A Report of the
Committee on Water Quality Criteria
Environmental Studies Board
National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Washington, B.C., 1972
At the request of
and funded by
The Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C., 1972
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For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price: $12.80.
Stock Number 5501-00520
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EPA Review Notice
This report was prepared under a contract financed by the Environmental
Protection Agency and is approved by the Agency for publication as an important
contribution to the scientific literature, but not as the Agency's sole criteria for
standards setting purposes. Neither is it necessarily a reflection of the Agency's views
and policies. The mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for their use.
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NOTICE
The study reported herein was undertaken under the aegis of the National Re-
search Council with the express approval of the Governing Board of the NRG. Such
approval indicated that the Board considered that the problem is of national signifi-
cance, that elucidation or solution of the problem required scientific or technical
competence, and that the resources of NRG were particularly suitable to the conduct
of the project. The institutional responsibilities of the NRC were then discharged in
the following manner:
The members of the study committee were selected for their individual scholarly
competence and judgment with due consideration for the balance and breadth of
disciplines. Responsibility for all aspects of this report rests with the study committee,
to whom we express our sincere appreciation.
Although the reports of our study committees are not submitted for approval to
the Academy membership nor to the Council, each report is reviewed by a second
group of appropriately qualified individuals according to procedures established
and monitored by the Academy's Report Review Committee. Such reviews are in-
tended to determine, among other things, whether the major questions and relevant
points of view have been addressed and whether the reported findings, conclusions,
and recommendations arose from the available data and information. Distribution
of the report is approved, by the President, only after satisfactory completion of this
review process.
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July 22, 1972
THE HONORABLE WILLIAM D. RUCKELSHAUS
Administrator
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
DEAR MR. RUCKELSHAUS:
It is our pleasure to transmit to you the report Water Quality Criteria, 1972 pre-
pared by the National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering Com-
mittee on Water Quality Criteria.
This book is the successor to the Water Quality Criteria Report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior in 1968. The 1972
Report drew significantly on its 1968 predecessor; nevertheless the current study
represents a complete reexamination of the problems, and a critical review of all
the data included here. The conclusions offered reflect the best judgment of the
Academies' Committee.
The Report develops scientific criteria arranged in categories of major beneficial
use. We are certain that the information and conclusions contained in this Report
will be of use and value to the large number of people throughout the country who
are concerned with achieving a high level of water quality for the Nation.
It is our pleasure to note the substantial personal contributions of the members
of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria and its Panels and advisers. They have
contributed more than 2,000 man-days of effort for which they deserve our gratitude.
In less than a year and a half, they have collected a vast amount of scientific and
technical information and presented it in a way that we believe will be most helpful
to Federal and State officials as well as to the scientific community and the public.
Oversight responsibility for the document, of course, rests with the Committee on
Water Quality Criteria ably chaired by Dr. Gerard A. Rohlich of the University of
Texas at Austin.
We wish also to express our appreciation to the Environmental Protect ion Agency
which, without in any way attempting to influence the Committee'!: conclusions,
provided technical expertise and information as well as the resources to undertake
the study.
In the course of their work the Committee and Panels identified several scientific
and technical areas in which necessary data is insufficient or lacking. The Academies
find that a separate report is urgently required that specifies research needs to enable
an increasingly effective evaluation of water quality. We are currently preparing
such a report.
Sincerely yours,
PHILIP HANDLER CLARENCE H. LINDER
President President
National Academy of Sciences National Academy of Engineering
VI
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Environmental Studies Board
National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering
Dr. DAVID M. GATES, Chairman
Dr. WILLIAM C. ACKERMANN
Dr. HENDRIK W. BODE
Dr. REID A. BRYSON
Dr. ARTHUR D. HASLER
Dr. G. EVELYN HUTCHINSON
Dr. THOMAS F. MALONE
Dr. ROBERT S. MORISON
Dr. ROGER REVELLE
Dr. JOSEPH L. SAX
Dr. CHAUNCEY STARR
Dr. JOHN A. SWARTOUT
Dr. ALEXANDER ZUCKER, Executive Director
COMMITTEE ON WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
Dr. GERARD A. ROHLICH, University of Texas, Austin, Chairman
Dr. ALFRED M. BEETON, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
Dr. BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. CORNELIUS W. KRUSE, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. THURSTON E. LARSON, Illinois State Water Survey
Dr. EMILIO A. SAVINELLI, Drew Chemical Corporation
Dr. RAY L. SHIRLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville
Dr. CHARLES R. MALONE, Principal Staff Officer
Mr. CARLOS M. FETTEROLF, Scientific Coordinator
Mr. ROBERT C. ROONEY, Editor
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PANEL ON RECREATION AND AESTHETICS
Panel Members
Dr. CORNELIUS W. KRUSE, The Johns Hopkins University, Chairman
Dr. MICHAEL CHUBB, Michigan State University
Mr. MILO A. CHURCHILL, Tennessee Valley Authority
Mr. NORMAN E. JACKSON, Department of Environmental Services,
Washington, D.C.
Mr. WILLIAM L. KLEIN, Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission
Dr. P. H. McGAUHEY, University of California, Berkeley
Dr. ERIC W. MOOD, Yale University
Mr. RALPH FORCES, Delaware River Basin Commission
Dr. LESLIE M. REID, Texas A & M University
Dr. MICHAEL B. SONNEN, Water Resources Engineers, Inc.
Mr. ROBERT O. SYLVESTER, University of Washington
Mr. C. W. THREINEN, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Dr. RICHARD I. PIETZ, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Dr. W. N. BARNES, Tennessee Valley Authority
Mr. A. LEON BATES, Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. ERNEST BAY, University of Maryland
Dr. HARWOOD S. BELDING, University of Pittsburg
Dr. KENNETH K. CHEW, University of Washington
Dr. T. F. HALL, JR., Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. A. D. HESS, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Mr. ROBERT M. HOWES, Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. RAY B. KRONE, University of California, Davis
Mr. DAVID P. POLLISON, Delaware River Basin Commission
Dr. R. A. STANLEY, Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. EUGENE B. WELCH, University of Washington
Dr. IRA L. WHITMAN, Ohio Department of Health
EPA Liaisons
Mr. LOWELL E. KEUP
Mr. LELAND J. McCABE
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PANEL ON PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES
Panel Members
Dr. THURSTON E. LARSON, Illinois State Water Survey, Chairman
Dr. RUSSELL F. CHRISTMAN, University of Washington
Mr. PAUL D. HANEY, Black & Veatch, Consulting Engineers
Mr. ROBERT C. McWHINNIE, Board of Water Commissioners, Denver,
Colorado
Mr. HENRY J. ONGERTH, State Department of Public Health, California
Dr. RANARD J. PICKERING, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. J. K. G. SILVEY, North Texas State University
Dr. J. EDWARD SINGLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville
Dr. RICHARD L. WOODWARD, Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc.
Mr. WILLIAM ROBERTSON IV, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Dr. SAMUEL D. FAUST, Rutgers University
EPA Liaisons
Mr. EDWIN E. GELDREICH
Dr. MILTON W. LAMMERING, JR.
Dr. BENJAMIN H. PRINGLE
Mr. GORDON G. ROBECK
Dr. ROBERT G. TARDIFF
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PANEL ON FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
Panel Members
Dr. ALFRED M. BEETON, University of Wisconsin, Chairman
Dr. JOHN CAIRNS, JR., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Dr. CHARLES C. COUTANT, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Dr. ROLF HARTUNG, University of Michigan
Dr. HOWARD E. JOHNSON, Michigan State University
Dr. RUTH PATRICK, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
Dr- LLOYD L. SMITH, JR., University of Minnesota, St. Paul
Dr. JOHN B. SPRAGUE, University of Guelph
Mr. DONALD M. MARTIN, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Dr. IRA R. ADELMAN, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
Mr. YATES M. BARBER, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. F. H. BORMANN, Yale University
Dr. KENNETH L. DICKSON, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University
Dr. FRANK M. DTTRI, Michigan State University
Dr. TROY DORRIS, Oklahoma State University
Dr. PETER DOUDOROFF, Oregon State University
Dr. W. T. EDMONDSON, University of Washington
Dr. R. F. FOSTER, Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Dr. BLAKE GRANT, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. JOHN HOOPES, University of Wisconsin
Dr. PAUL H. KING, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Dr. ROBERT E. LENNON, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. GENE E. LIKENS, Cornell University
Dr. JOSEPH I. MIHURSKY, University of Maryland
Mr. MICHAEL E. NEWTON, Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Dr. JOHN C. PETERS, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. ANTHONY POLICASTRO, Argonne National Laboratory
Dr. DONALD PRITCHARD, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. LUIGI PROVAZOLI, Yale University
Dr. CHARLES RENN, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. RICHARD A. SCHOETTGER, U.S. Department of the Interior
Mr. DEAN L. SHUMWAY, Oregon State University
Dr. DAVID L. STALLING, U.S. Department of the Interior
Dr. RAY WEISS, Scripps Institute of Oceanography
EPA Liaisons
Mr. JOHN W. ARTHUR
Mr. KENNETH BIESINGER
Dr. GERALD R. BOUCK
Dr. WILLIAM A. BRUNGS
Mr. JOHN G. EATON
Dr. DONALD I. MOUNT
Dr. ALAN V. NEBEKER
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PANEL ON MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
Panel Members
Dr. BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Chairman
Dr. RICHARD T. BARBER, Duke University
Dr. JAMES CARPENTER, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. L. EUGENE CRONIN, University of Maryland
Dr. HOLGER W. JANNASCH, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. G. CARLETON RAY, The Johns Hopkins University
Dr. THEODORE R. RICE, U.S. Department of Commerce
Dr. ROBERT W. RISEBROUGH, University of California, Berkeley
Dr. MICHAEL WALDICHUK, Fisheries Research Board of Canada
Mr. WILLIAM ROBERTSON IV, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Mr. CLARENCE CATOE, U.S. Coast Guard
Dr. GEORGE R. HARVEY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. THEODORE G. METCALF, University of New Hampshire
Dr. VICTOR NOSHKIN, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. DONALD J. O'CONNOR, Manhattan College
Dr. JOHN H. RYTHER, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. ALBERT J. SHERK, University of Maryland
Dr. RICHARD A. WADE, The Sport Fishing Institute
EPA Liaisons
Dr. THOMAS W. DUKE
Dr. C. S. HEGRE
Dr. GILLES LAROCHE
Dr. CLARENCE M. TARZWELL
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PANEL ON AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER
Panel Members
Dr. RAY L. SHIRLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville, Chairman
Dr. HENRY V. ATHERTON, The University of Vermont
Dr. R. D. BLACKBURN, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. PETER A. FRANK, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Mr. VICTOR L. HAUSER, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. CHARLES H. HILL, North Carolina State University
Dr. PHILIP C. KEARNEY, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. JESSE LUNIN, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. LEWIS B. NELSON, Tennessee Valley Authority
Dr. OSCAR E. OLSON, South Dakota State University
Dr. PARKER F. PRATT, University of California, Riverside
Dr. G. B. VAN NESS, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. RICHARD I. PIETZ, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Dr. L. BOERSMA, Oregon State University
Dr. ROYCE J. EMERICK, South Dakota State University
Dr. HENRY FISCHBACH, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare
Dr. THOMAS D. HINESLY, University of Illinois
Dr. CLARENCE LANCE, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Dr. J. M. LAWRENCE, Auburn University
Dr. R. A. PACKER, Iowa State University
Dr. IVAN THOMASON, University of California, Riverside
EPA Liaisons
Dr. H. PAIGE NICHOLSON
Mr. HURLON C. RAY
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PANEL ON INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES
Panel Members
Dr. EMILIO A. SAVINELLI, Drew Chemical Corporation, Chairman
Mr. I. B. DICK, Consulting Chemical Engineer
Mr. CHARLES C. DINKEL, Drew Chemical Corporation
Dr. MAURICE FUERSTENAU, South Dakota School of Mining and
Technology
Mr. ARTHUR W. FYNSK, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
Mr. GEORGE J. HANKS, JR., Union Carbide Corporation
Mr. WILLIAM A. KEILBAUGH, Cochrane Division, Crane Company
Dr. JAMES C. LAMB, III, University of North Carolina
Mr. JAMES K. RICE, Cyrus Wm. Rice Division, NUS Corporation
Mr. J. JAMES ROOSEN, The Detroit Edison Company
Mr. ROBERT H. STEWART, Hazen and Sawyer
Dr. SIDNEY SUSSMAN, Olin Corporation
Mr. CHARLES H. THORBORG, Gulf Degremont Inc.
Mr. BERNARD WACHTER, WAPORA, Inc.
Dr. WALTER J. WEBER, JR., The University of Michigan
Mr. DONALD M. MARTIN, Scientific Secretary
Advisors and Contributors
Mr. MAXEY BROOKE, Phillips Petroleum Company
Mr. ROY V. COMEAUX, SR., Esso Research and Engineering Company
Mr. HARRY V. MYERS, JR., The Detroit Edison Company
EPA Liaisons
Mr. JOHN M. FAIRALL
Mr. THOMAS J. POWERS
xm
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PREFACE
In 1971, at the request of the United States Environmental Protection Agency,
the National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering undertook the
revision of WATER QUALITY CRITERIA, the 1968 Report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee (NTAC) to the Secretary of the Interior. The Acad-
emies appointed a Committee on Water Quality Criteria and six Panels, and the
responsibility for overseeing their activities was assigned to the Environmental
Studies Board, a joint body of the Academies.
The guidelines for the Academies' Committee were similar to those followed by
the NTAC. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, as amended by the
Water Quality Act of 1965, authorized the states and the federal government to
establish water quality standards for interstate and coastal waters. Paragraph 3,
Section 10 of the 1965 Act reads as follows:
Standards of quality established pursuant to this subsection shall be
such as to protect the public health or welfare, enhance the quality of water
and serve the purposes of this Act. In establishing such standards the Secre-
tary, the Hearing Board, or the appropriate state authority shall take into
consideration their use and value for public water supplies, propagation of
fish and wildlife, recreational purposes, and agricultural, industrial, and
other legitimate uses.
Because of the vast amount of material that falls into the rubric of fish and wildlife,
the Academies established separate Panels for freshwater and marine aquatic life
and wildlife. Thus the Committee's six Panels were: (1) Recreation and Aesthetics,
(2) Public Water Supplies, (3) Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, (4) Marine
Aquatic Life and Wildlife, (5) Agricultural Uses of Water, and (6) Industrial Water
Supplies.
The members of the Committee and its Panels were scientists and engineers
expert and experienced in the various disciplines associated with the subject of water
quality. The Panels also drew upon special advisors for specific water quality con-
cerns, and in addition were aided by Environmental Protection Agency experts as
liaison at the Panel meetings. This arrangement with EPA facilitated the Panels'
access to EPA data on water quality. Thirty-nine meetings were held by the Com-
mittee and its Panels resulting in an interim report to the Academies and the Environ-
mental Studies Board on December 1, 1971. This was widely circulated, and com-
ments on it were solicited from many quarters. The commentaries were then considered
for inclusion by the Committee and the appropriate Panels. This volume, submitted
for publication in August 1972, within eighteen months of the inception of the task,
is the final version of the Committee's report.
The 1972 Report is vastly more than a revision of the NTAC Report. To begin
with, it is nearly four times longer. Many new subjects are discussed in detail, among
them: the recreational impact of boating, levels of use, disease vectors, nuisance
organisms, and aquatic vascular plants; viruses in relation to public water supplies;
effects of total dissolved gases on aquatic life; guidelines for toxicological research on
pesticides and uses of toxicants in fisheries management; disposal of solid wastes in
the ocean; use of waste water for irrigation; and industrial water treatment processes
xv
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and resultant wastes. Many toxic or potentially toxic substances not considered by
the NTAC are discussed including polychlorinated biphenyls, phthalate esters, nitrilo-
triacetate (NTA), numerous metals, and chlorine. The additional length also reflects
the greater current awareness of how various characteristics of water affect its quality
and use; and the expansion of the information base of the NTAG Report through
new data from recent research activities and the greater capabilities of information
processing, storage, and retrieval—especially evident in the three appendixes—have
made their impact on the increase in size. In spite of these additions, however, the
1972 Report differs from the NTAC Report in that its six Sections do not provide
summaries. The Committee agreed that an understanding of how the recommend-
ations should be interpreted and used can be gained only by a thorough reading of
the rationale and the evaluation of criteria preceding the recommendations.
Although each Section was prepared by its appropriate Panel, some discussions
reflect the joint effort of two or more Panels. These combined discussions attempt to
focus attention where desirable on such subjects as radioactivity, temperature,
nutrient enrichment, and growths of nuisance organisms. However, the majority of
topics were most effectively treated by individual Panel discussions, and the reader
is encouraged to make use of the Tables of Contents and the index in assessing the full
range of the Report's coverage of the many complex aspects of water quality.
Water quality science and its application have expanded rapidly, but much
work remains to be done. In the course of this revision, the Committee and its Panels
have identified many areas where further knowledge is needed, and these findings,
now in preparation, will be published separately by the National Academy of Sci-
ences-National Academy of Engineering as a report on research needs.
Social perspectives and policies for managing, enhancing, and preserving water
resources are undergoing rapid and pervasive change. Because of the stipulations of
the 1965 Water Quality Act, interstate water resources are currently categorized by
use designation, and standards to protect those uses are developed from criteria. It is
in this context that the Report of the NAS-NAE Committee, like that of the NTAC,
was prepared. Concepts of managing water resources are subject to social, economic,
and political decisions and will continue to evolve; but the Committee believes that
the criteria and recommendations in this Report will be of value in the context of
future as well as current approaches that might be taken to preserve and enhance
the quality of the nation's water resources.
GERARD A. ROHLICH
Chairman, Committee on Water Quality Citeria
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The NAS-NAE Committee on Water Quality Criteria and its Panels are grate-
ful for the assistance of many institutions, groups, and individuals. The Environmental
Studies Board provided guidance throughout all phases of the project, and the En-
vironmental Protection Agency cooperated in making available their technical and
informational resources. Many research organizations and individuals contributed
unpublished data for the Panels' examination and use in the Committee's Report.
Numerous groups and individuals provided reviews and comments, among
them several Federal agencies with staff expertise in water quality sciences, includ-
ing NOAA of the Department of Commerce, the Department of the Interior, the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Atomic Energy Commission,
the Department of Agriculture, and the Department of the Army; scientists from the
University of Wisconsin, especially Drs. Grant Cottam, G. Fred Lee, Richard B.
Corey, David Armstrong, Gordon Chesters, Mr. James Kerrigan; and many others
from academic, government, and private research institutions, including the National
Research Council.
Much useful information including data and literature references was provided
by the Water Resources Scientific Information Center of the U.S. Department of
the Interior, the National Referral Center of the Library of Congress, the Defense
Documentation Center of the U.S. Department of Defense, and the Library of the
National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering. We are indebted
to James L. Olsen, Jr. and Marilyn J. Urion of the Academies' Library and to
Robert R. Hume, National Academy of Sciences Publications Editor, for their
assistance.
Thanks are also due the many staff personnel of the Academies who assisted the
project, particularly Linda D. Jones, Patricia A. Sheret, Eva H. Galambos, and
Elizabeth A. Wilmoth. Mrs. Susan B. Taha was a tireless editorial assistant. The
comprehensive author and subject indexes were prepared by Mrs. Bev Anne Ross.
Finally, each Committee and Panel member is indebted to his home institution
and staff for their generous support of his efforts devoted to the Report of the Com-
mittee on Water Quality Criteria.
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GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTICE v
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL vi
MEMBERS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD vii
MEMBERS OF THE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA COMMITTEE,
NAS STAFF, AND PANEL MEMBERS, ADVISORS, AND CON-
TRIBUTORS viii
PREFACE xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
SECTION I RECREATION AND AESTHETICS 6
SECTION II PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES 48
SECTION III FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE... 106
SECTION IV MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE 214
SECTION V AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER 298
SECTION VI INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES 368
APPENDIX I (RECREATION AND AESTHETICS) 398
APPENDIX II (FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE). 402
APPENDIX III (MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE) 448
GLOSSARY 519
CONVERSION FACTORS 524
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
COMMITTEE AND THE PANEL MEMBERS 528
AUTHOR INDEX 535
SUBJECT INDEX 562
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The past decade has been a period of unprecedented
activity directed to man's concern for the quality of the
environment, but a look at history shows that this concern,
although currently intensified, is not new. The lessons of
history and the findings of archaeologists provide concrete
evidence that at least three thousand years before the birth
of Christ man was cognizant of the need to dispose of his
wastes and other refuse if he was to keep his environment
livable.1 For thousands of years the guidelines to quality
of the water resource apparently were based on the senses
of smell, sight, and taste. Whether or not these organoleptic
observations on the suitability of water for use would
match today's criteria is questionable in light of Reynolds'
reference to "the old woman in the Fens" who "spoke for
many besides herself when she asked of the new and pure
supply: Call ye that water? For she said, it has neither taste
nor smell"2', or in light of the more recent decision of a state
supreme court in 1904, which took the position that it is
"not necessary to weigh with tenderness and care the
testimony of experts ... an ordinary mortal knows whether
water is fit to drink and use."3
Although the concern for water quality is not new,
progress has been made in moving from sensory associations
as a means of control to the application of knowledge and
criteria gained from scientific advances in detection and
measurement, and in a greater understanding of the char-
acteristics of water. Essentially it has been the develop-
ments of the past century that have provided criteria for
and knowledge of water quality characteristics upon which
we base determinations of its suitability for particular uses.
Until recently, relatively few scientists and engineers had
been engaged in this field. The past decade, however, has
seen a tremendous increase in the number of workers de-
voted to the subject of water quality assessment. Con-
currently, an increasing awareness of the public has become
apparent. As Leopold states, "The outstanding discovery
of the twentieth century is not television, or radio, but
rather the complexity of the land organism"; and he points
out that "by land is meant all of the things on, over, or in
the earth."4 The growing public awareness of environ-
mental quality has helped to accelerate activity directed to
the solution of problems relating to water quality.
Forty centuries before the germ theory of disease had the
support of scientifically conducted experiments, some con-
trol measures to provide safe water supplies were in use.
Boiling, filtration through charcoal, and the practice of
siphoning off water clarified by sedimentation were among
the early methods used to improve water quality.6 The
regard of the Romans for high quality water is well known,
and their civil works in obtaining water by the construction
of aqueducts and the carrying away of waste waters in the
cloacae or sewers, and in particular the Cloaca Maxima,
are matters of common knowledge. The decline of sani-
tation through the Middle Ages and into the early part ot
the past century brought on the ravages of pestilence and
the scourges of cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery, which
led to the resurgence of public concern over water quality.
There were many experiments and suggestions regarding
filtration for purification as early as the 17th century. They
culminated in design of the first filters for municipal supplies
by Gibbs in Scotland in 1804 and in England in 1829 by
Simpson who is probably most renowned for his work in
constructing filters for the Chelsea Water Company to
supply water for London from the Thames River.
The relationship of water quality to disease was firmly
established by the report on the Broad Street Well in
London by Sir John Snow in 1849, and in Edwin Chad-
wick's report of 1842 "On an inquiry into the Sanitary
Condition of the Labouring Population of Gt. Britain."6
The greatest part of Chadwick's report developed four
major axioms that are still of relevance today. The first
axiom established the cause and effect relationship between
"insanitation, defective drainage, inadequate water supply,
and overcrowded housing" on the one hand, and "disease,
high mortality rates, and low expectation of life" on the
other. The second axiom discussed the economic cost of
ill health. The third dealt with the "social cost of squalor,"
and the fourth was concerned with the "inherent inefficiency
of existing legal and administrative machinery." Chad wick
argued that the "only hope of sanitary improvement lay
in radical administrative departures" which would call for
new institutional arrangements.
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2/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
It is evident from these few glimpses into the early years
of development of control that the basic approach, and
justifiably so, was to provide water suitable for human use.
A century ago the principal aim was to provide, by bac-
teriological examination, a scientific basis on which to
establish water quality practices for protection of the public
health. Increasingly, however, we have come to recognize
that a multitude of materials that may occur in water have
adverse effects on beneficial uses other than that for public
water supplies.
WATER QUALITY CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES
McKee and Wolf have provided an excellent historical
background to the development of water quality standards
and criteria and have summarized the water quality criteria
promulgated by federal, state, and interstate agencies up
to 1963.7 Since then, many federal and state acts have been
passed and modifications made in state administrative codes
designed to establish criteria and standards. Of particular
significance in this respect was the impact of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act of 19488 as amended by the
Water Quality Act of 1965.9 The latter required that the
states adopt:
• water quality criteria applicable to interstate waters;
and
• a plan for the implementation and enforcement of
the water quality criteria adopted.
The Act further noted that the criteria and plans would,
upon approval by the federal government, become the
applicable water quality standards. At that time the Fed-
eral Water Pollution Control Administration was in the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. In May
of 1966, the FWPCA was transferred to the Department of
the Interior, and in April, 1970 it was renamed The
Federal Water Quality Administration. In December, 1970,
interstate water quality and pollution control activities
became the concern of the Environmental Protection
Agency.
On April 1, 1968, the FWPCA published the report of
the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secre-
tary of the Interior entitled Water Quality Criteria.10 This
report, often referred to as the "Green Book," contains
recommendations on water quality criteria for various uses.
The present volume is a revision of that work with the
objective of compiling and interpreting the most recent
scientific data in order to establish what is known about
the materials present in water as related to specific uses.
MAJOR WATER USES AS AN ORGANIZING APPROACH
Although it is recognized that consideration must be
given to the multiple use requirements placed on our water
resources, this revision has followed the approach of the
1968 report in making recommendations in certain use
categories. Such an approach provides a convenient w,
of handling an otherwise unwieldy body of data. Neith
the approach itself nor the sequence in which the uses a
arranged in the Report imply any comment on the relati
importance of each use. Each water use plays its vital re
in the water systems concept discussed above, and politic;
economic, and social considerations that vary with h
torical periods and geographic locations have brought pz
ticular water uses to positions of preeminent Lmportanc
In contemporary terms, it is not difficult to argue t
primary importance of each water use considered in tl
Report: the recreational and aesthetic use of the Natioi
water resources involves 3.7 billion man-days a year;11 o
public water supply systems prepare 15 billion gallons p
day for the urban population alone ;12 commercial fishermt
harvested 166,430,000 pounds of fish from the natior
public inland freshwater bodies in 1969;13 our marii
waters yield five billion pounds of fish annually for hum;
use;14 agriculture consumes 123 billion gallons of water p
day in meeting its domestic, livestock, and irrigation needs
and our industries must have 84,000 billion gallons of wat
per year to maintain their operations.16
Clearly, the designation of one water use as more vit
than another is as impossible as it is unnecessary. Furthe
more, we must not even restrict our thinking to prese
concepts and designated uses. Those concerned with wat
quality must envisage future uses and values that may 1
assigned to our water resources and recognize that mar
activities in altering the landscape and utilizing water m;
one day have to be more vigorously controlled.
THE MEANING OF WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
In current practice, where multiple uses are required,
they will be in most situations, our guidelines to action w
be the more stringent criteria. Criteria represent attemj
to quantify water quality in terms of its physical, chemic;
biological, and aesthetic characteristics. Those who a
confronted with the problem of establishing or evaluati
criteria must do so within the limits of the objective ai
subjective measurements available to them. Obviously, t
quality of water as expressed by these measurements is t
product of many changes. From the moment of its conde
sation in the atmosphere, water accumulates substances,
solution and suspension, from the air, from contacts as
moves over and into the land resource, from biologic
processes, and from human activities. Man affects t
watershed as he alters the landscape by urbanization, 1
agricultural development, and by discharging municij:
and industrial residues into the water resource. Thus c
matic conditions, topography, geological formations, ai
human use and abuse of this vital resource significant
affect the characteristics of water, so that its quality vari
widely with location and the influencing factors.
To look ahead again, it should be stressed that if comii
generations expect to use future criteria established 1
-------
General Introduction/3
CRITERIA
Qualities and quantities, based
on scientific determinations,
which must be identified and
may have to be controlled.
Identification
pathway
for specific
uses in
Recreational and
Aesthetic Waters
Public Water Supplies
Fresh Waters
Marine Waters
Agricultural Waters
Industrial Water Supplies
IDENTIFICATION
Analytical methods (chemist,
biologist, engineer, recreational
specialists & others).
FEEDBACK
MONITORING
Deployment of measuring instru-
ments to provide criteria and
information for assessment and
control.
STANDARDS
Definition of acceptable quality
related to unique local situation
involving political, economic and
social factors and including plans
for implementation and ques-
tions of water use and manage-
ment.
(The operation needed for de-
tecting and measuring character-
istics of water.)
(The chronological and spatial
sampling operations needed.)
FIGURE 1—Conceptual Framework for Developing Standards from Criteria
-------
4/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
aquatic scientists, baseline areas must be preserved in which
the scientists can work. Limnologists, oceanographers, and
freshwater and marine biologists obtain baseline data from
studies of undisturbed aquatic ecosystems. Because all the
basic information has not yet been extracted from im-
portant study sites, it is essential that the natural condition
of these sites prevail.
The fundamental point of departure in evaluating cri-
teria for water quality in this Report is that the assignment
of a level of quality is relative to the use man makes of that
water. To evaluate the quality of water required for various
uses, it is essential to know the limits of quality that have a
detrimental effect on a designated use. As a corollary, in
deciding whether or not water will be of suitable quality,
one must determine whether or not the introduction into,
or presence of any material in the resource, interferes with,
alters, or destroys its intended use. Such decisions are sub-
ject to political, social, and economic considerations.
CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
The distinction between criteria and standards is important,
and the words are not interchangeable nor are they syno-
nyms for such commonly used terms as objectives or goals.
As a clarification of the distinction that must be recognize d
and the procedural steps to be followed in developing
standards from criteria, a conceptual framework based on
the report "Waste Management and Control" by the Com-
mittee on Pollution NAS-NRC17 is presented in Figure 1.
In this context, the definition of criteria as used in this
Report is "the scientific data evaluated to derive recommen-
dations for characteristics of water for specific uses."
As a first step in the development of standards it is es-
sential to establish scientifically based recommendations for
each assignable water use. Establishment of recommen-
dations implies access to practical methods for detecting
and measuring the specified physical, chemical, biological,
and aesthetic characteristics. In some cases, however, less
than satisfactory methods are available, and in other cases,
less than adequate methods or procedures are used. Moni-
toring the essential characteristics can be an operation
concurrent with the identification step. If adequate criteria
for recommendations are available, and the identification
and monitoring procedures are sound, the fundamentals
are available for the establishment of effective standards.
It is again at this step that political, social, and economic
factors enter into the decision-making process to establish
standards.
Although the Committee and its Panels recognize that
water quality, water quantity, water use, and waste water
disposal form a complex system that is further complicated
by the interchanges that occur among the land, air, and
water resources, this Report cannot be so broad in scope:
its explicit purpose is to recommend water quality char-
acteristics for designated uses in light of the scientific
information available at this time. We are aware that in
some areas the scientific information is lacking, inadequal
or possibly conflicting thus precluding the recommendati(
of specific numerical values. The need to refine the recot
mendations and to establish new ones will become increj
ingly important as additional field information and researi
results become available. Realistic standards are depende
on criteria, designated uses, and implementation, as well
identification and monitoring procedures; changes in the
factors may provide a basis for altering the standards.
Recommendations are usually presented, either as ri
merical values or in narrative form as summaries. In sor
instances in place of recommendations, conclusions bas<
on the preceding discussion are given. It is important th
each discussion be studied because it attempts to ma
clear the basis and logic used in arriving at the particul
recommendation. The Committee wishes to emphasize t
caveat so clearly stated in the introduction to the "Gre>
Book." The Committee "does not want to be dogrnati<
in making its recommendations. "They are meant as guid
lines only, to be used in conjunction with a thorough knov
edge of local conditions.1'18
REFERENCES
'Klein, Louis (1957) Aspects of water pollution. Academic Pre
Inc. New York.
2 Reynolds, Reginald (1946) Cleanliness and godliness. Doubled
and Company, Inc. Garden City, New York.
3 Malone, F. E. (1960) Legal viewpoint. Journal Americal Water Wo
Association 52:1180.
4 Leopold, A. (1953) Round river. Luna Leopold, ed. Oxford U
versity Press. New York.
'Baker, M. N. (1949) The quest ibr pure water. The American We
Works Association, New York.
'Flinn, D. W., ed. (1965) Report on the sanitary condition of 1
laboring population of Great Britain, 1842, by Edwin Chadwi
Edinburgh at The University Press.
7 McK.ee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf (1963) Water quality criteria, secc
edition. State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento, C.
fornia. Publication No. 3-A.
8 U.S. Congress. 1948. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Pul
Law 845, 62S., June 30, 1948, p. 1155.
9 U.S. Congress. 1965. Water Quality Act, Public Law 89-234, 7<
October 2, 1965, p. 903.
10 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Cont
Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of
National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of i
Interior (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.).
11 See page 9 of this Report.
12 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Economic Resear
13 U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atm
pheric Administration, Statistics and Market News Division.
"U.S. Department of Commerce (1971) Fisheries of the Unit
States. (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.)
16 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Economic Resean
16 See page 369 of this Report.
"NAS-NRC Committee on Pollution (1966) Waste managers
and control. Publication No. 1400 NAS-NRC, Washington, D.
18 U.S. Department of the Interior, op. cit. p. vii.
-------
Section I—RECREATION AND AESTHETICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page.
INTRODUCTION 8
THE ROLE OF WATER-ORIENTED RECREATION
AND AESTHETICS 8
SCOPE AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE 8
MAINTAINING AND RESTORING WATER QUALITY
FOR RECREATION AND AESTHETICS 10
APPLYING RECOMMENDATIONS 10
WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AES-
THETIC VALUES 11
MANAGEMENT FOR AESTHETICS 11
BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AESTHETIC
PURPOSES 11
Recommendations 12
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RECRE-
ATIONAL AND AESTHETIC VALUE OF
WATER 13
RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY 13
The Role of Regulation 14
Factors Affecting Recreational Carrying
Capacity 14
Conclusion 14
SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS 16
Effects on Water Quality 16
Recommendation 17
VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS 17
Conclusion 19
EUTROPHICATION AND NUTRIENTS 19
Defining Eutrophication and Nutrients . . 19
Effects of Eutrophication and Nutrients. . 20
Determination of Trophic Conditions 21
Summary of Measurement of Nutrient
Enrichment 23
Recommendations 23
AQUATIC VASCULAR PLANTS 23
Interrelationships With Water Quality. . . 24
Interrelationships With Other Biota 25
Effects on Recreation and Aesthetics 25
Control Considerations 26
Recommendation 27
P<
INTRODUCTION OF SPECIES
Extent and Types of Introductions.
Some Results of Introductions
Introductions by Official Agencies.
Recommendations
WATER QUALITY FOR GENERAL RECRE-
ATION, BATHING, AND SWIMMING
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL RECRE-
ATIONAL WATERS
Aesthetic Considerations
Recommendation
Microbiological Considerations
Conclusion
Chemical Considerations
Recommendations
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BATHING AND SWIM-
MING WATERS
Microbiological Considerations
Conclusion
Temperature Characteristics
Recommendation
pH Characteristics
Conclusion
Clarity Considerations
Conclusion
Chemical Considerations
Recommendation
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR
SPECIALIZED RECREATION
BOATING
Conclusion
AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE ,
Maintenance of Habitat
Variety of Aquatic: Life
Recommendations
SHELLFISH
Bacteriological Quality
Recommendation
-------
Page Page
Pesticides 37 WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR
Recommendation 37 WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE 39
Marine Biotoxins 37 WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS 39
Recommendation 38 WATER BODIES IN URBAN AREAS 39
Trace Metals 38 OTHER WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE 40
Recommendation 38 Conclusions 40
Radionuclides 38 LITERATURE CITED 41
-------
INTRODUCTION
This section considers water quality in the context of
recreation and aesthetics, on the basis of available scientific
data tempered by experience and judgment. In view of
today's burgeoning population in the United States, the
importance of water quality criteria to preserve and enhance
the recreational and aesthetic values of water resources is
manifest. The problems involved are both great and urgent.
Our urban centers bear the brunt of the growth of a popu-
lation that needs and demands water-oriented recreational
resources. But those resources, already overloaded, are de-
graded or rendered unfit for recreation by the effects of
man's activities. The quality of water can be assessed and
to some extent controlled, but the principal cause of water
pollution is what man does on the land. Water must be
protected from harmful land-water relationships, and man
must be protected from the consequences of degraded water
quality.
THE ROLE OF WATER-ORIENTED RECREATION AND
AESTHETICS
Recreation is an enigma: nearly everyone participates in
some type of recreation, but few are likely to agree on an
acceptable definition of it. Most persons who are not pro-
fessionally involved with recreation tend to define it nar-
rowly in terms of their own experiences. Many feel that
the term implies some form of strenuous physical activity;
to them, aesthetic appreciation and other leisure activities
that primarily involve the mind are not "recreation."
There is also a tendency for some to include only those
physical activities that are commonly identified as "recre-
ation" by public or quasi-public recreation agencies.
Charles E. Doell, an internationally known authority on
park and recreation planning and administration, defines
recreation as "the refreshment of the mind or body or both
through some means which is in itself pleasureful." He
states "almost any activity or mental process may be recre-
ation depending largely upon the attitude assumed in the
approach to the process itself (Doell 1963)4.* This concept
* Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
is supported by many others (Brightbill 196P, Butler 195!
Lehman 19656). If the attitude of the individual concern
is the key to whether or not an activity may be classed
"recreation," it follows thait one man's work may be a
other man's recreation; and an unwelcome social duty
one person may be a valuable recreational experience
another. Certain activities may be either recreational
part of the daily routine depending on the attitude of t
participant. Recreation is, therefore, an elusive conce
that can bear some relationship to any of the major co
cerns of living—work and education, social duty, or bodi
needs. Whether or not an individual's activity falls with
the psychological realm of recreation depends upon \
attitudes, goals, and life style at a point in time.
For the purposes of this report a broad view of recreatit
is adopted, and aesthetic appreciation is considered part
recreation. Thus the term "recreation" includes all typ
of intensive and extensive pleasurable activities rangii
from sedentary, purely aesthetic experiences to strenuo
activities that may involve a relatively small aesthei
component.
SCOPE AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
The scope and significance of water-related recreation
activities is not well documented quantitatively, but ;
impression of its importance in the lives of Americans c;
be obtained from such evidence as license registration ai
sales data, user surveys, economic impact studies, and nc
legislation programs and regulations.
License Registration and Sales Data In 1960,
million persons bought 23 million state fishing licens(
tags, permits, and stamps. Ten years later more than '.
million licenses, tags, permits, and stamps were held I
over 24.5 million purchasers, an increase of about 28 p
cent over 1960 (U.S. Department of the Interior 1961
197114). In 1970 sportsmen spent an estimated $287.7 m
lion on fishing tackle and equipment on which they pa
$14 million in federal excise taxes (Dingle-Johnson Ac1
They also added $90.9 million to state treasuries (Slat
1972),7 and in many cases these funds were matched wi
federal funds for use in fisheries improvement programs.
8
-------
Introduction/^
The number of recreational boats in use increased even
more substantially. It was estimated that there were almost
9 million boats of various types in use during 1970, an
increase of 9 per cent over 1966. More than $3 billion were
spent at the retail level on boating equipment, services,
insurance, fuel, mooring fees and memberships, a 22 per cent
increase over 1966 (The Boating Industry 1971)1. In 1970, an
estimated million pairs of water skis were sold, a 5 per cent
increase in domestic and export sales for that year (The
Boating Industry 1971)1.
Economic Impact Studies In fiscal 1969-70, the
Corps of Engineers spent $27.6 million to develop or expand
facilities for swimming, fishing, boating, and other water-
oriented activities (Stout personal communication 1971)18. The
state parks of the nation, the majority of which are water-
oriented, spent $125.8 million in 1970 on capital improve-
ments and $177 million on operations and maintenance
(Stout personal communication 1971)18.
Although public expenditures for water-oriented recre-
ational developments are large, expenditures in the private
and commercial sectors are of even greater magnitude. In
regions of the country where water bodies are reasonably
numerous, most seasonal homes are built on or adjacent to
water. In 1970, it was estimated that 150,000 seasonal
homes were built at a cost of $1.2 billion (Ragatz 1971)6.
Some waterfront locations have been extensively developed
for a variety of public, private, and commercial recreational
purposes. The lakes and lake frontage properties of the
Tennessee Valley Authority alone were-estimated to contain
water-based recreational equipment and facilities worth $77
million and land-based facilities and improvements valued
at $ 178 million in 1968 (Churchill personal communication
1972)16.
Expenditures for other goods and services associated with
water-oriented recreation are also a major factor in the
economy. Boaters, fishermen, campers, picnickers, and
others spend considerable sums on transportation, accommo-
dations, and supplies. For example, preliminary data show
that some 2.9 million waterfowl hunters spent an estimated
$245 million during 25 million recreation days in 1970
(Slater personal communication 1971)17. The Tennessee Valley
Authority estimated in 1967 that sports fishermen using its
reservoirs spent some $42 million in order to harvest 7,000
to 10,000 tons offish (Stroud and Martin 1968)8.
User Surveys Since World War II, per capita par-
ticipation in most types of recreational activities has in-
creased even more rapidly than the preceding data indicate.
Attendance at National Park Service areas rose from 133
million visits in 1966 to 172 million in 1970, an increase of
29 per cent. In the same period, visits to Corps of Engineers
reservoirs increased 42 per cent to a total of 276 million.
Comparable figures for the national forests were 151 million
in 1966, rising 14 per cent to 173 million in 1970 (Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation personal communication 1971)16. Most
of the recreation opportunities at Corps of Engineers areas
and a good proportion of those available on Park Service
lands and in national forests are water-based or water-
related. Similar growth rates and a predominance of water-
related recreational experiences characterize the use of
recreational lands managed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife, the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau
of Reclamation, and the Department of Defense.
The preeminent role of water resources in recreation was
emphasized by the President's Outdoor Recreation Re-
sources Review Commission in 1960. Extensive surveys
showed that most people seeking outdoor recreation (90
per cent of all Americans) sought it in association with
water, as indicated by the preliminary figures in Table 1-1,
a study made as part of the 1970 U.S. Census (Slater
1972)17. Although it is impossible to estimate what pro-
portion of the use reported by the survey was actually
associated with water for those activities that are not water-
based but are often water-related, the data nevertheless
emphasize the magnitude of current participation in water-
oriented recreation.
If no more than half the time spent on the frequently
water-related activities was in fact associated with water,
the total man days for water-based and water-related ac-
tivities in 1970 would be at least 3.7 billion man days.
Participation in water-based and water-oriented recre-
ation is likely to increase in the forseeable future. The
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1967)13 predicts that by the
year 2000 summertime participation in swimming will in-
crease over the year 1965 by 207 per cent, in fishing 78 per
cent, in boating 215 per cent, in waterskiing 363 percent,
and in such water-related activities as camping, picnicking,
and sightseeing 238, 127, and 156 per cent respectively.
Legislation, Regulations, and Programs The
importance of water-based and water-related recreation to
society is reflected in the increase in legislation and the
number of regulations and programs intended to increase
TABLE 1-1—Participation in Water-Oriented Recreation
Activities in 1970
Activity
Water-based
Swimming. .
Fishing
Boating
Total man days
Frequently water related
Pi tracking
Birdwatching
Camping .
Nature walks
Hunting
Wildlife photography . . .
Total man days
Percent of U.S. population
participating"
46
29
24
49
4
. . 21
18
.... 12
3
Billions of man days
U2
.56
.42
2./0
.54
.43
.40
.37
.22
.04
'i. 00
* For many activities, double counting will occur. (Slater 1972)7
-------
10/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
or protect opportunities for these activities. One example
is the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act U.S. Congress 1968)9
that authorized a national program to preserve free-flowing
rivers of exceptional natural or recreational value. The
Federal Power Commission has required the submission of
recreation and fish and wildlife development plans as inte-
gral parts of hydroelectric license applications. The Federal
Water Project Recreation Act (U.S. Congress 1965)10 en-
courages state and local participation in planning, financing,
and administering recreational features of federal water
development projects. The Estuary Protection Act (U.S.
Congress 1968)11 authorizes cooperative federal-state-local
cost sharing and management programs for estuaries, and
requires that federal agencies consult with the Secretary
of the Interior on all land and water development projects
with impacts on estuaries before submitting proposals to
Congress for authorization.
The Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture assists in the development of ponds that often
are used for recreational purposes and watering livestock.
Federal assistance for waterfront restoration and the preser-
vation of environmental values is available under the urban
renewal, open space, and urban beautification programs of
the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the
Land and Water Conservation Fund program of the Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation, and the historic preservation pro-
gram of the National Park Service.
MAINTAINING AND RESTORING WATER QUALITY
FOR RECREATION AND AESTHETICS
Although there have been instances of rapid water
quality deterioration with drastic effects on recreation,
typically the effect is a slow, insidious process. Changes
have come about incrementally as forests are cut, lam
cultivated, urban areas expanded, and industries developec
But the cumulative effect and the losses in recreation oppoi
tunities caused by degraded water quality in this countr
in the past 100 years have been great. In many urban areas
opportunities for virtually every type of water-based ac
tivity have been either severely curtailed or eliminated
The resource-based recreation frontier is being forcei
further into the hinterland, Aesthetic values of aquati
vistas are eliminated or depreciated by enchroachment c
residential, commercial, industrial, military, or transpor
tation facilities. Drainage of swamps to control insec
vectors of disease and channelization to control floods hav
a profound effect on water run-off characteristics. A loss ii
water quality and downstream aquatic environments ani
recreational opportunities is often the price paid for sue!
improvements.
The application of adequate local, state, and nationa
water quality criteria is only a partial solution to our wate
quality problems. A comprehensive national land use polk
program with effective methods of decision-making, imple
mentation, and enforcement is also needed.
APPLYING RECOMMENDATIONS
Throughout this report the recommendations given ar
to be applied in the context of local conditions. This cavea
cannot be over emphasized, because variabilities are en
countered in different parts of the country. Specific loca
recommendations can be developed now in many instance
and more will be developed as experience grows. Numerics
criteria pertaining to other beneficial water uses togethe
with the recommendations for recreational and aestheti
uses provide guidance for water quality management.
-------
WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AESTHETIC VALUES
Aesthetics is classically defined as the branch of philos-
ophy that provides a theory of the beautiful. In this Section
attention will be focused on the aesthetics of water in
natural and man-made environments and the extent to
which the beauty of that water can be preserved or en-
hanced by the establishment of water quality recommen-
dations.
Although perceptions of many forms of beauty are pro-
foundly subjective and experienced differently by each indi-
vidual, there is an apparent sameness in the human re-
sponse to the beauties of water. Aesthetically pleasing waters
add to the quality of human experience. Water may be
pleasant to look upon, to walk or rest beside, or simply to
contemplate. It may enhance the visual scene wherever it
appears, in cities or in the wilderness. It may enhance values
of adjoining properties, public or private. It may provide a
focal point of pride in the community. The perception of
beauty and ugliness cannot be strictly defined. Either
natural or man-made visual effects may add or detract,
depending on many variables such as distance from the
observer or the composition and texture of the surroundings.
As one writer has said when comparing recreational values
with aesthetics, "Of probably greater value is the relaxation
and mental well-being achieved by viewing and absorbing
the scenic grandeur of the great and restless Missouri.
Many people crowd the 'high-line' drives along the bluffs
to view this mighty river and achieve a certain restfulness
from the proximity of nature" (Forges et al. 1952)19.
Similarly, aesthetic experience can be enhanced or de-
stroyed by space relationships. Power boats on a two-acre
lake are likely to be more hazardous than fun, and the
water will be so choppy and turbid that people will hardly
enjoy swimming near the shore. On the other hand, a
sailboat on Lake Michigan can be viewed with pleasure.
If a designated scenic area is surrounded by a wire fence,
the naturalness is obviously tainted. If animals can only be
viewed in restricted pens, the enjoyment is likely to be less
than if they could be seen moving at will in their natural
habitat.
MANAGEMENT FOR AESTHETICS
The management of water for aesthetic purposes must be
planned and executed in the context of the uses of the land,
the shoreline, and the water surfaces. People must be the
ultimate consideration. Aesthetic values relate to accessi-
bility, perspective, space, human expectations, and the
opportunity to derive a pleasurable reaction from the senses.
Congress has affirmed and reaffirmed its determination
to enhance water quality in a series of actions strengthening
the federal role in water pollution control and federal sup-
port for water pollution control programs of state and local
governments and industry. In a number of states, political
leaders and voters have supported programs to protect or
even restore water quality with aesthetics as one of the
values.
The recognition, identification, and protection of the
aesthetic qualities of water should be an objective of all
water quality management programs. The retention of
suitable, aesthetic quality is more likely to be achieved
through strict control of discharges at the source than by
excessive dependence on assimilation by receiving waters.
Paradoxically, the values that aesthetically pleasing water
provide are most urgently needed where pollution problems
are most serious as in the urban areas and particularly in
the central portions of cities where population and industry
are likely to be heavily concentrated
Unfortunately, one of the greatest unknowns is the value
of aesthetics to people. No workable formula incorporating
a valid benefit-to-cost ratio has yet been devised to reflect
tangible and intangible benefits accruing to conflicting
uses or misuses and the cost of providing or avoiding them.
This dilemma could be circumvented by boldly stating that
aesthetic values are worth the cost of achieving them. The
present public reaction to water quality might well support
this position, but efforts in this area have not yet proceeded
far enough to produce values worthy of wide acceptance.
(See Appendix I.)
BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AESTHETIC
PURPOSES
All surface waters should be aesthetically pleasing. But
natural conditions vary widely, and because of this a series
of descriptive rather than numerical recommendations is
made. The descriptions are intended to provide, in general
terms, for the protection of surface waters from substances
or conditions arising from other than natural sources that
11
-------
12/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
might degrade or tend to degrade the aesthetic quality of
the water. Substances or conditions arising from natural
sources may affect water quality independently of human
activities. Human activities that augment degradation from
natural sources, such as accelerated erosion from surface
disturbances, are not considered natural. The recommen-
dations are also intended to cover degradation from "dis-
charges or waste," a phrase embracing undesirable inputs
from all sources attributable to human activities whether
surface flows, point discharges, or subsurface drainages.
The recommendations that follow are essentially finite
criteria. The absence of visible debris, oil, scum, and other
matter resulting from human activity is a strict requirement
for aesthetic acceptability. Similarly, recommended values
for objectionable color, odor, taste, and turbidity, although
less precise, must be measured as no significant increase
over background. Characteristics such as excessive nutrients
and temperature elevations that encourage objectionable
abundance of organisms, e.g., a bloom of blue-green algae
resulting from discharge of a waste with a high nutrient
content and an elevated temperature, must be considered.
These recommendations become finite when applied as
intended in the context of natural background conditions.
Specific numbers would add little to the usefulness of the
descriptive recommendations because of the varying acute-
ness of sensory perception and because of the variability o
substances and conditions so largely dependent on loca
conditions.
The phrase "virtually free" of an objectionable constituen
as used in the recommendations implies the concept c
freedom from the undesirable effects of the constituent bu
not necessarily freedom from the constituent itself. Thi
recognizes the practical impossibility of complete absenc
and the inevitability of the presence of potential pollutant
to some degree.
Recommendations
Surface waters will be aesthetically pleasing i
they are virtually free of substances attributabl
to discharges or waste as; follows:
• materials that will settle to form objectionabt
deposits;
• floating debris, oil, scum, and other matter;
• substances producing objectionable color, odoi
taste, or turbidity;
• substances and conditions or combination
thereof in concentrations which produce un
desirable aquatic life.
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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RECREATIONAL AND AESTHETIC VALUE OF WATER
The many factors that influence the recreational and
aesthetic value of water may be broadly grouped in two
imprecise and overlapping but useful categories: physical
and biological. Physical factors include geography, manage-
ment and land use practices, and carrying capacity. Bio-
logical factors involve the effects of nuisance organisms and
eutrophication, the role of aquatic plants, species diversity,
and the introduction of exotic species. In making water
quality recommendations that will maintain recreational
and aesthetic values of surface waters, it is necessary to
understand the interrelationships between these factors and
water quality. The discussions in this Section emphasize
those interrelationships, but additional useful detail can be
found in other Sections of this Report, i.e., Public Water
Supplies (II), Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (IV), and
Agriculture (V). Cross references direct the reader to other
sources at appropriate points in this Section.
Physical Factors Recommendations applicable to
water-related environmental goals may well define those
constraints that must be imposed on man's land-based ac-
tivities and upon his physical contact with water if the
quality of water is to be maintained at a level suited to
recreational use. This is especially true of aesthetic enjoy-
ment of water, because pleasurable aesthetic experiences
are related to water in its environmental setting and to its
changing appearance caused by wind, light, and other
natural phenomena.
Man-made impoundments have provided numerous op-
portunities for recreation that have not existed before, but
their operation in some instances presents a paradox for
recreational users. Often such reservoirs are located on the
upper reaches of rivers where the natural setting is itself
conducive to aesthetic recreational enjoyment; but because
they are often multipurpose projects, their operation for
water supply, seasonal provision of flood storage, daily
provision of hydroelectric power, or even seasonal fluctu-
ation for mosquito control will change the water surface
elevation, leave barren banks exposed, or cause noticeable
or transient disruptions of the otherwise natural appearing
setting. Where the impoundment specifically provides a
public water supply, concerned water works personnel,
fearing degradation of the quality of the water stored for
this purpose, may impose limitations on the scope of recre-
ational opportunities. Thus, the full potential for recre-
ational and aesthetic uses of water may well be curtailed
somewhat by the operational schedule of a water body
needed for other purposes, even if the quality of the stored
water meets the stipulated water quality criteria.
Control of turbidity represents another environment-
related problem, one that must often be dealt with in terms
of somewhat subjective local considerations. Recommen-
dations for turbidity limits are best expressed as percentage
increases over natural background conditions. The waste-
water treatment processes normally employed are intended
to control suspended particles and associated problems.
Steps can also be taken to minimize erosion of soil disturbed
by agriculture, construction, logging, and other human
activities. Turbidity from urban and rural areas can be
reduced by ponding or other sedimentation facilities.
Wherever possible, spoils from dredging of navigable waters
should be disposed of on land or at water sites in such a
way that environmental damage is minimized. If necessary
dredging for new construction or channel maintenance is
performed with caution, it will not have adverse effects on
water quality. (Effects of physical manipulation of the en-
vironment are discussed further in Section III on Fresh-
water Aqua ic Life and Wildlife.)
Biological Factors Two principal types of biological
factors influence the recreational and aesthetic value of
surface waters: those that endanger the health or physical
comfort of people and animals, and those that render water
aesthetically objectionable or unusable as a result of its
overfertilization. The former include vector and nuisance
organisms; the latter, aquatic growths of microscopic and
macroscopic plants.
The discussion turns next to the physical factors of recre-
ational carrying capacity and sediment and suspended
materials, and then to the biological factors.
RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY
In both artificial impoundments and natural bodies of
water the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of the water itself are not the only factors influencing water-
13
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1 ^/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
oriented recreation. Depreciation of the recreational value
of water caused by high levels of use is a growing problem
that can be solved only by management techniques that:
either create more extensive facilities or limit the types and
amounts of use to predetermined desirable levels or carrying
capacities.
The recreational resource carrying capacity concept is
not new. Recreation land managers have used carrying
capacity standards for decades, but such standards have
generally been developed intuitively rather than experi-
mentally. Dana (1957)24 called for empirical research in
this field to provide better guidelines for management of
recreation resources. The National Recreation and Parks
Association reported in 1969 that almost no research of this
type had been completed and that standards for water-
oriented recreational activities then in use exhibited a dis-
turbingly wide range of values (Chubb 1969)21. Among
investigations of the carrying capacity of water for recre-
ational boating currently being made are those at North
Carolina State University and Michigan State University
(Ashton and Chubb 1971).20 A comparative study of the
canoeing and trout fishing capacity of four rivers is taking
place in Michigan (Colburn, personal communication 1971)27.
Lucas (1964)25 reported on an on-going recreational carry-
ing, capacity study of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area.
Until a number of these investigations are completed,
the true nature and complexity of the factors involved in
recreational carrying capacity will not be known. However,
in the case of many water-oriented activities it is apparent
that social, psychological, and economic factors are in-
volved, as well as the physical characteristics of the water
body (Chubb and Ashton 1969)22. For example, boaters on
heavily used lakes in Southeast Michigan represent a broad
spectrum of behavioral patterns and attitudes. Fishermen
generally dislike high-density use and are particularly an-
noyed by speeding boats that create waves. They believe
such activities disturb the fish. Waterfront home and cottage
owners abhor the noise and litter generated by owners of
transient boats on trailers. On the other hand, many water
skiers enjoy relatively crowded conditions because of the
social aspects of the experience; and some cruiser and pon-
toon boat owners enjoy viewing the skiers from their boats.
Thus the boating carrying capacity of these waters involves
the relative proportions of the various kinds of uses taking
place and the life styles, recreational goals, and social
aspirations of the boaters. Carrying capacity becomes a
function of the levels of satisfaction achieved by the par-
ticipants (Ashton and Chubb 1971).20
Screw propellers of powerboats operating in shallow
waters create currents that often suspend sediments. Power-
boats can also produce wake waves that cause shore erosion
and result in water turbulence. Marl-bottomed lakes and
silty, relatively narrow rivers are especially susceptible to
prolonged turbidity generated by such disturbances. In
many cases, bank erosion has been so severe that speed
limitations and wake-wave: restrictions have had to 1
imposed.
The size and configuration of a water body influence
recreational use and carrying capacity. Large lakes with
low ratio of shoreline-to-surface area tend to be under-usi
in the middle; conversely, lakes with a high ratio of shor
line-to-surface area tend to sustain more recreational u
per acre.
The Role of Regulation
Rapid increases in recreational use have necessitati
regulations to protect the quality of the experiences o
tained by limiting use so that carrying capacity is n
exceeded. Examples are boat speed regulations, limitatio
on horsepower, number of boat launching sites, number
parking places, and zoning and time limitations on wat
skiing and high-speed boating. Motorized crafts are oft<
prohibited. Michigan is planning to use data from
current series of boating carrying capacity studies to «
tablish new criteria for its boating access site progra
(Ashton and Chubb 1971).20
The Michigan Department of Natural Resources (1970]
has proposed rationing recreation on stretches of the /
Sable, Manistee, Pine, and Pere Marquette Rivers 1
means of a canoe permit system to reduce conflicts betwe<
canoeists and trout fishermen. The proposed regulatio
would limit the release of Ccinoes to a specified number p
day for designated stretches of these rivers. Other regulatio
are intended to promote safety and reduce trespass, riv
bank damage, vandalism, and littering. The National Pa
Service has limited annual user days for river running <
the Colorado through the Grand Canyon (Cowgill 1971).2
Factors Affecting Recreational Carrying Capacity
The carrying capacity of a body of water for recreation
not a readily identifiable finite number. It is a range
values from which society can select the most acceptafc
limits as the controlling variables change.
The schematic diagram (Fig. 1-1) provides an impressi(
of the number of relationships involved in a typical wat
body recreation system. Recreational carrying capacity
water is basically dependent upon water quality but al
related to many other variables as shown in the modi
At the threshold level a relatively small decline in wat
quality may have a considerable effect on the system ai
result in a substantial decline in the annual yield of wate
oriented recreational opportunities at the sites affected.
Conclusion
No specific recommendation is made concernir
recreational carrying capacity. Agencies establisl
ing carrying capacities should be aware of tl
complex relationships of the interacting variabli
and of the constant need to review local establish*
values in light of prevailing conditions. Carryir
-------
Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/15
(broken box line indicates high probability of change)
WATERBODY RESOURCES
quantity, type, accessibility
WATER QUALITY
chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics
I Human \
I Activities i
L_ _,
Prevailing
Water Quality
SOCIAL FACTORS
ulation
Economic
Factors
|
Social
Customs
Mob
|
Cultural Factors I
recreation behavior, I
ownership, access, and '
Regulations '
REGIONAL SUPPLY OF
ALTERNATIVE WATER
RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
"Normal"patterns of
use for "n" waterbodies
Changing Patterns of Use:
relationship to supply-demand,
socio-economics, and
water quality
I
Excessive Use:
reduced water quality and
recreational value
Reduced Carrying
Capacity
FIGURE 1-1—Relationships Involved in a Water Resource Recreation System
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16/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
capacity was discussed in this Section to call at-
tention to its potential effects on water quality for
recreational use.
SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS
Weathering of the land surface and the transport of
particles such as sand, silt and clay by water, wind, and ice
are natural processes of geologic erosion that largely de-
termine the characteristics of our land, rivers, estuaries,
and lakes. Man, however, can drastically alter the amount
of material suspended in surface waters by accelerating
surface erosion through various land use and management
practices. Sources of these sediments and suspended ma-
terials such as erosion, mining, agriculture, and construction
areas are discussed in Section IV on Marine Aquatic Life
and Wildlife. In addition to causing siltation problems and
affecting biological productivity, sediments and suspended
materials affect the quality of surface waters used for
recreational and aesthetic enjoyment.
Effects on Water Quality
The importance of suspended particle composition and
concentrations to the recreational and aesthetic value of
surface water relates to its effects on the clarity, light
penetration, temperature, and dissolved constituents of
surface water, the adsorption of toxic materials, and the
composition, distribution, and rate of sedimentation of
materials. These in turn not only affect recreational and
aesthetic values directly, but they control or limit biological
productivity and the aquatic life the waters will sustain for
enjoyment by people (Buck 1956,28 Cairns 1968).29 Although
the qualitative effects of suspended particles on surface
waters are well recognized, quantitative knowledge and
understanding are limited. (Biological effects are discussed
in Sections III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic
Life.)
Appearance The appearance of water is relative to
the perspective of the viewer and his expectations. For
example, the surfaces of lakes, streams, or oceans viewed
from shore appear less turbid than they do viewed from
above or during immersion. The responses of people viewing
the spectacularly clear waters of Lake Tahoe or Crater
Lake are almost surely aesthetic in nature, and allowing
the clarity of such waters to decrease would certainly lower
their aesthetic appeal. On the other hand, the roaring
reaches and the placid stretches of the muddy Colorado
River and miles of the muddy Mississippi afford another
kind of aesthetic pleasure and recreation which many also
appreciate. People seem to adapt to and accept a wide
range of water turbidities as long as changes in turbidity
are part of natural processes. However, increases in tur-
bidity of water due to man's disturbance of the land surface,
discharge of wastes, or modification of the water-body bed
are subjectively regarded by many people as pollution,
and so in fact or in fancy they reduce aesthetic enjoyment.
Light Penetration The presence of suspended soli
materials in natural waters limits the penetration by sui
light. An example of the adverse effects of reduced availab
light is the inability of some fish to see their natural foe
or even the sport fisherman's lure (note the discussion i
Section III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, pj
126-129). In turbid, nutrient-rich waters, such as an est\
ary or lake where lack of light penetration limits algal repn
duction, a water management project that reduced sed
ment input to the water body could conceivably result i
increases of algal production to the nuisance level.
Temperature When suspended particles inhibit tl
penetration of water by sunlight, greater absorption i
solar energy occurs near the surface and warms the wate
there. With its density thus decreased, the water colum
stabilizes, and vertical mixing is inhibited. Lower oxyge
transfer from air to water also results from higher watt
surface temperature. Together with inhibited vertical mi)
ing, this reduces the downward rate of oxygen transfe
especially in still or slowly moving water. In combinatio
with the oxygen demand of benthic accumulations, an
reduction in downward transfer of oxygen hastens the d(
velopment of anaerobic conditions at the bed of shallo'
eutrophic ponds, and the result may be a loss of aestheti
quality.
Adsorption of Materials Clay minerals have irregi
lar, platy shapes and large surface areas with electrostati
charges. As a consequence, clay minerals sorb cation
anions, and organic compounds. Pesticides and heav
metals likewise sorb on suspended clay particles, and thos
that are strongly held are carried with the particles to the
eventual resting place.
Microorganisms are frequently sorbed on particular
material and incorporated into bottom sediments when tl"
material settles. Rising storm waters may resuspend tr
deposited material, thereby restoring the microorganisn
to the water column. Swimming or wading could st
bottom sediments containing bacteria, thereby effecting
rise in bacterial counts in the water (Van Donsel an
Geldreich 1971)33.
The capacity of minerals to hold dissolved toxic materia
is different for each material and type of clay. The sorptiv
phenomenon effectively lends a large assimilative capacit
to muddy waters. A reduction in suspended mineral solic
in surface waters can, therefore, cause an increase in tli
concentrations of dissolved toxic materials contributed b
existing waste discharges (see Section III on Freshwate
Aquatic Life).
Beach Zone Effects When typical river waters cor
taining dispersed clay minerals mix with ocean water i
estuaries to the extent of one part or more of ocean water t
33 parts river water, the dispersed clay and silt particlt
become cohesive, and aggregates are formed under th
prevailing hydraulic conditions (Krone 1962).30 Such aggr«
gates of material brought downstream by storms eithe
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/17
settle in the estuary, particularly in large shallow bays, or
are carried directly to sea where they often are distributed
over large areas of the sea floor. Those that settle in shallow
bays can be constantly resuspended by wind-generated
waves and held in suspension by waves while tidal currents
circulate the waters throughout the estuary and carry a
portion of the suspended material out to sea. Suspended
clay mineral particles are weakly cohesive in river waters
having either unusually low dissolved salt concentrations
or high proportions of multivalent cations in the dissolved
salts. When such rivers enter lakes and impoundments, the
fine particles aggregate and settle to the bed to form soft,
fluffy deposits.
On lakes, the natural wind waves maintain beaches and
sandy littoral zones when there is sufficient fetch. Wind-
driven movement of the water through wave action and
subsequent oscillation provides the minimum velocity of
0.5 feet per second to sort out the fine particles of mineral
soils and organic micelles and allow them to settle in the
depths. Wave action extends to depths of approximately
one-half of the wave length to sort bottom sediments. This
depth is on the order of 5 feet (1.5 m) for a one-mile (1.6
km) fetch. When the waters are deep enough to allow
settling, fine sediments which are suspended drop down
over the wave terrace leaving sorted sand behind. In shallow
water bodies where the orbital velocity of the water particles
of wave action is great enough to lift fine sediments, waters
may be kept in a state of turbidity (Shephard 1963).31
Waters without adequate wind-wave action and circulation
do not have appreciable sorting; and thereforeIsoft bottom
materials, undesirable at facilities like swimming beaches,
may build up in the shallows. These conditions reduce
clarity and not only affect the aesthetic value but also
present a hazard in swimming.
The natural phenomenon of beach maintenance, sup-
plying sand to beaches and littoral zones, is dependent in
part upon having ample sources of sand such as those pro-
vided by river transport and shore erosion. Impoundment
of rivers causes sand to settle behind dams and removes it
as a future source for beach maintenance. Man's protection
of shorelines from erosion also interrupts the supply of sand.
In the erosion process, sand is commonly moved along the
shore in response to the net positive direction of the wind-
wave forces, or it is carried into deep water to be deposited
on the edge of wave terraces. The location of man-made
structures can, therefore, influence the quality of beaches.
Piers and jetties can intercept the lateral movement of sand
and leave impoverished rocky or hardpan shores on the
up-current side. Such conditions are common along the
shores of the large Great Lakes and many coastal waters
(U.S. Army, Coastal Engineering Research Center 1966).w
Sediment-Aquatic Plant Relationships When
the sediment load exceeds the transport capacity of the
river, deposition results. The accumulation of sediments in
reservoirs and distribution systems has been a problem
since ancient times. The deposited materials may so alter
the original bed materials of surface waters that rooted
aquatic vascular plants are able to grow in the newly
available substrate, thus changing the aquatic environment.
Fine sediments are often rich in the nutrients required for
plant growths; and once the sediments are stabilized with
a few plants, extensive colonization may follow. (See the
discussion of Aquatic Vascular Plants in this Section.)
Recommendation
Clear waters are normally preferred for recre-
ation. Because sediment-laden water reduces water
clarity, inhibits the growth of plants, displaces
water volume as sediments settle, and contributes
to the fouling of the bottom, prevention of un-
natural quantities of suspended sediments or de-
posit of sediments is desirable. Individual waters
vary in the natural amounts of suspended sedi-
ments they carry; therefore, no fixed recommen-
dation can be made. Management decisions should
be developed with reference to historical base line
data concerning the individual body of water.
VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS
The impact of both aquatic vectors of diseases and
nuisance organisms on water-related recreational and aes-
thetic pursuits varies from the creation of minor nuisances
to the closing of large recreational areas (Mackenthun and
Ingram 1967).58 Organisms of concern are discussed by
Mackenthun (1969).67
Massive emergences of non-biting midges, phantom
midges, caddisflies, and mayflies cause serious nuisances in
shoreline communities, impeding road traffic, river navi-
gation, commercial enterprises and recreational pursuits
(Burks 1953,40 Fremling 1960a,46 1960b;47 Hunt and Bis-
choff I960;54 Provost 195860). Human respiratory allergic
reactions to aquatic insect bites have been recognized for
many years. They were reviewed by Henson (1966),49 who
reported the major causative groups to be the caddisflies,
mayflies, and midges.
Among common diseases transmitted by aquatic inverte-
brates are encephalitis, malaria, and schistosomiasis, in-
cluding swimmers' itch. The principal water-related arthro-
pod-borne viral disease of importance to public health in
the United States is encephalitis, transmitted by mosquitoes
(Hess and Holden 1958).61 Many polluted urban streams
are ideally suited to production of large numbers of Culex
Jatigans, a vector of St. Louis encephalitis in urban areas.
Although running waters ordinarily are not suitable for
mosquito breeding, puddles in drying stream beds and
floodplains are excellent breeding sites for this and other
species of Culex. If such pools contain polluted waters,
organic materials present may serve as an increased food
supply that will stimulate production (Hess 1956,5* U.S.
-------
IB/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
Department of the Interior, FWPCA 1967).65 Aquatic
plants also provide breeding sites for some mosquitoes and
other nuisance insects. This relationship is discussed else-
where in this Section (p. 25).
Other than mosquitoes, perhaps the most common nui-
sance insects associated with standing freshwater are chir-
onomid midges. These insects neither bite nor carry disease,
but their dense swarms can interfere with man's comfort
and activities. Nuisance populations have occurred in pro-
ductive natural lakes where the larvae thrive in the largely
organic bottom sediments (Provost 1958,60 Hunt and Bis-
choff I960,64 Hilsenhoff 1959).52 In poorly designed sewage
lagoons mosquitoes and midges may thrive (Beadle and
Harmstrom 1958,38 Kimerle and Enns 1968).66 Reservoirs
receiving inadequately treated municipal wastes are po-
tential sources for abundant mosquito and midge production
(U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA 1967).K In-
creased midge production may be associated with deterior-
ation in water quality, but this is not always the case. For
example, excessive production can occur in primary sewage
oxidation ponds as well as in reservoirs (Grodhaus 1963,48
Bay 196436); and in sequential oxidation pond treatment,
maximum midge production may sometimes occur in those
ponds furthest from the plant effluent where water quality
is highest (Bay et al. 1965).36
Abrupt changes in water quality such as dilution of sea-
water by freshwater, especially if accompanied by organic
loading, can precipitate extraordinarily high midge pro-
duction (Jamnback 1954).55 Sudden decline in oxygen
supply in organically overloaded ponds or drying lakes can
disrupt or destroy established faunal communities, thus
favoring midge larvae because they are tolerant to low
dissolved oxygen and are primarily detrital feeders (Bay
unpublished data).67
The physical characteristics of certain water bodies, as
much as their water quality characteristics, may sometimes
determine midge productivity (Bay et al. 1966).37 For
example, freshly filled reservoirs are quickly sedimented
with allocthanous detritus and airborne organic matter
that provide food for invading midge larvae. The rate of
sedimentation can depend on watershed characteristics and
basin percolation rate or, in the case of airborne sediment,
on the surrounding topography. Predators in these new
environments are few, and initial midge larval survival is
high. Thomas (1970)64 has also reported on the potential
of newly or periodically flooded areas to produce large
populations of midges and mosquitoes.
Midge production in permanent bodies of water is ex-
tremely variable. Attempts have been made (Hilsenhoff'
and Narf 1968,53 Florida State Board of Health unpublished
datam) to correlate factors of water quality with midge
productivity in neighboring lakes and in lakes with certain
identifiable characteristics, but the results have been incon-
clusive.
Organism response in organically polluted flowing wate
was discussed and illustrated by Bartsch and Ingran
(1959).34 As water quality and bottom materials change ii
streams recovering from organic waste discharges, largi
numbers of midges and other nuisance organisms may b
produced in select reaches.
Though blackfly larvae are common in unpollutec
streams, an increase in suspended organic food particle
may stimulate increased populations, and abnormally larg<
numbers of larvae have been found downstream from botl
municipal and industrial waste discharges (U.S. Depart
ment of the Interior, FWPCA 1967).65 The larvae feed 01
drifting organic material, and either municipal, agricultural
or certain industrial wastes can provide the base for ai
increased food supply. Bacteria from soils and sewage ma'
be important in outbreaks of blackflies (Fredeen 1964).45
Toxic wastes can also affect situations where nuisano
organisms are found in increased numbers. The mos
obvious mechanism is the destruction of more sensitiv
predators and competitors, leaving the food supply an<
space available for the more tolerant forms. Surber (1959)6
found increased numbers of a tolerant midge, Cncotopu
bicinctus, in waters polluted with chromium. Rotenon
treatment of waters has resulted in temporary massiv
increases in blackfly and midge populations (Cook an<
Moore 1969).41 Increased numbers of midge larvae wer
found in a stream reach six months after a gasoline spil
(Bugbee and Walter 1972).6S The reasons for this are no
clear but may be linked to the more ready invasion of ai
area by these highly mobile insects as compared to les
mobile competitors and predators.
Persons involved in water-based activities in many area
of the world are subject to bilharziasis (schistosomiasis),
debilitating and sometimes deadly disease (World Healt
Organization 1959).66 This is not a problem in the cont
nental United States and Hawaii because of the absence c
a vector snail, but schistosomiasis occurs in Puerto Ric
due to the discharge of human feces containing Schistosom
eggs into waters harboring vector snails, the most importar
species being Biomphalaria glabrata. B. glabrata can surviv
in a wide range of water quality, including facultativ
sewage lagoons; and people are exposed through conta<
with shallow water near the infected snails. Cercariae she
by the snail penetrate the skin of humans and enter th
bloodstream.
Of local concern in water-contact recreation in th
United States is schistosome dermatitis, or swimmers' itc
(Cort 1928,42 Mackenthun and Ingram 1967,58 Fettero
et al. 1970).44 A number of schistosome cercariae, noi
specific for humans, are able to enter the outer layers <
human skin. The reaction causes itching, and the severil
is related to the person's sensitivity and prior exposut
history (Oliver 1949).59 The most important of the derm;
titis-producing cercariae are duck parasites (Trichobilharzia
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/19
Snails serving as intermediate hosts include Lymnaea, Physa,
and Gyraulus (Cort 1950).43 Although swimmers' itch has
wide distribution, in the United States it is principally
endemic to the north central lake region. Occasional inci-
dence is reported in marine waters (Stunkard and Hinchliflfe
1952)."2
About 90 per cent of severe swimmers' itch outbreaks are
associated with Cercaria stagnicolae shed from varieties of the
snail Lymnaea emarginata. This relationship is promoted by
(1) clean, sandy beaches ideal for swimming and preferred
by the snail; (2) peak populations of the snail host that
develop in sandy-bottomed lakes of glacial origin; (3) the
greatest development of adult snails that do not die off
until toward the end of the bathing season; and (4) the
cycle of cercarial infection so timed that the greatest num-
bers of cercariae emerge during the hot weather in the
middle of the summer when the greatest amount of bathing
is done (Brackett 1941).89 Infected vector snails are also
found throughout the United States in swamps, muddy
ponds, and ditches; but dermatitis rarely results, because
humans seldom use these areas without protective clothing.
In some marine recreational waters jellyfish or sea nettles
are serious problems. Some species possess stinging mecha-
nisms whose cnidoblast filaments can penetrate human skin
causing painful, inflammed weals. The effects of water
quality on their abundance is not known, but Schultz and
Cargo (1971)61 reported that the summer sea nettle,
Chrysaora quinquecirrha, has been a problem in Chesapeake
Bay since colonial days. When these nettles are abundant,
swimming is practically eliminated and fishermen's nets
and traps are clogged.
Conclusion
The role of water quality in either limiting or
augmenting the production of vector and nuisance
organisms involves many interrelationships which
are not clearly understood. Since organic wastes
generally directly or indirectly increase biomass
production, there may be an attendant increase
in vector or nuisance organisms. Some wastes
favor their production by creating water quality
or habitat conditions that limit their predators
and competitors. Increased production of vector
and nuisance organisms may degrade a healthy
and desirable human environment and be ac-
companied by a lessening of recreational and aes-
thetic values (see the discussion of Aquatic Life
and Wildlife in this Section, p. 35.)
EUTROPHICATION AND NUTRIENTS
Man's recent concern with eutrophy relates primarily to
lakes, reservoirs, rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters that
have been or are being over-fertilized through society's
carelessness to a point where beneficial uses are impaired
or threatened. With increasing urbanization, industriali-
zation, artificial soil fertilization, and soil mantle disruption,
eutrophication has become a serious problem affecting the
aesthetic and recreational enjoyment of many of the nation's
waters.
Defining Eutrophication and Nutrients
Lakes have been classified in accordance with their
trophic level or bathymetry as eutrophic, oligotrophic,
mesotrophic, or dystrophic (National Academy of Sciences
1969,97 Russell-Hunter 1970,106 Warren 1971,114 Stewart
and Rohlich 1967).107 A typical eutrophic lake has a high
surface-to-volume ratio, and an abundance of nutrients
producing heavy growth of aquatic plants and other vege-
tation; it contains highly organic sediments, and may have
seasonal or continuous low dissolved-oxygen concentrations
in its deeper waters. A typical oligotrophic lake has a low
surface-to-volume ratio, a nutrient content that supports
only a low level of aquatic productivity, a high dissolved-
oxygen concentration extending to the deep waters, and
sediments largely inorganic in composition. The character-
istics of mesotrophic lakes lie between those of eutrophic
and oligotrophic lakes. A dystrophic lake has waters brown-
ish from humic materials, a relatively low pH, a reduced
rate of bacterial decomposition, bottom sediments usually
composed of partially decomposed vegetation, and low
aquatic biomass productivity. Dystrophication is a lake-
aging process different from that of eutrophication. Whereas
the senescent stage in eutrophication may be a productive
marsh or swamp, dystrophication leads to a peat bog rich
in humic materials but low in productivity.
Eutrophication refers to the addition of nutrients to
bodies of water and to the effects of those nutrients. The
theory that there is a natural, gradual, and steady increase
in external nutrient supply throughout the existence of a
lake is widely held, but there is no support for this idea of
natural eutrophication (Beeton and Edmondson 1972).74
The paleolimnological literature supports instead a concept
of trophic equilibrium such as that introduced by Hutchin-
son (1969).91 According to this concept the progressive
changes that occur as a lake ages constitute an ecological
succession effected in part by the change in the shape of the
basin brought about by its filling. As the basin fills and the
volume decreases, the resulting shallowness increases the
cycling of available nutrients and this usually increases
plant production.
There are many naturally eutrophic lakes of such recre-
ational value that extensive efforts have been made to con-
trol their overproduction of nuisance aquatic plants and
algae. In the past, man has often accepted as a natural
phenomenon the loss or decreased value of a resource
through eutrophication. He has drained shallow, senescent
lakes for agricultural purposes or filled them to form building
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20/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
sites. The increasing value of lakes for recreation, however,
will reorder man's priorities, and instead of accepting such
alternative uses of lakes, he will divert his reclamation
efforts to salvaging and renovating their recreational values.
Artificial or cultural eutrophication results from increased
nutrient supplies through human activity. Many aquatic
systems have suffered cultural eutrophication in the past
50 years as a consequence of continually increasing nutrient
loading from the wastes of society. Man-induced nutrients
come largely from the discharge of municipal and industrial
wastewaters and from the land runoff effects of agricultural
practices and disruption of the soil mantle and its vege-
tative cover in the course of land development and con-
struction. If eutrophication is not to become the future
major deterrent to the recreational and aesthetic enjoyment
of water, it is essential that unnatural additions of nutrients
be kept out of water bodies through improved wastewater
treatment and land management.
Effects of Eutrophication and Nutrients
Green Lake, a lowland lake with high recreation use in
Seattle, is an example of a natural eutrophic lake (Sylvester
and Anderson I960),109 formed some 25,000 years ago after
the retreat of the Vashon glacier. During the ensuing
years, about two-thirds of the original lake volume was
filled with inorganic and organic sediments. A core taken
near the center of the lake to a sediment depth of 20.5 feet
represented a sediment accumulation over a period of ap-
proximately 6,700 years. Organic, nutrient, and chlorophyll
analyses on samples from the different sediment depths
indicated a relatively constant rate of sedimentation, sug-
gesting that Green Lake has been in a natural state of
eutrophy for several thousands of years.
The recreational and aesthetic potential of the lake was
reduced for most users by littoral and emergent vegetation
and by heavy blooms of blue-green algae in late summer.
The aquatic weeds provided harborage for production of
mosquitoes and interfered with boating, swimming, fishing,
access to the beach, and model boat activities. The heavy,
blue-green algal blooms adhered to swimmers. The wind
blew the algal masses onto the shore where they decomposed
with a disagreeable odor. They dried like a blue-green paint
on objects along the shoreline, rendered boating and fishing
unattractive, and accentuated water line marks on boats.
Nevertheless, through the continuous addition of low-
nutrient dilution water by the City of Seattle (Oglesby
1969),98 Green lake has been reclaimed through a reversal
of the trophic development to mesotrophic and is now
recreationally and aesthetically acceptable.
Lake Washington is an example of a large, deep, oligo-
trophic-mesotrophic lake that turned eutrophic in about
35 years, primarily through the discharge of treated and
untreated domestic sewage. Even to laymen, the change
was rapid, dramatic, and spectacular. In the period of a
year, the apparent color of the lake water turned from
bluish-green to rust as a result of massive growths of th<
blue-green alga, Oscillatoria rubescens. This threat to aesthetii
and recreational enjoyment was a key factor in voter ap
proval of Metro, a metropolitan sewer district. Metro ha,
greatly reduced the nutrient content of the lake and conse
quent algal growth by diverting wastewater discharges ou
of the drainage basin (Edmondson 1969,82 1970).83
Lake Sammamish at the northern inlet of Lake Wash
ington appeared to be responding to the enrichment i
received from treated sewage and other nutrient waste
although it had not yet produced nuisance conditions tc
the extent found in Lake Washington (Edmondson 1970).8
However, subsequent diversion of that waste by Metro hai
resulted in little or no detectable recovery in three years, j
period that proved adequate for substantial recovery ir
Lake Washington (Emery et al. 1972).86 Lake Sebasticook
Maine, affords another example of undesirable enrichment
Although previously in an acceptable condition, it became
obnoxious during the 1960's in response to sewage and £
wide variety of industrial wastes (HEW 1966).112 The
nutrient income of Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire
has been studied to determine the cause of nuisance blooms
of blue-green algae (Edmondson 1969).82 The well-knowr
Jakes at Madison, Wisconsin, including Monona, Waubesa,
and Mendota, have been the object of detailed studies 01
nutrient sources and their deteriorating effect on water
quality (Sawyer 1947,106 Mackenthun et al. I960,95 Ed-
mondson 1961,80 1968).81
A desirable aspect of eutrophication is the ability ol
mesotrophic or slightly eutrophic lakes typically to produce
greater crops of fish than their oligotrophic or nutrient-pooi
counterparts. As long as nuisance blooms of algae anc
extensive aquatic weed beds do not hinder the growth o
desirable fish species or obstruct the mechanics and aes-
thetics of fishing or other beneficial uses, some enrichmen
may be desirable. Fertilization is a tool in commercial anc
sport fishery management used to produce greater crops o
fish. Many prairie lakes in the east slope foothills of the
Rocky Mountains would be classed as eutrophic according
to the characteristics discussed below, yet many of thes<
lakes are exceptional trout producers because of the higl
natural fertility of the prairie (Sunde et al. 1970).108 As at
example of an accepted eutrophic condition, their water
are dense with plankton, but few would consider reducing
the enrichment of these lakes.
Streams and estuaries, as well as lakes, show symptom:
of over-enrichment, but there is less opportunity for builduj
of nutrients because of the continual transport of water
Although aquatic growths can develop to nuisance pro
portions in streams and estuaries as a result of over-enrich
ment, manipulation of the nutrient input can modify tht
situation more rapidly than in lakes.
Man's fertilization of some: rivers, estuaries, and marine
embayments has produced undesirable aquatic growths o
algae, water weeds, and slime: organisms such as Cladophora
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/21
Ulva, Potamogeton, and Sphaerotilus. In addition to interfering
with other uses, as in clogging fishing nets with slime
(Lincoln and Foster 1943),94 the accompanying water-
quality changes in some instances upset the natural fauna
and flora and cause undesirable shifts in the species compo-
sition of the community.
Determination of Trophic Conditions
It should be emphasized that (a) eutrophication has a
significant relationship to the use of water for recreational
and aesthetic enjoyment as well as the other water uses
discussed in this book; (b) this relationship may be desirable
or undesirable, depending upon the type of recreational
and aesthetic enjoyment sought; and (c) the possible dis-
advantages or advantages of eutrophication may be viewed
subjectively as they relate to a particular water use. There
are no generally accepted guidelines for judging whether a
state of eutrophy exists or by what criteria it may be meas-
ured, such as production of biomass, rate of productivity,
appearance, or change in water quality. Ranges in primary
productivity and oxygen deficit have been suggested as
indicative of eutrophy, mesotrophy, and oligotrophy by
Edmondson (1970)83 and Rodhe (1969),104 but these ranges
have had no official recognition.
The trophic state and natural rate of eutrophication that
exists, or would exist, in the absence of man's activities is
the basis of reference in judging man-induced eutrophi-
cation. The determination of the natural state in many
water bodies will require the careful examination of past
data, referral to published historical accounts, recall by
"old-timers," and perhaps the examination of sediment
cores for indicator species and chemical composition. The
following guidelines are suggested in determining the refer-
ence trophic states of lakes or detecting changes in trophic
states. Determination of the reference trophic state ac-
companied by studies of the nutrient budget may reveal
''that the lake is already in an advanced state of eutrophy.
For temperate lakes, a significant change in indicator com-
munities or a significant increase in any of the other four
indices, detectable over a five-year period or less, is con-
sidered sufficient evidence that accelerated eutrophication
is occurring. An undetectable change over a shorter period
would not necessarily indicate a lack of accelerated eutrophi-
cation. A change detectable only after five years may still
indicate unnaturally accelerated eutrophication, but five
years is suggested as a realistic maximum for the average
monitoring endeavor. Where cultural eutrophication is sus-
pected and changes in indices are not observable, analysis
of sediment cores may be necessary to establish the natural
state. The dynamic characteristics and individuality of
lakes may produce exceptions to these guidelines. They are
not infallible indicators of interference with recreation, but
for now they may serve as a beginning, subject to modifi-
cation as more complete data on the range of trophic con-
ditions and their associated effects become available.
Primary Productivity Ranges in the photosynthetic
rate, measured by radioactive carbon assimilation, have
been suggested by Rodhe (1969)104 as indicative of trophic
conditions (Table 1-2).
Biomass Chlorophyll a is used as a versatile measure
of algal biomass. The ranges presented for mean summer
chlorophyll a concentration determined in epilim'netic water
supplies collected at least biweekly and analyzed according
to Standard Methods (American Public Health Assoc.,
American Water Works Assoc., and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation 1971)70 are indices of the trophic stage of a
lake: oligotrophic, 0-4 mg chlorophyll a/m3; eutrophic,
10-100 mg chlorophyll a/m3.
These ranges are suggested after reviewing data on
chlorophyll concentrations and other indicators of trophic
state in several lakes throughout the United States and
Canada. Of greatest significance are data from Lake Wash-
ington which show that during peak enrichment, mean
summer chlorophyll a content rose to about 27 mg/m3 and
that the lake was definitely eutrophic. The post nutrient
diversion summer mean declined to about 7 mg/m3, and
the lake is now more typically mesotrophic (Edmondson
1970;83 chlorophyll a values corrected to conform to recent
analytical techniques). Unenriched and relatively low pro-
ductive lakes at higher elevations in the Lake Washington
drainage basin show mean summer chlorophyll a contents
of 1 to 2 mg/m3. Moses Lake, which can be considered
hypereutrophic, shows a summer mean of 90 mg/m3
chlorophyll a (Bush and Welch 1972).76
Oxygen Deficit Criteria for rate of depletion of hy-
polimnetic oxygen in relation to trophic state were reported
by Mortimer (1941)96 as follows:
oligotrophic
<250 mg O2/m2/day
eutrophic
>550 mg O2/m2/day
This is the rate of depletion of hypolimnetic oxygen de-
termined by the change in mean concentration of hypolim-
netic oxygen per unit time multiplied by the mean depth
of the hypolimnion. The observed time interval should be
at least a month, preferably longer, during summer stratifi-
cation.
TABLE 1-2—Ranges in Photosynthetic Rate for Primary
Productivity Determinations*
Period
Oligotrophic
Eutrophic
Mean daily rates in a growing season, mgC/myday 30-100
Todl annual rates, gC/mVyear .. . 7-75
300-3000
75-700
« Measured by total carbon uptake per square meter of water surface per unit of time. Productivity estimates should
be determined from at least monthly measurements according to Standard Methods.
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Assot, and Water Pollution Control Federation
1971"; Rodbe IMS.™
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22/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
Indicator Communities The representation of cer-
tain species in a community grouping in fresh water en-
vironments is often a sensitive indicator of the trophic state.
Nutrient enrichment in streams causes changes in the size
of faunal and floral populations, kinds of species, and
numbers of species (Richardson 1928,103 Ellis 1937,84 Patrick
1949," Tarzwell and Gaufin 1953110). For example, in a
stream typical of the temperate zone in the eastern United
States degraded by organic pollution the following shifts
in aquatic communities are often found: in the zone of
rapid decomposition below a pollution source, bacterial
counts are increased; sludgeworms (Tubificidae), rattail
maggots (Eristalis tenax) and bloodworms (Chironomidae)
dominate the benthic fauna; and blue-green algae and the
sewage fungus (Sphaerohlus) become common (Patrick
1949," Tarzwell and Gaufin 1953,110 Patrick et al. 1967100).
Various blue-green algae such as Schizothrix calcicola, Micro-
coleus vaginatus, Microcystis aeruginosa, and Anabaena sp. are
commonly found in nutrient-rich waters, and blooms of
these and other algae frequently detract from the aesthetic
and recreational value of lakes. Diatoms such as Nitzschia
palea, Gomphonema parvulum, Navicula cryptocephala, Cyclotella
meneghiniana, and Melosira varians are al"O often abundant
in nutrient-rich water (Patrick and Reimer 1966).101 Midges,
leeches, blackfly larvae, Physa snails, and fingernail clams
are frequently abundant in the recovery zone.
Nutrients Chemicals necessary to the growth and
reproduction of rooted or floating flowering plants, ferns,
algae, fungi, or bacteria are considered to be nutrient
chemicals. All these chemicals are not yet known, but those
that have been identified are classified as macronutrients,
trace elements or micronutrients, and organic nutrients.
The macronutrients are calcium, potassium, magnesium,
sodium, sulfur, carbon and carbonates, nitrogen, and phos-
phorus. The micronutrients are silica, manganese, zinc,
copper, molybdenum, boron, titanium, chromium, cobalt,
and perhaps vanadium (Chu 1942,77 Arnon and Wessell
1953,72 Hansen et al. 1954).89 Examples of organic nutrients
are biotin, Bi2, thiamine, and glycylglycine (Droop 1962).79
Some of the amino acids and simple sugars have also been
shown to be nutrients for heterotrophs or partial hetero-
trophs.
Plants vary as to the amounts and kinds of nutrients they
require, and as a result one species or group of species of
algae or aquatic plants may gain dominance over another
group because of the variation in concentration of nutrient
chemicals. Even though all the nutrients necessary for
plant growth are present, growth will not take place unless
environmental factors such as light, temperature, and sub-
strate are suitable. Man's use of the watershed also in-
fluences the sediment load and nutrient levels in surface
waters (Leopold et al. 1964,93 Bormann and Likens 1967).75
Thomas (1953)111 found that the important factor in
artificial eutrophication was the high phosphorus content
of domestic wastes. Nitrogen became the limiting growth
factor if the algal demand for phosphorus was met. Nu-
merous studies have verified these conclusions (Americar
Society of Limnology and Oceanography 1972).71
Sawyer (1947)106 determined critical levels of inorganic
nitrogen (300 jug/1 N) and inorganic phosphorus (10 jug/
P) at the time of spring overturn in Wisconsin lakes. I
exceeded, these levels would probably produce nuisance
blooms of algae during the summer. Nutrient concentration;
should be maximum when measured at the spring overturr
and at the start of the growing season. Nutrient concen
trations during active growth periods may only indicate
the difference between amounts absorbed in biomass (sus
pended and settled) and the initial amount biologicall)
available. The values, therefore, would not be indicative
of potential algal production. Nutrient content should \x
determined at least monthly (including the time of spring
overturn) from the surface, mid-depth, and bottom. These
values can be related to water volume in each stratum, and
nutrient concentrations based on total lake volume can be
derived.
One of the most convincing relationships between maxi-
mum phosphate content at the time of lake overturn and
eutrophication as indicated by algal biomass has beer
shown in Lake Washington (Edmondson 1970).83 During
the years when algal densities progressed to nuisance levels.
mean winter PO4-P increased from 10-20 jug/1 to 57 jug/1.
Following diversion of the sewage mean PO4-P decreased
once again to the preenrichmerit level. Correlated with the
PO4-P reduction was mean summer chlorophyll a content.
which decreased from a mean of 27 jug/1 at peak enrichrnenl
10 less than 10 jug/1, six years, after diversion was initiated,
Although difficult to assess, the rate of nutrient inflow
more closely represents nutrient availability than does
nutrient concentration because of the dynamic character
of these nonconservative materials. Loading rates are usuall)
determined annually on the basis of monthly monitoring ol
water flow, nutrient concentration in natural surface and
groundwater, and wastewater inflows.
Vollenweider (1968)113 related nutrient loading to mear
depths for various well-know a lakes and identified trophic
states associated with induced eutrophication. These find-
ings showed shallow lakes to be clearly more sensitive tc
nutrient income per unit area than deep lakes, because
nutrient reuse to perpetuate nuisance growth of algae in-
creased as depth decreased. From this standpoint nutrient
loading was a more valid criterion than nutrient concen-
tration in judging trophic state, Examples of nutrient load-
ings which produced nuisance conditions were about 0.3
g/m2/yr P and 4 g/'m2/yr N for a lake with a mean depth
of 20 meters, and about 0.8 g/m2/yr P and 11 g/m2/yr N
for a lake with a mean depth of 100 meters.
These suggested criteria apply only if other requirements
of algal growth are met, such as available light and water
retention time. If these factors limit growth rate and the
increase of biomass, large amounts of nutrients may move
through the system unused, and nuisance conditions may
not occur (Welch 1969).115
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/23
Carbon (C) is required by all photosynthetic plants. It
may be in the form of COa in solution, HCO^, or COJ°.
Carbamine carboxylate, which may form by the complexing
of calcium or other carbonates and amino compounds in
alkaline water, is an efficient source of COa (Hutchinson
1967).90 Usually carbon is not a limiting factor in water
(Goldman et al. 1971).88 However, King (1970)92 estimated
that concentrations of CO2 less than 3 micromoles at equi-
librium favored blue-green algae, and concentrations greater
than this favored green algae.
Cations such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, and po-
tassium are required by algae and higher aquatic plants
for growth, but the optimum amounts and ratios vary.
Furthermore, few situations exist in which these would be
in such low supply as to be limiting to plants. Trace ele-
ments either singly or in combination are important for the
growth of algae (Goldman 1964).86 For example molyb-
denum has been demonstrated to be a limiting nutrient in
Castle Lake. Deficiencies in trace elements are more likely
to occur in oligotrophic than in eutrophic waters (Goldman
1972).87
The vitamins important in promoting optimum growth
in algae are biotin, thiamin, and Bi2. All major groups
require one or more of these vitamins, but particular species
may or may not require them. As Provasoli and D'Agostino
(1969)102 pointed out, little is known about the requirement
for these vitamins for growth of algae in polluted water.
Under natural conditions it is difficult to determine the
effect of change in concentrations of a single chemical on
the growth of organisms. The principal reasons are that
growth results from the interaction of many chemical,
physical, and biological factors on the functioning of an
organism; and that nutrients arise from a mixture of chemi-
cals from farm, industrial, and sanitary wastes, and runoff
from fields. However, the increase in amounts and types of
nutrients can be traced by shifts in species forming aquatic
communities. Such biotic shifts have occurred in western
Lake Erie (Beeton 1969).« Since 1900 the watershed of
western Lake Erie has changed with the rapidly increasing
human population and industrial development, as a result
of which the lake has received large quantities of sanitary,
industrial, and agricultural organic wastes. The lake has
become modified by increased concentrations of dissolved
solids, lower transparency, and low dissolved oxygen concen-
tration. Blooms of blue-green algae and shifts in inverte-
brate populations have markedly increased in the 1960's
(Davis 1964, "Beeton 1969).73
Summary of Measurement of Nutrient Enrichment
Several conditions can be used to measure nutrient en-
richment or its effects:
• a steady decrease over several years in the dissolved
oxygen content of the hypolimnion when measured
prior to fall overturn, and an increase in anaerobic
areas in the lower portion of the hypolimnion;
• an increase in dissolved materials, especially nu-
trients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and simple
carbohydrates;
• an increase in suspended solids, especially organic
materials;
• a shift in the structure of communities of aquatic
organisms involving a shift in kinds of species and
relative abundances of species and biomass;
• a steady though slow decrease in light penetration;
• an increase in organic materials and nutrients, es-
pecially phosphorus, in bottom deposits;
• increases in total phosphorus in the spr'ng of the
year.
Recommendations
The principal recommendations for aesthetic and
recreational uses of lakes, ponds, rivers, estuaries,
and near-shore coastal waters are that these uses
continue to be pleasing and undiminished by ef-
fects of cultural activities that increase plant nu-
trients. The trophic level and natural rate of
eutrophication that exists, or would exist, in these
waters in the absence of man's activities is con-
sidered the reference level and the commonly de-
sirable level to be maintained. Such water should
not have a demonstrable accelerated production
of algae growth in excess of rates normally ex-
pected for the same type of waterbody in nature
without man-made influences.
The concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen
mentioned in the text as leading to accelerated
eutrophication were developed from studies for
certain aquatic systems: maintenance of lower
concentrations may or may not prevent eutrophic
conditions. All the factors causing nuisance plant
growths and the level of each which should not be
exceeded are not known. However, nuisance
growths will be limited if the addition of all wastes
such as sewage, food processing, cannery, and in-
dustrial wastes containing nutrients, vitamins,
trace elements, and growth stimulants are care-
fully controlled and nothing is added that causes
a slow overall decrease of average dissolved oxygen
concentration in the hypolimnion and an increase
in the extent and duration of anaerobic conditions.
AQUATIC VASCULAR PLANTS
Aquatic vascular plants affect water quality, other aquatic
organisms, and the uses man makes of the water. Generally,
the effects are inversely proportional to the volume of the
water body and directly proportional to the use man wishes
to make of that water. Thus the impact is often most
significant in marshes, ponds, canals, irrigation ditches,
rivers, shallow lakes, estuaries and embayments, public
water supply sources, and man-made impoundments. Dense
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241'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
growths of aquatic vascular plants are not necessarily due
to human alteration of the environment. Where an ap-
propriate environment for plant growth occurs, it is ex-
tremely difficult to prevent the growth without changing
the environment. Addition of plant nutrients can cause
aquatic vascular plants to increase to nuisance proportions
in waters where natural fertility levels are insufficient to
maintain dense populations (Lind and Cottam 1969).147 In
other waters where artificial nutrient additions are not a
problem, natural fertility alone may support nuisance
growths (Frink 1967).186
Interrelationships With Water Quality
Through their metabolic processes, manner of growth,
and eventual decay, aquatic vascular plants can have sig-
nificant effects on such environmental factors as dissolved
oxygen and carbon dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate
alkalinity, pH, nutrient supplies, light penetration, evapo-
ration, water circulation, current velocity, and sediment
composition. The difficulty in understanding the inter-
relationships among plant growth and water quality is
described in part by Lathwell et al. (1969).144 Diurnal
oxygen rhythm with maximum concentrations in the after-
noon and minimums just before dawn is a universally-
recognized limnological phenomenon, and metabolic ac-
tivities of vascular plants can contribute to these rhythms.
The effect of aquatic plants on dissolved oxygen within a
reach of stream at a particular time of day is a function of
the plant density and distribution, plant species, light in-
tensity, water depth, turbidity, temperature, and ambient
dissolved oxygen. Oxygen production is proportional to
plant density only to a certain limit; when this limit is
exceeded, net oxygen production begins to decrease and,
with increasing density, the plants become net oxygen con-
sumers (Owens et al. 1969).16!) It is hypothesized that this
phenomenon occurs because the plants become so dense
that some are shaded by other overlying plants. Westlake
(1966)173 developed a model for predicting the effects of
aquatic vascular plant density and distribution on oxygen
balance which demonstrates that if the weeds are concen-
trated within a small area, the net effect of the weeds may
be to consume more oxygen than that produced, even
though the average density may be relatively low.
After reviewing the literature on the direct effects of
plants on the oxygen balance, Sculthorpe (1967)162 con-
cluded that the extent of oxygen enrichment at all sites
varies with changing light intensity, temperature, and plant
population density and distribution. On a cloudy, cool day
community respiration may exceed even the maximum
photosynthetic rate. Although vigorous oxygen production
occurs in the growing season, the plants eventually die and
decay, and the resulting oxygen consumption is spread over
the cooler seasons of the year.
Light penetration is significantly reduced by dense stands
of aquatic vascular plants, and this reduces photosynthetic
rates at shallow depths. Buscemi (1958)129 found that unde:
dense beds of Elodea the dissolved oxygen concentratioi
fell sharply with depth and marked stratification was pro
duced. Severe oxygen depletion under floating mats o
water hyacinth (Lynch et al. 1947),16° duckweed and wate
lettuce (Yount 1963)170 have occurred. Extensive covers o
floating or emergent plants shelter the surface from th<
wind, reduce turbulence and reaeration, hinder mixing
and promote thermal stratification. Dense growths of phyto
plankton may also shade-out submerged macrophytes, anc
this phenomenon is used to advantage in fisheries pone
culture. Fertilization of ponds to promote phytoplanktoi
growth is recommended as a means of reducing the standing
crop of submerged vascular plants (Swingle 1947,167 Surbei
1961166).
Interrelationships of plants with water chemistry were
reported by Straskraba (1965)16S when foliage of dens<
populations of Nuphar, Ceratophyllum, and Myriophyllum wen
aggregated on the surface. He found pronounced stratifi-
cation of temperature and chemical factors and reportec
that the variations of oxygen, pH, and alkalinity were
clearly dependent on the photosynthesis and respiration oi
the plants. Photosynthesis also involves carbon dioxide, and
Sculthorpe (1967)162 found thai: for every rise of 2 mg/1 ol
dissolved oxygen the total carbon dioxide should drop
2.75 mg/1 and be accompanied by a rise in the pH. A rise
in pH will allow greater concentrations of un-ionized am-
monia (see Freshwater Aquatic Life, p. 140).
Hannan and Anderson (1971)137 studied diurnal oxygen
balance, carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity and pH on a
seasonal basis in two Texas ponds less than 1 m deep which
supported dense growths of submerged rooted macrophytes.
One pond received seepage water containing free carbon
dioxide and supported a greater plant biomass. This pond
exhibited a diurnal dissolved-oxygen range in summer from
0.8 to 16.4 mg/1, and a winter range from 0.3 to 18.0 mg/1.
The other pond's summer diurnal dissolved-oxygen range
was 3.8 to 14.9 mg/1 and the winter range was 8.3 to 12.3
mg/1. They concluded that (a) when macrophytes use bi-
carbonate as a carbon source, they liberate carbonate and
hydroxyl ions, resulting in an increase in pH and a lowered
bicarbonate alkalinity; and (b) the pH of a macrophyte
community is a function of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-
carbonate ionization phenomena as altered by photosynthe-
sis and community respiration.
Dense colonies of aquatic macrophytes may occupy up
to 10 per cent of the total volume of a river and reduce the
maximum velocity of the current to less than 75 per cent
of that in uncolonized reaches (Hillebrand 1950,139 as re-
ported by Sculthorpe 1967162). This can increase sediment
deposition and lessen channel capacity by raising the sub-
strate, thus increasing the chance of flooding. Newly de-
posited silt may be quickly stabilized by aquatic plants,
further affecting flow.
Loss of water by transpiration varies between species and
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Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/25
growth forms. Otis (1914)168 showed that the rate of tran-
spiration of Nymphaea odorata was slightly less than the rate
of evaporation from a free water surface of equivalent area,
but that of several emergent species was up to three times
greater. Sculthorpe (1967)162 postulated that transpiration
from the leaves of free-floating rosettes could be at rates six
times greater than evaporation from an equivalent water
surface. Loss of water through water hyacinth was reported
by Das (1969)133 at 7.8 times that of open water.
Interrelationships With Other Biota
Aquatic macrophytes provide a direct or indirect source
of food for aquatic invertebrates and fish and for wildlife.
The plants provide increased substrate for colonization by
epiphytic algae, bacteria, and other microorganisms which
provide food for the larger invertebrates which, in turn,
provide food for fish. Sculthorpe (1967)162 presented a well-
documented summary of the importance of a wide variety
of aquatic macrophytes to fish, birds, and mammals. Sago
pondweed (Potamogeton pectmatus) illustrates the opposite
extreme in man's attitude toward aquatic macrophytes:
Timmons (1966)168 called it the most noxious plant in
irrigation and drainage ditches of the American west,
whereas Martin and Uhler (1939)166 considered it the most
important duck food plant in the United States.
Aquatic vegetation and flotage breaking the water surface
enhance mosquito production by protecting larvae from
wave action and aquatic predators and interfering with
mosquito control procedures. Two major vectors of malaria
in the United States are Anopheles quadnmaculatus east of the
Rocky Mountains, and A. freeborni to the west (Carpenter
and La Casse 1955).130 Anopheline mosquitoes are generally
recognized as permanent pool breeders. The more important
breeding sites of these two mosquitoes are freshwater lakes,
swamps, marshes, impoundment margins, ponds, and seep-
age areas (Carpenter and La Casse 1955).130 The role of
various aquatic plant types in relation to the production
and control of A. quadnmaculatus on artificial ponds and
reservoirs indicates that the greatest problems are created
by macrophytes that are (1) free-floating, (2) submersed
and anchored but which break the water surface, (3) floating
leaf anchored, and (4) emersed floating-mat anchored (U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service, and Tennessee Valley Authority 1947).169
In addition to vector mosquitoes, pestiferous mosquitoes
develop in association with plant parts in shoreline areas.
Jenkins (1964)142 provided an annotated list and bibli-
ography of papers dealing with aquatic vegetation and
mosquitoes.
Generally, submersed vascular plants have lower nutrient
requirements than filamentous algae or phytoplankton
(Mulligan and Baranowski 1969) ,157 Plants with root systems
in the substrate do not have to compete with phytoplankton,
periphyton, or non-rooted macrophytes for the phosphorus
in the sediments.
Boyd (1971b),126 relating his earlier work on emergent
species (Boyd 1969,122 1970a,123 197la125) to that of Stake
(1967,163 1968164) on submerged species, stated that in the
southern United States most of the total net nutrient ac-
cumulation by aquatic vascular plants occurs by midspring
before peak dry matter standing crop is reached, and that
nutrients stored during early spring growth are utilized for
growth later. Thus nutrients are removed from the environ-
ment early in the season, giving the vascular hydrophytes
a competitive advantage over phytoplankton. Boyd (1967)121
also reported that the quantity of phosphorus in aquatic
plants frequently exceeds that of the total water volume.
These phenomena may account for the high productivity
in terms of macrophytes which can occur in infertile waters.
However, if the dissolved phosphorus level is not a limiting
factor for the phytoplankton, the ability to utilize sediment
phosphorus is not a competitive advantage for rooted plants.
Further interaction between aquatic vascular plants and
phytoplankton has been demonstrated recently in studies
showing that concentrations of dissolved organic matter can
control plant growth in lakes by regulating the availability
of trace metals and other nutrients essential to plant photo-
synthesis. An array of organic-inorganic interactions shown
to suppress plant growth in hardwater lakes (Wetzel 1969,174
1971176) appear to operate in other lake types and streams
(Breger 1970,127 Malcolm et al. 1970,162 Allen 1971116).
Wetzel and Allen in press (1971)176 and Wetzel and Manny
(1972)177 showed that aquatic macrophytes near inlets of
lakes can influence phytoplankton growth by removing'
nutrients as they enter the lake while at the same time
producing dissolved organic compounds that complex with
other nutrients necessary to phytoplankton growth. Manny
(1971,153 1972154) showed several mechanisms by which
dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) compounds regulate
plant growth and rates of bacterial nutrient regeneration.
These control mechanisms can be disrupted by nutrients
from municipal and agricultural wastes and dissolved or-
ganic matter from inadequately treated wastes.
Effects on Recreation and Aesthetics
It is difficult to estimate the magnitude of the adverse
effects of aquatic macrophytes in terms of loss of recreational
opportunities or degree of interference with recreational
pursuits. For example, extensive growths of aquatic macro-
phytes interfere with boating of all kinds; but the extent of
interference depends, among other things, on the growth
form of the plants, the density of the colonization, the
fraction of the waterbody covered, and the purposes, atti-
tudes, and tolerance of the boaters. Extremes of opinion on
the degree of impact create difficulty in estimating a mone-
tary, physical, or psychological loss.
Dense growths of aquatic macrophytes are generally ob-
jectionable to the swimmer, diver, water skier, and scuba
enthusiast. Plants or plant parts can be at least a nuisance
to swimmers and, in extreme cases, can be a factor in
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26/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
drowning. Plants obstruct a diver's view of the bottom and
underwater hazards, and fronds can become entangled in
a scuba diver's gear. Water skiers' preparations in shallow
water are hampered by dense growths of plants, and fear
of falling into such growths while skiing detracts from en-
joyment of the sport.
Rafts of free-floating plants or attached plants which
have been dislodged from the substrate often drift onto
beaches or into swimming areas, and time and labor are
entailed in restoring their attractiveness. Drying and decay-
ing aquatic plants often produce objectionable odors and
provide breeding areas for a variety of insects.
Sport fishermen have mixed feelings about aquatic macro-
phytes. Fishing is often good around patches of lily pads,
over deeply-submerged plants, and on the edges of beds of
submerged weeds which rise near the surface. On the other
hand, dense growths may restrict the movement and feeding
of larger fish and limit the fishable area of a waterbody.
Aquatic plants entangle lures and baits and can prevent
fishermen from reaching desirable fishing areas.
Marshes and aquatic macrophytes in sparse or moderate
densities along watercourse and waterbody margins aug-
ment nature study and shoreline exploration and add to the
naturalistic value of camping and recreation sites. It is
only when the density of the growths, or their growth
forms, become a nuisance and interfere with man's ac-
tivities that he finds them objectionable. An indication of
how often that occurs is provided by McCarthy (1961),156
who reported that on the basis of a questionnaire sent to
all states in 1960, there were over 2,000 aquatic vegetation
control projects conducted annually, and that most states
considered excessive growth of aquatic vegetation a serious
and increasing problem.
The aesthetic value of aquatic macrophytes is in the
mind of the beholder. The age-old appeal of aquatic plants
is reflected in their importance as motifs in ancient archi-
tecture, art, and mythology. Aquatic gardens continue to
be popular tourist attractions and landscaping features,
and wild aquatic plant communities have strong appeal to
the artist, the photographer, and the public. To many,
these plants make a contribution of their own to the beauty
of man's environment.
Control Considerations
Aquatic vascular plants can be controlled by several
methods: chemical (Hall 1961,136 Little 1968148); biological
(Avault et al. 1968,117 Maddox et al. 1971,161 Blackburn
et al. 1971120); mechanical (Livermore and Wunderlich
1969149); and naturalistic environmental manipulation (Pen-
found 1953).160 General reviews of control techniques have
been made by Holm et al. (1969),141 Sculthorpe (1967),162
and Lawrence (1968).145
Harvesting aquatic vascular plants to reduce nutrients
as a means of eutrophication control has been investigated
by Boyd (1970b),124 Yount and Grossman (1970),171 an
Peterson (1971).161 Although many investigators have n
ported important nutrients in various aquatic plants, tr
high moisture content of the vegetation as it is harveste
has been an impediment to economic usefulness. Peterso
(1971)161 reported the cost per pound of phosphorus, n
trogen, and carbon removed from a large lake supportin
dense growths of aquatic vascular plants as $61.19, $8.2
and $0.61 respectively.
Nevertheless, improved methods of harvesting and proc
essing promise to reduce the costs of removing these bothei
some plants and reclaiming their nutrients for animal an
human rations or for soil enrichment. Investigation int
the nutritive value of various aquatic plants has frequentl
been an adjunct of research on the efficiency and econom
of harvesting and processing these plants in a a effort t
remove nuisance growth from lakes and streams. Extensiv
harvesting of aquatic vegetal ion from plant-clogged Cadd
Lake (Texas-Louisiana) was followed by plant analysi
and feeding trials. The dehydrated material was found to b
rich in protein and xanthophyll (Cregeretal. 1963,132 Couc
et al. 1963131). Bailey (1965)llfl reported an average of 38'
milligrams of xanthophyll per pound of vacuum oven-driei
aquatic plant material with about 19 per cent proteir
Hentges (1970),13S in cooperation with Bagnall (1970),'
in preliminary tests with cattle fed press-dehydrated aquati
forage, found that pelleted Hydrilla verticillata (Florid
elodea) could be fed satisfactorily as 75 per cent of a bal
anced ration. Bruhn et al. (1971)128 and Koegel et al
(1972)143 found 44 per cent mineral and 21 per cent protei
composition in the dry matter of the heat coagulum of th
expressed juice of Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllw
spicatum). The press residue, further reduced by cuttin
and pressing to 16 per cent of the original volume and 3
per cent of the original weight, could readily be spread fo
lawn or garden mulch.
Control measures are undertaken when plant growt
interferes with human activities beyond some ill-define-
point, but too little effort has been expended to determin
the causes of infestations and too little concern has bee
given the true nature of the biological problem (Boyi
1971b).126 Each aquatic macrophyte problem under con
sideration for control should be treated as unique, th
biology of the plant should tie well understood, and all th
local factors thoroughly investigated before a technique i
selected. Once aquatic macrophytes are killed, space fo
other plants becomes available. Nutrients contained in th
original plants are released for use by other species. Long
term control normally requires continued efforts. Herbi
cides may be directly toxic to fish, fish eggs, or invertebrate
important as fish food (Eipper 1959,134 Walker 1965,1'
Hiltibran 1967).140 (See the discussion of Pesticides, pp
182-186, in Section III.) C'n man-made lakes, reservoir
and ponds the potential for invasion by undesirable aquati
-------
Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/27
plants may be lessened by employing naturalistic methods
which limit the available habitat and requirements of par-
ticular species. It is difficult to predict what biotic form will
replace the species eliminated. Boyd (1971 b)126 states that
in some Florida lakes, herbicide applications have upset
the balance between rooted aquatics and phytoplankton,
resulting in nuisance phytoplankton blooms that were
sometimes more objectionable than the original situation.
Control of aquatic vascular plants can be a positive
factor in fisheries management (Leonard and Cain 1961) ;146
but when control projects are contemplated in multi-pur-
pose waters, consideration should be given to existing inter-
dependencies between man and the aquatic community.
For example: what biomass of aquatic vascular plants is
necessary to support waterfowl; what biomass will permit
boating; what is a tolerable condition for swimming; must
the shoreline be clear of plants for wading; will shore
erosion increase if the shoreline vegetation is removed? The
interference of aquatic vascular plant communities in human
activities should be controlled with methods that stop short
of attempted plant eradication.
Recommendation
The complex interrelationships among aquatic
vascular plants, associated biota, water quality,
and the activities of humans call for case-by-case
evaluation in assessing the need for management
programs. If management is undertaken, study of
its potential impacts on the aquatic ecosystem and
on various water uses should precede its imple-
mentation.
INTRODUCTION OF SPECIES
Extent and Types of Introductions
Purposeful or accidental introductions of foreign aquatic
organisms or transplantations of organisms from one drain-
age system to another can profoundly influence the aesthetic
appeal and the recreational or commercial potential of
affected waterbodies. The introduction of a single species
may alter an entire aquatic ecosystem (Lachner et al.
1970).188 An example of extreme alteration occurred with
the invasion of the Great Lakes by the sea lamprey (Petro-
myzon marinus) (Mofiett 1957,190 Smith 1964197). Introduced
and transplanted species account for about half of the fish
fauna of Connecticut (Whitworth et al. 1968),199 California
(Shapovalov et al. 1959),195 Arizona, and Utah (Miller
1961).189 The nature of the original aquatic fauna is ob-
scured in many cases, and some indigenous species have
been adversely affected through predation, competition,
hybridization, or alteration of habitat by the introduced
species. Exotics that have established reproducing popu-
lations in the United States (exclusive of the Hawaiian
Islands) include 25 species offish (Lachner et al. 1970),18g
more than 50 species of land and aquatic mollusks (Abbott
1950),178 and over 20 species of aquatic vascular plants
(Hotchkiss 1967)185 in addition to aquatic rodents, reptiles,
amphibians, insects, and crustaceans.
Growths of native aquatic vascular plants and a variety
of exotic species commonly interfere with recreation and
fishing activities (see p. 25) and a variety of other water
uses including industrial and agricultural use (Holm et al.
1969,184 Sculthorpe 1967).194 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) caused loss of almost $43 million through combined
deleterious effects in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and
Louisiana in 1956 (Wunderlich 1962).200 Penfound and
Earle (1948)m estimated that the annual loss caused by
water hyacinth in Louisiana before the growths were
brought under control averaged $5 million and in some
years reached $15 million. Water chestnut (Trapa natans)
produced beds covering 10,000 acres within ten years of its
introduction near Washington, D.C. (Rawls 1964).193 The
beds blocked navigation and provided breeding sites for
mosquitoes, and their hard spined seed cases on the shore-
lines and bottom were a serious nuisance to swimmers,
waders, and people walking the shores. Eurasian milfoil
(Myriophyllum spicatum) infested 100,000 acres in Chesapeake
Bay. The plants blocked navigation, prevented recreational
boating and swimming, interfered with seafood harvest,
increased siltation, and encouraged mosquitoes (Cronin
1967).182
Invertebrate introductions include the Asian clam (Cor-
bicula mamlensis), a serious pest in the clogging of industrial
and municipal raw water intake systems and irrigation
canals (Sinclair 1971),196 and an oriental oyster drill
(Tntonalia japonica) considered the most destructive drill in
the Puget Sound area (Korringa 1952).187
Some Results of Introductions
Some introductions of exotics, e.g., brown trout (Salmo
trutta), and some transplants, e.g., striped bass (Morone
saxatilis) from the Atlantic to the Pacific and coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) from the Pacific to the Great Lakes,
have been spectacularly successful in providing sport and
commercial fishing opportunities. Benefits of introductions
and transplantations of many species in a variety of aquatic
situations are discussed by several authors in A Century of
Fisheries in North America (Benson 1970).179
The success of other introductions has been questionable
or controversial. In the case of carp (Cyprinus carpis), the
introduction actually decreased aesthetic values because of
the increased turbidity caused by the habits of the carp.
The increased turbidity in turn decreased the biological
productivity of the waterbody. The presence of carp has
lowered the sportfishing potential of many waterbodies
because of a variety of ecological interactions. The grass
carp or white amur (Ctenopharyngodon idella), a recent impor-
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28/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
tation, has been reported from several major river systems
including the Mississippi as far north as Illinois (Lopinot
personal communication 1972).201 Pelzman (1971),191 in recom-
mending against introducing grass carp into California,
concluded that their impact on established game fish would
be detrimental and that they might become more trouble-
some than the common carp. This view was expressed
earlier by Lachner et al. (1970)188 in considering the impact
of establishment of the species in major river systems. The
walking catfish (Glorias batrachus), accidentally released from
outdoor, holding ponds of aquarium fish dealers in southern
Florida, quickly established reproducing populations in a
variety of habitats (Idyll 1969).186 Natural ponds have pro-
duced up to 3,000 pounds per acre of this species and there
is no current American market for its flesh. This aggressive
and omniverous species apparently reduces the entire fresh-
water community to walking catfish (Lachner et al. 1970).188
Introductions by Official Agencies
The objectives of introductions of new species by agencies
include pond culture; aquatic plant control; insect control;
forage; predation; and improvement of sport and com-
mercial fishing. Boating, swimming, and sport and com-
mercial fin and shellfishing are influenced by water quality
and the biotic community. Lachner et al. (1970),188 after
reviewing the history of exotic fish releases, concluded that
most official releases satisfy certain social wishes but have
not served effective biological purposes, and that some may
result in great biological damage. The guidelines of Craig-
head and Dasmann (1966)181 on introduction of exotic big
game species offer an excellent parallel to the considerations
that should precede the introduction of aquatic organisms.
Such guidelines call for (a) the establishment of the need
and determination of the predicted ecological, recreational,
and economic impact; (b) studies of the proposed release
area to determine that it is suitable, that a niche is vacant,
and that indigenous populations will not be reduced or
displaced; (c) life history studies of the organism to de-
termine possible disease interrelationships, hybridization
potential, and the availability of control technology; am
(d) experiments conducted under controlled conditions tha
indicate how to prevent escape of the organism.
The California Fish and Game Commission (Burn
j972)18" investigated introducing the pancora (Aegla laevi
laevis), a small freshwater crab, into streams as a foo<
for trout to increase natural trout production and spor
fishing potential. The plan was ultimately rejected, but th
on-site studies in Chile and the experimental work ii
California illustrate the breadth of consideration necessar
before any informed decision can be reached. Problem
associated with introductions of aquatic animals were th
subject of two recent symposia (Stroud 1969;198 Departmen
of Lands and Forests, Ottawa 1968183). Persons contem
plating introductions are referred for guidelines to th
Committee on Exotic Fishes and Other Aquatic Organism
of The American Fisheries Society. This committee ha
representation from the American Society of Ichthyologist
and Herpetologists and is currently expanding the scope c
its membership to include other disciplines.
Recommendations
Introduction or transplantation of aquatic orga
nisms are factors that can affect aesthetics, boat
ing, swimming, sport and commercial fin am
shellfishing, and a variety of other water uses
Thorough investigations of an organism's potentia
to alter water quality, affect biological relation
ships, or interfere with other water uses shoul(
precede any planned introductions or transplan
tations.
The deliberate introduction of non-indigenou
aquatic vascular plants, particularly in the warme
temperature or tropical regions, is cautione<
against because of the high potential of such plant
for impairing recreational and aesthetic values
Aquaculturists and others should use care to pre
vent the accidental release of foreign species fo
the same reasons.
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WATER QUALITY FOR GENERAL RECREATION, BATHING, AND SWIMMING
Historically, public health officials have been concerned
about the role of sewage-contaminated bathing water in
the transmission of infectious disease. In 1921, the Com-
mittee on Bathing Places, Sanitary Engineering Section,
American Public Health Association, conducted a study
"to determine the extent and prevalence of infections which
may be conveyed by means of swimming pools and other
bathing places" (Simons et al. 1922).226 The results of the
study, though inconclusive, suggested that contaminated
bathing water may transmit infectious agents to bathers.
The Committee attached special importance to the data
they collected on epidemics of conjunctivitis and other skin
diseases, middle ear infections, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and
nasal sinus infections caused by contaminated bathing
waters. However, the 1935 Report of the Committee (now
designated as the Joint Committee on Bathing Places of
the Public Health Engineering Section of the American
Public Health Association and the Conference of State
Sanitary Engineers) included the following statement: "The
summary of the replies in the 1921 report when considered
in the light of known epidemiological evidence, leaves this
committee unconvinced that bathing places are a major
public health problem even though bathing place sanitation,
because of the health considerations involved, should be
under careful surveillance of the public health authorities,
and proper sanitary control of bathing places should be
exercised" (Yearbook of APHA 1936).202
The suggested standards for design, equipment, and
operation of bathing places that were part of the 1935
report included a section entitled "Relative Classification
of Bathing Areas Recommended" (Yearbook of APHA
1936).202 This section reads, in part, as follows:
In passing on waters of outdoor bathing places, three
aides are available: (1) the results of chemical analyses
of the water; (2) the results of bacteriological analysis
of the water; and (3) information obtained by a sani-
tary survey of sources of pollution, flow currents, etc.—
It is not considered practicable or desirable to recom-
mend any absolute standards of safety for the waters
of outdoor bathing places on any of the three above
bases.
In 1939 (Yearbook of APHA 1940)203 and again in 1955
(Yearbook of APHA 1957),204 the Joint Committee surveyed
all state health departments for additional information on
reported cases of illness attributable to bathing places, but
these surveys uncovered little definite information. Con-
taminated bathing waters were suspected in cases of sleeping
sickness, sinus infections, intestinal upsets, eye inflammation,
"swimmers itch", ear infections, and leptospirosis.
Several outbreaks of human leptospirosis, which is pri-
marily an infection of rats and dogs, have been associated
with recreational waters contaminated by the urine of
infected animals (Diesch and McCulloch 1966).210 One
source of infection to man is wading or swimming in waters
contaminated by cattle wastes (Williams et al. 1956,231
Hovens et al. 1941216). Leptospirosis is prevalent among
"wet crop" agricultural workers, employees of abattoirs,
handlers of livestock, and those who swim in stock-watering
ponds. The organism is not ingested but enters the body
through breaks in the skin and through intact mucous
membrane, particularly the conjunctiva.
The most recent reports on disease associated with
swimming suggest that a free-living, benign, soil and water
amoeba of the Naegleria group (Acanthamoeba) may be a
primary pathogen of animals and man. Central nervous
system amoebiasis is usually considered a complication of
amoebic dysentery due to E. histolyhcal; however, recent
evidence proves that Naegleria gruben causes fulmenting
meningoencephalitis (Callicot 1968,208 Butt 1966,207
Fowler and Carter 1965,212 Patras and Andujar 1966224).
The amoeba may penetrate the mucous membrane. Free-
living amoebae and their cysts are rather ubiquitous in
their distribution on soil and in natural waters; and
identifiable disabilities from free-living amoebae, similar to
the situation with leptospirosis, occur so rarely as a result
of recreational swimming in the United States that both
may be considered epidemiological curiosities (Cerva
1971).209
In 1953, the Committee on Bathing Beach Contamination
of the Public Health Laboratory Service of England and
Wales began a five-year study of the risk to health from
29
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ection I—Recreation and Aesthetics
bathing in sewage-polluted sea water and considered "the
practicability of laying down bacteriological standards for
bathing beaches or grading them according to degree of
pollution to which they are exposed" (Moore 1959).222
This committee concluded in 1959 that "bathing in sewage-
polluted sea water carries only a negligible risk to health,
even on beaches that are aesthetically very unsatisfactory."
The consensus among persons who have studied the
relationship between bathing water quality and bathers'
illness appears to be that scientific proof of a direct relation-
ship is lacking, yet there is evidence to suggest that some
relationship exists. Some experts contend that outbreaks of
illness among bathers have not been studied thoroughly
with modern epidemiologic techniques, and that if such
occurrences were to be studied vigorously, specific knowl-
edge about the relationship of bathing water quality to
infectious disease would be established. In some studies
where bathing water was apparently implicated in the
transmission of disease agents, the water quality was rela-
tively poor, yet no attempts were made to define the specific
relationship.
Water quality requirements for recreational purposes
may be divided into two categories: (1) general require-
ments that pertain to all recreational waters, and (2) special
requirements, usually more restrictive, for selected recre-
ational use of water.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL RECREATIONAL
WATERS
Aesthetic Considerations
As has been stressed earlier in this Section (See Applying
Recommendations, p. 10), all waters should be aesthetically
pleasing, but the great variety of locales makes it impossible
to apply recommendations without considering the par-
ticular contexts. Color of swamp waters would hardly be
acceptable for clear mountain streams. Specific recommen-
dations should reflect adequate study of local background
quality and should consider fully the inherent variability
so that the designated values will be meaningful. Therefore,
specific local recommendations might better encompass
ranges, or a daily average further defined by a sampling
period, and possibly an absolute maximum or minimum as
appropriate. The best technical thought should be given to
establishment of such values rather than dependence on
administrative or judicial decision.
Recommendation
All recreational surface waters will be aestheti-
cally pleasing if they meet the recommendations
presented in the discussion of Water Quality for
Preserving Aesthetic Values in this Section, p. 12.
Microbiological Considerations
The hazard posed by pathogenic microorganisms i
recreational water not intended for bathing and swimmin
is obviously less than it would be if the waters were used fo
those purposes, but it is not piossible to state to what degret
Although there is a paucity -of epidemiological data o
illnesses caused by bathing and swimming, there appear t
be no data that analyze the relationship of the quality c
recreational waters not intended for bathing and swimmin
to the health of persons enjoying such waters. Criteri
concerning the presence of microorganisms in water fo
general recreation purposes ;ire not known.
Conclusion
No specific recommendation concerning th
microbiological qualities of general recreations
waters is presented. In most cases of gross micro
biological pollution of surface waters, there will b
concomitant foreign substance of such magnitud
as to cause the water to be aesthetically unac
ceptable.
Chemical Considerations
The human body is capable of tolerating greater concen
trations of most chemicals upon occasional contact with o
ingestion of small quantities of water than are most form
of aquatic life. Therefore, specific recommendations for th
chemical characteristics of a.ll recreational waters are nc
made since such recommendations probably would b
superseded by recommendations for the support of variou
forms of desirable aquatic life. (See Sections III and IV
Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.)
Recommendations
No specific recommendation concerning th
chemical characteristics of general recreations
waters is presented. However, the following genera
recommendations are applicable:
• recreational waters that contain chemicals ii
such concentrations as to be toxic to man i
small quantities are ingested should not be use
for recreation;
• recreational waters that contain chemicals ii
such concentrations as to be irritating to th
skin or mucous membranes of the human bod
upon brief immersion are undesirable.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BATHING AND
SWIMMING WATERS
Since bathing and swimming involve intimate huma
contact with water, special water quality requiremeni
apply to designated bathing and swimming areas. Thes
-------
Water Quality for General Recreation, Bathing, and Swimming/31
requirements are based on microbiological considerations,
temperature and pH, and clarity and chemical character-
istics. They are more precise than the requirements for
general recreational waters. If a body of water cannot meet
these specialized requirements, it should not be designated
a bathing and swimming area but may be designated for
a recreational use that does not involve planned immersion
of the body.
Microbiological Considerations
All recreational waters should be sufficiently free of
pathogenic bacteria so as not to pose hazards to health
through infections, but this is a particularly important
requirement for planned bathing and swimming areas.
Many bodies of water receive untreated or inadequately
treated human and animal wastes that are a potential focus
of human infection.
There have been several attempts to determine the spe-
c'fic hazard to health from swimming in sewage-contami-
nated water. Three related studies have been conducted
in this country, demonstrating that an appreciably higher
overall illness incidence may be expected among swimmers
than among nonswimmers, regardless of the quality of the
bathing water (Smith et al. 1951,229 Smith and Woolsey
1952,227 1961228). More than one half of the illnesses reported
were of the eye, ear, nose, and throat type; gastrointestinal
disturbances comprised up to one-fifth; skin irritations and
other illnesses made up the balance.
Specific correlation between incidence of illness and
bathing in waters of a particular bacterial quality was ob-
served in two of the studies. A statistically significant
increase in the incidence of illness was observed among
swimmers who used a Lake Michigan beach on three se-
lected days of poorest water quality when the mean total
coliform content was 2,300 per 100 ml. However, only the
data concerning these three days could be used in the
analysis and differences in illness were not noted in com-
parison with a control beach over the total season (Smith
et al. 1951).229 The second instance of positive correlation
was observed in an Ohio River study where it was shown
that, despite the relatively low incidence of gastrointestinal
disturbances, swimming in river water having a median
coliform density of 2,700 per 100 ml appears to have caused
a statistically significant increase in illnesses among swim-
mers (Smith and Woolsey 1952).227 No relationship between
illness and water quality was observed in the third study
conducted at salt water beaches on Long Island Sound
(Smith and Woolsey 1961).228
A study in England suggested that sea water carries only
a negligible risk to health even on beaches that were
aesthetically unsatisfactory (Moore 1959).222 The minimal
risk attending such bathing is probably associated with
chance contact with fecal material that may have come
from infected persons.
Neither the English nor the United States salt water
beach studies indicated a causal or associated relationship
between water quality and disease among swimmers and
bathers. While the two United States fresh water studies
suggested some presumptive relationship, the findings were
not definitive enough to establish specific values for micro-
biological water quality characteristics.
Tests using fecal coliform bacteria are more indicative
of the possible presence of enteric pathogenic microorga-
nisms from man or other warm-blooded animals than the
coliform group of organisms. The data for total coliform
levels of the Ohio River Study were reevaluated to de-
termine comparable levels of fecal coliform bacteria (Geld-
reich 1966).213 This reevaluation suggested that a density
of 400 fecal coliform organisms per 100 ml was the approxi-
mate equivalent of 2,700 total coliform organisms per 100
ml. Using these data as a basis, a geometric mean of 200
fecal coliform organisms per 100 ml has been recommended
previously as a limiting value that under normal circum-
stances should not be exceeded in water intended for bathing
and swimming (U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA
1968).230
There may be some merit to the fecal coliform index as an
adjunct in determining the acceptability of water intended
for bathing and swimming, but caution should be exercised
in using it. Current epidemiological data are not materially
more refined or definitive than those that were available in
1935. The principal value of a fecal coliform index is as an
indicator of possible fecal contamination from man or other
warm-blooded animals. A study of the occurrence of
Salmonella organisms in natural waters showed that when
the fecal coliform level was less than 200 organisms per 100
ml, this group of pathogenic bacteria was isolated less
frequently (Geldreich 1970).214 Salmonella organisms were
isolated in 28 per cent of the samples with a fecal coliform
density less than the 200 value, but they were isolated in
more than 85 per cent of the samples that exceeded the
index value of 200 fecal coliform per 100 ml, and in more
than 98 per cent of the samples with a fecal coliform
density greater than 2,000 organisms per 100 ml.
In evaluating microbiological indicators of recreational
water quality, it should be remembered that many of the
diseases that seem to be causally related to swimming and
bathing in polluted water are not enteric diseases or are
not caused by enteric organisms. Hence, the presence of
fecal coliform bacteria or of Salmonella sp. in recreational
waters is less meaningful than in drinking water. Indi-
cators other than coliform or fecal coliform have been sug-
gested from time to time as being more appropriate for
evaluating bathing water quality. This includes the staphylo-
cocci (Favero et al. 1964),211 streptococci and other entero-
cocci (Litsky et al. 1953).218 Recently Pseudomonas aerugmosa,
a common organism implicated in ear infection, has been
isolated from natural swimming waters (Hoadley 1968)216
-------
yi/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
and may prove to be an indicator of health hazards in
swimming water. Unfortunately, to date, none of the al-
ternative microbiological indicators have been supported
by epidemiological evidence.
When used to supplement other evaluative measurements,
the fecal coliform index may be of value in determining the
sanitary quality of recreational water intended for bathing
and swimming. The index is a measure of the "sanitary
cleanliness" of the water and may denote the possible
presence of untreated or inadequately treated human wastes.
But it is an index that should be used only in conjunction
with other evaluative parameters of water quality such as
sanitary surveys, other biological indices of pollution, and
chemical analyses of water. To use the fecal coliform index
as the sole measure of "sanitary cleanliness," it would be
necessary to know the maximum "acceptable" concentra-
tion of organisms; but there is no agreed-upon value that
divides "acceptability" from "unacceptability."* Thus, as
a measure of "sanitary cleanliness," an increasing value in
the fecal coliform index denotes simply a decrease in the
level of cleanliness of the water.
Conclusion
No specific recommendation is made concerning
the presence or concentrations of microorganisms
in bathing water because of the paucity of valid
epidemiological data.
Temperature Characteristics
The temperature of natural waters is an important factor
governing the character and extent of the recreational ac-
tivities, primarily in the warm months of the year. Persons
engaging in winter water recreation such as ice skating,
duck hunting, and fishing do so with the knowledge that
whole body immersion must be avoided. Accidental im-
mersion in water at or near freezing temperatures is dan-
gerous because the median lethal immersion time is less
than 30 minutes for children and most adults (Molnar
1946).220 Faddists swim in water that is near the freezing
temperature, but their immersion time is short, and they
have been conditioned for the exposure. As a result of
training, fat insulation, and increased body heat production,
some exceptional athletic individuals (Korean pearl divers
and swimmers of the English channel) can withstand pro-
longed immersion for as long as 17 hours in water at 16 C
(61 F), whereas children and some adults might not survive
beyond two hours (Kreider 1964).217
From one individual to another, there is considerable
variation in the rates of body cooling and the incidence of
TABLE 1-3—Life Expectancy in Water
(Expected duration in hows for adults wearing file vests and immersed in waters of varying temperature)
Duration
hours
0.5
I.*
2.0
3.0
4.0
32
0
M
L
L
L
I
41
5
M
M
L
L
L
50
10
M
L
L
Temperature of the water
59 61
15 20
Hr S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
M "I
78
25
S
S
S
S
86
30
S
S
S
S
S
95
35
S
S
S
S
S
104 P=
40 C°
M
L
L
L
L
* If an arbitrary value for the fecal coliform index is desired, con-
sideration may be given to a density value expressed as a geometric
mean of a series of samples collected during periods of normal seasonal
flow. A maximum value of 1,000 fecal coliform per 100 ml could be
considered.
L= Lethal, 100 per cent expectancy of death.
M= Marginal, 50 per cent expectancy of unconsciousness, probably drowning.
S=Sale, 100 per cent survival.
Adapated from tables by Pan American Airways and others.
survival in cold water. The variability is a function of bod
size, fat content, prior acclimatization, ability to exercise
and overall physical fitness. The ratio of body mass t
surface area is greater in large, heavy individuals, and the!
mass changes with temperature more slowly than that of
small child (Kreider 1964).217
With the exception of water temperatures affected b
thermal springs, ocean currents such as the Gulf Strean:
and man-made heat, the temperature of natural water i
the result of air temperature:, solar radiation, evaporatior
and wind movement. Many natural waters are undesirabl
cold for complete body immersion even during the summe
period. These include coastal waters subjected to cold cut
rents such as the Labrador Current on the northeaster
coastline or the California Current in the Pacific Ocea
(Meyers et al. 1969).219 In a.ddition, some deep lakes an
upwelling springs, and streams and lakes fed from meltin
snow may have summer surface temperatures too cold fc
prolonged swimming for children.
The most comfortable temperature range for instructions
and general recreational swimming where the metaboli
rate of heat production is not high—i.e., about 250 kil
calories/hr (1000 BTUs/hr) —appears to be about 29-30 (
(84—86 F). In sprint swimming when metabolic rates excee
500 kilo calories/hr (2,000 BTUs/hr), swimmers can pei
form comfortably in water temperatures in the range (
20-27 C (68-80 F) (Bullard and Rapp 1970).206
The safe upper limit of water temperature for recreatiom
immersion varies from individual to individual and seen
to depend on psychological rather than physiological cor
siderations. Unlike cold water, the mass/surface area rati
in warm water favors the child. Physiologically, neithe
adult nor child would experience thermal stress undc
modest metabolic heat production as long as the wate
temperature was lower than the normal skin temperatui
of 33 C (91 F) (Newburgh 1949).223 The rate at which hej
is conducted from the immersed human body is so rapi
that thermal balance for a 'body at rest in water can onl
be attained if the water temperature is about 34 C (92 J
(Beckman 1963).205 The survival of an individual submerge
-------
Water Quality for General Recreation, Bathing, and Swimming/ZZ
in water at a temperature above 34-35 C (93-95 F),
depends on his tolerance to the elevation of his internal
temperature, and there is a real risk of injury with prolonged
exposure (Table 1-3). Water ranging in temperature from
26-30 C (78-86 F) is comfortable to most swimmers
throughout prolonged periods of moderate physical exertion
(Bullard and Rapp 1970).206 Although data are limited,
natural surface waters do not often exceed skin temperature,
but water at 32 C (90 F) is not unusual for rivers and
estuaries (Public Works 1967).225
Recommendation
In recreational waters used for bathing and
swimming, the thermal characteristics should not
cause an appreciable increase or decrease in the
deep body temperature of bathers and swimmers.
One hour of continuous immersion in waters colder
than 15 C (59 F) may cause the death of some
swimmers and will be extremely stressful to all
swimmers who are not garbed in underwater pro-
tective cold-clothing. Scientific evidence suggests
that prolonged immersion in water warmer than
34-35 C (93-94 F) is hazardous. The degree of
hazard varies with water temperature, immersion
time, and metabolic rate of the swimmer.
pH Characteristics
Some chemicals affect the pH of water. Many saline,
naturally alkaline, or acidic fresh waters may cause eye
irritation because the pH of the water is unfavorable.
Therefore, special requirements concerning the pH of
recreational waters may be more restrictive than those
established for public water supplies.
The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a normal pH of
approximately 7.4 and a high buffering capacity due pri-
marily to the presence of complex organic buffering agents.
As is true of many organic buffering agents, those of the
lacrimal fluid are able to maintain the pH within a narrow
range until their buffering capacity is exhausted. When the
lacrimal fluid, through exhaustion of its buffering capacity,
is unable to adjust the immediate contact layer of another
fluid to a pH of 7.4, eye irritation results. A deviation of
no more than 0.1 unit from the normal pH of the eye may
result in discomfort, and appreciable deviation will cause
severe pain (Mood 1968).221
Ideally, the pH of swimming water should be approxi-
mately the same as that of the lacrimal fluid, i.e., 7.4.
However, since the lacrimal fluid has a high buffering
capacity, a range of pH values from 6.5 to 8.3 can be
tolerated under average conditions. If the water is rela-
tively free of dissolved solids and has a very low buffering
capacity, pH values from 5.0 to 9.0 may be acceptable to
most swimmers.
Conclusion
For most bathing and swimming waters, eye irri-
tation is minimized and recreational enjoyment
enhanced by maintaining the pH within the range
of 6.5 and 8.3 except for those waters with a low
buffer capacity where a range of pH between 5.0
and 9.0 may be tolerated.
Clarity Considerations
It is important that water at bathing and swimming
areas be clear enough for users to estimate depth, to see
subsurface hazards easily and clearly, and to detect the
submerged bodies of swimmers or divers who may be in
difficulty. Aside from the safety factor, clear water fosters
enjoyment of the aquatic environment. The clearer the
water, the more desirable the swimming area.
The natural turbidity of some bathing and swimming
waters is often so high that visibility through the water is
dangerously limited. If such areas are in conformance with
all other requirements, they may be used for bathing and
swimming, provided that subsurface hazards are removed
and the depth of the water is clearly indicated by signs that
are easily readable.
Conclusion
Safety and enhancement of aesthetic enjoyment
is fostered when the clarity of the water in desig-
nated bathing and swimming areas allows the de-
tection of subsurface hazards or submerged bodies.
Where such clarity is not attainable, clearly read-
able depth indicators are desirable.
Chemical Considerations
It is impossible to enumerate in specific terms all the
specialized requirements that pertain to the chemical quality
of bathing and swimming waters. In general, these require-
ments may be quantified by analyzing the conditions
stipulated by two kinds of human exposure, i.e., ingestion
and contact. A bather involuntarily swallows only a small
amount of water while swimming, although precise data
on this are lacking.
Recommendation
Prolonged whole body immersion in the water is
the principal activity that influences the required
chemical characteristics of recreational waters for
bathing and swimming.
The chemical characteristics of bathing and
swimming waters should be such that water is
nontoxic and nonirritating to the skin and the
mucous membranes of the human body. (See also
the Recommendations on p. 30.)
-------
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIALIZED RECREATION
The recreational enjoyment of water involves many ac-
tivities other than water contact sports. Some of these, such
as boating, may have an adverse effect on the quality of
water and require berthing and launching facilities that in
themselves may degrade the aesthetic enjoyment of the
water environment. Others, such as fishing, waterfowl
hunting, and shellfish harvesting, depend upon the quality
of water being suitable for the species of wildlife involved.
Because they are water-related and either require or are
limited by specific water-quality constituents for their con-
tinuance, these specialized types of recreation are given
individual attention.
BOATING
Boating is a water-based recreational activity that re-
quires aesthetically pleasing water for its full enjoyment.
Boats also make a contribution to the aesthetic and recre-
ational activity scene as the sailboat or canoe glides about
the water surface or the water skier performs. Boating
activity of all types has an element of scale with larger and
faster boats associated with larger waterbodies. Many of
the problems associated with boating are essentially vio-
lations of scale.
Boating activities also have an impact on water quality.
The magnitude of the impact is illustrated by recent esti-
mates that there are more than 12 million pleasure boats in
the United States (Outboard Boating Club 1971).236 More
than 8 million of these are equipped with engines, and
300,000 have sanitary facilities without pollution contro]
devices. Because of the large number of boats in use, many
bodies of water are now experiencing problems that ad-
versely affect other water uses, such as public water supply,
support of aquatic life, and other types of water-based
recreation.
The detrimental effect of boating on water quality comes
from three principal sources: waste disposal systems, engine
exhaust, and refuse thrown overboard. Discharges from
waste disposal systems on boats are individually a small
contribution to contamination and may not be reflected
in water-quality sampling, but they represent a potential
health hazard and an aesthetic nuisance that must be co
trolled in or near designated swimming areas. Pathoge
in human waste are probably the most important contan
nant in the discharges, because of their potential effect i
human health (see discussions on Special Requirements (
Bathing and Swimming Waters, p. 30, and Shellfish, p. 3f
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended soli
(SS) are also involved in the discharges, but the quantiti
are not likely to have any measurable effect on over:
water quality. In view of this, it would appear that prima
emphasis should be on the control of bacteria from sanita
systems.
The exhaust of internal combustion engines and the u
burned fuel of the combustion cycle affect aesthetic enjc
ment and may impart undesirable taste and odors to wat
supplies and off-flavors to aquatic life. Crankcase exhai
from the two-cycle engine can discharge as much as
per cent of the fuel to the water in an unburned sta
while 10 to 20 per cent is common (Muratori 1968).233 O
study showed that the use of 2.2-3.5 gal/acre-foot (usi
an oil:fuel mixture of 1:17) will cause some indication
fish flesh tainting, and about 6 gal/acre-foot result in seve
tainting (English et al. 1963).232 (For further discussions
the effects of oil on environments, see Sections III and ]
on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.)
The amount of lead emitted into the water from an 01
board motor burning leaded gasoline (0.7 grams of le
per liter) appears to be related to the size of the motor a
the speed of operation. A 10-hp engine operated at one-h
to three-fourths throttle was shown to emit into the wai
0.229 grams of lead per liter of fuel consumed, whereas
5.6-hp engine operated at full throttle emitted 0.121 grai
per liter (English et al. 1963).232
With respect to interference with other beneficial us
it has been reported that a large municipal water works
experiencing difficulties with oil on the clarification basil
The oil occurs subsequent to periods of extensive weeke
boating activity during the recreational season (Orsan
Quality Monitor 1969).234 Moreover, bottles, cans, plasti
and miscellaneous solid wastes commonly deface wati
where boaters are numerous, thereby degrading the e
vironment aesthetically.
34
-------
Water Quality Considerations for Specialized Recreation/35
Waste discharge including sanitary, litter, sullage, or
bilge from any water craft substantially reduces the water
quality of harbors and other congested areas. The practice
is aesthetically undesirable and may constitute a health
hazard. When engine emissions from boats spread an oily
film on water or interfere with beneficial uses, as in lowering
the value of fish and other edible aquatic organisms by im-
parting objectionable taste and odor to their flesh, restric-
tions should be devised to limit engine use or reduce the
emissions.
Floating or submerged objects affect boating safety, and
stray electrical currents increase corrosion as do corrosive
substances or low pH values. Growth of hull-fouling orga-
nisms is enhanced by the discharge of high-nutrient-bearing
wastewaters. These conditions represent either a hazard to
boating or an economic loss to the boat operator.
Conclusion
Water that meets the general recommendations
for aesthetic purposes is acceptable for boating.
(see Water Quality for Preserving Aesthetic Values,
pp. 11-12.)
Boats and the impact of boating on water quality
are factors affecting the recreational and aesthetic
aspects of water use and should be considered as
such.
AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
Fish, waterfowl, and other water-dependent wildlife are
an integral part of water-based recreation activities and
related aesthetic values. Wildlife enhances the aesthetic
quality of aquatic situations by adding animation and a
fascinating array of life forms to an otherwise largely static
scene. Observation of these life forms, whether for photo-
graphic, educational nature study, or purely recreational
purposes, is an aesthetically enriching experience. The
economic importance and popularity of recreation involving
the harvest offish, shellfish, waterfowl, and water-dependent
furbearers have been discussed earlier. Water-quality char-
acteristics recommended for the well-being of aquatic life
and associated wildlife are discussed in detail in Sections
III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and
Wildlife.
Maintenance of Habitat
Pressures placed on the aquatic environment by the in-
creasing human population are of major concern. They
often lead at least to disruption and occasionally to de-
struction of related life-support systems of desired species.
Examples of this are the complete elimination of aquatic
ecosystems by the filling of marshes or shallow waters for
commercial, residential, or industrial developments, or the
sometimes chronic, sometimes partial, and sometimes total
destruction of aquatic communities by society's wastes.
Effects of cultural encroachment are often insidious rather
than spectacular. Aesthetic values are gradually reduced,
as is recruitment of water-associated wildlife populations.
Maintenance of life-support systems for aquatic life and
water-related wildlife requires adequately oxygenated water,
virtual freedom from damaging materials and toxicants,
and the preservation of a general habitat for routine ac-
tivities, plus the critical habitat necessary for reproduction,
nursery areas, food production, and protection from preda-
tors. Each species has its specific life-support requirements
that, if not adequately met, lead to depauperate populations
or complete species elimination. The life-support systems
essential to the survival of desired aquatic life and wildlife
are required for man to enjoy the full scope of water-related
recreational and aesthetic benefits.
Man is often in direct competition for a given habitat
with many species of aquatic life and wildlife. In some
areas, the use of specific waters for recreation based on
aquatic life and wildlife may be undesirable for a number of
reasons, including potential conflicts with other recreational
activities. Limitations on the use of surface water capable
of providing recreational wildlife observation, hunting, and
fishing under practical management should not be imposed
by unsuitable water quality.
Variety of Aquatic Life
Natural surface waters support a variety of aquatic life,
and each species is of interest or importance to man for
various reasons. While water-based recreation often evokes
thoughts of fishing, there are a number of other important
recreational activities, such as skin diving, shell and insect
collecting, and photography, that also benefit from the
complex interrelationships that produce fish. A variety of
aquatic life is intrinsic to our aesthetic enjoyment of the
environment. Urban waterbodies may be the only local
sites where residents can still conveniently observe and
contemplate a complete web of life, from primary producers
through predators.
Reduction in the variety of aquatic life has long been
widely used as an indication of water-quality degradation.
The degree of reduction in species diversity often indicates
the intensity of pollution because, as a general rule, as
pollution increases, fewer species can tolerate the environ-
ment. Determining the extent of reduction can be ac-
complished by studying the entire ecosystem; but the phe-
nomenon is also reflected in the community structure of
subcomponents, e.g., bottom animals, plankton, attached
algae, or fish. Keup et al. (1967)236 compiled excerpts of
early studies of this type. Mackenthun (1969)237 presented
numerous case studies dealing with different types of pol-
lutants, and Wilhm and Dorris (1968)238 have reviewed
recent efforts to express diversity indices mathematically.
While most water quality recommendations in Sections
III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and
Wildlife are designed for specific and known hazards, it is
-------
Z§/Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
impossible to make recommendations which will protect
all organisms from all hazards, including manipulation of
the physical environment. In similar habitats and under
similar environmental conditions, a reduction in variety of
aquatic life (species diversity) can be symptomatic of an
ecosystem's declining health and signal deterioration of
recreational or other beneficial uses. In addition to mainte-
nance of aquatic community structures, special protective
consideration should be given sport, commercial, and en-
dangered species of aquatic life and wildlife.
Recommendations
To maintain and protect aesthetic values and
recreational activities associated with aquatic life
and wildlife, it is recommended that the water
quality recommendations in the Freshwater and
Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife reports (Sections
III and IV) be applied.
Since changes in species diversity are often as-
sociated with changes in water quality and signal
probable changes in recreational and aesthetic
values, it is recommended that changes in species
diversity be employed as indications that corrective
action may be necessary. (See Section III on Fresh-
water Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and Appendix
II-B on Community Structure and Diversity
Indices.)
SHELLFISH
Shellfish* are a renewable, manageable natural resource
of considerable economic importance, and the water quality
essential to their protection in estuarine growing areas is
discussed by the panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Section IV). However, the impact of shellfish as related to
recreational and aesthetic enjoyment is also important, al-
though difficult to estimate in terms of time and money.
Furthermore, because contaminated shellfish may be har-
vested by the public, it is necessary to protect these people
and others who may eat the unsafe catch.
Clams and oysters are obtained from intertidal areas,
and these marine species have an unusual ability to act as
disease vectors and to accumulate hazardous materials from
the water. As more people are able to seek them in a sports
fishery, the problems of public health related to these
animals intensify.
Because the intent here is to protect persons engaged in
recreational shellfishing, consideration will be given to
numerous factors which affect shellfish and their growing
areas. These include bacteriological quality, pesticides,
marine biotoxins, trace metals, and radionuclides.
Recreational shellfishing should be limited to waters of
quality that allow harvesting for direct marketing. Epi-
* As used here, the term "shellfish" is limited to clams, oysters, arid
mussels.
demiological evidence accumulated through 46 years
operation under the federal-state cooperative Natior
Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) demonstrated reaso
able safety in taking shellfish from approved growing are;
The water quality criteria for determining an "approv
growing area" are the basis of the standards given in t
National Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Op<
ations, Part 1, Sanitation of Shellfish Growing Areas (PHS Pi
No. 33, 1965).261 The growing area may be designated
"approved" when:
(a) the sanitary survey indicates that pathogenic mici
organisms, radionuclides, or toxic wastes do not reach t
area in dangerous concentrations; and
(b) potentially dangerous concentrations are verified
laboratory findings whenever the sanitary survey indica
the need.
Bacteriological Quality
Clams and oysters, which are capable of concentrati
bacteria and viruses, are among the few animals eat
alive and raw by man. For these reasons, the consumpti
of raw shellfish harvested from unclean or polluted watt
is dangerous. Polluted water, especially that receivi
domestic sewage, may contain high numbers of bactei
normally carried in the feces of man and other anima
Although these bacteria may not themselves be harmf
the danger exists that pathogenic bacteria and viruses m
also be present (Lumsden et al. 1925,250 Old and G
1946,257 Mason and McLean 1962,251 Mosley 1964a,
1964b;255 Koff et al. 19G7).248 Shellfish are capable
pumping prodigious quantities of water in their feedi
and concentrating the suspended bacteria and viruses. T
rate of feeding in shellfish is temperature-dependent, w
the highest concentrating and feeding rate occurring
warm water above 50 F and almost no feeding occurri
when the water temperatures approach 32 F. Therefo
shellfish meat in the winter months will have a lov
bacterial concentration than in the summer months (G
bard et al., 1942) ,246 The National Shellfish Sanitati
Program determines the bacteriological quality of comm
cial shellfish harvesting areas in the following manner:
• examinations are conducted in accordance with 1
recommended procedures of the American Pul:
Health Association for the examination of seawa
and shellfish:
• there must be no direct discharges of inadequate
treated sewage;
• samples of water for bacteriological examination ;
collected under those conditions of time and t
which produce maximum concentrations of bacter
• the coliform median most probable number (MP
of the water does not exceed 70 per 100 ml, and i
more than 10 per cent of the samples ordinal
exceed an MPN of 230 per 100 ml for a five-tu
-------
Water Quality Considerations for Specialized Recreation/37
decimal dilution test (or 330 per 100 ml for a three-
tube decimal dilution test) in those portions of the
area most probably exposed to fecal contamination
during the more unfavorable hydrographic and pol-
lution conditions; and
• the reliability of nearby waste treatment plants is
considered before areas for direct harvesting are
approved.
Recommendation
Recreational harvesting of shellfish should be
limited to areas where water quality meets the
National Shellfish Sanitation Program Standards
for approved growing areas.
Pesticides
Pesticides reach estuarine waters from many sources in-
cluding sewage and industrial waste discharge, runoff from
land used for agriculture and forestry, and chemicals used
to control aquatic vegetation and shellfish predators. Once
pesticides are in the marine environment, they are rapidly
accumulated by shellfish, sometimes to toxic concentrations.
Organochlorine compounds are usually the most toxic and
frequently have a deleterious effect at concentrations near
0.1 /ig/1 in the ambient water (Butler 1966b).240 Lowe
(1965)249 observed that DDT at a concentration of 0.5 ng/l
in water was fatal to juvenile blue crabs (Callmectes sapidus)
in a few days.
