
    Nickel-LC50  values, 181
    Zinc toxicity,  182
  Hydrogen sulfide bioassays, 193
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity,  193
  Malathion exposure effects, 185
  Methylmercury  mortality,  173
  Nickel concentration
    Reproduction limitations, 181
  Nickel effects, 253
  Nickel lethality, 253
  Oil refinery effluents effects, 144
  Oxygen requirements, 132
  PCB-reproduction effects,  177
  Phthalate ester toxicity, 175
  Soft water
    LC50 values,  181
    Zinc toxicity, 182
    Nickel-LC50  values, 181
  Uranium exposure effects,  256
Fauna introduction
  Aquatic plant control, 28
  Commercial fishing, 28
  Forage, 23
  Insect control, 28
  Official agencies, 28
  Pond culture, 28
  Predation, 28
  Sport fishing,  28
Federal Drinking Water Standards, 318
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenti-
    cide \ct, 434
Federal Power Commission,  10
Federal quarantine regulations
  Farmsteads, 302
Federal Water Pollution Control Act  (1948),
    2
Federal Water Project Recreation Act, 10
Filter-feeding organisms
  Oil ingestion, 262
Filtration. 373
  Backwashing, 373
  Primary treatment, 373
Fingernail clams, 22
Finland
  Mercury contamination, 252
Fish
  Acute ammonia toxicity, 187
  Aluminum effects, 179
  Antimony content, 243
  Cadmium effects, 246
  Carbon dioxide  concentrations, 139
  Chromium toxicity, 180
  Commercial value, 240
  Contamination,  240
  Cyanide toxicity, 190
  Dissolved oxygen-pH tolerances, 241
  Dissolved oxygen requirements, 131, 134

-------
                                                                                                                     Subject Index/571
  Ferricyanide toxicity, 190
  Free oil effects, 144
  Gas bubble disease, 135,  137
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
  Iron lethality threshold, 249
  Manganese toxicity, 250
  Mercury
     Accumulation, 252
     Concentration, 72
     Content,  1-98
     Fatality dosage,  181
     Intake, 173
  Metal toxicity, 177
  Muscular dystrophy, 250
  Nickel toxicity effects, 253
  Oil effects,  162, 261
  Oil emulsions effects, 344
  Pesticide levels
     Toxic monitors,  321
  Polychlorinated byphenyls
     Content,  175
     Dietary exposure, 176
     Exposure, 176
     Residue,  175, 176
  pi I changes tolerance, 241
  pH-chlorine relationship, 189
  Pesticide residues, 183
  Pesticide-survival relationship, 184
  Phenolics-taste relationship, 191
  Phosphorus experimentation, 254
  Phosphorus poisoning, 254
  Phosphorus sensitivity, 240
  Rad dosage, 272
  Reduced oxygen concentrations
     Level of protection, 133
  Safe environmental level, 194
  Sulfide toxicity, 255
  Supcrsaturation, effects, 137
  Supersaturation tolerance, 138
  Suspended solids tolerance, 128
  Temperature acclimation, 161
  Thallium exposure, 256
  Thermal requirements, 151
  Turbidity effects, 128
  Water temperature exposure,  160
  Zero net growth, 154
Fish development
  Light sensitivity, 162
  Salinity sensitivity, 162
  Thermal sensitivity, 162
Fish-eating birds
  PCB accumulation, 226
Fish eggs
  Fluoride effects, 249
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 191
  Iron hydroxides effects, 249
Fish farm ponds
  Growth factors, 128
Fish fauna,  27
Fish fry
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 191
Fish food
  Aquatic macrophytes, 25
Fish food organisms
  Arsenic concentrations, 243
Fish growth rates
  Water temperature, 157
Fish hatcheries
  Aquaculture,  151
Fish kills
  Water temperature, 171
Fish life processes
  Biochemical-physiological deficiencies, 239
Fish reproduction
  Thermal sensitivity, 162
Fish tainting
  Phenolatcd compounds, 147
Fish taste
  Phenolics,  191
Fisheries
  Economics-human health relationship, 240
  Mercury contamination effects, 237
  Pollutant effects, 221
Fisheries pond culture
  Phytoplankton,  24
Fishery management, 441
  Aquatic vascular plants, 27
  Application, 442
  Methods, 441
  Need, 441
  Posttreatrncnt assessment, 442
  Pretreatment  assessments, 442
  Toxicant selection, 442
  Toxicants
     Rotenone, 441
     Toxaphene, 441
Fishing license
  Water recreation, 8
Fission products, 191, 271
Fjords
  Oxygen depletion, 270
  Pollutant retention time, 230
Flatworm
  Manganese content, 250
Flavobacter, 438
Floating oils, 144
Flood irrigation, 350
Florida
  Growing seasons, 336
  Lakes, 27
  Soils-copper toxicity, 342
  Walking catfish introduction, 28
  Water hyacinth, 27
Florida elodea (Hydnlla verticilla), 26
Florida oil barge
  Fuel oil spill,  258, 260
Florida State Board of Health, 18
Flounder  spawn
  Crude oil effects, 261
Flowing water
  Organisms pollution, 18
Flukes
  Miracidia, 322
Flouride
  Dental  fluorosis, 66
  Public water supply, 66
  Water pollution control, 66
Fluoride poisoning
  Livestock,  312
Fluoride uses, 248
Fluorine
  Animal intake, 312
  Well water, 312
Fluorine occurrances, 248
Foaming agents
  Ground water, 67
  Public water supplies, 67
  Surface water, 67
  Synthetic anionic surfactants, 67
  Synthetic detergents, 67
Food and Agriculture Organization  (see also
     FAO),  441
Food canning industry
  Chloiination processes, 390
  Description, 389
  Food cleaning, 390
  Fruits, 392
  Gross water intake, 391
  High-pressure water sprays, 390
  Process water,  391
     Coagulation, 391
     Disinfection, 391
     Filtration, 391
     Sedimentation, 391
  Rccirculation processes,  390
  Steam generation, 390
  Total water use,  391
  Vegetables, 392
  Water-demand variation, 390
  Water processes,  390
  Water quality  indicators, 391
  Water quality  requirements
     Point of use, 392
  Water quantity,  390
  Water sources, 391
  Water supplies
     Chemical content,  391
  Water treatment processes, 391
  Water use, 389, 390,  391
Food canning processes
  Water quality, 390
Food and Drug Administration (see also FDA)
  Mercury concentration standards,  72
Food and Drug Directorate
  Canada, 251
Food poisoning
  Clotlndiurn botulinum, 196
Food quality
  Chemicals content, 481, 482
  Inorganic  chemical  concentrations,  481,
       482
Forest Service, 39
Fouling organisms
  Chlorination lethality, 247
Frasier River, British Columbia
  Sockeye salmon production, 164
Fresh water
  Aluminum toxicity, 242
  Animals
     PCB mortality, 176
  Boron effects, 244
  Chemical characteristics
     Alkalinity, 111
     Hardness, 111
     Nutrients, 111
     pH, 111
  Ecosystems

-------
 572/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
      Pollutant concentrations, 264
   Fathead minnow
      Bioassay tests, 253
   Fish-pH requirements, 241
   Gas bubble formation,  136
   Indicator communities, 22
   Iron
      Biological effects, 249
   Mercury concentrations, 173
   Mercury content, 72
   Mixing zones
      Definition, 112
      Water quality characteristics, 112
   Molybdenum-phytoplankton  growth  ef-
      fects, 252
   Nickel toxicity, 253
   pH extremes, 241
   pH values, 140
   Phosphate content, 253
   Sorption process, 228
 Fresh water aquaculture
   Pollution effects, 223
 Fresh water aquatic organisms
   Environmental relationship, 109
 Fresh water fish
   Biologically magnified mercury, 173
   Dissolved  solids
     Osmotic stress, 142
   Lead concentrations,  250
   Manganese lethality,  251
   Oxygen needs, 270
   pH effects, 141
   un-ionized ammonia toxicity, 187
 Fresh water  fisheries
   Chemically inert suspended solids, 128
 Fresh water  lakes
   Malaria vectors, 25
 Fresh water  macrophytes
   Biologically magnified mercury, 173
 Fresh water  organisms
   Ammonia toxicity, 242
   Chromium toxicity, 247
   Cyanides toxicity, 248
   Oxygen requirements, 132
   Uranyl salts toxicity, 256
 Fresh water phytoplankton
   Biologically magnified mercury,  173
 Fresh water systems
   Agriculture runoff nutrients, 274
 Fresh water receiving  systems
   Biological characteristics, 111
   Chemical characteristics, 111
   Physical characteristics,  111
   Waste discharges, 111
 Fresh water stream pollution
   Pathogen occurrence,  57
   Salmonella detection, 57
 Fundulus, 251, 253
 Fundulus heterochtus, 244,  246,  247, 255, 261
 Fundulus sp.,  173
 Fungicides
   Recommended concentration, 186
Furrow irrigation,  350, 351

GBD (gas bubble disease), 135
GLC (gas-liquid chromatography), 439
 GLC-MS (gas-liquid chromatography-mass
     spectrograph), 439
 Gadwall
   Lead ingestion effects, 228
 Galveston Bay
   Background  concentrations-wind  action,
        281
   Suspended material concentrations, 281
 Gambusia affims, 191, 245
 Gammarus, 141, 173, 176
 Gammarus fasciatus, 176
 Gammaruspseudohmnaeus, [89, 191, 435
   PCB-reproduction effects, 177
 Gammarus sp., 256
   Gas bubble disease,  138
 Gas analysis methods
   Gas-liquid chromatography, 138
   Instrumentation, 138
 Gas bubble disease, 135, 137
   Etiology, 135
   Exopthalmus, 137
   Hydrostatic pressure, 135
   Sublcthal effects, 138
 Gas bubble formation
   Aquatic life interface, 137
   Hydrostatic-dissolved  gas-pressure  re-
        lationship, 136
 Gas nuclei
   Bubble formation, 136
 Gasterosteus aculeatus, 242, 255
 Generation plants
   Thermal power, 378
 Genetic studies
   Aquatic pollutants, 237
 German lakes
   Tainting, 147
 Germany
   Mercury content in water, 72
 Grizzard shad
   Carbon dioxide sensitivity, 139
 Glass shrimp, 435
   Aroclor® toxicity, 176
 Global oil pollution of seas, 257
 Gloeotnchia echmulata, 317
 Glossary of terms, 519-523
 Goldfish
   Ammonia tolerance, 187
   Barium concentration, 244
   Bromine mortality, 245'
   Hydrogen sulfide bioassays, 193
   Mercuric chloride effe< ts,  252
   Nickel chloride lethality, 253
   Nickelous chloride effects, 253
   pH effects, 141
   Sodium selenite tolerance, 254
   Softwater lead content. 181
Gomphonema parvulum, 22
Gonyaulax, 38
   Toxic dinoflagellates, 38
Gonyaulax contenella, 38
Gonyaulax tamarensis, 38
Grand Canyon, Coloradc, 14
Grand Canyon National Park, 40
Grass carp (Clenopharyntgodon idella), 27
Great Blue Herons
   Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
 Great-crested Grebe
   Mercury contamination, 252
 Great Lakes
   E. botulism outbreaks, 196
   Fish contamination, 240
   Pollutant ictention time, 230
   Predatory  aquatic birds, 197
   Sea lamprey, 27
   Thermocline changes, 161
 Green algae
   Antimony effects, 243
 Great South Bay, New York
   Nitrogen-phosphorus ratios, 276
 Green Lale, Washington, 20
   Blue-green algal, 20
   Reclamation, 20
 Greenland snow
   Lead content, 249
 Ground waters
   Ammonia  content, 55
   Artesian, f>2
   Boron content, 310
   Cadmium  content, 60, 310
   Contamination, 352
   Contamination by deep-well injection, 52
   Contamination by leaching, 52
   Copper content, 64
   Dissolved inorganic salts, 301
   Farmstead use, 302
   Fluorine concentrations, 248
   Foaming agents, 67
   Iron content, 69, 249
   Manganese content, 71, 250
   Minerals, 301
   Nutrient concentration, 22
   Public water supply,  50
   Quality. 52
   Radioactivity, 84
   Radionuclides content, 317
   Salinity, 330
   Sodium concentration, 88
   Soluble  salts content
     Farmsteads, 302
   Sulfate concentration, 89
   Sulfonates, 67
   Temperature variation, 89
   Waste contamination, 310
   Waste mixing, 52
Ground water degrading, 52
Ground water quality
   Public water supply, 52
Growing season
   Florida,  3?>6
   Michigan, 336
   New York.  336
Guinea worm, 322
Gulf coast
   Channelization, 279
   Dredging, 279
   Estuaries, 279
   Filling effects, 279
   Spoils dumping, 279
   Waste dumping, 278
Gulf of Mexico
   Lake sediments, 145
Gulf Stream, 32

-------
                                                                                                                    Subject Index/573
Guppies
   Lead-growth effects, 181
   Nickel chloride lethality, 253
Gyraulus, 19

Haliaetus albialla, 252
Hahaetus leucocephalus, 227
Hallett Station, Antarctica
   Camium in water ford, 246
Halogens
   Water treatment, 301
Hamburg, Germany, 351
Harbor channels
   Wastes buildup, 278
Harbor oil spillage, 263
Hard water
   Antimony salts, 243
   Boron toxicity, 245
   Beryllium chloride  toxicity, 244
   Cadmium content, 180
   Chromium concentration, 180
   Copper concentrations, 180
   Lead solubility, 181
   Nickel content, 253
   Zinc-fecundity effects, 182
Hard water lakes, 25
Hardness
   Public water supply,  68
Heat exchangers
   Quality requirements, 377
Heat rejection, 377
Herbicides
   2,4-D, 79, 346
   2,4,5-T
     Embryo toxicity, 79
     Tetratogenic effects, 79
     Terata toxicity, 79
   2,4,5-TP,  79
   Amitrole, 347
   Canals, 347
   Chlorophenoxy, 76
   Dalapon, 346
   Human ingestion, 79
   Recommended concentration, 186
   Silvex, 346
   TCA, 346
   2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 79
   Toxicity, 26
Herring
   Phosphorus poisoning, 254
Herring Gulls
   Shell thinning-DDE  relationship, 227
Heterodera schachtn, 348
Historical background
   Agriculture, 2
   Baseline data, 4
   Commercial, 2
   Disease, 1
   Environmental quality, 1
   Environmental Protection Agency, 2
   Purification by filtration, 1
   Recreation, 2
   Water quality criteria, 2, 4
   Water quality guidelines, 1, 2
   Water standards, 4
   Water uses, 2, 4
Homarus amencanus, 242, 280
Horses
  Molybdenum tolerance, 314
Horsehair worms, 322
Hudson Canyon
  Solid wastes dumping, 280
Human health
  Radiation restrictions, 273
Humans
  Chronic lead poisoning, 250
  Methemoglobinemia, 315
  Rad dosage, 272
  Rem dosage, 272
Humid region
  Climatic factors, 336
  Deep horizons, 336
  Evapotranspiration, 336
Humid area irrigation
  Saline waters, 337
Humid regions
  Irrigation water quality, 336
  Rainfall predictions, 336
  SAR values, 338
  Soil acidity, 338
  Soil characteristics, 336
  Temperature ranges, 336
  Trace elements, 338
Hydnlla verlicillata, 26
Hydrocarbons
  Degradation, 261
  Marine microorganism degradation, 260
Hydrocooling
  Raw produce,  302
Hydrodynamics
  Temperature changes, 152
Hydroelectric  power
  Thermal fluctuations, 162
Hydrogen Sulfide
  Water solubility, 193
Hydrogen sulfide-pH relationships,  192
Hydrosoils,  183
Hydrostatic pressure, 135, 136
Hypothetical power plant
  Temperature change
    Water cooling, 169
ICRP (International Commission on Radio-
    logical Protection), 273
IDOE (International Decade of Ocean Ex-
    ploration), 226
Ictalundae, 141
Ictalurus punctatus, 128, 149, 435
Ictalurus serracanthus,  171
Illinois
  Grass carp introduction, 28
Illinois River
  Sedimented oils, 145
Impoundments
  Power plants discharge, 403
Incipient lethal temperature, 161
  Calculations, 161
Indonesia
  Marine aquaculture, 223
Industrial effluents, 370
  Detergent content, 190
Industrial raw water
  Intake systems
    Asian clam pest, 27
Industrial wastes
  Cyanide content, 189
  Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20
  Organic toxicants, 264
  Sea disposal, 278, 280
Industry
  Food canning
    Water use,  389
  Heat-exchange equipment, 377
  Petroleum refining water use, 385
  Steam generation, 376
  Textile mill products, 379
  Water cooling, 376
Infectious hepatitus
  Polluted shellfish, 277
Inorganic chemicals production
  United States, 483
Inorganics
  Pollutants-life cycle  effects, 240
Inorganics-bacteria interaction, 239
Insecticides
  Aldrin, 77
  Cattle feed, 320
  Chlordane, 77
  Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 76, 318
  DDT, 77
  Dieldrin, 77
  Drinking water, 76
  Endrin, 77
  Heptachlor, 77
  Heptachlor epoxide, 77
  Human absorption, 76
  Human ingestion, 78
  Lindane, 77
  Methoxychlor, 77
  Methylcarbamates, 318
  Organophosphates, 318
  Toxaphenc, 77
  Toxicity, 76, 78
Intensive aquaculture
  Carrying capacity, 224
  Cultivated organisms, 224
    Waste accumulation sensitivity, 224
  Pollution sensitivity, 224
Internal radiation,  271
  Sources, 194
International Commission on Radiological
    Protection,  85
Intertidal organisms-oil spill effects, 258
Invertebrates
  Copper toxicity,  247
  Gas bubble disease, 138
Ion exchange
  Regeneration techniques, 375
  Total demineralization, 375
  Waste, 375
Ionizing radiation
  Animal absorption, 272
  Biological effects, 195, 272
  Genetic effects, 272
  Plant absorption, 272
Irish Sea, Windscale, England
  Atomic energy installation, 273