The biological magnification of persistent pesticides by
mollusks in the marine environment may be very pro-
nounced. Butler (1966a)239 observed that DDT may be
concentrated to a level 25,000 times that found in sur-
rounding sea water within 10 days. In some instances, de-
pending upon water temperature, duration of exposure, and
concentration of DDT in the surrounding water, biological
magnification may be 70,000 times (Butler 1966b).240 Some
shellfish species, particularly blue mussel (Mytilus edulis),
appear to have a higher concentration factor than other
species (Modin 1969,253 Foehrenbach 1972).245
In 1966, a nationwide surveillance system was initiated
by the U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries to monitor
permanent mollusk populations and determine the extent
of pesticide pollution in North American estuaries. Butler
(1969)241 reported that sampling during the first three years
did not indicate any consistent trends in estuarine pesticide
pollution. Distinct seasonal and geographical differences in
pollution levels were apparent. Pesticides most commonly
detected in order of frequency were DDT (including its
metabolites), endrin, toxaphene, and mirex. The amounts
detected in North American estuaries varied. In Wash-
ington, less than 3 per cent of the sampled shellfish were
contaminated with DDT. Residues were always less than
0.05 mg/1. On the Atlantic Coast, DDT residues in oysters
varied from less than 0.05 mg/1 in marine estuaries to less
than 0.5 mg/1 in others. In a monitoring program for
TABLE 1-4—Recommended Guidelines for Pesticide Levels
in Shellfish
Pesticide
Aldrin"
BHC
Chlordane
DDT)
DDE) ANY ONE OR ALL, NOT TO EXCEED
ODD)
Dieldrin0
Endrin"
Heplachlofo
Heptachlor Eporide°
Lmdam .
Metho«ychlor
2,4-D
Concentration in shellfish
(ppm-dramed weight)
0.20
0.20
0.03
1.50
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.50
«It is recommended that if the combined values obtained for Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, and Heptachlor
Epoxide exceed 0.20 ppm, such values be considered as"alert" levels which indicate the need for increased samp'inf
until results indicate the levels are receding. It it further recommended that when the combined values tor the
above five pesticides reach the 0.25 ppm level, the areas be closed until it can be demonstrated that the levels an
receding.
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service 19!8.-3
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in estuarine organisms
in marine waters of Long Island, New York, Foehrenbach
(1972)245 found that residues of DDT, ODD, DDE, and
dieldrin in shellfish were well within the proposed limits of
the 6th National Shellfish Sanitation Workshop (1968)262
(see Table 1-4). For most cases, the levels detected were
10- to 20-fold less than the recommendations for DDT and
its metabolites, and in many instances concentrations in
the shellfish were lower by a factor of 100.
Although pesticide levels in many estuaries in the United
States are low, the marked ability of shellfish to concentrate
pesticides indicates that the levels approached in waters
may be considered significant in certain isolated instances
(Environmental Protection Agency 1971).244
Recommendation
Concentrations of pesticides in fresh and marine
waters that provide an adequate level of protection
to shellfish are recommended in the Freshwater
and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Reports,
Sections III and IV. Levels that protect the human
consumer of shellfish should be based on pesticide
concentrations in the edible portion of the shell-
fish. Recommended human health guidelines for
pesticide concentrations in shellfish have been sug-
gested by the 6th National Shellfish Sanitation
Workshop (1968)262, Table 1-4. They are recom-
mended here as interim guidelines.
Marine Biotoxins
Paralytic poisoning due to the ingestion of toxic shellfish,
while not a major public health problem, is a cause of
concern to health officials because of its extreme toxicity,
and because there is no known antidote. Up to 1962, more
-------
38/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
than 957 cases of paralytic shellfish poisoning are known
to have occurred, resulting in at least 222 deaths in the
United States (Halstead 1965).24
Paralytic shellfish poison is a non-protein, acid-stable,
alkali-labile biotoxin nearly 10,000 times as lethal as sodium
cyanide. The original source of the poison is a species of
unicellular marine dinoflagellates, genus Gonyaulax. Gony-
aulax cantenella, perhaps the best known of the toxic dino-
flagellates, is found on the Pacific Coast. Gonyaulax tamarensis
is the causative organism of paralytic shellfish poison on
the Atlantic Coast of Canada and the northern United
States. Other dinoflagellate species have been identified in
outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning outside the United
States (Halstead 1965).247
Mollusks and other seashore animals may become poison-
ous if they consume toxic planktonic algae. Mussels and
clams are the principal species of edible mollusks that
reach dangerous levels of toxicity. Although oysters can
also become toxic, their apparent uptake of toxin is usually
lower; and they are usually reared in areas free of toxin
(Dupuy and Sparks 1968).243
The level of toxicity of shellfish is proportional to the
number and poison content of Gonyaulax ingested. When
large numbers of Gonyaulax are present in the water, shellfish
toxicity may rise rapidly to dangerous levels (Prakash and
Medcof 1962).268 The extent of algal growth depends on
the combination of nutrients, salinity, sunlight, and temper-
ature. Massive blooms of algae are most likely to occur in
the warm summer months. In the absence of toxic algae,
the poison that had been stored in the shellfish is eliminated
by a purging action over a period of time (Sommer and
Meyer 1937).260
Although Gonyaulax only blooms in the warmer months,
shellfish are not necessarily free from toxin during the rest
of the year, as there is great variation in the rates of uptake
and elimination of the poison among the various species of
mollusks. It is possible for certain species to remain toxic
for a long period of time. Butter clams, for example, store
the toxin for a considerable length of time, especially under
cold climatic conditions (Chambers and Magnusson
1950).242
Cooking by boiling, steaming, or pan frying does not
remove the danger of intoxication, although it does reduce
the original poison content of the raw meat to some extent.
Pan frying seems to be more effective than other cooking
methods in reducing toxicity probably because higher
temperatures are involved. If the water in which shellfish
have been boiled is discarded, most of the toxin will be
removed (McFarren et al. 1965).252
A chemical method for the quantitative determination of
the poison has been devised, but the most generally used
laboratory technique for determining the toxicity of shellfish
is a bioassay using mice. The toxin extracted from shellfish
is injected into test mice and the length of time elapsii
from injection of the mice to the time of their death c;
be correlated with the amount of poison the shellfish co
tain. The quantity of paralytic shellfish poison produci
death is measured in mouse units.
Recommendation
Since there is no analytical measurement for tl
biotoxin in water, shellfish should not be harvest*
from any areas even if "approved" where analys
indicates a Gonyaulax shellfish toxin poison coi
tent of 80 micrograms or higher, or where
Ciguateria-like toxin reaches 20 mouse units p
100 grams of the edible portions of raw shellfii
meat.
Trace Metals
The hazard to humans oi" consuming shellfish containii
toxic trace metals has been dramatized by outbreaks
Minimata in Japan. Pringle et al. (1968)259 noted that t
capacity of shellfish to concentrate in vivo some metals
levels many hundred times greater than those in the e
vironment means that moliusks exposed to pollution m;
contain quantities sufficient to produce toxicities in t
human consumer.
Recommendation
Concentrations of metals in fresh and marii
waters that provide an adequate level of protectic
to shellfish are recommended in the Freshwat
and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Section
HI and IV. Recommendations to protect the hi
man consumer of shellfish should be based on trac
metal content of the edible portions of the she!
fish, but necessary data to support such recon
mendations are not currently available.
Radionuclides
Radioactive wastes entering water present a potent
hazard to humans who consume shellfish growing in su
water. Even though radioactive material may be discharg
into shellfish growing waters at levels not exceeding t
applicable standards, it is possible that accumulation
radionuclides in the aquatic food chain may make t
organisms used as food unsafe. The radionuclides Zn66 a
P32 (National Academy of Sciences 1957)256 are known
be concentrated in shellfish by five orders of magnitu
(105). Therefore, consideration must be given to radioacti
fallout or discharges of wastes from nuclear reactors ai
industry into shellfish growing areas. For further discussv
of this subject see Section IV, Marine Aquatic Life ai
Wildlife, p. 270.
-------
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE
WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS
There are still numerous watersheds in the United States
that are remote from population centers. Almost inaccessible
and apparently free from man's developmental influences,
these watersheds are conducive to mental as well as physical
relaxation in the naturalness of their surroundings. To as-
sure the preservation of such natural beauty, the Wild and
Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 established in part a national
system of wild and scenic rivers (U.S. Congress 1968).269
Eight rivers designated in the Act in whole or in part
constituted the original components of the system:
1. Clearwater, Middle Fork, Idaho
2. Eleven Point, Missouri
3. Feather, California
4. Rio Grande, New Mexico
5. Rogue, Oregon
6. Saint Croix, Minnesota and Wisconsin
7. Salmon, Middle Fork, Idaho
8. Wolf, Wisconsin
All or portions of 27 other rivers were mentioned specifi-
cally in the Act as being worthy of inclusion in the system
if studies to be conducted by several federal agencies showed
their inclusion to be feasible. Certainly there are many more
rivers in the nation worthy of preservation by state and
local agencies (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Outdoor Recreation, 1970).270 In Kentucky alone, it was
found that 500 streams and watersheds, near urban areas,
would serve purposes of outdoor recreation in natural en-
vironments (Dearinger 1968).264
Characteristically, such wild river areas are: (a) accessible
to man in only limited degrees; (b) enjoyed by relatively
few people who actually go to the site; (c) visited by scout
troops or other small groups rather than by lone indi-
viduals; and (d) productive of primarily intangible, aesthetic
benefits of real value though difficult to quantify (U.S.
Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission 1962.271
Sonnen et al. 1970267).
The quality of natural streams is generally good, pri-
marily because man's activities leading to waste discharges
are minimal or nonexistent in the area.* However, fecal
coliform concentrations in some natural waters have been
found to be quite high following surface runoff (Betson and
Buckingham unpublished report 1970;273 Kunkle and Meiman
1967266), indicating the possible presence of disease-causing
organisms in these waters. The sources of fecal coliforms in
natural waters are wild and domestic animals and birds,
as well as human beings who occasionally visit the area.
Barton (1969)263 has also reported that natural areas may
contribute significant loads of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
other nutrients to the streams that drain them. These
chemicals can lead to algal blooms and other naturally
occurring but aesthetically unpleasant problems. Barton
(1969)263 also points out the paradox that a significant
contributor to pollution of natural waters is the human
being who comes to enjoy the uniquely unpolluted environ-
ment. In addition to water-quality degradation, man also
contributes over one pound per day of solid wastes or refuse
in campgrounds and wilderness areas, a problem with which
the Forest Service and other agencies must now cope
(Spooner 1971).268
This discussion has concentrated on Wild and Scenic
rivers. However, similar consideration should be given to
the recognition and preservation of other wild stretches of
ocean shoreline, marshes, and unspoiled islands in fresh
and salt waters.
WATER BODIES IN URBAN AREAS
Many large water bodies are located near or in urban and
metropolitan areas. These waters include major coastal
estuaries and bays, portions of the Great Lakes, and the
largest inland rivers. Characteristically, these waters serve
a multiplicity of uses and are an economic advantage to the
* Some of the least mineralized natural waters are those in high
mountain areas fed 6y rainfall or snowmelt running across stable
rock formations. One such stream on the eastern slope of the Rocky
Mountains has been found to have total dissolved solids concentra-
tions often below 50 mg/1, coliform organism concentrations of 0
to 300/ml, and turbidities of less than 1 unit (Kunkle and Meiman
1967).a»
39
-------
40/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
region and to the nation as a whole. In addition to pro-
viding water supplies, they have pronounced effects on local
weather and make possible valuable aesthetic and recre-
ational pleasures, ranging from simple viewing to fishing
and boating.
Large urban waterways, because of their location in
densely populated areas, are heavily used commercially
and are also in great demand for recreational and aesthetic
purposes. Consequently, although swimming and other con-
tact activities cannot always be provided in all such waters,
quality levels supportive of these activities should be en-
couraged.
Water flow in the urban stream tends to be variable and
subject to higher and more frequent flood flows than under
"natural conditions," because storm water runoff from
buildings and hard-surfaced areas is so complete and rapid.
The impaired quality of the water may be due to storm water
runoff, upstream soil erosion, or sewage discharges and low
base flow. Whitman (1968)272 surveyed the sources of pol-
lution in the urban streams in Baltimore and Washington
and reported that sewer malfunctions, many of which might
be eliminated, were the largest causes of poor water quality.
In large metropolitan areas with either separate or com-
bined sewer systems, pollution of the urban waterway can
be expected during heavy rainstorms when the streams may
contain coliform concentrations in the millions per 100 ml.
In addition, these flood waters flow with treacherous swift-
ness and are filled with mud and debris.
Small urban streams are even more numerous. Although
these may have only intermittent flow, they have the ca-
pacity to provide considerable opportunities for a variety
of water-related recreation activities. Unfortunately, these
in-city streams are more often eyesores than they are com-
munity treasures. Trash, litter, and rubble are dumped
along their banks, vegetation is removed, channels are
straightened and concrete stream beds are constructed or
even roofed over completely to form covered sewers.
This abuse and destruction of a potential economic and
social resource need not occur. The urban stream can be
made the focal point of a recreation-related complex. The
needs of the cities are many, and not the least of them is
the creation of a visually attractive urban environment in
which the role of water is crucial.
The reclamation of downtown sections of the San Antonio
River in the commercial heart of San Antonio, Texas, is
perhaps the best known and most encouraging example of
the scenic and cultural potential of America's urban streams
(Gunn et al. 1971).266 From a modest beginning with WPA
labor in the mid-1930's, the restoration of about a one-mile
portion of the river threading its way through the central
business district has resulted in the creation of the Paseo
Del Rio, or River Walk. Depressed below the level of
adjacent streets, heavily landscaped with native and tropical
vegetation, the river is bordered with pleasant promenades
along which diners relax in outdoor cafes. Fountains and
waterfalls add to the visual attractiveness, and open barg
carry groups of tourists or water-borne diners to histoi
buildings, restaurants, clubs, and a River Theater. Mo
popular with both local residents and tourists each year, t
River Walk has proved to be a significant social and ec
nomic development, attracting commercial enterprises
a previously blighted and unattractive area. The Riv
Walk is widely visited and studied as a prototype for urb;
river reclamation, and it demonstrates that urban rive
can serve as the environmental skeleton on which an enti
community amenity of major proportions can be built.
OTHER WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE
Between the remote and seldom used waters of Amerii
at one extreme and the urban waterways at the other a
many unique water recreation spots that are visited ai
enjoyed by large numbers of tourists each year. Amoi
these are Old Faithful, Crater Lake, The Everglades, tl
Colorado River-Grand Canyon National Park, and La]
Tahoe. These ecologically or geologically unique wate
are normally maintained in very nearly their natural coi
ditions, but access to them is freer and their monetai
value is greater than that of the wild rivers. To man
however, their aesthetic value will always be greater the
their monetary value. It is obviously impossible to establi:
nationally applicable quality recommendations for su<
waters. (It would be ludicrous, for example, to expect O
Faithful to be as cool as Crater Lake, or The Everglad
as clear as Lake Tahoe.) Nonetheless, responsible agenci
should establish recommendations for each of these wate
that will protect and preserve their unique values.
Municipal raw water supply reservoirs are often a p
tential source of recreation and aesthetic enjoyment. Pei
odic review of the recreational restrictions to protect wat
quality in such reservoirs could result in provision of ai
ditional recreational and aesthetic opportunities. (See al
the general Introduction, p. 3—4 regarding preservatic
of aquatic sites of scientific value.)
Conclusions
To preserve or enhance recreational and aei
thetic values:
• water quality supportive of general recreation
adequate to provide tor the intended uses of wil
and scenic rivers;
• water quality supportive of general recreation
adequate to protect or enhance uses of urba
streams, provided that economics, flow cor
ditions, and safety considerations make thes
activities feasible;
• special criteria are necessary to protect th
nation's unique recreational waters with regar
to their particular physical, chemical, or bic
logical properties.
-------
LITERATURE CITED
INTRODUCTION
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3 Butler, G. D. (1959), Introduction to community recreation, 3rd ed.
(McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York), p. 10.
4 Doell, C. E. (1963), Elements of park and recreation administration
(Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis), p. 3.
6 Lehman, H. C. (1965), Recreation, in Encyclopedia Britannica 19:
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6 Ragatz, R. L. (1971), Market potential for seasonal homes (Cornell
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'Slater, D. W. (1972), Review of the 1970 national survey. Trans.
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124.
9 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law 90-542,
S. 119, 12 p.
10 U.S. Congress (1965), Federal Water Project Recreation Act, Public
Law 89-72, 79S., July 9, 1965, 213 p.
"U.S. Congress (1968), Estuary Protection Act, Public Law 90-454,
82S.625, August 3, 1968.
12 U.S. Department of the Interior, Press releases, October 30, 1961
and November 10, 1961.
13 U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
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ning.
References Cited
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Branch, Division of Environmental Research and Development,
Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee.
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Basin Studies, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. De-
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18 Stout, N. (1971), personal communication Division of Research and
Education, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, U.S. Department of
the Interior, Washington, D.C.
WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AESTHETIC VALUES
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RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY
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SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS
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VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS
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41
-------
42/'Section I—Recreation and Aesthetics
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EUTROPHICATION AND NUTRIENTS
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233 Muratori, A., Jr. (1968), How outboards contribute to wal
pollution. Conservationist 22(6) :6-8, 31.
234 Orsanco Quality Monitor (1969), (Published by Ohio River Vail
Water Sanitation Commission, 414 Walnut Street, Cincinna
Ohio), May 1969, p. 9.
236 Outboard Boating Club of America (1971), Statement on mai.
sanitation device performance standards, Miami, Florida.
AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
236 Keup, L. E., W. M. Ingram, and K. M. Mackenthun, compile
(1967), Biology of water pollution [U.S. Department of the Interic
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration pub. n
CWA-3] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C
290 p.
237 Mackenthun, K. M. (1969), The practice of water pollution bioh
(Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 281 p.
238 Wilhm, J. L. and T. C. Dorris (1968), Biological parameters 1
water quality criteria. Bioscience 18(6):477-480.
SHELLFISH
239 Butler, P. A. (1966a). Fixation of DDT in estuaries, in Trans. 3
N. Amer. Wildlife and Natural Resources Conf. (Wildlife Manag
ment Institute, Washington, I). C.), pp. 184-189.
240 Butler, P. A. (1966b), Pesticides in the marine environment.
Appl. Ecol. 3:253-259.
241 Butler, P. A. (1969), Monitoring pesticide pollution. Biosciet
19:889-891.
242 Chambers, J. S. and H. W. Magnusson (1950), Seasonal variatu
in toxicity of butter clams from selected Alaska beaches [Special scie
tific report: fisheries no. 53](U.S. Fish and Wildlife Servi(
Washington, D.C.), 10 p.
243Dupuy, J. L. and A. K. Sparks (1968), Gonyaulax washingtonesis,
relationship to Mytilus californianus and Crassostrea gigas as a sour
of paralytic shellfish toxin in Sequim Bay, Washington. Pr
Natl. Shellfish. Ass. 58:2.
244 Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Water Hygier
Water Quality Office (1971), Health guidelines for water i
sources and related land use management, appendix V. heal
aspects: North Atlantic Regional Water Resource Study.
246 Foehrenbach, J. (1972), Chlorinated pesticides in esturine C
ganisms. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 44(4) :61
624.
246 Gibbard, J., A. G. Campbell, A. W. H. Needier, and J. C. Medc<
(1942), Effect of hibernation on control of conform bacteria
oysters. American Journal of Public Health 32:979-986.
247 Halstead, B. W. (1965), Invertebrates, vol. 1 of Poisonous and vet
mous marine animals of the itiorld (Government Printing Offit
Washington, D. C.), 994 p.
248 Koff, R. S., G. F. Grady, T. C. Chalmers, J. W. Mosely, B.
Swartz and the Boston Later-Hospital Liver Group (196'
Viral hepatitis in a group of Boston hospitals. III. Importan
of exposure to shellfish in a non-epidemic period. New Engla
J. Med. 276:703-710.
-------
Literature Cited/'47
248 Lowe, J. I. (1965), Chronic exposure of blue crabs (Callinectes
sapidus) to sublethal concentrations of DDT. Ecology, 46:899.
260 Lumsden, L. L., H. E. Hasseltine, J. P. Leak and M. V. Veldee
(1925), A typhoid fever epidemic caused by oyster-borne in-
fection. Pub. Health Reports, suppl. 50.
261 Mason, J. A. and W. R. McLean (1962), Infectious hepatitis
traced to the consumption of raw oysters. Am. J. Hyg. 75:90—111.
262McFarren, E. F., F. J. Silva, H. Tanabe, W. B. Wilson, J. E.
Campbell, and K. H. Lewis (1965), The occurrence of a cigua-
tera-like poison in oysters, clams, and Gymnodinium breve cultures.
Toxicon 3:111-123.
2HModin, J. C. (1969), Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in
California bays and estuaries. Pesticides Monitoring Jour. 3:1.
264 Mosely, J. W. (1964a), A. Clam-associated infectious hepatitis—
New Jersey and Pennsylvania followup report. Hepatitis sur-
veillance. Report No. 79: 35-36.
266 Mosley, J. W. (1964b), B. Clam-associated infectious hepatitis—
Connecticut. Follow-up report. Hepatitis surveillance, Report
No. ?9:30-34.
266 National Academy of Sciences. Committee on Effects of Atomic
Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries (1957), The effects of
atomic radiation on oceanography and fisheries, report (The Academy,
Washington, D.C.), 137, p.
267 Old, H. N. and S. L. Gill (1946), A typhoid fever epidemic
caused by carrier bootlegging oysters. Am. Jour. Publ. Health 30:
633-640.
268 Prakash, A. and J. C. Medcof (1962), Hydrographic and meteoro-
logical factors affecting shellfish toxicity at Head Harbour, New
Brunswick, J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 19(1):101-112.
26» Pringle, B. H., E. D. Hissong, E. L. Katz, and S. T. Mulawka
(1968), Trace, metal accumulation by estuarine mollusks. J.
Sanit. Eng. Dw. Amer. Sac. Civil Eng. 94(SA3):455-475.
260 Sommer, H. and K. F. Meyer (1937), Paralytic shellfish poisoning.
Archives of Pathology 24(5): 560-598.
261 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public
Health Service (1965), National shelljish sanitation program manual
of operations [PHS Pub. 33 ](Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D. C.), 3 parts, variously paged.
362 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public
Health Service (1968), Proceedings 6th national shellfish sanitation
workshop, G. Morrison, ed. (Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D. C.), 115 p.
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR WATERS
OF SPECIAL VALUE
263 Barton, M. A. (1969), Water pollution in remote recreational
areas. J. Soil Water Conserv. 24(4): 132-134.
264 Dearinger, John A. (1968), Esthetic and recreational potential of small
naturalistic streams near urban areas, research report No. 13 (University
of Kentucky Water Resources Institute, Lexington, Kentucky),
260 p.
266 Gunn, C. A., D. J. Reed and R. E. Couch (1971), Environmental
enhancement. Proceedings 16th Annual Water for Texas Conference,
San Antonio. (Texas Water Resources Institute, Texas A & M
University, College Station, Texas).
266 Kunkle, S. H. and J. R. Meiman (1967), Water quality of mountain
watersheds [Hydrology paper 21] (Colorado State University,
Fort Collins), 53 p.
267 Sonnon, Michael B., Larry C. Davis, William R. Norton and
Gerald T. Orlob (1970), Wild rivers: methods for evaluation. [Pre-
pared for the Office of Water Resources Research, U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior](Water Resources Engineers, Inc., Walnut
Creek, California), 106 p.
268 Spooner, C. S. (1971), Solid waste management in recreational forest
areas [PHS pub. 1991 ](Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D. C.), 96 p.
269 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law
90-542, S. 119, 12 p.
270 U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
(1970), Proceedings: National symposium on wild, scenic, and recrea-
tional waterways, St. Paul, Minnesota, 209 p.
271 U.S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (1962),
Outdoor recreation for America (Government Printing Office, Wash-
inton, D. C.), 246 p.
272 Whitman, I. L. (1968), Uses of small urban river valleys [Ph.D. dis-
sertation] The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland,
299 p.
References Cited
273Betson, R. P. and R. A. Buckingham (1970), Fecal coliform con-
centrations in stormwaters. Unpublished report presented at the 51st
Annual Meeting of the American Geophysical Union, Wash-
ington, D. C. Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Tennessee.
-------
Section II PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
THE DEFINED TREATMENT PROCESS. .
WATER QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS.
SAMPLING AND MONITORING
ANALYTICAL METHODS
GROUND WATER CHARACTERISTICS. ..
WATER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS.
ALKALINITY
Conclusion.
AMMONIA
Recommendation.
ARSENIC.
Recommendation.
BACTERIA
Recommendation.
BARIUM.
Recommendation.
BORON.
CADMIUM
Recommendation.
CHLORIDE
Recommendation.
CHROMIUM
Recommendation.
COLOR.
Recommendation.
COPPER.
Recommendation.
CYANIDE.
Recommendation.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN.
Conclusion. . .
50
50
50
51
52
52
52
54
54
55
55
56
56
57
58
59
59
59
60
60
61
61
62
62
63
63
64
64
65
65
65
65
FLUORIDE
Recommendation.
FOAMING AGENTS
Recommendation.
HARDNESS
Conclusion
IRON.
Recommendation.
LEAD.
Recommendation.
MANGANESE
Recommendation.
MERCURY
Recommendation.
NITRATE-NITRITE
Recommendation.
NITRILOTRIACETATE (NTA).
Conclusion
ODOR.
Recommendation.
OIL AND GREASE
Recommendation.
ORGANICS-CARBON ADSORBABLE.
Recommendation
PESTICIDES
CHLORINATED HYDROCA RBON INSECTICIDES ....
Recommendation
ORGANOPHOSPHORUS ANO CARBAMATE INSECTI-
CIDES
Recommendation
CHLOROPHENOXY HERBICIDES
Recommendation
48
-------
pH.
Recommendation.
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS.
Recommendation..
PHOSPHATE
Recommendation.
PHTHALATE ESTERS.
PLANKTON
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB).. .
Conclusion
RADIOACTIVITY
Recommendation.
SELENIUM
Recommendation.
SILVER.
Conclusion.
Page
80
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
85
86
86
87
87
SODIUM.
Recommendation.
SULFATE.
Recommendation.
TEMPERATURE
Recommendation.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (Filterable Resi-
due)
TURBIDITY
Conclusion
URANYLION
Recommendation.
VIRUSES
Conclusion.
ZINC.
Recommendation.
LITERATURE CITED. . . .
Page
88
88
89
89
89
89
90
90
90
91
91
91
92
93
93
94
49
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INTRODUCTION
Modern water management techniques and a wide va-
riety of available water treatment processes make possible
the use of raw water of almost any quality to produce an
acceptable public water supply. For this reason it is both
possible and desirable to consider water management al-
ternatives and treatment procedures in making recommen-
dations on the quality of raw water needed for public
supplies. Furthermore, these recommendations must be
consistent with the effort and money it is reasonable to
expect an individual, company, or municipality to expend
to produce a potable water supply. Denning a reasonable
effort including treatment processes involves consideration
of present water quality, the degree of improvement in raw
water that is attainable within the bounds of natural con-
trols on water quality, and the help that can be expected
from society in cleaning up its waters. In evaluating the
basis for the recommendations in this Section, the Panel
has left water management alternatives open wherever
possible, but it has made certain arbitrary assumptions
about the treatment process.
The federal Drinking Water Standards for treated water
for public supply (U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962, hereafter referred
to as PHS 19626)* are under review and revision, but the
final standards were not available to the Panel on Public
Water Supplies at the time of publication of this Report.
The Panel did, however, have access to the data, references,
and rationale being considered in the revision of Drinking
Water Standards, and these have had a major influence on
recommendations in this report
THE DEFINED TREATMENT PROCESS
Surface water supplies characteristically contain sus-
pended sediment in varying amounts and are subject to
bacterial and viral contamination. Therefore, it is assumed
that the following defined treatment, and no more, will
be given raw surface water in a properly operated plant
prior to human consumption.
1. coagulation (less than about 50 milligrams per liter
* Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
(mg/1) alum, ferric sulfate, or copperas with alkali or acl
addition as necessary but without coagulant aids or acti
vated carbon);
2. sedimentation (6 hours or less);
3. rapid sand filtration (three gallons per square foe
per minute or more);
4. disinfection with chlorine (without consideration t
concentration or form of chlorine residual).
The panel recognizes that on the one hand some ra\
surface waters will meet federal Drinking Water Standard
with no treatment other than disinfection, and that on th
other hand almost any water, including sea water arn
grossly polluted fresh water, can be made potable for
price by available treatment processes already developec
However, the defined treatment outlined above is con
sidered reasonable in view of both the existing and generall
attainable quality of raw surface waters, and the protectio
made imperative by the current practice of using stream
to transport and degrade waste's. Assumption of the definei
treatment process throughout this Section is not meant I:
deny the availability, need, or practicality of other wate
treatment processes.
Unlike surface waters, ground waters characteristicall
contain little or no suspended sediment and are largel
free of and easily protected from bacterial and viral con
tamination. (See Ground Water Characteristics below for sig
nificant exceptions.) Therefore, no defined treatment is as
sumed for raw ground water designated for use as a publi
supply, although here again this does not deny the avail
ability, need, or practicality of treatment. Ground water
should meet current federal Drinking Water Standards h
regard to bacteriological characteristics and content o
toxic substances, thus permitting an acceptable publii
water supply to be produced with no treatment, providing
natural water quality is adequate in other respects. Th<
recommendations in this section based on consideration
other than bacterial content and toxicity apply to grounc
waters as well as surface waters unless otherwise specified.
WATER QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS
The Panel has defined water quality recommendation:
as those limits of characteristics and concentrations of sub-
50
-------
Introduction /'51
stances in raw waters that will allow the production of a
safe, clear, potable, aesthetically pleasing and acceptable
public water supply after treatment. In making these
recommendations, the Panel recognized that most of the
surface water treatment plants providing water for domestic
use in the United States are relatively small, do not have
sophisticated technical controls, and are operated by indi-
viduals whose training in modern methods varies widely.
The recommendations assume the use of the treatment
process defined above but no more.
Regional variations in natural water quality make it
necessary to apply understanding and discretion when evalu-
ating raw water quality in terms of the recommendations.
Wherever water zoned for public supply fail to meet the
recommendations in all respects, the recommendations can
be considered the minimum goal toward which to work in
upgrading water quality. In some instances the natural
presence of certain constituents in raw water sources may
make the attainment of recommended levels impractical
or even impossible. When such constituents affect human
health, the water cannot be used for public supply unless
the constituent can be brought to Drinking Water Standards
levels through a specially designed treatment process prior
to distribution to consumers. Where health is not a factor,
the natural level of the constituent prior to man-made ad-
ditions can be considered a reasonable target toward which
to work, although determination of "natural quality" may
require considerable effort, expense, and time.
The recommendations in this report should by no means
be construed as latitude to add substances to waters where
the existing quality is superior to that called for in the
recommendations. Degradation of raw water sources of
quality higher than that specified should be minimized in
order to preserve operational safety factors and economics
of treatment.
The Panel considered factors of safety for each of the
toxic substances discussed, but numerical factors of safety
have been employed only where data are available on the
known no-effect level or the minimum effect level of the
substances on humans. These factors were selected on the
basis of the degree of hazard and the fraction of daily
intake of each substance that can reasonably be assigned
to water.
The recommendations should be regarded as guides in
the control of health hazards and not as fine lines between
safe and dangerous concentrations. The amount and length
of time by which values in the recommendations may be
exceeded without injury to health depends upon the nature
of the contaminant, whether high concentrations even for
short periods produce acute poisoning, whether the effects
are cumulative, how frequently high concentrations occur,
and how long they last. All these factors must be considered
in deciding whether a hazardous situation exists.
Although some of the toxic substances considered are
known to be associated with suspended solids in raw surface
waters and might thus be removed to some extent by the
defined treatment process, the degree of removal of the
various dissolved toxic substances is not generally known;
and even if known, it could not be assured under present
treatment practices. Therefore, in the interest of safety, it
has usually been assumed here that there is no removal of
toxic substances as a result of the defined treatment process.
Substances not evaluated in this Section are not neces-
sarily innocuous in public water supply sources. It would be
impractical to prepare a compendium of all toxic, dele-
terious, or otherwise unwelcome agents, both organic and
inorganic, that may enter a surface water supply. In specific
locations it may become necessary to consider substances
not included in this section, particularly where local pol-
lution suggests that a substance may have an effect on the
beneficial use of water for public supplies.
In summary: the recommendations in this Section for raw
water quality for public supplies are intended to assure that the
water will be potable—for surface water, with the defined treatment
process; for ground water, with no treatment. For waters zoned for
public supply but not meeting the recommendations in all respects,
the recommendations can be considered a minimum target toward
which efforts at upgrading the quality should be directed. In some
instances the natural quality of raw water may make meeting
certain recommendations impractical or even impossible. For con-
stituents for which this is the case, and where health is not a factor,
the natural quality of the water can be considered a reasonable
target toward which to work, although determination of "natural
quality" may require considerable effort, expense, and time. Wherever
water quality is found superior to that described in the recommen-
dations, efforts should be made to minimize its degradation.
SAMPLING AND MONITORING
The importance of establishing an effective sampling and
monitoring program and the difficulties involved cannot be
overemphasized. A representative sample of the water
entering the raw water intake should be obtained. Multiple
sampling, chronologically and spatially, may be necessary
for an adequate characterization of the raw water body,
particularly for constituents associated with suspended solids
(Great Britain Department of the Environment 1971;3
Brown et al. 1970;2 Rainwater and Thatcher I9604). Moni-
toring plans should take into account the results of sanitary
surveys (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare 1969 ;7 American Public Health Association, American
Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control
Federation 19711 hereafter referred to as Standard Methods
19715) and the possibility of two types of water quality
hazards: (1) the chronic hazard where constituent concen-
trations are near the limit of acceptability much of the time,
and (2) the periodic hazard caused by upstream release of
wastes or accidental spills of hazardous substances into the
stream. Samples for the determination of dissolved con-
stituents only should be passed through a noncontaminat-
ing filter at time of collection.
-------
52/Section II—Public Water Supplies
ANALYTICAL METHODS
The recommendations are based on the use of analytical
methods for raw water analysis as described in Standard
Methods (1971).5 Other procedures of similar scientific
acceptability are continuously evolving but whatever the
analytical procedure used, the panel assumes that it will
conform to the statistical concepts of precision, accuracy,
and reporting style discussed in the introduction to Standard
Methods (1971).5 Analytical results should indicate whether
they apply to a filtered or unfiltered sample.
GROUND WATER CHARACTERISTICS
Development of water quality recommendations for
ground water must provide for the significant differences
between surface water and ground water. Ground water is
generally not confined in a discrete channel. Its quality
can be measured in detail only with difficulty and at great
expense. A thorough knowledge of the hydrologic char-
acteristics of the ground water body can be obtained only
after extensive study. Movement of ground water can be
extremely slow so that contamination occurring in one part
of an aquifer ma/ not become evident at a point of with-
drawal for several, tens, hundreds, or even thousands of
years.
Wastes mix differently with ground waters than they do
with surface waters. Where allowance for a mixing zone in
the immediate vicinity of a waste outfall can be provided
for in surface water standards under the assumption that
mixing is complete within a short distance downstream,
dispersion of waste in a ground water body may not be
complete for many years. At the same time, the long re-
tention time will facilitate bacterial or chemical reactions
with aquifer components that result in removal or decompo-
sition of a pollutant to the point where it no longer degrades
the aquifer. Because these reactions are imperfectly known
and cannot be predicted at the present time, it is necessary
to monitor the movement of waste in a ground water body
from the point of introduction outward. Bodies of ground
water cannot be monitored adequately by sampling at the
point of use.
Inadvertent or careless contamination of fresh ground
water bodies is occurring today from the leaching of ac-
cumulated salts from irrigation, animal feed lots, road salt,
agricultural fertilizers, dumps, and landfills, or from leakage
of sewer lines in sandy soil, septic tank effluents, petroleum
product pipelines, and chemical waste lagoons. Another
source of contamination is the upward movement of saline
water in improperly plugged wells and drill holes, or as the
result of excessive withdrawal of ground water. Deep-well
injection causes intentional introduction of wastes into saline
ground water bodies.
Because of their common use as private water supplies
in rural areas, all geologically unconfined (water-table)
aquifers could be placed in a classification comparable to
that for raw surface waters used for public water supplies.
Even though not all waters in these aquifers are suitable
for use without treatment, such classification could be used
to prohibit introduction of wastes into them. This in turn
would restrict the use of landfills and other surface disposal
practices. Limited use of the unsaturated zone for disposal
of wastes would still be acceptable, provided that decompo-
sition of organic wastes and sorption of pollutants in the
zone of aeration were essentially complete before the drain
water reached the water table Bodies of artesian ground
water in present use as public and private supplies could
be similarly classified wherever their natural source of re-
charge was sufficient to sustain the current yield and quality.
Disposal of wastes in either of the above types of aquifers
could be expressly forbidden on the basis of their classifi-
cation as public water supplies. Furthermore, before dis-
posal of wastes to the soil or bedrock adjacent to aquifers
used or usable for public supply were permitted, it could
be required that a geologic reconnaissance be made to de-
termine possible effects on ground water quality.
Water quality recommendations for raw ground waters
to be used for public water supplies are more restrictive
than water quality recommendations for raw surface water
source because of the assumption that no treatment will be
given to the ground waters. The distinction between surface
and ground waters is therefore necessary for proper appli-
cation of the recommendations. In certain cases this dis-
tinction is not easily made. For example, collector wells in
shallow river valley alluvium, wells tapping cavernous
limestone, and certain other types of shallow wells may
intercept water only a short distance away, or after only a
brief period of travel, from the: point at which it was surface
water. Springs used as raw water sources present a similar
problem. Choice of the appropriate water quality recom-
mendations to apply to such raw water sources should be
based on the individual situation.
WATER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
The purpose of establishing water quality recommen-
dations and, subsequently, establishing water quality stand-
ards is to protect the nation's waters from degradation and
to provide a basis for improvement of their quality. These
actions should not preclude the use of good water manage-
ment practices. For example, it may be possible to supple-
ment streamflow with ground water pumped from wells, or
to replace ground water removed from an aquifer with
surface water through artificial recharge. These other
sources of water may be of lower quality than the water
originally present, but it should remain a management
choice whether this lower quality is preferable to no water
at all. In arid parts of the nation, water management
practices of this sort have been applied for many years to
partially offset the effects of "mining" of ground water
(i.e., its withdrawal faster than it can be recharged
naturally).
-------
Introduction /53
Furthermore, it is possible, by merely removing ground
water from the aquifer, to degrade the quality of that
remaining—by inducing recharge from a surface or ground
water body of lesser quality. It does not seem reasonable
to forbid the use of the high-quality water that is there
because of this potential degradation. Of what value is it
if it cannot be used?
It would appear, then, that "degradation by choice"
might be an alternative under certain conditions and
within certain limits. This type of degradation is not com-
parable to that resulting from disposal of wastes in the
water body. It is simply the price exacted for using the
water. In the case of mining without artificial recharge,
the philosophy involved is the same as that applied to the
mining of other nonrenewable resources such as metal
ores or fossil fuels. Because considerations of recreation and
aesthetics and the maintenance of fish and wildlife are
generally not involved in this kind of management situation,
it is reasonable that water quality standards should provide
for the mining and artificial recharge of bodies of ground
water zoned for public supply. As in any water manage-
ment program, it would be necessary to understand the
hydrologic system and to monitor changes induced in the
system by management activities.
Preservation of water management choices can be pro-
tected by water use classification. Classification of surface
waters has not been based solely on the fact that those
waters are being used for public supply at the present time.
Presumably it has been based on the decision that the
body of water in question should be usable for public
supply with no more than the routine forms of water
treatment, whether or not it is presently in use for that
purpose. Conversely, failure to zone a body of water for
public supply would not necessarily preclude its use for
that purpose. Selective zoning could thus be used to assure
desirable water management practices.
-------
ALKALINITY
Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of a water to
neutralize acids. Anions of weak acids such as bicarbonate,
carbonate, hydroxide, sulfide, bisulfide, silicate, and phos-
phate may contribute to alkalinity. The species composition
of alkalinity is a function of pH, mineral composition,
temperature, and ionic strength.
The predominant chemical system present in natural
waters is the carbonate equilibria in which carbonate and
bicarbonate ions and carbonic acid are in equilibrium
(Standards Methods 1971).8 The bicarbonate ion is usually
more prevalent. A water may have a low alkalinity but a
relatively high pH value or vice versa, so alkalinity alone
may not be of major importance as a measure of water
quality.
The alkalinity of natural waters may have a wide range.
An alkalinity below 30 to 50 mg/1, as CaGOs, may be too
low to react with hydrolyzable coagulants, such as iron or
aluminum salts, and still provide adequate residual alka-
linity to produce a water that is not excessively corrosive.
Alkalinities below 25 mg/1, as CaCOs, may also lead to
corrosive waters when only chlorination is practiced, since
there would be inadequate buffer capacity to prevent the
pH from dropping appreciably (Weber and Stumm 1963).s
Low alkalinity waters may be difficult to stabilize by
calcium carbonate saturation which would otherwise pre-
vent corrosion of the metallic parts of the system.
High alkalinity waters may have a distinctly unpleasant
taste. Alkalinities of natural waters rarely exceed 400 to
500 mg/1 (as CaCO3).
Conclusion
No recommendation can be made, because the
desirable alkalinity for any water is associated with
other constituents such as pH and hardness. For
treatment control, however, it is desirable that
there be no sudden variations in the alkalinity.
54
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AMMONIA
Ammonia may be a natural constituent of certain ground
waters. In surface waters its concentration is normally 0.1
mg/1 or less as nitrogen. Higher levels are usually indicative
of sewage or industrial contamination (McKee and Wolf
1963).30
Ammonia consumes dissolved oxygen as a result of its
biochemical oxidation to nitrite and nitrate. Reliance on
the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) test (Standard
Methods 197133) for measuring the efficiency of sewage
treatment and the quality of effluents has focused attention
principally on the oxygen requirements of carbonaceous
matter. Ammonia is therefore a common constituent of
treated sewage, and much of the burden of satisfying the
nitrogenous oxygen demand has, in general, been shifted
from the sewage treatment plant to the receiving water
(Sawyer and Bradney 1946,32 Ludzack and Ettinger 1962,29
Johnson and Schroepfer 1964,24 Earth et al. 1966,12 Cour-
chaine 1968,18 Barth and Dean 1970,11'.Holden 1970,22
Earth 1971,10 Great Britain Department of the Environment
1971,21 Mt. Pleasant and Schlickenrieder 197131).
Ammonia is sometimes corrosive to copper and copper
alloys (LaQue and Copson 1963,26 Butler and Ison 196613);
it is also a potential algal and microbial nutrient in water
distribution systems (Larson 1939,27 Ingram and Macken-
thun 196323).
Ammonia has a significant effect on the disinfection of
water with chlorine. The reactions of ammonia with chlorine
result in the formation of chloramine compounds having
markedly less disinfecting efficiency than free chlorine.
Ammonia substantially increases the chlorine demand at
water treatment plants that practice free-residual chlori-
nation. Approximately 10 parts of chlorine per part of
ammonia nitrogen are required to satisfy the ammonia
chlorine demand (Butterfield et al. 1943,16 Butterfield and
Wattie 1946,16 Butterfield 1948,14 Fair et al. 1948,19 Kelly
and Sanderson 1958,25 Clarke and Chang 1959,17 Laubusch
197128). It would therefore be desirable to have as low a
level as possible in the raw water.
However, since ammonia is present in ground water and
in some surface water supply sources, particularly at cold
temperatures, and since it can be removed by the defined
treatment process with adequate chlorination, the cost of
the treatment is the determining factor. In the previous
edition of Water Quality Criteria (U.S. Department of the
Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
1968,34 hereafter referred to as FWPCA 196820) a permis-
sible level of 0.5 mg/1 nitrogen was proposed. This is not a
sacrosanct number, but it is considered to be tolerable.
Recommendation
Because ammonia may be indicative of pollution
and because of its significant effect on chlorination,
it is recommended that ammonia nitrogen in
public water supply sources not exceed 0.5 mg/1.
55
-------
ARSENIC
Arsenic, a metalloid that occurs ubiquitously in nature,
can be both acutely and chronically toxic to man. Although
no form of arsenic is known to be essential, arsenic has
been added in small amounts to animal feed as a growth
stimulant. For 1,577 surface water samples collected from
130 sampling points in the United States, 87 samples showed
detectable arsenic concentrations of 5 to 336 micrograms
per liter (^g/1) with a mean level of 64 ^g/1 (Kopp 1969).60
The chemical forms of arsenic consist of trivalent and
pentavalent inorganic and organic compounds. It is not
known which forms of arsenic occur in drinking water.
Although comb'nations of all forms are possible, it can be
reasonably assumed that the pentavalent inorganic form is
the most prevalent. Conditions that favor chemical and
biological oxidation promote the shift to the pentavalent
species; and conversely, those that favor reduction will
shift the equilibrium to the trivalent state.
Arsenic content in drinking water in most United States
supplies ranges from a trace to approximately 0.1 mg/1
(McCabe et al. 1970).52 No adverse health effects have been
reported from the ingestion of these waters.
Arsenic has been suspected of being carcinogenic (Paris
1820,55 Sommers and McManus 1953,60 Buchanan 1962,38
Frost 1967,46 Trelles et al. 1970,61 Borgono and Greiber
197236), but substantial evidence from human experience
and animal studies now supports the position that arsenicals
are not tumorigenic at levels encountered in the environ-
ment (Snegireff and Lombard 1951,68 Baroni et al. 1963,35
Boutwell 1963,37 Hueper and Payne 1963,47 Pinto and
Bennett 1963,56 Kanisawa and Schroeder 1967,49 Milner
1969).63
Several epidemiological studies in Taiwan (Chen and
Wu 1962)39 have reported a correlation between the in-
creased incidence of hyperkertosis and skin cancer with
consumption of water containing more than 0.3 mg/1
arsenic. A similar problem has been reported in Argentina
(Trelles et al. 1970).61 Dermatological manifestations of
arsenicism were noted in children of Antofagasta, Chile,
who used a water supply containing 0.8 mg/1 arsenic. A
new water supply was provided, and preliminary data
showed that arsenic levels in hair decreased (Borgono and
Greiber 1972).36
Inorganic arsenic is absorbed readily from the gastro-
intestinal tract, the lungs, arid to a lesser extent from the
skin and becomes distributed throughout the body tissue;
and fluids (Sollmann 1957).5!l It is excreted via urine
feces, sweat, and the epithelium of the skin (Dupont et al
1942,44 Hunter et al. 1942,4S Lowry et al. 1942,51 Ducofl
et al. 1948,43 Crema 1955,40 Musil and Dejmal 1957).5'
During chronic exposure, arsenic accumulates mainly ir
bone, muscle, and skin, and to a smaller degree in liver and
kidneys. This accumulation can be measured by analysis
of hair samples. After cessation of continuous exposure,
arsenic excretion may last up to 70 days (DuBois and
Ceiling 1959).42
In man, subacute and chronic arsenic poisoning may be
insidious and pernicious. In mild chronic poisoning, the
only symptoms present are fatigue and loss of energy. The
following symptoms may be observed in more severe intoxi-
cation; gastrointestinal catarrh, kidney degeneration, ten-
ency to edema, polyneuritis, liver cirrhosis, bone marrow
injury, and exfoliate dermatitis (DiPalma 1965,41 Goodman
and Oilman 1965).46 It has been claimed that individuals
become tolerant to arsenic. However, this apparent effect
is probably due to the ingestion of the relatively insoluble,
coarse powder, since no true tolerance has been demon-
strated (DuBois and Ceiling 1959).42
The total intake of arsenic from food averages approxi-
mately 900 /ng/day (Schroeder and Balassa 1966).57 At a
concentration of 0.1 mg/1 and an average intake of 2 liters
of water per day, the intake Jfrom water would not exceed
200 fig/day, or approximately 18 per cent of the total
ingested arsenic.
Recommendation
Because of adverse physiological effects on hu-
mans and because there is inadequate information
on the effectiveness of the denned treatment proc-
ess in removing arsenic, it is recommended that
public water supply sources contain no more than
0.1 mg/1 total arsenic.
56
-------
BACTERIA
Procedures for the detection of disease-causing bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, worms, and fungi are complex, time-
consuming, and in need of further refinement to increase
the levels of sensitivity and selectivity. Therefore, an indirect
approach to microbial hazard measurement is required.
Coliform bacteria have been used as indicators of sanitary
quality in water since 1880 when Escherica coli (E. coif) and
similar gram negative bacteria were shown to be normal
inhabitants of fecal discharges. Although the total coliform
group as presently recognized in the Drinking Water
Standards includes organisms known to vary in charac-
teristics, the total coliform concept merits consideration as
an indicator of sanitary significance, because the organisms
are normally present in large numbers in the intestinal
tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals.
Numerous stream pollution surveys over the years have
used the total coliform measurement as an index of fecal con-
tamination. However, occasional poor correlations to sani-
tary significance result from the inclusion of some strains
in the total coliform group that have a wide distribution in
the environment and are not specific to fecal material.
Therefore, interpretation of total coliform data from sewage,
polluted water, and unpolluted waters is sometimes difficult
For example, Enterobacter (Aerobacter) aerogenes and Entero-
bacter cloacae can be found on various types of vegetation
(Thomas and McQuillin 1952,78 Fraser et al. 1956,66
Geldreich et al. 1964,73 Papavassiliou et al. 196776), in soil
(Frank and Skinner 1941,66 Taylor 1951," Randall 1956,76
Geldreich et al. 1962b72), and in water polluted in the past.
Also included are plant pathogens (Elrod 1942)62 and other
organisms of uncertain taxonomy whose sanitary significance
is questionable. All of these coliform subgroups may be
found in sewage and in polluted water.
A more specific bacterial indicator of warm-blooded ani-
mal contamination is fecal coliform, defined as those coli-
form that can ferment lactose at 44.5 C to produce gas in a
multiple tube procedure (U.S. Department of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 196679
hereafter referred to as (FWPCA 1966)64 or acidity in the
membrane filter procedure (M-FC medium: Geldreich
et al. 1965).71 Research showed that 96.14 per cent of the
coliform in human feces was positive by this test (Geldreich
et al. 1962a).70 Examination of the excrement from other
warm-blooded animals, including livestock, poultry, cats,
dogs, and rodents indicates that fecal coliform contribute
93.0 per cent of the total coliform population (FWPCA
1966),64 Geldreich et al. 1968).68
At the present time, the only data available from numer-
ous freshwater stream pollution studies on a correlation of
pathogen occurrence with varying levels of fecal coliform
are for Salmonella (Geldreich 1970,67 Geldreich and Bordner
197169). These data indicate a sharp increase in the fre-
quency of Salmonella detection when fecal coliform densities
are above 200 per 100 milliliters (ml). For densities of 1 to
200/100 ml, 41 examinations showed 31.7 per cent positive
detection of Salmonella. For densities of 201 to 1,000/100 ml,
30 examinations showed 83 per cent positive detection. For
densities of 1,000 to 2,000, 88.5 per cent positive detection
was found in 17 examinations, and for densities above
2,000, 97.6 per cent positive detection was found in 123
examinations.
The significance is further illustrated by a bacterial
quality study at several water plant intakes along the
Missouri River. When fecal coliform exceeded 2,000 orga-
nisms per 100 ml, Salmonella, Poliovirus types 2 and 3, and
ECHO virus types 7 and 33 were detected (Environmental
Protection Agency 1971).63 Any occurrence of fecal coli-
form in water is therefore prime evidence of contamination
by wastes of some warm-blooded animals, and as the fecal
coliform densities increase, potential health hazards become
greater and the challenge to water treatment more de-
manding.
A study of the bacteriological quality of raw water near
six public intakes along the Ohio River showed that of 18
monthly values with maximum total coliform densities in
excess of 10,000 organisms per 100 ml, 12 were not paralleled
by fecal coliform densities above 2,000 organisms per 100
ml (ORSANCO Water Users Committee 1971).74 The
fecal coliform portion of these total coliform populations
ranged from 0.2 to 12 per cent. Data from the Missouri
River study showed total coliform densities at water intakes
to be frequently in excess of 20,000 organisms per 100 ml
57
-------
58/Section II—Public Water Supplies
with concurrent fecal coliform densities above 2,000 (En-
vironmental Protection Agency 1971).63 This indicates less
coliform aftergrowth, but proportionately more recent fecal
pollution.
The major limitation to the total coliform index is the
uncertain correlation to the occurrence of pathogenic micro-
organisms. However, fecal coliform occurrences in water
reflect the presence of fecal contamination, which is the
most likely source for pathogens.
Total coliform measurements may be used as an al-
ternative to fecal coliform measurements with the realization
that such data are subject to a wide range of density
fluctuations of doubtful sanitary significance.
A well-operated plant using the defined treatment to
process raw surface water meeting the recommendations
below can be expected to meet a value of 1 total coliforn
per 100 ml with proper chlorination practice. When coli
form counts in raw surface water approach the recommen
dations, both pre- and post-chlorination may be requirec
to achieve proper disinfection.
Recommendation
In light of the capabilities of the defined treat-
ment process for raw surface waters and the sta-
tistical correlations mentioned, it is recommendec
that the geometric mea.ns of fecal coliform anc
total coliform densities in raw surface water sources
not exceed 2,000/100 ml and 20,000/100 ml, re-
spectively.
-------
BARIUM
Barium (Ba) ingestion can cause serious toxic effects on
the heart, blood vessels, and nerves. Barium enters the body
primarily through air and water, since essentially no food
contains barium in appreciable amounts.
The solubility product of barium sulfate indicates that
1.3 mg/1 sulfate ion limits the solubility of barium to 1.0
mg/1. There is some evidence that barium may be ad-
sorbed by oxides or hydroxides of iron and manganese
(Ljunggren 1955).83 For the public water supplies of the
100 largest cities in the United States, the median barium
concentration was 0.05 mg/1 with a range of 0.01 to 0.058
mg/1. For 1,577 samples of surface waters collected in 130
locations in the United States the barium concentration in
1,568 samples ranged from 2 to 340 /ig/1 with a mean of
43 Mg/1 (Kopp 1969).82
Barium is recognized as a general muscle stimulant,
especially of the heart muscle (Sollmann 1957).86 The fatal
dose for man is considered to be from 0.8 to 0.9 grams(g)
as the chloride (550 to 600 mg Ba). Most fatalities have
occurred from mistaken use of barium salts incorporated in
rat poison. Barium is capable of causing nerve block
(Lorente and Feng 1946)84 and in small or moderate doses
produces transient increase in blood pressure by vaso-
constriction (Gotsev 1944).81
There apparently has been no study made of the amounts
of barium that can be tolerated in drinking water, nor any
study of the effects of long-term feeding of barium salts
from which a standard might be derived. The present
barium standard has been developed from the barium-in-air
standard, 0.5 mg/cubic meter (m3) (American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 1958),80 based on
the retention of inhaled barium dusts, and an estimate of
the possible adsorption from the intestines (Stokinger and
Woodward 1958).86 This value is 2 mg/1. The air standard
provides no indication of the inclusion of a factor of safety.
Therefore, it is reasonable to provide a factor of safety of
2 for protection of heterogeneous population.
Recommendation
Because of the adverse physiological effects of
barium, and because there are no data on the
effectiveness of the denned treatment process on
its removal, it is recommended that a limit for
barium of 1 mg/1 not be exceeded in public water
supply sources.
BORON
The previous Report of the Committee on Water Quality
Criteria (FWPCA 1968)87 recommended a permissible limit
of 1 mg/1 for boron. When a new Drinking Water Standards
Technical Review Committee was established in 1971, it
determined that the evidence available did not indicate
that the suggested limit of 1 mg/1 was necessary. More
information is required before deciding whether a specific
limit is needed for physiological reasons.
Whenever public water supplies are used to irrigate
plants, boron concentrations may be of concern because
of the element's effect on many plants. For consideration
of the possible effect of boron on certain irrigated plants,
see Section V on Agricultural Uses of Water (p. 341).
59
-------
CADMIUM
Cadmium is biologically a nonessential, nonbeneficial
element. The possibility of seepage of cadmium into ground
water from electroplating plants was reported in 1954 when
concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 3.2 mg/1 were recorded
(Lieber and Welsch 1954).97 Another source of cadmium
contamination in water may be zinc-galvanized iron in
which cadmium is a contaminant. For 1,577 surface water
samples collected at 130 sampling points in the United
States, 40 samples showed detectable concentrations of 1
to 20 /tg/1 of cadmium with a mean level of 9.5 fig/I. Six
samples exceeded 10 ng/l (Kopp 1969).95
Cadmium is an element of high toxic potential. Evidence
for the serious toxic potential of cadmium is provided by:
poisoning from cadmium-contaminated food (Frant and
Kleeman 1941)92 and beverages (Cangelosi 1941);88 epi-
demiologic evidence that cadmium may be associated with
renal arterial hypertension under certain conditions
(Schroeder 1965);102 epidemiologic association of cadmium
with Itai-itai disease in Japan (Murata et al. 1970);99 and
long-term oral toxicity studies in animals (Fitzhugh and
Meiller 1941,91 Ginn and Volker 1944,93 Wilson and DeEds
1950).104
Symptoms of violent nausea were reported for 29 school
children who had consumed fruit ice sticks containing 13-15
mg/1 cadmium (Frant and Kleeman 1941).92 This would be
equivalent to 1.3 to 3.0 mg of cadmium ingested.
It has been stated that the concentration and not the
absolute amount determines the acute toxicity of cadmium
(Potts et al. 1950).101 Also, equivalent concentrations of
cadmium in water are considered more toxic than concen-
trations in food because of the effect of components in th
food.
The association of cardiovascular disease, particular!'
hypertension, with ingestion of cadmium remains unsettled
Although conflicting evidence has been reported for ma]
(Schroeder 1965,102 Morgan 1969)98 and for animals (Kani
sawa and Schroeder 1969,94 Lener and Bibr 197096), it i
notable that hypertension has not been associated witl
Itai-itai disease (Nogawa and Kawano 1969).100
In view of the cumulative retention of cadmium \y
hepatic (liver) and renal (kidney) tissue (Decker et al
1958,90 Cotzias et al. 1961,89 Schroeder and Balassa 1961103
and the association of a severe endemic Itai-itai diseas<
syndrome with ingestion of as little as 600 jig/day (Yama
gata 1970),10S Drinking Water Standards limit concentra
tions of cadmium to 10 ng/l so that the maximum dail;
intake of cadmium from waiter (assuming a 2 liter dairj
consumption) will not exceed 20 ng. This is one-third th(
amount of cadmium derived from food (Schroeder anc
Balassa 1961).103 A no-effect level for intake and accumula^
tion of cadmium in man has not been established.
Recommendation
Because of the adverse physiological effects ol
cadmium, and because there is inadequate infor-
mation on the effect of the denned treatment
process on removal of cadmium, it is recommended
that the cadmium concentration in public water
supply sources not exceed 0.010 mg/1.
-------
CHLORIDE
Chloride ion in high concentrations, as part of the total
dissolved solids in water, can be detected by taste and can
lead to consumer rejection of the water supply. In undefined
high concentrations it may enhance corrosion of water
utility facilities and household appurtenances (American
Water Works Association 1971).106
For the public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in
the United States, the median chloride concentration was
13 mg/1 with a range of 0 to 540 mg/1 (Durfor and Becker
1964).107
The median chloride concentrations detected by taste
by a panel of 10 to 20 persons were 182, 160, and 372 mg/1
from sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts respectively
(Whipple 1907).no The median concentration identified
by a larger panel of 53 adults was 395 mg/1 chloride for
sodium chloride (Richter and MacLean 1939).109 When
compared with distilled water for a difference in taste,
the median concentration was 61 mg/1. Coffee was affected
in taste when brewed with 210 and 222 mg/1 chloride from
sodium chloride and calcium chloride respectively (Lock-
hart et al. 1955).108
On the basis of taste and because of the wide range of
taste perception of humans, and the absence of information
on objectionable concentrations, a limit for public water
supplies of 250 mg/1 chloride appears to be reasonable where
sources of better quality water are or can be made available.
However, there may be a great difference between a de-
tectable concentration and an objectionable concentration,
and acclimatization might be an important factor.
Recommendation
On the basis of taste preferences, not because of
toxic considerations, and because the denned treat-
ment process does not remove chlorides, it is^
recommended that chloride in public water supply
sources not exceed 250 mg/1 if sources of lower
levels are available.
61
-------
CHROMIUM
Chromium is rarely found in natural waters. It may
occur as a contaminant from plating wastes, blowdown
from cooling towers, or from circulating water in refriger-
ation equipment where it is used to control corrosion. It
has been found in some foods and in air. Chromium can
be detected in most biological systems. This does not prove
it essential, although there is reasonable evidence that it
does have a biological role (Mertz 1969).119
For 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling
points in the United States, 386 samples showed concen-
trations of 1 to 112 /ig/1 with a mean concentration of
9.7 Mg/1 for chromium (Kopp 1969).116
The hexavalent state of chromium is toxic to man, pro-
duces lung tumors when inhaled (Machle and Gregorius
1948,117 U.S. Federal Security Agency, Public Health Serv-
ice 1953123), and readily induces skin sensitizations. Tri-
valent chromium salts show none of the effects of the
hexavalent form (Fairhall 1957).114 The trivalent form is
not likely to be present in waters of pH 5 or above because
of the very low solubility of the hydrated oxide.
At present, the levels of chromate ion that can be tolerated
by man for a lifetime without adverse effects on health are
undetermined. It is not known whether cancer will result
from ingestion of chromium in any of its valence forms.
A family of four individuals is reported to have drunk
water for a period of three years with as high as 0.45 mg/1
chromium in the hexavalent form without known effect
on their health, as determined by a single medical exami
nation (Davids and Lieber 1951).113
Levels of 0.45 to 25 mg/1 of chromium administered t<
rats in chromate and chromic ion form in drinking wate
for one year produced no toxic responses (MacKenzie et al
1958).118 However, significant accumulation in the tissues oc
curred abruptly at concentrations above 5 mg/1. Naumov;
(1965)120 demonstrated that 0.033 mg of chromium froi)
potassium bichromate per kilogram (kg) of body weigh
in dogs enhanced the secretory and motor activity of thi
intestines. Although there does not appear to be a clearb
defined no-effect level, other studies (Conn et al. 1932,11
Brard 1935,111 Gross and Heller 1946,116 Schroeder et al
1963a,121 Schroeder et al. 1963b122) suggested that a concen
tration of 0.05 mg/1 with an average intake of 2 liters o
water per day would avoid hazard to human health.
Recommendation
Because of adverse physiological effects, and be
cause there are insufficient data on the effect o
the denned treatment process on the removal o:
chromium in the chromate form, it is recom
mended that public water supply sources for drink'
ing water contain no more than 0.05 mg/1 tota
chromium.
62
-------
COLOR
Color in public water supplies is aesthetically undesirable
to the consumer and is economically undesirable to some
industries. Colored substances can chelate metal ions,
thereby interfering with coagulation (Hall and Packham
1965130), and can reduce the capacity of ion exchange
resins (Frisch and Kunin I960).129 Another serious problem
is the ability of colored substances to complex or stabilize
iron and manganese and render them more difficult for
water treatment processes to remove (Robinson 1963,136
Shapiro 1964136).
Although the soluble colored substances in waters have
been studied for over 150 years, there is still no general
agreement on their structure. A number of recent studies
have indicated that colored substances are a complex mix-
ture of polymeric hydroxy carboxylic acids (Black and
Christman 1963a,125 1963b,126 Lamar and Goerlitz 1963,133
Christman and Ghassemi 1966,128 Lamar and Goerlitz
1966134) with the measurable color being a function of the
total organics concentration and the pH (Black and Christ-
man 1963a,126 Singley et al. 1966137).
The removal of color can be accomplished by the defined
process when the dosage and the pH are adjusted as func-
tions of the raw water color (Black et al. 1963,127 American
Water Works Association Research Committee on Color
Problems 1967).124 These relationships may not apply to
colors resulting from dyes and some other industrial and
processing sources that cannot be measured by comparison
with the platinum-cobalt standards (Hazen 1892,131 1896,132
Standard Methods 1971138). Such colors should not be
present in concentrations that cannot be removed by the
defined process.
Recommendation
Because color in public water supply sources is
aesthetically undesirable and because of the limi-
tations of the denned treatment process, a maxi-
mum of 75 platinum-cobalt color units is recom-
mended.
63
-------
COPPER
Copper is frequently found in surface waters and in some
ground waters in low concentrations (less than 1 mg/1). It
is an essential and beneficial element in human metabolism,
and it is known that a deficiency in copper results in nu-
tritional anemia in infants (Sollmann 1957).Ml Because the
normal diet provides only little more than what is required,
an additional supplement from water may ensure an ade-
quate intake. Small amounts are generally regarded as
nontoxic; but large doses may produce emesis, and pro-
longed oral administration may result in liver damage.
For 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling
points in the United States, 1,173 showed concentrations of
1 to 280 ^tg/1 with a mean concentration of 15 ^g/1 (Kopp
1969).140
Copper imparts some taste to water, but the detectable
range varies from 1 to 5 rng/1 (Cohen et al. I960139)
depending upon the acuity of individual taste perceptions
Copper in public water supplies enhances corrosion o
aluminum in particular and of zinc to a lesser degree. ^
limit of 0.1 mg/1 has been recommended to avoid corrosior
of aluminum (Uhlig 1963).142
The limit of 1 mg/1 copper is based on considerations o
taste rather than hazards to health.
Recommendation
To prevent taste problems and because there is
little information on the effect of the denned treat-
ment process on the removal of copper, it is recom-
mended that copper in public water supply sources
not exceed 1 mg/1.
64
-------
CYANIDE
Standards for cyanide in water have been published by
the World Health Organization in "International Stand-
ards for Drinking Water" (1963)148 and the "European
Standards for Drinking Water" (1970).149 These standards
appear to be based on the toxicity of cyanide to fish, not
to man. Cyanide in reasonable doses (10 mg or less) is
readily converted to thiocyanate in the human body and in
this form is much less toxic to man. Usually, lethal toxic
effects occur only when the detoxifying mechanism is over-
whelmed. The oral toxicity of cyanide for man is shown in
the following table.
Proper chlorination with a free chlorine residual under
neutral or alkaline conditions will reduce the cyanide level
to below the recommended limit. The acute oral toxicity
of cyanogen chloride, the chlorination product of hydrogen
cyanide, is approximately one-twentieth that of hydrogen
cyanide (Spector 1955).146
On the basis of the toxic limit calculated from the
threshold limit for air (Stokinger and Woodward 1958),147
TABLE II-1—Oral Toxicity of Cyanide for Man
Dosage
Response
Literature citations
2 9-4.7 mi/day. .
10 mj, single dose ..
19 mg/1 in water...
50-60 mg, single dose .
. Noninjiinous Smith 194*«
Nomnjunous Bodansky and Levy 19231"
Calculated from the safe thresh- StoKmger and Woodward 1958'"
old limit for air
Fatal The Merck Index or Chemicals
and Drugs 1968"'
and assuming a 2-liter daily consumption of water contain-
ing 0.2 mg/1 cyanide as a maximum, an appreciable factor
of safety would be provided.
Recommendation
Because of the toxicity of cyanide, it is recom-
mended that a limit of 0.2 mg/1 cyanide not be
exceeded in public water supply sources.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Dissolved oxygen in raw water sources aids in the elimi-
nation of undesirable constituents, particularly iron and
manganese, by precipitation of the oxidized form. It also
induces the biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrate,
and prevents the anaerobic reduction of dissolved sulfate
to hydrogen sulfide. More importantly, dissolved oxygen
in a raw surface water supply serves as an indicator that
excessive quantities of oxygen-demanding wastes are prob-
ably not present in the water, although there can be sig-
nificant exceptions to this. Therefore, it is desirable that
oxygen in the water be at or near saturation. On the other
hand, oxygen enhances corrosion of treatment facilities,
distributing systems, and household appurtenances in many
waters.
Oxygen depletion in unmixed bodies of water can result
from the presence of natural oxygen-demanding substances
as well as from organic pollution. Lakes and reservoirs
may contain little or no oxygen, yet may be essentially free
of oxygen-demanding wastes. This is because contact with
the air is limited to the upper surface, and because thermal
stratification in some lakes and reservoirs prevents oxy-
genation of lower levels directly from the air. Similar con-
ditions also occur in ground waters.
Conclusion
No recommendation is made, because the pres-
ence of dissolved oxygen in a raw water supply has
both beneficial and detrimental aspects. However,
when the waters contain ammonia or iron and
manganese in their reduced form, the benefits of
the sustained presence of oxygen at or near satu-
ration for a period of time can be greater than the
disadvantages.
65
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FLUORIDE
The fluoride ion has potential beneficial effects, but
excessive fluoride in drinking water supplies produces ob-
jectionable dental fluorosis that increases as a continuum
with increasing fluoride concentration above the recom-
mended control limits. In the United States, this is the only
harmful effect resulting from fluoride found in drinking
water (Dean 1936,150 Moulton 1942,188 Heyroth 1952,165
McClure 1953,167 Leone et al. 1954,156 Shaw 1954,159 U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service 1959160). The fluoride concentrations exces-
sive for a given community depend on climatic conditions
because the amount of water (and consequently the amount
of fluoride) ingested by children is primarily influenced by
air temperature (Galagan 1953,161 Galagan and Lamson
1953,152 Galagan and Vermillion 1957,153 Galagan et al.
1957164).
Rapid fluctuations in raw water fluoride ion levels would
create objectionable operating problems for treatment
plants serving communities that supplement raw water
fluoride concentrations. From the point of view of a water
pollution control program any value less than that recom-
mended would generally be acceptable at a point of do
mestic water withdrawal.
Recommendation
Because of adverse physiological effects and be-
cause the defined treatment process does nothing
to reduce excessive fluoride concentrations, it i!
recommended that the maximum levels shown ir
Table II-2 not be exceeded in public water supply
sources.
TABLE 11-2—fluoride. Recommendation
Annual averate of maximum daily air temperatures"
fahrenhut
Fluoride maximum mj/l
80-91
72-79
65-71
59-64
5!i-58
50-34
1.4
1.6
1 8
2.0
2.2
2.4
• Bated on temperature data obtained lor a minimum ol live years.
66
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FOAMING AGENTS
Many chemical substances occurring either naturally or
as components of industrial or domestic waste will cause
water to foam when agitated or when air is entrained.
The most common foaming agent in use today is the syn-
thetic anionic surfactant, linear alkyl benzene sulfonate
(LAS). Branched alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) was used
prior to 1965 as a base for synthetic detergents. Because of
its persistent foaming properties, however, ABS was re-
placed by LAS. The most objectionable property of sur-
factants is their foaming capacity which can produce
unsightly masses of foam in a stream or at the home tap.
The surfactants also tend to disperse normally insoluble or
sorbed substances, thus interfering with their removal by
coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.
Although conversion to the more readily biodegradable
linear alkyl sulfonates by the detergent industry has de-
creased the persistence of sulfonates in aerobic waters,
measurable concentrations of these substances still can be
found in both surface and ground waters. Concentrations
of anionic surfactants in water can be determined by means
of their reaction with methylene blue dye (Standard Meth-
ods 1971).162 Concentrations of less than 0.5 mg/1, as
methylene blue active substances (MBAS), do not cause
foaming or present serious interference in the defined treat-
ment process and are well below the inferred limit (700
mg/1) of toxicity to humans based on tests on rats fed diets
of LAS (Buehler et al. 1971).161 It must be recognized that
this procedure does not determine the total concentration
of foaming agents, merely the concentration of materials
that react with methylene blue, most of which are anionic
surfactants. Although cationic and nonionic synthetic sur-
factants do not respond, and not all substances that respond
to the methylene blue process cause foaming, the methylene
blue test is the best available measure of foaming properties.
Recommendation
To avoid undesirable aesthetic effects and be-
cause the denned treatment process does little or
nothing to reduce the level of foaming agents, it
is recommended that foaming agents determined
as methylene blue active substances not exceed
0.5 mg/1 in public water supply sources.
67
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HARDNESS
Hardness is defined as the sum of the polyvalent cations
expressed as the equivalent quantity of calcium carbonate
(CaCOs). The most common such cations are calcium and
magnesium. In general, these metal ions in public water
supply sources are not cause for concern to health, although
there are some indications that they may influence the
effect of other metal ions on some organisms (Jones 1938,168
Cairns, Jr. and Scheier 1958,164 Mount 1966170). Possible
beneficial and detrimental effects on health have been
postulated but not conclusively demonstrated (Muss 1962,171
Crawford and Crawford 1967,166 Crawford et al. 1968,165
Masironi 1969,169 Voors 1971172). There is considerable
variation in the range of hardness acceptable to a given
community. Some consumers expect and demand supplies
with a total hardness of less than 50 mg/1, expressed as
equivalent CaCO3, while others are satisfied with total
hardness greater than 200 mg/1. Consumer sensitivity is
often related to the hardness to which the public has be-
come accustomed, and acceptance may be tempered by
economic considerations.
The requirement for soap and other detergents is directl
related to the water hardness (DeBoer and Larson 1961).1'
Of particular importance is the tendency for developmer
of scale deposits when the water is heated. Variations i
water hardness may be more objectionable than any give
level. Waters with little or no hardness may be corrosiv
to water utility facilities, depending upon pH, alkalinit;
and dissolved oxygen (American Water Works Associatio
1971).163 Industrial consumers of public supplies may b
particularly sensitive to variations in hardness. A watt
hardness must relate to the level normal for the supply an
exclude hardness additions resulting in significant variatior
or general increases.
Conclusion
Acceptable levels for hardness are based on con
sumer preference. No quantitative recommen
dation for hardness in water can be specified.
68
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IRON
Iron (Fe) is objectionable in public water supplies because
of its effect on taste (Riddick et al. 1958,178 Cohen et al.
I960176), staining of plumbing fixtures, spotting of laundered
clothes, and accumulation of deposits in distribution systems.
Iron occurs in the reduced state (Fe++), frequently in
ground waters and less frequently in surface waters, since
exposure to oxygen in surface waters results in oxidation,
forming hydrated ferric oxide which is much less soluble
(American Water Works Association 1971).173
Statistical analysis of taste threshold tests with iron in
distilled water free of oxygen at pH 5.0 showed that 5 per
cent of the observers were able to distinguish between 0.04
mg/1 ferrous iron (added as ferrous sulfate) and distilled
water containing no iron. At 0.3 mg/1, 20 per cent were
able to make the distinction. When colloidal ferric oxide
was added, 5 per cent of the observers were able to dis-
tinguish between 0.7 mg/1 and distilled water. Thus the
form of iron is important. The range of sensitivities of the
observers was surprising, in that 5 per cent were unable to
detect ferrous iron at a concentration of 256 mg/1 in distilled
water. The taste of iron was variously described as bitter,
sweet, astringent, and "iron tasting." (Cohen et al. I960).176
Concentrations of iron less than 0.3 mg/1 are generally
acceptable in public water supplies as the characteristic
red stains and deposits of hydrated ferric oxide do not
manifest themselves (Hazen 1895,m Mason 1910,177 Buswell
1928174). This is the principal reason for limiting the con-
centration of soluble iron.
Recommendation
On the basis of user preference and because the
defined treatment process can remove oxidized iron
but may not remove soluble iron (Fe++), it is recom-
mended that 0.3 mg/1 soluble iron not be exceeded
in public water supply sources.
69
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LEAD
Lead is well known for its toxicity in both acute and
chronic exposures (National Academy of Sciences 1972).190
In technologically developed countries the widespread use
of lead multiplies the risk of exposure of the population to
excessive lead levels (Kehoe 1960a).184 For this reason,
constant surveillance of the lead exposure of the general
population via food, air, and water is necessary.
Acute lead toxicity is characterized by burning in the
mouth, severe thirst, inflammation of the gastrointestinal
tract with vomiting and diarrhea. Chronic toxicity produces
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, paraly-
sis, mental confusion, visual disturbances, anemia, and con-
vulsions (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs I960).189
For 1,577 surface water samples collected from 130 sam-
pling points in the United States, 11.3 per cent showed
detectable concentrations of 0.002 to 0.140 mg/1 with a
mean of 0.023 mg/1 (Kopp 1969).187 For the 100 largest
cities in the United States, the finished waters were found
to have a median concentration of 0.0037 mg/1 and a
maximum of 0.062 mg/1 (Durfor and Becker 1964).182 Of
the 969 water supplies in a community water supply study
conducted in 1969 (McCabe et al. 1970),188 the lead concen-
trations in finished water ready for distribution ranged from
0 to 0.64 mg/1. Fourteen of these supplies on the average
exceeded the 0.05 mg/1 limit for lead in drinking water
(PHS 1962).191 Of 2,595 samples from distribution systems,
37 exceeded the limit set by the Drinking Water Standards
(PHS 1962).191 When standing in lead pipe overnight, acidic
soft water in particular can dissolve appreciable concen-
trations of lead (Crawford and Morris 1967).181
The average daily intake of lead via the diet was 0.3 mg
in 1940 and rarely exceeded 0.6 mg (Kehoe et al. 1940a).186
Data obtained subsequent to 1940 indicated that the intake
of lead appeared to have decreased slightly since that time
(Kehoe 1960b,185 Schroeder and Balassa 1961).192 Whe
under experimental conditions, the daily intake of lez
from all sources amounted to 0.5 to 0.6 mg over one ye;
or more, a small amount was retained in normal healtl
adults but produced no detectable deviation from norm
health. Indirect evidence from industrial workers expost
to known amounts of lead for long periods was consistei
with these findings (Kehoe 1947).183
Young children present a special case in lead intoxicatio
both in terms of the tolerated intake and the severity of tl
symptoms (Chisholm 1964).180 The most prevalent soun
of lead poisoning of children up to three years of age h,
been lead-containing paint still found in some older horn
(Byers 1959,179 Kehoe 1960a184).
Because of the narrow gap between the quantities of lea
to which the general population is exposed through foe
and air in the course of every day life, and the quantities th;
are potentially hazardous over long periods of time, lea
in water for human consumption must be limited to lo
concentrations.
A long-time intake of 0.6 mg lead per day is a level ;
which development of lead intoxication is unlikely and ti
normal intake of lead from food is approximately 0
mg/day. Assuming a 2 liter daily consumption of wati
with 0.05 mg/1 lead, the additional daily intake would t
0.1 mg/day or 25 per cent of the total intake.
Recommendation
Because of the toxicity of lead to humans an
because there is little information on the effective
ness of the defined treatment process in decreasin
lead concentrations, it is recommended that 0.0
mg/1 lead not be exceeded in public water suppl
sources.
70
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MANGANESE
Manganese (Mn) is objectionable in public water supplies
because of its effect on taste (Riddick et al. 1958,196 Cohen
et al. I960194), staining of plumbing fixtures, spotting of
laundered clothes, and accumulation of deposits in distri-
bution systems. Manganese occurs in the reduced state
(Mn++), frequently in ground waters and less frequently
in surface waters, since exposure to oxygen in surface
waters results in oxidation to much less soluble hydrated
manganese oxides (American Water Works Association
1971).193
Concentrations of manganese less than 0.05 mg/1 are
generally acceptable in public water supplies, because the
characteristic black stains and deposits of hydrated man-
ganese oxides do not manifest themselves. This is the
principal reason for limiting the concentration of soluble
manganese (Griffin I960).196
Recommendation
On the basis of user preference and because the
defined treatment process can remove oxidized
manganese but does little to remove soluble man-
ganese (Mn++), it is recommended that 0.05 mg/1
soluble manganese not be exceeded in public water
sources.
71
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MERCURY
Mercury (Hg) is distributed throughout the environment.
As a result of industrial use and agricultural applications,
significant local increases in concentrations above natural
levels in water, soils, and air have been recorded (Wallace
et al. 1971).209 In addition to the more commonly known
sources of man's mercury contributions, the burning of
fossil fuels has been reported as a source of mercury pollution
(Bertine and Goldberg 1971,199 Joensuu 1971202).
The presence of mercury in fresh and sea water was
reported many years ago (Proust 1799,204 Garrigou 1877,201
Willm 1879,210 Bardet 1913197). In Germany, early studies
(Stock and Cucuel 1934,206 Stock 1938206) found mercury
in tap water, springs, rain water, and beer. In all water
the concentration of mercury was consistently less than
one Mg/1, but the beer occasionally contained up to 15 ng/'l.
A recent survey (U.S. Department of Interior, Geological
Survey 1970)2U demonstrated that 93 per cent of U.S.
streams and rivers sampled contained less than 0.5 Mg/1 of
dissolved mercury.
Aside from the exposure experienced in certain occu-
pations, food, particularly fish, is the greatest contributor
to the human body burden of mercury (Study Group on
Mercury Hazards 1971).208 The Food and Drug Adminis-
tration (FDA) has established a guideline of 0.5 mg/kg
for the maximum allowable concentration of mercury in
fish consumed by humans, but it has not been necessary
for the FDA to establish guidelines for other foodstuffs.
Mercury poisoning may be acute or chronic. Generally,
mercurous salts are less soluble in the digestive tract than
mercuric salts and are consequently less acutely toxic. For
man the fatal oral dose of mercuric salts ranges from 20 mg
to 30 mg (Stokinger 1963).207 Chronic poisoning from in-
organic mercurials has been most often associated with
industrial exposure, whereas that from the organic deriva-
tives has been the result of accidents or environmental
contamination.
On the basis of their effects on man, several of the mercury
compounds used in agriculture and industry (such as
alkoxyalkyls and aryls) can be grouped with inorganic
mercury to which the former compounds are usually me-
tabolized. Alkyl compounds are the derivatives of mercury
most toxic to man, producing illness from the ingestion of
only a few milligrams. Chronic alkyl mercury poisoning is
insidious in that it may be manifest after a few weeks or
not until after a few years.
It has been estimated (Bergrund and Berlin 1969)198 tha
of the total mercury ingested, more than 90 per cent i
absorbed via the gastrointestinal tract when taken in th
form of methyl mercury; bu t only 2 per cent is absorbed .
it is in the form of mercuric ion (Clarkson 1971),20° Huma
excreta reveal a biological half-life of methyl mercury i
man of approximately 70 dziys (Study Group on Mercur
Hazards 1971).208
Acute mercury toxicity is c haracterized by severe nausea
vomiting, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, kidney damage
and death usually within ten days. Chronic exposure i
characterized by inflammation of mouth and gums, swelling
of salivary glands, excessive salivation, loosening of teeth
kidney damage, muscle tremors, spasms of extremities
personality changes, depression, irritability, and nervous
ness (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs I960).203
Safe levels of ingested mercury can be estimated fron
data presented in "Hazards of Mercury" (Study Group 01
Mercury Hazards 1971 ).208 From epidemiological evidence
the lowest whole blood concentration of methyl mercun
associated with toxic symptoms is 0.2 Mg/g, which, in turn
corresponds to prolonged, continuous intake by man o
approximately 0.3 mg Hg/70 kg/day. When a safety facto
of 10 is used, the maximum dietary intake should be O.CK
mg Hg/person/day (30 /ig/70 kg/day). It is recognizec
that this provides a smaller factor of safety for children
If exposure to mercury were from fish alone, the 0.03 mi
limit would allow for a maximum daily consumption o
60 grams (420 g/week) of fish containing 0.5 mg Hg/kg
Assuming a daily consumption of 2 liters of water containing
0.002 mg/1 (2 Mg/1) mercury, the daily intake would b<
4 Mg- If 420 g of fish per week containing 0.5 mg Hg/k£
plus 2 liters of water daily containing 0.002 mg/1 mercur;
were ingested, the factor of safety for a 70 kg man wouk
be 9. If all of the mercury is not in the alkyl form, or i
fish consumption is limited, a greater factor of safety wil
exist.
Recommendation
On the basis of adverse physiological effects and
because the defined water treatment process has
little or no effect on removing mercury at low levels,
it is recommended that total mercury in public
water supply sources not exceed 0.002 mg/1.
72
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NITRATE-NITRITE
Serious and occasionally fatal poisonings in infants have
occurred following ingestion of well waters shown to contain
nitrate (NOs_) at concentrations greater than 10 mg/1
nitrate-nitrogen (N). This was first associated with a tempo-
rary blood disorder in infants called methemoglobinemia
in 1945 (Comly 1945).212 Since then, approximately 2,000
cases of this disease have been reported from private water
supplies in North America and Europe, and about 7 to
8 per cent of the infants affected died (Walton 1951,223
Sattelmacher 1962,218 Simon et al. 1964219).
High nitrate concentrations are frequently found in
shallow wells on farms and in rural communities. These
are often the result of inadequate protection from barn
yard drainage and from septic tanks (U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service
1961,221 Stewart et al. 1967220). Increasing concentrations
of nitrate in streams from farm tile drainage have been
shown in regions of intense fertilization and farm crop
production (Harmeson et al. 1971).214
Many infants have drunk water with nitrate-nitrogen
concentrations greater than 10 mg/1 without developing
the disease. Many public water supplies in the United
States have levels of nitrate that routinely exceed the
standard, but only one case of methemoglobinemia (Vigil
et al. 1965)222 associated with a public water supply has
thus far been reported. Rationale for degrees of suscepti-
bility to methemoglobinemia have yet to be developed.
The development of methemoglobinemia, largely con-
fined to infants less than three months old, is dependent
upon the bacterial conversion of the relatively innocuous
nitrate ion to nitrite (NO2~). Nitrite absorbed into the
blood stream converts hemoglobin to methemoglobin. The
altered pigment can then no longer transport oxygen, and
the clinical effect of methemoglobinemia is that of oxygen
deprivation or suffocation. Older children and adults do
not seem to be affected, but Russian research reported
methemoglobin in five- to eight-year-old school children
where the water nitrate concentrations were 182 mg/1 as N
(Diskalenko 1968).213
Nitrite toxicity is well known, but a no-effect level has
not been established. When present in drinking water
nitrite would have a more rapid and pronounced effect
than nitrate. Concentrations in raw water sources are
usually less than 1 mg/1 as N, and chlorination to a free
chlorine residual converts nitrite to nitrate.
Several reviews and reports (Walton 1951,223 Sattel-
macher 1962,218 Simon et al. 1964,219 Winton 1970,224
Winton et al. 1971225) generally pointed to 10 mg/1 nitrate-
nitrogen in drinking water as the maximum tolerance levels
for infants. Sattelmacher (1962)218 showed 3 per cent of
473 cases of infantile methemoglobinemia to be associated
with levels of less than 9 mg/1 as N. Simon and his associates
(1964)219 found 4.4 per cent of 249 cases to be associated
with levels less than 11 mg/1 as N. Analyses of available
data are hampered by the fact that samples for water
analysis are sometimes collected weeks or months after the
disease occurs, during which time the concentration of
nitrate may change considerably. Hereditary defects, the
feeding of nitrate-rich vegetables, or the use of common
medicines may increase susceptibility to methemoglobi-
nemia. Winton and his associates (1971)228 concluded that
"there is insufficient evidence to permit raising the recom-
mended limit."
Extensive reviews on methemoglobinemia associated with
nitrate and nitrite have been provided by Walton (1951),223
Miale (1967),216 and Lee (1970).216 They described the
circumstances that contributed to the susceptibility of in-
fants under three months of age to methemoglobinemia
from nitrate. These included (a) the stomach pH in infants,
which is higher than that of adults and can permit growth
of bacteria that can reduce nitrate to nitrite, and (b) infant
gastrointestinal illness that may permit reduction of nitrate
to nitrite to occur higher in the intestinal tract.
Methemoglobin is normally present at levels of 1 per cent
to 2 per cent of the total hemoglobin in the blood. Clinical
symptoms are normally detectable only at levels of about
10 per cent. Methemoglobin in the subclinical range has
been generally regarded as unimportant. However, 10
children (ages 12 to 14) were observed to have shown con-
ditioned reflexes to both auditory and visual stimuli, as the
result of a drinking water source with 20.4 mg/1 nitrate-
nitrogen. The average methemoglobin in the blood was
5.3 per cent (Petukhov and Ivanov 1970).217
Recommendation
On the basis of adverse physiological effects on
infants and because the denned treatment process
has no effect on the removal of nitrate, it is recom-
mended that the nitrate-nitrogen concentration
in public water supply sources not exceed 10 mg/1.
On the basis of its high toxicity and more pro-
nounced effect than nitrate, it is recommended
that the nitrite-nitrogen concentration in public
water supply sources not exceed 1 mg/1.
73
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NITRILOTRIACETATE (NTA)
Because of its possible large-scale use, nitrilotriacetate
(NTA) should be evaluated in light of chronic low-level
exposure via drinking water and its potential for adversely
affecting the health of the general population. Although
nitrilotriacetic acid, a white crystalline powder, is insoluble
in water, the tribasic salt is quite soluble.
NTA has strong affinity for iron, calcium, magnesium,
and zinc (Bailar 1956).226 Its relative affinity for toxic
metals such as cadmium and mercury is not presently
known, nor have its chelating properties in complex ionic
solutions been characterized. Copper and lead concen-
trations in biologically treated waste water after flocculation
with aluminum sulfate (125 mg/1) are a function of the
NTA present (Nilsson 1971).227 No information is available
on the toxicity of such chelates. No cases of acute human
poisoning by NTA have been reported.
In the natural environment, NTA is biodegraded to CO2,
s, and H2O, with glycine and ammonia as intermediate
(Thompson and Duthie 1968).228 This appears to occu
within four to five days. Degradation is accelerated b
biological waste treatment. Conversion of NTA to nitrat
is on a 1 to 1 molar basis.
Conclusion
No recommendation concerning NTA is made a
this time because of the absence of data on affinit
for toxic metals, the absence of adequate toxicit
data, and the absence of demonstrable effects 01
man, and because there is doubt about its potentia
use as a substitute for phosphates in detergents
Toxicity information should be developed ant
evaluated to establish a reasonable recommen
dation prior to its use as a substitute.
ODOR
Odor and taste, which are rarely separable, are the
primary means by which the user determines the accepta-
bility of water. The absence of odor is an indirect indication
that contaminants such as phenolic compounds are also
absent, or nearly so. (See Phenolic Compounds, in this sec-
tion, p. 80) Although odor cannot be directly correlated
with the safety of the water supply, its presence can cause
consumers to seek other supplies that may in fact be less
safe.
Many odor-producing substances in raw water supplies
are organic compounds produced by microorganisms and
by human and industrial wastes (Silvey 1953,232 Rosen
1966,231 American Water Works Association, Committe
on Tastes and Odors, 1970230). The denned treatmer
process can aid in the removal of certain odorous sul:
stances (American Water Works Association 1971),229 bu
it may in other cases increase the odor (Silvey et al. 1950)2:
as by the chlorination of phenolic compounds explaine
on p. 80.
Recommendation
For aesthetic reasons, public water suppl
sources should be essentially free from objection
able odor.
OIL AND GREASE
Oil and grease, as defined by Standard Methods (1971),241
occurring in public water supplies in any quantity cause
taste, odor, and appearance problems (Braus et al. 1951,235
Middleton and Lichtenberg I960,240 Middleton 196la,239
American Water Works Association 1966234), can be haz-
ardous to human health (The Johns Hopkins University,
Department of Sanitary Engineering and Water Resources
1956,237 McKee and Wolf 1963238), and are detrimental
to the defined treatment process (Middleton and Lichten-
berg I960).240 Even small quantities of oil and grease can
produce objectionable odors and appearance, causing re
jection of the water supply before health or treatmer.
problems exist (Holluta 1961,2:t6 McKee and Wolf 1963).2;
Recommendation
On the basis of odor and other aesthetic con
siderations affecting user preference and becaus
oil and grease are unnatural ingredients in watei
it is recommended that public water supply source
be essentially free from oil and grease.
74
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ORGANICS-CARBON ADSORBABLE
Organics-carbon adsorbable are composed of carbon-
chloroform extract (CCE) (Middleton 1961 b)246 and carbon-
alcohol extract (CAE) (Booth et al. 1965,243 Standard
Methods 1971248). CCE is a mixture of organic compounds
that can be adsorbed on activated carbon and then desorbed
with chloroform (Booth et al. 1965).243 Middleton and
Rosen (1956)246 showed the presence of substituted benzene
compounds, kerosene, polycyclic hydrocarbons, phenyl-
ether, acrylonitrile, and insecticides in CCE materials.
CAE is a mixture of organic compounds that can be ad-
sorbed on activated carbon, then desorbed with ethyl alcohol
after the chloroform soluble organics have been desorbed
(Booth et al. 1965).243
Hueper and Payne (1963)244 showed that CCE materials
had carcinogenic properties when ingested by rats. This
study also suggested a life-shortening effect in rats fed CAE
materials (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
office memorandum 1963).249 The CAE material also contained
at least one synthetic organic, alkyl benzene sulfonate
(Rosen et al. 1956).247
It is important to recognize that the carbon usually does
not adsorb all organic material present, nor is all the
adsorbed material desorbed.
Organics-carbon adsorbable recommendations represent
a practical measure of water quality and act as a safeguard
against the intrusion of excessive amounts of ill-defined
potentially toxic organic material into water. They have
served in the past as a measure of protection against the
presence of otherwise undetected toxic organic materials in
drinking water. However, they provide a rather incomplete
index of the health significance of such materials in potable
waters.
In 1965 Booth and his associates (1965)243 developed a
Carbon Adsorption Method (CAM) similar to the High-
Flow CAM Sampler but with a longer contact time be-
tween the sample and the activated carbon. This sampler,
called the Low-Flow CAM Sampler, increased organic
adsorption and therefore overall yield of the determination.
Since that time a more reliable collection apparatus,
called the Mini-Sampler, has been developed (Beulow and
Carswell 1972).242 In addition, the Mini-Sampler also used
a type of coal-based activated carbon that enhanced organic
collection. Further, the extraction apparatus has been
miniaturized to be less expensive and more convenient,
and the procedure modified to be more vigorous, thereby
increasing desorption and organic recovery (Beulow and
Carswell 1972).242 However, the Mini-Sampler has not
been evaluated using raw waters at this time. Therefore,
the Low-Flow Sampler (Booth et al. 1965)243 was used for
establishing the recommendation.
Adjustment of the High-Flow Sampler data (1961 Inter-
state Carrier Surveillance Program) to make them com-
parable to the recent results from the Low-Flow Sampler
show that waters with concentrations exceeding either 0.3
mg CCE/1 or 1.5 mg CAE/1 may contain undesirable
and unwarranted components and represent a generally
unacceptable level for unidentified organic substances.
Recommendation
Because large values of CCE and CAE are aes-
thetically undesirable and represent unacceptable
levels of unidentified organic compounds that may
have adverse physiological effects, and because the
defined treatment process has little or no effect on
the removal of these organics, it is recommended
that organics-carbon adsorbable as measured by
the Low-Flow Sampler (Standard Methods 1971248)
not exceed 0.3 mg/1 CCE and 1.5 mg/1 CAE in
public water supply sources.
75
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PESTICIDES
Pesticides include a great many organic compounds that
are used for specific or general purposes. Among them are
chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphorus and carba-
mate compounds, as well as the chlorophenoxy, and other
herbicides. Although these compounds have been useful in
improving agricultural yields, controlling disease vectors,
and reducing the mass growth of aquatic plants in streams
and reservoirs, they also create both real and presumed
hazards in the environment.
Pesticides differ widely in chemical and toxicological
characteristics. Some are accumulated in the fatty tissues
of the body while others are metabolized. The biochemistry
of the pesticides has not yet been completely investigated.
Because of the variability in their toxicity to man and their
wide range of biodegradability, the different groups of
pesticides are considered separately below.
Determining the presence of pesticides in water requires
expensive specialized equipment as well as specially trained
personnel. In smaller communities, it is not routine to make
actual quantitative determinations and identifications.
These are relegated to the larger cities, federal and state
agencies, and private laboratories that monitor raw waters
at selected locations.
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON INSECTICIDES
The chlorinated hydrocarbons are one of the most im-
portant groups of synthetic organic insecticides because of
their number, wide use, great stability in the environment,
and toxicity to certain forms of wildlife and other nontarget
organisms. If absorbed into the human body, some of the
chlorinated hydrocarbons are not metabolized rapidly but
are stored in fatty tissues. The consequences of such storage
are presently under investigation (Report of the Secre-
tary's Commission on Pesticides and Their Relationship to
Environmental Health. U.S. Department of Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare 1969).284 The major chlorinated hydro-
carbons have been in use for at least three decades, and yet
no definite conclusions have been reached regarding the
effect of these pesticides on man (HEW 1969).284
Regardless of how they enter organisms, chlorinated
hydrocarbons cause symptoms of poisoning that are similar
but differ in severity. The severity is related to concentratioi
of the chlorinated hydrocarbon in the nervous system
primarily the brain (Dale et al. 1963).266 Mild intoxicatioi
causes headaches, dizziness, gastrointestinal disturbances
numbness and weakness of the extremities, apprehension
and hyperirritability. In severe cases, there are muscula
fasciculations spreading from the head to the extremities
followed eventually by spasms involving entire muscli
groups, leading in some cases to convulsions and death.
Very few long term studies have been conducted witl
human volunteers. The highest level tested for dieldrin wa
0.211 mg/man/day for 2 years with no observed illnes
(Hunter and Robinson 1967,:!68 Hunter et al. 1969).269 Sino
aldrin is metabolized to dieldrin and has essentially thi
same toxicity as dieldrin, these data can also be applie(
to aldrin.
Methoxychlor levels of 140 mg/man/day produced n<
illness in subjects over a period of 8 weeks (Stein et al
1965).280 The maximum level of DDT seen to have n<
apparent ill effect was 35 mg/man/day for 2 years (Haye
et al. 1971).265
The dosage is one of the most important factors in ex
trapolating to safe human exposure levels. Using tumor
susceptible hybrid strains of mice, significantly increaset
incidences of tumors were produced with the administratioi
of large doses of DDT (46.4 mg/kg/day) (Innes et al
1969).270 In a separate study in mice extending over fivi
generations, a dietary level of 3 ppm of DDT produced <
greater incidence of malignancies and leukemia beginning
in the second filial and third filial generations, respectively
and continuing in the later generations (Tarjan and Kemen)
1969).281 These results are preliminary in nature and requin
confirmation. The findings of both of these studies conflic
with earlier studies of the carcinogenic effect of DDT whicl
yielded generally negative results.
A summary of the levels of several chlorinated hydra
carbons that produced minimal toxicity or no effects wher
fed chronically to dogs and rats is shown in Table 11-^
(Lehman 1965,272 Treon and Cleveland 1955,282 Cole un-
published data 1966286). Limits for chlorinated hydrocarbon;
in drinking water have been calculated primarily on the
76
-------
Pesticides/77
TABLE II-3—Recommended Limits for Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
Compound
Aldrin
Chlordane ...
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Hgptachlor..
Htpbchlor Epoiide .
Lindane .
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene...
Long-term levels with minimal or no effects
Species
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dcf
Man
Rat
DOt
Man
Rat
DOJ
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dog
Man
Ra.
Dog
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
Rat
Dot
Man
ppm in diet
0.5
1.0
2.S
N.A.
N.A.
5.0
400.0
0.5
1.0
5.0
3.0
N.A.
0.5
4.0
N.A.
0.5
0.5
NA.
50.0
15.0
N.A.
100.0
40000
100
400.0
N.A.
Reference
(1)
(1)
(1)
0)
0)
(1)
(0
(5)
(6)
0)
0)
0)
(1)
(0
0)
(0
0)
(1)
(1)
mg/kf body Reference
weight/da)"
0.083 .
0.02
0.003 (2), (3)
0.42 . ..
N.A.
N.A.
0.83
8.0
0.5 (4)
0.083
0.02
0.003 (2), (3)
0 83
0.06
N.A.
0.083
0.08
N.A.
0.083
0.01
N.A.
8.3
0.3
N.A.
17.0
80.0
2.0 (7)
1 7
80
N.A.
Calculated maximum sale levels
from all sources of exposure
Safety Factor
(X)
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/500
mt/kf/day
0.00083
0.0002
0.0003
0.00084
0.008
0.08
0.05
0.00083
0.0002
0.0003
0.00166
0.00012
0.000166
0.00016
0.000166
0.00002
0.0166
0.0006
0.17
0.8
0.2
0.0034
0.010
mg/man/day&
0.0581
O.OW
0.021
O.SSS-i
0.56°*
5.E
3.5
0.0581
0.014<<
0.021
0.1162
0.0084''
0.1162
0.01 12*
0.01162
0.0014''
1.162
0.042''
11. ¥
56.0
14.0
0.238
-------
78/Section II—Public Water Supplies
consider the exposure from other media. In the case of the
chlorinated hydrocarbons, exposure is expected to occur
mostly through the diet, although aerial spray of these
agents can occasionally result in an inhalation exposure.
Dietary intake of pesticide chemicals from 1964 to 1970
have been determined by investigators of the Food and
Drug Administration from "market basket" samples of
food and water (Duggan and Corneliussen 1972).268 The
average intakes (mg/man/day) are listed in Table II-3.
If the intake from the diet is compared with what are
considered acceptable safe levels for these pesticides, it is
apparent that only traces of chlordane, methoxychlor, and
toxaphene are present in the diet. Less than 10 per cent of
the maximum safe level of aldrin, DDT, endrin, heptachlor,
or lindane are ingested with the diet. For dieldrin, approxi-
mately 35 per cent of the safe level comes from the diet.
By contrast, exposure to heptachlor epoxide via the diet
accounts for more than the defined safe level. In general, an
apportionment to water of 20 per cent of the total acceptable
intake is reasonable. However, the limits for chlordane and
toxaphene were lowered because of organoleptic effects at
concentrations above 0.003 and 0.005 mg/I, respectively
(Cohen et al. 1961,253 Sigworth 1965278). The limit for
heptachlor epoxide was lowered to five per cent of the safe
level because of the relatively high concentrations in the
diet; and, accordingly, the limit for heptachlor was lowered
because it is metabolized to heptachlor epoxide.
These limits reflect the amounts that can be ingested
without harm to the health of the consumer and without
adversely affecting the quality of the drinking water. They
are meant to serve only in the event that these chemicals
are inadvertently present in the water and do not imply
that their deliberate addition is acceptable.
Recommendation
Because of adverse physiological effects on hu-
mans or on the quality of the water and because
there is inadequate information on the effect of
the denned treatment on removal of chlorinated
hydrocarbons, it is recommended that the limits
for water shown in Table II-3 not be exceeded.
ORGANOPHOSPHORUS AND CARBAMATE
INSECTICIDES
The number of organophosphorus and carbamate in-
secticides has steadily increased through special uses in
agricultural production and the control of destructive in-
sects. At present, there are perhaps 30 commonly used
organophosphates with parathion among those potentially
most dangerous to human health. No evidence has de-
veloped of any significant contamination of water supplies
even in the geographical areas where the use of pesticides
in this class has been extensive. However, because of their
high mammalian toxicity, it is advisable to establish an
upper limit for these pesticides in treated water supplies.
The majority of organophosphorus insecticides in use at
present are somewhat similar in chemical structure and
physical and biological properties. Although their speci
chemical compositions differ from one another and frc
carbamates, they all act by the same physiological meet
nism. Their presence in public water supplies as contan
nants would result in some deleterious biological efft
over a period of time.
Ingestion of small quantities of either of these pesticic
over a prolonged period results in a dysfunction of t
cholinesterase of the nervous system (Durham and Ha}
1962).259 This appears to be the only important manifi
tation of acute or chronic toxicity caused by these coi
pounds (HEW 1969).M4
Although safe levels of these; agents have been determin
for experimental animals on the basis of biochemical in<
cators of injury, more knowledge is needed to make speci
recommendations for water quality (HEW 1969).284
Indications of the levels that would be harmful a
available for some organophosphorus compounds as a resi
of studies conducted with human volunteers. Grob (1950)
estimated that 100 mg of parathion would be lethal ai
that 25 mg would be moderately toxic. On the other han
Bidstrup (1950)261 estimated that a dose of 10 to 20 mg
parathion might be lethal. Edson (1957)260 found th
parathion ingested by man at a rate of 3 mg/day had ]
effect on cholinesterase. Similar values were determined 1
Williams and his associates (1958).28B Moeller and Rid
(1962)273 suggested that the detectable toxicity threshol
as measured by cholinesterase depression, was 9 mg/d;
for parathion equivalency and 24 mg/day for malathio
These investigators also reported that a daily dose of 7 n
of methyl parathion was near the detectable toxicity thres
old for this compound; but it was later found (Rider ar
Moeller 1964)276 that 10 mg/'day of methyl parathion cl
not produce any significant inhibition of blood choli
esterase. Therefore, 5 mg/day (0.07 mg/kg/day) of p>
rathion equivalency should be a safe intake acceptable
the body.
Frawley and his associates (1963)262 found that a depre
sion of plasma cholinesterase occurred in human subjec
at a dosage of 0.15 mg/kg/day of Delnav, which wou
amount to a total dose of about 7 to 10 mg/day of parathk
depending on the body weight of the subjects.
On the basis that carbamate and organophosphorus i
secticides have similar toxic effects and that parathion
one of the most toxic of these classes, the data appeared
show that 0.07 mg/kg/day should be a safe level for tl
human body. Assuming a daily consumption of 2 liters
water containing cholinerglc organophosphates or carb
mates in concentrations of 0.1 mg/1, 0.2 mg/day would I
ingested. This would provide a factor of safety of 25 f<
parathion for a man weighing 70 kg.
Recom mendat ion
It is recommended that the carbamate an
organophosphorus pesticides in public water suf
-------
Pesticides/79
TABLE II-4—Recommended Allowable Levels for Chlorophenoxy Herbicides
Compound
Lowest long-term levels with minimal or no effects
Calculated maximum safe levels from all sources of exposure
Water
Species
Dose mg/kg/dar
Reference
Safety factor (X)
mg/kg/day
mg/man/dayb
~% of Safe Level Rec. limit (mg/l)°
2,4-D.. ..
2,4,5-TP(Silvex)
2,4,5-T .
Rat
Dot
Rat
Dot
Rat
Dot
0.5
8.0
2.6
0.9
4.E
10.0
Lehman (1965)"=
Lehman (1965)™
Mullison (1966)"<
Mullison (1966)"'
Courtney etal. (1970)2=i
Courtney & Moore (1971)"'
Drill & HiraMa (1953)2"
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/1000
1/1000
0.001
0.016
0.005
0.002
0.005
0.01
0.07-*
1 12
0.35
0.14J
0.35-*
0.7
50
50
1
0.02
0.03
0.002
- Assume weight of rat=0.3 kg and of dog=10 kg; assume average daily food consumption of rat=0.05 kg and of dot=0.2 kg.
*> Assume average weight of human adult=70 kg.
« Assume average daily intake of water for man=2 liters.
<* Chosen as basis on which to derive recommended level.
ply sources not exceed 0.1 mg/1, total, because there
is inadequate information on the effect of the de-
fined treatment process on their removal.
CHLOROPHENOXY HERBICIDES
During the past 20 years, numerous reservoirs have been
constructed as public water supplies for cities and com-
munities in the United States. In certain areas as much as
five per cent per year of the total volume of a reservoir may
be lost because of the marginal growth of weeds and trees.
This is especially common in the Southwest where water
levels fluctuate (Silvey 1968).279
In recent years the control of aquatic vegetation has been
widely practiced for water supply sources in many com-
munities in the U.S. Since herbicides may be used for this
purpose, it is possible that some may find their way into
finished water.
Two of the most widely used herbicides are 2,4-D (2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), and 2,4,5-TP (2,4,5-tri-
chlorophenoxy-propionic acid) (see Table 11-4). Each of
these compounds is available in a variety of salts and esters
that may have marked differences in herbicidal properties
but are rapidly hydrolyzed to the corresponding acid in
the body. There are additional compounds that have been
employed from time to time, such as diquat (1,1 '-ethylene-2,
2'-dipyridylium dibromide) and endothal (disodium 3,6-
endoxohexa-hydrophthalate).
Studies of the acute oral toxicity of the chlorophenoxy
herbicides indicated that there was approximately a three-
fold variation between the species studied and that the
acute toxicity was moderate (Hill and Carlisle 1947,267
Lehman 1951,271 Drill and Hiratzka 1953,2" Rowe and
Hymas 1954).277 It appears that acute oral toxicity of the
three compounds is of about the same magnitude within
each species. In the rat, the oral LD50 for each agent was
about 500 mg/kg.
There are some data available on the toxicity of 2,4-D
to man indicating that a daily dosage of 500 mg (about
7 mg/kg) produced no apparent ill effects in a volunteer
over a 21-day period (Kraus unpublished 1946).288
Sixty-three million pounds of 2,4-D were produced in
1965. There were no confirmed cases of occupational
poisoning and few instances of any illness due to ingestion
(Hayes 1963,264 Nielson et al. 1965275). One case of 2,4-D
poisoning in man has been reported recently (Berwick
1970).2SO
Lehman (1965)272 reported that the no-effect level ot
2,4-D is 0.5 mg/kg/day in the rat and 8.0 mg/kg/day in
the dog. In 2-year feeding studies with the sodium and
potassium salts of silvex, the no-effect levels were 2.6
mg/kg/day in rats and 0.9 mg/kg/day, respectively, in
dogs (Mullison 1966).274
Terata and embryo toxicity effects from 2,4,5-T were
evidenced by statistically increased proportions of abnormal
fetuses within the litters of mice and rats (Courtney et al.
1970).254 The rat appeared to be more sensitive to this
effect. A dosage of 21.5 mg/kg produced no harmful effects
in mice, while a level of 4.6 mg/kg caused minimal but
statistically significant effects in the rat. More recent work
has indicated that a contaminant (2,3,7 ,8-tetrachloro-
dibenzo-p-dioxin) which was present at approximately 30
ppm in the 2 ,4,5-T formulation originally tested was highly
toxic to experimental animals and produced fetal and
maternal toxicity at levels as low as 0.0005 mg/kg. However,
highly purified 2,4,5-T has also produced teratogenic
effects in both hamsters and rats at relatively high dosage
rates (FDA and NIEHS unpublished data,™1 Collins and
Williams 1971252). Current production samples of 2,4,5-T
that contain less than 1 ppm of dioxin did not produce
embryo toxicity or terata in rats at levels as high as 24
mg/kg/day (Emerson et al. 1970).261
Recommendation
Because of possible adverse physiological effects
and because there are inadequate data on the
effects of the defined treatment process on removal
of chlorophenoxy herbicides, it is recommended
that 2,4-D not exceed 0.02 mg/1, that Silvex not
exceed 0.03 mg/1, and that 2,4,5-T not exceed
0.002 mg/1 in public water supply sources.
-------
The pH of a raw water supply is significant because it
affects water treatment processes and may contribute to
corrosion of waterworks structures, distribution lines, and
household plumbing fixtures. This corrosion can add such
constituents as iron, copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium to
the water. Most natural waters have pH values within the
range of 5.0 to 9.0. Adjustment of pH within this range is
relatively simple, and the variety of anticorrosion pro-
cedures currently in use make it unnecessary to recommei
a more narrow range.
Recommendation
Because the defined treatment process can co]
with natural waters within the pH range of 5.0 1
9.0 but becomes less economical as this range
extended, it is recommended that the pH of publ
water supply sources be within 5.0 to 9.0.
PHENOLIC COMPONDS
Phenolic compounds are defined (Standard Methods
1971)301 as hydroxy derivatives of benzene and its condensed
nuclei. Sources of phenolic compounds are industrial waste
water discharges (Faust and Anderson 1968),292 domestic
sewage (Hunter 1971),296 fungicides and pesticides (Frear
1969),294 hydrolysis and chemical oxidation of organo-
phosphorus pesticides (Gomaa and Faust 1971),295 hy-
drolysis and photochemical oxidation of carbamate pesti-
cides (Aly and El-Dib 1971),289 microbial degradation ol
phenoxyalkyl acid herbicides (Menzie 1969),298 and natur-
ally occurring substances (Christman and Ghassemi 1966).291
Some phenolic compounds are sufficiently resistant to
microbial degradation to be transported long distances by-
water.
Phenols affect water quality in many ways. Perhaps the
greatest effect is noticed in municipal water systems where
trace concentrations of phenolic compounds (usually less
than 1.0 mg/1) affect the organoleptic properties of the
drinking water. For example, p-cresol has a threshold order
concentration of 0.055 mg/1, m-cresol 0.25 mg/I, and
o-cresol 0.26 mg/1 (Rosen et al. 1962).300 Phenol has a
threshold odor concentration of 4.2 mg/1 (Rosen et al.
1962),300 whereas the values for the chlorinated phenols are:
2-chlorophenol, 2.0 jag/l; and 4-chlorophenol, 250 jug/1
(Burttschell et al. 1959).290 Generally, phenolic compounds
are not removed efficiently by the defined treatment procei
Furthermore, municipal waters are postchlorinated to insu
disinfection. If phenolic compounds are present in wate
that are chlorinated for disinfection, chlorophenols may 1
formed. The kinetics of this reaction are such that chlor
phenols may not appear until the water has been di
tributed from the treatment plant (Lee and Morris 1962).!
2,4-dinitrophenol has been shown to inhibit oxidatr
phosphorylation at concentrations of 184 and 278 mg
(Pinchot 1967).299
The development of criteria for phenolic compounds
hampered by the lack of sensitive standard analytical tec]
niques for the detection of specific phenolic compound
Some of the more odorous compounds are the para subsl
tuted halogenated phenols. These escape detection by tl
methodology suggested by Standard Methods (1971)301 ui
less the analytical conditions are precisely set (Faust et a
1971).293
Recommendation
Because the defined treatment process may s«
verely increase the odor of many phenolic com
pounds, it is recommended that public water su[
ply sources contain no more than 1 yg/1 phenoli
compounds.
80
-------
PHOSPHATE
Recommendations for phosphate concentrations have
been considered but no generally acceptable recommen-
dation is possible at this time because of the complexity of
the problem. The purpose of such a recommendation would
be twofold:
1. to avoid problems associated with algae and other
aquatic plants, and
2. to avoid coagulation problems due particularly to
complex phosphates.
Phosphate is essential to all forms of life. In efforts to
limit the development of objectionable plant growths, phos-
phate is often considered the most readily controllable
nutrient. Evidence indicates (a) that high phosphate con-
centrations are associated with eutrophication of waters
manifest in unpleasant algal or other aquatic plant growths
when other growth-promoting factors are favorable; (b)
that aquatic plant problems develop in reservoirs or other
standing waters at phosphate values lower than those critical
in flowing streams; (c) that reservoirs and other standing
waters will collect phosphates from influent streams and
store a portion of these within the consolidated sediments;
and (d) that initial concentrations of phosphate that stimu-
late noxious plant growths vary with other water quality
characteristics, producing such growths in one geographical
area but not in another.
Because the ratio of total phosphorus (P) to that form of
phosphorus readily available for plant growth is constantly
changing and ranges from two to 17 or more times greater,
it is desirable to establish limits for total phosphorus rather
than to the portion that may be available for immediate
plant use. Most relatively uncontaminated lake districts are
known to have surface waters that contain 10 to 30 ng/l
total phosphorus as P; in some waters that are not obviously
polluted, higher values may occur. Data collected by the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Division
of Pollution Surveillance, indicate that total phosphorus
concentrations exceeded 50 jug/1 (P) at 48 per cent of the
stations sampled across the nation (Gunnerson 1966).302
Some potable surface water supplies now exceed 200 /ug/1
(P) without experiencing notable problems due to aquatic
growths. Fifty micrograms per liter of total phosphorus
(as P) would probably restrict noxious aquatic plant
growths in flowing waters and in some standing waters.
Some lakes, however, would experience algal nuisances at
and below this level.
Critical phosphorus concentrations will vary with other
water quality characteristics. Turbidity and other factors
in many of the nation's waters negate the algal-producing
effects of high phosphorus concentrations. When waters are
detained in a lake or reservoir, the resultant phosphorus
concentration is reduced to some extent over that in influent
streams by precipitation or uptake by organisms and subse-
quent deposition in fecal pellets or the bodies of dead
organisms. At concentrations of complex phosphorus on the
order of 100 Mg/1, difficulties with coagulation are experi-
enced (U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration 1968).303 (See the dis-
cussion of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Section I for a
more complete description of phosphorus associations with
the enrichment problem.)
Recommendation
No recommendation can be made because of the
complexity of relationships between phosphate
concentrations in water, biological productivity,
and resulting problems such as odor and nitration
difficulties.
81
-------
PHTHALATE ESTERS
Large quantities of phthalate esters are used as plasticizers
in plastics. Phthalates in water, fish, and other organisms,
represent a potential but largely unknown health problem.
They have been implicated in growth retardation, accumu-
lation, and chronic toxicity, but little conclusive infor-
mation is available (Phthalates are discussed in Section III,
Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife.) Because there
insufficient information on Iheir specific effects on man, i
scientifically defensible recommendation can be made
this time concerning concentrations of phthalate esters
public water supply sources.
PLANKTON
The quality of public water supplies may be drastically
affected by the presence of planktonic organisms. Plankton
may be defined as a community of motile or nonmotile
microscopic plants and animals that are suspended in water.
The species diversity and density of the plankton com-
munity are important water quality characteristics that
should be monitored in all public water supplies. Several
methods for counting plankton have been improvised.
Many reports count plankton as number of organisms per
aliquot of sample rather than biomass. Since various species
of algae are much larger than other species, plankton
counts that simply enumerate cells, colonies, or filaments do
not indicate accurately the true plankton content of the
water (Standard Methods 1971).305
Plankters are primarily important in public water supply
sources for their contribution to taste and odor problems,
pH alteration, or filter clogging. To aid operators in in-
terpreting plankton data, the algae counted should be
listed under applicable categories that show the predomi-
nance or absence of certain groups of organisms at any
given time. The categories used should include green algae,
blue-green algae, diatoms, flagellated forms, Protozoa,
microcrustaceans and Rotifera, as well as related Protista.
Data from plankton counts can be very useful to water
treatment operators (Silvey et al. 1972).304 Counts of blue-
green algae which exceed 50 per cent of the total plankton
community usually indicate potential taste and odor pro!
lems. So long as the green algae comprise 75 per cent
the total plankton count, it is not likely that serious tas
and odor problems will arise. The diatom population of tt
plankton community is also important. During some diato:
blooms, the pH of the water increases enough to require tt
addition of more alum or iron than would normally t
used to achieve the desired pH in the distribution systen
Some blooms of planktonic green algae cause the pH -
the water to rise from 7.6 to as high as 10. There are a]
parently no plankters that tend to reduce pH or remox
minerals in sufficient quantities to alter conditions.
The role which plankton plays in the productivity of
lake or reservoir is important. The relationship be twee
productivity and respiration may frequently be used as
pollution index. In many instances, plankton studies ai
more revealing than bacterial studies. A ratio of produi
tivity to respiration amounting to one or more indicati
that the algae are producing more oxygen than is beir
consumed by the bacteria. If the ratio drops below one fc
significant periods, an undesirable condition exists that ma
cause problems with anaerobic organisms. For further di
cussions of productivity and its relation to water qualit;
see Section I on Recreation and Aesthetics, Section III c
Fresh Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and Section IV on Marir
Aquatic Life and Wildlife.
82
-------
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB)
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) consist of a mixture of
compounds only slightly soluble in water; highly soluble
in fats, oils, and nonpolar liquids; and highly resistant to
both heat and biological degradation. PCB have a wide
variety of industrial uses, primarily as insulating fluid in
electrical and heat transfer equipment (Interdepartmental
Task Force 1972).311
Exposure to PCB is known to cause skin lesions (Schwartz
and Peck (1943)320 and to increase liver enzyme activity
that may have a secondary effect on reproductive processes
(Risebrough et al. 1968,317 Street et al. 1969,m Wassermann
et al. 1970325). It is not clear at this time whether the effects
are due to PCB or its contaminants, the chlorinated di-
benzofurans that are highly toxic (Bauer et a]. 1961,307
Schulz 1968,319 Verrett 1970324). It is also not known whether
the chlorinated dibenzofurans are produced by degradation
of PCB as well as during its manufacture.
The occurrence of PCB in our waters has been docu-
mented repeatedly (New Scientist 1966,316 Holmes et al.
1967,310 Risebrough et al. 1968,317 Jensen et al. 1969,312
Koeman et al. 1969,313 Schmidt et al. 1971,318 Veith and
Lee 1971323). They have been associated with sewage
effluents (Holden 1970,3M Schmidt et al. 1971318) and rain-
water (Tarrant and Tatton 1968),322 as well as releases and
leakage. Failures of closed systems using PCB have caused
some of the more well known releases (Kuratsune et al.
1969,314 Duke et al. 1970308). It has been reported that the
defined treatment process does little or nothing to remove
PCB (Ahling and Jensen 1970).306
An epidemiological study on severe poisoning by rice oil
contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls in 1968 indi-
cated that about 0.5 grams ingested over a period of ap-
proximately one month was sufficient to cause the Yusho
disease. Many of those affected showed no signs of relief
after about three years (Kuratsune et al. 1969).314 Price
and Welch (1971)316 have estimated on the basis of 194
samples that 41 to 45 per cent of the general population of
the U.S. may have PCB levels of 1.0 mg/kg or higher
(wet weight) in adipose tissue. Therefore, it appears that
PCB may accumulate in the body. On this basis it can be
calculated that a daily intake of 0.02 mg would require
about 70 years to be toxic. Applying a factor of safety of
10 would permit a daily intake of 0.002 mg, and assuming
a two liter per day intake, suggests a permissible concen-
tration in water to be 0.001 mg/1.
However, evaluation of the retention and accumulation
of PCB from water instead of oil in humans is highly desir-
able. A study on rats with a single oral dose of 170 mg/kg
showed urinary excretion (of PCB) to be limited, while
70 per cent of the dose was found in the feces during an
eight week period (Yoshimura et al. 1971).326 Information
on PCB in the diet would also be helpful.
Conclusion
Because too little is known about the levels in
waters, the retention and accumulation in hu-
mans, and the effects of very low rates of ingestion,
no defensible recommendation can be made at this
time.
83
-------
RADIOACTIVITY
The effects of radiation on human beings are viewed as
harmful, and any unnecessary exposure to radiation should
be avoided. The U.S. Federal Radiation Council* (1961a)329
provided guidance for federal agencies to limit exposure of
individuals to radiation from radioactive materials in the
environment. The following statement by the U.S. Federal
Radiation Council (I960)328 is considered especially perti-
nent in applying the recommendations of this report:
There can be no single permissible or acceptable level
of exposure without regard to the reason for permitting
the exposure. It should be general practice to reduce
exposure to radiation, and positive effort should be
carried out to fulfill the sense of these recommen-
dations. It is basic that exposure to radiation should
result from a real determination of its necessity.
The U.S. Federal Radiation Council criteria (I960,328
196la329) have been used in establishing the limits for radio-
activity recommended here. It should be noted that these
guidelines apply to normal peacetime operations. They are
predicated upon three ranges of daily intake of radio-
activity as seen in Table 11-5.
The recommended radionuclide intake derives from the
sum of radioactivity from air, food, and water. Daily
intakes were prescribed with the provision that dose rates
be averaged over a period of one year. The range for
specific radionuclides recommended by the U.S. Federal
Radiation Council (1961b)330 are shown in the following
tables:
TABLE II-5—Ranges of Transient Rates of Intake (pd/day)
for use in Graded Scale of Action*
TABLE II-6—Graded Scale of Action
Ranee I
Range II
Ranie HI
Radium-226
lodine-131b
Strontium-90 . .
Strontium-89
0-2
0-10
0-20
0-200
2-20
10-100
20-200
200-2000
20-200
100-1000
200-2000
2000-20,000
» See Table 11-6.
b In the case of iodine-131, the suitable sample would include only small children. For adults, the radiation protec-
tion guide for the thyroid would not be exceeded by rates of intarin higher by a factor of 10 than those applicable
to small children.
Ranges of transient rates of daily intake
Range I .
Range II.
Range III
Graded scale of action
. Periodic confirmatory surveillance as necessary
. Quantitative surveillance and routine control
Evaluation and application of additional control measures as nee
ary
* The functions of the U.S. Federal Radiation Council have been
transferred to EPA, Office of Radiation Programs.
For each range, a measure of control was defined, whic
represented a graded scale of control procedures.
The U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1961b)330 furtht
defined the action to be taken by stating that "Routir
control of useful applications of radiation and atom
energy should be such that expected average exposures (
suitable samples of an exposed population group will nr.
exceed the upper value of Range II." Furthermore, the
recommended, with respect to Range III, that "Contn
actions would be designed to reduce the levels to Range I
or lower, and to provide staoiJity at lower levels."
It has not been considered necessary to prescribe criteri
for iodine-131 or strontiurn-89 for surface waters. Iodine-13
has never been a problem in water supplies and does nc
appear likely to be, and strontium-89 levels should not 1;
significant if strontium-90 levels are kept satisfactorily lov
Using the midpoint of Range I, Table II-5, for transier
rates of intake recommended by the U.S. Federal Radiatio
Council, and assuming a 2 liter per day consumption, th
radium-226 limit is 0.5 Pc/day and strontium-90 limit
5 Pc/day. These levels are not currently being exceeded i
any surface water supply in the United States, although
number of ground water supplies have more than 0.5 pCi/
of radium-226.
Because tritium (hydrogen-3) may be discharged fror
nuclear power reactors and fuel reprocessing plants, an
because it would not be detected in normal analysis c
water samples, it has been considered desirable to includ
a limit on this low energy radionuclide. The Federal Radi
ation Council has not provided guidance on tritium intake
A tentative limit of 3,000 pCi/1 of tritium has been propose*
for the revised edition of Drinking Water Standards. Thi
relatively conservative limit has been suggested because c
84
-------
Radio'activity /85
uncertainty in the potential genetic effects of tritium in-
corporated into body tissues as tritiated water. It is a
generally attainable level based on data from the Environ-
mental Protection Agency Tritium Surveillance System.
These data indicate that of 70 United States cities surveyed
in 1970, none had an'annual average tritium activity in
tap water exceeding 3,000 pCi/1, the highest annual average
value being 1,900 pCi/1. Levels in surface water collected
downstream from nuclear facilities showed only two of 34
locations having tritium activity exceeding 3,000 pCi/1.
Precipitation samples taken during 1970 at locations within
the United States indicated less than 700 pCi/1.
Although a large number of other radionuclides may be
present in water, it has not been considered necessary to
include specific limits for other than the three mentioned
above. If other nuclides are likely to be present, it is recom-
mended that permissible limits be held to 1/150 of the limit
for continuous occupational exposure set by the Inter-
national Commission on Radiological Protection (I960).327
Gross radioactivity limits provide screening techniques
and guides to an increased level of radiochemical analysis.
If the gross alpha and gross beta concentrations in a sample
are less than certain minimum concentrations, no additional
radiochemical or radiophysical analyses are required.
Gross Alpha Radioactivity Gross alpha limits or
investigation levels are keyed to the concentration limit for
radium-226 (the alpha emitter with the most restrictive
intake limit). A typical scheme is the following:
TABLE 11-7—Typical Scheme of Gross Alpha Concentration
TABLE II-8—Gross Beta Radioactivity to Strontium-90 and
Isotopes of Radioiodine
Gross Alpha concentration (pCi/1)
Required action
(a) Not exceeding 0.5 pCi/1 None
(b) Greater than 0.5 but not exceeding 5 pCi/1 Radiochemical analysis for radium-226
(c) Greater than 5 pCi/1 Comprehensive radiochemical anaylsis
Gross Beta Radioactivity Two beta emitting radio-
nuclides with the most restrictive maximum permissible
concentrations are lead-210 and radium-228. However,
since it is extremely unlikely that either radionuclide will
Gross Beta concentration excluding Potassium-40
Required action
(a) Not greater toi 5 pCi I
(b) Greater than 5, but less than 50 pCi/1
(c) Greater than 50 pCi/1. .
. None (with knowledge that lead-210 and radium-228
are essentially absent)
. Analyses for strontium-90, iodine-) 29, and iodine-131
Comprehensive radiochemical analysis
ever be present in a significant concentration in a raw
water source, the investigation levels for gross beta radio-
activity are keyed to strontium-90 and isotopes of radio-
iodine.
The radionuclide concentration limits proposed in the
above tables should not be considered as absolute maxima
that, if exceeded, constitute grounds for rejection of a
drinking water supply source. Instead, the concentration
limits should be considered guidelines that should not be
exceeded unless there is good reason. The constraints that
should be imposed are based on: (1) a determination by the
appropriate regulatory agencies that the higher level of
radioactivity is as low as can be practicably achieved, and
(2) quantitative surveillance of all intake pathways to
demonstrate that total dose to a suitable sample of the
exposed population is within Radiation Protection Guide-
lines levels. To permit variances in radionuclide concen-
trations in water depending on concentrations in other
environmental media and dietary habits is consistent with
the guidance and recommendations of the U.S. Federal
Radiation Council, the National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurement, and the International Com-
mission on Radiological Protection.
Recommendation
Because the defined treatment process has un-
certain effects on the removal of soluble radio-
nuclides and because of the effects of radiation on
humans, it is recommended that the limits related
to the guidelines presented above be accepted in
the context of the discussion for application to
sources of public water supply.
-------
SELENIUM
The toxicity of selenium resembles that of arsenic and
can, if exposure is sufficient, cause death. Acute selenium
toxicity is characterized by nervousness, vomiting, cough,
dyspnea, convulsions, abdominal pain, diarrhea, hypo-
tension, and respiratory failure. Chronic exposure leads to
marked pallor, red staining of fingers, teeth and hair,
debility, depression, epistaxis, gastrointestinal disturbances,
dermatitis, and irritation of the nose and throat. Both
acute and chronic exposure can cause odor on the breath
similar to garlic (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs
1968).836 The only documented case of selenium toxicity
from a water source, uncomplicated with selenium in the
diet, concerned a three-month exposure to well water con-
taining 9 mg/1 (Beath 1962).331
Although previous evidence suggested that selenium was
carcinogenic (Fitzhugh et al. 1944),332 these observations
have not been borne out by subsequent data (Volganev
and Tschenkes 1967).346 In recent years, selenium has
become recognized as a dietary essential in a number of
species (Schwarz I960,341 Nesheim and Scott 1961,338 Old-
field et al. 1963339).
Elemental selenium is highly insoluble and requires oxi-
dation to selenite or selenate before appreciable quantities
appear in water (Lakin and Davidson 1967).335 There is
evidence that this reaction is catalyzed by certain soil
bacteria (Olson 1967).340
No systematic investigation of the forms of selenium in
excessive concentrations in drinking water sources has been
carried out. However, from what is known of the solubilities
of the various compounds of selenium, the principal in-
organic compounds of selenium would be selenite and
selenate. The ratio of their individual occurrences would
depend primarily on pH. Organic forms of selenium oc-
curred in seleniferous soils and had sufficient mobility in
an aqueous environment to be preferentially absorbed over
selenate in certain plants (Hamilton and Beath 1964).334
However, the extent to which these compounds might occi
in source waters is essentially unknown. Toxicologic exam
nation of plant sources of selenium revealed that seleniui
present in seleniferous grains was more toxic than inorgani
selenium added to the diet (Franke and Potter 1935).333
Intake of selenium from foods in seleniferous areas (Smit
1941),342 may range from 600 to 6,340 jug/day, which ap
proach estimated levels related to symptoms of seleniur
toxicity in man based on urine samples (Smith et a
1936,343 Smith and Westfall 1937344). If data on seleniur
in foods (Morris and Levander 1970)337 are applied to th
average consumption of foods (U.S. Department of Agri
culture, Agriculture Research Service, Consumer and Fooi
Economics Research Division 1967),345 the normal dietar
intake of selenium is about 200 fig/day.
If it is assumed that two liters of water are ingested pe
day, a 0.01 mg/1 concentration of total selenium wouL
increase the normal total dietary intake by 10 per cen
(20 jug/day). Considering the range of selenium in fooi
associated with symptoms of toxicity in man, this woulc
provide a safety factor of from 2.7 to 29. A serious weaknes
in these calculations is that their validity depends on ai
assumption of equivalent toxicity of selenium in food an<
water, in spite of the fact that a considerable portion c
selenium associated with plants is in an organic form
Adequate toxicological data that specifically examine th
organic and the inorganic selenium compounds are no
available.
Recommendation
Because the defined treatment process has litth
or no effect on removing selenium, and because
there is a lack of data on its toxic effects on human!
when ingested in water, it is recommended that
public water supply sources contain no more than
0.01 mg/1 selenium.
86
-------
SILVER
Silver is a rather rare element with a low solubility of
0.1 to 10 mg/1 depending upon pH and chloride concen-
tration (Hem 1970).348 Data from 1,577 samples collected
from 130 sampling points in the United States showed
detectable (0.1 /ig/1) concentrations in 104 samples ranging
from 1.0 to 38 /ug/1 with a median of 2.6 jug/1 (Kopp
1969).3S2
The principal effect of silver in the body is cosmetic. It
causes a permanent grey discoloration of skin, eyes, and
mucous membranes. The amounts of colloidal silver re-
quired to produce this condition (argyria, argyrosis), which
would serve as a basis for determining the water standard,
are not known; but the amount of silver from injected
agarsphenamine that produces argyria is any amount
greater than one gram of silver in the adult (Hill and
Pillsbury 1939,349 1957360). It is also reported that silver,
once absorbed, is held indefinitely in the tissues (Aub and
Fairhall 1942).347
A study that provided analyses of samples of human
tissues from 30 normal adult males showed three to contain
silver in minute amounts. Comparison of the mean daily
concentrations of silver in successive daily samples of urine,
feces, and food (0.088 mg/day) showed essentially no ab-
sorption of the intake from food (Kehoe et al. 1940b).351
Studies of the metabolism of silver in the rat showed only
about 2 per cent of the element entered the blood from the
gastrointestinal tract and that the biological half life was
about 3 days (Scott 1949).363 However, this work was done
with carrier free silver and may not be representative of the
behavior of larger amounts of element. It does suggest,
however, that ingested silver is not likely to be completely
stored in the body.
Conclusion
Because silver in waters is rarely detected at
levels above 1 /ug/1, a limit is not recommended for
public water supply sources.
87
-------
SODIUM
Sodium salts are ubiquitous in the water environment.
These minerals are highly soluble, and their concentrations
in natural waters show considerable variation, regionally
and locally. In addition to natural sources of sodium salts,
other sources are sewage, industrial effluents, and deicing
salts. Sodium concentrations in ground waters may also
vary with well depth, and often reach higher levels of
concentration than in surface waters. Removal of sodium
is costly and is not common in public water supply treat-
ment.
Of the 100 largest public water supplies in the U.S., most
of which are surface supplies, the median sodium content
was 12 mg/1 with a range of 1.1 mg/1 to 177 mg/1 (Durfor
and Becker 1964).365 For a healthy individual, the intake
of sodium is discretionary and influenced by food selection
and seasoning. The intake of sodium may average 6 g/day
without adverse effects on health (Dahl I960).354
Various restricted sodium intakes are recommended by
physicians for a significant portion of the population, in-
cluding persons suffering from hypertension, edema associ-
ated with congestive cardiac failure, and women with
toxemias of pregnancy (National Research Council, Food
and Nutrition Board 1954).386 The sodium intake from
sources other than water recommended for very restricted
diets is 500 mg/day. Diets for these individuals permit
20 mg/1 sodium in drinking water and water used for
cooking. If the public water supply has a sodium content
exceeding this limit, persons on a very restricted sodium
diet must use distilled or deionized water.
For a larger portion of the population who use a moder-
ately restricted diet, 1,000 mg/day is the recommended
sodium intake limit (National Research Council, Food and
Nutrition Board 1954).356 Under this limit, water containir
a higher concentration of sodium could be used if tt
sodium intake from the sources other than water were n<
increased above that of the very restricted diet, Then, tf
daily intake of sodium from water (20 mg/1 for very n
stricted diets) could be increased by the additional 500 m
(250 mg/1) intake permitted in the moderately restricte
diet, thus allowing a significant portion of the populatio
to use public water supplies with higher sodium concer
trations. On this basis water containing more than 270 mg,
sodium should not be used for drinking water by thos
using the moderately restricted sodium diet, and wate
containing more than 20 mg/l sodium should not be use
by those using the very restricted sodium diet.
The response of people who should restrict their sodiur
intake for health reasons is a continuum varying wit
intake. The allocation of the difference in dietary intak
allowed by the very restricted and the moderately restricts
diets to drinking water would be an arbitrary decision
Furthermore, waters containing high concentrations c
sodium (greater than 270 mg/1) are likely to be too high]-
mineralized to be considered desirable from aesthetic stand
points aside from health considerations.
Treatment of an entire public water supply to remov
sodium is quite costly. Home treatment for drinking wate
alone for those needing low sodium water can be done a
relatively modest cost, or low sodium content bottled wate
can be used.
Recommendation
In view of the above discussion no limit is recom-
mended for sodium.
88
-------
SULFATE
The public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the
United States were found to contain a median sulfate con-
centration of 26 rng/1, and a maximum of 572 mg/1 (Durfor
and Becker 1964).387 Greater concentrations were present
in many ground water supplies for smaller communities
in the Midwest (Larson 1963).358 Sulfate ions in drinking
water can have a cathartic effect on occasional users, but
acclimatization is rapid. If two liters of water are ingested
per day, the equivalent sulfate concentrations for laxative
doses of Glauber salt and Epsom salt are 300 mg/1 and
390 mg/1, respectively (Peterson 1951,361 Moore 1952360).
Data collected by the North Dakota State Department
of Health on laxative effects of mineral quality in water
indicated that more than 750 mg/1 sulfate had a laxative
effect, and less than 600 mg/1 did not (Peterson 1951).361
If the water was high in magnesium, the effect took place
at lower sulfate concentrations than if other cations were
dominant. A subsequent interpretation showed that laxative
effects were experienced by sensitive persons not accustomed
to the water when magnesium was about 200 mg/1, and
by the average person when magnesium was 500-1000 mg/1
(Moore 1952).360
The median of sulfate concentrations detected by taste
by a panel of 10 to 20 persons was 237, 370, and 419 mg/1
for sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts, respectively
(Whipple 1907).362 Coffee brewed with 400 mg/1 sulfate
added as magnesium sulfate was affected in taste (Lockhart
et al. 1955).859
Recommendation
On the basis of taste and laxative effects and
because the defined treatment process does not
remove sulfates, it is recommended that sulfate
in public water supply sources not exceed 250 mg/1
where sources with lower sulfate concentrations
are or can be made available.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature affects the palatibility of water by intensi-
fying taste and odor through increased volatility of the
source compound (Burnson 1938).366 Any increase in tem-
perature may stimulate growth of taste and odor producing
organisms (Kofoid 1923,372 Thompson 1944,378 Silvey et al.
1950377) but tends to decrease the survival time of infectious,
organisms (Peretz and Medvinskaya 1946,376 Rudolfs et al.
1950376). The standard treatment process is also affected
by temperature or temperature changes in the steps of
coagulation (Velz 1934,379 Maulding and Harris 1968,373
American Water Works Association 1971363), sedimentation
(Camp et al. 1940,36S Hannah et al. 1967370), filtration
(Hannah et al. 1967370), and chlorination (Ames and Smith
1944,3M Butterfield and Wattie 1946367).
Temperature changes usually are caused by using water
as a coolant, as a carrier of wastes, or for irrigation
(Brashears, Jr. 1946,366 Moore 1958,374 Eldridge I960,369
Hoak 1961371). Surface water temperatures vary with the
seasons, geographical location, and climatic conditions. The
same factors along with geological conditions affect ground
water temperatures.
Recommendation
No temperature change that detracts from the
potability of public water supplies and no temper-
ature change that adversely affects the standard
treatment process are suggested guidelines for
temperature in public water supply sources.
89
-------
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
(Filterable Residue)
High total dissolved solids (TDS) are objectionable be-
cause of possible physiological effects, mineral taste, and
economic consequences. Limited research (Bruvold 1967380)
indicated that consumer acceptance of mineralized waters
decreased in direct proportion to increased mineralization.
This study covered a range of TDS values of 100 to 1,200
mg/1; one at 2,300 mg/1 TDS. For high levels of minerali-
zation, there may also be a laxative effect, particularly
upon transients. High concentrations of mineral salts, par-
ticularly sulfate and chloride, are also associated with costly
corrosion damage in water systems (Patterson and Banker
1968381).
Because of the wide range of mineralization of natural
water, it is not possible to establish a single limiting value.
The measurement of specific conductance provides an indi-
cation of the amount of TDS present. The relationship of
specific conductance to TDS will vary depending upon the
distribution of the major constituent elements present. For
any given water a relatively uniform relationship will exist.
Where sufficient data exist to establish a correlation between
the two measurements, specific conductance may be use
as a substitute for the TDS measurement. In very gener
terms, a specific conductance of 1,500 micro-rnhos is aj
proximately equivalent to 1,000 mg/1 TDS (Standai
Methods 1971).383
Because drinking water containing a high concentratic
of TDS is likely to contain an excessive concentration i
some specific substance thai: would be aesthetically objei
tionable to the consumer, the 1962 Drinking Water Stanc
ards (PHS 1962)382 included a limit for TDS of 500 mg/
if other less mineralized sources were available. Althoug
waters of higher concentrations are not generally desirabli
it is recognized that a considerable number of supplit
with dissolved solids in excess of the 500 mg/1 limit are use
without any obvious ill effects. Therefore, instead of recorr
mending a general dissolved solids limit, specific recommer
dations are made in this report for individual substances (
importance in drinking water sources, such as chloride an
sulfate.
TURBIDITY
The recommendation for acceptable levels of turbidity
in water must relate to the capacity of the water treatment
plant to remove turbidity adequately and continuously at
reasonable cost. Water treatment plants are designed to
remove the kind and quantity of turbidity to be expected
in each water supply source. Turbidity can reduce the
effectiveness of chlorination by physically protecting micro-
organisms from direct contact with the disinfectant (Sander-
son and Kelly 1964,384 Tracy et al. 1966).386
Customary methods (Standard Methods 1971)385 for
measuring and reporting turbidity do not adequately
measure those characteristics harmful to public water supply
and water treatment processing. A water with 30 turbidity
units may coagulate more rapidly than one with 5 or 10
units. Conversely, water with 30 turbidity units sometimes
may be more difficult to coagulate than water with 100
units. The type of plankton, clay, or earth particles, their
size, and electrical charges, are more important determinin
factors than the turbidity units. Sometimes clay added t
very low turbidity water will improve coagulation.
Turbidity in water should be readily removable b
coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration; it should not b
present to an extent that will overload the water treatmen
plant facilities; and it should not cause unreasonable treat
ment costs. In addition, turbidity should not frequent!'
change or vary in characteristics to the extent that sue!
changes cause upsets in water treatment plant processes.
Conclusion
No recommendation is made, because it is no
possible to establish a turbidity recommendatioi
in terms of turbidity units; nor can a turbidity
recommendation be expressed in terms of mg/
"undissolved solids" or "nonfilterable solids."
90
-------
URANYL ION
The 1968 edition of Water Quality Criteria (FWPCA
1968)387 included a limit for uranyl ion (UO2++) of 5mg/l,
because a 1965 Public Health Service Drinking Water
Standards Review Committee had tentatively decided to
include it in the next revision of the Drinking Water Stand-
ards. This value was selected because it is below the ob-
jectionable taste and appearance levels as well as the
chemically toxic concentration.
Further investigation of raw water quality data indicated
that uranium does not occur naturally in most waters
above a few micrograms per liter (U.S. Geological Survey
1969,388 EPA office memorandum 1971389).
Recommendation
The taste, color, and gross alpha recommen-
dations will restrict the uranium concentration to
levels below those objectionable on the basis of
toxicity. For these reasons, no specific limit is pro-
posed for uranyl ion.
VIRUSES
Many types of viruses are excreted in the wastes of
humans and animals (Berg 1971392), and some have been
implicated in diseases (Berg 1967391). There are'viruses that
alternate between animal hosts (Kalter 1967)403 and those
that can infect genetically distant hosts (Maramorosch
1967).407 Because almost any virus can be transmitted from
host to host through water (Mosley 1967),409 any amount
of virus detectable by appropriate techniques in surface
water supplies constitutes a hazard (Berg 1967).391
While it is believed that all human enteric viruses have
the potential to cause illness in man, not all have been
etiologically associated with clinical illness. A number of
waterborne local outbreaks attributed to virus affecting
approximately 800 people have occurred in the United
States, but no obvious large scale spread of a viral disease
by the water route is known to have occurred (Mosely
1967).409 Although virus transmission by water has been
suggested for poliomyelitis, gastroenteritis, and diarrhea,
the most convincing documentation exists for infectious
hepatitis (Mosley 1967).409 Twelve outbreaks of infectious
hepatitis have been attributed to contaminated drinking
water in the United States between 1895 and 1971, and
most of these have been linked to private systems.
Berg (1971)392 suggests that waterborne viral disease need
not occur at the epidemic level in order to be of significance.
Small numbers of virus units could produce infection with-
out causing overt disease, and infected individuals could
then serve as sources of larger amounts of virus.
The interpretation of virus data presents other problems
in addition to those posed by epidemiological evaluation.
There is evidence that one virulent virus unit can be suffi-
cient to infect man if it contacts susceptible cells (Plotkin
and Katz 1967),411 but in an intact host, this is complicated
by various defenses (Beard 1967).390 The interpretation of
data is further complicated by aberrations in survival curves
for virus thought to be caused by clumping. The statistical
treatment of virus data has been discussed by Berg et al.
(1967),393 Chang (1967,395 1968396), Clark and Niehaus
(1967),399 Sharp \1967),412 and Berg (1971).392
The route of enteric viral contamination of surface waters
is from human feces through the effluents of sewage treat-
ment plants as well as contamination from raw sewage.
Enteric virus densities in human feces have been estimated
by calculation and sampling. Clarke and his associates
(1962)400 suggested that human feces contained approxi-
mately 200 virus units per gram per capita and 12X106
coliform bacteria per gram per capita, or 15 enteric virus
units per 106 coliforms. Combining these calculations with
observed data, they estimated that sewage contained 500
virus units per 100 ml, and contaminated surface waters
contained less than 1 virus unit per 100 ml. These numbers
are subject to wide variation and change radically during
an epidemic.
The removal capabilities of various sewage treatment
processes have been examined individually and in series
both in the laboratory and in the field (Chin et al. 1967,398
91
-------
^I/Section II—Public Water Supplies
TABLE H-9—Average Time in Days for 99.9 Per Cent
Reduction in Original Titer of Indicated Microorganisms
at Three Temperatures
Microorganism
Clean water Moderately polluted water Sewage
28 C 20 C 4C 28 C 20 C 4C 28 C 20 C 4C
Poliovirus I . .
ECHO 7
ECH0 12 .
Coisackie A9 . .
A. aerogenes
Ecoli
S recalls
. . 17
12
5
.. . <8
. . 6
... . 6
. ... 6
20
16
12
<8
8
7
8
27
26
33
10
15
10
17
11
5
3
5
15
5
9
13
7
5
8
18
5
18
19
15
19
20
44
11
57
17
28
20
6
10
12
14
23
41
32
No data
21
20
26
110
130
60
12
56
48
48
Clarke et al. 1962<"
Clark and Niehaus 1967,399 England et al. 1967,402 Lund
and Hedstrom 1967,404 Malherbe 1967,405 Malherbe and
Strickland-Cholmley 1967,406 Berg 1971392). These studies
indicated that while some sewage treatment processes
showed virus removal potential in laboratory tests and field
evaluation, there was no indication that consistent adequate
virus removal, that is no detectable virus, was accomplished
by present sewage treatment practices (Berg 1971).392 How-
ever, the apparent limited survival time for viruses in wat<
can be affected by factors, such as temperature and adsor]
tion that protects viruses; and the proximity of water use
may make survival for only a short period of time sufficiei
to transmit virulent virus (Prier and Riley 1967).41°
Table II-9 gives virus and bacterial survival data f<
clean, moderately contaminated, and sewage water.
The removal capabilities of various water treatmei
processes are presented in Table 11-10.
Conventional water treatment processes are variable i
their virus removal efficacy and questionable in their pe
formance under field conditions (Berg 1971,392 Sproi
1972413).
Disinfection by chlorination was reviewed recently f'<
its virus inactivation efficacy (Morris 1971).408 Only undi
sociated hypochlorous acid (HOC1) was considered effecti\
in virus inactivation. Approximately 25 mg/1 chloramin
100 mg/1 hypochlorite or 0.5 to 1.0 mg/1 HOC1 wi1
30-minute contact times were required to cause adequa
viral inactivation in potable water. The amount of chlorit
required to achieve these conditions varied with the p.
and the amount of nitrogen present.
TABLE II-10—Removal of Viruses from Water and Wastewater by Biological, Physical, and Chemical Treatment Procedur
Treatment(1)
Menstruum tested (2)
Retention time, m hours ())
Virus" (4)
Virus removed, as a percentage (5)
Reference (6)
Primary setting . Primary effluent
Activate d sludge Activated sludge effluent
Carbon adsorption (0. 5 gal per min per sq ft) Trickling filter effluent
Ca(OH)= coagulation (500 mg per 1) Activated sludge effluent
AP(SCH)' coagulation (25 mg per 1) River water
Fed3 coagulation (25 mg per 1) . . . River water
3
6.0-8.4
6.0-7.5
Poliovirus 1
Coxsackievirus A9
Poliovirus 1
.PhageT-2
. Poliovirus 1
Coxsackievirus A2
Coxsackievirus A2
0-3
96-99
88-94»
35
98.5-99.9
95-99'
92-94=
Clarke etal. 1961<»i
Clarke et al. 1961'°'
Clarke et al. 1961«»
Sproul et al. 1967'"
Berg etal. UBS1"
Chang et al. 1958"'
Chang etal. 1958"'
« Added to the test experimentally.
<< When volatile solids were at least 400 mg per I.
'When good floe formation occurred.
Berg19713!«
Considerable progress on virological method development
has been made in the past decade. However, virology tech-
niques have not yet been perfected to a point where they
can be used routinely for monitoring water for viruses. There
is a need for virus data on relative numbers, better tech-
niques, relative die-off rates, and correlation with existing
indicators, as well as methods for direct determination.
Conclusion
In view of the uncertain correlation of virus oc
currence with existing Indicators, the absence e
adequate monitoring techniques, and the genera
lack of data, scientifically defensible criteria canno
be recommended at this time.
-------
ZINC
Zinc is an essential and beneficial element in human
metabolism. The activity of insulin and several body en-
zymes is dependent on zinc. The daily adult human intake
averages 10 to 15 mg; for preschool children it is 0.3 mg/kg.
(Vallee 1957).420
Zinc is a widely used metal and may be dissolved from
galvanized pipe, hot water tanks, or from yellow brass.
It may also be present in some corrosion prevention addi-
tives and in industrial wastes. The solubility of zinc is
variable, depending upon pH and alkalinity.
In 1,577 samples from 130 locations on streams between
October 1962 and September 1967, zinc was detected
(2 Mg/1) in 1,207 samples with a range of 2 to 1,183 pig/1
and a mean of 64 Mg/1 (Kopp 1969).419
Individuals drinking water containing 23.8 to 40.8 mg/1
of zinc experienced no known harmful effects. Communities
have reported using water containing 11 to 27 mg/1 of
zinc without harmful effects (Bartow and Weigle 1932,416
Anderson et al. 1934416). Another report stated that spring
water containing 50 mg/1 of zinc was used for a protracted
period without harm (Hinman, Jr. 1938418).
Statistical analysis of taste threshold tests with zinc in
distilled water showed that 5 per cent of the observers were
able to distinguish between 4.3 mg/1 zinc (added as zinc
sulfate) and water containing no zinc salts (Cohen et al.
I960417). When added as zinc nitrate and as zinc chloride,
the detection levels were 5.2 and 6.3 mg/1 zinc, respectively.
When zinc sulfate or zinc chloride was added to spring
water with 460 mg/1 dissolved solids, the detection levels
for 5 per cent of the observers were 6.8 and 8.6 mg/1 zinc,
respectively.
Recommendation
Because of consumer taste preference and be-
cause the denned treatment process may not re-
move appreciable amounts of zinc from the source
of the supply, it is recommended that the zinc
concentrations in public water supply sources not
exceed 5 mg/1.
93
-------
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8 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
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129 Frisch, N. W. and R. Kunin (1960), Organic fouling of anion-ex-
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130 Hall, E. S. and R. F. Packham (1965), Coagulation of organic
color with hydrolyzing coagulants. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
57(9): 1149-1166.
131 Hazen, A. (1892), A new color-standard for natural waters. Amer.
Chem. J. 14:300-310.
132 Hazen, A. (1896), The measurement of the colors of natural waters.
Amer. Chem. Soc. J. 18:264-275.
133Lamar, W. L. and D. F. Goerlitz (1963), Characterization of
carboxylic acids in unpolluted streams by gas chromatography.
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134 Lamar, W. L. and D. F. Goerlitz (1966), Organic acids in naturally
colored surface waters [Geological Survey water supply paper
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136 Robinson, L. R. (1963), The presence of organic matter and its
effect on iron removal in ground water. Progress report to U.S.
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136 Shapiro, J. (1964), Effect of yellow organic acids on iron and other
metals in water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 56(8): 1062-1082.
137 Singley, J. E., R. H. Harris, and J. S. Maulding (1966), Correc-
tion of color measurements to standard conditions. J. Amer.
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138 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
COPPER
139 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris, and R. L. Wood-
ward (I960), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drink-
ing water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 52:660-670.
140 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water, in
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Environmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University of
Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73.
141 Sollmann, T. H. (1957), A manual of pharmacology and its applications
to therapeutics and toxicology, 8th ed. (W. B. Saunders Co., Phila-
delphia), pp. 665-667.
142 Uhlig, H. H. (1963), Corrosion and corrosion control (John Wiley &
Sons, New York), p. 296.
CYANIDE
143Bodansky, M. and M. D. Levy (1923), Studies on the detoxifica-
tion of cyanids. I. Some factors influencing the detoxification of
cyanids in health and disease. Arch. Int. Med. 31:373—389.
144 The Merck index of chemicals and drugs, 8th ed. (1968), (Merck & Co.,
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145 Smith, O. M. (1944), The detection of poisons in public water
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147 Stokinger, H. E. and R. L. Woodward (1958), Toxicologic methods
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148 World Health Organization (1963), International standards for drink-
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149 World Health Organization (1970), European standards for drinking-
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FLUORIDE
160 Dean, H. T. (1936), Chronic endemic dental fluorosis (mottled
enamel). J. Amer. Med. Ass. 107:1269-1273.
161 Galagan, D. J. (1953), Climate and controlled fluoridation. J.
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162 Galagan, D. J. and G. G. Lamson (1953), Climate and endemic
dental fluorosis. Pub. Health Rep. 68(5):497-508.
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98/'Section II—Public Water Supplies
161 Galagan, D. J., J. R, Vermillion, G. A. Nevitt, Z. M. Stadt, and
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166 Heyroth, F. F. (1952), Toxicological evidence for the safety of
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166 Leone, N. C., M. B. Shimkin, F. A. Arnold, C. A. Stevenson, E. R..
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160 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public
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FOAMING AGENTS
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year feeding and reproduction study in rats with linear alkyl-
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of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
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HARDNESS
163 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and treat-
ment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p.
164 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1958), The effects of temperature
and hardness of water upon the toxicity of zinc to the pond snail,
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166 Crawford, M. D., M. J. Gardner, J. N. Morris (1968), Mortality
and hardness of local water-supplies. Lancet 1:827-831.
166 Crawford, T. and M. D. Crawford (1967), Prevalence and patho-
logical changes of ischaemic heart-disease in a hard-water and
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167DeBoer, L. M. and T. E. Larson (1961), Water hardness and
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168 Jones, J. R. E. (1938), The relative toxicity of salts of lead, zinc
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189 Masironi, R. (1969), Trace elements and cardiovascular diseases;.
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170 Mount, D. I. (1966), The effect of total hardness and pH on acute
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171 Muss, D. L. (1962), Relation between water quality and deaths
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172 Voors, A. W. (1971), Minerals in the municipal water and athero-
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IRON
173 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and
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176Hazen, A. (1895), Filtration of public water-supplies (John Wiley
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178Riddick, T. M., N. L. Lindsay, and A. Tomassi (1958), Iron a
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LEAD
179 Byers, R. K. (1959), Lead poisoning; review of the literature a
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180 Chisholm, J. J., Jr. (1964), Disturbances in the biosynthesis
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181 Crawford, M. D. and J. N. Morris (1967), Lead in drinking wat
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186 Kehoe, R. A. (1960b), The metabolism of lead in man in hea
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186 Kehoe, R. A., J. Cholak, D. M. Hubbard, K. Bambach, R.
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187 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water
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188 McCabe, L. J., J. M. Symons, R. D. Lee and G. G. Robeck (197i
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192 Schroeder, H. A. and J. J. B.ilassa (1961), Abnormal trace mcl
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MANGANESE
193 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality r,
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194 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphate, E. K. Harris and R. L. Woodwa
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196 Griffin, A. E. (1960), Significance and removal of manganese
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688-696.
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and pesticides. Journal of the American Water Works Associati
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280 Stein, A. A., D. M. Serrone, and F. Coulston (1965), Safety evalua-
tion of methoxychlor in human volunteers; [Abstract of a paper
for the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Society of Toxicology,
1965]. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 7:499.
281Tarjan, R. and T. Kemeny (1969), Multigeneration studies on
DDT in mice. Ed. Cosmet. Toxicol. 7:215.
282Treon, J. F. and F. P. Cleveland (1955), Toxicity of certain
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides for laboratory animals, with
special reference to aldrin and dieldrin. J. Agr. Food. Chem. 3(5):
402-408.
283Treon, J. F., F. P. Cleveland, and J. Cappel (1955), Toxicity of
endrin for laboratory animals. J. Agr. Food Chem. 3:842-848.
284 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1969), Re-
port of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Relationship to
Environmental Health (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C.), 677 p.
286 Williams, M. W., J. W. Cook, J. R. Blake, P. S. Jorgensen, J. P.
Frawley, J. A. Rider, H. C. Moeller, J. Swader, and R. W.
Weilcrstein (1958), The effect of parathion on human red blood
cell and plasma cholinesterase. Arch. Indust. Health 18(5):441-445.
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Ohio.
287 Food and Drug Administration, Unpublished data, NIEHS, Raleigh,
North Carolina.
288 Kraus, E. J. (1946), [unpublished results] cited by J. W. Mitchell,
R. E. Hodgson, and C. F. Gaetjens (1946), Tolerance of farm
animals to feed containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. J.
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PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
289 Aly, O. M. and M. A. El-Dib (1971), Photodecomposition of some
carbamate insecticides in aquatic environments, in Organic com-
pounds in aquatic environments, S. D. Faust and J. Hunter, eds.
(Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York), pp. 469-493.
290 Burttschell, R. H., A. A. Rosen, F. M. Middleton, and M. B.
Ettinger (1959), Chlorine derivatives of phenol causing taste and
odor. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 51(2):205-214.
291 Christman, R. F. and M. Ghassemi (1966), Chemical nature of
organic color in water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58(6):723-741.
292 Faust, S. D. and P. W. Anderson (1968), Factors influencing con-
densation of 4-aminoantipyrine with derivatives of hydroxy-
benzene-3. Water Res. 2(7):515-525.
293 Faust, S. D., H. Stutz, O. M. Aly, and P. W. Anderson (1971),
Recovery, separation and identification of phenolic compounds from pol-
luted waters (New Jersey Water Resources Research Institute,
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294Frear, D. E. H. (1969), Pesticide index, 4th ed. (College Science
Publishers, State College, Pennsylvania), 399 p.
M6Gomaa, H. M. and S. D. Faust (1971), Thermodynamic stability
of selected organic pesticides in aquatic environments, in Organic
compounds in aquatic environments, S. D. Faust and J. Hunter, eds.
(Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York), pp. 341-376.
286 Hunter, J. V. (1971), Origin of organics from artificial contamina-
tion, in Organic compounds in aquatic environments, S. D. Faust and
J. Hunter, eds. (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York), pp. 51-94.
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phenol-chlorophenolic tastes and odors. Air Water Pollut. 6:419-
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the Interior. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Special
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fice, Washington, D. C.), 487 p.
299 Pinchot, G. B. (1967), The mechanism of uncoupling of oxidative
phosphorylation by 2,4-dinitrophenol. J. Biol. Chem. 242:4577-
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300 Rosen, A. A., J. B. Peter, and F. M. Middleton (1962), Odor
thresholds of mixed organic chemicals. J. Water Pollut. Contr.
Fed. 34(1):7-14.
301 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
PHOSPHATE
302 Gunnerson, C. B. (1966), An atlas of water pollution surveillance
in the U.S., October 1, 1957 to September 30, 1965. Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio, p. 78.
303 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior (Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 234 p.
PLANKTON
304Silvey, J. K., D. E. Henley, and J. T. Wyatt (1972), Planktonic
blue-gree algae: growth and odor-production studies. J. Amer.
Water Works Ass. 64(l):35-39.
305 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB)
306Ahling, B. and S. Jensen (1970), Reversed liquid—liquid parti-
tion in determination of polychloriated biphenyl (PCB) and
chlorinated pesticides in water. Anal. Chem. 42(13): 1483-1486.
307 Bauer, H., K. H. Schulz, and U. Spiegelberg (1961), [Occupa-
tional poisonings in the production of chlorophenol compounds. ]
Arch Gewerbepath. 18:538-555.
308 Duke, T. W., J. I. Lowe, and A. J. Wilson (1970) A polychlori-
nated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254) in the water, sediment, and biota
of Escambia Bay, Florida. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5(2):
171-180.
309 Holden, W. S., ed. (1970), Water treatment and examination, 8th ed.
(Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Maryland), p. 178.
310 Holmes, D. C., J. H. Simmons, J. O'G. Tatton (1967), Chlori-
nated hydrocarbons in British wildlife. Nature 216:227-229.
311 Interdepartmental Task Force on PCB (1972), Polychlorinated
Biphenyls in the Environment. U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D. C., National Technical Information Service, Spring-
field, Va. COM-72-10419.
312 Jensen, S., A. G. Johnels, M. Olsson, and G. Otterlind (1969),
DDT and PCB in marine animals from Swedish waters. Nature
224:247-250.
313 Koeman, J. H., M. C. Ten Noever de Brauw, and R. H. DeVos
(1969), Chlorinated biphenyls in fish, mussels and birds from
the River Rhine and the Netherlands coastal area. Nature 221:
1126-1128.
*14 Kuratsune, M., Y. Morikawa, T. Hirohata, M. Nishizumi, S.
Kohchi, T. Yoshimura, J. Matsuzaka, A. Yamaguchi, N. Saruta,
N. Ishinishi, E. Kunitake, O. Shimono, K. Takigawa, K. Oki,
-------
\02/Section II—Public Water Supplies
M. Sonoda, T. Ueda, and M. Ogata (1969), An epidemiologic
study on "Yusho" or chlorobiphenyls poisoning. Fukuoaka Ada
Med. 60(6):513-532.
816 New Scientist (1966), Report of a new chemical hazard. 32:612.
316 Price, H. A. and R. L. Welch (1972), Occurrence of polychlori-
nated biphenyls in humans. Environmental Health Perspectives (In
press).
317 Risebrough, R. W., P. Rieche, D. P. Peakall, S. G. Herman, and
M. N. Kirven (1968), Polychlorinated biphenyls in the global
ecosystem. Nature 220: 1098-1102.
318 Schmidt, T. T., R. W. Risebrough, and F. Gress (1971), Input of
polychlorinated biphenyls into California coastal waters from
urban sewage outfalls. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6(3):235-
243.
319Schulz, K. H. (1968), Clinical picture and etiology of chloracne.
Arbeitsmed. Sozialmed. Arbeitshyg. 3(2) :25—29. Reprinted in trans-
lation in U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce,
Effects of 2,4,5-T on man and the environment: hearings, 91st Cong.,
2nd sess., pp. 336-341.
320 Schwartz, L. and S. M. Peck (1943), Occupational acne. New
Tork State}. Med. 43:1711-1718.
321 Street, J. C., F. M. Urry, D. J. Wagstaff, and A. D. Blau (1968),
Comparative effects of polychlorinated biphenyls and organo-
chlorine pesticides in induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes.
American Chemical Society, 158th National meeting, Sept. 8-12,
1968.
^Tarrant, K. R. and J. O'G. Tatton (1968), Organochlorine pesti-
cides in rainwater in the British Isles. Nature 219:725-727.
323 Veith, G. D. and G. F. Lee (1971), Chlorobiphenyls (PCBs) in the
Milwaukee River. Water Res. 5:1107-1115.
324 Verrett, J. (1970), Statement [and supporting material], in U.S.,
Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce, Effects of 2,4,5-T
on the man and the environment: hearings, 91st Cong., 2nd sess., pp.
190-360.
325 Wasserrnann, M., D. Wassermann, I. Aronovski, I. Ivriani, and
D. Rosenfeld (1970), The effect of organochlorine insecticides on
serum colesterol level in people occupational!/ exposed. Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5(4):368-372.
326 Yoshimura, H., H. Yamamoto, J. Nagai, Y. Yae, H. Uzawa, Y.
Ito, A. Notomi, S. Minakami, A. Ito, K. Kato, and H. Tsuji
(1971), Studies on the tissue distribution and the urinary and
fecal excretion of 3H-kanechlor (chlorobiphenyls) in rats. Fukuoka
Ada Med. 62(1):12-19.
RADIOACTIVITY
327 International Commission on Radiological Protection (1960), Re-
port on permissible dose for internal radiation (1959); recommendations
of Committee 2 (Pergamon Press, Inc., New York), 233 p.
328 U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1960), Radiation protection
guidance for federal agencies: memorandum for the President,
May 13, 1960. Fed. Reg. 25(97): 4402-4403.
329 U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1961a), Radiation protection
guidance for federal agencies: memorandum for the President,
September 13, 1961. Fed. Reg. 26(185):9057-9058.
330 U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1961b), Background material for
the development of radiation protection standards, staff report. Septem-
ber, 1961 (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.),
19 p.
SELENIUM
331Beath, O. A. (1962), Selenium poisons indians. Science News Letter
81:254.
"BFitzhugh, O. G., A. A. Nelson and C. I. Buss (1944), The chronic
oral toxicity of selenium. Journal of Pharmacology 80:287-299.
3a3Franke, K. W. and V. Potter (1935), New toxicant occurrii
naturally in certain samples: of plant foodstuffs; toxic effects
orally ingested selenium. J. Nutr. 10:213-221.
334 Hamilton, J. W. and O. A. Beath (1964), Amount and chemic
form of selenium in vegetable plants. J. Agr. Food Chem. 12(4
371-374.
335 Lakin, H. W. and D. F. Davidson (1967), The relation of the ge
chemistry of selenium to its occurrence in soils, in Symposiut
selenium in biomedicine, O. H. Muth, ed. (AVI Publishing Ct
Inc., Westport, Connecticut), pp. 27—56.
336 The Merck index of chemicals and drugs, 8th ed. (1968), (Merck
Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey).
337 Morris, V. C. and A. O. Levainder (1970), Selenium content
foods. J. Nutr. 100(12):1383-1388.
338Nesheim, M. C. and M. L. Scott (1961), Nutritional effects
selenium compounds in chickii and turkeys. Fed. Proc. 20:67^
678.
339Oldfield, J. E., J. R. Schubert, and O. H. Muth (1963), Irnplic
tions of selenium in large animal nutrition. J. Agr. Food Chet
11(5):388-390.
340 Olson, O. E. (1967), Soil, plant, animal cycling of excessive leve
of selenium, in Symposium: selenium in biomedicine, O. H. Mull
ed. (AVI Publishing Co., Inc., Westport, Connecticut), p
297-312.
341 Schwarz, K. (1960), Factor 3, selenium and vitamin E. Nutr. Re
18:193-197.
342 Smith, M. I. (1941), Chronic endemic selenium posioning. '
Amer. Med. Ass. 116:562-567.
343 Smith, M. I., K. W. Franke, and B. B. Westfall (1936), Th
selenium problem in relation to public health: Preliminary su
vey to determine possibility of selenium intoxication in rur,
population living on seleniferous soil. Pub. Health Rep. 51:1496
1505.
344 Smith, M. I. and B. B Westfall (1937), Further field studies on tr
selenium problem in relation 10 public health. Pub. Health Re^
52:1375-1384.
346 U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Servic<
Consumer and Food Economics Research Division (1967), Foe
consumption of households in the United Slates, spring 1965: prelimmo,
report (Agricultural Research Service, Washington, D. C.), 28 \
346 Volganev, M. N. and Tschenkes, L. A. (1967), Further studies i
tissue changes associated with sodium sellenate, in Symposiun
selenium in biomedicin?, D. H. Mush, ed. (AVI Publishing Co
Inc., Westport, Connecticut), pp. 179-184.
SILVER
347 Aub, J. C. and L. T. Fairhall (1942), Excretion of silver in urini
jf. Amer. Med. Ass. 118:319.
348 Hem, J. D. (1970), Study and interpretation of chemical characteristics <
natural water, 2nd ed. [Geological Survey water supply pape
1473] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 363 \
349 Hill, W. R. and D. M. Pillsbury (1939), Argyria: the pharmacology i
silver (Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland), 1 72 p.
360 Hill, W. B. and D. M. Pillsbury (1957), Argyria investigation-
toxicologic properties of silver American Silver Producers Researc
Project Report Appendix H.
3UKehoe, R. A., J. Cholak, and R. V. Story (1940b), Manganesf
lead, tin, copper, and silver in normal biological material. J
Nutr. 20(l):85-98.
362 Kopp, J. F. (1969): The occurrence of trace elements in water, i
Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Ex
vironmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University c
Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73.
'"Scott, K. G. (1949), Metabolism of silver in the rat, with radio
silver used as an indicator. University of California, Berkeley
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Literature Cited/103
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California Press, Berkeley 1950), pp. 241-262.
SODIUM
364 Dahl, L. K. (1960), Der moglichc einslub der salzzufuhr auf die
entwicklung der essentiellen hypertonie, in Essential hypertension;
an international symposium, P. T. Cottier and K. D. Bock, eds.
(Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Wilmersdorf), pp. 61-75.
355 Durfor, C. N. and E. Becker (1964), Public water supplies of the WO
largest cities in the United States, 1962 [Geological Survey water
supply paper 1812] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C ).
356 National Research Council. Food and Nutrition Board (1954),
Sodium-restricted diets [Pub. 325] (National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D. C.), 71 p.
SULFATE
357 Durfor, C. N. and E. Becker (1964), Public water supplies of the WO
largest cities in the United States, 1962 [Geological Survey water
supply paper 1812] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.)
358 Larson, T. E. (1963), Mineral content of public ground-water
supplies in Illinois. Illinois State Water Survey, Urbana, Illinois,
Circular QO, 28 p.
369Lockhart, E. E., C. L. Tucker, and M. C. Merritt (1955), The
effect of water impurities on the flavor of brewed coffee. Food
Res 20(6):598-605.
360 Moore. E. W. (1952), Physiological effects of the consumption of
saline drinking water. National Research Council. Division of Medical
Sciences. Subcommittee on \Vatei Supply, bulletin. Appendix B, pp.
221-227.
361 Peterson, N. L. (1951), Sulfates in drinking water. North Dakota
\Valer and Sewage Works Conference Official Bulletin 18(10 & 11):
6-7,11.
362 Whipple, G. C. (1907), The value of purewater (John Wiley & Sons,
New York), 84 p
TEMPERATURE
363 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and treat-
ment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p.
364 Ames, A. M. and W. W. Smith (1944), The temperature coeffi-
cient of the bactericidal action of chlorine. J. Bact. 47(5) :445.
365 Brashears, M. L., Jr. (1946), Artificial recharge of ground water
on Long Island, New York. Econ. Geol. 41(5):503-516.
366 Burnson, B. (1938), Seasonal temperature variations in relation to
water treatment. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 30(5): 793-811.
367 Butterfield, C. T. and E. Wattie (1946), Influence of pH and
temperature on the survival of coliforms and enteric pathogens
when exposed to chloramine. Pub. Health Rep. 61:157-192.
368 Camp. T. R., D. A. Root, and B. V. Bhoota (1940), Effects of
temperature on rate of floe formation. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
32(11):1913-1927.
369 Eldridge, E. F. (1960), Return irrigation water, characteristics and
effects. U.S. Public Health Service, Region IX, Portland, Oregon T.
370 Hannah, S. A., J. M. Cohen, and G. G. Roebeck (1967), Control
techniques for coagulation-filtration. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
59(9): 1149-1163.
371Hoak, R. D. (1961), The thermal pollution problem. J. Water
Pollut. Contr. Fed. 33:1267-1276.
372 Kofoid, C. A. (1923), Microscopic organisms in reservoirs in re-
lation to the esthetic qualities of potable waters. J. Amer. Water
Works Ass. 10:183-191.
373 Maulding, J. S. and R. H. Harris (1968), Effect of ionic environ-
ment and temperature on the coagulation of color-causing or-
ganic compounds with ferric sulfate. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
60(4):460^76.
374 Moore, E. W. (1958), Thermal "pollution" of streams. Ind. Eng.
Chem. 50(4):87A-88A.
375 Peretz, L. G. and K. G. Medvinskaya (1946), The role of microbial
antagonism in the self-purification of water. Gigiena (USSR)
11 (7-8): 18
376 Rudolfs, W., L L. Falk, and R. A. Ragotzkie (1950), Literature
review on the occurrence and survival of enteric, pathogenic, and
relative organisms in soil, water, sewage, and sludges, and on
vegetation. I. Bacterial and virus diseases. Sewage and Indust.
Wastes 22(11):1261-1281.
377 Silvey, J. K. G., J. C. Russel, D. R. Redden, and W. C. McCor-
mick (1950), Actinomycetes and common tastes and odors. J.
Amer. Water Works Ass. 42(11): 1018-1026.
378 Thompson, R. E. (1944), Factors influencing the growth of algae
in water. Canad. Kngr. 82 (10:24.
379 Velz, C. J. (1934), Influence of temperature on coagulation. Civil
Eng. 4(7): 345-349.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
380 Bruvold (1967), Journal of the American Water Works Association
Vol. 61, No. 11.
381 Patterson, W. L. and R. F. Banker (1968), Effects of highly minera-
lized water on household plumbing and appliances. J. Amer.
Water Works Ass. 60:1060-1069.
382 PHS (1962) U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service (1962), Public Health Service drinking water
standards, rev. 1962 [PHS pub. 956] (Government Printing Of-
fice, Washington, D.C.), 61 p.
383 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of
water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health As-
sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
TURBIDITY
384 Sanderson, W. W. and S. Kelly (1964), Discussion of Human
enteric visuses in water: source, survival and removability, by
N. A. Clarke, G. Berg, P. W. Kabler, and S. L. Chang, in Ad-
vances in water pollution research, W. W. Eckenfelder, ed. (The
Macmillan Co., New York), vol. 2, pp. 536-541.
386 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health As-
sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
386 Tracy, H. W., V. M. Camarena, and F. Wing (1966), Coliform
persistence in highly chlorinated waters J. Amer. Water Works
Ass. 58(9) :1151-1159.
URANYL ION
387FWCPA (1968) U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration (1968), Water quality criteria:
report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of
the Interior (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.),
234 p.
388 U.S. Geological Survey (1969), Water load of uranium, radium,
and gross beta activity as selected grazing stations water, year
1960-61. Publication No. 1535-0.
389 Environmental Protection Agency office memorandum (1971) April
19, M. Lammering to G. Robeck, E. P. A., Cincinnati, Ohio.
-------
104/Section II—Public Water Supplies
VIRUSES
390 Beard, J. W. (1967), Host-virus interaction in the initiation of in-
fection, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed.
(Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 167-192.
391 Berg, G., ed. (1967), Transmission of visuses by the water route (Inter-
science Publishers, New York), 484 p.
392 Berg, G. (1971), Integrated approach to problem of viruses in
water. J. Samt. Eng. Dw. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. 97 (SA6):867-882.
393 Berg, G., R. M. Clark, D. Berman, and S. L. Chang (1967), Aber-
rations in survival curves, in Transmission of viruses by the water
route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 235-
240.
394 Berg, G., R. B. Dean, and D. R. Dahling (1968), Journal of the
American Water Works Association 60:193.
395 Chang, S. L. (1967), Statistics of the infective units of animal
viruses, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed.
(Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 219-234.
396 Chang, S. L. (1968), Water borne viral infections and their pre-
vention. Bull. World Health Organ. 38:401-414.
an Chang, S. L., R. E. Stevenson, A. R. Bryant, R. L. Woodward
and P. W. Kabler (1958), Removal of Coxsackie and bacterial
viruses in water by flocculation. American Journal of Public,
Health 48 (2): 159-169.
398 Chin, T. D. Y., W. H. Mosley, S. Robinson, and C. R. Gravelle
(1967), Detection of enteric viruses in sewage and water. Rela-
tive sensitivity of the method, in Transmission of viruses by the water
route, G. Berg. ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 389-
400.
«» Clark, R. M. and J. F. Niehaus (1967), A mathematical model for
viral devitalization, in Transmission of viruses by the water route,
G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 241-245.
*» Clarke, N. A., G. Berg, P. W. Kabler and S. L. Chang (1962),
Human enteric viruses in water: source, survival and remova-
bility. First International Conference of Water Pollution Research,
London, England, pp. 523-542.
«' Clarke, N. A., R. E. Stevenson, S. L. Chang, and P. W. Kabler
(1961), Removal of enteric viruses from sewage by activated
sludge treatment. American Journal of Public Health 51(8):1118.
402 England, B., R. E. Leach, B. Adame, and R. Shiosaki (1967),
Virologic assessment of sewage treatment, in Transmission of
viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers,
New York), pp. 401-417.
403 Kalter, S. S. (1967), Picornaviruses in water, in Transmission of
viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers,
New York), pp. 253-267.
404 Lund, E. and C.-E. Hedstrom (1967), Recovery of viruses from
a sewage treatment plant, in Transmission of viruses by the water
route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 371—
377.
406 Malherbe, H. H. (1967), C. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers,
New York).
406 Malherbe, H. H. and M. Strickland-Cholmley (1967), Quanti
tive studies on viral survival in sewage purification processes,
Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscier
Publishers, New York), pp. 379-387.
407 Maramorosch, K. (1967), Transmission of plant pathogenic
ruses, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (1
terscience Publishers, New York), pp. 323-336.
408 Morris, J. C. (1971), Chlorination and disinfection—state oft
art. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 63(12):769-774.
409 Mosley, J. W. (1967), Transmission of viral diseases by drinki
water, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, e
(Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York), pp. 5-23.
410 Prier, J. E. and R. Riley (1967), Significance of water in natui
animal virus transmission, in Transmission of viruses by the wa
route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 28
300.
411 Plotkin, S. A. and M. Katz (1967), Minimal infective doses
viruses for man by the oral route, in Transmission of nruws
the water route. G. Berg, ed. (Inter-Science Publishers, New Yorl
p. 151.
412 Sharp, D. G. (1967), Electron microscopy and viral particle fun
tion, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (I
terscience Publishers, New York), pp. 193-217.
113 Sproul, O. J. (1972), Virus inactivation by water treatmer
Journal American Water Work? Association 64:31-35.
414 Sproul, O. J., L. R. Larochelle, D. F. Wentworth, and R. '
Thorup (1967), Virus removal in water reuse treating process!
in ll'ater Reuse, L. K. Cecil, ed American Institute of Chemic
Engineers Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Seru
63(78):! 30-136.
ZINC
416 Anderson, E. A., C. E. Reinhard, and W. D. Hammel (1934), T?
corrosion of zinc in various waters. J. Amer. Water Works As
26(1):49-60.
416Bartow, E. and O. M. Weigle (1932), Zinc in water supplies. In,
Eng. Chem. 24(4):463-465.
417 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris, and R. L. Wooc
ward (1960), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drinkin
water. J. Amer. Water Works As;. 52:660-670.
418 Hinman, J. J., Jr. (1938), Desirable characteristics of a municip;
water supply. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 30(3):484-494.
419 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water, i
Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Ef
vironmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University c
Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73.
420 Vallee, B. L. (1957), Zinc and its biological significance. A. M. A
Arch. Indust. Health 16(2): 147-154.
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Section
FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 109
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND PROTECTION OF
SIGNIFICANT SPECIES 109
Community Structure 110
Protection of Significant Aquatic Species. . 110
ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF FRESH-
WATER RECEIVING SYSTEMS Ill
MIXING ZONES 112
DEFINITION OF A MIXING ZONE 112
Recommendation 112
GENERAL PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS 112
Recommendation 112
GENERAL BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 113
Recommendation 113
Recommendation 113
MEETING THE RECOMMENDATIONS 113
SHORT TIME EXPOSURE SAFETY FACTORS 114
Recommendation 114
OVERLAPPING MIXING ZONES 1 Hi-
Recommendation 1 HI-
INTERIM GUIDELINE 114
CONFIGURATION AND LOCATION OF MIXING
ZONES 114
PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP OF MIXING ZONES
TO RECEIVING SYSTEMS 114
Recommendation 115
ZONES OF PASSAGE 115
Recommendation 115
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING 116
PROGRAMS 116
FIELD SURVEYS 116
BODY BURDENS OF TOXICANTS 116
IN-PLANT BIOLOGICAL MONITORING 116
BIOASSAYS 117
SIMULATION TECHNIQUES 117
BIOASSAYS 118
MEASURES OF TOXICITY 118
METHODS FOR BIOASSAYS 119
CHECKLIST OF PROCEDURES 119
Species 119
Dilution Water
Acclimation
Test Methods
Dissolved Oxygen
Concentrations
Evaluation of Results
APPLICATION FACTORS
MIXTURES OF Two OP MORE TOXICANTS. . . .
SUBLETHAL EFFECTS
Recommcnations for the Use of Appli-
cation Factors to Estimate Safe Concen-
trations of Toxic Wastes in Receiving
Streams
PHYSICAL MANIPULATION OF THE EN-
VIRONMENT
SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE SOLIDS...
SOIL As A SOURCE OF MINERAL PARTICLES...
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES IN WATER. .
ADSORPTION OF Toxic MATERIALS
EFFECTS ON FISH AND INVERTEBRATES
Recommendations
COLOR
Recommendation
DISSOLVED GASES
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Levels of Protection
Basis for Recommendations
Warm- and Coldwater Fishes
Unusual Waters
Organisms Other Than Fish I'.
Salmonid Spawning 1'
Interaction With Toxic Pollutants or Other
Environmental Factors
Application of Recommendations
Examples
Recommendations
TOTAL DISSOLVED GASES (SUPERSATURATION) ..
Etiologic Factors
Gas Bubble Disease Syndrome and Effects.
Analytical Considerations
106
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Page
Total Dissolved Gas Pressure Criteria ... 138
Recommendations 139
CARBON DIOXIDE 139
Recommendation 139
ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, AND pH 140
NATURAL CONDITIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE 140
TOXICITY TO AQUATIC LIFE 140
ADVERSE INDIRECT EFFECTS OR SIDE EFFECTS. . 140
Recommendations 141
DISSOLVED SOLIDS AND HARDNESS 142
Recommendation 143
OILS 144
OIL REFINERY EFFLUENTS 144
FREE AND FLOATING OIL 144
SEDIMENTED OIL 145
Recommendations 146
TAINTING SUBSTANCES 147
BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF TAINTING 147
TAINTING CAUSED BY CHEMICALS 147
UPTAKE AND Loss OF FLAVOR-IMPAIRING MA-
TERIALS 148
IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES OF OFF-FLAVORED
ORGANISMS 149
EXPOSURE AND ORGANOLEPTIC TESTS 149
Test Fish 149
Exposure Period 149
Exposure Conditions 149
Preparation of Test Fish and Evaluation.. 149
STATISTICAL EVALUATION 150
Recommendations 150
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 151
DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA 152
TERMINOLOGY DEFINED 152
MAX-MUM ACCEPTABLE TEMPERATURES FOR PRO-
LONGED EXPOSURES 153
SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL MAXIMA FOR PRO-
LONGED EXPOSURE 154
Recommendation 160
WINTER MAXIMA 160
Recommendation 161
Page
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO EXTREME TEMPER-
ATURE 161
Recommendation 162
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT 162
Recommendations 164
CHANGES IN STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC COM-
MUNITIES 165
NUISANCE ORGANISMS 165
Recommendation 165
CONCLUSIONS 165
USE OF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA 166
Analytical Steps 168
Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature
Change 168
Cooling Water Entrainment 168
Entrainment in the Plume 170
Bottom Organisms Impacted by the Plume 170
Mixed Water Body 171
Discharge Canal 171
TOXIC SUBSTANCES 172
ORGANIC MERCURY 172
Biological Methylation 172
Biological Magnification 172
Mercury in Fresh Waters 173
Toxicity of Organic Mercury in Water... 173
Tissue Levels and Toxicity 174
Discussion of Proposed Recommendations. 174
Recommendations 174
PHTHALATE ESTERS 174
Toxicity 175
Recommendation 175
POLYCHLORINATED BlPHENYLS 175
Direct Lethal Toxicity 176
Feeding Studies 176
Residues in Tissue 176
Effects on Reproduction 177
General Considerations and Further
Needs 177
Basis for Recommendations 177
Recommendations 177
107
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Page
METALS 177
General Data 177
Recommendations 179
Aluminum 179
Recommendation 179
Cadmium 179
Recommendation 180
Chromium 180
Recommendation 180
Copper 180
Recommendation 181
Lead 181
Recommendation 181
Mercury 181
Recommendation 181
Nickel 181
Recommendation 181
Zinc 182
Recommendation 182
PESTICIDES 182
Methods, Rate, and Frequency of Appli-
cation 182
Sources and Distribution 182
Persistence and Biological Accumulation. . 183
Residues 183
Toxicity 184
Basis for Criteria 185
Recommendations 185
OTHER TOXICANTS 186
Ammonia 186
Recommendation 187
Chlorine 189
Recommendation 189
Cyanides 189
Recommendation 190
Detergents 190
Detergent Builders 191
Recommendation 191
Page
Phenolics 191
Recommendations 191
Sulfides 191
Recommendation 193
WILDLIFE 194
PROTECTION OF FOOD AND SHELTER FOR WILD-
LIFE 194
PH 194
Recommendation 194
ALKALINITY 194
Recommendation 195
SALINITY 195
Recommendation 195
LIGHT PENETRATION 195
SETTLE ABLE SUBSTANCES 195
Recommendation 195
PRODUCTION OF WILDLIFE FOODS OTHER THAN
PLANTS 195
TEMPERATURE 195
Recommendation 195
SPECIFIC POTENTIALLY HARMFUL SUBSTANCES. . 196
Direct Acting Substances 196
Oils 196
Recommendation 196
Lead 196
Recommendation 196
Botulism Poisoning 196
Recommendation 197
Substances Acting After Magnification in
Food Chains 197
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides.... 197
DDT and Derivatives 197
Recommendation 198
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) 198
Recommendation 198
Mercury 198
Recommendation 198
LITERATURE CITED 199
108
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INTRODUCTION
The biota of a natural aquatic ecosystem is the result of
evolutionary processes in the course of which a delicate
balance and complex interactions were established among
various kinds of organisms and between those organisms
and their environment. Some species can live in a wide
range of environmental conditions and are found in many
different systems throughout the world. Other species are
restricted and their distribution is limited to certain habitats
or in some cases to only one. Frequently, it is the latter
group of species that have been most useful to man. Minor
changes in their environments, especially if such changes
are rapid, may upset the ecological balance and endanger
the species.
Man has the ability to alter—to impair or improve—his
environment and that of other organisms. His use of water
to dispose of wastes of a technological society and his other
alterations of aquatic environments have degraded his water
resources. Water pollutants may alter natural conditions
by reducing the dissolved oxygen content, by changing the
temperature, or by direct toxic action that can be lethal or,
more subtly, can affect the behavior, reproduction, and
physiology of the organisms. Although a substance may
not directly affect a species, it may endanger its continued
existence by eliminating essential sources of food and
metabolites. Furthermore, conditions permitting the sur-
vival of a given organism at one stage of its life may be
intolerable at another stage.
This Section evaluates criteria and proposes recommen-
dations that reflect scientific understanding of the relation-
ships between freshwater aquatic organisms and their en-
vironment. Anything added to or removed from natural
waters will cause some change in the system. For each use
of water there are certain water quality characteristics that
should be met to ensure the suitability of the water for
that use.
The following general recommendations apply to a wide
variety of receiving systems and pollutants:
• More stringent methods of control or treatment, or
both, of waste inputs and land drainage should be
applied to improve water quality as the demand for
use increases.
• In recognition of the limitations of water quality
management programs, consideration should be
given to providing reserve capacity of receiving
waters for future use.
• Bioassays and other appropriate tests, including field
studies, should be made to obtain scientific evidence
on the effect of wastewater discharges on the en-
vironment. Test procedures are recommended in
this report.
• A survey of the receiving system to assess the impact
of waste discharges on the biological community
should be made on a regular basis, particularly prior
to new discharges. Such surveys especially should
cover the seasons most critical to the biological com-
munity. Background laboratory data should include
bioassays using important local aquatic organisms
and associated receiving waters. In addition to the
more comprehensive surveys, some form of bio-
monitoring in the receiving system should be carried
out routinely. A suggested list of ecological consider-
ations is included in the section on Biological
Monitoring.
• One of the principal goals is to insure the mainte-
nance of the biological community typical of that
particular locale or, if a perturbed community exists,
to upgrade the receiving system to a quality which
will permit reestablishment of that community.
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND PROTECTION OF
SIGNIFICANT SPECIES
The natural aquatic environment includes many kinds of
plants and animals that vary in their life history and in
their chemical and physical requirements. These organisms
are interrelated in many ways to form communities. Aquatic
environments are protected out of recreational and scientific
interest, for aesthetic enjoyment, and to maintain certain
organisms of special significance as a source of food. There
are two schools of thought as to how this can be accom-
plished. One is to protect the significant species, the as-
sumption being that by so doing, the entire system is pro-
tected. The other approach is to protect the aquatic com-
109
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110/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
munity, the assumption being that the significant species
are not protected unless the entire system is maintained.
Community Structure
Because chemical and physical environments are con-
tinually changing—sometimes gradually and sometimes
catastrophically—many species are necessary to keep the
aquatic ecosystems functioning by filling habitats vacated
because of the disappearance of other species. Likewise,
when one kind of organism becomes extremely abundant
because of the disappearance of one or more species,
predator species must be available to feed on the over-
abundant species and keep it from destroying the function-
ing of the community. In a balanced ecosystem, large
populations of a single species rarely maintain themselves
over a long time because predators quickly reduce their
number.
Therefore, the diverse characteristics of a habitat are
necessary to the maintenance of a functioning ecosystem
in the process of evolution. In the fossil record are found
many species that were more common at one time than
they are today and others that have been replaced entirely.
If it were not for diverse gene pools, such evolutionary
replacement would not have been possible.
Some aquatic environments present unusual extremes
in their chemical and physical characteristics. They support
highly specialized species that function as ecosystems in
which energy flows and materials cycle. If these species
are not present and functioning in this manner, such areas
may become aesthetically distasteful, as has occurred for
example in the alkaline flats of the West and the acid bogs
of the Northeast, Midwest, and East.
Rare habitats support rare organisms that become extinct
or endangered species if their habitats are impaired
eliminated. In the aquatic world there are many spec!
of algae, fish, and invertebrates that are maintained on
in such rare, fragile habitats. Man must understand the
if he is to appreciate the process of evolution and t
trend of ecological change that brings about drastic altc
ations to fauna and flora.
Protection of Significant Aquatic Species
An essential objective of freshwater quality recomme
dations is the protection of fish and other aquatic organist
for sport or commercial harvesting. This does not imp
that all other aquatic species will be subject to potent;
extinction, or that an unaltered environment is the goal
be attained in all cases. The average person is usua
interested in only a small number of aquatic sp>ecies, pri
cipally fish; but it remains necessary to preserve, in certa
unique or rare areas, a diversified environment both i
scientific study and for maintaining species variety.
It is sometimes difficult to justify protection of isolat
organisms not used by man unless it can be document
that they are ultimately essential to the production
desirable biota. In some instances it may be that a critic
sensitive species, irreplaceable in the food web of anoth
more important species, is one known only to the biologi
In such instances, protection of the "less important" sen
tive species could justifiably determine the water quali
recommendation.
Because no single recommendation can protect all ii
portant sport and commercial species unless the me
sensitive is protected, a number of species must be co
sidered. The most sensitive species provide a good estima
of the range of sensitivity of all species.
-------
ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF FRESHWATER RECEIVING SYSTEMS
Waste discharges do not just go into water but rather
into aquatic ecosystems. The capacity of such a system to
receive and assimilate waste is determined by the physical,
chemical, and biological interactions within the system.
Thus the response is a function of the characteristics of
both the ecosystem and the nature and quantity of the
waste. Understanding the unique characteristics of each
ecosystem will enable wise users to develop means to obtain
maximum beneficial use with minimal damage to the system.
Each aquatic ecosystem is sufficiently unique to require
professional ecological advice to define the problems as-
sociated with waste discharge into a particular ecosystem.
Such a procedure has not been customary in the past, and
this has led to some unfortunate consequences, but the
practice is becoming increasingly prevalent.
Aquatic systems receive from natural and man-made
sources a variety of organic and inorganic materials. These
materials through physical, chemical, and biological inter-
action are transported, rendered, converted, respired, in-
corporated, excreted, deposited and thus assimilated by the
system. However, not all systems can receive and assimilate
the same quantity or kinds of waste materials. The capacity
of each system to transform waste without damage to the
system is a function of the complexity of environmental
factors.
Physical factors such as flow velocity, volume of water,
bottom contour, rate of water exchange, currents, depth,
light penetration, and temperature, govern in part the
ability of a system to receive and assimilate waste materials.
This ability is a function of the reaeration capability of the
system, the physical rendering of wastes, and other physical,
chemical, and biological factors. Most flowing systems have
a greater reaeration capacity than standing waters. Fur-
thermore, flowing systems are open systems with continual
renewal of water, whereas standing waters are closed sys-
tems and act as traps for pollutants.
Temperature plays a vital role in the rate of chemical
reactions and the nature of biological activities in fresh-
water and in governing the receiving and assimilative ca-
pacity of a system. Most temperate lakes are thermally
stratified part of the year, except when there are small
differences between surface and bottom temperatures in
the spring and fall. As a consequence little exchange occurs
between layers during the period of stratification. In
organically enriched lakes and reservoirs, depletion of
soluble oxygen typically occurs in the bottom layer because
there is little or no photosynthesis and little mixing with the
oxygen-rich surface layer. As a result, substances are re-
leased from the sediments because certain compounds have
a much greater solubility in a reduced state.
The unique chemical characteristics of water govern in
part the kinds and quantities of waste a system may receive.
Some of the important chemical characteristics are hard-
ness, alkalinity, pH (associated with the buffering capacity),
and nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
Because of synergistic or antagonistic interaction with re-
ceiving water, the effects of a waste on a wide variety of
receiving systems are hard to predict.
Ill
-------
MIXING ZONES
When a liquid discharge is made to a receiving system,
a zone of mixing is created. Although recent public, ad-
ministrative, and scientific emphasis has focused on mixing
zones for the dispersion of heated discharges, liquid wastes
of all types arc included in the following considerations.
(For a further discussion of Mixing Zones see Appendix
II-A.)
DEFINITION OF A MIXING ZONE
A mixing zone is a region in which a discharge of quality
characteristics different from those of the receiving water
is in transit and progressively diluted from the source to the
receiving system. In this region water quality characteristics
necessary for the protection of aquatic life are based on
time-exposure relationships of organisms. The boundary of
a mixing zone is where the organism response is no longer
time-dependent. At that boundary, receiving system water-
quality characteristics based on long-term exposure will
protect aquatic life.
Recommendation
Although water quality characteristics in mixing
zones may differ from those in receiving systems,
to protect uses in both regions it is recommended
that mixing zones be free of substances attributable
to discharges or wastes as follows:
• materials which form objectionable deposits;
• scum, oil and floating debris;
• substances producing objectionable color, odor,
taste, or turbidity;
• conditions which produce objectionable growth
of nuisance plants and animals.
GENERAL PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The mass emission rates of the most critical constituents
and their relationship to the recommended values of the
material in the receiving water body are normally the
primary factors determining the system-degradation po-
tential of an effluent. Prior to establishment of a mixir
zone the factors described in Waste Capacity of Reccivir
Waters (Section IV, pp. 228-232) and Assimilative Capa<
ity (This Section, p. Ill) should IDC considered and a d<
cision made on whether the system can assimilate the di
charge without damage to beneficial uses. Necessary dai
bases may include:
• Discharge considerations—flow regime, volume, di
sign, location, rate of mixing and dilution, plurr
behavior and mass-emission rates of constituen
including knowledge of their persistence, toxicir
and chemical or physical behavior with time.
• Receiving system considerations—water quality, li
cal meteorology, flow regime (including low-flo
records), magnitude of water exchange at point <
discharge, stratification phenomena, waste capacii
of the receiving system including retention tim
turbulence and speed of flow as factors affectir
rate of mixing and passage of entrained or migratir
organisms, and morphology of the receiving systei
as related to plume behavior, and biological plr
nomena.
Mathematical models based in part on the above coi
siderations are available for a variety of ecosystems an
discharges. (See Appendix II-A.) All such mathematic
models must be applied with care to each particular di
charge and the local situation.
Recommendation
To avoid potential biological damage or into
ference with other uses of the receiving system
is recommended that mixing zone characteristi<
be defined on a case-by-case basis after determ
nation that the assimilative capacity of the «
ceiving system can safely accommodate the dif
charge taking into consideration the physica
chemical, and biological characteristics of the dis
charge and the receiving system, the life histoi
and behavior of organisms in the receiving systen
and desired uses of the waters.
112
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Mixing Dories /113
GENERAL BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Organisms in the water body may be divided into two
groups from the standpoint of protection within mixing
zones: (1) nonmobile benthic or sessile organisms; (2) weak
and strong swimmers.
1. Nonmobile benthic or sessile organisms in mixing
zones may experience long or intermittent exposures ex-
ceeding recommended values for receiving systems and
therefore their populations may be damaged or eliminated
in the local region. Minimum damage to these organisms
is attained by minimizing exposure of the bottom area to
concentrations exceeding levels resulting in harm to these
organisms from long-term exposure. This may be accom-
plished by discharge location and design.
The mixing zone may represent a living space denied the
subject organisms and this space may or may not be of
significance to the biological community of the receiving
system. When planning mixing zones, a decision should be
made in each case whether the nonmobile benthic and
sessile organisms are to be protected.
Recommendation
To protect populations of nonmobile benthic
and sessile organisms in mixing zones it is recom-
mended that the area of their habitat exposed to
water quality poorer than recommended receiving
system quality be minimized by discharge location
and design or that intermittent time-exposure
history relationships be denned for the organisms'
well-being.
2. Biological considerations to protect planktonic and
swimming organisms are related to the time exposure history
to which critical organisms are subjected as they are carried
or move through a mixing zone. The integrated time
exposure history must not cause deleterious effects, including
post-exposure effects. In populations of important species,
effects of total time exposure must not be deleterious either
during or after exposure.
Weak swimmers and drifting organisms may be entrained
into discharge plumes and carried through a mixing zone.
In determining the time exposure history and responses of
the organisms, the possibility of delayed effects, such as
death, disease, and increased vulnerability to predation,
should be investigated.
Strong swimmers are capable of moving out of, staying
out of, or remaining in a mixing zone. Water quality
characteristics which protect drifting organisms should also
protect migrating fish moving through mixing zones. How-
ever, there are some discharges that attract animals into
discharge channels and mixing zones where they are vul-
nerable to death or shock due to short-term changes in
water quality, such as rapid temperature fluctuations. This
vulnerability should be recognized and occurrences that
expose it should be guarded against (see Chlorine, page 189).
Some free-swimming species may avoid mixing zones and
as a consequence the reduced living space may limit the
population.
Free-swimming species may be attracted to a discharge.
Chronic low-level exposure to toxicants may cause death
or affect growth, reproduction or migratory instincts, or
result in excessive body-burdens of toxicants hazardous for
human consumption.
Recommendation
To protect drifting and both weak and strong
swimming organisms in mixing zones it is recom-
mended that scientifically valid data be developed
to demonstrate that the organisms can survive
without irreversible damage, the integrated time-
exposure history to be based on maximum expected
residence time so that deleterious effects on popu-
lations of important species do not occur.
MEETING THE RECOMMENDATIONS
In mixing zones the exposure of organisms to stress is of
greater intensity but usually of shorter duration than in
the receiving waters, assuming no attraction by the dis-
charge. The objective of mixing zone water quality recom-
mendations is to provide time exposure histories which
produce negligible or no effects on populations of critical
species in the receiving system. This objective can be met
by: (a) determination of the pattern of exposure in terms
of time and concentration in the mixing zone due either to
activities of the organisms, discharge schedule, or currents
affecting dispersion; and (h) determination that delayed
effects do not occur.
Protection would lie achieved if the time of exposure met
the relationship T /ET(x) < 1 where T is the time of the
organism's exposure in the mixing zone to a specified
concentration, and ET(x) is the effective time of exposure
to the specified concentration, C, which produces (x) per cent
response in a sample of the organisms, including delayed
effects after extended observation. The per cent response,
(x). is selected on the basis of what is considered negligible
effects on the total population and is then symbolized
ET(25), ET(5), ET(O.l), etc.
Because concentrations vary within mixing zones, a more
suitable quantitative statement than the simple relationship
T/ET(x)
-------
114:/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
tration Ci during the time interval TI, to concentration Cs
during the time interval T2, etc. The sum of the individual
ratios must then not exceed unity. (See caveat below,
Short Time Exposure Safety Factors.)
Techniques for securing the above information, appli-
cation to a hypothetical field situation, comments, caveats,
and limitations are expressed in Appendix II-A, Mixing
Zones, Development of Integrated Time Exposure Data,
p. 403. Tabular data and formulae for summation of short-
term effects of heated discharges on aquatic life are provided
in the Heat'and Temperature discussion, page 151.
SHORT TIME EXPOSURE SAFETY FACTORS
This concept of summation of short-term effects and
extrapolation is an approach which tests the applicability
of present bioassay methodology and precision and may
not be universally applicable to all types of discharges.
Conservatism in application should be practiced. When
developing the summation of short-term thermal effects
data, a safety factor of two degrees centigrade is incorpo-
rated. In development of summation of short-term toxicity
effects data, a safety factor exists if a conservative physio-
logical or behavioral response is used with effective time of
exposure. However, when mortality is the response plotted,
an application factor must be incorporated to provide an
adequate margin of safety. This factor can most easily be
applied by lowering the sum of the additive effects to some
fraction of 1 so that the sum of Ti/(ET(x) at Ci) • • • +
Tn/(ET(x) at Cn) then equals 0.9, or less. The value must
be based on scientific knowledge of the organism's behavior
and response to the contaminants involved.
Recommendation
When developing summation of short-term ex-
posure effects it is recommended that safety
factors, application factors, or conservative physio-
logical or behavioral responses be incorporated
into the bioassay or extrapolation procedures to
provide an adequate margin of safety.
OVERLAPPING MIXING ZONES
If mixing zones are contiguous or overlap, the formula
expressing the integrated time exposure history for single
plumes should be adjusted. Synergistic effects should be
investigated, and if not found, the assumption may be made
that effects of multiple plumes are additive.
Recommendation
When two plumes are contiguous or overlap and
synergistic effects do not occur, protection for
aquatic life should be provided if the sum of the
fractions of integrated time exposure effects for
each plume total <0.5. Alternatively, protection
should be provided if the sum of the fractions for
both plumes (or more than two contiguous o
overlapping plumes) is < 1. (See caveat above, Shot
Time Exposure Safety Factors.)
INTERIM GUIDELINE
In the event information on summation effects of th
integrated time exposure history cannot be satisfactoril
provided, a conservative single figure concentration can 1:
used for all parts of the mixing zone until more detaile
determinations of the time-exposure relationships are d(
veloped. This single, time-dependent median lethal concer
tration should be subject to the caveats found throughoi
this Section and Appendix [I-A regarding delayed effec
and behavioral modifications. Because of the variables ir
volved, the single value must be applied in the light (
local conditions. For one situation a 24-hour LC50 migt
be adequate to protect aquatic life. In another situation
96-hour LG50 might provide inadequate protection.
CONFIGURATION AND LOCATION OF MIXING ZONE
The time-dependent three dimensional shape of a di:
charge plume varies with a multitude of receiving syster
physical factors and the discharge design. While time e>
posure water quality characteristics within mixing zom
are designed to protect aquatic life, thoughtful placemer
of the discharge and planned control of plume behavk
may increase the level of ecosystem protection, e g., floatin
the plume on the surface to protect the deep water of
channel; discharging in midstream or offshore to prote<
biologically-important littoral areas; piping the efflueT
across a river to discharge on the far side because fis
historically migrate on the near side; or piping the cli
charge away from a stream mouth which is used by m
grating species. Such engineering modifications can som<
times accomplish what is necessary to meet biologic;
requirements.
Onshore discharges generally have more potential fc
interference with other uses than offshore discharges. Fc
example the plume is more liable to impinge on the bottot
in shallow areas of biological productivity and be closer t
swimming and recreation areas.
PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP OF MIXING ZONES
TO RECEIVING SYSTEMS
Recommendations for mixing zones do not protect again
the long-term biological effects of sublethal condition
Thus water quality requirements necessary to protect a
life stages and necessary functions of aquatic organisn
such as spawning and larval development, are not provide
in mixing zones, and it is essential to insure that adequal
portions of every water body are free of mixing zones. Tli
decision as to what portion and areas must be retained i
receiving water quality values is both a social and scientiii
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Mixing ^ones/115
decision. In reaching this decision, data input should in-
clude current and projected information on types and
locations of intakes and discharges; percentage of shoreline
necessary to provide adequate spawning, nursery, and
feeding areas; and other desired uses of the water.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the total area or volume
of a receiving system assigned to mixing zones be
limited to that which will: (1) not interfere with
biological communities or populations of impor-
tant species to a degree which is damaging to the
ecosystem; (2) not diminish other beneficial uses
disproportionately.
ZONES OF PASSAGE
In river systems, reservoirs, lakes, estuaries, and coastal
waters, zones of passage are continuous water routes of
such volume, area, and quality as to allow passage of free-
swimming and drifting organisms so that no significant
effects are produced on their populations.
Transport of a variety of organisms in river water and
by tidal movements in estuaries is biologically important
in a number of ways; e.g., food is carried to the sessile
filter feeders and other nonmobile organisms; spatial distri-
bution of organisms and reinforcement of depauperate
populations is enhanced; embryos and larvae of some fish
species develop while drifting. Anadromous and cata-
dromous species must be able to reach suitable spawning
areas. Their young (and in some cases the adults) must be
assured a return route to their growing and living areas.
Many species make migrations for spawning and other
purposes. Barriers or blocks which prevent or interfere with
these types of essential transport and movement can be
created by water of inadequate chemical or physical quality.
Water quality in the zone of passage should be such that
biological responses to the water quality characteristics of
the mixing zone are no longer time-dependent (see Defini-
tion of Mixing Zone on page 112). However, where a zone of
passage is to be provided, bioassays determining time-
exposure responses in the mixing zone should include addi-
tional requirements to assess organism behavior. In the
mixing zone discussion above it is assumed that entrainment
in the plume will be involuntary. However, if there is at-
traction due to plume composition, exposure in the plume
could be very much longer than would be predicted by
physical modeling. If avoidance reactions occur, migration
may be thwarted. Thus, concentrations in both the mixing
zone and the zone of passage should be reduced before dis-
charge to levels below those at which such behavioral
modifications affect the populations of the subject organisms.
Modern techniques of waste water injection such as
diffusers and high velocity jets may form barriers to free
passage due to responses of organisms to currents. Turbu-
lence of flows opposing stream direction may create traps
for those organisms which migrate upstream by orientation
to opposing currents. These organisms may remain in the
mixing zone in response to currents created by the discharge.
Recommendation
Because of varying local physical and chemical
conditions and biological phenomena, no single-
value recommendation can be made on the per-
centage of river width necessary to allow passage of
critical free-swimming and drifting organisms so
that negligible or no effects are produced on their
populations. As a guideline no more than % the
width of a water-body should be devoted to mixing
zones thus leaving at least yA free as a zone of
passage.
-------
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
Monitoring of aquatic environments has traditionally in-
cluded obtaining physical and chemical data that are used
to evaluate the effects of pollutants on living organisms.
Biological monitoring has received less emphasis than
chemical or physical monitoring, because biological assess-
ments were once not as readily amenable to numerical
expression and tended to be more time consuming and
more expensive. This is no longer true. Aquatic organisms
can serve as natural monitors of environmental quality and
should be included in programs designed to provide con-
tinuous records of water quality, because they integrate
all of the stresses placed on an aquatic system and reflect
the combined effect. Chemical-physical assessments identify
individual components, so the two types of assessments are
mutually supporting rather than mutually exclusive.
A biological monitoring program is essential in de-
termining the synergistic or antagonistic interactions of
components of waste discharges and the resulting effects on
living organisms. However, biological monitoring does not
replace chemical and physical monitoring; each program
provides information supplemental to the others.
PROGRAMS
An ideal biological monitoring program has four com-
ponents' (1) field surveys, (2) in-plant biological monitoring,
(3) bioassays, and (4) simulation techniques. Obviously no
biological monitoring program is routine, nor does it neces-
sarily have to include all of the above components. However,
each of the components provides valuable and useful
information.
FIELD SURVEYS
Field surveys are needed to obtain adequate data on
biological, chemical, and physical water quality to de-
termine the nature of the system and the possible adverse
effects of waste discharges on beneficial uses of the system.
Two methods for continuously monitoring the effects of
pollution on a receiving water have been described. Patrick
et al. (1954)6* described the use of diatoms as natural moni-
tors of various types of pollution. Various species of shellfish,
especially oysters suspended in trays, have been describee
as an effective method of monitoring pollution (Galtsof
et al. 1947).4 Field surveys should be carried out at suitabli
intervals depending on local conditions. For example, it
determining the impact of a new or relocated municipa
or industrial discharge, it is desirable to perform tin
following functions:
• survey the stream as a part of the site selection pro
cedure;
• continue the field survey prior to construction t(
determine existing water quality: at this time it i
also useful to make bioassays using simulated plan
wastes and representative organisms from the re
ceiving systems, and to establish biornonitorins
stations;
• monitor the effects of construction;
• carry out bioassays using actual plant wastes anc
effluents after the plan! is in operation, and mak<
field surveys to determine any changes from pre
construction results.
BODY BURDENS OF TOXICANTS
Body burdens of toxicants that can be concentrated bi
biota should be measured regularly. These data can provide
early warning before concentrations in water become readil;
available and can provide warnings of incipient effects u
the biota being monitored.
IN-PLANT BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
Present information systems do not provide data rapidh
enough to be of use in environmental management, because
the constituents of a waste stream are likely to vary frort
hour to hour and from day to day. Potentially harmfu
materials should be detected before they enter the receivin;
water and before substantial damage has been done to tht
ecosystem.
* Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be locatec
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers whict
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
116
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Biological Monitoring/117
Several potentially useful methods for rapid in-plant
monitoring are being explored (Sparks et al. 1969,7 Waller
and Cairns 19698), and one rapid in-stream method is now
operational (Cairns et al. 1968,2 Cairns and Dickson 19713).
These in-plant methods use changes in heart rate, respi-
ration, and movements of fish within a container to detect
sublethal concentrations of toxicants in a waste discharge.
Continual information on toxicity of a waste should enable
sanitary engineers to identify those periods likely to produce
the most toxic wastes and to identify those components of
the production process that contribute significantly to
toxicity. This could be accomplished with bioassays as
they are currently used, but rarely are enough samples
taken over a period of time sufficient to give the range of
information that would be available with continually oper-
ating bioassay techniques.
BIOASSAYS
Of equal importance to the river surveys and the in-plant
and in-stream monitoring systems is the availability of
toxicity information based on a predictive bioassay. The
bioassay provides valuable information pertaining to the
effects of potential or contemplated discharges on aquatic
life. Acute bioassays are useful as a shortcut or predictive
method of estimating safe concentrations by use of suitable
application factors for many pollutants, as recommended
throughout this Report.
However, determining only the acute lethal toxicity of
wastes is no longer adequate. Good health and an ability
to function vigorously are as important for aquatic eco-
systems as they are for humans. The former end point of
bioassays, viz., death, has been supplanted by more subtle
end points such as the protection of respiration, growth,
reproductive success, and a variety of other functional
changes (Cairns 1967).* Acute toxicity determinations are
being supplemented by long-term tests often involving an
entire life cycle. The latter require more time and expense
than short-term tests, but they provide better predictive
information about biologically safe concentrations of various
toxicants. Bioassays of organisms other than fish are be-
coming increasingly common because of the realization
that elimination of the lower organisms can also have serious
consequences.
SIMULATION TECHNIQUES
The fourth component now available to provide ecological
information is the use of scale models. Models are used to
study major ecological or environmental problems by simu-
lating prospective new uses. Engineering scale models are
common, but ecological scale models or environmental
simulation systems are not yet as commonly used. Experi-
mental streams and reservoirs have been constructed to
predict toxicity of waste discharges, determine factors re-
sponsible for productivity of aquatic communities, and
answer questions about plant site location (Haydu 1968,6
Warren and Davis 19719).
-------
BIOASSAYS
Bioassays are used to evaluate a given pollutant in terms
of existing water quality. Most pollution problems involve
discharges of unknown and variable composition where
more than one toxicant or stress is present. In evaluating
criteria for specific toxicants, consideration must be given
to other environmental influences such as dissolved oxygen,
temperature, and pH.
Harmful effects of pollutants can be described by one or
more of the following terms:
acute—involves a stimulus severe enough to bring
about a response speedily, usually within four days
for fish.
subacute—involves a stimulus less severe than an
acute stimulus, producing a response in a longer
time; may become chronic.
chronic—involves a lingering or continuous stimu-
lus ; often signifying periods of about one-tenth of
the life span or more.
lethal—causes death by direct action.
sublethal—insufficient to cause death.
cumulative—brought about, or increased in strength,
by successive additions.
Two broad categories of effect (Alderdice 1967)10 may
be distinguished: acute toxicity which is usually lethal, and
chronic toxicity which may be lethal or sublethal.
MEASURES OF TOXICITY
Most of the available toxicity data are reported as the
median tolerance limit (TLm or TL50) or median lethal
concentration (LC50). Either symbol signifies the concen-
tration that kills 50 per cent of the test organisms within a
specified time span, usually in 96 hours. The customary
96-hour (four-day) time period is recommended as adequate
for most routine tests of acute toxicity with fish. A threshold
of acute toxicity will have been attained within this time
in the majority of cases (Sprague 1969).43 This lethal threshold
concentration is usually noticeable in the data. Sometimes
mortality continues, and tests of a week or longer would be
necessary to determine the threshold. The lethal threshold
concentration should be reported if it is demonstrated
because it is better for comparative purposes than th
arbitrary 96-hour LG50. Absence of any apparent threshol<
is equally noteworthy.
The median lethal concentration is a convenient referenc
point for expressing the acute lethal toxicity of a givei
toxicant to the average or typical test animal. Obviously i
is in no way a safe concentration, although occasional!
the two have been confused. Safe levels, which permi
reproduction, growth, and all other normal life-processe
in the fish's natural habitat, usually are much lower thai
the LC50. In this book, the recommended criteria ar
intended to be safe levels.
Substantial data on long-term effects and safe levels ar
available for only a few toxicants. Information is now ac
cumulating on the effect of toxicants on reproduction, a
important aspect of all long-term toxicity tests. Other infot
mation is being gathered on sublethal effects on growth
performance, avoidance reactions, and social behavior c
fish. Also important is the sensitivity of organisms at variou
life stages. Many organisms are most sensitive in the larva
nymphal, molting, or fry stage; some are most sensitive i
the egg and sperm stage.
It would be desirable if a single, universal, rapid, bic
logical test could be used to measure directly sublethx
effects of a pollutant. Data on sublethal responses of fis
have been used, such as respiratory rates and "coughing,
swimming speed, avoidance behavior, and specific physic
logical and biochemical changes in various organisms; an
histological studies have been made. A review of thes
(Sprague 1971)45 shows that no single test is meaningful fc
all kinds of pollutants. Therefore, it is recommended th;=
routine assessment and prediction of safe levels be made b
carrying out bioassays for acute lethal toxicity and multiply
ing the lethal concentration by a suitable application factoi
The application factors used and recommended here hav
been derived principally from chronic or sublethal labors
tory experiments or from well documented field studies c
polluted situations.
Acceptable concentrations of toxicants to which organism
are exposed continually musl be lower than the highe
118
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Bioassqys/119
concentrations that may be reached occasionally but briefly
without causing damage. Both maximum short-time con-
centrations and the more restrictive range of safe concen-
trations for continuous exposure are useful. The recommen-
dations in this Report are those considered safe for con-
tinuous exposure, although in some cases there has also
been an indication of permissible higher levels for short
periods.
In field situations and industrial operations, average
24-hour concentrations can be determined by obtaining
composite or continuous samples. After 24 hours, the
sample may be mixed and analyzed. The concentration
found will represent the average concentration. Samples
obtained this way are more reproducible and easier to
secure than the instantaneous sample of maximum concen-
trations. However, average concentrations are of little sig-
nificance if fish are killed by a sharp peak of concentration,
and for that reason maximum concentrations must also
be considered.
METHODS FOR BIOASSAYS
Although there are many types of assays, two are in
general use:
1. the static bioassay in which the organisms are held
in a tank containing the test solution, and
2. the continuous flow or flow-through bioassay in
which the test solution is renewed continually.
The difference between the two types is not always great,
but one can have clear advantages over the other.
An outline of methods for routine bioassays has been
given in "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater" (American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation, 1971,11 hereafter referred to as Standard
Methods 197148). Cope (1961)21 described bioassay re-
porting, and Cairns (1969)20 presented a rating system
for evaluating the quality of the tests. Sprague (1969,43
1970,44 197145) reviewed research to develop more incisive
testing methods. Their findings are utilized in this Report.
Procedure for acute bioassay with fish is now relatively
standardized and usually incorporates:
• a series of replicate test containers, each with a
different but constant concentration of the toxicant;
• a group of similar fish, usually 10, in each container;
• observations of fish mortality during exposures that
last between one day and one week, usually four
days; and
• final results expressed as LC50.
Other factors that are required for good bioassay practice
are briefly summarized in the references mentioned above.
CHECKLIST FOR PROCEDURES
Species
A selected strain of fish or other aquatic organisms of
local importance should be used in bioassays conducted
for the purpose of pollution monitoring. Preferably it
should be a game or pan fish, which are usually among the
more sensitive. Ability to duplicate experiments is enhanced
by the use of a selected strain of test organisms (Lennon
1967).31 A selected strain can also help to determine the
difference between toxicants more reliably, and to detect
discrepancies in results due to apparatus. A National Re-
search Council subcommittee chaired by Dr. S. F. Snieszko
is currently preparing a report, Standards and guidelines for
the breeding, care, and management of laboratory animals—Fish,
which will be useful in this area. Susceptibility to toxicants
among different species of fish is generally less than might
be expected—sometimes no greater than when a single
species is tested in different types of water. For example,
trout and certain coarse fishes were equally resistant to
ammonia when tests continued for several days to give the
less sensitive species time to react (Ball 1967a);13 and even
for zinc, the coarse fishes were no more than 3.8 times as
resistant as trout (Ball 1967b).14 Recommendations for the
selected test fish will often provide protection to other
aquatic animals and plants. There are exceptions to this
generalization: for example, copper is quite damaging to
algae and mollusks, and insecticides are especially dangerous
to aquatic arthropods. Sufficient data exist to predict these
situations. When they are expected, bioassays should be
run with two kinds of invertebrates and two kinds of algae
(Patrick et al. 1968).41
In the case of important bodies of water, there is good
reason to test several kinds of aquatic organisms in addition
to fish. Patrick et al. (1968)41 made a comparative study of
the effects of 20 pollutants on fish, snails, and diatoms and
found that no single kind of organism was most sensitive
in all situations. The short-term bioassay method for fish
may also be used for many of the larger invertebrate ani-
mals. A greater volume of test water and rate of flow, or
both, may be required in relation to weight of the animals
since their metabolic rate is higher on a weight basis.
Larvae of mollusks or crustaceans can be good test ani-
mals. The crustacean Daphnia is a good test animal and was
widely used in comparative studies of toxicants by Ander-
son (1950).12 Recently Biesinger and Christensen (unpub-
lished data, 1971)52 have carried out tests on the chronic
effects of toxicants on growth, survival, and reproduction
of Daphnia magna. Because of the rapid life cycle of Daphnia,
experiments on chronic toxicity can be completed in about
the same time as an acute toxicity test with fish.
Patrick et al. (1968)41 have shown that diatoms, snails
and fish exposed for roughly comparable periods of time
and in similar environmental conditions very often have
similar LC50's, but at other times these may differ greatly.
-------
120/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
However, for some toxicants diatoms were most sensitive;
for others, fish; and for others, snails. When one is comparing
data of this type, one questions whether a LC50 for a diatom
population in which a number of divisions have occurred
during the test period is comparable to that obtained for
fish and snails in which no reproduction has occurred during
the test period. In the sense that there are 50 per cent fewer
cells in the LC50 concentration than there are in the diatom
control culture, the test is somewhat equivalent to a test
of acute toxicity that results in 50 per cent fewer surviving
fish in the LC50 than in the control container. Also loss of
ability to grow and divide might be just as fatal to a micro-
bial population as death of a substantial number of its
members would be to a fish population.
When the absolute time for the test is considered, there
are also reasons for believing that exposure of diatoms to a
toxicant through several generations might not constitute
a chronic test, because it is quite possible that for toxicants
to accumulate in a cell may require a period of exposure
much more lengthy than that encompassed in the average
test which only spans a few generations. This would be
particularly true when the organisms were dividing rapidly
and the additional protoplasm diluted the material being
accumulated.
Dilution Water
Toxicants should be tested in the water that will receive
the pollutant in question. In this way all modifying factors
and combined toxicities will be present. It is not advisable
to use tap water for dilution, because it may contain chlorine
and other harmful materials such as copper, zinc, or lead
from plumbing systems. Routine dechlorination does not
insure complete removal of chlorine.
Variations in physical and chemical characteristics of
water affect toxicity of pollutants. Effects of five environ-
mental entities on the lethal threshold of ammonia were
illustrated a decade ago (Lloyd 1961b).34 Hardness of water
is particularly important in toxicity of metals. Hydrogen
ion concentration is an important modifying factor for
ammonia and cyanide. Higher temperatures sometimes
increase toxicity of a pollutant, but recent work shows that
phenol, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, and zinc may be
more toxic at low temperatures (United Kingdom Ministry
of Technology 1969).50 Dissolved oxygen levels that are
below saturation will increase toxicity, and this is predictable
(Lloyd 1961a;33 Brown 1968).16
The supply of dilution water must be adequate to main-
tain constant test conditions. In both static and continuous
flow tests, a sufficiently large volume of test water must be
used, and it must be replaced or replenished frequently.
This is to provide oxygen for the organism and dilution of
metabolic wastes, to limit changes in temperature and pH,
and to compensate for degradation, volatilization, intake,
and sorption of the toxicant. In static tests, there should be
two or three liters of water per gram of fish, changed daily,
or increased proportionally in volume for the number of
days of the test. In continuous flow tests, the flow must
provide at least two or three liters of water per gram of fish
per day, and it must equal test-volume in five hours or
less, giving 90 per cent replacement in half a day or less.
Acclimation
Acclimatizing the test organism to the specific water
before the bioassay begins may have marked effect upon
(he outcome. Abrupt changes in quality of the water should
be avoided. Time for acclimation of the organisms to the
conditions of the diluent water should be as generous as
possible, dependent on life span. At least two weeks is
recommended for fish.
Test Methods
Test methods must be adequately described when the
results are given. Several bioassay procedures are listed in
Table III-l. Adequate and appropriate control tests must
always be run (Sprague 1969).43 Survival of the control
organisms is a minimum indication of the quality of the
test organisms. In addition, levels of survival and health
in holding tanks should be indicated and the conclusions
recorded.
TABLE III-l—Recommended Literature Sources for Bioassay
and Biomonitoring Procedures with Various Aquatic
Organisms
Kind of organism
Type of response Appropriate situations for use
Reference
Fish and Macroinverte-
brates
Fish and macromverte-
brates
Fish and inverte-
brates
Fish
Fisb (i.e., fathead min-
nows, brook tiout.
bluegill)
Daphnii
Diatoms
Marine crustacean,
larvae mollusks
96-hour lethal concen-
tration
Lethal threshold con-
centration
Incipient lethal tem-
peratures & ultimate
incipient lethal tem-
peratures
Respiratory movements
as acute sublethal
response
Reproduction, growth,
and survival
Survival, growth, and
reproduction
Survival, growth, and
reproduction
Survival, growth, and
development through
immature states
To measure lethal toxicity ef a
wiste of known or unknown
composition. To serve as a
foundation for extrapolating
to presumably salt cimcentta-
tinns. To monitor industrial
effluents.
For research applications to
document lethal thresholds.
For research to determine
lethal temperature ranges ol
a given species.
Quick (1-day) indication of
possible sublethal effects.
Fur research and monitoring.
Chronic tests for research on
safe concentrations.
Rapid completion of chronic
tests for testing special sus-
ceptibility of crustaceans
A sensitive, rapid, chronic test
for research, prediction, or
monitoring"
A sensitive, rapid, chronic test
for research, prediction, or
monitoring"
Standard Methods 1971"
Sprague 1969," 1970"
Fry 1947," Brett 1952"
Schaumburg et al. 1967"
Mount 1968," Mount i
Stephan 1967,"
Brungs 1969," McKim
I Benoit 1971," Eaton
1970*
Anderson 1950,1= Bit-
sinter & Christensen
(Unpublished data)"
Patrick 1968"
Woelke 1967"
»requires an operator with some specialized Biological training.
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Bioassay s/121
Dissolved Oxygen
The problem of maintaining dissolved oxygen concen-
trations suitable for aquatic life in the test water can be
difficult. The suggestions on test volume and replacement
times (see Dilution Water above) should provide for ade-
quate oxygen in most rjases. However, with some pollutants,
insufficient oxygen may be present in the test water because
a biochemical and a chemical oxygen demand (BOD and
COD) may consume much of the available dissolved oxygen.
Aeration or oxygenation may degrade or remove the test
material. Devices for maintaining satisfactory dissolved
oxygen in static tests have been proposed and used with some
degree of effectiveness, and are described in Doudoroff
et al. (1951).22
Concentrations
Periodic measurements of concentration of the toxicant
should be made at least at the beginning and end of the
bioassay. If this is not possible, introduced concentrations
may be stated alone, but it should be realized that actual
concentrations in the water may become reduced.
In the flow-through type of bioassay, a large quantity of
test water can be made up and used gradually. More often
a device is used to add toxicant to a flow of water, and the
mixture is discharged into the test container, using apparatus
such as "dipping bird" dosers described by Brungs and
Mount (1967).19 Other devices have been developed by
Stark (1967),47 and Mount and Warner (1965),39 using
the doser technique.
Evaluation of Results
Mortality rates at the longest exposure time should be
plotted on a vertical probit scale against concentrations of
toxicants on a horizontal logarithmic scale. The concen-
tration which causes 50 per cent mortality can be read and
used as LC50. Errors in LC50 can be estimated using the
simple nomograph procedures described by Litchfield and
Wilcoxon (1949).32 A more refined estimate of error may
be made using the methods of Finney (1952),25 which can
be programmed for a computer.
The value of the results would be improved if the LCSO's
were estimated (by the above procedures) at frequent
exposure times such as 1, 2, 4, 8±1, 14±2, 24, 48, 72,
and 96 hours. A toxicity curve of time versus LC50 could
then be constructed on logarithmic axes. The lethal thresh-
old concentration could then be estimated in many cases
(Sprague 1969)43 to provide a more valid single number
for description of acute toxicity than the arbitrary 96-hour
LC50.
For some purposes, such as basic research or situations
where short exposures are of particular concern, it would
be desirable to follow and plot separately the mortality of
the group of fish in each tank. In this way, the median
lethal time can be estimated for a given concentration.
Methods for doing this are given in Appendix II-A.
APPLICATION FACTORS
Short-term or acute toxicity tests do not indicate concen-
trations of a potential toxicant that are harmless under
conditions of long-term exposure. Nevertheless, for each
toxicant there is obviously a numerical value for the ratio
of the safe concentration to the acutely lethal concentration.
Such values are called application factors. In some cases
this safe-to-lethal ratio is known with reasonable accuracy
from experimental work, as in the examples given in Table
III-2. However, for most toxicants, the safe level has not
been determined, and must be predicted by some approxi-
mate method. In these cases, the assumption has been
made in this Report, that the numerical value of the safe-
to-lethal ratio, the application factor, is constant for related
groups of chemicals. Values for the ratio will be recom-
mended. The safe level of a particular toxicant can then
be estimated approximately by carrying out an acute bio-
assay to determine the lethal concentration, then multi-
plying this by the suggested application factor. An appli-
cation factor does not make allowance for unknown factors.
It is merely a fractional or decimal factor applied to a
lethal concentration to estimate the safe concentration.
Ideally, an application factor should be determined for
each waste material in question. To do this, it is necessary
first to determine the lethal concentration of the waste
according to the bioassay procedures outlined above. To
obtain the application factor, the safe concentration of the
same waste must be determined for the same species by
thorough research on physiological, biochemical, and be-
havioral effects, and by studying growth, reproduction,
and production in the laboratory and field. The safe-to-
lethal ratio obtained could then be used as an application
factor in a given situation, by working from the measured
LC50 of a particular kind of waste to predict the safe
concentration.
TABLE III-2—Ratios between the safe concentration and the
lethal concentration which have been determined experi-
mentally for potential aquatic pollutants. Sources of data
are given in the sections on the individual pollutants.
Material
Species of animal
Safe-to-lethal ratio
LAS
Chlorine
Sulfides
Copper.
Trivalent chromium
Hexavalent chromium
Malathion
Carbaryl
Nickel....
Lead
Zinc .
Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)
Fathead minnow
Gammarus
Fathead minnow and white sucker (Catostomus commersoni)
Walleye pike (Stizostedion vitreum v.)
Several species of fish
Fathead minnow
Fathead minnow
Brook trout (Salvennus fontinalis)
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnen)
Fathead minnow and bluepll (Lepomis machrochirus)
Fish species
Fathead minnow
Rainbow and Brook trout
Fathead minnow
Between 0.14 and 0.28
(=3bout0.21)
0.16
0.16
0.1±
0 22±
close to 0.1
0.037
0.03
0.012
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
<0.02
0.005
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122/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
In this approach, a 96-hour LC50 is determined for the
pollutant using water from the receiving stream for dilution.
The test organisms selected should be among the most
sensitive species, or an important local species at a sensitive
life stage, or a species whose relative sensitivity is known.
This procedure takes into consideration the effects of local
water quality and the stress or adverse effects of wastes
already present in the stream. The LC50 thus found is
then multiplied by the application factor for that waste to
determine its safe concentration in the specific stream or
section of stream. Such bioassays should be repeated at
least monthly or when changes in process or rate of waste
discharge are observed.
For example, if the 96-hour LC50 is 0.5 milligrams per
liter (mg/1) and the concentration of the waste found to be
safe is 0.01 mg/1. the ratio would be:
Safe Concentration 0.01 1
96-hour LC50 ~~ 0.50 ~ 50
In this instance, the safe-to-lethal ratio is 0.02. It can be
used as an application factor in other situations. Then, in
a given situation involving this waste, the safe concentration
in the receiving stream would be found by multiplying the
four-day LC50 by 0.02.
This predictive procedure based on lethal concentrations
is useful, because the precise safe level of many pollutants
is not known because of the uncertainty about toxicity of
mixed effluents and the difference in sensitivity among fish
and fish food organisms. Henderson (1957)27 and Tarzwell
(1962)49 have discussed various factors involved in de-
veloping application factors. Studies by Mount and Stephan
(1967),;!S Brungs (1969),18 Mount (1968),37 McKim and
Benoit (1971),3C and Eaton (1970)21 in which continuous
exposure was used, reveal that the safe-to-lethal ratio that
permits spawning ranges over nearly two orders of magni-
tude. Exposure will not be constant in most cases, and
higher concentrations usually can be tolerated for short
periods.
Lethal threshold concentrations, which may require more
than 96-hour exposures, may be beneficially used (Sprague
1969)43 to replace 96-hour LC50 in the above procedures,
and there is a trend today to use such threshold concen-
trations (Eaton 1970).24
At present, safe levels have been detennined for only a
few wastes, and as a result only a few application factors are
known. Because the determination of safe levels of pollutants
is an involved process, interim procedures for estimating
tolerable concentrations of various wastes in receiving waters
must be used. To meet this situation, three universal appli-
cation factors selected on the basis of present knowledge,
experience, and judgment are recommended at the end of
this section. Where toxicants have a nonpersistent nature
(a half life of less than 4 days) or noncumulative effects,
an application factor of 0.1 of the 96-hour LC50 should
not be exceeded at any time or place after mixing with the
receiving waters. The 24-hour average of the concentratioi
of these toxicants should not exceed 0.05 of the LC50 i
aquatic life is to be protected. For toxic materials whicl
are persistent or cumulative the concentrations should no
exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place, am
the 24-hour average concentration should not exceed 0.0
of the 96-hour LC50 in order to protect aquatic life. It i
proposed that these general application factors be appliec
to LC50 values determined in the manner described abov<
to set tolerable concentrations of wastes in the receivini
stream.
MIXTURES OF TWO OR MORE TOXICANTS
The toxicity of a mixture of pollutants may be estimate!
by expressing the actual concentration of each toxicant a
a proportion of its lethal threshold concentration (usual!1
equal to the 96-hour LC50) and adding the resultin;
numbers for all the toxicants. If the total is 1.0 or greater
the mixture will be lethal.
The system of adding different toxicants in this way i
based on the premise that their lethal actions are additive
Unlikely as it seems, this simple rule has been found ti
govern the combined lethal action of many pairs and mix
tures of quite dissimilar toxicants, such as copper am
ammonia, and zinc and phenol in the laboratory (Hcrber
and Vandyke 1964,2<) Jordan and Lloyd 1964,30 Browi
et al. 1969).17 The rule holds true in field studies (Herber
1965,2S Sprague et al. 1965).4(l The method of addition i
useful and reasonably accurate for predicting thresholds c
lethal effects in mixtures.
There is also evidence of a lower limit for additive letha
effects. For ammonia and certain other pollutants, level
below 0.1 of the lethal concentration do not seem to con
tribute to the lethal action of a mixture (Brown el al. 1969,1
Lloyd and Orr 1969).35 This lower cutoff point of 0.1 c
the LC50 should be used when it is necessary to assess th
lethal effects of a mixture of toxicants.
SUBLETHAL EFFECTS
Sublethal or chronic effects of mixtures are of great im
portance. Sublethal concentrations of different toxicanl
should be additive in effect. Here again, it would be e:<
pected that for any given toxicant there would be some lov
concentration that would have no deleterious effect on ai
organism and would not contribute any sublethal toxicit
to a mixture, but there is little research on this subject
Biesinger and Christensen {unpublished data 1971),62 con
eluded that subchronic concentrations of 21 toxicants wer
close to being additive in causing chronic effects on repro
duction in Daphnia. Copper and zinc concentrations c
about 0.01 of the LC50 are additive in causing avoiclanc
reactions (Sprague et al. 196.3).46 On the other hand, some
what lower metal concentrations of about 0.003 of the LC5I
do not seem to be additive in affecting reproduction of fisl
-------
Bioassays/\2Z
(Eaton unpublished data 1971).63 Perhaps there is a lower
cutoff point than 0.01 of the LC50 for single pollutants
contributing to sublethal toxicity of a mixture.
As an interim solution, it is recommended that the con-
tribution of a single pollutant to the sublethal toxicity of a
mixture should not be counted if it is less than 0.2 of the
recommended level for that pollutant. Applying this to a
basic recommended level of 0.05 (see the Recommendation
that follows) of the LG50 would yield a value of 0.01 of the
LC50, corresponding to the possible cutoff point suggested
above.
It is expected that certain cases of joint toxicity will not
be covered by simple addition. The most obvious exception
would be when two toxicants combine chemically. For
example, mixed solutions of cyanides and metals could
cause addition of toxicity or very different effects if the
metal and cyanide combined (Doudoroff et al. 1966).23 A
thorough understanding of chemical reactions is necessary
in these cases.
For further discussions of bioassays and the difficulties
posed in assessing sublethal effects of toxicants on organisms,
see Section IV, pp. 233-237.
Recommendations for the Use of Application Factors to
Estimate Safe Concentrations of Toxic Wastes in Receiving
Streams
Where specific application factors have been determined
for a given material, they should be used instead of the safe
concentration levels of wastes given below:
(a) Concentration of materials that are nonpersistent
or have noncumulative effects should not exceed 0.1 of
the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place after mixing with
the receiving waters. The 24-hour average of the concen-
tration of these materials should not exceed 0.05 of the
LC50 after mixing.
(b) For toxicants which are persistent or cumulative,
the concentrations should not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour
LC50 at any time or place, nor should the 24-hour average
concentration exceed 0.01 of the 96-hour LC50.
(c) When two or more toxic materials are present at
the same time in the receiving water, it should be assumed
unless proven otherwise that their individual toxicities are
additive and that some reduction in the permissible concen-
trations is necessary. The amount of reduction required is
a function of both the number of toxic materials present
and their concentrations in respect to the permissible con-
centrations. The following relationship will assure that the
combined amounts of the several substances do not exceed
a permissible concentration:
This formula may be applied where Ca, Cb, . . . Cn are the
measured or expected concentrations of the several toxic
materials in the water, and La, Lb, . . . Ln are the respective
concentrations recommended or those derived by using
recommended application factors on bioassays done under
local conditions. Should the sum of the several fractions
exceed 1 .0, a local restriction on the concentration of one
or more of the substances is necessary.
C and L can be measured in any convenient chemical
unit as proportions of the LC50 or in any other desired way,
as long as the numerator and denominator of any single
fraction are in the same units. To remove natural trace
concentrations and low nonadditive concentrations from
the above formula, any single fraction which has a value
less than 0.2 should be removed from the calculation.
Example:
Small quantities of five toxicants are measured in a
stream as follows:
3 micrograms /liter (jug/1) of zinc; 3 jug/1 of phenol;
3 fig/I of un-ionized ammonia as calculated from
Figure III- 10 (see Ammonia, p. 186); 1 /ug/1 of
cyanide; and 1 Mg/1 of chlorine.
A bioassay with zinc sulphate indicates that the 96-
hour LC50 is 1.2 mg/1. The application factor for
zinc is 0.005; therefore, the allowable limit is 0.005 X
1.2 = 0.006 mg 1. Initial bioassays with phenol, am-
monia, and cyanide indicate that the recommended
values are the safe concentrations stated in other sec-
tions of the Report, not the fractions of LC50; so the
limits are 0.1 mg/1, 0.02 mg/1, and 0.005 mg/1. The
permissible limit for chlorine (page 189) is 0.003 mg/1.
Therefore, the total toxicity is estimated as follows for
zinc, phenol, ammonia, cyanide, and chlorine, re-
spectively :
0.003 0.003
0.003 0.001 0.001
(1006 ~0 (XOT O005 01)03
= 0.5+0.03+0.15+0.2+0.33
The second and third terms, i.e., phenol and ammonia,
should be deleted since they are below the minimum
of 0.2 for additive effects. This leaves 0.5+0.2+0.33 =
1 .03, indicating that the total sublethal effect of these
three toxicants is slightly above the permissible level
and that no higher concentration of any of the three
is safe. Thus none can be added as a pollutant.
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PHYSICAL MANIPULATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Numerous activities initiated to maximize certain uses of
water resources often adversely affect water quality and
minimize other uses. These activities have caused both
benefit and harm in terms of environmental quality. The
common forms of physical alteration of watersheds are
channelization, dredging, filling, shoreline modifications
(of lakes and streams), clearing of vegetation, rip-rapping,
diking, leveling, sand and gravel removal, and impounding
of streams!
Channelization is widespread throughout the United
States, and many studies have been conducted documenting
its effects. Channelization usually increases stream gradient
and flow rates. The quiet areas or backwaters are either
eliminated or cut off from the main flow of the stream, the
stream bed is made smooth, thus reducing the habitats
available to benthic organisms, and surrounding marshes
and swamps are more rapidly drained. The steeper gradient
increases velocity allowing the stream to carry a greater
suspended load and causing increased turbidity. The rate
of organic waste transformation per mile is usually reduced,
and destruction of spawning and nursery areas often occurs.
Trautman (1939),67 Smith and Larimore (1963),65 Peters
and Alvord (1964),64 Welker (1967),69 Martin (1969),63
and Gebhards (1970)68 have discussed the harmful effects
of channelization on some fish populations and the effect
on stimulation of less desirable species.
Dredging undertaken to increase water depth often
destroys highly productive habitats such as marshes (Mar-
shall 1968,62 Copeland and Dickens 1969).56 The spoils
from dredging activities are frequently disposed of in other
shallow sites causing further loss of productive areas. For
example, Taylor and Saloman (1968)66 reported that since
1950 there has been a 20 per cent decrease in surface area
of productive Boca Ciega Bay, Florida, due to fill areas.
It has become common practice to fill in marshy sites near
large metropolitan areas (e.g., San Francisco Bay, Jamaica
Bay) to provide for airport construction and industrial
development.
In addition to the material that is actually removed by
the dredging process, a considerable amount of waste is
suspended in the water resulting in high turbidities (Mackin
1961).61 If the dredged sediments are relatively nontoxii
gross effects on motile aquatic life may not be noticeabL
but benthic communities ma-.y be drastically affected by tr
increased redeposition of silt (Ingle 1952).69
In many instances either high nutrient or toxic sedimen
are suspended or deposited during the dredging proces
This action may kill aquatic organisms by exposure to tl
toxicants present or by the depletion of dissolved oxyge
concentrations, or both. Brown and Clark (1968)64 note
a dissolved oxygen reduction of 16 to 83 per cent whe
oxidizable sediments were rcsuspended. In many cases di
turbed sediments containing high nutrient concentratioi
may stimulate undesirable forms of phytoplankton c
Cladophora. Gannon and Beeton (1969)57 categorized harbc
sediments in five groups. Those most severely pollute
were toxic to various animals and did not stimulate growt
of phytoplankton. Other sediments were toxic but stimi
lated plant growth. The least polluted sediments were n<
toxic and stimulated growth of phytoplankton but nc
Cladophora.
Three basic aspects must be considered in evaluating tr.
impact of dredging and disposal on the aquatic enviroi
ment: (1) the amount and nature of the dredgings, (2) ti
nature and quality of the environments of removal an
disposal, and (3) the ecological responses. All vary wide!
in different environments, and it is not possible to identii
an optimal dredging and disposal system. Consequent!'
the most suitable program must be developed for eac
situation. Even in situations where soil is deposited i
diked enclosures or used for fill, care must be taken 1
monitor overflow, seepage, and runoff waters for toxic an
stimulatory materials.
Artificial impoundments may have serious environment;
impact on natural aquatic ecosystems. Dams and otht
artificial barriers frequently block migration and ma
destroy large areas of specialized habitat. Aquatic organise
are frequently subjected to physical damage if they ai
allowed to pass through or over hydroelectric power uni
and other man-made objects when properly designe
barriers are not provided. At large darns, especially thos
designed for hydroelectric power, water drawn from tr
124
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Physical Manipulation of the Environment/125
pool behind the dam is frequently taken from great depths,
resulting in the release to the receiving stream of waters
low in dissolved oxygen and excessively cold. This can be a
problem, particularly in areas where nonnative fish are
stocked.
Cutting down forests, planting the land in crops, and
partially covering the surface of a watershed by building
roads, houses, and industries can have detrimental effects
on water ways. Wark and Keller (1963)68 showed that in
the Potomac River Basin (Washington, D.C.) reducing the
forest cover from 80 per cent to 20 per cent increased the
annual sediment yield from 50 to 400 tons per square mile
per year. The planting of land in crops increased the sedi-
ment yield from 70 to 300 tons per square mile per year,
or a fourfold increase as the land crops increased from 10
per cent to 50 per cent. Likens et al. (1970)60 showed that
cutting down the forest in the Hubbard Brook area (Ver-
mont) caused substantial changes in the streams. The sedi-
ment load increased fourfold over a period from May 1966
to May 1968. Furthermore, the particulate matter drained
from the deforested watershed became increasingly in-
organic in content, thus reducing the value of the sediment
as a food source. The nutrient content of the water was also
affected by cutting down the forests. The nitrate concen-
tration increased from 0.9 mg/1 prior to the cutting of
vegetation to 53 mg/1 two years later. Temperatures of
streams in deforested areas were higher, particularly during
the summer months, than those of streams bordered bv
forests (Brown and Krygier 1970).S5
Prior to any physical alterations of a watershed, a
thorough investigation should be conducted to determine
the expected balance between benefits and adverse environ-
mental effects.
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SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE SOLIDS
Suspended and settleable solids include both inorganic
and organic materials. Inorganic components include sand.
silt, and clay originating from erosion, mining, agriculture,
and areas of construction. Organic matter may be com-
posed of a variety of materials added to the ecosystem from
natural and man-made sources. These inorganic and organic
sources are discussed in the Panel Report on Marine
Aquatic Life and Wildlife (Section IV), and the effects of
land-water relationships are described in the report on
Recreation and Aesthetics (Section I).
SOIL AS A SOURCE OF MINERAL PARTICLES
Soil structure and drainage patterns, together with the
intensity and temporal distribution of rainfall that directly
affect the kind and amount of protective vegetative cover,
determine the susceptibility of a soil to erosion. Where
rain occurs more or less uniformly throughout the year,
protective grasses, shrubs, or trees develop (Leopold, et al.
1964).78 Where rainfall occurs intermittently, as in arid
areas, growth of protective plants is limited thus allowing
unchecked erosion of soils.
Wetting and drying cause swelling and shrinking of clay
soils and leave the surface susceptible to entrainment in
surface water flows. Suspended soil particle concentrations
in rivers, therefore, are at their peak at the beginning of
flood flows. Data on the concentration of suspended matter
in most of the significant streams of the United States are
presented in the U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply
Papers.
Streams transport boulders, rocks, pebbles, and sand by
intermittent rolling motions, or by intermittent suspension
and deposition as particles are entrained and later settled
on the bed. Fine particles are held in suspension for long
periods, depending on the intensity of the turbulence. Fine
silt particles, when dispersed in fresh waters, remain almost
continuously suspended, and suspension of dispersed clay
mineral particles may be maintained even by the thermally
induced motions in water. These fine mineral particles are
the soil materials of greatest significance to the turbidity
values of a particular water.
The suspended and settleable solids and the bed of a wall
body must be considered as interrelated, interacting part
For example, Langlois (1941)77 reported that in Lake Er
the average of 40 parts per million (ppm) of suspends
matter in the water was found to change quickly to moi
than 200 ppm with a strong wind. He further explaine
that this increase is attributed to sediments resuspended 1:
wave action. These sediments enter from streams or froi
shoreline erosion.
Suspended clay mineral particles are weakly cohesive i
fresh river waters having either unusually low dissolved sa
concentrations or high concentrations of multivalent cation
Aggregations of fine particles form and settle on the bed 1
form soft fluffy deposits when such waters enter a lake c
impoundment. However, clay mineral particles are di,
persed or only weakly cohesive in most rivers.
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES IN WATER
The composition and concentrations of suspended part
cles in surface waters are important because of their effec
on light penetration, temperalure, solubility products, an
aquatic life (Cairns 1968).7'2 The mechanical or abrasiv
action of particulate material is of importance to the highe
aquatic organisms, such as mussels and fish. Gills may b
clogged and their proper functions of respiration an
excretion impaired. Blanketing of plants and sessile anima
with sediment as well as the blanketing of importar
habitats, such as spawning sites, can cause drastic change
in aquatic ecosystems. If sedimentation, even of inei
particles, covers substantial amounts of organic materia
anaerobic conditions can occur and produce noxious gase
and other objectionable characteristics, such as low dis
solved oxygen and decreases in pH.
Absorption of sunlight by natural waters is strongl'
affected by the presence of suspended solids. The intensif
of light (/) at any distance along a light ray (L) is, for ;
uniform suspension, expressed by the formula:
where 70 is the intensity just below the water surface (L = 0)
126
-------
Suspended and Settleable Solids /127
k is the extinction coefficient for the suspended solids, and
c is the concentration of suspended solids. L can be related
to the water depth by the zenith angle, i, the angle of
refraction, r, and the index of refraction of water, 1.33, by
Snell's rule:
sin r =
1.33
The depth, Z), is L cos r. Refraction makes the light path
more nearly vertical under water than the sun's rays,
except when the sun's rays are themselves normal to the
water surface.
The growth of fixed and suspended aquatic plants can
be limited by the intensity of sunlight. An example of the
decrease in the photic zone was calculated for San Francisco
Bay (Krone 1963),76 where k was 1.18X103 square centi-
meters per gram. For a typical suspended solids concen-
tration of 50X10"6 grams per cubic centimeter, for an
algae requiring 20 foot candles or more for its multipli-
cation, and under incident sunlight of 13,000 foot candles
the photic zone did not exceed 1.1 meters. A reduction in
suspended solids concentration to 20 X 10~6 g/cm3 increased
the maximum depth of the photic zone to 2.8 meters.
Because suspended particles inhibit the penetration of
sunlight, water temperatures are affected, and increasing
turbidity results in increasing absorption near the water
surface so that turbid waters warm more rapidly at the
surface than do clearer waters. Warming and the accom-
panying decrease in density stabilize water and may inhibit
vertical mixing. Lower oxygen transfer value from air to
water results when surface waters are heated. This action
combined with inhibited vertical mixing reduces the rate of
oxygen transfer downward. Still or slowly moving water is
most affected.
The rate of warming, dT/dt, at any distance from the
surface along a light path, L, in water having uniform
suspended material is
dT
-kcL
where p is the water density and C is the specific heat of
the water. This equation shows that an increase in suspended
sediment concentration increases the rate of warming near
the surface and decreases exponentially with depth. The
biological significance of this relationship is in the effect on
time of formation, vertical distribution of thermal stratifi-
cation, and stability of the upper strata. Increasing tur-
bidity could change the stratification patterns of a lake and
thus change the temperature distribution, oxygen regime,
and composition of the biological communities.
ADSORPTION OF TOXIC MATERIALS
Suspended mineral particles have irregular, large surface
areas, with electrostatic charges. As a consequence, clay
minerals may sorb cations, anions, and organic compounds.
Pesticides and heavy metals may be absorbed on suspended
clay particles and strongly held with them. The sorption
of chemicals by suspended matter is particularly important
if it leads to a buildup of toxic and radioactive materials
in a limited area with the possibility of sudden release of
these toxicants. One such example has been reported by
Benoit et al. (1967).70 Gannon and Beeton (1969)78 reported
that sediments with the following characteristics dredged
from various harbors on the Great Lakes were usually toxic
to various organisms: COD 42,000 mg/1, volatile solids
4,000 mg/1, ammonia 0.075 mg/g, phosphate-P 0.65 mg/g.
The capacity of minerals to hold dissolved toxic materials
is different for each material and type of clay mineral. An
example illustrates the magnitudes of sorptive capacities:
the cation exchange capacity (determined by the number
of negatively charged sites on clay mineral surfaces) ranges
from a few milliequivalents per hundred grams (me/100 g)
of mineral for kaolinite clay to more than 100 me/100 g for
montmorillonite clay. Typical estuarial sediments, which are
mixtures of clay, silt, and sand minerals, have exchange
capacities ranging from 15 to 60 me/100 g (Krone 1963).76
The large amounts of such material that enter many
estuaries and lakes from tributary streams provide continu-
ally renewed sorptive capacity that removes materials such
as heavy metals, phosphorus, and radioactive ions. The
average new sediment load flowing through the San Fran-
cisco Bay-Delta system, for example, has a total cation
exchange capacity of a billion equivalents per year.
The sorptive capacity effectively creates the large assimi-
lative capacity of muddy waters. A reduction in suspended
mineral solids in surface waters can cause an increase in
the concentrations of dissolved toxic materials contributed
by existing waste discharges.
EFFECTS ON FISH AND INVERTEBRATES
The surface of particulate matter may act as a substratum
for microbial species, although the particle itself may or
may not contribute to their nutrition. When the presence
of particulate matter enables the environment to support
substantial increased populations of aquatic microorganisms,
the dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and other char-
acteristics of the water are frequently altered.
There are several ways in which an excessive concen-
tration of finely divided solid matter might be harmful to
a fishery in a river or a lake (European Inland Fisheries
Advisory Commission, EIFAC 1965).73 These include:
• acting directly on fish swimming in water in which
solids are suspended, either killing them or reducing
their growth rate and resistance to disease;
• preventing the successful development of fish eggs
and larvae;
-------
128/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
• modifying natural movements and migrations of fish;
• reducing the food available to fish;
• affecting efficiency in catching the fish.
With respect to chemically inert suspended solids and to
waters that are otherwise satisfactory for the maintenance of
freshwater fisheries, EIFAC (1965)73 reported:
• there is no evidence that concentrations of suspended
solids less than 25 mg/1 have any harmful effects
on fisheries;
• it should usually be possible to maintain good or
moderate fisheries in waters that normally contain
25 to 80 mg/1 suspended solids; other factors being
equal, however, the yield of fish from such waters
might be somewhat lower than from those in the
preceding category;
• waters normally containing from 80 to 400 mg/J
suspended solids are unlikely to support good fresh-
water fisheries, although fisheries may sometimes
be found at the lower concentrations within this
range;
• only poor fisheries are likely to be found in waters
that normally contain more than 400 mg/1 suspended
solids.
In addition, although several thousand parts per million
suspended solids may not kill fish during several hours or
days exposure, temporary high concentrations should be
prevented in rivers where good fisheries are to be main-
tained. The spawning grounds of most fish should be kept
as free as possible from finely divided solids.
While the low turbidities reported above reflected values
that should protect the ecosystem, Wallen (1951)80 reported
that fish can tolerate higher concentrations. Behavioral
reactions were not observed until concentrations of tur-
bidity neared 20,000 mg/1, and in one species reactions did
not appear until turbidities reached 100,000 mg/1. Most
species tested endured exposures of more than 100,000 mg/1
turbidity for a week or longer, but these same fishes finally
died at turbidities of 175,000 to 225,000 mg/1. Lethal
turbidities caused the death of fishes within 15 minutes to
two hours exposure. Fishes that succumbed had opercular
cavities and gill filaments clogged with silty clay particles
from the water.
In a study of fish and macroinvertebrate populations
over a four-year period in a stream receiving sediment from
a crushed limestone quarry, Gammon (1970)74 found that
inputs that increased the suspended solids load less than
40 mg/1 (normal suspended solids was 38 to 41 mg/1 and
volatile suspended solids 16 to 30 mg/1) resulted in a 25
per cent reduction in macroinvertebrate density in the
stream below the quarry. A heavy silt input caused increases
of more than 120 mg/1 including some decomposition of
sediment, and resulted in a 60 per cent reduction in density
of macroinvertebrates. Population diversity indices we
unaffected because most species responded to the sar
degree. The standing crop of fish decreased dramatical
when heavy sediment occurred in the spring; but fish r
mained in pools during the summer when the input w
heavy and vacated the pools only after deposits of seclime
accumulated. After winter floods removed sediment d
posits, fish returned to the pools and achieved levels of .
per cent of the normal standing crop by early June.
Not all particulate matter affects organisms in the san
way. For example, Smith, ei. al. (1965)79 found that tl
lethal action of pulp-mill fiber on walleye fingerlin
(Stizostedion vitreum vitreuni) and fathead minnows (Pimepha,
promelas) was influenced by (he type of fiber. In 96-ho
bioassays, mortality of the minnows in 2,000 ppm suspe
sions was 78 per cent in conifer groundwood, 34 per ce
in conifer kraft, and 4 per cent in aspen groundwood. Hit
temperatures and reduced dissolved oxygen coricentratio
increased the lethal action of fiber.
Buck (1956)71 studied the growth offish in 39 farm pone
having a wide range of turbidities. The ponds were cleart
of fish and then restocked with largemouth black ba
(Micropterus salmoides), bluegill (Lepomis macrothirus), ar
redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus). After two growir
seasons the yields of fish were
• clear ponds (less than 25 mg/1 161.5 Ib/acre
suspended solids)
• intermediate (25-100 mg/1 94.0 Ib/acre
suspended solids)
• muddy (more than 100 mg/1 29.3 Ib/acrc
suspended solids)
The rate of reproduction was also reduced by turbidit;
and the critical concentration for all three species appeare
to be about 75-100 mg/1. In the same paper, Buck reporte
that largemouth black bass {Micropterus salmoides), crappk
(Pomoxis), and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) grew mor
slowly in a reservoir where the water had an averag
turbidity of 130 mg/1 than in another reservoir where th
water was always clear.
Floating materials, including large objects as well as ver
fine substances, can adversely affect the activities of aquati
life. Floating logs shut out sunlight and interfere particular]
with surface feeding fish. Logs may also leach various type
of organic acids due to the action of water. If they hav
been sprayed with pesticides or treated chemically, theS'
substances may also leach into the water. As the logs floa
downstream their bark often disengages and falls to tfo
bed of the stream, disturbing benthic habitats. Aquatic life
is also affected by fine substances, such as sawdust, peelings
hair from tanneries, wood fibers, containers, scum, oil
garbage, and materials from untreated municipal and in
dustrial wastes, tars and greases, and precipitated chemicals
-------
Suspended and Settleable Solids/129
Recommendations
• The combined effect of color and turbidity should
not change the compensation point more than
10 per cent from its seasonally established norm,
nor should such a change place more than 10
per cent of the biomass of photosynthetic orga-
nisms below the compensation point.
Aquatic communities should be protected if the
following maximum concentrations of suspended
solids exist:
High level of protection 25 mg/1
Moderate protection 80 mg/1
Low level of protection 400 mg/1
Very low level of protection over 400 mg/1
-------
COLOR
The true color of a specific water sample is the result of
substances in solution; thus it can be measured only after
suspended material has been removed. Color may be of
organic or mineral origin and may be the result of natural
processes as well as manufacturing operations. Organic
sources include humic materials, peat, plankton, aquatic
plants, and tannins. Inorganic substances are largely me-
tallic, although iron and manganese, the most important
substances, are usually not in solution. They affect color as
particles. Heavy-metal complexes are frequent contributors
to the color problem.
Many industries (such as pulp and paper, textile, refining,
chemicals, dyes and explosives, and tanning) discharge
materials that contribute to the color of water. •Conventional
biological waste treatment procedures are frequently in-
effective in removing color. On the other hand, such treat-
ment processes have caused an accentuation of the level
of color during passage through the treatment plant.
Physicochemical treatment processes are frequently pre-
ferable to biological treatment if color removal is critical
(Eye and Aldous 1968,81 King and Randall 197083).
The tendency for an accentuation of color to occur as a
result of complexing of a heavy metal with an organic sub-
stance may also lead to problems in surface waters. A rela-
tively color-free discharge from a manufacturing operation,
may, upon contact with iron in a stream, produce a highly
colored water that would significantly affect aquatic life
(Hem I960,82 Stumm and Morgan 196286).
The standard platinum-cobalt method of measuring color
is applicable to a wide variety of water samples (Standard
Methods 1971).85 However, industrial wastes frequen
produce colors dissimilar to the standard platinum-cob
color, making the comparison technique of limited vah
The standard unit of color in water is that level produc
by 1 mg/1 of platinum as chloroplatinate ion (Standa
Methods 1971).85 Natural color in surface waters rant
from less than one color unit to more than 200 in higt
colored bodies of water (Nordell 1961).84
That light intensity at which oxygen production in pho
synthesis and oxygen consumption by respiration of t
plants concerned are equal is known as the compensati
point, and the depth at which the compensation point t
curs is called the compensation depth. For a given body
water this depth varies with several conditions, includi
season, time of day, the extent of cloud cover, condition
the water, and the taxonomic composition of the flora
volved. As commonly used, che compensation point ref
to that intensity of light which is such that the plan
oxygen production during the day will be sufficient
balance the oxygen consumpiion during the whole 24-hc
period (Welch 1952).87
Recommendation
The combined effect of color and turbidity shou
not change the compensation point more than
per cent from its seasonally established norm, n
should such a change place more than 10 per cei
of the biomass of photosynthetic organisms belc
the compensation point.
130
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DISSOLVED GASES
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Oxygen requirements of aquatic life have been extensively
studied. Comprehensive papers have been presented by
Doudoroff and Shumway (1967),89 Doudoroff and Warren
(1965),91 Ellis (1937),93 and Fry (I960).94 (Much of the
research on temperature requirements also considers oxygen,
and references cited in the discussion of Heat and Temper-
ature, p. 151, are relevant here.) The most comprehensive
review yet to appear has been written by Doudoroff and
Shumway for the ivood and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations (1970).90 This FAO report
provides the most advanced summary of scientific research
on oxygen needs of fish, and it has served as a basis for most
of the recommendations presented in this discussion. In
particular, it provided the criteria for citing different levels
of protection for fish, for change from natural levels of
oxygen concentration, and for the actual numerical values
recommended. Much of the text below has been quoted
verbatim or condensed from the FAO report. Its recommen-
dations have been modified in only two ways: the insertion
of a floor of 4 mg/1 as a minimum, and the suggestion that
natural minima be assumed to be equal to saturation
levels if the occurrence of lower minima cannot be definitely
established. Doudoroff and Shumway covered oxygen con-
centrations below the floor of 4 mg/1; however, the 4 mg/1
floor has been adopted in this report for reasons explained
below.
Levels of Protection
Most species of adult fish can survive at very low concen-
trations of dissolved oxygen. Even brook trout (Salvelinus
fontinalis) have been acclimated in the laboratory to less
than 2 mg/1 of Oa. In natural waters, the minimum concen-
tration that allows continued existence of a varied fish
fauna, including valuable food and game species, is not
high. This minimum is not above 4 mg/1 and may be much
lower.
However, in evaluating criteria, it is not important to
know how long an animal can resist death by asphyxiation
at low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Instead, data on
the oxygen requirements for egg development, for newly
hatched larvae, for normal growth and activity, and for
completing all stages of the reproductive cycle are pertinent.
Upon review of the available research, one fact becomes
clear: any reduction of dissolved oxygen can reduce the
efficiency of oxygen uptake by aquatic animals and hence
reduce their ability to meet demands of their environment.
There is evidently no concentration level or percentage of
saturation to which the O2 content of natural waters can
be reduced without causing or risking some adverse effects
on the reproduction, growth, and consequently, the pro-
duction of fishes inhabiting those waters.
Accordingly, no single, arbitrary recommendation can
be set for dissolved oxygen concentrations that will be
favorable for all kinds of fish in all kinds of waters, or even
one kind of fish in a single kind of water. Any reduction in
oxygen may be harmful by affecting fish production and
the potential yield of a fishery.
The selection of a level of protection (Table 111-3) is a
socioeconomic decision, not a biological one. Once the
level of protection is selected, appropriate scientific recom-
mendations may be derived from the criteria presented in
this discussion.
Basis for Recommendations
The decision to base the recommendations on O2 con-
centration minima, and not on average concentrations,
arises from various considerations. Deleterious effects on
fish seem to depend more on extremes than on averages.
For example, the growth of young fish is slowed markedly
if the oxygen concentration falls to 3 mg/1 for part of the
day, even if it rises as high as 18 mg/1 at other times. It
could be an inaccurate and possibly controversial task to
carry out the sets of measurements required to decide
whether a criterion based on averages was being met.
A daily fluctuation of O2 is to be expected where there is
appreciable photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants. In
such cases, the minimum O2 concentration will usually be
found just before daybreak, and sampling should be done
at that time. Sampling should also take into account the
possible differences in depth or width of the water body.
The guiding principle should be to sample the places where
131
-------
132/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
aquatic organisms actually live or the parts of the habitat
where they should be able to live.
Before recommendations are proposed, it is necessary to
evaluate criteria for the natural, seasonal C>2 minimum
from which the recommendations can be derived. Natural
levels are assumed to be the saturation levels, unless scien-
tific data show that the natural levels were already low in
the absence of man-made effects.
Certain waters in regions of low human populations can
still be adequately studied in their natural or pristine con-
dition. In these cases the minimum C>2 concentration at
different seasons, temperatures, and stream discharge vol-
umes can be determined by direct observation. Such ob-
served conditions can also be useful in estimating seasonal
minima in similar waters in similar geographical regions
where natural levels can no longer be observed because of
waste discharges or other man-made changes.
In many populated regions, some or all of the streams
and lakes have been altered. Direct determination of
natural minima may no longer be possible. In these cases
the assumption of year-round saturation with O2 is made
in the absence of other evidence.
Supersaturation of water with dissolved oxygen may
occur as the result of photosynthesis by aquatic vegetation.
There is some evidence that this may be deleterious to
aquatic animals because of gas bubble disease (see Total
Dissolved Gases, p. 135).
Despite the statements in previous paragraphs that there
is no single O2 concentration which is favorable to all species
and ecosystems, it is obvious that there are, nevertheless,
very low C>2 concentrations that are unfavorable to almost
all aquatic organisms. Therefore, a floor of 4 mg/1 is
recommended except in situations where the natural level
of dissolved oxygen is less than 4 mg/1 in which case no
further depression is desirable. The value of 4 mg/1 has
been selected because there is evidence of subacute or
chronic damage to several fish below this concentration.
Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)90 review the work of
several authors as given below, illustrating such damage.
Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) held at 4 mg/1
spawned satisfactorily; only 25 per cent of the resultant
fry survived for 30 days, compared to 66 per cent survival
at 5 mg/1. At an oxygen level of 3 mg/1, survival of fry
was even further reduced to 5 per cent (Brungs 1972101
personal communication). Shumway et al. (1964)98 found that
the dry weight of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch} aleviris
(with yolk sac removed) was reduced by 59 per cent when
they had been held at 3.8 mg/1 of oxygen, compared to
weights of the controls. The embryos of sturgeon (Acipenser)
suffered complete mortality at oxygen concentrations of
3.0 to 3.5 mg/1, compared to only 18 per cent mortality at
5.0 to 5.5 mg/1 (Yurovitskii 1964).10° Largemouth bass
(Micropterus salmoides) embryos reared at 25 C showed sur-
vival equal to controls only at oxygen levels above 3.5 mg/1
(Dudley 1969).92 Efficiency of food conversion by juvenile
bass was nearly independent of Oa at 5 mg/1 and higl
but growth rate was reduced by 16.5 per cent at 4 mi
and 30 per cent at 3 mg/1 (Stewart et al. 1967)." Sim
reductions in growth of underyearling coho salmon
curred at the same C>2 concentrations (Herrmann et
1962).95 Although many other experiments have she
little or no damage to performance of fish at 4 mg/1.
lower, the evidence given above shows appreciable efTi
on embryonic and juvenile survival and growth for sev<
species of fish sufficient to justify this value.
Warm- and Coldwater Fishes
There are many associations and types of fish fai
throughout the country. Dissolved oxygen criteria for cc
water fishes and warmwater game fishes are conside
together in this report. There is no evidence to sugi
that the more sensitive warmwater species have lower
requirements than the more sensitive coldwater fishes. "
difference in O2 requirements is probably not greater tl
the difference of the solubility of C>2 in water at the m;
mum temperatures to which these two kinds of fish
normally exposed in summer (Doudoroff and Shumv
1970).90 In warmwater regions, however, the variety
fishes and fish habitats is relatively great, and there
many warmwater species that are exceedingly toleranl
O2 deficiency.
Unusual Waters
There are certain types of waters that naturally have 1
oxygen content, such as the "black waters" draining swar
of the Southeastern United States. (Other examples inch
certain deep ocean waters and eutrophic waters that supp
heavy biomass, the respiration of which reduces O2 cont
much of the time.) A special situation prevails in the di
layers (hypolimnion) of some lakes. Such layers do not t
with the surface layers for extended periods and may h.
reduced C>2, or almost none. Fish cannot live in the di
layers of many such lakes during a large part of the ye
although each lake of this kind must be considered a
special case. However, the recommendation that no oxyg
consuming wastes should be released into the deep lay
still applies, since there may be no opportunity for reaerat
for an entire season.
Organisms Other Than Fish
Most research concerning oxygen requirements for fre
water organisms deals with fish; but since fish depend up
other aquatic species for food, it is necessary to consii
the O2 requirements of these organisms. This Section ma
the assumption that the C>2 requirements of other compc
ents of the aquatic community are compatible with f
(Doudoroff and Shumway 1970) .90 There are certain exci
tions where exceedingly important invertebrate organis
may be very sensitive to lov/ O2, more sensitive than the f
species in that habitat (Doudoroff and Shumway 1970
-------
Dissolved Gases/133
The situation is somewhat more complicated for inverte-
brates and aquatic plants, inasmuch as organic pollution that
causes reduction of O2 also directly increases food material.
However, it appears equally true for sensitive invertebrates
as for fish that any reduction of dissolved O2 may have de-
leterious effects on their production. For example, Nebeker
(1972)97 has found that although a certain mayfly (Ephemera
simulans) can survive at 4.0 mg/1 of oxygen for four days,
any reduction of oxygen below saturation causes a decrease
in successful transformation of the immature to the adult
stage.
Salmonid Spawning
For spawning of salmonid fishes during the season when
eggs are in the gravel, there are even greater requirements
for O.i than those given by the high level of protection.
(See Table III-3 for description of levels.) This is because
the water associated with the gravel may contain less oxygen
than the water in the stream above the gravel. There is
abundant evidence that salmonid eggs are adversely affected
in direct proportion to reduction in O2. The oxygen criteria
for eggs should be about half way between the nearly
maximum and high levels of protection.
TABLE III-3—Guidelines for Selecting Desired Type and
Level of Protection of Fish Against Deleterious Effects of
Reduced Oxygen Concentrations
Level of protection
Intended type of protection
Possible application
Nearly Maximum" For virtually unimpaired productivity and
unchanged quality of a fishery.
High Not likely to cause appreciable change in
tbe ecosystem, nor material reduction of
fish production. Some impairment is
risked, but appreciable damage is not to
be expected at ttiese levels of oxygen.
Moderate Fisheries should persist, usually with no
serious impairment, but with some de-
crease in production.
Low Should permit the persistence of sizeable
populations of tolerant species and suc-
cessful passage of most migrants'1. Much
reduced production or elimination of sen-
sitive fish is likely.
Appropriate for conservation areas, parks, and
water bodies of high or unique value. Re-
quires, practically speaking, that little or no
deoxygenatmg wastes be added to natural
waters. Nor must there be any activities
such as unfavorable land use which would
reduce 02 levels.
Could be appropriate for fisheries or aquatic
ecosystems of some importance, which
should not be impaired by other uses of
water.
Could be used for fisheries which are valued,
but must co-exist with major industries or
dense human population
Appropriate for fisheries that have some com-
mercial or recreational value, but are so
unimportant compared with other water
uses, that their maintenance cannot be a
major objective ol pollution control.
This type of protection should however, pro-
vide lor survival of sensitive species m adult
or subadult life stages for short periods
during the year, if oxygen levels at other
times are satisfactory for growth, reproduc-
tion, etc.
0 Note that there could be > higher level of protection that would require oxygen to be near natural level at all times,
whereas nearly maximum requires only that oxygen should not fall below the lowest level characteristic of the season.
k But will not protect migrating salmonids, which would requite it least a Moderate level of protection, for zones of
passage.
Interaction with Toxic Pollutants or Other Environmental
Factors
It is known that reduced oxygen levels increase the
toxicity of pollutants. A method for predicting this inter-
action has been given by Brown (1968),88 and a theoretical
background by Lloyd (1961).96 The disposal of toxic pol-
lutants must be controlled so that their concentrations will
not be unduly harmful at prescribed acceptable levels of
O2, temperature, and pH. The levels of oxygen recom-
mended in this Section are independent of the presence of
toxic wastes, no matter what the nature of the interaction
between these toxicants and O2 deficiencies. Carbon dioxide
is an exception, because its concentration influences the
safe level of oxygen. The recommendations for O2 are
valid when the CO2 concentration is within the limits
recommended in the section on CO2.
Application of Recommendations
As previously stated, the recommendations herein differ
in two important respects from those widely used. First,
they are not fixed values independent of natural conditions.
Second, they offer a choice of different levels of protection
of fishes, the selection of any one of which is primarily a
socioeconomic decision, not a biological one.
Table 111-4 presents guidelines for the protection of
fishes at each of four levels. Each column shows the level
to which the dissolved O2 can be reduced and still provide
the stated level of protection for local fisheries. The values
can be derived from the equations given in the recommen-
dations. These equations have been calculated to fit the
curves shown in the figure on page 264 of Doudoroff and
Shumway (1970),90 which serve as the basis of the recom-
mendations. To use Table 111-4, the estimated natural
seasonal minimum should first be determined on the basis
of available data or from expert judgment. This may be
taken to be the minimum saturation value for the season,
unless there is scientific evidence that losses of O2 levels
prevailed naturally. The word "season" here means a
period based on local climatic and hydrologic conditions,
during which the natural thermal and dissolved O2 regime
of a stream or lake can be expected to be fairly uniform.
Division of the year into equal three-month periods, such
as December-February, March-May, is satisfactory. How-
ever, under special conditions, the designated seasons could
be periods longer or shorter than three months, and could
in fact be taken as individual months. The selected periods
need not be equal in length.
When the lowest natural value for the season has been
estimated, the desired kind and level of protection should
then be selected according to the guidelines in Table 111-3.
The recommended minimum level of dissolved oxygen may
then be found in the selected column of Table 111-4, or as
given by the formula in the recommendation.
-------
134/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE III-4—Example of Recommended Minimum
Concentrations of Dissolved Oxygen
Estimated natural
seasonal minimum Corresponding temperature of
Recommended minimum concentrations of 02 for
selected levels of protection
bwllbvlluauull Ul
oiysen in water
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
UAJgCH-MlUiatCU 1IG»II WdlBI
(») («)
46C(a) (115FX»)
36C (96. !F)
27. 5C (>1. 5F)
21C (69. 8F)
16C (60. 8F)
7.7C (45. 9F)
1.5C (34. 7F)
Neatly
maximal
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
High Moderate
4.7 4.2
5.6 4.8
6.4 5.3
7.1 5.8
7.7 6.2
8.2 6.5
8.9 6.8
9.3 6.8
Low
4.0
40
4.0
4.3
4.5
4.6
4.8
4.9
" Included to cover waters that are naturally somewhat deficient in 0«_ A saturation value of 5 me/I might be
found in warm springs or very saline waters. A saturation value of 6 mg/1 would apply to warm sea water (32 C=
90 F).
Note: The desired kind and level of protection of a given body of water should first be selected (across head of
table). The estimated seasonal minimum concentration of dissolved oxygen under natural conditions should then be
determined on the basis of available data, and located in the left hand column of the table. The recommended mini-
mum concentration of oxygen for the season is then taken from the table. All values are in milligrams of 02 per
ter. Values for natural seasonal minima other than those listed are given by the forntu la and qualifications in the
section on recommendations.
Examples
• It is desired to give moderate protection to trout
(Salvehnus fontinalis) in a small stream during the
summer. The maximum summer temperature is 20 G
(68 F); the salt content of the water is low and has
negligible effect on the oxygen saturation value. The
atmospheric pressure is 760 millimeters (mm) Hg.
Oxygen saturation is therefore 9.2 mg/1. This is as-
sumed to be the natural seasonal minimum in the
absence of evidence of lower natural concentrations.
Interpolating from Table III-4 or using the recom-
mended formula, reveals a minimum permissible con-
centration of oxygen during the summer of 6.2 mg/1.
If a high level of protection had been selected, the
recommendation would have been 7.8 mg/1. A low
level of protection, providing little or no protection
for trout but some for more tolerant fish, would require
a recommendation of 4.5 mg/1. Other recommen-
dations would be calculated in a similar way for other
seasons.
• It is decided to give moderate protection to large-
mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) during the summer.
Stream temperature reaches a maximum of 35 C
(95 F) during summer, and lowest seasonal saturation
value is accordingly 7.1 mg/1. The recommendation
for minimum oxygen concentration is 5.4 mg/1.
• For low protection of fish in summer in the same
stream described above (for largemouth bass), the
recommendation would be 4.0 mg/1, which is also the
floor value recommended.
• It is desired to protect marine fish in full-strength
sea water (35 parts per thousand salinity) with a maxi-
mum seasonal temperature of 16 C (61 F). The satu-
ration value of 8 mg/I is assumed to be the natural dis-
solved oxygen minimum for the season. For a high level
of protection, the recommendation is 7.1 mg/1, for a
moderate level of protection it is 5.8 mg/1, and for a
low level of protection it is 4.3 mg/1.
It should be stressed that the recommendations are
minimum values for any time during the same season.
Recommendations
(a) For nearly maximal protection of fish a:
other aquatic life, the minimum dissolved oxyg
in any season (defined previously) should not
less than the estimated natural seasonal minimu
concentration (defined previously) characteristic
that body of water for the same season. In es
mating natural minima, it is assumed that watt
are saturated, unless there is evidence that th
were lower in the absence of man-made influenc<
(b) For a high level of protection of fish, t
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration in ai
season should not be less than that given by tl
following formula in which M = the estimat
natural seasonal minimum concentration cha
acteristic of that body of water for the same seaso
as qualified in (a):
Criterion* = 1.41M-0.0476M2-1.11
(c) For a moderate level of protection of fish, tl
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration in ai
season should not be less than is given by tl
following formula with qualifications as in (b):
Criterion* = 1.08M - 0.0415M2 - 0.202
(d) For a low level of protection of fish, tl
minimum 02 in any season should not be less ths
given by the following formula with qualificatioi
as in (b):
Criterion * = 0.674M-0.0264M2+0.577
(e) A floor value of 4 mg/1 is recommended excej
in those situations where the natural level of di
solved oxygen is less than 4 mg/1, in which case r
further depression is desirable.
(f) For spawning grounds of salmonid fishe
higher O2 levels are required as given in the follov
ing formula with qualifications as in (b):
Criterion* = 1.19M -0.0242M2-0.418
(g) In stratified eutrophic and dystrophic lake
the dissolved oxygen requirements may not app]
to the hypolimnion and such lakes should be cor
sidered on a case by case basis. In other stratifie
lakes, recommendations (a), (b), (c), and (d) applj
and if the oxygen is below 4 mg/1, recommendatio
(e) applies. In unstratified lakes recommendation
apply to the entire circulating water mass.
(i) All the foregoing recommendations apply t
all waters except waters designated as mixing zont
* All values are instantaneous, and final value should be expressc
to two significant figures.
-------
Dissolved Gases/ \ 35
(see section on Mixing Zones p. 112). In locations
where supersaturation occurs, the increased levels
of oxygen should conform to the recommendations
in the discussion of Total Dissolved Gases, p. 139.
TOTAL DISSOLVED GASES (SUPERSATURATION)
Excessive total dissolved gas pressure (supersaturation) is
a relatively new aspect of water quality. Previously, super-
saturation was believed to be a problem that was limited to
the water supplies of fish culture facilities (Shelford and
Alice 1913).135 Lindroth (1957)126 reported that spillways
at hydroelectric dams in Sweden caused supersaturation,
and recently Ebel (1969)112 and Beiningen and Ebel (1968)103
established that spillways at dams caused gas bubble disease
to be a limiting factor for aquatic life in the Columbia and
Snake Rivers. Renfro (1963)133 and others reported that
excessive algal blooms have caused gas bubble disease in
lentic water. DeMont and Miller (in press)110 and Malous
et al. (1972)127 reported gas bubble disease among fish and
mollusks living in the heated effluents of steam generating
stations. Therefore, modified dissolved gas pressures as a
result of dams, eutrophication, and thermal discharges
present a widespread potential for adversely affecting fish
and aquatic invertebrates. Gas bubble disease has been
studied frequently since Gorham (1898,119 1899120) pub-
lished his initial papers, with the result that general knowl-
edge of the causes, consequences, and adverse levels are
adequate to evaluate criteria for this water quality char-
acteristic.
Gas bubble disease is caused by excessive total dissolved
gas pressure but it is not caused by the dissolved nitrogen gas
alone (Marsh and Gorham 1904,128 Shelford and Alice
1913,135Englehorn 1943,115 Harvey et al. 1944a,m Doudoroff
1957,m Harvey and Cooper 1962).123 Englehorn (1943)115
analyzed the gases contained in the bubbles that were
formed in fish suffering from gas bubble disease and found
that their gas composition was essentially identical to air.
This was confirmed by Shirahata (1966).13C
Etiologic Factors
Gas bubble disease (GBD) results when the uncompen-
sated total gas pressure is greater in the water than in the
air, but several important factors influence the etiology of
GBD. These factors include: exposure time and physical
factors such as hydrostatic pressure; other compensating
forces and biological factors such as species or life stage
tolerance or levels of activity; and any other factors that
influence gas solubility. Of these factors perhaps none are
more commonly misunderstood than the physical roles of
total dissolved gas pressure* and hydrostatic pressure. The
following discussion is intended to clarify these roles.
Each component gas in air exerts a measurable pressure,
and the sum of these pressures constitutes atmospheric or
barometric pressure, which is equivalent per unit of surface
area at standard conditions to a pressure exerted by a
column of mercury 760mm high or a column of water
about 10 meters high (at sea level, excluding water vapor
pressure). The pressure of an individual gas in air is called
a partial pressure, and in water it is called a tension; both
terms are an acknowledgement that the pressure of an indi-
vidual gas is only part of the total atmospheric pressure.
Likewise, each component gas will dissolve in water inde-
pendently of all other gases, and when at equilibrium with
the air, the pressure (tension) of a specific dissolved gas is
equivalent to its partial pressure in the air. This relationship
is evident in Table 111-5 which lists the main constituents
of dry air and their approximate partial pressures at sea
level.
When supersaturation occurs, the diffusion pressure im-
balance between the dissolved gas phase and the atmos-
pheric phase favors a net transfer of gases from the water to
the air. Generally this transfer cannot be accomplished fast
enough by diffusion alone to prevent the formation of gas
bubbles. However, a gas bubble cannot form in the water
unless gas nuclei are present (Evans and Walder 1969,116
Harvey et al. 1944b122) and unless the total dissolved gas
pressure exceeds the sum of the compensating pressures such
as hydrostatic pressure. Additional compensating pressures
include blood pressure and viscosity, and their benefits
may be significant.
Gas nuclei are probably unavoidable in surface water
or in animals, because such nuclei are generated by any
factor which decreases gas solubility, and because extreme
measures are required to dissolve gas nuclei (Evans and
Walder 1969;116 Harvey et al. 1944b).122 Therefore, hydro-
static pressure is a major preventive factor in gas bubble
disease.
The effect of hydrostatic pressure is to oppose gas bubble
formation. For example, one cannot blow a bubble out of
a tube immersed in water until the gas pressure in the tube
slightly exceeds the hydrostatic pressure at the end of the
tube. Likewise a bubble cannot form in water, blood, or
TABLE JH-5—Composition of Dry Air and Partial Pressures
of Selected Gases at Sea Level
Gas
Molecular" percentage Times atmospheric pressure Individual gas'1 pressure in air or
in dry air water at sea level
N2
0,
AT. .
CO:
Ne .
He
78.084 X760mmH|
20.946
0.934
0.033
0.00181
0.00052
= 593.438 mm Ht
159.119
7.098
0.250
0.0138
0.0039
* In this Section gas tension will be called gas pressure and total
gas tension will be called total dissolved gas pressure (TDGP). This
is being done as a descriptive aid to readers who are not familiar with
the terminology and yet need to convey these principles to laymen.
759.9927 mm Ht
« Glueckaul (19S1"»).
* At standard conditions iicludinj corrections for water vapor pressure.
-------
136/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
tissue until the total gas pressure therein exceeds the sum of
atmospheric pressure (760mm Hg) plus hydrostatic pressure
plus any other restraining forces. This relationship is
illustrated in Figure III-l which shows, for example, that
gas bubbles could form in fresh water to a depth of about
one meter when the total dissolved gas pressure is equal to
1.10 atmospheres; but they could not form below that
point.
Excessive total dissolved gas pressure relative to ambient
atmospheric pressure, therefore, represents a greater threat
to aquatic organisms in the shallow but importantly pro-
ductive littoral zone than in the deeper sublittoral zone.
For example, if fish or their food organisms remain within a
meter of the surface in water having a total dissolved gas
pressure of 1.10 atmospheres, they are theoretically capable
of developing gas bubble disease, especially if their body
processes further decrease gas solubility by such means as
physical activity, metabolic heat, increased osmolarity, or
decreased blood pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure only opposes bubble formation; it
does not decrease the kinetic energy of dissolved gas mole-
cules except at extreme pressures. If this were not the case,
aerobic animal life would be eliminated at or below a water
depth equivalent to the pressure of oxygen, because there
would be no oxygen pressure to drive Oo across the gill
membrane and thence into the blood. For a more detailed
discussion of this subject, the reader is referred to Van
Liere and Stickney's (1963)138 and Randall's (1970a)131
excellent reviews.
1 00 1 10 1 20 1 Vi 1.40
Tnl.i! DissoKeel Gas PH'SSUIL HI \tmosphcics
1 5(1
A final example will clarify the importance of total c
solved gas pressure. Eutrophic lakes often become sup
saturated with photosynthetic dissolved oxygen, and si.
lakes commonly approach (or exceed) 120 per cent
saturation values for oxygen. But this only represents
additional dissolved gas pressure of about 32mm 1
(O2= 159.19 mm HgX0.2==31.83 mm Hg) which equal;
760_mm Hg+31.83mmHg
760 rnm Hg
= 1.041 atmospheres of tote
dissolved gas pressure
FIGURE III-l—Relationship of Total Dissolved Gas Pressure
to Hydrostatic Pressure in Preventing Gas Bubble Formation
This imbalance apparently can be compensated in part
metabolic oxygen consumption, blood pressure, or bo
On the other hand, a 1.000-fold increase in the ne
saturation level would only increase the total dissolved t
pressure by about 1.8 mm Hg or:
1.8 mm Hg+ 760 mm Hg
-- = 1.002 atmospheres
760 mm Hg
This would not cause gas bubble disease.
The opposite situation can occur in spring water, \vh(
dissolved oxygen pressure is low and dissolved nitrogen a
other gas pressures are high. In an actual case (Schneic
personal communication).14'1 dissolved nitrogen was reported
be 124 per cent of its air saturation value, whereas oxyg
was 46 per cent of its air saturation value; total gas pressi.
was 1.046 of dry atmospheric1 pressure. Fish were living
this water, and although they probably suffered frc
hypoxia, they showed no symptoms of gas bubble disease
How dissolved gases come out of solution and for
bubbles (cavitate) is a basic physical and physiologic
topic which is only summarized here. Harvey etal. (1944b)
determined that bubble formation is promoted by bounda
zone or surface interfaces which reduce surface tension ai
thereby decrease the dissolved gas pressure required i
cavitation. For this reason, one usually sees gas bubb
forming first and growing fastest on submersed interfao
such as tank walls, sticks, or the external surfaces of aqua
life.
Gas nuclei are apparently required for bubble formatio
and these are considered to be ultra micro bubbles (Eva
and Walder 1969).11'1 These nuclei apparently represent <
equilibrium between the extremely high compressive eneri
of surface tension and the pressure of contained gases. Lai
of gas nuclei probably accounts for instances when extreme
high but uncompensated dissolved gas pressures failed
cause bubble formation (Pease and Blinks 1947,13° Her
mingsen 1970).124 Gas nuclei are produced by anything th
decreases gas solubility or surface tension (Harvey et £
1944b,122 Hills 1967,125 Evans and Walder 1969)116 and the
can be eliminated at least temporarily by extremely hie
pressure which drives them back into solution (Evans an
Walder 1969).116
Possible causes of gas nuclei formation in organisms ii
elude negative pressures in skeletal or cardiac muscle durhi
-------
Dissolved Gases/137
pronounced activity (Whitaker et al. 1945),141 eddy currents
in the blood vascular system, synthetic or biologically pro-
duced surface-active compounds, and possible salting-out
effects during hemoconcentration (as in saltwater adap-
tation). Once a bubble has formed, it grows via the diffusion
of all gases into it.
Many factors influence the incidence and severity of gas
bubble, disease. For example, the fat content of an animal
may influence its susceptibility. This has not been studied
in fish, but Boycott and Damant (1908),106 Behnke (1942),102
and Gersh et al. (1944)117 report that fat mammals are
more susceptible than lean mammals to the "bends" in
high-altitude decompression. This may be particularly sig-
nificant to non-feeding adult Pacific salmon which begin
their spawning run with considerable stored fat. This may
also account in part for differences in the tolerances of
different age groups or fish species. Susceptibility to gas
bubble disease is unpredictable among wild fish, particularly
when they are free to change their water depth and level of
activity.
Gas Bubble Disease Syndrome and Effects
Although the literature documents many occurrences of
gas bubble disease, data are usually missing for several
important physical factors, such as hydrostatic pressure,
barometric pressure, relative humidity, salinity, temper-
ature, or other factors leading to calculation of total dis-
solved gas pressure. The most frequently reported parameter
has been the calculated dissolved nitrogen (Nj) concen-
tration or its percentage saturation from which one can
estimate the pressure of inert gases. Thus the reported N»
values provide only a general indication of the total dis-
solved gas pressure, which unfortunately tends to convey
the erroneous concept that N2 is the instigative or only sig-
nificant factor in gas bubble disease.
Gas bubbles probably form first on the external surfaces
of aquatic life, where total hydrostatic pressure is least and
where an interface exists. Bubbles within the body of ani-
mals probably form later at low dissolved gas pressures,
because blood pressure and other factors may provide ad-
ditional resistance to bubble formation. However, at high
dissolved gas pressure (>1.25 atm) bubbles in the blood
may he the first recognizable symptom (Schneider personal
communication).1''* In the case of larval fishes, zooplankton,
or other small forms of aquatic life, the effect of external
bubbles may be a blockage of the flow of water across the
gills and asphyxiation or a change in buoyancy (Shirahata
1966).136 The latter probably causes additional energy
expenditure or floatation, causing potentially lethal exposure
to ultraviolet radiation or potential predation.
The direct internal effects of gas bubble disease include a
variety of symptoms that appear to be related primarily to
the level of total dissolved gas pressure, the exposure time,
and the in vivo location of lowest compensatory pressure.
The following is a resume of Shirahata's (1966)136 results.
As the uncompensated total dissolved gas pressure increases,
bubbles begin to appear on the fish, then within the skin,
the roof of the mouth, within the fins, or within the ab-
dominal cavity. Gas pockets may also form behind the eye-
ball and cause an exophthalmic "pop-eyed" condition.
Probably gas emboli in the blood are the last primary
symptoms to develop, because blood pressure and plasma
viscosity oppose bubble formation. At some as yet undefined
point, gas emboli become sufficiently large and frequent
to cause hemostasis in blood vessels, which in turn may
cause extensive tissue damage or complete hemostasis by
filling the heart chamber with gas. The latter is the usual
direct cause of death.
Exophthalmus or "pop-eye" and eye damage can be
caused by several factors other than gas bubble disease
and one should be duly cautious when tempted to diagnose
gas bubble disease based solely on these criteria. While the
above symptoms can be caused by excessive dissolved gas
pressure (Wcstgard 1964),140 they can also be caused by
malnutrition, abrasion, and possibly by infection. Unfortu-
nately there is no known definitive way to distinguish be-
tween latent eye damage caused by previous exposure to
excessive dissolved gas pressure and other causes.
Secondary, latent, or sublethal effects of gas bubble
disease in fish include promoting other diseases, necrosis, or
other tissue changes, hemorrhages, blindness, and repro-
ductive failure (Harvey and Gooper 1962,123 Westgard
1964,140 Pauley and Nakatani 1967,129 and Bouck et al.
1971).10'" There is no known evidence that supersaturation
causes a nitrogen narcosis in fish (such as can be experienced
by scuba clivers), as this requires high dissolved gas pressures
probably above 10 atm. However, one can expect that fish
afflicted with gas bubble disease or the above secondary
effects might have their normal behavior altered.
There is no definitive evidence that fishes can detect
supersaturation (Shelford and Alice 1913),13r' or that they
actively avoid it by seeking hydrostatic pressure compen-
sation (Ebel 1969).112 However, the potential capacity to
avoid supersaturation or to compensate by sounding is
limited among anadromous species by the necessity of
ascending their home river and by dams with relatively
shallow fish ladders. This may also apply to other species
that reproduce in or otherwise live in shallow-water niches.
Physiological adaptation to supersaturation seems unlikely,
and this contention is supported by the preliminary studies
of Coutant and Genoway (1968).109
Interaction between gas bubble disease and other stresses
is highly likely but not clearly established. Fish were more
susceptible to a given level of total dissolved gas pressure
when wounded (Egusa 1955).114 The thermal tolerance of
Pacific salmon was reduced when N2 levels were 125 to
180 per cent in the case of juveniles (Ebel et al. 1971),U3
and when N2 levels were > 118 per cent in the case of adults
(Coutant and Genoway 1968).ln9 Chemicals or other factors
-------
\38/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
that influence body activity or cardiovascular activity may
also influence blood pressure (Randall 1970b),132 and this
would be expected to influence the degree to which the dis-
solved gas pressure is in excess, and hence the tolerance to
gas bubble disease.
Variation in biological response is a prominent aspect of
gas bubble disease, which should not be surprising in view
of the numerous influential factors. Some of this variation
might be explained by physiological differences between
life stages or species, degree of fatness, blood pressure,
blood viscosity, metabolic heat, body size, muscular ac-
tivity, and blood osmolarity. For example, susceptibility to
gas bubble disease may be inversely related to blood (or
hemolymph) pressure. There is wide variation in blood
pressure between life stages, between fish species, and be-
tween invertebrate species. Based on aortic blood pressures
alone, one can hypothesize that largemouth bass (Mwropterus
salmoides) might be more susceptible to gas bubble disease
than chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) if other fac-
tors are equal. This contention is also supported by the
observations that gas bubbles form in the blood of bullfrogs
more easily than in rats (Berg et al. 1945),104 possibly
because of differences in blood pressure (Brand et al.
1951).107
Tolerance to supersaturation also varies between body
sizes or life stages; Shirahata (1966)136 relates this, in part,
to an increase in cardiac and skeletal muscle activity.
Larger fish were generally more sensitive to supersaturation
than were smaller fish in most studies (Wiebe and McGavock
1932,142 Egusa 1955,114 Shirahata 1966,13C Harvey and
Cooper 1962).123 Wood (1968)143 has the opposite view, but
he provides no supporting evidence. Possibly larger fish are
more susceptible to gas bubble disease in part because they
can develop greater metabolic heat than smaller fish. In
this regard, Carey and Teal (1969)108 reported that large
tuna may have a muscle temperature as much as 10 C above
the water temperature.
Data are quite limited on the tolerance of zooplankters
and other aquatic invertebrates to excessive dissolved gas
pressure. Evans and Walder (1969)116 demonstrated that
invertebrates can develop gas bubble disease. Unpublished
observations by Nebekcr* demonstrate that Daphnia sp. and
Gammams sp. are susceptible to gas bubble disease. On the
other hand, it is widely known that some aquatic inverte-
brates are capable of dicl migrations that may expose them
to a considerable change in dissolved gas pressure; but
apparently these organisms can tolerate or otherwise handle
such changes. In view of the paucity of data, nothing firm
can be said regarding the general tolerance of invertebrates
to supersaturation.
Analytical Considerations
The apparatus and method of Van Slyke et al. (1934)1
are still the standard analytical tools for most gas analyse
Scholander et al. (1955)134 and others have developed simih
methods with modifications to accomodate their speci;
needs. More recently, Swinrierton el al. (1962)137 publishe
a gas analysis method that utilizes gas-liquid chromatoi
raphy. However, both of these basic methods have drav
backs, because they either require special expertise or do n<
otherwise meet the field needs of limnologists and fisherl
or pollution biologists.
A new device by Weiss* measures the differential g;
pressure between the air and the water within fiftee
minutes. This portable device is simple to operate, easy an
inexpensive to build, and gives direct readings in mm Hi
Unpublished data by Weiss show that this instrument h;
an accuracy comparable to the Van Slyke and the chn
matographic procedures. The instrument consists of a g;
sensor (150 ft. coil of small diameter, thin-walled, silicor
rubber tube) connected to a mercury manometer. Tt
sensor is placed underwater where the air in the tubir
equilibrates with the dissolved gases in the water. Tt
resulting gas pressure is read directly via the mercui
manometer which gives a positive value for supersaturate
water and a negative value for water that is not ful
saturated.
Total Dissolved Gas Pressure Criteria
Safe upper limits for dissolved gases must be based on tt
total dissolved gas pressures (sum of all gas tensions) an
not solely on the saturation value of dissolved nitrogen g:
alone. Furthermore, such limits must provide for the safei
of aquatic organisms that inhabit or frequent the shallo
littoral zone, where an existing supersaturation could 1
worsened by heating, photosynthetic oxygen productio
or other factors. There is little information on the chron
sublethal effects of gas bubble disease and almost all tl
research has been limited to species of the family Salmonida
Likewise, gas tolerance data are unavailable for zooplankte
and most other aquatic invertebrates. Therefore, it is nece
sary to judge safe limits from data on mortality of selects
salmonid fishes that were held under conditions appros
mating the shallow water of a hypothetical littoral zon
These data are:
1. Shirahata (1966)136 reported that advanced fry <
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) experienced 10 per cei
mortality when N2 was about 111 per cent of its saturatic
value. He concludes that, ". . . the nitrogen contents whic
did not cause any gas disease were . . . less than 110 pi
cent to the more advanced fry."
* A. V. Nebeker, Western Fish Toxicology Station, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 200 S. W. 35th Street, Corvallis, Oregon,
97330.
* Dr. Ray Weiss, University of California, Scripps. Institute
Oceanography, Geological Research Division, P. O. Box 109, Lajoll
California 92037.
-------
Dissolved Gases/139
2. Harvey and Cooper (1962)123 reported that fry of
sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) suffered latent effects
(necrosis and hemorrhages) for some time after normal gas
levels were said to have been restored.
3. Coutant and Genoway (1968)109 reported that sexu-
ally precocious spring chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawyt-
scha) weighing 2 to 4 kg, experienced extensive mortality
in six days when exposed at or above 118 per cent of N2
saturation; these salmon experienced no mortality when
Ns was below 110 per cent of saturation.
Whether or not other species or life stages of aquatic life
may be more or less sensitive than the above salmonids
remains to be proven. In the meantime, the above refer-
ences provide the main basis for establishing the following
total dissolved gas recommendations.
Recommendations
Available data for salmonid fish suggest that
aquatic life will be protected only when total dis-
solved gas pressure in water is no greater than 110
per cent of the existing atmospheric pressure. Any
prolonged artificial increase in total dissolved gas
pressure should be avoided in view of the incom-
plete body of information.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide exists in two major forms in water. It
may enter into the bicarbonate buffering system at various
concentrations depending on the pH of the water. In ad-
dition, "free" carbon dioxide may also exist, and this com-
ponent affects the respiration offish (Fry 1957).151 Because
of respiratory effects, free carbon dioxide is the form con-
sidered most significant to aquatic life.
The concentration of free carbon dioxide, where oxygen-
demanding wastes are not excessive, is a function of pH,
temperature, alkalinity, and the atmospheric pressure of
carbon dioxide. Doudoroff (1957)147 reported that concen-
trations of free carbon dioxide above 20 mg/1 occur rarely,
even in polluted waters; and Ellis (1937)150 found that the
free carbon dioxide content of Atlantic Coast streams ranged
between zero and 12 mg/1. Ellis (1937)160 and Hart (1944)162
both reported that in 90 to 95 per cent of the fresh waters
in the United States that support a good and diverse fish
population the free carbon dioxide concentrations fall below
5 mg/1.
An excess of free carbon dioxide may have adverse effects
on aquatic life. Powers and Clark (1943)166 and Warren
(1971)167 reported that fish are able to detect and to respond
to slight gradients in carbon dioxide tension. Brinley
(1943)146 and Hoglund (1961)184 observed that fish may
avoid free carbon dioxide levels as low as 1.0 to 6.0 mg/1.
Elevated carbon dioxide concentrations may interfere
with the ability of fish to respire properly and may thus
affect dissolved oxygen uptake. Doudoroff and Katz
(1950)148 and Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)149 reported
that where dissolved oxygen uptake interference does occur,
the free carbon dioxide concentrations which appreciably
affect this are higher than those found in polluted waters.
In bioassay tests using ten species of warmwater fish, Hart
(1944)152 found that the gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum)
was the most sensitive and was unable to remove oxygen
from water 50 per cent saturated with dissolved oxygen in
the presence of 88 mg/1 of free carbon dioxide. The less
sensitive, largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) was unable
to extract oxygen when the carbon dioxide level reached
175 mg/1. Below 60 mg/1 of free carbon dioxide, most
species of fish had little trouble in extracting dissolved
oxygen from the water.
High concentrations of free carbon dioxide cause pro-
nounced increases in the minimum dissolved oxygen require-
ment of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), but these fish
acclimatized rapidly to carbon dioxide concentrations as
high as 175 mg/1 at 20 C when the dissolved oxygen level
was near saturation (McNeil 1956).155
Basu (1959)146 found that for most fish species, carbon
dioxide affected the fishes' ability to consume oxygen in a
predictable manner. He further indicated that temperature
affected carbon dioxide sensitivity, being less at higher water
temperatures.
The ability of fish to acclimatize to increases in carbon
dioxide concentrations as high as 60 mg/1 with little effect
has been indicated by Haskell and Davies (1958).153
Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)149 indicate that the ability
of fish to detect low free carbon dioxide concentrations, the
presence of low carbon dioxide levels in most waters, and
the ability of fish to acclimatize to carbon dioxide in the
water probably prevent this constituent from becoming
a major hazard.
Recommendation
Concentrations of free carbon dioxide above 20
mg/1 occur rarely. Fish acclimatize to increases in
carbon dioxide levels as high as 60 mg/1 with little
effect. However, fish are able to detect and respond
to slight gradients and many avoid free carbon
dioxide levels as low as 1.0 to 6.0 mg/1.
-------
ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, AND pH
NATURAL CONDITIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE
Acidity in natural waters is caused by carbon dioxide,
mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and the salts of
strong acids and weak bases. The alkalinity of a water is
actually a measure of the capacity of the carbonate-
bicarbonate system to buffer the water against change in
pH. Technical information on alkalinity has recently been
reviewed by Kemp (1971).162
An index of the hydrogen ion activity is pH. Even
though pH determinations are used as an indication of
acidity or alkalinity or both, pH is not a measure of either.
There is a relationship between pH, acidity, and alkalinity
(Standard Methods 1971):164 water with a pH of 4.5 or
lower has no measurable alkalinity, and water with a pH
of 8.3 or higher has no measurable acidity. In natural
water, where the pH may often be in the vicinity of 8.3,
acidity is not a factor of concern. In most productive fresh
waters, the pH falls in a range between 6.5 and 8.5 (except
when increased by photosynthetic activity). Some regions
have soft waters with poor buffering capacity and naturally
low pH. They tend to be less productive. Such conditions
are found especially in dark colored waters draining from
coniferous forests or muskegs, and in swampy sections of
the Southeast. For a variety of reasons, some waters may
exhibit quite extreme pH values. Before these are considered
natural conditions, it should be ascertained that they have
not actually resulted from man-made changes, such as
stripping of ground cover or old mining activities. This is
important because the recommendations refer to estimated
natural levels.
TOXICITY TO AQUATIC LIFE
Some aquatic organisms, especially algae, have been
found to live at pH 2 and lower, and others at pH 10 and
higher; however, such organisms are relatively few. Some
natural waters with a pH of 4 support healthy populations
of fish and other organisms. In these cases the acidity is
due primarily to carbon dioxide and natural organic acids,
and the water has little buffering capacity. Other natural
waters with a pH of 9.5 also support fish but are not usually
highly productive.
The effects of pH on aquatic life have been reviewed i
detail in excellent reports by the European Inland Fisherii
Advisory Commission (1969)160 and Katz (1969).161 Ii
terpretations and summaries of these reviews are given i
Table 111-6.
ADVERSE INDIRECT EFFECTS OR SIDE EFFECTS
Addition of either acids or alkalies to water may I
harmful not only by producing acid or alkaline condition
but also by increasing the toxicity of various componeri
in the waters. For example, acidification of water ma
release free carbon dioxide. This exerts a toxic action ac
ditional to that of the lower prl. Recommendations for p]
are valid if carbon dioxide is less than 25 mg/1 (see tt
discussion of Carbon Dioxide, p. 139).
A reduction of about 1.5 pH units can cause a thousanc
fold increase in the acute toxicity of a metallocyanic
complex (Doudoroff et al. 1966).169 The addition of stron
alkalies may cause the formal ion of undissociated NH4OH c
un-ionized NH3 in quantities that may be toxic (Lloy
1961,163 Burrows 1964).158 Many other pollutants ma
change their toxicity to a lesser extent. It is difficult 1
predict whether toxicity will increase or decrease for
given direction of change in pH.
Weakly dissociated acids and bases must be considere
in terms of their toxicities, as well as their effects on pi
and alkalinity.
The availability of many nutrient substances varies wit
the hydrogen ion concentration. Some trace metals becon'
more soluble at low pH. At higher pH values, iron tenc
to become unavailable to some plants, and hence the prc
duction of the whole aquatic community may be affectec
The major buffering system in natural waters is th
carbonate system that not only neutralizes acids and base
to reduce the fluctuations in pH, but also forms a reserve
of carbon for photosynthesis. This process is indispensabl(
because there is a limit on the rate at which carbon dioxid
can be obtained from the atmosphere to replace that in th
water. Thus the productivity of waters is closely correlate
to the carbonate buffering system. The addition of miners
acids preempts the carbonate buffering capacity, and th
140
-------
Acidity, Alkalinity, and pH/\4\
TABLE III-6—A Summary of Some Effects of pH on
Freshwater Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms
PH
11 5-12.0
11 0-11 5
10 5-11.0
10.0-10.5
9.5-10.0
9.0-9.5
8.5-9.0
8.0-8.5
7.0-8.0
6.5-7.0
6.0-6.5
5.5-6 0
5.0-5.5
Known effects
4.5-5.0
4.0-4.5
3.5-4.0
3.0-3.5
Some caddis flies (Trichoptera) survive but emergence reduced.
Rapidly lethal to all species of fish.
Rapidly lethal to salmonlds. The upper limit is lethal to carp (Cyprinus carpio), goldfish (Carassius
auratus), and pike. Lethal to some stoneflies (Plecoptera) and dragonflies (Odonata). Caddis
fly emergence reduced.
Withstood by salmomds for short periods but eventually lethal. Exceeds tolerance of bluegills
(Lepomis macrochirus) and probably goldfish- Some typical stoneflies and mayflies (Ephemera)
survive with reduced emergence.
Lethal to salmomds over a prolonged period of time and no viable fishery for coldwater species.
Reduces populations of warmwater fish and may be harmful to development stages. Causes
reduced emergence of some stoneflies.
Likely to be harmful to salmomds and perch (Perca) if present for a considerable length of time
and no viable fishery for coldwater species. Reduced populations of warmwater fish. Carp avoid
these levels.
Approaches tolerance limit of some salmonids, whitefish (Coregonus), catfish (Ictaluridae), and
perch. Avoided by goldfish. No apparent effects on invertebrates.
Motihty of carp sperm reduced. Partial mortality of burbot (Lota lota) eggs.
Full fish production. No known harmful effects on adult or immature fish, but 7.0 is near low limit
for Gammarus reproduction and perhaps for some other crustaceans.
Not lethal to fish unless heavy metals or cyanides that are more toxic at low pH are present.
Generally full fish production, but for fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), frequency of
spawning and number of eggs are somewhat reduced. Invertebrates except crustaceans relatively
normal, including common occurrence of mollusks Microorganisms, algae, and higher plants
essentially normal.
Unlikely to be toxic to fish unless free carbon dioxide is presentin excess of 100 ppm. Good aquatic
populations with varied species can exist with some exceptions. Reproduction of Gammarus and
Daphma prevented, perhaps other crustaceans. Aquatic plants and microorganisms relatively
normal except fungi frequent.
Eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontmalis) survive at over pH 5.5. Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
do not occur. In natural situations, small populations of relatively (ew species of fish can be
found. Growth rate of carp reduced. Spawning of fathead minnow significantly reduced. Mollusks
rare.
Very restricted fish populations but not lethal to any fish species unless CO: is high (over 25 ppm),
or water contains iron salts. May be lethal to eggs and larvae of sensitive fish species. Prevents
spawning of fathead minnow. Benthic invertebrates moderately diverse, with certain black flies
(Simuliidae), mayflies(Ephemerella), stoneflies,and midges (Chironomidae) presentin numbers.
Lethal to other invertebrates such as the mayfly. Bacterial species diversity decreased; yeasts
and sulfur and iron bacteria (Thiobacillus-Ferrobacillus) common. Algae reasonably diverse and
higher plants will grow.
No viable fishery can be maintained. Likely to be lethal to eggs and fry of salmomds. A salmomd
population could not reproduce. Harmful, but not necessarily lethal to carp. Adult brown trout
(Salmo trutta) can survive in peat waters. Benthic fauna restricted, mayflies reduced. Lethal to
several typical stoneflies. Inhibits emergence of certain caddis fly, stonefly, and midge larvae.
Diatoms are dominant algae.
Fish populations limited; only a few species survive. Perch, some coarse fish, and pike can accli-
mate to this pH, but only pike reproduce. Lethal to fathead minnow. Some caddis flies and dragon-
flies found in such habitats; certain midges dominant. Flora restricted.
Lethal to silmonids and bluegills. Limit of tolerance of pumkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus), perch,
pike, and some coarse fish. All flora and fauna severely restricted in number of species. Cattail
(Typha) is only common higher plant
Unlikely that any fish can survive for more than a few hours. A few kinds of invertebrates such as
certain midges and alderflies, and a few species of algae may be found at this pH range and lower
original biological productivity is reduced in proportion to
the degree that such capacity is exhausted. Therefore, the
minimum essential buffering capacity and tolerable pH
limits are important water quality considerations.
Because of this importance, there should be no serious
depletion of the carbonate buffering capacity, and it is
recommended that reduction of alkalinity of natural waters
should not exceed 25 per cent.
Recommendations
Suggested maximum and minimum levels of
protection for aquatic life are given in the following
recommendations. A single range of values could
not apply to all kinds of fish, nor could it cover the
different degrees of graded effects. The selection of
the level of protection is a socioeconomic decision,
not a biological one. The levels are denned in Table
III-3 (see the discussion of Dissolved Oxygen).
Nearly Maximum Level of Protection
• pH not less than 6.5 nor more than 8.5. No
change greater than 0.5 units above the esti-
mated natural seasonal maximum, nor be-
low the estimated natural seasonal mini-
mum.
High Level of Protection
• pH not less than 6.0 nor more than 9.0. No
change greater than 0.5 units outside the
estimated natural seasonal maximum and
minimum.
Moderate Level of Protection
• pH not less than 6.0 nor more than 9.0. No
change greater than 1.0 units outside the
estimated natural seasonal maximum and
minimum.
Low Level of Protection
• pH not less than 5.5 nor more than 9.5. No
change greater than 1.5 units outside the
estimated natural seasonal maximum and
minimum.
Additional Requirements for All Levels of Protection
• If a natural pH is outside the stated range of
pH for a given level of protection, no further
change is desirable.
• The extreme range of pH fluctuation in any
location should not be greater than 2.0 units.
If natural fluctuation exceeds this, pH should
not be altered.
• The natural daily and seasonal patterns of
pH variation should be maintained, although
the absolute values may be altered within
the limits specified.
• The total alkalinity of water is not to be de-
creased more than 25 per cent below the
natural level.
-------
DISSOLVED SOLIDS AND HARDNESS
Surface water at some time and place may contain a
trace or more of any water-soluble substance. The signifi-
cance and the effects of small concentrations of these sub-
stances are discussed separately throughout this Report.
The presence and relative abundance of these constituents
in water is influenced by several factors, including surface
runoff, geochemistry of the watershed, atmospheric fallout
including snow and rainfall, man-created effluents, and
biological and chemical processes in the water itself. Many
of these dissolved materials are essential to the life processes
of aquatic organisms. For a general discussion of the chem-
istry of fresh water the reader is referred to Hutchinsori
(1957)167 and Ruttner (1963).172
A general term describing the concentration of dissolved
materials in water is total dissolved solids. The more con-
spicuous constituents of total dissolved solids in natural
surface waters include carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, phos-
phates, and nitrates. These anions occur in combination
with such metallic cations as calcium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and iron to form ionizable salts (Reid 1961).170
Concentrations and relative proportions of dissolved ma-
terials vary widely with locality and time. Hart et al.
(1945)166 reported that in the inland waters of the United
States which support a mixed biota, 5 per cent have a dis-
solved solids concentration under 72 mg/1; about 50 per
cent under 169 mg/1; and 95 per cent under 400 mg/1.
Table III-7 provides information on ranges and median
concentrations of the major ions in United States streams.
The quantity and quality of dissolved solids are major
factors in determining the variety and abundance of plants
and animals in an aquatic system. They serve as nutrients
in productivity, osmotic stress, and direct toxicity. A major
change in quantity or composition of total dissolved solids
changes the structure and function of aquatic ecosystems.
Such changes are difficult to predict.
Concentrations of dissolved solids affecting freshwater
fish by osmotic stress are not well known. Mace (1953)169
and Rounsefell and Everhart (1953)171 reported that the
upper limit may range between 5,000 and 10,000 mg/1 total
dissolved solids, depending on species and prior acclimati-
zation. The literature indicates that concentrations of total
dissolved solids that cause osmotic stress in adult fish a:
higher than the concentrations existing in most fresh wate
of the United States. Many dissolved materials are toxic
concentrations lower than those where osmotic effect cz
be expected. (See Toxic Substances, p. 172, and Acidit
Alkalinity, and pH, p. 140.)
Hardness of surface waters is a component of total di
solved solids and is chiefly attributable to calcium ar
magnesium ions. Other ions such as strontium, bariur
manganese, iron, copper, zinc, and lead add to hardnes
but since they are normally present in minor concentratioi
their effect is usually minimal. Generally, the biologic
productivity of a water is directly correlated with its han
ness. However, while calcium and magnesium contribu
to hardness and productivity, many other elements (whc
present in concentrations which contribute a substanti
measure of hardness) reduce biological productivity ar
are toxic. Hardness, per se has no biological significani
because biological effects are a function of the specii
concentrations and combinations of the elements present
The term "hardness" serves a useful purpose as a gener
index of water type, buffering capacity, and productivit
Waters high in calcium and magnesium ions (hard wate
lower the toxicity of many metals to aquatic life (Brov
1968;166 Lloyd and Herbert 1962).168 (See Figure III-9
the discussion of Metals, p. 178.) However, the ter
"hardness" should be avoided in delineating water quali
TABLE III-7—Major Dissolved Constituents of River Wate
Representing About 90 Percent of Total Stream Flow in tl
United States
Constituent
Median mg/1
Range mg/1
Total dissolved solids
Bicarbonate (HCO,) .
Sulfate (SOO
Chloride (Cl)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Me)
Sodium and potassium (Na and K)
169
90
32
9
28
7
10
72-400
40-180
11-90
3-170
15-52
3.5-14
6-85
Source: Alter Hart etal.(1945)15«
-------
Dissolved Solids and Hardness/143
requirements for aquatic life. More emphasis should be
placed on specific ions.