-------
574/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Iron
   Farm animals
    Toxicity, 312
   Ground waters, 69
   Industrial uses, 249
   Insects  tolerance, 249
   Public water supply, 65, 69
   Surface waters, 69
Iron bacteria
   pH effects, 141
Irrigation, 300
   Canals, 346
   Ditches
    Plant growth, 23
   Duration,  334
   Efficiency
    Suspended solids, 332
   Frequency, 334
   Management, 326
   Sprinklers, 324
  Thermal fluctuations, 162
Irrigation waters
  Absorption, 324
  Acrolein content, 346
  Adsorption, 324
  Animal pathogens, 350
  Arid regions
    Climate, 333
  Ascans ova, 350, 351
  Bacterial plant pathogens,  349
  Beryllium toxicity,  341
  BOD values, 330
  Bacillary hemoglobinuria,  322
  Boron content, 341
  Brackish, 336
  Calcium carbonate precipitation, 334, 335
  Chemical  composition
    Calcium-magnesium,  carbonate—bicar-
      bonate, 333
    Calcium-magnesium,  sulfate-chloride,
        333
    Sodium-potassium, sulfate-chloride, 333
  Chlorides  content, 328
  Citrus fungus, 348, 349
  Climate, 336
  Climate effects, 333
  Coliform content, 351
  Copper sulfate content, 346
  Crop yields, 324
  Crops, 323
  Diseases, 350
  Ditch effluent, 334
  Drainage,  334
  Drainage from rainfall, 334
  Enteric viruses, 350
  Evaporation, 323
  Evapotranspiration by plants, 323
  Flukes, 322
  Fruit crops
    Salt tolerance, 328
  Herbicide  content, 346
    Application to crops, 348
  Herbicide  dissipation, 346
  Herbicide  levels, 347
  Herbicide  residues levels, 348
  Human pathogens, 350
Irrigation waters (cant )
  Humid-arid region differences, 336
  Humid regions, 336
  Infective nematodes
    Helerodera schachtn, 348
    Pratylenchus sp., 348
    Meloedogyne  tiapla, 348
    Tylenchorhynchus sp., 348
  Inorganic sediments;, 336
  Iron content, 343
  Leaching rains, 338
  Leaching rates
    Climate, 334
    Infiltration, 334
  Leaching requirement;, 334
    Crop indicator, 334
  Limestone
    Aluminum solubility control, 340
  Lithium toxicity, 344
  Microorganisms, 350
  Nematode vector, 349
  Nematodes
    Longidorus, 349
    Tnchodorus, 349
    Xiphinema, 349
  Nitrates, 329
  Organic matter content, 336
  pH values, 330
  Parathion, 346
  Pathogens, 351
  Percolation, 334
  Permeability hazard, 335
  Pesticides controls
    Xylene, 347
  Pesticide residues, 346
  Pesticides, 345
  Phenoxy herbicides, VI
  Physicochemical properties of soil, 323
  Phytoloxic constituents, 324
  Phytoloxic trace elements, 338
  Plant disease control, :>49
  Plant growth, 323, 324
  Plant nematodes distribution, 348
  Plant pathogens, 348
    Introduction, 349
    Nematodes,  349
  Precipitation distributian, 333
  Radioactive  contamination, 332
  Radium-226 concentration
    Fresh produce, 332
  Runoff reuse, 348
  SAR values, 331
  Sago pondweed content, 25
  Saline content, 324
  Salinity, 337
    Guidelines, 335
    Hazards, 335
    Measurements, 325
  Salinity-nutrition effect, 326
  Salinity tolerance of plants, 325
  Salt tolerance of crops, 334
  Salts-soil permeability effects, 335
  Saturation percentage, 324
  Semiarid regions
    Climate, 333
  Sodium, 329
   Sodium adsorption, 330
   Soil ha2:ard to animals, 332
   Soil hazard to humans, 332
   Soil salinity
     Sodium content, 329
   Soils
     pH values, 333
   Steady-state leaching
     Iron uptake, 334
     Moisi.uie distribution, 334
     Precipitation, 334
     Residual  soil moisture, 334
     Salt concentration, 334
     Uniform  mixing, 334
   Strontium-90 concentration
     Fresh produce, 332
   Surface horizon, 333
   Suspended solids, 335
   TDS content, 335
   Temperature, 328
   Trace elements, 337, 339
   Trace elements toxicity, 338
   Tubercle bacilli, 351
   Waste water, 351
   Water quality, 323, 324, 333
   Water quality criteria, 337
   Xylene content, 346
 Irrigation water-crop relationships, 337
 Israel rearing  ponds
   Tainting, 147
 Itai-itai disease, 60, 24
 Japan
   Fish-management lethality effects, 251
   Itai-ttai disease, 60
   Seaweed culture, 223
 Japanese fishing
   Mercury contamination, 252
 Japanese quail
   Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226
 Jellyfish,  1 9
 Kelp
   Boron effects, 245
   Chlorine effects, 247
   Chromium effects, 247
   Copper- photosynthesis relationships, 248
   Lead tolerance, 250
   Mercuric chloride effects, 252
 Kelp resurgence
   Pollution effects, 237
 Killfish
   Silver lethality, 255
 Kentucky
   Recreational water, 39
 Klamath Lake Wildlife Refuges, 346

 LAS (linear alkyl benzene sulfonate), 67, 190
 LBVV (Lettuce Big Vein Virus), 349
 LC50  (median lethal concentration), 118
 LOT (load on top), 262
 Laboratory control conditions
   Biological effects, 239
 Labrador current, 32
Lagondon rhon:boides, 177
Lagoons
   Mosquito infestations, 18
Lake

-------
                                                                                                                   Subject Index/575
  Classification, 19
  Enrichment, 20
  Hypothetical  integrated   time-exposure
       data, 403
Lake Erie
  Arsenic content, 243
  Biotic shifts, 23
  Dophnia magna-manganese  effects, 250
  Nickel chloride effects, 253
  Suspended matter, 126
  Watershed, 23
  White fish population, 164
Lake fish
  Reproduction-temperature  relationships,
       162
Lake herring
  Reproduction temperatures,  164
Lake Huron
  Antimony content, 243
Lake hypolimnia, 157
Lake Michigan, 11
  Chubs contamination, 184
  Coho Salmon contamination, 184
  DDT contamination, 237
  Lake herring contamination, 184
  Pesticide residue
     Coho Salmon fry mortality, 184
  Lake trout contamination, 184
  Temperature, 164
Lake Poinsett,  South Dakota
  Pesticides
     Trophic accumulation, 183
Lake productivity
  Plankton, 82
Lake St. Clair
  Mercury content,  198
Lake Sammamish, Oregon, 20
Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20
Lake sediments
  Gulf of Mexico, 145
  Minnesota, 145
Lake stratification
  Turbidity effects, 127
Lake Superior
  Pollutant retention time, 230
Lake Tahoe, California, 16, 40
Lake therinoclines, 157
Lake trout
  Reproduction temperatures,  164
Lake trout fry
  Mortality
     DDT-DDD residue, 184
Lake Washington
  Chlorophyll a content, 21
  Eutrophy from sewage, 20
  Oligatrophic-mesotrophic  lake,  20
  Oscillatona rubescens content, 20
  Phosphate content, 22
Lake waters
  Carbon content, 23
  Chromium content, 311
  Copper content, 311
  Lead content, 312
Lake water cooling
  Hypothetical power plant, 166
Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire, 20
Lakes
  Biomass, 22
  Blue-green algae, 22
  Carbon-algae relationship, 23
  Deep layers, 132
  Dissolved oxygen, 65
  Dissolved oxygen regime, 133
  Dinamic characteristics,  21
  Eutrophy, 19
  Fish crops, 20
  Florida, 27
  Hypolimnion, 132
  Ice formation, 161
  Industrial discharge-temperature relation-
       ship, 195
  Mosquito infestation, 18
  Nontherrnal discharge distribution
       Mathematical model, 403
  Nutrient concentrations, 22
  Nutrient effects, 20
  Organic mercury content, 172
  Overenrichment, 20
  Oxygen concentration, 132
  Particulate transport, 16
  Pesticides content, 183
  Phosphorus content, 81
  Plankton  content, 20
  Pollutant retention time, 230
  Pollution  distribution, 230
  Power plant discharge, 403
  Sedimentation, 17
  Soluble oxygen depletion, 111
  Trophic states, 21
  Waste water inflow
    Nutrient concentration, 22
  Surface water temperatures, 164
  Water density-surface water temperature
       relationship, 164
  Wind waves, 17
  Zones  of passage, 115
Land and Water Conservation Fund, 10
Land-water relationships, 126
Largemouth bass, 437, 438
  Antimony effects, 243
  Carbon dioxide sensitivity, 139
  Dissolved oxygen requirements, 134
  Gas bubble disease, 138
  Mortality-water temperature relationships,
       171
  Oxygen requirements, 132
  Plume entrainment effects, 170
Largemouth black bass,  128
Larus argentatus, 227
Laying hens
  Drinking  water
    Sodium chloride content, 307
Lead
  Chronic toxicity, 181
  Hard water solubility, 181
  Human intake by food, 70
  Industrial exposure, 70
  Intoxication in children, 70
  Lake waters, 312
  Public water supply, 70
     Excessive levels, 70
  River waters,  312
  Soft water solubility, 181
  Surface waters, 70
  Toxicity, 70
    Water hardness, 181
  Toxicity in animals, 313
  Waterfowl ingestion, 196
Lead  in fish
  Safc-to-lcthal ratio, 181
Lead-multiple sclerosis relationship, 250
Lead-muscular dystrophy relationships, 250
Lead  poisoning
  Cattle, 313
  Children, 70
  Livestock, 313
  Symptoms in man, 250
  Zoo animals
    New York City, 249
Leander squilla, 247
Lebistes, 181
Leeches, 22
Leiostomus zanthurus, 177
Lcntic water
  Gas bubble disease,  135
Lepomif gibbosus, 141
Lepomis  macrochirus, 128,  141,  149,  177, 180,
    182, 184, 191,  193, 243, 254, 435
Lepomis microlaphus, 128
Leptospirosis, 29
  Agricultural waters, 321
Lesser scaup
  Winter food requirements, 195
Lime softening, 372, 373
  Clarification, 373
  Filtration, 373
  Flocculent chemicals, 373
  Silica removal, 373
  Sodium cation exchange,  373
Ltstena monocylogenes, 321
Listeriosis, 321
Livestock
  Agricultural water toxicity, 319
  Anthrax,  322
  Body water loss
    Diuretic effects, 304
    Evaporation, 304
  Chronic fluoride poisoning, 312
  Drinking water
    Lead content,  313
    Pesticides content, 319
  Fluoride poisoning, 312
  Insecticide poisoning, 319
  2,4-D intake, 319
  Lead poisoning, 313
  MCPA intake, 319
  Mercury absorption, 313
  Mercury intake,  314
  Methyl mercury, 313
  Parasitic protozoa, 322
Livestock water
Livestock
  Pesticides in water, 318
  Pesticides poisoning, 319
  Phenoxyacetic  acid derivatives, 319
  Water consumption, 304
  Water intake

-------
 576/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
     Iron content, 312
     Mercury content, 314
   Molybdenum intake, 314
   Nitrates effects on reproduction, 315
   Nitrates poisoning, 314
   Nitrites poisoning, 314
   Radionuclides toxicity, 317
   Selenium poisoning, 316
   Toxic algae, 317
   Water salinity effects, 307
   Zinc in diet, 317
 Livestock water
   Pesticide content, 318
     Acaricidcs, 319
     Fungicides, 319
     Herbicides, 319
     Insecticides, 319
     Molluscides, 319
     Rodenticidcs, 319
 Lobsters
   Aluminum concentration, 242
   Lead tolerance, 250
 Long Island, New York
   Great South Bay, 276
   Marine waters, 37
   Osprey shell thinning, 227
 Long Island  Sound, 31
   Cadmium  in water fowl, 246
   Mercury concentration, 252
   PCB in fish, 226
 Longidorus, 349
 Lola lota, 141
 Louisiana
   Water hyacinth,  27
 Louisiana marshes
   Background values, 281
 Lower Yakima Valley, Washington
   Irrigation water
     Plant-parasitic nematodes,  348
 Lumber and  wood  industry
   Description,  381
   Processes using water, 381
   River use,  381
 Lumber industry (See also Lumber and wood
     industry)
   Solution treatment, 382
   Water quality characteristics,  382
   Water quality indicators, 382
   Water turbidity,  382
Lymnaea, 19
Lumnata frnarginata,  19