Recommendation
Total dissolved materials should not be changed
to the extent that the biological communities
characteristic of particular habitats are signifi-
cantly changed. When dissolved materials are al-
tered, bioassays and field studies can determine
the limits that may be tolerated without en-
dangering the structure and function of the
aquatic ecosystem.
-------
OILS
Losses of oil that can have an adverse effect on water
quality and aquatic life can occur in many of the phases of
oil production, refining, transportation, and use. Pollution
may be in the form of floating oils, emulsified oils, or solution
of the water soluble fraction of these oils.
The toxicity of crude oil has been difficult to interpret
since crude oil may contain many different organic com-
pounds and inorganic elements. The composition of such
oils may-vary from region to region, and petroleum products
produced can be drastically different in character in line
with their different intended uses (Purdy 1958).198 The
major components of crude oil can be categorized as ali-
phatic normal hydrocarbons, cyclic paraffin hydrocarbons,
aromatic hydrocarbons, naphtheno-aromatic hydrocarbons,
resins, asphaltenes, heteroatomic compounds, and metallic
compounds (Bestougeff 1967).m The aromatic hydro-
carbons in crude oil appear to be the major group of acutely
toxic compounds (Blumer 1971,176 Shelton 1971).199
Because the biological effects of oils and the relative
merits of control measures are discussed in detail in
Section IV (p. 257) of this Report, only effects of special
interest or pertinence to fresh water are discussed here.
The effects of floating oil on wildlife are discussed on p. 196.
OIL REFINERY EFFLUENTS
Copeland and Dorris (1964)180 studied primary pro-
ductivity and community respiration in a series of oil
refinery effluent oxidation ponds. These ponds received
waste waters which had been in contact with the crude oil
and various products produced within the refinery. Surface
oils were skimmed. In the series of oxidation ponds, pri-
mary productivity and community respiration measure-
ments clearly indicated that primary producers were limited
in the first ponds, probably by toxins in the water. Oxidation
ponds further along in the series typically supported algal
blooms. Apparently degradation of the toxic organic com-
pounds reduced their concentration below the threshold
lethal to the algae. Primary productivity was not greater
than community respiration in the first ponds in the series.
Minter (1964)195 found that species diversity of phyto-
plankton was lowest in the first four ponds of the series
ten. A "slug" of unknown toxic substance drastically r
duced the species diversity in all ponds. Zooplanktc
volumes increased in the latter half of the pond serie
presumably as a result of decreasing toxicity. Benthic faur
species diversity in streams receiving oil refinery effluen
was low near the outfall and progressively increased dowi
stream as biological assimilation reduced the concentratk
of toxins (Wilhm and Dorris 1966,206 Harrel et al. 1967,-
Mathis and Dorris 1968191).
Long-term, continuous-flow bioassays of biological
treated oil refinery effluents indicated that complex r
fineries produce effluents which contain cumulative toxii
of substances that cause accumulative deleterious eff'ec
(Graham and Dorris 1968).182 Subsequent long-term coi
tinuous-flow bioassays of biologically treated oil refine]
effluents indicated that passage of the effluent through ad
vated carbon columns does not remove the fish toxicant
Of the fathead minnows (Pimphales promelas) tested, hi
were killed in 14 days, and only 10 per cent survived '
days (Burks 1972207 personal communication). Trace organ
compounds identified in extracts from the effluent were
homologous series of aliphatic hydrocarbons (CnH22 throm
CisHas) and isomers of cresol and xylenol. Since the solub
fractions derived from oil refineries are quantitatively, ar
to some extent qualitatively, different from those derive
from oil spills, care must be taken to differentiate betwec
these two sources.
FREE AND FLOATING OIL
Free oil or emulsions may adhere to the gills of fis
interfering with respiration and causing asphyxia. Withi
limits, fish are able to combat this by defensive mucoi
secretions (Cole 1941 ).179 Free oil and emulsions may liki
wise coat aquatic plants and destroy them (McKee an
Wolf 1963).193
Fish and benthic organisms may be affected by solub
substances extracted from the oils or by coating froi
emulsified oils. Water soluble compounds from crude c
144
-------
manufactured oils may also contain tainting substances
which affect the taste of fish and waterfowl (Krishnawami
and Kupchanko 1969).189
Toxicity tests for oily substances provide a broad range
of results which do not permit rigorous safety evaluations.
The variabilities are due to differences in petroleum prod-
ucts tested, non-uniform testing procedures, and species
differences. Most of the research on the effects of oils on
aquatic life has used pure compounds which exist only in
low percentages in many petroleum products or crude oils.
Table 111-8 illustrates the range of reported toxicities. For
halo-, nitro-, or thio-derivatives, the expected toxicity
would be greater.
Because of the basic difficulties in evaluating the toxicity,
especially of the emulsified oils, and because there is some
evidence that oils may persist and have subtle chronic
effects (Blumer 1971),m> the maximum allowable concen-
tration of emulsified oils should be determined on an indi-
vidual basis and kept below 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 for
sensitive species.
TABLE III-8—Toxicity Ranges
Chemical
Aniline
Benzene
Crerol...
Cyclohnane ..
Ethylbfnzene
Heptane . . .
Isopreae ...
NeihMCiad
NffMnJim ...
ToUwn.
Gwrint.
Brtlint oil 2
Dtewlfwl
Binkaroil .
Blinker C oil . .
ppm. cone.
379
31
22
32
10
30
31
33
48
40
29
73
78
4924
75
39
180
140
5.6
6.6-7.5
165
1260
44
24
62
66
91
40
14,500
167
2417
1700
E fleet
none
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
" . .
" . .
". .
" . .
48 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
" . .
". .
". .
"...
" . .
48 hr LC50
". .
96 hr LC50
..."..
" . .
" . .
48 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
96 hr LC50
48 hr LC50
. .". .
168 hr LC50
Species
Daphma magna
Pimeptiaies promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lepomis macrochirus
Pi mephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
. Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
. Carassius auratus
. Lebistes reticulatus
Gambusia affims
Pimephales promelas
. Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Lepomis macrochirus
Physa heterostropha
Gambusia aflinis
Pimephales promelas
. Lepomis macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Alosa sapidissima
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo gairdnen
Alosa sapidissimia
. Alosa sapidissima
Salmo salar
Investigator
Anderson 194417"
Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" . . ".
" ".
Cairns & Scheier 1959'-
Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" . ".
" ". ....
". ...
" ". .......
". . . .
Wallen et al. 1957™'
Pickering & Henderson 1966""
" . ".
Cairns & Scheier 1958"'
" ". . .. .
Wallen etal !957Mi
Pickering & Henderson 19661"
" ".
" "
Tagatz1961"3
Meincketal. 19561"
Turnbulletal 1954-"'
Tagatz 19612"M
Sprague and Carson manuscript 1970MO
SED1MENTED OIL
Ludzack et al. (1957)190 found that the sediment in the
Ottawa River in Ohio downstream from a refinery consisted
of up to 17.8 per cent oil. Hunt (1957)187 and Hartung and
Klingler (1968)185 reported on the occurrence of sedimented
oil in the Detroit River. North et al. (1965)196 found sedi-
mented oils after an oil pollution incident in marine coves
in Baja California. Forbes and Richardson (1913)181 re-
ported 2.5 per cent oils in the bottom deposits of the Illinois
River. McCauley (1964)192 reported finding oily bottom
deposits after oil pollution near Boston. Thus, while the
reports may be scattered, the evidence is clear that the
existence of sedimented oils in association with oil pollution
is widespread.
There is an increasing body of evidence indicating that
aliphatic hydrocarbons are synthesized by aquatic organisms
and find their way into sediments in areas which have little
or no history of oil pollution (Han et al. 1968,'83 Avigan
and Blumer 1968174). Hydrocarbons have been reported in
the recent sediments of lakes in Minnesota (Swain 1956)202
and the Gulf of Mexico (Stevens et al. 1956).201
Areas which contain oily sediments usually have an im-
poverished benthic fauna; it is not clear to what extent oil
contributes to this, because of the presence of other pol-
lutants (Hunt 1962).188 However, there are recurring reports
-------
146/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
of a probable relationship between sedimented oils and
altered benthic communities. Sedimented oils may act as
concentrators for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Har-
tung and Klingler 1970),186 but the biological implications
indicate that additional study is required.
Because of the differences in toxicities of sedimented oils
and because of limited knowledge on quantities which are
harmful to aquatic life, it is suggested that the concentration
of hexane extractable substances (exclusive of elemental
sulfur) in air-dried sediments not be permitted to increase
above 1,000 mg/kg on a dry weight basis.
Recommendations
Aquatic life and wildlife should be protected
where:
• there is no visible oil on the surface;
• emulsified oils do not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour
LC50;
» concentration of hexane extractable substances
(exclusive of elemental sulfur) in air-dried sedi-
ments does not increase above 1,000 mg/kg on a
dry weight basis.
-------
TAINTING SUBSTANCES
Discharges from municipal wastewater treatment plants,
a variety of industrial wastes and organic compounds, as
well as biological organisms, can impart objectionable taste,
odor, or color to the flesh of fish and other edible aquatic
organisms. Such tainting can occur in waters with concen-
trations of the offending material lower than those recog-
nized as being harmful to an animal (Tables III-9 and
111-10).
BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF TAINTING
Thaysen (1935)231 and Thaysen and Pentelow (1936)232
demonstrated that a muddy or earthy taste can be imparted
to the flesh of trout by material produced by an odiferous
species of Actinomyces. Lopinot (1962)224 reported a serious
fish and municipal water supply tainting problem on the
Mississippi River in Illinois during a period when actino-
mycetes, Oscillatoria, Scenedesmus, and Actinastrum were abun-
dant. Oscillatoria princeps and 0. agardhi in plankton of a
German lake were reported by Cornelius and Bandt
(1933)213 as causing off-flavor in lake fish. Aschner et al.
(1967)210 concluded that the benthic alga, O. tenms, in
rearing ponds in Israel was responsible for imparting such
a bad flavor to carp (Cyprinus carpw) that the fish were
unacceptable on the market. Henley's (1970)221 investigation
of odorous metabolites of Cyanophyta showed that Anabaena
circinahs releases geosmin and indicated that this material
was responsible for the musty or earthy odor often char-
acteristic of water from reservoirs with heavy algal growths
in summer and fall.
Oysters occasionally exhibit green coloration of the gills
due to absorption of the blue-green pigment of the diatom,
Navicula, (Ranson 1927).226
TAINTING CAUSED BY CHEMICALS
Phenolic compounds are often associated with both water
and fish tainting problems (Table III-9). However, Albers-
meyer (1957)208 and Albersmeyer and Erichsen (1959)209
found that, after being dephenolated, both a carbolated oil
and a light oil still imparted a taste to fish more pronounced
than that produced by similar exposures to naphthalene
and methylnaphthalene (phenolated compounds). They
concluded that other hydrocarbons in the oils were more
responsible for imparting off-flavor than the phenolic ma-
terials in the two naphthalenes tested.
Refineries (Fetterolf 1962),216 oily wastes (Zillich 1969),236
and crude oil (Galtsoff et al. 1935)219 have been associated
with ofT-flavor problems of fish and shellfish in both fresh-
water and marine situations (Westman and Hoff 1963).234
Krishnawami and Kupchanko (1969)223 demonstrated that
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) adsorbed enough compounds
from a stream polluted with oil slicks and oil refinery
effluents to exhibit a definite oily taste and flavor. In waters
receiving black liquor from kraft pulp mills, the gills and
mantles of oysters developed a gray color (Galtsoff et al.
1947).218 The authors also found this condition in oysters
grown in waters receiving domestic sewage. Newton
(1967)237 confined trout in live-cages and correlated inten-
TABLE 111-9—Wastewaters Found to have Lowered the
Portability of Fish Flesh
Wastewater source
2, 4-D mf(. plant
Coal— coking
Coal-tar
Kraft process (untreated)
Kraft process (treated)
Kraft and neutral sulfite
process
Municipal dump runoff
Municipal untreated sewage
(2 locations)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plants (4 locations)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plant (Primary)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plant (Secondary)
Oily wastes
Refinery
Sewage containing phenols
Slaughterhouses (2 locations)
Concentration in
water affecting
payability of fish
50-100 mg/l
0.02-0.1 rroj/l
O.lmg/l
1-2% by vol.
9-12% by vol.
11-13% hy »ol.
20-26% oy vol.
O.lmg 1
Species
Trout
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Salmon
Salmon
Trout
Channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus)
Channel catfish
Channel catfish
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Trout
Trout
Freshwater fish
Channel catfish
Reference
Shumway 1956««
Bandt 1955'-"
Bandt 1955="
Shumway and Chadwick
197)229
Shumway and Palensky, un-
published data1"
Newton 1967":
Thomas and Hicks 19712"
Tnomas and Hicks 1971MJ
Thomas and Hicks 197V"
Shumway and PalensKy, un-
published data'"
Shumway and Palensky, un-
published data"8
Zilhch 1969»t
Fetterolf 1962""
Bandt 1955="
Thomas and Hicks 1971="
147
-------
\48/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE HI-10—Concentrations of Chemical Compounds in
Water That Can Cause Tainting of the Flesh of Fish and
Other Aquatic Organisms
Chemical
Estimated threshold level in water
(me/0
Reference*
acetophenone
acrylonitnle
cresol
m-cresol
o-cresol
p-cresol
cresylic acid (meta para)
N-butylmercaptan
o-sec. butylphenol
p-ttrt. butylphenol
o-chlorophenol
p-chlorophenol
2,3-dichlorophenol
2,4-dichlorophenol
2,5-dichlorophenol
2,6-dtchlorophenol
2-methyl, 4-chlorophenol
2-methyl, 6-chlorophenol
o-phenylphenol
2,4,6-trichlorophenol
phenol
phenols in polluted river
riiphenyl oxide
(3,/3-dichlorodiethyl ether
o-dichlorobenzene
ethylbenzene
ethanethiol
ethylacrylate
formaldehyde
kerosene
kerosene plus kaolin
isopropylbenzene
naphtha
naphthalene
naphthol
2-naphthol
dimethylamme
a-metliylstyrene
oil, emulsifiable
pyndine
pyrocatechol
pyroeallol
quinolme
p-quinone
styrene
toluene
outboard motor fuel, as exhaust
jciaiacol
0.5
18
0.07
0.2
0.4
0 12
0.2
0.06
0.3
0.03
0.0001 to 0.015
0.01 to 0.05
0 084
0 001 to 0 014
0 023
0.035
0 075
0 003
1
0.003(00.05
Ho tO
0.02 to 0.15
0.05
0.09 to 1.0
0 25
<0 25
0.24
0.6
95
0.1
1
<0.25
0.1
1
0.5
0.3
7
0 25
>15
5 to 28
0 8 to 5
20 to 30
0 5to1
0.5
0.25
0.25
2 S jal acre-foot
0.082
d
I
d
d
b,d, e
d,e,e
I
d, f, j
8
8
I
8
d
8
-------
Tainting Sub stances /149
Boetius (1954)212 reported that eels required up to 11 days
exposure before flavor impairment was detected. The time
required to impair flavor was found to be related to the
exposure concentration, with low concentrations requiring
longer exposure periods.
Shumway (1966)228 found that the flesh of salmon exposed
experimentally to industrial wastes containing mainly phe-
nols acquired maximum off-flavor in 35 hours or less, with
much of the tainting occurring within the first 6 hours.
After the salmon were transferred to uncontaminated water,
most of the acquired off-flavor was lost within 20 hours,
although some off-flavor remained up to 72 hours.
In other tests, Shumway and Palensky (unpublished data)™
observed flavor impairment in trout after 24-hour exposure
to 2,4-dichlorophenol. After only 33.5 hours in uncontami-
nated water, the flavor of the trout had returned to the
preexposure level, with most of the reduction in off-flavor
occurring within 6.5 hours.
Korschgen et al. (1970)222 transferred carp (Cyprinus
carpio) to uncontaminated ponds from two sites, one of
which received effluents from a major municipality and one
of which received little or no effluent. Retention up to 18
days in the holding ponds failed to improve the flavor of the
carp from the contaminated site. These authors also re-
ported that channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) transferred
from the Ohio River to control water lost about half of
their off-flavor in 7 days and nearly all of it in 21 days.
IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES OF OFF-FLAVORED
ORGANISMS
Determination that a tainting problem exists, or identifi-
cation of a taint-causing material, involves field or labora-
tory exposure periods and organoleptic tests. When properly
conducted, these tests are reliable but time-consuming.
Wright (1966)238 reported on the use of gas chromatography
in conjunction with organoleptic tests. The chromatographic
scans were compared with scans of industrial process waste
streams to identify the taint-producing wastes. Gas chro-
matographic techniques are employed routinely in food
technology laboratories investigating flavor and odor prop-
erties (Rhoades and Millar 1965).226
EXPOSURE AND ORGANOLEPTIC TESTS
Field exposure tests (bioassays) are used to determine
the existence or the magnitude of a tainting problem in a
water body. Fish or other edible aquatic life are held for a
period of time in cages at selected locations in and around
a suspected problem area or waste discharge and eventually
evaluated for flavor. Laboratory bioassays are normally
utilized to determine the tainting potential of wastes, waste
components, or specific chemicals. Although either static
or continuous-flow bioassays can be used in laboratory tests,
continuous-flow systems are considered far superior to static
tests. Exposure bioassays are followed by the organoleptic
evaluation of the flesh of the test organisms.
In their studies of tainted organisms, investigators have
used a number of different bioassay and flavor-evaluation
procedures, some of which have produced poorly defined
results. The following guidelines are based primarily on the
successful procedures of Shumway and Newton (personal
communications).™
Test Fish
The flesh of the fish to be exposed should be mild and
consistent in flavor. For convenience in holding and taste
testing, fish weighing between 200 and 400 grams are de-
sir able, although smaller or larger fish are acceptable.
Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), yellow perch (Perca
flavescens), channel catfish, bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus),
trout, salmon flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes), and others have
proven to be acceptable test fish.
Exposure Period
In general, test fish should be exposed for a period not
less than 48 hours. Shorter or longer exposures will be
advisable in some situations, although possible stress, disease,
and mortality resulting from longer retention of test fish
and maintenance of holding facilities may negate advantages
of long exposure.
Exposure Conditions
The following conditions are desirable in laboratory
bioassays:
Dissolved oxygen near saturation
Temperature 10-15 C for salmonids, and
20-25 C for warmwater fish
pH 6.0-8.0, or pH of receiving
water
Light intensity held at a low level
Water uncontaminated, or quality
of the receiving water; never
distilled water
Preparation of Test Fish and Evaluation
Exposed fish and control fish, either fresh or fresh-frozen
and subsequently thawed, are individually double-wrapped
in aluminum foil, placed in an oven and cooked at about
375 F for 15 to 30 minutes, as size requires. Large fish may
be portioned for cooking. No seasoning of any kind is
added. Portions of _the cooked fish may be placed in small
coded cups and served warm to the judges for flavor evalu-
ation. A known "reference" may be provided to aid judges
in making comparisons. A minimum of ten experienced
judges, each seated in an isolation booth or similar area,
smell, taste, and score each sample. This method offers
tighter control of variables and conforms more to off-flavor
evaluations conducted in food laboratories than the more
informal procedure below.
-------
150/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
An alternative method is to place the cooked fish, still
partially wrapped in foil to preserve the heat and flavor,
on a large table. The judges start concurrently and work
their way around the table, recording aroma and flavor.
If a judge tastes more than six samples during a test, a
lessening of organoleptic acuity may occur.
When investigating the potential of a substance to pro-
duce taint, a word-evaluation scale for intensity of off-flavor
ranging from no off-flavor to extreme off-flavor, has proven
successful with trained, experienced judges. Numerical
values from 0 to 6 are applied to the word scale for deri-
vation of off-flavor indices and statistical evaluation.
When using the above method, less experienced judges
tend to over-react to slight off-flavor. For this reason, in
less formal tests evaluating the effect of a substance on the
palatability of the organism, an hedonic scale accompanied
by word-judgments describing palatability is appropriate,
i.e., 0—excellent, 1—very good, 2—good, 3—fair, 4—just
acceptable, 5—not quite acceptable, 6—very poor, inedible,
and 7—extremely poor, repulsive. Scores of the judges on
each sample are averaged to determine final numerical or
word-judgment values.
To determine whether there are acceptability differences
between controls and test organisms, a triangle test may be
used in which two samples are alike and one is different.
Judges are asked to select the like samples, to indicate the
degree of difference, and to rate both the like and the odd
samples on a preference scale.
STATISTICAL EVALUATION
The triangle test is particularly well adapted to statistical
analysis, but the organoleptic testing necessary is more
extensive than when hedonic scales are used.
Application of the two-way analyses of variance to
hedonic-scale data is an acceptable test, but professional
assistance with statistical procedures is desirable. Reliance
on the word-judgment system is sufficient for general infor-
mation purposes.
Recommendations
• To prevent tainting of fish and other edible
aquatic organisms, it is recommended that sub-
stances which cause tainting should not be pres-
ent in water in concentrations that lower the
acceptability of such organisms as determined
by exposure bioassay and organoleptic tests.
• Values in Tables III-9 and IH-10 are recom-
mended as guidelines in determining what con-
centrations of wastes and substances in water
may cause tainting of the flesh of fish or other
aquatic organisms.
-------
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Living organisms do not respond to the quantity of heat
but to degrees of temperature or to temperature changes
caused by transfer of heat. The importance of temperature
to acquatic organisms is well known, and the composition
of aquatic communities depends largely on the temperature
characteristics of their environment. Organisms have upper
and lower thermal tolerance limits, optimum temperatures
for growth, preferred temperatures in thermal gradients,
and temperature limitations for migration, spawning, and
egg incubation. Temperature also affects the physical
environment of the aquatic medium, (e.g., viscosity, degree
of ice cover, and oxygen capacity. Therefore, the com-
position of aquatic communities depends largely on tem-
perature characteristics of the environment. In recent
years there has been an accelerated demand for cooling
waters for power stations that release large quantities of
heat, causing, or threatening to cause, either a warming of
rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, or a rapid cooling when the
artificial sources of heat are abruptly terminated. For these
reasons, the environmental consequences of temperature
changes must be considered in assessments of water quality
requirements of aquatic organisms.
The "natural" temperatures of surface waters of the
United States vary from 0 C to over 40 C as a function of
latitude, altitude, season, time of day, duration of flow,
depth, and many other variables. The agents that affect
the natural temperature are so numerous that it is unlikely
that two bodies of water, even in the same latitude, would
have exactly the same thermal characteristics. Moreover, a
single aquatic habitat typically does not have uniform or
consistent thermal characteristics. Since all aquatic or-
ganisms (with the exception of aquatic mammals and a
few large, fast-swirnming fish) have body temperatures that
conform to the water temperature, these natural variations
create conditions that are optimum at times, but are
generally above or below optima for particular physio-
logical, behavioral, and competitive functions of the species
present.
Because significant temperature changes may affect the
composition of an aquatic or wildlife community, an
induced change in the thermal characteristics of an eco-
system may be detrimental. On the other hand, altered
thermal characteristics may be beneficial, as evidenced in
most fish hatchery practices and at other aquacultural
facilities. (See the discussion of Aquaculture in Section IV.)
The general difficulty in developing suitable criteria for
temperature (which would limit the addition of heat) lies
in determining the deviation from "natural" temperature a
particular body of water can experience without suffering
adverse effects on its biota. Whatever requirements are
suggested, a "natural" seasonal cycle must be retained,
annual spring and fall changes in temperature must be
gradual, and large unnatural day-to-day fluctuations
should be avoided. In view of the many variables, it seems
obvious that no single temperature requirement can be
applied uniformly to continental or large regional areas;
the requirements must be closely related to each body of
water and to its particular community of organisms,
especially the important species found in it. These should
include invertebrates, plankton, or other plant and animal
life that may be of importance to food chains or otherwise
interact with species of direct interest to man. Since thermal
requirements of various species differ, the social choice of
the species to be protected allows for different "levels of
protection" among water bodies as suggested by Doudoroff
and Shumway (1970)272 for dissolved oxygen criteria. (See
Dissolved Oxygen, p. 131.) Although such decisions clearly
transcend the scientific judgments needed in establishing
thermal criteria for protecting selected species, biologists can
aid in making them. Some measures useful in assigning
levels of importance to species are: (1) high yield to com-
mercial or sport fisheries, (2) large biomass in the existing
ecosystem (if desirable), (3) important links in food chains
of other species judged important for other reasons, and
(4) "endangered" or unique status. If it is desirable to
attempt strict preservation of an existing ecosystem, the
most sensitive species or life stage may dictate the criteria
selected.
Criteria for making recommendations for water tem-
perature to protect desirable aquatic life cannot be simply a
maximum allowed change from "natural temperatures."
This is principally because a change of even one degree from
151
-------
152/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
an ambient temperature has varying significance for an
organism, depending upon where the ambient level lies
within the tolerance range. In addition, historic tempera-
ture records or, alternatively, the existing ambient tempera-
ture prior to any thermal alterations by man are not always
reliable indicators of desirable conditions for aquatic
populations. Multiple developments of water resources also
change water temperatures both upward (e.g., upstream
power plants or shallow reservoirs) and downward (e.g.,
dcepwater releases from large reservoirs), so that "ambient"
and "natural" are exceedingly difficult to define at a given
point over periods of several years.
Criteria for temperature should consider both the multiple
thermal requirements of aquatic species and requirements
for balanced communities. The number of distance require-
ments and the necessary values for each require periodic
reexamination as knowledge of thermal effects on aquatic
species and communities increases. Currently definable
requirements include:
• maximum sustained temperatures that are con-
sistent with maintaining desirable levels of pro-
ductivity;
• maximum levels of metabolic acclimation to warm
temperatures that will permit return to ambient
winter temperatures should artificial sources of
heat cease;
• temperature 1 imitations for survival of brief exposures
to temperature extremes, both upper and lower;
• restricted temperature ranges for various stages of
reproduction, including (for fish) gonad growth and
gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of
gametes, development of the embryo, commence-
ment of independent feeding (and other activities)
by juveniles; and temperatures required for meta-
morphosis, emergence, and other activities of lower
forms;
• thermal limits for diverse compositions of species of
aquatic communities, particularly where reduction
in diversity creates nuisance growths of certain
organisms, or where important food sources or
chains are altered;
• thermal requirements of downstream aquatic life
where upstream warming of a cold-water source will
adversely affect downstream temperature require-
ments.
Thermal criteria must also be formulated with knowledge
of how man alters temperatures, the hydrodynamics of the
changes, and how the biota can reasonably be expected to
interact with the thermal regimes produced. It is not
sufficient, for example, to define only the thermal criteria
for sustained production of a species in open waters, because
large numbers of organisms may also be exposed to thermal
changes by being pumped through the condensers and
mixing zone of a power plant. Design engineers need
particularly to know the biological limitations to their
design options in such instances. Such considerations may
-eveal nonthermal impacts of cooling processes that may
outweigh temperature effects, such as impingement of fish
upon intake screens, mechanical or chemical damage to
zooplankton in condensers, or effects of altered current
patterns on bottom fauna in a d ischarge area. The environ-
mental situations of aquatic organisms (e.g., where they
are, when they are there, in what numbers) must also be
understood. Thermal criteria for migratory species should
be applied to a certain area only when the species is actually
there. Although thermal effects of power stations are
currently of great interest, other less dramatic causes of
temperature change including deforestation, stream chan-
nelization, and impoundment of flowing water must be
recognized.
DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA
Thermal criteria necessary for1 the protection of species or
communities are discussed separately below. The order of
presentation of the different criteria does not imply priority
for any one body of water. The descriptions define preferred
riethods and procedures for judging thermal requirements,
and generally do not give numerical values (except in
Appendix II-C). Specific values for all limitations would
require a biological handbook that is far beyond the scope
of this Section. The criteria may seem complex, but they
represent an extensively developed framework of knowledge
about biological responses. (A sample application of these
criteria begins on page 166, Use of Temperature Criteria.)
TERMINOLOGY DEFINED
Some basic thermal response? of aquatic organisms will
be referred to repeatedly and are defined and reviewed
briefly here. Effects of heat on organisms and aquatic
communities have been reviewec' periodically (e.g., Bullock
1955,"9 Brett 1956;253 Fry 1947,276 1964,278 1967;279 Kinne
1970296). Some effects have been analyzed in the context of
tfiermal modification by power plants (Parker and Krenkel
!959.sos Krenkel and Parker 1969;298 Cairns 1968;261 Clark
1969;263 and Coutant 1970c269). Bibliographic information
is available from Kennedy and Mihursky (1967),294 Raney
and Menzel (1969),su and from annual reviews published
by the Water Pollution Control Federation (Coutant
1968,265 1969,266 f970a,267 1971270).
Each species (and often each distinct life-stage of a. species)
has a characteristic tolerance range of temperature as a
consequence of acclimations (Internal biochemical adjust-
ments) made while at previous holding temperature (Figure
I1I-2; Brett 1956253). Ordinarily., the ends of this range, or
the lethal thresholds, are defined by survival of 50 per cent
of a sample of individuals. Lethal thresholds typically are
referred to as "incipient lethal temperatures," and tem-
perature beyond these ranges would be considered "ex-
-------
Heat and 7 emperature/\53
treme." The tolerance range is adjusted upward by ac-
climation to warmer water and downward to cooler water,
although there is a limit to such accommodation. The
lower end of the range •usually is at zero degrees centigrade
(32 F) for species in temperate latitudes (somewhat less for
saline waters), while the upper end terminates in an
"ultimate incipient lethal temperature" (Fry et al. 1946281).
This ultimate threshold temperature represents the "break-
ing point" between the highest temperatures to which an
animal can be acclimated and the lowest of the extreme
temperatures that will kill the warm-acclimated organism.
Any rate of temperature change over a period of minutes
Ultimate incipient lethal temperature
3 10 -
5 10 15 20
Acclimation temperature —Centigrade
After Brett 1960 254
FIGURE IH-2—Upper and lower lethal temperatures for
young sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) plotted to
show the zone of tolerance. Within this zone two other zones
are represented to illustrate (I) an area beyond which growth
would be poor to none-at-all under the influence of the loading
effect of metabolic demand, and (2) an area beyond which
temperature is likely to inhibit normal reproduction.
28
26
24
Acclimation temperature
24"
10
100 1,000
Time to 50% mortality— Minutes
10,000
After Brett 1952 252
FIGURE III-3—Median resistance times to high tempera-
tures among young Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)
acclimated to temperatures indicated. Line A-B denotes
rising lethal threshold (incipient lethal temperatures) with
increasing acclimation temperature. This rise eventually
ceases at the ultimate lethal threshold (ultimate upper
incipient lethal temperature), line B-C.
to a few hours will not greatly affect the thermal tolerance
limits, since acclimation to changing temperatures requires
several days (Brett 1941).251
At the temperatures above and below the incipient lethal
temperatures, survival depends not only on the temperature
but also on the duration of exposure, with mortality oc-
curring more rapidly the farther the temperature is from
the threshold (Figure III-3). (See Coutant 1970a267 and
1970b268 for further discussion based on both field and
laboratory studies.) Thus, organisms respond to extreme
high and low temperatures in a manner similar to the
dosage-response pattern which is common to toxicants,
Pharmaceuticals, and radiation (Bliss 1937).249 Such tests
seldom extend bevond one week in duration.
MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE TEMPERATURES FOR
PROLONGED EXPOSURES
Specific criteria for prolonged exposure (1 week or longer)
must be defined for warm and for cold seasons. Additional
criteria for gradual temperature (and life cycle) changes
during reproduction and development periods are dis-
cussed on pp. 162-165.
-------
154/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL MAXIMA FOR
PROLONGED EXPOSURE
Occupancy of habitats by most aquatic organisms is
often limited within the thermal tolerance range to tem-
peratures somewhat below the ultimate upper incipient
lethal temperature. This is the result of poor physiological
performance at near lethal levels (e.g., growth, metabolic
scope for activities, appetite, food conversion efficiency),
interspecies competition, disease, predation, and other
subtle ecological factors (Fry 1951 ;277 Brett 1971256). This
complex limitation is evidenced by restricted southern and
altitudinal distributions of many species. On the other hand,
optimum temperatures (such as those producing fastest
growth rates) are not generally necessary at all times to
maintain thriving populations and are often exceeded in
nature during summer months (Fry 1951 ;277 Cooper 1953 ;264
Beyerle and Cooper I960;246 Kramer and Smith I960297).
Moderate temperature fluctuations can generally be
tolerated as long as a maximum upper limit is not exceeded
for long periods.
A true temperature limit for exposures long enough to
reflect metabolic acclimation and optimum ecological per-
formance must lie somewhere between the physiological
optimum and the ultimate upper incipient lethal tempera-
tures. Brett (I960)254 suggested that a provisional long-
term exposure limit be the temperature greater than opti-
mum that allowed 75 per cent of optimum performance.
His suggestion has not been tested by definitive studies.
Examination of literature on performance, metabolic
rate, temperature preference, growth, natural distribution,
and tolerance of several species has yielded an apparently
sound theoretical basis for estimating an upper temperature
limit for long term exposure and a method for doing this
with a minimum of additional research. New data will
provide refinement, but this method forms a useful guide
for the present time. The method is based on the general
observations summarized here and in Figure 111-4 (a, b, c).
1. Performances of organisms over a range of tempera-
tures are available in the scientific literature for a variety of
functions. Figures III-4a and b show three characteristic
types of responses numbered 1 through 3, of which types 1
and 2 have coinciding optimum peaks. These optimum
temperatures are characteristic for a species (or life stage).
2. Degrees of impairment from optimum levels of
various performance functions are not uniform with in-
creasing temperature above the optimum for a single species.
The most sensitive function appears to be growth rate, for
which a temperature of zero growth (with abundant food)
can be determined for important species and life stages.
Growth rate of organisms appears to be an integrator of all
factors acting on an organism. Growth rate should probably
be expressed as net biomass gain or net growth (McCormick
et al. 1971)302 of the population, to account for deaths.
3. The maximum temperature at which several species
are consistently found in nature (Fry 1951 ;277 Narvi
1970)306 lies near the average of the optimum temperatui
and the temperature of zero net growth.
4. Comparison of patterns in Figures III-4a and
among different species indicates that while the trends a:
similar, the optimum is closer to the lethal level in son
species than it is in sockeye salmon. Invertebrates exhibil
pattern of temperature effects on growth rate that is vei
similar to that of fish (Figure III-4c).
The optimum temperature may be influenced by rate <
feeding. Brett et al. (1969)2'*7 demonstrated a shift in opt
mum toward cooler temperatures for sockeye salmon wh«
ration was restricted. In a similar experiment with chann
catfish, Andrews and Stickney (1972)242 could see no sue
shift. Lack of a general shift in optimum may be due 1
compensating changes in activity of the fish (Fry person
observation).™
These observations suggest that an average of the opt
mum temperature and the temperature of zero net growt
[(opt. temp. + z.n.g. temp)/2] would be a useful estimate c
a limiting weekly mean temperature for resident organism
providing the peak temperatures do not exceed valui
recommended for short-term exposures. Optimum growt
rate would generally be reduced to no lower than 80 per cec
of the maximum if the limiting temperature is EIS average
above (Table III-ll). This range of reduction from opt
mum appears acceptable, although there are no quantit;
tive studies available that would allow the criterion to 1:
based upon a specific level of impairment.
The criteria for maximum upper temperature must allo1
for seasonal changes, because different life stages of man
species will have different thermal requirements for th
average of their optimum cind zero net growths. Thus
juvenile fish in May will be likely to have a lower maximui
acceptable temperature than will the same fish in July, an
this must be reflected in the thermal criteria for a waterbodi
TABLE III-ll—Summary of Some Upper Limiting.
Temperatures in C, (for periods longer than one week)
Based Upon Optimum Temperatures and Temperatures
of Zero Net Growth.
Catostomus commersoni (white sucker)
Coregonus artedii (Cisco or lake herring)
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
"
Lepomis ntacrochirus (blue(ill) (year II)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)
Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner)
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout)
27
16
30
30
22
27.5
27
15.4
growth
29.6
21.2
35.7
35.7
28.5
34
33
18.8
*
McCormick et al.
197)302
Strawn 1970"°
Andrews and Stickney
1972M!
McComish 1971'<"
Strawn 1961">
*
*
opt+z.n.g.
2
28.3
18.6
32.8
32.8
25.3
30.8
30.5
17.1
%of
opu mui
86
82
94
88
82
83
83
80
* National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn., unpublished data.';'
-------
Heat and Temperature/I 55
Gross Conversion Efficiency
10 15
Acclimation Temperature C
25
After Brett 1971256
FIGURE III-4a—Performance of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in Relation to Acclimation Temperature
-------
156/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
While this approach to developing the maximum sus- sizeable body of data on the ultimate incipient leth
tained temperature appears justified on the basis of available temperature that could serve as a substitute for the data <
knowledge, few limits can be derived from existing data in temperature of zero net growth. A practical consideratic
the literature on zero growth. On the other hand, there is a in recommending criteria is the time required to condu
100
-------
Heat and Temperature /157
research necessary to provide missing data. Techniques for
determining incipient lethal temperatures are standardized
(Brett 1952)252 whereas those for zero growth are not.
A temperature that is one-third of the range between the
optimum temperature and the ultimate incipient lethal
temperature that can be calculated by the formula
optimum temp. -)
ultimate incipient lethal temp.-optimum temp.
(Equation I)
yields values that are very close to (optimum temp. +
z.n.g. temp.)/2. For example, the values are, respectively,
32.7 and 32.8 C for channel catfish and 30.6 and 30.8 for
largemouth bass (data from Table III-8 and Appendix II).
This formula offers a practical method for obtaining allow-
200
150
•= 100
£
50
15 20 25 30
Temperature in C
35
Anscll 1968 243
FIGURE III-4c—M. mercenaria: The general relationship
between temperature and the rate of shell growth, based on
field measurements of growth and temperature.
•: sites in Poole Harbor, England; Q: North American sites.
able limits, while retaining as its scientific basis the require-
ments of preserving adequate rates of growth. Some limits
obtained from data in the literature are given in Table
111-12. A hypothetical example of the effect of this limit on
growth of largemouth bass is illustrated in Figure 111-5.
Figure III-5 shows a hypothetical example of the effects
of the limit on maximum weekly average temperature on
growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a
function of temperature are from Strawn 196131
-------
158/Section ///—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Annual Accumulated Growth
250 —
Elevated (with limit)
Elevated (without limit)
6 8 10
Weeks
Ambient + 10 F
Average Ambient
(Lake Norman, N.C.)
Weekly Growth Rate
(Ambient)
Weekly Growth Rate
(Ambient+ 10 F)
0 7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 4
JAN. FEB.
15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3
APR. MAY
10 17 24 1
JUNE
-------
Heat and Temperature/\59
FIGURE III-5—A hypothetical example of the effects of the limit on maximum weekly
average temperature on growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a function
of temperature are from Strawn 1961; the ambient temperature is an averaged curve for Lake
Norman, N.C., adapted from data supplied by Duke Power Company. A general temperature
elevation of 10 F is used to provide an extreme example. Incremental growth rates (mm/wk )
are plotted on the main figure, while annual accumulated growth is plotted in the inset.
Simplifying assumptions were that growth rates and the relationship of growth rate to tem-
perature were constant throughout the year, and that there would be sufficient food to sus-
tain maximum attainable growth rates at all times.
Max. Weekly Avg., largemouth bass
Incremental
Growth Rates
(mm/wk)
I
38
36
34
32
26
24
cT
!J
22 §
^3
^
l;
j?
£
20 H
18
16
14
12
10
15 22 29 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 2 9 16 23 30
JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.
-------
160/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 111-12—Summary of Some Upper Limiting Temperatures for Prolonged Exposures of Fishes Based on Optimum Tern
peratures and Ultimate Upper Incipient Lethal Temperatures (Equation 1).
Species
Catostomus commersom (white sucker)
Coregonus artedn (Cisco or lake herring)
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) (yr II)
Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)(fry)
Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner)
Oncorhynchus nerka (sockeye salmon)
(juveniles)
Pseudopleuronectes Americans (winter
flounder)
Saimotrutta (brown trout)
Salvelinus fonti nalis (brook trout)
Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout)
Optimum
C
27
16
30
22
26.3
28.3
ave 27.3
27.5
27
15.0
15.0
15.0
18.0
8 to 17
ave 12.5
15.4
13.0
15
ave 14 5
16
17
ave 16.5
F
80.6
60.8
86
71.6
83
83
81.1
81.5
80.6
59.0
59.0
64.4
54.5
59.7
55.4
59
58.1
60.8
62.6
61.7
— Function
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
other functions
max. swimming
growth
growth
growth
growth
metabolic
scope
scope for activity
(2 metabol:sm)
swi mmmg speed
Reference
unpubl., NWQL™-
McCormicketal. im>«
Strawn 197Q;3M Andrews and Stickney
1971142
McComish 1971»°i
Anderson 1959™
Horning and Pearson 1972291
Peek 19653M
Strawn 1961319
unpubl., NWQLI2»
Brett et al. 19692"
Brett 19712S«
Brett 1970^5
Brett 1970!ss
unpubl, NVVQL'2'
Baldwin 195J»»
Graham 19492'1
Gibson and Fry 19542"
Ultimate upper incipient Maximum weekly average
lethal temperature Reference temperature (Eq 1)
C F C F
29.3
25.7
38.0
33.8
35.0
36.4
30.7
25.0
29.1
23.5
25.5
23.5
84.7 Hart194728s 27.8
78.3 Edsall and Colby 1970™ 19.2
100. 4 Allen and Steam 1968™ 32. 1
92.8 Hart1952» 25.9
95.0 Horning and Pearson 1972291 29.9
97.5 HarH9522»6 30.5
87.3 Hart19522»« 28.2
77.0 Brett 19522*2 18.3
84.4 HoffandWestmanW9 21.8
74.3 Bishai I9602" 16 2
77. 9 Fiy, Hart and Walker, 1946=" 18. 2
(iibson and Fry 19542<" 18.8
82
66.6
90.9
78. 6
85 8
86.7
82.8
64.9
71.2
61 2
64.8
65.8
Heat added to upper reaches of some cold rivers can be
retained throughout the river's remaining length (Jaske
and Synoground 1970).292 This factor adds to the natural
trend of warming at distances from headwaters. Thermal
additions in headwaters, therefore, may contribute sub-
stantially to reduction of cold-water species in downstream
areas (Mount 1970).305 Upstream thermal additions should
be evaluated for their effects on summer maxima at down-
stream locations, as well as in the immediate vicinity of
the heat source.
Recommendation
Growth of aquatic organisms would be main-
tained at levels necessary for sustaining actively
growing and reproducing populations if the maxi-
mum weekly average temperature in the zone in-
habited by the species at that time does not exceed
one-third of the range between the optimum tem-
perature and the ultimate upper incipient lethal
temperature of the species (Equation 1, page 157),
and the temperatures above the weekly average do
not exceed the criterion for short-term exposures.
This maximum need not apply to acceptable mix-
ing zones (see proportional relationships of mixing
zones to receiving systems, p. 114), and must be
applied with adequate understanding of the normal
seasonal distribution of the important species.
WINTER MAXIMA
Although artificially produced temperature elevatiot
during winter months may actually bring the temperatui
closer to optimum or preferred temperature for importat
species and attract fish (Trembley 1965),321 metaboli
acclimation to these higher levels can preclude safe retur
of the organism to ambient temperatures should th
artificial heating suddenly cease (Pennsylvania Fish Con
mission 1971;310 Robinson 1970)316 or the organism I;
driven from the heat area. For example, sockeye salmo
(Oncorhynchus nerka) acclimated to 20 C suffered 50 percei
mortality in the laboratory when their temperature wj
dropped suddenly to 5 C (Brett 1971:256 see Figure III-3
The same population of fish withstood a drop to zero whe
acclimated to 5 C. The lower limit of the range of therms
tolerance of important species must, therefore, be mair
tained at the normal seasonal ambient temperature
throughout cold seasons, unless special provisions are mad
to assure that rapid temperature drop will not occur or tha
organisms cannot become acclimated to elevated tempera
tures. This can be accomplished by limitations on tempera
ture elevations in such areas as discharge canals and mixin;
zones where organisms may reside, or by insuring tha
maximum temperatures occur only in areas not accessibl
to important aquatic life for lengths of time sufficient ti
allow metabolic acclimation. Such inaccessible areas wouli
include the high-velocity zones of diffusers or screened dis
-------
Heat and Temperature /161
charge channels. This reduction of maximum temperatures
would not preclude use of slightly warmed areas as sites for
intense winter fisheries.
This consideration may be important in some regions at
times other than in winter. The Great Lakes, for example,
are susceptible to rapid changes in elevation of the thermo-
cline in summer which may induce rapid decreases in
shoreline temperatures. Fish acclimated to exceptionally
high temperatures in discharge canals may be killed or
severely stressed without changes in power plant opera-
tions (Robinson 1968).314 Such regions should take special
note of this possibility.
Some numerical values for acclimation temperatures and
lower limits of tolerance ranges (lower incipient lethal
temperatures) are given in Appendix II-C. Other data must
be provided by further research. There are no adequate
data available with which to estimate a safety factor for no
stress from cold shocks. Experiments currently in progress,
however, suggest that channel catfish fingerlings are more
susceptible to predation after being cooled more than 5 to
6 C (Coutant, unpublished data).324
The effects of limiting ice formation in lakes and rivers
should be carefully observed. This aspect of maximum
winter temperatures is apparent, although there is insuffi-
cient evidence to estimate its importance.
Recommendation
Important species should be protected if the
maximum weekly average temperature during win-
ter months in any area to which they have access
does not exceed the acclimation temperature
(minus a 2 C safety factor) that raises the lower
lethal threshold temperature of such species above
the normal ambient water temperatures for that
season, and the criterion for short-term exposures
is not exceeded. This recommendation applies es-
pecially to locations where organisms may be at-
tracted from the receiving water and subjected to
rapid thermal drop, as in the low velocity areas of
water diversions (intake or discharge), canals, and
mixing zones.
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO EXTREME TEMPERATURE
To protect aquatic life and yet allow other uses of the
water, it is essential to know the lengths of time organisms
can survive extreme temperatures (i.e., temperatures that
exceed the 7-day incipient lethal temperature). Both
natural environments and power plant cooling systems can
briefly reach temperature extremes (both upper and lower)
without apparent detrimental effect to the aquatic life
(Fry 1951 ;277 Becker et al. 1971).245
The length of time that 50 per cent of a population will
survive temperature above the incipient lethal temperature
can be calculated from a regression equation of experi-
mental data (such as those in Figure III-3) as follows:
log (time) =a+b (temp.) (Equation 2)
where time is expressed in minutes, temperature in degrees
centigrade and where a and b are intercept and slope,
respectively, which are characteristics of each acclimation
temperature for each species. In some cases the time-
temperature relationship is more complex than the semi-
logarithmic model given above. Equation 2, however, is
the most applicable, and is generally accepted by the
scientific community (Fry 1967).279 Caution is recom-
mended in extrapolating beyond the data limits of the
original research (Appendix II-C). The rate of temperature
change does not appear to alter this equation, as long as the
change occurs more rapidly than over several days (Brett
1941 ;251 Lemke 1970).30° Thermal resistance may be
diminished by the simultaneous presence of toxicants or
other debilitating factors (Ebel et al. 1970,273 and summary
by Coutant 1970c).269 The most accurate predictability can
be derived from data collected using water from the site
under evaluation.
Because the equations based on research on thermal
tolerance predict 50 per cent mortality, a safety factor is
needed to assure no mortality. Several studies have indi-
cated that a 2 C reduction of an upper stress temperature
results in no mortalities within an equivalent exposure
duration (Fry et al. 1942;280 Black 1953).248 The validity
of a two degree safety factor was strengthened by the results
of Coutant (1970a).267 He showed that about 15 to 20
per cent of the exposure time, for median mortality at a given
high temperature, induced selective predation on thermally
shocked salmon and trout. (This also amounted to reduction
of the effective stress temperature by about 2 C.) Un-
published data from subsequent predation experiments
showed that this reduction of about 2 C also applied to the
incipient lethal temperature. The level at which there is no
increased vulnerability to predation is the best estimate of a
no-stress exposure that is currently available. No similar
safety factor has been explored for tolerance of low tem-
peratures. Further research may determine that safety
factors, as well as tolerance limits, have to be decided
independently for each species, life stage, and water quality
situation.
Information needed for predicting survival of a number
of species of fish and invertebrates under short-term condi-
tions of heat extremes is presented in Appendix II-C. This
information includes (for each acclimation temperature)
upper and lower incipient lethal temperatures: coefficients
a and b for the thermal resistance equation; and information
on size, life stage, and geographic source of the species.
It is clear that adequate data are available for only a small
percentage of aquatic species, and additional research is
necessary. Thermal resistance information should be
obtained locally for critical areas to account for simul-
-------
\&l/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
taneous presence of toxicants or other debilitating factors,
a consideration not reflected in Appendix II-C data. More
data are available for upper lethal temperatures than for
lower.
The resistance time equation, Equation 2, can be
rearranged to incorporate the 2 C margin of safety and also
to define conditions for survival (right side of the equation
less than or equal to 1) as follows:
1 > —
time
]Q[a+b(temp.+2)]
(Equation 3)
Low levels of mortality of some aquatic organisms are not
necessarily detrimental to ecosystems, because permissible
mortality levels can be established. This is how fishing or
shellfishing activities are managed. Many states and inter-
national agencies have established elaborate systems for
setting an allowable rate of mortality (for sport and com-
mercial fish) in order to assure needed reproduction and
survival. (This should not imply, however, that a form of
pollution should be allowed to take the entire harvestable
yield.) Warm discharge water from a power plant may
sufficiently stimulate reproduction of some organisms (e.g.,
zooplankton), such that those killed during passage through
the maximally heated areas are replaced within a few hours,
and no impact of the mortalities can be found in the open
water (Churchill and Wojtalik 1969;262 Heinle 1969).288
On the other hand, Jensen (1971)293 calculated that even
five percent additional mortality of 0-age brook trout
(Salvelinus Jontinalis) decreased the yield of the trout fishery,
and 50 per cent additional mortality would, theoretically.
cause extinction of the population. Obviously, there can be
no adequate generalization concerning the impact of short-
term effects on entire ecosystems, for each case will be
somewhat different. Future research must be directed
toward determining the effects of local temperature stresses
on population dynamics. A complete discussion will not be
attempted here. Criteria for complete short-term protection
may not always be necessary and should be applied with an
adequate understanding of local conditions.
Recommendation
Unless there is justifiable reason to believe it
unnecessary for maintenance of populations of a
species, the right side of Equation 3 for that
species should not be allowed to increase above
unity when the temperature exceeds the incipient
lethal temperature minus 2 C:
time
1 >
Values for a and b at the appropriate acclimation
temperature for some species can be obtained from
Appendix II-C or through additional research if
necessary data are not available. This recommen-
dation applies to all locations where organisms •
be protected are exposed, including areas withi
mixing zones and water diversions such as pow
station cooling water.
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
The sequence of events relating to gonad growth ai
gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of garnet<
development of the egg and embryo, and commenceme
of independent feeding represents one of the most compl
phenomena in nature, both for fish (Brett 1970)256 ai
invertebrates (Kinne 1970).2'6 These events are genera
the most thermally sensitive of all life stages. Other envirc
mental factors, such as light and salinity, often seasonal
nature, can also profoundly affect the response to ternpei
ture (Wiebe 1968).323 The general physiological state oft
organisms (e.g., energy reserves), which is an integration
previous history, has a strong effect on reproductive pott
tial (Kinne 1970).296 The erratic sequence of failures a
successes of different year classes of lake fish attests to t
unreliability of natural conditions for providing optirm.
reproduction.
Abnormal, short-term temperature fluctuations appear
be of greatest significance in reduced production of juven
fish and invertebrates (Kinne, 1963).295 Such them
fluctuations can be a prominent consequence of water i
as in hydroelectric power (rapid changes in river flow rate
thermal electric power (thermal discharges at fluctuati
power levels), navigation (irregular lock releases), a
irrigation (irregular water diversions and wasteway '
leases). Jaske and Synoground (1970)292 have document
such temperature changes due to interacting thermal a
hydroelectric discharges on the Columbia River.
Tolerable limits or variations of temperature char
throughout development, and particularly at the m
sensitive life stages, differ among species. There is
adequate summary of data on such thermal requireme
for successful reproduction. The data are scattered throu
many years of natural history observations (however, :
Breder and Rosen 1966250 foi a recent compilation of so)
data; also see Table 111-13). High priority must be assign
to summarizing existing information and obtaining tt
which is lacking.
Uniform elevations of temperature by a few degr<
during the spawning period, while maintaining short-te.
temperature cycles and seasonal thermal patterns, app{
to have little overall effect on the reproductive cycle
resident aquatic species, other than to advance the timi
for spring spawners or delay it for fall spawners. Such sh:
are often seen in nature, although no quantitative measu
ments of reproductive success have been made in t
connection. For example, thriving populations of ma
fishes occur in diverse streams of the Tennessee Valley
which the date of the spawning temperature may vary ir
-------
Heat and Temperature/163
TABLE 111-13—Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures
(Adapted from Wojtalik, T. A., unpublished manuscript)*
Fishes
Sauger
Stizostedioncanadense. ...
Walleye
S. vitreum vitreum
Longnose gar
Lepisosteus osseus ..
White bass
Morone chrysops
Least darter
Etheostoma microperca .
Spotted sucker
Minytrema melanops
White sucker
Catostomus commersom ...
Silvery minnow
Hybognathus nuchalls. .
Banded pygmoiimfisli
Elassoma zonatum
White crappie
Pomoxis annuiaris ...
Fathead minnow
Bigmouth buffalo
Ich'obuscyprinellus
Largemouth bass
Micropterus salmoides
Common shiner
Notropis cornutus
Golden shiner
Notemigonus crysoktucas
Green sunflsh
Lepomis cyanellus ...
Paddlefish
Pofyodon spathufa
Blackside darter
Percina maculata
Gizzard shad
Dorosoma cepedianum .
Smallmouth bass
Micropterus dotomieui.
Spotted bass
Micropterus punctubtus .
Johnny darter
Etheostoma nigrum ....
Orange spotted sunflsh
Lepomis humilii . .
Smallmouth buflalo
Icb'obus hubalus
Black buffalo
1. niger . ...
Carp
Cyprinus carpio ....
BluegiH
Lepomis macrochirus
Redbreast sunflsh
L.auriBs
Channel calf sh
Ictalurus punctatus
White catfish
1 catus
Pumpkinseed
Lepomis gibbosus . . .
Black crappie
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Brook silverside
Labidesthes sicculus
Brown bullhead
Ictalurus nebulosus ....
Threadfin shad
Dorosoma petenense
Warmouth
Lepomis gulosus
River redhorse
Temp.(C)
5.0
7.0
.. . 10.8
11.7
12.0
12.1
12.0-13.0
13.0
13.9-16.7
. 14.0-16.0
14.4
25.0
15.6-18.3
15.6
15.6-18.3
15.6
15.6
18.0
16.5
16.7
18.7
17.8
18.0
18.3
18.9
18.9
19.0
19.4
20.0
20.0
.. . . 26.7
20 0
20.0
20 0
20 0
21 1
21.1
21.0
Spawning site
Shallow gravel ban
Gravel, rubble, boulders on bar
Flooded shallows
Sand & rock shores
Streams or bars
Coves
Submerged materials in shallows
Shallows
Shallows
Shallows near bank
Small gravel streams
Bays I shoals, weeds
Bank, shalows
Over gravel bars
Gravel rock shore
Small streams, bar
Flooded shallows
Weeds, shallows
Bank cavity
Sand gravel bar
Bank shallows
Over gravel
Shallows, weeds
Shallow and open water
Bank shallows
Range in spawning depth
2-4 feet
3-10 feet
Flooded shallows
2-12 feet
Nr. surface
30 inches
Inches to \yt feet
Nr. surface
3-20 feet
Nr. surface
2-6 feet
<10feet
< 10 feet
<5feet
Surface
Inchest) 6 feet
Surface
<5leet
Daily spawning time
Night
Day, right
Day
Day, tang but esp. night
. . Day, night
. Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Night day
Day
.. Day
Day night
Day
Day, night
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
DH
Ensile
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds
Surface
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Underside floating objects
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds, bottom
. Weeds, bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Incubation period
(ays (Temp. C)
25 (5.0)
6 (20.0)
2 (15.6)
1 (21.1-23.2)
9-10 (18.7)
5 (18.9)
4 (15.6+)
7 (15.0)
4-5 (20.0)
4-8 (16.7)
1J4-3 (22.2)
9-10 (15.0)
6-7 (23.9-29.4)
3 (27.8)
5 (25.0)
3(26.7)
1H (25.0-26)7)
-------
164:/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 111-13—Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures—Contin
Fishes
Blue catfish
Ictalurus furcatus
Flathead catfish
Pylodictisolivaris....
Redear sunfish
Upturns microlophus . .
Ungear sunfish
L. megalotis
Freshwater drum
Apiodinotus grunniens
River carpsucker
Carpoidescarpio.
Spotted bullhead
Ictalurus serracanthus
Yellow bullhead
1. natalis
Temp. (C) Spawning site Range in spawning depth
22.2
22.2
23.0 Quiet, various Inches to 10 feet
. 23.3
23.0
. .. 23.9
. 26.7
Quiet, shallows 1' ,-4 feet
Daily spawning time Egg site Incubation pe
days (Temp.
Bottom 5-10 (18.9)
* T. A. Wojtalik, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.---"'
given year by 22 to 65 days. Examination of the literature
shows that shifts in spawning dates by nearly one month
are common in natural waters throughout the U.S. Popula-
tions of some species at the southern limits of their dis-
tribution are exceptions, e.g., the lake whitefish (Coregonus
clupeaformis) in Lake Erie that require a prolonged, cold
incubation period (Lawler 1965)299 and species such as
yellow perch (Perca flavescens) that require a long chill period
for egg maturation prior to spawning (Jones, unpublished
data).3"
This biological plasticity suggests that the annual spring
rise, or fall drop, in temperature might safely be advanced
(or delayed) by nearly one month in many regions, as long
as the thermal requirements that are necessary for migra-
tion, spawning, and other activities are not eliminated and
the necessary chill periods, maturation times, or incubation
periods are preserved for important species. Production of
food organisms may advance in a similar way, with little
disruption of food chains, although there is little evidence to
support this assumption (but see Coutant 1968;266 Coutant
and Steele 1968;271 and Nebeker 1971).307 The process is
similar to the latitudinal differences within the range of a
given species.
Highly mobile species that depend upon temperature
synchrony among widely different regions or environments
for various phases of the reproductive or rearing cycle (e.g.,
anadromous salmonids or aquatic insects) could be faced
with dangers of dis-synchrony if one area is warmed, but
another is not. Poor long-term success of one year class of
Fraser River (British Columbia) sockeye salmon (Oncorhyn-
chus nerka) was attributed to early (and highly successful)
fry production and emigration during an abnormally warm
summer followed by unsuccessful, premature feeding
activity in the cold and still unproductive estuary (Vernon
1958).322 Anadromous species are able, in some cases, (see
studies of eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) by Smith and
Saalfeld 1955)317 to modify their migrations and spawn
to coincide with the proper temperatures whenever ;
wherever they occur.
Rates of embryonic development that could lead to p
mature hatching are determined by temperatures of
microhabitat of the embryo. Temperatures of the mk
habitat may be quite different from those of the remain
of the waterbody. For example, a thermal effluent at
temperature of maximum water density (approximat
4 C) can sink in a lake whose surface water temperat
is colder (Hoglund and Spigarelli, 1972).290 Incubat
eggs of such species as lake (.rout (Salvelinus namqycush) i
various coregonids on the lake bottom may be intermitter
exposed to temperatures warmer than normal. Hatch
may be advanced to dates that are too early for surviva
the fry in their nursery areas. Hoglund arid Spigai
1972,290 using temperature data from a sinking plume
Lake Michigan, theorized that if lake herring (Coregc
artedii) eggs had been incubated at the location of one
their temperature sensors, the fry would have hatcl
seven days early. Thermal limitations must, therefore, ap
at the proper location for the particular species or life st;
to be protected.
Recommendations
After their specific limiting temperatures a
exposure times have been determined by stud
tailored to local conditions, the reproductive j
tivity of selected species will be protected in ar<
where:
• periods required for gonad growth and gam<
maturation are preserved;
• no temperature differentials are created tli
block spawning migrations, although some del
or advancement of timing based upon local co
ditions may be tolerated;
-------
Heat and Temperature /165
• temperatures are not raised to a level at which
necessary spawning or incubation temperatures
of winter-spawning species cannot occur;
• sharp temperature changes are not induced in
spawning areas, either in mixing zones or in
mixed water bodies (the thermal and geographic
limits to such changes will be dependent upon
local requirements of species, including the
spawning microhabitat, e.g., bottom gravels,
littoral zone, and surface strata);
• timing of reproductive events is not altered to
the extent that synchrony is broken where repro-
duction or rearing of certain life stages is shown
to be dependent upon cyclic food sources or other
factors at remote locations.
• normal patterns of gradual temperature changes
throughout the year are maintained.
These requirements should supersede all others
during times when they apply.
CHANGES IN STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC COMMUNITIES
Significant change in temperature or in thermal patterns
over a period of time may cause some change in the com-
position of aquatic communities (i.e., the species represented
and the numbers of individuals in each species). This has
been documented by field studies at power plants (Trembley
1956-I960)321 and by laboratory investigations (Mclntyre
19h8).3ra Allowing temperature changes to alter significantly
the community structure in natural waters may be detri-
mental, even though species of direct importance to man
arc not eliminated.
The limits of allowable change in species diversity due to
temperature changes should not differ from those applicable
to any other pollutant. This general topic is treated in
detail in reviews by others (Brookhaven National Lab.
1969)25S and is discussed in Appendix II-B, Community
Structure and Diversity Indices, p. 408.
NUISANCE ORGANISMS
Alteration of aquatic communities by the addition of heat
may occasionally result in growths of nuisance organisms
provided that other environmental conditions essential to
such growths (e.g., nutrients) exist. Poltoracka (1968)311
documented the growth stimulation of plankton in an
artificially heated small lake; Trembley (19653-1) re-
ported dense growths of attached algae in the discharge
canal and shallow discharge plume of a power station (where
the algae broke loose periodically releasing decomposing
organic matter to the receiving water). Other instances of
algal growths in effluent channels of power stations were
reviewed by Coutant (1970c).269
Changed thermal patterns (e.g., in stratified lakes) may
greatly alter the seasonal appearances of nuisance algal
growths even though the temperature changes are induced
by altered circulation patterns (e.g., artificial destratifica-
tion). Dense growths of plankton have been retarded in
some instances and stimulated in others (Fast 1968;275 and
unpublished data 1971).325
Data on temperature limits or thermal distributions in
which nuisance growths will be produced are not presently
available due in part to the complex interactions with other
growth stimulants. There is not sufficient evidence to say
that any temperature increase will necessarily result in
increased nuisance organisms. Careful evaluation of local
conditions is required for any reasonable prediction of
effect.
Recommendation
Nuisance growths of organisms may develop
where there are increases in temperature or alter-
ations of the temporal or spatial distribution of
heat in water. There should be careful evaluation
of all factors contributing to nuisance growths at
any site before establishment of thermal limits
based upon this response, and temperature limits
should be set in conjunction with restrictions on
other factors (see the discussion of Eutrophication
and Nutrients in Section I).
CONCLUSIONS
Recommendations for temperature limits to protect
aquatic life consist of the following two upper limits for any
time of the year (Figure 111-6).
1. One limit consists of a maximum weekly average
temperature that:
(a) in the warmer months (e.g., April through
October in the North, and March through
November in the South) is one third of the range
between the optimum temperature and the
ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature for the
most sensitive important species (or appropriate
life stage) that is normally found at that location at
that time; or
(b) in the cooler months (e.g., mid-October to mid-
April in the North, and December to February in
the South) is that elevated temperature from which
important species die when that elevated tem-
perature is suddenly dropped to the normal
ambient temperature, with the limit being the
acclimation temperature (minus a 2 C safety
factor), when the lower incipient lethal tempera-
ture equals the normal ambient water temperature
(in some regions this limit may also be applicable
in summer); or
(c) during reproduction seasons (generally April-June
and September-October in the North, and March-
May and October-November in the South) is that
-------
lection HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
temperature that meets specific site requirements
for successful migration, spawning, egg incubation,
fry rearing, .and other reproductive functions of
important species; or
(d) at -a specific site is found necessary to preserve
normal species diversity or prevent undesirable
growths of nuisance organisms.
2. The second limit is the time-dependent maximum
temperature for short exposures as given by the species-
specific equation:
time
1 >
Local requirements for reproduction should supersede
all other requirements when they are applicable. Detailed
ecological analysis of both natural and man-modified
aquatic environments is necessary to ascertain when these
requirements should apply.
USE OF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA
A hypothetical electric power station using lake water i
cooling is illustrated as a typical example in Figure III
This discussion concerns the application of thermal critei
to this typical situation.
The size of the power station is 1,000 megawatts elect.
(MWe) if nuclear, or 1,700 MWe if fossil-fueled (oil, co
gas); and it releases 6.8 billion British Thermal Un
(BTU) per hour to the aquatic environment. This size
representative of power stations currently being instalk
Temperature rise at the condensers would be 20 F wi
cooling water flowing at the rate of 1,520 cubic feet/secoi
(ft3/sec) or 682,000 gallons/minute. Flow could be i
creased to reduce temperature rise.
The schematic Figure III-7 is drawn with two alternati
discharge arrangements to illustrate the extent to whii
design features affect thermal impacts upon aquatic li
30 -- 86
-------
Heat and Temperature/\ 67
Power
Plant
Canal (2 mi.)
A'
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Modified
"~ Temperature
(Example)
Historic \ \
Average Temp, at D \ \
JFMAMJJ ASOND
Months
Plume Scale
0
I i i
5000
I
Feet
FIGURE IH-7—Hypothetical Power Plant Site For Application of Water Temperature Criteria
-------
168/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Warm condenser water can be carried from the station to
the lake by (a) a pipe carrying water at a high flow velocity
or (b) a canal in which the warm water flows slowly. There
is little cooling in a canal, as measurements at several
existing power stations have shown. Water can be released
to the lake by using any of several combinations of water
velocity and volume (i.e., number of outlets) or outlet
dimensions and locations. These design features largely
determine the configuration of the thermal plumes illus-
trated in Figure III-7 resulting from either rapid dilution
with lake water or from slow release as a surface layer. The
isotherms were placed according to computer simulation
of thermal discharges (Pritchard 1971)312 and represent a
condition without lake currents to aid mixing.
Exact configuration of an actual plume depends upon
many factors (some of which change seasonally or even
hourly) such as local patterns of currents, wind, and bottom
and shore topography.
Analytical Steps
Perspective of the organisms in the water body and of the
pertinent non-biological considerations (chemical, hv-
drological, hydraulic) is an essential beginning. This
perspective requires a certain amount of literature survey-
or on site study if the information is not well known. T\vo
steps are particularly important:
1. identification of the important species and com-
munity (primary production, species diversity, etc.) that are
relevant to this site; and
2. determination of life patterns of the important species
(seasonal distribution, migrations, spawning areas, nursery
and rearing areas, sites of commercial or sport fisheries).
This information should include as much specific informa-
tion on thermal requirements as it is possible to obtain
from the literature.
Other steps relate the life patterns and environmental
requirements of the biota to the sources of potential thermal
damage from the power plant. These steps can be identified
with specific areas in Figure III-7.
Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature Change
Five principal areas offer potential for biological damage
from thermal changes, labeled A-E on Figure III-7. (There
are other areas associated with mechanical or chemical
effects that cannot be treated here; see the index.)
Area A The cooling water as it passes through the intake,
intake piping (Ai), condensers, discharge piping
(A2) or canal (A'2), and thermal plume (A3 or
A'3), carrying with it small organisms (such as
phytoplankton, zooplankton, invertebrate larvae,
and fish eggs or larvae). Organisms receive a
thermal shock to the full 20 F above ambient
temperature wilh a duration that depends uf
the rate of water flow and the temperature di
in the plume.
Area B Water of the plume alone that entrains b
small and larger organisms (including small fi
as it is diluted (B or B'). Organisms rece
thermal shocks from temperatures ranging fr
the discharge to the ambient temperature,
pending upon where they are entrained.
Area C Benthic environment where bottom organi;
(including fish eggs) can be heated chronically
periodically by the thermal plume (C or C')
Area D The slightly warmed mixed water body (or la
segment of it) where all organisms experienc
slightly warmer average temperature (D).
Area E The discharge canal in which resident or seaso
populations reside at abnormally high tempe
tures (E).
Cooling Water Entrainment
It is not adequate to consider only thermal criteria
water bodies alone when large numbers of aquatic organis
may be pumped through a power plant. The probabil
of an organism being pumped through will depend up
the ratio of the volume of cooling water in the plant to 1
volume in the lake (or to the volume passing the plant ii
river or tidal fresh water}. Tidal environments (be
freshwater and saline) offer greater potential for entra
ment than is apparent, s\nce the same water mass v
move back and forth past the plant many times during 1
lifetime of pelagic residence time of most organisi
Thermal shocks that could be experienced by organis
entrained at the hypothetical power station are shown
Figure III-8.
Detrimental effects of thermal exposures received duri
entrainment can be judged by using the following equati
for short-term exposures to extreme temperatures:
General criterion. 1>
time
10la+b(temp.+2)]
Values for a and b in the equation for the species of aqua
organisms that are likely to be pumped with cooling wa
may be obtained from Appendix II, or the data may
obtained using the methods of Brett (1952).262 The prevaili
intake temperature would determine the acclimati
temperature to be selected from the table.
For example, juvenile largemouth bass may frequent t
near-shore waters of this lake and be drawn into the intal
To determine whether the hypothetical thermal dischart
(Figure III-7) would be detrimental for juvenile bass, t
following analysis can be made (assuming, for examp
that the lake is in Wisconsin where these basic data for b;
are available):
Criterion for juvenile bass (Wisconsin) when inta
-------
Condenser
Piping •
Intake Piping
Intake
i,
Can a
Dilution Plume
Canal Plume
T_
J_
12 16 20 24
lime \fu-r Initial Heating (his )
Modified aflcr Coutant I970c269
//ifat and Temperature/\ 69
36 40
FIGURE IH-8—Time Course of Temperature Change in Cooling Water Passing Through the Example Power Station with
Two Alternate Discharges. The Canal Is Assumed to Flow at a Rate of 3 Ft. Per Sec.
temperature (acclimation) is 70 F (21.11 C). (Data
from Appendix II-C).
ploying rapid dilution.
time
10134- 3649-0. 97 8 9 (temp.+2) J
Canal
Criterion applied to entrainment to end of discharge
canal (discharge temperature is 70 F plus the 20 degree
rise in the condensers or 90 F (32.22 C). The thermal
plume would provide additional exposure above the
lethal threshold, minus 2 C (29.5 C or 85.1 F) of more
than four hours.
1>
60
1Q [34. 364 9- 0.9 7 89(32. 22+2)]
Conclusion:
Juvenile bass would not survive to the end of the
discharge canal.
Dilution
Criterion applied to entrainment in the system em-
1 >
1.2
}Q[34. 3649-0. 9789(32. 22+2.0)]
1.2
-
Travel time in piping to discharge is assumed to be
1 min., and temperature drop to below the lethal
threshold minus 2 C (29.5 C or 85.1 F) is about 10 sec.
(Pritchard, 197 1).312
Conclusion
Juvenile bass would survive this thermal exposure:
1>0.1630
By using the equation in the following form,
log (time)=a+6 (temp. + 2)
the length of time that bass could barely survive the
expected temperature rise could be calculated, thus
allowing selection of an appropriate discharge system.
For example:
log (time) =34.3649- 0.9789 (34.22)
log (time) =0.8669
time =7.36
-------
170/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
This would be about 1,325 feet of canal flowing at
3 ft/sec.
It is apparent that a long discharge canal, a nonrecircu-
lating cooling pond, a very long offshore oioe, or delayed
dilution in a mixing zone (such as the one promoting surface
cooling) could prolong the duration of exposure of pumped
organisms and thereby increase the likelihood of damage to
them. Precise information on the travel times of the cooling
water in the discharge system is needed to conduct this
analysis.
The calculations have ignored changing temperatures in
the thermal plume, because the canal alone was lethal, and
cooling in the plume with rapid dilution was so rapid that
the additional exposure was only for 10 seconds (assumed to
be at the discharge temperature the whole time). There
may be other circumstances under which the effect of
decreasing exposure temperature in the plume may be
of interest.
Effects of changing temperatures in the plume can be
estimated by summing the effects of incremental exposures
for short time periods (Fry et al. 1946281). For example, the
surface cooling plume of Figures III-7 and III-8 could be
considered to be composed of several short time spans, each
with an average temperature, until the temperature had
dropped to the upper lethal threshold minus 2 C for the
juvenile bass. Each time period would be calculated as if
it were a single exposure, and the calculated values for all
time periods would be summed and compared with unity,
as follows:
time,,
.1+2)] ~T JQ[a+b(temp.2+2)]
lQ[a+b(temp.n+2)]
The surface cooling plume of Figure III-6 (exclusive of
the canal) could be considered to consist of 15 min at
89.7 F (32.06 C), 15 min at 89.2 F (31.78C), 15 min at
88.7 F (31.4 C), 15 min at 88.2 F (31.22 C), 15 min at
87.8 F (31.00 C), until the lethal threshold for 70 F acclima-
tion minus 2 C (85.1 F) was reached. The calculation would
proceed as follows:
1 >
15
JQ [34.3649—0.9789(32.06+2)]
15
1QI34.3649-0.9789(31.78+2)]
In this case, the bass would not survive through the first
15-minute period. In other such calculations, several steps
would have to be summed before unity was reached (if not
reached, the plume would not be detrimental).
Entrainment in the Plume
Organisms mixed with the thermal plume during dilution
will also receive thermal shocks, although the maximum
temperatures will generally be less than the discharge
temperature. The number of organisms affected to son
degree may be significantly greater than the numbe
actually pumped through the plant. The route of maximu
thermal exposure for each plume is indicated in Figu
III-7 by a dashed line. This route should be analyzed
determine the maximum reproducible effect.
Detrimental effects of these exposures can also be judgi
by using the criterion for short-term exposures to extren
temperatures. The analytical steps were outlined above f
estimating the effects on organisms that pass through tl
thermal plume portions of the entrainment thermal patter
There would have been no mortalities of the largemou
bass from entrainment in the plume with rapid d ilution, di
to the short duration of exposure (about 10 seconds). Ai
bass that were entrained in the near-shore portions of tl
larger plume, and remained in it, would have died in k
than 15 minutes.
Bottom Organisms Impacted by the Plume
Bottom communities of invertebrates, algae, root<
aquatic plants, and many incubating fish eggs can 1
exposed to warm plume water, particularly in shallo
environments. In some circumstances the warming can I
continuous, in others it can be intermittent due to chang
in plume configuration with changes in currents, winds, i
other factors. Clearly a thermal plume that stratifies ar
occupies only the upper part of the water column will ha1
least effect on bottom biota.
Several approaches are useful in evaluating effects on tl
community. Some have predictive capability, while othe
are suitable largely for identifying effects after they ha'
occurred. The criterion for short-term exposures identifie
relatively brief periods of detrimental high temperature
Instead of the organism passing through zones of elevate
temperatures, as in the previous examples, the organism
sedentary, and the thermal pulse passes over it. Developii
fish eggs may be very sensitive to such changes. A bri
pulse of high temperature that kills large numbers of org
nisms may affect a bottom area for time periods far long
than the immediate exposure time. Repeated sublethal e
posures may also be detrimental, although the process
more complex than straight-forward summation. Analy;
of single exposures proceeds exactly as described for plun
entrainment.
The criterion for prolonged exposures is more general
applicable. The maximum tolerable weekly average ten
perature may be determined by the organisms present an
the phase of their life cycle. In May, for example, tit
maximum heat tolerance temperature for the communii
may be determined by incubating fish eggs or fish fry on tl
bottom. In July it may be determined by the importai
resident invertebrate species. A well-designed thermal di
charge should not require an extensive mixing zone whei
these criteria are exempted. Special criteria for reproducth
processes may have to be applied, although thermal di
-------
Heat and Temperature/171
charges should be located so that zones important for
reproduction—migration, spawning, incubation—are not
used.
Criteria for species diversity provide a useful tool for
identifying effects of thermal changes after they have
occurred, particularly the effects of subtle changes that are
a result of community interactions rather than physiological
responses by one or more major species. Further research
may identify critical temperatures or sequences of tem-
perature changes that cannot be exceeded and may thereby
provide a predictive capability as well. (See Appendix
II B.)
Mixed Water Body (or major region thereof)
This is the region most commonly considered in es-
tablishing water quality standards, for it generally includes
the major area of the water body. Here the results of thermal
additions are observed as small temperature increases over a
large area (instead of high temperatures locally at the dis-
charge point), and all heat sources become integrated into
the normal annual temperature cycle (Figure III-6 and
Figure III-7 insert).
Detrimental high temperatures in this area (or parts of
it) are defined by the criteria for maximum temperatures
for prolonged exposure (warm and cool months) for the
most sensitive species or life stage occurring there, at each
time of year, and by the criteria for reproduction.
For example, in the lake with the hypothetical power
station, there may be 40 principal fish species, of which half
are considered important. These species have spawning
temperatures ranging from 5 to 6 C for the sauger (Stizo-
stedion canadense) to 26.7 C for the spotted bullhead (Ictalurus
sen acanthus). They also have a similar range of temperatures
required for egg incubation, and a range of maximum
temperatures for prolonged exposures of juveniles and
adults. The requirements, however, may be met any time
within normal time spans, such as January 1 to 24 for sauger
spawning, and March 25 to April 29 for smallmouth bass
spawning. Maximum temperatures for prolonged exposures
may increase steadily throughout a spring period. To
predict effects of thermal discharges the pertinent tempera-
tures for reproductive activities and maximum temperatures
for each life stage can be plotted over a 12-month period
such as shown in Fig. Ill—6. A maximum annual tempera-
ture curve can become apparent when sufficient biological
data are available. Mount (1970)308 gives an example of
this type of analysis.
Discharge Canal
Canals or embayments that carry nearly undiluted
condenser cooling water can develop biological communities
that are atypical of normal seasonal communities. Interest
in these areas does not generally derive from concern for a
balanced ecosystem, but rather from effects that the altered
communities can have on the entire aquatic ecosystem.
The general criteria for nuisance organisms may be
applicable. In the discharge canals of some existing power
stations, extensive mats of temperature-tolerant blue-green
algae grow and periodically break away, adding a decom-
posing organic matter to the nearby shorelines.
The winter criterion for maximum temperatures for
prolonged exposures identifies the potential for fish kills due
to rapid decreases in temperature. During cold seasons
particularly, fish are attracted to warmer water of an
enclosed area, such as a discharge canal. Large numbers
may reside there for sufficiently long periods to become
metabolically acclimated to the warm water. For any
acclimation temperature there is a minimum temperature
to which the species can be cooled rapidly and still survive
(lower incipient lethal temperature). These numerical
combinations, where data are available, are found in
Appendix II-C. There would be 50 per cent mortality, for
example, if largemouth bass acclimated in a discharge
canal to 20 C, were cooled to 5.5 C or below. If normal
winter ambient temperature is less than 5.5 C, then the
winter maximum should be below 20 C, perhaps nearer
15 C. If it is difficult to maintain the lower temperatures,
fish should be excluded from the area.
-------
TOXIC SUBSTANCES
ORGANIC MERCURY
Until recently, mercury most commonly entered the
aquatic environment by leaching from geological formations
and by water transport to streams and lakes. Since the
industrial revolution, however, increasing amounts of mer-
cury have been added to the aquatic environment with
waste products from manufacturing processes or through
improper disposal of industrial and consumer products. In
addition, large quantities of mercury enter the environment
when ores are smelted to recover such metals as copper,
lead, and zinc (Klein 1971),343 and when fossil fuels are
burned. Whereas the maximum amount of mercury released
by weathering processes is approximately 230 metric tons
per year worldwide, the amount released by the burning
of coal is on the order of 3000 tons per year; and a further
quantity, probably comparable to 3000 tons, is emitted
from industrial processes (Joensuu 1971).341
In urban and industrial areas consumer products con-
taining mercury are often disposed of in sewer systems.
These mercury discharges, though individually small, can-
not be considered insignificant, because cumulatively they
add large quantities of mercury to the water courses that
receive these effluents. On the average, the mercury concen-
tration in sewage effluent is one order of magnitude greater
than its concentration in the water course that receives it
(D'ltri unpublished data 1971).359 Based on Klein and Gold-
berg's 1970344 report of mercury concentrations in samples
of ocean sediments near municipal sewer out-falls, it can
be calculated that in an urban area from 400 to 500 pounds
of mercury per million population are discharged to re-
ceiving waters every year. The uses of mercury are varied,
and its consumption is fairly large. The National Academy
of Sciences (1969)347 reported the consumption of mercury
by user category.
World attention focused on the environmental mercury
problem when human beings were poisoned by eating
contaminated fish and shell fish during the middle and late
1950's in Minamata, Japan. Since the first occurrence of
"Minamata disease" in 1953, 121 cases resulting in 46
deaths have been confirmed in the Minamata area with an
additional 47 confirmed cases and 6 deaths in near!
Niigata (Takeuchi 1970).362
In Sweden in the 1950's, conservationists charged th
the abundance of methylmercury in the environment w
causing severe poisoning in seed-eating birds and the
predators (Johnels et al. 1967).342 These poisonings cou
be related to the use of methylmercury in seed dressing
When these seed dressings wen? prohibited, levels of mercu
declined substantially in seed-eating animals. At about tl
same time, investigators found high levels of mercury
fish in waters off Sweden, practically all of it in the for
of methylmercury.
Biological Methylation
Some microbes are capable of biologically synthesizir
methylmercury from mercury ions (Jensen and Jcrneli
1969;339 Wood et al. 1969;368 Dunlap 1971 ;333 Fagerstro
and Jernelov 1971).334 At low concentrations, the forma tic
of dimethylmercury is favored in the methyl transfer reactic
but at higher concentrations of mercury, the major produ
appears to be monomethylmercury. In any particular eci
system, the amounts of mono- and dimethylmercury con
pounds are determined by the presence of microbial specie
the amount of organic pollution loading, the mercury coi
centration, temperature, and pH (Wood et al. 1969).3:>s
Biological Magnification
Aquatic organisms concentrate methylmercury in the
bodies either directly from the water or through the foe
chain (Johnels et al. 1967;:!42 Hannerz 1968,-356 Hasseln
1968,338 Miettinen et al. 1970346). Northern pike (Est
lucius) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) are able to a
similate and concentrate methylmercury directly into the
muscle tissues from ingested food (Miettinen et al. 1970).3
In general, mercury in organisms eaten by fish increases ;
each trophic level of the food chain (Hamilton 1971).3
The magnitude of the bioaccumulation of mercury is d<
termined by the species, its exposure, feeding habit
metabolic rate, age and size, quality of the water, and th
degree of mercury pollution in the water. Rucker an
172
-------
Toxic Substances/] 73
Amend (1969)349 established that rainbow trout contained
mercury levels of 4.0 and 17.3 Mg/g in their muscle and
kidney tissue after being exposed to 60 ng/l of ethylmercury
for one hour a day over 10 days. Fresh water phytoplankton,
macrophytes, and fish are capable of biologically magnifying
mercury concentrations from water 1000 times (Chapman
et al. 1968).33° Johnels et al. (1967)342 reported a mercury
concentration factor from water to pike of 5000 or more.
Johnels et al. (1967)34'2 had previously shown that when
mercury levels in pike muscle were below 0.2 ^g, g, the
level was relatively constant irrespective of weight, but
above 0.2 Mg/g, the concentration of mercury tended to
increase with increasing age and weight.
Experiments in progress at the National Water Quality
Laboratory in Duluth, Minnesota, (Mount unpublished
data 1971)361 indicate that when brook trout (Salvelinus
fontinahf) are held in water containing 0.05 pg/\ of methyl-
mercury for 2 months they can accumulate more than
0.5 /ig'g of mercury. This is a magnification of 10,000
times. In the same experiments, exposure to 0.03 Mg/1 for
5 months resulted in continuing accumulation in fish tissue
with no indication of a plateau. In a group of fish held at
one /xg, 1, some organs contained 30 Mg'g- Some fresh water
invertebrates have also been reported to have a 10,000
magnification (Hannerz 1968).331'
Although the mechanisms by which mercury accumulates
and concentrates have not been fully explained, at least
three factors are involved: the metabolic rate of individual
fish; differences in the selection of food as fish mature;
and the epithelial surface of the fish (Wobeser et al. 1970 ;357
Hannerz 1968).336 The rate at which fish lose methyl-
mercury also has considerable effect on magnification of
mercury in the tissues. Miettinen et al. have shown in a
series of papers (1970)34C that the loss of methylmercury is
both fast and slow in fishes. The fast loss occurs early, while
mercury is being redistributed through the body, and lasts
only a few weeks. The subsequent loss from established
binding sites follows slowly; a half-life is estimated to be
on the order of 2 years. These rates mean that fishes, and
perhaps other lower vertebrates, reduce their content of
methylmercury many times more slowly than do the higher
terrestrial vertebrates. Man, for example, is usually con-
sidered to excrete half of any given mercury residue in
about 80 days. Extremely low rates of loss have also been
shown in different species of aquatic mollusks and crayfish
(Cambarus) (Nelson 1971).348
Excessive mercury residues in the sediments are dissipated
only slowly. Lofroth (1970)345 estimated that aquatic habi-
tats polluted with mercury continue to contaminate fish for
as long as 10 to 100 years after pollution has stopped.
Mercury in Fresh Waters
Mercury measured in the water of selected rivers of the
United States ranged from less than 0.1 jtg/1 to 17 ng/L
Two-thirds of the rivers contained 0.1 Mg/1 or less (Wallace
et al. 1971).355 The value of 0.1 /ig/1 is also reported as the
earliest reliable estimate of mercury levels in uncontami-
nated fresh water (Swedish National Institute of Public
Health 1971).351 Some rivers tested by the Swedish Institute
were as low as 0.05 Mg/1, which was also the average mercury
level in some salt waters.
Toxicity of Organic Mercury in Water
The chemical form of methylmercury administered to
fish makes little difference in its toxic effect (Miettinen et
al. 1970).346 The methylmercury bound to sulfhydryl groups
of proteins, as it would be in nature, is just as toxic as the
free unbound ionic form.
Fish are able to survive relatively high concentrations of
organomercurials for a short time with few ill effects. For
example, fry of steel head trout (Salmo gairdrieri) and
finger-lings of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) are able
to survive in 10 mg/'l of pyridyl mercuric acetate for one
hour with no toxic effects (Rucker and Whipple 1951).350
The LC50 of pyridyl mercuric acetate for some freshwater
fish ranges from 390 jug/1 to 26,000 /xg/1 for exposures be-
tween 24 and 72 hours (\Villford 1966;3"6 Clemmens and
Snced 1958,331 1959).332
As the exposure times lengthen, lower concentrations of
mercury are lethal. On the basis of 120-hour bioassay tests
of three species of minnows, Van Horn and Balch (1955)354
determined that the minimum lethal concentrations of
pyridyl mercuric acetate, pyridyl mercuric chloride, phenyl
mercuric acetate, and ethyl mercuric phosphate averaged
250 /ig/1.
Recent experiments at the National Water Quality Lab-
oratory (Mount, personal communication 1971)360 indicated
that 0.2 /ug/1 of methylmercury killed fathead minnows
(Ptmephalespromelas) within 6 to 8 weeks. Toxicity data from
this same laboratory on several other species including
Gammarus, Daphnia, top minnow (Fundulus sp.) and brook
trout (Salvelinus fontmahs) indicated that none was more
sensitive than the fathead minnow.
Northern pike seem to be more sensitive. When they
were reared in water containing 0.1 /ig/1 of methylmercury
for a season and then placed in clean water, they underwent
continuing mortality. Scattered mortality from this source
could ordinarily not be detected in nature, because the
affected fish became uncoordinated and probably would
have been eaten by predators (Hannerz 1968,33G quoted by
Nelson 1971348).
Some species of plankton are particularly sensitive.
Studies of the effect of mercury on phytoplankton species
confirmed that concentrations as low as 0.1 /zg/1 of selected
organomercurial fungicides decreased both the photosynthe-
sis and the growth of laboratory cultures of the marine
alga Nitzschia delicatissum, as well as of some fresh water
phytoplankton species (Harriss et al. 1970).337 Ethyl-
mercury phosphate is lethal to marine phytoplankton at
60 Mg/1, and levels as low as 0.5 jig/1 drastically limit their
-------
114/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
growth (Ukeles 1962).363 There is insufficient information
about the thresholds for chronic toxicity.
Tissue Levels and Toxicity
There is almost no information on the concentrations of
mercury in the tissues of aquatic organisms that are likely
to cause mortality of the organisms themselves. Fish and
shellfish found dead in Minamata contained 9 to 24 /ug/g
of mercury on the usual wet-weight basis; presumably some
of these levels were lethal (Nelson 1971).348 Miettinen et al.
(1970)346 showed that pike which had been experimentally
killed by methylmercury contained from 5 to 9.1 ng/g and
averaged 6.4 and 7.4 micrograms of methylmercury per
gram of muscle tissue.
Discussion of Proposed Recommendations
At the present time there are not sufficient data available
to determine the levels of mercury in water that are safe
for aquatic organisms under chronic exposure. There have
not been, for example, any experiments on the effects of
chronic exposure to mercury on reproduction and growth
of fish in the laboratory. Since experiments on sublethal
effects are lacking, the next most useful information is on
lethal effects following moderately long exposures of weeks
or months. The lowest concentration shown to be lethal to
fish is 0.2 /ig/1 of methylmercury which is lethal to fathead
minnows (Pimephalespromelas) in six weeks. Because 0.2 Mg/1
of methylmercury has been shown to be lethal, it is suggested
that this concentration of mercury not be exceeded at any
time or place in natural waters. Since phytoplankton are
more sensitive, the average concentration of methylmercury
in water probably should not exceed 0.05 /ug/1 for their
protection. This recommended average is approximately
equal to the supposed natural concentrations of mercury
in water; hence little mercury can be added to the aquatic
environment. The National Water Quality Laboratory
(Mount, unpublished data 1971)361 found that exposure of
trout to 0.05 Mg/1 of methylmercury for 3 months resulted
in concentrations of 0.5 ng/g, the Food and Drug Adminis-
tration guideline for the maximum level for edible portions
of fish flesh.
These concentrations of mercury or methylmercury in
water are very low and difficult to measure or differentiate
without special equipment and preparation. These low
concentrations can also only be measured as total mercury.
Since sediments may contain 10,000 times the amount of
mercury in water, suspended solids in water can seriously
affect the values found in analyses of water for mercury
(Jernelov 1972).340 Because of these difficulties and because
the real danger of mercury pollution results from a biological
magnification, recommendations for mercury residues in
tissues of aquatic organisms should be developed. This
would make monitoring and control not only more effective
and certain but also more feasible technically. Unfortu-
nately, data are not yet available on the residue levels that
are safe for the aquatic organisms themselves and fc
organisms higher in the food chain, such as predatory fis
or fish-eating birds. It is known that concentrations of 5 t
10 ng/g are found in some fish that died of methylmercur
poisoning, and that 0.01 to 0.2 ng/g is apparently a usu;
background level in freshwater fish. Because data are lackin
for safe residue levels in aquatic food chains, it is suggeste
that the Food & Drug Administration guideline level c
0.5 Mg/g of total mercury in edible portions of freshwatc
fish used as human food be the guideline to protect predatoj
in aquatic food chains.
Hence, mercury residues should not exceed 0.5 ng/g i
any aquatic organisms. If levels approaching this are founc
there should be total elimination of all possible sources c
mercury pollution.
No distinction has been drawn between organic and ir
organic forms of mercury in these discussions because of th
possibility of biological transformation to the organic phas
in aquatic habitats. Since the form of mercury in watc
cannot be readily determined, the recommendations ar
primarily based upon methylmercury but expressed as tote
mercury.
Recommendations
Selected species of fish and predatory aquati
organisms should be protected when the followin
conditions are fulfilled: (1) the concentration o
total mercury does not exceed a total body burdei
of 0.5 M£/£ wet weight in any aquatic organism
(2) the total mercury concentrations in unfilterei
water do not exceed 0.2 fig/1 at any time or place
and (3) the average total mercury concentration ii
unfiltered water does not exceed 0.05 jug/1-
PHTHALATE ESTERS
The occurrence of dialkyl phthalate residues has bee
established in various segments of the aquatic environmer
of North America. Phthalate ester residues occur principall
in samples of water, sediment, and aquatic organisms i
industrial and heavily populated areas (Stalling 1972).3'
In fish di-n-butyl phthalate residues ranged from 0 to 50
fig/kg, and di-2-ethylhexyl phi:halate residues were as hig
as 3,200 Mg/kg. No well-documented information exists o
the fate of phthalate compounds in aquatic environment!
Phthalate esters are widely used as plasticizers, particu
larly in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics. The mos
common phthalate ester plasticizer is di-2-ethylhexyl phthal
ate. Di-7z-butyl phthalate has been used as an insect repellen
(Frear 1969)362 and in pesticide formulations to retari
volatilization (Schoof et al. 1963).365 Production of diocty
phthalate ester placticizers was estimated to be 4.10Xl08lb
in 1970 (Neelyl 970).363 Total phthalate ester productioi
was reported to be 8.40 X 108 Ibs in 1968, of which 4.40 X 10
Ibs were dioctyl phthalate esters (Nematollahi et al. 1967).36
Production of phthalic anhydride was estimated to bi
-------
Toxic Substances/175
7.60X 108 Ibs in 1970 (Ncely 1970).363 PVC plastic formula-
tions may contain 30 to 60 parts per hundred of phthalate
ester plasticizer (Nematollahi et al. 1967).364
Toxicity
Studies to determine the acute or chronic toxicity effects
of phthalate esters or other plasticizers on aquatic organisms
have only recently been undertaken (Stalling 1972).366 For
example, the acute toxicity of di-«-butyl phthalate to fish
is extremely low compared to pesticides (Table 111-14).
Daphnia magna were exposed to 0.1 fie;/I of 14C di-rc-butyl
phthalate and the organisms accumulated chemical residues
of 600 /^g/kg within 10 days, or a 6,000-fold magnification
(Saundcrs, unpublished data 1971).367 However, after transfer
of the Daphnia to uncontaminated water, approximately
50 per cent of the di-rz-butyl phthalate was excreted in three
days. It was recently found that a concentration of 3 jug/1
of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate significantly reduced the growth
and reproduction of Daphnia magna (Sanders unpublished
data 1971).367
The acute toxicity of phthalate esters appears to be rela-
tively insignificant, but these compounds may be detri-
mental to aquatic organisms at low chronic concentrations.
Recommendation
Until a more detailed evaluation is made of toxi-
cological effects of phthalate esters on aquatic eco-
systems, a safety factor of 0.1 has been applied to
data for Daphnia magna toxicity, and a level not
to exceed 0.3 /*£/! should protect fish and their
food supply.
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) have been found in fish
and wildlife in many parts of the world and at levels that
may adversely affect aquatic organisms (Jensen et al.
1969;376 Holmes et al. 1967;375 Koeman et al. 1969;378
TABLE 111-14—Acute Toxicity of Di-n-butyl Phthalate to
Four Species of Fish and Daphnia Magna.
LC50 in jug/I
Species Temperature 24 hr
Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)
Bluegill (Lepomis macrechinis) 1230
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) . 3720
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnen)
Daphnia magna
48 hr
1490
731
2910
96 hr
1300 (Stalling)'"
731 (Stalling)**
2910 (Stalling)'"
6470 (Sanders)1"
>5000 (Sanders)3"
Risebrough et al. 1968).386 The environmental occurrence,
uses, and present toxicological aspects of PCB were recently
reviewed by Peakall and Lincer (1970),384 Gustafson
(1970),372 Risebrough (1970),387 and Reynolds (1971).385
Biphenyls may have 1 to 10 attached chlorine atoms,
making possible over 200 compounds (Gustafson 1970).372
PCB occur as residues in fish, and presumably also in water,
as mixtures of chlorinated biphenyl isomers as shown in
Table 111-15 (Stalling and Johnson, unpublished data 1970,3%
Stalling mpress™2).
Analysis of PCB has been accomplished by gas chromatog-
raphy after separation of PCB from pesticides. A separation
method has been described by Armour and Burke (1970)369
and modified by Stalling and Huckins (1971).391 A method
using separation on a charcoal column has shown good
reproducibility (Frank and Rees, personal communication) .396
No standardized gas-liquid chromatography method has
been proposed for the analysis of mixtures of PCB in en-
vironmental samples. The solubility of these formulations
in water has not been precisely determined, but it is in the
range of 100 to 1,000 /ig/1 (Papageorge 1970).383 Since
PCB have gas chromatographic characteristics similar to
many organochlorine pesticides, they can cause serious
interference in the gas chromatographic determination of
chlorinated insecticides (Risebrough et al. 1968).386
The Monsanto Company, the sole manufacturer of PCB
TABLE 111-15—Composition of PCB Residues in Selected Fish Samples from the 1970 National Pesticide Residue
Monitoring Program
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Yazoo
Hudson.
Allegheny
Delaware
Cape Fear
Lake Ontario
Mississippi
Mernmac .
River
Location
Cincinnati, 0.
Cincinnati, 0.
Marietta, 0.
Marietta, 0.
Redwood, Miss.
PoughKeepsie, N.Y.
Natrona, Pa.
Camden, N.J.
Elizabeth Town, N.C.
Port Ontario, N.Y.
Memphis, Tenn.
Lowell, Mass.
Species
Carp Cyprinus carpio
White crappie Poximus annularus
Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus
Channel catfish
Smallmouth buffalo Ictiobus bubalus
Goldfish Carassius auratus
Walleye Stezostedion vitreum v.
White perch Roccus americanus
Gizzard shad Porosoma cepedianum
White perch
Drum Aplodmotus grunniens
Drum
PCB Residue as Aroclor ® type(,*g/g whole body)
1232
1248
1254
1260
Total
10
lularus 16
unctatus 38
16
s bubalus 72
9
im v.
anus
ledianum 19
13
IS 11
14
75
17
23
5.2
173
5.2
8.0
75
42
27
11
13
1.4
32
25
6.8
2.6
4.6
4.5
6.1
6.0
5.6
4.9
4.E
4.6
3.9
1.1
1.2
3.4
3.2
133
66
77
38
73
213
35
19
23
19
19
98
-------
\7(j/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
in the United States (Gustafson 1970),372 markets eight
formulations of chlorinated biphenyls under the trademarks
Aroclor® 1221, 1232, 1242, 1248, 1254, 1260, 1262, and
1268. The last two digits of each formulation designate the
percent chlorine. Aroclor® 1248 and 1254 are produced in
greatest quantities. They are used as dielectric fluids in
capacitors and in closed-system heat exchangers (Papa-
george 1970).383 Aroclor® 1242 is used as a hydraulic fluid,
and Aroclor ® 1260 as a plasticizer. Chlorinated terphenyls
are marketed under the trademark Aroclor ® 5442 and 5460,
and a mixture of bi- and terphenyls is designated Aroclor ®
4465. The isomer composition and chromatographic char-
acteristics of each formulation have been described by
Stalling and Huckins (1971)391 and Bagley et al. (1970)."°
A contaminant of some PCB. especially those manufactured
in Europe, are chlorinated dibenzofurans (Brungs personal
communication 1972).393 Although these byproducts would
appear to be extremely toxic, no data are available on their
toxicity to aquatic life.
Direct Lethal Toxicity
Studies of toxicity of PCB to aquatic organisms arc limited.
They show considerable variation of toxicity to different
species, as well as variation with the chlorine content of the
PCB. Nevertheless, some trends in the toxic characteristics
have become apparent, principally from the work of Mayer
as described below:
• The higher the per cent chlorine, the lower the ap-
parent toxicity of PCB to fish (Mayer, in press).3™
This was found in 15-day intermittent-flow bioassays
using bluegills (Lepomis macrochmis) and channel cat-
fish (Ictalurus punctatus) with Aroclor® 1242, 1248,
1254. All LC50 values were in the range 10 to 300
Mg/'l-
• The bluegill/channel catfish experiments also illus-
trated that all LC50 values decreased significantly
when exposures continued from 15 to 20 days. The
96-hour LC50 of a PCB to fish cannot adequately
measure its lethal toxicity.
• The same tests showed that the toxicity of Aroclor ®
1248 doubled when the temperature was raised from
20 C to 27 C.
To invertebrates, Aroclor® 1242 has about the same
acute toxicity that it has to fish. In 4- and 7-day tests
(Saunders, in press),3*9 it killed Gammarus at 42 /jg/'l and
crayfish (Cambarus) at 30 /ug/1, with values that were similar
to the 15-day LC50 reported for bluegills. However, there
is an extreme range in the reported short-term lethal levels
of Aroclor® 1254 for invertebrates. Saunders (in press)3*9
reported a 96-hour LC50 as 80 jig/1 for crayfish and only
3 ng/l for glass shrimp (Paleomonetes) in 7-day tests; and
Duke et al. (1970)371 reported that as little as 0.94 /ig/1
killed immature pink shrimp (Panaeus duorarum). Part of this
variation is related to exposure periods in the tests; part
is no doubt the variation in species response. Again thi
emphasizes the point that short-term tests of acute toxicitie
of PCB have serious limitations.
Marine animals may be more easily killed by PCB thai
freshwater ones (see Section IV). When two cstuarine fishe
(Lagodon rhomboides and Leiostomits xanthurus) were exposei
for 14 to 45 days to Aroclor ® 1254, mortalities were ob
served at 5 /ug/1 (Hansen, el al. 1971).373 This indicated ,
toxicity about five times greater than summarized abov
for freshwater fish but about the same as the toxicity for th
marine crustaceans mentioned above.
Feeding Studies
Dietary exposure to PCB seems to be less of a direc
hazard to fish than exposure in water. Coho salmoi
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) fed Aroclor® 1254 in varying amount
up to 14,500 jiig/kg body weight per day accumulated whol
body residues which were only 0.9 to 0.5 of the level ii
the food after 240 days of dietary exposure. Growth rate
were not affected. However, all fish exposed to the highes
treatment died after 240 days exposure; and thyroid activit-
was stimulated in all except the group treated at the lowes
concentration (Mehrle and Grant unpublished data 1971).39
At present, evaluation of data from laboratory expert
ments indicates that exposures to PCB in water represent
a greater hazard to fish than dietary exposures. However
in the environment, residue accumulation from dietan
sources could be more important, because PCB have ;
high affinity for sediments, and therefore, they readily ente
food chains (Duke ct al. 1970;m Nimmo, et al. 1971).382
Residues in Tissue
It is clear that widespread pollution of major waterway
has occurred, and that appreciable PCB residues exist ii
fish. \Vhen analyses of 40 fish from the 1970 Nationa
Pesticide Monitoring Program were made, only one of thi
fish was found to contain less than 1 /ig/g PCB (Stalling
and Mayer 1972).39° The 10 highest residue levels in thi
40 selected fish ranged from 19 pig/g to 213 jug/g wholi
body weight.
By contrast, residues measiured in ocean fish have beer
generally below 1 yug/g (Risebrough 1970;387 Jensen, et al
1969).376 Between the ranges in freshwater fish and thosi
in marine fish are the levels of PCB found in seals (Jenser
et al. 1969;376 Holden 1970),m and in the eggs of fish
eating birds in North America (Anderson et al. 1969;36
Mulhern et al. 1971 ;380 Reynolds 1971).385
In laboratory experiments. Crustacea exposed to varyiru
levels of Aroclor® 1254 in the water concentrated the PCI
within their bodies more than 20,000 times. The tissut
residues may sometimes reach an equilibrium, and ir
Gammarus fasciatus PCB did nol concentrate beyond 27,00(
times despite an additional 3-week exposure to 1.6 ng/
Aroclor® (Saunders 1972).38S In contrast, PCB residues ir
crayfish did not reach equilibrium after a 28-day exposure
-------
Toxic Substances/111
PCB concentration factors by two estuarine fishes, Lagondon
rhomboides and Leiostomus xanthurus, were similar to that
described above for crustaceans, i.e., about 10,000 to 50,000
times the exposure levels in water (Hansen et al. 1971).373
It is important to note that these accumulations occurred
at water concentrations of PCB that killed the fish in 15
to 45 days.
Also similar were the accumulation ratios of 26,000 to
56,000 for bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) chronically exposed
to 2 to 15 jug/1 of Aroclor ® 1248 and 1254. Fathead minnows
(Pimeplmles promelas) chronically exposed to Aroclor® 1242
and 1254 for 8 weeks concentrated PCB 100,000 and
200,000 times the exposure levels, respectively. Residues of
50 jig/1 (whole body) resulted from exposure for 8 weeks
to 0.3 Mg'l Aroclor® 1254 (Nebcker et al. 1972).3S1 These
experiments with bluegills also indicated that the maximum
levels of PCB were generally related to the concentration
of PCB in the water (50,000-200,000 times higher) to which
they were exposed (Stalling and Huckins unpublished data
1971).3<)7
Effects on Reproduction
PCB residues in salmon eggs are apparently related to
mortality of eggs. In preliminary investigations in Sweden,
Jensen and his associates (1970)377 reported that when
residues in groups of eggs ranged from 0.4 to 1.9 /ug/g °n
a whole-weight basis (7.7 to 34 jig,'g on a fat basis), related
mortalities ranged from 16 per cent up to 100 per cent.
PCB concentrations in the range of 0.5 to 10 /ig/1 in
water interfered with reproduction of several aquatic ani-
mals according to recent work of Nebeker et al. (1971).381
About 5 yug I of Aroclor® 1248 was the highest concen-
tration that did not affect reproduction of Daphma magna
and Gammarus pmidohmnaeus. In tests of reproduction by
fathead minnows (Pimephalespromelas) all died when exposed
chronically to greater than 8.3 jig/l of either Aroclor® 1242
or Aroclor® 1254. Reproduction occurred at and below
5.4 /ng.l Aroclor® 1242, and at and below 1.8 /ig 1 of
Aroclor® 1254.
The association between residue levels and biological
effects in aquatic animals is scarcely known, but the work
of Jensen et al. (1970)377 suggested that about 0.5 /ig/g of
PCB in whole salmon eggs might be the threshold for egg
mortality. Such a level in eggs would be associated with
levels in general body tissue (e.g., muscle) of 2.5 to 5.0 jig/g.
The residue in muscle corresponded to the present Food and
Drug Administration level for allowable levels of PCB in
fish used as human food. Residues measured in the survey
by the 1970 National Pesticide Monitoring Program were
generally above 5 Mg/g-
Applying a minimal safety factor of 10 for protection of
the affected population, and for protection of other species
higher in the food chain, would yield a maximum permis-
sible tissue concentration of 0.5 Mg/g in any aquatic organism
in any habitat affected by PCB.
General Considerations and Further Needs
Another means of control would be justified in view of
the toxicity of PCB, the lack of knowledge about how it
first enters natural ecosystems as a pollutant, and its ap-
parent distribution in high concentrations in freshwater
fish in the United States. This method would be to regulate
the manufacture of PCB and maintain close control of its
uses to avoid situations where PCB is lost to the environ-
ment. The Monsanto Company recently restricted the sale
of PCB for uses in which disposal of the end products could
not be controlled, as with plasticizcrs (Gustafson 1970).372
Basis for Recommendations
For PCB levels in water, the most sensitive reaction shown
by aquatic organisms is to the lethal effects of low concen-
trations continually present in water for long periods (weeks
or months). Concentrations in the range of 1 to 8 /ig/1
have been shown to be lethal to several animals.
The work of Hansen, et al. (1971)373 and Stallings and
Huckins (unpublished dala 1971)391 indicates that concen-
trations of 0.01 fig, 1 of PCB in water over periods of up to
36 weeks could lead to dangerous levels of PCB in the
tissues of aquatic organisms. Accumulation by factors of
75,000 to 200,000 times is indicated by their work. If the
higher ratio is taken, 0.01 /ig/1 in water might result in 2.0
jig, g in flesh on whole fish basis. This is comparable to the
residue level in salmon eggs associated with complete
mortality of embryos. Therefore, a concentration is recom-
mended that is reduced by a factor of 5, or 0.002 /ig/1. In
addition, a control based on residue levels is required, as
well as one based on PCB in the water.
Recommendations
Aquatic life should be protected where the maxi-
mum concentration of total PCB in unfiltered
water does not exceed 0.002 /tg/1 at any time or
place, and the residues in the general body tissues
of any aquatic organism do not exceed 0.5 /zg/g.
METALS
General Data
Several reviews of the toxicity of metals are available
(e.g., Skidmore 1964;428 McKee and Wolf 1963;415
Doudoroff and Katz 1953).406 Some of the most relevant
research is currently in progress or only recently completed.
Some deals with chronic effects of metals on survival,
growth, and reproduction of fish and other organisms. The
completed studies have estimated safe concentrations, and
from these application factors have been derived as defined
in the discussion of bioassays (pp. 118-123).
The important relation between water hardness and
lethal toxicity is well documented for some metals (see
Figure III-9). For copper, the difference in toxicity may
-------
178/'Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
S 0.5
0.2
0.02
LEAD
z
ZINC
COPPER
10
20
50 100 200
Total Hardness, mg/1 as CaCo^j
1000
100
20
Brown 1968,401 Lloyd and Herbert I960'
FIGURE IH-9—The 48-Hour Lethal Concentrations of Three Heavy Metals for Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri). (Simile
Relationships Exist for Other Species of Fish.)
-------
Toxic Substances/179
not be related to the difference in hardness per se, but to
the difference in alkalinity of the water that accompanies
change in hardness (Stiff 1971).434 Nevertheless, the re-
lation to hardness is a convenient and accepted one. The
hardness classification developed by the U.S. Geological
Survey is the following:
Soft
Moderately hard
Hard
0- 60 mg/1 (hardness as CaCO3)
61-120 mg/1
in excess of 120 mg/1
There are many chemical species of metals in water;
some are toxic to aquatic life, others are not. Hydrogen ion
concentration in water is extremely important in governing
the species and solubility of metals and therefore the lethal
toxicity. At high pH, many heavy metals form hydroxides
or basic carbonates that are relatively insoluble and tend
to precipitate. They may, however, remain suspended in
the water as fine particles (O'Connor et al. 1964;421 Stiff
1971).434
The toxicity of suspended hydroxides of metal depends
on the particular situation. For example, suspended zinc has
been found to be nontoxic (Sprague 1964a&b),429'430 equally
as toxic as dissolved zinc (Lloyd I960)412 and more toxic
than dissolved zinc (Mount 1966).417 This indicates that
suspended zinc is at least potentially poisonous, and there-
fore the total metal measured in the water should be con-
sidered toxic. It is difficult to predict the effect of pH on
toxicity. For example, low pH (about 5) as well as high pH
(about 9) reduced toxicity of copper and zinc compared to
that at neutral pH (Fisheries Research Board of Canada
unpublished data 1971).444 Therefore pH should be regulated
in bioassays with metals in order to simulate local conditions
and to explore any effect of local variation of pH.
In addition to hardness, numerous other factors influence
the lethal toxicity of copper to fish. McKee and Wolf
(1963)415 and Doudoroff and Katz (1953)406 included dis-
solved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, carbon dioxide,
magnesium salts, and phosphates as factors affecting copper
toxicity. Artificial chelating compounds such as nitrilo-
triacetic acid can reduce or eliminate toxic effects of zinc
and other metals (Sprague 1968b)432 and there may be
natural chelating agents that would do the same thing.
Certain organic ligands (Bender et al. 1970)399 and amino
acids from sewage treatment plant effluent (United King-
dom Ministry of Technology 1969)435 also reduce the
toxicity of copper by forming copper-organic complexes
that do not contribute to lethal toxicity. It is safe to assume
that some of these factors will influence the toxicity of other
metals. In addition, the amount of metals found (at least
temporarily) in living biological matter is included in most
routine water analyses. At the present time, however, it is
not possible to predict accurately the amount of total metal
in any environment that may be lethal, biologically active,
or contributory to toxicity. Consequently, the following
recommendations are made.
Recommendations
Since forms or species of metals in water may
change with shifts in the water quality, and since
the toxicity to aquatic life may concurrently
change in as yet unpredictable ways, it is recom-
mended that water quality criteria for a given
metal be based on the total amount of it in the
water, regardless of the chemical state or form of
the metal, except that settleable solids should be
excluded from the analysis (Standard Methods
1971).433 Additionally, hardness affects the toxicity
of many metals (see Figure III-9).
Metals which have collected in the sediments
can redissolve into the water, and such redissolved
metals should meet the criteria for heavy metals.
To protect aquatic life, amounts likely to be harm-
ful should not occur in the sediments.
It is recommended that any metal species not
specifically mentioned in this report but suspected
of causing detrimental effects on aquatic life be
examined as outlined in the section on Bioassays.
Aluminum
Current research by Freeman and Everhart (1971)407
indicated that aluminum salts were slightly soluble at
neutral pH; 0.05 mg/1 dissolved and had no sublethal
effects on fish. At pH 9, at least 5 mg/1 of aluminum dis-
solved and this killed fingerling rainbow trout within 48
hours. However, the suspended precipitate of ionized alumi-
num is toxic. In most natural waters, the ionized or po-
tentially ionizable aluminum would be in the form of anionic
or neutral precipitates, and anything greater than 0.1 mg/1
of this would be deleterious to growth and survival of fish.
Recommendation
Careful examination of toxicity problems should
be made to protect aquatic life in situations where
the presence of ionic aluminum is suspected.
Aluminum may have considerably greater toxicity
than has been assumed.
Cadmium
This metal is an extremely dangerous cumulative poison.
In mammals (Nilsson 1970),420 fish (Eaton unpublished data
1971),442 and probably other animals, there is insidious,
progressive, chronic poisoning because there is almost no
excretion of the metal. In its acute lethal action on rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdnen), Ball (1967)398 found cadmium un-
usually slow. A lethal threshold of 0.01 mg/1 was not dis-
cernible until seven days' exposure. Other investigators
(Pickering and Gast, in press,'12'1 Eaton unpublished data
1971)442 have determined lethal threshold concentrations in
fathead minnows in 2 to 6 days and in bluegill in 96 hours.
The chronically safe levels for both fathead minnows
-------
180/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Pimephales promelas) (Pickering and Gast, in press)**'1 and
bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) (Eaton unpublished data
1971)442 in hard water (200 mg/1 as CaCO3) are between
0.06 and 0.03 mg/1. In these exposures, death of eggs or
early larvae was one of the effects observed at the lowest
unsafe concentrations tested. Recent exposures of eggs and
larvae at the National Water Quality Laboratory (Duluth)
in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOs) demonstrated that 0.01
mg/1 was unsafe; 0.004 mg/1 was safe for several warm- and
coldwater fishes, including some salmonids; and the safe
level for coho salmon fry (Oncorhynchus kisutch) was lower,
i.e., between 0.004 mg/1 and 0.001 mg/1 (McKim and
Eaton unpublished data 1971).'145
Daphnia magna appeared to be very sensitive to cadmium.
Concentrations of 0.0005 mg/1 were found to reduce repro-
duction in one-generation exposures lasting three weeks
(Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data 1971).440 This
sensitivity is probably representative of other crustaceans
as well.
Recommendation
Aquatic life should be protected where levels of
cadmium do not exceed 0.03 mg/1 in water having
total hardness above 100 mg/1 as CaCO3, or 0.004
mg/1 in waters with a hardness of 100 mg/1 or
below at any time or place. Habitats should be
safe for crustaceans or the eggs and larvae of
salmon if the levels of cadmium do not exceed
0.003 mg/1 in hard water or 0.0004 mg/1 in soft
water at any time or place.
Chromium
The chronic toxicity of hexavalent chromium to fish has
been studied by Olson (1958),422 and Olson and Foster
(1956,423 1957).424 Their data demonstrated a pronounced
cumulative toxicity of chromium to rainbow trout and
chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawy(scha). Duodoroff and
Katz (1953)406 found that bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus)
tolerated a 45 mg/1 level for 20 days in hard water. Cairns
(1956),403 using chromic oxide (CrO3), found that a concen-
tration of 104 mg/1 was toxic to bluegills in 6 to 84 hours.
Bioassays conducted with four species of fish gave 96-hour
LC50's of hexavalent chromium thai ranged from 17 to
118 mg/1, indicating little effect of hardness on toxicity
(Pickering and Henderson 1966).426
Recently some tests of chronic effects on reproduction of
fish have been carried out. The 96-hour LC50 and safe
concentrations for hexavalent chromium were 33 and 1.0
mg/1 for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) in hard
water (Pickering unpublished data 1971),446 50 and 0.6 mg/1
for brook trout (Salvelinus fontinahs) in soft water, and 69
and 0.3 mg/1 for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in soft
water (Benoit unpublished data 1971).438 Equivalent values
for trivalent chromium were little different: 27 mg/1 for
the 96-hour LC50, and 1.0 mg/1 for a safe concentration
for fathead minnows in hard water (Pickering unpublishd
data 1971).446
For Daphnia the LC50 of hexavalent chromium was re
ported as 0.05 mg/1, and the chronic no-effect level o
trivalent chromium on reproduction was 0.33 rag/1 (Bie
singer and Christensen unpublished data 1971).44° Some dat;
are available concerning the toxicity of chromium to algae
The concentrations of chromium that inhibited growth fo
the test organisms are as follows (Hervey 1949):410 Chlor
ococcales, 3.2 to 6.4 mg/1; Euglenoids, 0.32 to 1.6 mg/l
and diatoms, 0.032 to 0.32 mg/1. Patrick (unpublished dat
1971)447 found that 50 per cent growth reduction for twi
diatoms in hard and soft water occurred at 0.2 to 0.4 mg/
chromium.
Thus it is apparent that there is a great range of sensi
tivity to chromium among different species of organism
and in different waters. Those lethal levels reported abovi
are 17 to 118 mg/1 for fish, 0.05 mg/1 for invertebrates, an<
0.032 to 6.4 mg/1 for algae, the highest value being 3,701
times the lowest one. The apparent "safe" concentratioi
for fish is moderately high, but the recommended maximun
concentration of 0.05 mg/1 has been selected in order ti
protect other organisms, in particular Daphnia and certaii
diatoms which are affected at slightly below this concert
tration.
Recommendation
Mixed aquatic populations should be protecte<
where the concentration of total chromium it
water does not exceed 0.05 mg/1 at any time o
place.
Copper
Copper is known to be particularly toxic to algae ant
mollusks, and the implications of this should be eonsideree
for any given body of water. Based on studies of effects o:
these organisms, it is known that the criteria for fish protec
these other forms as well. Recent work (Biesinger et al
unpublished data 1971)439 indicated that the sale level o
copper for reproduction and growth of Daphnia magna ii
soft water (45 mg/1 as CaGOs) is 0.006 mg/1, which i
similar to the concentrations described below as safe fo
fish. The relationship of LC50 to water hardness was showi
in Figure III-7 for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri).
The safe concentration of copper for reproduction by fat
head minnows (Pimephales promelas) in hard water (20(
mg/1 as CaCOa) was between 0.015 and 0.033 mg/
(Mount 1968),418 and in soft water (30 mg/1 as CaCO;i
was between 0.011 and 0.018 mg/1 (Mount and Stephat
1969).419 More recent work with fathead minnows in hare
water indicated that a concentration of 0.033 mg/1 wouk
probably be safe (Brungs unpublished data 1971).441 Ac
ceptable reproduction by brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis
in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOg) occurred between 0.01(
and 0.018 mg/1 (McKim and Benoit 1971).416 The safe-to
-------
Toxic Substances /181
lethal ratios determined in these studies varied somewhat;
but that for hard water is close to 0.1 and that for soft water
is approximately 0.1 to 0.2. In very soft water, typical of
some northern and mountainous regions, 0.1 of the 96-hour
LC50 for sensitive species would be close to what is con-
sidered a natural concentration in these waters.
Recent work indicated that avoidance reactions by fish
may be as restrictive as reproductive requirements or even
more so (Sprague 1964b).430 It has been demonstrated that
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) avoid a concentration of 0.004
mg/1 in the laboratory.
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of copper safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.1.
Lead
Lead has a low solubility of 0.5 mg/1 in soft water and
only 0.003 mg/1 in hard water, although higher concen-
trations of suspended and colloidal lead may remain in the
water. The extreme effects of water hardness on lead toxicity
are demonstrated by the LG50 values in hard and soft
waters. The 96-hour LC50 values in soft water (20 to 45
mg/1 as CaCO3) were 5 to 7 mg/1 and 4 to 5 mg/1 for the
fathead minnow (Pimephales promelai) and the brook trout
(Salvelinusfontinahs) respectively (Pickering and Henderson
1966,426 Benoit unpublished data 1971).438 Brown (1968)401
reported a 96-hour LC50 of 1 mg/1 for rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) in soft water (50 mg/1 as CaCOs). (See
Figure III-9 for other values for this species.) The 96-hour
LC50 values of lead in hard water were 482 mg/1 and
442 mg/1 for fathead minnow and brook trout (Pickering
and Henderson 1966).426
There is not sufficient information on chronic toxicity
of lead to fish to justify recommending values as application
factors. However, preliminary information on long ex-
posures (2 to 3 months) on rainbow trout and brook trout
(Everhart unpublished data 1971,443 Benoit unpublished data
1971)438 indicated detrimental effects at 0.10 mg/1 of lead
in soft water (20 to 45 mg/1 as CaCO3), a safe-to-lethal
ratio of less than 0.02.
Growth of guppies (Lebistes) was affected by 1.24 mg/1
of lead (Crandall and Goodnight 1962).405 Jones (1939)411
and Hawksley (1967)408 found chronic or sublethal effects
on sticklebacks from lead concentrations of 0.1 and 0.3
mg/1. The conditioned behavior of goldfish (Carassius
auratus) in a light-dark shuttlebox was adversely affected
by 0.07 mg/1 of lead in soft water (Weir and Hine 1970).437
Chronic lead toxicity was recently investigated with
Daphnia magna (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data
1971)440 and the effect on reproduction was observed at a
level of 0.03 mg/1 of lead. This concentration of 0.03 mg/1,
the safe level for Daphnia, is recommended as the criterion
for protection of aquatic life. It is probably also close to
the safe level for fish, because the tests described above,
although somewhat preliminary, indicated that concen-
trations about 2 or 3 times higher had detrimental effects.
Recommendation
The concentration of lead in water should not
be higher than 0.03 mg/1 at any time or place in
order to protect aquatic life.
Mercury
Most data about mercury involve the organic compounds
(see the discussion of Organic Mercury, p. 172.) Infor-
mation is available, however, for inorganic mercury in the
form of mercuric ions. Short-term 96-hour bioassay studies
indicated that concentrations of 1 mg/1 are fatal to fish
(Boetius I960,400 Jones 1939,411 Weir and Hine 1970).«7
For long-term exposures of 10 days or more, mercury levels
as low as 10 to 20 mg/1 have been shown to be fatal to fish
(Uspenskaya 1946).436
Recommendation
In protecting aquatic life, the recommendations
for organic mercury (p, 174) also pertain here.
Nickel
The 96-hour LC50 of nickel for fathead minnows
(Pimephales promelas) ranges from 5 mg/1 in soft water (20
mg/1 as CaCOa) to 43 mg/1 in hard water (360 mg/1 as
CaCO3) under static test conditions (Pickering and Hender-
son 1966).426 In water of 200 mg/1 hardness (as GaCO3),
the 96-hour LC50 for fathead minnows was 26 to 31 mg/1
with a chronically safe concentration between 0.8 and 0.4
mg/1 (Pickering unpublished data 1971).446 On the basis of
this work, an application factor of 0.02 appeared to be
appropriate for the protection of fish. If this factor is used,
the estimated safe concentration of nickel for fathead
minnows in soft water would be about 0.1 mg/1. Using
static test conditions and Daphnia magna, Biesinger and
Christensen (unpublished data 1971)440 determined that a
nickel concentration of 0.095 mg/1 reduced reproduction
during a 3-week exposure in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOs),
and a nickel concentration of 0.030 mg/1 had no effect.
This result indicated that the sensitivity of Daphnia magna
is comparable to that of fish.
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of nickel safe to aquatic
-------
182/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.02.
Zinc
The acute lethal toxicity of zinc is greatly affected by
water hardness (see Figure III-7). Pickering and Henderson
(1966)426 determined the 96-hour LC50 of zinc for fathead
minnows (Pimephales promelas) and bluegills (Lepomis macro-
chirus) using static test conditions. For fathead minnows in
soft water (20 mg/1 as CaCO3) the LC50 was 0.87 mg/1,
and in hard water (360 mg/1 as CaCO3) it was 33 mg/1.
Bluegills were more resistant in both waters. Similarly the
lethal threshold concentration was 3 or 4 times as high for
coarse fish as for trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) (Ball 1967).398
The 24-hour LC50 of zinc for rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdnen) was reduced only 20 per cent when the fish were
forced to swim at 85 per cent of their maximum sustained
swimming speed (Herbert and Shurben 1964).409 The maxi-
mum effect of a reduction in dissolved oxygen from 6 to 7
mg/1 to 2 mg/1 on the acute toxicity of zinc was a 50 per cent
increase (Lloyd 1961,413 Cairns and Scheier 1958,404 Picker-
ing 1968).42S The effects are small in comparison to the
difference between acutely toxic and safe concentrations.
The recommended application factor recognizes these
effects.
A chronic test in hard water (200 mg/1 as CaCOa),
involving fathead minnow reproduction, determined the
safe concentration of zinc to be between 0.03 mg/1, which
had no effect, and 0.18 mg/1, which caused 83 per cent
reduction in fecundity (Brungs 1969).402 Using the 96-hour
LC50 of 9.2 mg/1, the ratio of the above no-effect concen-
tration to the LC50 is 0.0034. Interpolation suggests that
about 0.005 of the LC50 would cause 20 per cent reduction
of fecundity, making the best estimate of a valid application
factor close to 0.005.
There was a reduction in reproduction of Daphma magna
at a zinc concentration of 0.10 mg/1 using soft water (45
mg/1 as CaCOs) (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data
1971).440 No effect was observed at 0.07 mg/1, which indi-
cated that Daphma magna was more resistant to zinc than
the fathead minnow.
Avoidance reactions by rainbow trout in the laboratory
have been caused by 0.01 of the LC50 of zinc (Sprague
1968a).431
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of zinc safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.005.
PESTICIDES
Pesticides are chemicals, natural and synthetic, used tc
control or destroy plant and animal life considered adverse
to human society. Since the 1940's a large number o
synthetic organic compounds have been developed foi
pesticide purposes. Presently there are thousands of regis
tered formulations incorporating nearly 900 different chemi
cals. Trends in production and use of pesticides indicate ar
annual increase of about 15 per cent, and there are pre-
dictions of increased demand during the next decade (Mral
1969).477 The subject of pesticides and their environmenta
significance has been carefully evaluated in the Report o
the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Re-
lationship to Environmental Health (Mrak 1969).477
Methods, Rale, and Frequency of Application
Pesticides are used for a wide variety of purposes in i
multitude of environmental situations. Often they arc
categorized according to their use or intended target (e.g.
insecticide, herbicide, fungicide), but their release in the
environment presents an inherent hazard to many non-
target organisms. Some degree of contamination and risk
is assumed with nearly all pesticide use. The risk to aquatic
ecosystems depends upon the chemical and physical prop-
erties of the pesticide, type of formulation, frequency, rate
and methods of application, and the nature of the receiving
system.
The pesticides of greatest concern are those that are
persistent for long periods and accumulate in the environ-
ment ; those that are highly toxic to man, fish, and wildlife;
and those that are used in large" volumes over broad areas.
A list of such chemicals recommended for monitoring in the
environment appears in Appendix II-F. The majority of
ihese compounds are either insecticides or herbicides used
extensively in agriculture, public health, and for household
or garden purposes. In the absence of definitive data on
their individual behavior and their individual effect on the
environment, some generalization about pesticides is re-
quired to serve as a guideline for establishing water quality
criteria to protect aquatic life. In specific instances, how-
ever, each compound must be considered individually on
the basis of information about its reaction in the environ-
ment and its effect on aquatic organisms.
Sources and Distribution
The major sources of pesticides in water are runoff from
treated lands, industrial discharges, and domestic sewage.
Significant contributions may also occur in fallout from
atmospheric drift and in precipitation (Tarrant and Tatton
1968).485 Applications to water surfaces, intentional or
otherwise, will result in rapid and extensive contamination.
The persistent organochlorine pesticides have received the
greatest attention in monitoring programs (Lichtenberg
et al. 1970,471 Henderson et al. 1969).461 Their extensive
-------
Toxic Substances/ \ 83
distribution in aquatic systems is indicative of environ-
mental loading from both point and nonpoint sources.
Many pesticides have a low water solubility that favors
their rapid sorption on suspended or sedimented materials
and their affinity to plant and animal lipids. Soluble or
dispersed fractions of pesticides in the water rapidly decline
after initial contamination, resulting in increased concen-
trations in the sediments (Yule and Tomlin 1971).489 In
streams, much of the residue is in continuous transport on
suspended paniculate material or in sediments (Zabik
1969).4W The distribution within the stream flow is non-
uniform because of unequal velocity and unequal distri-
bution of suspended materials within the stream bed (Feltz
ct al. 1971).454 Seasonal fluctuations in runoff and use
pattern cause major changes in concentration during the
year, but the continuous downstream transport tends to
reduce levels in the upper reaches of streams while increas-
ing them in the downstream areas and eventually in major
receiving basins (i.e., lakes, reservoirs, or estuaries). If
applications in a watershed cease entirely, residues in the
stream will gradually and continuously decline (Sprague
et al. 1971).484 A similar decline would be expected in the
receiving basins but at a slower rate.
In lakes the sediments apparently act as a reservoir from
which the pesticide is partitioned into the water phase
according to the solubility of the compound, the concen-
tration in the sediment, and the type of sediment (Hamelink
et ;iJ. 1971).158 Dissolved natural organic materials in the
water may greatly enhance the water solubility of some
pesticides (Wershaw et al. 1969).ls7 Some investigations
indicated pesticides may be less available to the water in
eutrophic systems where the higher organic content in the
sediments has a greater capacity to hold pesticide residues
(Lotse et al. 1968,172 Hartung 1970"'°). This in part ex-
plained the difference in time required for some waters to
"detoxify," as observed in lakes treated with toxaphene to
eradicate undesirable fish species (Terriere et al. 1966).486
Herbicides applied to aquatic systems to control plant
growths are removed from the water by absorption in the
plants or sorption to the hydrosoil. The rate of disappearance
from the water may be dependent upon the availability of
suitable sorption sites. Frank and Comes (1967)155 found
residues of dichlobenil in soil and water up to 160 clays after
application. They also found that cliquat and paraquat
residues were persistent in hydrosoils for approximately 3
to 6 months after application. Granular herbicide treat-
ments made on a volume basis deposit greater quantities on
the hydrosoil in deep water areas than in water of less depth.
The granules may supply herbicide to the water over a
period of time depending upon solubility of the herbicide,
concentrations in the granule, and other conditions.
Because the distribution of pesticides is nonuniform,
sampling methods and frequency, as well as selection of
sampling sites, must be scientifically determined (Feltz
et al. 1971).454 Pesticides found in the water in suspended
particulate material and in sediments may be toxic to
aquatic organisms or contribute to residue accumulation
in them.
Persistence and Biological Accumulation
All organic pesticides are subject to metabolic and non-
metabolic degradation in the environment. Specific com-
pounds vary widely in their rate of degradation, and some
form degradation products that may be both persistent and
toxic. Most pesticides are readily degraded to nontoxic or
elementary materials within a few days to a few months;
these compounds may be absorbed by aquatic organisms,
but the residues do not necessarily accumulate or persist
for long periods. Concentrations in the organism may be
higher than ambient water levels, but they rapidly decline
as water concentrations are diminished. Examples of such
dynamic exchange have been demonstrated with malathion
(Bender 1969),448 methoxychlor (Burdick et al. 1968),449
and various herbicides (Mullison 1970).478 If degradation
in water is completed within sufficient time to prevent toxic
or adverse physiological effects, these nonpersistcnt com-
pounds do not pose a long-term hazard to aquatic life.
However, degradation rates of specific pesticides are often
dependent upon environmental conditions. Considerable
variation in persistence may be observed in waters of differ-
ent types. Gakstatter and Weiss (1965),456 for example,
have shown that wide variations in the stability of organic
phosphorous insecticides in water solutions is dependent
upon the pH of the water. The half-life of malathion was
reduced from about six months at pH 6 to only one to two
weeks at pH 8. Repeated applications and slow degradation
rates may maintain elevated environmental concentrations,
but there is no indication that these compounds can be
accumulated through the food chain.
Some pesticides, primarily the organochlorine com-
pounds, are extremely stable, degrading only slowly or
forming persistent degradation products. Aquatic organisms
may accumulate these compounds directly by absorption
from water and by eating contaminated food organisms.
In waters containing very low concentrations of pesticides,
fish probably obtain the greatest amount of residue from
contaminated foods; but the amount retained in the tissue
appears to be a function of the pesticide concentration in
the water and its rate of elimination from the organism
(Hamelink et al. 1971).4"'8 The transfer of residues from
prey to predator in the food chain ultimately results in
residues in the higher trophic levels many thousand times
higher than ambient water levels. Examples of trophic
accumulation have been described in several locations in-
cluding Clear Lake, California (Hunt and Bischoff I960),463
and Lake Poinsett, South Dakota (Hannon et al. 1970).459
Residues
Samples of wild fish have often contained pesticide resi-
dues in greater concentrations than are tolerated in any
-------
184/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
commercially produced agricultural products. The highest
concentrations are often found in the most highly prized
fish. Coho salmon (Oncorhyncus kisulcK) from Lake Michigan
are not considered acceptable for sale in interstate commerce
on the basis of an interim guideline for DDT and its
metabolites set for fish by the U.S. Food and Drug Adminis-
tration (Mount 1968).476 Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
and some catches of chubs (Coregonus kiyi and Coregonus hoyi)
and lake herring (Coregonus artedt) from Lake Michigan also
exceed the guideline limits and are thus not considered
acceptable for interstate commerce (Reinert 1970;481 Michi-
gan Department of Agriculture personal communication).^
Pesticide residues in fish or fish products may enter the
human food chain indirectly in other ways, as in fish oil
and meal used in domestic animal feeds.
Fish may survive relatively high residue concentrations
in their body fats, but residues concentrated in the eggs of
mature fish may be lethal to the developing fry. Up to
100 per cent loss of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) fry
occurred when residues of DDT-DDD in the eggs exceeded
4.75 mg/kg (Burdick et al. 1964).46° A similar mortality
was reported in coho salmon fry from Lake Michigan
where eggs contained significant quantities of DDT, di-
eldrin, and polychlorinated biphenyls (Johnson and Pecor
1969 ;468 Johnson 1968).«6 Johnson (1967)467 reported that
adult fish not harmed by low concentrations of endrin in
water accumulated levels in the eggs that were lethal to the
developing fry. Residues in fish may be directly harmful
under stress conditions or at different temperature regimes.
Brook trout (Salvelinus fontmalis) fed DDT at 3.0 mg/kg
body weight per week for 26 weeks suffered 96.2 per cent
mortality during a period of reduced feeding and declining
water temperature. Mortality of untreated control fish
during the same period was 1.2 per cent (Macek 1968).473
Declining water temperature during the fall was believed
to cause delayed mortality of salmon parr in streams con-
taminated with DDT (Elson 1967).453
In addition to the problem of pesticide residues in aquatic
systems, other problems suggest themselves and remain to
be investigated, including the potential of resistant fish
species to accumulate levels hazardous to other species
(Rosato and Ferguson 1968) ;482 the potential for enhanced
residue storage when fish are exposed to more than one
compound (Mayer et al. 1970) ;474 and the potential effect
of metabolites not presently identified. The adverse effects
of DDT on the reproductive performance of fish-eating
birds has been well documented. (See the discussion of
Wildlife, pp. 194-198.)
Levels of persistent pesticides in water that will not result
in undesirable effects cannot be determined on the basis of
present knowledge. Water concentrations below the practical
limits of detection have resulted in unacceptable residues in
fish for human consumption and have affected reproduction
and survival of aquatic life. Criteria based upon residue
concentrations in the tissues of selected species may offe
some guidance. Tolerance levels for pesticides in wild fisl
have not been established, but action levels have been sug
gested by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Mouri
1968).476 However, acceptable concentrations of persisten
pesticides that offer protection to aquatic life and humai
health are unknown.
It should also be recognized that residue criteria an
probably unacceptable except on a total ecosystem basis
Residues in stream fish may meet some guidelines, bu
pesticides from that stream may eventually create excessiv<
residues in fish in the downstream receiving basins. LInti
more is known of the effects of persistent pesticide residues
any accumulation must be considered undesirable.
Toxieity
Concentrations of pesticides I hat are lethal to aquatic lif(
have often occurred in local areas where applications overlap
streams or lakes, in streams receiving runoff from recentl)
treated areas, and where misuse or spillage has occurred
Applications of pesticides to water to control noxiou;
alants, fish, or insects have also killed desirable species
Fish populations, however, usually recovered within a few
months to a year (Elson 1967).453 The recovery of aquatic
invertebrates in areas that have been heavily contaminated
may require a longer period, with some species requiring
several years to regain precontamination numbers (Cope
1961,451 Ide 1967).465 Undesirable species of insects may be
ihe first to repopulate the area (Hynes 1961),464 and in
some instances the species composition has been completely
changed (Hopkins et al. 1966).462 Areas that are contami-
nated by pesticide application are subject to loss of fish
populations and reduced food for fish growth (Schoenthal
] 964,483 Kerswill and Edwards 1967).469 Where residues are
persistent in bottom sediments for long periods, benthic
organisms may be damaged even though water concen-
trations remain low (Wilson and Bond 1969).488
Pesticides are toxic to aquatic life over wide ranges.
Great differences in susceptibility to different compounds
exist between species and within species. For example,
96-hour LC50 values of 5 to 610,000 /ig/1 were reported
for various fish species exposed to organophosphate pesti-
cides (Pickering et al. 1962).*79 In addition to species'
cifferences, the toxicity may be modified by differences in
formulation, environmental conditions, animal size and age,
and physiological condition. The effect of combinations of
pesticides on aquatic organisms has not received sufficient
attention. Macek (unpublished data 1971)491 reported that
combinations of various common pesticides were synergistic
in their action on bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdnen), while others had additive effects.
Several of the combinations that were found to be syner-
gistic are recommended for insect pest control (Table
111-16).
-------
Toxic Substances/185
TABLE 111-16—Acute Toxic Interaction of Pesticide
Combinations to Rainbow Trout and Bluegills.
Pesticide combination
Compound A
DDT
"
"
"
".
".
"
Parathion
"
"
".
"
Malathion
"
"..
"
"
"
"
". .
Carbaryl
"
"..
".
"
Methyl parathion
".
"
Bidrm .
Compound B
Vapona
Endnn
Dieldnn
Azinphosmethyl
Toxaphene
Zectran
BHC
Copper sulfate
Diazinon
DDT
Endosulfan
Methoiychlor
Baytex
Copper sultate
DDT
EPN
Parathion
Perthane
Carbaryl
Toxaphene
Copper sullate
DDT
Azinphosmethyl
Methoiychlor
Parathion
DDT
Endosulfan
Carbaryl
Sumithion
Toxic interaction
Additive
Additive
Additive
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Synergistic"
Synergistic
Synergistic
Additive"
Additive
Synergistic'
Synergistic
Antagonistic
Addibve
Synergistic
Synergistic
Synergistic"
Synergistic"
Additive-
Synergistic
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Additive"
Additive
Additive'
Additive"
Additive
" This combination recommended lor control of insect pests by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Note: mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement.
Most data on pesticide effects on aquatic life are limited
to a few species and concentrations that are lethal in
short-term tests. The few chronic tests conducted with
aquatic species indicated that toxic effects occurred at much
lower concentrations. Mount and Stephan (1967)475 found
the 96-hour LC50 for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas)
in malathion was 9,000 jug/1, but spinal deformities in adult
fish occurred during a 10-month exposure to 580 /ig/1.
Eaton (1970)452 found that bluegill suffered the same
crippling effects after chronic exposure to 7.4 /ug/1 malathion
and the 96-hour LC50 was 108 yug/1.
Where chronic toxicity data are available, they may be
used to develop application factors to estimate safe levels.
Mount and Stephan (1967)475 have suggested using an
application factor consisting of the laboratory-determined
maximum concentration that has no effect on chronic
exposure divided by the 96-hour LC50. Using this method,
Eaton (1970)452 showed that application factors for bluegill
and fathead minnow exposed to malathion were similar
despite a greater than 50-fold difference in species sensi-
tivity. Application factors derived for one compound may
be appropriate for closely related compounds that have a
similar mode of action, but additional research is necessary
to verify this concept. In the absence of chronic toxicity
data, the application factors for many compounds must be
arbitrary values set with the intention of providing some
margin of safety for sensitive species, prolonged exposure,
and potential effects of interaction with other compounds.
Basis for Criteria
The reported acute toxicity values and subacute effects
of pesticides for aquatic life are listed in Appendix II-D.
The acute toxicity values multiplied by the appropriate
application factor provided the recommended criteria. The
96-hour LC50 should be multiplied by an application factor
of 0.01 in most cases. The value derived from multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by a factor of 0.01 can be used as the
24-hour average concentration.
Recommended concentrations of pesticides may be below
those presently detectable without additional extraction and
concentration techniques. However, concentrations below
those detectable by routine techniques are known to cause
detrimental effects to aquatic organisms and to man.
Therefore, recommendations are based on bioassay pro-
cedures and the use of an appropriate application factor.
The recommendations are based upon the most sensitive
species. Permissible concentrations in water have been sug-
gested only where several animal species have been tested.
Where toxicity data arc not available, acute toxicity bio-
assays should be conducted with locally important sensitive
aquatic species, and safe levels should be estimated by using
an application factor of 0.01.
Some organochlorine pesticides (i.e., DDT including
DDD and DDE, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, hepta-
chlor, toxaphene, lindane, endosulfan, and benzene hexa-
chloride) are considered especially hazardous because of
their persistence and accumulation in aquatic organisms.
These compounds, including some of their metabolites, are
directly toxic to various aquatic species at concentrations
of less than one /xg/1. Their accumulation in aquatic systems
presents a hazard, both real and potential, to animals in
the higher trophic levels, including man (Pimentel 1971,480
Mrak 1969,477 Kraybill 1969,470 Gillett 1969).457 Present
knowledge is not yet sufficient to predict or estimate safe
concentrations of these compounds in aquatic systems. How-
ever, residue concentrations in aquatic organisms provide a
measure of environmental contamination. Therefore, spe-
cific maximum tissue concentrations have been recom-
mended as a guideline for water quality control.
Recommendations
Organochlorine Insecticides The recommenda-
tions for selected organochlorine insecticides are
based upon levels in water and residue concentra-
tions in whole fish on a wet weight basis. Aquatic
life should be protected where the maximum con-
-------
186/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
centration of the organochlorine pesticide in the
water does not exceed the values listed in Table
111-17.
For the protection of predators, the following
values are suggested for residues in whole fish (wet
weight): DDT (including DDD and DDE)—1.0
mg/kg; aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor (in-
cluding heptachlor epoxide), chlordane, lindane,
benzene hexachloride, toxaphene, and endo-
sulfan—0.1 mg/kg, either singly or in combination.
For further discussion, see the section on Wildlife
(P. 197).
If fish and wildlife are to be protected, and where
residues exceed the recommended concentrations,
pesticide use should be restricted until the recom-
mended concentrations are reached (except where
a substitute pesticide will not protect human
health).
Other pesticides The recommended maximum
concentrations of pesticides in freshwater are listed
in Table 111-18 except that where pesticides are
applied to water to kill undesirable aquatic life,
the values will be higher. In the latter instances,
care should be taken to avoid indiscriminate use
and to insure that application of the pesticide
follows the prescribed methods.
OTHER TOXICANTS
Ammonia
Ammonia is discharged from a wide variety of industrial
processes and cleaning operations that use ammonia or
ammonia salts. Ammonia also results from the decompo-
sition of organic matter.
Ammonia gas is soluble in water in the form of am-
monium hydroxide to the extent of 100,000 mg/'l at 20 C.
Ammonium hydroxide dissociates readily into ammonium
TABLE HI-17—Recommended Maximum Concentrations of
Organochlorine Pesticides in Whole (Unfiltered) Water,
Sampled at Any Time and Any Place.*
TABLE 111-18—Recommended Maximum Concentrations of
Other Pesticides in Whole (Vnfiltered) Water, Sampled at
Any Time and Any Place.*
Organochlorine pesticides
Aldrin
DDT
TOE
Dieldrin
Cblordane
Endosulfan
Endrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Methoxychlor .
Toxaphene
Recommended maximum concentration (ug 1)
0.01
0002
0 006
0 005
0 04
0.003
0.002
0.01
0.02
0.005
001
Organophosphate insecticides
(bale
Azinphosmethyl
Azinphosethyl
Carbophenothion
Chlorothion
Ciodrin
Coumaphos
temeton
tiazmon
['ichlorvos
t'loxathion
['isulfonton
[llrsban
E till on
EPN
Fenthion
Malathion
Methyl Parathioit
Mevmphos
haled
Cxydemeton methyl
Parathion
Fhorate
Fhosphamirfon
Fonnel
1EPP
Tnclilorophon
Carbamate insecticides
Ammocarb
Bayer
Baygort
Carnaryl
Zectran
Herbicides, fungicides and defoliants
• Concentrations were determined by multiplying the acute toxicity values lor the more sensitive species (Appendix
II-D) by an application factor of 0.01 except where an experimentally derived application factor is indicated.
Acrolem
Ammotnazole
Balan
Bensuhde
Choroxuron
CIPC
Baettal
Dalapon
DEF
Dexon
Dicamba
Dichlobeml
Dichlone
Diquat
Dmron
Difolitan
Dmitrobutyl phenol
Diphenamid
2 4-D (PBBE)
2 4-D (BEE)
2 4-D (IDE)
2 4-D (Diethylamine salts)
Eidothal (Disodium salt)
Eidottiat (Oiootassium salt)
Eitam
Fimac (Sodium salt)
Hyamine-1622
Hyamine-2389
H»drothal-47
Hvdrottial-191
Hidrothal plus
ICC
MCPA
Molmate
Monuron
Paraquat
Recommended maximum concentration (Mg/l)
(b)
0.001
(b)
(b)
(b)
0.1
0 001
(b)
0.009
0.001
0.09
0.05
0.001
0 02
0.06
0 006
0 008
(b)
0.002
0 004
0.4
0.0004
(b)
0 03
(b)
0.4
0 002
Recommended maximum concentrations (jug/l)
(b)
(b)
(b)
0.02
0.1
Recommended maximum concentrations (ug/l)
300.0
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
110.0
(b)
(b)
200
37.0
0 2
0.5
1.6
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
4.0
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
45.0
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
-------
Toxic Sub stances/187
TABLE 111-18—Continued
TABLE III-19—Sublethat and Acutely Toxic Concentrations
of Vn-Ionized Ammonia for Various Fish Species'
nciuiRUtiS, limgluuB aim umuiidiua
Peculate
Picloram
Propanil
Silm(BEE)
Silvex (PGBE)
Silvex (IOE)
Silvex (Potassium salt)
Simazine
Trifluaralin
Vernolate
Botanicals
Allethrin .
Pyrethrum
Rotenone
imbunmiGiiuvii maximum vuiiiiGiiuauiiii w \j
(b)
(b)
(b)
2.5
2.0
(b)
(b)
10.0
(b)
(b)
Recommended maximum concentrations (Mg/l)
0.002
0.01
10.0
« Concentrations were determined by multiplying the acute toxicity values for the more sensitive species (Ap-
Species
Stickleback
Striped bass (Marone saxatalis)
Rainbow trout
Perch (Perca)
Roach (Hesperoleucus)
Rudd (Scardinius)
Bream (Lepomis)
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
Rainbow trout
Trout
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)
Acute
mortality
IC50 (rag/I)
1.&-2.1
1.9-2.8
0.39
0.29
0.35
0.36
0.41
0.41
0.42-0.89
0.38
0.88
No sublethal
effect (mj/l) Author
Hazel etal. (1971)™
".
0.046 Lloyd and Orr (1969)™
. Ball(1967)«M
"
".
" .
Lloyd and Herbert (1960)™
Herbert and Shurben (1965)™
"
<0.27 Reichenbach-Klinke (1967)*w
<0.006 Burrows (1964)<»s
pendix II-D) by an application factor of 0.01 except where an experimentally derived application factor is indicated.
6 Insufficient data to determine safe concentrations.
n Tn Inrltra * hiah laual nf nrnfaAtlnl
1 fha mnan nt tha C
IR.hnnr 1 pitf'e mac ncpri AC a ha» and an annliralinn far
and hydroxyl ions as follows:
NH3+H2O->HN4++OH-
The equilibrium of the reaction is dependent upon pH,
and within the pH range of most natural waters ammonium
ions predominate (Figure 111-10). Since the toxic com-
ponent of ammonia solutions is the un-ionized ammonia,
toxicity of ammonia solutions increases with increased pH
(Ellis 1937,497 Wuhrmann et al. 1947,608 Wuhrmann and
Woker 1948,609 Downing and Merkens 1955496).
Wuhrmann (1952),607 Downing and Merkens (1955),496
and Merkens and Downing (1957)605 found that a decrease
in dissolved oxygen concentration increased the toxicity of
un-ionized ammonia to several species of freshwater fishes.
Lloyd (1961)502 showed that the increase in toxicity of
un-ionized ammonia to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) with
decreased oxygen was considerably more severe than for
zinc, copper, lead, or phenol.
Much of the data on ammonia toxicity is not useable,
because reporting of chemical conditions or experimental
control was unsatisfactory. Ellis (1937)497 reported that
total ammonia nitrogen concentrations of 2.5 mg/1 in the
pH range of 7.4 to 8.5 were harmful to several fish species,
but concentrations of 1.5 mg/1 were not. Most streams
without a source of pollution contained considerably less
than 1 mg/1 total ammonia. The sublethal and acutely
toxic concentrations of un-ionized ammonia for various fish
species are given in Table 111-19.
Brockway (1950)494 found impairment of oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood of trout at a total ammonia nitrogen
concentration of 0.3 mg/1. Fromm (1970)499 found that at
total ammonia nitrogen concentrations of 5 mg/1, ammonia
excretion by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was inhibited;
at 3 mg/1 the trout became hyperexcitable; and at 8 mg/1
(approximately 1 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia) 50 per cent
tor ol 0.05 applied to arrive at an acceptable level for most species in fresh water. Two apparently resistant species
were omitted because they were far out of line with the others. After application of the factor, the resultant level is
approximately half that projected from the data of Lloyd and Orr (1969).r"!3
were dead in 24 hours (Fromm 1970).4" Goldfish (Carassius
auratus) were more tolerant; at 40 mg/1 of total ammonia
nitrogen, 10 per cent were dead in 24 hours.
Burrows (1964)495 found progressive gill hyperplasia in
fingerling chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during
a six-week exposure to the lowest concentration applied,
0.006 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia. Reichenbach-Klinke
(1967)506 also noted gill hyperplasia, as well as pathology of
the liver and blood, of various species at un-ionized am-
monia concentrations of 0.27 mg/1. Exposure of carp
(Cyprinus carpio) to sublethal un-ionized ammonia concen-
trations in the range of 0.11 to 0.34 mg/1 resulted in ex-
tensive necrotic changes and tissue disintegration in various
organs (Flis 1968).498
Lloyd and Orr (1969)503 found that volume of urine pro-
duction increased with exposure to increasing ammonia
concentrations, but that an ammonia concentration of 12
per cent of the lethal threshold concentration resulted in
no increased production of urine. This concentration of
un-ionized ammonia was 0.046 mg/1 for the rainbow trout
used in the experiments.
Recommendation -
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of un-ionized ammonia
(NH3) safe to aquatic life in that water can be esti-
mated by multiplying the 96-hr LC50 by an appli-
cation factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater
than 0.02 mg/1 is recommended at any time or
place.
-------
188/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
50 0
1.0
0.5
7 0
7.4
7.8
8.2
PH
8.6
9.0
9.4
FIGURE 111-10—Percentage of Vn-ionized Ammonia in Ammonium Hydroxide Solutions at 20 C and Various Levels of pi
-------
Toxic Substances/189
Chlorine
Chlorine and chloramines are widely used in treatment of
potable water supplies and sewage-treatment-plant effluents,
and in power plants, textile and paper mills, and certain
other industries. Field tests conducted on caged fish in
streams below a sewage outfall where chlorinated and non-
chlorinated effluents were discharged showed that toxic
conditions occurred for rainbow trout (Salmo gandnert) 0.8
miles below the plant discharge point when chlorinated
effluents were discharged (Basch et al. 1971).M1 It has also
been shown that total numbers of fish and numbers of
species were drastically reduced below industrial plants
discharging chlorinated sewage effluents (Tsai 1968,617
1970).!'18
The toxicity to aquatic life of chlorine in water will
depend upon the concentration of residual chlorine re-
maining and the relative amounts of free chlorine and chlor-
amines. Since addition of chlorine or hypochlorites to water
containing nitrogenous materials rapidly forms chloramines,
problems of toxicity in most receiving waters are related to
chloramine concentrations. Merkens (1958)615 stated that
toxicities of free chlorine and chloramines were best esti-
mated from total chlorine residuals. In monitoring pro-
grams, evaluation of chlorine content of water is usually
stated in terms of total chlorine residuals. Because the
chlorine concentrations of concern are below the level of
detection by the orthotolidine method, a more sensitive
analytical technique is recommended.
The literature summarized by McKcc and Wolf (1963)514
showed a wide range of acute chlorine toxicity to various
aquatic organisms, but the conditions of the tests varied so
widely that estimation of generally applicable acute or
safe levels cannot be derived from the combined data. It
has also been demonstrated that small amounts of chlorine
can greatly increase the toxicity of various industrial
effluents.
Merkens (1958)615 found that at pH 7.0, 0.008 mg/1
residual chlorine killed half the test fish in seven days. The
test results were obtained using the ainperometric titration
and the diethyl-jft-phenylene diamine methods of chlorine
analysis. Zillich (1972),519 working with chlorinated sewage
effluent, determined that threshold toxicity for fathead
minnows (Pimephales promelai) was 0.04-0.05 mg/1 residual
chlorine. In two series of 96-hour LC50 tests an average of
0.05-0.19 mg/1 residual chlorine was noted. Basch et al.
(1971)511 found 96-hour LC50 for rainbow trout (Salmo
gaudneri} to be 0.23 mg/1. Arthur and Eaton (1971),610
working with fathead minnows and Gammarus pseudohmnaeus,
found that the 96-hour LG50 total residual chlorine
(as chloramine) for Gammarus was 0.22 mg/1, and that
all minnows were dead after 72 hours at 0.15 mg/1.
After seven days exposure to 0.09 mg/1, the first fish died.
The LC50 for minnows was therefore between these levels.
In chronic tests extending for 15 weeks, survival of Gammarus
was reduced at 0.04 mg/1, and reproduction was reduced at
0.0034 mg/1. Growth and survival of fathead minnows after
21 weeks was not affected by continuous exposure to 0.043
mg/1 total chloramines, but fecundity of females was re-
duced. The highest level showing no significant effect was
0.016 mg/1. Merkens (1958)515 postulated by extrapolation
that a concentration of 0.004 mg/1 residual chlorine would
permit one half the test fish to survive one year. Sprague
and Drury (1969)616 have shown an avoidance response of
rainbow trout to free chlorine at 0.001 mg/1.
Aquatic organisms will tolerate longer short-term ex-
posures to much higher levels of chlorine than the concen-
trations which have adverse chronic effects. Brungs (1972)512
in a review has noted that 1-hour LCSO's of fish vary from
0.74 to 0.88 mg/1, and that longer short-term exposures
have LCSO's lower but still substantially higher than ac-
ceptable for long-term exposure. Available information,
however, does not show what effect repeated exposure to
these, or lower levels, will have on aquatic life.
Because Gammarus, an essential food for fish, is affected
at 0.0034 mg/1, and a safe level is judged to be one that
will not permit adverse effect on any element of the biota,
the following recommendation has been made.
Recommendation
Aquatic life should be protected where the con-
centration of residual chlorine in the receiving
system does not exceed 0.003 mg/1 at any time or
place. Aquatic organisms will tolerate short-term
exposure to high levels of chlorine. Until more is
known about the short-term effects, it is recom-
mended that total residual chlorine should not
exceed 0.05 mg/1 for a period up to 30-minutes in
any 24-hour period.
Cyanides
The cyanide radical is a constituent of many compounds
or complex ions that may be present in industrial wastes.
Cyanide-bearing wastes may derive from gas works, coke
ovens, scrubbing of gases in steel plants, metal plating
operations, and chemical industries. The toxicity of cyanides
varies widely with pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen
concentration. The pH is especially important, since the
toxicity of some cyanide complexes changes manyfold over
the range commonly found in receiving waters.
"Free cyanide" (CN~ ion and HCN) occurs mostly as
molecular hydrogen cyanide, the more toxic form, at pH lev-
els of natural waters as well as in unusually acid waters. Fifty
per cent ionization of the acid occurs at pH near 9.3. Free
cyanide concentrations from 0.05 to 0.01 mg/1 as CN have
proved fatal to many sensitive fishes (Jones 1964),527 and
levels much above 0.2 mg/1 are rapidly fatal for most
species of fish. A level as low as 0.01 mg/1 is known to have
a pronounced, rapid, and lasting effect on the swimming
ability of salmonid fishes.
-------
190/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
The work of Doudoroff et al. (1966)624 has demonstrated
that the effective toxicant to fish in nearly all solutions of
complex metallocyanides tested was molecular HGN, the
complex ions being relatively harmless. The total cyanide
content of such solutions is not a reliable index of their
toxicity. The HCN derives from dissociation of the complex
ions, which can be greatly influenced by pH changes.
Doudoroff (1956)523 demonstrated a more than thousand-
fold increase of the toxicity of the nickelocyanide complex
associated with a decrease of pH from 8.0 to 6.5. A change
in pH from 7.8 to 7.5 increased the toxicity more than
tenfold.
Burdick and Lipschuetz (1948)521 have shown that so-
lutions containing the ferro and ferricyanide complexes
become highly toxic to fish through photodecomposition
upon exposure to sunlight. Numerous investigations have
shown that toxicity of free cyanide increased at reduced
oxygen concentrations (Downing 1954,625 Wuhrmann and
Woker 1955,528 Burdick et al. 1958,520 Cairns and Scheier
1963).622 The toxic action is known to be accelerated
markedly by increased temperature (Wuhrmann and Woker
1955,528 Cairns and Scheier 1963),622 but the influence of
temperature during long exposure has not >been demon-
strated. The toxicity of the nitriles (organic cyanides) to fish
varied greatly. Henderson et al. (I960)526 found marked
cumulative toxicity of acrylonitrile. Lactonitrile decom-
posed rapidly in water yielding free cyanide, and its high
toxicity evidently was due to the HCN formed.
The toxicity of cyanide to diatoms varied little with
change of temperature and was a little greater in soft water
than in hard water (Patrick unpublished data 1971).529 For
Nitzchia linearis, concentrations found to cause a 50 per cent
reduction in growth of the population in soft water (44
mg/1 Ca-Mg as CaCO3) were 0.92 mg/1 (CN) at 72 F, 0.30
mg/1 at 82 F, and 0.28 mg/1 at 86 F. For Navicula seminulum
var. Hustedtil, the concentrations reducing growth of the
population by 50 per cent in hard water (170 mg/1 Ca-Mg
as CaCO3) were found to be 0.36 mg/1 at 72 F, 0.49 mg/1
at 82 F, and 0.42 mg/1 at 86 F. Cyanide appeared to be
more toxic to animals than to algae.
Recommended maximum concentrations of cyanide-bear-
ing wastes of unknown composition and properties should
be determined by static and flow-through bioassays. The
bioassays should be performed with dissolved oxygen, tem-
perature, and pH held at the local water quality conditions
under which cyanides are most toxic. Because the partial
dissociation of some complex metallocyanide ions may be
slow, static bioassays may reveal much greater toxicity
than that demonstrable by the flow-through methods. On
the other hand, standing test solutions of simple and some
complex cyanides exposed to the atmosphere gradually lose
their toxicity, because the volatile HCN escapes.
Chemical determination of the concentration of undis-
sociated, molecular HCN alone may be the best way to
evaluate the danger of free cyanide to fish in waters receiving
cyanide bearing wastes. Such tests may reveal the occi
rence of harmful concentrations of HCN not predictal
through bioassay of the wastes. Because an acceptal:
concentration of HCN or fraction of a LC50 of cyanic
and cyanide-bearing effluents has not yet been positive
determined, a conservative estimate must be made; ai
because levels as low as 0.01 mg/1 have proved harmi
under some conditions, a factor of 0.05 should be applii
to LC50 levels.
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined usit
the receiving water in question and the most sens
tive important species in the locality as the te
organism, a concentration of free cyanide (CN
safe to aquatic life in that water can be estimate
by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an applicatic
factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater tha
0.005 mg/1 is recommended at any time or place
Detergents
Detergents are a common component of sewage and i
dustrial effluents derived in Largest amounts from househo
cleaning agents. In 1965 a shift from tetrapropylene-deriv<
alkylbenzene sulfonates (ABS) to the more biodegradab
linear alkylate sulfonates (LAS) was made by the deterge
industry. In current detergent formulas. LAS is the primal
toxic active compound, two to four times more toxic th;
ABS (Pickering 1966).534 However, toxicity of LAS di
appears along with the metbylene blue active substanc
(MBAS) response upon biodegradation (Swisher 1967).5
Retrieval of MBAS data from the National Surveillam
Stations throughout the U.S. from 1966 to the presei
showed that the mean of 3,608 samples was less than 0
mg/1. There has been a downward trend in MBAS concei
trations. Only four stations reported mean concentratioi
greater than 0.2 mg/1.
The MBAS determination has been the routine analytic,
method for measurement of surfactant concentrations. Pos
tive errors are more common than negative ones in tk
determination of anionic surfactants in water (Standar
Methods 1971).536 An infrared determination or a carbc
absorption cleanup procedure is recommended when hit>
MBAS concentrations are found.
Marchetti (1965)533 critically reviewed the effects of d<
tergents on aquatic life. Most available information o
LAS toxicity relates to fish. Short term studies by a numlx
of investigators have shown (hat lethal concentrations t
selected fish species vary from 0.2 to 10.0 mg/1 (Hokanso
and Smith 1971).632 Bardach et al. (1965)631 reported tliE
10 mg/1 is lethal to bullheads (Ictalurus sp.), arid that 0.
mg/1 eroded 50 per cent of their taste buds within 24 day:
Thatcher and Santner (1966)5;i8 found 96-hour LC50 value
from 3.3 to 6.4 mg/1 for five species of fish.
Pickering and Thatcher (1 970)536 found in their study c
-------
7 oxic Substances /191
chronic toxicity that a concentration of 0.63 mg/1 had no
measurable effect, on the life cycle of the fathead minnow
(Pimephalespromelas), while a concentration of 1.2 mg/1 was
lethal to the newly hatched fry. A safe level should be
between 14 and 28 per cent of the 96-hour LC50. Hokanson
and Smith (1971)532 reported that a concentration of 1 mg/1
was an approximate safe concentration for bluegills in
Mississippi River water of good quality. Arthur (1970)630
found that the no-effect level of LAS on Gammanis pseudo-
limnaeus was 0.2 to 0.4 mg/1. This investigator also subjected
opculate and pulmonate snails to 60-week exposures of
LAS and showed the toxicity levels to be 0.4 to 1.0 mg/1
and greater than 4.4 mg/1, respectively.
Detergent Builders
Phosphates have been included in household detergents
to increase their effectiveness, although this use has been
seriously questioned recently. Nitrilotriacctate (NTA) and
other builders have been tried, but most are either less
effective or have been barred for reasons of potential health
hazard. Available builders do not have serious direct effects
on fish or aquatic organisms at concentrations likely to be
encountered in receiving waters. In view of the uncertain
legal status of present commercial detergents and the
extensive search for adequate substitutes now in progress,
recommendations for builders arc not practical at this time.
However, it can be stated that a satisfactory builder should
be biologically degradable and nontoxic to aquatic
organisms and humans, and that it should not cause aes-
thetic problems in the receiving water.
Recommendation
Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using
the receiving water in question and the most sensi-
tive important species in the locality as the test
organism, a concentration of LAS safe to aquatic
life in that water can be estimated by multiplying
the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.05;
but no concentration greater than 0.2 mg/1 is
recommended at any time or place.
Phenolics
Phenols and phenolic wastes are derived from petroleum,
coke, and chemical industries; wood distillation; and do-
mestic and animal wastes. Many phenolic compounds are
more toxic than pure phenol: their toxicity varies with the
combinations and general nature of total wastes. Acute
toxicity of pure phenol varies between 0.079 mg/1 in 30
minutes to minnows, and 56.0 mg/1 in 96 hours to mosquito
fish (Gambusia affims). Mitrovic et al. (1968)641 found a
48-hour LC50 of 7.5 mg/1 to trout; they noted that exposure
to 6.5 mg/1 caused damage to epithelial cells in 2 hours,
and extensive damage to reproductive systems in 7 days.
Ellis (1937)539 reported 1.0 mg/1 safe to trout; and 0.10
mg/1 was found nonlethal to bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
in 48 hours (Turnbull et al. 1954).542 These studies illustrated
the wide range of phenol toxicity. There is not yet adequate
documentation about chronic effects and toxicity of mixed
wastes on which to base recommendations of safe levels for
fish.
Phenolics affect the taste of fish at levels that do not
appear to affect fish physiology adversely. Mixed wastes
often have more objectionable effects than pure materials.
For example, 2,4-dicholorphenol affects taste at 0.001 to
0.005 mg/1: />-chlorophenol at 0.01 to 0.06 mg/1; and
2-methyl, 6-chlorophcnol at 0.003 mg/1. (See the discussion
of Tainting Substances, p. 147.) Pure phenol did not affect
taste until levels of 1 to 10 mg/1 were reached (Fetterolf
1964).S4° The taste of fish in most polluted situations is
adversely affected by phenolics before acute toxic effects
are observed.
Recommendations
In view of the wide range of concentrations of
phenolics which produce toxic effects in fish and
the generally lower levels which taint fish flesh, it
is recommended that taste and odor criteria be
used to determine suitability of waste receiving
waters to support usable fish populations. Where
problems of fish kills occur or fish are subjected to
occasional short-term exposure to phenolic com-
pounds, a 96-hour LC50 should be determined
using the receiving water in question and the most
sensitive important fish in the locality as the test
animal. Concentrations of phenolic compounds
safe to fish in that water can then be estimated by
multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an application
factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater than
0.1 mg/1 is recommended at any time or place.
Tests of other species will be necessary to protect
other trophic levels.
Sulfides
Sulfides are constituents of many industrial wastes, such
as those from tanneries, paper mills, chemical plants, and
gas works. Hydrogen sulfide may be generated by the
anaerobic decomposition of sewage and other organic
matter in the water, and in sludge beds. Natural production
of HoS may also result from deposits of organic material.
When soluble sulfidcs are added to water, they react
with hydrogen ions to form HS~ or H2S, the proportion of
each depending on the pH values. The toxicity of sulfides
derives primarily from H2S rather than the sulfide ion. The
rapid combination of HoS with other materials, including
oxygen, has frequently caused investigators to overlook the
importance of HoS as it affects aquatic life, especially when
it originates from sludge beds. Because water samples
usually are not taken at the mud/water interface, the im-
portance of H2S in this habitat for fish eggs, fish fry, and
-------
192/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
100
90 0
80 0
70.0
60.0
50.0
400
30.0
20.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
40
3.0
2.0
1.0
6.0
6.4
6.8
7 2
7.6
8 0
8 4
FIGURE III-ll—Percentage of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Form of Vndissociated H2S at Various pH Levels (Temperature
20 C; ionic strength n = 0.01)
-------
Toxic Substances/193
fish food organisms is often overlooked (Colby and Smith
1967).545
Hydrogen sulfide is a poisonous gas, soluble in water to
the extent of about 4,000 mg/1 at 20 C and one atmosphere
of pressure (Figure III-ll). Upon solution, it dissociates
according to the reaction H2S—>HS~+H+ and HS~—>
S—+H+. At pH 9, about 99 per cent of the sulfide is in
the form of HS~; at pH 7 it is about equally divided between
HS~ and H2S; and at pH 5 about 99 per cent is present
as H2S.
Consequently, the toxicity of sulfides increases at lower
pH because a greater proportion is in the form of undissoci-
ated H2S. Only at pH 10 and above is the sulfide ion
present in appreciable amounts. In polluted situations,
where the pH may be neutral or below 7.0, or where oxygen
levels are low but not lethal, problems arising from sulfides
or from hydrogen sulfide generated in sludge deposits will
be increased.
Much available data on the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide
to fish and aquatic life have been based on extremely short
exposure periods and have failed to give adequate infor-
mation on water quality, oxygen, and pH. Consequently,
early data have suggested that concentrations between 0.3
and 4.0 mg/1 permit fish to survive (Schaut 1939,r'46
VanHorn 1958,550 Bonn and Follis 1967,544 Theedc et al.
1969).54<) Recent data both in field situations and under
controlled laboratory conditions demonstrated hydrogen
sulfide toxicity at lower concentrations. Colby and Smith
(1967)015 found that concentrations as high as 0.7 mg/1
were found within 20 mm of the bottom on sludge beds,
and that levels of 0.1 to 0.02 mg/1 were common within the
first 20 mm of water above this layer. Walleye (Stizostedion
mtreum r.) eggs held in trays in this zone did not hatch.
Adelman and Smith (1970)543 reported that hatching of
northern pike (Esox luaus) eggs was substantially reduced
at 0.025 mg/1 of H2S, and at 0.047 mg/1 mortality was
almost complete. Northern pike fry had 96-hour LC50
values that varied from 0.017 to 0.032 mg/1 at normal
oxygen levels (6.0 mg/1). The highest concentration of
hydrogen sulfide at which no short-term effects on eggs or
fry were observed was 0.814 mg/1. Smith and Oseid (in
press 1971),548 working on eggs, fry, and juveniles of walleyes
and white suckers (Catostomus commersonni), and Smith
(1971),547 working on walleyes and fathead minnows
(Pimephales promelas), found that safe levels varied from
0.0029 to 0.012 ing /I with eggs being the least sensitive and
TABLE 111-20—96-Hour LC50 and Safe Levels Based on No
Adverse Effect on Critical Life History Stages
Species
96-Hr. LC (mg/1)
Safe levels" (mc/l)
Northern Pike
Walleye
White Sucker
Fathead minnows
Bluegill
Gamnurus pseudolimnaeus
Heragema limbata
egjs
try
egis
fry
juvenile
em
fry
juvenile
juvenile
adult
juvenile
adult
0.037
0.026
0.071
0 007
0.017
0.0018
0.0185
0.032 (at 20C)
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.042 (10-day)
0.350
0.014
0.004
0.012
0.007
0.0037
0.015
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.0033
" Safe levels are construed to mean no demonstrable deleterious effect on survival or growth after long-term
chronic exposure.
juveniles being the most sensitive in short-term tests (Table
111-20). In 96-hour bioassays fathead minnows and goldfish
(Carasstus auralus) varied greatly in tolerance to hydrogen
sulfide with changes in temperature. They were more
tolerant at low temperatures (6 to 10 C).
On the basis of chronic tests evaluating growth and
survival, the safe level for bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
juveniles and adults was 0.002 mg/1. White sucker eggs all
hatched at 0.015 mg/1, but juveniles showed a negligible
growth reduction at 0.002 mg/1. Safe levels for fathead
minnows were between 0.002 and 0.003 mg/1. Studies on
various arthropods (Gammarus pseudolimnaeus and Hexagenia
limbata), useful as fish food, indicated that safe levels were
between 0.002 and 0.003 mg/1 (Smith 1971).647 Some species
typical of normally stressed habitats were much more re-
sistant (Asellus sp.).
Recommendation
On the basis of available data, a level of undis-
sociated hydrogen sulfide assumed to be safe for
all aquatic organisms including fish is 0.002 mg/1.
At a pH of 6.0 and a temperature of 13.0 C, approxi-
mately 99 per cent of the total sulfide is present as
undissociated hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, to pro-
tect aquatic organisms within the acceptable limits
of pH and temperature, it is recommended that
the concentration of total sulfides not exceed 0.002
mg/1 at any time or place.
-------
WILDLIFE
In this report, wildlife is defined as all species of verte-
brates other than fish and man. To assure the short-term
and long-term survival of wildlife, the water of the aquatic
ecosystem must be of the quality and quantity to furnish
the necessary life support throughout the life-cycle of the
species involved. In addition to the quantity, the quality of
food substances produced by the aquatic environment must
be adequate to support the long-term survival of the wild-
life species.
Many species of wildlife require the existence of specific,
complex, and relatively undisturbed ecosystems for their
continued existence. Aquatic ecosystems, such as bogs,
muskegs, seepages, swamps, and marshes, can exhibit
marked fragility under the influence of changing water
levels, various pollutants, fire, or human activity. Changes
in the abundance of animal populations living in such
aquatic communities can result in reactions and altered
abundance of plant life, which in turn will have repercus-
sions of other species of animal life. In general, these transi-
tional ecosystems between land and water are characterized
by very high productivity and importance for wildlife, and
they should thus be maintained in that state to the greatest
possible extent.
In many instances, criteria to protect fish and inverte-
brates or to provide water suitable for consumption by man
or domestic animals will also provide the minimal requisites
for some species of wildlife. This would be true for species
that use water only for direct consumption or that feed on
aquatic organisms to only a minor extent. For many species
of wildlife, however, the setting of water quality criteria is
complicated by their ecological position at the apex of com-
plex food webs, and also by the extreme mobility of some
wildlife, especially birds.
Those substances which are concentrated via food chains,
such as many chlorinated hydrocarbons, present special
problems for those species that occupy the apex of long food
chains. In those instances, environmental levels which are
safe for fish, do not necessarily convey safety to predators or
even to scavengers that consume fish.
PROTECTION OF FOOD AND SHELTER FOR WILDLIFE
A number of factors can be identified that can affe
specific components of the ecosystem and cause reduo
food and shelter for wildlife. These factors also affect fi
and other squatic life and therefore are discussed in great
detail in appropriate related subtopics.
PH
In bioassays with aquatic plants, Sincock (1968)893foui
that when the pH of the water in test vessels dropped to 4,
reedhead-grass (Potamogeton perfoliatus), a valuable wate
fowl food plant, died within a few days. Similarly, in Ba
Bay, Virginia, between August and November, 1963, t
aquatic plant production declined from 164 to 13 poun
per acre. This atypical decline was immediately preced>
by a decline in pH to 6.5 compared to previous midsumm
readings of 7.7 to 9.2. (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries ai
Wildlife).601
Recommendation
Aquatic plants of greatest value as food for wate
fowl thrive best in waters with a summer pH rani
of 7.0 to 9.2.
ALKALINITY
Generally, waters with reasonably high bicarbonate alk
Unity are more productive of valuable waterfowl food plar
than are waters with low bic arbonate alkalinity. Few wate
with less than 25 mg/1 bicarbonate alkalinity can be classi
among the better waterfowl habitats. Many waterfowl hat
tats productive of valuable foods, such as sago pondwei
(Potamogeton pectinatus), widgeongrass (Rappia maritima at
R. occidentalis), banana waterlily (Castalia flava), wild celer
(Vallisneria americana), and others have a bicarbonate alk
Unity range of 35 to 200 mg/1.
Definitive submerged aquatic plant communities devek
in waters with different concentrations of bicarbona
194
-------
Wildlife/195
alkalinity. It is logical to assume that excessive and pro-
longed fluctuation in alkalinity would not be conducive to
stabilization of any one plant community type. Sufficient
experimental evidence is not available to define the effects
of various degrees and rates of change in alkalinity on
aquatic plant communities. Fluctuations of 50 mg/1 prob-
ably would contribute to unstable plant communities.
Fluctuations of this magnitude may be due to canals con-
necting watersheds, diversion of irrigation water, or flood
diversion canals (Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration 1968, hereafter referred to as FWPCA 1968).562
Recommendation
Waterfowl habitats should have a bicarbonate
alkalinity between 30 and 130 mg/1 to be pro-
ductive. Fluctuations should be less than 50 mg/1
from natural conditions.
SALINITY
Salinity can also affect plant communities. All saline
water communities, from slightly brackish to marine, pro-
duce valuable waterfowl foods, and the most important
consideration is the degree of fluctuation of salinity. The
germination of seeds and the growth of seedlings are critical
stages in the plant-salinity relationship; plants become more
tolerant to salinity with age.
Salinities from 0.35 to 0.9 per cent NaCl in drinking
water have been shown to be toxic to many members of the
order Galliformes (chickens, pheasant, quail) (Krista et al.
1961,585 Scrivner 1946,592 Field and Evans 1946661).
Young ducklings were killed or retarded in growth as a
result of salt poisoning by solutions equal to those found on
the Suisun Marsh, California, during the summer months.
Salinity maxima varied from 0.55 to 1.74 per cent, and the
means varied from 0.07 to 1.26 per cent during July from
1956 to 1960 (Griffith 1962-63).565
Recommendation
Salinity should be kept as close to natural con-
ditions as possible. Rapid fluctuations should be
minimized.
LIGHT PENETRATION
Criteria for light penetration established in the discus-
sions of Color (p. 130) and Settleable Solids (p. 129) should
also be adequate to provide for the production of aquatic
plants for freshwater wildlife.
SETTLEABLE SUBSTANCES
Accumulation of silt deposits are destructive to aquatic
plants due especially to the creation of a soft, semi-liquid
substratum inadequate for the anchoring of roots. Back
Bay, Virginia, and Currituck Sound, North Carolina, serve
as examples of the destructive nature of silt deposition.
Approximately 40 square miles of bottom are covered with
soft, semi-liquid silts up to 5 inches deep; these areas, con-
stituting one-fifth of the total area, produce only 1 per cent
of the total aquatic plant production (FWPCA 1968).662
Recommendation
Setteable substances can destroy the usefulness
of aquatic bottoms to waterfowl, and for that
reason, settleable substances should be minimized
in areas expected to support waterfowl.
PRODUCTION OF WILDLIFE FOODS OTHER THAN
PLANTS
The production of protozoans, crustaceans, aquatic in-
sects, other invertebrates, and fish is dependent on water
quality. The water quality requirements for the production
of fish are dealt with elsewhere in this Section, and a normal
level of productivity of invertebrates is also required for the
normal production of fish that feed upon them.
While it is well known that many species of invertebrates
are easily affected by low concentrations of pollutants, such
as insecticides, in water (Gaufin etal. 1965,863 Burdicket al.
1968,555 Kennedy et al. 1970584), most of the field studies do
not supply reliable exposure data, and most laboratory
studies are of too short a duration or are performed under
static conditions, allowing no reliable extrapolations to
natural conditions. The general impression to be gained
from these studies is that insects and crustaceans tend to be
as sensitive as or more sensitive than fish to various insecti-
cides, and that many molluscs and oligochetes tend to be
less sensitive.
TEMPERATURE
The increasing discharge of warmed industrial and do-
mestic effluents into northern streams and lakes has changed
the duration and extent of normal ice cover in these north-
ern regions. This has prompted changes in the normal
overwintering pattern of some species of waterfowl. Thus,
Hunt (1957)576 details the increasing use since 1930 of the
Detroit River as a wintering area for black duck (Anas
rubripes), canvasback (Aythya valisneria), lesser scaup (Aythya
qffines), and redhead (Athya americana). In this process,
waterfowl may become crowded into areas near industrial
complexes with a shrinking supply of winter food. The
proximity of sources of pollutants, food shortages, and low
air temperatures often interact to produce unusually high
waterfowl mortalities.
Recommendation
Changes in natural freezing patterns and dates
should be avoided as far as possible in order to
minimize abnormal concentrations of wintering
waterfowl.
-------
196/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
SPECIFIC POTENTIALLY HARMFUL SUBSTANCES
Direct Acting Substances
Oils Waterbirds and aquatic mammals, such as musk-
rat and otter, require water that is free from surface oil.
Catastrophic losses of waterbirds have resulted from the
contamination of plumages by oils. Diving birds appear to
be more susceptible to oiling than other species (Hawkes
1961).671 Heavy contamination of the plumage results in
loss of buoyancy and drowning. Lower levels of contamina-
tion cause excessive heat loss resulting in an energy deficit
which expresses itself in an accelerated starvation (Hartung
1967a).667 Less than 5 mg of oil per bird can produce sig-
nificant increases in heat loss. The ingestion of oils may
contribute to mortalities, and this is especially true for some
manufactured oils (Hartung and Hunt 1966).569 When
small quantities of oil are coated onto eggs by incubating
mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), the likelihood of those eggs to
hatch is greatly reduced (Hartung 1965).566 Rittinghaus
(1956)591 reported an incident in which numerous Cabot's
Terns (Tkalasseus sandvicensis) and other shorebirds became
contaminated with oil that had been washed on shore. Eggs
which were subsequently oiled by the plumage of oiled fe-
male terns did not hatch even after 50 days of incubation.
The absence of visible surface oils should protect wildlife
from direct effect.
Oils can be sedimented by coating particulates on the
surface and then sinking to the bottom. Sedimented oils
have been associated with changes in benthic communities
(Hunt 1957)576 and have been shown to act as concentrators
for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Hartung and
Klingler 1970570).
Recommendation
To protect waterfowl, there should be no visible
floating oil (see p. 146 of this Section and pp. 263-264
of Section IV).
Lead Waterfowl often mistake spent lead shot for seed
or grit and ingest it. See Section IV, pp. 227-228, for a
discussion of this problem.
Recommendation
The recommendation of the Marine Aquatic Life
and Wildlife Panel, Section IV, (p. 228) to protect
waterfowl also applies to the freshwater environ-
ment.
Botulism Poisoning Botulism is a food poisoning
caused by the ingestion of the toxin of Clostridium botulinum
of any six immunologically distinct types, designated A
through F. The disease, as it occurs in epizootic proportions
in wild birds, is most commonly of the C type, although
outbreaks of type E botulism have been observed on the
Great Lakes (Kaufman and Fay 1964582, Fay 1966660).
Cl. botulinum, a widely distributed anaerobic bacterium,
is capable of existing for many years in its dormant spore
form, even under chemically and physically adverse e
vironmental conditions. Its toxins are produced in t
course of its metabolic activity as the vegetative form gro'
and reproduces in suitable media. Outbreaks occur wh
aquatic birds consume this preformed toxin.
The highest morbidity and mortality rates from botulis
in aquatic birds have been recorded in shallow, alkali
lakes or marshes in the western United States, and outbrea
have most commonly occurred from July through Septei
ber and, in some years, October. The optimum tempei
tures for growth of the bacterium or the toxin productic
or both, have been reported as low as 25 C (Hunter et
1970)5" and as high as 37 C (Quortrup and Sudheirr
1942588). The discrepancies are probably the result of diffi
ences in the experimental conditions under which the me;
urements were made and the strains of CL botulinum type
used.
The popular belief that avian botulism epizootics are ;
sociated with low water levels and consequent stagnation
not necessarily supported by facts. In three of the years
heaviest bird losses in the history of the Bear River Migi
tory Bird Refuge (1965, 1967, and 1971), the water sup[
was considerably more abundant than normal (Hunt
California Department of P'ish and Game, personal commu
cation; unpublished Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildl
reports600). The high water levels caused flooding of mi
flats not normally under water in the summer months. Sir
lar inundations of soil that had been dry for several ye;
have been associated previously with outbreaks on the Be
River Refuge and in other epizootic areas. A partial e
planation for these associations may be that flooding of d
ground is commonly followed by a proliferation of ma
species of aquatic invertebrates (McKnight 1970687), t
carcasses of which may be utilized by Cl. botulinum.
Bell et al. (1955)562 provided experimental support for
idea expressed earlier by Kalmbach (1934).681 According
their "rnicroenvirontnent concept," the bodies of inver
brate animals provide the nutrients and the anaerobic t
vironment required by C. botulinum type C for growth a
toxin production. These bodies would presumably also of,
some protection to the bacterium and its toxin from a chen
cally unfavorable ambient medium. Jensen and All
(I960)578 presented evidence of a possible relationship t
tween die-offs of certain invertebrate species and subseque
botulism outbreaks.
The relationship between alkalinity or salinity of t
marsh and the occurrence of botulism outbreaks is not cle;
Invertebrate carcasses suspended in distilled water suppc
high levels of toxin (Bell et al. 1955).552 Laboratory mec
are commonly composed of ingredients such as peptoni
yeast extract, and glucose, without added salts. The mediu
used routinely at the Bear River Research Station for t
culture of Cl. botulinum type C has a pH of 6.8 to 7.0 aft
heat sterilization. McKee el al. (1958)686 showed that win
pH was automatically maintained at a particular level
-------
Wildlife
laboratory cultures of Cl. botulinum type C throughout the
growth period, the largest amount of toxin was produced at
pH 5.7, the lowest level tested. Decomposing carcasses of
birds dead of botulism commonly contain very high concen-
trations of type C toxin, and in these cases production is
ordinarily independent of the chemical composition of the
marsh.
Kalmbach (1934)581 tabulated the salt concentrations of
water samples collected from 10 known botulism epizootic
areas. The values ranged from 261 to 102,658 ppm (omit-
ting the highest, which was taken from a lake where the bird
losses were possibly from a cause other than botulism).
Christiansen and Low (1970)s:>6 recorded conductance
measurements on water in the management units of the
Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge and the Farmington Bay
Waterfowl Management Area, both sites of botulism out-
breaks varying in severity from year to year. The average
conductance of water flowing into the five units of the Bear
River Refuge in five summers (1959-1963) ranged from 3.7
to 4.9 millimhos per centimeter at 25 C. The readings on
outflowing water from the five units ranged from 4.4 to 8.3
mmhos. Comparable figures for the three Farmington Bay
units were 1.8 to 3.2 (inflow) and 3.2 to 4.8 mmhos (out-
flow). Thus the salinity range of the inflowing water at Bear
River was comparable to that of the outflowing water at
Farmington.
These data suggest that salt concentration of the water in
an epizootic area is not one of the critical factors influencing
the occurrence of outbreaks. If high salinity does favor their
occurrence, it is probably not because of its effect on Cl.
botulinum itself. Other possible explanations for the higher
incidence of botulism in shallow, alkaline marshes are:
• Saline waters may support higher invertebrate popu-
lation levels than do relatively fresh waters. (Com-
parisons, as they relate to avian botulism, have not
been made.)
• High salinity may inhibit some of the microorganisms
that compete with Cl. botulinum for nutrients or those
that cause deterioration of the toxin.
• Salinity may have no significant effect on the in-
vertebrates or the bacteria, but it increases the sus-
ceptibility of the birds. Cooch (1964)557 has shown
that type C botulinum toxin decreases the activity of
the salt gland in ducks, reducing its capacity to
eliminate salt. Birds so affected succumb to smaller
doses of toxin than do those provided with fresh
water.
• Outbreaks of botulism poisoning tend to be associ-
ated with or affected by insect die-offs, water tem-
peratures above 70 F, fluctuations in water levels and
elevated concentrations of dissolved solids.
Recommendation
Outbreaks of botulism poisoning tend to be as-
sociated with, or affected by insect die-offs, water
temperature above 70 F, fluctuating water levels,
and elevated concentrations of dissolved solids.
Management of these factors may reduce outbreaks
of botulism poisoning.
Substances Acting After Magnification in Food Chains
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides
DDT and Derivatives DDT and its abundant de-
rivatives DDE and TDE have high lipid solubility and low
water solubility, and thus tend to concentrate in the lipid,
i.e., living fraction of the aquatic environment (Hartung
1967b).568 DDE is the most stable of the DDT compounds
and has been especially implicated in producing thinning of
egg shells, increased breakage of eggs, reproductive failure
in species occupying the apex of aquatic food chains in areas
with long histories of DDT usage.
Reproductive failures and local extirpation associated
with egg shell thinning have been reported for several North
American bird species. The phenomenon was first described
and is most wide-spread for the peregrine falcon (Falco
pertgrinus) (Hickey and Anderson 1968).374 Since then simi-
lar phenomena have been described in Brown Pelicans
(Pelecanus ocadetitalis) (Anderson and Hickey 1970)551 and
species of several other families of predatory birds. Further
increases of DDE in large receiving basins, such as the Great
Lakes, would be expected to increase the extent of repro-
ductive failure among predatory aquatic bird populations.
Concentrations as low as 2.8 ppm p ,//DDE on a wet-
weight basis produced experimental thinning of egg shells in
the American Kestrel (Falco spmvanus) (\Viemeyer and
Porter 1970).5" Heath et al. (1969)572 induced significant
levels of eggshell thinning in mallards after feeding them
similarly low levels of DDE. Concentrations of DDT com-
pounds in the water of Lake Michigan have been estimated
to be 1 to 3 parts per trillion (Reinert 1970)589 (Table
111-21). Concentrations that would permit the assured sur-
vival of sensitive predatory bird species are evidently much
lower than that. Because such low concentrations cannot be
reliably measured by present technologies and because the
concentrating factor for the food chains appears to be vari-
able or is not known, or both, a biological monitoring sys-
tem should be chosen. If it is desired to protect a number of
fish-eating and raptorial birds, it is essential to reduce the
levels of DDE contamination, especially in large receiving
basins (see Section IV).
The available data indicate that there should not be con-
centrations greater than 1 mg/kg of total DDT in any
aquatic plants or animals in order to protect most species of
aquatic wildlife. Present unpublished data indicate effects
for even lower levels of DDE to some species of predatory
birds (Stickel unpublished data).m
Present environmental levels vastly exceed the recom-
mended levels in many locations, and continued direct or
-------
198/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 111-21—Relationship of DDT and Metabolites to
Eggshell Thinning
Species
Mallard
Prairie falcon (Falco
meiicanus)
Japanese quail
(Coturnix)
Herring gull (Larus
argentatus)
American kestrel
(Falco sparvariiis)
Mallard
Dosage* wet-
weight basis
. lOOOmg/kg
single dose
N.D.f
lOOppmo.pDDT
100ppmp,p'DDT
ca. 3.3ppm
total DDT
2.8 ppmp.p'DDE
"2.8 ppm DDE
"11. 2 ppm DDE
Pesticide level
in eggs
N.D.f
0-10 ppm DDE
1 0-20 ppm DDE
20-30 ppm DDE
30 ppm DDE
23.6 ppm o.pDDT
0.52 ppm DDE
48.0 ppm p.p'DDE
227 ppm total DDT
32 4 ppm DDE
N.Dt
N.D.f
Thinning
Percent
25
ca. 5
ca. 13
ca. 18
ca. 25
4
E
N.D.f
10
11
14
Reference
Tucker & Haegele, 1970s'5
Enderson & Berger, 1970s5'
Bitmanetal., 1969«3
Keith, 1966*"
Wiemeyer & Porter, 1970s"
Heath et al., 1969S1!
* All tests except the first one are chronic, spanning at least several months.
" Converted from dry-basis.
t Not determined.
indirect inputs of DDT would make these recommendations
unattainable.
Recommendation
In order to protect most species of aquatic wild-
life, the total DDT concentration on a wet-weight
basis should be less than 1 mg/kg in any aquatic
plants or animals. (Also see Recommendations for
Pesticides, p. 185-186.)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) Polychlorinated
biphenyls are chlorinated hydrocarbons which are highly
resistant to chemical or biological degradation. They have
been widespread environmental contaminants (Jensen et al.
1969,580 Risebrough et al. 1968590). Their biological effects
at present environmental concentrations are not known.
PCB's can elevate microsomal enzyme activity (Risebrough
et al. 1968,590 Street et al. 1968594), but the environmental
significance of that finding is not clear. The toxicity of
PCB is influenced by the presence of small amounts of con-
taminated chlorinated dibenzofurans (Vos and Koeman
1970,596 Vos et al. 1970597) which are highly toxic to d
veloping embryos.
Recommendation
Because of the persistence of PCB and the
susceptibility to biological magnification, it :
recommended that the body burdens of PCB i
birds and mammals not be permitted to increas
and that monitoring programs be instituted (se
Section IV).
Mercury
Westoo (1966)598 reported that almost all of the mercui
found in fish is methyl mercury. Jensen and Jernelc
(1969)679 showed that natural sediments can methyla
ionic mercury. Mercury levels in fish in Lake St. Cla
ranged between 0.4 and 3 ppm, averaging near 1.5 ppi
(Greig and Seagram 1970).£64 Residues in fish-eating bin
from Lake St. Clair ranged up to 7.5 ppm in a tern, and u
to 23 ppm in a great blue heron (Dustman et al. 1970).5
These residues are comparable to those found in Swedis
birds that died after experimental dosing with methy
mercury, and in birds that died with signs of mercury po
soning under field conditions in Scandinavian countn
(Henriksson et al. 1966,5" Bor; etal. 1969,564 Holt 1969s".
To date, no bird mortalities due to mercury contaminatio
have been demonstrated in the Lake St. Clair area, bt
body burdens of fish-eating birds are obviously close t
demonstrated toxic levels. It is therefore concluded that th
mercury levels in fish flesh should be kept below 0.5 ppm I.
assure the long-term survival of fish-eating birds. Since thi
level incorporates little or no safety margin for fish-eatin
wildlife, it is suggested that the safety of a 0.5 ppm level b
reevaluated as soon as possible.
Recommendation
Fish-eating birds should be protected if mercurj
levels in fish do not exceed 0.5 ^6/6-
Since the recommendation of 0.5 /ug/g mercuri
in fish provides little or no safety margin for fish'
eating wildlife, it is recommended that the safetj
of the 0.5 Mg/g level be reevaluated as soon as
possible.
-------
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BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
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-------
2001 Section III—Freshwater Aquatw Life and Wildlife
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3« Wobeser, G., N. O. Nielsen, R. H. Dunlop, and F. M. Alton (1970),
Mercury concentrations in tissues of fish from the Saskatchewan
River. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27(4):830-834.
358 Wood, ]. M., C. G. Rosen, and F. S. Kennedy (1969), Synthesis
of methyl-mercury compounds by extracts of a methanogenic
bacterium. Mature 220:173-174.
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359D'Itri, F. M. unpublished data, 1971. The environmental mercury
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seo Mount, D. I., personal communication, 1971 National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minn.
361 Mount, D. I., unpublished data, 1971. National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
PHTALATE ESTERS
362Frcar, D. E. H. (1969), Pesticide index, 4th ed. (College Science
Publishers, State College, Pennsylvania), 399 p.
363 Nccly, H. C. (1970), Production increasing but prices low. Chem.
Eng. News 48(37):59A-61A.
364 Nematollahi, J., W. L. Guess, and J. Autian (1967), Plasticizcrs
in medical application. I. Analysis and toxicity evaluation of
dialkyl benzencdicarboxylates. J. Pharm. Sci. 56(11):1446-1453.
365Schoof, H. F., G. W. Pearce, and W. Mathis (1963), Dichlorous
as a residual fumigant in mud, plywood, and bamboo huts. Bull.
World Health Organ. 29:227-230.
366 Stalling, D. L. (1972), Analysis of organochlorinc residues in fish:
current research at the Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory, in
Pesticide chemistry, vol. 4, Methods in residue analysis, A. S. Tahori,
ed. (Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, New York), pp. 413—
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367 Sanders, O. unpublished data 1971, Fish-Pesticide Research Labora-
tory, Columbia, Missouri.
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
368 Anderson, D. W., J. J. Hickey, R. W. Risebrough, D. F. Hughes,
and R. E. Christensen (1969), Significance of chlorinated hydro-
carbon residues to breeding pelicans and cormorants. Can. Field
Natur. 83(2):91-112.
369 Armour, J. A. and J. A. Burke (1970), Method for separating
polychlorinated biphenyls from DDT and its analogs. J. Ass.
Offic. Anal. Chem. 53(4)-.761-768.
3™Bagley, G. E., W. L. Reichel, and E. Cromartie (1970), Identifica-
tion of polychlorinated biphenyls in two bald eagles by combined
gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Ass. Offic. Anal.
Chem. 53(2):251-261.
311 Duke, T. W., J. I. Lowe, and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (1970), A poly-
chlorinated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254®) in the water, sediment,
and biota of Escambia Bay, Florida. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol.
5(2):171-180.
372 Gustafson, C. G. (1970), PCB's-prevalent and persistent. Environ.
Sci. Techrwl. 4:814-819.
373Hansen, D. J., P. R. Parrish, J. I. Lowe, A. J. Wilson, Jr., and
P. D. Wilson (1971), Chronic toxicity, uptake, and retention of
a polychlorinated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254) in two estuarine
fishes. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6(2):113-119.
374 Holden, A. V. (1970), International cooperative study of organi
chlorine pesticide residues in terrestrial and aquatic wildh
1967/1968. Peshc. Monit. J. 1(3) :117-135.
375 Holmes, D. C., J. H. Simmons, and J. O'G. Tatton (1967
Chlorinated hydrocarbons in British wildlife. Nature 216'22/
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316 Jensen, S. A., G. Johnels, S Olsson, and G. Otterlind (1969
DDT and PCB in marine animals from Swedish waters. Matu
224-247-250.
377 Jensen, S., N. Johansson, and M. Olsson (1970), PCB-indicatioi
of effects on salmon, PCB conference, Stockholm, September 2'
1970. (Swedish Salmon Research Institute), [Report LFI MED
7/1970].
378 Kocman, J. H., M. C. Ten Noever de Brauw, and R . H. De V<
(1969), Chlorinated biphenyls in fish, mussels and birds froi
the River Rhine and the Netherlands coastal area Mature 22
1126-1128.
379 Mayer, F. L., Jr. infirets (1972), Special report on PCB's in Progre
in sport fishery research, 1970. (Government Printing Ofno
Washington, D. C.)
380Mulhern, B. M., E. Cromartie, W. L. Reichel, and A. A. Bclis
(1971), Semi quantitative determination of polychlorinate
biphenyls in tissue samples by thin layer chromatography. _'
/Irr. Offic. Anal. Chem. 54(3):MS-550.
381Nebeker, A. V., F. A. Publis and D. L. Defoe (1971), Toxicity <
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) to fish and other aquatic lif<
Final draft. Environmental Protection Agency, Motional Water Qiialii
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
382Nimmo, D. R., P. D. Wilson, R. R. Blackman, and A. J. Wilsor
Jr. (1971), Polychlorinated biphenyl absorbed from sedirnenl
by fiddler crabs and pink shrimp. Mature 231:50-52.
sss Papagcorgc, W. B. (1970), Monsanto Company, presented i
part at a meeting, "PCB's in the environment," Match 17, 197r
sponsored by the National Water Quality Laboratory, FWQA
Duluth, Minnesota.
'"Peakall, D. B. and J. L. Lincer (1970), Polychlorinated biphenyls
another long-life widespread chemical in the environment. Bio
science 20:958-964.
386 Reynolds. L. M. (1971), Pesticide residue analysis in the presenc
of polychlorobiphcnyls (PCB's). Residue Rev. 34:27-57.
386 Risebrough, R. W., P. Rieche, D. B. Peakall, S. G. Herman, am
M. N. Kirven (1968), Polychlorinated biphenyls in the globa
ecosystem. Nature 220:1098-1102.
387 Risebrough, R. (1970), More letters in the wind. Environment 12(1)
16-26.
388 Saundcrs, H. O. (1972), Special report on PCB's, in Progress ii
sport fishery research 1970. (Government Printing Office, Wash
ington, D. C.).
389 Saunders, H. O. in press, Special Report on PCB's. In: Progress it
Sport Fishery Research, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Resource Publication USGPO.
190 Stalling, D. L. and F. L. Mayer, Jr. (1972), Toxicities of PCB;
to fish and environmental residues. Environmental Health Per-
spectives 1:159-164.
•191 Stalling, D. L. and J. N. Huckins (1971), Gas-liquid chromato-
graphy-mass spectrometry characterization of polychlorinated
biphenyls (aroclors) and 36Cl-labeling of Aroclors 1248 and
1254. J. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 54(4):801-807.
:i92 Stalling, D. L. in press (1971), Analysis of Organochlorine Residues
in Fish-Current Research at the Fish-Pesticide Research Labora-
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593 Brungs, W. A., personal communication, 1972. Effects of polychlori-
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-------
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394Mehrle, P. M. and B. F. Grant, unpublished data, 1971. Fish Pesti-
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395 Frank, R. and J. Rees, personal communication. R. Frank, Director
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of Guclph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada; J. Rees, Ontario Water
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396 Stalling;, D. L and J. L. Johnson, unpublished data, 1970. Labora-
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Columbia, Missouri
397 Stalling, D. L. and J. N. Huckins, unpublished data, 1971. National
Pesticide Monitoring Program. Fish Pesticide Research Labora-
tory, Columbia, Missouri.
METALS
398 Ball, I R. (1967), The relative susceptibilities of some species of
ftxsh-water fish to poisons I. Ammonia. Water Res. 1(11-12):
767 775.
399 Bender, M. E , W R. Matson, and R. A. Jordan (1970), On the
significance of metal complcxing agents in secondary sewage
effluents. Em-it on Sci. Techno!. 4(6):520-521.
400 Boetius, J. (1960), Lethal action of mercuric chloride and phenyl-
mercuric acetate on fishes. Medd. Dan. Fnk. Havunders. 3(4).'93-
11").
401 Brown, V. M. (1968), The calculation of the acute toxicity of mix-
tures of poisons to rainbow trout. Water Res. 2(10):723-733.
402 Brungs, W. A (1969), Chronic toxicity of zinc to the fathead min-
nows, Pimephales promelas Rafinesque. Allans. Amer Fish. Soc.
98(2):272-279.
403 Cairns, J , Jr. (1956), The effects of increased temperatures upon
aquatic organisms. Purdue Untr. Fng. Bull. F.xl. Ser. no. 89'346—
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4(14 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Schcier (1918), The effect of periodic low
oxygen upon the toxicity of various chemicals to aquatic or-
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405 Crandall, C. A. and C. J. Goodnight (19(52), Effects of sublethal
concentrations of several toxicants on growth of the common
guppy, Lebistes rettculatus. Limnol. Oceanogi. 7(2) 233-239.
406 Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz (1953), Critical review of literature
on the toxicity of industrial wastes and their components to fish.
II The metals as salts. Sewage Induit. Wastes 2 5(7):802-839.
407 Freeman, R A. and W. II Everhart (1971), Toxicity of aluminum
hydroxide complexes in neutral and basic media to rainbow
trout. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(4):644-658.
408 Hawkslcy, R. A. (1967), Advanced water pollution analysis by a
water laboratory. Analyzer 8(1):13-15.
409 Herbert, D. W. M. and D S. Shurbcn (1964), The toxicity to
fish of mixtures of poisons. I. Salts of ammonia and zinc. Ann.
Appl. Bwl. 53(1):33-41.
410 Hervcy, R. J. (1949), Effect of chromium on the growth of uni-
cellular Chlorophyceae and diatoms. Rot. Gaz. 111(1)'1-11.
411 Jones, J. R E. (1939), The relation between the electrolytic solu-
tion pressures of the metals and their toxicity to the stickleback
(Gasterosteus aculealus L.). J. Exptl. Bwl. 16:425-437.
412 Lloyd, R. (1960), Toxicity of zinc sulfate to rainbow trout. Ann.
Appl. Bwl. 48:84-94.
413 Lloycl, R. (1961), Effect of dissolved oxygen concentrations on
the toxicity of several poisons to rainbow trout (Salmn gairdnerii
Richardson). J. Exp. Biology 38:447.
414 Lloycl, R. and D. W. M. Herbert (1960), Influence of carbon
dioxide on the toxicity of non-ionized ammonia to rainbow trout
(Salmo gamlnern). Ann. Appl. Bwl. 48:399-404.
-------
210/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
437 Weir, P. A. and C. H. Hine (1970), Effects of various metals on
behavior of conditioned goldfish. Arch. Environ. Health 20( 1) :45-51.
References Cited
438Benoit, D. A., unpublished data, 1971. Long term effects of hexava-
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brook trout and rainbow trout. National Water Quality Labora-
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439 Biesinger, K. E., G. Glass and R. W. Andrew, unpublished data,
1971. Toxicity of copper to Daphnia magna, National Water
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440 Biesinger, K. E. and G. M. Christensen, unpublished data, 1971.
Metal effects on survival, growth, reproduction and metabolism
of Daphnia magna.
441Brungs, W. A., unpublished data, 1971. National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minn.
442 Eaton, J. G., unpublished data, 1971. Chronic toxicity of cadmium
to the bluegill. National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth,
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443 Everhart, W. H., unpublished data, 1971. Zoology Dept. Colorado
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444 Fisheries Research Board of Canada, unpublished data, 1971.
445 McKirn, J. M. and J. G. Eaton, unpublished data, 1971. Toxic
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446 Pickering, Q. H., unpublished data, 1971. Newtown Fish Toxicology
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447 Patrick, R., unpublished data, 1971. Dissolved and floating ma-
terials in water eutrophication, effects of heavy metals on diatoms,
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PESTICIDES
448 Bender, M. E. (1969), Uptake and retention of malathion by the
carp. Progr. Fish-Cult. 31(3): 1.55-159.
449 Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean, E. J. Harris, J. Skea, C. Frisa, and C.
Sweeney (1968), Methoxychlor as a blackfly larvicide: persis-
tence of its residues in fish and its effect on stream arthropods.
N. T. Fish. Game J. 15(2):121-142.
460 Burdick, G. E., E. J. Harris, H. J. Dean, T. M. Walker, J. Skea,
and D. Colby (1964), The accumulation of DDT in lake trout
and the effect on reproduction. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(2):
127-136.
461 Cope, O. B. (1961), Effects of DDT spraying for spruce budworm
on fish in the Yellowstone River system. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
90(3)-.239-251.
462 Eaton, J. G. (1970), Chronic malathion toxicity to the bluegill
(Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque): Water Res. 4(10):673-684.
463 Elson, P. F. (1967), Effects on wild young salmon of spraying DDT
over New Brunswick forests. J. Fish. Res. Ed. Canada 24(4):731-
767.
454Feltz, H. R., W. T. Sayers, and H. P. Nicholson (1971), National
monitoring program for the assessment of pesticide residues
in water. Pestic. Monit. J. 5(l):54-62.
466 Frank, P. A. and R. D. Comes (1967), Herbicidal residues in pond
water and hydrosoil. Weeds 15(3):210-213.
466 Gakstatter, J. L. and C. M. Weiss (1965), The decay of anti-
cholinesterase activity of organic phosphorus insecticides on
storage in waters of different pH. Proceedings Second International
Water Pollution Conference, Tokyo, 7964, pp. 83-95.
"'Gillett, J. W., ed. (1969), The biological impact of pesticides in the
environment [Environmental health science series no. 1 ] (En-
vironmental Health Studies Center, Oregon State University,
Corvallis), 210 p.
468Hamelink, J. L., R. C. Waybrant, and R. C. Ball (1971), A pro-
posal: exchange equilibria control the degree chlorinated hydro-
carbons are biologically magnified in lentic environments. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(2):207-214.
459 Hannon, M. R., Y. A. Greichus, R. L. Applegate, and A. C. Fox
(1970), Ecological distribution of pesticides in Lake Poinsett
South Dakota. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3) :496-500.
460 Hartung, R. (1970) Seasonal dynamics of pesticides in western
Lake Erie. Sea Grant progress Report. University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor.
461 Henderson, C., W. L. Johnson, and A. Inglis (1969), Organo-
chlorine insecticide residues in fish. (National pesticide moni-
toring program). Pestic. Monit. J. 3(3):145-171.
462 Hopkins, C. L., H. V. Brewerton. and H. J. W. McGrath (1966)
The effect on a stream fauna of an aerial application of DDT
prills to pastureland. N. %. J Sci. 9(l):236-248.
163 Hunt, E. G. and A. I. Bischoff (1960), Inimical effects on wildlife
of periodic DDD applications to Clear Lake. Calif. Fnh Garni
46:91-106.
164 Hynes, H. B. N. (1961), The effect of sheep-dip containing the
insecticide BHC on the fauna of a small stream, including
Simuhum and its predators. Ann. Trap. Med. Parasitol. 55(2).192-
196.
165 Ide, F. P. (1967), Effects of forest spraying with DDT on aquatic
insects of salmon streams in New Brunswick. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 24(4) 769-805.
166 Johnson, D. W. (1968), Pesticides and fishes: a review of selected
literature. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4)-398-424.
167 Johnson, H. E. (1967), The effects of endrm on the reproduction of a
fresh water fish (Oryzias latipcs) [Ph.D. dissertation] University
of Washington, Seattle, 149 p.
168 Johnson, H E. and C. Pecor (1969), Coho salmon mortality and
DDT in Lake Michigan Tram. N. Amer. Wildl. Nairn. Resour.
Con/. 34:159-166.
'69Kerswill, C. J. and II. E. Edwards (1967), Fish losses after forest
sprayings with insecticides in New Brunswick, 1952-62, as shown
by caged specimens and other observations. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 24(4): 709-729.
•"» Kraybill, H. F., ed. (1969), Biological effects of pesticides in
mammalian systems. Ann. N. T. Acad. Sci. 160:1-422
471 Lichtenberg, J. J., J. W. Eichelberger, R. C. Dressmari, and J. E.
Longbottom (1970), Pesticides in surface waters of the United
States: a five-year summary, 1964-68. Pestic. Momt. J. 4(2):
71-86.
472 Lotse, E. G., D. A Graetz, G Chesters, G. B. Lee, and L. W.
Newland (1968), Lindane adsorption by lake sediments Environ
Sci. Technol. 2(5):353-357.
"3 Macek, K. J (1968), Growth and resistance to stress in brook
trout fed sublethal levels of DDT. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 25(11)
2443-2451.
474 Mayer, F. L., Jr., J. C. Street, aid J. M. Neuhold (1970), Organo-
chlorine insecticide interactions affecting residue storage in
rainbow trout. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 5(4)-300-310.
475 Mount, D. I. and C. E. Stephan (1967), A method for detecting
cadmium poisoning in fish. J. Wildlife Manage. 31(1):168-172.
476 Mount, D. I. (1968), Chronic toxicity of copper to fathead min-
nows (Pimephales promelas, Rafinesque). Water Res. 2(3):215-223.
417 Mrak, E. M. chairman, (1969), Report of the Secretary's Commission
on pesticides and their relationship to environmental health (Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 677 p.
™ Mullison, W. R. (1970), Effects of herbicides on water and its
inhabitants. Weed Sci. 18(6):738-750.
4"9 Pickering, Q. H., C. Henderson, and A. E. Lemke (1962), The
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-------
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480 Pimentcl, D. (1971), Ecological effects of pesticides on non-target species
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481 Reincrt, R. E. (1970), Pesticide concentrations in Great Lakes
fish. Pestic. Moml. J. 3(4):233-240.
482 Rosato, P. and D. E. Ferguson (1968), The toxicity of endrin-
resistant mosquitofish to eleven species of vertebrates. Bioscience
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483 Schoenthal, N. D. (1964), Some effects of DDT on cold-water
fish and fish-food organisms. Proc. Mont. Acad. Sa. 23(l):63-95.
484Sprague, J. B., P. F. Elson, and J. R. Duffy (1971), Decrease in
DDT residues in young salmon after forest spraying in New
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485 Tarrant, K. R. and J. O'G. Tatton (1968), Organochlorine pesti-
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486Terriere, L. C., LI. Kiigemai, A. R. Gerlach, and R. L. Borovicka
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48? Wcrshaw, R. L., P. J Burcar, and M. C. Goldberg (1969), Inter-
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488 Wilson, D. C. and C. E. Bond (1969), Effects of the herbicides
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489 Yule, W. N. and A. D. Tomlin (1971), DDT in forest streams.
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AMMONIA
493 Ball, I. R. (1967), Toxicity of cadmium to rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneni Richardson). Wain Res 1(11/12):805-806.
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497 Ellis, M. M. (1937), Detection and measurement of stream pol-
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600 Hazel, C. R., W. Thomsen, and S. J. Meith (1971), Sensitivity of
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601 Herbert, D. W. M , D. S. Shurben (1965), The susceptibility of
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602 Lloyd, R. (1961), The toxicity of ammonia to rainbow trout
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604 Lloyd, R. and D. W. M. Herbert (1960), The influence of carbon
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605 Merkens, J. C. and K. M. Downing (1957), The effect of tension
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606 Rcichenbach-Klinke, H. H. (1967), Untersuchungen uber die
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CHLORINE
""Arthur, J. W. and J. G. Eaton (1971), Chlorine toxicity to the
Amphipod, Gammariis pseudolimnaeits and the fathead minnow
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511Basch, R. E., M. E. Newton, J. G. Truchan, and C. M. Fetterolf
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612 Brungs, W. A. in preparation (1972), Literature review of the effects
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613 Laubusch, E. J. (1962), Water chlorination, in Chlorine: its manu-
facture, properties and uses, J. S. Sconce, ed. [American Chemical
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514McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, eds. (1963), Water quality criteria,
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616 Merkens, J. C. (1958), Studies on the toxicity of chlorine and
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616 Sprague, J. B. and D. E. Drury (1969), Avoidance reactions of
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617Tsai, C. F. (1968), Effects of chlorinated sewage effluents on fish
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618 Tsai, C. F. (1970), Changes in fish populations and migration in
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619 Zillich, J. A. (1972), Toxicity of combined chlorine residuals to
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CYANIDES
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-------
212/'Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
ferricyanide solutions to fish, and determination of the cause of
mortality. Tram. Amer. Fish. Soc. 78:192-202.
622 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1963), Environmental effects upon
cyanide toxicity to fish. Notulae Natur. (Philadelphia) no. 361:
1-11.
623 Doudoroff, P. (1956), Some experiments on the toxicity of complex
cyanides to fish. Sewage Indust. Wastes 28(8): 1020-1040.
621 Doudoroff, P., G. Leduc and G. R. Schneider (1966), Acute
toxicity to fish of solutions containing complex metal cyanides,
in relation to concentrations of molecular hydrocyanic acid.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95(1)-6-22.
626 Downing, K. M. (1954), Influence of dissolved oxygen concentra-
tion on the toxicity of potassium cyanide to rainbow trout. J.
Exp. Bio!. 31(2): 161-164.
626 Henderson, C , Q. H. Pickering, and A. E. Lemkc (1960), The
effect of some organic cyanides (nitriles) on fish. Purdue Una1.
Eng. Bull. Ext. Ser. no. 106:120-130.
627 Jones, J. R. E. (1964), Fish and river pollution (Butterworth & Co.,
London), 200 p.
628 Wuhrman, K. and H. Woker (1955), Influence of temperature of
oxygen tension on the toxicity of poisons to fish. Proc. Inter-
national Assoc. Theoret. Appl. Leinnol., 12:795-801.
Reference Cited
629 Patrick, R., unpublished data, 1971. Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia.
DETERGENTS
630 Arthur, J. W. (1970), Chronic effects of linear alkylate sulfonate
detergent on Cammarus pseudohmnaeus, Campeloma dinsum, and
Physa mtegra. Water Res. 4(3):251-257.
531Bardach, J. E., M. Fujiya, and A. Holl (1965), Detergents: ef-
fects on the chemical senses of the fish Ictalurus natahs (le Sueur).
Science 148:1605-1607.
632 Hokanson, K. E. F. and L. L. Smith (1971), Some factors in-
fluencing toxicity of linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS) to the blue-
gill. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. !00(1):1-12.
633 Marchetti, R. (1965), Critical review of the effects of synthetic detergents
on aquatic life [Studies and reviews no. 26] (General Fish Council
for the Mediterranean, Rome), 32 p.
634 Pickering, Q. H. (1966), Acute toxicity of alkyl benzene sulfonate
and linear alkylate sulfonate to the eggs of the fathead minnow,
Pimephales promelas. Air Water Pollut. 10(5) = 385-391.
636 Pickering, Q. H. and T. O. Thatcher (1970), The chronic toxicity
of linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS) to Pimephales promelas. J. Water
Pollut. Contr. Fed. 42(2 part l)'243-2r>4.
636 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health
Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p.
637 Swisher, R. D (1967), Biodegradation of LAS benzene rings in
activated sludge. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 44(12) = 717-724.
638 Thatcher, T. O. and J. F. Santner (1966), Acute toxicity of LAS
to various fish species. Purdue Univ. Eng. Bull. Ext. Sir. no. 121:
996-1002.
PHENOLICS
639 Ellis, M. M. (1937), Detection and measurement of stream pollu-
tion. U.S. Bur Fish. Bull. no. 22:365-437.
640 Fetterolf, C. M. (1964), Taste and odor problems in fish from
Michigan waters. Proc. hd. Waste Conf. Purdue Umv, 115:174-182.
641 Mitrovic, U. U., V. M. Brown, D. G. Shurben, and M. H. Berry-
man (1968), Some pathological effects of sub-acute and acut
poisoning of rainbow trout by phenol in hard water. Water Re;
2(4):249-254.
542 Turnbull, H., J. G. DeMann, arid R. F. Weston (1954), Toxicit
of various refinery materials to fresh water fish. Ind. Eng. Chert
46:324-333
SULFIDES
643Adclman, I. R. and L. L. Smith, Jr. (1970), Effect of hydrogci
sulfide on northern pike eggs and sac fry. Trans. An: ft. Fish. Sot
99(3):501-509.
"4 Bonn, E. W. and B. J. Follis (1967), Effects of hydrogen sulfide o
channel catfish (Iclal'irits punctatus). Trans. Amer. Full. Soc. 96(1}
31-36.
645 Colby, P. J. and L. L Smith (1967), Survival of walleye eggs am
fry on paper fiber sludge deposits in Rainey River, Minnesota
Tiam. Ame,. Fish. Soi. 96(3) =278-296.
646 Schaut, G. G. (1939), Fish catastrophies during droughts. J. Ama
Watt, Works Ass. 31(l):771-82/'
647 Smith, L. L. (1971), Influence of hydrogen sulfide on fish am
arthropods. Preliminary completion report EPA Project 1805
PCG, 30pp.
648 Smith, L. L. and D. Oscid mpr - (1971), Toxic effects of hydroge
sulfide to juvenile fish and f h eggs. Proc. 25th Purdue Indus
trial Waste Conf
"9Thecdc, H., A. Ponat, K. Hiro' :, and C. Schlieper (1969), Studio
on the resistance of marine bottom invertebrates to oxygen-de
ficiency and hydrogen sulfide. Mar. Biol. 2(4) =325-337.
660 Van Horn, W. M. (1958), The effect of pulp and paper mil
wastes on aquatic life. Proc. Ontario Indust. Waste Conf. 5 '60— 66.
WILDLIFE
561 Anderson, D. W. and J. J. Hickey (1970) Oological data on egj
and breeding characteristics of brown pelicans Wilson Bull. 8i
652 Bell, J. F., G. W. Sciple, and A. A. Hubert (1955), A microen
vironment concept of the epizoology of avian botulism. J. Wild
life Manage. 19(3) =352-357.
653 Bitman, J , H. C. Cecil, S. J. H arris, and G. F. Fries ( 1 969), DDT
induces a decrease in eggshell CEilcium. Nature 224:44- 46.
554Borg, K., H. Wanntorp, K. Erre, and E. Hanko (1969), Alky
mercury poisoning in terrestrial Swedish wildlife. Viitrevy 6(4)
301-379.
'•"Burdick, G. E , H. J. Dean, E, J. Harris, J. Ske.i, C Frisa, and
C. Sweeney (1968), Methoxychlor as a black fly larvicide,
persistence of its residues in fish and its effects on stream arthro-
pods. M. T. Fnh& Game 15(2):121-142.
iiB6 Christiansen, J. E. and J. B. Low (1970), Water requirements of
waterfowl marshlands in northern Utah. Publication No. 69-12,
Utah Division of Fish and Game.
ll67 Cooch, F. G. 1964. Preliminary .study of the survival value of a
salt gland in prairie Anatidae. Auk. 81(0=380-393.
1168 Dustman, E. H., L. F. Stickel and J. B. Elder (1970), Mercury in
wild animals. Lake St. Glair. Paper presented at the Environmental
Mercury Contamination Conference, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
ll69 Enderson, J. H. and D. D. Beiger (1970), Pesticides: eggshell
thinning and lowered reproduction of young in prairie falcons.
Bwmence 20:355-356.
1160 Fay, L. D. 1966. Type E botulism in Great Lake water birds.
Trans. 31st N. Amer. Wildlife Conf.: 139-149.
'"Field, H. I. and E. T. R. Evans (1946), Acute salt poisoning ir
poultry. VelRec. 58(231:253-254.
>62FWPCA (1968)
U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Con-
-------
Literature Cited'/213
trol Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of the
National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior
(Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 234 p.
663 Gaufin, A. R., L. D. Jensen, A. V. Nebeker, T. Nelson, and R. W.
Teel (1965), The toxicity of ten organic insecticides to various
aquatic invertebrates. Water and Sewage Works 112(7):276-279.
664 Greig, R. A. and H. L. Seagram (1970), Survey of mercury con-
centrations in fishes of lakes St. Clair, Erie and Huron. Paper
presented at the Environmental Mercury Contamination Confidence, Ann
Arbor, Michigan.
665 Griffith, W. II , Jr. (1962-63), Salt as a possible limiting factor
to the Suisan Marsh pheasant population. Annual report, Delta
Fish & Wildlife Protection Study, Cooperative Study of Cali-
fornia.
666 Hartung, R. (1965), Some effects of oiling on reproduction of
ducks. J. Wildlife Manage. 29(4):872-874.
667 Hartung, R. (1967a), Energy metabolism in oil-covered ducks
J Wildlife Manage. 31(4): 798-804.
668Haitung, R. (1967b), An outline for biological and physical con-
centrating mechanisms for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides.
Pap. Mich. Acad. Sn Arts Lett. 52:77-83.
669 Hartung, R. and G. S Hunt (1966), Toxicity of some oils to water-
fowl. J. Wildlife Manage. 30(3):564-570.
670 Hartung, R. and G. W. Klingk-r (1970), Concentration of DDT
sedimented polluting oils. Enriron. Sci. Technol. 4(5) :407—410.
671 Hawkes, A. L. 1961. A review of the nature and extent of damage
caused by oil pollution at sea. Trans. N. Am. Wildlife and Na-
tional Resources Conf. 26-343-355.
672He,ith. R. G., J. W. Spann, and J F. Krcitzer (1969), Marked
DDE impairment of mallard reproduction in controlled studies.
Mature 224:47-48.
673 Henriksson, K., E. Karppanen, and M. Helminen (1966), High
residue of mercury in Finnish white-tailed eagles Onus l-enn.
43 (2): 38-45.
674Hickey, J. J. and D W. Anderson (1968), Chlorinated hydro-
carbons and eggshell changes in raptorial and fish-eating birds.
Science 162 271-273.
675 Holt, G. (1969), Mercury residues in wild birds in Norway. 1965-
1967, Nord. Vet Med. 21(2)'105- 114.
676 Hunt, G. S. (1957), Causes of mortality among ducks wintering on the
lower Detroit River [Ph.D. dissertation] University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.
677 Hunter, B. F., W. E. Clark, P. J. Perkins and P. R. Coleman
(1970), Applied botulism research including management recom-
mendations—a progress report. California Department of Fish
Game, Sacramento, 87 p.
578 Jensen, W. I and J. P. Allen (1960), A possible relationship be-
tween aquatic invertebrates and avian botulism. Ttans. N. Arner.
WML .Nairn, Ketnur. Conf. 25:171-179.
679 Jensen, S. and A. Jcrnelov (1969), Biological incthylation of
mercury in aquatic organisms. Native 223:753—754.
680 Jensen, S., A. G. Johnels, M. Olsson and G. Otterhncl (1969),
DDT and FOB in marine animals from Swedish waters. Mature
224:247-250.
681 Kalmbach, E. R (1934), Western duck sickness a form of botu-
lism. U.S. Dep. Agt. Tech. Bull. No. 411, pp. 181.
682 Kaufman, O. W., and L. D. Fay (1964), Clostridmm hotulmum type
E toxin in tissues of dead loons and gulls. Michigan State Uni-
versity Experiment Station Quarterly Bulletin 47:236-242.
683 Keith, J. A. (1966), Reproduction in a population of herring gulls
(Larus argentatus) contaminated by DDT. J. Appl. Ecol. 3 (supp):
57-70. Supplement 3 published as Pesticides in the environment
and their effects on wildlife, N. W. Moore, ed. (Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford).
684 Kennedy, H. D., L. L. Eller, and D. E. Walsh (1970), Chronic ef-
fects of methoxychlor on bluegills and aquatic invertebrates [Bureau of
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife technical paper 53] (Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 18 p.
685Krista, L. M., C W. Carlson, and O. E. Olson (1961), Some ef-
fects of saline waters on chicks, laying hens, poults and ducklings.
Poultry Set. 40(4)-938 944.
686McKee. M. T., J. F. Bell and W. H. Iloycr (1958), Culture of
Clostrifhum botulinum type C with controlled p!T. Journal of Kac-
/mo'«y>75(2):135-142.
687 McKnight, D. E. (1970), Waterfowl production on a spring-fed
salt marsh in Utah. Ph.D. dissert,ition. Utah State University.
688 Quortrup, E. R. and R. L Sudhciiner (1942), Research notes on
botulism in western marsh areas with recommendations for
control. North Amirtian Wildlife Conference, Transactions 7:284-293.
689 Rcinert, R. E. (1970), Pesticide concentrations in Great Lakes
fish. Pfshc. Moml J. 3(4) 233-240.
690 Risebrough, R. W , P. Rieche, D. B. Peakall, S G. Herman, and
M. N. Kirven (1968), Polychlorinated biphenyls in the global
ecosystem. Nature 220:1098-1102.
681 Rittinghaus, II (1956), Etwas uber die indirete vcrbreitung dcr
olpest in einem seevogclschutzgebiete Ornilhol Mitt 8(3) 43-46.
592 Scrivner, L. II. (1946), Experimental edema and ascites in poults.
J Amer. Vet. Med. As,. 108-27-32.
6q3 Sincock, John L. (1968), Common faults of management. Pro-
ceedings Alan/i Esliiaiy Management Symposium, Louisiana State
University, July. 1967, pp. 222-226
694 Street, J. C., F. M. Urry, D. J. Wagstaff, and A. D. Bl.ui (1968),
Comparative effects of polychlorinated biphenyls and organo-
chlorine pesticides in induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes.
American Chemical Society, 158th National meeting, Sept.
8-12, 1968.
605 Tucker, R. K. and II A Ilaegelc (1970), Eggshell thinning as
influenced by method of DDT exposure. Bull. Envnon. Contain.
Toxicol. 5(3)-191-194
596 Vos, J. G. and J H Koeman (1970), Comparative toxicologic
study with polychlorinated biphenyls in chickens with special
reference to porphyria, edema formation, liver necrosis and tissue
residues Toxicol. Appl. Phatmaail. 17(3):656-668.
597 Vos, J. G., J. H Koeman, 11. L van der Maas, M. C. ten Xoever
dc Branw, and R. H. de Vos (1970), Identification and toxico-
logical evaluation of chlorinated dibenzofuran and chlorinated
napthalene in two commercial polychlorinated biphenyls. Food
Cosmet. 7oxicol 8 62V633.
598 Westoo, G (1966), Determination of methylmcrcury compounds
in foodstuffs. I Mcthyhnercury compounds in fish, identifica-
tion and determination. Ada. Chem. Scand. 20(8).2131-2137.
69(1 Wiemcyer, S. N. and R. D. Porter (1970), DDE thins eggshells of
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References Cited
600 Hunter, Brian, personal communication, California Department of Fish
and Game; unpublished Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
administrative reports.
MI Stickel, unpublished data 1972, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife, Patuxcnt, Maryland.
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Section IV—MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 216
Development of Recommendations 217
USES OF THE MARINE SYSTEM TO BE PRO-
TECTED 219
THE NATURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM 219
Effects of Water Quality Change on Eco
systems 219
FISHERIES 221
MARINE AQUACULTURE 222
Application of Water Quality to Aqua-
culture 224
MARINE WILDLIFE 224
Bases for Recommendations 225
Radionuclides 226
Recommendation 226
Heavy Metals 226
Recommendation 226
Polych orinated Biphenyls (PCB) 226
Recommendation 226
DDT Compounds 226
Recommendation 227
Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, and Heptachlor. . 227
Recommendation 227
Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesti-
cides 227
Recommendation 227
Lead 227
Recommendation 228
WASTE CAPACITY OF RECEIVING WATERS 228
Mixing Zones 231
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT 233
ACUTE TOXICITIES—BIOASSAYS 233
BIOANALYSIS 233
BIORESPONSE 234
DESIGN OF BIOASSAYS 235
SUBLETHAL EFFECTS 236
Migrations 236
Behavior 236
Incidence of Disease 236
Life Cycle 236
Physiological Processes 237
Genetic Effects 237
Page
Nutrition and Food Chains 237
Effects on the Ecosystem 237
Food Value for Human Use 237
CATEGORIES OF POLLUTANTS 238
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT 238
INORGANICS, INCLUDING HEAVY METALS AND
PH 238
Forms of Chemical and Environmental
Interactions 239
Biological Effects 239
Metals 240
Alkalinity or Buffer Capacity, Carbon Di-
oxide, and pH 241
Recommendation 241
Aluminum 242
Recommendation 242
Ammonia 242
Recommendation 242
Antimony 242
Recommendation 243
Arsenic 243
Recommendation 243
Barium 243
Recommendation 244
Beryllium 244
Recommendation 244
Bismuth 244
Boron 244
Recommendation 245
Bromine 245
Recommendation 245
Cadmium 245
Recommendation 246
Chlorine 246
Recommendation 247
Chromium 247
Recommendation 247
Copper 247
Recommendation 248
Cyanides 248
Recommendation 248
Fluorides 248
214
-------
Recommendation
Iron
Recommendation
Lead
Recommendation
Manganese
Recommendation
Mercury
Recommendation
Molybdenum
Recommendation
Nickel
Recommendation
Phosphorus
Recommendation
Selenium
Recommendation
Silver
Recommendation
Sulfides
Recommendation
Thallium
Recommendation
Uranium
Recommendation
Vanadium
Recommendation
Zinc
Recommendation
OIL IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Sources of Oil Pollution
Biological Effects of Petroleum Hydrocar-
bons
Corrective Measures
Recommendations
249
249
249
249
250
250
251
251
252
252
253
253
253
253
254
254
255
255
255
255
256
256
256
256
256
257
257
257
257
257
257
258
262
263
Paeg
Toxic ORGANICS 264
Bases for Recommendations 269
Recommendations 269
OXYGEN 269
Recommendation 270
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE AQUATIC EN-
VIRONMENT 270
Characteristics and Sources of Radio-
activity 271
Exposure Pathways 272
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation. . 272
Restrictions on Radioactive Materials. ... 273
Conclusions 273
Recommendat'on 274
SEWAGE AND NUTRIENT-; 274
Magnitude of the Problem 274
Oxygen Depletion 274
Excessive Nutrient Enrichment 275
Pathogenic Microorganisms 276
Sludge Disposal into Marine Waters 277
Deep Sea Dumping 277
Potential Beneficial Uses of Sewage 277
Rationale for Establishing Recommenda-
tions 277
Recommendations 277
SOLID WASTES, PARTICULATE MATTER, AND
OCEAN DUMPING 278
Dredge Spoils 278
Sewage Sludges 279
Solid Wastes 280
Industrial Wastes 280
Other Solid Wastes 280
Suspended Particulate Materials 281
Recommendations 282
LITERATURE CITED 284
215
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INTRODUCTION
The Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife took as
its prime responsibility the development of recommenda-
tions that would reasonably assure protection of the marine
ecosystem. The recommendations have been discussed at
various meetings of the members of the Panel and represent
a consensus on the best statement that can be made in the
light of present knowledge. The recommendations are not
inflexible and may be modified as our understanding of the
marine ecosystem improves.
Many parts of the marine ecosystem do not meet the
quality requirements recommended here. As a result of
man's activities, the marine ecosystem has been greatly
modified; many species are excluded from areas where they
were once abundant, and many areas have been closed for
the harvesting of marine products as human food because
of pollution. The decision as to what part, and how much,
of the marine ecosystem should be protected for normal
aquatic life and wildlife has political, social, and economic
aspects, and such decisions cannot be based upon scientific
evidence alone. Although some marine pollution problems
are local in character, many are global and only the broad-
est possible approach can solve these problems. Food from
the sea is already an important source of animal protein for
human nutrition, and this continuing supply must not be
diminished by pollution.
At the same time, the Panel recognizes that additions of
pollutants to the oceans as by-products of our present mode
of living will continue. But if pollution is kept within the
boundaries and constraints which are defined in the recom-
mendations, the Panel believes that the marine ecosystem
can be protected.
In many ways the marine ecosystem is similar to the
freshwater, but there are significant differences which
should be briefly described. For more details which sum-
marize the extensive literature on this subject, the reader is
referred to The Oceans by Sverdrup, et al. (1942)6,* The Sea,
particularly volume 2 edited by M. N. Hill (1964),3 and
Estuaries, edited by G. H. Lauff (1967).4
* Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
The marine environment is a significant source of animal
protein with an annual production of about 60 million tons
fresh weight of fisheries products (Food and Agriculture
Organization 1967).2 Various estimates of the potential ex-
pansion of this harvest have been made and are summarized
by Ryther (1969)5 who concludes that the potential harvest
might double this figure. Some of the existing stocks are
already fished to capacity or overfished, but aquaculture
(pp. 222-224) may increase world marine production.
The importance of this supply of animal protein to the
v/orld population has been emphasized by Borgstrom
(1961).1 He estimates that more than two billion people of
tic world's population receive 50 per cent or more of their
animal protein from marine products. In the United States
fish contributes only about 5 per cent of our animal protein
consumption, but even so it has been estimated l>\ Pruter
(unpublished 1972)8 that over ten billion pounds of commercial
fish and shellfish were harvested from the estuaries and con-
tinental shelf of the United States in 1970. Furthermore, in
the United States a great deal of fishmeal is used to fortify
animal feeds, particularly for cnickens. It is obvious that
this valuable food resource of the1 marine environment must
be sustained.
The estuaries are regions where the impact of man's ac-
tivity is greatest, and they arc also areas of great value for
marine fish production. They serve not only as nursery
areas and breeding grounds for many species of fish, but
also as the regular home for i:he entire life cycle of some
valuable species, such as oysters and crabs. Sykcs (1968)7 has
estimated that 90 per cent or more of the commercial catch
of finfish in some geographical regions of the United States
consists of estuarine-dependent species. The estuaries are
tr e most variable regions of the marine ecosystem (see pp.
2, 9-221) and organisms which inhabit them are exposed to
extreme variations. Since these organisms survive, they are
obviously adapted to the stress imposed by these variations.
During the tidal cycle, a sessile organism will be exposed to
variations in temperature and salinity as the tide ebbs and
flows. On a seasonal basis, because of variations in river
flow, organisms at a fixed location may be exposed to fresh
water during flood periods or to nearly undiluted sea water
during droughts. The oscillatory nature of the tidal cur-
216
-------
Introduction /217
rents can also lead to an accumulation of pollutants within
an estuary, as is discussed in the section on waste capacity
of receiving waters (pp. 228-232).
Migratory fishes must also pass through estuaries in order
to reach their breeding grounds. Anadromous fishes, such
as the alewife, salmon, shad, and striped bass, move up-
stream to breed in the highly diluted seawater or in fresh
water. In contrast the catadromous species such as the eel
spend their adult stages in fresh water and migrate down-
stream in order to breed in the open sea. Conditions within
the estuaries should be maintained so that these seasonal
breeding migrations are not interfered with.
The conditions in the coastal waters are less variable than
those in the estuaries, but in temperate regions, the seasonal
range of conditions can be considerable. The coastal waters,
particularly in areas of upwelling, are the most highly pro-
ductive parts of the marine environment and have been
estimated by Rythcr (1969)1'1 to produce half of the potential
marine fish production, even though they constitute only
0.1 per cent of the total area of the oceans. The coastal
zones, including near shore areas of high production such as
fishing banks, constitute 9.9 per cent of the area of the ocean
and contribute nearly half of the world fish production. In
tropical waters, the seasonal variation in conditions is less
extreme than in temperate waters. However, as will be
discussed in the section on temperature (p. 238) many
tropical species are living near their upper extreme tempera-
ture during the summer, and this fact presents considerable
problems in the disposal of waste heat in tropical areas
The open ocean constitutes 90 per cent of the area of the
world ocean and is the least variable of the marine environ-
ments. The deep sea produces only a minor fraction of the
world's fish production, and this consists mainly of the large
pelagic carnivores such as the tuna (Rythcr 1969).•"' During
the 19th century, the whale harvest was substantially
greater than it is at present, but the whales captured were
not as effectively utilized as they are in modern whaling
methods. Many species of whales were grossly over-fished,
and there is considerable question today whether some of
these species can recover their original population sizes even
in those cases where a complete moratorium on their cap-
ture is in effect.
The waters of the deep sea below the permanent thermo-
cline (the depths below which seasonal temperature changes
do not occur) constitute the largest and most constant en-
vironment on earth. During the history of modern ocean-
ography, which covers the last centurx, no significant
changes in cither salinit\ or temperature of the deep sea
have been observed, the organisms living in this abyssal en-
vironment having evolved under conditions which were
presumably constant for millcnia. To protect the coastal
environment many proposals have been made to dump ma-
terials, such as solid waste, sewage sludge, and contaminated
drege spoils in the deep sea. Since the organisms inhabiting
the depths of the ocean have been exposed to a constant
environment, they arc not accustomed to unusual stresses
which might be created by such dumping operations (see
pp. 278-283). Consequently, dumping of organic wastes in
the deep sea is not recommended (pp. 277, 282-283).
Development of Recommendations
In most cases, recommendations are not applicable to
every local situation. The marine environment varies
widely, and only an understanding of local conditions will
make it possible to determine what can or cannot be added
in each situation. Many materials are accumulated by
marine organisms, and the concentration is often increased
at higher levels of the food web. With substances that are
toxic and persistent, it is the concentration in the highest
predators, fish or birds, that is critical. One example is
DDT and its derivatives which have accumulated in birds to
levels that interfere with their breeding. Materials that de-
compose or are otherwise removed from the marine en-
vironment present lesser hazards.
The. application of an) recommendation to a local situa-
tion is unique because it requires (a) an understanding of
the circulation of the water and the resultant mixing and
dilution of the pollutant, (b) a knowledge of the local bio-
logical species in the environment and the identification of
those that are most sensitive to the pollutant being con-
sidered, and (c) an evaluation of the transport of the ma-
terial through the food web because of the possibility that
the pollutant may reach concentrations hazardous either to
the normal aquatic species present, or to man through his
use of aquatic species as food.
The normal cycle of variation in the environment of many
substances or conditions that occur naturally, such as oxy-
gen, temperature, and nutrients, must be determined before
decisions can be made as to possible permissible changes. In
many estuaries and coastal waters "normal" conditions
have been modified by man's activities and may already
have changed to the extent that some species that might
have been found at earlier times have been eliminated. In
some circumstances, a recommendation may not be applic-
able because it may be necessary to specify no additional
change beyond that which has already occurred. There is
no generally applicable formula for recommendations to
protect marine aquatic life and wildlife; a study of local
environmental conditions is essential prior to application of
the recommendations.
The Panel recognizes that what can or should be done in a
given situation cannot wait for the completion of time-
consuming studies. The degree of protection desired for a
given location involves social and political decisions. The
ecological nature and quality of each water mass proposed
for modification must be assessed prior to any decision to
modify. This requires appropriate information on the physi-
cal and chemical characteristics, on the distribution and
abundance of species, and on the normal variations in these
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218/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
attributes over the annual cycle. In addition, there must be
sufficient knowledge to permit useful prediction of the sig-
nificant effects of the proposed pollutant on the stages in the
life cycle of important species, on populations, and on the
biological communities present. The possible impact of that
pollutant upon the ecosystem can then be assessed. Thesi
subjects are covered in greater detail in other parts of thi
Section, but they are mentioned here to emphasize theii
primary importance in determining how the recommenda
tions should be used in local situations.
-------
USES OF THE MARINE SYSTEM TO BE PROTECTED
Coastal marine waters serve a wide variety of excep-
tionally important human uses. Many of these uses produce
high local benefits such as the yield of shellfish and recrea-
tional activities. Others involve regional benefits or the
global unity of the marine system, since local events influ-
ence, and are influenced by, water quality at distant points.
Many of the human uses of marine waters are directly de-
pendent upon the nature and quality of the biological,
chemical, and physical systems present. Efforts to protect
and enhance these uses will be limited principally by our
ability to understand and protect the environmental condi-
tions which are essential for the biota.
Water quality criteria for marine aquatic life and wild-
life define the environmental requirements for specified
uses. Five of these are discussed in this Section, namely,
maintenance of the ecosystem; fisheries; aquaculture; wild-
life protection; and waste disposal. These are not sharply
separable, but the water quality requirements for each use
are briefly summarized. The effects of transportation, harbor
development, dredging and dumping of spoils have also
been considered in developing the recommendations.
NATURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM
Many of the principal human uses of marine waters de-
pend upon successful maintenance and enhancement of the
existing ecosystems or, in a few circumstances, upon creating
and continuing new and artificial ecosystems for specific
purposes. The ecosystem includes all of the biological and
non-biological (geological, physical, and chemical) com-
ponents of the environment and their highly complex inter-
actions. Studies of ecosystems must include all that is within
the body of water as well as the imports to and exports from
it. Research in such situations has shown that the biotic ele-
ments include producers of organic material, several levels
of consumers, and decomposers. In the least complex situa-
tion, these act at rates controlled by the abiotic factors to
transfer energy and recycle materials. In those aquatic en-
vironments which continuously or intermittently exchange
large quantities of energy or materials with other parts of
the total global system, understanding and management
become more difficult. In the marine environment imports
and exports continually occur from coastal runoff, tidal
action, oceanic currents, meterological actions, and ex-
changes with adjacent water bodies or with the benthos
and atmosphere. These exchanges are only partially under-
stood, but it is clear that each marine site is connected inti-
mately to the rest of the oceans and to total global
mechanisms.
The estuaries are in many ways the most complicated
and variable of aquatic ecosystems. Materials carried from
the land by rivers vary in quantity and quality, sometimes
with strong seasonal patterns of high biological significance.
Tidal oscillations cause vigorous reversals of flow. Inherent
hydrographic patterns can lead to accumulation of materials
and to upstream transport from the point of addition. Dense
urban populations on the shores of estuaries produce large
amounts of waste, and engineering projects have changed
the boundaries and flows of water courses. The biologically
rich estuaries are the most variable and the most endangered
part of the marine environment.
In each environment the existing characteristics of the
system have been produced by dynamic interaction among
the components, forces, and processes present. Some of these
are small or transitory, but others are massive and enduring.
If any one of these forces or processes is changed, a new
balance is produced in the system. Relative stability, there-
fore, results from the balancing of forces, not the absence.
The biota are the product of evolution, and each ecosystem
contains those species and communities which have adapted
to the specific environment over a long period of time and
which are successful in that environment. Drastic and rapid
modification of the environment, as by pollution, may
eliminate seme species and encourage others in ways which
can reduce the value of the ecosystem for man's use or
enjoyment.
Effects of Water Quality Change on Ecosystems
The introduction of a chemical compound or a change in
the physical environment may affect a natural marine eco-
system in many ways. In coastal waters undisturbed for long
periods of time, the ecosystem has adjusted to the existing
219
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220/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
conditions. The system is productive, species are diverse, the
biomass is high, and the flow of energy is comparatively
efficient. The addition of pollutants to such a system might:
• reduce the input of solar energy into the ecosystem;
• increase the input of organic matter and nutrients
which might stimulate the growth of undesirable
species;
• reduce the availability of nutrients by increased
sorption and sedimentation;
• create intolerable physical extremes for some orga-
nisms, as by the addition of heat;
• kill or reduce the success of individual organisms,
as by lethal toxicity or crippling with oil;
• eliminate species by adding a toxic material or mak-
ing an essential element unavailable;
• interfere with the flow of energy from species to
species, as by a chemical that interferes with feeding
behavior;
• reduce species diversity in the system;
• interfere with regenerative cycling by decomposers;
• decrease biomass by reduction of abundant species
or disruption of the processes of ecosystems;
• increase biomass by removing important consumers
allowing runaway production of other species.
All of these may involve changes in production and
lowered human usefulness of the system. These are ex-
amples; additional effects can occur. The specific impacts
of pollution at a site can be determined only through long-
term study of that portion of the ocean and the changes that
occur.
It is clear that man, through his numbers and his actions,
is having increasingly pronounced effects on organisms,
populations, and entire ecosystems. Many people willingly
accept the consequences of advanced technology that are
markedly deleterious, but most people become alarmed
when an entire large ecosystem undergoes transformation.
When society recognizes that catastrophe threatens due to
its carelessness, it seeks to rearrange its demands on such
ecosystems in ways that can be accommodated within the
inherent capacities of the system. To provide adequate an-
swers we need understanding of ecosystems, since knowledge
at the species and population levels, however denned, will
be too limited in scope to answer the questions that arise at
the more highly organized level of the ecosystem.
The study of the effects of pollution on ecosystems may
be undertaken by considering pollution as an additional
stress on the mechanisms that keep ecosystems organized.
Unless the living parts of an ecosystem are already under
stress, the early effects of the introduction of toxic pollu-
tants may contribute to the extinction of particularly sus-
ceptible species leaving the more resistant forms in a less
diverse community. In communities already under stress,
relatively low levels of pollution may cause the disruption
of the communities.
Estuaries and intertidal regions are naturally exposed to
stressful conditions. In the estuaries the ebb and flow of the
lide and the fluctuating freshwater flow create changes in
salinity on various time scales ranging from hourly to
seasonally. In the intertidal zone the normal inhabitants are
exposed to air during part of each tidal cycle. They are also
subjected to vigorous wave actions on exposed beaches and
headlands. Unique assemblages of organisms have evolved
which manage to survive these rigorous conditions if waters
remain unpolluted.
Pollutants are commonly released into such aquatic eco-
systems of high natural variation in their nonliving compo-
nents, and the rate of pollutant discharge usually varies
1'rom time to time. The immediate effect of these conditions
is that at any fixed point in the habitat the concentration of
a pollutant varies markedly with time, but not in such a way
1 hat a community can adapt itself to these variations. The
result is that short-lived opportunistic species are likely to be
i'avored in areas subject to variable aquatic pollution.
Any single toxicant may be equally virulent towards long-
lived or short-lived species in tre normal aquatic commun-
ity. Except at outfalls where toxicants reach lethal concen-
1 rations, as in continuous discharges in stable environments,
toxicants act discontinuously through time. Where water
mass instabilities are such that poisonous concentrations
occur on the average of once a week, for instance, it is pos-
sible for organisms with much shorter life spans to flourish
briefly with large population fluctuations. Where they occur
once a month, a community may evolve rapidly through a
successional sequence involving a few longer-lived organisms
before the next toxic concentration occurs. Where lethal
dosages are as infrequent as once a year, the succession may
go to the stage of some fish of medium life span, particularly
if access to the area is relatively free. Because of the fluctua-
tions with time, the community nearest an outfall is most
primitive from a successional viewpoint, and as distance
from the outfall increases, there is a successional gradient
toward the usual climax community of an unpolluted
environment.
Evaluation of the effects of pollution or of other environ-
mental changes on the ecosystem involves studies of bio-
logical production, species diversity, energy flow, and
cycling of materials. The process may be complicated by
riassive imports and exports at any one site. Although
pathways of energy flow and efficiencies are not yet com-
pletely understood, they offer a unifying approach to these
problems such as proposed by Odum (1967,12 197113).
Species diversity is a useful attribute of biological systems.
Diversity is affected by a number of factors as evidenced
by the papers presented at a symposium on Diversity and
Stability in Ecological Systems (Brookhaven National
Laboratory 1969),10 as well as other symposia (American
Society of Civil Engineering and Stanford University 1967,9
Olson and Burgess 1967,14 NAS-NRC Committee on Ocean-
ography 1970,11 Royal Society of London 197115). Some sue-
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Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/221
cess has been achieved in the use of diversity measurements,
however, and their potential for future use is high. (See the
discussion of Community Structure in Section III on Fresh-
water Aquatic Life and Wildlife and in Appendix II-B.)
There are potentials for managing additions to coastal
ecosystems in ways that benefit human uses. These are as
yet poorly understood, and efforts to utilize waste heat,
nutrients and other possible resources are primitive. Such
possibilities merit vigorous exploration and, eventually,
careful application.
FISHERIES
Major marine and coastal fisheries are based upon the
capture of wild crops produced in estuaries, coastal waters,
and oceans. The quantity and quality of the available sup-
ply of useful species are controlled by the nature and effi-
ciency of the several ecosystems upon which each species
depends for its life cycle. Shad, for instance, depend upon
freshwater areas at the head of estuaries for spawning and
for survival as eggs and larvae, open estuaries for the nutri-
tion of juveniles, and large open coastal regions for growth
and maturation. As do mam other species, shad migrate
over large distances. Serious pollution at any point in the
lower river, the estuary, or the inshore ocean might, there-
fore, break the necessary patterns and reduce the fishery.
Estuaries have exceptional usefulness in support of fish-
eries. At least three quarters of the species in the commercial
and recreational fisheries of the nation are dependent upon
the estuarine ecosystem at one or more stages of their life
historv. Estuaries arc used as obligatory spawning grounds,
nurscr\ areas, havens from parasites and predators, and as
rich sources of food because of high productivity.
American fisheries exploit several levels of the coastal
ecosystem. We do not utilize the plants, the producers,
directly as food or in commerce except for a comparatively
small harvest of kelp and other seaweeds. The primary
consumers, however, are extensively utilized. These include
oysters, clams, mussels, and vast quantities of filter-feeding
fish such as sardines, anchovies, menhaden, and herring.
Second and third level consumers, which are less abundant
but frequently more desired than plankton feeders, include
most of our sports fish and major commercial species such
as tuna, striped bass, cod, halibut, and sea trout, as well as
squid, sharks, and other species which hold potential for
increased future use.
Pollutants can be detrimental to fisheries by reducing
desired species through direct mortality from toxicity,
smothering, intolerable heat, or other killing changes. Re-
duction may also occur when a pollutant has a sublethal
stressing effect that significantly interferes with feeding,
movement, reproduction, or some other essential function.
Pollution has an indirect deleterious effect when it increases
predators or parasites, reduces food organisms or essential
consorts, or damages the efficiency of the ecosystem func-
tions pertinent to the species in question. Consideration of
all these occurrences must enter into efforts to protect and
enhance fisheries.
Pollutants also damage marine organisms by imparting
characteristics that make them unacceptable for commercial
or recreational use. Economic loss has resulted from flesh
tainting of fish and shellfish by oil, phenolics, and other ma-
terials affecting taste, flavor, or appearance. DDT and other
persistent organics, applied on land, have accumulated in
fish to levels that exceed established standards for accept-
able human food. Heavy metals, e.g., mercury, can reach
levels in fish several thousand times the concentration in the
ambient water, destroying the economic value of the orga-
nisms involved.
More than 90 per cent of the American commercial
catch and virtually all of the sport fish are taken from the
estuaries and continental shelf. The total yield is difficult to
estimate, involving as it does migratory species, catches by
both foreign and domestic vessels, and recreational fisheries
which are only partially measured. Stroud (1971)26 esti-
mated that the cstuarine-dependent fishery of the Atlantic
coast yields 535 pounds per acre of estuary for a total annual
yield of 6.6 X 1011 Ibs. He concludes that shrinking of estu-
aries by filling or other destruction would reduce the yield
by a directly proportional quantity. Further, he predicts
that reduction of the productivity of estuaries by pollution
would also produce a proportional decrease in fish produc-
tion. The U.S. commercial fisheries of largest volume, in
order of decreasing harvest, include menhaden, salmon,
shrimp, crabs, herring, and oysters (Riley 1971).24 The most
valuable commercial harvests include shrimp, salmon, lob-
sters, crabs, menhaden, oysters, clams, flounders, and scal-
lops (Riley 1971).21
The estuaries, as recipients of wastes both from rivers
entering them and cities and industries along their shores,
arc obviously more immediately susceptible to pollution
damage than any other part of the marine system (Clark
1967,ls American Society of Civil Engineering and Stanford
University 1967,16 U.S. Dept. of Interior 1969,27 and U.S.
Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 197028). Al-
though the vulnerability of such inshore bodies of water to
physical and chemical damage is exceptional, the open
waters along the coast are also subject to damage from the
use of these waters for waste disposal. Approximately 250
waste disposal sites are in use along the coast of the United
States, and 48 million tons of wastes are estimated to have
been dumped in 1968 (Council on Environmental Quality
1970).19 These dumped wastes included dredge spoils, in-
dustrial wastes, sewage sludge, construction and demolition
debris, solid wastes, and explosives (see pp. 278-283 of this
Section for a more extended discussion of dumped wastes).
Increased populations and technological concentration
along the coasts, with simultaneous resistance to the use of
land, rivers, and estuaries for disposal has stimulated pro-
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222/Section IV— Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
posals to increase the use of oceanic areas as receivers of
wastes.
The effects of such coastal disposal on fisheries are not yet
clearly established. Bechtel Corp. (1969)17 has suggested
that continued expansion of waste disposal along the At-
lantic coast at the present rate of increase may, in about 30
years, significantly reduce the quality of water over the
continental shelf by increased suspended solids, phosphate
or nitrate enrichment, oxygen demand, heavy metals, or
simultaneous effects from all of these. Preliminary studies of
the effects of dumping of sewage sludge and dredging spoils
from the metropolitan New York area indicate that an area
of about 20 square miles has been impoverished by reduc-
tion of normal benthic populations; and indirect effects may
be far more extensive (Pearce 1970).23
More general approaches to disposal of wastes in ocean
waters have been presented by Foyn (1965)20 Olson and
Burgess (1967)22, NAS-NRC Committee on Oceanography
(1970)21 and the Royal Society of London (1971).25 Some
discernible and disturbing changes in coastal waters are
documented that prove the urgent need for better under-
standing of pollution effects at the edge of the oceans. The
limitation that must be placed upon any such releases must
be learned and put to use quickly, and we should proceed
carefully while we are learning.
Fisheries provide useful indications of the biological
health and productivity of marine waters. Continuous high
yield of a harvestable crop of indigenous fish or shellfish
free of toxicants or pathogens is an indication that water
quality is satisfactory, that the environmental conditions are
favorable for the total biological community, and that no
contaminant is present in sufficient quantity to destroy
major components of the ecosystem. Fisheries production
statistics can thus serve as a sensitive indicator of environ-
mental quanity.
Specific criteria for categories of pollutants will be given
in subsequent parts of this Section. The general require-
ments for water quality in relation to successful fisheries
include:
• favorable, not merely tolerable, environmental con-
ditions at every location which is required in the life
history of each species: this places special value on
water quality of estuaries which are obligate en-
vironments for many species during at least some
portion of their life cycles;
• freedom from tainting substances or conditions where
useful species exist, including elements and com-
pounds which can be accumulated by organisms
to unacceptable levels;
• absence of toxic conditions or substances wherever
useful species occur at any time in their life history;
• absence of sublethal deleterious conditions which
reduce survival and reproductive success;
• water sufficient to maintain the health of the bio
logical systems which support useful species;
• absence of environmental conditions which are ex
ceptionally favorable 10 parasites, predators, am
competitors of useful species.
MARINE AQUACULTURE
Although often considered a new approach to the worL
food problem, aquaculture is an ancient practice in man
parts of the world. In the Orient, aquatic organisms hav
been successfully cultivated for centuries, usually wit
rather primitive and empirical techniques, but nevertheles
with impressive success.
The annual world production of food through aquacul
ture has recently been estimated at over four million metri
tons, about 6.5 per cent of the total world fish landings. Al
though this is derived largely from fresh water, and open
ocean maraculture is in its infancy, an unknown but signif
cant fraction of the production is brackish-water organisn-
taken from estuarine system,;. The distinction betweei
freshwater and marine aquaculture is quite artificial. Be
cause the principles, techniques, potentials, and environ
mental requirements for growing organisms in either fres
or salt water are much the same, the distinction is also un
necessary for the purposes of the present discussion, excep
as noted below.
It is difficult to assess the potential yield from mariri
aquaculture, dependent as it is on a primitive art under
going rapid technological development. The introductio
of present methods into new, undeveloped parts of the worL
could at least double the present harvest within the ne>;
decade. Judging from the experience in agriculture an<
terrestrial animal husbandry, much greater increase i
yields should presumably be possible with advances in sue
fields as genetic selection and control, nutrition, habita
management and elimination or control of disease, preda
tion, and competition. It is not inconceivable that the )ieL
from aquaculture might one day surpass that from th
harvest of wild, untended stocks of aquatic organisms. Fui
ther, since only the most desirable species are selected fo
aquaculture, both the economic and nutritional value pe
pound of cultivated organisms greatly exceeds that of th
average fishery product. In the United States, cxpandei
recent interest in coastal aquaculture will hopefully pro
duce new techniques, products, and quantities, althoug]
economic feasibility has been difficult to achieve thus far.
Although no firm distinction can be drawn, it is conveni
ent to think of most forms of marine aquaculture in one o
two categories that will be referred to here as extensive anc
intensive culture. In extensive culture, animals are reared a
relatively low densities in large impoundments, embay
ments, or sections of estuaries, either natural or man-made
The impoundments may be closed off or open to the sea
depending upon the desired degree of control, but evei
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Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/223
those that are enclosed must be located near a source of
seawater so that the water may be exchanged frequently
to prevent stagnation and to regulate such factors as tem-
perature and salinity. Such exchanges are accomplished by
tidal action or by pumping.
The cultivated animals may be stocked or may consist of
natural populations that enter the system as larvae or
juveniles. They are usually not fed but subsist on natural
foods that grow in the area or are carried in with the outside
seawater.
Extensive aquaculture systems are most common in the
undeveloped parts of the world (e.g., Southeast Asia) where
large areas of coastal mangrove swamps, marshes, and estu-
aries arc available and are not presently in use or demand
for other purposes. For example, it has been estimated that
there are over six million acres of mangrove swamps in
Indonesia alone that would be suitable for some form of fish
farming.
In such coastal impoundments, milkfish, mullet, shrimp,
and other free-swimming species are grown. In the more
open situations such as embayments and arms of estuaries,
non-fugitive organisms are cultivated. The oldest and most
highly-developed form of marine aquaculture practiced in
the United States and Europe, that of oyster culture, falls
into this category. Seaweed culture in Japan and China is
another interesting example of this general approach to
aquaculture.
Yields from extensive aquaculture range from a few hun-
dred pounds to, at best, about one ton per acre per year.
Little, in some cases almost no, capital investment is re-
quired, and it is not a labor-intensive form of enterprise.
One or two unskilled laborers can manage 100 acres or
more of shrimp or milkfish ponds in Malayasia or the
Philippines except during stocking and harvesting opera-
tions. This is normally a highly profitable form of business
to the culturist and, despite the modest yields, extensive
aquaculture is capable of making a significant contribution
to the protein nutrition of many of the undeveloped parts
of the world.
Intensive aquaculture makes use of flowing-water sys-
tems using flumes or raceways and is best typified by trout
and salmon hatcheries that have been operated successfully
in the United States and Europe for many years and have
now reached a relatively high level of technical sophistica-
tion. Although originally designed to produce fish to be
stocked in natural waters to enhance commercial or sports
fishing, such systems are now being increasingly used for the
production of fish to be marketed directly as food. Such
systems were originally developed and used exclusively for
rearing freshwater species, but they are now also finding
application in saltwater areas for the production of marine
or anadromous species.
A variation of the raceway system of intensive aquacul-
ture is that of floating cage culture in which the animals are
held in nets suspended by a floating wooden framework.
These may be moored in estuaries or other protected arms
of the sea, where they are exposed to strong tidal currents.
A common feature of the various kinds of intensive aqua-
culture is that the animals are grown closely packed at ex-
tremely high densities and depend upon the flow of large
volumes of water over and around them to provide oxygen
and carry away wastes. When feasible, the animals are fed
artifically on prepared, pelletized food. The entire system
must be carefully controlled and monitored.
Intensive aquaculture systems for the commercial pro-
duction of food are in an early stage of development and
have yet to prove themselves as profitable and reliable for
marine species. Rapid progress is being made in this area,
however, particularly in highly developed parts of the world
where technological skill is available, where coastal marine
areas are scarce and in high demand, and where the price of
luxury seafoods is escalating. Various species of molluscs,
crustaceans, and finfish are now being grown in this way,
and many more are likely candidates as soom as funda-
mental aspects of their life history and nutrition are
mastered.
The yield from intensive aquaculture per unit of area in
which the organisms are grown is ecologically meaningless
(as is that from a cattle feed-lot, for example) but amounts
to as much as hundreds of tons per acre. More realistically,
the yield from such systems may be expressed per cubic foot
per minute of water flowing through it, which is usually the
limiting factor.
In contrast to extensive aquaculture, intensive systems
usually require high capital outlay and have a relatively
high labor demand. Profits or losses are determined by small
differences in the costs of food, labor, marketing, and the
demand for the product.
Both extensive and intensive forms of aquaculture are
heavily dependent on high quality water to sustain them.
Neither is independent of the adjacent coastal marine en-
vironment. Extensive pond culture may be semi-autono-
mous, but as explained above, the water must be occasion-
ally and sometimes frequently exchanged. Intensive aqua-
culture systems are vitally dependent on a continuous large
supply of new seawater. Because of the large investment
and, at best, small margin of profit, and because of the dense
populations of animals maintained at any one time, inten-
sive aquaculture represents a far greater risk.
Freshwater aquaculture systems, if strategically located
near an adequate source of underground water, may be
largely independent of man's activities and relatively free
from the threat of pollution. This, unfortunately, is never
quite true of marine aquaculture. The contiguous oceans of
the world circulate freely, as do the substances man adds to
them. While water movements may be predicted on large
geographical and time scales, they are quite unpredictable
on a local and short-term basis. An embayment or estuary
whose shores are uninhabited and which may suffer no ill
effects from the surrounding land may suddenly become in-
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224/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
fused with materials added to the water hundreds of miles
distant and carried' to the scene by winds, tides, and coastal
currents. In this sense, marine aquaculture is not only more
vulnerable to change than freshwater culture, but the dan-
gers are also far less predictable.
Application of Water Quality to Aquaculture
The various toxic or otherwise harmful wastes that man
adds to the coastal marine environment affect cultivated
organisms much the same as they do the natural popula-
tions of the same species. These are discussed in detail else-
where and need not be repeated here. In general the
deleterious effects of wastes on organisms that are used as
food by man are: (1) to kill, injure, or interfere with the
growth or other vital functions of the organisms, or (2) to
become concentrated in the organisms to such an extent as
to render them unfit for human consumption by exceeding
public health standards or by making them unpalatable. In
the latter case, this may occur with no apparent accompany-
ing impairment of the organism.
Certain aspects of aquaculture, particularly the intensive
forms of culture described above, are particularly sensitive
and vulnerable to various kinds of pollution—more so than
their freeliving counterparts in nature. These are enumer-
ated and discussed briefly below.
• The carrying capacity of intensive aquaculture sys-
tems is based on the flow of water and its supply ol
oxygen. If the concentration of oxygen in the water
suddenly decreases due to an organic overload, a
temperature increase, or other external causes, it
may be inadequate to support the cultivated
animals.
• Captive organisms cannot avoid localized unfavor-
able conditions (e.g., oxygen, temperature, turbid-
ity) as can free-swimming natural populations.
• Many organisms can tolerate alterations in their
environment if they are allowed to adapt and be-
come acclimated to such changes slowly. Cultivated
organisms may be, and often are subjected to sudden
changes in water quality and cannot endure the ini-
tial shock, while the free-swimming natural popula-
tions can enter an affected area slowly and cautiously
and allow themselves to adapt to the altered
conditions.
• Cultivated organisms, particularly in the densely-
crowded conditions of intensive aquaculture, may be
and perhaps always are under rather severe physio-
logical stress. Artificial diets are often incomplete or
otherwise unbalanced. Unnaturally crowded living
conditions may cause hormonal or other biochemical
imbalance. The animals may already suffer the ef-
fects of poor water quality from their own pollutants.
They are therefore particularly susceptable and vul-
nerable to any additional deterioration in wate
quality that may increase their stress condition.
• Disease is a spectre that perpetually haunts the aqua
culturist. Virtually impossible to avoid or eliminat
in any open system, it is usually, at best, held ii
check. Again, the additional stress caused by a de
terioration in water quality, while not fatal in itseli
may lower the resistance of the cultivated animals t
epidemic disease.
• Artificially-fed cultivated organisms may be no les
susceptible to accumulation of wastes, although in
tensively cultivated organisms that are fed entire!
on an artificial diet would appear to have one ad
vantage over natural populations of the same animal
living in polluted waters. Many toxic substances sue!
as chlorinated hydrocarbons may reach toxic or un
acceptable levels in larger organisms because c
concentration and amplification at each successiv
step in the food chain that ultimately supports th
animal in question. However, there is increasing
evidence that these substances also enter fishes anc
other organisms directlv from solution in the water
across respiratory or digestive membranes. Sucl
direct absorption of toxic material may in some case
exceed the quantities ingested and assimilated witl
food.
Therefore, the general recommendations for the qualit'
of water for use in culture include: (1) continuously ade
quate control of those materials and conditions which an
required for good health and efficient production of thi
cultured species; (2) absence of deleterious chemical anc
physical conditions, even for short or intermittent periods
(3) environmental stability; and (4) prevention of introduc
tion of diseases that attack the organisms under culture
The specific requirements for each culture effort must bi
with reference to the species involved, the densities desired
and the operational design of the culture system.
MARINE WILDLIFE
Marine wildlife for the purposes of this Section is definec
as those species of mammals, birds, and reptiles which in
habit estuaries or coastal and marine waters for at least ;
portion of their life span. The fish, invertebrates, and plank
ton that constitute the food webs upon which these specie:
depend are not, therefore, considered to be wildlife in thi:
context. The recommendations for marine wildlife, how-
ever, necessarily include all recommendations formulatec
to protect the fish, invertebrate, and plant communities
because wildlife can be adequately protected only if the
diversity and integrity of food webs are maintained. More-
over, the recommendations must protect wildlife from pol-
lutants that are relatively persistent in the environment.
transported by wind or water currents, and concentrated 01
recycled in the food webs. Because of trophic accumulation,
-------
Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/225
birds and mammals that occupy the higher trophic levels in
the food web may acquire body burdens of toxicants that
are lethal or that have significant sublethal effects on repro-
ductive capacity, even though the concentrations of these
substances in the water remain extremely low. Pollutants of
concern or of potential concern are the radionuclides, heavy
metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and other synthetic
chemicals that are relatively resistant to biological and
chemical degradation.
Recommendations to protect wildlife dependent upon
freshwater ecosystems may in general also apply to estu-
aries. This is particularly true for protection of food and
shelter for wildlife, pH, alkalinity, light penetration, settle-
able substances, and temperature. These are discussed in
Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife.
Marine and coastal waters constitute major sinks for per-
sistent pollutants. Accumulation rates and steady-state
levels are complex functions of input, rates of degradation,
and rates of deposition in the sediments. As yet no research
programs have measured accumulation rates of pollutants
in coastal waters or determined whether steady-state con-
centrations have already been attained.
Current knowledge of the partition coefficients among
concentrations in water, in sediments, and in tissues of
representative species in food webs is at best fragmentary.
It is assumed, however, in the evaluation of water quality
that the distribution and concentration of gradients of a
pollutant in an aqueous ecosystem satisfy thermod}namic
equilibria requirements. The pollutants considered here are
not essential to physiological functions, and do not require
energy to maintain the concentration gradients. Thus the
chlorinated hydrocarbons are concentrated in the lipid
pools of organisms from ambient water but will not accumu-
late indefinitely. Rather, under equilibrium conditions,
these pollutants will also be lost to ambient water, particu-
late matter, and sediments in satisfying thermodynamic
requirements. Because the internal environments of birds
and mammals are more isolated from the ambient environ-
ment than those of invertebrates and most fish, equilibrium
concentrations of pollutants, particularly the chlorinated
hydrocarbons, may be substantially higher.
Theoretically, therefore, measurements of pollutant con-
centrations in one component of an ecosystem are sufficient
to indicate the level in the system as a whole when the parti-
tion coefficients among water, suspended particulate and
organic material, sediments, lipid pools, surface films, and
the atmosphere are known. The methodologies for measur-
ing pollutant concentrations in sea water are as yet imper-
fect, and very few good measurements have so far been
made. Consequently it is not practical at present to make
recommendations for the relatively persistent organic pollu-
tants based upon water concentrations, especially when
partition coefficients are not known. Residue concentrations
in fish are more easily determined and can more readily be
associated with harm to bird and mammal populations that
consume them. Recommendations for the toxic organic
compounds that are trophically accumulated by marine
wildlife are therefore based upon concentrations in fish.
It cannot be assumed that there is a level or concentration
in the ecosystem as a whole of pollutants which are muta-
gens or teratogens that causes no effect on any of the wild-
life species. The chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins are highly
toxic to developing embryos (Verret 1970)71 and are con-
taminants in compounds prepared from chlorinated phe-
nols, including the herbicide 2,4, 5-T (Verrett 1970)71 and
the widely used fungicide pentachlorophenol (Jensen and
and Renberg 1972).53 The closely related chlorinated di-
bcnzofurans are contaminants in some PCB preparations
(Vos and Koeman 1970,74 Vos et al., 1970,75 Vos in press
1972).72 Embryonic mortality in birds is induced by these or
other derivatives of PCB (Peakall et al., in press 1972,59
Vos in press 1972).72 For the present time the chlorinated
dibenzofurans are included with PCB in the recommenda-
tions. When environmental mutagens and teratogens affect
only relatively few individuals of a population, it is as-
sumed that these will be eliminated by natural selection
without harm to the species as a whole.
For other pollutants which affect specific enzyme systems
or other physiological processes but not the genetic material
or embryological development, it is assumed that there are
levels in the environment of each below which all organisms
are able to function without disrupting their life cycles.
Manifestations of physiological effects, such as a certain
amount of eggshell thinning or higher level of hormone
metabolism, might be detectable in the most sensitive
species. If environmental levels increase, the reproductive
capacity of the most sensitive species would be affected first.
The object of the recommendations presented is to maintain
the steady-state concentrations of each pollutant below
those levels which interfere with the life cycles of the most
sensitive wildlife species. Input should not therefore be
measured only in terms of concentrations of each pollutant
in individual effluents, but in relation to the net contribu-
tion to the ecosystem. At the steady-state level, the net
contribution would be zero, with the total input equal to the
sum of degradation and permanent deposition in the
sediments.
Bases For Recommendations
Recommendations based upon pollutant concentrations
in fish must take into account the individual variation in
residue concentration. The distribution is usually not Gaus-
sian (Holden 1970;51 Anderson and Fenderson 1970;30
Risebrough et al. in press 1972),65 with several individual
fish in a sample frequently containing much higher residue
concentrations than the majority. Fish samples should there-
fore consist of pooled collections. Samples as large as 100
fish may not be sufficient to determine mean concentrations
of a pollutant with a precision of 10 per cent (Risebrough
et al. in press 1972).65 Practicality, however, frequently
-------
226/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
dictates against sample sizes of this magnitude, and samples
consisting of 25 or more fish are suggested as a reasonable
compromise.
Radionuclides
Recommendation
In the absence of data that would indicate that
any of the radionuclides released by human ac-
tivities are accumulated by wildlife species, it is
recommended that the recommendations estab-
lished for marine fish and invertebrates apply also
to wildlife.
Heavy Metals
The results obtained during the baseline study of the
International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) in
1971-72 have failed to indicate any evidence of pollution by
heavy metals, including mercury and cadmium, above
background levels in marine species (Goldberg 1972).4il
The results, suggested, however, local patterns of coastal
contamination. The heavy metal analyses carried out to
date of tissues of several species of petrels, strictly pelagic in
their distribution (Anderlini et al. 1972) ;32 and of coastal
fish-eating species such as the Brown Pelican, Pelecanus
occidentahs, (Connors et al. in press 1972a);40 and the Com-
mon Tern, Sterna hirundo (Connors et al. in press 1972b)41
have confirmed this conclusion.
Recommendation
In the absence of data indicating that heavy
metals are present in marine wildlife in concen-
trations above natural levels, it is recommended
that recommendations formulated to protect other
marine organisms also apply to wildlife in order
to provide protection in local areas.
Pol/chlorinated Biphenyls (PCB)
Evidence is accumulating that PCB does not contribute-
to the shell thinning that has been a n ajor symptom of the
reproductive failures and population declines of raptorial
and fish-eating birds. Dietary PCB produced no shell thin-
ning of eggs of Mallard Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) (Heath
et al. in press 1972),49 nor did PCB have any effects on eggs of
Ring Doves (Streptopelia risoria) (Peakall 1971).58 A PCB
effect could not be associated with the thinning of Brown
Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) eggshells (Risebrough in press
1972).62 PCB may increase susceptibility to infectious agents
such as virus diseases (Friend and Trainer 1970).44 Like
other chlorinated hydrocarbons, PCB increases the activity
of liver enzymes that degrade steroids, including the sex
hormones (Risebrough et al. 1968;64 Street et al. 1968).67
The ecological significance of this phenomenon is not clear.
Because laboratory studies have indicated that PCB, with
its derivatives or metabolites, causes embryonic death of
birds (Vos et al. 1970;75 Vos and Koeman 1970;74 Vos
press 1972;72 Peakall et al. in press 197269) and because e:
ceptionally high concentrations are occasionally found i
fish-eating and raptorial species (Risebrough et al. 1968;
Jensen et al. 196962), it is highly probable that PCB hi
had an adverse effect on the reproductive capacity of son
species of birds that have shown population declines.
Median PCB concentrations in whole fish of eight speci<
from Long Island Sound, obtained in 1970, were in tl
order of one milligram per kilogram (mg/kg) (Hays ar
Risebrough 1972),47 and comparable concentrations ha\
been reported from southern California (Risebroug
1969).61 On the basis of the high probability that PCB :
the environment has contributed to the reproductive failur
offish-eating birds, it is desirable to decrease these levels I
at least a factor of two (see Section III on Freshwati
Aquatic Life and Wildlife pp. 175-177).
Recommendation
It is recommended that PCB concentrations i
any sample consisting of a homogenate of 25 <
more whole fish of any species that is consumed t
fish-eating birds and mammals, within the sam
size range as the fish consumed by any bird (
mammal, be no greater than 0.5 mg/kg of the w<
weight.
In the absence of a standardized methodolog
for the determination of PCB in environments
samples, it is recommended that estimates of PC
concentrations be based on the commerci:
Aroclor® preparation which it most closely r<
sembles in chlorine composition. If the PC
composition should resemble a mixture of moi
than one Aroclor®, it should be considered a mfc
ture for the basis of quantitation, and the PC
concentration reported should be the sum of tt
component Aroclor® equivalents.
DDT Compounds
DDT compounds have become widespread and local
abundant pollutants in coastal and marine environments
North America. The most abundant of these is DDE [2,1
bis(p-chlorophenyl) dicholoroethylene], a derivative of ti
insecticidal DDT compound, p,p'-DDT. DDE is mo
stable than other DDT derivatives, and very little inform;
tion exists on its degradation in ecosystems. All availab
data suggest that it is degraded slowly. No degradation patl
way has so far been shown to exist in the sea, except depos
tion in sediments.
Experimental studies have shown that DDE indue <
shell thinning of eggs of birds of several families, includir
Mallard Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) (Heath et al. 1969),
American Kestrels (Falco sparaerius) (Wiemeyer and Porti
1970),77 Japanese Quail (Coturnix) (Stickel and Rhod<
1970)66 and Ring Doves (Streptopelia risorial) (Peakall 1970).
-------
Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/227
Studies of eggshell thinning in wild populations have re-
ported an inverse relationship between shell thickness and
concentrations of DDE in the eggs of Herring Gulls (Larus
argentatus) (Hickey and Anderson 1968).50 Double-crested
Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) (Anclerson et al. 1969),31
Great Blue Herons (Ardea herodias) (Vermeer and Reynolds
1970),70 White Pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) (Anderson
et al. 1969),31 Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) (Blus
et al. 1972;36 Risebrough in press 1972),62 and Peregrines
(Falco peregrinus) (Cade et al. 1970).37
Because of its position in the food webs, the Peregrine
accumulates higher residues than fish-eating birds in the
same ecosystem (Risebrough ct al. 1968).64 It was the first
North American species to show shell thinning (Hickey and
Anderson 1968).50 It is therefore considered to be the species
most sensitive to environmental residues of DDE.
The most severe cases of shell thinning documented to
date have occurred in the marine ecosystem of southern
California (Risebrough et al. 1970)63 where DDT residues
in fish have been in the order of 1-10 mg/kg of the whole
fish (Risebrough in press 1972).62 In Connecticut and Long
Island, shell thinning of eggs of the Osprey (Pandion haliae-
tus) is sufficiently severe to adversely affect reproductive
success; over North America, shell thinning of Osprey eggs
also shows a significant negative relationship with DDE
(Spitzer and Risebrough, unpublished results).1* DDT residues
in collections of eight species of fish from this area in 1970
ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg of the wet weight (Hays and
Risebrough 1972).47 Evidently this level of contamination
is higher than one which would permit the successful repro-
duction of several of the fish-eating and raptorial birds.
Recommendation
It is recommended that DDT concentrations in
any sample consisting of a homogenate of 25 or
more fish of any species that is consumed by fish-
eating birds and mammals, within the same size
range as the fish consumed by any bird or mammal,
be no greater than 50 Mg/kg of the wet weight.
DDT residues are defined as the sum of the concen-
trations of p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDE and
their ortho-para isomers.
Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, and Heptachlor
Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and heptachlor constitute a
class of closely related, highly toxic, organochlorine insecti-
cides. Aldrin is readily converted to dieldrin in the environ-
ment, and heptachlor to a highly toxic derivative, hepta-
chlor epoxide. Like the DDT compounds, dieldrin may be
dispersed through the atmosphere (Tarrant and Tatton
1968,68 Risebrough et al. 1968).64 The greatest hazard of
dieldrin is to fish-eating birds such as the Bald Eagle (Hah-
aeetus leucocephalus) (Mulhern ct al. 1970) ;56 the Common
Egret (Casmerodms albus) (Faber et al. 1972)43 and the
Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) (Ratcliffe 1970),60 which may
accumulate lethal amounts from fish or birds that have not
themselves been harmed.
These compounds are somewhat more soluble in water
than are other chlorinated hydrocarbons such as the DDT
group (Gunther et al. 1968) ;46 partition coefficients between
water and fish tissues can be assumed to be lower than those
of the DDT compounds. Equivalent concentrations in fish
would therefore indicate higher environmental levels ol
dieldrin, endrin, or heptachlor epoxide than of DDE or any
of the other DDT compounds. Moreover, these compounds
are substantially more toxic to wildlife than are other
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Tucker and Crabtree
1970).69 More conservative recommendations are therefore
necessary.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the sum of the concen-
trations of aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and heptachlor
epoxide in any sample consisting of a homogenate
of 25 or more whole fish of any species that is con-
sumed by fish-eating birds and mammals, within
the size range consumed by any bird or mammal,
be no greater than 5 yug/kg of the wet weight.
Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides
Other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides include lin-
dane, chlordane, endosulfan, methoxychlor, mirex, and
toxaphene. Hexachlorobenzene is likely to have increased
use as a fungicide as mercury compounds are phased out.
This compound is toxic to birds and is persistent (Vos et al.
1968).73 With the possible exception of hexachlorobenzene,
recommendations that protect the invertebrate and fish life
of estuaries from injudicious use of these pesticides will also
protect the wildlife species. In light of the experience with
DDT and dieldrin, the large scale use of a compound such
as mirex can be expected to have adverse effects on wildlife
populations.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the concentration of any
of these chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, in-
cluding lindane, chlordane, endosulfan, methoxy-
chlor, mirex, and toxaphene, and of hexachloro-
benzene, in any sample consisting of a homogenate
of 25 or more whole fish of any species that is con-
sumed by fish-eating birds and mammals, with
the size range that is consumed by any bird or
mammal, be no greater than 50 M&/kg of the wet
weight.
Lead
No data was found to indicate that lead released into the
atmosphere through the combustion of leaded gasolines has
posed a hazard to wildlife populations or has resulted in an
-------
218/Section IV— Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
increase in body burdens of lead over background levels.
Critical studies, however, have not yet been carried out.
Ingestion of lead shot by waterfowl, which often mistake
spent lead shot for seed or grit, kills many birds, and the
pollution of marshes by lead shot is a serious problem.
Jordan (1952)64 found that female waterfowl are about
twice as sensitive to poisoning as males, and that toxicity
varied greatly, depending on species, sex, and quantity and
quality of food intake. A corn diet greatly increased the
toxicity of lead. A study carried out by Bellrose (1951)34
indicated that the incidence of lead shot in gizzards of
waterfowl averaged 6.6 per cent in 18,454 ducks. Among
infected ducks, 68 per cent contained only one shot in their
gizzards, and only 17.7 per cent contained more than two
(Jordan and Bellrose 1951).55 The incidence of ingested
shot appears to increase throughout the hunting season with
a subsequent decline afterwards. Most losses of waterfowl
due to ingested lead shot are in fall, winter, and early
spring (Jordan 1952).54 Different species show different
propensities to ingest shot. Redhead (Aythya americana),
Canvasback (Aythya valisneria) and Ringneckcd Ducks
(Aythya collaris) are prone to ingest shot, while Gadwall
(Anas strepera), Teal (Anus sp.) and Shoveler (Spatula clypeata)
show a low incidence. Ingestion of one shot does not appear
to produce measurable changes in longevity, but six No. 6
shot are a lethal dose to Mallards, Pintail (Anus acutd) and
Redheads (Wetmore 1919).76 Cook and Trainer (1966)43
found that four to five pellets of No. 4 lead shot were a
lethal dose for Canada Geese (Branta canadensis). On a body
weight basis, 6 to 8 mg/kg/day is detrimental to Mallards
(Coburnetal. 1951).89
Lead concentrations in livers of poisoned birds are of a
comparable order of magnitude, ranging from 9 to 27
mg/kg in Canada Geese (Adler 1944),29 18 to 37 mg/kg in
Whistling Swans (Olor columbianus) (Chupp and Dalke
1964)38 and an average of 43 mg/kg in Mallards (Anas
platyrhynchos) (Coburn et al. 1951).39 These levels are 10 to
40 times higher than background, which is in the order of
one mg/kg of the wet weight liver (Bagley and Locke
1967).33
Lead poisoning in waterfowl tends to occur especially in
areas where a few inches of soft mud overlay a hard sub-
strate. In marshes where waterfowl are hunted, the number
of lead pellets per acre of marsh bottom is on the order of
25,000 to 30,000 per acre and is frequently higher (Bellrose
1959).35 30,000 pellets per acre are equivalent to 0.7 pellets
per square foot.
The data examined indicate that the annual loss is be-
tween 0.7 per cent and 8.1 per cent of a population esti-
mated to be 100 million birds. Although there is apparently
no evidence that a loss of this magnitude has long-term
detrimental effects on any species, it is considered unac-
ceptable. Levels of lead shot in the more polluted marshes
should therefore be reduced. The ultimate solution to this
problem is the production of non-toxic shot.
Recommendation
In order to reduce the incidence of lead poisoniti
in freshwater and marine waterfowl, it is recon
mended that: non-toxic shot be used, or that n
further lead shot be introduced into zones of sh(
deposition if lead shot concentrations exceed 1
shot per 4 square feet in the top two inches <
sediment.
WASTE CAPACITY OF RECEIVING WATERS
When waste disposal to any natural body of water is co
sidered, the receiving capacity of the environment must 1
taken into account. Waste disposal has been one of tl
many uses man has required of estuaries and coastal watei
These waters are capable of assimilation of definable quam
ties and kinds of wastes that are not toxic and that do n
accumulate to unacceptable levels. In many locatio
wastes are being added to these waters at rates that excei
their capacity 10 recover; and when the rate of addition e
ceeds the recovery capacity, ihe water quality detcriorat
rapidly. It is essential to understand the local conditio
and the processes that determine the fate, concentratio
and distribution of the pollutant in order to determine tl
amount of the pollutant and the rate of disposal that w
not exceed the recommended levels.
A simplified diagram of the various processes that m,
determine the fate and distribution of a pollutant added
the marine environment is presented in Figure IV
(Ketchum 1967).82 The waste material may be diluted, d
persed, and transported by various physical processes, sui
as turbulent mixing, ocean currents, or exchanges with tl
atmosphere. It may be concentrated by various biologic
processes, such as the direct uptake by organisms of a d
solved material in the water, end it may be transferred fro
organism to organism in various trophic levels of the foi
web. Additional concentration of the material may occur
the higher trophic levels, particularly if some organ or tiss
of the body accumulates the substance, such as DDT
petroleum products that accumulate in the fatty tissui
various metals that may accumulate in the bone or live
and iodine which accumulated in the thyroid.
Substances can also be concentrated from the cnviro
ment by chemical, physical, and geological processes such
sorption. Natural waters contain a certain amount of si.
pended material, and some material added to the water m;
be sorbcd on these particles. In sea water, which alreac
contains in solution most of the known elements, addi
materials may be precipitated from the water by vario
chemical reactions. As fresh waters carry pollutants to tl
sea, the change in salinity causes flocculation of some of tl
materials suspended in the fresh water and results in the
precipitation from the medium. Ion exchange reactio
with the various organic compounds dissolved in sea wat
can also occur.
-------
Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/229
The average concentration of a given pollutant continu-
ously added to a body of water, will tend to approach a
steady state in the system. This concentration is determined
by the rate of addition of the pollutant, the rate of its re-
moval or dilution by the circulation, and the rate of its
decomposition or removal by biological, chemical, or geo-
Diluted and
Dispersed B>
Exchange
With
\tmosphere
Chemical and
Physical
Processes
Uptake
By Phy-
toplankton
Uptake
By
Seaweeds
Sorption
Precipitation
Inverte-
brate
Benthos
Zoo-
plankton
Ion
Exchange
Accumulation
on the
Bottom
Fish and
Mammals
Ketchum 196782
FIGURE IV-1—Processes That Determine the Fate and Distribution of a Pollutant Added to the Marine Environment.
-------
230/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
logical processes. The average concentration is not always
the critical concentration to be evaluated. For example, if
bioaccumulation occurs, the amount accumulated in the
critical organism should be evaluated, rather than the aver-
age concentration in the system as a whole. The processes
of circulation and mixing may leave relatively high concen-
trations in one part of the system and low concentrations in
another. The average conditions thus set an upper limit on
what can be added to the system but do not determine the
safe limit. It is clear, however, that a pollutant might be
added to a body of water with vigorous circulation at a rate
that could result in acceptable water quality conditions,
while the same rate of addition of the pollutant to a sluggish
stream might produce unacceptable levels of contamination.
Thus, the characteristics of the receiving body of water
must be taken into account when evaluating the effects of
the pollutant upon the environment.
In a stream, the diluting capacity of a system is relatively
easy to determine from the rate of addition of the pollutant
and the rate of stream flow. The pollutant is carried down-
stream by the river flow, and "new" water is always avail-
able for the dilution of the pollutant. This is not necessarily
true of lakes where the pollution added over a long period
of time may accumulate, because only a small fraction of the
added pollutant may be removed as a result of flushing by
the outflow. In estuaries, the situation is further compli-
cated by the mixture of salt and fresh water, because a
pollutant added at a mid-point in the estuary can be carried
upstream by tidal mixing just as the salt is carried up-
stream. The upstream distribution of a conservative pollu-
tant is porportional to the upstream distribution of salt,
whereas the downstream distribution of the pollutant is
proportional to the downstream distribution of fresh water.
In either lakes or estuaries, the average retention time or
the half-life of the material in the system can be used to
estimate the average concentration that the pollutant will
achieve in the system. In lakes, an estimate of the average
retention time can be derived from the ratio of the volume
of the lake divided by the rate of inflow (or outflow). When
the lake is stratified, only part of the volume of the lake
enters into the active circulation, and an appropriate cor-
rection must be made. In estuaries and coastal waters, a
similar calculation can be made by comparing the volume
of fresh water in the estuary with the rate of river inflow.
The amount of fresh water in any given sample can be com-
puted from the determination of salinity. In stratified estu-
aries such as a fjord, only the part of the system that is
actively circulated should be taken into account. This may
be adequately done by the choice of the appropriate base
salinity in computing the fresh water content. Examples of
the mean retention time of a few bodies of water calculated
as described above are presented in Table IV-1.
Lakes with large volumes superficially appear to have a
great capacity to accept waste materials. If the retention
time is long, however, this merely means that it takes a long
TABLE IV-1—Average Retention Times and Half Lives /<
River Water in the Great Lakes and in Various Estuarl
and Coastal Regions
Lake Superior .
Lake Michigan
Lake Huron
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario
Continental Shelf
Capes Cod to Hatterasto
1,000 (1 contour
New York Bight
Bay of Fundy
Delaware Bay
high river flow
low river flow
Raritan Bay
high river flow
low r i ver flow
Long Island Sound
Surface
area mi2
31,820
22,420
23,010
9,930
7,520
29,000
483 to 662
3,300
45
930
Mean retention
time
183 yt ,.
100 yn.
30 yrs.
2 8 yrs.
8yr>.
1.6- 2.0 yrs.
6. 0-7. 4 days
76 days
48-1/6 days
15-30 days
36 days
Half life
128 yrs.
69 yrs.
21 yrs.
1.9 yrs.
5 6 yrs.
1.1-1. 4 yrs.
4. 1-5. 05 days
52 days
33-87 days
10-21 days
25 days
Reference
Beeton (1969)"
Beeton (1969)"
Beeton (1969)"
Beeton (1969)"
Beeton (1969)"
Ketchum and Keen (1955
Ketchum et al (1951)»s
Ketchum and Keen (1953
Ketchum (unpublished)
(1952)8'
Ketchum (1951a,8»h8i)
Riley (1952)™
time to build up to steady-state concentration, and it w
take a comparably long time to recover from a steady-sta
concentration once it is achieved. For Lake Superior, ii
example, it would take 123 years to remove half of tl
steady-state concentration of a pollutant that had bee
achieved over 185 years at the average rate of input. Aquat
environments in which the circulation is more rapid \v
achieve a steady-state concentration of a pollutant mo
quickly and will also recover more quickly.
Nonconservativc pollutants are those that change wil
time by processes which are additional to circulation ar
dilution. The half-life of these substances in the enviroi
ment is the product of these processes and the processes
circulation and dilution. Foi radioactivity, for exainpl
the half-life is the time needed for the normal radioacti\
decay to dissipate half of the radiation of the materi?
This is different for each radioisotope and ma> vary fro
fractions of a second to centuries. The half-life for the cl
composition of the organic matter in sewage in marit
systems is probably on the order of days and will be d<
pendent on temperature. The decomposition of sewag
however, releases the fertilizing elements in the organ
molecule, and these will persist in the environment. In cor
trast to these rapid changes, t'-ie half-life of the chlorinate
hydrocarbon pesticides is probably of the order of 10 yea
in the marine environment, though this is an estimate an
not a direct determination. Heavy toxic metals, which ma
also pollute the environment, do not decay but persist ir
definitely, though their location and forms in the systei
may change with time.
The greatest pollution danger arises from the addition c
persistent materials to those ecosystems with slow circuit
tions. Under these conditions, the waste concentration wi
increase slowly until a steady-state level is reached. If circL
-------
Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/231
lation is more rapid, the system will reach steady-state more
quickly, but the concentration for a given rate of addition
will be less. If the material is not persistent, the rate of
decomposition may be more important than circulation in
determining the steady-state concentration. If the products
of decomposition are persistent, however, these will accumu-
late to levels greater than those in the original discharge.
Local concentrations, such as can be found in the deeper
waters of stratified systems or in trapping embayments, may
be more significant than the average concentration for the
whole system. In short, the recommendations cannot be
used to determine the permissible amount of a pollutant to
be added or a rate of addition without detailed knowledge
of the specific system which is to receive the waste.
Mixing Zones
When a liquid discharge is made to a receiving system,
a zone of mixing is created. In the past, these zones have
frequently been approved as sites of accepted loss, exempted
from the water quality standard for the receiving water.
Physical description, biological assessment, and manage-
ment of such zones have posed many difficult problems.
The following discussion deals with criteria for assuring that
no significant damage to marine aquatic life occurs in such
mixing zones. Although recent public, administrative, and
scientific emphasis has focused on mixing zones for the dis-
persion of waste heat, other uses of the mixing zone concept
are also included in these considerations.
Definition of a Mixing Zone A mixing zone is a
region in which an effluent is in transit from the outfall
source of the receiving waters. The effluent is progressively
diluted, but its concentration is higher than in the receiving
waters.
Approach to the Recommendation Mixing zones
must be considered on a case-by-case basis because each
proposed site involves a unique set of pertinent considera-
tions. These include the nature, quantity, and concentra-
tion of the effluent material; the physical, chemical and bio-
logical characteristics of the mixing area and receiving
waters; and the desired uses of the waters. However, the
following general recommendation can be established for
the purpose of protecting aquatic life in areas where effluents
are mixing with receiving waters:
The total time-toxicity exposure history must not cause dele-
terious effects in affected populations of important species,
including the post-exposure effects.
Meeting the Recommendation Special circum-
stances distinguish the mixing zone from the receiving
waters. In the zone, the duration of exposure to an effluent
may be quite brief, and it is usually substantially shorter
than in the receiving waters, so that assays involving long
periods of exposure are not as helpful in predicting damage.
In addition, the concentration of effluent is higher than in
receiving waters. Therefore, the development of specific
requirements for a specific mixing zone must be based upon
the probable duration of the esposure of organisms to the
effluent as well as on the toxicity of the pollutant.
The recommendation can be met in two ways: use of a
probably-safe concentration requirement for all parts of the
mixing zone; or accurate determination of the real concen-
trations and duration of exposures for important species and
good evidence that this time-toxicity exposure is not de-
leterious. The latter, more precise approach to meeting the
recommentation will require:
• determination of the pattern of exposure of impor-
tant species to the effluent in terms of time and con-
centration in the mixing zone;
• establishment of the summed effects on important
species;
• determination that deleterious effects do not occur.
Complexities in the Marine Environment Some
of the problems involved in protecting marine aquatic life
are similar to those in lacustrine and fluvial fresh waters and,
in general, the recommendations in Section III, pp. 112-
115 are applicable to marine situations. There are, however,
special complexities in evaluating mixing zones in coastal
and oceanic waters. These include:
• the exceptional importance of sessile species, espe-
cially in estuaries and near shore, where effluents
originate;
• the presence of almost all species in the plankton at
some stage in the life history of each, so that they
may be entrained in the diluting waters;
• obligate seasonal migrations by many fish and some
invertebrates;
• oscillation in tidal currents, mixing mechanisms and
in resulting concentrations, dilution rates, and dis-
persion patterns.
None of these affect the general recommendation, but
they do contribute to the difficulty of applying it.
Theoretical Approach to Meeting the Recom-
mendation Any measure of detrimental effects of a
given concentration of a waste component on aquatic or
marine organisms is dependent upon the time of exposure
to that waste concentration, at least over some restricted
but definable period of time. For a given species and sub-
stance, under a given set of environmental conditions, there
will be some critical concentration below which a particular
measure of detrimental effects will not be observed, regard-
less of the duration of exposure. Above the critical concen-
tration, the detrimental effects will be observed if the ex-
posure time is sufficiently long. The greater the concentra-
tion of the substance, the shorter the time of exposure to
cause a specified degree of damage. The water quality
characteristics for mixing zones are defined so that the or-
ganisms to be protected will be carried or move through the
-------
232/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
zone without being subjected to a time-exposure history
that would produce unacceptable effects on the population
of these species in the water body.
In order to quantify this statement, the following quanti-
ties are defined:
T50,C,E = time of exposure of a critical aquatic or
marine species to a concentration, C, of a
given pollutant, under a constant set of en-
vironmental conditions, E, which produces
50 per cent mortality of the critical species.
TO,C',E = time of exposure of a critical aquatic or
marine species to a concentration, C', of a
given pollutant, under a constant set of en-
vironmental conditions, E, which produces
no unacceptable effects on the critical species.
For some pollutants, G and C' for a given time of expo-
sure may be related by:
G' = C-AC0
where AC0 is the amount by which the concentration which
produces a 50 per cent mortality must be decreased in order
that no unacceptable effects of the pollutant on a given critical
species will occur. For example, in the case of temperature,
it has been shown that at temperatures 2 G below those
which produce a 50 per cent mortality, no observable
detrimental effects occur. For temperature, then, 2 C is a
conservative value of AC0.
For other pollutants, notably chemical toxicants, G' is
related to C by the relationship:
G' = k-C
where k is the ratio of the concentration at which 720 un-
acceptable effects occur to the concentration which produces
a 50 per cent mortality with both concentrations deter-
mined over the same exposure time.
It is difficult to establish with statistical confidence a re-
lationship between TO, C', E and C', for a large number of
species, by direct laboratory experiments. However, labora-
tory experiments can be used to determine, for the critical
species of the receiving waterbody, the relationship between
pollutant concentration and the time period of exposure
necessary to produce a 50 per cent mortality. Thus, it is
necessary to obtain, by experiment, the form and constants
of a function of the pollutant concentration, fi(C), such
that
T50, C, E =
Conservative estimates of ACo or of k can be obtained c
pendent upon decisions as to acceptable effects from adc
tional laboratory studies. Once AC0 or k have been esta
lished, the relationship C' = C—AC0, or the relationshi
C' = k-C, depending on the properties of the particul
waste materials, can be combined with the above equatii
relating T50, C, E and C, 1:0 produce an equation relati
TO, C', Eand C'. That is:
TO, C'., E = f2(G').
This equation gives the maximum time that a particul
species could be exposed to a concentration C' without i
suiting in unacceptable effects on the population of tl
species. The water quality recommendations for the mixii
zone are satisfied if, for any organisms carried through t
mixing zone with the flow or purposefully moving throui
the zone, the time of exposure satisfies the relationship
time of exposure
" fTfC7)
where C' is the concentration of a specified pollutant in t
mixing zone.
Because, in fact, the concentration in the mixing zo
decreases with distance from the point of discharge, ai
hence organisms carried through the plume will be su
jected to concentrations which are continually decreasii
with time, a more suitable quantitative statement of wat
quality characteristics necessary for the mixing zone is:
AT2 ATS
ATn
f2(C'o f2(c'2) fa(c'3)'' 'f2(c'n)
where the time of exposure of an organism passing throus
the mixing zone has been broken into n increments, AT
AT2, ATS, etc. long. The organism is considered to be e
posed to concentration C'i during the time interval ATI,
concentration C'2 during the time interval AT2, etc. Tl
sum of the individual ratios must then not exceed unity.
The above theory is applied in the recommendations ar
examples in Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life ar
Wildlife, pp. 112-115, and in the Freshwater Append
II-A, pp. 403-407.
-------
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
It is the purpose of this discussion to explain the ap-
proaches considered in deriving the recommendations given
in this Section. Because the biological effects of a pollutant
are manifest in a variety of ways, the specific technique to
be used in estimating biological impact must be tailored to
each specific problem. For example, acute or lethal toxicity
of a given pollutant to a marine species can be evaluated by
short-term bioassay in the laboratory designed to deter-
mine the concentration of the material which is lethal to
half of the selected population in a fixed period of time,
commonly four days (LC50-96 hours). The "safe" limit
will be much lower than the concentration derived in such
a bioassay, and appropriate safety factors must be applied.
The safe limit should permit reproduction, growth, and all
normal life processes in the natural habitat.
When a pollutant is discharged to the environment at a
safe concentration determined in this way, the living or-
ganisms are exposed to a chronic, sublethal concentration.
Some stages of the life cycle of the species to be protected,
such as the eggs or larvae, may be more sensitive than the
adult stages. It is sometimes possible to identify the critical
life stage which can then be used in a bioassay. Long-term
bioassays covering a substantial part of the life cycle of the
organism can be conducted in the laboratory to determine
chronic sublethal effects of pollutants. Various processes
of the organism, such as respiration, photosynthesis, or
activity may be used to evaluate sublethal effects. Some
longtcrm chronic effects may be more subtle and more diffi-
cult to evaluate under laboratory conditions. Examples of
this type include changes in breeding or migratory behavior
or the development of a general debility making the orga-
nisms more suceptible to disease, predation, or to environ-
mental stresses.
A pollutant in the marine environment may also have an
effect on the ecosystem not directly associated with its effect
on an individual species. Ecosystem interactions are diffi-
cult to assess in the laboratory, and techniques for evaluat-
ing them in the field are not completely satisfactory. Such
interactions must be considered, however, in applying
recommendations to any specific situation.
ACUTE TOXICITIES—BIOASSAYS
Detailed methods for laboratory bioassays are described
in Section III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and
can serve as guidlincs for application to the marine system.
The ability to extrapolate from results of bioassay tests is
limited, and the need for safety factors in their application
to the environment must be emphasized. The methodologies
discussed are illustrative and should be considered as guide-
lines for meaningful bioassays.
The most important uses of bioassays for evaluating water
quality are:
• analysis of the concentration of a specific material in
natural waters by means of a biological response;
• detection of toxic substances in organisms used as
food for man;
• analysis of the suitability of natural waters for the
support of a given species or ecosystem;
• determination of critical toxic levels of substances to
selected species;
• evaluation of bio-stimulation effects by materials
such as nutrients.
These purposes fall into two general categories: bio-
analysis and biorcsponse.
BIOANALYSIS
Bioanalysis has been used for many years to measure
effects of substances on organisms. These assays may give
quantitative measurements, such as weight per volume, or
be expressed in arbitrary units defined by the degree of
response. They are most valuable when the organism re-
sponds to a lower concentration than can be detected by
available chemical or physical techniques. Such bioassays
require carefully controlled procedures, and organisms and
experimental conditions must be standardized. Responses
are used that have been shown to have a correlation with
the amount of test substance present. Preparation of test
materials is rigidly controlled to avoid problems arising
from synergists or antagonists administered with the test
233
-------
234/Section IV— Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
material. This is difficult and often impossible in the bio-
assay of materials obtained from the environment.
Bioanalysis has potential in measuring pollutants in ma-
terials to be discharged to the environment. For toxic ma-
terials, the amount of material relative to the biomass of the
test organism must usually be controlled, because most
toxicants exhibit a threshold effect. It is usual to determine
the concentration of material at which some fraction of the
maximal effect (commonly 50 per cent) occurs in a popula-
tion of known and constant biomass. The fact that far
lower concentrations present for a longer time might ulti-
mately produce the same effect does not invalidate this
type of assay, because quantitation is obtained by com-
parison with standard curves. It should, however, be real-
ized that in the presence of detoxification mechanisms, the
assay should be conducted for a period of time at which the
desired effect (such as 50 per cent inhibition) occurs at the
lowest possible concentration.
In assays of materials for which an organism has a natural
or induced requirement, it must first be established that of
all substances which could be present in the sample, onlv
one can produce the response measured. Second, no sub-
stances present should reduce the availability of the ma-
terial. If the first of these conditions is satisfied, the second
can often be approached using a "system of adds" in which
a graded series of concentrations of standard material are
added to the unknown amount of material in the sample.
The intercept of the response curve with the concentration
axis is a measure of the amount present in the sample.
If zero response is at a finite concentration, a biologically
effective threshold concentration (zero) must be used which
has been derived from a separate experimental series in the
same medium devoid of unknown amounts of test material.
BIORESPONSE
Bioassays which measure the biological effect of a sub-
stance or mixture on a single organism or artificial ecosystem
can be used to establish water quality criteria, to monitor
compliance with standards stated in terms of biological
effect, or to measure the relative effects of various materials.
Natural processes of equilibration, chemical degradation,
and physical adsorption are specifically desired, because it
is the biological effect rather than the amount of test material
that is of concern. The observed effect will be determined by
the availability of the material, the rate of formation or
degradation, and the effect of chemical by-products; and
by alterations of the environment caused by addition of the
material. Whether conducted in the laboratory or in the
field, this type of bioassay is performed on time scales vary-
ing from determinations of acute toxicity (commonly 96
hours or less) through determinations of incipient LC50
levels (Sprague 1969,94 197196), and on time scales which
include multiple generation chronic exposures. Each of
these has its own utility and limitations.
Short-term determinations of TLm or TL50 values a
primarily of value in comparing toxicities of a number
formulations which have similar modes of action. They a
also useful in determining the dilution to be employed
long-term, flow-through exposure and in comparii
sensitivities of various life stages of the same organism.
practical terms, each life stage must be considered a physi
logically distinct organism with its own particular enviro
mental requirements: immature stages commonly ha'
quite a different habitat and may have different sensitivit
It has been common practice to use information fro
acute toxicity studies to establish concentrations toleral;
for natural waters. This is done by multiplying the le\
found in the bioassay by some more or less arbitrary "app
cation factor" (Henderson 1957,91 Tarzwell 196297). R
cently, there have been attempts to establish the applicatii
factor experimentally (Mount 1968,92 Brungs 196990). A
plication factors arc discussed in Section III, Freshwat
Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and that discussion is applicah
to the marine system. If, in the process of conducting the
assays, organisms are periodically removed to an unco
taminated medium, the time of exposure which the org
nism can withstand and still survive, should it escape tl
pollutant or should the pollutant degrade rapidly after
single addition, can also be estimated.
Determination of incipient LC50 is a valid measureme
of acute toxicity, because the assay is continued until ma>
mum effect is observed at any given concentration (Spragi
1969,94 1970,96 197196). These bioassays must be conduct.
under conditions of continuous flow, because the degree
response cannot be limited by the absolute amount of to)
cant available in the system or by the relationship betwei
biomass and absolute amount. In practice, the technique
most applicable to compounds which reach equilibriu
rapidly. Otherwise, it takes a long time to achieve maximu
effect at low toxicant levels. Here, too, application factc
are needed to use data from bioassayed concentrations
estimating levels for environmental protection. Theore
cally, application factors account for variations in sensitivi
between the life stage tested and that life stage or develc
mental period during which the organism is most sensiti
to the compound or conditions. Application factors shou
also safely permit a range of naturally-occurring enviro
mental variations that would increase sensitivity.
Long-term bioassay, in which the organism is ke
through at least one complete life cycle under conditions
continuous-flow exposure, is perhaps the closest but me
conservative laboratory approach to estimating enviro
mental hazards. Where a chemical or physical attractii
occurs or where the population is sessile or restricted
hydrographic features, continuous exposure to fresh
added material will be a realistic model. However, whe
the organism might escape in nature, such a captive e
posure will be unrealistic. The experimental conditio
chosen may either be held constant or varied to appro:
-------
Methods of Assessment/235
mate local natural changes or intermittent discharges to be
expected. Adequate modelling of a particular environmental
circumstance often requires varying degrees of delay be-
tween the time of test material addition and exposure of the
organisms.
Duration of chronic toxicity studies is determined by the
life span and reproductive cycle of the organism chosen.
Micro-organisms have relatively short life cycles but may
require several generations to deplete metabolite reserves
and show maximum response. A greater variety of measure-
ments can be used in long-term than in short-term testing.
This variety, together with the longer period available for
response and the certainty of testing the most sensitive life
stage, serves to increase both the sensitivity and relevance
of such tests. Differences in sensitivity between species, that
may be evident in short-term tests, tend to narrow as the
tests approach a full life cycle.
The maintenance of a resident population of sensitive
organisms in an effluent stream or portion of a natural
stream receiving effluent, can create a long-term flow-
through bioassay. This technique is primarily useful as a
verification of safety based on other estimates, but because
the response time may be long, the results are of little use
where rapid feedback of information is essential.
DESIGN OF BIOASSAYS
The bioassay system may be compartmentalized for pur-
poses of design into (1) the substance to be tested, (2) the
environment into which it will be introduced, (3) the orga-
nism (s) which will be exposed to the resultant system, and
(4) the observations to be made. Each affects and is affected
by the others.
The chemical and physical nature of the material to be
tested has a bearing on the way it will distribute in nature
and in the test system—and thus on which organisms will
encounter it and in what form it will be. For example, a
pure substance, highly soluble in water, may be tested for
its effect directly on organisms inhabiting the water column.
A material which precipitates rapidly may be readily
available to organisms which ingest the precipitate and
resolubilize it under conditions prevailing in the digestive
tract. Materials which are only slightly soluble are often
readily available to micro-organisms which have a high
surface-area-to-volume ratio and are capable of taking
up some substances at exceedingly low (10 8 to 10~10 M)
concentrations. A highly hydrophobic material which is
readily adsorbed to sediments or detritus may appear in
free solution to only a limited extent or for a short time and
exert a prolonged direct effect mainly on those organisms
which inhabit sediments or which process sediments or
detritus for food. Valid interpretation of bioassay results
requires sensitive and highly specific analytical chemistry as
part of the procedure. Results obtained for any bioassay
organism are subject to question if anomalous behavior of
the substance tested or the organisms used are subsequently
established.
The organism for bioassay should be chosen on the basis
of the relationship of its life stages to the various toxicant
compartments and information desired. Organisms will be
useful if they are readily available and can be reared and
propagated in the laboratory. The size of the organisms in
relation to available facilities will in part dictate a choice.
All too often, these have been the primary if not the only
considerations. There is a temptation to give priority to or-
ganisms that are available from standard sources with a
known genetic line or from a single clone. This approach is
essential when using bioassay as an analytical tool. How-
ever, it is a distinct liability when performing measurements
of biological effect in natural environmental situations. Such
organisms have necessarily undergone selection for traits
that favor survival in artificial environments with no selec-
tive advantage given to the capacity to adapt to alterations
in those environments. Furthermore, physiologically dis-
tinct races often develop in nature in response to character-
istics of different localities. Maintenance of laboratory
stocks may be necessary, but these stocks should be fre-
quenth renewed from fresh isolates representing the gene
pool and enzymatic adaptations of the inhabitants of the
particular water mass to which recommendations arc to be
applied.
The organisms used should be drawn from those that are
most sensitive or respond most quickly to the substance or
condition being tested. Bioassay s of various life stages of
these sensitive organisms are desirable. It is especially im-
portant that life stages to be tested include those that will
most probably encounter the test material as it is expected
to be found in the environment, and that the test organisms
be acclimated to the test system until the characteristics to
be measured become constant.
Some of the foregoing recommendations for selection as-
sume that the developmental biology of the test organism is
known. This is not often so in marine biology. Organisms
should not be excluded from consideration if their absence
would leave no representatives of local species which tolerate
the extremes in ranges of natural environmental stress or
which fill an important ecological niche.
Once an understanding of both the test material and the
bioassay organism is established, a test system usually can
be designed that will permit the organism to encounter the
test material under circumstances approximating those in
nature. In some cases it will be necessary to go to the natural
water system or to impoundments, live cars, or plastic bags
in order to obtain a workable approximation of environ-
mental exposure. Care should be taken that the physical
system does not interfere with the distribution of the test
material or the behavior of the organism. The system se-
lected should reflect in all important aspects the habitat to
which the test organism has become adapted. Factors of im-
portance include feeding behavior, opportunity for diurnal
-------
236/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
behavior alterations, emergence, salinity variations, turb-
idity, water movement, and other factors, depending on the
organisms being studied.
The response or responses to be observed during long-
term testing must be carefully chosen. A prime requirement
is that the response being measured bear a demonstrable
and preferably quantitative relationship to the survival and
productivity of the test organism or of an organism which is
directly or indirectly dependent on its activities. For ex-
ample, a correlation may exist between the level of a test
material and the amount of an enzyme present in some tis-
sue. This is clear evidence that the organism's pattern of
energy utilization has changed, but it should be demon-
strated that the change in enzyme level is correlated with or
predictive of changes in growth, behavior, reproduction,
quality of flesh, or some other manifestation to provide an
immediately meaningful interpretation.
The degree to which a response can be reported in quan-
titative terms affects its usefulness. Behavior, because of a
high degree of variability, is much more difficult to express
numerically than growth; and growth measurements are
usually disruptive of the system or destructive of the orga-
nism. A balance must be sought for each system so that
enough organisms and replicate treatments can be used to
assure an acceptable level of statistical confidence in the
results. Considerations of equipment required, rapidity,
and simplicity of measurements, the inherent (control)
variability of the characteristic being measured, and possible
interference with the measurement by the substance being
tested must enter into the choice of measurements and their
frequency.
Biological characteristics that can be measured are in-
numerable, but some ma> be singled out as being more
basic than others. When a given characteristic reflects many
diverse processes, it is most useful in interpreting results in
terms of environmental protection. Thus, measurements ol
reproductive success, growth, life span, adaptation to en-
vironmental stress, feeding behavior, morphology, respira-
tion, histology, genetic alterations, and biochemical anom-
alies occupy a descending scale in order of the confidence
that can be placed in their interpretation. This is not to say
that profound changes in the structure and function of an
ecosystem cannot result from subtle, prolonged, low in-
tensity effects on some cellular process. The elimination ol
important species by low intensity selective factors is no
less serious than instantaneous death of those species. In a
sense, it is more serious, because it is less likely to be noticed
and traced to its source in time to permit recovery of the
ecosystem.
SUBLETHAL EFFECTS
Many biological effects of pollution may not show up in
the bioassay test for acute toxicity. This would be true if the
effect were slow to develop, or if the effect were to produce
a general debility that might interfere with some of t
normal life functions of the organism rather than killing
directly. Long-term exposure to sublethal concentratk
may be necessary to produce the effect, and evaluation
this type of action is difficult in a laboratory analysis. Th<
are a number of ways in which pollutants might affeci
given population without being lethal to the adult organ!
used in the test such as:
Migrations
Sublethal concentrations may interfere with the norn
migration patterns of organisms. The mechanisms used
orientation and navigation by migrating organisms are t
well known, but in some cases chemotaxis clearly plays
important role. For example, salmon and many otl
anadromous fishes have been excluded from their hoi
streams by pollution, though it is not known whether 1
reason is that a chemical cue has been masked or becai
the general chemical environment of pollution is offens
to the fish.
Behavior
Much of the day-to-day behavior of species may also
mediated by means of chemotaxic responses. The findi
and capture of food or the finding of a mate during t
breeding season would be included in this category of ;
tivity. Again, any pollutant that interfered with the chert
receptors of the organism would interfere with behavio
patterns essential to the survival of the population.
Incidence of Disease
Long-term exposure to sublethal concentrations of pol
tants may make an organism more susceptible to a disea
It is also possible that some pollutants which are organic,
nature may provide an environment suitable for the t
velopment of disease-producing bacteria or viruses. In su
cases, even though the pollutant is not directly toxic to t
adult organism, it could have a profound effect on the pop
lation of the species over a longer period of time.