MBAS  (methylcne blue active  substances),
     67, 190
MCPA
   Livestock intake, 319
MPC (maximum permissible concentration),
     274
MPN (most probable number),  36
MS  (matric suction), 324
Macrocystis, 245
Macrocystis pyrijera, 247, 248, 250, 252
Macroinvertibrate population
   Suspended solids  effects,  128
Mallards
   Oily water effects, 196
Makeup water
   Municipal sewage treatment, 378
Mallard Ducks
   PCB-shell thinning  relationship, 226
   Lead ingestion effects, 228
   Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226
Man-made radioisotopes, 271
Manganese
   Distribution systems ccposits, 71
   Ground water, 71
   Industrial use, 250
   Natural water
     Trace element, 313
   Public water supply, <>5, 71
   Seawater  phytoplankton growth, 250
   Surface waters, 71
Manganese  toxicity, 250
Manganese zeolite, 375
Marine alga
   Mercury sensitivity, 173
Marine animals
   Manganese concentra:ion, 251
   Nickel content, 253
   PCB mortality, 176
Marine aqua culture
   Disease sensitivity, 224
   Economic  factors, 223
   Europe, 223
   Extensive culture, 222
     Southeast Asia, 223
   Floating cage culture, 223
   Intensive culture, 222. 223
   Species harvest, 222
   United States, 223
   Water exchange  effects, 223
   Water quality, 223,  224
   World food production, 222
Marine aquatic life
   Boron toxicity, 245
   Water quality criteiia. 219
Marine biotoxins, 37
Marine birds
   Oil pollution effects, 258
Marine communities
   Aluminum hydroxide  sffects, 242
Marine contaminants, 264
Marine ecosystems
   Halogenated hydrocarbons, 264
   Intertidal zones,  220
   Pollutant  concentralioi, 225
   Pollution effects,  216, 220
   PCB contamination, 264
   Sewage treatment products, 274
   Shell thinning-DDT relationship, 227
   Toxic pollutants, 220
   Water quality, 216
Marine embayments
   Fertilization by man
     Algae growth,  20
     Slime organisms growth, 20
     Water weeds growth, 2
Marine environment
   Acute toxicities
     Bioassays, 233
   Animal nutrition, 240
   Animal protein production, 216
   Antagonism, 240
   Aquatic organisms
     Bioanalysis, 233
   Assessment methods
     Bioassay design, 235
   Base metal contamination, 239
   Beryllium photosynthesis,  244
   Biological production, 220
   Biological species, 217
   Bioresponsc testing, 234
   Chlorinated hydrocarbon  pesticides, 230
   DDT compound pollutants, 226
   Energy flow, 220
   Exchanges, 219
   Fecal coliform index, 276
   Fishery production indicators, 222
   F'ood chain bioaccumulation, 240
   Hazard assessment, 234
   Incipient  LC50-acute  toxicity  relation
       ship,  234
   Inorganics
     Toxicity, 234, 235
   Inorganic chemicals pollution, 238, 239
   Materials cycling, 220
   Mercury levels, 252
   Metals accumulation, 240
   Mixing zones, 231
   Modell ng, 235
   Modification effects, 219
   Nutnert  elements additives, 275
   Oil conta nination, 257
   Oil pollution
     Gas chromatography  identification, 258
   Oil pollution control, 257, 262
   Ore processing releases,  239
   Organic laaterial  production,  275
   Organic pollutants, 264
   pi I fluctuation, 241
   Persistent pollutants
     Atmospheric fallout, 264
     River runoffs, 264
     Ship dumping,  264
   Pesticide  content, 37
   Petroleum hydrocarbon losses, 257
   Plant nutiition, 240
   Pollution
     Sublethal effects, 236
   Pollutant bioanalysis, 233
   Pollutant categories, 238
   Pollutant distribution, 228, 229
   Pollutant toxicity, 233
   Pollution effects, 218
   Radioactive discharges,  273
   Species diversity, 220
   Synergism, 240
   Temperature pollution,  238
   Variable conditions, 217
Marine fish production
   Estuaries,  216
Marine fisheries
   Coastal waters crops, 221
   Estuarine crops, 221
   Ocean crops, 221
Marine life
   Pesticide1 toxicity,  264
Marine organisms

-------
                                                                                                                    Subject Index/511
   Cadmium concentrations  246
   Contaminant accumulation, 217
   Copper accumulation, 248
   Crude oil toxicity, 258
   DDT contamination, 264
   Environment modification tolerance, 224
   Hydrocarbon ingestion,  260
   Mercury content, 251
   Oil ingestion, 237
Marine organisms mortality
   Oil spills effects, 258
Marine organisms
   Oil toxicity,  261
   Oil toxicity studies, 261
   Organics toxicity, 264
   Oxygen loss, 270
   Oxygen needs, 270
   Pollutants effects, 221
   Pollutant uptake, 228
   Thermal limits, 238
   Uranyl salts  toxicity, 256
   Vanadium concentration, 257
Marine phytoplankton
   Ethyl  mercury  phosphate  lethality, 173,
       252
   Organic material production, 275
Marine plants
   Cadmium content, 245
   Fertilizing  elements, 275
   Manganese concentration, 251
   Nickel content, 253
Marine system  organic chemicals
   Fungicides, 265
   Halogenated hydrocarbons, 268
   Herbicides, 265
   Insecticides,  266
   Pesticides, 265
   Plasticizers, 268
   Surface-active agents, 268
  Tar, 268
  Toxicity, 265
Marine vegetation
  Boron effects, 245
Marine waters
   Ecosystems, 219
   Fish residue concentrations, 225
   Human uses, 219
   Mutagen pollutants, 225
   Persistent pollutants, 225
   Phosphate  input control, 254
   Pollutant accumulation rates, 225
   Pollutant-physiological function relation-
       ship, 225
   Sludge disposal, 277
   Teratogen  pollutants, 225
Marine wildlife
   Aldrin toxic  effects, 227
   Birds, 224
   Dieldrin effects, 227
   Eggshell thinning, 225
   Embryos mortality-PCB relationship, 226
   Endrin effects, 227
   Fish, 224
   Food webs, 224
   Heavy metals pollution,  226
   Heptachlor effects, 227
   Invertebrates, 224
   Lead ingestion,  228
   Mammals, 224
   Organochlorine insecticides, 227
   PCB accumulation, 226
   Plankton as food, 224
   Pollutant concentrations in fish, 225
   Radionuclides accumulations, 226
   Reproductive capacity, 225
   Reptiles, 224
   Shell thinning-DDE  relationship, 226
Marshes
   Alkalinity-salinity relationship,  196
   Malaria vectors, 25
   Plant growth, 23
Mayflies
   Iron effects, 249
   pH effect, 141
   Oxygen requirements, 133
Maylasia
   Marine aquaculture,  223
Melmdogyne hapla,  348
Meloidogyne incognita, 348
M.javamca, 348
Mendota Lake, Wisconsin, 20
Melosira variant, 22
Mcnistee  River, 14
Mercury
   Acute poisoning, 72
   Agricultural use, 72
   Alkyl compounds, 72
   Animal organs,  313
   Beer, 72
   Bird mortality, 198
   Chronic exposure, 72
   Chronic poisoning, 72
   Fish tolerance, 72,  181, 198
   Freshwater, 72
   Global production, 251
   Human ingestion, 72
   Human intake in food, 72
   Industrial exposure, 72
   Industrial uses,  251
   Livestock, 314
   Maximum dietary intake, 72
   Natural waters,  313
   Ocean contaminants, 251
   Poultry, 313
   Public water supply,  72
   Rain water, 72
   Sea water, 72
   Springs, 72
   Surface waters,  313
   Swordfish contamination, 237
   Tap water, 72
   Toxicity, 72
   Tuna fish contamination, 237
   United States
    Rivers, 72
    Streams, 72
Mercury apsorbtion
   Livestock, 313
Mercury in fish
   Human poisoning,  172
   Trophic level in food chain, 172
Mercury in water
  Germany, 72
Mercury pollution, 72
Mercury toxicity, 251
Metals toxicity
  Fish,  177
Metals toxicity-pH relationship, 241
Metheglobinemia
  Humans, 315
  Drinking water, 73
  Farm animals, 315
  Heredity defects, 73
  Water analysis, 73
Methylcarbamates
  Insecticides, 318
Methyl mercury
  Livestock, 313
Methylene blue
  Foaming agents measurement, 67
Methymercury in environment, 172
Mice
  Drinking water
     Arsenic content, 309
Michigan, 14
  Au Sable River, 14
  Growing seasons, 336
  Mamstee River, 14
  Pere Marquette River, 14
  Pine River, 14
Michigan Department of Natural Resources,
     14
Microbial oil decomposition
  Oxygen requirement, 261
Microbial species
  Paniculate substratum, 127
Microbiological  degradation
  Oil in sea,  263
Microbiological  index
  Estuarine sanitary quality, 276
Microcystis aerugmosa, 317
Microptirus salmoids,  128, 132, 134,  138, 139,
     149, 243
Micropterus salmorndes, 437
Mtcroregma, 256
  Nickel concentrations, 253
Midge larvae, 435
Midges, 22
Milk contaminants
  DDT, 320
  Dieldrin, 320
Minamata disease,  172
Minamata, Japan
  Mercury contamination of fish, 172
Minamata Bay, Japan
  Mercury discharge, 251
  Mercury lethal levels,  251
Mineralized water, 90
Minerals
  Sorptive capacity, 127
Mining and cement industry (See also Mining
     industry  and Cement industry)
  Description, 394
Mining industry
  Formation  water composition, 395
  Freshwater makeup, 394
     Copper sulfide concentration, 394

-------
 578/ Water Quality Criteria, 7972
   Froth flotation operations, 394
   Leach solution analysis, 394
   Leaching processes, 394
   Oil recovery
     Released gases, 395
     Water composition, 394
     Water flooding, 394
     Water injection, 395
   Process water
     Chemical composition,  394
     Copper sulfide concentration, 394
   Recycled water, 394
   Sea water composition, 395
   Secondary oil recovery, 394
   Water flooding
     Anaerobic bacteria, 395
     Quantity, 395
   Water processes, 394
   Water quality requirements, 394
   Water quantity, 394
   Water reuse, 394
   Water use
     Formation, 395
     Impurity levels, 394
     Sea water, 395
     Surface waters, 395
 Minnesota
   Lake sediments, 145
 Minnows
   Boric  acid lethality, 245
   Ferric hydroxide effects, 249
   Manganous chloride lethality,  251
   pH  effects, 141
   Phenol toxicity, 191
   Sodium arsenate
     Lethal threshold,  243
 Miracidia, 322
 Mississippi
   Grass  carp introduction, 28
   Water hyacinth, 27
 Mississippi River, 372
   Detergent concentration,  191
   Pesticide content,  319
 Missouri
   Cadmium in springs, 245
   Mine waters
     Cadmium content, 310
Missouri River, 11
   Coliform densities, 57
   Tainting, 147
   Water plant intake,  57
   Water quality
     Bacterial content,  57
Mixed bed exchange
   Complete demineralization, 375
Mixed water body, 171
Mixing zone
   Aquatic species
     Pollution  exposure time effect, 231
   Bioassay methodology applicability, 114
   Biological considerations,  113
   Configuration,  114
   Discharges, 112
   Hypothetical field situations, 403
   Mathematical models, 112, 403
   Nonmobile benthic organisms,  113
   Organisms exposure,  [13
   Overlapping effects, 114
   Physical considerations, 112
   Plankton protection, 113
   Plume configuration, 114
   Receiving systems, 111, 114
   Receiving waters, 231
   Short-time exposure
     Thermal effects, 11 \
   Short-term exposure
     Toxicity effects, 11^-
   Strong swimmers, 113
   Water quality, 403
     Time exposure calculations, 113, 114
   Water quality characteristics, 231
   Weak swimmers, 113
 Molluscs
   Cadmium concentration, 246
   Chromium toxicity, 247
   Copper toxicity, 180
   Gas bubble disease, 1 '15
   Pesticide content, 37
   Toxic planktonic algae, 38
 Mollusks (See Molluscs)
 Molybdenum
   Alga growth factor, 253
   Cattle, 314
   Industrial use, 253
   Livestock, 314
   Toxicity to animals, 344
 Molybdenum tolerance
   Farm animals, 314
   Horses, 314
   Sheep, 314
   Swine, 314
 Molybdenum toxicity
   Rats, 314
 Monona Lake, Wisconsin, 20
 Moriches Bay, New York
   Nitrogen—phosphorus  ratios, 276
 Morone americana, 249
 Morone saxalihs, 27, 279
 Moses Lake, Oregon, 21
 Mosquito fish
   Boron effects, 245
   Phenol toxicity, 191
 Mosquitos, 17, 18
 Mud-water interface
   Hydrogen  sulfide content,  191
 Muddy waters,  127
 Mummichog
   Chromium toxicity, 247
   Oil toxicity,  262
 Municipal raw water
   Intake systems
    Asian clam pest, 27
 Municipal sewage discharge, 274
 Municipal treatment systems
   Wastewaters,  351
 Municipal wastewater
   Pathogens, 351
 Municipal waters
   Chlorinated disinfectant, 80
Mynophyllum, 24
Myriophyllum spicatum, 26, 27
Mytilus edulis, 37
NCRP (National Council on Radiation Pro-
     tection and Measurements), 273
NSSP (National  Shellfish  Sanitation Pro-
     gram), 36
NTA (ni(rilotriacetate), 74, 191,  276
  Affinity for elements, 74
  Affinity for toxic metals, 74
  Biodegradation, 74
Naeglena gruben, 29
Nannochloj'is atomus, 276
National Council on Radiation Protection, 8i
National P?rk Service, 9, 10, 14
National Recreation and Parks Association
     14
National Shellfish Sanitation Program, 36
Natural radiations
  Oceans,  271
Natural stale of waters, 21
Natural streams
  Water quality, 39
Natural surface waters
  Ferric content, 249
  Fluorine content, 248
  Total dissolved solids
     Carbonates, 142
     Chlorides, 142
     Nitrates, 142
     Phosphates, 142
     Sulfates, 142
Natural water temperature
  Evaporation, 32
  Solar radiation, 32
  Wind movement, 32
Natural walers
  Acidity, 140
  Acute toxicity studies, 234
  Alkalinity, 140
     Calcium carbonate, 54
     Hydrolyzable coagulates, 54
  Aluminum ionization, 179
  Ammonia content, 55
  Aquatic l.fe, 35
  Beryllium content, 244
  Boron, 310
  Cadmium content, 310
  Carbon dioxide, 140
  Carbonate system, 140
  Chemic al system
    Carbonate equilibria, 54
  Chromium occurrence, 62
  Galena content, 312
  Manganese content, 313
  Mercury content,  313
  Nitrates concentrations, 314
  Nitrite concentration, 314
  Oxygen concentration, 131
  pH change, 140
  pH-cyanide levels, 189
  pH fluctuations, 140
  pH values-, 80, 140
  Phosphates content, 253
  Pollution, 39
  Recreational resources
    Carrying capacity, 13
  Salmonella organisms, 31
  Sodium concentrations, 88

-------
                                                                                                                     Subject Index/513
  Sorption process, 228
  Sunlight absorption, 126
  Sunlight penetration, 16
  Suspended solids, 16
  Temperature, 32
  Viruses, 322
  Water quality
    Alkalinity, 54
  Zinc content, 316, 317
Natural weathering-lead effects, 249
Navuula, 147
Namcida (ryptocephala, 22
Nereis diveisicolor,  248
Keren viiens, 247,  248, 261
New England
  Coastal waters
    Nitrogen compounds, 276
New Jersey coast
  Solid waste disposal, 280
New York
  Ground water contaminants, 310
  Growing seasons,  336
New York Bight
  Acid- iron wastes disposal, 280
  Fish fin rot, 280
  Spoil deposit slope, 282
New York City
  Zoo animals
    Lead poisoning, 249
New York Harbor
  Benthic community alterations, 279
  Sewage sludge  dump, 279
Newfoundland
  Fish survey, 254
Newfoundland coast
  Phosphorus poisoning, 254
Nevada
  Beef heifers
    Saline waters effects, 307
Nickel
  Daphma magna  sensitivity,  181
  F'ish sensitivity, 181
  Industrial uses, 253
  Ion toxicity, 253
Nickel lethal concentrations, 253
Niigata. Japan
  Meicury poisoning, 251
Nitrate in milk, 314
Nitrate nitrite concentration
  Toxicity, 73
Nitrate-nitrogen
  Ruminants, 314
  Water quality, 302
Nitrate poisoning
  Infant inethemoglobinemia, 73
Nitrate tolerance
  Poultry, 315
Nitrates
  Irrigation water,  329
  Plant growth,  329
Nitrates intake
  Farm animals, 315
  Livestock, 314
Nitrates-reproduction effects
  Livestock, 315
Nitrilotriacetate
  Drinking water, 74
Nitrite tolerance
  Poultry, 315
Nitrites
  Methemoglobinemia, 73
  Public water supply, 73
Nitrites poisoning
  Livestock,  314
Nit&chia d'hcalisfum, 173
Nitzschia palra, 22
Nodulana spumigena, 317
North America
  Ci. hemolyticum  in water, 321
  Estuarinc birds
     PCB contamination, 264
  Marine waters
     DDT compounds pollutants, 226
  Osprey shell thinning, 227
  Well  waters
     Nitrates content, 73
North American  birds
  Eggshell thinning, 197
North Atlantic Ocean
  Marine organisms
     PCB contamination, 264
North Dakota State Department of Health,
     89
Northeast Pacific
  Barium in fish, 244
Northern pike
  Mercury assimilation, 172
  Mercury sensitivity, 173
Northern pike eggs
  Hydrogen sulfide concentrations,  256
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Northern pike fry
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
.Nuphar, 24
Nutrient-rich water
  Diatoms content, 22
Nympbaea odorata, 25
Ocean outfalls
   Power plant discharge, 403
Ocean sediments
   Mercury concentrations,  172
Oceamtes ocfamcus, 246
Oceanodroama homochroa, 246, 252
Oceans
   Lead input, 249
   Natural radiation, 190, 271
   Nonthermal discharge distribution
     Mathematical model, 403
   Oil contamination, 257
   Oil persistence, 260
   Particulate material discharge, 278
   Pollutants,  216
   Uranium content, 256
   Waste dumping, 278
   World War II oil spills, 261
Ochromonas, 256
Odonata, 141
Odor
   Water contaminant indicator, 74
Odoriferous achnomyces
  Water flavor impairment, 148
Ohio River, 31
  Channel catfish contamination, 149
Oil and grease
  Public water supply, 74
Oil detection
  Remote sensor characteristics, 259
Oil industry (See also Petroleum  industry)
  Rock formation
  Permeability, 395
  Water flooding technique, 394
Oil pollution
  Control procedures, 262, 263
  Description, 258
  Sea birds, 261
Oil pollution sources, 257
Oil refinery effluents
  Bioassays, 144
  Fish toxicants, 144
  Oxidation ponds, 144
  Tainted  fish, 147
  Toxicants
     Fathead minnows, 144
  Waste water, 144
Oil slicks, 257
Oil spills
  Biological analyses, 258
  Chemical analyses, 258
  Ecological effects, 258, 260
Oil toxicity
  Bioassay, 261
Oil-water experiments, 261
Okanagan Valley, British Columbia, 349
Oklahoma
  Livestock
     Water salinity effects, 307, 308
Old Faithful, 40
Olor columbianus, 228
0. Gorbuscho, 252
Once-through cooling
  Brackish water, 378
  Chlorination, 376
  Equipment failure, 376
  Screening, 376
  Sea water, 378
  Water quantities, 378
  Withdrawal rate, 378
Once-through cooling waters, 378
Oncorhynckus  hsutch, 27,  132,  139,  176, 180,
     184, 244, 246, 247
Oncarhvnchus  nerka, 139,  153,  160,  164, 173,
     252
Oncorhynchus  tshawylscha,  138,  139, 153, 180,
     187, 242, 246
Open channels
  Nonthermal discharges distribution
     Mathematical model, 403
Open ocean
  Fish production, 217
Organic chemicals toxicity
  Marine system, 265
Organic compounds
  Toxicity data, 484-509
Organic matter-infaunal  feeding  habits re-
     lationships,  279

-------
  580/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
  Organic toxicants
    Biological wastes, 264
    Industrial wastes, 264
    Pesticides, 264
    Sewage, 264
  Organic-carbon  adsorbable  public  water
      supply, 75
  Organochlorine pesticides
    Recommended concentrations, 186
  Organophosphate insecticides
    Recommended concentrations, 186
  Organophosphates
    Insecticides, 318
  Organo-insecticides
    Mammalian toxicity, 78
  Organophosphorus insecticide
    Public water supply, 78
  Oriental oyster drill (Tritonaliajaponica), 27
  Organic water pollution
    Oxygen reduction, 133
  0 sallatoria, 147
  Oscillatona agardhi, 147
  Oscillatona pnnceps,  147
  Oscillatona rubescens, 20
 Osprey
    Mercury contamination, 252
 Ottawa River, Ohio
    Sedimented oil, 145
 Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Com-
     mission, 9
 Oviparous zebrafish, 435
 Ovoviviparous guppy, 435
 Oxidation ponds
   Algal blooms, 144
   Phytoplankton, 144
   Primary productivity, 144
   Surface oils, 144
 Oxygen
   Fish requirements, 131
 Oxygen content  of water,  261
 Oxygen depletion, 274
 Oyster beds
  Sewage contamination,  277
 Oyster culture, 223
 Oysters
  DDT residue,  37
  Aluminum concentration, 242
  Arsenic content, 243
  Cadmium content, 245
  Chlorine sensitivity, 246
  Chromium tolerance, 247
  Copper toxicity, 248
  Disease vectors, 95
  Gill discoloration, 147
  Hydrogen sulfide lethality, 255
  Lead tolerance, 250
  Nickel concentrations, 253
  Silver concentration, 255
  Toxic plankton intake, 38
Ozone
  Water treatment,  301

PCB  (polychlorinated  biphenyls),  83, 175,
    198
  Contaminants
    Chlorinated  dibenzofurans, 176
   Residues
     Salmon eggs, 177
   Toxicity, 175, 198
 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 174, 175
 PH
   Acidity indicator,  140
   Alkalinity indicators, ) 40
   Fluctuation,  194
   Hydrogen ion activity. 140
   Public water supply, 80
 pH in soils, 339
 pH-metals relationships, 179
 pH-reedhead grass relationship, 194
 PI (precipitation index), 335
 PI-SAR equation, 335
 Pacific
   Barium concentration, 244
 Pacific  Coast
   Gonyaulax contenella, 38
   Temperature effects, 238
   Waste dumping, 278
 Pacific  Northwest
   Precipitation, 333
 Pacific  Ocean, 32
 Pacific  salmon
   Chlorine tolerance, 245
   Gas bubble disease, 137
   Hydrogen sulfide bioassay, 255
   Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 256
   Thermal tolerance, 137
 Pacific  testing grounds
   Manganese isotope concentrations, 251
 Paints
   Arsenic content, 243
Palaemonetes kadiakensis. 435
Paleomonetes, 176
Panaeus  deorarum, 176
Pandion  hahaetus, 221, 25?.
Paper and allied products
   Industry description, 382
   Manufacturing processes
     Acid sulfite pulping. 383
     Building products, 383
     De-inking pulp, 383
     Groundwood pulp, 383
     Kraft and Soda pulping, 383
     Kraft bleaching,  383
     Neutral sulfite semichemical, 383
     Paper inaking, 383
     Prehydrolysis, 383
     Sulfite pulp bleaching, 383
    Waste paperboarcl, 383
    Wood preparation, 383
  Water processes, 383
  Water quality indicators
    Alkalinity, 383
    Color, 383
    Hardness, 383
    pH  control, 383
    Iron,  383
    Turbidity, 383
  Water treatment processes
    Aeration, 383
    Coagulation, 383
    Errosion control,  383
    Filtration, 383
      Ion exchange, 383
      pH adjustment, 383
      Plant location, 383
      Settling, 383
      Softening, 383
 Paper and pulp industry
   Water supply, 382
   Surface water use, 383
   Water intake, 382
   Water supply, 383
   Water use, 382
 Paper products  consumption, 382;
 Paracentrotus
   Silver nitrate  concentrations, 255
 Paracentrotus lundis, 252
 Parasitic organisms
   Flukes, 322
 Paniculate material
   Detritus origin, 281
 Particulate material suspension
   Estuarine organisms responses, 281
   Marine organisms responses, 281
 Paseo del Rio, Texas, 40
 Pastuerella tw'arerms, 321
 Pathogen source
   Fecal contamination, 58
 Pathogenic microorganisms, 27fi
 Pathogens in sea, 280
 Pecten novazfilandicae, 246
 Ptiagodroma invea, 246, 252
 Pt'lecanus erylhrorhynchos, 227
 Pelecanus occidentals, 197, 226
 Penaeus aziecus, 279
 Penaeus set.jei us, 279
 Perca, 141
 Perca flaversctns, 149, 164
 Perca flaviatihs, 256
 Perch
   pH effects, 141
   Thallium nitrate content, 256
 Pere  Marquette  River, 14
 Perigrines
   DDE residue accumulation, 227
   Dieldrin accumulation effects, 227
   Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
 Peregrine falcon
   Reproductive failures, 197
 Pertomyzon rti'rmus, 243
 Pesticide chemicals
 Dietary int.ike,  78
 Pesticide-pH relationship, 183
 Pesticide persistence, 183,  184
 Pesticide tables
   Botanicals, 433
   Carbamates, 428
   Defoliants, 429-432
   Fungicide!;, 429-433
   Herbicides;, 429-432
   Organochlorine insecticides, 420-422
   Organophosphate insecticides, 423-427
Pesticides
   Acute toxic interaction,  185
  Acute toxicity values, 185
  Aquatic  contamination,  182
  Aquatic  life, 434
  Aquatic  life toxicity, 184

-------
                                                                                                                    Subject Index/581
  Arsenic content, 243
  Cadmium content, 245
  Carbamate, 76
  Cattle feed, 320
  Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 76
  Chemical characteristics, 76
  Environment accumulation,  182
  Environmental effects, 182
  Environmental monitoring, 440
  Estuarine pollution, 37
  Farm animal feed, 320
  Fat soluble, 320
  Fish tolerance levels, 184
  Livestock water, 318
  Malathion, 183
  Metabolic degradation, 183
  Methoxychlor, 183
  Nonmetabolic degradation, 183
  Organic toxicants, 264
  Organochlorine compounds, 183
  Organophosphate toxicity, 184
  Organophosphorus, 76
  PCB analysis, 175
  Phthalate esters content, 174
  Public water supply,  76
  Recommended concentrations, 186
  Research framework, 434
  Research guidelines,  434
  Residue in fish, 183
  Stream transport, 183
  Toxicity, 76, 182, 320
  Toxicological research, 434
  Water entry, 318
  Water for livestock, 304
  Water solubility,  183, 318
Pesticides in fish
  Physiological effects,  434
  Toxicological effects, 434
Pesticides in water
  Concentrations, 319
  Properties, 319
  Sources, 182
Pesticides poisoning
  Livestock, 319
Pesticides research
  Acute toxicity, 434, 435
  Aquatic organisms
    Bioconcentration, 438
    Degradation, 438
  Bacteria
    Achromobacter, 438
    Aerobacler, 438
    Aeromonas Spp., 438
    Bacillus, 438
    Daphnia magna,  438
    Daphne pulex, 438
    Flarobacter, 438
    Microcrustacea, 438
  Bioassays, 435, 437
  Biochemistry, 438
  Blue gill, 438
  Chemical analysis, 434
  Chemical degradation, 439
  Chemical methods, 437
  Chronic effects, 437
  Clinical studies, 438
  Deactivation index, 435
  Degradation in water, 438
  Environmental fate, 439
  Fathead minnow, 438
  Fish
    Residue degradation, 439
    Residue uptake, 439
  Food-chain  accumulation, 438
  Green algae
    Anhstrodesmus, 438
    Chlorella spp., 438
    Scenedesmus, 438
  Growth of fish, 435
  Largemouth bass, 438
  Lethal threshold concentration, 435
  Microorganisms, 439
  Pathology, 438
  Persistence,  438
  Photodegradation, 439
  Physicochemical interactions, 439
  Physiology,  438
  Pond ecosystem studies, 437
  Rainbow  trout, 438
  Reproduction of fish, 435
  Residue analyses, 437
  Residues
    Biological half-life, 438
  Stream ecosystem studies, 437
  Test animals
    Chemical analyses, 438
    Radiometric analyses, 438
Pesticide tolerance
  Aquatic organisms
    Agriculture waters, 321
Petroleum hydrocarbons
  Biological effects, 258
Petroleum industry
  Refining operation-water use, 385
Petroleum refineries
Process water  use, 386
  Water intake, 386
Petroleum refining
  Description  of industry, 385
  Discharge, 385
  Process water properties
    Ammonia from catalytic cracking, 386
    Carbon dioxide from catalytic cracking,
         386
    Caustic solution purification, 386
    Chemical reactions, 386
    Heat transfer, 386
    Inorganic salts, 386
    Kinetic energy,  386
    Plant cleaning, 386
  Process water treatments, 387
  Water distribution, 387
  Water quality characteristics
    Surface waters, 386
  Water supply sources, 385
Petroleum-species toxicity ranges, 145
Petromyzon mannus, 27
pH changes
  Benthic invertebrates sensitivity, 241
  Fish sensitivity, 241
  Plankton  sensitivity, 241
Phalacrocorax auntus, 227
Pheasants
  Mercury concentrations, 252
Phenol toxicity, 191
Phenolic compounds
  Chemical oxidation of Organophosphorus
      pesticides, 80
  Hydrolysis of Organophosphorus pesticides,
      80
  Hydroxy derivatives, 80
  Phenoxyalkyl acid herbicides
     Microbial degradation, 80
  Photochemical  oxidation  of carbamate
      pesticides, 80
  Public water supply, 80
Phenolic compounds sources
  Domestic sewage, 80
  Fungicides, 80
  Industrial waste water discharges, 80
  Pesticides, 80
Philippines
  Marine aquaculture, 223
Phosphate
  Algal nutrient, 253
  Public water supply, 81
Phosphates-eutrophication relationship, 253
Phosphorus
  Laboratory studies,  254
Phthalate esters
  Chronic toxicity, 80, 175
  Human growth retardation, 82
  Human health, 82
  Plastics plasticizers,  82
  Public water supply, 82
Phthalate ester residues
  Aquatic organisms,  174
Physa, 19
Physa snails, 22
Physical treatment procedures
  Virus removal, 92
Phytophlhora cactorwn, 349
Phytophthora citrophthora, 349
Phytophthora parasitica, 349
Phytophthora sp., 348, 349
Phytoplankton
  Aluminum  tolerance, 242
  Crude oil effects, 261
Phytoplankton growth, 275
Phytoplankton-nitrogen relationship, 276
Pike
  Mercury concentration, 173
  PH effects,  141
Pike perch
  Arsenic toxicity, 243
Ptmephales promelas, 128, 132, 141, 144,  173,
     177,  180-182,  185, 189, 191, 193,  243,
     244, 253, 435
Pine River, 14
Pink shrimp
  Aroclor® toxicity, 176
Pintails
  Lead ingestion effects, 228
Placentia Bay
  Fish mortalities, 254
  Phosphorus in cod,  254
Plankton
  Barium content, 244