Life Cycle
The larval forms of many species of organisms are mu
more sensitive to pollution than are the adults, which i
commonly used in the bioassay. In many aquatic spec
millions of eggs are produced and fertilized, but only t<
of the larvae produced need 1o grow to maturity and bre
in order to maintain the standing stock of the species. ?
these species the pre-adult mortality is enormous even unc
the best of natural conditions. Because of an additior
stress on the developing organisms, enough individu
might fail to survive to maintain the population of t
species. Interrupting any stage of the life cycle can be
disastrous for the population as would death of the adu
because of acute toxicity.
-------
Methods of Assessment/'237
Physiological Processes
Interference with various physiological processes, with-
out necessarily causing death in a bioassay test, may also
interfere with the survival of the species. If photosynthesis
of the phytoplankton is inhibited, algal growth will be de-
creased, and the population may be grazed to extinction
without being directly killed by the toxin.
Respiration or various other enzymatic processes might
also be advcrselv affected by sublethal concentrations of
pollutants. The effect of DDT and its decomposition pro-
ducts on the shells of bird eggs is probably the result of
interference with enzyme systems (Ackefors et al. 1970).8S
Mercury is a general protoplasmic poison, but it has its
most damaging effect on the nervous system of mammals.
Genetic Effects
Mam pollutants produce genetic effects that can have
long range significance for the survival of a species. Oil and
other organic pollutants may include both mutagenic and
carcinogenic compounds. Radioactive contamination can
cause mutations directly by the action of the radiation on
the genetic material. From genetic studies in general, it is
known that a large majority of mutations are detrimental
to the survival of the young, and man) are lethal. Little is
known about the intensity or frequency of genetic effects of
pollutants, except for radioactive materials where the muta-
tion rates have been measured in some cases. Induction of
mutation by contaminants should be reviewed in the con-
text of the increase of total mutation from all causes.
Nutrition and Food Chains
Pollutants may interfere with the nutrition of organisms
by affecting the ability of an organism to find its prey, by
interfering with digestion or assimilation of food, or by con-
taminating the prey species so that it is not accepted by the
predator. On the other hand, if predator species are elimi-
nated by pollution, the prey species may have an improved
chance of survival. An example of the latter effect was
shown for the kelp resurgence after the oil spill in Tampico
Bay, California (North 1967).93 The oil killed the sea urchins
which used young, newly developing kelp as food. When the
urchins were killed, the kelp beds developed luxurious
growth within a few months (see p. 258).
Effects on the Ecosystem
The effects of pollution on the aquatic ecosystem are the
most difficult to evaluate and establish. Each environment
is somewhat different, but the species inhabiting any given
environment have evolved over long periods of time, and
each individual species in a community plays its own role.
Any additional stress, whether natural or man-made, ap-
plied to any environment will tend to eliminate some species
leaving only the more tolerant forms to survive. The effect
may be either direct on the species involved or indirect
through the elimination of some species valuable as a food
supply. For some of the species in the system the result may-
be beneficial by the removal of their predators or by stimu-
lated and accelerated growth of their prey.
Food Value for Human Use
Sublethal concentrations of pollutants can so taint sea-
food that it becomes useless as a source of food. Oil can be
ingested by marine organisms, pass through the wall of the
gut, and accumulate in the lipid pool. Blumcr (1971)89
stated that oil in the tissues of shellfish has been shown to
persist for months after an oil spill; the oil-polluted area
was closed for shellfishing for a period of 18 months. Sea-
food may be rendered unfit for human consumption be-
cause of the accumulation of pollutants. California mackeral
and coho salmon from Lake Michigan were condemned
because they contained more DDT than the permissible
amount in human food (5 mg/'kg). Likewise tuna fish and
swordfish were removed from the market, because the
mercury content of the flesh exceeded the allowable con-
centration (0.5 mg/'kg). There was no evidence that these
concentrations had any adverse effect on the fish, or in the
case of mercury that the concentrations in tuna and sword-
fish resulted from pollution; nevertheless their removal
from the market has adversely affected the economics of the
fisheries.
-------
CATEGORIES OF POLLUTANTS
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
An extensive discussion of heat and temperature is pre-
sented in Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life and
Wildlife (pp. 151-171). Although we accept those recom-
mendations concerning temperature, there are certain char-
acteristics of the marine environment that are unique and
require enumeration. Some of the characteristics of the
marine environment have been discussed in the introduction
to this Section showing that the range of variability is
greatest in the estuary, considerably less in the coastal
waters, and even less in the surface waters of the open
ocean; and that conditions in the deep ocean are virtually
constant. Among the most important variables shown in the
changes is temperature, although salinity variations are
equally important under certain conditions.
The seasonal range of temperature variations is greatest
in the temperate regions and becomes less as one approaches
either the tropics or the poles. In the United States, the
maximum seasonal temperature variation is found in the
coastal waters on the southern side of Cape Cod, Massa-
chusetts, where in winter the water may be freezing at
— 2.8 C and in summer the inshore coastal waters reach
temperatures of 23 C, or even 25 C over wide shoal areas.
At the same latitude on the Pacific coast, the water is neither
so cold in the winter nor so warm in the summer. North
of Cape Cod, the water is as cold in the winter time, but it
does not reach as high a summer temperature; and south
of Cape Cod the waters rarely reach a freezing point in
winter.
Hutchins (1947)100 discusses these ranges of variations
and illustrates how they affect geographical distribution of
marine species on the Atlantic European coasts and on the
east and west coasts of the United States. As is obvious from
the above comments, Cape Cod is a geographical boundary
in the summertime but not in winter. Because temperature
can control both the breeding cycle and survival of orga-
nisms, a variety of different geographical distributions can
be dominated by the temperature variations at various
locations along the coast (Hutchins 1947).100
There is increasing pressure to site power plants in the
coastal zone because of the large available supply of water
for cooling purposes. In 1969 there were over 86 fossil fi
power plants in the eastern coastal zones (Sorge 1969)
and 32 on the west coast (Adams 1969).98 In additk
nuclear power plants are in operation, and many more a
planned for siting on the coast in the future. Provided ti-
the temperatures are kept within the limit prescribed
the recommendations and that the recommendations i
mixing zones (pp. 228-232) are complied with, these heat
effluents may have no serious impact on the marine e
vironment. However, organisms passing through the cooli
system of the power plants may be killed either by the dire
effect of temperature, by pressure changes in the system,
by chlorination if it is used to keep the cooling system fr
of attached growth.
In the tropics, disposal of waste heat in the marine e
vironment may be impossible in the summertime. Bad
and Roessler (1972)" discussed the temperature problei
created by the power plants at Turkey Point, near Mian
Florida. Thorhaug et al. (1972)102 showed that tropic
marine organisms live precariously close to their upp
thermal limit and are thus susceptible to the stress of a
ditional thermal effluents. To abide by the temperati,
recommendations in tropical waters, it is generally neo
sary to prohibit discharge of heated effluents during t
summertime.
It is clear from this and from the discussion in Secti
III that additional studies will be needed on the temperati,
tolerances of the species directly involved. Organisms frc
estuaries and marine waters have not been studied
extensively as have freshwater fishes, but some data &
included in the tabular material in the freshwater repo
On the basis of information available at this time, t
marine panel finds that the recommendations in Secti>
III, Freshwater Aquatic Lift; and Wildlife, appear to
valid for the estuarine and marine waters as well (see p
160, 161, 164, 165, and 166-171 of Section III).
INORGANIC CHEMICALS, INCLUDING HEAVY METAL
AND pH
The hazardous and biologically active inorganic chen
cals are a source of both local and world-wide threats
238
-------
Categories of Pollutants/'239
the marine environment. Certain of these chemicals may
pose no immediate danger but may lead to undesirable
long-term changes. Others, such as boron, may pose serious
health hazards and yet have poorly understood biological
effects in the marine environment. Nevertheless, they can
be a significant constituent in certain waste waters and
should be discussed here.
The inorganic chemicals that have been considered in
this study are listed alphabetically in Table IV-2; those
most significant to the protection of the marine environment
are discussed below.
TABLE IV-2—Inorganic Chemicals to be Considered in Water
Quality Criteria for Aquatic Life in the Marine Environment
Elements
Equilibrium species (reaction)
Natural concentration Pollution
msea water"/ig'l categories6
Aluminum
Ammonia
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Cyanide
Fluoride
Gold
Hydrogen Ion (Acids)
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Nickel
Nitrate
Phosphorus
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sulfide
Thallium
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadium
Zinc
AI(OH),, solubility of AhO,, appro*. 300,,g 1
NH,!, NHi+
Sb(OH)r
As 0 is oxidized to HAsO,-
Ba?+
Be'OH) . solubility of BeO approx. 10Mg/l
Bi(OHX solubility of BizOj is unknown (low)
B(OH),, B(OH),-
Br«, HBrO, Br
CdCI' . CdCb, CtfCI - (the last two are probably
the main forms)
Ca^
Cl<>, HCIO
Cn OH) solubility of Cr :0 unknown (low)
Co!+
Cu-'. CuOH , CuHCO *, CuCOi (probably main
torm) CuCI1, complexed also by dissolved
ammo acids
HCN(90';), CN-(10',)
F-(56',), MgF+(50',')
AuCh-
10
0.45
2.6
20
0.0006
0.02
4.5X10'
6.7X10"
0.02
4.1X10=
0.04
0.4
1
1340
.01-2
HCI+HCOr^HsO+Cr+CCh pH=8 (alk=0.0024 M)
H2SO,+2HC03- '- *2H!0+SrW-+2CO!
Fei OH) solubility of FeOOH approx. 5 /ij/l
Pb5+, PbOH+, PbHCO,+, PbCOj, PbS04, PbCI+
(probabiy mam form)
Mg«
Mn«
HgClj, HgClr, HgCU!~ (mam form)
MoOi=-
Ni'+
NOr
Red phosphorus reacts slowly to phosphate
HsPOrandHPOr^-
SeO,2-
SI(OH),, SIO(OH)r
AgCb-
S2~~
TI +
Ti(OH)i, solubility of TiO- unknown (low)
U(h(CO,),,<-
VO..OH-
Zn2+, ZnOH+, ZnCO^, ZnCI+ (probably mam
form)
10
0 02
1.3X10"
2
0.1
10
7
6.7X102
0.45
3X10!
0.3
0.1
2
3
2
2
IV c
IV c
IV c?
Me
IV c
IV c?
IV c?
IV c
IV c
lie
IV c
IV c
We?
IV c
IV c
Illc
IV c
IV c
Illc
IV c
la
IV c
IV c
Ib
IV c
Illc
Illc
Illc?
IV c
Illc
He
Illc
IV b?
Illc
IV a?
Illc
" These values are approximate but they are representative for low levels in unpolluted sea water
*1-IV order of decreasing menace, a-worldwide, b-regional, c-local (coastal, bays estuaries, single dumpings).
? indicates some question of the ranking as a menace and/or whether the pollutional effect is local, regional, or world-
wide.
Adapted and modified from the Report of the Seminar on Methods of Detection, Measurement and Monitoring of
Pollutants in the Marine Environment. Food and Agriculture Organization 19711".
Forms of Chemical and Environmental Interactions
The form in which a chemical appears in the environment
depends on the chemical and physical characteristics of the
element, its stability, and the characteristics of the environ-
ment in which it is found. An element that is easily reduced
or oxidized will undergo rapid changes, especially in sedi-
ments that alternate between oxidized and reduced states;
while an element that is highly stable, such as gold, will
retain its elemental identity in virtually all environmental
conditions. Most elements are found in combined states,
such as ore which can be a sulfide or a complex mineral
containing oxygen, silica, and sulfur.
Certain elements are released into the environment by
the processing of ores. Cadmium, for example, is not found
uncombined in nature to any large extent but is a com-
mercial by-product of zinc smelting. Other metallic ele-
ments can be brought into solution by the action of bacteria.
Contamination from base metals may arise in abandoned
mines, where tailings or slag heaps are attacked by physical
and chemical weathering processes and bacteria to allow
leaching of metallic ions into receiving waters. In strip
mining, sulfides are oxidized to produce sulfuric acid, which
may be a pollutant in itself or help to bring certain elements
into solution.
The action of bacteria also transforms metals in another
way. In anaerobic sediments, bacteria can convert in-
organic metallic mercury into methyl mercury compounds.
Such organo-metallic complexes are highly toxic to mam-
mals, including man.
Biological Effects
Acute toxicity data for inorganic chemical compounds
under controlled laboratory conditions, as represented for
example by 96-hour LC50, are presented in Appendix III,
Table 1, (pp. 449-460). Because of the lack of marine data,
most of the information is based on freshwater bioassay
data, which provide some measure of acute toxicity for the
marine environment as well.
The concentrations of elements at which sublethal,
chronic effects become manifest are also important. Sub-
lethal concentrations of pollutants can have serious conse-
quences in estuaries where migrating anadromous fishes
linger to become acclimatized to changing salinities. Al-
though the fish may not be killed outright, the stress of
the sublethal concentrations may cause biochemical and
physiological deficiencies that could impair life processes
of the fish, preventing migrating adults from reaching their
spawning grounds or reproducing. Pippy and Hare (1969)247
suggested that heavy metals put fish under stress and may
lead to infestation by diseases. Appendix III, Table 2
(pp. 461-468), summarizes data on the sublethal chronic
effects of inorganic chemicals on fish and other aquatic
organisms. As in Appendix III, Table 1, information on
freshwater organisms has been included because of the
-------
240/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
paucity of tests in sea water. There is a clear need foi
toxicological work on the sublethal effects of pollutants on
marine organisms.
At low concentrations, many elements are necessary to
life processes, while at higher concentrations the same
elements may be toxic. The effects of long-term exposure
to low levels of most chemicals, singly or in combination.
arc generally unknown.
Laboratory bioassays are conducted under controlled
conditions usually with single chemicals. Such tests provide
toxicological information that must precede studies with
mixtures closer to actual conditions. These mixtures must
reflect the conditions and the composition of water in specific-
areas of discharge, because substances are rarely isolated
when found in the environment. The probabilities of syner-
gism and antagonism are enhanced by increased complexity
of effluents. Synergism and antagonism in the environment
are poorly understood. Copper is more toxic in soft water
than in hard water where the calcium and the magnesium
salts contributing to water hardness tend to limit or an-
tagonize copper toxicity. Arsenic renders selenium less toxic
and has been added to feeds for cattle and poultry in areas
high in selenium. As examples of synergism, copper is
considerably more toxic in the presence of mercury, zinc,
or cadmium salts (LaRoche 1972),211 and cadmium makes
zinc and cyanide more toxic. Synergism or antagonism is
expected to occur more frequently in water containing
numerous chemical compounds than in one with few such
compounds. Therefore, a complex chemical medium such
as sea water can increase the probability of synergism or
antagonism when a pollutant is introduced.
The effects of pollutants can be considered in terms of
their biological end points. Such irreversible effects as
carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and teratogenesis provide
identifiable end points in terms of biological consequences
of pollutants. The effects of substances may vary with
species or with stages of the life cycle (See Methods of
Assessment, p. 233).
A distinction must be made between the effects of pol-
lutants harmful to the quality of an organism as a product
for human consumption and those harmful to the organism
itself. While the levels of mercury that render fish unac-
ceptable for marketing do not, on the basis of the limited
information available at this time, appear to have any
adverse effect on the fish themselves, they cause condem-
nation of the product for human consumption. This may
also be true for other elements that lend themselves to bio-
accumulation. Elemental phosphorus leads to illness and
eventual mortality of fish themselves (Jangaard 1970).191
At the concentrations of phosphorus found in the liver and
other vital organs, the fish may have been toxic to human
beings as well. The recommendations for the elements sub-
ject to biological accumulation in the marine environment
must be set at a low level to protect the organisms. There
is also need to establish recommendations based on human
health, and a need to protect the economic value of fisheri
affected by accumulations of some of these elements.
Data on the accumulation of inorganic chemicals I
aquatic organisms are given in Appendix III, Table
(pp. 469-480). The maximum permissible concentratio
of inorganic chemicals in food and water, as prescribed \
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and by drinkir
water standards of various agencies, are given in Append
III. Table 4 (pp. 481-482).
The elements essential to plant and animal nutrition
the marine environments ru.ve been included in Tab
IV-2. They constitute some of the ordinary nutrients, e.s
silicon and nitrate, as well a? the micro-constituents, sue
as iron, molybdenum, and cobalt. Although it is recognize
that these elements are required for algal nutrition. 01
must not be caught in the misconception that "if a lilt
is good, a lot is better."
Metals
Metals reach the marine environment through a varie
of routes, including natural weathering as well as municip
and industrial discharges. Metals arc particularly susceptib
to concentration by invertebrates. Vinogradox's (1953);
classic work on the accumulation of metals by organisi
in the marine environment has been expanded in mo
recent treatises (Fukai and Meinke 1962,lii(i Polikarpe
1966,-4!) Bowen et al. 1971,1"9 Lowman et al. 1971).221
Metals present in the marine environment in an a
similable form usually undergo bioaccumulation throm
the food chain. Thus, elements present in low concentratio
in the water may be accumulated many thousandfold
certain organisms. Established maximum permissible lev
-------
Categories of Pollutants 7241
important behavioral reactions stimulated by low concen-
trations of some of the metals.
In the following review of different inorganic constituents,
the total amount of each element is considered in the dis-
cussion and recommendation, unless otherwise stated.
Whereas some of (he methods of analysis for constituents
recommended for fresh water and waste water can also be
used in marine environments, the interference from salt
demands other specialized techniques for many elements
(Strickland and Parsons l%8,'->7! Food and Agriculture
Organization 19711114).
Not only has the recent literature been reviewed in this
examination of the properties and effects of inorganic con-
stituents, but various bibliographic and other standard
references have been liberally consulted (The Merck Index
I960.--'' McKcc and Wolf 1963,22'1 Wilber 1969.''9'1 XRC
Committee on Oceanography 1971,237 U.S. Department of
the Interior Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration 1968,2S7 Canada Interdepartmental Committee on
Water 1971l;i('j.
Alkalinity or Buffer Capacity, Carbon Dioxide, and pH
The chemistry of sen water differs from that of fresh
water largely because of the presence of salts, the major
constituents of \\ hich are present in sea water in constant
proportion. 'I he weak-acid salts, such as the carbonates,
bicarbonates, and borates, contribute to the high buffering
capacity or alkalinity oi sea water. This buffering power
renders many wastes of a highly acidic or alkaline nature,
which are often highly toxic in fresh water, comparatively
innocuous after mixing with sea water.
The complex carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate sys-
tem in (he sea is described in standard textbooks (Sverdrup
et al. 1946,276 Skirrow 196521'1') Alkalinity and the hydrogen-
ion concentration, as expressed by pH (Strickland and
Parsons 1968),27" are the best measure of the effects of
highly acidic or highly alkaline wastes.
European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission
(1969)lr's and Kemp (1971)2"2 reviewed the pli require-
ments of freshwater fishes. Because of the large difference
in buffer capacities, techniques for measurement and defi-
nitions of alkalinity are quite different for marine and fresh
waters The normal range of pH encountered in fresh water
is considerably wider than that found in sea water, and for
this reason, freshwater communities are adapted to greater
pH extremes than are marine communities.
Sea water normally varies in pH from surface to bottom
because of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate equi-
libria. Photosynthetic and respiratory processes also con-
tribute to variations in pH. At the sea surface, the pH
normally varies from 8.0 to 8.3, depending on the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the
salinity and temperature of the water. A large uptake of
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis in the euphotic zone
leads to high pH values exceeding 8.5 in exceptional cases.
Release of carbon dioxide during decomposition in inter-
mediate and bottom waters results in a lowering of pH.
In shallow, biologically-active waters, particularly in warm
tropical and subtropical areas, there is a large diurnal
variation in pH with values ranging from a high of 9.5 in
the daytime to a low of 7.3 at night or in (he early morning.
The toxicity of most pollutants increases as the pH in-
creases or decreases from neutral (pH 7). This is true for
complex mixtures, such as pulp mill effluents (Howard
and Walclen 1965),ls;i for constituents which dissociate at
different pH (e.g., H2S and HCN), and for heavy metals.
The toxicity of certain complexes can change drastically
with pH. Nickel cyanide exhibits a thousandfold increase
in toxicity with a 1.5 unit decrease in pH from 8.0 to 6.5
(Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center 1953,"5
Doudoroff et al. 1966Ul2). pH may also determine the
degree of dissociation of salts, some of which are more toxic
in the molecular form than in the ionic form. Sodium
sulfidc is increasingly toxic with decreasing pH as S°" and
HS- ions are converted to HUS (Jones 1948).200 The toler-
ance of fish to low concentrations of dissolved oxygen, high
temperatures, cations, and anions varies with pH. There-
fore, non-injurious pH deviations and ranges depend on
local conditions.
There are large fluctuations in natural pi I in the marine
environment. Changes in pH indicate that the buffering
capacity of the sea water has been altered and the carbon
dioxide equilibria have shifted. The time required for mixing
of an effluent with a large volume of sea water is exceedingly
important. When the pH of the receiving sea water under-
goes an increase or decrease, its duration can be important
to the survival of organisms. At present, there are not
sufficient data with which to assign time; limits to large
departures of pH.
Fish tolerate moderately large pH changes in the middle
of their normal pH ranges. Small pH changes at the limits
of their ranges and also in the presence of some pollutants
can have significant deleterious effects.
Plankton and benthic invertebrates are probably more
sensitive than fish to changes in pH. Oysters appear to
perform best in brackish waters when the pH is about 7.0.
At a pH of 6.5 and lower, the rate of pumping decreases
notably, and the time the shells remain open is reduced
by 90 per cent (Loosanoff and Tommers 1948,219 Korringa
19522"7). Oyster larvae are impaired at a pH of 9.0 and
killed at 9.1 in a few hours (Gaarder 1932).167 The upper
pH limit for crabs is 10.2 (Meinck et al. 1956).227
Recommendation
Changes in sea water pH should be avoided. The
effects of pH alteration depend on the specific con-
ditions. In any case, the normal range of pH in
either direction should not be extended by more
than 0.2 units. Within the normal range, the pH
should not vary by more than 0.5 pH units. Ad-
-------
242/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
dition of foreign material should not drop the pH
below 6.5 or raise it above 8.5.
Aluminum
Aluminum, one of the most abundant elements in the
earth's crust, does not occur in its elemental form in nature.
It is found as a constituent in all soils, plants, and animal
tissues. Aluminum is an amphoteric metal; it may be in
solution as a weak acid, or it may assume the form of a
flocculent hydroxide, depending on the pH. In the alumi-
num sulfate form (alum), it is used in water treatment as a
coagulant for suspended solids, including colloidal materials
and microorganisms.
Aluminum may be adsorbed on plant organisms, but
very little ingested by animals is absorbed through the
alimentary canal. Goldberg et al. (1971)172 reported an
aluminum concentration factor for phytoplankton (Sar-
gassum) ash of 65 and for zooplankton ash of 300. However,
Lowman et al. (1971),221 in their compilation of concen-
tration factors for various elements, noted that aluminum
was reported to be concentrated 15,000 times in benthic
algae, 10,000 times in plankton (phyto- and zoo-), 9,000
times in the soft parts of molluscs, 12,000 times in crustacean
muscle, and 10,000 times in fish muscle.
In fresh water, the toxicity of aluminum salts varies with
hardness, turbidity, and pH. Jones (1939)198 found the
lethal threshold of aluminum nitrate for stickleback
(Gasterosteus aculeatus) in very soft water to be 0.07 mg/1.
Using tap water with the same compound tested on the
same species, Anderson (1948)112 reported a toxic threshold
of less than 5X10~5 molar aluminum chloride (1.35 mg/1
Al). Average survival times of stickleback in different con-
centrations of aluminum in the nitrate form have been
reported as one day at 0.3 mg/1 and one week at 0.1 mg/1
(Doudoroff and Katz 1953).160 It was noted by the same
authors that 0.27 mg/1 aluminum in the nitrate form did
not apparently harm young eels in 50 hours' exposure.
Because of the slightly basic nature of sea water, alumi-
num salts tend to precipitate in the marine environment.
These salts have exhibited comparatively low toxicities with
96-hour LCSO's of 17.8 mg/1 for redfish tested in sea water
with aluminum chloride (Pulley 1950).252 Concentrations
of 8.9 mg/1 of aluminum (from AlCls) did not have a lethal
effect on marine fish and oysters tested (Cynoscion nebulosus,
Sciaenops oscellatus, Fundulus grandis, Fundulus sitmlis, Cypnndon
variegatus, Ostrea virginica) (Pulley 1950).262 The floes of
precipitated aluminum hydroxide may affect rooted
aquatics and invertebrate benthos. Wilder (1952)300 noted
no significant effect on lobsters (Homarus americanus) of a
tank lined with an aluminum alloy (Mn, 1 to 1.5 per cent;
Fe, 0.7 per cent; Si, 0.6 per cent; Cu, 0.2 per cent, and Zn,
0.1 per cent).
Aluminum hydroxide can have an adverse effect on
bottom communities. Special precautions should be taken
to avoid disposal of aluminum-containing wastes in water
supporting commercial populations of clams, scallop;
oysters, shrimps, lobsters, crabs, or bottom fishes.
Recommendation
Because aluminum tends to be concentrated b
marine organisms, it is recommended that a
application factor of 0,01 be applied to marin
96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organism
most sensitive to aluminum. On the basis of dat
available at this time, it is suggested that concen
trations of aluminum exceeding 1.5 mg/1 consti
tute a hazard in the marine environment, an
levels less than 0.2 mg/1 present minimal risk c
deleterious effects.
Ammonia
Most of the available information on toxicity of ammoni
is for freshwater organisms. For this reason, the reader
referred to the discussion of ammonia in Section III o
Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife (p. 186). Because (
the slightly higher alkalinity of sea water and the largt
proportion of un-ionized ammonium hydroxide, ammoni
may be more toxic in sea water than in fresh watt
(Doudoroff and Katz 1961).I51 Holland et al. (I960)1
noted a reduction in growth and a loss of equilibrium i
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus Ishawytscha) at concentratior
3.5 to 10 mg/1 of ammonia. Dissolved oxygen and carbo
dioxide decrease the toxicity of ammonia (U.K. Depari
ment of Science and Research 1961).284 Lloyd and Or
(1969),21V in their studies on (he effect of un-ionized air
monia at a pH of 8 to 10, found 100 per cent mortalit
with 0.44 mg/1 NH3 in 3 hours for rainbow trout (Salrr,
gairdnen). This confirmed earlier results of 100 per cer
mortality in 24 hours at 0.4 ing/1. The toxicity increase
with pH between 7.0 and 8.2.
Recommendation
It is recommended that an application factor o
0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for th
appropriate organisms most sensitive to ammonia
On the basis of freshwater data available at thi
time, it is suggested that concentrations of un
ionized ammonia equal to or exceeding 0.4 mg/
constitute a hazard to the marine biota, and level
less than 0.01 mg/1 present minimal risk of dele
terious effects.
Antimony
Antimony occurs chiefly as sulfide (stibnite) or as th<
oxides cervantite (Sb2O4) and valentinite (Sb2O3) and i
used for alloys and other metallurgical purposes. It ha
also been used in a variety of medicinal preparations am
in numerous industrial applications. Antimony salts an
used in the fireworks, rubber, textile, ceramic, glass anc
paint industries.
-------
Categories of Pollutants/243
Few of the salts of antimony have been tested on fish in
bioassays, particularly in sea water. However, antimony
potassium tartrate ("tartar emetic") gave a 96-hour LC50
as antimony of 20 mg/1 in soft water and 12 mg/1 in hard
water (Tarzwell and Henderson 1956,277 I960278). Cellular
division of green algae was hindered at 3.5 mg/1, and
movement of Daphnia was retarded at 9 mg/1 (Bringmann
and Kuhn 1959a).131 Antimony trichloride, used in acid
solution as a mordant for patent leather and in dyeing, was
examined in exploratory tests on fathead minnows
(Pimephales promelas) and gave a 96-hour LC50 as antimony
of 9 mg/1 in soft water and 17 mg/1 in hard water (Tarzwell
and Henderson I960).278 Applegate et al. (1957)114 reported
that rainbow trout (Salmo gmrdneri), bluegill sunfish (Lepomis
macrochirus), and sea lamprey (Pertomyzon marinus) were un-
affected by 5 mg/1 of SbCl3 or SbCl5 in Lake Huron water
at 13 C, saturated with dissolved oxygen, and pH 7.5 to 8.2.
Jernejcic (1969)193 noted that as little as 1.0 mg/1 of anti-
mony in the form of tartar emetic caused projectile vomiting
in large mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides).
Antimony can be concentrated by various marine forms
to over 300 times the amount present in sea water (Goldberg
1957,17' Noddack and Noddack 1939240).
Recommendation
Because of the hazard of antimony poisoning to
humans and the possible concentration of anti-
mony by edible marine organisms, it is recom-
mended that an application factor of 0.02 be ap-
plied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the ap-
propriate organisms most sensitive to antimony.
On the basis of data available at this time, it is
suggested that concentrations of antimony equal
to or exceeding 0.2 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the
marine environment. There are insufficient data
available at this time to recommend a level that
would present minimal risk of deleterious effects.
Arsenic
Arsenic occurs in nature mostly as arsenides or pyrites.
It is also found occasionally in the elemental form. Its
consumption in the U.S. in 1968 amounted to 25,000 tons
as AS2O3 (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Mines 1969).289 Arsenic is used in the manufacture of glass,
pigments, textiles, paper, metal adhesives, ceramics, li-
noleum, and mirrors (Sullivan 1969),274 and its compounds
are used in pesticides, wood preservatives, paints, and
electrical semiconductors. Because of its poisonous action
on microorganisms and lower forms of destructive aquatic
organisms, it has been used in wood preservatives, paints,
insecticides, and herbicides. Sodium arsentite has been used
for weed control in lakes and in electrical semiconductors.
In small concentrations, arsenic is found naturally in
some bodies of water. In its different forms, including its
valence states, arsenic varies in toxicity. Trivalent arsenic
is considerably more toxic than the pentavalent species in
the inorganic form. It is acutely toxic to invertebrates and
for this reason has found application in the control of
Teredo and other woodborers in the AS+3 form. Arsenious
trioxide (As2O3) has been used for control of the shipworm
Bankia setacia. In the arscnate form (As+5), it is of relatively
low toxicity, Daphnia being just immobilized at 18 to 31
mg/1 sodium arsenate, or 4.3 to 7.5 mg/1 as arsenic, in
Lake Erie water (Anderson 1944,110 1946111). The lethal
threshold of sodium arsenate for minnows has been reported
as 234 mg/1 as arsenic at 16 to 20 C (Wilber 1969).299
Arsenic is normally present in sea water at concentrations
of 2 to 3 Mg/1 and tends to be accumulated by oysters and
other molluscan shellfish (Sautet et al. 1964,268 Lowman
et al. 1971221). Wilber (1969)299 reported concentrations of
100 mg/kg in shellfish. Arsenic is a cumulative poison and
has long-term chronic effects on both aquatic organisms
and on mammalian species. A succession of small doses may
add up to a final lethal dose (Buchanan 1962).136 The acute
effects of arsenic and its compounds on aquatic organisms
have been investigated, but little has been done on the sub-
lethal chronic effects.
Surber and Meehan (1931)276 found that fish-food orga-
nisms generally can withstand concentrations of approxi-
mately 1.73 mg/1 of arsenious trioxide in sodium arsenite
solution. Meinck et al. (1956)227 reported that arsenic con-
centrations were toxic at 1.1 to 2.2 mg/1 to pike perch
(Stizostedion vitreum) in 2 days, 2.2 mg/1 to bleak in 3 days,
3.1 mg/1 to carp (Cynnus carpio) in 4 to 6 days and to eels
in 3 days, and 4.3 mg/1 to crabs in 11 days.
Recommendation
Because of the tendency of arsenic to be concen-
trated by aquatic organisms, it is recommended
that an application factor of 0.01 be applied to
marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate
organisms most sensitive to arsenic. On the basis
of freshwater and marine toxicity data available,
it is suggested that concentrations of arsenic equal
to or exceeding 0.05 mg/1 constitute a hazard in
the marine environment, and levels less than 0.01
mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects.
Barium
Barium comes largely from ores (BaSO4, BaCO3). It is
being used increasingly in industry. The U.S. consumption
in 1968 was 1.6 million tons, a growth of 78 per cent in
20 years (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Mines 1969).289 Barium is used in a variety of industrial
applications, including paper manufacturing, fabric printing
and dyeing, and synthetic rubber production.
All water- or acid-soluble barium compounds are poi-
sonous. However, in sea water the sulfate and carbonate
present tend to precipitate barium. The concentration of
barium in sea water is generally accepted at about 20 pig/1
-------
/Section IT—-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Goldberg ct al. 1971),172 although it has been reported as
low as 6.2 pig/I (Bowcn 1956).128 \Volgernuth and Broecker
(1970)303 reported a range of 8 to 14 pig/I in the Atlantic
and 8 to 31 pig /! in the Paeific, with the lower values in
surface waters. Barium ions are thought to be rapidly
precipitated or removed from solution by adsorption and
sedimentation.
Bijan and Deschiens (1956)123 reported that 10 to 15
mg/1 of barium chloride were lethal to an aquatic plant
and two species of snails. Bioassays with barium chloride
showed that a 72-hour exposure to 50 mg/1 harmed the
nervous system of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutth) and
158 mg 1 killed 90 per cent of the test species (ORSANCO
I960).24'"' Barium can be concentrated in goldfish (Carassms
auratus) by a factor of 150 (Templeton 1958).279 Soviet
marine radioactivity studies showed accumulation of radio-
active barium in organs, bones, scales, and gills of fish
from the Northeast Pacific (Moiseev and Kardashev
196423n). Lowman et al. (1971)22! listed a concentration
factor for barium of 17,000 in phytoplankton, 900 in zoo-
plankton, and 8 in fish muscle.
In view of the widespread use of barium, the effects of
low closes of this element and its compounds on marine
organisms under different environmental conditions should
be determined. Disposal of barium-containing wastes into
waters when precipitates could affect rooted aquatics and
benthic invertebrates should be avoided.
Recommendation
Because of the apparent concentration of barium
by aquatic organisms and the resultant human
health hazard, it is recommended that an appli-
cation factor of 0.05 be applied to marine 96-hour
LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most
sensitive to barium. On the basis of data available
at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of
barium equal to or exceeding 1.0 mg/1 constitute
a hazard in the marine environment, and levels
less than 0.5 mg/1 present minimal risk of dele-
terious effects.
Beryllium
Beryllium is found mainly in the mineral beryl and is
almost nonexistent in natural waters. Its concentration in
sea water is 6XIO~' pig/1. Beryllium is used in a number of
manufacturing processes, in electroplating, and as a catalyst
in organic chemical manufacture. It has also been used
experimentally in rocket fuels and in nuclear reactors
(Council on Environmental Quality 1971).144 In 1968, the
U.S. consumption of beryllium was 8,719 tons, a 500 per
cent increase over 1948 (U.S. Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Mines 1969).289
Beryllium has been shown to inhibit photosynthesis in
terrestrial plants (Bollard and Butler 1966).127 It would be
of interest to know if there is any inhibition of photo-
synthesis by beryllium compounds in the marine environ
ment.
Beryllium chloride and nil rate are highly soluble ii
water, and the sulfate is moderately so. The carbonate am
hydroxide are almost insoluble in cold water. Toxicity test
gave a 96-hour LC50 for beryllium chloride of 0.15 mg/
as beryllium for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) i
soft water; 15 mg/1 for the same species in hard wate
(Tarzwcll and Henderson I960);278 and 31.0 mg/1 fo
Fundulus heterochtus (Jackim et al. 1970).190
Beryllium has been reported to be concentrated 1001
times in marine plants and animals (Goldberg et al. 1971).i:
Recommendation
In the absence of data specifically related ti
effects of beryllium on marine organisms, and be
cause of its accumulation by marine organism
and its apparent toxicity to humans, it is recom
mended that an application factor of 0.01 be ap
plied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropri
ate organisms most sensitive to beryllium. On th
basis of data available for hard fresh water, it i
suggested that concentrations of beryllium equa
to or exceeding 1.5 mg/1 constitute a hazard t<
marine organisms, and levels less than 0.1 mg/
present minimal risk of deleterious effects.
Bismuth
Bismuth is used in the manufacture of bismuth salts
fusible alloys, electrical fuses, low-melting solders, am
fusible boiler plugs, and in tempering baths for steel, ii
"silvering" mirrors, and in dental work. Bismuth salts an
used in analytical chemical laboratories and common!1
formulated in pharmaceuticals.
The concentration of bismuth in sea water is low, abou
0.02 ptg/lj probably because of the insolubility of its salts
It is unknown how much bismuth actually gets into the se;
from man-made sources, but the quantity is probably small
The total U.S. production in 1969 as subcarbonali
(Bi2O2CO3)2-H2O was 57 short tons (U.S. Department o
Commerce 1971).285
There are no bioassay data on which to base recommeri
dations for bismuth in the marine environment.
Boron
Boron is riot found in its elemental form in nature; i
normally occurs in mineral deposits as sodium boratc
(borax) or calcium borate (colemanite). The concentrator
of boron in sea water is 4.5 rag/1 as one of the 8 rnajoi
constituents in the form of borate. Boron has long beer
used in metallurgy to harden other metals. It is now beint
used in the elemental form as a neutron absorber in nucleai
installations.
Available data on toxicity of boron to aquatic organism;
are from fresh water (Wurtz 1945,306 Turnbull et al. 1954,28
-------
Categories of Pollutants/245
LeGlcrc and Dcvlaminck 1955,214 \Vallen et al. 1957,2%
LeClerc I960213). Boric acid at a concentration of 2000
mg/1 showed no effect on one trout and one rudd (Scardimus
erythrtiphthalmus)', at 5000 mg, 1 it caused a discoloration of
the skin of the trout, and at 80,000 mg/1 the trout became
immobile and lost its balance in a few minutes (\Vurtz
1945).WMl The minimum lethal close for minnows exposed to
boric acid at 20 C for 6 hours was reported to be 18,000
to 19,000 mg/1 in distilled water and 19,000 to 19,500 mg 1
in hard water (LeClerc and Devlaminck 1955,211 LeClerc
I960213). Testing mosquito fish (Ganibusia affmis) at 20 to
26 C and a pH range of 5.4 to 9.1, Wallen et al. (1957)MC
established 96-hour LC50's of 5,600 mg 1 for boric acid and
3,600 mg 1 for sodium borate.
Since the toxicity is slightly lower in hard watei than in
distilled water, it is anticipated that boric acid and borates
would be less toxic to marine aquatic life than to fresh\\ater
organisms. In the absence of sea water bioassay data, an
estimate of 500 mg 1 of boron as boric acid and 250 mg 1
as sodium borate is considered hazardous to marine ani-
mals, based on freshwater data (\Vallen et al. I957).29C
Concentrations of 50 mg/l and 25 mg 1, respectively, are
expected to have minimal effects on marine fauna
An uncertainty exists concerning the effect of boron on
marine vegetation. In view of harm that can be caused to
terrestrial plants by boron in excess of 1 mg I (\\ilber
1969),2" special precautions should be taken to maintain
boron at normal levels near eel grass (^osleia), kelp (Macro-
cystic), and other seaweed beds to minimize damage to
these plants.
Recommendation
On the basis of data available at this time, it is
suggested that concentrations of boron equal to or
exceeding 5.0 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the
marine environment, and levels less than 5.0 mg/1
present minimal risk of deleterious effects. An
application factor of 0.1 is recommended for boron
compounds applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data
for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to
boron.
Bromine
In concentrated form, bromine is a strong oxidizing agent
and will attack all metals and organic materials. It is one
of the major constituents in sea water, present at about
67 mg 1 in bromatc, and is commercially extracted from the
sea.
Bromine is used medicinally and for sterilization of
swimming pools. It is also used in the preparation of dye-
stuffs and anti-knock compounds for gasolines. Molecular
bromine may be discharged in effluents from salt works and
certain chemical industries. Bromination of certain organic
substances, such as phenols and amines, may impart
offensive taste and make waters more toxic to aquatic
organisms.
Kott et al. (1966)'~os found that Chlorella pyrenuulosa, when
exposed to 0.42 mg 1 bromine for 4 days, \\ere reduced in
concentration from 2,383 cells/mm2 to 270 cells, but re-
mained virtually unchanged at 0.18 mg 1 bromine (2,383
cells, mm2 in controls compared to 2,100 cells, nun2 in the
exposed sample).
At concentrations of 10 mg 1 in soft water, bromine killed
Daphnia magna (Ellis 1937),K)l' and at 20 mg 1 in water of
18 to 23 C, goldfish (Cata^ius auiatus) were killed (Jones
1957).-01 A violent irritant response in marine fish was
observed at 10 mg 1 bromine, but no such acti\ ity was
perceived at 1 mg 1 (Hiatt et al. 1953).1M
The salts of bromine are relati\ely innocuous. The,
threshold of immobilization for Daphnia magna was 210
mg 1 of sodium bromate (NaBrOs) and 8200 mg '] of
sodium bromide (XaBr) (Anderson 1946)."1
Recommendation
It is recommended that free (molecular) bromine
in the marine environment not exceed 0.1 mg/1
and that ionic bromine in the form of bromate be
maintained below 100 mg/1.
Cadmium
U S. consumption of cadmium was 6,662 short tons in
1968 (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines
1969).2h<) These quantities indicate that cadmium might be
a significant pollutant.
Pure cadmium is not found in commercial quantities in
nature. It is obtained as a by-product of smelting zinc.
Cadmium salts in high concentrations have been found in a
Missouri spring originating from a mine (up to 1,000 mg 'ml
cadmium) (ORSAXCO 1955),-11 and up to 50 to 170
mg kg of cadmium are found in superphosphate fertilizers
(Athanassiaclis 1969)."" Cadmium is also present in some
pesticides. It is being used in increasing amounts by in-
dustry (Council on Environmental Quality 1971).'" Water-
carrying pipes are also a source of cadmium (Schroeder
1970)2.vi as is fooc| (Nilsson 1969).1'1'9 Cadmium is present
in most drainage waters (Kroner and Kopp 1965)2"9 and
may be contributing substantially to the cadmium present
in inshore coastal waters. It is not known, however, whether
man's input has resulted in higher levels of cadmium in
estuarine or coastal waters. In sea water, cadmium is
generally present at about 0.1 /ug '1 (Goldberg et al. 1971).m
Cadmium pollution resulting in the "Itai-itai" disease in
the human population has been documented (Yamagata
and Shigcmatsu 1970).™ Schroeder et al. (1967)2"" have
found that oysters may concentrate cadmium from very
low levels in ambient water. Cadmium concentrations in
some marine plants and animals have been given by Mullin
and Riley (1956).233
Concern exists that cadmium may enter the diet, like
-------
246/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
mercury, through seafood. Cadmium, like mercury, could
conceivably form organic compounds which might be highly
toxic or lead to mutagenic or teratogenic effects.
Cadmium has marked acute and chronic effects on
aquatic organisms. It also acts syncrgistically with other
metals. A 15-week LC50 of 0.1 mg/1 and inhibition of shell
growth for Crassostrea vngimca (Pringle et al. 1968),2il° and
a 96-hour LC50 of 0.03 mg/1 cadmium in combination with
0.15 mg/1 zinc for fry of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
Ishaivytsclia) (Hublou et al. 1954)184 have been reported.
Fundulus lietewchtus exposed to 50 mg/1 cadmium showed
pathological changes in the intestinal tract after 1-hour
exposure, in the kidney after 12 hours, and in the gill
filaments and respiratory lamellae after 20 hours (Gardner
and Yevich 1970).170 Copper and zinc, when present at
1 mg/1 or more, substantially increase the toxicity of
cadmium (LaRoche 1972).211
Cadmium is concentrated by marine organisms, particu-
larly the molluscs (e.g., Pecten nora~ellandicae), which ac-
cumulated cadmium in the calcareous tissues and in the
viscera (Brooks and Rumbsby 1965).13:! Lowman et al.
(1971)221 reported a concentration factor of 100(1 for cad-
mium in fish muscle.
Cadmium levels in tissues of Ashy Petrel (Oceanodroama
homochroa) from coastal waters of California were approxi-
mately twice as high as in tissues of Wilson's Petrel (Oceamtes
oceamcus) obtained in Antarctica, which had summered in
the North Atlantic and Australian regions, respectively.
Cadmium levels in tissues of the Snow Petrel (Pelagodroma
mvea), a species which does not leave the Antarctic ice pack
region, obtained at Hallett .Station, Antarctica, were of the
same order of magnitude as those in the Wilson's Petrel.
Cadmium levels in eggs of the Common Tern (Sterna
hnundci) from Long Island Sound were in the order of 0.2
mg/kg dry weight, not appreciably higher than those in the
Antarctic 7"ern (Sterna nttata) from the Antarctic with
levels in the order of 0.1 mg-'kg (Anderlini et al. in press)™
Cadmium pollution may theiefore be significant locally in
estuaries, but on the basis of these limited data, it does not
appear to be a problem in more remote marine ecosystems.
However, in view of the comparatively unknown effects of
cadmium on the marine ecosystem, its apparent concen-
tration by marine organisms, and the human health risk
involved in consumption of cadmium-contaminated sea-
food, it is suggested that there be no artificial additions of
cadmium to the marine environment.
Recommendation
The panel recommends that an application fac-
tor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data
for appropriate organisms most sensitive to cad-
mium. On the basis of data available at this time,
it is suggested that concentrations of cadmium
equal to or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute a hazard
in the marine environment as well as to human
populations, and levels less than 0.2 ^g/1 present
minimal risk of deleterious effects. In the presena
of copper and/or zinc at 1 mg/1 or more, there is
evidence that the application factor for cadmiurr
should be lower by at least one order of magnitude
In the absence of sufficient data on the effect!
of cadmium upon wildlife, it is recommended thai
cadmium criteria for aquatic life apply also t<
wildlife.
Chlorine
Chlorine is generally present in the stable chloride forn
which constitutes about 1.9 per cent of sea water. Ele
mental chlorine, which is a poisonous gas at normal tern
perature and pressure, is produced by electrolysis of a brim
solution. Among its many uses are the bleaching of pulp
paper and textiles, and the manufacture of chemicals.
Chlorine is used to kill so-called nuisance organisms tha
might interfere with the proper functioning of hydraulic
systems. Chlorine disinfection is also used in public watei
supplies and in sewage effluents to insure that an acceptable
degree of coliform reduction is achieved before the effluent;
enter various bodies of water. In all instances the intent is
;o eliminate undesirable levels of organisms that would
(iegrade water uses. This goal is only partially reached.
jecause the effect of chlorine on desirable species is a
serious hazard.
When dissolved in water, chlorine completely hydrolizes
10 form hypochlorous acid (HOC1) or its dissociated ions;
at concentrations below 1000 mg/1, no chlorine exists in
solution as Ck The dissociation of HOC1 to H+ and OC1~
depends on the pH: 4 per cent is dissociated at pH 6. 25
per cent at pH 7, and 97 per cent at pH 9. The unclissociated
iorm is the most toxic (Moore 1951).231 Although free
chlorine is toxic in itself to aquatic organisms, combi-
nations of chlorine with ammonia, cyanide, and organic
compounds, such as phenols and amines, may be even more
toxic and can impart undesirable flavors to seafood.
Chlorine at 0.05 mg/1 was the critical level for young
Pacific salmon exposed for 23 days (Holland et al. I960).182
The lethal threshold for chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshauytscha) and coho salmon (0. kisutcK) for 72-hour ex-
posure was noted by these investigators to be less than 0.1
rig/1 chlorine. In aerated freshwater, monochloramines
were more toxic than chlorine aid dichloramine more toxic
than monochloramine. Studies ofirritant responses of marine
f shes to different chemicals (Hiatt et al. 1953)181 showed a
sight irritant activity at 1 mg/1 and violent irritant activity
at 10 mg/1. Oysters are sensitive to chlorine concentrations
of 0.01 to 0.05 mg/1 and react by reducing pumping ac-
t vity. At C12 concentrations of [ .0 mg/1 effective pumping
could not be maintained (Galtsoff 1946).169
Preliminary results show that at 15 C, salinity 30 parts
per thousand (%o)> mature copepods (Acartia tonsa and
-------
Categories of Pollutants,/247
TABLE IV-3—Copepod Mortality from Chlorine Exposure
Acartia Tonsa
Chlorine mg/1
Exposure time in minutes to give
50 percent mortality
Exposure time in minutes to give
100 percent mortality
1.0
2.5
50
10.0
220
8.5
1.2
0.6
>500
120
10 0
1 0
Eurytemona Affinis
Chlorine me/1
Exposure time in minutes to give
50 percent mortality
Exposure time in minutes to give
100 percent mortality
2.5 33
5.0 3 6
10.0 2 0
125
30.0
5.0
Gentile (unpublished data) 1972.312
Eurytemona qffinis) have great difficulty in surviving exposures
to chlorine (Table IV-3).
Clcndenning and North (I960)141 noted that at 5 to 10
mg/I chlorine, the photosynthetic capacity of bottom fronds
of the giant kelp (Macrocystis pvnferd) was reduced by 10 to
15 per cent after 2 days and 50 to 70 per cent after 5 to 7
days.
Chlorination in seawater conduits to a residual of 2.5
mg/1 killed all fouling organisms tested (anemones, mussels,
barnacles, Mogula, Bugula) in 5 to 8 days; but with 1.0
mg/1 a few barnacles and all anemones survived 15 days'
exposure (Turner et al. 1948).282
It should be further stressed that chlorine applications
may often be accompanied by entrainments where the
organisms are exposed to strong biocidal chlorine doses,
intense turbulence, and heat (Gonzales et al. unpublished
1971).313 Consideration should also be given to the for-
mation of chlorinated products, such as chloramines or
other pollutants, which may have far greater and more
persistent toxicity than the original chlorine applications.
Recommendation
It is recommended that an application factor of
0.1 be used with 96-hour LC50 data from seawater
bioassays for the most sensitive species to be pro-
tected.
However, it is suggested that free residual chlo-
rine in sea water in excess of 0.01 mg/1 can be
hazardous to marine life. In the absence of data
on the in situ production of toxic chlorinated
products, it appears to be premature to advance
recommendations.
Chromium
Most of the available information on toxicity of chromium
is for freshwater organisms, and it is discussed in Section
III, p. 180.
Chromium concentrations in seawater average about 0.04
Mg/1 (Food and Agriculture Organization 1971),164 and
concentration factors of 1,600 in benthic algae, 2,300 in
phytoplankton, 1,900 in zooplankton, 440 in soft parts of
molluscs, 100 in crustacean muscle, and 70 in fish muscle
have been reported (Lowman et al. 1971).221
The toxicity of chromium to aquatic life will vary with
valence state, form, pH, synergistic or antagonistic effects
from other constituents, and the species of organism in-
volved.
In long-term studies on the effects of heavy metals on
oysters, Hayclu (unpublished data)314 showed that mortalities
occur at concentrations of 10 to 12 Mg/1 chromium, with
highest mortality during May, June, and July. Raymont
and Shields (1964)253 reported threshold toxicity levels of
5 mg/1 chromium for small prawns (Leander sqmlla), 20
mg/1 chromium in the form NaoCrO4 for the shore crab
(Carcmas maenuf), and 1 mg/1 for the polychaete \ereis
mren-,. Pringle et al. (1968)2SO showed that chromium con-
centrations of 0.1 and 0.2 mg '], in the form of K2CroO7,
produced the same mortality with molluscs as the controls.
Doudoroff and Katz (1953)1SI) investigated the effect of
KoCr-jOT on mummichogs (Fimdulus lieleroditus) and found
that they tolerated a concentration of 200 mg/1 in sea water
for over a week.
Holland et al. (1960)1S2 reported that 31.8 mg/1 of
chromium as potassium chromate in sea water gave 100
per cent mortality to coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutcli).
Gooding (1954)17-! found that 1 7.8 ing 1 of hexavalent chro-
mium was toxic to the same species in sea water.
Clendenning and North (I960)141 showed that hexavalent
chromium at 5.0 mg/1 chromium reduced photosynthesis
in the giant kelp (Macrocf\tis jiyrijerd) by 50 per cent during
4 days exposure.
Recommendation
Because of the sensitivity of lower forms of
aquatic life to chromium and its accumulation at
all trophic levels, it is recommended that an appli-
cation factor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour
LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most
sensitive to chromium. On the basis of data avail-
able at this time, it is suggested that concentra-
tions of chromium equal to or exceeding 0.1 mg/1
constitute a hazard to the marine environment,
and levels less than 0.05 mg/1 present minimal risk
of deleterious effects. In oyster areas, concentra-
tions should be maintained at less than 0.01 mg/1.
Copper
Copper has been used as a pesticide for eliminating algae
in water, and its salts have bactericidal properties. Copper
is toxic to invertebrates and is used extensively in marine
antifouling paints which release it to the water. It is also
toxic to juvenile stages of salmon and other sensitive species
-------
248/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(Sprague 1964,267, 1965,268 Sigler ct al. 1966,20'3 Cope
1966142).
Copper was the fifth metal in U.S. consumption during
1968, following iron, manganese, zinc, and barium (U.S.
Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines 1969).289
Copper is used for such products as high transmission wires,
containers, utensils, and currency because oi its noncor-
roding properties.
Copper is widely distributed in nature and is present in
sea water in concentrations ranging from 1 to 25 Mg/1. In
small amounts, copper is nonlethal to aquatic organisms;
in fact, it is essential to some of the respiratory pigments in
animals (Wilber 1969).299 Copper chelatecl by lignin or
citrate has been reported to be as effective as copper ion in
controlling algae, but apparently it is not as toxic to fish
(Ingols 1955).1SI' Copper affected the polychaete ,\eie.ts
virens at levels of approximately 0.1 mg 1 (Raymont and
Shields 1964)2"'3 and the shore crab (Catcinus maenus) at 1 to
2 mg/1 (\Vilber 1969).2" Copper at concentrations of 0.06
mg/1 inhibited photosynthesis of the giant kelp (Macrocystis
pynfera) by 30 per cent in 2 days and 70 per cent in 4 clays
(Clendcnning and North I960).141
Copper is toxic to some oysters at concentrations above
0.1 mg '1 (Galtsoff 1932)168 and lethal to oysters at 3 mg/1
(Wilber 1969).'299 The American oyster (Crassositca virgimca)
is apparently more sensitive to copper than the Japanese
species (Crassostrea gtgai) (Rcish 1964).2;'4 The 96-hour LC50
for Japanese oysters exposed to copper has been reported
as 1.9 mg/1 (Fujiya I960).165 However, oysters exposed to
concentrations as low as 0.13 mg/1 turn green in about 21
days (Galtsoff 1932).168 Although such concentrations of
copper are neither lethal to the oysters nor, apparently,
harmful to man, green oysters are unmarketable because
of appearance. Therefore, in the vicinity of oyster grounds,
the recommendation for maximum permissible concen-
trations of copper in the water is based on marketability,
and it is recommended that copper not be introduced into
areas where shellfish may be contaminated or where seaweed
is harvested.
Copper acts synergistically when present \\ith zinc
(Wilber 1969),299 zinc and cadmium (LaRoche 1972),211
mercury (Corner and Sparrow 1956),143 and with penta-
chlorophenate (Cervenka 1959).137 Studies on sublethal
effects of copper show that Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
will avoid concentrations of 0.0024 mg 1 in laboratory
experiments (Sprague et al. 1965,27" Saunclers and Sprague
1967,2:'7 Sprague 19712'19).
Copper is accumulated by marine organisms, with con-
centration factors of 30,000 in phytoplankton, 5,000 in the
soft tissues of molluscs, and 1000 in fish muscle (Lowman
et al. 1971).221
Bryan and Hummerstone (1971)131reported that the poly-
chaete Nereis diversicolor shows a high takeup of copper from
copper-rich sediments and develops a tolerance. Mobile
predators feeding on this species could receive doses toxic
.o themselves or accumulate concentrations that would Ix
.oxic to higher trophic levels.
Recommendation
It is recommended that an application factor ol
0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for ths
appropriate organisms most sensitive to copper.
On the basis of data available at this time, it is
suggested that concentrations of copper equal to
or exceeding 0.05 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the
marine environment, and levels less than 0.01 mg/1
present minimal risk of deleterious effects.
Cyanides
Most of the available information on toxicity of cyanides
is for freshwater organisms, e.nd is discussed in the Fresh-
water Aquatic Life and Wildlife section, p. 189.
Recommendation
As a guideline in the absence of data for marine
organisms the panel recommends that an appli-
cation factor of 0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour
LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most
sensitive to cyanide. On the basis of data available
at this time it is suggested that concentrations of
cyanide equal to or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute
a hazard in the marine environment, arid levels
less than 0.005 mg/1 present minimal risk of dele-
terious effects.
Fluorides
Fluorides have been brought i.o public attention in recent
years because of their effects at low concentrations in human
cental development and in prevention of decay. However,
i. must be remembered that fluorides at higher concen-
trations are poisons afflicting human and other mammalian
skeletal structures with fluorosis (see Section II, p. 66).
Fluorine is the most reactive non-metal and does not
cccur free in nature. It is found in sedimentary rocks as
f iiorspar, calcium fluoride, ancl in igneous rocks as cryolite,
sodium aluminum fluoride. Seldom found in high concen-
t Cations in natural surface waters because of their origin
only in certain rocks in certs in regions, fluorides may be
found in detrimental concentrations in ground waters.
Fluorides are emitted to the atmosphere and into effluents
from electrolytic reduction plants producing phosphorus
ancl aluminum. They are also used for disinfection, as
insecticides, as a flux for steel manufacture, for manu-
facture of glass and enamels, for preserving wood, and for
assorted chemical purposes.
A review of fluoride in the environment (Marier and
Rose 1971)22"' indicates that the concentration of unbound
ionic fluoride (F~) in sea water ranges between 0.4 and
0.7 mg/1. Approximately 50 per cent of the total seawater
-------
Categories of Pollutants,'249
fluoride (0.77 to 1.40 nig, 1) is bound as the double ion
MgF+.
Concentrations as low as 1.5 mg''l of fluoride have
affected hatching of fish eggs (Ellis et al. 1946) ,1''7 and 2.3
mg 1, introduced as sodium fluoride, was lethal to rainbow
trout (Salmo gaix/nen) at 18 C (Angelovic et al. 1961 )."3
X'irtually no information exists on long-term chronic effects
of low concentrations of fluorides in sea water.
Recommendation
In the absence of data on the sublethal effects
of fluorides in the marine environment, it is recom-
mended that an application factor of 0.1 be applied
to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate
organisms most sensitive to fluoride. On the basis
of data available at this time it is suggested that
concentrations of fluoride equal to or exceeding 1.5
mg/1 constitute a hazard in the marine environ-
ment, and levels less than 0.5 mg/1 present minimal
risk of deleterious effects.
Iron
Because of the widespread use of iron by man for his
many industrial activities, iron is a common contaminant
in the aquatic en\ ironmcnt. Iron may enter water naturally
from iron ore deposits; but iron is more often introduced
from acid mine drainage, mineral processing, steel pickling,
and corrosion. Iron usually occurs in the ferrous form,
when it is released from processing plants or in mine drain-
age, but becomes rapidly oxidized to the ferric form in
natural surface waters. The ferric salts form gelatinous
hydroxides, agglomerate and flocculate, settling out on the
bottom or becoming adsorbed on various surfaces. Depend-
ing on the pH and Eh, groundwafer may contain a con-
siderable amount of iron in solution, but well aerated waters
seldom contain high, dissolved iron. In the marine environ-
ment, iron is frequently present in organic complexes and
in adsorbed form on participate matter.
Most of the investigations on biological effects of iron
have been clone in fresh \\ater (Knight 1901,21'4 Bandt
1948,"7 Minkina 1946,'"9 Southgate 1948,2fi:> Leu is I960,215
ORSANCO I9602'"1). Deposition of iron hydroxides on
spawning grounds may smother fish eggs, and the hy-
droxides may irritate the gills and block the respiratory
channels of fishes (Southgate 1948,2r'5 Lewis I960-15). Direct
toxicity of iron depends on its valence state and whether
it is in solution or suspension.
Warnick and Bell (1969)-"'7 examined the effects of iron
on mayflies, stoneflies. and caddisflies and obtained a
96-hour LC50 of 0.32 mg 1 for the three insects. Dowclen
and Bennett (1965)1"'3 examined the effect of ferric chloride
to Ddphma magna in static acute bioassays. They noted
LCSO's of 36, 21, and 15 mg 1 for 1, 2, and 4 days, re-
spectively.
Ferric hydroxide floes removed the diatoms in the process
of flocculation and settling, coating the bottom; and the
iron precipitate coated the gills of white perch (M or one
amencana), minnows, and silversides in upper Chesapeake
Bay (Olson et al. 1941)."2
Tests on three types of fish gave a lethality threshold for
iron at 0.2 mg 1 (Minkina 1946)229 and on carp at 0.9 mg']
if the pH was 5.5 or lower. Ebeling (1928)m found that
10 mg I of iron caused serious injury or death to rainbow
trout (Salmo gatrdnen) in 5 minutes. La Roze (1955)212
reported that dogfish were killed in 3 hours at 5 mg '1 iron,
whereas other research (National Council for Stream Im-
provement 1953)2U indicated no deaths during one week
at 1 to 2 nig '1.
Because of the slightly alkaline condition of sea water,
much of the iron introduced to the sea precipitates. This
adds a further problem of iron hydroxide floes contami-
nating bottom sediments where rooted aquatics and in-
vertebrates could be affected.
Special consideration should be given to avoiding dis-
charge of iron-containing effluents into waters where com-
mercially important bottom species or important food
organisms dwell (e.g., oysters, clams, scallops, lobsters,
crabs, shrimp, halibut, flounder, and demersal fish eggs and
lar\ ae).
Recommendation
On the basis of data available at this time, it is
suggested that concentrations of iron equal to or
exceeding 0.3 mg/1 constitute a hazard to the
marine environment, and levels less than 0.05 mg/1
present minimal risk of deleterious effects.
Lead
The present rate of input of lead into the oceans is
approximately ten times the rate of introduction by natural
weathering, and concentrations of lead in surface sea water
are greater than in deeper waters (Chow and Patterson
1966).13!l The isotope composition of the lead in surface
waters and in recent precipitation is more similar to that of
mined ore than to that in marine sediments (Chow 1968).138
There are, almost no data, however, that would suggest that
the higher concentrations of lead in surface sea water de-
rived from lead transported through the atmosphere have
resulted in higher lead concentrations in marine wildlife.
Lead concentrations in Greenland snow have been shown
to be 16 times higher in 1964 than in 1904 (Murozumi et al.
1969).2r> In 1968 an estimated 1.8X105 tons of lead were
introduced to the atmosphere as a result of the combustion
of leaded gasoline (Council on Environmental Quality
1971).141 This represents 14 per cent of the total lead con-
sumption of the United States for that year. Lead poisoning
of zoo animals in New York Cit\ was attributed to their
breathing lead-contaminated air (Bazell 1971).119
Blood serum aldolase activity in higher animals exposed
to small amounts of lead increased, although there were no
-------
250/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
overt signs or symptoms of poisoning (Yaverbaum 1963,308
Wilber 1969299). Chronic lead poisoning in man is sympto-
matically similar to multiple sclerosis (Falkowska et al.
1964).159 Muscular dystrophy has been reported as occurring
in fishes and amphibians (Stolk 1962,272 Wilber 1969299) and
in view of these findings could, in fact, be unnatural.
Data are needed on the sublethal, lons;-tcrm effects of
lead on aquatic organisms, particularly those in sea water.
Evidence of deleterious effect to freshwater fish has been
reported for concentrations of lead as low as 0.1 mg/1
(Jones 1938).197
Wilder (1952)300 reported lobster dying in 6 to 20 days
when held in lead-lined tanks. Pringle (unpublished data)'^''
observed a 12-week LC50 of 0.5 mg 1 lead and an 18-week
LG50 of 0.3 mg/1 lead with the oyster (Crassostrea virgimcd).
There was noticeable change in gonadal and mantle tissue
following 12 weeks exposure at concentrations of 0.1 to
0.2 mg/1 of lead. Calabrese et al. (unpublished data)':ln found
a 48-hour LC25 of 1.73 mg'l and an LC50 of 2.45 mg 1
for oyster eggs of the same species.
North and Clendenning (1958)241 reported that lead
nitrate at 4.1 mg/1 of lead showed no deleterious effect on
the photosynthesis rate in kelp (Macrocvstispvrifera) exposed
for four days. They concluded that lead is less toxic to
kelp than mercury, copper, hexavalent chromium, zinc,
and nickel.
Recommendation
In the absence of more definitive information on
the long-term chronic effect of lead on marine
organisms, it is recommended that concentrations
of lead in sea water should not exceed 0.02 of the
96-hr LC50 for the most sensitive species, and that
the 24-hour average concentration should not ex-
ceed 0.01 of the 96-hour LC50. On the basis of data
available at this time it is suggested that concen-
trations of lead equal to or exceeding 0.05 mg/1
constitute a hazard in the marine environment,
and levels less than 0.01 mg/1 present minimal
risk of deleterious effects. Special effort should be
made to reduce lead levels even further in oyster-
growing areas.
Lead recommendations for the protection of
wildlife are included in the discussion of Marine
Wildlife p. 227.
Manganese
Manganese is one of the most commonly used metals in
industry. It occurs widely in ores on land and in nodules in
the deep sea. U.S. consumption in 1958 exceeded 2.2
million tons, a 45 per cent increase in 20 years (U.S.
Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969).289 The
metal is alloyed with iron to produce steel and in smaller
quantities with copper for manganese bronze. Its salts are
used in inks and dyes, in glass and ceramics, in matches
and fireworks, for dry-cell batteries, and in the manufacture
of paints and varnishes.
Manganese is often found v/ith iron in ground waters
and it can be leached from soil and occur in drainage ir
high concentrations. The carbonates, oxides, and hy
droxides are slightly soluble, so that manganous anc
manganic ions are rarely prcse.it in surface water in exces
Df 1 mg/1. Manganese is present in sea water at about 2 jug/
in the Mn+2 form, and is concentrated through biochemica
processes to form manganese nodules, found mainly in th<
deep sea.
Manganese may have different effects on the lower trophic
levels in fresh water and sea water. Concentrations o
manganese abo\e 0.005 mg'l had a toxic effect on cerlah
algae in reservoirs (Guseva i 937,m 193917-'), while 0.000!
mg'l in sea water stimulated growth and multiplicatioi
of certain phytoplankton (Harvey !947).17S Ancleisoi
(1944)11" reported the threshokl of immobilization of Da/>/im<
magna as 0.63 mg 1 of KMnO, and the threshold coneeri
tration for immobilization of Daphnia magna in Lake Eric
water as 50 ing'l of MnCb (\nderson 1948).II2 Bringmani
and Kuhii (195')a)lp:1 reported the threshold effect for th<
same species as 50 ing 1 of MnCl.j as manganese in Rive'
Havel water at 23 C.
For the fiatworm Pnlyielr; i.igra, the threshold concen
tration of manganese was reported as 700 mg 1 as man
ganesc chloride and 660 mg '] as manganese nitrate (Jone
1940).199 Tests on organisms on which fish feed, i e
Crustacea, worms, and inseci larvae, showed no apparen
harm at 15 mg 1 of manganese during a 7-day exposure
(Schweiger 1957).261 River era/fish were found to tolerate
1 mg'l (Meinck et al. 1956"! '"7
The toxicity of manganese to fish depends on a numbei
jf factors which may vary from one situation to another
There is an apparent antago fistic action of manganest
;oward nickel toxicity for fish (Blabaum and Nichols
1956).125 This may be true also for cobalt and manganese.
:n combination, as noted for terrestrial plant life (Ahmed
and Twyman 1953).1(K
Stickleback survived 50 mg/1 manganese as manganese
sulphate for 3 days, \\hereas eels withstood 2700 mg '1 for
50 hours (Doudoroff and Katz 1953).1:>" The lethal concen-
tration of manganese for stickleback was given as 40 mg/1
by Jones (1939),19S and he noted that the toxic action was
slow. The minimum lethal concentration of manganese
nitrate for sticklebacks in tap water has been reported to
be 40 mg 1 as manganese (Anderson 1948,"2 Murdock
1953).231
The average survival times of stickelback in manganous
nitrate solution were one week at 50 mg/1, four days at
100 mg/1, two days at 150 mg '1, and one day at 300 mg-'l.
ell measured as manganese (Murdock 1953).234 Young eels
tolerated 1500 mg/1 manganous sulphate for more than 25
hours (Doudoroff and Katz 1953).150 Oshima (1931)24fi and
Iwao (1936)189 reported the lethal thresholds of manganous
-------
Categories of Pollutants 7251
chloride and manganous sulphate for fish in Japan to be
about 2400 and 1240 mg/1 of manganese, respectively.
They found that permanganates (Mn+7) killed fish at 2.2
to 4.1 mg/1 manganese in 8 to 18 hours, but this high
oxidation form is quite unstable in water. Tench, carp,
and trout tolerated 15 mg/1 of manganese during 7 days
exposure (Schweiger 1957).2S1
Manganous chloride was found to be lethal to minnows
(Fundulus) in fresh water in six days at 12 mg/1 MnCL; for
the small freshwater fish Orizias, the 24 hour lethal concen-
tration was about 7850 mg 1 (Doudoroffand Katz 1953) ;150
and for other fish 5500 mg 1 (Oshima 1931,24G Iwao,
19361S''). The highest concenlration tolerated by eels for
50 hours was 6300 mg/1 (Doudoroff and Katz 1953).150
Mcinck et al. (1956)22V noted the first toxic effects for fish
of MnQ.) at 330 mg 1, with the lethal concentration at
800 mg/1.
Only a few studies of sublethal effects of manganese on
fish have been reported. Ludemann (1953)222 noted some
of the symptoms of toxicity of manganese to fish, crabs,
and fish food organisms. Abou-Donia and Menzel (1967)103
noted an effect of 1.25X10~4 M manganese (6.9 mg ''!) on
the enzyme acetylcholinesterase in shiner perch
In studies on the uptake of radionuclides on the Pacific
testing grounds of Bikini and Eniwetok. it was found that
the neutron-induced isotope of manganese 31Mn was con-
centrated by as much as 4000 in phytoplankton and 12,000
in the muscle or soft tissue of mollusks (Lowman I960,220
Lowman et al. 1971221). Goldberg et al. (1971 )m list the
concentration factor of manganese in marine plants and
animals as approximately 3000.
Recommendation
In view of the evidence for concentration of
manganese by marine organisms, an application
factor of 0.02 of the 96 hr LC50 for the most sensitive
species to be protected is recommended.
Until more complete information on acute and
sublethal effects of manganese on marine orga-
nisms is available, it is suggested that concen-
trations of 0.1 mg/1 or more of total manganese
in the marine environment may constitute a haz-
ard, and concentrations of less than 0.02 mg/1
present minimal risk.
Mercury
Mercury naturally leaches from cinnabar (HgS) deposits.
Man-made sources of mercury have been in plastics manu-
facture, where mercury oxide is used as a catalyst, chlor-
alkali plants where mercury cells are used, mercurial
slimacides used in the pulp and paper industry and in
other forest product anti-fungal applications, seed dressings
used in combatting smuts and other fungal diseases afflicting
seeds, and in anti-fouling paints. An estimated 5000 tons
of mercury per year arc transferred from the continents to
the oceans as a result of continental weathering (Klein
and Goldberg 1970).203 Global production of mercury is
currently about twice as high, in the order of 9000 metric
tons per year (Hammond 1971).176 The burning of pe-
troleum releases in the order of 1600 tons of mercury into
the atmosphere per year (Bertine and Goldberg 1971).122
A conservative estimate of the amount of mercury released
per year into the global environment from the burning of
coal is in the order of 3000 tons (Joensuu 1971) 195 The
total amount of mercury estimated to be in the oceans is
in the order of 108 metric tons, approximately three orders
of magnitude higher than the total amount of mercury
consumed in the United States since 1900. Mercury in
marine organisms is, therefore, most probably of natural
origin except in localized areas.
One hundred and eleven persons were reported poisoned,
41 died, and others suffered serious neurological damage as
a result of eating fish and shellfish which had been con-
taminated with mercury discharged into Minamata Bay
by a plastics manufacturing plant between 1950 and 1960
(Irukayama 1967).187 In 1965, another poisoning incident
was reported in Niigata, Japan, where 5 people died and
26 suffered irreversible neurological damage (Ui I967).292
In Minamata it was also found that cats eating the con-
taminated fish and shellfish took suicidal plunges into the
sea, an uncommon occurrence with these mammals (Ui
and Kitamura 1970).293
Metallic mercury can be converted by bacteria into
methyl mercury (Jensen and Jernclov 1969,192 Jernelov
1969,194 Lofroth 196921S). Organometallic mercury is much
more toxic than the metallic mercury and enters the food
cycle through uptake by aquatic plants, lower forms of
animal life, and fish (Jernelov 1969).194 The concentration
factor of mercury in fish was reported as 3,000 and higher
(Hannerz 1968,177 Johncls and Westermark 1969196). A
voluntary form of control was imposed in Sweden where
anglers were requested not to eat more than one fish per
week from a given lake to minimize human intake.
High mercury concentrations in birds and fish were
reported on the Canadian prairies in 1969 (Fimreite 1970,160
Wobeser et al. 1970,301 Bligh 1971I2(i). The source of the
mercury in the birds was apparently mercurial seed dressing
consumed with grain by the birds; whereas in fish, mercury
came largely from emissions of a chlor-alkali plant using a
mercury cell.
The Food and Drug Directorate of Canada set a level of
0.5 parts per million as the maximum permissible concen-
tration in fish products. The 0.5 parts per million level was
set as an interim guideline, not a regulation based on any
known safe level for mercury (Canada Food and Drug
Directorate, personal communication).311 A similar guideline
was adopted in the U.S. (Kolbye 1970).20S These limits were
based on the lethal concentrations found in Minamata Bay,
Japan, and on the levels set by the World Health Organi-
zation (WHO) in cooperation with the Food and Agri-
-------
252/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
cultural Organization (FAO). The level set by WHO/FAO
was 0.05 ppm, based on total food (WHO 1967).305 The
concentrations which were found lethal to the Japanese
consuming fish and shellfish contaminated by mercury were
10 to 50 ing/kg total mercury (Birke et al. 1968).m The
Swedish limit was 1.0 ppm of mercury in fish (Berglund
and Wretling 1967)121 based on dry weight, which is
equivalent to 0.2 ppm wet weight (Wallace et al. 1971).295
Although the emphasis has been on the effects of mercury
on man, aquatic organisms can be affected by various
mercury compounds. Mercury markedly alters the epi-
thelium of skin and gills in fishes (Schweiger 1957).261
Mercuric chloride in water containing developing eggs of
Paracentrolus hvidis brought about a severe disturbance of de-
velopment at 10 jug/I (Soyer 1963).2fi(i A concentration of
5 /ug.'l retarded development markedly. These studies sug-
gested that the threshold for harmful effects of mercuric
chloride on developing eggs of Paracentrolus was around 2
to 3 jug/1 (Soyer 1963).266 Studies conducted on developing
salmon eggs (Oncorliynchus nerka and 0. gorbuscha) at the
International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission Lab-
oratory in Cultus Lake, B.C., showed that concentrations
of mercury at levels exceeding 3 /ng 1 mercury derived from
mercuric sulfate led to severe deformities (Servizi, unpub-
lished rtW
-------
Categories of Pollutants/253
molybdenum for the manufacture of special tool steels. It
is available in a number of oxide forms as well as the
disulphide. Molyhdic acid is used in a number of chemical
applications and in make-up of glazes for ceramics
Molybdenum has not been considered as a serious pol-
lutant, but it is a biologically active metal. It may be an
important element insofar as protection of the ecosystem is
concerned because of its role in algal physiology. Certain
species of algae can concentrate molybdenum by a factor
up to 15 (Lackey 1959).21" Bioassay tests in fresh water on
the fathead minnow gave a 96-hour LC50 for molybdic
anhydride (MoO3) of 70 nig 1 in soft water and 370 mg/1
in hard water. Although molybdenum is essential for the
growth of the alga Scenedesmus, the threshold concentration
for a deleterious effect is 54 mg/1. Molybdenum concen-
tration factors for marine species have been reported as:
8 in benthic algae; 26 in zooplankton; 60 in soft parts of
molluscs: 10 in crustacean muscles; and 10 in fish muscle
(Lo\\man et al. 1971).221
Recommendation
The panel recommends that the concentration
of molybdenum in sea water not exceed 0.05 of the
96-hour LC50 at any time for the most sensitive
species in sea water, and that the 24-hour average
not exceed 0.02 of the 96-hour LC50.
Nickel
Nickel docs not occur naturally in elemental form. It is
present as a constituent in many ores, minerals and soils,
particularly in serpentine-rock-clerived soils.
Nickel is comparatively inert and is used in corrosion-
resistant materials, long-lived batteries, electrical contacts,
spark plugs, and electrodes. Nickel is used as a catalyst in
hydrogenation of oils and other organic substances. Its
salts are used for dyes in ceramic, fabric, and ink manu-
facturing. Nickel may enter waters from mine wastes,
electroplating plants, and from atmospheric emissions.
Nickel ions are toxic, particularly to plant life, and may
exhibit synergism when present with other metallic ions.
Nickel salts in combination with a cyanide salt form
moderately toxic cyanide complexes which, as nickel sulfatc
combined with sodium cyanide, gave a 48-hour LC50 of
2.5 ing/l and a 96-hour LC50 of 0.95 mg •'! as CN~, using
fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) at 20 C (Doudoroff
1956).11S Alkaline conditions reduced toxicity of a nickel
cyanide complex considerably, with concentrations below
100 nig 1 showing no apparent toxic effect on fish.
Nickel salts can substantially inhibit the biochemical
oxidation of sewage (Malaney et al. 1959).223 In fresh
waters, nickel has been reported to be less toxic to fish
and river crabs than zinc, copper, and iron (Podubsky
and Stedronsky 1948).M However, other investigators found
nickel to be more toxic to fish than iron and manganese
(Doudoroff and Katz 1953). 1:'°
Ellis (1937)166 reported that nickelous chloride from
electroplating wastes did not kill goldfish (Carassius auratus)
at 10 mg/1 during a 200-hour exposure in very soft water.
Wood (1964)304 reported that 12 mg/1 of nickel ion kill
fish in 1 day and 0.8 mg/1 kill fish in 10 days. Doudoroff
and Katz (1953)150 reported survival of stickleback (Gastero-
steus aculeatus) for 1 week in 1 mg/1 of nickel as Ni(NO3)2.
The lethal limit of nickel to sticklebacks has been re-
ported as 0.8 mg/1 (Murdock 1953)234 and 1.0 mg/1 (Jones
1939).19S The median lethal concentration of nickel chloride
(NiCl2,6H2O) was reported as 4.8 mg 1 for guppies (Recilia
reliculala) (Shaw and Lowrancc 1956).262 Goldfish (Carassius
auratus) were killed by nickel chloride at 4.5 mg/1 as nickel
in 200 hours (Rudolfs et al. 1953).256 Tarzwell and Hender-
son (I960)278 reported 96-hour LCSO's for fathead minnows
(Pimephalespromelas) as 4.0 mg/1 in soft water and 24 mg/1
in hard water, expressed as NiGl2,6112O. Anderson (1948)112
reported a threshold concentration of nickel chloride for
immobilization of Daphma in Lake Erie \vater at 25 G to
be less than 0.7 mg 1 in 64 hours of exposure. Bringmann
and Kuhn (1959a,131 1959I)132) reported nickel chloride
threshold concentrations as nickel of 1.5 mg/1 for Sceriedemms,
0.1 mg/1 for Eschenclna coli, and 0.05 mg/1 for Microregma.
Nickel is present in sea water at 5 to 7 jug 1, in marine
plants at up to 3 mg/1, and in marine animals at about
0.4 mg/1.
Marine toxicity data for nickel are limited. The top
minnow Fundulus was found to survive in concentrations of
100 mg/1 Nickel from the chloride in salt water, although
the same species was killed by 8.1 mg/1 of the salt (3.7
mg/1 Ni) in tap water (Thomas cited by Doudoroff and
Katz 1953).1M Long-term studies on oysters (Haydu un-
published data)31* showed substantial mortality at a nickel
concentration of 0.12 mg/1. Calabrese et al. (unpublished
data)"10 found 1.54 mg/1 of nickel to be the LC50 for eggs
of the oyster (Ciassoslrea virgimca).
Recommendation
It is recommended that an application factor of
0.02 be applied to 96-hour LC50 data on the most
sensitive marine species to be protected. Although
limited data are available on the marine environ-
ment, it is suggested that concentrations of nickel
in excess of 0.1 mg/1 would pose a hazard to marine
organisms, and 0.002 mg/1 should pose minimal
risk.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus as phosphate is one of the major nutrients
required for algal nutrition. In this form it is not normally
toxic to aquatic organisms or to man. Phosphate in large
quantities in natural waters, particularly in fresh waters,
can lead to nuisance algal growths and to eutrophication.
This is particularly true if there is a sufficient amount of
nitrate or other nitrogen compounds to supplement the
-------
254/'Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
phosphate. Thus, there is a need for control of phosphate
input into marine waters. See Sewage and Nutrients, p.
275, for a discussion of the effects of phosphate as a nutrient.
Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic
and subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as
mercury (Ackman et al. 1970,104 Fletcher 1971162). Isom
(1960) 188 reported an LC50 of 0.105 mg/1 at 48 hours and
0.025 mg/1 at 163 hours for bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macro-
chirus) exposed to yellow phosphorus in distilled water at
26 C and pH 7.
Phosphorus poisoning of fish occurred on the coast of
Newfoundland in 1969 and demonstrated what can happen
when the form of an element entering the sea is unknown
or at least not properly recognized (Idler 1969,185 Jangaard
1970,191 Mann and Sprague 1970224). The elemental phos-
phorus was released in colloidal form and remained in
suspension (Addison and Ackman 1970).105 After the release
of phosphorus was initiated, red herrings began to appear.
The red discoloration was caused by haemolysis, typical of
phosphorus poisoning in herring (Clupea harengus), and ele-
mental phosphorus was found in herring, among other
fishes, collected 15 miles away (Idler 1969,185 Jangaard
1970m).
Fish will concentrate phosphorus from water containing
as little asoneyug/1 (Idler 1969).185 In one set of experiments,
a cod swimming in water containing one /zg/1 elemental
phosphorus for 18 hours was sacrificed and the tissues
analyzed. The white muscle contained about 50 Mg/kg, the
brown, fat tissue about 150 Mg/kg, and the liver 25,000 jug/'l
(Idler 1969,185 Jangaard 1970191). The experimental findings
showed that phosphorus is quite stable in the fish tissues.
Fish with concentrated phosphorus in their tissues could
swim for considerable distances before succumbing. In ad-
dition to the red surface discoloration in herring, other
diagnostic features of phosphorus poisoning included green
discoloration of the liver and a breakdown of the epithelial
lining of the lamellae of the gill (Idler 1969).185
A school of herring came into the harbor one and one-
half months after the phosphorus plant had been closed
down. These herring spawned on the wharf and rocks near
the effluent pipe, and many of them turned red and died.
A few days later, "red" herring were caught at the mouth
of the harbor on their way out. The herring picked up
phosphorus from the bottom sediments which contained
high concentrations near the effluent pipeline (Ackman
et al. 1970).104 Subsequently, this area was dredged by
suction pipeline, and the mud was pumped to settling and
treatment ponds. No further instances of red herring were
reported after the dredging operation, and the water was
comparatively free of elemental phosphorus (Addison et al.
1971).106
Reports of red cod caught in the Placentia Bay area
were investigated, and it was found that no phosphorus was
present in the cod tissues. Surveys of various fishing areas
in Newfoundland established that red cod are no more
prevalent in Placentia Bay than in other areas. In labora
tory studies, cocl exposed to ele mental phosphorus have nc
shown the red discoloration observed in herring an
salmonids. However, cod do concentrate phosphorus in th
muscle tissue as well as in the liver and can eventual!
succumb to phosphorus poisoning (Dyer et al. 1970).lr>4
It was demonstrated by f.eld investigations and labors
tory experiments (Ackman et al. 1970,104 Fletcher et a
1970,"13 Li et al. 1970,216 Zitko et al. 1970,309 Fletche
1971162) that elemental phosp/iorus accounted for the fis
mortalities in Placentia Bay This is not to say that olhe
pollutants, such as fluorides, cyanides, and ammonia, weir
not present (Idler 1969).185
The conclusion was reached by the scientists working o
the problem that elemental phosphorus in conccntratior
so low that they would be barely within the limits of dt
tection are capable of being concentrated by fish. Furthe
work is needed on the effects of very low concentratior
of phosphorus on fish over extended periods. Discharge c
elemental phosphorus into the sea is not recommended.
Recommendation
It is recommended that an application factor o
0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data fo
the appropriate organisms most sensitive to ele
mental phosphorus. On the basis of data available
at this time it is suggested that concentrations o
elemental phosphorus equal to or exceeding 1 ^g/
constitute a hazard to the marine environment.
Selenium
Selenium has been regarded as one of the dangerou
chemicals reaching the aquatic environment Seleniur
occurs naturally in certain pasture areas. Toxicity of s<_
lenium is sometimes counteracted by the addition of arseni
which acts as an antagonist. Selenium occurs in nalur
chiefly in combination with heavy metals. It exists i
several forms including amorphous, colloidal, crystalline
and grey. Each physical state has different character!'
tics, soluble in one form, but insoluble in another. Th
crystalline and grey forms conduct electricity, and th
conductivity is increased by light. This property makt
the element suitable for photoelectric cells and other phc
tometry uses. Selenium is also used in the manufactur
of ruby glass, in wireless telegraphy and photography, i:
vulcanizing rubber, in insecticidal preparations, and ii
flameproofing electric cables The amorphous form is use<
as a catalyst in determination of nitrogen and for dehydroge
nation of organic compounds.
Ellis (1937)15" showed that goldfish (Carassius auratus
could survive for 98 to 144 hours in soft water of pH rangin;
from 6.4 to 7.3 at 10 mg/1 sodium selenite. Other dat;
(ORSANGO 1950)243 showed that 2.0 mg/1 of seleniun
administered as sodium selenite was toxic in 8 days, affectim
appetite and equilibrium, and lethal in 18 to 46 days
-------
Categories of Pollutants/255
More work is required to test for effects of selenium com-
pounds under different conditions. Daphnia exhibited a
threshold effect at 2.5 mg/1 of selenium in a 48-hour ex-
posure at 23 C (Bringmann and Kuhn 1959a).131 Barnhart
(1958)m reported that mortalities of fish stocked in a
Colorado reservoir were caused by selenium leached from
bottom deposits, passed through the food chain, and ac-
cumulated to lethal concentrations by the fish in their liver.
Recommendation
In view of the possibility that selenium may be
passed through the food chain and accumulated in
fish, it is recommended that an application factor
of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for
the appropriate organisms most sensitive to se-
lenium. On the basis of data available at this time,
it is suggested that concentrations of selenium
equal to or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute a hazard
in the marine environment, and levels less than
0.005 mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious
effects.
Silver
Silver is one of the more commercially important metals;
4,938 tons were consumed in the U.S. during 1968, exclud-
ing that used for monetary purposes (U.S Department of
the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969).-^ It is the best known
conductor of heat and electricity. Although not oxidized by
air, silver is readily affected by hydrogen sulfide to form
the black silver sulfide.
Silver has many uses. In addition to making currency, it
is used for photographic purposes, for various chemical
purposes, and also in jewelry making and in siherplating
of cutlery.
Silver is toxic to aquatic animals. Concentrations of 400
US, 1 killed 90 per cent of test barnacles (Balanus balanoides)
in 48 hours (Clarke 1947).14n Concentrations of silver nitrate
from 10 to 100 jug 1 caused abnormal or inhibited develop-
ment of eggs of Puracentrotus and concentrations of 2 /ug 1 of
silver nitrate delayed development and caused deformation
of the resulting plutei (Soyer 1963).21'6 Adverse effects oc-
curred at concentrations below 0.25 /f!>/l °f silver nitrate,
and several days were required to eliminate adverse effects
by placing organisms in clean water (Soyer 1963).260 Silver
nitrate effects on development of Arbana have been reported
at approximately 0.5 jug/1 (Soyer 1963,2fi(; Wilber 1969299).
In combination with silver, copper acts additively on the
development of Paracentiotus eggs (Soyer 1963).2GG On a
comparative basis on studies on Echinoderm eggs (Soyer
1963),-''''' silver has been found to be about 80 times as
toxic as zinc, 20 times as toxic as copper, and 10 times as
toxic as mercury.
Calabrese et al. (unpublished manuscript)310 noted an LC50
of 0.006 mg'l silver for eggs of the American oyster (Cras-
sostrea virginica). Jones (1948)200 reported that the lethal
concentration limit of silver, applied as silver nitrate, for
sticklebacks (Gasterosleus aculeatus) at 15 to 18 C was 0.003
mg/1, which was confirmed approximately by Anderson
(1948),112 who found 0.0048 mg/1 to be the toxic threshold
for sticklebacks. Jackim et al. (1970)190 reported adverse
effects on the liver enzymes of the killifish Fundulus heterochtus
at 0.04 mg/1 of silver.
The sublethal responses to silver compounds may be
great, in view of the effects on developing eggs; and further
research should be conducted on effects of sublethal concen-
trations of silver compounds by themselves and in combi-
nation with other chemicals. The disruption of normal
embryology or of nutrition could be of much greater im-
portance than direct mortality in the perpetuation of the
species.
Concentrations of silver cannot exceed that permitted
by the low solubility product of silver chloride. However,
silver complexes may be present, and their effects are un-
known.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the concentrations of
silver in marine waters not exceed 0.05 of the 96-
hour LC50 for the appropriate species most sensi-
tive to silver. On the basis of data available at this
time, it is suggested that concentrations of silver
equal to or exceeding 5 /ug/1 constitute a hazard to
the marine environment, and levels less than 1
Mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects.
Sulfides
Sulfides in the form of hydrogen sulfide have the odor of
rotten eggs and are quite toxic. Hydrogen sulfide is soluble
in water to the extent of 4000 mg/1 at 20 C and 1 atmos-
phere. Sulfides are produced as a by-product in tanneries,
chemical plants, and petroleum refineries, and are used in
pulp mills, chemical precipitation, and in chemical pro-
duction. Hydrogen sulfide is produced in natural decompo-
sition processes and in anaerobic digestion of sewage and
industrial wastes. Sulfate in sea water is reduced to sulfide
in the absence of oxygen. In the presence of certain sulfur-
utilizing bacteria, sulficles can be oxidized to colloidal
sulfur. At the normal pH and oxidation-reduction potential
of aerated sea water, sulfides quickly oxidize to sulfates.
Hydrogen sulfide dissociates into its constituent ions in
two equilibrium stages, which are dependent on pH
(McKee and Wolf 1963).22e
The toxicity of sulfides to fish increases as the pH is
lowered because of the HS~ or H2S molecule (Southgate
1948).2C5 Inorganic sulfides are fatal to sensitive species such
as trout at concentrations of 0.05 to 1.0 mg/1, even in
neutral and somewhat alkaline solutions (Doudoroff
1957).149 Hydrogen sulfide generated from bottom deposits
was reported to be lethal to oysters (de Oliveira 1924).145
Bioassays with species of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus
-------
2 56/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
tshauytscha, 0. kisutch) and sea-run trout (Salmo darkii clarkii)
showed toxicity of hydrogen sulfide at 1.0 mg/1 and survival
without injury at 0.3 mg/1 (Van Horn et al. 1949,291 Dimick
1952,147 Haydu et al. 1952,179 Murdock 1953,234 Van Horn
1959290). Holland et al. (I960)182 reported that 1 mg/1 of
sulfide caused loss of equilibrium in 2 hours, first kills in
3 hours, and 100 per cent mortality in 72 hours with
Pacific salmon.
Hydrogen sulfide in bottom sediments can affect the
maintenance of benthic invertebrate populations (Thiede
et al. 1969).280 The eggs and juvenile stages of most aquatic
organisms appear to be more sensitive to sulfides than do
the adults. Adelman and Smith (1970)107 noted that hy-
drogen sulfide concentrations of 0.063 and 0.020 mg/1
killed northern pike (Esox lucius) eggs and fry, respectively;
and at 0.018 and 0.006 mg/1, respectively, reduced survival,
increased anatomical malformations, or decreased length
were reported.
Recommendation
It is recommended that an application factor of
0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 for the
appropriate organisms most sensitive to sulfide.
On the basis of data available at this time, it is
suggested that concentrations of sulfide equal to
or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the
marine environment, and levels less than 0.095
mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects,
with the pH maintained within a range of 6.5 to 8.5.
Thallium
Thallium salts are used as poison for rats and other
rodents and are cumulative poisons. They are also used for
dyes, pigments in fireworks, optical glass, and as a de-
pilatory.
Thallium forms alloys with other metals and readily
amalgamates with mercury. It is used in a wide variety of
compounds. Nehring (1963)238 reported that thallium ions
were toxic to fishes and aquatic invertebrates. The response
of fishes to thallium poisoning is similar to that of man, an
elevation in blood pressure. In both the fish and inverte-
brates, thallium appears to act as a neuro-poison (Wilber
1969) .2"
Adverse effects of thallium nitrate have been reported for
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) at levels of 10 to 15 mg/1;
for perch (Perca fluviatihs) at levels of 60 mg/1; for roach
(Rutilus rutihs) at levels of 40 to 60 mg/1; for water flea
(Daphnia sp.) at levels of 2 to 4 mg/1; and for Gammarus sp.
at levels of 4 mg/1. The damage was shown within three
days for the various aquatic organisms tested. Damage also
resulted if the fish were exposed to much lower concen-
trations for longer periods of time (Wilber 1969) .2"
Recommendation
Because of a chronic effect of long-term exposure
of fish to thallium, tests should be conducted for
at least 20 days on sensitive species. Technique
should measure circulatory disturbances (bloo
pressure) and other sublethal effects in order t
determine harmful concentrations. The concen
tration in sea water should not exceed 0.05 of thi
concentration. On the basis of data available 2
this time, it is suggested that concentrations (
thallium equal to or exceeding 0.1 mg/1 constitul
a hazard in the marine environment, and leve
less than 0.05 mg/1 present minimal risk of del*
terious effects.
Uranium
Uranium is present in wastes from uranium mines an
nuclear fuel processing plants, and the uranyl ion mz
naturally occur in drainage waters from uranium-bearir
ore deposits. Small amounts may also arise from its use i
tracer work, chemical processes, photography, painting an
glazing porcelain, coloring glass, and in the hard steel
high tensile strength used for gun barrels.
Many of the salts of uranium are soluble in water, an
it is present at about 3 fig 1 in sea water. A significat
proportion of the uranium in sea water is in the form i
stable complexes with anionic constituents. It has bee
estimated that uranium has a residence time of 3XK
years in the oceans (Goldberg et al. 1971),172 a span th;
makes it one of the elements with the slowest turnover tim
Uranium is stabilized by hydrolysis which tends to protet
it against chemical and physical interaction and thus pn
vents its removal from sea water. The salts are considere
to be 4 times as germicidal as phenol to aquatic organism
Natural uranium (U-238) is concentrated from water f
the algae Ochromonas by a factor of 330 in 48 hours (Morga
1961).232 Using River Havel water, Bringmann and Kuh
(1959a,m 1959b132) determined the threshold effect of uran-
nitrate, expressed as uranium, at 28 mg/1 on a protozoa
(Microregma), 1.7 to 2.2 mg/1 on Eschenchia Coli, 22 mg
on the alga Scenedesmus, and 13 mg/1 on Daphnia. Tarzwe
and Henderson (1956)277 found the sulfate, nitrate, an
acetate salts of uranium considerably more toxic to fathea
minnows (Pimephales promelas) on 96-hour exposure in so
water than in hard water, the 96-hr LC50 for uranyl sulfal
being 2.8 mg/1 in soft water and 135 mg/1 in hard wate
The sparse data foi uranium toxicity in sea water suggc,
that uranyl salts are less toxic to marine organisms than t
freshwater organisms. Yeasts in the Black Sea were fouri
to be more active than the bacteria in taking up uraniur
(Pshenin I960).261 Studies by Koenuma (1956)205 showe
that the formation of the fertilization membrane of L'rech
eggs was inhibited by 250 mg/1 of uranyl nitrate in se
water, and that this concentration led to polyspermy.
Recommendation
It is recommended that an application factor o
0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data fo
-------
Categories of Pollutants/257
the appropriate organisms most sensitive to
uranium. On the basis of data available at this
time it is suggested that concentrations of uranium
equal to or exceeding 0.5 mg/1 constitute a hazard
in the marine environment, and levels less than
0.1 mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects.
Vanadium
Vanadium occurs in various minerals, such as chileite
and vanadinite. It is used in the manufacture of vanadium
steel. Vanadates were used at one time to a small extent
for medicinal purposes. Vanadium has been concentrated
by certain marine organisms during the formation of oil-
bearing strata in geological time. Consequently, vanadium
enters the atmosphere through the combustion of fossil
fuels, particularly oil. In addition, eighteen compounds ol
vanadium are used widely in commercial processes (Council
on Emironmental Quality 1971).ul
Recommendation
It is recommended that the concentration of
vanadium in sea water not exceed 0.05 of the 96-
hour LC50 for the most sensitive species.
Zinc
Most of the available information on zinc toxicity is for
freshwater organisms, and for this reason the reader is
referred to the discussion of zinc in Section III, p. 182.
Recommendation
Because of the bioaccumulation of zinc through
the food web, with high concentrations occurring
particularly in the invertebrates, it is recom-
mended that an application factor of 0.01 be ap-
plied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the ap-
propriate organisms most sensitive to zinc. On the
basis of data available at this time, it is suggested
that concentrations of zinc equal to or exceeding
0.1 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the marine en-
vironment, and levels less than 0.02 mg/1 present
minimal risk of deleterious effects.
It should be noted that there is a synergistic
effect when zinc is present with other heavy metals,
e.g., Cu and Cd, in which case the application
factor may have to be lowered by an order of
magnitude (LaRoche 1972).2"
OIL IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Oil is becoming one of the most widespread contaminants
of the ocean. BJumer (1969)3'9 has estimated that between
1 and 10 million metric tons of oil may be entering the
oceans from all sources. Most of this influx takes place in
coastal regions, but oil slicks and tar balls have also been
observed on the high seas (Horn et al. 1970,334 Morris
1971343). Collections of tar balls were made by towing a
neuston net which skims the surface, and the investigators
found that the tar balls were more abundant than the
normal sargassum weed in the open Atlantic, and that their
nets quickly became so coated with tar and oil that they
were unusable. Thus, oil pollution of the sea has become a
global problem of great, even though as yet inadequately
assessed, significance to the fisheries of the world.
Sources of Oil Pollution
Although accidental oil spills are spectacular events and
attract the most public attention, they constitute only about
10 per cent of the total amount of oil entering the marine
environment. The other 90 per cent originates from the
normal operation of oil-carrying tankers, other ships, off-
shore production, refinery operations, and the disposal of
oil-waste materials (Table IV-4).
Two sources of oil contamination of the sea not listed in
Table IV-4 are the seepage of oil from underwater oil
reservoirs through natural causes and the transport of oil
in the atmosphere from which it precipitates to the surface
of the sea. Natural seepage is probably small compared to
the direct input to the ocean (Blumer 1972);320 but the
atmospheric transport, which includes hydrocarbons that
have evaporated or been emitted by engines after incomplete
combustion, may be greater than the direct input.
Some of these sources of oil pollution can be controlled
more rigorously than others, but without application of
adequate controls wherever possible the amount of pe-
troleum hydrocarbons entering the sea will increase. Our
technology is based upon an expanding use of petroleum;
and the production of oil from submarine reservoirs and
the use of the sea to transport oil will both increase. It is
estimated that the world production of crude oil in 1969
was nearly 2 billion tons; on this basis total losses to the
sea are somewhat over 0.1 per cent of world production.
TABLE IV-4—Estimated Direct Petroleum Hydrocarbon
Losses to the Marine Environment (Airborne
Hydrocarbons Deposited on the Sea Surface are
Not Included)
(Millions of tons)
1. Tankers
2. Other ships
3. Offshore production
4. Refinery operations
5. Oil wastes
G. Accidental spills
TOTAL
Total Crude Oil Production
1969
.530
.500
.100
.300
.550
.200
2.180
1820
1975 (estimate)'
Mm
.056
.705
.160
.200
.825
.300
2.246
Max
805
.705
.320
.450
.825
.300
3.405
2700
1980 (estimate)
Mm
.075
.940
.230
.440
1.200
.440
3.325
Max
1.0G2
.940
.460
.650
1.200
.400
4.752
4000
«The minimum estimates assume full use ol known technology; the maximums assume continuation ol presen
practices.
Revelle et al. 1972'".
-------
258/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Some losses in the exploitation, transportation, and use of a
natural resource are inevitable; but if this loss ratio cannot
be radically improved, the oil pollution of the ocean will
increase as our utilization increases.
Biological Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Description of Oil Pollution Oil is a mixture of
many compounds, and there are conflicting views con-
cerning its toxicity to marine organisms. Crude oils may
contain thousands of compounds, and will differ markedly
in their composition and in such physical properties as
specific gravity, viscosity, and boiling-point distribution.
The hydrocarbons in oil cover a wide range of molecular
weights from 16 (methane) to over 20,000. Structurally,
they include aliphatic compounds with straight and
branched chains, olefins, and the aromatic ring compounds.
Crude oils differ mainly in the relative concentrations of
the individual members of these series of compounds. The
various refinery processes to which oil is subjected are de-
signed to isolate specific parts of the broad spectrum of
crude oil compounds, but the refined products themselves
remain complex mixtures of many types of hydrocarbons.
In spite of the many differences among them, crude oils
and their refined products all contain compounds that are
toxic to species of marine organisms. When released to the
marine environment, these compounds react differently.
Some are soluble in the water; others evaporate from the
sea surface, form extensive oil slicks, or settle to the bottom
if sand becomes incorporated in the oil globule. More
complete understanding of toxicity and the ecological
effects of oil spills will require studies of the effects of indi-
vidual components, or at least of classes of components, of
the complex mixture that made up the original oil. The
recent development of gas chromatography has made it
possible to isolate and identify various fractions of oil and
to follow their entry into the marine system and their
transfer from organism to organism.
An oil slick on the sea surface can be visually detected
by iridescence or color, the first trace of which is formed
when 100 gallons of oil spread over 1 square mile (146
liters/km2) (American Petroleum Institute 1949).117 The
average thickness of such a film is 0.145 microns. Under
ideal laboratory conditions, a film 0.038 microns thick can
be detected visually (American Petroleum Institute 1963).318
For remote sensing purposes, oil films with a thickness of
100 microns can be detected using dual polarized radi-
ometers, 1 micron using radar imagery, and 0.1 microns
using multispectral imagery in the UV region (Catoe and
Orthlieb 1971).323 A summary of remote sensing capabilities
is presented in Table IV—5. Because remote sensing is less
effective than the eye in detecting surface oil, any concen-
tration of oil detectable by remote means currently available
will exceed the recommendations given below.
The death of marine birds from oiling is one of the earliest
and most obvious effects of oil slicks on the sea surface.
Thousands of seabirds of all varieties are often involved i
a large spill. Even when the birds are cleaned, they frc
quently die because the toxic: oil is ingested in preenin
their feathers. Dead oiled birds are often found along th
coast when no known major oil spill has occurred, and th
cause of death remains unknoivn.
When an oil spill occurs near shore or an oil slick
brought to the intertidal zone and beaches, extensive moi
tality of marine organisms occurs. When the Tarnpic
Maru ran aground off Baja California in 1957, aboi_
60,000 barrels of spilled diesel fuel caused widespread cleat
among lobsters, abalones, sea urchins, starfish, mussel
clams, and hosts of smaller forms (North 1967).344 A bent
ficial side effect of this accident was also noted by NorU
When the sea urchins that grazed on the economically irr
portant kelp beds of the area were killed in massive numbei
by the oil spill, huge canopies of kelp returned within a fe'
months (see p. 237). The oil spills from the wreck of tln
tanker Torrey Canyon and (he Santa Barbara oil we
blowout both involved crude oil, and in both cases o
reached the beaches in variable amounts some time afu
release. The oil may thus have been diluted and modifie
by evaporation or sinking before it reached the bead
In the Santa Barbara spill many birds died, and entir
plant and animal communities in the intertidal zone wer
killed by a layer of encrusti iu oil often 1 or 2 centimetei
thick (Holmes 1967).i;i! At locations where ihe oil film wi
not so obvious, intertidal organisms \\ere not severel
damaged (Foster ct al. 1970).:l27 In the case of the Torre
Canyon, the deleterious effects have been attributed mor
to the detergents and dispersants used to control the o
than to the oil itself (Smith 1968).347
A relatively small oil spill in West Falmouth, Mass?
chusetts. occurred within a few miles of the Woods Hoi
Oceanographic Institution in September 1969. An o
barge, the Florida, was driven onto (he Buzzards Bay Shor
where it released between 650 and 700 tons of No. 2 fu<
oil into the coastal waters. Studies of the biological an
chemical effects of this spill are continuing, mote than tw
years after the event (Blumer 1969,119 Hampson an
Sanders 1969,3S1 Blumer et al. 1970,3~ Blumer and Sa:
1972321). Massive destruction of a wide range of fish, she]
fish, worms, crabs, other crustaceans, and invertebrates o(
curred in the region immediately after the accident. Botton
living fish and lobsters were killed and washed ashore
Dredge samples taken in 10 feet of water soon after th
spill showed that 95 per cent of the animals recovered wer
dead and the others moribund. Much of the evidence c
this immediate toxicity disappeared within a few day:
either because of the breaking up of the soft parts of th
organism, burial in the sediments, or dispersal by wate
currents. Careful chemical and biological analyses revea
however, that not only has the damaged area been slow i:
recover but the extent of the damage has been expandin
with time. A year and a half after the spill, identifiabl
-------
Categories of Pollutants/'259
TABLE IV-5—Summary of Remote Sensor Characteristics For Oil Detection
Wave length
Ultraviolet; <0.4pm)
Visible (0.4 to .7 Mm)
Infrared
Near Infrared (0.6 to
0.1 „!»)
Far Infrared (8 to 14
din)
Possible sensor configuration
Detection mechanism Performance suniniarv ^ _^ -__^_^-_^^^_^^_^^^^__^_^^^^^^^^_ ^^^^^^^^_
Type Resolution Weight Volume
Reflectance differential (Oil/ Reflective signature UV Vidicon 500 lines/frame 33 Ibs. 2 cu. ft.
Water contrast) a. Repeatabie positive response from thin (high scene il-
slicks (~. 1 micron). lummation)
Fluorescence b. Variable response from thicker slicks 100-200 lines/frame
dependent upon oil type, water quality (low scene illumina-
and illummati on conditions. tion)
c. Atmospheric haze limitations major.
d. Signal limitations prevent night-time
detection.
Fluorescence signature UV Scanner 2mr 90 Ibs. 3. 5cu.lt.
1. Artificial Excitation (narrow-band) Pulsed Laser 1 mr 150 Ibs. 4cu.lt.
i. Spectral character strongly correlated
to oil thickness.
b. Intensity strongly correlated to oil type
(API) and oil thickness, weakly corre-
lated to temperature.
c. Decay characteristics moderately to
strongly correlated to oil type, uncor-
related to oil thickness.
d. All characteristics independent of am-
bient illumination conditions.
2. Solar excitation (broad-band)
a. Spectral character moderately to
weakly correlated to oil type and thick-
ness.
b. Intensity strongly correlated to oil
type, oil thickness and ambient illumi -
nation conditions.
c. Decay characteristics not detectable.
d. Signal limitations prevent operation
except under strong solar illumination.
Reflectance Differential (0.1/ Reflect! ve Signature Aerial Cameras
Water Contrast) a. Variable response from all slicks de- RC-8 2(1.0. 10 K 190 Ibs. 11.76cu.lt.'
pendent upon thickness, oil type, water
quality and illumination conditions
b. Signal limitations prevent moonless 500-EL 3.5ft.@10K 16 Ibs. .4cu.lt
nighttime detection.
c. False alarm problem significant. KA-62 " " 61. 5 Ibs. 5. 24 cu.lt.
d. Atmospheric haze limitation major.
e. Maximum contrast between oil and
water occurs at ( 38 to 45Mm) and ( 6 Vidicon 500 lines/frame 33 Ibs. 2cu.lt.
to.68Mm).
f. Minimum contrast between oil and
water occurs at (. 45 to . 58 ^m)
g. Best contrast achieved with overcast
sky.
Reflective Signature
Reflectance Differential (0.1 / a. Repeatabie posjtive response from all Line Scanner 2mr 90 Ibs. 4. Ocu.lt.
Water Contrast) slicks under all conditions.
Thermal Emission Differential b. Moonless night-time detection capa- Framing Scanner 4rnr 220 Ibs 3. 5cu.lt.
bihty.
c. False alarm problems negligible.
Swath width Comments
40° FOV (727 ft Developedequipmentavail-
@10K) able for UV vidicon and/
or scanner. Integrates
well with CRT display.
Line scanner may require
data butter for high reso-
lution, real time display,
2. 7 mi @ 10 K or film processor
10 ft @ 10 K Effective against thin and
thick slicks under solar, or
artificial illumination.
Active laser system sensi-
tivity limitations hinder
use in detection 01 map-
ping mode. Identifica-
tion capability very
good, with moderate to
good thickness deter-
mination.
74° FOV Aerial cameras real time
3. 5 mi. @ 10 K display not possible.
Sensitivity limitations
prevent night-time oper-
ations.
Compensation for atmos-
pheric haze difficult.
40° FOV with UV photography great po-
zoom lens 7270 tential for detecting oil.
ft. at 10 K Color is good; however,
sunlight gives false re-
sponse. Panchromatic,
IR and color photog-
raphy and TV give good
results only when oil is
thick and ropy.
Vidicon useful for real-
time detection and map-
ping at various wave
lengths, giving option
for good detection with
negligible false alarms
for day operation and
fair-to-good detection
with low false alarms
for night operation. Dis-
play characteristics op-
timum for surveillance.
2.7 mi@ 10 K line scanner oil-slick re-
sponse variable but es-
25° FOV sentially predictable, but
may hive some false
alarm problems.
d. Atmospheric haze limitation moderate.
-------
260/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE IV-5—Summary of Remote Sensor Characteristics For Oil Detection—Continued
Wave length
Detection mechanism
Performance summary
Possible sensor configuration
Type
Resolution
Weight
Volume
Swath width
Comments
Microwave.
Emissive Differential (Oil/
Water Contrast)
Wave Structure Modification
Radar
Wave Structure Modification
Scattering Cross-section
Differential
Thermal Signature
a. Variable response dependent grossly
upon oil type and dependent signifi-
cantly upon thickness and solar heat-
ing. Variability predictable to sig-
nificant degree (slicks > 10 ^m)
b. Day, night detection independent of il-
lumination conditions.
c. False alarm problem slight.
d. Atmospheric haze limitations moder-
ate to slight.
Emissive Signature Line Scanning 1.4° 68 Ins. 3cu.U. 2.7mi@10K
a. Emissivity of petroleum products is Imager
significantly higher than that of a calm
sea surface
b. Crude oil pollutants have decreasing
dielectric constants (increasing emis-
sivity) with increasing API gravity.
c. Microwave signature of oil lilm in-
versely proportional to sensor wave
length.
d. The horizontal polarized microwave
signature of oil is twice the vertically
polarized signature of an oil slick on a
flat water surface.
e. Detection improves with decreasing
sensor wave lengths and becomes
poorer as the sea state increases.
f. Atmospheric cloud limitations moder-
ate to slight.
g. Can effectively detect slicks less than
0 1 mm at viewing.
h. Dual frequency microwave techniques
show great promise in measuring oil
slick thickness.
Reflective Signature Forward Scann ng 100X10011.= —GOO Ins. 1Dcu.fl. 38mi@12K
a. Oil film on surface of water suppresses (35 GH.)
capillary which results in a significant
difference in energy back scattered
from contaminated surface and that
scattered from surrounding clean wa-
ter (from oil slicks very little energy Synthetic Apera- 100X100 lt» —1500 Ibs 17cu.fl. 150 mil/. 36 K
back scattered by three orders of mag- ture (3.3 61- z)
mtude)
b. Vertical polarization capable of detect-
ing and mapping oil slick less than 1
micron.
c. Atmospheric cloud limitations slight.
Day/night detection um
VFR conditions.
Real lime display capa-
bilities good but
limited to "single-loci
display generation.
Developed equipment
available.
Clouds that are raining
between sensor and
slick as well as very
high sea states hampe
perlormance.
Technology for equipme
development available
Real time display consis
of facsimile and/or
CRT.
Technology exists for
equipment developmei
of forward scanning ai
synthetic aperature
radar.
Real lime display possib
for forward scanning
radar via facsimile am
or CRT; synthetic
aperature radar re-
quires optical process.1
fractions of the source oil were found in organisms that still
survived on the perimeter of the area. Hydrocarbons in-
gested by marine organisms may pass through the wall ol
the gut and become part of the lipid pool (Blumer et al.
1970).322 When dissolved within the fatty tissues of the
organisms, even relatively unstable hydrocarbons are pre-
served. They are protected from bacterial attack and can
be transferred from food organism to predators and possibly
to man.
The catastrophic ecological effects of the oil spills of the
Tampico Maru, and the Florida appear to be more severe
than those reported from other oil spills such as the Torrey
Canyon and the Santa Barbara blowout. The Tampico
Maru and the Florida accidents both released refined oils
(in one case cliesel oil and in the other, No. 2 fuel oil) an
both occurred closer to shore than either the Torrey Canyo
or the Santa Barbara accidents which released crude oi
The differences in the character of the oil and the proximil
to shore may account for the more dramatic effects of tl~
first two accidents, but it is clear that any release of oil i
the marine environment car-ies a threat of destructio
and constitutes a danger to world fisheries. •
Persistence of Oil in the Ocean As mentione
above, oil can be ingested by marine organisms and it
corporated in their lipid pool. Hydrocarbons in the sea at
also degraded by marine microorganisms. Very little
known as yet about the rate of this degradation, but it
known that no single microbial species will degrade an
-------
Categories of Pollutants/261
whole crude oil. Bacteria are highly specific, and several
species \\ill probably be necessary to decompose the numer-
ous types of hydrocarbons in a crude oil. In the process of
decomposition, intermediate products will be formed and
different species of bacteria and other microorganisms may
be required to attack these decomposition products (ZoBell
1969).'!ls
The oxygen requirement of micro!>ial oil decomposition
is severe. The complete oxidation of one gallon of crude oil
requires all (lie dissolved oxygen in '320,000 gallons of air-
saturated sea water (/.oBell 19f>9).lMS It is clear that oxi-
dation might be slo\\ in an area where previous pollution
has depleted the oxygen content. E\en when decomposition
of oil proceeds rapidly, the depletion of the oxygen content
of the water by the microorganisms degrading (lie oil may
ha\ e secondary deleterious ecological effects. Unfortunately,
(he most readily attacked fraction of crude oil is the least
toxic, i e.. the normal paralhns. The more toxic aromatic
hydrocarbons, especially, the carcinogenic polynuclear aro-
matics. are not rapidly degraded.
That our coastal waters are not devoid of marine life.
after decades of contamination with oil, indicates that the
sea is capable of reco\ cry from (his pollution. However,
increasing stress is being placed on the estuarine and coastal
environment because ot more frequent oil pollution inci-
dents near shore: and once the recovery capacity of an
environment is exceeded, deterioration may be rapid and
catastrophic. It is not known ho\\ much oil pollution the
ocean can accept and recover from, or whether the present
rate of addition approaches (he limit of the natural system.
It appears that the oceans have recovered from the oil
spilled during the six years of the second World War,
(hough some unexplained recent oil slicks have been at-
tributed to the slow corrosion of ships sunk during that
conflict. It has been estimated (SCI'LP)!lr' that during the
war, the United Slates lost 98 vessels with a total oil ca-
pacity of about 1 million tons, and that another 3 million
tons of oil were lost through the sinking of ships of other
combatants during the same period. These losses were
large in the context of the 1910's, but the total for that
period was only about twice the annual direct influx to
the ocean at the present time. Although no extensive dele-
terious effects of these sinkings and oil releases on the
fisheries catch of the world have been found, it must be
emphasized again that when a pollutant is increasing yearly
in magnitude past history is not a reliable source of pre-
diction of future effects.
The Toxicity of Oil There is a dearth of dependable
observations on the toxicity of oil to marine organisms. It
is dilhcult to evaluate the toxieity of this complex mixture
of compounds which is not miscible with sea water, A variety
of techniques have been used which are not intercom-
parable. In some experiments, oil is floated on the water in
the test container, and the concentration given is derived
from the total quantity of oil and the total quantity of
water. This is clearly not (he concentration to which the
organism has been exposed. In other experiments, extracts
of oil with hot water or with various solvents have been
added to the test jar without identification of the oil fraction
being tested. In still other cases, care has been taken to
produce a fine emulsion of oil in sea water more representa-
tive of the actual concentration to which (he test organism
is exposed. Considering the differences in the meaning ot
''concentration" in these tests and the variation in sensi-
tivity of the test organisms, it is not surprising that the
ranges of toxicity that can be found in the literature vary
by several orders of magnitude.
Studies of the biological effects of oil have been reviewed
by Clark (1971).''-:' Mironov (1971)li42 carried out toxicity
studies by comparable techniques using a variety of marine
organisms. In testing eleven species of phytoplankton, he
found that cell division was delayed or inhibited by concen-
trations of crude oil (unspecified type) ranging from 0.01
to 1000 ppm. He also showed that some copepods were
sensitive to a 1 ppm suspension of fresh or weathered crude
oil and of diesel oil. Freegarde et al. (1970)32S found that
the larvae of ttallanus ballanoides and adult Calanus copepods
maintained in a suspension of crude oil ingest, without
apparent harm, droplets of oil that later appear in the
feces. Mironov (19b7):iu found 100 per cent mortality of
developing flounder spawn at concentrations of three types
of oil ranging from 1 to 100 ppm and an increased abnor-
mality of development at longer periods of time in concen-
trations as low as 0.01 ppm. In contrast other experimenters
have found that concentrations of several per cent are
necessary to kill adult fish in a period of a few days (Chip-
man and Gallsolf 1919,:!24 Griffith 1970329).
The evidence is clearer that a combination of oil and
detergents is more toxic than oil alone. This was first
definitely established in studies of the Torrey Canyon spill
(Smith 1968),:m and the toxicity of the various detergents
used in this operation is discussed by Corner et al. (1968).326
The four detergents tested were all more toxic than Kuwait
crude oil, and all showed signs of toxicity between 2 and
10 ppm. The solvents used with these detergents were also
highly toxic but tended to lose their toxicity over time
through evaporation. A bioassay test carried out by the
Michigan Department of Natural Resources (1969)338 re-
vealed that the least toxic detergent mixed with oil could
be a hundred times as concentrated (1800 ppm) as the
most toxic (14 ppm) and cause the same toxic effect.
La Roche et al. (1970)337 defined bioassay procedures for
oil and oil dispersant toxicity evaluation using fish, Fundulus
heteroclitus, and the sandworm, Nereis virens (Table IV-6).
The mortality of seabirds as a result of oil pollution is
direct and immediate, and in a major oil spill, is measured
in the thousands. The diving birds which spend most of
their life at sea are most prone to death from oil pollution,
but any bird that feeds from the sea or settles on it is vul-
nerable. In oil-matted plumage air is replaced by water
-------
262/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE IV-6—Determinations (Summarized) of Acute
Toxicities of 10 Chemical Dispersants Alone and in
Combination with Crude Oil to Sandworm (Nereis
virens) and Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus)
in Laboratory Bioassay Tests
Substance
96 hour LC50 (ml/1)
Nereis Fundulus
Crude oil A
Crude oil B
Oil and dispersants" .
Dispersants
6.1
.055-. 781
.007-7.10
16.5
82
.187-1
.008-2
" Ranges of values for 10 dispersants mixed 1 part dispersant to 10 parts of oil by volume.
LaRoche et al. 1970"'.
causing loss of both insulation and buoyancy, and oil in-
gested during preening can have toxic effects.
Hartung and Hunt (1966)332 fed oils directly to birds by
stomach tube and later analyzed the pathological and
physiological effects through autopsies. The lethal dose for
three types of oil ranged from 1 ml to 4 ml per kilogram
(ml/kg) when the birds were kept outdoors under environ-
mental stress. The experimenters concluded that a duck
could typically acquire a coating of 7 grams of oil and
would be expected to preen approximately 50 per cent of
the polluting oil from its feathers within the first few days.
Enough of this could easily be ingested to meet the lethal
dosage of 1 to 4 ml/kg. Thus, birds that do not die promptly
from exposure to cold or by drowning as a result of oil
pollution may succumb later from the effects of ingestion.
Corrective Measures
The only effective measure for control of oil pollution in
the marine environment is prevention of all spills and
releases. The time-lag involved in corrective methods means
that some damage will inevitably occur before the cor-
rective measures take effect. Furthermore, the soluble parts
of the oil already in the water will not be removed by any
of the present methods of post-spill cleanup.
Control measures have been introduced that appreciably
reduce excessive oil pollution from normal tanker operations
(see Table IV-4). The load on top (LOT) process concen-
trates waste oil that is ultimately discharged with the new
cargo (IMCO 1965a,335 1965b336). This procedure recovers
somewhat more than 98 per cent of oil that would otherwise
be released to the sea. It has been estimated (Revelle et al.
j 972) 345 tnat go per cent of the world fleet uses these control
measures today, and if they continue to do so faithfully
these ships will contribute only 3.0X104 tons of the total
tonnage of oil loss. In contrast, the 20 per cent of the fleet
not using these control measures contributes 5X106 tons.
If these control measures were not in use by a major fraction
of the tanker fleet, the contamination of the sea from this
source would be about five times greater than it is today.
Among the earliest methods for the cleanup of spilled
oil was to pick up or bury the material that came asho
while disregarding the oil that remained at sea. It was four
that the use of straw to absorb the oil made this cleam
procedure easier, and in the cleanup of the Arrow oil sp
(Ministry of Transport, Canada 1970),34° peat moss w
found to be an effective absorbent for Bunker C oil. Rece
studies promise mechanical means for handling and cleanii
sand contaminated with oil by use of earth moving equi
ment, fluid-bed, and froth flotation techniques (Gumtz at
Meloy 1971,i30 Mikolaj and Curran 1971,339 Sartor at
Foget 1971).346
The use of detergents to treat oil slicks is essential
cosmetic. It removes the obvious evidence of oil and f
that reason appeals to the polluter. However, after tre,:
ment with detergent, the oi] i; dispersed in the form of fii
droplets and becomes even more available to the biota
the sea than it would lie if it were left in the form of
surface film. Because of the finer degree of dispersion, tl
soluble toxic fractions dissolve more rapidly and rea<
higher concentrations in sea water than would result fro
natural dispersal. The clrop'ets themselves may be ingest*
by filter-feeding organisms and thus become an integr
part of the marine food chain. Some of the oil may p.i
through the gut in the feces of these organisms, but Blum
et al. (1970)3'-2 have shown lhat it can pass through the p
wall and be incorporated in the organism's lipid pool.
can thus be transferred from organism to organism an
potentially, into the food that man takes from the ocec
for his use.
Sinking of oil has been achieved by scattering talc i
chalk on the oil causing it to agglutinate into globules
greater density than sea water. Such sunken oil tends to k
bottom fauna before even the motile bottom dwellers ha>
time to move away. The sessile forms of commercial in
portance, such as clams, oysters and scallops, cannot escap
and other motile organisms such as lobsters (Homar
amencanus) may actually be attracted in the direction
the spill where exposure will contaminate or kill ther
Little is known about the rate of degradation of- oil i
bottom sediments, but it is known that some fractions wi
persist for over two years (Blumer 1969,319 Blumer an
Sass 1972321). Chipman and Galtsoff (1949)32' showed th;
the toxicity of oil is not diminished by adsorption a
carbonized sand which can be used as a sinking agent.
Efforts were made to burn the oil in both the Torn:
Canyon and the \Vafra, which was wrecked off the coast c
South Africa in 1971. When oxidation is complete, oil
converted to carbon dioxide and water and removed as
pollutant. Burning oil within a tanker, however, is difliculi
and it has not been successful even when oxidants are addec
Volatile fractions may burn off quickly, but most of the o
resists combustion. Incomplete combustion is therefore nc
only more common, but the smoke and volatile oils their
selves become atmospheric pollutants many of which ult
mately return to the sea through precipitation and accurm
-------
Categories of Pollutants/263
lation on the water surface. Oil can be burned on the surface
of the sea by using wicks or small glass beads to which the
oil clings thus removing itself from the quenching effects of
the water. The use of "seabeads" was successful in burning
Bunker C oil on the beach and moderately successful in
burning a slick in two to three foot seas in the cleanup
following the wreck of the Arrow (Ministry of Transport,
Canada 1970).34° However, during burning, the elevated
temperature of the oil increases the solubility in water of
the most toxic components, and this can cause greater
biological damage than if the oil is left unburncd.
Mechanical containment and removal of oil appear to
be ideal from the point of view of avoiding long-term bio-
logical damage, but however promptly such measures are
taken, some of the soluble components of the oil will enter
the water and it will not be possible to remove them. A
variety of mechanisms for containing oil have been pro-
posed, such as booms with skirts extending into the water.
Various surface skimmers to collect oil and pump it into a
standby tanker have been conceived. Unfortunately, most
wrecks occur during less than ideal weather conditions
which makes delivery and deployment of mechanical de-
vices difficult. Floating booms are ineffective in a rough sea,
because even if they remain properly deployed, oil can be
carried over the top of them by wind and splashing waves
or under them by currents. In protected waters, however,
recovery can be quite effective, and among the methods of
oil removal used today, booms are one of the most effective
if conditions for their use arc favorable.
Microbiological degradation is the ultimate fate of all oil
left in the sea, but as was mentioned previously, the oxygen
requirement for this is severe. There is also the problem of
providing other nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus,
for the degrading bacteria. Nevertheless, this process is a
"natural" one, and research into increasing the rate of
bacteriological degradation without undesirable side effects
is to be encouraged.
Although an ultimate solution to the cleanup of oil spills
is desperately needed, prevention of spills remains the most
effective measure. When wrecks occur, every effort should
be made to offload the oil before it enters the marine en-
vironment. Oil spills that occur in harbors during transfer
of oil to a refinery or of refined oil to a tanker should be
more easily controlled. Portable booms could confine any
oil released and make possible recovery of most harbor
spillage. Available technology is adequate to prevent most
accidental spills from offshore well drilling or operations.
It is necessary to require that such technology be faithfully
employed.
Recommendations
No oil or petroleum products should be dis-
charged into estuarine or coastal waters that:
• can be detected as a visible film, sheen, or
discoloration of the surface, or by odor;
• can cause tainting of fish or edible inverte-
brates or damage to the biota;
• can form an oil deposit on the shores or
bottom of the receiving body of water.
In this context, discharge of oil is meant to include
accidental releases that could have been prevented
by technically feasible controls.
Accidental releases of oil to the marine environ-
ment should be reclaimed or treated as expe-
ditiously as possible using procedures at least
equivalent to those provided in The National Con-
tingency Plan of 1970. The following recommen-
dations should be followed to minimize damage
to the marine biota.
• Oil on the sea surface should be contained
by booms and recovered by the use of surface
skimmers or similar techniques.
• In the event of a tanker wreck, the oil re-
maining in the hulk should be off-loaded.
• Oil on beaches should be mechanically re-
moved using straw, peat moss, other highly
absorbent material, or other appropriate
techniques that will produce minimal dele-
terious effects on the biota.
• Failing recovery of oil from the sea surface
or from a wrecked tanker, efforts should be
made to burn it in place, provided the con-
tamination is at a safe distance from shore
facilities. If successful, this will minimize
damage to the marine biota.
• Dispersants should be used only when neces-
sary and should be of minimal potential
toxicity to avoid even greater hazard to the
environment.
• Sinking of oil is not recommended.
All vessels using U.S. port facilities for the pur-
pose of transporting oil or petroleum products
should be required to demonstrate that effective
procedures or devices, at least equivalent to the
"Load on Top" procedure, are used to minimize
oil releases associated with tank cleaning.
In order to protect marine wildlife:
• recommendations listed above should be fol-
lowed ;
• a monitoring program should follow long-
term trends in petroleum tar accumulation
in selected areas of the oceans;
• no oil exploration or drilling should be per-
mitted within existing or proposed sanctu-
aries, parks, reserves or other protected areas,
or in their contiguous waters, in a manner
which may deleteriously affect their biota;
-------
264/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
• oil exploration or drilling should not be con-
ducted in a manner which may deleteriously
affect species subject to interstate or inter-
national agreements.
TOXIC ORGANICS
The toxic organics constitute a considerable variety of
chemical compounds, almost all of which are synthetic.
The total production of synthetic organic chemicals in the
U.S. in 1968 was 120,000 million pounds, a 15 per cent
increase over 1967; 135,000 million pounds were produced
in 1969, a 12 per cent increase over 1968 (United States
Tariff Commission 1970).377 This figure, in the order of
5X 1013 grams, may be compared with the total productivity
of the sea, which is in the order of 2X 1016 grams of carbon
incorporated into phytoplankton per year (Ryther 1969).373
When considered in a global and future context, the pro-
duction of synthetic chemicals by man cannot be considered
an insignificant fraction of nature's productivity.
The majority of the synthetic organic chemicals, in-
cluding those considered toxic, are readily degradable to
elementary materials which reenter the chemical cycles in
the biosphere. These pose no long-term hazard if applied
or released into the environment in quantities sufficiently
small to meet the recommendations for mixing zones (see
p. 231).
The chemicals of most concern are the more stable com-
pounds that enter the environment, whether they are intro-
duced incidentally as waste materials or deliberately through
their use. The toxicity, chemical stability, and resistance to
biological degradation of such chemicals are factors that
must be considered in assessing their potential effects on
ecosystems. Moreover, because of the partitioning of non-
polar compounds among the components of marine eco-
systems, relatively high concentrations of these, including
halogenated hydrocarbons, are frequently found in orga-
nisms.
Only recently it was discovered that polychlorinated bi-
phenyls (PCB), a class of chlorinated hydrocarbons used in
a variety of industrial applications, were widespread con-
taminants in marine ecosystems (Duke et al.).354a Concen-
trations up to or higher than 1000 ppm in the body fat of
estuarine birds have been recorded in both Europe and
North America (Risebrough et al. 1968,371 Jensen et al.
1969360). Moreover, both DDT and PCB have been found
in organisms from depths of 3200 meters in the open North
Atlantic Ocean (Harvey et al. 1972).359
The discovery of a man-made contaminant such as PCB,
unknown in the environment a few years ago, in such
unexpectedly high concentrations in marine organisms
raises several questions. Are the concentrations of these
compounds still increasing in the marine environment and
at what rate, and what are the long-term effects upon the
marine communities? Is it possible that other pollutants,
undetected by the methodologies that measure the chlor
nated hydrocarbons, are present in comparable amounts?
Criteria employed in the past to protect freshwater ecc
systems were based on data now seen to be inadequate an
on an approach that looked at pollutant concentrations i
waste water effluents rather than in the receiving systen
Evidently it is necessary to attempt to relate the amounts <
input into the ecosystem to the levels in the various con
ponents of the ecosystem, including indicator organism
The concentrations of a persislent pollutant in an indicate
organism are considered the best way of following accurm
lation trends in an aqueous ecosystem that serves as a sin
for the pollutant, once the capacity of the ecosystem (
absorb the pollutant has beer determined. If the concer
trations in the indicator organisms exceed those considerc
safe for the ecosystem, input should then be reduced, r<
stricted, or eliminated until environmental levels are a(
ceptable on the basis of established criteria. Inputs of pei
sistent pollutants into the marine environment, howeve
are in many cases indirect and not immediately controllabli
e.g. river runoffs, atmospheric fallout, and dumping b
foreign and domestic ships. The sources of the chemicals i
atmospheric fallout may be located anywhere in the work
Different recommendations must therefore be devclope>
to protect the marine environment from increasing amount
and varieties of organic pollutants that might be anticipate1
over the next century. The same recommendations may b
applied to estuaries, but these must also be protected fror
a variety of chemicals that are less persistent and pose n
long-term hazard, but that may, because of toxic effect
upon organisms, cause unacceptable amounts of damage
These include many of the pesticides, components of sewage
biological wastes from slaughter houses, and other organ i
wastes from industry.
Acute toxicity values and subacute effects of pesticide
on marine life are listed in Appendix Ill-Table 6, and i
Table IV-7, p. 265. Table [V-7 is a summary of th
"most sensitive" organisms taken from Appendix III—Tabl
6 and includes a list of chemicals that are considered ti
have potential environmental importance in estuarine o
marine ecosystems. The list includes many of the pesticide
that are readily degradable in 1he environment but becaus
of their high toxicity are potentially dangerous to estuarin
ecosystems. The list, which should be revised as new dat;
become available, proposes a minimum number of sue!
chemicals. Appendix Ill-Table 6 includes the following in
formation relative to the potential importance of each ma
terial as coastal and marine contaminants, (a) Productiot
figures, which are taken from [he 1969 Tariff Commissior
reports, are listed in the second column. The productior
figures provide a useful clue to the compounds that are o
potential importance as marine pollutants. The order of the
chemicals generally follows that of the Tariff Commission
reports and is not intended to be a ranking in order of im-
portance, (b) The third column of the table indicates
-------
Categories of Pollutants/265
TABLE IV-7—Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine System
Chemical
(1)
PESTICIDES, Totai
Fungicides
Fungicides, total
Pentachlorophenol
2,4,5-Tnchlorophenol
U.S. production
pounds, gal./yr
(2)
1.1x109lb
1.4X108
4.6X107
Not available
(1969)28X10;
Presence in sea
water or marine
organisms
(3)
Expected
Unknown
Trophic
accumulation
(4)
Unknown
Unknown
Most sensitive
organisms tested
(5)
Insufficient data for
marine organisms
Crassostrea virgmica
American oyster
Cone, (ppb active Method of
Formulation ingredient in water) assessment Test procedure Reference
(6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
600 TLM 48 hr static lab Davis and Hidu
bioassay 1969'"
(1968)
Nabam (Ethylene bis[dithio- 1 9X10° Unlikely
carbamic acid I, disodium
salt)
Hexachlorobenzene Not available Expected
Herbicides
Herbicides, total 3.9X10*
Amitrole (3-aimno-1,2,4- Not available
triazole)
Chloramben (3-ammo-2,5- Not available
dichlorobenzoic acid,
sodium salt)
Picloram (4-ammo-3,5,6- Not available
tnchloropicolinic acid)
(Tordonl!)
Simazme [2-chloro-4,6-bis- Not available
(ethylamino)-s-tnazine]
Atrazme [2-chloro-4-ethyl- Not available
amjno-6-isopropyl-amino-
s-tnazmel
Monuron [3-(p-chloro- Not available
phen>l)-1,1-dimethylureaj
Diuron[3-(3,4,-dichloro- No) available
pnenyl)-!,1-dimethylureaI
Maleic hydrazide [1,2-di- 2.8V101' Ib.
hydropyndazme-3,6-dioneI
Fenuron [l.l-dimethyl-3- Not available
phenylureal
Ametryne [2-ethylamino-4- Not available
isopropylammo-E-methyl-
mercapto-s-triazine|
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Dunaliella tertiolecta
100
. 270.0. D. expt/O.D. 10 day growth test Ukeles 1962"
control
Detected in birds Insufficient data for
(Vos et al., marine organisms
1968>™
Koeman and
Genderen, 1970)"3
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Insufficient data
Chlorococcum sp Methyl ester 2.5X10'
Phaeodactylum tricornu-
turn
Isochrysis galbana 1X10'
5X10'
Isochrysis galbana Technical acid 500
Phaeodactylum tricornu- Technical aid 500
turn
Chlorococcum sp.. Technical acid 100
Chlamydomonas sp.,
Monochrysislutheri
Isochrysis galbana Technical acid 100
Phaeodactylum tricornu- Technical acid 100
turn
Protococcus sp. 20
Dunaliella tertiolecta 20
Phaeodactylum tri- 20
cornutum
Protococcus . 0.02
Monochrysislutheri 0.02
Insufficient data
Chlorococcum sp Technical acid 750
Isochrysis galbana Technical acid 750
Monochrysis lutheri . 290
Chlorococcum sp. Technical acid 10
Isochrysis galbana Technical acid 10
Monochrysislutheri
Phaeodactylum tri- Technical acid 10
cornutum
50% decrease in
growth
50% decrease in 02
evolution*
50% decrease in
growth
50%. decrease in
growth
50% decrease in
growth
50% decrease in
growth
50% decrease in Oj
evolution*
50% decrease in 02
evolution*
.00 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
.00 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
.00 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
.52 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt OEN
control
.00 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
50% decrease in
growth
50% decrease in
growth
.67 OPT. DEN.
expt/opt DEN
control
50% decrease in
growth
50% decrease in Qi
evolution*
50% decrease in 02
evolution*
Growth measured as
ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
tOdys
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh 1972s'9
Walsh 1972"9
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh 1972'"
Walsfi 1972»»
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh 1972s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Wa Ish 1972s"
Ukeles 1962™
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh 1972'"
Ukeles 1962'"
Walsh 1972'"
Walsn 1972!»
Walsh 1972s"
* 0: evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes.
-------
266/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE IV-7—Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine System—Continued
Chemical
(1)
Herbicides, cont.
Endothal [7-oxabicyclo-
(2.2.1) heptane-2,3-di-
carboxylicacid.rjisodium
salt]
MCPA [4-chloro-2-methyl-
phenoxyacetic acid]
2,4-D 8 derivatives
2, 4, 5-T& derivatives
[2,4,5-trictilorophenoxy-
acetic acid]
Silvex|2-(2,4,5-trichloro-
phenoxy)propionic acid!
Diquat|6,7-Dihydrodipyrido
(1,2-a:2',1'-c)pyrazidi-
inium dibromide
Paraquat [1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-
dipyridilium dichloride]
Trifluralm[a a,a-Tnfluoro-
2,6-dirtino-N,N-dipropyl-
p-toluidine]
Cacodylic acid [Hydroxydi-
methyl arsme oxide]
Insecticides
Insecticides, total (includes
rodentjcides)
Heptachlor [Heptachloro-
tetrahydro-endo-methano-
indene] (includes hepta-
chlor epoxide)
Endrin [Hexachloro-epoxy-
octahydro-endo-endo-di-
methanoraphthalene)
DieidrinlHexachloro-epoxy-
octahydro-endo-exo-
dimethanonaphthalenel
Aldrin [Hexachloro-hexa-
hydro-endo-exo-dimetti-
anonaphthalene]
Chlordane [Octochloro-
hexahydro-methanoin-
U.S. production
pounds, gal./yr
(2)
Not available
Not available
UXIOMb
2.8X10' Ib
1.6X106
Not avail able
Not available
Not available
Not available
5.7X10»lb
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Presence in sea
water or marine
organisms
(3)
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unknown
Unknown
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Oysters (Bugg
et al. 1967)»»
Oysters (Bugg et
al. 1967,«»
Casper, 1967,'"
Rowe et al.
1971)"!
Oysters (Bugg et
al. 1967,»«
Casper, 1967,'«
Rowe et al.
1971)""
Oysters (Bugg et
al. 1967)'M
Oysters (Bugg et
al. 1967)»»
Trophic
accumulation
(4)
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unknown
Unknown
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Bald Eagles
(Krantz et al.
1970)'"
Brown Pelican
(Schreiber and
Risebrough
1972,"* Rise-
brough et al.
1968)J"
Most sensitive
organisms tested Formulation
(5) (6)
Mercenaria mercenaria
Hard clam
Crassostrea virginica
American oyster
Crassostrea virginica Ester
American oyster
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana Technical acid
Phaeodactylum tri- Technical acid
cornutum
Crassostrea virginica
American oyster
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Chlorococcum sp. Dibromide
Dunaliella tertiolecta Dibromide
Isochrysis galbana Dibromide
Phaeodactylum tri- Dibromide
cornutum
Dunaliella tertiolecta Dichloride
Isochrysis galbana Dichloride
Chlorococcum sp. Technical acid
Isochrysis galbana Technical acid
Phaeodactylum tri- Technical acid
cornutum
Insufficient data
Thalassoma bifasciatum 100',,
Bluehead
Mugil cephalus 100%
Striped mullet
Menidia memdia 100%
Atlantic silverside
Bald eagles (Krantz Anguilla rostrata 100%
etal. 1970)**
Grey Whale,
Sperm Whale
(Wolman and
Wilson 1970)'™
Brown Pelican
(Schreiber and
Risebrough
1972)''*
Unlikely, converts
to dieldrin
(Korschgen
Expected
American eel
Palaemon macrodactylui Technical
Korean shrimp
Palaemon macrodactylus 100%
Korean shrimp
Cone, (ppb active Method of
ingredient in water) assessment
(7) (8)
1.25X10* TLM
1.56X10* TLM
740 TLM
5X10* 50% decrease in 0,
evolutio"*
5X10* 50% decrease in
growth
710 TLM
5X106 50% decrease m 02
evolution*
5X10° 50% decrease in 02
evolution*
1.5X10* 50% decrease in
growth
i- 'O6 50% decrease in 02
evolution*
'"6 50% decrease in 02
evolution*
5X10' 50% decrease in
growth
2.5X10S 50% decreasi! in
growth
2.5X10' 50%decieasein
growth
2.5X10' 50%decieasein
growth
0.8 LC-50
0.3 LC-50
0.05 LC-50
0.9 LC-50
0.74 (0.51-1.08) TL-50
18 (10-38) TL-50
Test procedure
(9)
12 day static lab
bioassay
48 hr static lab
bioassay
14 day static lab
bioassay
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
14 day static lab
bioassay
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS.
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS
(525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS
(525 mu) after
10 days
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
Reference
(10)
Davis and Hidu
1969"'
Davis and Hidu
1969s"
Davis and Hidu
1969"*
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh 1972s"
Davis and Hidu
1969'*'
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh 1972s'9
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh 1972"'
Walsh 1972!"
Walsh 1972!"
Walsh 1972s"
Eisler 1970b";
Eisler 1970b"»
Eisler 1970b>"
Eisler 1970b»-
Earnest (unpub-
lished)'82
Earnest (unpub-
lished)"1
dene]
*/0. evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes.
-------
Categories of Pollutants/'267
TABLE IV-7—Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine System—Continued
Chemical
(1)
Insecticides, cont.
Strobane" [polychlorinated
terpenesl
Toxaphene [Chlorinated
camphene]
DDT compounds
p,p'-DDT[1,1,1-Tri-
chloro-2, 2-bis(p-chloro-
phenyl) ethane
p,p'-DDD(p,p'-TDE)
|1.I-Dichloro-2,2-bis
(p-chlorophenyl)ethane
p,p-DDE[1,1-DiGhloro-
2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)
ethylene
Mirex [Dodecachloro-octa-
hydro-1,3,4-metheno-2H-
cyclobuta[cd]pentalene]
Benzene hexachlonde
[Hexachlorocyclohexane]
Lmdane [gamma-hexa-
chlorocyclohexane]
Endosulfan (Hexachloro-
hexahydro-methano-
benzo-dioxathiepm-3-
oxide|(ThiodanR)
Methoxychlor[1,1,1-Tn-
chloro-2, 2, bis(p-
methoxy-phenyl)ethane|
Carbaryl(Sevm)[l-
naphthyl-N-methylcarba-
mate]
Coumaphos(Co-ral)[0,0-
Diethyl-0-(3-chloro-4-
methyl-2-oxo-2H-1-benzo-
pyran-7-yl)-pho$phoro-
thioatel
Diazmon|0,0-Diethyl-0-
(2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6-
pyrimidinyOphosphoro-
Ihioale]
Parathion[0,0-Diethyl-0-
p-nitrophenyl-phosphoro
tbioate]
Dursban 10. 0 Diethyl-0-
3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl-
phosphorothioatel
Fenthion [0, 0-Dimethyl-O-
(4-methylthio-m-tolyl)
phosphorothioatel (Baytex)
Methyl parathion [0,0,-
Dimethyl-0-p-nitrophenyl-
phosphorothioate]
Guthion[0,0-Dimethyl-S-
(4-oxo- 1,2, 3-benzotri-
U.S. production
pounds, gal. /yr
(2)
Not available
Not available
1.2X108lb.
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
5.1X10' Ib
Not available
Presence in sea Trophic
water or marine accumulation
organisms (4)
(3)
Expected Expected
Bay mussel Expected
(Modm, 1969);J«>
Oysters (Bug? et
al. 1967p°
Jensen et al
1969,160 Rise-
brough et al.
1968«i
(References cited above)
(References cited above)
Expected Expected
Southern hemisphere sea birds
(Tatton and Ruzicka 1967)"'
Oysters (Bugget Expected
al. 1967,=-" Sand shrimp
Casper 1967)'"
Bay mussel (Koe- Sandwich Tern,
man and Common Eider
Genderen (Koeman and
1970)"" Genderen
1970)3"
Oysters (Bugg et Unlikely
al. 1967)3s»
Unikely Unlikely
Unlikely Unlikely
Unlikely Unlikely
Unlikely Unlikely
Unlikely Unlikely
Unlikely Unlikely
Unlikely Unlikely
Unlikely Unlikely
Most sensitive
organisms tested Formulation
(5) (6)
Insufficient data for
marine species
Gasterosteus aculeatus 100%
threespme stickle-back
Penaeus duorarum Technical
Pink shrimp 77%
Palaemon macrodactylus 99%
Falco peregrmus
Peregrine Falcon
Penaeus duorarum Technical
Pink shrimp
Penaeus setiferus 8.1%
White shrimp
Crangon septemspincsa 100%
Sand shrimp
Pagurus longicarpus 100%
Hermit crab
Palaemon macrodactylus 96%
Korean shrimp
Palaemon macrodactylus 89.5%
Palaemon macrodactylus 100%
Cancer magister 80%
Dungeness crab
Crassostrea virgmica
American oyster
Insufficient data
Cypnnodon variegatus
Sheepshead minnow
Palaemon macrodactylus
Korean shrimp
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspmosa 100%
Sand shrimp
Gasterosteus aculeatus 93%
threespme stickle-back
Cone, (ppb active Method of
ingredient in water) assessment
(7) (8)
7.8 TIM
0.12 TL-50
0.17 (0.09-0.32) TL-50
2.5(1.6-4.0) TL-50
Eggshell thinning
1.0 100% paralysis/
death in 11 days
2.8 TLM
5 LC-50
5 LC-50
3.4 (1.8-6.5) TL-50
0.44 (0.21-0.93) TL-50
7.0(1.5-28) TL-50
6 Prevention of hatch-
ing and molti ng
110 TLM
10 Acetylcholinesterase
activity in control
vs. expt groups.
Control =1.36;
Expt.=0.120
0.01 (0.002-0.046) TL-50
3.0 (1.5-60) TL-50
2 LC-50
4.8 TLM
Test procedure
(9)
96 hr static lab
bioassay
28 day bioassay
96 hr intermittent
flow lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent
How lab bioassay
DDE in eggs
highly correlated
with shell thinning
Flowing water bio-
assay
24 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr intermittent
flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr intermittent
bioassay
24 hr static lab
bioassay
48 hr static lab
bioassay
72 hr static exposure
96 hr intermittent
flow bioassay
96 hr intermittent
flow bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
Reference
(10)
Katz 1961"*
Nimmoetal.1970»>
Earnest (unpub-
lished)382
Earnest (unpub-
lished)382
Cadeetal 1970s"
Lowe etal. 1971™
Chin and Allen
19583"
Eisler 1969JS5
Eisler 19691"
Earnest (unpub-
lished)382
Earnest (unpub-
lished)'"
Earnest (unpub-
lished)382
Buchanan et al.
19703"
Davis and Hidu
1969'"
Coppage (unpub-
lished)381
Earnest (unpub-
lished)382
Earnest (unpub-
lished)382
Eisler 1969355
Katz 1961362
aano-3-methyl)phosphoro-
dithioatel
Dioxathion (Delnav) [2,3-p- Not available
Dioxane-S,S-bis(0,0-
diethylphosphorodithioatel
Unlikely Unlikely Crangon septemspinosa 100%
Sand shrimp
Fundulus heteroclitus 100%
Mummichog
Menidia menidia 100%
Atlantic silverside
38
6
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
96 hr static lab Eisler 19693"
bioassay
96 hr static lab Eisler 1970a««
bioassay
96 hr static lab Eisler 1970b'"
bioassay
-------
268/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE IV-7—Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine System—Continued
Chemical
0)
Insecticides, cont.
Phosdrin [1-methoxycar-
bonyl-1-propen-2-yl di-
methylphosphate]
Malathion [S-(1, 2-dicar-
bethoxyethyl)-0,0-di-
methyldithiophosphate]
Phosphamidon [2-Chloro-
N,N-diethyl-3-hydroxy-
crotonamide dimethyl
phosphate]
Phorate[0,0 Diethyl-S-
(|Ethylthio]methyl)-phos-
phorodittnoate]
DDVP[0,0-Dimethyl-0-
(2,2-dichlorovmyl)phos-
phate]
Tnchlorfon [0, 0-Dimethyl-
1-hydroxy-2,2,2-tnchloro-
ethylphosphonate]
(Dipterex)
TEPP [Tetraethyl pyro-
phosphate]
Related products
DBCP[1,2-Dibromo-3-
U.S. production
pounds, gal./yr
(2)
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
8.6x10Hb
Presence in sea
water or marine
organisms
(3)
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unknown
Trophic
accumulation
(4)
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unknown
chloropropane] (Nemagon11)
Methyl bromide
TAR AND TAR CRUDES
Benzene
Toluene
Xylene
Naphthalene
PLASTICIZERS
Phthalic anhydride esters,
total
Adipid acid esters, total
SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS
Dodecylbenzenesulfonates,
total
Lignmsulfonates, total
Nitnlotnacetic acid
2.0X10' Ib
1.2X10' gal.
7.6X108gal
3.8X10»gal.
8.5X108 gal.
8.8X108 Ib.
6.6X10'
5.7X108 Ib.
(1968)
4. 4X108 Ib.
Not available
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Expected
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unlikely
Unknown
Unlikely
Most sensitive
organisms tested Formulation
(5) (6)
Crangon sepemspmosa 100%
Sand shrimp
Thalasomma bifasciatun 100' ,
Bluehead
Insufficient data
Cypnnodon variegatus
Sheepshead minnow
Crangon septemspmosa
Sand shrimp
Crassostrea virgimca
American oyster
Crassostiea virginica
Mercenana mercenana
Hard clam
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Cyclotella nana Monohydrated
sodium salt
Homarusamericanus Monohydrated
Amer i can lobster sodium salt
Cone, (ppb active Method of
ingredient in water) assessment
(7) (8)
11 LC-50
27 LC-50
5 Acetylcholmesterase
activity" in control
vs expl groups.
Contrnl= 1.36;
ExpL== 0.086
4 LC-50
1,000 TLM
>1XW TLM
780 TLM
5X103 38% growth as com-
pared lo controls
1X105 100% mortality
Test procedure
(9)
96 hr static lab
bioassay
96 hr static lab
bioassay
72 hr static exposure
96 hr static lab
bioassay
48 hr static lab
bioassay
U day static lab
bioassay
12 day static lab
bioassay
72 hr static lab
bioassay
7 day static lab
bioassay
Reference
(10)
Eisler 1969'-
Eisler 1970b':»
Coppage (unpub-
lished)™
Eisler 1969JM
Davis and Hidu
19693"
Davis and Hidu
19693"
Davis and Hidu
1969"'
Erickson etal. 1950=
NMWQL 1970''"
HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
Carbon tetrachlonde
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Ethylene dichlonde
Aliphatic chlorinated hydro-
carbon wastes of vinyl
chloride production
Polychlorinated biphenyl
Polychlormated ter-
phenyl
Brommatedbiphenyls
CYCLIC INTERMEDIATES
Monochlorobenzene
Phenol
7.6X10' Ib (1968)
3.3X10' (1968)
4.8X10»(1968)
3X10' Ib (esti-
mated as 1% of
vinyl chloride
production)
Not available
Not available
Not available
6.0x108lb
1.7x10»lb
Unknown
Unknown
Expected
Surface waters
and marine orga-
nisms of North
Atlantic and
North Sea (Jen-
sen etal. 1970P
Jensen et al.
1969", Rise-
broughetal.
19683"
Expected
Unknown
Expected
Expected
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unknown
i
Expected
Expected
Unlikely
Unlikely
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Gadus morrhua 67% 1,1, 2-tri-
Cod chloroethane,
20%1,2-di-
ethane
Penaeus duorarum Aroclor 1254
P.nk shrimp
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Insufficient data
Mercenana mercenana
Hard Clam
10,000 LC-50
0.94 51% mortality
5.3X10' TLM
10 hr lab bioassay
15 day chronic ex-
posure in flowing
seawater
48 hr static lab
bioassay
Jensen etal. 1970'"
Nimmoetal. 1971«t
Davis and Hidu
19693M
MISCELLANEOUS CHEMICALS
Tetraethyl lead
4.9X108
Unlikely
Unlikely
Insufficient data
* ACh hydrolysed/hr/mg brain.
-------
Categories of Pollutants/269
whether or not the compound has been detected in sea
water or in marine organisms. Compounds which have
been detected are of greater immediate concern than those
which have not. Frequently, because of their low solubility
in water, some of the non-polar compounds which are bio-
logically accumulated can be detected in an organism but
not in the water itself, (c) The fourth column, trophic ac-
cumulation, indicates whether the compound has been
shown to pass through the food web from prey species to
predator. Compounds that are so accumulated are of greater
concern than compounds of comparable toxicity which are
not. Final!}, the species thought to be most sensitive to the
compound are indicated in the final columns with reference
to original studies in the scientific literature. These data are
useful as a guide onl) and arc not sufficient in themselves
for definitive evaluation of the environmental significance of
each compound.
The report, "The Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic Life,
vol. 3, Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality
Office, 1971," has been useful as a guide to the available
toxicity data of industrial chemicals on marine organisms.
Appendix III—Table 6 is a compendium of data on toxicity
of pesticides to marine organisms. These sources are incom-
plete and should be continually revised.
Bases for Recommendations
1. In order to provide an adequate level of protection
for commercially important marine species and for species
considered important in the maintenance of stability of the
ecosystem, an application factor of one one-hundredth
(0.01) is used when pesticides or organic wastes that are not
trophically accumulated in food webs arc applied or re-
leased in estuarinc 01 marine environments. This factor is
arbitrary and was derived from data available on marine
and freshwater organisms. (See Section III, p. 121.) It
assumes that a concentration of one one-hundredth (0.01)
of that causing harm to the most sensitive species to be
protected will not damage this species or the ecosystem.
Future studies may show that the application factor must
be decreased or increased in magnitude.
2. The application factor may also be used for the
compounds that are trophically accumulated in food webs
in order to protect fish and invertebrates to which these
compounds are toxic. It cannot be used, however, to protect
fish-eating birds and mammals which may trophically ac-
cumulate these compounds from their prey species, in part
because sublethal effects such as eggshell thinning and
hormone imbalance may adversely affect reproductive ca-
pacity and therefore the long term survival of populations.
Levels that would protect fish-eating birds and mammals
against the effects of compounds that are trophically ac-
cumulated from prey species are given in the discussion of
Marine Wildlife (see pp. 224-228).
The recommendations below apply to all organics of
both proved and potential toxicity.
Recommendations
In general, marine life with the exception of fish-
eating birds and mammals should be protected
where the maximum concentration of the chemical
in the water does not exceed one one-hundredth
(0.01) of the LC50 values listed in Column 7, Table
IV-7, pp. 265 268. If new data indicate that an eco-
system can adequately degrade a particular pollu-
tant, a higher application factor for this pollutant
may be used.
In order to maintain the integrity of the eco-
system to the fullest possible extent, it is essential
to consider effects on all non-target organisms
when applying pesticides to estuarine habitats in
order to control one or more of the noxious species.
For those occasions when chemicals must be used,
the following guidelines are offered :
• a compound which is the most specific for
the intended purpose should be preferred
over a compound that has broad spectrum
effects;
• a compound of low persistence should be
used in preference to a compound of greater
persistence;
• a compound of lower toxicity to non-target
organisms should be used in preference to
one of higher toxicity;
• water samples to be analyzed should include
all suspended paniculate and solid material:
residues associated with these should there-
fore be considered as present in the water;
• when a derivative such as p,p'-DDE or
1-napthol is measured with or instead of the
parent compound, the toxicity of the de-
rivative should be considered separately: if
the toxicity of a derivative such as an ionic
species of a pesticide is considered equivalent
to that of the original parent compound,
concentrations should be expressed as equiv-
alents of the parent compound.
It is recommended that the chemicals listed in
Table IV-7 and all chemicals subsequently added
to this list be considered as toxic organic com-
pounds potentially harmful to the marine environ-
ment. It is emphasized that the data in Table
IV-7 are not sufficient in themselves for final evalu-
ation of the environmental significance of each
compound.
OXYGEN
An extensive review and discussion of the present in-
formation on biological responses to variations in dissolved
oxygen has been published recently by Doudoroff and
-------
270/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Shumway (1970).38,3 This review has been used in develop-
ing oxygen recommendations by both the Freshwater and
Marine Panels in their reports. On the basis of this large
body of information, recommendations for "levels of pro-
tection" for freshwater fish populations have been devel-
oped. Estuarine and marine organisms have not been
studied as extensively, and the present information is inade-
quate for satisfactory analysis of the response of communi-
ties to temporal and spatial variations in dissolved oxygen
concentrations.
The generalizations presented by the Freshwater Panel
appear to be valid, with qualifications, for estuarine and
marine situations.
1 A reduction in dissolved oxygen concentration reduces
the rate of oxygen uptake by aquatic plants and animals.