-------
582/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
  Diatom population, 82
  Growth stimulation
     Artificial lake heating, 165
  Mercury sensitivity, 173
  Public water supply, 82
Plant communities
  Salinity effects, 195
Plant growth
  Aluminum concentrations effects, 340
  Arsenic levels,  340
  BOD, 330
  Boron, 341
  Cadmium, 342
  Canals, 23
  Chromium, 342
  Cobalt, 342
  Copper concentration, 342
  Embayments, 23
  Estuaries, 23
  Fluoride,  343
  Irrigation ditches, 23
  Lead toxicity,  343
  Lithium, 343
  Manganese, 344
  Marshes, 23
  Molybdenum,  344
  Nickel,  344
  Ponds, 23
  Public water supply sources, 23
  Rivers,  23
  Shallow lakes,  23
  Vanadium, 345
Plant life
  Nickel toxicity, 253
Plant organisms
  Aluminum adsorption,  242
Plant-parasitic nematodes, 348
Plant-pathogenic virus, 349
Plants
  Boron tolerance, 341
  Boron toxicity, 341
  Evapotranspiration, 323
  Molybdenum accumulation, 344
  Nickel toxicity, 344
  Nitrate  accumulation, 329, 352
  Nutrient requirements,  22
  Radionuclides  absorption, 332
  Soil salinity tolerance, 325
  Tin content, 345
  Titantium content, 345
  Toxic elements, 352
  Tungsten content, 345
  Zinc toxicity, 345
Plecoptera,  141
Pleuronectiformes
  Water tainting, 149
Pluchea sencea, 348
Plume
  Thermal exposure, 170
Plume entrainment,  170
  Largemouth bass mortality,  170
Plume water
  Bottom organisms, 170
Pocideps cristatus, 252
Poecilia reticulata,  435
Pollutant-carcinogenic effects, 240
Pollutant exposure time calculations, 232
Pollutant-mutagenic effects, 240
Pollutant-teratogenic effects, 240
Pollutant toxicity-pH relationship, 241
Pollutants
  Biological effects,  233
  Genetic effects, 237
Polluted dredge spoils, 579
Polluted shellfish
  Acute gastroenteritis, 277
  Infectious hepatitis, 277
Polluted water
  Algae, 23
  Carbon dioxide conteit, 139
  Coliform data interpretation,  57
  Shellfish, 36
Polycehs mgra,  250
Polychaete
  Chromium  toxicity, 247
  Copper effects, 248
  Copper uptake, 248
Polychlorinated biphenyls
  Accumulation in humans, 83
  Chlorinated dibenzoft rans contamination,
       83, 225
  Epidemiological studies, 83
  Estuarine birds, 264
  Human exposure effects, 83
  Human ingestion, 83
  Industrial uses, 264
  Industrial uses, 83
  Public water supply,  83
  Rainwater,  83
  Sewage effluents, 83
  Solubility, 83
  Toxicity, 83
  Tusho disease, 83
Polyjnyxa grarmzis, 349
Pom'oxis,  128
Ponds
  Malaria vectors, 25
  Plant growth, 23
"Pop-eye" (See Exophtal:nus and Gas bubble
    disease)
Potable waters
  CCE, 75
  Algae control
    Copper sulfate,  347
  Phosphorus concentration, 81
Potamogeton, 21
Potamogeton pectinatus, 24, 194
Potamogeton perfohatus, 194
Potomac River Basin
  Watershed alteration, 125
Poultry
  Mercury toxicity,  313
  Nitrate tolerance,  31 5
  Nitrite tolerance, 315
  Water requirements,  3D5
  Zinc in diet, 317
Poultry feed
  Arsenic-selenium relationship, 240
Power boats
  Water turbulence effects, 14
Power plants
  Cooling systems
    Water temperature effects, 161
  Discharge water temperature,  162
Power plants discharge
  Algae growth, 165
  Cooling ponds, 403
  Estuaries. 403
  Impoundments, 403
  Lakes, 403
  Ocean outfalls, 403
  Rivers, 403
Pratylenchus sp.  348
Prawns
  Chromium toxicity, 247
Precipitation
  Pacific Northwest, 333
  United Slates, 333
Primary metals
  Description of industry, 388
Primary metals industry
  Coke production
    Water use, 388
  Demineralized water use, 389
  Iron production
    Water use, 388
  Plant locations, 388
  Process water use
    Aluminum, 388
    Copper, 388
    Iron foundries,  388
    Steel foundries, 388
  Steel production
    Water use, 388
  Water intake, 389
  Water quality indicators, 389
  Water quality requirements, 389
  Water recycling, 389
  Water treatment processes
    Clarification, 389
    Plant water supply, 389
  Water use, 388
Primary productivity
  Photosynthctic rate, 21
Primordial radioisotopes,  190
  Daughter!;, 271
  Decay products, 271
Private w.itcr supply
  Methemoglobinemia, 72
  Virus disease, 91
Providence Harbor
  Dredge spoils dumping, 278
Psfudomonas aenigmosa, 31
Psychrophilic bacteria
  Milk storage, 302
Public Health Laboratory Service, England,
    29
Public watei  management, 441
Public water  supply
  Alkalinity.  54
  Ammonia as pollutant, 55
  Ammonia nitrogen content, 55
  Anionic surfactants concentrations, 67
  Arsenic
    Hyperkertosis-skin cancer  correlation,
         56
  Arsenic content, 56
  Bacteria, 57

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                                                                                                                    Subject Index/583
Public water supply (cont.)
  Bacterial indicators
    Fecal coliform, 57
  Bacteriological characteristics, 50
  Barium content, 59
  Boron, 59
  Cadmium, 60
    Concentrations, 60
    Contamination, 60
  Carbamate insecticide, 78
  Chelates toxicity, 74
  Chloride, 61
    Concentration, 61
    Taste, 61
  Chlorinated hydrocarbons
    Poison to humans, 76
  Chlorination effects on turbidity, 90
  Chlorophenoxy herbicides, 79
  Chlorine disinfectant, 50
  Chlorine use, 246
  Chromium, 62
  Chromium concentrations, 62
  Chronic alkyl mercury poisoning, 72
  Coagulation, 63
  Coliform bacteria, 57
  Collection apparatus
    High-flow samples, 75
    Low-flow samples, 75
    Mini-sampler, 75
  Colloidal ferric oxide, 69
  Color, 63
  Color removal, 63
  Contaminants, 51
  Copper, 64
  Cyanide, 65
  Dissolved oxygen, 65
  Excreted waste, 91
  Filterable residue, 90
  Fluoride, 66
  Fluoride content, 66
  Foaming agents, 67
  Ground water, 50
    Bacteria-aquifer reaction, 52
    Characteristics, 52
    Chemical-aquifer reaction, 52
    Hydrologic characteristics, 52
    Pollutant decomposition, 52
    Quality,  52
  Growth-producing organisms, 89
  Growth promoting factors, 81
  Hardness, 68
  Human health, 51
  Industrial consumers, 68
  Iodine-131  content, 84
  Iron
    Distribution systems deposits,  69
    Taste, 69
  Iron content, 69
  Irrigation uses, 59
  Itai-itai disease, 60
  Lead toxicity, 70
  Lead-210 content, 85
  Low-energy radionuclides, 84
  Manganese
    Concentration, 71
    Taste effect, 71
  Manganese content, 71
Public water supply (cont.)
  Mercury, 72
  Metal ions, 68
  Methylene blue reactions, 67
  Microbial hazard measurements, 57
  Mineral salts concentrations, 90
  Monitoring programs, 51
  Nitrate-nitrite concentration,  73
  Nitrates content, 73
  Nitrites content, 73
  Odor, 74
  Oil and grease, 74
    Human health hazard, 74
    Odor-producing problems, 74
    Taste problems, 74
  Organics-carbon adsorbable, 75
  Organophosphorus insecticide, 78
  pH, 63, 80
    Anticorrosion procedures, 80
  Pesticides, 76
  Phenolic compounds, 80
  Phosphate concentration
    Noxious plant growth, 81
  Phosphates, 81
    Eutrophication, 81
    Controllable nutrient, 81
  Phthalate esters, 82
  Plankters
    Odor problems, 82
    Taste problems, 82
  Plankton, 82
  Plankton counts, 82
  Plankton-pH relationship, 82
  Platinum cobalt standards, 63
  Polychlorinated  biphenyls, 83
  Productivity-respiration relationship, 82
  Quality recommendations, 50, 51
  Radioactivity, 84
  Radiochemical analysis, 85
  Radioiodine isotopes, 85
  Radionuclide concentrations, 85
  Radiophysical analysis, 85
  Radium-226 concentration,  85
  Radium-228 content, 85
  Raw water analytical analysis, 52
  Reservoirs, 79
  Rural areas, 52
  Sampling
    Chronological, 51
    Spatial, 51
  Sanitary quality indicators
    Coliform bacteria, 57
  Selenium, 86
  Selenium toxicity, 86
  Silver, 87
  Silver concentration, 87
  Silver solubility, 87
  Sodium, 88
  Soluble colored substances, 63
  Strontium-89 content, 84
  Strontium-90 content, 84
  Sulfite concentration, 88
  Surface water classification,  53
  Temperature, 89
  Total dissolved solids (TDS), 90
  Toxic content, 50
  Treatment processes, 51
     Nitrates-nitrites, 73
  Tritium, 84
  Turbidity, 90
  Turbidity-coagulation relationship, 90
  United States, 61
  Unmixed bodies of water
     Oxygen depletion, 65
  Uranyl ion, 91
  Viruses, 91
  Water hardness
     Detergents, 68
     Soaps, 68
  Water management, 52
  Water quality
     Chronic hazard, 51
     Periodic hazard, 51
  Water sources exchange, 52
  Water transmition of virus, 91
  Water treatment processes, 50
  Well water distinctions, 52
  Zinc content, 93
Public water supply sources
  Plant growth, 23
Puget Sound
  Oriental oyster drill, 27
Puerto Rico, 18
Pulp and paper industry
  Categories, 382
  Manufacturing process, 382
Purnpkinseed
  pH effects, 141
Rad (Radiation absorbed dose), 196, 272
Radiation absorption calculators, 196
Radiation calculations, 272
Radiation detection, 190, 270
Radiation sources
  Decay products, 271
  External, 271
  Internal, 271
  Primordial radioisotopes, 271
Radioactive materials
  Aquatic environment, 270
  Cycling, 271
  Surface waters, 271
  Tritium, 192
Radioactive materials cycling,  191
Radioactive wastes, 191, 193, 271
Radioactivity
  Aquatic environment, 190
  Aquatic organisms, 270
  Characteristics, 190
  Exposure pathways, 194
  Graded scale of action, 84, 86
  Gross alpha concentration, 85
  Gross beta concentration, 85
  Ground water, 84
  Human tolerance, 84
  Marine environment, 190
  Nuclear facilities, 84
  Public water supply, 84
     Gross alpha concentrations, 85
     Gross beta concentrations, 85
  Sources, 190
  Surface waters, 84

-------
 584/Water Quality Criteria,  7972
   Transient rates, 84
   Tritiated water, 85
 Radioactivity characteristics, 27
 Radioactivity-genetic changes relationship,
     196
 Radioisotopes
   Daughters, 190
   Food web interaction, 271
   Man-made,  191, 271
   Tracers, 271
   Tritium tracers, 271
 Radioisotopes as tracers, 192
 Radioisotopes—food web relationship, 193
 Radionuclide intake
   Iodine-131, 84
   Radium-226, 84
   Strontium-89, 84
   Strontium-90, 84
 Radionuclides
   P32, 38
   Zn65, 38
   Drinking water, 318
   Ground waters, 317
   Human intake, 84
   Irrigation water, 332
   Livestock, 317
   Shellfish, 38
   Surface waters, 317
   Water for livestock, 304
 Radium-226
   Fresh produce, 332
 Rainbow trout, 435, 437, 438
   Ammonia excretion, 187
   Ammonia sensitivity, 242
   Ammonia toxicity, 187
   Antimony tolerance, 243
   Cadmium lethality, 179
   Chlorine residue, 189
   Chromium chronic effects, 180
   Chromium toxicity, 180
   Copper concentrations, 180
   Ethyimercury content, 173
   Fluoride lethality, 249
   Iron sensitivity, 249
   Gas bubble disease,  138
   Hypothetical lake study, 403
   Metal concentrations lethality, 178
   Methylmercury assimilation
   pH effects, 141
   Pesticide synergisis, 184
   Phthalate ester toxicity,  175
   Softwater
    LC50 values, 181
   Thallium nitrate effects, 256
   Water quality
    Mortality probability, 403
   Zinc-swimming speed relationship, 182
Rainfall-soil erosion effects, 126
Rainwater
   Pesticide content
    Alpha-BHC, 318
    ODD, 318
    DDE, 318
    DDT, 318
    Dieldrin, 318
    Gamma-BHC, 318
   PCB, 83
 Rapid sand nitration
   Public water supply, 50
 Rappia manlnna, 194
 Rappia occidentals, 194
 Rats
   Drinking water
     Arsenic content, 309
     Selenium,  316
   Molybdenum toxicity, 314
 Rattail maggots (Enstali: tenox), 22
 Raw milk storage, 302
 Raw milk supplies
   Sanitation standard, 332
 Raw produce
   Hydrocooling, 302
   Washing, 302
 Raw shellfish
   Human consumption, 36
 Raw surface water
   Disinfection processes, 58
   Dissolved oxygen, 65
   Process treatment, 58
   Quality, 50
 Raw water
   Ammonia chlorine demand, 55
   Ammonia—chlorine reaction,  55
   Analytical analysis, 52
   Bacteriological quality, 57
   Color, 63
   Dissolved oxygen, 65
   Quality, 50
   Sources, 50
 Raw water
   Fluoride concentrations, 66
   Fluoride fluctuations, 66
   Monitors, 76
 Raw water quality
   Uranium content, 91
 Raw water source
   Radionuclide concentr itions, 85
 Raw water supply
   Ammonia, 65
   Bacteria species, 302
   Iron, 65
   Manganese, 65
   Microbial contaminants, 301
 Raw water sources
   Nitrite concentrations, 73
 Raw water supply
   Odor-producing microorganisms, 74
   pH, 80
 Receiving waters
   Circulation effects, 230
   Mercury content, 172
   Mining
     Metallic ion leaching, 239
   Mixing zones, 231
   Persistant pollutants, 230
   Pollution concentration, 230
   Sewage load, 275
   Sorption process, 228
   Waste disposal,  228
   Waste disposal toxicity, 228
Recharge wells, 377
Recirculating cooling water systems, 378
Recreation
  Park planning, 8
  Water quality, 8
  Water quality loss, 10
  Water resources, 8
Recreation- lesthetic relationship, 8
Recreation water
  Aesthetic value factors, 13
  Algal biornass measurement, 21
  Contarr ination from outboard motor ex-
       haust, 148
  Objectionible aesthetic quality, 12
  Primary productivity, 21
  Reservoirs on rivers,  13
  Turbidity. 13
  Water resource relationships, 15
Recreation water quality
  Excessive nutrients, 12
  Excessive temperature, 12
Recreation water values
  Biological factors, 13
  Physical factors, 13
Rccreatiorral resources
  Water carrying capacity, 13, 14
Recreatiorral water
  Adsorptiorr of materials, 16
  Aesthetic values,  35
  Aesthetics, 30
  Agriculture runoff effects, 37
  Appearance, 16
  Aquatic life, 35
  Aquatic macrophytes, 26
  Aquatic organisms
    Species introduction, 27
  Aquatic vectors, 17
  Beach maintenance, 17
  Beach zone effects, 16
  Bioaccumulation,  230
  Blackfly larvae, 22
  Boating, 34
  Boating safety, 35
  BOD, 34  '
  Carp introduction, 27
  Chemical concentrations, 30
  Chlorophyll a, 21
  Chromium pollution
    Cncotoput bicmclus, 18
  Colorado River, 40
  Contamination
    Naeglena group, 29
  Crater Lake, 40
  Cultural encroachment effects, 35
  Diseases, 1 7
  Eutrophication rate—relationship, 21
  Everglades, 40
  Fingernail clams, 22
  Fish, 35
  Free-living amoeba, 29
  Grand Canyon National Park, 40
  Great Lakes
    Coho salmon transplant, 27
  Hypolirnnetic oxygen, 21
  Jellyfish, 1')
  Kentucky watersheds, 39
  Lake eutrophication, 19, 20
  Lake Tahoe,  40

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                                                                                                                   Subject Index/585
  Leeches, 22
  Light penetration, 16
  Micronutrients
     Calcium, 22
     Carbon, 22
     Carbonates, 22
     Magnesium, 22
     Nitrogen, 22
     Phosphorus, 22
     Potassium, 22
     Sodium, 22
     Sulfur, 22
  Malaria  vectors
     Anopheles freeborm, 25
     Anopheles quadnmaculatus, 25
  Marshes  macrophytes, 26
  Microbacteriological indicators, 31
  Microbiological content, 31
  Micronutrient
     Boron, 22
     Cobalt, 22
     Copper, 22
     Manganese, 22
     Molybdenum, 22
     Silica,  22
     Titanium, 22
     Vanadium, 22
     Zinc, 22
  Midges content, 22
  Nutrient content, 22
  Nutrient enrichment measurement, 23
  Old Faithful, 40
  Organic  nutrients
     B«, 22
     Biotin, 22
     Glycylglycine, 22
     Thiamine, 22
  Oxygen deficit,  21
  Pacific Coast
     Striped bass transplant, 27
     Brown trout introduction, 27
  Pathogenic bacteria content, 31
  Pathogenic microorganisms, 30
  Pestiferous mosquitoes, 25
  pH characteristics, 33
  Photosynthesis, 24
  Physa snails, 22
  Plant growth
     Nuisance factor, 25
  Quality,  30
     Lead content, 34
     Requirements, 30
  Regulations, 14
  Shoreline-surface area ratio,  14
  Southeast Michigan
     Boating, 14
  Suspended solids (SS), 34
  Temperature, 16
  Toxic wastes, 18
  Unites States, 34
  Urban areas, 35, 39
  Vector mosquitoes, 25
  Water fowl, 35
  Water quality, 29, 34,  35
Recreational water quality
  Bacteriological analysis
     Bathing places, 29
  Chemical analysis
     Bathing places, 29
  Engine exhaust, 34
  Environmental characteristics, 400
  Pollution sources
     Bathing places, 29
  Waste discharges, 35
  Waste disposal systems, 34
  Water-dependent wildlife, 35
Red River, 352
Redear sunfish, 128
Redfish Bay, Texas
  Dredging effects, 279
Redheads
  Lead ingestion effects, 228
  Winter food requirements, 195
Rem (roentgen equivalent man), 196, 272
Reservoir productivity
  Plankton, 82
Reservoir sediments, 18
Reservoir water
  Geosmin, 147
Reservoirs
  Algae-manganese relationship, 250
  Dissolved oxygen, 65
  Eutrophy, 19
  Food storage, 13
  Hydroelectric power, 13
  Mosquito control, 13
  Mosquito infestation, 18
  Nonthermal discharge distribution
     Mathematical model, 403
  Soluble oxygen depletion, 111
  Zones of passage,  115
Reverse osmosis, 375
  High pressure water,  375
Rhode Island Sound
  Dredge dumping, 278
Ring Doves
  PCB-shell thinning relationship, 226
  Shell thinning-DDE relationship,  226
Ringnecked ducks
  Lead ingestion effects, 228
River crabs
  Nickel toxicity, 253
River flow
  Regulatory waters, 333
  tail water, 334
  Underground drainage, 334
River Havel
  Manganese content, 250
  Uranium effects on protozoa,  256
River surveys
  Bioassays, 117
River temperature effects, 160
River transport, 219
River waters
  Chromium content, 311
  Copper content, 311
  Dissolved constituents, 142
  Estuary mixing, 16
  Lead content, 312
  Organisms transport,  115
  Pesticide content, 318
   Pollutant retention time, 230
   Sewage contaminates, 351
Rivers. 39
   Aquatic  macrophytes, 24
   Arid areas, 333
   Ditritus from particulate material, 281
   Eutrophy, 19
   Fertilization  by man
     Algae  growth, 20
     Slime  organisms growth, 20
     Water weeds growth, 20
   Ice formations, 161
   Irrigation flow, 333
   Nonthermal  discharge distribution
     Mathematical model, 403
   Particulate concentrations, 126
   Particulate transport, 16
   Plant growth, 23
   Power plant  discharge, 403
   Sediment-aquatic plant relationship, 17
   Sediment loads, 281
   Semiarid areas, 333
   Thermal effects, 160
   Zones of passage, 115
Roach
   Thallium nitrate effects, 256
Rocky Mountains
   Lake fish, 20
Rough  screens, 372
Roundworms, 322
Rudd
   Boron effects, 245
Ruminants
   Cadmium absorption, 310
   Chromium intake,  311
   Drinking water lead content, 313
   Nitrate nitrogen, 314
Rutilus rutilis, 256

SAR (sodium adsorption ratio), 329, 330, 335
SAR values
   Irrigation water, 331
SDF (slow-death factor), 317
SIC (standard  industrial classification), 370
   (see also Suspended solids)
Sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), 24
   Waterfowl food plant, 194
St. Andrew's, New Brunswick
   Zinc  in salmon, 240
Saline lands reclamation, 329
Saline irrigation waters
   Field crops, 325
   Forage crops, 325
   Fruit crops, 325
   Vegetable crops, 325
Saline water
   Crop tolerance, 324
   Irrigation, 324
   Livestock use, 308
   Plant growth, 324
   Poultry use,  308
Salvehnusfontinalis, 437
Salmo gairdnetr,  138, 141, 172,  173, 179-182,
     184, 187,  189, 242, 243, 249,  256, 435
Salmo salar, 181, 240
Salmo trutta, 24, 141

-------
 586/Water Quality Criteria,  1972
 Salmon
   Flavor impairing phenols
     Industrial wastes, 149
   Tainted water, 148
 Salmon eggs
   PCB residues-mortality relationships, 177
   Mercury effects, 252
 Salmonella, 31, 321, 351
 Salmonella sp., 31
 Salmonella typhimurium, 313
 Salmonid spawning
   Oxygen requirements, 133
 Salmonids
   pH effects, 141
 Salt water beaches
   England, 31
   United States, 31
 Salvelmus fontmalu, 131,  134,  141, 162, 180-
     182
 Salvelmus namaycush, 164, 184
 San Antonio River, 40
 San Antonio, Texas,  40
 San Diego Bay, 399
 San Francisco Bay-Delta system
   sediment flow, 127
 San Joaquin Estuary
   Simulation modeling
     Phytoplankton prediction, 277
 San Joaquin Valley, California
   Soils ESP values, 330
 Sandworm
   Oil toxicity,  261, 262
 Santa Barbara
   Oil well blowout, 258, 260
 Santa Barbara spill
   Animal communities fatality, 258
   Plant communities fatality, 258
   Sea bird deaths, 258
 Sargassum, 242
 Sauger
   Spawning temperature, 171
 Scenedesmus,  147, 253, 256, 438
   Nickel concentrations, 253
Scordimus erythrophthalmus, 245
Schistosoma eggs, 18
 Scud, 435
 Sea biota
   Oil effects, 262
Sea birds
   Oil ingestion, 262
   Oil lethal dosage, 262
   Oil pollution mortality, 258, 261
Sea bottom sediments
   Iron contaminants, 249
Sea disposal operations
   Dredge spoils, 278
Sea food
   Chlorine combinations—taste effects, 246
Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), 27
   Antimony tolerance, 243
Sea nettles (see Jelly fish)
Sea oil contamination, 257
   Underwater reservoir seepage, 257
Sea oil spills
   Sea birds fatality, 258
 Sea-run trout
   Hydrogen sulfide bioassay, 256
   Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 256
Sea surface
   Atmospheric oil precipitates, 257
Sea surface oil
   Marine birds fatalities, 258
   Remote sensing, 258
Sea water
   Alkalinity, 241
   Aluminum salts precijDitate, 241
   Ammonia toxicity, 242
   Arsenic concentration, 243
   Barium precipitate, 243
   Beryllium content, 244
   Bismuth concentration, 244
   Boron concentration, 244
   Bromine content, 245
   Cadmium content, 245
   Chemistry
    Alkalinity, 241
   Chlorine pollutants, 247
   Chromium concentrations, 247
   Copper concentration, 248
   Dissolved oxygen, 275
   Euphotic zone,  241
   Fluoride content, 248
   Ion exchange process, 228
   Manganese content, 250
   Mercury content, 72, 252
   Nickel content,  253
   Oil dispersal methods. 262, 263
   pH extremes, 241
   pH variations, 241
   Photosynthesis,  241
   Potassium chromate effects, 247
   Redfish-aluminum chloride toxicity, 242
   Sorption process, 228
   Sulfate content, 255
   Uranium content, 256
   Uranium toxicity, 256
Sea water-antagonism relationship, 240
Sea water-fresh water differences, 241
Sea water-synergism relationship, 240
Sea food
   Cadmium mutagenic effects, 246
   Cadmium teratogenic effects, 246
   Sublethal pollutants-food value effects, 237
Seattle, Washington
   Green lake, 20
Seaweed culture, 223
Sedimentation, 372
Sedimentation process
   Public water supply, 50
Seepage areas
   Malaria  vectors, 25
Selenium
   Human toxicity, 86
   Industrial uses,  254
   Insolubility, 86
   Livestock, 316
   Physical  characteristics, 254
   Public water supply, 86
  Toxicity, 254
Selenium poisoning
   Alkali disease, 316
   Livestock, 316
Selenium toxicity
   Livestock, 316
Semiarid areas
   Irrigation water quality, 333
   Climate,  333
Seston (See  also Particulate materials), 281
Sewage
   Beneficial use, 277
   Nickel salts-biochemical exidation effects
       253
   Organic pollution, 275
   Organic toxicants, 264
   PCB, 83
Sewage effluents
   Detergent content, 190
   Mercury  concentration, 172
Sewage emissions
   Municipal areas, 274
Sewage fungus (Sphaerotilus), 22
Sewage sludge
   Ecological effects, 279
   Heavy metals concentrations, 279
Sewage treatment
   Ammonia, 55
   Economic factors, 277
Sewage treatment plants
   Effluents,  378
   Organic material removal, 275
Sewage treatment processes
   Viruses, SI
Sewage wastes
   Degradable organic materials, 274
Sewage water
   Trace elements concentration, 352
   Virus survival, 92
Shallow lakes
   Nutrients  22
   Plant growth, 23
   Power boats, 14
Sheep
   Drinking  water
    Sodium chloride content, 307
   Molybcenum tolerance, 314
Shellfish
   Bacteria content, 36
   Bacteriological quality, 36
   Clams, 36
   Commercial value, 36
   Contamination, 36
   DDD content,  37
  DDE content, 37
  DDT contamination, 37
  DDT content, 37
  Arsenic content, 243
  Dieldriri content, 37
  Dinofl,agellates, 38
   Estuarine waters
    Pesticide contamination, 37
  Gonyaulux  content, 37
  Gonyaulax  tamargnsis, 38
  Marine biotoxins, 36
  Mussels, 36
  Oil ingestion, 327
  Paralytic poisoning from ingestion, 37
   Pesticide effects, 36
  Pesticide levels, 37

-------
                                                                                                                    Subject Index/587
   Pesticide toxicity, 37
   Polluted water, 36
   Public health-pollution effects, 277
   Radionuclides, 36
   Radionuclides content, 38
   Toxic trace metals content, 38
   Toxicity, 37
   Trace metals, 36
   Oysters, 36
   Virus vectors, 36
   Water quality, 36
Shipworrn
   Arsenious trioxide control, 243
Shoveler
   Lead mgestion effects, 228
Silver
   Argyria, 87
   Argyrosis, 87
   Commercial uses, 254
   Cosmetic effects in humans, 87
   Industrial uses, 255
   Public water supply, 87
   Water treatment, 301
Similkamen Valley, British Columbia, 349
Simulndae, 141
Sludge  deposits
   Crab shells necrosis, 280
   Hydrogen sulfide content, 193
   Lobster necrosis, 280
Sludgeworms  (Tubificidae), 21
Snails
   Barium chloride lethality, 244
Snake River
   Gas bubble disease, 135
Snow petrel
   Cadmium level, 246
   Mercury content, 252
Sockeye salmon
   Gas bubble disease, 139
   Pyridyl mercuric acetate tolerance, 173
   Water temperature, 160
Sodium
   Ground waters, 88
   Human diet, 88
   Irrigation water, 329
   Public water supply, 88
   Soils, 329
   Solubility, 88
   Surface waters, 88
Sodium cation
   Ion exchange, 375
Sodium hypochlorite
   Water treatment, 301
Sodium intake
   Human health, 88
Sodium selenite  toxicity, 254
   Goldfish tolerance, 254
Soft drink  industry (See Bottled and canned
     soft drinks)
Soft water
   Antimony salts, 243
   Beryllium chloride toxicity, 244
   Cadmium content, 180
   Chromium concentration, 180
   Copper concentration,  180
   Copper toxicity, 240
  Lead solubility, 181
  Nickel content, 253
  pH effects, 140
  Sodium selenite, 254
Soil
  Acidity,  330
  Aeration, 330
  Alkalinity, 330
  Alkalinity calculations, 335
  Filtration
     Bacteria removable, 352
  Fungus
     Wheat Mosaic Virus, 349
  Management,  339, 340
  Pathogenic virus vectors, 349
  Salinity, 337
  Sodium, 329
Soil Conservation Service, 10
Soil tolerance to  chemicals, 339
Soil water  and electrical conductivity, 334
Soils
  Arid, 333
  Arsenic toxicity, 340
  Boron accumulation, 341
  Cadmium content, 342
  Chromium accumulation, 342
  ESP values, 331
  Fluoride content, 343
  Humid region, 336
  Irrigation, 333
  Lead toxicity,  343
  Mineralogic.il  composition, 336
  Molybdenum concentrations, 344
  pH content,  337
  pH values, 330, 339, 344
  Selenium content, 345
  Sodium content, 329
  Soluble aluminum, 339
  Suspended solids, 332
  Zinc toxicity, 345
Solid wastes
  Biological effects, 279
  Sea dumping, 280
Solid wastes disposal, 278
Solid wastes-sport fishing relationships, 280
Soluble colored substances
  Polymeric hydroxy carboxylic acids, 63
South Africa
  Wafra spill, 262
South America
  Cl. hemolyticum  in water, 321
  Fishery management, 441
South Bay
  Oyster shell layers, 279
South Carolina Intracoastal Canal
  Dredging effects, 279
South Dakota
  Fowl drinking  water, 308
Southeast Asia
  Marine aquaculture, 223
Southeast Michigan
  Recreational water and boating, 14
Southern California
  Marine ecosystems-DDT residues relation-
      ship, 227
  PCB in fish, 226
Soviet studies
  Marine radioactivity, 244
Spatula clypeala, 228
Sphaerolilus, 21
Spinner perch
  Manganese toxicity, 251
Sporocjrstt, 322
Sport fisheries
  Water temperature, 151
Spotted bullhead
  Spawning  temperature, 171
Spring water
  Dissolved gases, 136
  Zinc content, 93
Sprinkler irrigation, 332, 350
  Iron content, 343
  Raw sewage, 351
  Suspended solids, 338
  Trace elements, 338
Steam
  Condensate recycling, 378
Steam electric  plants
  Boiler makeup requirements, 377
  Tennessee  Valley Authority, 378
Steam generation, 377
  Boilers, 376
  Boiler feed, 377
  Discharge, 378
  Economics, 379
  External water treatment equipment, 378
  Industry, 376
  Source water composition, 379
  Water consumption, 378
  Water quality requirements, 378
  Water treatment processes, 379
  Total water  intake, 378
Steel head trout
  Pyridyl mercuric acetate tolerance, 173
Sterna hirundo, 226, 246, 252
Sterna viltata,  246, 252
Stickleback
  Aluminum nitrate lethal threshold, 242
  Lead-sublethal effects
  Manganese tolerance, 250
  Nickel effects, 253
  Nickel lethal limits, 253
  Silver nitrate content, 255
Stizosledion canadense, \ 71
Stizosledion mtreum, 243
Stizostedian vitreum vitrfum,  128, 193
Stonflies
  Iron effects,  249
  pH effects, 141
STORET (Systems for technical data), 306
Stratified lakes
  Thermal patterns, 165
Streain channelization,  124
Stream waters
  Benthic fauna, 22
  Blood worms, 22
  Blue-green algae,  22
  Rattail maggots, 21
  Sewage fungus, 22
  Sludgeworms, 21
Streams
  Water quality, 400