However, as noted by Doudoroff and Shumway, the ob-
served response of many organisms under laboratory condi-
tions measured in such terms as growth rate, swimming
speed, or hatching weight, shows fractional or percentage
reductions that approximately correlate with the logarithm
of the deviation of the dissolved oxygen concentration from
equilibrium with the atmosphere, under conditions of con-
stant dissolved oxygen concentrations. Thus, reduction in
the dissolved oxygen concentration by 1 mg/1 from the
saturation value has much less effect than reduction by 1
mg/1 from the 50 per cent of saturation value.
2 The non-threshold character of these responses means
that some risk of effect on the aquatic populations is associ-
ated with any reduction in the dissolved oxygen concentra-
tions. As noted above, the risk of damage increases as dis-
solved oxygen concentrations decrease from saturation
values. Selection of risk acceptance is a social and economic
evaluation involving other uses of any particular environ-
ment that must precede recommendations derived using the
risk acceptance and the pertinent scientific information.
3 Consideration of the effects of dissolved oxygen con-
centrations on aquatic life must include the responses of
developing eggs and larvae, as well as the maturing and
adult individuals. Species that have limited spawning areas
should be identified and the biological risk of decreased
oxygen concentrations evaluated accordingly.
For estuaries and coastal waters, consideration must be
given to the distribution of dissolved oxygen with depth,
since even under natural conditions low oxygen concentra-
tions may be found in the deeper waters. Special considera-
tion should be given to estuary type, topography, currents,
and seasonal development of pycnoclines.
Many estuaries and coastal regions are highly productive,
and the characteristic pattern with photosynthesis in the
upper-water layer or adjacent marshes leads to large popu-
lation densities in the upper layers and loss of oxygen to the
atmosphere from the supersaturated surface waters or the
marsh plants. Subsequent decomposition of these organisms
and their wastes in the deeper waters leads to oxygen deple-
tion. Several deeper coastal plain estuaries and fjords show
oxygen depletion from this sequence. Addition of miner
and organic plant nutrients to such regions may intensi
the production and subsequent decomposition processe
The effects of particular additions will depend on the wal
depths and rate of vertical mixing, and it is necessary
construct an oxygen balance model for each case. Sewas
treatment that consists of partial or nearly complete mine
alization of the organic materials may still produce a di
charge that will damage the aquatic system, i.e., an amou
of organic matter nearly equal in oxygen demand to tl
original sewage is produced in the environment. The princ
pal effect of many "secondary" treatment systems is tl
trading of an intense local effect near the outfall for a mo
widespread effect at greater distances. One of the maj<
considerations in defining water quality recommendatioi
for nutrients in any estuarine or coastal region should be tl
risk associated with oxygen depletions from increase
production. Deliberate moderate additions of nutrients
increase the yield of some fishery should also give due rcgai
to this secondary effect.
Recommendation
Each proposed change in the dissolved oxyge
concentration in estuaries and coastal watei
should be reviewed for risk of damage to aquati
life. The limited laboratory data and field obsei
vations on marine organisms suggest that easil
observed effects, which are in many cases deleter
ous, occur with dissolved oxygen concentratior
of 4 to 5 mg/1 as daily minimum values for periot
of several days. As a guideline, therefore, reductio
of the dissolved oxygen concentration to valu<
below 4 mg/1 can be expected to change the kinc
and abundances of the aquatic organisms in tt
affected volume of water and area of bottom. Pai
ticular attention should be directed toward ident
fying species with restricted spawning and nursei
areas and conservatism should be used in applyin
guidelines to these areas. (See the expanded dii
cussion in Section III, pp. 131-135.)
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE AQUATIC
ENVIRONMENT
This section considers radioactivity in all surface wate
inhabited by plants and animals including fresh, estuarin
and marine waters of the U.S. The subject matter pertaii
primarily to the impact of environmental radioactivity c
aquatic organisms, although it also contains some discussic
of human radiation exposure from aquatic food chains.
recent report by the National Academy of Sciences (1971)3
presented a review of radioactivity in the marine enviroi
ment, and that review has been used extensively in tl"
preparation of this report.
-------
Categories of Pollutants/21 \
Characteristics and Sources of Radioactivity
Radiation is the energy emitted spontaneously in the
process of decay of unstable atoms of radioisotopes. This
energy can exist either in the form of electromagnetic rays
or subatomic particles and cannot be detected by man's
senses. Radiation can be detected, however, by means of
electronic instruments, and quantities present at very low
levels in the environment can be measured with remarkable
accuracy. Radioactivity which occurs naturally in the en-
vironment originates from primordial radioisotopes and
their decay products (daughters) and from reactions be-
tween cosmic rays from outer space and elements in the
atmosphere or in the earth. Some of the more abundant
primordial radioisotopes in terms of their radioactivity are
potassiun- (40K), palladium (234Pd), rubidium (87Rb),
uranium (238U) and thorium (237T), the first accounting for
90 per cent of the natural radiation in the oceans. While
beryllium (7Be) is the most abundant radioisotope produced
by cosmic rays, carbon (14C) and hydrogen (3H) (tritium)
are biologically the most interesting. The presence of natural
radioactivity was unknown until 1896 when Becquerel dis-
covered uranium. Until the development of the atomic
bomb during World War II, virtually^ all of the radio-
activity on earth came from natural sources.
The first man-made radioisotopes were not released into
the environment in any significant amounts until the atomic
bomb was tested and used in war even though the uranium
235 atom was first split (fissioned) by neutron bombard-
ment in 1938. While the release of radioisotopes was dras-
tically reduced with the halting of nuclear weapons testing
in the atmosphere by signatories of the test ban treaty,
radioactive wastes continue to be released from nuclear
powered ships and submarines, nuclear power plants, nu-
clear fuel reprocessing plants, and to a lesser extent from
laboratories and hospitals. Two methods have been used in
handling radioactive wastes. High levels have been concen-
trated and held in special storage tanks, while low levels of
radioactive wastes in small volumes have been diluted and
dispersed in the aquatic environment—particularly in the
oceans. Some manmade radioisotopes, such as strontium 90
and cesium 137, are the debris of split atoms and are called
fission products. Other radioisotopes, such as zinc 65 and
cobalt 60, are activation products, produced when stray
neutrons from the fission process strike the atoms of stable
elements.
Cycling of Radioactive Materials The physical,
chemical, and physiological behavior of radioisotopes is es-
sentially identical with that of the stable isotopes of the same
element—at least until disintegration occurs. It should be
pointed out, however, that in some instances the physical
and chemical states of a radioisotope introduced into the
aquatic environment may vary from that of the stable ele-
ment in water. At the time of disintegration, the decaying
atoms change into different types of atoms of the same ele-
ment or into atoms of a different element. If the behavior
of a particular element in an ecosystem is known, the be-
havior of the radioisotopes of that element can be predicted.
The reverse also is true, and radioisotopes can serve as ex-
cellent tracers in following the movement of elements
through complex environmental systems. Radioactive
wastes in the aquatic environment may be cycled through
water, sediment, and the biota. Each radioisotope tends to
take a characteristic route and has its own rate of movement
through various temporary reservoirs. The route taken by
tritium is different from that of other radioisotopes. Tritium
becomes incorporated in the water molecule and cannot be
removed by present waste treatment practices. It is not con-
centrated appreciably by either biota or sediments.
When radioactive materials enter surface waters they are
diluted and dispersed by the same forces that mix and dis-
tribute other soluble or suspended materials (National
Academy of Sciences 1957).393 The dominant forces are
mechanical dilution that mixes radioisotopes in the waste
stream as it leaves an outfall structure; advection and turbu-
lent diffusion that mix materials in the receiving waters;
and major transport currents that move masses of water
over relatively long distances. On the other hand, precipita-
tion and sedimentation tend to restrict the area of dis-
persion. When first introduced into fresh or marine water,
a substantial part of the materials present in radioactive
wastes becomes associated with solids that settle to the bot-
tom, and many of the radioisotopes are bound chemically
to the sediments. The sediments may also be moved geo-
graphically by currents. Even though in some instances
sediments remove large quantities of radioisotopes from the
water, and thus prevent their immediate uptake by the
biota, this sediment-associated radioactivity may later
leach back to the water and again become available for up-
take by the biota.
Plants and animals, to be of any significance in the pas-
sage of radioisotopes through a food web in the aquatic
environment, must accumulate the radioisotope, retain it,
be eaten by another organism, and be digested. Radioiso-
topes may be passed through several trophic levels of a food
web, and concentrations can either increase or decrease
from one trophic level to the next, depending upon the
radioisotope and the particular prey-predator organisms.
This variation among trophic levels occurs because different
organisms within the same trophic level have different
levels of concentration and different retention times, which
depend upon their metabolism or capacity to concentrate a
given radioisotope. The concentration of a radioisotope by
an organism is usually discussed in terms of a concentration
factor: the ratio of the concentration of the radioisotope in
the organism to that in its source, that is, the amount in
water or food. Radioisotopes with short half-lives are less
likely to be highly concentrated in the higher trophic levels
of the food chain because of the time required to move from
the water to plants, to herbivores, and eventually to carni-
-------
Ill/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
vores. Organisms that concentrate radioisotopes to a high
level and retain them for long periods of time have been
referred to as "biological indicators for radioactivity." These
organisms are of value in showing the presence of radio-
active materials even though the concentrations in the water
may be less than detectable limits.
Exposure Pathways
The radiation emitted by radioisotopes that are present in
aquatic ecosystems can irradiate the organisms in many
different ways. In order to evaluate the total radiation dose
received by the aquatic organisms, and thus the risk of their
being injured, all sources of exposure must be considered.
These sources include both natural and man-made radia-
tion, both external and internal.
Major Sources of External Radiation 1 Radioiso-
topes in the surrounding water that tend to remain in
solution, or at least suspended in the water, become associ-
ated more readily with aquatic organisms than the radio-
isotopes that settle out.
2 Radioisotopes present on or fixed to sediments are
significant to aquatic life, particularly to benthic organisms
in the vicinity of existing major atomic energy plants.
3 Radioisotopes attached to the outer surfaces of orga-
nisms arc of greater significance to micro-organisms, which
have a larger surface-to-volume ratios, than shellfish or fish.
4 Cosmic-rays are of relatively minor importance to
aquatic life that lives a few feet or more below the water
surface, because of the shielding afforded by the water.
Major Sources of Internal Radiation 1 Radioiso-
topes in the gastrointestinal tract frequently are not assimi-
lated, but during their residence in the tract expose nearby
internal organs to radiation.
2 Assimilated radioisotopes arc absorbed from water
through the integument or from food and water through the
walls of the gastrointestinal tract, metabolized, and are in-
corporated into tissues where they remain for varying
periods of time. Aquatic plants, including algae absorb
radioactive materials from the ambient water and from the
interstitial water within the sediments.
It is difficult to measure the amount of radiation ab-
sorbed by aquatic organisms in the environment because
they are simultaneously irradiated by radioisotopes within
their body, on the surface of their body, in other organisms,
in the water, and in sediments. Exposure thus depends on an
organism's position in relation to the sediments and to other
organisms, and to movement of some species in and out of
the contaminated area.
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing radiation absorbed by plant and animal tissue
may cause damage at the cellular and molecular levels. The
degree of radiation damage to an organism depends upon
the source (external or internal), the type (electromagnetic
or particulate), the dose rate (intensity per unit of time)
and the total dose. Possible effects to the individual orga
nism may include death, inhibition or stimulation of growth
physiological damage, changes in behavioral patterns, de
velopmental abnormalities, and shortening of life span. Ir
addition, the extent of biological damage from radiation cat
be modified by environmental stresses such as changes it
temperature and salinity. Under certain conditions, irradia
tion can cause gross pathological changes which are easib
observed, or more subtle changes which are difficult or im
possible to detect. In addition to somatic changes whicl
affect the individual, genetic changes also may occur whicl
may affect the offspring for many generations. At one time
it was widely believed that there was a threshold radiatior
dose below which damage did not occur, but now the con
sensus of most radiobiologists is that any increase over back
ground radiation will have some biological effect. Whili
the non-existence of a threshold dose is difficult to prove
most radiation biologists agree that even background level
of radiation from primordial radioisotopes and cosmic ray
have resulted in some genetic changes over the ages. Thesi
radiation-induced changes usually constitute less than 1 pe
cent of all spontaneously occurring mutations (Asimov anc
Dobzhansky 1966).3S4
The amount of radiation absorbed by an organism can b<
expressed in various ways. The rad (radiation absorbec
dose) is the unit used to measure the absorbed dose of radia
tion and refers to the absorption of 100 ergs of energy pe
gram of irradiated material. Because a rad of alpha or neu
tron radiation produces greater biological damage than ;
rad of gamma radiation, another unit called the rem (roent
gen equivalent man) also is used. To obtain the rem, or dosi
equivalent, the number of rads absorbed by the tissue i
multiplied by the quality factor and other necessary modify
ing factors to compensate for the effects of different types o
radiation. The acute doses of radiation required to produo
somatic damage to many species of aquatic organisms hav-
been established within broad iimits (National Academy c
Sciences 1971).397 Some bacteria and algae can tolerat
doses of many thousands of rads, but the mean lethal dos<
(LD50 —30 days) for fish is in the range of several hundrec
to a few thousand rads. Eggs and early developmenta
stages are more sensitive them are adults. By comparison
the mean lethal dose for humans is about 300 rads.
The acute mean lethal dose has little value in placing re
strictions on the amounts of radioactive material present ii
aquatic environments. Much more meaningful is the highes
level of chronic exposure that results in no demonstrabli
damage to aquatic populations. A vast amount of researcl
on dose-effect relationships for warm-blooded animals ha
led to the recommendations on human radiation exposure
People who work with radiation may receive no more thar
5 rem in any one year. The recommended limit for th<
general public is 0.5 rem in one year for individuals but i:
restricted to only 0.17 rem per year as an average for popu
-------
Categories of Pollutants/273
lations. The lower level permitted for populations is to re-
duce the possibility of genetic changes becoming established.
Compared with the experimental data available for
warm-blooded animals, only a meager amount of informa-
tion is available on chronic dose-effect relationships for
aquatic forms. The preponderance of available data indi-
cates, however, that no effects are discernible on either indi-
vidual aquatic organisms or on populations of organisms at
dose rates as high as several rads per week. In populations of
wild species, genetic damage may be removed by natural
selection and somatically weakened individuals are prob-
ably eaten by predators. Consequently, aquatic organisms
adversely affected by radiation are not readily recognized
in the field.
The natural populations of fish that have probably sus-
tained the greatest exposure to man-made radioactive ma-
terials are those near major atomic energy installations, for
example, in the Columbia River near Hanford; in White
Oak Creek and White Oak Lake, near Oak Ridge; and in
the Irish Sea near Windscale, England. Small fish which
received chronic irradiation of about 10.9 rads per day from
radioisotopes in the sediments of White Oak Creek produced
larger broods but with a higher incidence of abnormal em-
bryos (Blaylock and Mitchell 1969).385 Chironomid larvae
living in the bottom sediments and receiving about five
rads per week had an increased frequency of chromosomal
aberrations but the abundance of the worms was not af-
fected. The stocks of plaice in the vicinity of the Windscale
outfall have been unaffected by annual dose rates of about
10 rads per year—primarily from the bottom sediments
(Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 1967).392
Columbia River salmon spawning in the vicinity of the
Hanford outfalls have been unaffected by doses in the range
of 100 to 200 millirads per week (Watson and Templeton
in press).402 These observations on chronic exposure of
aquatic organisms provide a subjective assessment of radia-
tion sensitivities in natural populations but are not suffi-
ciently definitive to form the basis for the development of
water quality recommendations.
Restrictions on Radioactive Materials
The amounts of radioactive materials present in water
must be restricted in order to assure that populations of or-
ganisms are not damaged by ionizing radiation and also to
limit the amount of radioactive material reaching man via
aquatic food chains. Permissible rates of intake of the vari-
ous radioisotopes by man have been calculated so that the
resulting annual dose is no greater than the recommended
limit. Therefore, when the rate of consumption of aquatic
organisms is determined, e.g., pounds offish or shellfish per
year, maximum concentrations of radionuclides permissible
in the edible parts of the organisms can be computed. These
maximum concentrations are well below the concentrations
which have produced detectable effects on natural aquatic
populations. It is probable that the aquatic environment
will be protected by the restrictions currently imposed on
the basis of human health.
The regulations which serve to protect man from radia-
tion exposure are the result of years of intensive studies on
the biological effects of radiation. Vast amounts of informa-
tion have been considered by the International Commission
on Radiological Protection (ICRP) (I960,389 1964,390
1965391), the National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements (NCRP) (1959,398 1971399), and the U.S.
Federal Radiation Council (FRC) (I960,387 1961388), in
developing recommendations on the maximum doses of
radiation that people may be allowed to receive under
various circumstances or that may occur in water. The
Drinking Water Standards (U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962400) and
the Code of Federal Regulations (1967)386 are responsive to
the recommendations of the FRC, ICRP, and NCRP, and
provide appropriate protection against unacceptable radia-
tion dose levels to people where drinking water is the only
significant source of exposure above natural background.
Where fish or other fresh or marine products that have
accumulated radioactive materials are used as food by hu-
mans, the concentrations of the radiosiotopes in the water
must be further restricted to ensure that the total intake of
radioisotopes from all sources will not exceed the recom-
mended levels.
Conclusions
Previous attempts to restrict radioactive discharges to
marine environments have resulted in recommended maxi-
mum permissible concentrations in sea water (National
Academy of Sciences 1959a,394 1959b,395 1962,396 1971397).
These recommendations are most useful as a first approxi-
mation in predicting safe rates of discharge of radioactive
wastes, but their applicability as water quality recommenda-
tions is limited and they are not intended for general use in
fresh or estuarine waters where the concentrations of a great
variety of chemical elements vary widely.
Three approaches to the control of levels of radioactivity
in the aquatic environment have been used: (1) controlling
the release of radioactivity based upon the specific activity
approach—the ratio of the amount of radioactive isotope
present to the total amount of the element (microcuries per
milligram) (National Academy of Sciences 1962),396 (2)
relating the effects of radiation upon aquatic organisms
caused by a given concentration of a radioisotope or com-
binations of radioisotopes in the water, and (3) restricting
concentrations of radioisotopes to those permitted in water
and food for human consumption.
Since concentrations of stable elements vary from one
body of water to another, and with time, and since adequate
data are not available to relate effects of radiation upon
aquatic organisms to specific levels of radioactivity in the
water, restrictions contained in the Code of Federal Regu-
-------
274/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
lations (1967)386 on liquid effluents are considered adequate
to safeguard aquatic organisms.
Because it is not practical to generalize on the extent to
which many of the important radioisotopes will be concen-
trated by aquatic organisms, nor on the extent to which
they will be used for food by people, no attempt is made
here to specify maximum permissible concentrations (MFC)
for water in reference to uptake by the organisms. Rather,
each case requires a separate evaluation that takes into ac-
count the peculiar features of the region. Such an evaluation
should be approved by an agency of the State or Federal
Government in each instance of radioactivity contamina-
tion in the environment. In each particular instance of pro-
posed contamination, there must be a determination of the
organisms present, the extent to which these organisms
concentrate the ratioisotopes, and the extent to which man
uses the organisms as food. The rates of release of radio-
isotopes must be based on this information.
Recommendation
Aquatic organisms concentrate radioisotopes to
various degrees in their tissues. The concentration
in sea water should be low enough so that the con-
centration in any aquatic species will not exceed
Radiation Protection Guides of the U.S. Federal
Radiation Council (1961)401 for organisms harvested
for use as human food. This recommendation is
based upon the assumption that radiation levels
which are acceptable as human food will not injure
the aquatic organisms including wildlife.
SEWAGE AND NUTRIENTS
Magnitude of the Problem
The discharge of municipal sewage is a major factor
affecting the water quality of receiving systems. Because
the amount of municipal waste produced is directly related
to the human population, the unit emission rates together
with information on the number of people using a system
provide an accurate estimate of the load that is imposed on
a particular estuary or section of coastal water.
The effect of sewage discharges on water quality varies
widely and depends on (1) its composition and content of
toxic materials, (2) the type and degree of treatment prior
to discharge, (3) the amount released, (4) the hydrody-
namics of the receiving waters, and (5) the response of the
ecosystem. Increasing human population and affluence
have resulted in increasing amounts of domestic and in-
dustrial wastes. However, because the kind and degree of
treatment often can be improved, it should be possible to
cope with this pollution problem and to maintain or im-
prove the quality of the marine environment.
In most cases the discharge of sewage effluent is inten-
tional and the source of sewage and sewage treatment.
products entering marine ecosystems can be described more
TABLE IV-8—Average Sewage Emissions for a Densely
Populated Area
Constituent
Mass emission rate (tons/day)" Unit emission rate (Ib/capita/da
Dissolved solids
Suspended solids
BOD
Total nitrogen (N)
Phosphate (Po<)
:|,600
565
560
1E5
100
1.03
0.162
0.160
0.047
0.029
« For 700 mgd of sewage; population of 7 million.
NAS-NRC Committee on Oceanography 1970"'.
accurately than the sources of other pollutants entering th
ecosystem. The volume of discharges and certain aspects c
their composition, specifically, the amount of organic mai
ter and the inorganic nutrients, can be monitored contim.
ously by existing automated methods. Average values fc
some important constituents and their emission rates in
densely populated coastal area are given in Table IV-8.
Runoff from agriculture areas is an important factor i
the nutrient enrichment of freshwater systems, but it is le
important to marine systems because relatively fewer farn
are concentrated on estuaries and coasts. Nevertheless, agr
cultural practices should be considered. Pesticides, ferti
izers and animal wastes may be carried by rivers int
estuaries. Runoff from duck farms was involved in a stud
on excessive nutrient enrichment by Ryther (1954).4
Commoner (1970)404 has emphasized that in the Unite
States during the last twenty-live years the amount of n
trogen used in agriculture has increased fourteenfold whi
the amount of nitrogen released via sewage has increase
only seventy per cent.
In addition to degradable organic materials derived froi
fecal and food wastes, municipal sewage also contains
wide variety of''exotic" or synthetic materials that are noi
degradable or degrade slowly and only under special cond
tions (e.g., petroleum residues, dissolved metals, detergent
dyes, solvents, and plasticizers). Some of these adverse
affect the biota of receiving waters, and many interfere wi1
the biological degradation of organic matter either in ti-
treatment plant or in the environment. Because was
treatment technology currently in use is designed to tre;
the fecal and food materials derived from organic waste
an operational definition of municipal sewage "exotics"
all those materials not derived from fecal or food source
If the exotic materials accumulate in the receiving ecosy
tern, the capacity for recycling of the degradable organ
materials may be reduced.
Oxygen Depletion
Efficient biological degradation of organic materials n
quires dissolved oxygen, and overload of sewage in receivir
waters can result in oxygen depletion and secondary effec
such as objectionable odors, plant and animal die-off, an
-------
Categories of Pollutants/'21'5
generally decreased rates of biological degradation. Such
effects can also be created by excessive algal growth and
subsequent die-off.
The most widely used method for estimating the organic
pollution load of a waste is the 5 day Biochemical Oxygen
Demand Test (BOD5). Discussions of the test (Fair et al.
1968,407 Standard Methods 1971403) and its limitations
(Wilhm and Dorris 1968426) are available. Among the im-
portant limitations of the BOD5 are: it does not indicate the
presence of organics which are not degraded under the pre-
scribed conditions; it assumes that no toxic or inhibitory
materials will affect microbial activity; and it does not
measure the nitrogeneous oxygen demand of the organic
waste. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an alternate
procedure for determining the amount of oxidizable ma-
terial in a water sample. However, it does not indicate the
nature of biological oxygen consumption in a given time,
and it does not distinguish between inorganically and or-
ganically oxidizable materials. Both BOD6 and COD
measurements must be recognized as being only partial
descriptions of the sewage load of a receiving water. While
BOD& and COD measurements are useful for evaluating
treatment systems, these two measurements do not ade-
quately assess the environmental impact of a given sewage
load (Wilhm and Dorris 1968).426
Excessive Nutrient Enrichment
Marine plants, like those on land and in fresh water, re-
quire fertilizing elements essential for their growth and re-
production. These essential elements are natural constitu-
ents of municipal sewage and the amount that can be added
to the marine environment without deleterious effect is de-
termined by the stimulated growth of aquatic plants. Even
if the major share of the organic material is removed from
the sewage in treatment plants, the growth of normal
marine plants can increase if the fertilizing elements present
in sewage are added to the environment. Sewage treatment
plants are designed to remove the organic material and the
suspended solids and to decrease the bacterial population
by disinfection. In most cases, this is done by processes that
release or "mineralize" the plant nutrients which then stim-
ulate the growth of algae in the receiving waters. In only a
few cases have efforts been made to remove these fertilizers
from the effluent to prevent or reduce the excessive growth
of plants in the aquatic environment.
In the marine environment, growth of phytoplankton is
commonly limited by the availability of essential nutrients,
the most important of which are phosphorus and nitrogen
in available forms. In some cases, shortages of silicate can
inhibit the growth of the diatoms and encourage growth of
other species. In certain limited areas, other elements such
as iron and manganese have been reported as limiting
growth of algae, and the presence or absence of other
growth stimulating substances, such as vitamin B12, can in-
fluence both the amount and the character of plant species
capable of growing. It should be noted that in the marine
environment, several elements essential for plant growth
such as potassium, magnesium, and sulfur, are present in
great excess.
Organic material produced by natural phytoplankton
populations produces an oxygen demand when the material
is consumed or decomposed. Oxygen is produced by the
process of photosynthesis, but this production occurs only
near the surface during daylight when the amount of light
penetrating the water is adequate. Due to the sedimentation
of dead organic particulate material, decomposition usually
takes place in the deep waters where photosynthetically pro-
duced oxygen is not available.
The amount of organic material which can be produced
by marine phytoplankton as a result of the addition of
fertilizing elements is dependent upon the composition of
the organic material. Redfield et al. (1963)420 give the fol-
lowing ratios as characteristic of living populations in the
sea and of the changes which occur in amounts of various
elements left in water as a result of algal growth
AO: AC:
276: 106:
138: 40:
AN : AP =
16 : 1 by atoms or
7J^: 1 by weight
In addition to the readily available forms of phosphorus
and nitrogen (dissolved orthophosphate, ammonia, nitrite,
and nitrate), organic forms of phosphorus and nitrogen may
be made available by bacterial decomposition. Some dis-
solved organic nitrogen compounds are also available for
direct assimilation.
It should be emphasized that these ratios are not con-
stant in the rigorous sense of the stoichiometric ratios in
chemistry. The plant cells can both enjoy a "luxury" con-
sumption of each element (Lund 1950)414 or survive nutri-
tional deficiencies (Ketchum 1939,410 Ketchum et al.
1949411). In terms of the total production of organic ma-
terial these variations are important only when concentra-
tions of the elements are unusually low. It has been shown,
for example, in New England coastal waters that nitrogen is
almost completely removed from the sea water when there
is still a considerable amount of phosphorus available in the
system. Under these circumstances the plants will continue
to assimilate phosphorus, even though total production of
organic matter is limited by the nitrogen deficiency
(Ketchum et al. 1958,412 Ryther and Dunstan 197 1423).
The amount of oxygen dissolved in sea water at equi-
librium with the atmosphere is determined by salinity and
temperature. Nutrient elements added to the marine en-
vironment should be limited so that oxygen content of the
water is not decreased below the criteria given in the dis-
cussion of Dissolved Oxygen in this Section. In many pol-
luted estuaries, the amount of fertilizing elements added in
municipal sewage is sufficient to produce enough organic
material to completely exhaust the oxygen supply during
decomposition. The oxygen content of sea water and of
-------
276/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
fresh water at equilibrium with the atmosphere is presented
for different temperatures in Table IV-9. For the purposes
of this table, a sea water of 30 parts per thousand (9f)o)
salinity has been used, which is characteristic of the near-
shore coastal waters. The salinity effect on concentration of
oxygen at saturation is minor compared to effects of tem-
perature in the normal ranges found in coastal waters.
From the ratios of elements given above and the satura-
tion values for oxygen, one can derive the effect of nutrient
enrichment of marine waters. For example, from an addi-
tion of phosphorus and available nitrogen to final concen-
trations of 50 and 362.5 micrograms per liter respectively
in the receiving water, enough organic material could be
produced to remove 6.9 milligrams per liter of oxygen from
the water. Data in Table IV-9 indicate that sea water with
a salinity of 30 %o and a temperature of 25 C will contain,
at saturation, 6.8 milligrams of oxygen per liter. This con-
centration of nutrients would thus permit the system to be-
come anoxic and would violate the requirement that oxygen
not be changed beyond levels expressed in the section on
Dissolved Oxygen. Fresh water would contain 8.1 mg/1 of
oxygen at saturation at 25 C, so that the same amount of
nutrient addition would remove 84 per cent of the available
oxygen.
The example used might be considered to set an upper
limit on the amount of these nutrients added to water. The
actual situation is, of course, much more complicated. It is
clear from the data in Table IV-9 that summer conditions
place the most stringent restrictions on nutrient additions to
the aquatic environment. Furthermore, the normal content
of nutrients in the natural environment has to be considered.
If these were already high, the amount of nutrients that
could be added would have to be reduced. As mentioned
above, the ratio of elements present in the natural environ-
ment would also be important. Nitrogen is frequently the
element in minimum supply relative to the requirement of
the phy toplankton, and addition of excess phosphorus under
these circumstances has less influence than addition of nitro-
gen. Differences in the ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus may
also modify the type of species present. Ryther (1954),422
for example, found that unusually low nitrogen to phos-
phorus ratios in Moriches Bay and Great South Bay on
Long Island, New York, encourage the growth of micro-
TABLE IV-9—Effects of Salinity and Temperature on the
Oxygen Content of Water in Equilibrium with Air at
Atmospheric Pressure
Temperature C
Salinity o/oo
Oxygen mg/l
Salinity °/oo
Oxygen mg/l
25
20
10
0
30
30
30
30
6.8 0
7.4 0
9.1 0
11.65 0
1.1
8.9
10.9
14.15
Richards and Corwin 1956«>.
scopic forms of Nannochloris atomus at the expense of tl
diatoms normally inhabiting this estuary.
Many forms of blue-green algae are capable of fixii
nitrogen from the gaseous nitrogen dissolved in sea watt
Nitrogen deficiencies could be replenished by this mech
nism so that decrease in phosphorus content without co
comitant decrease in nitrogen content might still lead
overenrichment, as well as shift the dominant phytoplar
ton population.
Oxygen content of upper water layers can be increased
exchanges with the atmosphere. This process is proportioi
to the partial pressure of oxygen in the two systems so ti-
the more oxygen deficient the water becomes, the me
rapid is the rate of replacement of oxygen in the water
atmospheric oxygen. Finally, mixing and dilution of t
contaminated water with adjacent bodies of water COL
make additional oxygen available. All of these variab
must be considered in order 10 determine acceptable lev
at which nutrients present in sewage can be added to
aquatic environment. In fad, many polluted estuaries
ready contain excessive amouits of these fertilizing clcmci
as a result of pollution by municipal sewage.
The effects of ratios of elements discussed above have
very important bearing upon some of the methods of cc
trol. For example, the removal of phosphates alone from t
sewage will have an effect upon the processes of ovi
enrichment only if phosphorus is indeed the element lim
ing production of organic matter. When nitrogen is lim
ing, as it is in New England coastal waters according
Ryther and Dunstan (1971),423 the replacement of phi
phorus by nitrogen compounds, such as nitrilotriacet;
(NTA) could be more damaging to the ecosystem than cc
tinued use of phosphate-basei 1 detergents.
Pathogenic Microorganisms
The fecal coliform index is the most widely used mic
biological index of sanitary quality of an estuary. Fc
coliform indices represent & compromise between the id
of direct determination of bacterial and viral pathogens
time-consuming laboratory procedures, and the indire
less indicative but practical exigencies. Laboratory methc
for quantitative enumeration of virus currently are bei
developed and their present status is one of promise, t
more time is needed for their evaluation. Bacterial pathoe
detection frequently requires special laboratory attention.
Virus, in general, may exhibit considerably longer si
vival times in water and shellfish as compared to fei
coliform bacteria. Under these circumstances a negative
coli test can give a false impression of the absence of vi
pathogens (Slanetz et al. 1965,424 Metcalf and Stiles 196841
Fecal coliform multiplication may possibly occur in p
luted waters leading to further difficulties in interpret!
sanitary quality.
Disinfection of waste water1 by chlorine is effective in i
moving most pathogenic bacteria but unpredictable in i
-------
Categories of Pollutants/211
ducing the number of viruses. Differences in resistance of
bacteria and virus to chlorination may result in the appear-
ance of infectious virus in treated effluents devoid of bac-
teria. Failure to demonstrate the presence of viruses would
be the best way to insure their absence, but such capability
awaits development of methods adequate for quantitative
enumeration of virus in water.
The pollution of estuaries with waste products has led to
the contamination of shellfish with human pathogenic
bacteria and viruses. Outbreaks of infectious hepatitis and
acute gastroenteritis derived from polluted shellfish have
reinforced concern over the dangers to public health associ-
ated with the pollution of shellfish waters. The seriousness of
viral hepatitis as a world problem has been documented by
Mosle\ and Kenclrick (1969).416 Transmission of infectious
hepatitis as a consequence of sewage-polluted estuaries has
occurred through consumption of virus-containing shellfish,
cither raw or improperly cooked. Nine outbreaks of infec-
tious hepatitis have been attributed to shellfish (Liu 1970).413
Contamination of water b\ sewage leads to the closing of
oyster beds to commercial harvesting, clem ing public use
of a natural resource and causing economic repercussions
in the shellfish industry. (See the discussion of Shellfish in
Section I on Recreation and Aesthetics.)
Sludge Disposal into Marine Waters
Dumping of sewage sludge in the ocean continues and this
practice, although at present indispensable, constitutes a
loss of one resource and potential danger for another. A
study 011 the New York Bight sludge and spoil dumping
area has sho\\n that an accumulation of toxic metals and
petroleum materials appear to have reduced the abundance
of the benthic invertebrates that normally rework the sedi-
ments in a health} bottom community (Pearcc 1969).4UI
Deep Sea Dumping
Biological degradation of organic waste materials is gcn-
eralK affected by micro-biota and chcmophysical environ-
mental factors. The deep sea is increasingly considered for
the disposal of organic \\aste materials. A recent study
( Jannnsch et al. 1971)41'1' has shown that rates of bacterial
activitx in degrading organic materials was slowed by
about t\\o orders of magnitude at depths of 5,000 to 15,000
feet as compared to samples kept at equal temperatures
(38 F) in the laboratory. Since fa) the disposal of organic
wastes should be designed on the basis of rapid decomposi-
tion and rec\clin», and (b) there is no control of the pro-
cesses following deep-sea disposal, this environment cannot
be considered a suitable or safe dumping site.
Potential Beneficial Uses of Sewage
Light loads of cither organic-rich raw sewage or nutrient-
rich biological treatment (secondary) effluent increase bio-
logical productivity. Except for short-term data on increased
fish and shellfish production, beneficial effects have rarely-
been sufficiently documented, but at the present time several
active research programs are underway. Some degree of
nutrient enrichment exists today in most estuaries close to
centers of populations. These estuaries remain relatively
productive and useful for fishing and recreation. Certain
levels of ecosystem modification via organic and nutrient
enrichment appear to be compatible with current water
uses; however, subtle changes in ecosystems may be accom-
panied by later, more extensive change.
The possibility of intensive use of essential plant nutrients
in waste material to increase the harvestable productivity
of estuarine coastal systems has been suggested as a logical
way to treat sewage and simultaneously derive an economic
benefit. Aquaculture systems would essentially be an ex-
tension of the waste treatment process. Conceptually, aqua-
culture is a form of advanced treatment. The limiting factor
involves problems presented by toxic synthetic chemicals,
petroleum, metals, and pathogenic microorganisms in
effluents of conventional biological treatment plants.
Rationale for Establishing Recommendations
It is conceptually difficult to propose a level of nutrient
enrichment that will not alter the natural flora because
seasonal phytoplankton blooms with complex patterns of
species succession are an integral part of the ecology of
estuarine and coastal waters. The timing and intensity of
blooms vary from year to year and patterns of species suc-
cession are frequently different in successive years. The
highly productive and variable ecology of estuaries makes it
difficult to differentiate between the early symptoms of arti-
ficial nutrient enrichment and natural cyclic phenomena.
In addition, there have already been major quantitative
and qualitative changes in the flora of marine waters close
to centers of population. These changes are superimposed
on the normal patterns of growth and may not in themselves
impair the recreational and commercial use of waters.
Simulation modeling has been used to predict the total
phytoplankton response to given nutrient inputs with success
by O'Connor (1965)418 and DiToro ct al. (1971)4or' in the
San Joaquin Estuary and by Dugdale and Whitledge
(1970)406 for an ocean outfall. Their models predict the
phytoplankton response from the interaction of the kind
and rate of nutrient loading and the hydrodynamic dis-
persal rates. This technique, although not perfect, facilitates
evaluation of the ecological impact of given nutrient loads,
but does not help in deciding what degree of artificial en-
richment is safe or acceptable.
Recommendations
• Untreated or treated municipal sewage dis-
charges should be recognized as a major source of
toxic substances. Recommendations for these con-
stituents will limit the amount of sewage effluent
that can be dispersed into estuaries. Reduced
degradation rates of highly dispersed materials
-------
278/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
should be considered if the effluent contains re-
fractory organic material. Undegradable synthetic
organic compounds do not cause oxygen depletion
but can still adversely affect the ecosystem. Main-
tenance of dissolved oxygen standards will not pre-
vent the potentially harmful buildup of these
materials. Specific quantitative analyses should be
done to identify and assess the abundance of these
compounds.
• The addition of any organic waste to the ma-
rine environment should be carefully controlled to
avoid decomposition which would reduce the oxy-
gen content of the water below the levels specified
in the recommendations for oxygen.
• Neither organic matter nor fertilizers should
be added that will induce the production of organic
matter by normal biota to an extent causing an
increase in the size of any natural anoxic zone in
the deeper waters of an estuary.
• The natural ratios of available nitrogen to
total phosphorus should be evaluated under each
condition, and the element actually limiting plant
production should be determined. Control of the
amount of the limiting element added to the water
will generally control enrichment.
. If the maximum amounts of available nitrogen
and phosphorus in domestic waste increase the
concentration in receiving waters to levels of 50
micrograms per liter of phosphorus and 360 micro-
grams per liter of nitrogen, enough organic matter
would be produced to exhaust the oxygen content
of the water, at the warmest time of the year under
conditions of poor circulation, to levels below those
recommended (see p. 275). These concentrations of
nutrients are clearly excessive.
• The potential presence of pathogenic bacteria
and viruses must be considered in waters receiving
untreated or treated municipal sewage effluents.
The present quality standards for fecal coliform
counts (see pp. 31-32) should be observed. The
procedures for the examination of seawater and
shellfish as recommended by Hosty et al. (1970)408
should be used.
• Disposal of sludge into coastal waters may ad-
versely affect aquatic organisms, especially the
bottom fauna. Periodic examination samples
should determine the spread of such an operation
to aid in the control of local waste material loads.
The probable transport by currents should be care-
fully considered. The dumping of sludge into
marine waters should be recognized as a temporary
practice.
• Disposal of organic wastes into the deep-sea is
not recommended until further studies on their
fate, their effect on the deep-sea fauna, and the
controllability of such a procedure have been com-
pleted.
SOLID WASTES, PARTICULATE MATTER, AND
OCEAN DUMPING
Disposal of solid wastes has become one of the most ur-
gent and difficult problems in crowded urban centers
Ocean disposal of these waste materials is receiving in-
creased attention as land suitable for disposal becomes in-
creasingly difficult to find.
Solid wastes are of many types and each may have a
different impact on the marine environment. Household
and commercial rubbish as wel1 as automobiles and sewage
sludge are disposed of at sea. Industrial wastes may be
either solid or dissolved material, of varying toxicity. Har-
bor channels need continuous dredging, temporarily in-
creasing the suspended sediment load, and the spoils often
are dumped in coastal waters. Building rubble and stone
also often are placed in the sea. The impact of disposal oi
these different materials into the ocean will range from
innocuous to seriously damaging.
Particulate material is also discharged to the ocean by
surface runoff, sewage outfalls, and storm sewers (Muni-
cipality of Metropolitan Seattle 1965).464 Much of this
material settles to the bottom at or near the discharge site
(Gross 1970).443 An increasingly important method of dis-
posal is that of barging solids offshore to be dumped in
coastal areas. Table IV-10 shows compilation of the amounts
of wastes barged to sea in 1968 on the Pacific, Atlantic,
and Gulf Coasts (Smith and Brown 1969).476
Dredge Spoils
Dredge spoils make up a major share of sea disposal
operations. Their composition depends upon the source
from which they were obtained. Saila et al. (1968)472 were
z ble to differentiate between dredged spoil from Providence
Harbor dumped offshore and sediments of the natural
bottom in the dumping area (Rhode Island Sound). Gross
(1970)443 suggests that dredge spoil generally consists of a
mixture of sands, silts, and wastes which form the surface
deposits in harbors. He compared minor element conccn-
TABLE IV-10~Ocean Dumping: Types and Amounts, 1968
Waste type
(In tons)
Atlantic
Gulf
Pacific
Total
Dredge spoils
Industrial wastes
Sewage sludge
Construction and demolition debris
Solid waste.
E> plosives
Total
15,808.000 15,300,000 7,320,0!
33,428,000
3,013,200
4,477,000
574,000
0
15,200
696,000
0
0
0
0
981,300
0
0
26,000
0
4,690,500
4,477,000
574,000
26,000
15,200
23,887,400
15,966,000 8,327,300 48,210,700
Council on Environmental Quality 1970'".
-------
Categories of Pollutants/279
trations in harbor sediments, dredged wastes, and conti-
nental shelf sediments. The median values of observed con-
centrations were clearly different, although the ranges of
concentrations overlapped.
The proportion of dredging spoils from polluted areas is
illustrated in Table IV-11.
A variety of coastal engineering projects involve changes
in suspended loads and sedimentation (Ippen 1966,447
Wicker 1965480). Because important biotic communities
may inhabit the sites selected for these projects, conflicts
arise concerning navigational, recreational, fisheries, con-
servation, and municipal uses of the areas (Cronin et al.
1969).436 Although our knowledge about the effects is
limited and the literature is widely scattered, Copeland
and Dickens (1969)433 have attempted to construct a picture
of how dredging affects estuarinc ecosystems from informa-
tion gathered in the upper Chesapeake Bay, Maryland,
Redfish Bay, Texas, and an intracoastal canal in South
Carolina.
The biological effects of suspended loads, sedimentation,
dredging methods and spoil disposal may range from gross
damage, such as habitat destruction and smothering, to
more subtle effects under low but chronic conditions of
sedimentation over long periods of exposure. The channeli-
zation, dumping of spoils, dredging, and filling in the Gulf
Coast estuaries had destroyed roughly 200,000 acres of
swamp, marsh, and bay bottom areas by 1968 (Chapman
1968,432 Marshall 1968459).
Mixtures of clays, silts, fine sands, and organic matter,
sometimes referred to as "faunally rich muddy sand," tend
to support larger benthic populations than coarse clean un-
stable sands, gravels, or soft muds (Carrikcr 1967)430 over
or through which locomotion may be difficult (Yonge
1953).482 Close relationships exist between the presence of
organic matter, the mechanical nature of sediments, and
infaunal feeding habits (Sanders 1956,473 1958,474 McNulty
et al. 1962,461 Brett cited by Carriker 196743rt).
Ten years after dredging Boca Ciega Ba\ invertebrate
recolonization of canal sediments (92 per cent silt and clay;
3.4 per cent carbon) was negligible. None of 49 fish species
caught in these canals (as compared to 80 species in un-
dredged areas) was demersal, apparently because of the
lack of benthic fish food organisms on or in the canal de-
TABLE IV-11—Estimated Polluted Dredge Spoils
Atlantic Coast
Gulf Coast
Pacific Coast.
Total
Total spoils (in tons)
15,808,000
15,300,000
7,320,000
38,428,000
Estimated percent of
total polluted spoils"
45
31
19
34
Total polluted spoils
(in tons)
7,120,000
4,740,000
1,390,000
13,250,000
° Estimates of polluted dredge spoils consider chlorine demand; BOD; COD; volatile solids; oil and grease;
concentrations of phosphorous, nitrogen, and iron; silica content; and color and odor of the spoils.
Council on Environmental Quality 1970"'
posits (Taylor and Saloman 1968).477 Breuer (1962)429
noted that layers of dead oyster shell in South Bay corre-
sponded to layers of deposited spoil from dredging and re-
dredging of the Brownsville Ship Channel. He thought that
this suggested destruction of South Bay oyster populations
with each dredging operation.
Pfitzenmeyer (1970)470 and Flemcr et al. (1967)441 noted
a 71 per cent reduction in average number of individuals
and a marked reduction in diversity and biomass in a spoil
area in upper Chesapeake Bay after dredging ceased. One
and one half years after dredging, the number of individuals
and species diversity of the spoil disposal area, but not in
the channel, were the same as those of the surrounding
area.
In lower Chesapeake Ba\, Harrison et al. (1964)444 ob-
served a transitory effect of a dredging and spoil disposal
operation on infauna. Resettlement of the dredged and dis-
posal areas was very rapid by active migration and hydro-
dynamic distribution of juveniles.
Mock (1967)463 noted that an unaltered shore in Clear
Lake, Texas, produced 2.5 times more post larval and ju-
venile brown shrimp (Penaein, aztecus) and 14 times more post
larval and juvenile white shrimp (Pcnaeus seltferus) than a
similar bulkhcaded shore. In a laboratory study using simi-
lar substrates, Williams' (1958)481 data suggested that the
type of substrate max exert its influence through its effect
on available cover, although a contributing factor may be
the different food content of the substrate.
Ba\less (1968)'1'27 observed higher average hatches of
striped bass eggs (Alorone saxatillis) on coarse sand (58.9 per
cent) and a plain plastic pan (60.3 per cent) than on silt-
sand (21 per cent), silt-clay-sand (4 per cent) or muck
detritus (none). These results tend to support Mansucti's
(1962)458 and Huct's (1965)44'1 contention that deposition
of suspended matter ma\ interfere with or prevent fish
reproduction by destruction of demersal eggs in upper
estuarine areas.
Sewage Sludges
Sewage sludges contain about 5 per cent solids which
consist of about 55 per cent organic matter, 45 per cent
aluminosilicates, and tend to contain concentrations of
some heavy metals at least ten times those of natural sedi-
ments (Gross 1970).443
Sewage sludge has been dumped off New York Harbor
since 1924 in the same area. Studies by Pearce (1970a,46j
b) 166 show that the normal bottom populations in an area
of about 10 square miles have been eliminated and that the
benthic community has been altered over an area of approxi-
mately 20 square miles. Even the nematodes, unusually
tolerant to pollution, are relatively scarce in the smaller
area. In areas adjacent to the sewage sludge disposal area
the sea clams have been found to be contaminated by
enteric bacteria and the harvest of these clams in this area
has been prohibited. The oxygen content of the water near
-------
280/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
the bottom is very low, less than 10 per cent of saturation
in August, the warmest time of year. Chemical analysis of
the sludge deposits have shown not only high organic con-
tent but also high concentrations of heavy metah and
petrochemicals. In this area of the New York Bight, fin-rot
disease of fish has been observed and is being investigated
(Pearce 1970b).466 In laboratory tests it has been shown
that sludge deposits can cause necrosis of lobster (Hnmarus
amencamis) and crab shells and tend to clog their gills so
that survival of these species in contact with the sludge de-
posits is very brief. In other laboratory experiments, orga-
nisms given a choice of substrate tend to avoid the sludge
material in favor of the walls of the container or other sur-
faces that were made available (Pearce 1970b).466 These
studies have indicated that the disposal of sewage sludge
has had disastrous ecological effects on the populations
living on or near the bottom.
Many aspects associated with sludge dumping in the
New York Bight require further investigation. It is not
known, for example, how much of the material being
dumped there is accumulating and how much is being de-
composed. The effects of heavy metals, of oxygen-demand-
ing materials, and of other components are imperfectly
understood. When the rate of deliver) of organic waste
materials to an aquatic environment exceeds its capacity to
recover, the rate of deterioration can be rapid. If, or when,
sewage sludge disposal in this particular area of the New
York Bight is terminated studies could determine whether
the bottom populations can repopulale the area.
Solid Wastes
The amount of household and commercial rubbish to be
disposed of in the United States is about 5 Ibs per capita
per clay and is expected to increase to 7-J/2 I'38 Pcr capita
per day (for a larger population), by the end of the present
decade. Proposals have been made to collect and bale
waste for transportation to the sea where it would be
dumped in waters 1000 meters deep or more. It would be
necessary that the bales be compacted to a density greater
than sea water so that they would sink, and that no loose
floating objects would be released from the bale. Among
the suggestions made is that the bales be wrapped in plastic
to avoid any leaching from the contents.
Pearce (1971)4()S reports that bales of compacted garbage
wrapped in plastic and reinforced paper disintegrated in a
few weeks when placed in water 10 to 20 meters deep off
the coast of New Jersey. Compacted bales of refuse were
also anchored at a depth of 200 meters off the Virgin Islands
Pearce (1970c).167 These were retrieved and inspected after
approximately three months of exposure. Little growth had
occurred on the surface of the bales, but some polychaete
worms had penetrated the bales to a depth of 2-3 cm., and
the material within the bale had decomposed to a limited
extent. Relatively high counts of total coliform bacteria
(96,000 Most Probable Number, MPN) and of fecal coli-
forms (1,300 MPN) were found in materials retrieved fror
the interior of the bales, indicating prolonged survival o
growth of these nonmarine forms and suggesting a possibl
hazard of introduction of pathogens to the sea. The ecc
logical effects of disposing oi these materials are inade
quately known.
Disposal of solid wastes, including dredging spoils an
sewage sludge into the deep waters off the edge of the Cont;
nental Shelf (more than 200 meters) has been frequent!
suggested as a way to protect the inshore biota. Howevei
the rate of decomposition of organic material at the hig
pressure and low temperature of the deep sea is very muc
slower than it would be at the same low temperature a
atmospheric pressure (Jannasch et al. 1971).4'19 The orga
nisms in the deep sea have evolved in an extremely constan
environment. They are, therefore, unaccustomed to the un
usual stresses which confront organisms in more variabl
situations typical of coastal waters. Biologists interested i
studying the bottom populations of the deep sea are e:*
tremely concerned about altering these populations befor
there is an opportunity to study them thorough!1,'.
Industrial Wastes
A wide variety of industrial waste is being dumped a
sea. If this is discharged as a solution or slurry from a mov
ing ship or barge it will be diluted in the turbulent wak
and by the normal turbulence of the sea (Ford and Ketchur
1952).4I'2 The recommendations for mixing zones (p. 23 I
and for the constituents of specific waste material includei
should be applied to each such operation.
One such operation which has been extensively studiei
is the disposal of acid-iron wastes in the New York Bigh
(Redfield and \Valford 1951,4n Ketchum et al. 1951,"•'
Yacarro ct al. 1972,47S \Vicbe et al. in [ires'! 1972479). Evei
though this disposal lias proceeded for over twenty year;
no adverse effects on the marine biota have been demon
strated. The acid is rapidly neutralized by sea water and th
iron is precipitated as nontoxic ferric hydroxide. This is
flocculant precipitate and 1he only accumulation abov
normal background levels in the sediments appears to be ii
the upper end of the Hudson Cam on, close to the specific!
dumping area. The so-called "acid grounds" have becoin
a favored area among local blue fishermen. More toxi
materials would clearly present an entirely different set o
problems. This illustrates the need for a rational approacl
to problems of ocean dumping,
Other Solid Wastes
Automobiles are sometimes dumped at sea, and somi
work has been done on an experimental basis in an effor
to determine whether artificial reefs can be created frori
them to improve sport fishing. There is evidence that thi
number of fish caught over these artificial reefs is greate
than over a flat level bottom, but it is not yet certain whethe
-------
Categories of Pollutants; 281
this represents an aggregation of fishes already in the area
or an actual increase in productivity.
Disposal of building rubble (brick, stone, and mortar)
at sea is not widely practiced. Presumably, this material
could form artificial reefs and attract populations of fish,
both as a feeding ground and by providing some species
with cover. Obviously, the bottom organisms present would
be crushed or buried, but Pearce (1970a,465 b)466 found no
permanent detrimental effects in the building rubble dis-
posal site off New York City.
Suspended Particulate Materials
In addition to specific waste disposal operations, sus-
pended particulate material, scston, may be derived from
other sources, and have a variety of biological effects. Par-
ticulate material can originate from detritus carried by
rivers, atmospheric fallout, biological activity, chemical re-
actions, and resuspension from the bottom as a result of
currents, storms, or dredging operations. The particles intro-
duced by rivers can be rock, mineral fragments, and clay
serving as a substrate for microorganisms or affecting light
transmission in the water column. In addition, organic
matter fragments, which make up 20 to 40 per cent of
particles in coastal waters (Biggs 1970,12S Manheim et al.
19704;'7) may comprise 50 per cent to 80 per cent of sus-
pended material further offshore. Particle concentrations
generally range from 1 to 30 mg 1 in coastal \\ aters to about
0.1 to 1 mg/1 at the surface in the open ocean. Higher con-
centrations occur near the bottom.
The estimated yearly sediment load from rivers to the
world oceans is estimated at 20 to 36 X 10s tons \sith 80 per
cent originating in Asia (Holeman 1968).44:' Much of this
load is trapped in estuaries and held inshore b\ the general
landward direction of subsurface coastal currents (Meade
1969).46'2 Gross (1970)443 suggests that 90 per cent or more
of particles originating from rivers or discharged to the
oceans settles out at the discharge site or never leaves the
coastal zone.
Average seston values may more than double from natural
causes during a tidal c\cle. Biggs (1970)42S observed con-
centrations in the upper Chesapeake Bay ranging from less
than 20 mg 1 to greater than 100 mg 1 during a single day.
Resuspension of bottom sediments by storm waves and cur-
rents induced by wind were responsible for this range of
concentrations. Masch and Espey (1967) 16° found that the
total suspended material concentrations in Galvcston Bay,
Texas, ranged from 72 mg/1 in the surface water of the
ship channel to over 150 g/1 six inches above the bay bot-
tom near dredging operations. Normal background concen-
trations in Galvcston Bay during times of strong wind action
were 200 to 400 mg/1. Background values observed by
Mackin (1961)456 in Louisiana marshes ranged from 20 to
200 mg/1. Depending on the amount of overburden, opera-
tion times, and rate of discharges, Masch and Espey
(1967)460 recorded suspended fixed solids concentrations in
dredge discharges ranging from 3,000 to 29,100 mg/1.
The basic relationships between physical and chemical
aspects of suspended and deposited sediments and the re-
sponses of estuarinc and marine organisms are poorly under-
stood (Shcrk 1971).47;> However, there is general agree-
ment that particulate material in suspension or settling on
the bottom can afifect aquatic organisms both directly and
indirectly, by mortality or decreased yield.
Particles suspended in the water column can decrease
light penetration by absorption and scattering and thus
limit primary productivity. Resuspcnclecl sediments exert
an oxygen demand on the order of eight times that of the
same material in bottom deposits (Isaac 1965).41S Jitts
(1959)45" found that 80 to 90 per cent of phosphate in solu-
tion was absorbed by silt suspensions which might also
modify the rate of primary production. However, exchange
rates and capacity of sediment can maintain a favorable
level of phosphate (1 micromole 1) for plant production
(Pomcroy ct al. 1965)."'9 Carritt and Goodgal (1954)431
postulated a mechanism for phosphate removal, transport,
and regeneration by the sediment-phosphate sorption com-
plex at different temperatures, pH values, and salinities.
Evidence tends to support the contention that nutrient
fertilization and possible release of toxic materials can occur
with resuspension of bottom material in the water column
(Gross 1970).413 This may occur during dredging, disposal
and dumping operations, reagitation during storms or
floods and from beach erosion. In upper Chesapeake Bay
total phosphate and nitrogen were observed to increase
over ambient levels by factors of 50 to 1,000 near an over-
board spoil disposal project, but no gross effects were ob-
served in samples incubated with water from the spoil
effluent (Flemer et al. 1967,441 Flemer 197044").
Oyster and clam eggs and larvae demonstrate a remark-
able ability to tolerate the variable turbidities of the estu-
arine environment at concentrations up to 4.0 g 1 (Carriker
1967,430 Davis and Hidu 196943S). Survival and growth of
these egg and larval stages reported by Davis (I960)437
and Loosanoff (1962),4r>2 however, indicated a significant
effect on survival at suspended particle concentrations of as
little as 125 mg/1. Earlier life stages of the oyster tend to be
more sensitive to lower concentrations of suspended ma-
terial than adults. However, the effects on survival and
growth cannot wholly be attributed to particle sizes and
concentrations since different particle t\ pes may have
markedly different effects at similar concentrations. The
adult American oyster (Ctauvstrea vngnuca) appears to be a
remarkably silt-tolerant organism when not directly smoth-
ered by deposited sediments (Lunz 1938,1''4 1942lr>r>). Sig-
nificantly, mortality of adult oysters was not evident with
suspended sediment concentrations as high as 700 mg/1
(Mackin 1961),456 but there was a drastic reduction in
pumping rates (57 per cent at 100 mg/1 of silt) observed
by Loosanoff and Tommers (1948)453 and Loosanoff
-------
2ti2/Section IV—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
(1962452). Apparently adult oysters may pump at reduced
rates throughout most of their lives when the background
suspended particulate matter persists at values observed by
Biggs (1970)428 and Masch and Espey (1967460).
Organisms that colonize hard surfaces must contend with
a sediment mat of varying thickness. While motile fauna
may be able to adjust to short range vertical bottom altera-
tions from scour or deposition, ". . . the capacity and be-
havior of less motile estuarine benthos in adjustment to
relatively rapid fluctuations in the bottom level are little
known. Fixed epifauna, like oysters and barnacles, perish
when covered by sediment, adjustment occurring only in-
directly through later repopulation of the area from else-
where" (Carriker 1967).430
The highly variable nature of suspended loads (Biggs
1970),428 the resuspension of bottom accumulations by cur-
rents, tidal action and wind, and the feeding and filtering
activities of benthic organisms complicate the determination
of threshold values or limiting conditions for aquatic or-
ganisms. Data are difficult to compare because of differences
in methods and approaches. This may indicate a lack of
understanding of sedimentation and the difficulty in dis-
tinguishing between the effect of light attenuation by sus-
pended particles and the effects of these particles on growth
and physiology of estuarine and marine organisms (Muni-
cipality of Metropolitan Seattle 1965).464 The observed
responses of organisms may not be due to turbidity or total
suspended sediment concentration, but to the number of
particles, their densities, sizes, shapes, types, presence and
types of organic matter and the sorptive properties of the
particles.
Physical alterations in estuaries and offshore dumping
have had obvious effects on estuarine and marine biological
resources. These effects have been given little consideration
in project planning, however, and little information exists
concerning the magnitude of biological change because few
adequate studies have been attempted (Sherk 1971).47f>
Areas of high biological value, such as nursery grounds or
habitats for commercially important species, must be pro-
tected from sediment damage (Municipality of Metropoli-
tan Seattle 1965).464 For example, the exceptionally high
value of the Upper Chesapeake as a low salinity fish nursery
area has been demonstrated (Dovel 1970).439 Larvae and
eggs are particularly sensitive to environmental conditions,
and sediment-producing activities in this t>pe of area should
be restricted to seasons or periods of least probable effects.
Results reported from the study of this area, concerning
seasonal patterns of biota, the nature of the sediments, and
physical hydrography of the area, can be applied to the
other areas being considered for dredging, disposal, and
dumping. These data, in addition to careful pre-decision
surveys or research conducted at the site under considera-
tion should provide a guide to efforts to minimize damage
and enhance desirable features of the system (Cronin
1970).435
Adequate knowledge of local conditions at sites selectee
for any sediment-producing activity is essential, however
This will generally require preproject surveys for each sitt
selected because knowledge of ecological impacts of thes(
activities is limited. Data should be obtained on th<
". . . biological values of the areas involved, seasonal pat
terns of the biota, the nature of the sediments, physica
hydrography of the area, and the precise location of pn>
ductive or potential shellfish beds, fish nursery areas anc
other areas of exceptional importance to human uses. . .'
which are close to or in the site selected (Cronin 1 970).435
Appropriate laboratory experiments are also required
These should have value in predicting effects of sedimenta
tion in advance of dredging operations. Eventually, th<
results of these experiments and field observations shouk
yield sets of environmental conditions and criteria, for ade
quate coastal zone management and competent guidance tc
preproject decision making (Sherk 1971).47"'
The presence of major benthic resources (e.g., oystei
beds, clam beds) in or near (he selected area should b<
cause for establishment of a safety zone or distance limi
between them and the sediment-producing activity. Thi.
would control mortality caused by excessive deposition o
suspended particulate material on the beds and preven
spread of spoil onto the beds from the disposal or dumpim
sites. Biggs (1970)428 found that the maximum slope o
deposited spoil was 1 :100 and the average slope was 1:50(
in the Upper Chesapeake. These slopes may prove useful it
estimating safety zone limits on relatively flat bottoms. A
times, the safety zone would have to be quite large. Fo
example, the areas in New York Bight which are devoid o
naturally occurring benthos in the sewage sludge anc
dredging spoil disposal areas were attributed to toxins, lov
dissolved oxygen, and the spreading of the deposits (Pearci
1970a).46'i The presence or g.bsence of bottom currents o
density flows should be determined (Masch and Espe-;
1967).460 If these are present, measures must be taken t<
orevent transport of deposits ashore or to areas of majo
oenthic resources.
Tolerable suspended sediment levels or ranges should ac
commodate the most sensitive life stages of biologically im
portant species. The present state of knowledge dictates tha
ihe critical organism must be selected for each site when
environmental modification is proposed.
Recommendations
The disposal of waste materials at sea, or the
transport of materials for the purpose of disposal
at sea should be controlled. Such disposal should
be permitted only when reasonable evidence is pre-
sented that the proposed disposal will not seriously
damage the marine biota, interfere with fisheries
operations or with other uses of the marine en-
vironment such as navigation and recreation, or
-------
Categories of Pollutants/283
cause hazards to human health and welfare. The
following guidelines are suggested:
• Disposal at sea of potentially hazardous ma-
terials such as highly radioactive material
or agents of chemical or biological warfare
should be avoided.
• Toxic wastes should not be discharged at sea
in a way which would adversely affect the
marine biota. The toxicity of such materials
should be established by bioassay tests and
the concentrations produced should conform
to the conditions specified in the discussion
of mixing zones (pp. 231-232).
• Disposal of materials containing settleable
solids or substances that may precipitate out
in quantities adversely affecting the biota
should be avoided in estuarine or coastal
waters.
• Solid waste disposal at sea should be avoided
if floating material might accumulate in
harbors or on the beaches or if such ma-
terials might accumulate on the bottom or
in the water column in a manner that will
deleteriously affect deep sea biota.
In connection with dredging operations or other
physical modifications of harbors and estuaries
which would increase the suspended sediment load,
the following types of investigations should be
undertaken:
• Evaluation of the range and types of parti-
cles to be resuspended and transported,
where they will settle, and what substratum
changes or modifications may be created by
the proposed activities in both the dredged
and the disposal areas.
• Determination of the biological activity of
the water column, the sediment-water inter-
face, and the substrate material to depths
which contain burrowing organisms.
• Estimation of the potential release into the
water column of sediments, those substances
originally dissolved or complexed in the
interstitial water of the sediments, and the
beneficial or detrimental chemicals sorbed
or otherwise associated with particles which
may be released wholly or partially after
resuspension.
• Establish the expected relationship between
properties of the suspended load and the
permanent resident species of the area and
their ability to repopulate the area, and the
transitory species which use the area only at
certain seasons of the year.
-------
LITERATURE CITED
INTRODUCTION
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Section V—AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 300
GENERAL FARMSTEAD USES OF WATER... 301
WATER FOR HOUSEHOLD USES AND DRINKING . . 302
WATER FOR WASHING AND COOLING RAW FARM
PRODUCTS 302
WATER FOR WASHING MILK-HANDLING EQUIP-
MENT AND COOLING DAIRY PRODUCTS 302
Recommendations 303
WATER FOR LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISES.... 304
WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR LIVESTOCK 304
Water Consumption of Animals 305
RELATION OF NUTRIENT ELEMENTS IN WATER
TO TOTAL DIET 305
EFFECT OF SALINITY ON LIVESTOCK 307
Recommendation 308
Toxic SUBSTANCES IN LIVESTOCK WATERS. . . 309
Toxic Elements and Ions 309
Aluminum 309
Recommendation 309
Arsenic 309
Recommendation 310
Beryllium 310
Boron 310
Recommendation 310
Cadmium 310
Recommendation 311
Chromium 311
Recommendation 311
Cobalt 311
Recommendation 311
Copper 311
Recommendation 312
Fluorine 312
Recommendation 312
Iron 312
Lead 312
Recommendation 313
Manganese 313
Mercury 313
Recommendation 314
Molybdenum 314
Conclusion 314
Nitrates and Nitrites
Recommendation
Selenium
Recommendation
Vanadium
Recommendation
Zinc
Recommendation
Toxic Algae
Recommendation
Radionuclides
Recommendation
PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR LIVESTOCK)
Entry of Pesticides into Water
Pesticides Occurrence in Water
Toxicological Effects of Pesticides on
Livestock
Pesticides in Drinking Water for Livestock.
Fish as Indicators of Water Safety
Recommendation
PATHOGENS AND PARASITIC ORGANISMS
Microbial Pathogens
Parasitic Organisms
WATER FOR IRRIGATION
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR IRRIGA-
TION
Effects on Plant Growth
Crop Tolerance to Salinity
Nutritional Effects
Recommendation
Temperature
Conclusion
Chlorides
Conclusion
Bicarbonates
Conclusion
Sodium
Nitrate
Conclusion
Effects on Soils
Recommendation
Pr.
3
3
3!
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
33
298
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Page
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and
Soil Aeration 330
Acidity and Alkalinity 330
Recommendation 332
Suspended Solids 332
Effect on Animals or Humans 332
Radionuclides 332
Recommendation 332
SPECIFIC IRRIGATION WATER CONSIDERATIONS. . 333
Irrigation Water Quality for Arid and
Semiarid Regions 333
Recommendation 335
Irrigation Water Quality for Humid Re-
gions 336
Recommendation 338
PHYTOTOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS 338
Aluminum 339
Recommendations 340
Arsenic 340
Recommendations 341
Beryllium 341
Recommendations 341
Boron 341
Recommendations 341
Cadmium 342
Recommendations 342
Chromium 342
Recommendations 342
Cobalt 342
Recommendations 342
Copper 342
Recommendations 343
Fluoride 343
Recommendations 343
Page
Iron 343
Recommendations 343
Lead 343
Recommendations 343
Lithium 343
Recommendations 344
Manganese 344
Recommendations 344
Molybdenum 344
Recommendations 344
Nickel 344
Recommendations 344
Selenium 345
Recommendation 345
Tin, Tungsten, and Titanium 345
Vanadium 345
Recommendations 345
Zinc 345
Recommendations 345
PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR IRRIGATION) 345
Insecticides in Irrigation Water 346
Herbicides in Irrigation Water 346
Residues in Crops 347
Recommendation 348
PATHOGENS 348
Plant Pathogens 348
Human and Animal Pathogens 350
Recommendation 351
THE USE OF WASTEWATER FOR IRRIGATION. ... 351
Wastewater From Municipal Treatment
Systems 351
Wastewater From Food Processing Plants
and Animal Waste Disposal Systems. .. . 353
Recommendations 353
LITERATURE CITED 354
299
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INTRODUCTION
Modern agriculture increasingly depends upon the
quality of its water to achieve the fullest production of
domestic plants and animals and satisfy general farmstead
needs. The quality of its water is important to modern
agriculture not only in determining the productivity of
plants and animals, but also as it affects the health and wel-
fare of the human farm population.
Irrigation is one of the largest consumers of water for
agricultural use. Differences in crop sensitivity to salinity
and toxic substances necessitate the need for evaluating
water quality criteria for irrigational purposes. Polluted
water can be detrimental to animal health and to the safety
and value of agricultural products. Good water quality is
an important factor in the health and comfort of rural
families needing water for drinking, food preparation,
bathing, and laundering.
Discussions of water quality requirements relate in turn
to problems of pollution posed by urban, industrial, and
agricultural wastes. Some naturally occuring constituents,
present in surface and groundwaters, can also adversely af-
fect agricultural uses of water. Among these substances are
suspended solids, dissolved organic and inorganic substances,
and living organisms such as toxic algae and organisms as-
sociated with food spoilage. Where undesirable natural or
foreign substances interfere with optimum water use, man-
agement and treatment practices must be implemented.
Often there are simple but effective things that a farmer or
rancher can do to manage and improve the quality of his
water supply. Although considerations of water supply
management are important, such matters are beyond the
scope of this section on Agricultural Uses of Water, whi
is restricted to the quality requirements of water i
domestic and other farmstead uses, for livestock, and for
rigation of crops.
Farmsteads typically require water at point of use,
quality equivalent to that demanded by urban populatioi
particularly for household uses, washing and cooling pt
duce, and production of milk. Water of such high quality
frequently not readily available to the farmstead and oft
can be obtained only through water treatment. In the ne
future, water treatment facilities may be a routine install
tion in any well-designed farmstead operation. It is not t
purpose of this section to elaborate upon treatment altern
tives, but satisfactory treatment possibilities do exist 1
producing from most raw water a supply that will satis
the quality needed for most agricultural uses.
The task of evaluating criteria and developing recoi
mendations is complicated by the need to consider num<
ous complex interactions. For example, it is not practi(
to discuss water quality criteria for irrigation without cc
sidering crop responses to climatic and soil factors and th
interrelationships with water Evaluation of water qual
requirements for livestock drinking water is also com]:
cated by interactions of such variables as the quantity
water consumed and an animal's sex, size, age, and diet.
should, therefore, be emphasized that evaluating criteria i
complex task, and that using the recommendations in t
report made on the basis of those criteria must be guided
expert judgment.
•iOO
-------
GENERAL FARMSTEAD USES OF WATER
This section considers quality requirements of water for
use by the human farm population and for other uses as-
sociated with agricultural operations exclusive of livestock
production and crop irrigation. Included are water for
household uses, drinking water, and water for preparing
produce and milk for marketing. For these purposes finished
water of quality at least comparable to that intended for
urban users is required at point of use.
Farmers and ranchers usually do not have access to the
large, well-controlled water supplies of most municipalities
and typically must make the best use of available surface or
groundwater supplies. But there are problems associated
with the use of these waters, which often contain objection-
able natural constituents. These may be classified as sus-
pended solids, dissolved inorganic salts and minerals, dis-
solved organic constituents, and living organisms, all of
which occur naturally and are not introduced by man or as
a result of his activities.
Suspended solids are organic and inorganic particles
found in water supplies. They include sand, which is com-
monly associated with well supplies, and silt and clay fre-
quantly found in untreated surface waters. Dissolved in-
organic salts and minerals are found in both surface and
groundwaters. Most of these are soluble salts consisting of
calcium, magnesium, and sodium with associated anions
(i.e., carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride). Great-
est concentrations are found in the waters of arid and semi-
arid regions and in brackish waters along the sea coasts. In
some western rivers total dissolved solids exceed 5,000 milli-
grams per liter (mg/1), although many contain less than
2,000 mg/1 (Livingstone 1963).24* Surface waters draining
from areas high in organic materials such as swamps and
bogs often contain dissolved organic constituents composed
mainly of hydroxy-carboxylic acids (Lamar and Goerlitz
1966,21 Lamar 196820) that impart a yellow or brown color
to the water. Coloration often ranges from 100 to 800
platinum cobalt units compared to the 15 recommended by
the federal Drinking Water Standards (Environmental
Protection Agency 1972n).t Living organisms in standing
bodies of water that impart objectionable odors and tastes
for human consumption include algae, diatoms, and proto-
zoa.
Because these constituents even in a properly protected
supply of raw water used on farmsteads cause water quality
that does not satisfactorily approximate the quality of
potable water, it may be necessary to resort to water treat-
ment. The wide range of quality characteristics associated
with raw agricultural water supplies is matched by a broad
range of water treatment methods. Microbial contaminants
such as pathogenic or food spoilage bacteria, often present
in surface waters, indicate that treatment is required to pro-
duce suitable water supplies. Treatments available include
the use of halogens or sodium hypochlorite (Bauman and
Ludwig 1962,5 Black et al. 1965,7 Kjellander and Lund
1965,17 Water Systems Council 1965-1966,41 Oliver 1966,30
Laubusch 197122), ozone (O'Donovan 1965),29 silver
(Shaw 1966,32 Behrman 19686), ultraviolet sterilization
(Kristoffersen 1958,19 Huff et al. 196514), and heat (Shaw
1966)32. Reviews of some of the problems associated with
farmstead water supplies and possible methods of treatment
are given by Wright (1956),42 Davis (I960),8 Malaney et al.
(1962),26 James (1965),15 Water Systems Council (1965-
1966),41 Elms (1966),10 Kabler and Kreissl (1966),16 Stover
(1966),33 and Atherton (1970).2 Farmers, however, should
seek expert advice in selecting from various treatment alter-
natives in order to achieve the desired quality of finished
water.
A troublesome aspect of water quality for general farm-
stead uses, particularly regarding the handling of produce
and milk, involves nonpathogenic bacterial contaminants.
Many such microorganisms including algae are found even
in properly protected agricultural water supplies (Thomas
1949,34 Walters 1964),40 and various kinds contribute to
problems of color, odor, taste, and to rapid spoilage of con-
* Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located
alphabetically within subtopics or by their superscript numbers which
run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section.
f Throughout this report, all references to the federal Drinking Water
Standards are to those published by the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, 1972.11
301
-------
302/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
laminated products (American Water Works Assoc. Com-
mittee on Tastes and Odors 1970,1 Mackenthun and Keup
1970).25 For example, offensive odors are often attributable
to sulfate-reducing bacteria (Lewis 1965).23 Victoreen
(1969)39 discussed water coloration probloms caused by
Arthrobacter, a species of soil bacteria. Growths of "iron
bacteria" in pipes may result in slimy masses that clog
pipes and produce undesirable flavors (Kabler and Kreissl
1966).16 Ropy milk, i.e., milk that forms threads or viscous
masses when poured or dipped, is a typical problem often
attributable to contaminated water (Thomas 1949,34 Davis
I9608).
Psychrophilic bacteria can affect the storage quality of
milk and other food products (Davis I960,8 Malaney et al.
1962,26 Ayres 1963,4 Thomas et al. 1966).36 Similarly,
thermoduric microorganisms are a problem in some farm-
stead water supplies, since they can withstand milk pas-
teurization temperatures and lead to spoilage (Thomas
1949,34 Davis I960,8 Malaney et al. 1962).26 Numerical
recommendations for permissible levels of these and other
nonpathogenic organisms have little current usefulness,
because approximately 170 species of bacteria arc known to
occur in raw water supplies, and only half of them are ob-
served during routine bacteriological examinations (Thomas
1949,34 Malaney et al. 196226). Similarly minimal contami-
nation of perishable raw food materials with small residues
of rinse water or splash can result in rapid growth under
suitable temperature conditions to cause early spoilage of a
high quality product.
Malaney et al. (1962)26 stated that simple, commonly
used water treatment processes render raw water supplies
suitable for farmstead uses including handling of produce
and milk.
WATER FOR HOUSEHOLD USES AND DRINKING
Every farm should have a dependable water supply that
is palatable and safe for domestic use. This requirement
dictates that the finished water be of quality comparable to
that designated by the federal Drinking Water Standards
for water supply systems used by interstate carriers and
others subject to federal quarantine regulations. These
standards have been found to be reasonable in terms of both
the possibility of compliance and the acceptability of such
water for domestic farmstead uses.
Groundwater sources are generally regarded as providing
a more dependable supply and as being less variable in
composition than surface water sources. However, many
groundwater supplies contain excessive concentrations of
soluble salts composed of calcium, magnesium, and associ-
ated anions (carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride),
or hydrogen sulfide. They can cause taste, odor, acidity,
and staining problems (Wright 1956,42 Dougan 1966,9
Kabler and Kreissl 1966,16 Klumb 1966,18 Behrman 19686).
In the ground waters of western states high concentrations
of nitrates may occur. Levels may exceed the concentration
of 10 mg/1 of nitrate-nitrogen recommended by Section I'
on Public Water Supplies.
Because all supplies are subject to contamination, can
must be exercised in both the installation and maintenanci
of water systems. Raw water should be free of impuritie
that are offensive to sight, smell, and taste (Wright 1956V
and free of significant concentrations of substances anc
organisms detrimental to public health (see Section II).
WATER FOR WASHING AND COOLING RAW
FARM PRODUCTS
Many root crops, fruits, and vegetables are washe<
before leaving the farm for the market. Changes in frui
production associated with mechanical harvesting and bull
handling and an ever-increasing emphasis on quality hav
made the washing and hydrocooling of raw produce ,
common farm practice. Water for such uses should be c
the same quality as that for drinking and household put
poses, and as such should conform to Drinking Wate
Standards. It is important that water for processing ra\
produce be of good quality bacteriologically (Geldreic
and Bordner 1971)13 and free of substances imparting coloi
off-flavor, and off-odor (Mercer 1971).27
WATER FOR WASHING MILK-HANDLING
EQUIPMENT AND COOLING DAIRY PRODUCTS
Water used to clean milk utensils may greatly affect th
quality of milk (Athcrton et al. 1962),3 and since moder
methods of milk production require large volumes c
water, its quality must not be detrimental to milk. Steac
ily increasing demands for water due to intensified agr
cultural production have required many farm operatoi
to develop secondary sources of water often of inferic
quality (Esmay et al. 1955.12 Pavelis and Gertel 1963).
Such supplies should be treated before use in milk-handlin
equipment (Thomas 1949,34 Thomas et al. 195337).
The Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance of th
United States Public Health Service (U.S. Department (
Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Servic
1965)38 is accepted as the basic sanitation standard for rai
milk supplies. Farm water supplies may meet these potab]
standards yet have a detrimental effect on the quality c
modern milk supply. Rinse waters which are potable bu
contain psychrophylic microorganisms, excessive hard
ness, or iron or copper can have a very deleterious effect o
dairy sanitation and milk quality unless properly treated t
remove such contaminants (Davis I960,8 Atherton et a
1962,3 Atherton 1970,2 Moore 197128). The traditional con
cepts of potability and softness no longer suffice in this era c
mechanized milk-handling systems. Lengthy storage of ra\
milk prior to pasturization and the possible breakdown c
normal milk constituents by organisms able to grow a
refrigeration temperatures may produce unacceptabl
changes in the quality of fluid milk or other manufacture!
-------
General Farmstead Uses of Water/303
dairy products (Thomas 1958,35 Davis I960,8 Thomas et al.
196636).
Water of quality comparable to that described in Drink-
ing Water Standards typically suffices for the production of
milk. However, it is important that the water at point of
use be clear, colorless, palatable, free of harmful micro-
organisms, noncorrosive, and nonscale-forming (Moore
1971).28
Recommendations
For general farmstead uses of water, including
drinking, other household uses, and handling of
produce and milk, it is recommended that water
of the quality designated by the federal Drinking
Water Standards be used. Raw water supplies not
meeting these requirements should be treated to
yield a finished product of quality comparable to
drinking water. In general, raw waters should be
free of impurities that are offensive to sight, smell,
and taste. At point of use, they should be free of
significant concentrations of substances and orga-
nisms harmful to public health (see Section II:
Public Water Supplies) and detrimental to the
market value of agricultural products.
-------
WATER FOR LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISES
Domestic animals represent an important segment of
agriculture and are a vital source of food. Like man and
many other life forms, they are affected by pollutants in
their environment. This section is concerned primarily
with considerations of livestock water quality and factors
affecting it. These include the presence of ions causing ex-
cessive salinity, elements and ions which arc toxic, bio-
logically produced toxins, radionuclides, pesticide residues,
and pathogenic and parasitic organisms.
Of importance in determining recommendations for these
substances in livestock water supplies are the quantity of
water an animal consumes per day and the concentration
of the mineral elements in the water supply from which he
consumes it. Water is universally needed and consumed by
farm animals, but it does not account for their entire daily
intake of a particular substance. Consequently, tolerance
levels established for many substances in livestock feed do
not accurately take into consideration the tolerance levels
for those substances in water. Concentrations of nutrients
and toxic substances in water affect an animal on the basis
of the total amount consumed. Because of this, some assess-
ment of the amounts of water consumed by live-stock on a
daily basis and a knowledge of the probable quantity of ele-
ments in water and how they satisfy daily nutritional re-
quirements are needed for determining possible toxicity
levels.
WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR LIVESTOCK
The water content of animal bodies is relatively constant:
68 per cent to 72 per cent of the total weight on a fat-free
basis. The level of water in the body usually cannot change
appreciably without dire consequences to the animal;
therefore, the minimal requirement for water is a reflection
of water excreted from the body plus a component for
growth in young animals (Robinson and McCance 1952,53
Mitchell 196246).
Water is excreted from the body in urine and feces, in
evaporation from the lungs and skin, in sweat, and in pro-
ductive secretions such as milk and eggs. Anything that
influences any of these modes of water loss affects the mini-
mal water requirement of the animal.
The urine contains the soluble products of metabolisr
that must be eliminated. The amount of urine excrete
daily varies with the feed, work, external temperature, wate
consumption, and other factors. The hormone vasopressi
(antidiuretic hormone) controls the amount of urine b
affecting the reabsorption of water from the kidney tubuk
and ducts. Under conditions of water scarcity, an anim;
may concentrate its urine to some extent by reabsorbing
greater amount of water than usual, thereby lowering th
animal's requirement for water. This capacity for concer
tration, however, is usually limited. If an animal consume
excess salt or a high protein diet, the excretion of urine
increased to eliminate the salt or the end products of prc
tein metabolism, and the water requirement is thereb
increased.
The amount of water lost in the fcccs varies dependin
upon diet and species. Cattle, for instance, excrete fec<
with a high moisture content while sheep, horses, an
chickens excrete relatively dry feces. Substances in the di(
that have a diuretic effect will increase water loss by th
route.
Water lost by evaporation .from the skin and lungs (ir
sensible water loss) may account for a large part of th
body's water loss approaching, and in some cases exceeding
that lost in the urine. If the environmental temperature
increased, the water lost by this route is also increasec
Water lost through sweating may be considerable, especial!
in the case of horses, depending on the environmental terr
perature and the activity of the animal.
All these factors and their interrelation make a minims
water requirement difficult to assess. There is also the ac
ditional complication that a minimal water requiremer,
does not have to be supplied entirely by drinking watei
The animal has available to it the water contained i
feeds, the metabolic water formed from the oxidation c
nutrients, water liberated by polymerization, dehydration
or synthesis within the body, and preformed water associ
ated with nutrients undergoing oxidation when the energ
balance is negative. All of these may vary. The wate
available from the feed will vary with the kind of feed am
with the amount consumed. The metabolic water formec
304
-------
Water for Livestock Enterprises ,/305
from the oxidation of nutrients may be calculated by the use
of factors obtained from equations of oxidation of typical
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. There are 41, 107, and
60 grams (g) of water formed per 100 g of protein, fat, and
carbohydrate oxidized, respectively. In fasting animals, or
those subsisting on a protein deficient diet, water may be
formed from the destruction of tissue protein. In general, it
is assumed that tissue protein is associated with three times
its weight of water, so that per gram of tissue protein
metabolized, three grams of water are released.
It has been found by careful water balance trials that the
water requirement of various species is a function of body
surface area rather than weight. This implies that the re-
quirements are a function of energy metabolism, and
Adolph (1933)43 found that a convenient liberal standard ol
total water intake is 1 milliliter (ml) per caloric (cal) of heat
produced. This method automatically included the in-
creased requirement associated with activity. Cattle require
somewhat higher amounts of water (1.29 to 2.05 g-'cal) than
other animals. However, when cattle's large excretion of
water in the feces is taken into account, the values are ap-
proximately a gram per calorie.
For practical purposes, water requirements can be meas-
ured as the amount of water consumed voluntarily under
specified conditions. This implies that thirst is a result of
need.
Water Consumption of Animals
In dry roughage and concentrate feeding programs the
water present in the feed is so small relative to the animal's
needs that it may be ignored (Winchester and Morris
1956).r>r'
Beef Cattle. Data calculated by Winchester and Mor-
ris (1956)5'"' indicated that values for water intake vary
widely depending primarily on ambient temperature and
dry matter intake. European breeds consumed approxi-
mately 3.5, 5.3, 7.0, and 17 liters of water daily per kilo-
gram (kg) dry matter ingested at 40, 70, 90, 100 F, respec-
tively. Thus at an atmospheric temperature of 21 C (70 F),
a 450 kg steer on a 9.4 kg daily dry matter ration would
consume approximately 50 liters of water per day, while at
32 C (90 F) the expected daily water intake would be 66
liters.
Dairy Cattle. The calculations of Winchester and
Morris (1956)55 showed how water requirements varied
with weight of cow, fat content of milk, ambient tempera-
ture, and amount needed per kilogram of milk daily. These
investigations indicated that at 21 C (70 F) a cow weighing
approximately 450 kg would consume about 4.5 liters of
water per kilogram dry feed plus 2.7 I/kg of milk produced.
Dairy heifers fed alfalfa and silage obtained about 20 per
cent of their water requirements in the feed. Dairy cattle
suffer more quickly from a lack of water than from a
shortage of any other nutrient and will drink 3.0 to 4.0 kg of
water per kilogram of dry matter consumed (National Re-
search Council, Committee on Animal Nutrition, hereafter
referred to as NRC 197 la).52 Cows producing 40 kg of milk
per day may drink up to 110 kg of water when fed dry
feeds.
Sheep. Generally water consumption by sheep amounts
to two times the weight of dry matter feed intake (NRC
1968b).61 But many factors may alter this value, e.g.,
ambient temperature, activity, age, stage of production,
plane of nutrition, composition of feed, and type of pasture.
Ewes on dry feed in winter require four liters per head
daily before lambing and six or more liters per day when
nursing lambs (Morrison 1959).48
Swine. Pigs require 2 to 2.5 kg of water per kilogram
of dry feed, but voluntary consumption may be as much as
4 to 4.5 kg in high ambient temperature (NRC 1968a).M
Mount ct al. (1971)49 reported the mean water:fced ratios
were between 2.1 and 2.7 at temperatures between 7 and
22 C, and between 2.8 and 5.0 at 30 and 33 C. The range
of mean water consumption extended from 0.092 to 0.184
I/kg body weight per day. Leitch and Thomson (1944)4"'
cited studies that demonstrated that a water-to-mash ratio
of 3 :1 gave the best results.
Horses. Leitch and Thomson (1944)45 cited data that
horses needed two to three liters of water per kg dry ration.
Morrison (1936)47 obtained data of a horse going at a trot
that gave off 9.4 kg of water vapor. This amount was
nearly twice that given off when walking with the same
load, and more than three times as much as when resting
during the same period.
Poultry. James and Wheeler (1949)44 observed that
more water was consumed by poultry when protein was
increased in the diet; and more water was consumed with
meat scrap, fish meal, and dried whey diets than with an
all-plant diet. Poultry generally consumed 2 to 3 kg of
water per kilogram of dry feed. Sunde (1967)54 observed
that when laying hens, at 67 percent production, were de-
prived of water for approximately 36 hours, production
dropped to eight per cent within five days and did not re-
turn to the production of the controlled hens until 25-30
days later. Sunde (personal communication 1971)56 prepared a
table that showed that broilers increased on daily water
consumption from 6.4 to 211 liters per 1,000 birds between
two and 35 days of age, respectively. Corresponding water
intake values for replacement pullets were 5.7 to 88.5 liters.
RELATION OF NUTRIENT ELEMENTS IN WATER
TO TOTAL DIET
All the mineral elements essential as dietary nutrients
occur to some extent in water (Shirley 1970).66 Generally
the elements are in solution, but some may be present in
suspended materials. Lawrence (1968)59 sampled the Chat-
tahoochee River system at six different reservoirs and river
and creek inlets and found about 1, 3, 22, 39, 61, and 68
per cent of the total calcium, magnesium, zinc, manganese,
-------
ection F— Agricultural Uses of Water
copper, and iron present in suspended materials, respec-
tively. Any given water supply requires analysis if dietary
decisions are to be most effective.
In the Systems for Technical Data (STORET) of the
Water Programs Office of the Environmental Protection
Agency, data (1971)69 were accumulated from surface
water analyses obtained in the United States during the
period 1957-1969. These data included values for the
mean, maximum, and minimum concentrations of the
nutrient elements (see Table V-l). These values obviously
include many samples from calcium-magnesium, sulfate-
chloride and sodium-potassium, sulfate-chloride type of
water as well as the more common calcium-magnesium,
carbonate-bicarbonate type. For this reason the mean
values for sodium, chloride, and sulfate may appear some-
what high.
Table V-2 gives the estimated average intake of drinking
water of selected categories of various species of farm ani-
mals expressed as liters per day. Three values for each of
calcium and salt are given for illustrative purposes. One
column expresses the National Academy of Sciences value
for daily requirement of the nutrient per day; the second
gives the amount of the element contributed by the average
concentration of the element (calculated from data in
Table V-l) in the average quantity of water consumed
daily; the third column gives the approximate percentage
of the daily requirements contributed by the water drunk
each day for each species of animal.
Magnesium, calculated as in Table V-2, was found to be
present in quantities that would provide 4 to 11 per cent of
the requirements for beef and dairy cattle, sheep, swine,
horses, chickens, and turkeys.
Cobalt (Co) concentrations obtained by Durum et al.
(1971)58 were calculated, as they were more typical of water
available to livestock than current values reported in
STORET (1971).69 A sufficient amount of Co was present
at the median level to supply approximately three to 13
TABLE V-l—Water Composition, United States, 1957-69
(STORET) (Collected at 140 stations)
TABLE V-2—Daily Requirements of Average Concentratio,
of Calcium and Salt in Water for Various Animals
Substance
Phosphorus, mg/l .
Calcium, mg/l
Magnesium, mg/l .
Sodium, mg/l
Potassium, mg/l
Chloride, mg/l
Sulfaie, mg/l
Copper, ni/\
lron,/ug/l
Manganese, Mg/l
Zinc, ^/l
Selenium, ^g/l
Iodine", Mgl
Cobalt'-, M«l ..
Mean
0.087
57.1
14.J
55.1
4.3
478.0
135.9
13.8
43.9
29.4
51.8
0.016
46.1
1.0
Maximum
5.0
173.0
137.0
7,5000
370.0
19,000.0
3,383.0
280.0
4,600.0
3,230.0
1,183.0
1.0
336.0
5.0
Minimum
0.001
11.0
8.5
0.2
0.06
0.000
0.000
0.8
0.10
0.20
1.0
0.01
4.0
0.000
No Detns.
1,729
510
1,143
1,801
1,804
37,355
30,229
1,871
1,836
1,818
1,883
234
15
720
Animal
Beef cattle 450 kg body wt.
Nursing cow
Finishing steer
Dairy cattle 450 kg body wt.
Lactating cow
Growing heifer
Maintenance, cow
Sheep
Lactating ewe, 64 kg
Fattening lamb, 45 kg
Swine
Growing, 30 kg
Fattening, 60 to 100 kg
Lactating sows, 200-250 kg
Horses 450 kg body wt
Medium work
Lactating
Poultry
Chickens, 8 weeks old
Laying hen
Turkey
Daily"
water
intake, 1
60
60
90
60
60
6
4
6
8
14
40
50
0.2
0.2
0.2
Required1
daily gm
28
21
76
15
12
6.8
3.1
10.2
16.5
33.0
14
30
1.0
3.4
1.2
Calcium
Average^
jmt. in
drinking
water, gm
3.4
3.4
5.1
3.4
3.4
0.3
0.2
0.34
0.46
0.80
2.3
2.9
0.011
0.011
0.011
Approi
percentage
of Req. in
water
12
16
7
22
28
5
7
3
3
2
16
10
1
<1
1
Salt-*
Amt. in« Percen
Required'
daily gm
25
24
66
21
21
13
10
4.3
4.3
28.0
90
90
0.38
0.44
0.38
drinking of Req
water, gm
8.5
8 5
12.7
8.5
8.5
0.9
0.6
0.84
1.12
1.96
5.6
7 1
0.03
0.03
0.03
watt
34
35
19
40
40
1
S
20
26
/
6
8
8
li
"
" Dantzman and Breland (1970)".
o Durum etaL (1971)".
« See discussion on Water Consumption in text for sources of these values.
' Sources of values are the National Academy of Sciences, NRC Bulletins on Nutrient requirements.
'Calculated from Table 1.
d Based on sodium in water.
per cent of the dietary requirements of beef and dairy cattl
sheep, and horses. The NRC (197la,65 1968b(il) does n
state what the cobalt requirements were for poultry at
swine.
Sulfur values demonstraled that approximately 29 p>
cent of beef cattle requirements were met at average co
centrations; dairy cattle 21 to 45 per cent; sheep 10 to
per cent; and horses 18 to 23 per cent of their requiremen
The NRC (197la,66 1968b61) do not give sulfur requiremer
for poultry and swine.
Iodine was not among the elements in the STORE
accumulation, but values obtained by Dantzman at
Breland (1970)57 for 15 rivers and lakes in Florida can 1
used as illustrative values. Iodine was present in sufficie
amounts to exceed the requirements of beef cattle ar
nonlactating horses and to meet 8 to 10 per cent of tl
requirements of sheep) and 24 i o 26 per cent of those of her
Phosphorus, potassium, copper, iron, zinc, manganese, ar
selenium, when present at mean concentrations (Table V-l
would supply daily only one to four per cent or less of th
recommended by the NRC (1966,60 1968a,61 1968b,621970,
1971a,64 1971b65) for beef and dairy cattle, sheep, swin
horses, and poultry at normal water consumption levels.
If the maximum values shown in Table V-l are presen
some water would contain the dietary requirements of son
species in the case of sodium chloride, sulfur, and iodin
Appreciable amounts of calcium, copper, cobalt, iro
-------
Water for Livestock Enterprises ,307
manganese, zinc, and selenium would be present, if water
were supplied with the maximum levels present. On the
other hand, if the water has only the minimum concentra-
tion of any of the elements present, it would supply very
little of the daily requirements.
It is generally believed that elements in water solution
are available to the animal that consumes the water, at
least as much as when present in solid feeds or dry salt
mixes. This was indicated when Shirley ct al. (1951,67
195768) found that P32 and Ca4r>, dissolved in aqueous solu-
tion as salts and administered as a drench, were absorbed at
equivalent levels to the isotopes, when they were incor-
porated in forage as fertilizer and fed to steers, respectively.
Many isotope studies have demonstrated that minerals in
water consumed by animals are readily absorbed, deposited
in their tissues, and excreted.
EFFECT OF SALINITY ON LIVESTOCK
It is well known that excessively saline waters can cause
physiological upset or death of livestock. The ions most
commonly involved in causing excessive salinity arc calcium,
magnesium, sodium, sulfate, bicarbonate, and chloride.
Others may contribute significantly in unusual situations,
and these may also exert specific toxicities separate from the
osmotic effects of excessive salinity. (See Toxic Elements
and Ions below.)
Early in this century, Larsen and Bailey (1913)80 re-
ported that a natural water varying from 4,546 to 7,369
mg/1 of total salts, with sodium and sulfate ions predomi-
nating, caused mild diarrhea but no symptoms of toxicity in
dairy cattle over a two-year period. Later, Ramsay (1924)91
reported from his observations that cattle could thrive on
water containing 11,400 mg/1 of total salts, that they could
live under certain conditions on water containing 1 7,120
mg/1, and that horses thrived on water with 5,720 mg/1
and were sustained when not worked too hard on water
with 9,140 mg/1.
The first extensive studies of saline water effects on rats
and on livestock were made in Oklahoma (Heller and Lar-
wood 1930,76 Heller 1932,74 1933).75 Rats were fed waters
of various sodium chloride concentrations, and it was found
among other things that (a) water consumption increased
with salt concentration but only to a point after which the
animals finally refused to drink until thirst drove them to it,
at which time they drank a large amount at one time and
then died; (b) older animals were more resistant to the ef-
fects of the salt than were the young; (c) the effects of salin-
ity were osmotic rather than related to any specific ion;
(d) reproduction and lactation were affected before growth
effects were noted; (e) there appeared, in time, to be a
physiological adjustment to saline waters; and (f) 15,000-
17,000 mg/1 of total salts seemed the maximum that could
be tolerated, some adverse effects being noted at concen-
trations lower than this. With laying hens, 10,000 mg/1 of
sodium chloride in the drinking water greatly delayed the
onset of egg production, but 15,000 mg/1 or more were re-
quired to affect growth over a 10-week period. In swine,
15,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride in the drinking water
caused death in the smaller animals, some leg stiffness in
the larger, but 10,000 mg/1 did not appear particularly in-
jurious once they became accustomed to it. Sheep existed
on water containing 25,000 mg/1 of sodium or calcium
chloride or 30,000 mg/1 of magnesium sulfate but not with-
out some deleterious effects. Cattle were somewhat less re-
sistant, and it was concluded that 10,000 mg/1 of total salts
should be considered the upper limit under which their
maintenance could be expected. A lower limit was suggested
for lactating animals. It was further observed that the ani-
mals would not drink highly saline solutions if water of low
salt content was available, and that animals showing ef-
fects of saline waters returned quickly to normal when al-
lowed a water of low salt content.
Frens (1946)72 reported that 10,000 mg/1 of sodium
chloride in the drinking water of dairy cattle produced no
symptoms of toxicity, while 15,000 mg/1 caused a loss of
appetite, decreased milk production, and increased water
consumption with symptoms of salt poisoning in 12 c!a\s.
In studies with beef heifers, Embry ct al. (1959)7i re-
ported that the addition of 10,000 mg/1 of sodium sulfate
to the drinking water caused severe reduction in its con-
sumption, loss of weight, and symptoms of dehydration.
Either 4,000 or 7,000 mg '1 of added sodium sulfate increased
water intake but had no effect on rate of gain or general
health. Similar observations were made using waters with
added sodium chloride or a mixture of salts, except that
symptoms of dehydration were noted, and the mixed salts
caused no increase in water consumption. Levels of up to
6,300 mg/1 of added mixed salts increased water consump-
tion in weanling pigs, but no harmful effects were observed
over a three-month period.
In Australia, Pcirce (1957,83 1959,84 I960,85 1962,86
1963,87 1966,88 1968a,s!) 1968b90) conducted a number of
experiments on the salt tolerance of Merino wethers. Only
minor harmful effects were observed in these sheep when
they were confined to waters containing 13,000 mg/1 or
less of various salt mixtures.
Nevada workers have reported several studies on the ef-
fects of saline waters on beef heifers. They found that
20,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride caused severe anorexia,
weight loss, anhydremia, collapse, and certain other symp-
toms, while 10,000 mg/1 had no effects over a 30-day period
other than to increase water consumption and decrease
blood urea (Weeth et al. I960).97 Additional experiments
(Weeth and Haverland 1961)98 again showed 10,000 mg/1
to cause no symptoms of toxicity; while at 12,000 mg/1
adverse effects were noted, and these intensified with in-
creasing salt concentration in the drinking water. At a con-
centration of 15,000 mg/1, sodium chloride increased the
ratio of urine excretion to water intake (Weeth and
-------
^QQ/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
Lesperancc 1965),100 and a prompt and distinct diuresis
occurred when the heifers consumed water containing 5,000
or 6,000 mg/l following water deprivation (Weeth et al.
1968).I01 While with waters containing about 5,000 mg/1
(Weeth and Hunter 1971)" or even less (Weeth and Capps
1971)95 of sodium sulfate no specific ion effects were noted,
heifers drank less, lost weight, and had increased methemo-
globin and sulfhemoglobin levels. A later study (Weeth and
Capps 1972)96 gave similar results, but in addition suggested
that the sulfate ion itself, at concentrations as low as 2150
mg/1 had adverse effects.
In addition to the Oklahoma work, several studies on the
effects of saline water on poultry have been reported.
Selye (1943)93 found that chicks 19 days old when placed
on experiment had diarrhea, edema, weakness, and respira-
tory problems during the first 10 days on water containing
9,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride. Later, the edema disap-
peared, but nephrosclerotic changes were noted. Water-
containing 3,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride was not toxic to
four-week-old chicks.
Others (Kare and Biely 1948)77 observed that with two-
day-old chicks on water containing 9,000 mg/1 of added
sodium chloride there were a few deaths, some edema, and
certain other symptoms of toxicity. A solution with 18,000
mg/1 of the salt was not toxic; however, when replaced on
alternate days by fresh water, neither was it readily con-
sumed.
Scrivner (1946)92 found that sodium chloride in the drink-
ing water of day-old poults at a concentration of 5,000 mg/l
caused death and varying degrees of edema and ascites in
over half of the birds in about two weeks. Sodium bicarbo-
nate at a concentration of 1,000 mg/1 was not toxic, at
3,000 mg/1 caused some deaths and edema; and as the con-
centration increased above this, the effects were more pro-
nounced. A solution containing 1,000 mg/l of sodium hy-
droxide caused death in two of 31 poults by 13 days, but the
remainder survived without effects, and 7,500 mg/l of
sodium citrate, iodide, carbonate, or sulfate each caused
edema and many deaths.
South Dakota workers (Krista et al. 1961)78 studied the
effects of sodium chloride in water on laying hens, turkey
poults, and ducklings. At 4,000 mg/l, the salt caused some
increased water consumption, watery droppings, decreased
feed consumption and growth, and increased mortality.
These effects were more pronounced at a higher concentra-
tion, 10,000 mg/l, causing death in all of the turkey poults
at two weeks, some symptons of dehydration in the chicks,
and decreased egg production in the hens. Experiments with
laying hens restricted to water containing 10,000 mg/l of
sodium or magnesium sulfate gave results similar to those
for sodium chloride.
In addition to the experimental work, there have been
reports in the literature of field observations relating to the
effects of excessively saline water (Ballantyne 1957,70
Gastler and Olson 1957,73 Spafford 194194), and a number
TABLE V-3—Guide to the. Use of Saline Waters for
Livestock and Poultry
Total soluble salts
content of waters
(mg/l)
Comment
Less than 1,000
1,000-2,999
3,000-4,999
5,000-6,999
7,000-10,000
Over 10.000
Relatively low level of salinity. Erallent for all classes of livestock and poultry.
Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry. May cause temporary and i
diarrhea in livestock not accustomed to them or watery droppings in poultry.
Satisfactory for livestock, but may cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at first by
mals not accustomed to them. Poor waters for poultry, often causing water feces, mere;
mortality, and decreased growth, especially in turkeys.
Can be used with reasonable safety for dairy and beef cattle, for sheep, swine, and hor
Avoid use (or pregnant or lactatmg animals. Not acceptable for poultry.
Unfit for poultry and probably for swine. Considerable risk in using for pregnant or lacta
cows, horses, or sheep, or lor the young of these species. In general, use should be avoi
although older ruminants, horses, poultry, and swine may subsist on them under cer
conditions
Risks with these highly saline waters are so great that they cannot be recommended for
under any conditions.
of guides to the use of these waters for livestock have bee
published (Ballantyne 1957,70 Embry et al. 1959,71 Kris
et al. 1962,79 McKee and Wolf, 1963,81 Officers of tl
Department of Agriculture and the Government Chemic
Laboratories 1950,ffl Spafford, 194194). Table V-3 is bas<
on the available published information. Among other thine
the following items are suggested for consideration in usii
this table:
• Animals drink little, if any, highly saline water
water of low salt content is available to them.
• Unless they have been previously deprived of wate
animals can consume moderate amounts of high
saline water for a few days without being harmed
• Abrupt changes from \vater of low salinity to high
saline \\ater cause more problems than a gradu
change.
• Depressed water intake is very likely to be accot
panied by depressed feed intake.
Table V-3 was developed because in arid or semiar
regions the use of highly saline waters may often be necc
sary. It has built into it a very small margin of safety, ai
its use probably does not eliminate all risk of economic lo;
Criteria for desirability of a livestock water are a som
what different .matter. These should probably be such th
the risk of economic loss from using the water for any speci
or age of animals, lactating or not, on any normal feedii
program, and regardless of climatic conditions, is almc
nonexistent. On the other band, they should be made i
more severe than necessary to insure this small risk.
Recommendation
From the standpoint of salinity and its osmot
effects, waters containing 3,000 mg of soluble sal
per liter or less should be satisfactory for livestot
under almost any circumstance. While some min<
physiological upset resulting from waters wil
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Water for Livestock Enterprises 309
salinities near this limit may be observed, eco-
nomic losses or serious physiological disturbances
should rarely, if ever, result from their use.
TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN LIVESTOCK WATERS
There are many substances dissolved or suspended in
waters that may be toxic. These include inorganic elements
and their salts, certain organic wastes from man's activities,
pathogens and parasitic organisms, herbicide and pesticide
•residues, some biologically produced toxins, and radio-
nuclidcs.
For any of the above, the concentrations at which they
render a water undesirable for use for livestock is subject
to a number of variables. These include age, sex, species,
and physiological state of the animals; water intake, diet
and its composition, the chemical form of any toxic element
present, and the temperature of the environment. Naturally,
if feeds and waters both contain a toxic substance, this must
be taken into account. Both short and long term effects and
interactions with other ions or compounds must also be con-
sidered.
The development of recommendations for safe concentra-
tions of toxic substances in water for livestock is extremely
difficult. Careful attention must be given to the discussion
that follows as well as the recommendations and to any ad-
ditional experimental findings that may develop. Based on
available research, an appropriate margin of safety, under
almost all conditions, of specific toxic substances harmful
to livestock that drink the waters and to man who consumes
the livestock or their products, is reviewed below. Although
the margin of safety recommended is usually large, the cri-
teria suggested cannot be used as a guide in diagnosing
livestock losses, since they are well below toxic levels for
domestic animals.
Toxic Elements and Ions
Those ions largely responsible for salinity in water
(sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, and bi-
carbonate) are in themselves not very toxic. There are,
however, a number of others that occur naturally or as the
result of man's activities at troublesome concentrations. If
feeds and water both contain a toxic ion, both must be con-
sidered. Interactions with other ions, if known, must be
taken into account. Elements or ions become objectionable
in water when they are at levels toxic to animals, where they
seriously reduce the palatability of the water, or when they
accumulate excessively in tissues or body fluids, rendering
the meat, milk, eggs, or other edible product unsafe or unfit
for human use.
Aluminum
Soluble aluminum has been found in surface waters of
the United States in amounts to 3 mg/1, but its occurrence
at such concentrations is rare because it readily precipitates
as the hydroxide (Kopp and Kroner 1970).182
Most edible grasses contain about 15-20 mg/kg of the
element. However, there is no evidence that it is essential
for animal growth, and very little is found deposited in ani-
mal tissues (Underwood 1971).254 It is not highly toxic
(McKee and Wolf 1963,193 Underwood 1971),254 but Deo-
bald and Elvchjem (1935)138 found that a level of 4,000 mg
aluminum per kilogram of diet caused phosphorus de-
ficiency in chicks. Its occurrence in water should not cause
problems for livestock, except under unusual conditions
and with acid waters.
Recommendation
Livestock should be protected where natural
drinking waters contain no more than 5 mg/1
aluminum.
Arsenic
Arsenic has long been notorious as a poison. Nevertheless.
it is present in all living tissues in the inorganic and in
certain organic forms. It has also been used mcdicinallv
It is accepted as a safe feed additive for certain domestic
animals. It has not been shown to be a required nutrienr
for animals, possibly because its ubiquity has precluded tin*
compounding of deficient diets (Frost 1967).149
The toxicity of arsenic can depend on its chemical form.
its inorganic oxides being considerably more toxic than
organic forms occurring in living tissues or used as feed
additives. Differences in toxicities of the various forms are
clearly related to the rate of their excretion, the least toxic
being the most rapidly eliminated (Frost 1967,14'J Under-
wood 1971).--'1 Except in unusual cases, this element should
occur in waters largely as inorganic oxides. In waters carry-
ing or in contact with natural colloidal material, the soluble
arsenic content may be decreased to a very low level by ad-
sorption.
\Vadsworth (1952)26" gave the acute toxiciu of inorganic
arsenic for farm animals as follows: poultry, 0.05-0.10 g per
animal; swine, 0.5-1.0 g per animal; sheep, goats, and
horses, 10.0-15.0 g per animal; and cattle, 15-30 g per
animal. Franke and Moxon (1936)14S concluded that the
minimum dose required to kill 75 per cent of rats given
intraperitoneal injections of arscnate was 14-18 mg arsenic
per kilogram, while for arscnite it was 4.25-4.75 mg/kg of
body weight.
When mice were given drinking water containing 5 mg/1
of arsenic as arsenite from weaning to natural death, there
was some accumulation of the clement in the tissues of
several organs, a somewhat shortened life span, but no
carcinogenic effect (Schroeder and Balassa 1967).233 In a
similar study with rats (Schroeder et al. 1968b),236 neither
toxicity nor carcinogenic effects were observed, but large
amounts accumulated in the tissues.
Peoples (1964)220 fed arsenic acid at levels up to 1.25 mg/
kg of body weight per day for eight weeks to lactating
cows. This is equivalent to an intake of 60 liters of water
-------
'/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
containing 5.5 mg/1 of arsenic (10.4 mg of arsenic acid)
daily by a 500 kg animal. His results indicated that this
form of arsenic is absorbed and rapidly excreted in the
urine. Thus there was little tissue storage of the element;
at no level of the added arsenic was there an increased
arsenic content of the milk, and no toxicity was observed.
According to Frost (1967),149 there is no evidence that
10 parts per million (ppm) of arsenic in the diet is toxic to
any animal.
Arsenicals have been accused of being carcinogenic. This
matter has been thoroughly reviewed by Frost (1967),149
who concluded that they appear remarkably free of this
property.
Most human foods contain less than 0.5 ppm of arsenic,
but certain marine animals used as human food may con-
centrate it and may contain over 100 ppm (Frost 1967,149
Underwood 197125'1). Permissible levels of the element in
muscle meats is 0.5 ppm; in edible meat by-products, 1.0
ppm; and in eggs, 0.5 ppm (U.S. Dept. of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration 1963,25!i
1964256). Federal Drinking Water Standards list 0.05 mg/1 as
the upper allowable limit to humans for arsenic, but McK.ee
and Wolf (1963)193 suggested 1.0 mg'1 as the upper limit
for livestock drinking water. The possible role of biological
methylation in increasing the toxicity (Chemical Engineer-
ing News 1971)12'' suggested added caution, however, and
natural waters seldom contain more than 0.2 mg 1 (Durum
et al. 1971).U1
Recommendation
To provide the necessary caution, and in view of
available data, an upper limit of 0.2 mg/1 of arsenic
in water is recommended.
Beryllium
Beryllium was found to occur in natural surface waters
only at very low levels, usually below 1 /ug/1 (Kopp and
Kroner 1970).182 Conceivably, however, it could enter
waters in effluents from certain metallurgical plants. Its
salts are not highly toxic, laboratory rats having survived
for two years on a diet that supplied the element at a level
of about 18 mg/kg of body weight daily. Pomelee (1953)223
calculated that a cow could drink almost 1,000 liters of
water containing 6,000 mg/1 without harm, if these data
for rats are transposablc to cattle. This type of extrapolation
must, however, be used with caution, and the paucity of
additional data on the toxicity of beryllium to livestock
precludes recommending at this time a limit for its concen-
tration in livestock waters.
Boron
The toxicity of boron, its occurrence in foods and feeds,
and its role in animal nutrition have been reviewed by
McClure (1949),190 McKee and Wolf (1963),193 and
Underwood (1971).264 Although essential for plants, there
is no evidence that boron is required by animals. It has
relatively low order of toxicity. In the dairy cow, 16-20
of boric acid per day for 40 days produced no ill effeci
(McKee and Wolf 1963).193
There is no evidence that boron accumulates to an
great extent in body tissues. Apparently, most natur;
waters could be expected to contain concentrations we
below the level of 5.0 mg/1. This was the maximum amour
found in 1,546 samples of river and lake waters frot
various parts of the United States, the mean value bein
0.1 mg/1 (Kopp and Kroner 1970).1S2 Ground waters coul
contain substantially more than this at certain places.
Recommendation
Experimental evidence concerning the toxicit
of this element is meager. Therefore, to offer
large margin of safety, an upper limit of 5.0 mg/
of boron in livestock waters is recommended.
Cadmium
Cadmium (Cd) is normally found in natural waters a
very low levels. A nation-wide reconnaissance of surfac
waters of the United States (Durum et al. 1971)"41 reveale
that of over 720 samples, about four per cent contained ove
10 /ig/'l of this element, and the highest level was 110 ^g/
Ground water on Long Islam:!, New York, contained 3.
mg/1 as the result of contamination by waste from the elcc
troplating industry, and mine waters in Missouri containe<
1,000 mg/1 (McKee and Wolf 1963).193
Research to date suggests that cadmium is not an essenti.;
element. It is, on the other hand, quite toxic. Man has bee
sickened by about 15 ppm in popsicles, 67 ppm in punch
300 ppm in a cold drink, 530 ppm in gelatin, and 14.5 m
taken orally; although a family of four whose drinkin
water was reported to contain 47 ppm had no history of ii
effects (McKee and Wolf 1963).193
Extensive tests have been made on the effects of variou
levels of cadmium in the drinking water on rats and dog
(McKee and Wolf 1963).193 Because of the accumlatioi
and retention of the clement in the liver and kidney, it wa
recommended that a limit of 100 jug/1, or preferably less, 1>
used for drinking waters.
Parizek (I960)219 found that a single dose of 4.5 mg Cd/ks
of body weight produced permanent sterility in male rats
At a level of 5 mg/1 in the drinking water of rats (Schroedci
et al. 1963a)23s or mice (Schroeder et al. 1963b),"9 reduce.:
longevity was observed. Intravenous injection of cadmiun"
sulfate into pregnant hamsters at a level of 2 rng Cd/kp
of body weight on day eight of gestation caused malforma-
tions in the fetuses (Mulvihill et al. 1970).200
Miller (1971)196 studied cadmium absorption and distri-
bution in ruminants. Fie found that only a small part ol
ingested cadmium was absorbed, and that most of what was
tvent to the kidneys and liver. Once absorbed, its turnover
-ate was very slow. The cow is very efficient in keeping
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Water for Livestock Enterprises 311
cadmium out of its milk, and Miller concluded that most
major animal products, including meat and milk, seemed
quite well protected against cadmium accumulation.
Interactions of cadmium with several other trace ele-
ments (Hill et al. 1963,172 Gunn and Gould 1967,159 Mason
and Young 1967)189 somewhat confuse the matter of estab-
lishing criteria.
Recommendation
From the available data on the occurrence of
cadmium in natural waters, its toxicity, and its
accumulation in body tissues, an upper limit of
50 jug/1 allows an adequate margin of safety for
livestock and is recommended.
Chromium
In a five-year survey of lake and river waters of the
United States (Kopp and Kroner 1970),182 the highest level
found in over 1,500 samples was about 0.1 mg 1, the average
being about 0.001 mg/1. In another similar survey (Durum
et al. 1971)141 of 700 samples, none contained over 0.05 mg, 1
of chromium VI and only 11 contained more than 0.005
mg 1. A number of industrial processes however use the
element, which then may be discharged as waste into sur-
face waters, possibly at rather high levels.
Even in its most soluble forms, the element is not readily
absorbed by animals, being largely excreted in the feces;
and it does not appear to concentrate in any particular
mammalian tissue or to increase in these tissues with age
(Mertz 1967,194 Underwood 19712'"'1).
Hexavalcnt chromium is generally considered more toxic
than the trivalent form (Mertz 1967).194 However, in their
review of this clement, McKee and Wolf (1963)19J suggested
that it has a rather low order of toxicity. Further, Gross and
Heller (1946)Ij8 found that for rats the maximum nontoxic
level, based on growth, for chromium VI in the drinking
water was 500 mg 1. They also found that this concentration
of the element in the water did not affect feed utilization by
rabbits. Romoser et al. (1961)226 found that 100 ppm of
chromium VI in chick diets had no effect on the perform-
ance of the birds over a 21-day period.
In a series of experiments, Schroeder et al. (1963a,238
1963b,23!) 1964,234 196523r') administered water containing
5 mg 1 of chromium III to rats and mice on low-chromium
diets over a life span. At this level, the element was not
toxic, but instead it had some beneficial effects. Tissue levels
did not increase significantly with age.
As a result of their review of chromium toxicity, McKee
and Wolf (1963)193 suggested that up to 5 mg/1 of chromium
III or VI in livestock drinking water should not be harm-
ful. While this may be reasonable, it may be unnecessarily-
high when the usual concentrations of the element in nat-
ural waters is considered.
Recommendation
An upper allowable limit of 1.0 mg/1 for livestock
drinking waters is recommended. This provides a
suitable margin of safety.
Cobalt
In a recent survey of surface waters in the United States
(Durum et al. 1971)141 63 per cent of over 720 samples were
found to contain less than 0.001 mg '1 of cobalt. One sample
contained 4.5 mg 1, one contained 0.11 mg/1, and three
contained 0.05-0.10 mg 1.
Underwood (1971)"4 reviewed the role of cobalt in
animal nutrition. This clement is part of the vitamin Bi2
molecule, and as such it is an essential nutrient. Ruminants
synthesized their own vitamin BI;. if they were given oral
cobalt. For cattle and sheep a diet containing about 0.1 ppm
of the element seemed nutritionally adequate. A wide
margin of safety existed between the required and toxic
levels for sheep and cattle, which were levels of 100 times
those usually found in adequate diets being well tolerated.
Xonruminants required preformed vitamin Bi2. When
administered to these animals in amounts well beyond those
present in foods and feeds, cobalt induced polycythcmia
(Underwood 1971 ).2:'4 This was also true in calves prior to
rumen development; about 1.1 mg of the element per kg
of bocl> weight administered daily caused depression of ap-
petite and loss of weight.
Cobalt toxicity was also summarized by McKcc and
Wolf (1963).I9:i
Recommendation
In view of the data available on the occurrence
and toxicity of cobalt, an upper limit for cobalt in
livestock waters of 1.0 mg/1 offers a satisfactory
margin of safety, and should be met by most
natural waters.
Copper
The examination of over 1,500 river and lake waters in
the United States (Kopp and Kroner 1970)182 yielded, at
the highest, 0.28 mg 1 of copper and an average value of
0.015 mg 1. These rather low values were probably due in
part to the relative insolubility of the copper ion in alkaline
medium and to its ready adsorbability on colloids (McKee
and Wolf 1963).I93 Where higher values than those reported
above are found, pollution from industrial sources or mines
can be suspected.
Copper is an essential trace element. The requirement for
chicks and turkey poults from zero to eight weeks of age is
4 ppm in the diet (NRG 1971b).20« For beef cattle on
rations low in molybdenum and sulfur, 4 ppm in the diet
is adequate; but when these elements arc high, the copper
requirement is doubled or tripled (NRG 1970).204 A dietary
level of 5 ppm in the forage is suggested for pregnant and
-------
312/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
lactating ewes and their lambs (NRG 1968b203). A level of
6 ppm in the diet is considered adequate for swine (NRC
1968a).202
Swine are apparently very tolerant of high levels of
copper, and 250 ppm or more in the diet have been used
to improve liveweight gains and feed efficiency (Nutrition
Reviews 1966a210; NRC 1968a).202 On the other hand, sheep
were very susceptible to copper poisoning (Underwood
1971),254 and for these animals a diet containing 25 ppm
was considered toxic. About 9 mg per animal per day was
considered the safe tolerance level (NRG 1968b).203
Several reviews of copper requirements and toxicity have
been presented (McKee and Wolf ]963,1B3 Nutrition Re-
views 1966a,2II) Underwood 1971).254 There is very little ex-
perimental data on the effects of copper in the water supply
on animals, and its toxicity must be judged largely from the
results of trials where copper was fed. The element docs not
appear to accumulate at excessive levels in muscle tissues,
and it is very readily eliminated once its administration is
stopped. While most livestock tolerate rather high levels,
sheep do not (NRC 1968b).203
Recommendation
It is recommended that the upper limit for cop-
per in livestock waters be 0.5 mg/1. Very few natural
waters should fail to meet this.
Fluorine
The role of fluorine as a nutrient and as a toxin has been
thoroughly reviewed by Underwood (1971).254 (Unless
otherwise indicated, the following discussion, exclusive of
the recommendation, is based upon this review.) While
there is no doubt that dietary fluoride in appropriate
amounts improved the caries resistance of teeth, the element
has not yet been found essential to animals. If it is a dietary
essential, its requirement must be very low. Its ubiquity
probably insures a continuously adequate intake by ani-
mals.
Chronic fluoride poisoning of livestock has, on the other
hand, been observed in several areas of the world, resulting
in some cases from the consumption of waters of high fluoride
content. These waters come from wells in rock from which
the element has been leached, and they often contain
10-15 mg/1. Surface waters, on the other hand, usually con-
tain considerably less than 1 mg/1.
Concentrations of 30-50 ppm of fluoride in the total
ration of dairy cows is considered the upper safe limit,
higher values being suggested for other animals (NRC
197la).205 Maximum levels of the element in waters that are
tolerated by livestock are difficult to define from available
experimental work. The species, volume, and continuity of
water consumption, other dietary fluoride, and age of the
animals, all have an effect. It appears, however, that as little
as 2 mg/1 may cause tooth mottling under some circum-
stances. At least a several-fold increase in its concentratio
seems, however, required to produce other injurious effecl
Fluoride from waters apparently does not accumulate i
soft tissues to a significant degree. It is transferred to a ver
small extent into the milk and to a somewhat greater degre
into eggs.
McKee and Wolf (1963)19f have also reviewed the matte
of livestock poisoning by fluoride, concluding that 1.0 mg/
of the element in their drinking water did not harm thes
animals. Other more recent resorts presented data suggest
ing that even considerably higher concentrations of fluoricl
in the water may, with the exception of tooth mottling
caused no animal health problems (Harris et al. 1963,"
Shupe et al. 1964,246 Nutrition Reviews 1966b,211 Savill
1967,231 Schroeder et al. 1968a237).
Recommendation
An upper limit for fluorides in livestock drinkinj
waters of 2.0 mg/1 is recommended. Although thi
level may result in some tooth mottling it shouk
not be excessive from the standpoint of anima
health or the deposition of the element in meat
milk, or eggs.
Iron
It is well known that iron (Fe) is essential to animal life
Further, it has a low order of toxicity. Ueobald and Elveh
jem (1935)138 found that iron salts added at a level o
9,000 mg Fe/kg of diet caused a phosphorus deficiency it
chicks. This could be overcome by adding phosphate to th(
diet. Campbell (1961)124 found that soluble iron salt ad
ministered to baby pigs by stomach tube at a level of 600 rm
Fe/kg of body weight caused death within six hours. O'Don
ovan et al. (1963)212 found very high levels of iron in th(
diet (4,000 and 5,000 mg/kg) to cause phosphorus deficienc;
and to be toxic to weanling pigs Lower levels (3,000 mg/kg^
apparently were not toxic. The intake of water by livestock
.may be inhibited by high levels of this element (Tayloi
1935).250 However, this should not be a common or a seriou:
oroblem. While iron occurs in natural waters as ferroui
salts which are very soluble, on contact with air it is oxi-
dized and it precipitates as ferric oxide, rendering it essen-
dally harmless to animal health.
It is not considered necessary to set an upper limit of ac-
ceptability for iron in water. It should be noted, however.
i;hat even a few parts per million of iron can cause clogging
of lines to stock watering equipment or an undesirable stain-
ing and deposit on the equipment itself.
Lead
Lake and river waters of the United States usually contain
Jess than "0.05 mg/1 of lead (Pb), although concentrations in
excess of this have been reported (Durum et al. 1971,141
Kopp and Kroner 1970).182 Some natural waters in areas
where galena is found have had as much as 0.8 mg/1 of the
-------
Water for Livestock Enterprises/'313
element. It may also be introduced into waters in the ef-
fluents from various industries, as the result of action of the
water on lead pipes (McKcc and Wolf 1963),193 or by
deposition from polluted air (NRG 1972).2"7
A nutritional need for lead by animals has not been
demonstrated, but its toxicity is well known. A rather com-
plete review of the matter of lead poisoning by McKec and
Wolf (1963)193 suggested that for livestock the toxicity of
the element had not been clearly established from a quanti-
tative standpoint. Even with more recent data (Donawick
1966,139 Link and Pensinger 1966,186 Harbourne ct al.
1968,1" Damron ct al. 1969,131 Hatch and Funnell 1969,168
Egaii and O'Cuill 1970,143 Aronsoii 1971),1()8 it is difficult to
establish clearly at what level of intake lead becomes toxic,
although a daily intake of 6-7 rng Pb/kg of body weight has
been suggested as the minimum that eventually gave rise
to signs of poisoning in cattle (Hammond and Aronson
1964).164 Apparently, cattle and sheep are considerably more
resistant to lead toxicosis than are horses, being remarkably
tolerant to the continuous intake of relatively large amounts
of the clement (Hammond and Aronson 1964,"''' Garner
1967,l:'- Aronson 1971108; NRO 1972-07). However, there is
some tendency for it to accumulate in tissues and to be
transferred to the milk at levels that could be toxic to man
(Hammond and Aronson 1964)."i4
There is some agreement that 0.5 mg/1 of lead in the
drinking water of livestock is a safe level (McKee and Wolf
1963);193 and the findings of Schroeder and his associates
with laboratory animals are in agreement with this (1963a,238
1963b,239 1964,234 196523r>). Using 10 times this level, or
5 mg 1, of lead in the drinking water of rats and mice over
their life spans, these authors observed no obvious direct
toxic effects but did find an increase in death rates in the
older animals, especially in the males. Schroeder et al.
(1965)23'1, observed that the increased mortality was not
caused by overt lead poisoning, but rather by an increased
susceptibility to spontaneous infections. Hemphill et al.
(1971)171 later reported that mice treated with subclinical
doses of lead nitrate were more susceptible to challenge with
Salmonella typhimurium.
Recommendation
In view of the lack of information concerning
the chronic toxicity of lead, its apparent role in
reducing disease resistance, and the very low inci-
dence in natural waters of lead contents exceeding
the 0.05 mg/1 level, an upper limit of 0.1 mg/1 for
lead in livestock waters is recommended.
Manganese
Like iron, manganese is a required trace element, occurs
in natural waters at only low levels as manganous salts, and
is precipitated in the presence of air as manganic oxide.
While it can be toxic when administered in the feed at high
levels (Underwood 1971),254 it is improbable that it would
be found at toxic levels in waters.
It is doubtful that setting an upper limit of acceptability
is necessary for manganese, but as with iron, a few milli-
grams per liter in water can cause objectionable deposits
on stock watering equipment.
Mercury
Natural waters may contain mercury originating from
the activities of man or from naturally occurring geological
stores (Wcrshaw 1970,262 White et al. 1970).263 The element
tends to sorb readily on a variety of materials, including the
bottom sediments of streams, greatly reducing the levels
that might otherwise remain in solution (Hem 1970) 17°
Thus, surface waters in the United States have usually
been found to contain much less than 5 jug/1 of mercury
(Durum et al. 1971).H1 In areas harboring mercury de-
posits, their biological methylation occurs in bottom sedi-
ments (Jensen and Jcrnelov 1969)176 resulting in a con-
tinuous presence of the element in solution (Greeson 1970).156
In comparison to the relative instability of organic com-
pounds such as salts of phenyl mercury and methoxyethyl
mercury (Gage and Swan 1961,151 Miller et al. 1961,195
Daniel and Gage 1969,132 Daniel et al. 1971133) alkyl
mercury compounds including methyl mercury (CHsHg+)
have a high degree of stability in the body (Gage 1964,150
Miller et al. 1961)I9:> resulting in an accumulative effect.
This relative stability, together with efficient absorption from
the gut, contributes to the somewhat greater toxicity of
orally administered methyl mercury as compared to poorly
absorbed inorganic mercury salts (Swensson et al. 1959).249
The biological half-life of methyl mercury varies from
about 20 to 70 days in most species (Bergrund and Berlin
1969).113 Brain, liver, and kidney were the organs that ac-
cumulated the highest levels of the element, with the distri-
bution of methyl and other alkyl mercury compounds favor-
ing nerve tissue and inorganic mercury favoring the kidney
(Malishcvskaya ct al. 1966,188 Platonow 1968,222 Aberg et al.
1969).102
Transfer of methyl mercury (Curley et al. 1971),13° but
not mercuric mercury (Berlin and Ullberg 1963),114 to the
fetus has been observed. The element also appeared in the
eggs of poultry (Kiwimae et al. 1969)180 and wild birds
(Borg et al. 1969,118 Dustman et al. 1970)142 but did not seem
to concentrate there much above levels found in the tissues
of the adult. Data concerning levels of mercury that may be
detrimental to hatchability of eggs are too meager to sup-
port conclusions at this time. Also, data concerning transfer
of mercury to milk is lacking.
The animal organs representing the principal tissues for
mercury concentration are brain, liver, and kidney. It is
desirable that the maximum allowable limit for mercury in
livestock waters should result in less than 0.5 ppm of ac-
cumulated mercury in these tissues. This is the level now in
-------
31 ^/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
use as the maximum allowable in fish used for human con-
sumption.
Few data are available quantitatively relating dietary
mercury levels with accumulation in animal tissues. The
ratios between blood and brain levels of methyl mercury
appeared to range from 10 for rats to 0.2 for monkeys and
dogs (International Committee on Maximum Allowable
Concentrations of Mercury Compounds 1969).m In addi-
tion, blood levels of mercury appeared to increase approxi-
mately in proportion to increases in dietary intake (Birke
et al. 1967m; Tejning 1967251).
Assuming a 0.2 or more blood-to-tissuc (brain or other tis-
sue) ratio for mercury in livestock, the maintenance of less
than 0.5 ppm mercury in all tissues necessitates maintaining
blood mercury levels below 0.1 ppm. This would indicate a
maximum daily intake of 2.3 fig of mercury per kilogram
body weight. Based upon daily water consumption by meat
animals in the range of up to about eight per cent of body
weight, it is estimated that water may contain almost 30
fig/], of mercury as methyl mercury without the limits of
these criteria being exceeded. Support for this approxima-
tion was provided in part by the calculations of Aberg et al.
(1969)102 showing that after "infinite" time the body burden
of mercury in man will approximate 15.2 times the weekly
intake of methyl mercury. Applying these data to meat ani-
mals consuming water equivalent to eight per cent of body
weight and containing 30 jug/I of mercury would result in
an average of 0.25 ppm mercury in the whole animal body.
Recommendation
Until specific data become available for the vari-
ous species, adherence to an upper limit of 10 /ng/1
of mercury in water for livestock is recommended,
and this limit provides an adequate margin of
safety to humans who will subsequently not be
exposed to as much as 0.5 ppm of mercury through
the consumption of animal tissue.
Molybdenum
Underwood (1971)254 reviewed the matter of molyb-
denum's role in animal nutrition. While the evidence that
it is an essential element is good, the amount of molybdenum
required has not been established. For cattle, for instance,
no minimum requirement has been set, but it is believed to
be low, possibly less than 0.01 ppm of the dry diet (NRG
1970).204
McKee and Wolf (1963)193 reviewed the matter of toxicity
of molybdenum to animals, but Underwood (1971)254
pointed out that many of the studies on its toxicity arc ot
limited value because a number of factors known to influence
its metabolism were not taken into account in making these
studies. These factors included the chemical form ot
molybdenum, the copper status and intake of the animal,
the form and amount of sulfur in the diet, and other less
well defined matters. In spite of these, there are data to
support real species differences in terms of tolerance to th<
element. Cattle seem the least tolerant, sheep a little mor
so, and horses and swine considerably more tolerant.
While Shirley et al. (1950)24!l found that drenching steer
daily with sodium molybdate in an amount equialent ti
about 200 ppm of molybdenum in the diet for a period c
seven months resulted in no marked symptoms of toxicitv
cattle on pastures where the herbage contained 20-100 ppn
of molybdenum on a dry basis developed a toxicosis knowi
as teart. Copper additions to the diet have been used ti
control this (Underwood 1971).254
Cox et al. (I960)127 reported (hat rats fed diets containing
500 and 800 ppm of added rrolybdenum showed toxicit1
symptoms and had increased levels of the element in thei
livers. Some effects of the molybdenum in the diets on live
enzymes in the rats were not observed in calves that ha(
been maintained on diets containing up to 400 ppm of thi
element.
Apparently, natural surface waters very rarely containet
levels of this element of over 1 rng/1 (Kopp and Krone
1970),182 which seemed to offer no problem.
Conclusion
Because there are many factors influencing tox-
icity of molybdenum, selling an upper allowable
limit for its concentration in livestock waters is
not possible at this time.
Nitrates and Nitrites
Livestock poisoning by nitrates or nitrites is dependem
upon the intake of these ions from all sources. Thus, watei
3r forage may independently or together contain levels thai
are toxic. Of the two, nitrite is considerably more toxic
Usually it is formed through the biological reduction o
litrate in the rumen of cattle or sheep, in freshly chopped
"orage, in moistened feeds, or in waters contaminated witr
organic matter to the extent that they are capable of sup
sorting microbial growth. While natural waters often con-
tain high levels of nitrate, their nitrite content is usually
very low.
While some nitrate was transferred to the milk, Davisor
and his associates (1964)135 found that for dairy cattle fed
150 mg NO3N/kg of body weight the milk contained about
3 ppm of NO3N. They concluded that nitrates in cattle
feeds did not appear to constitute a hazard to human
health, and that animals fed nitrate continuously developed
some degree of adaptation to it.
The LD50 of nitrate nitrogen for ruminants was found
to be about 75 mg NO3N/kg of body weight when ad-
ministered as a drench (Bradley et al. 1940)119 and about
255 mg/kg of body weight when sprayed on forage and
feed (Crawford and Kennedy I960).128 Levels of 60 mg
NO3N/kg of body weight as a drench (Sapiro et al. 1949)230
and 150 mg NO3N/kg of body weight in the diet (Prewitt
and Median 1958;224 Davison et al. 1964135) had no de-
-------
Water for Livestock Enterprises 315
leterious effects. Lewis (1951)184 found that 60 per cent con-
version of hemoglobin to methemoglobin occurred in
mature sheep from 4.0 g of NO3N or 2.0 g of NO2N placed
in the rumen, or 0.4 g NO2N injected intravenously. As an
oral drench, 90 mg NO3N/kg of body weight gave peak
methemoglobin levels of 5-6 g/100 ml of blood in sheep,
while intravenous injection of 6 mg NO2N/kg of body weight
gave similar results (Emerick et al. 1965).144
Nitrate-induced abortions in cattle and sheep have
generally required amounts approaching lethal levels
(Simon et al. 1959,247 Davison et al. 1962,136 Winter and
Hokanson 1964,266 Davison et al. 1965137).
Some experiments have demonstrated reductions in
plasma or liver vitamin A values resulting from the feeding
of nitrate to ruminants (Jordan et al. 1961,178 Goodrich
et al. 1964,153 Newland and Deans 1964,™ Hoar et al.
1968173). The destructive effect of nitrites on carotene
(Olson et al. 1963213) and vitamin A (Pugh and Garner
1963225) under acid conditions that existed in silage or in
the gastric stomach have also been noted. On the other
hand, nitrate levels of about 0.15 per cent in the feed
(equivalent to about 1 per cent of potassium nitrate) have
not been shown to influence liver vitamin A levels (Hale
et al. 1962,161 Wcichenthal et al. 1963,261 Mitchell et al.
1967197) nor to have other deleterious effects in controlled
experiments, except for a possible slight decrease in produc-
tion.
Assuming a maximum water consumption in dairy cat-
tle of 3 to 4 times the dry matter intake (NRG 197la205),
the concentration of nitrate to be tolerated in the water
should be about one-fourth of that tolerated in the feed.
This would be about 300 mg, 1 of NO3N.
Gwatkin and Plummer (1946)160 drenched pigs with
potassium nitrate solutions, finding that it required in ex-
cess of 300 mg NOsN/'kg of body weight to cause erosion
and hemorrhage of the gastric mucosa and subsequent
death. Lower levels of this salt had no effect when ad-
ministered daily for 30 days. Losses in swine due to metho-
globinemia have occurred only with the consumption of
preformed nitrite and not with nitrate (Mclntosh et al.
1943,192 Gwatkin and Plummer 1946,160 Winks ct al.
1950263). Nitrate administered orally as a single dose was
found to be acutely toxic at 13 mg NO2N/kg of body weight,
8.7 mg/kg of body weight producing moderate methemo-
globinemia (Winks et al. 1950).265 Emerick et al. (1965)144
produced moderate methemoglobinemia in pigs with intra-
venous injections of 6.0 mg NOoN/kg of body weight and
found that the animals under one week of age were no more
susceptible to poisoning than older ones.
Drinking water containing 330 mg/1 NO3N fed continu-
ously to growing pigs and to gilts from weaning through two
farrowing seasons had no adverse effects (Seerley et al.
1965).242 Further, 100 mg/1 of NO2N in drinking water
had no effect on performance or liver vitamin A values of
pigs over a 105-day experimental period, and methemo-
globin values remained low. This level of nitrite greatly
exceeded the maximum of 13 mg/1 NO2N found to form
in waters in galvanized watering equipment and in the
presence of considerable organic matter containing up to
300 mg/1 NO3N.
In special situations involving the presence of high levels
of nitrates in aqueous slurries of plant or animal tissues,
nitrite accumulation reached a peak of about one-fourth to
one-half the initial nitrate concentration (Mclntosh et al.
1943,192 Winks etal. 1950,266 Barnctt 1952).10!) This situation
was unusual, but since wet mixtures are sometimes used for
swine, it must be considered in establishing criteria for
water.
Levels of nitrate up to 300 mg/1 NO3N or of nitrite up to
200 mg/1 of NO2N were added to drinking waters without
adverse effects on the growth of chicks or production of
laying hens (Adams et al. 1966).104 At 200 mg/1 NO2N,
nitrite decreased growth in turkey poults and reduced the
liver storage of vitamin A in chicks, laying hens, and
turkeys. At 50 mg/1 NO2N, no effects were observed on any
of the birds. Kienholz et al. (1966)179 found that 150 mg/1
of NO3N in the drinking water or in the feed of chicks or
poults had no detrimental effect on growth, feed efficiency,
methemoglobin level, or thyroid weight, while Sell and
Roberts (1963)243 found that 0.12 per cent (1,200 ppm) of
NO2N in chick diets lowered vitamin A stores in the liver
and caused hypertrophy of the thyroid. Other studies have
shown poultry to tolerate levels of nitrate or nitrite similar
to or greater than those mentioned above (Adams et al.
1967,105 Crawford et al. 1969129). Up to 450 mg/1 of NO3N
in the drinking water of turkeys did not significantly affect
meat color (Mugler et al. 1970).'"
Some have suggested that nitrate or nitrite can cause a
chronic or subclinical toxicity (Simon et al. 1959,247
Mcllwain and Schipper 1963,m Pfander 1961,221 Beeson
1964,m Case 1957125). Some degree of thyroid hypertrophy
may occur in some species with the consumption of subtoxic
levels of nitrate or nitrite (Bloomfield ct al. 1961,"7 Sell and
Roberts 1963),24;i but possibly not in all (Jainudeen et al.
1965).m In the human newborn, a chronic type of mcthe-
globinemia ma)- result from feeding waters of low NO3N
content (Armstrong ct al. 1958).ul7 It appears, however,
that all classes of livestock and poultry that have been studied
under controlled experimental conditions can tolerate the
continued ingestion of waters containing up to 300 mg 1 of
NO3N or 100 mg 1 of NO2N.
Recommendation
In order to provide a reasonable margin of safety
to allow for unusual situations such as extremely
high water intake or nitrite formation in slurries,
the NO3N plus NO2N content in drinking waters
for livestock and poultry should be limited to 100
ppm or less, and the NO2N content alone be limited
to 10 ppm or less.
-------
/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
Selenium
Rosenfeld and Beath (1964)227 have reviewed the prob-
lems of selenium poisoning in livestock. Of the three types
of this poisoning described, the "alkali disease" syndrome
required the lowest level of the element in the feed for its
causation. Moxon (1937)198 placed this level at about 5 ppm,
and subsequent research confirmed this figure. Later work
established that the toxicity of selenium was very similar
when the element was fed as it occurs in plants, as seleno-
methionine or selenocystine, or as inorganic selenite or
selenate (Halverson et al. 1962,162 Rosenfeld and Beath
1964,227 Halverson et al. 1966163). Ruminant animals may
tolerate more as inorganic salts than do monogastric ani-
mals because of the salts' reduction to insoluble elemental
form by rumen microorganisms (Butler and Peterson
1961).m
A study with rats (Schroeder 1967)232 revealed that sele-
nite, but not selenate, in the drinking water caused deaths
at a level of 2 mg/1 and was somewhat more toxic than
selenite administered in the diet. However, the results of
drenching studies with cattle and sheep (Maag and Glenn
1967)187 indicated that selenium concentration in the water
should be slight, if it is any more toxic in the same chemical
form administered in the feed. If there are differences with
respect to the effect of mode of ingestion on toxicity, they are
probably small.
To date, no substantiated cases of selenium poisoning in
livestock by waters have been reported, although some
spring and irrigation waters have been found to contain
over 1 mg/1 of the element (Byers 1935,122 Williams and
Byers 1935,264 Beath 1943110). As a rule, well, surface, and
ocean waters appeared to contain less than 0.05 mg/1,
usually considerably less. Byers et al. (1938)123 explained
the low selenium content as a result of precipitation of the
selenite ion with ferric hydroxide. Microbial activity, how-
ever, removed either selenite or selenate from water
(Abu-Erreish 1967);103 this may be another explanation.
In addition to its toxicity, the essential role of selenium
in animal nutrition (Thompson and Scott 1970)2'"'2 must be
considered. Between 0.1 and 0.2 ppm in the diet have been
recommended as necessary to insure against a deficiency
in poultry (Scott and Thompson 1969),241 against white
muscle disease in ruminants (Muth 1963),201 and other
diseases in other animals (Hartley and Grant 1961).167
Selenium therapy suggests it as a requirement for livestock
in general. Inorganic selenium was not incorporated into
tissues to the same extent as it occurred in plant tissue
(Halverson et al. 1962,162 1966,163 Rosenfeld and Beath
1964227). It is doubtful that 0.2 ppm or less of added inor-
ganic selenium appreciably increased the amount found in
the tissue of animals ingesting it. The data of Kubota et al.
(1967)183 regarding the occurrence of selenium poisoning
suggested that over a good part of the United States live-
stock were receiving as much as 0.5 ppm or even more of
naturally occurring selenium in their diets continuously,
without harm to them and without accumulating levels of
(he element in their tissues that make meats or livestock
products unfit for human use.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the upper limit for
selenium in livestock waters be 0.05 mg/1.
Vanadium
Vanadium has been present in surface waters in the
United States in concentrations up to 0.3 mg/1, although
most of the analyses showed less than 0.05 mg/1 (Kopp anc
Kroner 1970).182
Recently, vanadium was determined essential for the
growing rat, physiologically required levels appearing tc
x at or below 0.1 ppm of the diet (Schwarz and Milne
1971).240 It became toxic to chicks when incorporated intc
:he diet as ammonium metavanadate at concentrations
over about 10 ppm of the element (Romoscr et al. 1961,221
Nelson et al. 1962,208 Berg 1963,m Hathcock et al. 1964169)
Schroeder and Balassa (1967)23;! found that when mice were
allowed drinking water containing 5 mg/1 of vanadium as
v'anadyl sulfate over a life spai, no toxic effects were ob-
served, but the element did accumulate to some extent ir
certain organs.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the upper limit foi
vanadium in drinking water for livestock be 0.1
mg/1.
Zinc
There are many opportunities for the contamination o
waters by zinc. In some areas where it is mined, this meta
ias been found in natural waters in concentrations as higlt
as 50 mg/1. It occurs in significant amounts in effluent!
from certain industries. Galvanized pipes and tanks maj
also contribute zinc to acidic waters. In a recent survey o
surface waters, most contained less than 0.05 mg/1 but some
exceeded 5.0 mg/1, the highest value being 42 mg/1 (Duruir
et al. 1971).141
Zinc is relatively nontoxic for animals. Swine have
lolerated 1,000 ppm of dietary zinc (Grimmet et al. 1937,16'
Sampson et al. 1942,229 Lewis et al. 1957,185 Brink et al.
1959120), while 2,000 ppm or more have been found to be
1oxic (Brink et al. 1959).120 Similar findings have been re-
ported for poultry (Klussendorf and Pensack 1958,181 John-
son et al. 1962,177 Vohra and Kratzer 1968259) where zinc
was added to the feed. Adding 2,320 mg/1 of the element
lo water for chickens reduced water consumption, egg pro-
duction, and body weight. Aftei zinc withdrawal (here were
no symptoms of toxicity in chickens (Sturkie 1956).248 In a
number of studies with ruminants, Ott et al. (1966a,21£
-------
Water for Livestock Enterprises /317
b,216 c,217 d218) found zinc added to diets as the oxide to be
toxic, but at levels over 500 mg kg of diet.
While an increased zinc intake reflected an increase in
level of the element in the body tissues, the tendency for its
accumulation was not great (Drinker et al. 1927,140 Thomp-
son et al. 1927,253 Sadasivan 1951,228 Lewis et al. 1957),m
and tissue levels fell rapidly after zinc dosing was stopped
(Drinker et al. 1927,140 Johnson et al. 1962177).
Zinc is a dietary requirement of all poultry and livestock.
National Research Council recommendation for poults up
to eight weeks was 70 mg kg of diet; for chicks up to eight
weeks, it was 50 mg/kg of diet (NRG 1971b);206 for swine,
50 mg'kg-of diet (NRC 1968a).202 There is no established
requirement for ruminants, but zinc deficiencies were re-
ported in cattle grazing forage with zinc contents ranging
between 18 and 83 ppm (Underwood 1971).264 There is
also no established requirement for sheep, but lambs fed a
purified diet containing 3 ppm of the element developed
symptoms of a deficiency that were prevented by adding 15
ppm of zinc to the diet; 30 ppm was required to give max-
imum growth (Ott ct al. 1965).2H
Cereal grains contained on the average 30-40 ppm and
protein concentrates from 20 to over 100 ppm (Davis
1966).134 In view of this, and in view of the low order of
toxicity of zinc and its requirement by animals, a limit in
livestock waters of 25 mg zinc 1 would have a very large
margin of safety. A higher limit does not seem necessary,
since there would be few instances where natural waters
would carry in excess of this.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the upper limit for zinc
in livestock waters be 25 mg/1.
Toxic Algae
The term "water bloom" refers to heavy scums of blue-
green algae that form on waters under certain conditions.
Perhaps the first report of livestock poisoning by toxic algae
was that of Francis (1878)147 who described the problem in
southern Australia. Fitch et al. (1934)146 reviewed a number
of cases of algal poisoning in farm animals in Minnesota
between 1882 and 1933. All were associated with certain
blue-green algae often concentrated by the wind at one end
of the lake. Losses in cattle, sheep, and poultry were re-
ported. The algae were found toxic to laboratory animals
on ingestion or intraperitoneal injection.
According to Gorham (1964)155 six species of blue-green
algae have been incriminated, as follows:
Nodulana spumigena
Microsysiis aeruginosa
Coelosphaerium Kuetzingianum
Gloeotrichia echinulata
Anabaena flos-aquae
Ajphanizpmenon flos-aquae
Of the above, Gorham states that Microcystis and Ana-
baena have most often been blamed for serious poisonings
and algal blooms consisting of one or more of these species
vary considerably in their toxicity (Gorham 1964).155
According to Gorham (I960),104 this variability seems to
depend upon a number of factors, e.g., species and strains
of algae that are predominant, types and numbers of bac-
terial associates, the conditions of growth, collection and
decomposition, the degree of animal starvation and sus-
ceptibility, and the amount consumed. To date, only one
toxin from blue-green algae has been isolated and identified,
only from a few species and streams. This was a cyclic poly-
peptidc containing 10 amino acid residues, one of which
was the unnatural amino acid D-scrine (Bishop et al.
1959).n6 This is also referred to as FDF (fast-death factor),
since it causes death more quickly than SDF (slow-death
factor) toxins produced in water blooms.
Shilo (1967)244 pointed out that the sudden decomposition
of algal blooms often preceded mass mortality of fish, and
similar observations were made with livestock poisonings.
This suggests that the lysis of the algae may be important
in the release of the toxins, but it also suggests that in some
circumstances botulism may be involved. The lack of oxy-
gen may have caused the fish kill and must also be con-
sidered.
Predeath symptoms in livestock have not been carefully
observed and described. Post-mortem examination is ap-
parently of no help in diagnosis (Fitch et al. 1934).146
Feeding or injecting algal suspensions or water from suspect
waters have been used to some extent, but the occasional
fleeting toxicity of these materials makes this procedure of
limited value. Identification of any of the toxic blue-green
algae species in suspect waters does no more than suggest
the possibility that they caused livestock deaths.
In view of the many unknowns and unresolved problems
relating blooms of toxic algae, it is impossible to suggest
any recommendations insuring against the occurrence of
toxic algae in livestock waters.
Recommendation
The use for livestock of waters bearing heavy
growths of blue green algae should be avoided.
Radionuclides
Surface and groundwaters acquire radioactivity from
natural sources, from fallout resulting from atmospheric
nuclear detonations, from mining or processing uranium,
or as the result of the use of isotopes in medicine, scientific
research, or industry.
All radiation is regarded as harmful, and any unnecessary
exposure to it should be avoided. Experimental work on the
biological half-lives of radionuclides and their somatic and
genetic effects on animals have been briefly reviewed by
McKee and Wolf (1963).193 Because the rate of decay of a
radionuclide is a physical constant that cannot be changed,
-------
318/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
radioactive isotopes must be disposed of by dilution or by
storage and natural decay. In view of the variability in half-
lives of the many radioisotopes, the nature of their radioac-
tive emissions, and the differences in metabolism of various
elements by different animals, the results of animal experi-
mentation do not lend themselves easily to the development
of recommendations.
Based on the recommendations of the U. S. Federal
Radiation Council (I960,257 1961258), the Environmental
Protection Agency will set drinking water standards for
radionuclides (1972),145 to establish the intake of radioac-
tivity from waters that when added to the amount from all
other sources will not likely be harmful to man.
Recommendation
In view of the limited knowledge of the effect of
radionuclides in water on domestic animals, it is
recommended that the Federal Drinking Water
Standards be used for farm animals as well as for
man.
PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR LIVESTOCK)
Pesticides include a large number of organic and inorganic
compounds. The United States production of synthetic
organic pesticides in 1970 was 1,060 million pounds con-
sisting almost entirely of insecticides (501 million pounds),
herbicides (391 million pounds), and fungicides (168 million
pounds). Production data for inorganic pesticides was
limited. Based on production, acreage treated, and use
patterns, insecticides and herbicides comprise the major
agricultural pesticides (Fowler 1972).279 Of these, some can
be detrimental to livestock. Some have low solubility in
water, but all cause problems if accidental spillage pro-
duces high concentrations in water, or if they become ad-
sorbed on colloidal particles subsequently dispersed in
water.
Insecticides are subdivided into three major classes of
compounds including methylcarbamates, organophosphatcs
and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Many of these substances
produce no serious pollution hazards, because they are non-
persistent. Others, such as the chlorinated hydrocarbons,
are quite persistent in the environment and are the pesti-
cides most frequently encountered in water.
Entry of Pesticides into Water
Pesticides enter water from soil runoff, direct application,
drift, rainfall, spills, or faulty waste disposal techniques.
Movement by erosion of soil particles with adsorbed pesti-
cides is one of the principal means of entry into water. The
amount carried in runoff water is influenced by rates of ap-
plication, soil type, vegetation, topography, and other
factors. Because of strong binding of some pesticides on soil
particles, water pollution by pesticides is thought to occur
largely through the transport of chemicals adsorbed to soil
particles (Lichtenstcin et al. 1966).281 This mechanism m;
not always be a major roui.e. Bradley et al. (1972)269 ol
served that when 13.4 kg/hectare DDT and 26.8 kg/hectaj
toxophcne were applied to colton fields, only 1.3 and 0.(
per cent, respectively, of the amounts applied were detecte
in natural runoff water over an 8-month period.
Pesticides can also enter the aquatic environment by dire
application to surface waters. Generally, this use is to coi
trol mosquito larvae, nuisance aquatic weeds, and, as
several southern states, to control selected aquatic faur
such as snails (Chesters and Konrad 1971).271 Both of the,
pathways generally result in contamination of surface wale
rather than groundwaters.
Precipitation, accidental sp 11s, and faulty waste clispos
are less important entry routes. Pesticides detected in rail
water include DDT, DDD, DDF, dicldrin, alpha-BHC an
gamma-BHC in extremely minute concentrations (i e., i
the order of 10""1'- parts or the nanograms per liter leve
(Weibcl et al. 1966,2'1-' Cohen and Pinkerton 1966,274 Ta
rant and Tatton 19682'"). Spills and faulty waste dispos,
techniques are usually responsible for short-term, high-lev
contamination.
The amount of pesticide actually in solution, howevc
is governed by a number of factors, the most importar
probably being the solubility of the molecule. Chlorinate
hydrocarbon insecticides, for example, have low solubilit
in water (Freshwater Appendix II-D). Cationic pesticid<
(i.e., paraquat and diquat) are rapidly and tightly bouti
to soil particles and are inactivated (Weed Society <
America 1970).204 Most arsenical pesticides form insolubl
salts and are inactivated (\Voolson et al. 1971).297 A survc
of the water and soil layers in farm ponds indicates highc
concentrates of pesticides are associated with the soil layei
that interface with water than in the water per sc. In an e>
tensive survey of farm water sources (U. S. Dept. of Agr
culture, Agricultural Research Service 1969a,2C'2 hereafu
referred to as Agriculture Research Service 1969a267
analysis of sediment -showed residues in the magnitude c
decimal fractions of a microgram per gram (,ug 'g) to a hig
of 4.90 /xg-g DDT and its DDE and DDD degradatio
compounds. These were the principal pesticides found i
sediment. Dieldrin and endrin were also detected in sedi
ment in two study areas where surface drainage wate
entered farm ponds from an adjacent field.
Pesticides Occurrence in Water
Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are the pesticide
most frequently encountered in water. They include DDT
and its degradation products DDE and DDD, dieldrin
endrin, chlordane, aldrin, and lindane. In a pesticide moni
toring program conducted from 1957 to 1965, Breidenbacl
et al. (1967)270 concluded that dieldrin was present in al
sampled river basins at levels from 1 to 22 nanogrami
(ng)/liter. DDT and its metabolites were found to occur ir
most surface waters, while levels of endrin in the lowei
-------
Water for Livestock Enterprises '319
Mississippi decreased from a high of 214 ng/1 in 1963 to a
range of 15 to 116 ng/1 in 1965. Results of monitoring
studies conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture
(Agricultural Research Service 1969a)267 from 1965 to
1967 indicated that only very small amounts of pesticides
were present in any of the sources sampled. The most preva-
lent pesticides in water were DDT, its metabolites DDD and
DDE, and dieldrin. Levels detected were usually below
one part per billion. The DDT family, dieldrin, endrin,
chlordane, lindane, heptachlor epoxide, trifluralin, and
2,4-D, were detected in the range of 0.1 to 0.01 /ig/1. In a
major survey of surface waters in the United States con-
ducted from 1965 to 1968 for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesti-
cides (Lichtenberg et al. 1969),2*2 dieldrin and DDT (in-
cluding DDE and DDD) were the compounds most fre-
quently detected throughout the 5-ycar period. After reach-
ing a peak in 1966, the total number of occurrences of all
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides decreased sharply in
1967 and 1968.
A list of pesticides most likely to occur in the environ-
ment and, consequently, recommended for inclusion in
monitoring studies, was developed by the former Federal
Committee on Pesticide Control (now Working Group on
Pesticides). This list was revised (Schechtcr 1971)29" and
expanded to include those compounds (1) whose persistence
is of relatively long-term duration; (2) whose use pattern?
is large scale in terms of acreage; or (3) whose inherent
toxicity is hazardous enough to merit close surveillance.
The primary list includes 32 pesticides or classes of pesticides
(i.e. arsenical pesticides, mercurial pesticides, and several
dithiocarbamate fungicides) recommended to be monitored
in water. A secondary list of 1 7 compounds was developed
for consideration, if monitoring activities are expanded in
the future. The pesticides found on the primary list would
be those most likely to be encountered in farm water sup-
plies (see Freshwater Appendix II-D).
lexicological Effects of Pesticides on Livestock
Mammals generally have a greater tolerance to pesticides
than birds and fish. However, the increased use of pesticides
in agriculture, particularly the insecticides, presents a poten-
tial hazard to livestock. Some compounds such as the or-
ganophosphorous insecticides can be extremely dangerous,
especially when mishandled or wrongly used. To date, how-
ever, there actually have been very few verified cases of
livestock poisoning from pesticides (Papworth 1967).2" In
the few instances reported, the cause of livestock poisoning
usually has been attributed to human negligence. For live-
stock, pesticide classes that may pose possible hazards are
the acaricides, fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, mollus-
cides, and rodenticides (Papworth 1967).287
Acaricides intended for use on crops and trees usually
have low toxicity to livestock. Some, such as technical
chlorobenzilate, have significant toxicity for mammals. The
acute oral LD50 in rats is 0.7 g/kg of body weight (Pap-
worth 1967).287 With fungicides, the main hazard to live-
stock apparently is not from the water route, but from their
use as seed dressings for grain. Of the types used, the organo-
mercury compounds and thiram are potentially the most
dangerous (McEntee 1950,283 Weibel et al. 1966295). The
use of all organomercury fungicides is restricted by the
Environmental Protection Agency (Office of Pesticides,
Pesticides Regulation Division 1972).277 Consequently, the
possible hazard to livestock from these compounds has, for
most purposes, been eliminated.