-------
  588/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
  Streams
    Blackfly larvae, 18
    DDT contamination, 184
    Diluting capacity, 230
    Dissolved oxygen requirements, 133
    Flow turbulence, 115
    Industrial discharge-temperature relation-
        ship, 195
    Nutrient enrichment, 22
    Organic mercury content,  172
    Over enrichment, 20
    Oxygen concentration, 132
    Pesticides content, 183
    Pollution, 230
     Coliform measurement of contaminants,
          57
     Fecal contamination, 57
     Oil slick, 147
   Silt-fish population effect,  128
   Site uniqueness measurement
     Biological factors, 400
     Human use,  400
     Interest factors,  400
     Physical factors, 400
     Water quality factors,  400
   Toxic waters concentrations
     Application factors, 123
   Transport, 126
 Streptopelia risona,  226
 Striped bass (Morone saxatilis), 27
   Eggs hatching conditions, 279
 Strongyloide*;, 322
 Strontium-90
   Fresh produce,  332
 Sturgeon
   Oxygen requirements, 132
 Subirrigation, 350
 Suisun Marsh, California
   Water salinity,  195
 Sulfates
   Ground water,  89
   Laxative effects, 89
   Public water supply, 89
 Sulfidc toxicity, 191,  193
 Sulfides
   By-products, 255
   Toxicity, 255
   Water solubility, 191
 Sunken oil
   Bottom fauna mortality, 262
 Supersaturation
   Water quality, 135
 Supplemental irrigation, 337
 Surface horizon, 333
 Surface irrigation
   Suspended solids, 332
 Surface irrigation  water
   Ccrcoriae, 350
   Helminth infections, 352
Surface sea water
   Lead content, 249
Surface waters
   Aesthetic quality, 11
   Aluminum content, 309
   Ammonia content, 55
   Arsenic content, 56
   Barium concentration, 59
   Beryllium content, 310
   Chromium concentration, 62
   Classification, 53
   Cobalt content, 311
   Contamination, 50
   Copper, 64
   Copper concentration, 64
   Dissolved inorganic salts, 301
   Dissolved solids,  142
   Enteric viral contamination, 91
   Fluorine content, 312
   Foaming agents, 67
   Gas nuclei, 135
   Hardness, 142
   Hardness factors, 142
   Hydrated ferric oxide, 69
   Hydrated manganese oxides, 71
   Industri \\ wastes
     Chromium content 311
   Iodine-131 content, 84
   Iron content, 69
   Lead content, 70
   Manganese content, 71, 250
   Mercury content, 313
   Minerals, 301
   Mosquito productivity, 25
   Natural color,  130
   Natural temperatures, 151
   Nutrient concentration, 22
   Nutrient content analyses, 306
   Nymphaea odorata, 25
   Pesticide contamination, 318
   Pesticide content, 318
   Pesticide entry, 318
   Phosphorus content, 8'
   Quality characteristics 370, 371
Surface water use
   Quality characteristics
     Food canning industry, 391
Surface waters
   Radioactive materials, 192, 271
   Radioactivity, 84, 190, 270
  Radionuclides content, 317
  Sodium concentrations, 88
  Strontium-89 content, 84
  Strontium-90 content, 84
  Sulfonates, 67
  Supplies, 50
  Suspended particles, 16
  Suspended particulate concentrations, 126
  Suspended sediment content, 50
  Suspended solids, 335
  Temperatures, 16
  Temperature variation, 89
  Vanadium, 316
  Water color-aquatic life effects, 130
  Watershed, 22
  Surface  water-photosynt hesis relationship,
      275
  Surface  waters saturation
    Oxygen loss,  270
  Surface water supply
    Deleterious agents,  51
    Toxic agents, 51
    Virus, 91
 Suspended particulates
   Biological effects, 281
 Suspended sediments
   Physical-chemical aspects, 281
 Suspended solids
   Soils, 332
 Swamps
   Malaria vectors, 25
   Oxygen content, 132
 Sweden
   Environmental mercury residues, 252
   Environmental methylmercury, 172
   Industrial mercury use, 252
   Mercury in fish,  172, 251, 252
   Supersaturation, 135
 Swimming water
   Chemical quality, 33
   Clarity, 33
   Sewage contamination, 31
   Temperature ranges, 32
   Turbidity, 33
   Water quality requirements, 30
 Swine
   Drinking water
   Sodium chloride content, 307
   Copper intake, 312
   Molybdenum tolerance, 314
 Swordfish
   Meicury content, 237

 TAPPI  (Technical Association of the  Pulp
     and Paper Industry), 383
 TAPPI manufacture specifications
   Process water
     Chemical Composition, 384
 TDS (Total dissolved solids), 90, 335
   Specific conductance measurements, 90
 TL50 (Medim tolerance limit), 118
 TLm (Median tolerance limit), 118
 TNV (Tobacco necrosis virus), 349
 TMV (Tobacco mosaic virus),  349
 TSS (Total soil suction), 324
 TVA (see Tennessee Valley Authority)
 Taiwan
   Epidemiological  studies, 56
 Tampico Bay, Calif.
   Pollution-kelp resurgence relationship, 237
 Tampico Maru
   Diesel fuel spill, 258, 260
 Tanning Industry
   Description,  393
   Quality requirements
     Point of use, 393
   Water process, 393
   Water quaity
     Microbiological content, 394
   Water quality indicator, 394
   Water treatment processes, 394
   Water use
    Chemical composition, 393
Tap water
   Aluminum nitrate
    Lethal threshold, 242
   Manganese-sticklebacks  lethality  effects,
      250
  Tritium content,  85

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                                                                                                                     Subject Index/589
Tar balls, 257
  Neuston net collection, 257
Teal
  Lead ingestion effects, 228
Temperate lakes
  Thermal stratification,  111
Temperature
  Coolant waters, 89
  Oxygen transfer in water, 16
  Plant growth, 328
  Public water supply, 89
  Recreational water, 16
  Surface waters,  16
Temperature exposures, 170
Tennessee Valley Authority, 9, 378
Tennessee Valley streams
  Fish population, 162
Teredo, 243
Tern
  Mercury concentrations, 252
Tern eggs
  Cadmium levels, 246
Texas
  Caddo Lake, 26
  Ponds, 24
Textile industry
  Census of Manufacturers,  1967, 381
  Deionized water, 380
  Potable water, 381
  Surface water intake, 380
  Water color, 380
  Water hardness,  380
  Water intake sources, 380
  Water quality, 380
  Water quality requirements, 380, 381
  Water treatment processes, 381
  Water turbidity, 380
  Water use, 380
  Zeolite-softened water,  380
Textile mills
  Locations, 380
  Raw water quality,  380
Textile mill products
  Cotton, 379
  Industry description, 379
  Noncellulosic synthetic fibers, 379
  Rayon, 379
  Wool, 379
Textile processes
  Scouring operations, 380
  Water use, 380
Textiles
  Silk dyeing damage, 380
  Wool dyeing damage, 380
Thalasseus sandmcensis,  196
Thaleichthys pacifaus, \ 64
Thallium
  Industrial use, 256
  Neuro-poison, 256
  Rat poison, 256
Thermal criteria
  Hypothetical power plant, 166
Thermal electrical power
  Thermal fluctuations, 162
Thermal exposures
  Developing fish eggs sensitivity, 170
Thermal fluctuations
  Navigation, 162
Thermal plume stratification, 170
Thermal Tables
  Time-temperature relationships
     Fish, 410-419
     Opossum shrimp, 413, 414
Thiobacillus-Ferrobacillus, 141
Tidal cycles
  Seston values, 281
Tidal environment, 168
Tidal oscillations, 219
Tidal water
  Organism transport, 115
Top minnow
  Mercury toxicity, 173
  Nickel toxicity, 253
Torrey Canyon spill, 262
  Oil-detergent toxicity, 261
  Oil spill effects, 258, 260
Total dissolved gases
  Water quality, 135
Toxic algae
  Livestock, 317
Toxic organics, 264
  Hazards, 264
  Biosphere, 264
Toxic water
  Concentration calculations, 123
Toxicants
  Ammonia, 186
  Fishery management, 441
  Insecticides, 441
Toxicity in water
  Livestock, 309
Tracers
  Radioiaotopes, 271
  Tritium, 271
Trapa hatans, 27
Tnchobilhazia, 18
Tnchodorus, 349
Tnchoptera, 141
Tntonaha japonic a, 27
Tropical waters
  Biological  activity, 441
Trout
  Boron effects, 245
  Dissolved oxygen requirements, 134
  Flavor-imparing chemicals
     n-butylmercaptan, 148
     o-cresol, 148
     2,4-dichlorophenol, 148
     pyridine, 148
  Lakes, 20
  Odoriferous actinomyces, 148
  Phenol toxicity, 191
  Zinc toxicity, 182
Tularemia, 321
Tule Lake, 346
Tuna fish
  Mercury content, 237
Turbidity
  Coagulation, 90
  Filtration, 90
  Public water supply, 90
  Sedimentation, 90
Turkey Point, Fla.
  Power plant-temperature changes, 238
Tylenchorhynchus sp., 348
Tylenchulus semipenetrans, 348
Typha, 141
Ultrafiltration, 375
Ultraviolet sterilization
  Water treatment, 301
Ulna, 21
Underground aquifers, 377
United States
  Agricultural nitrogen use, 274
  Agricultural waters
     Leptospirosis, 321
  Aquatic vascular plants, 25
  Arid areas
     Water quality characteristics, 333
  Coastal waters
     Temperature variations effects, 238
  Inland waters
     Biota, 142
  Irrigation water, 351
  Lake waters
     Chromium content, 311
     Copper content, 311
     Iron content, 312
  Lakes, 21
  Malaria vectors, 25
  Marine aquaculture
     Oyster, 223
  Marine environment
     Radioactivity content, 190
  Mercury consumption, 251
  Northeastern coast, 32
  Pesticides use, 434, 441
  Polychlorinated  byphenols  in  freshwater
       fish, 177
  Precipitation, 333
  Public water supplies, 61, 62
  Radioactivity in water, 85, 270
  Recreation waters, 34
  River waters
     Composition, 333
     Copper content, 311
     Lead content, 312
  Rivers
     Chromium content, 311
     Mercury content, 72
  Salt water beaches, 31
  Semiarid areas
     Water quality characteristics, 333
  Streams
     Mercury content, 72
  Surface waters
     Mercury content, 313
     Pesticides content, 319
  Synthetic organic chemicals
     Production, 264
  Water quality, 129
  Water temperatures,  151
United States  Atlantic coasts
  Temperature effects,  238

-------
 590/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
 United States Bureau  of Commercial Fish-
     eries, 37
 United States Census, 1970, 9
 United States Department of Agriculture, 10,
     346
 United States Department of Defense, 9
 United States Department  of Housing and
     Urban Development, 10
 United States Federal  Radiation  Council,
     84, 85, 318
 United States Salinity Laboratory, 324, 325,
     328, 330, 334
 Upper Chesapeake Bay
  Biota seasonal patterns, 282
  Fish nursery, 281
  Physical hydrography, 282
 Upper water layers
  Oxygen content, 276
 Uranium
  Industrial uses, 256
  Water solubility, 256
 Uranium—sea  water interaction, 256
 Uranyl ion
  Public water supplies, 91
 Urban streams
  Baltimore, Md., 40
  Flow variability, 40
  Washington, D.C., 40
 Urban waters, 39
 Urban water quality, 40
 Urban waterways contamination, 40
 Urechis eggs
  Uranium effects, 256
 Utah
  Fish fauna,  27

 Valhsnena amencana, 194
 Vanadium
  Commercial processes, 257
  Drinking  water, 316
  Industrial uses, 257
  Surface waters, 316
Vanadium toxicity
  Farm animals, 316
Vashon glacier,  20
Virgin Islands coast
  Solid waste disposal, 280
Virology techniques, 92
Viruses
  Classification, 322
  Infections, 322
  Public water supply, 91

WHO (World Health Organization), 251
WRE (Water Resources Engineers, Inc.), 399
Wafra spill, 262
Wales
  Bathing waters, 29
Walking catfish  (Glorias batrachus), 28
Walleye
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Walleye eggs
  Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Walleye fingerlings,  128
Warmwater fish
  Dissolved oxygen criteria,  132
Warm water temperatures
   Fish kills, 171
Washington
   Irrigation water
     Plant ncmatode distribution, 348
Washington, D.C.
   Urban streams, 40
   Water chestnut introduction, 27
Waste material  disposal recommendations,
     282
Waste treatment
   Benefit-cost analysis, 399, 400
   Evaluation techniques, 399
Waste water
   Animal waste disposal systems, 353
   Chlorine disinfection 276
   Fish tainting, 147
   Food processing plants, 353
   Nitrogen removal, 3f 2
   Organic content,  353
Waste water effluents
   Pollutant concentrations, 264
Waste water injection, 115
Waste water potential
   Blowdown, 379
   Boiler waters, 279
   Evaporative systems, 379
   External water treatment processes, 379
   Recirculated cooling water,  379
Waste water reclamaticn
   Recreational benefits, 399
Waste water treatment
   Copper concentrations, 74
   Lead concentrations, 74
Waste water treatment plants
   Discharges,  147
Waste water treatment processes
   Recreation, 13
Water
   Carbon dioxide content,  139
   Manganese stability, 251
   pH values, 140
   Pesticides content, 346
Water adsorption
   Clay minerals, 16
   Microorganisms, 16
   Toxic materials, 127
Water alkalinity, 54
   Carbonate-bicarbonate interaction, 140
Water analyses
   Metals-biota relationship, 179
Water birds
   Surface oil hazards,  196
Water chemistry-plants interrelationships, 24
Water chestnut (Trafia wtans), 27
Water circulation
   Pollutant mixing,  217
Water color
   Compensation  depth, 130
   Compensation  point, 130
   Inorganic sources
     Metals, 130
   Organic sources
     Aquatic plants,  130
     Humic materials,  130
     Peat, 130
     Plankton, 130
     Tannins, 130
   Origin, 130
Water color-industrial discharge effects, 13
Water color measurements
   Platinum-cobalt method, 130
Water components
   Metallocyanide complex
     Toxicity, 140
Water composition, 306, 371
   Air scrubbing, 377
   Evaporation, 377
Water cont aminant indicator
   Odor, 74
   Taste, 74
Water com animation
   Nitrates, 314
   Pesticides
     Farm ponds, 318
Water density
   Lakes, 164
Water-dependent wildlife, 34
Water development projects, 10
Water disinfectant
   Ammonia-chlorine reactions,  55
Water distribution systems
   Ammonia, 55
Water entry of pesticides
   Direct application,  318
   Drift, 318
   Faulty waste disposal, 318
   Rainfall, 318
   Soil runoff, 318
   Spills, 318
Water flavor impairment, 148
Water flea
   Thallium nitrate effects, 256
Water hardness
   Biologies! productivity, 142
   Definilion, 142
   Lead toxicity,  181
   Metal toxicity level, 177
   Scale deposits, 68
   Utility facilities, 68
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), 27
Water level control
   Shell fish harvest, 399
Water management techniques,  50
Water nitrate concentrations, 73
Water oxygen
   Salinity effects, 276
   Temperature effects, 276
Water oxygen depletion
   Duckweed, 24
   Water hyacinth, 24
   Water lettuce, 24
Water plurne
   Configuration effects, 170
Water pollutants
   Oxygen level reduction, 133
   Toxicity, 133, 140
   Waterfowl mortalities, 195
Water polluting agents
   Enteric microorganisms, 321
Water pollution

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                                                                                                                     Subject Index/591
  Crude oil toxicity,  144
  Oils, 144
Water pollution control, 11
Water pressure tension, 135
Water processes
  Mining industry, 394
  Paper and allied products, 383
  Tanning industry,  393
Water productivity,_ 140
Water quality
  CCE..75
  m-crcsol
    Threshold odor concentration, 80
  o-cresol
    Threshold odor concentration, 80
  />-cresol
    Threshold odor concentration, 80
  Acid conditions
    Adverse effects, 140
  Aethetics, 8, 399
  Agarsphenamine, 87
  Agricultural importance, 300
  Algae content
    Farmsteads,  301
  Alkaline conditions
    Adverse effects, 140
  Alkalinity, 140
  Analysis, 352
  Animal use
    Daily calcium requirements, 306
    Daily salt requirements,  306
  Aquatic vascular plants, 23
  Benefit-cost analysis,  399
  Biomonitoring  receiving systems, 109
  Biomphalana glabrata, 18
  Boating,  28
  Body burdens of toxicants, 116
  Carbonate buffering capacity, 140
  Chemical and allied products, 384
  Chemical compound concentrations,
    Fish tainting, 148
    Oyster changes, 147, 148
  Coastal region  nutrient, 270
  Commercial fin fishing, 28
  Commercial shell fishing, 28
  Composition, 371
  Contamination
    Outboard motor  oil, 148
  Cotton bleaching processes, 380
  Deterioration, 10, 321
  Dietary nutrient content, 305
  Dilution water
    Toxicant testing,  120
  Dissolved oxygen concentrations, 134
  Dissolved oxygen criteria, 133,  134
  Element content
    Cobalt, 306
    Iodine, 306
    Magnesium,  306
    Sulfur, 306
  Estuaries, 222
  Estuary nutrients, 270
  Eutrophy, 21
  Evaluation techniques, 399
  Farm animals use,  321
  Farmsteads
Water quality (cont.)
    Nonpathogenic bacterial contaminants,
         301
  Fish production requirements, 195
  Flavor impairment, 148
  Food canning processes, 390
  Harbors,  35
  I lardness
    Equivalent calcium carbonate,  68
    Polyvalent cations, 68
  Hydrogen ion concentration,  140
  Industrial discharge
    Color effects, 130
  Industrial effluents, 370
  Inorganic chemicals concentration, 481,482
  Insecticides content, 195
  Irrigation waters, 323, 324, 333, 336, 337
  Isotope content, 307
  Kraft pulp mills, 147
  Livestock use
    Biologically produced toxins, 304
    Excessive salinity, 304
    Mineral content, 304
    Parasitic organisms, 304
    Pathogenic organisms, 304
    Pesticide residues, 304
    Radionuclidcs, 304
    Toxic elements, 304
  Marine ecosystems, 216
  Marketing costs, 371
  Mercury pollution, 172
  Mesotrophy, 21
  Midge production,  18
  Minerals, 88
  Mortality probability, 404
  Municipal sewage,  274
  Nitrate-nitrogen level, 302
  Nutrients, 19
  Odor-producting bacteria
    Farmsteads,  302
  Oil loss effects, 144
  Oil refinery effluents effects, 144
  Oil spills effects, 144
  Oligotrophy, 21
  Organic mercury toxicity,  173
  Outboard motor exhaust, 148
  pH, 140
  Paper and allied products, 383
  Particulates
    Aquatic life,  16
    Biological productivity, 16
  Pathogens from fecal contamination,  58
  Phenol
    Threshold odor concentrations,  80
  Phenols, 80
  Phosphorus concentrations, 81
  Physical factors, 13
  Plankton density, 82
  Pollutant bioassays, 118
  Polychlorinated byphenals content, 83
  Preserving aesthetic values, 11
  Radioactive materials restrictions, 273
  Receiving systems-biota interaction, 109
  Recreation,  8, 29, 399
  Requirements,  370, 371
    Point of intake, 371
     Point of use, 371
   Sanitary indicators, 57
   Shell fish, 36
   Significant indicators, 378
   Sodium content, 88
   Soil-plant growth effects, 324
   Soils, 323
   Sport fin fishing, 28
   Sport shell fishing, 28
   Suspended solids effects,  222
   Supersaturation, 135
   Swimming, 28
   Tainting, 147, 149
   Textile dyeing processes, 380
   Textile industry
     Point of use, 380, 381
   Thermal criteria, 152
   Thermal regimes, 152
   Total dissolved gases, 135
   Toxic wastes, 18
   Toxicants, 404, 407
   Toxicity curves calculations, 407
   Trace metals
     pH effects, 140
   Treatment equipment, 371
   Virus-disease relationship, 91
   Waste material Application  factors, 121
   Zinc content-taste relationship, 93
   Zone of passage, 115
Water Quality Act (1965),  2
Water quality calculation
   Lethal  threshold concentration, 407
   Threshold effective time, 407
Water quality characteristics
   Aesthetics, 400
   Drifting organisms, 113
   Ecology, 400
   Environmental pollution, 400
   Human interest, 400
   Migrating fish protection, 113
   Mixing zones, 231
   Multiproduct chemical plant,  385
Water quality criteria,  10, 91
   Acute pollutants, 118
   Chronic pollutants, 118
   Crop responses, 300
   Cumulative pollutants, 118
   Inorganic chemical protection, 239
   Least-cost analysis, 400
   Lethal pollutants, 118
   Marine  aquatic life, 219
   Marine  environment
     Methods of assessment, 233
   Selenium toxicity, 345
   Subacute pollutants,  118
   Sublethal pollutants, 118
   Wildlife, 194
Water quality deterioration
   Wisconsin Lakes, 20
Water quality effects
   Suspended particulates, 16
Water quality evaluations
   Monetary benefit, 399
     Site determination, 399
   Nonmonetary benefit, 399
     Waste treatment techniques, 399

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 592/Water Quality Criteria, 7972
Water quality indicators
   Chemical and allied product industry, 384
   Tanning industry, 394
Water quality management, 400
   Aquatic organisms, 109
Water  quality-plant  growth  interrelation-
     ships, 24
Water quality projects
   Economic objectives, 400
Water quality recommendations,
   Ground water, 52
   Public water supply,  50
   Water management,  52
Water quality requirements
   Agriculture, 300
   Farmstead use, 301
   Human farm  population, 301
   Long-term  biological effects, 114
Water quality standards, 52
   Artificial ground water recharge, 53
   Mixed water body, 171
Water quality variation, 18
Water receiving systems
   Nonthermal discharge distribution
     Mathematical model,  403
Water recreation
   Boating, 9
   Camping, 9
   Commercial, 9
   Corps of Engineers, 9
   Fishing, 9
   Fishing licenses, 8
   Legislation, 9
   Management, 11
   Participants, 9
   Picnicking,  9
   Point discharges, 12
   Private, 9
   Programs, 9
   Public,  9
   Regulations, 9
   Sightseeing, 9
   Sportsmen,  8
   Subsurface  drainage,  12
   Surface flows, 12
   Swimming,  9
   Waterfowl  hunters, 9
   Water skiing,  9
Water recreation facilities costs, 9
Water requirements
  Beef cattle,  305
   Cattle,  305
  Dairy cattle, 305
   Horses,  305
   Livestock
     Water balance trials, 305
     Water loss,  304
     Water needs,  304
   Poultry, 305
   Sheep,  305
   Swine,  305
Water resources
   Project  recreation evaluation
     Intangible benefits, 399
     Nonmonetary expression of benefits, 399
   Recreation, 8
Water resource use
   Evaluation problems. 400
Water-related diseases
   Bacillary hemoglobinuria,  321
Water safety
   Fish indicators, 320, 321
Water salinity
   Duckling mortality, 195
   Livestock consumption, 307
   Toxicity in dairy cattle, 307
Water salinity ions
   Bicarbonates, 309
   Calcium, 309
   Chloride, 309
   Magnesium, 309
   Osmotic effects, 307
   Sodium, 309
   Sulfates, 309
Water solubility
    DDT, 197
Water supply
   Quantity for livestock, 304
   Raw water quality, 50
   Reservoirs, 13
   Suspended solids
    Clay, 301
    Sand, 301
    Silt, 301
   Thermoduric microorganisms
    Farmsteads,  302
Water supply management
   Agriculture, 300
Water supply sources
   Ammonia content
    Cold temperature, 55
   Aquatic vegetation control, 79
Water surface
   Turbidity-absorptior effects, 127
Water surface tension, 136
Water tainting, 149
   Bioassays, 149
   Biological causes,  14"'
   Chemicals, 147
Water tainting tests, 149,  150
   Bluegill, 149
   Channel catfish, 149
   Exposure,  149
   Fish, 149
   Flatfishes,  149
   Largemouth bass, 149
   Organolcptic evaluation, 149
   Salmon, 149
   Trout, 149
   Yellow perch, 149
Water temperature,  152
   Acclimation, 153
   Aquatic  ecosystems, 151
   Aquatic  life
    Analysis, 168
    Migration, 164
    Spawning, 164
   Aquatic sensitivity, 168
   Artificial temperature elevations, 160
   Channel catfish, 1 54
   Commercial fisheries, 151
   Community structure,  165
   Fish
     Zero net growth, 154
   Fish exposure, 160
   Fish growth  rates,  157
   Fish spawning conditions, 163
   Food organisms production, 164
   Growth comparisons, 158
   Lethal  threshold, 152
   Life expectancy, 32
   Nuisance  organisms growth, 165
   Ocean  currents effects, 32
   Power plant discharge, 166
   Safety factor
     Aquatic life, 161
   Seasonal changes, 154
   Short-teim exposure, calculations, 168-17
     Sockeye salmon, 154, 160
   Spawning period, 162
   Sport fisheries, 151
   Spring  fall, 164
   Spring  rise, 164
   Suspended particulates—sunlight  penetr;
       tion effects, 127
   Warming rates, 127
   Thermal springs effects, 32
   Winter maxima, 160
Water temperature acclimation, 153
Water temperature-botulism  poisoning  r<
     lationship, 197
Water temperature calculations, 154, 157
Water temperature criteria, 152, 154, 166
   Hypothetical power plant, 167
   Prolonged exposure, 153
   Seasonal prolonged exposure, 154
W'ater temperature resistence
   Chinook salmon, 153
Water temperature tolerance
   Salmon, 153
Water temperature variation
   Aquatic life development, 162
Water transmissions  of virus, 91
Water transport
   Particjlate matter, 16
   Siltation,  16
Water treatment
   Chemical
     Halogens,  301
     Sodium hypochlorite, 301
   Economics, 377
   Health  hazards, 57
   Heat, 301
   Ozont,  301
   Raw water at farmsteads, 301
   Silver, 301
   Ultraviolet sterilization, 301
Water treatment facilities
   Agriculture,  300
Water treatment processes,  372, 379
   PCB, 33
   pH effects, 80
   Adsorption, 373
   Aeroation, 373
   Alkalinity reduction, 272
   Alkalinity removal, 375
   Anion exchange, 375
   Boiler makeup, 379

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                                                                                                                   Subject Index/593
   Cation exchange, 375
   Chemical and allied products, 385, 386
   Chlorination, 92
   Clarification, 372
   Coagulation, 50
   Colloid removal, 379
   Color stabilizing effect, 63
   Cooling,  379
   Corrosion control, 375
   Demineralization, 375
   Dissolved gases removal, 379
   Dissolved solids removal, 379
   Dissolved solids modification
     Softening, 379
   Distillation,  375
   Electrodialysis, 375
   External, 372, 374
     Contaminants, 372
     Raw water analysis, 373
     Waste products, 372, 373
   Filtration, 373
   Foaming  agents, 67
   Food canning industry, 391
   Hardness precipitation, 375
   Internal,  372, 375
   Ion exchange, 375
   Iron sequestration, 375
   Lime softening, 372, 373
   Lumber industry, 382
   Manganese sequestration, 375
   Manganese zeolite, 375
   Mixed bed exchange, 375
   Nitrates-nitrites, 73
   Oil and grease, 74
   Oxygen scavenging, 375
   pH control, 375
   Paper and allied products, 383
   Petroleum refining, 385
   Phenolic compounds, 80
   Plankton  counts, 82
   Rapid sand filtration, 50
   Reverse osmosis,  375
   Rough screens, 372
   Scale control, 375
   Sedimentation, 50, 372
   Sediment dispersal, 375
   Silica removal, 375
   Sodium, 88
   Sodium cation, 375
   Sodium removal, 88
   Suspended solids removal, 379
   Temperature effects, 89
   Textile industry,  381
   Turbidity, 90
   Ultrafiltration, 375
Water treatment technology, 370
Water use
   Chemical and allied products, 384
   Chemical manufacture, 384
   Coolant, 89
   Drinking  water, 301
   Farm household, 301
   Farmsteads,  300
     Drinking,  302
     Household, 302
     Food canning industry, 391
     Potable water, 390
   Industrial plant sites, 369
   Industrial requirements, 378
   Industry, 369
     Boiler-feed, 369
     Bottled/canned soft drinks, 370
     Chemical and allied products, 384
     Chemical products, 370
     Condensing-cooling, 369
     Food canning, 370, 389
     Lumber and wood, 370
     Manufacturing plants,  369
     Mining/cement, 370
     Once-through cooling,  376, 378
     Petroleum refining, 370, 385
     Plant intake,  369
     Primary metals, 370
     Pulp and paper, 370
     Steam generation, 370, 376
     Sources, 370
     Tanning, 370
     Textile mills,  370
     Treatment facilities, 371
     Treatment processes, 372
     Treatment technology, 370, 371
   Industry intake
     Brackish water, 369
     Freshwater, 369
     Ground water,  369
     Surface water, 369
   Irrigation, 89
   Livestock, 304
   Lumber and wood industry, 381
   Lumber and wood processing, 381
   Milk for marketing, 301
   Mining industry, 395
   Objectionable odors, 301
   Paper and allied products, 382
   Paper and pulp industry; 382
     Manufacturing purposes, 382
     Surface supply, 383
   Paper and pulp  process, 382
   Primary metals  industry,  388
     Coke products,  388
     Hot strip mill, 388
     Pig iron products, 388
     Steel-making  processes, 388
     Tin plate, 388
     Produce preparation, 301
   Recycling, 369
   Textile industry, 380
   Washing
     Milk-handling equipment, 302
     Raw farm products. 302
   Waste carrier, 89
Water use processes
   Bottled and canned soft drinks, 392
   Steam generation, 377
Water virus survival, 276
Waterborne disease, 91, 351
Waterfowl
   Lead poisoning,  228
   Lead toxicity, 228
   Winter patterns, 195
Waterfowl food plants
   Alkalinity-growth relationship, 194
   Reedhead grass, 194
Waterfowl foods
   Salinity, 195
Waterfront preservation, 10
Watershed alterations
   Channelization, 124
   Clearing of vegetation, 124
   Diking, 124
   Dredging, 124
   Filling, 124
   Impounding streams, 124
   Rip-rapping, 124
   Sand and gravel removal,  124
   Shoreline modification, 124
Watersheds, 39
Waubesa Lake, Wise., 20
Well water
   Contamination from farming, 73
   Fertilization contamination, 73
   Fluorine content, 312
   Nitrate content, 73
West Falmouth, Mass.
   Oil spill, 258
Whales, 217
Whistling swans
   Lead ingestion effects, 228
White amur (see grass carp)
Whitefish
   pH effects,  141
White Oak Creek, Oak Ridge
   Atomic energy installations, 273
White Oak Lake, Oak Ridge
   Atomic energy installations, 273
White pelicans
   Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
White perch
   Ferric hydroxide effects, 249
White suckers
   Hydrogen sulfide toxicity,  193
Whitetailed sea eagle
   Mercury contamination, 252
Widgeongrass
   Waterfowl food, 194
Wild and Scenic  Rivers Act,  10, 39
Wild celery
   Waterfowl food, 194
Wildlife
   Food protection, 194
   Light penetration-plant growth relation-
       ship, 195
   PCB  content, 175
   Shelter, 194
   Survival, 194
Wildlife embryos
   2,4,5,T herbicide contaminant,  225
   Chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins  toxicity,
       225
   Chlorinated phenols, 225
   Pentachlorophenol fungicide contaminant,
       225
Wildlife species
   Pollutants-life cycle relationship, 225
Wilson's petrel
   Cadmium effects, 246

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594/"Water Quality Criteria,  1972

Windscale, England
  Radiation outfall, 273
Wisconsin lakes, 20
  Inorganic nitrogen content, 22
  Inorganic phosphorus content, 22
  Wood preservatives
    Arsenic content, 243
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
  Oil spill studies, 258
World oceans
  River sediment loads, 281

Xiphmema, 347
Xiphinema index, 349

Yellow perch
  Spawning conditions, 164
Yuraa, Arizona
  Irrigation water pesticides content, 346
Yusho disease
  PCB, 83
Zinc
  Bioaccumulation, 257
  Dietary requirement
    Livestock, 317
    Poultry, 317
  Human metabolism need, 93
  Natural waters, 316, 317
  Public water supply, 93
  Water hardncss-toxicity effects, 182
Zinc solubility
  Alkalinity, 93
  pH value, 93
Zinc toxicity, 257
  Farm a-iimals, 316
Zone of passage
  Coastal waters, 115
  Estuaries, 115
  Lakes, 11!>
  Reservoirs, 115
  Rivers, 115
  Water quality, 115
Zooplankters
  Gas  bubble disease,  138
Zooplankton
  Aluminum tolerance, 242
  Asphyxiation, 137
poster a marinus, 245
                                                                                        U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19740—499-296

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