Of the herbicides in current use, the dinitro compounds
pose the greatest hazard to livestock. Dinitroorthocresol
(DNC or DNOC) is probably the most used member of
this group. In ruminants, however, DNC is destroyed
rapidly by the rumen organisms (Papworth 1967).287 These
compounds are very persistent, up to two years, and for
livestock the greatest hazard is from spillages, contamina-
tion of vegetation, or water. In contrast, the phcnoxyacetic
acid derivatives (2,4-D, MCPA) are comparatively harm-
less. Fertig (1953)278 states that suspected poisoning of
livestock or wildlife by phcnoxy herbicides could not be
substantiated in all cases carefully surveyed. 'I he hazards
to livestock from hormone weed killers are discussed by
Rowe and Hymas (1955),289 and dinitrocompounds by
McGirr and Papworth (1953)284 and Edson (1954).276
The possible hazards from other herbicides are reviewed by
Papworth (1967)287 and Radeleff (1970).2SS
Of the classes of insecticides in use, some pose a potential
hazard to livestock, while others do not. Insecticides of
vegetable origin such as pyrethrins and rotenones, are prac-
tically non-toxic to livestock. Most chlorinated hydrocarbons
are not highly toxic to livestock, and none is known to ac-
cumulate in vital organs. DDT, DDD, dilan, methoxychlor,
and perthanc are not highly toxic to mammals, but some
other chlorinated hydrocarbons are quite toxic (Papworth
1967,287 Radeleff' 19702SS). The insecticides that are poten-
tially the most hazardous are the organophosphorus com-
pounds causing chlorinestcrase inhibition. Some, such as
mipafax, induce pathological changes not directly related
to cholinesterase inhibition (Barnes and Denz 1953).268
Liquid organophosphorus insecticides are absorbed by all
routes, and the lethal dose for most of these compounds is
low (Papworth 1967,2*7 Radeleff 19702S!i).
Pesticides in Drinking Water for Livestock
The subgroup on contamination in the Report of the
Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and Their Relation-
ship to Environmental Health (U.S. Dept. of Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare 1969)293 examined the present knowl-
edge -on mechanisms for dissemination of pesticides in the
environment, including the water route. There have been
no reported cases of livestock toxicity resulting from pesti-
cides in water. However, they conclude that the possibility
of contamination and toxicity from pesticides is real because
of indiscriminate, uncontrolled and excessive use.
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32Q/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
Pesticide residues in farm water supplies for livestock and
related enterprises are undesirable and must be reduced or
eliminated whenever possible. The primary problem of
reducing levels of pesticides in water is to locate the source
of contamination. Once located, appropriate steps should
be taken to eliminate the source.
Some of the properties and concentrations of pesticides
found in water are shown in Table V-4. Although many
pesticides are readily broken down and eliminated by live-
stock with no subsequent toxicological effect, the inherent
problems associated with pesticide use include the accumu-
lation and secretion of either the parent compound or its
degradation products in edible tissues and milk (Kutches
et al. 1970).28" Consequently, pesticides consumed by live-
stock through drinking water may result in residues in fat
and certain produce (milk, eggs, wool), depending on the
level of exposure and the nature of the pesticide. There is
also a possibility of interactions between insecticides and
drugs, especially in animal feeds (Conney and Hitchings
1969).275
Nonpolar lipophilic pesticides such as the chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides (DDT, lindane, endrin, and
others) tend to accumulate in fatty tissue and may re-
sult in measurable residues. Polar, water soluble pesticides
and their metabolic derivatives are generally excreted in
the urine soon after ingestion. Examples of this class would
include most of the phosphate insecticides and the acid
herbicides (2,4-D; 2,4,5-T; and others). Approximately
96 per cent of a dose of 2,4-D fed to sheep was excreted
unchanged in the urine and 1.4 per cent in the feccs in 72
hours (Clark et al. 1964).273 Feeding studies (Claborn et al.
I960)272 have shown that when insecticides were fed to beef
cattle and sheep as a contaminant in their feed at dosages
that occur as residues on forage crops, all except methoxy-
chlor were stored in the fat. The levels of these insecticides
in fat decreased after the insecticides were removed from the
animals' diets. When poultry were exposed to pesticides
either by ingestion of contaminated food or through the use
of pesticides in poultry houses, Whitehead (1971)2'J6 ob-
TABLE V-4—Some Properties, Criteria, and Concentrations
of Pesticides Found in Water
Solubility ^
Toxicity LD50 mg/kg Maximum concentration11
MS/I
aldnn
dieldrm
endrin .
heptachlor
heptachlor epoxide
DDT
DDE
ODD
2,4-D*
110
160
56
350
1.2
60,000
38
46
10
130
113
300-1000
0.085
0.407
0.133
0.048
0.067
0.316
0.050
0.840
" Maximum concentration of pesticide found in surface waters in the United States, from lichtenberg etal.
(1969)282.
' Refers to the herbicide family 2,4-D; 2,4,5-T; and 2,4,5-TP.
served that the toxicities to birds of the substances use
varied greatly. However, nonlethal doses may affect growl
rate, feed conversion efficiency, egg production, egg siz
shell thickness, and viability of the young. Although the e
fects of large doses may be considerable, Whitehead coi
eluded that little is known about the impairment of produ
tion at low rates commonly used in agricultural practice.
Elimination of fat soluble pesticides from contaminate
animals is slow. Urinary excretion is insignificant ar
elimination in feces is slow. The primary route of excretic
in a lactating animal is throng ti milk. The lowest concentr,
tions of pesticides in feeds that lead to detectable residues i
animal tissues or products exceed the amounts found i
water by a factor of 10,000. However, at the comparative
high dosage rates given in feeds, certain trends are apparen
Cows fed DDT in their diet at rates of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, an
5.0 mg/kg exhibited residues in milk at all feeding leve
except at 0.5 mg/kg. As the DDT feed levels increase!
contamination increased (Zweig et al. 1961).298 When cov
were removed from contaminated feeds, the amount <
time required for several pesticides to reach the non-detec
able level was recorded (Moubry et al. 1968).586 Dicldri
had the longest retention time in milk, approximately 1C
days. DDT and its analogs, BHC, lindane, endrin, an
methoxychlor followed in that order. It should be emph?
sized that levels found in farm water supplies do not make
significant contribution to animal body burdens of pesticid<
compared to amounts accumulated in feeds.
Table V-4 shows the toxicity of some important pest
cides. Assuming the average concentration of any pesticid
in water is 0.1 jug/1, ar>d the average daily consumption c
water by dairy or beef cattle 'S 60 liters per day, then th
average daily intake of DDT would be 0.006 mg. Furthei
assuming that the average body weight for dairy or beef ca
tic is 450 kg and the LD50 for DDT is 113 mg. kg (Tab!
V-4), then 50 grams would have to be consumed to approac
the dose that would be lethal to 50 per cent of the animals.
a steer were maintained on this water for 1,000 days, then
would have ingested about 1/10,000 of the reported LD5(
For endrin (LD50= 10 mg/kg), cattle would ingest 1/1,00
of the established LD50. The safety margin is probabl
greater than indicated, because the calculations assume the
all of the insecticide is retained unaltered during the tot;
ingestion period. DDT is known to be degraded to a limite<
extent by bovine rumen fluid and by rumen microorgan
isms. For sheep, swine, horsey and poultry, the averag
daily water intake in liters is about 5, 10, 40, and 0.2, re
spectively. Consequently, their intake would be substantiall
less.
Fish as Indicators of Water Safety
The presence of fish may be an excellent monitor fo
toxic levels of pesticides in livestock water supplies. Ther
are numerous and well documented examples in the litera
ture of the biological magnification of persistent pesticide
-------
Water for Livestock Enterprises /321
TABLE V-5—Examples of Fish as Indicators of Water
Safety for Livestock
Material
Toxic-levels mg/l (or fish
Toxic effects on animals
Aldrin
Chlordane
Dieldrm
Dipterex
Endnn
Ferban, fermate
Methoxychlor
Parattiion
Pentachlorophenol
Pyrethrum (allethrin)
Silvex
Toxaphene
0.02
I.O(sunfish)
0.025 (trout)
50.0
0.003 (bass)
1 0 to 4 0
0.2 (bass)
2.0 (goldfish)
0.35(bluegill)
2 0 to 10.0
50
O.I (bass)
3 mg/kg loot (poultry).
91 me/kg body weight in food (cattle).
25 mg/kg food (rats).
10 0 mg/kg body weight in foorJ (calves).
3 5 mg/kg body weight in food (chicks).
14 mg/kg alfalfa hay, not toxic (cattle).
75 mg/kg body weight in food (cattle).
60 mg 'I drinking water not toxic (cattle).
1 . 400 to 2, 800 mg/kg body weight in food (rats).
500 to 2.000 mg/kg body weight in food (chicks).
35 to 110 mg/kg body weight in food (cattle).
McKee and Wolf, 1963M5.
by fish and other aquatic organisms (Sec Sections III and
IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.)
Because of the lower tolerance levels of these aquatic
organisms for persistent pesticides such as chlorinated hy-
drocarbon insecticides, mercurial compounds, and heavy
metal fungicides, the presence of living fish in agricultural
water supplies would indicate their safety for livestock
(McKee and Wolf 1963).2s:' Some examples of individual
effects of pesticides upon fish compared to animal species
are shown in Table V-5. These data indicate that fish gen-
erally have much lower tolerance for commonly used pesti-
cides than do livestock and poultry.
Recommendation
Feeding studies indicate no deleterious effects of
reported pesticide residues in livestock drinking
water on animal health. To prevent unacceptable
residues in animal products, the maximum levels
proposed in the pesticide section of the Panel of
Public Water Supplies are recommended for farm
animal water supplies.
PATHOGENS AND PARASITIC ORGANISMS
Microbial Pathogens
One of the most significant factors in the spread of infec-
tious diseases of domesticated animals is the quality of
water which they consume. In many instances the only
water available to livestock is from surface sources such as
ponds, waterholes, lakes, rivers and creeks. Not infrequently
these sources are contaminated by animals which wade to
drink or stand in them seeking refuge from pests. Con-
tamination with potential disease-producing organisms
comes from surface drainage originating in corrals, feed
lots, or pastures in which either sick or carrier animals are
kept.
Direct evidence relating the occurence of animal patho-
gens in surface waters and disease outbreaks is limited.
However, water may be a source for listeriosis caused by
Listeria monocytogenes (Larsen 1964)302 and erysipelas caused
by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (Wood and Packer in press
1972).310 Tularemia of animals is not normally waterborne,
but the organism Pasteurella tularensis has been isolated from
waters in the United States (Parker et al. 1951,303 Seghetti
1952).305 Enteric microorganisms, including the vibrios
(Wilson and Miles 1966)309 and amoebae, have a long
record as water polluting agents.
The Eschericlria-Enterobacter-Klebsalla group of enterics
arc widely distributed in feed, water, and the general en-
vironment (Breed et al. 1957).299 They sometimes cause
urinary disease, abscesses, and mastitis in livestock. Sal-
monella are very invasive and the carrier state is easily pro-
duced and persistent, often without any general evidence of
disease. Spread of the enterics outside the yards, pens, or
pastures of infected livestock is a possibility, but the epi-
demiology and ecology of this problem are not clear.
In the United States, leptospirosis is probably the most
intimately water-related disease problem (Gillespie et al.
1957,3nl Crawford et al. 19693on). The pathogenic leptospira
leave the infected host through urine and lack protection
against drying. Direct animal-to-animal spread can occur
through urine splashed to the eyes and nostrils of another
animal.
Infection by leptospirosis from water often is direct; that
is, contaminated water infects animals that consume it or
come into contact with it.
Van Thiel (1948)308 and Gillespie ct al. (1957)301 pointed
out that mineral composition and pH of water are factors
affecting continued mobility of voided leptospira. Most
episodes of leptospirosis can be traced to ponds, ricefields,
and natural waters of suitable pH and mineral composition.
For leptospira control, livestock must not be allowed to
wade in contaminated water. Indirect contamination of
water through sewage is unlikely, although free-living
leptospira may occur in such an environment.
The Genus Cloflridium is comprised of many species
(Breed ct al. 1957),2" some of which have no pathogenic
characteristics. Some such as Clostridium perfngens and Cl.
tetam may become adapted to an enteric existence in ani-
mals. Almost all of them are soil adapted. Water has a vital
role in environments favorable for anaerobic infections
caused by Clostndia.
Management of water to avoid oxygen depletion serves
to control the anaerobic problem. Temporary or permanent
areas of anaerobic water environment are dangerous to
livestock. Domestic animals should be prevented from con-
suming water not adequately oxygenated.
One of the best examples of water-related disease is bacil-
lary hcmoglobinuria, caused by an organism Cl. hemolyticum
found in western areas of North and South America. It has
been linked with liver fluke injury, but is not dependent on
the presence of flukes. Of particular concern has been the
spread of this disease to new areas in the western states. As
described by Van Ness and Erickson (1964),307 each new
-------
322/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
premise is an endemic area which has an alkaline, anaerobic
soil-water environment suitable for the organism. This
disease has made its appearance in new areas of the West
when these areas are cleared of brush and irrigated. To
avoid this problem, western irrigation waters should be
managed to avoid cattail marshes, hummock grasses, and
other environments of prolonged saturation.
Anthrax in livestock is a disease of considerable concern.
The organism causing anthrax, Bacillus anthrads, may occur
in soils with pH above 6.0. The organism forms spores
which, in the presence of adequate soil nutrients, vege-
tate and grov\. The spread of disease by drinking water
containing spores has never been proved. Bits of hide and
hair waste may be floated by water downstream from manu-
facturing plants, but very few outbreaks have been reported
from these sources. The disease is associated with the water
from pastures where the grass has been killed (Van Ness
1971).306 The killed grass is brown rather than blackened, a
significant difference from water drowned vegetation in
general.
The epidemiology of virus infections tends to incriminate
direct contact; e.g., fomites, mechanical, and biological
vectors, but seldom water supplies. Water used to wash
away manure prior to the use of disinfectants or other bio-
logical control procedure may carry viruses to the general
environment.
Viruses are classified by size, type of nucleic acid, struc-
ture, ether sensitivity, tissue effects (which includes viruses
long known to cause recognizable diseases, such as pox and
hog cholera), and by other criteria. Only the ether-resistant
viruses, such as those causing polio and foot and mouth
disease in cattle, appear to present problems in natural
water (Prier 1966).304
Parasitic Organisms
Parasitic protozoa include numerous forms which are
capable of causing serious livestock losses. Most outbreaks
follow direct spread among animals. Water contaminated
with these organisms or their cysts becomes an indirect
factor in spread of infection.
Some of the most important parasitic forms are the various
flukes which develop as adult forms in man and livestock.
Important ecological factors include presence of snails and
vegetation in the water, or vegetation covered by intermit-
tent overflow. This problem is very serious in irrigated areas
but only when snails or other intermediate hosts are avail
able for the complete life cycle. Fluke eggs passed by th
host, usually in the manure (some species, in the urine"
enter the water and hatch into miracidia. These seek out
snail or other invertebrate host where they develop int
sporocysts. These transform into redia which in turn ma
form other redia or several cercariae. The cercariae leave th
snail and swim about the water where they may find th
final host, or may encyst or vegetation to be eaten later
The life cycle is completed by maturing in a suitable ho-
and establishment of an exit for eggs from the site of the at
tachment.
Roundworms include numerous species which may us
water pathways in their life cycle. Free-living nematocle
can sometimes be found in a piped water supply, but ar
probably of little health significance. Moisture is an im
portant factor in the life cycle o.'many parasitic roundworm
and livestock are maintained in an environment where eon
lamination of water supplies frequently occurs. It is usuall'
thought that roundworm egg? are eaten but water-saturatec
environments provide ideal conditions for maintaining popu
lations of these organisms arcl their eggs.
Parasitic roundworms probably evolved through cvolu
tionary cvcles exemplified by the behavior of the genu
Strongyltndes. Stro>ie}'loi(/ef spread along clrainagcways tlirougl
the washdown of concrete feeding platforms and othe
housing facilities for livestock.
The Guinea worm, Dtacunculits, is dependent upon water
because the adult lays eggs only when the host comes ii
contact witli water. Man, dogs, cats, or various wild mam
mals may harbor the adult, and the larvae develop ii
Cyclo/is. The life cycle is thus maintained in a water environ
ment when the Cyclops is swallowed by another suitable host
Eggs of "horsehair worms" are laid by the adult in wate
or moist soil. The larvae encyst and if eaten by an nppropri
ate insect \\ill continue development to the adult stage
Worms do not leave the insect unless they can enter water
The prevention of water-borne diseases and parasitism
in domestic animals depends on interruption of the orga
nisms' life cycle. The most effective means is to keep live
stock out of contaminated water. Treatment for the remova
of the pathogen or parasite from the host and destruction c
the intermediate host are measures of control.
-------
WATER FOR IRRIGATION
Irrigation farming increases productivity of croplands
and provides flexibility in alternating crops to meet market
demands. Early irrigation developments in the arid and
semiarid West were largely along streams where only a
small part of the total annual flow was put to use. Such
streams contained dissolved solids accumulated through the
normal leaching and weathering processes with only slight
additions or increases in concentrations resulting from man's
activities. Additional uses of water resources have in many
cases concentrated the existing dissolved solids, added new
salts, contributed toxic elements, microbiologically polluted
the streams, or in some other way degraded the quality of
the water for irrigation. Water quality criteria for irrigation
has become increasingly significant as new developments in
water resources occur.
Soil, plant, and climate variables and interactions must be
considered in developing criteria for evaluation of irriga-
tion water quality. A wide range of suitable water charac-
teristics is possible even when only a few variables arc con-
sidered. These variables are important in determining the
qualiu of water that can be used for irrigation under
specific conditions.
The physicochemical properties of a soil determine the
root environment that a plant encounters following irriga-
tion. The soil consists of an organo-mineral complex that
has the ability to react both physically and chemically with
constituents present in irrigation water. The degree to
which these added constituents will leach out of a soil, re-
main available to plants in the soil, or become fixed and
unavailable to plants, depends large!) on the soil charac-
teristics.
Evapotranspiration by plants removes water from the
soil leaving the salts behind. Since uptake by plants is
negligible, salts accumulate in the soil in arid and semiarid
areas. A favorable salt balance in the root zone can be main-
tained by leaching, through the use of irrigation water in
excess of plant needs. Good drainage is essential to prevent
a rising water table and salt accumulation in the soil surface
and to maintain adequate soil aeration.
In irrigated areas, a water frequently exists at some depth
below the ground surface, with an unsaturated condition
existing above it. During and immediately following periods
of precipitation or irrigation, water moves downward
through the soil to the water table. At other times, water is
lost through evaporation from the soil surface, and trans-
piration from plants (evapotranspiration) may reverse the
direction of flow in the soil, so that water moves upward
from the water table by capillary flow. The rate of move-
ment is dependent upon water content, soil texture, and
structure. In humid and subhumid regions, this capillary
rise of water in the soil is a valuable water source for use by-
crops during periods of drought.
Even under favorable conditions of soil, drainage, and
environmental factors, too sparing applications of high
quality water with total dissolved solids of less than 100 mg/1
would ultimately damage sensitive crops such as citrus fruit;
whereas with adequate leaching, waters containing 500 to
1,000 mg 71 might be used safely. Under the same conditions,
certain salt-tolerant field crops might produce economic re-
turns using water with more than 4,000 mg/1. Criteria for
judging water quality must take these factors into account.
The need for irrigation for optimum plant growth is de-
termined also by rainfall and snow distribution; and by
temperature, radiation, and humidity. Irrigation must be
used for intensive crop production in arid and semiarid
areas and must supplement rainfall in humid areas. (See
Specific Irrigation Water Considerations below.)
The effects of water quality characteristics on soils and on
plant growth are directly related to the frequency and
amount of irrigation water applied. The rate at which water
is lost from soils through evapotranspiration is a direct
function of temperature, solar radiation, wind, and humid-
ity. Soil and plant characteristics also influence this water
loss. Aside from water loss considerations, water stress in a
plant, as affected by the rate of evapotranspiration, will
determine the plant's reaction to a given soil condition. For
example, in a saline soil at a given water content, a plant
will usually suffer more in a hot, dry climate than in a cool,
humid one. Considering the wide variation in the climatic
and soil variables over the United States, it is apparent that
water quality requirements also vary considerably.
Successful sustained irrigated agriculture, whether in arid
323
-------
324/Section F—Agricultural Uses of Water
regions or in subhumid regions, or other areas, requires
skillful water application based upon the characteristics of
the land, water, and the requirements of the crop. Through
proper timing and adjustment of frequency and volumes of
water applied, detrimental effects of poor quality water may
often be mitigated.
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS
FOR IRRIGATION
Effects on Plant Growth
Plants may be adversely affected directly by either the
development of high osmotic conditions in the plant sub-
strate or by the presence of a phytotoxic constituent in the
water. In general, plants are more susceptible to injury from
dissolved constituents during germination and early growth
than at maturity (Bernstein and Hay ward 1958).31'' Plants
affected during early growth may result in complete crop
failure or severe yield reductions. Effects of undesirable
constituents may be manifested in suppressed vegetative
growth, reduced fruit development, impaired quality of the
marketable product, or a combination of these factors.
The presence of sediment, pesticides, or pathogenic or-
ganisms in irrigation water, which may not specifically
affect plant growth, can affect the acceptability of the
product. Another aspect to be considered is the presence of
elements in irrigation water that are not detrimental to
crop production but may accumulate in crops to levels that
may be harmful to animals or humans.
Where sprinkler irrigation is used, foliar absorption or
adsorption of constituents in the water may be detrimental
to plant growth or to the consumption of affected plants by
man or animals. Where surface or sprinkler irrigation is
practiced, the effect of a given water quality on plant
growth is determined by the composition of the soil solu-
tion. This is the growth medium available to roots after soil
and water have reacted.
Plant growth may be affected indirectly through the in-
fluence of water quality on soil. For example, the absorption
by the soil of sodium from water will result in a dispersion
of the clay fraction. The degree of dispersion will depend
on the clay minerals present. This decreases soil permeabil-
ity and often results in a surface crust formation that deters
seed germination and emergence. Soils irrigated with
highly saline water will tend to be flocculated and have
relatively high infiltration rates (Bower and \Vilcox 1965).316
A change to waters of sufficiently lower salt content reduces
soil permeability and rates of infiltration by dispersion of the
clay fraction in the soil. This hazard increases when com-
bined with high sodium content in the water. Much de-
pends upon whether a given irrigation water is used con-
tinuously or occasionally.
Crop Tolerance to Salinity
The effect of salinity, or total dissolved solids, on the os-
motic pressure of the soil solution is one of the most im-
portant water quality considerations. This relates to th>
availability of water for plant consumption. Plants hav
been observed to wilt in fields apparently having adequat
water content. This is usually the result of high soil salinit-
creating a physiological drought condition. Specifically, th
ability of a plant to extract water from a soil is determine!
by the following relationship:
TSS=MS + SS
In this equation, (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Salinit
Laboratory Staff 1954337 hereafter referred to as Salinit
Laboratory 195433:>) the total soil suction (TSS) represent
the force with which water in the soil is withheld from plan
uptake. In simplified form, this factor is the sum of th
matric suction (MS) or the physical attraction of soil fo
water, and the solute suction (SS) or the osmotic prcssur
of the soil water.
As the water content of the soil decreases due to cvapc
transpiration, the water film surrounding the soil particle
becomes thinner and the remaining water is held with in
crcasingly greater force (MS). Since only pure water i
lost to the atmosphere during evapotranspiration, the sal
concentration of soil solution increases rapidly durin
the drying process. Since the matric suction of a soil in
creases exponentially on drying, the combined effects c
these two factors can produce critical conditions with re
gard to soil water availability.
In assessing the problem of plant growth, the salinii
level of the soil solution must be evaluated. It is difficult t
extract the soil solution from a tnoist soil within the range c
water content available to plants. It has been demonstrated
however, that salinity levels of the soil solution and thci
resultant effects upon plant growth may be correlated wit]
salinity levels of soil moisture at saturation. The quantity c
water held in the soil between field capacity and the wiltin
point varies considerably from relatively low values fo
sandy soils to high values for soils high in clay content.
The U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954)33" develops
the technique of using a saturation extract to meet thi
need. Dcmineralized water is added to a soil sample to
point at which the soil paste glistens as it reflects light am
flows slightly when the container is tipped. The amount c
water added is reasonably related to the soil texture. Fo
many soils, the water content of the soil paste is rough]
twice that of the soil at field capacity and four times that a
the wilting point. This water content is called the saturatioi
percentage. When the saturated paste is filtered, the result
ant solution is referred to as the saturation extract. The sal
content of the saturation extract does not give an exac
indication of salinity in the soil solution under field condi
tions, because soil structure has been destroyed; nor docs i
give a true picture of salinity gradients within the soil result
ing from water extraction b^ roots. Although not truly de
picting salinity in the immediate root environment, it doe
give a usable parameter that represents a soil salinity valu
that can be correlated with plant growth.
-------
Water for Irrigation/325
TABLE V-6— Relative Tolerance of Crop Plants to Salt,
(Listed in Decreasing Order of Tolerance")
High salt tolerance
EC,.X10'=12
Garden beets
Kale
Asparagus
Spinach
EC,_X10'=10
ECeX10'=16
Barley (gram)
Sugar beet
Rape
Cotton
ECX10'=10
Medium salt tolerance
VEGETABLE CROPS
ECcX10»=10
Tomato
Broccoli
Cabbage
Bell pepper
Cauliflower
Lettuce
Sweet corn
Potatoes (White Rose)
Carrot
Onion
Peas
Squash
Cucumber
EC,.X1(P=4
FIELD CROPS
EC,X10^10
Rye (gram)
Wheat (gram)
Oats (gram)
Rice
Sorghum (gram)
Corn (field)
Flax
Sunflower
Castorbeans
EC,X103=6
Low salt tolerance
EC,,X10'=4
Radish
Celery
Green beans
EC,.XW=3
ECX10J=4
Field beans
FRUIT CROPS
Date palm
Pomegranate
Fig
Olive
Grape
Cantaloupe
Pear
Apple
Orange
Grapefruit
Prune
Plum
Almond
Apricot
Peach
Strawberry
Lemon
Avocado
FORAGE CROPS (in decreasing order tolerance)
ECVX1IT— 18
Alkali sacaton
Saltgrass
Nuttall alkahgrass
Bermuda grass
Rhodes grass
Rescue grass
Canada wildrye
Western wheatgrass
Barley (hay)
Bndsfoot trefoil
ECCX10!=12
ECtX10'=12
White sweet clover
Yellow sweet clover
Perennial ryegrass
Mountain brome
Strawberry clover
Dallis grass
Sudan grass
Hubam clover
Alfalfa (California common)
Tall fescue
Rye (hay)
Wheat (hay)
Oats (hay)
Orchardgrass
Blue grama
Meadow fescue
Reed canary
Big trefoi 1
Smooth brome
Tall meadow oatgrass
Cicer mi Ikvetch
Sourclover
Sickle milkvetch
ECCX101=4
White Dutch clover
Meadow foxtail
Alsike clover
Red clover
Ladmo clover
Burnet
EC,,X10'=2
Salinity is most readily measured by determining the
electrical conductivity (EC) of a solution. This method re-
lates to the ability of salts in solution to conduct electricity
and results are expressed as millimhos (mhosXlO"3) per
centimeter (cm) at 25 C. Salinity of irrigation water is ex-
pressed in terms of EC, and soil salinity is indicated by the
electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (EC,.). See
Table V-6.
Temperature and wind effects are especially important as
they directly affect evapotranspiration. Periods of high
temperature or other factors such as dry winds, which in-
crease evapotranspiration rates, not only tend to increase
soil salinity but also create a greater water stress in the plant.
The effect of climate conditions on plant response to
salinity was demonstrated by Magistad and his associates
(1943).3-1 Some of these effects can be alleviated by more
frequent irrigation to maintain safer levels of soil salinity.
Plants vary in their tolerance to soil salinity, and there
are many ways in which salt tolerance can be appraised.
Hayward and Bernstein (1958)321 point out three: (l)-Tcst
the ability of a plant to survive on saline soils. Salt tolerance
based primarily on this criterion of survival has limited ap-
plication in irrigation agriculture but is a method of ap-
praisal that has been used widely by ecologists. (2) Test
the absolute yield of a plant on a saline soil. This criterion
has the greatest agronomic significance. (3) Relate the yield
on saline soil to nonsaline soil. This criterion is useful for
comparing dissimilar crops whose absolute yields cannot be
compared directly.
The U. S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954)335 has used the
third criterion in establishing the list of salt tolerance of
various crops shown in Table V-6. These salt tolerance
values are based upon the conductivity of the saturation ex-
tract (EC,.) expressed in mmhos/cm at which a 50 per cent
decrement in yield may be expected when compared to
TABLE V-7—Soil Salinities in Root Zone at which Yield
Reductions become Significant
Crop
Date palm
Pomegranate ^
Fig
Olive
Grape
Muskmelon
Orange, grapefruit, lemonc
Apple, pear
Plum, prune, peach, apricot, almond
Boysenberry, blackberry, raspberry
Avocado
Strawberry
Electrical conductivity of saturation extracts (EC,.) at
which yields decrease by about 10 per cent"
mmh/cm at 25 C
8
4-6*
4
3.5
3-2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5-1.5
2
1.5
- The numbers following ECrX103 are the electrical conductivity values of the saturation extract in millimhos per
centimeter at 25 C associated with 50-per cent decrease in yield.
Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954'-' •.
• In gypsiferous soils, ECe readings for given soil salinities are about 2 mmh/cm higher than for nongypsiferous
soils. Date palm would be affected at 10 mmh/cm, grapes at 6 mmh/cm, etc. on gypsiferous soils.
1 Estimated.
' Lemon is more sensitive than orange and grapefruit, raspberry more than boysenberry and blackberry.
Bernstein 1965b">.
-------
326/Seclion V—Agricultural Uses of Water
TABLE V-8—Salt Tolerance of Ornamental Shrubs
(Maximum ECe's tolerated)
KC( in mmho/(_m, at 25 C
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Tolerant
Moderately tolerant
Sensitive
Very sensitive
6-10
Carissa grandiflora
(Natal plum)
Bougamvilleaspectabilis
(Bogainvillea)
Nerium oleander
(oleander)
Rosmarinus lockwoodi
(Rosmary)
Dodonea viscosa atropur-
purea
Calhstemon viminalis
(bottlebrush)
4-6
Dracaena endivisa
Thuja oriental!*
(arbor vitae)
Juniperus chmensis
(spreading juniper)
Euonymus japonica
grandiflora
lantana camara
Elaeagnus pungens
(silverberry)
Xylosma senticosa
Pittosporum tobira
Pyracantha Graben
Ligustrum lucidum
(Texas privet)
Buxus microphylla japonica
(Japanese boxwood)
2-4
Hibiscus rosa-smensis
var. Bnlliante
Nandina domestica
(heavenly bamboo)
Trachelospermum jas-
minoides (star jasmine)
Viburnum tmus robustum
2
Ilex cornuta Burford
(Burford holly)
Hedera canariensis
(Algerian ivy)
Feijoa sellowiana
(pineapple guava)
Rosa sp. (var. Grenoble
rose on Dr. Huey root)
Bernstein 1965b'".
yields of that plant grown on a nonsaline soil under com-
parable growing conditions. Work has been done by many
investigators, based upon both field and greenhouse re-
search, to evaluate salt tolerance of a broad variety of plants.
In general, where comparable criteria were used to assess
salt tolerance, results obtained were most often in agreement.
Recent work on the salt tolerance of fruit crops is shown in
Table V-7, and for ornamentals in Table V-8.
Bernstein (1965a313) gave ECe values causing 10, 25, and
50 per cent yield decrements for a variety of field and forage
crops from late seeding stage to maturity, assuming that
sodium or chloride toxicity was not a growth deterrent.
These values are shown in Figures V-l, V-2, and V-3. The
data suggested that the effects of EC,, values producing 10
to 50 per cent decrements (within a range of EC,, values of
8 to 10 mmh/cm for many crops) may be considered ap-
proximately linear, but for nearly all crops the rate of change
Ay
ECe ---- , either steepens or flattens slightly as the yield
decrements increase from less than 25 to more than 25 per
cent. Bernstein (1965a)313 also pointed out that most fruit
crops were more sensitive to salinity than were field,
forage, or vegetable crops. The data also illustrated the
highly variable effect of EC,, values upon different crops
and the nonlinear response of some crops to increasing con-
centrations of salt.
In considering salt tolerances of crops, ECe values were
used. These values were correlated with yields at field
moisture content. If soils were allowed to dry out excessively
between irrigations, yield reductions were much greater,
since the total soil water stress is a function of both matric
suction and solute suction and increases exponentially on
~T"•
-L7Z
Saftlowcr
Rye
'Vhcatb
Oats
Sorghum
Soybean
Sesbamab
Rice0
Hroadbean
Max
Sunflower
Castor bean
lieans
The indicated salt tolerances apply to the period of rapid plant
growth and maturation, from the late seeding stage upward Crops in
each category are ranked m order of decree sing salt tolerance Width of
tie bar next to each crop indicates the effect of increasing salinity on
yield. Crosslmes are placed at 10, 25, and !>0 per cent yield reductions
Approximate rank in order of decreasing salt tolerance is indicated for
additional crops for most of which complete data are lacking (Bower
personal communication 1972)2,18
Less tolerant during seec'lmg stage Salinity at this stage should not
exceed 4 or 5 mmho/cm, ECe
Sensitive during germination
mmho/cm during germination
Less tolerant dunng flowering
seedling stage Salinity at sensil
mmho/cm, ECe of soil water
Salinity should not
and seed set as well at> during the
^e stages should not exceed 4
FIGURE V-l—Salt Tolerance of Field Crops*
drying (Bernstein 1965a).313 Good irrigation management
can minimize this hazard.
Nutritional Effects
Plants require a blanced nutrient content in the soil
solution to maintain optimum growth. Use of saline water
for irrigation may or may not significantly upset this nutri-
tional balance depending upon the composition, concentra-
tion, and volume of irrigation water applied.
-------
Water for Irrigation/'327
Some of the possible nutritional effects were summarized
by Bernstein (1965a)313 as follows:
High concentrations of calcium ions in the solution
may prevent the plant from absorbing enough potas-
sium, or high concentrations of other ions may affect
the uptake of sufficient calcium.
Different crops vary widely in their requirements for
given nutrients and in their ability to absorb them.
Nutritional effects of salinity, therefore, appear only
in certain crops and only when a particular type of
saline condition exists.
Some varieties of a particular crop may be immune
to nutritional disturbances, while other varieties are
severely affected. High levels of soluble sulfate cause
internal browning (a calcium deficiency symptom) in
some lettuce varieties, but not in others. Similarly,
B«tsb
Kale
Spinach
Tomato
Cabbage
Cauliflower
ECC in mmho/cm at 25 C
10 12 H 16
H T~4a»
Potato
Corn
Sweetpotato
Bermuda grass
\lkali sdfc
: 50% Yield Reduction
25%
III II
aSee Figure V-l. (Bower personal communication 1972)338
Sensitive during germination Salinity should not exceed 3
mmho/cm ECe during germination.
Birdsfoot trefoil -
Beardless wildrye
Strawberrx clover
Dalhs grass, Sudan grass
Hubam clover
Alfalta
Rye ha\, Oat ha>
Wheat hayb
Orihdrdgrass
Blue grama
Middow foxtail
Rted tanary, Big trefoil
Smooth brome, Milkvetch
I all meadow oatgrass, Burnet
Clovers, alsikc t red
FIGURE V-3—Salt Tolerance of Vegetable Crops"
IlSSSil
u&i"
': 50°o Yield Reduction
25%
10%
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
dSee Figure V-l (Bower personal (Ommunicatton 1972)338
bLess tolerant during seedling stage Salinity at this state should
not exceed 4 or 5 mmho/cm, ECe
FIGURE V-2—Salt Tolerance of Forage
high levels of calcium cause greater nutritional dis-
turbances in some carrot varieties than in others.
Chemical analysis of the plant is useful in diagnosing
these effects.
At a given level of salinity, growth and yield are
depressed more when nutrition is disturbed than when
nutrition is normal. Nutritional effects, fortunately,
are not important in most crops under saline con-
ditions; when they do occur, the use of better adapted
varieties may be advisable.
Recommendation
Crops vary considerably in their tolerance to soil
salinity in the root zone, and the factors affecting
-------
328/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
the soil solution and crop tolerance are varied and
complex. Therefore, no recommendation can be
given for these. For specific crops, however, it is
recommended that the salt tolerance values (ECe)
for a saturation extract established by the U.S.
Salinity Laboratory Staff be used as a guide for
production.
Temperature
The temperature of irrigation water has a direct and
indirect effect on plant growth. Each occurs when plant
physiological functions are impaired by excessively high or
excessively low temperatures. The exact water temperatures
at which growth is severely restricted depends on method of
water application, atmospheric conditions at the time of
application, frequency of application, and plant species.
All plant species have a ternpeature range in which they
develop best. These temperature limits vary with plant
species.
Direct effect on plant growth from extreme temperature
of the irrigation water occurs when the water is first applied.
Plant damage results only from direct contact. Normally,
few problems arise when excessively warm water is applied
by sprinkler irrigation. The effect of the temperature of the
water on the temperature of the soil is negligible. It has
been demonstrated that warm water applied through a
sprinkler system has attained ambient temperatures at the
time it reaches the soil surface (Cline et al. 1969).318 Water
as warm as 130 F can be safely used in this manner. Cold
water is harmful to plant growth when applied through a
sprinkler system. It does not change in temperature nearly
so much as the warm water. However, its effect is rarely
lethal.
Surface applied water that is either very cold or very
warm poses greater problems. Excessive warm water can-
not be used for surface irrigation and cold water affects
plant growth. The adverse effects of cold water on the
growth of rice were suddenly brought to the attention of
rice growers when cold water was first released from the
Shasta Reservoir in California (Raney 1963).33'2 Summer
water temperatures were suddenly dropped from about
61 F to 45 F. Research is still proceeding, and some of the
available information was recently reviewed by Raney and
Mihara (1967).334 Dams such as the Oroville Dam are now
being planned so that water can be withdrawn from any
reservoir depth to avoid the cold-water problem. Warming
basins have been used (Raney 1959).333 There are oppor-
tunities in planning to separate waters—the warm waters for
recreation and agriculture, the cold waters for cold-water
fish, salmon spawning, and other uses. The exact nature of
the mechanisms by which damage occurs is not completely
understood.
Indirect effect of the temperature of irrigation water on
plant growth occurs as a result of its influence on the tem-
perature of the soil. The latter affects the rate of water
uptake, nutrient uptake, translocation of metabolites, am
indirectly, such factors as stomatal opening and plant watt
stress. All these phenomena are well documented. The effe<
of the temperature of the applied irrigation water on th
temperature of the soil is not well described. This effect
probably quite small.
Conclusion
Present literature does not provide adequate dat
to establish specific temperature recommendation
for irrigation waters. Therefore, no specific recom
mendations can be made at this time.
Chlorides
Chlorides in irrigation waters are not generally toxic t
crops. Certain fruit crops are, however, sensitive to chloride
Bernstein (1967)312 indicated that maximum perrnissibl
chloride concentrations in the soil range from 10 to 5
milliequivalents (meq)/l for certain sensitive fruit crop
(Table V-9). In terms of permissible chloride concentr.;
tions in irrigation water, values up to 20 meq/1 can be uscc
depending upon environmental conditions, crops, and irrigg
tion management practices.
Foliar absorption of chlorides can be of importance i
sprinkler irrigation (Eaton and Harding 1959,319 Ehlig an>
Bernstein 1959320). The adverse effects vary between evapt
TABLE V-9—Salt Tolerance of Fruit Crop Varieties an
Rootstocks and Tolerable Chloride Levels in the Saturation
Extracts
Crop
Citrus
Stone fruit
Avocado
Rootstock oi variety
Rootstocks
Rangpur lime, Cleopatra mandarin
• Rough lemon, tangelo, sour orange
Sweet orange, citrange
f Marianna
-; Lovell, Shalil
I Yunnan
/ West Indian
, Mexican
Tolerable levels ol
chloride in saturatio
extract
meq/l
25
15
10
25
10
7
8
5
Varieties (V) and Rootstocks (R)
Grape
Salt Creek, 1613-3 1 R
Dog Ridge 1
Thompson Seedless, Perlette j V
Cardinal, Black Rose J
40
30
20
10
Vaiieties
Berries
Strawberry
Boysenberry
Olallie blackberry
Indian Summer raspberry
Lassen
Shasta
10
10
5
i
5
Bernstein 1967"=.
-------
Water for Irrigation t'329
rative conditions of day and night and the amount of
evaporation that can occur between successive wettings
(i.e., time after each pass with a slowly revolving sprinkler).
There is less effect with nightime sprinkling and less effect
with fixed sprinklers (applying water at a rapid rate).
Concentrations as low as 3 meq/1 of chloride in irrigation
water have been found harmful when used on citrus, stone
fruits, and almonds (Bernstein 1967).312
Conclusion
Permissible chloride concentrations depend upon
type of crop, environmental conditions and man-
agement practices. A single value cannot be given,
and no limits should be established, because detri-
mental effects from salinity per se ordinarily deter
crop growth first.
Bicarbonates
High bicarbonate water may induce iron chlorisis by
making iron unavailable to plants (Brown and Wadleigh
1955).:il7 Problems have been noted with apples and pears
(Pratt 1966)33" and with some ornamentals (Lunt et al.
1956) m:i Although concentrations of 10 to 20 meq/1 of
bicarbonate can cause chlorosis in some plants, it is of little
concern in the field where precipitation of calcium carbo-
nate minimizes this hazard.
Conclusion
Specific recommendations for bicarbonates can-
not be given without consideration of other soil
and water constituents.
Sodium
The presence of relatively high concentration of sodium
in irrigation waters affects irrigated crops in many ways.
In addition to its effect on soil structure and permeability,
sodium has been found by Lillelancl et al. (1945)322 and
A\ers et al. (1952)311 to be absorbed by plants and cause
leaf burn in almonds, avocados, and in stone fruits grown
in culture solutions. Bernstein (1967)312 has indicated that
water having SAR* values of four to eight may injure sodium-
sensitive plants. It is difficult to separate the specific toxic
effects of sodium from the effect of adsorbed sodium on soil
structure. (This factor will be discussed later.)
As has been noted, the complex interactions of the total
and relative concentrations of these common ions upon
various crops preclude their consideration as individual
components for general irrigation use, except for sodium
and possibly chlorides in areas where fruit would be im-
portant.
Nitrate
The presence of nitrate in natural irrigation waters may
be considered an asset rather than a liability with respect
* For definition of SAR, Sodium Adsorption Ratio, see p. 330.
to plant growth. Concentrations high enough to adversely
affect plant growth or composition are seldom, if ever,
found. In arid regions, high nitrate water may result in
nitrate accumulations in the soil in much the same manner
as salt accumulates. The same soil and water management
practices that minimize salt accumulation will also minimize
nitrate accumulation. There is some concern over the high
nitrate content of food and feed crops. Many factors such as
plant species characteristics, climate conditions, and
growth stage are just as significant in determining nitrate
accumulations in plants as the amount present in the soil.
It is unlikely that any nitrate added in natural irrigation
water could be a significant factor.
Problems may arise where waste waters containing rela-
tively large amounts of nitrogenous materials are used for
irrigation. Larger amounts are usually applied than that
actually required for plant growth. These wastes, however,
usually contain nitrogen in a form that is slowly converted
to nitrate. Nevertheless, it is possible that high nitrate ac-
cumulations in plants may occur although little evidence is
available to indicate this.
Conclusion
Since nitrate in natural irrigation waters is
usually an asset for plant growth and there is
little evidence indicating that it will accumulate
to toxic levels in irrigated plants consumed by
animals, there appears to be no need for a recom-
mendation.
Effects on Soils
Sodium Hazard Sodium in irrigation water may be-
come a problem in the soil solution as a component of total
salinity, which can increase the osmotic concentration, and
as a specific source of injury to fruits. The problems of
sodium mainly occur in soil structure, infiltration, and per-
meability rates. Since good drainage is essential for manage-
ment of salinity in irrigation and for reclamation of saline
lands, good soil structure and permeability must be main-
tained. A high percentage of exchangeable sodium in a soil
containing swelling-type clays results in a dispersed condi-
tion, which is unfavorable for water movement and plant
growth. Anything that alters the composition of the soil
solution, such as irrigation or fertilization, disturbs the
equilibrium and alters the distribution of adsorbed ions in
the soil. \Vhen calcium is the predominant cation adsorbed
on the soil exchange complex, the soil tends to have a
granular structure that is easily worked and readily perme-
eablc. When the amount of adsorbed sodium exceeds 10 to
15 per cent of the total cations on the exchange complex,
the clay becomes dispersed and slowly permeable, unless a
high concentration of total salts causes flocculation. Where
soils have a high exchangeable sodium content and are
flocculated because of the presence of free salts in solution,
subsequent removal of salts by leaching will cause sodium
-------
330/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
dispersal, unless leaching is accomplished by adding calcium
or calcium-producing amendments.
Adsorption of sodium from a given irrigation water is a
function of the proportion of sodium to divalent cations
(calcium and magnesium) in that water. To estimate the
degree to which sodium will be adsorbed by a soil from a
given water when brought into equilibrium with it, the
Salinity Laboratory (1954)335 proposed the sodium adsorp-
tion ratio (SAR):
Na+
Ca+++Mg->
Expressed as me/1
As soils tend to dry, the SAR value of the soil solution in-
creases even though the relative concentrations of the ca-
tions remain the same. This is apparent from the SAR
equation, where the denominator is a square-root function.
This is a significant factor in estimating sodium effects on
soils.
The SAR value can be related to the amount of ex-
changeable cation content. This latter value is called the
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). From empirical
determinations, the U. S. Salinity Laboratory (1954)335
obtained an equation for predicting a soil ESP value based
on the SAR value of a water in equilibrium with it. This is
expressed as follows:
Egp_[100 a+b(SAR)]
"[l+a + b(SAR)]
The constants "a" (intercept representing experimental er-
ror) and "b" (slope of the regression line) were deter-
mined statistically by various investigators who found "a"
to be in the order of —0.06 to 0.01 and "b" to be within the
range of 0.014 to 0.016. This relationship is shown in the
nomogram (Figure V-4) developed by the U. S. Salinity
Laboratory (1954).335 For sensitive fruits, the tolerance
limit for SAR of irrigation water is about four. For general
crops, a limit of eight to 18 is generally considered within a
usable range, although this depends to some degree on the
type of clay mineral, electrolyte concentration in the water,
and other variables.
The ESP value that significantly affects soil properties
varies according to the proportion of swelling and non-
swelling clay minerals. An ESP of 10 to 15 per cent is
considered excessive, if a high percentage of swelling clay
minerals such as montmorillonite are present. Fair crop
growth of alfalfa, cotton, and even olives, have been ob-
served in soils of the San Joaquin Valley (California) with
ESP values ranging from 60 to 70 percent (Schoonover
1963).336
Prediction of the equilibrium ESP from SAR values of ir-
rigation waters is complicated by the fact that the salt con-
tent of irrigation water becomes more concentrated in the
soil solution. According to the U. S. Salinity Laboratory
(1954),33r> shallow ground waters 10 times as saline as tr
irrigation waters may be found within depths of 10 feet, an
a salt concentration two to three times that of irrigatio
water may be reasonably expected in the first-foot deptl
Under conditions where precipitation of salts and rainfa
may be neglected, the salt content of irrigation water wi
increase to higher concentrations in the soil solution withoi
change in relative composition. The SAR increases i
proportion to the square root of the concentration; there
fore, the SAR applicable for calculating equilibrium ES
in the upper root zone may be assumed to be two to thre
times that of the irrigation water.
Recommendation
To reduce the sodium hazard in irrigation wate
for a specific crop, it is recommended that the SA1
value be within the tolerance limits determined b;
the U.S. Soil Salinity Laboratory Staff.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and
Soil Aeration
The need for adequate oxygen in the soil for optimur
plant growth is well recognized. To meet the oxygen rt
quirement of the plant, soil structure (porosity) and so
water contents must be adequate to permit good aeratior
Conditions that develop immediately following irrigatio
are not clearly understood.
Soil aeration and oxygen availability normally present 11
problem on well-structured soils with good quality watei
Where drainage is poor, oxygen may become limiting
Utilization of waters having high BOD or Chemical Oxyge
Demand (COD) values could aggravate the condition b
further depleting available oxygen. Aside from detriment,:
effects of oxygen deficiency for plant growth, reduction c
elements such as iron and manganese to the more solubl
divalent forms may create toxic conditions. Other biologies
and chemical equilibria may also be affected.
There is very little information regarding the effect c
using irrigation waters with high BOD values on plar
growth. Between source of contamination and point of it
rigation, considerable reduction in BOD value may resuli
Sprinkler irrigation may further reduce the BOD value c
water. Infiltration into well-drained soils can also decrcas
the BOD value of the water without serious depleting th
oxygen available for plant growth.
Acidity and Alkalinity
The pH of normal irrigation water has little direct sig
nificance. Since water itself is unbuffered, and the soil is ;
buffered system (except for extremely sandy soils low ii
organic matter), the pH of the soil will not be significantly
affected by application of irrigation water. There are, how
ever, some extremes and indirect effects.
Water having pH values below 4.8 applied to acid soil
over a period of time may possibly render soluble iron
-------
Water for Irrigation /331
Salinity Laboratory 1954 335
FIGURE V-4—Nomogram for Determining the SAR Value of Irrigation Water and for Estimating the Corresponding ESP
Value of a Soil That is at Equilibrium with the Water
-------
ection V—Agricultural Uses of Water
aluminum, or manganese in concentrations large enough to
be toxic to plant growth. Similarly, additions of saline
waters to acid soils could result in a decrease in soil pH and
an increase in the solubility of aluminum and manganese.
In some areas where acid mine drainage contaminates water
sources, pH values as low as 1.8 have been reported. Waters
having unusually low pH values such as this would be
strongly suspect of containing toxic quantities of certain
heavy metals or other elements.
Waters having pH values in excess of 8.3 are highly
alkaline and may contain high concentrations of sodium,
carbonates, and bicarbonates. These constituents affect soils
and plant growth directly or indirectly, (see "Effects on
Plant Growth" above).
Recommendation
Because most of the effects of acidity and alka-
linity in irrigation waters on soils and plant growth
are indirect, no specific pH values can be recom-
mended. However, water with pH values in the
range of 4.5 to 9.0 should be usable provided that
care is taken to detect the development of harmful
indirect effects.
Suspended Solids
Deposition of colloidal particles on the soil surface can
produce crusts that inhibit water infiltration and seedling
emergence. This same deposition and crusting can reduce
soil aeration and impede plant development. High col-
loidal content in water used for sprinkler irrigation could
result in deposition of films on leaf surfaces that could re-
duce photosynthetic activity and thereby deter growth.
Where sprinkler irrigation is used for leafy vegetable crops
such as lettuce, sediment may accumulate on the growing
plant affecting the marketability of these products.
In surface irrigation, suspended solids can interfere with
the flow of water in conveyance systems and structures,
Deposition of sediment not only reduces the capacity of
these systems to carry and distribute water but can also
decrease reservoir storage capacity. For sprinkler irrigation,
suspended mineral solids may cause undue wear on irriga-
tion pumps and sprinkler nozzles (as well as plugging up the
latter), thereby reducing irrigation efficiency.
Soils are specifically affected by deposition of these sus-
pended solids, especially when they consist primarily of
clays or colloidal material. These cause crust formations
that reduce seedling emergence. In addition, these crusts
reduce infiltration and hinder the leaching of saline soils.
The scouring action of sediment in streams has also been
found to affect soils adversely by contributing to the dissolu-
tion and increase of salts in some areas (Pillsbury and Blaney
1966).331 Conversely, sediment high in silt may improve the
texture, consistency, and water-holding capacity of a sandy
soil.
Effect on Animals or Humans
The effects of irrigation water quality on soils and plan
has been discussed. However, since the quality of irrigatk
water is variable and originates from different sources, the
may be natural or added substances in the water which po
a hazard to animals or humais consuming irrigated crop
These substances may be accumulated in certain cereal
pasture plants, or fruit and vegetable crops without air
apparent injury. Of concern, however, is that the concei
tration of these substances may be toxic or harmful
humans or animals consuming the plants. Many substanc
in irrigation waters such as inorganic salts and mineral
pesticides, human and animal pathogens have recommend,
tions to protect the desired resource. For radionuclides r
such recommendation exists.
Radionuclides
There are no generally accepted standards for control
radioactive contamination in irrigation water. For mo
radionuclides, the use of federal Drinking \Vater Standard
should be reasonable for irrigation water.
The limiting factor for radioactive contamination in i
rigation is its transfer to foods and eventual intake I
humans. Such a level of contamination would be reachc
long before any damage to plants themselves could be ol
served. Plants can absorb radionuclides from irrigatic
water in two ways: direct contamination of foliage throus
sprinkler irrigation, and indirectly through soil contamin,
tion. The latter presents many complex problems sin<
eventual concentration in the soil will depend on the ra
of water application, the rate of radioactive decay, ar
other losses of the radionuclide from the soil. Some studk
relating to these factors have been reported (Menzel et i
1963,326 Moorby and Squire 1963,328 Perrin 1963,329 Mcnz
1965,325 Milbourn and Taylor 1965327).
It is estimated that concentrations of strontium-90 ar
radium-226 in fresh produce would approximate those
the irrigation water for the crop if there was negligible uj
take of these radionuclides from the soil. With flood or fu
row irrigation only, one or more decades of continuous i
rigation with contaminated water would be required befoi
the concentrations of strontium-90 or radium-226 in tl
produce equalled those in the water (Menzel personal con
munication 1972).339
Recommendation
In view of the lack of experimental evidence con
cerning the long-term accumulation and avail
ability of strontium-90 and radium-226 in irrigate
soils and to provide an adequate margin of safetj
it is recommended that Federal Drinking Wate
Standards be used for irrigation water.
-------
Water for Irrigation /'333
SPECIFIC IRRIGATION WATER CONSIDERATIONS
Irrigation Water Quality for Arid and Semiarid Regions
Climate. Climatic variability exists in arid and semiarid re-
gions. There can be heavy winter precipitation, generally in-
creasing from south to north and increasing with elevation.
Summer showers are common, increasing north and east
from California. Common through the western part of the
country is the inadequacy of precipitation during the grow-
ing season. In most areas of the West, intensive agriculture is
not possible without irrigation. Irrigation must supply at
least one-half of all the soil water required annually for
crops for periods ranging from three to 12 months.
Annual precipitation varies in the western United States
from practically zero in the southwestern deserts to more
than 100 inches in the upper western slope of the Pacific
Northwest. The distribution of precipitation throughout the
year also varies, with no rainfall during extended periods in
many locales. Often the rainfall occurs during nongrowing
seasons.
The amount of precipitation and its distribution is one of
the principal variables in determining the diversion require-
ment or demand for irrigation water.
Land. Soils in the semiarid and arid regions were developed
under dry climatic conditions with little leaching of weather-
able minerals in the surface horizon. Consequently, these
soils are better supplied with most nutrient elements. The
pH of these soils varies from being slightly acidic to neutral
or alkaline. The presence of silicate clay minerals of the
montmorillonite and h\drous mica groups in many of these
soils gives them a higher exchange capacity than those of
the southeast, which contain kaolinitc minerals of lower ex-
change capaciH. However, organic matter and nitrogen
contents of arid soil are usually lower. Plant deficiencies of
trace elements such as zinc, iron, manganese are more fre-
quently encountered. Because of the less frequent passage
of water through arid soils, they are more apt to be saline.
The nature of the surface horizon (plow layer) and the
subsoil is especially important for irrigation. During soil
formation a profile can develop consisting of various hori-
zons. The horizons consist of genetically related layers of
soil or soil material parallel to the land surface, and thc\
differ in their chemical, physical, and biological properties.
The productivity of a soil is largely determined by the na-
ture of these horizons. Soils available for irrigation with
restrictive or impervious horizons present management
problems (e.g., drainage, aeration, salt accumulation in
root zone, changes in soil structure) and consequent!) are
not the best for irrigated agriculture.
Other land and soil factors of importance, to irrigation are
topography and slope, which max influence the choice of
irrigation method, and soil characteristics. The latter are
extreznely important because they determine the usable
depth of water that can be stored in the root zone of the
crop and the erodability and intake rate of the soil.
Water. Each river system within the arid and semiarid por-
tion of the United States has quality characteristics peculiar
to its geologic origin and climatic environment. In consider-
ing water quality characteristics as related to irrigation, both
historic and current data for the stream and location in
question should be used with care because of the large
seasonal and sporadic variations that occur.
The range of sediment concentrations of a river through-
out the year is usually much greater than the range of dis-
solved solids concentrations. Maximum sediment concentra-
tions may range from 10 to more than a thousand times the
minimum concentrations. Usually, the sediment concentra-
tions are higher during high flow than during low flow.
This differs inversely from dissolvcd-solids concentrations
that are usually lower during high flows.
Four general designations of water have been used
(Rainwater 19G2):!Gl based on their chemical composition:
(1) calcium-magnesium, carbonate-bicarbonate; (2) cal-
cium-magnesium, sulfate-chloridc; (2) sodium-potassium,
carbonate-bicarbonate; and (4) sodium-potassium, sulfate-
chloride. This t\pc of classification characterizes the chem-
ical properties of the water and would be indicative of re-
actions that could be expected with soil when used for ir-
rigation. Although a listing of data for each stream and
tributary is beyond the scope of this report, an indication of
ranges in dissolved-solids concentrations, chemical type, and
sediment concentration is given in Table V-10 (Rainwater
19G2).3M
Customarily, each irrigation project diverts water at one
point in the river and the return flow comes back into the
mainstream somewhere below the system. This return flow
consists in the main of (1) regulatory water, which is the
unused part of the diverted water required so that each
farmer irrigating can have the exact flow he has ordered;
TABLE V-10—Variations in Dissolved Solids, Chemical Type,
and Sediment in Rivers in Arid and Semiarid United States
Region
Columbia River Basin
Northern California
Southern California
Colorado River Basin
Rio Grande Basin
Pecos River Basin
Western Gulf of Mexico Basins
Red River Basin
Arkansas River Basin
Platle River
Upper Missouri River Basin
Dissolved solids
concentrations,
mg/l
From
<100
<100
<100
<100
<100
100
100
-------
ection V—Agricultural Uses of Water
(2) tail water, which is that portion of the water that runs
off the ends of the fields; and (3) underground drainage,
required to provide adequate application and salt balance
in all parts of the fields. The initial flush of tail water may
be somewhat more saline than later but rapidly approaches
the same quality as the applied water (Reeve et al. 1955).362
Drainage and Leaching Requirements. In all irrigation agri-
culture some water must pass through the soil to remove
salts brought to .the soil in the water. In semiarid areas, or
in the transition zone between arid and humid regions, this
drainage water is usually obtained as a result of rainfall
during periods of low evapotranspiration, and no excess
irrigation water is needed to provide the drainage required.
In many arid regions, the needed leaching must be ob-
tained by adding excess water. In all cases, the required
drainage volume is related to the amount of salt in the ir-
rigation water. That drainage volume is called the leaching
requirement (LR).
It is possible to predict the approximate salt concentra-
tion that would occur in the soil after a number of irriga-
tions by estimating the proportion of applied water that will
percolate below the root zone. In any steady-state leaching
formula, the following assumptions are made:
• No precipitation of salts occurs in the soil;
• Ion uptake by plants is negligible;
• There is uniform distribution of soil moisture through
the profile and uniform concentration of salts in the
soil moisture;
• Complete and uniform mixing of irrigation water
with soil moisture takes place before any of the mois-
ture percolates below the root zone and
• Residual soil moisture is negligible.
A steady state leaching requirement formula has been
developed by the U.S. Salinity Laboratory (1954)363 de-
signed to estimate that fraction of the irrigation water that
must be leached through the root zone to control soil salin-
ity at any specified level. This is given as:
Ddw ECiw
LR =
Div
ECd
where LR is the leaching requirement; Ddw, the depth of
drainage water; DJW, the depth of irrigation water; ECiw,
the salinity of irrigation water; and ECdw, the salinity of
water percolating past root zone.
Hence, if ECdw is determined by the salt tolerance of the
crop to be grown, and the salt content of the irrigation
water EC,W is known, the desired LR can be calculated.
This leaching fraction will then be the ratio of depth of
drainage volume to the depth of irrigation water applied.
Because the permissible values for ECdw for various yield
decrements for various crops are not known, the ECe for
50 per cent yield reduction has been substituted for ECdw
The actual yield reduction will probably be less than 50
per cent (Bernstein 1966).340 This ECe is the assumed aver-
age electrical conductivity for the soil water at saturation fc
the whole root zone. When it is substituted for the ECdv
the actual ECe encountered in the root zone will be le;
than this value because, in many near steady state situ,:
tions, the salinity increases progressively with increase i
depth in the profile and is maximum at the bottom of th
root zone.
Bernstein (1967)341 has developed a leaching fractio
formula that takes into consideration factors that contrt
leaching rates such as infiltration rate, climate (evapotram
piration), frequency and duration of irrigation, and, c
course, the salt tolerance of the crops. He defines th
leaching fraction as LF = 1 — ETc/ITi where LF is the leach
ing fraction or proportion of applied water percolatini
below the root zone; E, the average rate of evapotranspira
tion during the irrigation cycle, T0; and I, the average in
filtration rate during the period of infiltration, TI. By utiliz
ing both the required leaching derived from the steady stati
formula
LR= -;——
and the leaching fraction based upon infiltration rates anc
evapotranspiration during the irrigation cycle, it is possiblt
to estimate whether adequate leaching can be attained 01
whether adjustments must be made in the crops to be
grown to permit higher salinity concentrations.
In addition to determination of crops to be grown.
leaching requirements may be used to indicate the total
quantities of water required. For example, irrigation water
with a conductivity of two mmhos requires one-sixth more
water to maintain root zone salt concentrations within
eight mmhos than would water with a salt concentration of
one mmhos under the same conditions of use.
There are a number of problems in applying the leaching
requirement concept in actual practice. Some of these relate
to the basic assumptions involved and others derive from
water application problems and soil variability.
• Considerable precipitation of calcium carbonate oc-
curs as many irrigation waters enter the soil causing a
reduction in the total soluble salt load. In many
crops, or crop rotations, crop removal of such ions
as chloride was a significant fraction of the total
added in waters of medium to low salinity. (Pratt
et al. 1967)359
• It is not practical to apply water with complete uni-
formity.
• Soils are far from uniform, particularly with respect
to vertical hydraulic conductivity.
• The effluent from tile or ditch drains may not be
representative of the salinity of water at the bottom
of the root zones
Also, there is a considerable variation in drainage outflow
that has no relation to leaching requirement when different
-------
Water for Irrigation /335
crops are irrigated (Pillsbury and Johnston 1965).:!57 This
results from variations in irrigation practices for the different
crops.
The leaching requirement concept, while very useful,
should not be used as a sole guide in the field. The leaching
requirement is a long-period average value that can be
departed from for short periods with adequately drained
soils to make temporary use of water poorer in quality than
customarily applied.
The exact manner in which leaching occurs and the ap-
propriate values to be used in leaching requirement
formulas require further study. The many variables and as-
sumptions involved preclude a precise determination under
field conditions.
Salinity Hazard. Waters with total dissolved solids (TDS)
less than about 500 mg/1 are usually used by farmers with-
out awareness of any salinity problem, unless, of course,
there is a high water table. Also, without dilution from
precipitation or an alternative supply, waters with TDS of
about 5,000 mg/1 usually have little value for irrigation
(Pillsbury and Blancy 1966).356 Within these limits, the value
of the water appears to decrease as the salinity increases.
Where water is to be used regularly for the irrigation of
relatively impervious soil, its value is limited if the TDS
is in the range of 2,000 mg/1 or higher.
Recommendation
In spite of the facts that (1) any TDS limits used
in classifying the salinity hazard of waters are
somewhat arbitrary; (2) the hazard is related not
only to the TDS but also to the individual ions
involved; and (3) no exact hazard can be assessed
unless the soil, crop, and acceptable yield reduc-
tions are known, Table V-ll suggests classifications
for general purposes for arid and semiarid regions.
Permeability Hazard. Two criteria used to evaluate the ef-
fect of salts in irrigation water on soil permeability are:
(1) the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and its relation to
the exchangeable sodium percentage, and (2) the bicarbo-
nate hazard that is particularly applicable to waters of arid
regions. Another factor related to the permeability hazard
is that the permeability tends to increase, and the stability
of a soil at any exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
increases as the salinity of the water increases (Quirk and
Schofield 1955).360
Eaton (1950),347 Doneen (1959),346 and Christiansen and
Thorne (1966)345 have recognized that the permeability
hazard of irrigation waters containing bicarbonate was
greater than indicated by their SAR values. Bower and
Wilcox (I965)343 found that the tendency for calcium
carbonate to precipitate in soils was related to the Langelier
index (Langelier 1936)349 and to the fraction of the irriga-
tion water evapotranspired from the soil. Bower et al.
(1965,344 1968)342 modified the Langelier index or precipita-
TABLE V-ll—Recommended Guidelines for Salinity in
Irrigation Water
Classification
TDS mj/l
EC mmhos/cm
Water for which no detrimental effects are usually noticed 500 0 75
Water that can have detrimental effects on sensitive crops 500-1,000 0.75-1.50
Water that can have adverse effects on many crops; requires carelu! 1,000-2,000 1.50-3 00
management practices
Water that can be used for tolerant plants on permeable soils w ith care- 2,000-5,000 3.00-7.50
ful management practices
tion index (PI) to the soil system and presented simplified
means for calculation. The PI was 8.4-pH,,, where 8.4 was
the pH of the soil and pH0, the pH that would be found in a
calcium carbonate suspension that would have the same
calcium and bicarbonate concentrations as those in the ir-
rigation water. For the soil system
pHc = pK2-pKc+p(Ca+Mg)+pAlk
where pK2 and pKc are the negative logarithms, respec-
tively, of the second dissociation constant for carbonic acid
and the solubility constant for calcite; p(Ca+Mg) and
pAlk are the negative logarithms, respectively, of the molar
concentrations of (Ca + Mg) and the titrable alkalinity.
Magnesium is included primarily because it reacts, through
cation exchange, to maintain the calcium concentration in
solution. The PI combines empirically with the SAR in the
following equation
SAR» = SAR1W VC(1+PI)
where SARKe and SAR1W are for the saturation extract and
the irrigation water, respectively, C is the concentration
factor or the reciprocal of the leaching fraction, and PI is
8.4-pHc. Bower et al. (1968)342 and Pratt and Bair (1969),358
using lysimeter experiments, have shown a high correlation
between the predicted and measured SARSO with waters of
various bicarbonate concentrations. The information avail-
able suggested a high utility of this equation for calculating
permeability or sodium hazard of waters. In cases where C
is not known, a value of 4, corresponding to a leaching frac-
tion of 0.25, can be used to give relative comparisons among
waters. In this case the equation is
SARSO = 2SAR1W(1+PI).
Data can be used to prepare graphs, from which the
values for pK2 —pKc, p(Ca+Mg), and pAlk can be ob-
tained for easy calculation of pHc. The calculation of pH0
is described by Bower et al. (1965).34i
Soils have individual responses in reduction in permeabil-
ity as the SAR or calculated SAR values increase, but ad-
verse effects usually begin to appear as the SAR value
passes through the range from 8 to 18. Above an SAR of
18 the effects are usually adverse.
Suspended Solids. Suspended organic solids in surface
water supplies seldom give trouble in ditch distribution
-------
336/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
systems except for occasional clogging of gates. They can
also carry weed seeds onto fields where their subsequent
growth can have a severely adverse effect on the crop or
can have a beneficial effect by reducing seepage losses. Where
surface water supplies are distributed through pipelines, it
is often necessary to have self-cleaning screens to prevent
clogging of the pipe system appliances. Finer screening is
usually required where water enters pressure-pipe systems
for sprinkler irrigation.
There are waters diverted for irrigation that carry
heavy inorganic sediment loads. The effects that these loads
might have depend in part on the particle size and distri-
bution of the suspended material. For example, the ability
of sandy soils to store moisture is greatly improved after the
soils are irrigated with muddy water for a period of years.
More commonly, sediment tends to fill canals and ditches,
causing serious cleaning and dredging problems. It also
tends to further reduce the already low infiltration charac-
teristics of slowly permeable soils.
Irrigation Water Quality For Humid Regions
Climate The most striking feature of the climate of the
humid region that contrasts with that of the far West and
intermountain areas is the larger amount of and less season-
able distribution of the precipitation. Abundant rainfall,
rather than lack of it, is the normal expectation. Yet,
droughts are common enough to require that attention be
given to supplemental irrigation. These times of shortage of
water for optimum plant growth can occur at irregular in-
tervals and at almost any stage of plant growth.
Water demands per week or day are not as high in
humid as in arid lands. But rainfall is not easily predicted.
Thus a crop may be irrigated and immediately thereafter
receive a rain of one or two inches. Supplying the proper
amount of supplemental irrigation water at the right time
is not easy even with adequate equipment and a good
water supply. There can be periods of several successive
years when supplemental irrigation is not required for most
crops in the humid areas. There are times however, when
supplemental water can increase yield or avert a crop failure.
Supplemental irrigation for high-value crops will undoubt-
edly increase in humid areas in spite of the fact that much
capital is tied up in irrigation equipment during years in
which little or no use is made of it.
The range of temperatures in the humid region in which
supplemental irrigation is needed is almost as great as that
for arid and semiarid areas. It ranges from that of the short
growing season of upstate New York and Michigan to the
continuous growing season of southern Florida. But in the
whole of this area, the most unpredictable factor in crop
production is the need for additional water for optimum
crop production.
Soils The soils of the humid region contrast with those
of the West primarily in being lower in available nutrients.
They are generally more acid and may have problems wit
exchangeable aluminum. The texture of soils is similar t
that found in the West and ranges from sands to clays. Som
are too permeable, while others take water very slowly.
Soils of the humid region generally have clay minerals (
lower exchange capacity than soils of the arid arid semiari
regions and hence lower buffer capacity. They are mot
easily saturated with anions and cations. This is an irr
portant consideration if irrigation with brackish water
necessary to supplement natural rainfall. Organic matte
content ranges from practically none on some of the Florid
sands to 50 per cent or more in irrigated peats.
One of the most important characteristics of many of th
soils of the humid Southeast is 1 he unfavorable root enviror
ment of the deeper horizons containing exchangeabl
aluminum and having a strong acid reaction. In fact, th
lack of root penetration of these: horizons by most farm crop
is the primary reason for the need for supplemental irriga
tion during short droughts.
Specific Difference Between Humid and Arit
Regions The effect of a specific water quality deterrer
on plant growth is governed by related factors. Basi
principles involved are almost universally applicable, bu
the ultimate effect must take into consideration these as
sociated variables. \Vater quality criteria for supplementa
irrigation in humid areas ma> differ from those indicate!
for arid and semiarid areas where the water requirement
of the growing plant are met almost entirely by irrigation.
When irrigation water containing a deterrent is used, it
effect on plant growth may vary, however, with the stag1
of growth at which the water is applied. In arid areas, plant
may be subjected to the influence of irrigation water qualit'
continuously from germination to harvest. Where water i
used for supplemental irrigation only, the effect on plant
depends not only upon the growth stage at which applied
but to the length of time that the deterrent remains in tht
root zone (Lunin et al. 1963)/152 Leaching effects of inter-
vening rainfall must be taken into consideration.
Climatic differences between humid and arid regions alsc
influence criteria for use of irrigation water. The amount o
rainfall determines in part ihe degree to which a giver
constituent will accumulate in the soil. Other factors as-
sociated with salt accumulation in the soil are those climatic
conditions relating to evapotranspiration. In humid areas,
evapotranspiration is generally less than in arid regions,
and plants are not as readily subjected to water stress. The
importance of climatic conditions in relation to salinity was
demonstrated by Magistad et al. (1943).365 In general,
criteria regarding salinity for supplemental irrigation in.
humid areas can be more flexible than for arid areas.
Soil characteristics represen! another significant difference
between arid and humid regions. These were discussed
previously.
Mineralogical composition will also vary. The composi-
tion of soil water available for absorption by plant roots
-------
Water for Irrigation /337
represents the results of an interaction between the constitu-
ents of the irrigation water and the soil complex. The final
result may be that a given quality deterrent present in the
water could be rendered harmless by the soil (remaining
readily available), or that the dissolved constituents of a
water may render soluble toxic concentrations of an clement
that was not present in the irrigation water. An example of
this would be the addition of a saline water to an acid soil
resulting in a decrease in pH and a possible increase in
solubility of elements such as iron, aluminum, and manga-
nese (Eriksson 1952).;i48
General relationships previously derived for SAR and ad-
sorbed sodium in neutral or alkaline soils of arid areas do
not apply equally well to acid soils found in humid
regions (Lunin and Batcheldcr I960).350 Furthermore, the
effect of a given level of adsorbed sodium (ESP) on plant
growth is determined to some degree by the associated
adsorbed cations. The amount of adsorbed calcium and
magnesium relative to adsorbed sodium is of considerable
consequence, especially when comparing acidic soils to ones
that are neutral or alkaline. Another example would be
the presence of a (race element in the irrigation water that
might be rendered insoluble when applied to a neutral or
alkaline soil, but retained in a soluble, available form in
acid soils. For these reasons, soil characteristics, which differ
grcatlv between arid and humid areas, must be taken into
consideration.
Certain economic factors also influence water quality
criteria for supplemental irrigation. Although the ultimate
objective of irrigation is to insure efficient and economic
crop production, there ma}- be instances where an adequate
supply of good quality water is unavailable to achieve this.
A farmer may be faced with the need to use irrigation water
of inferior quality to get some economic return and prevent
a complete crop failure. This can occur in humid areas
during periods of prolonged drought. Water quality criteria
are generally designed for optimum production, but con-
sideration must be given also to supplying guidelines for use
of water of inferior quality to avert a crop failure.
Specific Quality Criteria for Supplemental Irri-
gation A previous discussion (see "Water Quality Con-
siderations for Irrigation" above) of potential quality deter-
rents contained a long list of factors indicating the current
state of our knowledge as to how they might relate to plant
growth. Criteria can be established by determining a con-
centration of a given deterrent, which, when adsorbed on
or absorbed by a leaf during sprinkler irrigation, results in
adverse plant growth, and by evaluating the direct or in-
direct effects (or both) that a given concentration of a qual-
ity deterrent has on the plant root environment as irriga-
tion water enters the soil. Neither evaluation is simple, but
the latter is more complex because so many variables are
involved. Since sprinkler application in humid areas is most
common for supplemental irrigation, both types of evalua-
tion have considerable significance. The following discus-
sion relates only to those quality criteria that are specifically
applicable to supplemental irrigation.
Salinity. General concepts regarding soil salinity as pre-
viously discussed are applicable. Actual levels of salinity
that can be tolerated for supplemental irrigation must take
into consideration the leaching effect of rainfall and the fact
that soils arc usually nonsaline at spring planting. The
amount of irrigation water having a given level of salinity
that can be applied to the crop will depend upon the num-
ber of irrigations between leaching rains, the salt tolerance
of the crop, and the salt content of the soil prior to irriga-
tion.
Since it is not realistic to set a single salinity value or even
a range that would take these variables into consideration, a
guide was developed to aid farmers in safely using saline or
brackish waters (Lunin and Gallatin I960).361 The following
equation was used as a basis for this guide:
n(EClw)
ECC(fS =ECC(,H -
where ECc(n is the electrical conductivity of the saturation
extract after irrigation is completed; ECP{,), the electrical
conductivity of the soil saturation extract before irrigation;
ECm, the electrical conductivity of the irrigation water;
and n, the number of irrigations.
To utilize this guide, the salt tolerance of the crop to be
grown and the soil salinity level (EC(.(f)) that will result
in a 15 or 50 per cent yield decrement for that crop must be
considered. After evaluating the level of soil salinity prior to
irrigation (EC(,(1)) and the salinity of the irrigation water,
the maximum number of permissible irrigations can be
calculated. These numbers are based on the assumption
that no intervening rainfall occurs in quantities large enough
to leach salts from the root zone. Should leaching rainfall
occur, the situation could be reevaluated using a new value
for ECc(i).
Categorizing the salt tolerance of crops as highly salt
tolerant, moderately salt tolerant, and slightly salt tolerant,
the guide shown in Table V-12 was prepared to indicate
TABLE V-12—Permissible Number of Irrigations in Humid
Areas with Saline Water between Leaching Rains for
Crops of Different Salt Tolerance"
Irrigation water
Number of irrigations for crops having
Total salts mg/l
640
1,280
1,920
2,560
3,200
3,840
4,480
5,120.
Electrical conductivity Low salt tolerance
mmhos/cm at 25 C
1 7
2 4
3 2
4 2
5 1
6 1
7
8
Moderate salt
tolerance
IS
7
4-5
3
2-3
2
1-2
1
High salt tolerance
11
7
5
4
3
2-3
2
" Based on a 50 per cent yield decrement.
Lunmetal. 1960'5<.
-------
338/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
the number of permissible irrigations using water of varying
salt concentrations. This guide is based on two assumptions:
• no leaching rainfall occurs between irrigations.
• there is no salt accumulation in the soil at the start
of the irrigation period. If leaching rains occur be-
tween irrigations, the effect of the added salt is
minimized. If there is an accumulation of salt in the
soil initially, such as might occur when irrigating a
fall crop on land to which saline water had been ap-
plied during a spring crop, the soil should be tested
for salt content, and the irrigation recommendations
modified accordingly.
Recommendation
Since it is not realistic to set a single salinity
value or even a range that would take all variables
into consideration, Table V-12 developed by Lunin
et al. (I960),354 should be used as a guide to aid
farmers in safely using saline or brackish waters
for supplemental irrigation in humid areas.
SAR values and exchangeable sodium. The principles relating
to SAR values and the degree to which sodium is adsorbed
from water by soils are generally applicable in both arid and
humid regions. Some evidence is available (Lunin and
Batchelder I960),350 however, to indicate that, for a given
water quality, less sodium was adsorbed by an acid soil
than by a base-saturated soil. For a given level of exchange-
able sodium, preliminary evidence indicated more detri-
mental effects on acid soils than on base-saturated soils
(Lunin et al. 1964).353
Experimental evidence is not conclusive, so the detri-
mental limits for SAR values listed previously should also
apply to supplemental irrigation in humid regions. (See the
recommendation in this section following the discussion of
sodium hazard under Water Quality Considerations for Ir-
rigation.)
Acidity and alkalinity. The only consideration not pre-
viously discussed relates to soil acidity, which is more
prevalent in humid regions where supplemental irrigation
is practiced. Any factor that drops the pH below 4.8 may
render soluble toxic concentrations of iron, aluminum, and
manganese. This might result from application of a highly
acidic water or from a saline solution applied to an acidic
soil. (See the recommendation in this section following the
discussion of acidity and alkalinity under Water Quality
Considerations for Irrigation.)
Trace elements. Criteria and related factors discussed in
the section on Phytotoxic Trace Elements are equally ap-
plicable to supplemental irrigation in humid regions. Cer-
tain related qualifications must be kept in mind, however.
First, foliar absorption of trace elements in toxic amounts is
directly related to sprinkler irrigation. Critical levels estab-
lished for soil or culture solutions would not apply to direct
foliar injury. Regarding trace element concentrations in the
soil resulting from irrigation water application, the volum
of the water applied by sprinkler as supplemental irrigatio
is much less than that applied by furrow or flood irrigatio
in arid regions.
In assessing trace element concentrations in irrigatio
water, total volume of water applied and the physicochem
cal characteristics of the soil must be taken into considers
tion. Both factors could result in different criteria for suppk
mental irrigation as compared with surface irrigation in ari
regions.
Suspended solids. Certain factors regarding suspended solid
must be taken into consideration for sprinkler irrigatior
The first deals with the plugging up of sprinkler nozzles b
these sediments. Size of sediment is a definite factor, bu
no specific particle size limit can be established. If som
larger sediment particles pass through the sprinkler, the
can often be washed off certain leafy vegetable crops. Som
of the finer fractions, suspended colloidal material, couli
accumulate on the leaves and, once dry, become extremel
difficult to wash off, thereby impairing the quality of th
product.
PHYTOTOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS
In addition to the effect of total salinity on plant growth
individual ions may cause growth reductions. Ions of bott
major and trace elements occur in irrigation water. Traci
elements are those that normally occur in waters or soi
solutions in concentrations less than a few mg/1 with usua
concentrations less than 100 microgram (Mg)/l- Some ma;
be essential for plant growth, while others are nonessential
When an element is added to the soil, it may combim
with it to decrease its concentration and increase the store
of that element in the soil. If the process of adding irrigatior
water containing a toxic level of the element continues, th<
capacity of the soil to react with the element will be
saturated. A steady state may be approached in which thf
amount of the element leaving the soil in the drainage water
equals the amount added with the irrigation water, with nc
further change in concentration in the soil. Removal in
narvested crops can also be a factor in decreasing the ac-
cumulation of trace elements in soils.
In many cases, soils have high capacities to react with
trace elements. Therefore, irrigation water containing toxic
levels of trace elements may be added for many years before
a steady state is approached. Thus, a situation exists where
loxicities may develop in years, decades, or even centuries
from the continued addition of pollutants to irrigation
waters. The time would depend on soil and plant factors as
well as on the concentration of trace elements in the water.
Variability among species is well recognized. Recent in-
vestigations by Foy et al. (1965),402 and Kerridge et al.
(1971)425 working with soluble aluminum in soils and in
nutrient solutions, have demonstrated that there is also
variability among varieties within a given species
-------
Water for Irrigation/'339
Comprehensive reviews of literature dealing with trace
element effects on plants are provided by McKee and Wolf
(1963),436 Holland and Butler (1966),378 and Chapman
(1966).386 Hodgson (1963)417 presented a review dealing
with reactions of trace elements in soils.
In developing a workable program to determine accept-
able limits for trace elements in irrigation waters, three
considerations should be recognized:
• Many factors affect the uptake of and tolerance to
trace elements. The most important of these are the
natural variability in tolerances of plants and of
animals that consume plants, in reactions within the
soil, and in nutrient interactions, particularly in the
plant.
• A system of tolerance limits should provide sufficient
flexibility to cope with the more serious factors listed
above.
• At the same time, restrictions must be denned as
precisely as possible using presently available, but
limited, research information.
Both the concentration of the element in the soil solution,
assuming that steady state may be approached, and the
total amount of the element added in relation to quantities
that have been shown to produce toxicities were used in ar-
riving at recommended maximum concentrations. A water
application rate of 3 acre feet/acre/year was used to calcu-
late the yearly rate of trace elements added in irrigation
water.
The suggested maximum trace element concentrations
for irrigation waters are shown in Table V-13.
The suggested maximum concentrations for continuous
use on all soils are set for those sandy soils that have low
capacities to react with the element in question. They are
generally set at levels less than the concentrations that pro-
duce toxicities when the most sensitive plants are grown in
nutrient solutions or sand cultures. This level is set, recog-
nizing that concentration increases in the soil as water is
evapotranspired, and that the effective concentration in the
soil solution, at near steady state, is higher than in the irriga-
tion water. The criteria for short-term use are suggested for
soils that have high capacitites to remove from solution the
element or elements being considered.
The work of Hodgson (1963)417 showed that the general
tolerance of the soil-plant system to manganese, cobalt,
zinc, copper, and boron increased as the pH increased,
primarily because of the positive correlation between the
capacity of the soil to inactivate these ions and the pH.
This same relationship exists with aluminum and probably
exists with other elements such as nickel (Pratt et al. 1964)449
and boron (Sims and Bingham 1968).465 However, the abil-
ity of the soil to inactivate molybdenum decreases with in-
crease in pH, such that the amount of this element that
could be added without producing excesses was higher in
acid soils.
TABLE V-13—Recommended Maximum Concentrations of
Trace Elements in Irrigation Waters'1
Element
Aluminum
Arsenic
Beryllium
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluoride
Iron
Lead
Lithium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Tm«.
Titanium'
Tungsten--
Vanadium
Zinc .
For waters used continuously
on afl soil
mj/l
5.0
0 10
0.10
0.75
0.010
0.10
0.050
0.20
1.0
5.0
5.0
2.5'
0.20
0.010
0.20
0.020
0.10
2.0
For use up to 20 years on fine
textured sails al pHS.O to 8.5
mj/l
20.0
2.0
0.50
2.0
0.050
1.0
5.0
50
15.0
20.0
10.0
2.5<>
10.0
0.050-'
2.0
0.020
1.0
10.0
"These levels will normally not adversely affect plants or soils.
'• Recommended maximum concentration for irrigating citrus is 0.075 me/I.
' See text for a discussion of these elements.
d For only acid fine textured soils or acid soils with relatively high iron oxide contents.
In addition to pH control (i.e., liming acid soils), another
important management factor that has a large effect on the
capacity of soils to adsorb some trace elements without de-
velopment of plant toxicities is the available phosphorus
level. Large applications of phosphate are known to induce
deficiencies of such elements as copper and zinc and greatly
reduce aluminum toxicity (Chapman 1966).386
The concentrations given in Table V-13 are for ionic
and soluble forms of the elements. If insoluble forms are
present as particulate matter, these should be removed by
filtration before the water is analyzed.
Aluminum
The toxicity of this ion is considered to be one of the main
causes of nonproductivity in acid soils (Coleman and
Thomas 1967,392 Reeve and Sumner 1970,453 Hoyt and
Nyborg 197 la419).
At pH values from about 5.5 to 8.0, soils have great
capacities to precipitate soluble aluminum and to eliminate
its toxicity. Most irrigated soils are naturally alkaline, and
many are highly buffered with calcium carbonate. In these
situations aluminum toxicity is effectively prevented.
With only a few exceptions, as soils become more acid
(pH<5.5), exchangeable and soluble aluminum develop by
dissolution of oxides and hydroxides or by decomposition
of clay minerals. Thus, without the introduction of alumi-
num, a toxicity of this element usually develops as soils are
acidified, and limestone must be added to keep the soil
productive.
-------
WQ / Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
In nutrient solutions toxicities are reported for a number
of plants at aluminum concentrations of 1 mg/1 (Pratt
1966),448 whereas wheat is reported to show growth reduc-
tions at 0.1 mg/1 (Barnette 1923).37° Liebig et al. (1942)432
found growth depressions of orange seedlings at 0.1 mg/1.
Ligon and Pierre (1932)433 showed growth reductions of
60, 22, and 13 per cent for barley, corn, and sorghum, re-
spectively, at 1 mg/1.
In spite of the potential toxicity of aluminum, this is not
the basis for the establishment of maximum concentrations
in irrigation waters, because ground limestone can be added
where needed to control aluminum solubility in soils.
Nevertheless, two disadvantages remain. One is that the
salts that are the sources of soluble aluminum in waters
acidify the soil and contribute to the requirement for
ground limestone to prevent the accumulation or develop-
ment of soluble aluminum. This is a disadvantage only in
acid soils. The other disadvantage is a greater fixation of
phosphate fertilizer by freshly precipitated aluminum
hydroxides.
In determining a recommendation for maximum levels
of aluminum in irrigation water using 5.0 mg/1 for waters
to be.used continuously on all soils and 20 mg/1 for up to
20 years on fine-textured soils, the following was considered.
At rates of 3 acre feet of water per acre per year the calcium
carbonate equivalent of the 5 rag/l concentration used for
100 years would be 11.5 tons per acre; the 20 mg'l concen-
tration for 20 years would be equivalent to 9 tons of CaCOs
per acre. In most irrigated soils this amount of limestone
would not have to be added, because the soils have sufficient
buffer capacity to neutralize the aluminum salts. In acid
soils that are already near the pH where limestone should
be used, the aluminum added in the water would contribute
these quantities to the lime requirements.
Amounts of limestone needed for control of soluble alumi-
num in acid soils can be estimated by a method that is based
on pH control (Shoemaker et al. 1961).463 A method based
on the amount of soluble and exchangeable aluminum was
developed by Kamprath (1970).424
Recommendations
Recommended maximum concentrations are 5.0
mg/1 aluminum for continuous use on all soils and
20 mg/1 for use on fine textured neutral to alkaline
soils over a period of 20 years.
Arsenic
Albert and Arndt (1931)368 found that arsenic at 0.5 mg/1
in nutrient solutions reduced the growth of roots of cowpeas,
and at 1.0 mg/1 it reduced the growth of both roots and tops.
They reported that 1.0 mg/1 of soluble arsenic was fre-
quently found in the solution obtained from soils with
demonstrated toxic levels of arsenic. Rasmussen and Henry
(1965)451 found that arsenic at 0.5 mg/1 in nutrient solu-
tions produced toxicity symptoms in seedlings of the pine-
apple and orange. Below this concentration no symptoms <
toxicity were found. Clements and Heggeness (1939)390 r<
ported that 0.5 mg/1 arsenic as arsenite in nutrient soli
tions produced an 80 per cent yield reduction in tomatoe
Liebig et al. (1959)431 found that 10 mg/1 of arsenic ;
arsenate or 5 mg/1 as arsenite caused marked reductio
in growth of tops and roots of citrus grown in nutrient soh
tions. Machlis (1941)434 found lhat concentrations of 1.2 an
12 mg/1 caused growth suppression in beans and Sudan gra
respectively.
However, the most definite work with arsenic toxicity i
soils has been aimed at determining the amounts that ca
be added to various t\pcs of soils without reduction in yielc
of sensitive crops. The experiments of Cooper et al. (1932),1'1
Vandecaveye et al. (1936),472 Crafts and Rosenfels (1939),'
Dorman and Colman (1939),M6 Dorman et al (1939),:l
Clements and Munson (1947),391 Benson (1953),372 Chii
holm et al. (1955),388 Jacobs el al. (1970),422 Woolson et a
(1971)481 showed that the amount of total arsenic that prc
duced the initiation of toxicity varied with soil texture an
other factors that influenced the adsorptive capacity. Ai
suming that the added arsenic is mixed with the surface si
inches of soil and that it is in the arsenate form, the amouni
that produce toxicity for sensitive plants vary from 10
pounds (lb)/acre for sandy soils to 300 Ib/acre for claye
soils. Data from Crafts and Rosenfels (1939)394 for 80 soil
showed that for a 50 per cent yield reduction with barley
120, 190, 230, and 290 Ib arsenic/acre were required fo
sandy loams, loams, clay loams, and clays, respectively
These amounts of arsenic indicated the amounts adsorbei
into soils of different adsorptive capacities before ihe toxicit
level was reached.
With long periods of time involved, such as would be th
case with accumulations from irrigation water, possibl
leaching in sandy soils (Jacobs et al. 1970)422 and reversioi
to less soluble and less toxic forms of arsenic (Crafts am
Rosenfels 1939)394 allow extensions of the amounts requiret
for toxicity. Perhaps a factor of at least two could be used
giving a limit of 200 Ib in sandy soils and a limit of 600 11
m clayey soils over many years. Using these limits, a con
centration of 0.1 mg 1 could be used for 100 years on sand;
soils, and a concentration of 2 mg/'l used for a period of 2(
years or 0.5 mg/'l used for 100 years on clayey soils wouk
provide an adequate margin of safety. This is assuming I
acre feet of water are. vised per acre per year (1 mg/1 equal;
2.71 Ib/acre foot of water or 8.13 lb/3 acre feet), and thai
the added arsenic becomes mixed in a 6-inch layer of soil.
Removal of small amounts in harvested crops provides an
additional safety factor.
The only effective management practice known for soih
lhat have accumulated toxic levels of arsenic is to change to
more tolerant crops. Benson and Reisenauer (1951)373
developed a list of plants of three levels of tolerance. Work
by Reed and Sturgis (1936)462 suggested that rice cm flooded
s oils was extremely sensitive to small amounts of arsenic, and
-------
Water for Irrigation/341
that the suggested maximum concentrations listed below
were too high for this crop.
Recommendations
Recommendations are that maximum concen-
trations of arsenic in irrigation water be 0.10 mg/1
for continuous use on all soils and 2 mg/1 for use
up to 20 years on fine textured neutral to alkaline
soils.
Beryllium
Haas (1932)408 reported that some varieties of citrus seed-
lings showed toxicities at 2.5 mg/1 of beryllium whereas
others showed toxicity at 5 mg 1 in nutrient solutions.
Romnev et al. (1962)4r'-' found that beryllium at 0.5 mg/1
in nutrient solutions reduced the growth of bush beans.
Romnev and Childress (1965)4M found that 2 mg/1 or
greater in nutrient solutions reduced the growth of toma-
toes, peas, soybeans, lettuce, and alfalfa plants. Additions of
soluble beryllium salts at levels equivalent to 4 per cent ol
the cation-adsorption capacity of two acid soils reduced the
yields of ladino clover. Beryllium carbonate and ber\ Ilium
oxide at the same levels did not reduce yields. These results
suggest that beryllium in calcareous soils might be much less
active and less toxic than in acid soils. Williams and LcRiche
(1968VS(1 found that beryllium at 2 mg''l in nutrient solu-
tions was toxic to mustard, whereas 5 mg/1 was required for
growth reductions with kale.
It seems reasonable to recommend low levels of benl-
lium in view of the fact that, at 0.1 mg/1, 80 pounds of
bervllium would be added in 100 years using 3 acre feet of
water per acre per \ear. In 20 \ears, at 0.5 mg 1, water at
the same rate would acid 80 pounds.
Recommendations
In view of toxicities in nutrient solutions and in
soils, it is recommended that maximum concen-
trations of beryllium in irrigation waters be 0.10
mg/1 for continuous use on all soils and 0.50 mg/1
for use on neutral to alkaline fine textured soils
for a 20-year period.
Boron
Boron is an essential element for the growth of plants.
Optimum yields of some plants are obtained at concentra-
tions (jf a few tenths mg/1 in nutrient solutions However,
at concentrations of 1 mg/1, boron is toxic to a number of
sensitive plants. Eaton (1935,40(1 19444M) determined the
boron tolerance of a large number of plants and developed
lists of sensitive, semitolerant, and tolerant species. These
lists, slightly modified, are also given in the LJ.S.D.A.
Handbook 60 (Salinity Laboratory 1954)1'''9 and are pre-
sented in Table V-14. In general, sensitive crops showed
toxicities at 1 mg/1 or less, semitolerant crops at 1 to 2 mg/1,
and tolerant crops at 2 to 4 mg/1. At concentrations above
TABLE V-14—Relative Tolerance of Plants to Boron
(In each group the plants first named are considered as being more tolerant and the last named
more sensitive.)
Tolerant
Athel (Tamarix asphylla)
Asparagus
Palm (Phoenix cananensis)
Date palm (P. dactylifera)
Sugar beet
Mangel
Garden beet
Alfalfa
Gladiolus
Broadbean
Onion
Turnip
Cabbage
Lettuce
Carrot
Semitolerant
Sunflower (native)
Potato
Acala cotton
Pi ma cotton
Tomato
Sweetpea
Radish
Field pea
Ragged Robin rose
Olive
Barley
Wheat
Corn
Mllo
Oat
Zinnia
Pumpkin
Bell pepper
Sweet potato
Lima bean
Sensitive
Pecan
Black Walnut
Persian (English) walnut
Jerusalem artichoke
Navy bean
American elm
Plum
Pear
Apple
Grape (Sultanina and Malaga)
Kadota fig
Persimmon
Cherry
Peach
Apricot
Thornless blackberry
Orange
Avocado
Grapefruit
Lemon
Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954"
4 mg/1, the irrigation water was generally unsatisfactory for
most crops.
Bradford (1966),379 in a review of boron deficiencies and
toxicities, stated that when the boron content of irrigation
waters was greater than 0.75 mg/1, some sensitive plants,
such as citrus, begin to show injury. Chapman (1968)387
concluded that citrus showed some mild toxicity symptoms
when irrigation waters have 0.5 to 1.0 mg/1, and that when
the concentration was greater than 10 mg/1 pronounced
toxicities were found.
Biggar and Fireman (I960)375 and Hatcher and Bower
(1958)1U showed that the accumulation of boron in soils is
an adsorption process, and that before soluble levels of 1 or
2 mg 1 can be found, the adsorptive capacity must be
saturated. With neutral and alkaline soils of high adsorption
capacities water of 2 mg 1 might be used for some time
without injury to sensitive plants.
Recommendations
From the extensive work on citrus, one of the
most sensitive crops, the maximum concentration
of 0.75 mg boron/1 for use on sensitive crops on all
soils seems justified. Recommended maximum
concentrations for semitolerant and tolerant
plants are considered to be 1 and 2 mg/1 respec-
tively.
For neutral and alkaline fine textured soils the
recommended maximum concentration of boron
in irrigation water used for a 20-year period on
sensitive crops is 2.0 mg/1. With tolerant plants or
for shorter periods of time higher boron concen-
trations are acceptable.
-------
on F—Agricultural Uses of Water
Cadmium
Data by Page et al. in press (1972)444 showed that the
yields of beans, beets, and turnips were reduced about 25
per cent by 0.10 mg cadmium/1 in nutrient solutions;
whereas cabbage and barley gave yield decreases of 20 to 50
per cent at 1.0 mg/1. Corn and lettuce were intermediate
in response with less than 25 per cent yield reductions at
0.10 mg/1 and greater than 50 per cent at 1.0 mg/1. Cad-
mium contents of plants grown in soils containing 0.11 to
0.56 mg/1 acid extractable cadmium (Lagerwerff 1971)427
were of the same order of magnitude as the plants grown by
Page et al. in control nutrient solutions.
Because of the phytotoxicity of cadmium to plants, its
accumulation in plants, lack of soils information, and the
potential problems with this element in foods and feeds, a
conservative approach is taken.
Recommendations
Maximum concentrations for cadmium in irriga-
tion waters of 0.010 mg/1 for continuous use on all
soils and 0.050 mg/1 on neutral and alkaline fine
textured soils for a 20-year period are recom-
mended.
Chromium
Even though a number of investigators have found small
increases in yields with small additions of this element, it
has not become recognized as an essential element. The
primary concern of soil and plant scientists is with its toxic-
ity. Soane and Saunders (1959)466 found that 10 mg/1 of
chromium in sand cultures was toxic to corn, and that for
tobacco 5 mg/1 of chromium caused reduced growth and
1.0 mg/1 reduced stem elongation. Scharrer and Schropp
(1935)461 found that chromium, as chromic sulfate, was
toxic to corn at 5 mg/1 in nutrient solutions. Hewitt
(1953)412 found that 8 mg/1 chromium as chromic or
chromate ions produced iron chlorosis on sugar beets grown
in sand cultures. Hewitt also found that the chromate ion
was more toxic than the chromic ion. Hunter and Vergnano
(1953)4-1 found that 5 mg/1 of chromium in nutrient solu-
tions produced iron deficiencies in plants. Turner and
Rust (1971)470 found that chromium treatments as low as
0.5 mg/1 in water cultures and 10 mg/kg in soil cultures
significantly reduced the yields of two varieties of soybeans.
Because little is known about the accumulation of
chromium in soils in relation to its toxicity, a concentration
of less than 1.0 mg/1 in irrigation waters is desirable. At this
concentration, using 3 acre feet water/acre/yr, more than
80 Ib of chromium would be added per acre in 100 years,
and using a concentration of 1.0 mg/1 for a period of 20 years
and applying water at the same rate, about 160 pounds of
chromium would be added to the soil.
Recommendations
In view of the lack of knowledge concerning
chromium accumulation and toxicity, a maximun
concentration of 0.1 mg/1 is recommended for con
tinuous use on all soils and 1.0 mg/1 on neutra
and alkaline fine textured soils for a 20-year periot
is recommended.
Cobalt
Ahmed and Twyman (1953)36'' found that tomato plant
showed toxicity from cobalt at 0.1 mg/1, and Vergnam
and Hunter (1953)47"' found that cobalt at 5 mg/1 was highb
toxic to oats. Scharrer and Schropp (1933)460 found tha
cobalt at a few mg/1 in sand and solution cultures was toxi<
to peas, beans, oats, rye, wheat, barley, and corn, and tha
the tolerance to cobalt increased in the order listed. Vanse
low (1966a)473 found additions of 100 mg/kg to soils wen
not toxic to citrus.
The literature indicates that a concentration of 0.10 mg/
for cobalt is near the threshold toxicity level in nutrien
solutions. Thus, a concentration of 0.05 mg/1 appears to be
satisfactory for continuous use on all soils. However, because
xhe reaction of this element with soils is strong at neutra',
and alkaline pH values and it increases with time (Hodgsor
I960),41f) a concentration of 5.0 mg 1 might be tolerated b>
fine textured neutral and alkaline soils when it is added in
i.mall yearly incrcmcms.
Recommendations
Recommended maximum concentrations for co-
balt are set at 0.050 mg/1 for continuous use on all
>soils and 5.0 mg/1 for neutral and alkaline fine
textured soils for a 20-year period.
Copper
Copper concentrations of 0.1 to 1.0 mg/1 in nutrient
solutions have been fotmd to be toxic to a large number of
plants (Piper 1939,447 Liebig et al. 1942,432 Frolich ct al.
1966,403 Nollendorfs 1969,442 Struckmeyer et al. 1969,4M
Scillac 19714C2). Westgate (1952)478 found copper toxiciU in
soils that had accumulated BOO Ib/acre from the use of
Bordeaux sprays. Field studies in sanely soils of Florida
(Reuther and Smith 1954)137 showed that toxicity to citrus
resulted when copper levels reached 1.6 mg/meq of cation-
exchange capacity per 100 g of dry soil.
The management procedures that reduce copper toxicity
include liming the soil if it is acid, using ample phosphate
fertilizer, and adding iron salts (Reuther and Labanauskas
1966).456
Toxicity levels in nutrient solutions and limited data on
soils suggest a concentration of 0.20 mg/1 for continuous
use on all soils. This level used at a rate of 3 acre feet of
water per year would add about 160 pounds of copper in
100 years, which is approaching the recorded levels of
-------
Water jor Irrigation/343
toxicity in acid sandy soils. A safety margin can be obtained
by liming these soils. A concentration of copper at 5.0 mg/1
applied in irrigation water at the rate of 3 acre feet of water
per year for a 20-year period would add 800 pounds of
copper in 20 years.
Recommendations
Based on toxicity levels in nutrient solutions and
the limited soils data available, a maximum con-
centration of 0.20 mg/1 copper is recommended for
continuous use on all soils. On neutral and alkaline
fine textured soils for use over a 20-year period, a
maximum concentration of 5.0 mg/1 is recom-
mended.
Fluoride
Applications of soluble fluoride salts to acid soils can
produce toxicity to plants. Prince et al. (1949)450 found that
360 pounds fluoride per acre, added as sodium fluoride,
reduced the yields of buckwheat at pH 4.5, but at pH values
above 5.5 this rate produced no injury.
Maclntire et al. (1942)435 found that 1,150 pounds of
fluoride in superphosphate, 575 pounds of fluoride in slag,
or 2,300 pounds of fluoride as calcium fluoride per acre had
no detrimental effects on germination or plant growth on
well-limed neutral soils, and that vegetation grown on these
soils showed only a slight increase in fluoride as compared to
those grown in acid soils. However, Shirley ct al. (1970)464
found that bones of cows that had grazed pastures fertilized
with raw rock and colloidal phosphate, which contained ap-
proximately two to three per cent fluorides, for seven to 16
vcars averaged approximately 2,900 and 2,300 mg of
fluorine per kilogram of bone, respectively. The bones of
cows that had grazed on pastures fertilized with relatively
fluorine free superphosphate, concentrated superphosphate,
and basic slag fertilizer contained only 1400 mg/kg fluorine.
Recommendations
Because of the capacity of neutral and alkaline
soils to inactivate fluoride, a relatively high maxi-
mum concentration for continuous use on these
soils is recommended. Recommended maximum
concentrations are 1.0 mg/1 for continuous use on
all soils and 15 mg/1 for use for a 20-year period on
neutral and alkaline fine textured soils.
Iron
Iron in irrigation waters is not likely to create a problem
of plant toxicities. It is so insoluble in aerated soils at all pH
values in which plants grow well, that it is not toxic. In fact,
the problems with this element are deficiencies in alkaline
soils. In reduced (flooded) soils soluble ferrous ions develop
from inherent compounds in soils, so that quantities that
might be added in waters would be of no concern. However,
Rhoads (1971)468 found large reductions in the quality of
cigar wrapper tobacco when plants were sprinkler irrigated
with water containing 5 or more mg soluble iron/1, because
of precipitation of iron oxides on the leaves. Rhoad's ex-
perience would suggest caution when irrigating any crops
using sprinkler systems and waters having sufficient reducing
conditions to produce reduced and soluble ferrous iron.
The disadvantages of soluble iron salts in waters are that
these would contribute to soil acidification, and the precipi-
tated iron would increase the fixation of such essential ele-
ments as phosphorous and molybdenum.
Recommendations
A maximum concentration of 5.0 mg/1 is recom-
mended for continuous use on all soils, and a
maximum concentration of 20 mg/1 is recom-
mended on neutral to alkaline soils for a 20-year
period. The use of waters with large concentrations
of suspended freshly precipitated iron oxides and
hydroxides is not recommended, because these
materials also increase the fixation of phosphorous
and molybdenum.
Lead
The phy to toxicity of lead is relatively low. Berry (1924)374
found that a concentration of lead nitrate of 25 mg/1 was
required for toxicity to oats and tomato plants. At a concen-
tration of 50 mg/1, death of plants occurred. Hopper
(1937)418 found that 30 mg/1 of lead in nutrient solutions
was toxic to bean plants. Wilkins (1957)479 found that lead
at 10 mg/1 as lead nitrate reduced root growth. Since soluble
lead contents in soils were usually from 0.05 to 5.0 mg/kg
(Brewer 1966),383 little toxicity can be expected. It was
shown that the principal entry of lead into plants was from
aerial deposits rather than from absorption from soils (Page
et al. 1971)445 indicating that lead that falls onto the soil is
not available to plants.
In a summary on the effects of lead on plants, the Com-
mittee on the Biological Effects of Atmosphere Pollutants
(NRG 1972)441 concluded that there is not sufficient evidence
to indicate that lead, as it occurs in nature, is toxic to vege-
tation. However, in studies using roots of some plants and
very high concentrations of lead, this element was reported
to be concentrated in cell walls and nuclei during mitosis
and to inhibit cell proliferation.
Recommendations
Recommended maximum concentrations of lead
are 5.0 mg/1 for continuous use on all soils and 10
mg/1 for a 20-year period on neutral and alkaline
fine textured soils.
Lithium
Most crops can tolerate lithium in nutrient solutions at
concentrations up to 5 mg/1 (Oertli 1962,443 Bingham et al.
1964,377 Bollard and Butler 1966378). But research revealed
-------
344/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
that citrus was more sensitive (Aldrich et al. 1951,369 Brad-
ford 1963b,381 Hilgeman et al. 1970«5). Hilgeman et al.
(1970)416 found that grapefruit developed severe symptoms
of lithium toxicity when irrigated with waters containing
lithium at 0.18 to 0.25 mg/1. Bradford (1963a)380 reported
that experience in California indicated slight toxicity of
lithium to citrus at 0.06 to 0.10 mg/1 in the water.
Lithium is one of the most mobile of cations in soils. It
tends to be replaced by other cations in waters or fertilizers
and is removed by leaching. On the other hand, it is not
precipitated by any known process.
Recommendations
Recommendations for maximum concentrations
of lithium, based on its phytotoxicity, are 2.5 mg/1
for continuous use on all soils, except for citrus
where the recommended maximum concentration
is 0.075 mg/1 for all soils. For short-term use on
fine textured soils the same maximum concentra-
tions are recommended because of lack of inactiva-
tion in soils.
Manganese
Manganese concentrations at a few tenths to a few milli-
grams per liter in nutrient solutions are toxic to a number of
crops as shown by Morris and Pierre (1949),440 Adams and
Wear (1957),3IU Hewitt (1965),4U and others. However,
toxicities of this element are associated with acid soils, and
applications of proper quantities of ground limestone suc-
cessfully eliminated the problem. Increasing the pH to the
5.5 to 6.0 range usually reduced the active manganese to
below the toxic level (Adams and Wear 1957).364 Hoyt and
Nyborg (1971b)420 found that available manganese in the
soil and manganese content of plants were negatively cor-
related with soil pH. However, the definite association of
toxicity with soil pH as found with aluminum was not found
with manganese, which has a more complex chemistry.
Thus, more care must be taken in setting water quality cri-
teria for manganese than for aluminum (i.e., management
for control of toxicities is not certain).
Recommendations
Recommended maximum concentrations for
manganese in irrigation waters are set at 0.20 mg/1
for continued use on all soils and 10 mg/1 for use up
to 20 years on neutral and alkaline fine textured
soils. Concentrations for continued use can be in-
creased with alkaline or calcareous soils, and also
with crops that have higher tolerance levels.
Molybdenum
This element presents no problems of toxicity to plants at
concentrations usually found in soils and waters. The prob-
lem is one of toxicity to animals from molybdenum in-
gested from forage that has been grown in soils with rela-
tively high amounts of avaiable molybdenum. Dye am
O'Hara (1959)398 reported that the molybdenum concentra
tion in forage that produced toxicity in ruminants was 5 t
30 mg/kg. Lesperance and Bohman (1963)430 found tha
toxicity was not simply associated with the molybdenun
content of forage but was influenced by the amounts c
other elements, particularly copper. Jensen and Lcsperanc
(1971)423 found that the accumulation of molybdenum ii
plants was proportional to the amount of the element addec
to the soil.
Kubota et al. (1963)126 found that molybdenum concert
trations of 0.01 mg/1 or greater in soil solutions were as
sociated with animal toxicity levels of this element in alsiki
clover. Bingham et al. (1970) "fl reported that molybdosis o
cattle was associated with sods that had 0.01 to 0.10 ma,/
of molybdenum in saturation extracts of soils.
Recommendations
The recommended maximum concentration o
molybdenum for continued use of water on al
soils, based on animal toxicities from forage, i;
0.010 mg/1. For short term use on soils that react
with this element, a concentration of 0.050 mg/1
is recommended.
Nickel
According to Vanselow (1966b),474 many experiments
with sand and solution cultures have shown that nickel al
0.5 to 1.0 mg/1 is toxic to a lumber of plants. Chang and
Sherman (1953)385 found that tomato seedlings were in-
jured by 0.5 mg/1. Millikan (1949)437 found that 0.5 to 5.0
mg/1 were toxic to flax. Brenchley (1938)38'2 reported toxic-
ity to barley and beans from 2 mg/1. Crooke (1954)39!
found that 2.5 mg/1 was toxic to oats. Legg and Ormerod
(1958)429 found that 1.0 mg/1 produced toxicily in hop
plants. Vergnano and Hunter (1953)475 found that 1.0 mg/1
in solutions flushed through sand cultures was toxic to oats.
Soane and Saunders (1959)466 found that tobacco plants
showed no toxicity at 30 mg/1,, and that corn showed no
toxicity at 2 mg/1 but showed toxicity at 10 mg''l.
Work by Mizuno (1968)439 and Halstead et al. (1969)409
and the review of Vanselow (1966b)47* showed thait increas-
ing the pH of soils reduces the toxicity of added nickel.
Halstead et al. (1969)4"9 found the greatest capacity to ad-
sorb nickel without development of toxicity was by a soil
with 21 per cent organic matter.
Recommendations
Based on both toxicity in nutrient solutions and
on quantities that produce toxicities in soils, the
recommended maximum concentration of nickel
in irrigation waters is 0.20 mg/1 for continued use
on all soils. For neutral fine textured soils for a
period up to 20 years, the recommended maximum
is 2.0 mg/1.
-------
Water for Irrigation/345
Selenium
Selenium is toxic at low concentrations in nutrient solu-
tions, and only small amounts added to soils increase the
selenium content of forages to a level toxic to livestock.
Broycr ct al. (1966)384 found that selenium at 0.025 mg'1
in nutrient solutions decreased the yields of alfalfa.
The best evidence for use in setting water quality criteria
for this element is application rates in relation to toxicity in
forages Amounts of selenium in forages required to prevent
selenium deficiencies in cattle (Alla\va\ et al. 1967)3'1''1
ranged between 0.03 and 0.10 mg kg (depending on other
factors), whereas concentrations above 3 or 4 mg kg were
considered toxic (Underwood 1966) m A number of investi-
gator (Hamilton and Beath 1963,41n Grant 1965, «" Allaway
et al. 1 966)31'7 have shown that small applications of selenium
to soils at a rate of a few kilograms per hectare produced
plant concentrations of selenium that were toxic to animals.
Gissel-Nielson and Bisbjerg (1970)400 found that applica-
tions of approximately 0.2 kg hectare of selenium produced
from 1.0 to 10.5 mg/kg in tissues of forage and vegetable
crops
Recommendation
With the low levels of selenium required to pro-
duce toxic levels in forages, the recommended
maximum concentration in irrigation waters is
0.02 mg/1 for continuous use on all soils. At a rate
of 3 acre feet of water per acre per year this concen-
tration represents 3.2 pounds per acre in 20 years.
The same recommended maximum concentration
should be used on neutral and alkaline fine textured
soils until greater information is obtained on soil
reactions. The relative mobility of this element in
soils in comparison to other trace elements and
slow removal in harvested crops provide a sufficient
safety margin.
Tin, Tungsten, and Titanium
Tin, tungsten, and titantium are effectively excluded by
plants. The first two can undoubtedly be introduced to
plants under conditions that can produce specific toxicities.
However, not enough is known at this time about any of the
three to prescribe tolerance limits. (This is true with other
trace elements such as silver.) Titantium is very insoluble,
at present it is not of great concern.
Vanadium
Gericke and Rcnncnkampff (1939)40-5 found that vanad-
ium at 0.1, 1.0, and 2.0 mg'l added to nutrient solutions as
calcium vanadate slightly increased the growth of barley,
whereas at 10 mg/1 vanadium was toxic to both tops and
roots and that vanadium chloride at 1.0 mg/1 of vanadium
was toxic. \Varington (1954,476 1956477) found that flax, soy-
beans, and peas showed toxicity to vanadium in the con-
centration range of 0.5 to 2.5 mg, 1. Chiu (1953)389 found
that 560 pounds per acre of vanadium added as ammonium
metavanadatc to rice paddy soils produced toxicity to rice.
Recommendations
Considering the toxicity of vanadium in nutrient
solutions and in soils and the lack of information
on the reaction of this element with soils, a maxi-
mum concentration of 0.10 mg/1 for continued use
on all soils is recommended. For a 20-year period
on neutral and alkaline fine textured the recom-
mended maximum concentration is 1.0 mg/1.
Zinc
Toxicities of zinc in nutrient solutions have been demon-
strated for a number of plants. Hewitt (1948)41S found that
zinc at 16 to 32 mg/1 produced iron deficiencies in sugar
beets. Hunter and Vergnano (1953)41>1 found toxicity to oats
at 25 mg'[. Millikan (1947)438 found that 2.5 mg/1 produced
iron deficiency in oats. Barley (1943)399 found that the
Peking variety of soybeans was killed at 0.4 mg/1, whereas
the Manchu variety was killed at 1.6 mg/1.
The toxicity of zinc in soils is related to soil pH, and liming
acid soil has a large effect in reducing toxicity (Barnette
1936,371 Gall and Barnette 1940,lnl Pecch 1941,w> Stakcr
and Cummings 1941,1GS Staker 1942,467 Lee and Page
I967'28). Amounts of added zinc that produce toxicity are
highest in cla\ and peat soils and smallest in sands.
On acid sand}' soils the amounts required for toxicity
would suggest a recommended maximum concentration of
zinc of 1 mg ''1 for continuous use. This concentration at a
water application rate of 3 acre feet/acre/year would add
813 pounds per acre in 100 years. However, if acid sandy
soils arc limed to pH values of six or above, the tolerance
level is increased by at least a factor of two (Gall and
Barnette 1940).4"1
Recommendations
Assuming adequate use of liming materials to
keep pH values high (six or above), the recom-
mended maximum concentration for continuous
use on all soils is 2.0 mg/1. For a 20-year period on
neutral and alkaline soils the recommended maxi-
mum is 10 mg/1. On fine textured calcareous soils
and on organic soils, the concentrations can exceed
this limit by a factor of two or three with low
probability of toxicities in a 20-year period.
PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR IRRIGATION)
Pesticies are used widely in water for irrigation on com-
mercial crops in the United States (Sheets 1967).502 Figures
on production, acreage treated, and use patterns indicate
insecticides and herbicides comprise the major agricultural
pesticides. There are over 320 insecticides and 127 herbi-
cides registered for agricultural use (Fowler 1972).498
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346/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
Along with the many benefits to agriculture, pesticides
can have detrimental effects. Of concern for irrigated agri-
culture is the possible effects of pesticide residues in irriga-
tion water on the growth and market quality of forages and
crops. Pesticides most likely to be found in agricultural
water supplies are listed in the Freshwater Appendix II-D.
Insecticides in Irrigation Water
The route of entry of insecticides into waters is discussed
in the pesticide section under Water for Livestock Enter-
prises. For example, Miller et al. (1967)500 observed the
movement of parathion from treated cranberry bogs into a
nearby irrigation ditch and drainage canal, and Sparr et al.
(1966)503 monitored endrin in waste irrigation water used
three days after spraying. In monitoring pesticides in water
used to irrigate areas near Tule Lake and lower Klamath
Lake Wildlife Refuges in northern California, Godsil and
Johnson (1968)49!l detected high levels of endrin compared
to other pesticides. They observed that the concentrations
of pesticides in irrigation waters varied directly with agri-
cultural activities.
In monitoring pesticides residues from 1965 to 1967
(Agricultural Research Service 1969a),483 the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture detected the following pesticides in ir-
rigation waters at a sampling area near Yuma, Arizona:
the DDT complex, dieldrin, methyl parathion, endrin,
endosulfan, ethyl parathion, dicofol, s ,s ,s,-tributyl phos-
phorotrithiate (DBF), and demeton. Insecticides most com-
monly detected were DDT, endrin, and dieldrin. For the
most part, all residues in water were less than 1.0 Mg/l.
A further examination of the irrigation water at the Yuma
sampling area showed that water entering it contained rela-
tively low amounts of insecticide residues while water leav-
ing contained greater concentrations. It was concluded that
some insecticides were picked up from the soil by irrigation
water and carried out of the fields.
Crops at the same location were also sampled for insecti-
cide residues. With the exception of somewhat higher con-
centrations of DDT and dicofol in cotton stalks and canta-
loupe vines, respectively, residues in crop plants were rela-
tively small. The mean concentrations, where detected,
were 2.6 /ig/'g combined DDT, 0.01 jug/g endrin, 0.40 jig/g
dieldrin, 0.05 /ug/g lindane, 5.0 jug/'g dicofol, and 1.8 jug/g
combined parathion. The larger residues for DDT and
dicofol were apparently from foliage applications. Sampling
of harvested crops showed that residues were generally less
than 0.30 /ug/g and occurred primarily in lettuce and in
cantaloupe pulp, seeds, and rind. DDT, dicofol, and endrin
were applied to crops during the survey, and from 2.0 to
6.0 Ib/acre of DDT were applied to the soil before 1965.
Some crops do not absorb measurable amounts of insecti-
cides but others translocate the chemicals in various
amounts. At the levels (less than 1.0 jug/1) monitored by the
U. S. Department of Agriculture in irrigation waters (Agri-
cultural Research Service 1969a),483 there is little evidence
indicating that insecticide residues in the water are detr
mental to plant growth or accumulate to undesirable or i
legal concentrations in food or feed crops.
Herbicides in Irrigation Water
In contrast to insecticides, misuse of herbicides can prc
sent a greater hazard to crop growth. Herbicides are likel
to be found in irrigation water under the following circurr
stances: (1) during their purposeful introduction into irriga
tion water to control submersed weeds; of (2) incidental t
herbicide treatment for control of weeds on banks of irriga
tion canals. Attempts are seldom made to prevent wate
containing herbicides such as sylene or acrolein from beini
diverted onto cropland during irrigation. In most instances
however, water-use restrictions do apply when herbicide
are used in reservoirs of irrigation water. The herbicide
used in reservoirs are more persistent and inherently mor<
phytotoxic at low levels than are xylcne and acrolein.
The tolerances of a number of crops to various herbicide
used in and around water are listed in Table V-15. Residui
levels tolerated by most crops are usually much higher thai
the concentrations found in water following normal use o
the herbicides. Aromatic solvent (xylenc) and acrolein an
widely used in western states for keeping irrigation canal
free of submersed weeds and algae and are not harmful tc
crops at concentrations needed for weed control. (U. S
Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service
1963,504 hereafter referred to as Agricultural Research
Service 1963).18- Xylcne, which is non-polar, is lost rapidl)
from water (50 per cent in 3 to -1 hours) b\ volatility (Frank
et al. 1970).497 Acrolein, a pola- compound, ma\ remain ir
flowing water for periods of 24 hours or more at Levels thai
are phytotoxic onh to submersed aquatic, weeds. Copper
sulfatc is used frequently to control algae. It has also been
bund effective on submersed vascular weeds when applied
continuously to irrigation water at low levels (Bartlev
1969).487
The herbicides that have been used most widely on irriga-
tion ditchbanks are 2,4-D, dalapon, TCA, and silvex. The
application of herbicides ma> be restricted to a swath of a
few feet along the margin of the water, or it may cover a
swath 15 feet or more wide. A variable overlap of the spray
pattern at the water margin is unavoidable and accounts
for most of the herbicide residues that occur in water during
citchbank treatments. Rates of application vary from 2 Ib
p>er acre for 2,4-D to 20 Ib per acre for dalapon. For ex-
amples of residue levels that occur in water from these
treatments see Table V-l 6. The residues generally occur only
during the periods when ditchbanks are treated.
The rates of dissipation of herbicides in irrigation water
were reported recently by Frank et al. (1970).4
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Water for Irrigation/347
TABLE V-15—Tolerance of Crops to Various Herbicides Used In and Around Waters"
Herbicide
Site of use
Formulation
Treatment rate
Concentration that may occur in
irrigation water'
Crop injury threshold in
irrigation water (mg/l)c
Acrolein
Aromatic solvents uyfene)
Irrigation canals
Liquid
Flowing water in canals or drains Emulsiliable liquid
15 mg/lfor 4 hours
0.6 me/I for 8 hours
0.1 mg/l for 46 hours
5 to 10 gal/cfs (350 to 750 mg/l)
applied in 30-60 minutes
10 to 0.1 mg/l
0.4 to 0.02 mg/l
0.05 to 0.1 mg/l
700 mg/l or less
Flood or furrow; beans-60, corn-60,
cotton-80, soybeans-20, sugar beets-
CD.
Sprinkler; corn-60, soybeans-15,
sugar beets-15.
Alfalfa> 1,600, beans-1,200, carrots-
1,600,corn-3,000 cotton-1,600,
gram sorghum >800, oats-2,400,
potatoes-1,300, wheat > 1,200.
Copper sulfate
Dalapon
Diquat
Dfuron
Dichlobenil
Endothall
Endotriall amme salts
Fenac
Monuron
Silvei
TEA
2,4-D amine
Picloram
Canals or reservoirs
Banks of canals and ditches
Injected into water or sprayed
over surface
Banks and bottoms of small dry
powder ditches
Bottoms of dry canals
Ponds and reservoirs
Reservoirs and static-wafer
canals
Bottoms of dry canals
Banks and bottoms of small dry
powder ditches
Woody plants and brambles on
floodways, along canal, stream,
or reservoir banks
Floating and emersed weeds in
southern waterways
Banks of canals and ditches
On banks of canals and ditches
Floating and emersed weeds in
southern canals and ditches
For control of brush on water-
sheds
Pentahydrate crystals
Water soluble salt
Liquid
Wettable powder
Granules or wettable powder
Water soluble Na or K salts
Liquid or granules
Liquid or granules
Wettable powder
Esters in liquid lorm
Water soluble salt
Liquid
Liquids or granules
Continuous treatment 0 5 to 3.0
mg/l, slug treatment-1 to 1 1b
(0. 15 to 0.45 kg) per cfs water
flow
15 to 30 Ib/A or 17 to 34 kg/ha
3 to 5 mg/l, 1 to 1 5 Ibs/A, or
1.2to1.7kg/ha
Up to 64 Ib/A or 72 kg/ha
7to10lb/Aor7.9to12.6kg/ha
1 to 4 mg/l
0.5 to 2 5 mg/l
10 to 20 Ib/A or 12. 6 to 25.2
kg/ha
Up to 64 Ib/A or 72 kg/ ha
2 to 4 Ib/A or 2 2 to 4. 4 kg/ha
2 to 8 Ib/A or 2 2 to 8. 8 kg/ha
Up to 64 Ib/A or 72 kg/ha
Ho 4 Ib/A or 1.1 to 4/4 kg/ha
2 to 4 Ib/A or 2 2 to 4 4 kg/ha
1 to 3 Ib/A or 1 1 to 3 3 kg/ha
0.04toO 8 mg/l during first 10
miles, 0.08 to 9.0 mg/l during
first 10 to 20 miles.
Less than 0 2 mg/l
Usually less than 0.1 mg/l
No data
No data
Absent or only traces
Absent or only traces
Absent or only traces
No data
No data. Probably well under
0 1 mg/l
0 01 to 1 6 mg/l 1 day after appli-
cation
Usually less than 0 1 mg/l
0 01 to 0.10 mg/l
No data. Probably less than
8 1 mg/l
No data
Threshold is above these levels.
Beets > 7.0, corn >0 35
Beans-5.0, corn-125
No data
Alfalfa-10, corn>10, soybeans-1.0,
sugar beets-I.Oto 10.
Corn-25, field beans-1 0, Alfalfa
>10 0
Corn>25, soybeans>25, sugar beets-
25
Alfalfa-1.0, corn-10, soybeans-0.1,
sugar beets-0.1 to 10
No data
Corn > 5 0, sugar beets and soybeans
>0.02.
"
No injury observed at levels used.
Field beans -1.0, grapes-0 7, sugar
beets>0.2, soybeans>0 02, corn-
10, cucumbers, potatoes, sorghum,
alfalfa, peppers>1.0.
"
Corn-10, field beans 0.1, sugar
beets>1 0
"Sources of data included in this table are-US Departmentof Agriculture.Agricultural Research Service (1969)505, Arleand McRae (1959,«s I960181), Brans (1954,™ 1957 «° 1964,'" 1969<^), Bruns and Clore(1958),«! Bruns
and Dawson (1959),"" Bruns et al. (1955,«51964,«f> unpublished data 1971s™) Frank et al. (1970),«' Veo (1959)607.
' Herbicide concentrations given in this column are the highest concentrations that have been found in irrigation water, but these levels seldom remain in the water when it reaches the crop.
c Unless indicated otherwise, alt crop tolerance data were obtained by flood or furrow irrigation. Threshold of injury is the lowest concentration causing temporary or permanent injury to crop plants even though, in many instances,
neither crop yield nor quality was aflected.
are designed to deliver a certain volume of water to be used
on a specific area of cropland. Water is diverted from the
canals at regular intervals, and this svstcmatically reduces
the volume of flow. Consequently. little or no water re-
mains at the ends of most canals where disposal of water
containing herbicides might be troublesome.
Residues in Crops
Successful application of herbicides for control of algae
and submersed vascular weeds in irrigation channels is
dependent upon a continuous flow of water. Because it is
impractical to interrupt the flow and use of water during
the application of herbicides in canals or on canal banks, the
herbicide-bearing water is usually diverted onto croplands.
Under these circumstances, measurable levels of certain
herbicides may occur in crops.
Copper sulfate is used most frequently for control o*
algae at concentrations that are often less than the suggested
tolerance for this herbicide in potable water. Application
rates ma\ range from one third pound of copper sulfate per
cubic-fcet-second (cfs) of water flow to two pounds per cfs
of water flow (Agriculture Research Service 1963).482
Xylene is a common formulating ingredient for many pesti-
cides and as such is often applied direct!}' to crop plants. The
distribution by furrow or sprinkler of irrigation water con-
taining acrolein contributes to the rapid loss of this herbi-
cide. Copper sulfate, xylene, and acrolein arc of minor im-
portance as sources of objectionable residues in crops.
Phenoxy herbicides, dalapon, TCA, and amitrole are
most persistent in irrigation water (Bartley and Hattrup
1970).488 It is possible to calculate the maximum amount of
a herbicide such as 2,4-D that might be applied to crop-
-------
ection V—Agricultural Uses of Water
TABLE V-16—Maximum Levels of Herbicide Residues
Found in Irrigation Water as a Result of
Ditchbank Treatment"
Herbicide and canal treated
DALAPON
Five-mile Lateral
Lateral No. 4
Manard Lateral
Yolo Lateral
TCA
Lateral No. 4
Manard Lateral
Yolo Lateral
2,4-D AMINE SALT
Lateral No. 4
Manard Lateral
Yolo Lateral
Treatment rate, Ib/A
20
6 7
9 6
10.5
3.8
5.4
5.9
1.9
2.7
3.0
Water flow in cfs
15
290
37
26
290
37
26
290
37
26
Maximum concentration
of residue, jig/ 1
365'
23
39
162
12
20
69
5
13
36
«Frank etal. (1970)"'.
'• High level of residue probably due to atypical treatment.
land following its use on an irrigation bank. A four-mile-
long body of irrigation water contaminated with 2,4-D
and flowing at a velocity of one mile per hour, would be
diverted onto an adjacent field for a period of 4 hours. A
diversion rate of two acre inches of water in 10 hours would
deliver 0.8 inch of contaminated water per acre. If this
amount of water contained 50 /*g/l of 2 ,4-D (a higher con-
centration than is usually observed), it would deposit slightly
less than 0.009 Ib of 2 ,4-D per acre of cropland. Levels of
2,4-D residues of greater magnitude have not caused in-
jury to irrigated crops (see Table V-15).
The manner in which irrigation water containing herbi-
cides is applied to croplands may influence the presence
and amounts of residues in crops (Stanford Research Insti-
tute 1970).509 For example, residues in leafy crops ma> be
greater when sprinkler irrigated than when furrow irri-
gated, and the converse may be true with root crops.
If there is accidental contamination of field, forage, or
vegetable crops by polluted irrigation water, the time inter-
val between exposure and harvesting of the crop is im-
portant, especially with crops used for human consumption.
Factors to be considered with those mentioned above in-
clude the intensity of the application, stage of growth, dilu-
tion, and pesticide degradability in order to assess the
amount of pesticide that may reach the ultimate consumer
(U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
1969).506 Pesticides applied to growing plants may affect
the market quality by causing changes in the chemical com-
position, appearance, texture, and flavor of the product
harvested for human consumption (NRC 1968).501
Recommendation
Pesticide residues in irrigation waters are variable
depending upon land and crop management prac-
tices. Recent data indicate pesticide residues are
declining in irrigation waters, with concentrations
less than 1.0 ^g/1 being detected. To date there
have been no documented toxic effects on crops
irrigated with waters containing insecticide resi-
dues. Because of these factors and the marked
variability in crop sensitivity, no recommendation
is given for insecticide residues in irrigation waters.
For selected herbicides In irrigation water, it is
recommended that levels at the crop not exceed
the recommended maximum concentration listed
in Table V-16.
PATHOGENS
Plant Pathogens
The availability of "high quality" irrigation water may
lead to the reuse of runoff water or tailwater and subse-
quently lead to a serious but generally unrecognized prob-
lem, that of the distribution of plant pathogenic organisms
such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and possibly viruses.
This is most serious when it occurs on previously nonfarmed
lands.
Distribution of Nematodes Wide distribution of
plant-nematodes in irrigation waters of south central Wash-
ington and the Columbia Basin of eastern Washington was
demonstrated by Faulkner and Bolander (1966,51;> 1970316).
When surface drainage from agricultural fields is collected
and reintroduced into irrigation systems, without first being
impounded in settling basins, large numbers of nematodes
can be transferred. Faulkner and Bolander's data indicated
that an acre of land in the Lower Yakima Valley may re-
ceive from 4 million to over 10 million plant-parasitic
nematodes with each irrigation. Numbers of nematodes
transported vary with the growing season, but some thai
were detectable in irrigation water and demonstrated to be
iifective were ^Icloidagyne ha}>la, Heteiodeia .\chachtn, Pratylen-
chus sp., and Tylenchorhynchus sp.
Meaghcr (1967)5-6 found that plant-parasitic nematodes
such as the citrus nematode, 7 ylenc/mlus semipenetrans, may
be spread by subsoil drainage water reused for irrigation.
Thomason and Van Gundy (1961)53" showed another
means by which nematodes may possibly enter irrigation
sjpplies. Two species of rootknot nematode, Meloidogyne
incognita and M. javanica, were found reproducing on arrow-
weed, Pluchea seritea, at the edge of sandbars in the Colorado
River at Blythe, California. \o conclusive evidence that
nematodes entered the river was presented, but infested soil
and infected roots were in direct contact with the water.
Plant-parasitic nematodes arc essentially aquatic animals
and may survive for days or weeks immersed in water.
Unless provisions are made for excluding them from or
settling them out of irrigation water, they may seriously
deteriorate water quality in areas of the United States de-
pendent on irrigation for crop production.
Distribution of Fungi Surveys were conducted to de-
termine the origins and prevalence of Phytophthora sp., a
-------
Water for Irrigation/^'-)
fungus pathogenic to citrus, in open irrigation canals and
reservoirs in five southern California counties by Klotz et
al. (1959).523 Phytophthora progagules were detected by trap-
ping them on healthy lemon fruits suspended in the water.
Of the 12 canals tested from September 1957 to Septem-
ber 1958, all yielded Phytophthora sp. at one time or another,
some more consistently than others. Phytophthora citrophthora
was the most common and was recovered from 11 canals.
In the five canals where it was possible to set the lemon
traps at the source of the water, no Phytophthora sp. were
recovered. However, as the canals passed through citrus
areas \\herc excess irrigation water or rain runoff could
drain into the canals, the fungi ^crc readily isolated. Soil
samples collected from paths of runoff water that drained
into irrigation canals yielded P. citrophtliora, indicating that
Phytuphthora zoospores from infested citrus groves can be in-
troduced into canals.
One of three reservoirs was found to be infested with P.
parantica. Application of copper sulfate effectively con-
trolled the fungus under the static condition of the water
in the reservoir. Chlorination (2 mg/1 for 2 minutes)
effectively killed the infective zoospores of Phytophthora sp.
under laboratory conditions.
Mclntosh (1966)M5 established that Phytophthora cacto-
rum, which causes collar-rot of fruit trees in British Co-
lumbia, contaminates the water of many irrigation systems
in the Okanagan and Similkamen Valleys. The fungus
was isolated from 15 sources including ponds, reservoirs,
rivers, creeks, and canals. It had been established previously
that P. cactonirn was widespread in irrigated orchard soils
of the area, but could not be readily detected in non-
irrigated soils.
Mam plant-pathogenic fungi normally produce fruiting
bodies that are widely disseminated by wind. A number
do not, however, and these could easily be disseminated
by irrigation water.
Distribution of Viruses Most plant pathogenic vi-
ruses do not remain infestive in the soil outside the host or
vector. Two exceptions may be tobacco mosaic virus
(TMV) and tobacco necrosis virus (TXV). There is some
evidence that these persist in association with soil colloids
and can gain entry to plant roots through wounds. Hewitt
et al. (1958)52" demonstrated that fan leaf virus of grape
is transmitted by a dagger nematode, Xiphinerna index. To
date, three genera of nematodcs, Xip/iincma, Longuioruf,
and 7 nchodorus are known to transmit viruses. The first
two of these genera transmit polyhedral viruses of the
Arabis mosaic group. Truhdorus spp. transmit tubular
viruses of the Tobacco Rattles group.
Infective viruses are known to persist in the nematode
vector for months in the absence of a host plant. This
information, coupled with Faulkner and Bolander's (1966,MIi
1970)1'"' proof of the distribution of nematodes in irrigation
water, suggested the possibility that certain plant viruses
could be distributed in their nematode vectors in irrigation
water. To date, no direct evidence for this has been pub-
lished.
Several other soil-borne plant-pathogenic viruses are
transmitted to hosts by soil fungi. The ability of the fungus
Olpidium brassicae to carry and transmit Lettuce Big Vein
Virus (LBVV) was recently demonstrated (Grogan et al.
1958,M<) Campbell 1962,513 Teakle 1969529). It is carried
within the zoospore into fresh roots and there released.
The most likely vehicle for its distribution in irrigation
water would be resting sporangia carried in runoff water
from infested fields. The resting sporangia are released
into the soil from decaying roots of host plants. Another
economically important virus transmitted by a soil fungus
is Wheat Mosaic Virus carried by the fungus Polymyxa
gramims (Teakle 1969).529
Another means of spread of plant viruses (such as To-
bacco Rattles Virus and Arabis Mosaic Viruses that are
vectored by nematodes) is through virus-infected weed
seed carried in irrigation water.
Distribution of Bacteria Bacterial plant pathogens
would appear to be easily transported in irrigation water.
However, relatively few data have been published con-
cerning these pathogens. Kelman (1953)522 reported the
spread of the bacterial wilt organism of tobacco in drainage
water from fields and in water from shallow wells. He also
noted spread of the disease along an irrigation canal carry-
ing water from a forested area, but no direct evidence of
the bacterium in the water was presented. Local spread in
runoff water is substantiated but not in major irrigation
systems.
Controlling plant disease organisms in irrigation water
should be preventive rather than an attempt to remove
them once they are introduced. In assuring that irrigation
water does not serve for the dispersal of important plant
pathogens, efforts should be directed to those organisms
that are not readily disseminated by wind, insects, or
other means. Attention should be focused on those soil-
borne nematodes, fungi, viruses, and bacteria that do not
spread rapidly in nature.
Two major means of introduction of plant pathogens
into irrigation systems are apparent. The most common is
natural runoff from infested fields and orchards during
heavy rainfall and floods. The other is collection of irriga-
tion runoff or tailwatcr and its return to irrigation canals.
If it is necessary to trap surface water, either from rainfall
or irrigation drainage, provisions should be made to im-
pound the water for sufficient time to allow settling out
of nematodcs and possibly other organisms.
Water may be assayed for plant pathogens, but there
are thousands, or perhaps millions of harmless microorgan-
isms for every one that causes a plant disease. However,
plant pathogenic nematodes, and perhaps certain fungi,
can be readily trapped from irrigation water, easily identi-
fied, and used as indicators of contamination (Klotz et al.
1959,623 Faulkner and Bolander 1966,616 Mclntosh 1966526).
-------
350/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
Plant infection is not considered serious unless an eco-
nomically important percentage of the crop is affected.
The real danger is that a trace of plant disease can be
spread by water to an uninfected area, where it can then
be spread by other means and become important. It is
unlikely that any method of water examination would be
as effective in preventing this as would the prohibitions
such as those suggested above.
Human and Animal Pathogens
Many microorganisms, pathogenic for either animals or
humans, or both, may be carried in irrigation water,
particularly that derived from surface sources. The list
comprises a large variety of bacteria, spirochetes, protozoa,
helminths, and viruses which find their way into irriga-
tion water from municipal and industrial wastes, including
food-processing plants, slaughterhouses, poultry-processing
operations, and feedlots. The diseases associated with these
organisms include bacillary and amebic dysentery, Sal-
monella gastroenteritis, typhoid and paratyphoid fevers,
leptospirosis, cholera, vibriosis, and infectious hepatitis.
Other less common infections are tuberculosis, brucellosis,
listeriosis, coccidiosis, swine erysipelas, ascariasis, cysti-
cercosis and tapeworm disease, fascioliasis, and schisto-
somiasis.
Of the types of irrigation commonly practiced, sprinkling
requires the best quality of water from a microbiological
point of a view, as the water and organisms are frequently
applied directly to that portion of the plant above the
ground, especially fruits and leafy crops such as straw-
berries, lettuce, cabbage, alfalfa, and clover which may be
consumed raw by humans or animals. Flooding the field
may pose the same microbiological problems if the crop is
eaten without thorough cooking. Subirrigation and furrow
irrigation present fewer problems as the water rarely reaches
the upper portions of the plant; and root crops, as well as
normal leafy crops and fruits, ordinarily do not permit
penetration of the plant by animal and human pathogens.
Criteria for these latter types may also depend upon the
characteristics of the soil, climate and other variables which
affect survival of the microorganisms.
Benefits can be obtained by coordinating operation of
reservoir releases with downstream inflows to provide
sedimentation and dilution factors to markedly reduce
the concentrations of pathogens in irrigation water (Le-
Bosquet I945,624 Camp et al. 1949612).
The common liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, the ova of
which are spread from the feces of many animals, com-
monly affects cattle and sheep (Allison 1930,610 U.S. Dept.
Agriculture 1961531), and may affect man. The intermediate
hosts, certain species of snails, live in springs, slow-moving
swampy waters, and on the banks of ponds, streams, and
irrigation ditches. After development in the snail, the cer-
carial forms emerge and encyst on grasses, plants, bark, or
soil. Cattle and sheep become infected by ingestion ol
grasses, plants, or water IE damp or irrigated pastun
where vegetation is infested with metacercariae. Ma
contracts the disease by ingesting plants such as watercre:
or lettuce containing the encysted metacercariae.
Ascans ova are also spread from the feces of infected an
mals and man and are found in irrigation water (Wang an
Dunlop 1954).632 Cattle and hogs are commonly infectec
where the adult worms mature in the intestinal tract, some
times blocking the bile ducts. Ascaris ova have been rt
ported to survive for 2 years in irrigated soil and have bee
found on irrigated vegetables even when chlorinated el
fluent was used for irrigalion (Gaertner and Muetin
1951).517
Schistosomiasis, although riot yet prevalent in the Unitei
States except in immigrants from areas where the diseas
exists, should be considered because infected individual
may move about the country and spread the disease. Th
life cycle of these schistosomes is similar to that of the live
fluke, in that eggs from the feces or urine of infected indi
viduals are spread from domestic wastes and may read
surface irrigation water where the miracidial forms ente
certain snails and multiply, releasing cercariae. Althougl
these cercariae may produce disease if ingested by man, th<
more common method of infection is through the skin o
individuals working in infested streams and irrigatiot
ditches. Such infections are most common in Egypt (Barlov
1937)511 and other irrigated areas where workers wade in th(
water without boots. It is unlikely that the cercariae woulc
survive long on plants after harvest.
Little is known of the possibility that enteric viruses such
as polioviruses, Coxsackie, ECHO, and infectious hepatitis
viruses may be spread through irrigation practices. Murph)
and his co-workers (Murphy et al. 1958)827 tested the sur-
vival of polioviruses in the root environment of tomato anc
pea plants in modified hydro ponic culture. In a seconc
paper, Murphy and Syverton (1958)628 studied the recover)
and distribution of a variety of viruses in growing plants
The authors conclude that it is unlikely that plants or plan!
fruits serve as reservoirs and carriers of poliovirus. How-
ever, their findings of significant absorption of a mammalian
virus in the roots of the plants suggest that more research is
needed in this area.
Many microorganisms other than those specifically men-
tioned in this section may be transmitted to plants, animals,
and humans through irrigation practices. One of the more
serious of these is vibriosis. In some cases, definitive infor-
mation on microorganisms is lacking. Although others, such
as the cholera organisms, are significant in other parts of
the world, they are no longer important in the United
States.
Direct search for the presence of pathogenic micro-
organisms in streams, reservoirs, irrigation water, or on ir-
rigated plants is too slow and cumbersome for routine con-
trol or assessment of quality. Instead, accepted index
organisms such as the coliform group and fecal coli (Kabler
-------
Water Jor Irrigation/'351
et al. 1964),621 which are usually far more numerous from
these sources, and other biological or chemical tests, are
used to assess water quality.
Recent studies have emphasized the value of the fecal
coliform in assessing the occurrence of salmonella, the most
common bacterial pathogen in irrigation water. Geldreich
and Bordner (1971)518 reviewed field studies involving ir-
rigation water, field crops, and soils, and stated that when
the fecal coliform density per 100 ml was above 1,000
organisms in various stream waters, Salmonella occurrence
reached a frequency of 96.4 per cent. Below 1,000 fecal
coliforms per 100 ml (range 1-1000) the occurence of
Salmonella was 53.5 per cent.
Further support for the limit of 1,000 fecal coliforms per
100 ml of water is shown in the recent studies of Cheng et al.
(1971 ),514 who reported that as the fecal coliforms density
reached less than 810 per 100 ml. downstream from a sewage
treatment plant, Salmonella were not recovered.
Recommendation
Irrigation waters below the fecal coliform den-
sity of 1,000/100 ml should contain sufficiently low
concentrations of pathogenic microorganisms that
no hazards to animals or man result from their
use or from consumption of raw crops irrigated
with such waters.
THE USE OF WASTEWATER FOR IRRIGATION
An expanding population requires new sources of water
for irrigation of crops and development of disposal systems
for municipal and other wastewaters that will not result in
the contamination of streams, lakes, and oceans. Irrigation
of crops with wastewater will probably be widely practiced
because it meets both needs simultaneously.
Wastewater From Municipal Treatment Systems
Various human and animal pathogens carried in munici-
pal wastewater need to be nullified. Pathogens carried in
municipal wastewater include various bacteria, spirochetes,
helminths, protozoa, and viruses (Dunlop 1968).:'3S Tanner
(1944)558 and Rudolfs et al. (1950)556 have reviewed the
literature on the occurrence and survival of pathogenic and
nonpathogenic enteric bacteria in soil, water, sewage, and
sludges, and on vegetation irrigated or fertilized with these
materials. It would appear from these reviews that fruits
and vegetables growing in infected soil can become con-
taminated with pathogenic bacteria and that these bacteria
may survive for periods of a few days to several weeks or
more in the soil, depending upon local conditions, weather,
and the degree of contamination. However, Geldreich and
Bordner (1971)541 noted that pathogens are seldom detected
on farm produce unless the plant samples are grossly con-
taminated with sewage or are observed to have fecal particles
clinging to them. The level of pathogen recovery depends
upon the incidence of waterborne disease in the area, the
soil type, soil pH, soil moisture content, soil nutrient
levels, antagonistic effects of other organisms, temperature,
humidity, and length of exposure to sunlight.
Norman and Kabler (1953)561 made coliform and other
bacterial counts in samples of sewage-contamination river
and ditch waters and of soil and vegetable samples in the
fields to which these waters were applied. They found that
although the bacterial contents of both river and ditch waters
were very high, both soil and vegetable washings had much
lower counts. For example, where irrigation water had
coliform counts of 230,000/100 ml, leafy vegetables had
counts of 39,000/100 grams and smooth vegetables, such as
tomatoes and peppers, only 1,000/100 grams. High entero-
coccus counts accompanied high coliform counts in water
samples, but enterococcus counts did not appear to be cor-
related in any way with coliform counts in soil and vegetable
washings.
Dunlop and Wang (1961)539 have also endeavored to
study the problem under actual field conditions in Colorado.
Salmonella, Ascans ova, and Entamoeba coh cysts were re-
covered from more than 50 per cent of irrigation water
samples contaminated with either raw sewage or primary-
treated, chlorinated effluents. Only one of 97 samples of
vegetables irrigated with this water yielded Salmonella, but
Ascans ova were recovered from two of 34 of the vegetable
samples. Although cysts of the human pathogen, Entamoeba
histolytua, were not recovered in this work, probably due to
a low carrier rate in Colorado; their similar resistance to
the environment would suggest that these organisms would
also survive in irrigation water for a considerable period of
time. It should be pointed out, however, that this work was
done entirely with furrow irrigation on a sandy soil in a
semiarid region, and the low recoveries from vegetables
cannot necessarily be applied to other regions or to sprinkler
irrigation of similar crops. In fact, Muller (1957)650 has re-
ported that two places near Hamburg, Germany, where
sprinkler irrigation was used, Salmonella organisms were iso-
lated 40 days after sprinkling on soil and on potatoes, 10
days on carrots, and 5 days on cabbage and gooseberries.
Muller (1955)549 has also reported that 69 of 204 grass
samples receiving raw sewage by sprinkling were positive
for organisms of the typhoid-paratyphoid group (Salmonella).
The bacteria began to die off 3 weeks after sewage applica-
tion ; but 6 weeks after application, 5 per cent of the sam-
ples were still infected. These findings emphasize the im-
portance of having good quality water for sprinkler irriga-
tion.
Tubercle bacilli have apparently not been looked for on
irrigated crops in the United States. However, Sepp
(1963)667 stated that several investigations on tuberculosis
infection of cattle pasturing on sewage-irrigated land have
been carried out in Germany. The investigators are in gen-
eral agreement that if sewage application is stopped 14 days
before pasturing, there is no danger that the cattle will con-
-------
352/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
tract bovine tuberculosis through grazing. In contrast,
Dedie (1955)537 reported that these organisms can remain
infective for 3 months in waste waters and up to 6 months
in soil. The recent findings of a typical mycobacteria in
intestinal lesions of cattle with concurrent tuberculin sensi-
tivity in the United States may possibly be due to ingcstion
of these organisms either from soil or irrigated pastures.
Both animals and human beings are subject to helminth
infections—ascariasis, fascioliasis, cysticerosis and tapeworm
infection, and schistosomiasis—all of which may be trans-
mitted through surface irrigation water and plants infected
with the ova or intermediate forms of the organisms. The
ova and parasitic worms are quite resistant to sewage
treatment processes as well as to chlorination (Borts 1949)r>33
and have been studied quite extensively in the application
of sewage and irrigation water to various crops (Otter
1951,553 Selitrennikova and Shakhurina 1953,556 Wang and
Dunlop 1954560). Epidemics have been traced to crop con-
tamination with raw sewage but not to irrigation with
treated effluents (Dunlop 1968).53S
The chances of contamination of crops can be further re-
duced by using furrow or subirrigation instead of sprinklers,
by stopping irrigation as long as possible before harvest
begins, and by educating farm workers on sanitation prac-
tices for harvest (Geldreich and Bordner 1971).641 It is
better to restrict irrigation with sewage water to crops that
are adequately processed before sale and to crops that are
not used for human consumption.
Standards are needed to establish the point where irriga-
tion waters that contain some sewage water must be re-
stricted and to indicate the level to which wastewater must
be treated before it can be used for unrestricted irrigation.
The direct isolation of pathogens is too slow and com-
plicated for routine analyses of water quality (Geldreich
and Bordner 1971).541 A quantitative method for Salmonella
detection has been developed recently (Cheng et al.
1971).536 However, the minimum number of Salmonella
required to cause infection are not known, and data are not
available to correlate incidence of Salmonella with the inci-
dence of other pathogens (Geldreich 1970).540 The fecal
coliform group has a high positive correlation with fecal
contamination from warm-blooded animals and should be
used as an indicator of pollution until more direct methods
can be developed.
Information is available indicating the levels of fecal
coliform at which pathogens can no longer be isolated from
irrigation water. Salmonella were consistently recovered in
the Red River of the north when fecal coliform levels were
1000/100 ml or higher, but were not detected at fecal coli-
form levels of 218 and 49/100 ml (ORSANCO Water Users
Committee 1971).562 Cheng et al. (1971)536 reported num-
bers of fecal coliform at various distances downstream,
and Salmonella was not isolated from samples containing
less than 810 fecal coliforms/100 ml. Geldreich and Bordner
(1971)541 presented data from nationwide field investiga-
tions showing the relationship between Salmonella o<
currence and fecal coliform densities. Salmonella occu
rence was 53.5 per cent for streams with less than 1,000 fee,
coliforms per 100 m] and 96 4 per cent for streams wit
more than 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml. A maximui
level of 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml of water appca
to be a realistic standard for v/ater used for unrestricted i
rigation.
Secondary sewage effluent can be chlorinated to rcduc
the fecal coliform bacteria below the 1,000 per ml limit, bi
viruses may survive chlorination. Wastewater used for ui
restricted irrigation should receive at least primary an
biological secondary treatment before chlorination Filtn
tion through soil is another effective way to remove fee;
bacteria (Merrell et al. 1967.H8 Bouwer 1968/'34 Bouwc
and Lance 1970,535 Lance arid Whislcr 1972).544
The elimination of health hazards has been (lie primar
consideration regulating the use of sewage water in th
past. But control of nutrient loads must also be a prime cor
cern. The nutrients applied to the land must be balance
against the nutrient removal capacity of the soil-plant sy;
tern to minimize groundwater contamination. Kard<.
(1968)542 reported that various crops removed only 20 t
60 per cent of the phosphorus .applied in sewage water, bu
the total removal by the soil-plant system was about 99 pe
cent.
Many biological reactions account for nitrogen remova
from wastewater, but heavy applications of sewage wate
can result in the movement of nitrogen below the root zon
(Lance543 m press 1972).
Work with a high-rate groundwater recharge system uti
lizing sewage water resulted in 30 per cent nitrogen remova
from the sewage water (Lance and Whislcr 1972).Jl44
Nitrate can accumulate in plants supplied with nitrogei
in excess of their needs to the point that they are a hazan
to livestock. Nitrate usually accumulates in stems and leave
rather than in seeds (Victs 1965).669
The concentration of trace elements in sewage water usec
for irrigation should meet the general requirements estab
lished for other irrigation waters. Damage to plants by toxit
elements has not yet been a problem on lands irrigated wit!
sewage water in the United States. Problems couLd develof
in some areas, however, if industries release potentially toxii
elements such as zinc or copper into sewage treatment sys
terns in large quantities. The concentration of boron ir
sewage water may become a problem if the use of this ele-
ment in detergents continues to increase. The guidelines foi
salinity in irrigation water also apply to sewage water usec
for irrigation.
The organic matter content of secondary sewage water
does no"t appear to be a problem limiting its use in irrigation
Secondary sewage effluent has been infiltrated into river
sand at a rate of 100 meters per year in Arizona (Bouwer
and Lance 1970).535 The COD of this water was consistently
.-educed from 50 mg/1 to 17 mg/1 or the same COD as the
-------
Water j"or Irrigation/353
native groundwater of the area. The organic load might be
a factor in causing clogging of soils used for maximum irri-
gation to promote groundwater recharge. Suspended solids
have not been reported to be a problem during irrigation
with treated effluents.
Wastewater From Food Processing Plants and Animal
Waste Disposal Systems
Wastewater from food processing plants, dairy plants,
and lagoons used for treatment of wastes from feedlots,
poultry houses, and swine operations, may also be used for ir-
rigation. Some food processing wastewater is high in salt
content and the guidelines for salinity control concerning
unrestricted irrigation in the Section, Irrigation Quality for
Arid Regions, should be followed (Pearson m /;?m 1972'"4).
Effluents from plants using a lye-peeling process are gen-
erally unsuitable for irrigation due to their high sodium
content. All of the wastewaters mentioned above are
usually much higher in organic content than secondary
sewage effluent. This can result in clogging of the soil
surface, if application rates are excessive (Lawton ct al.
1960,:'« Law 1968/45 Law et al. 1970).r>4° Only well
drained soils should be irrigated, and runoff should be pre-
vented unless a closely managed spray-runoff treatment
system is used. The nutrient content of the wastewaters
varies considerably. The nutrient load applied should be
balanced against the nutrient removal capacity of the soil.
Food processing wastes present no pathogenic problem and
may be used for unrestricted irrigation. Since some animal
pathogens also infect humans, water containing animal
wastes should not be applied with sprinkler systems to crops
that are consumed raw.
Recommendations
• Raw sewage should not be used in the United
States for irrigation or land disposal.
• Sewage water that has received primary treat-
ment may be used on crops not used for human
consumption. Primary effluents should be free
of phytotoxic materials.
• Sewage water that has received secondary treat-
ment may also be used to irrigate crops that are
canned or similarly processed before sale.
• Fecal coliform standard for unrestricted irri-
gation water should be a maximum of 1,000/100
ml.
• The amount of wastewater that can be applied
is determined by balancing the nutrient load of
the wastewater against the nutrient removal
capacity of the soil.
• Phosphorus will probably not limit sewage appli-
cation because of the tremendous adsorption
capacity of the soil.
• The nitrogen load should be balanced against
crop removal within 30 per cent unless additional
removal can be demonstrated.
-------
LITERATURE CITED
GENERAL FARMSTEAD USES
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PATHOGENS AND PARASITIC ORGANISMS
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301 Gillcspie, R. W. 11 , S. G Kenzy, L. M. Ringcn, and F. K. Bracken
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303 parkcTi R. R.; E. A. Steinhaus, G. M. Kohls, and W. L. Jelhson
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WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR IRRIGATION
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316 Bower, C. A. and L. V. Wilcox (1965), Precipitation and solution
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317 Brown, J. W. and C. W. Wadleigh (1955), Influence of sodium
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318 Cline, J. F., M. A. Wolfe, and F. P. Hungatc (1969), Evaporative
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319 Eaton, F. M. and R. B. Harding (1959), Foliar uptake of salt
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320 Ehlig, C. F. and L. Bernstein (1959), Foliar absorption of sodium
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321 Hayward, H. E. and L. Bernstein (1958), Plant-growth relation-
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322 Lilleland, O., J. G. Brown, and C. Swanson (1945), Research
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323 Lunt, O. R., H. C. Kohl, and A. M. Kofranek (1956), The effect
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324 Magistad, O. C., A. D. Ayers, C. H. Wadleigh, and H. G. Gauch
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325 Mcnzel, R. G. (1965), Soil-paint relationships of radioactive ele-
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32GMenzel, R. G., II. Roberts, Jr., E. II. Stewart, and A. J. Mac-
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327 Milbourn, G. M. and R. Taylor (1965), The contamination of
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328 Moorby, J. and H. M. Squire (1963), The loss of radioactive iso-
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329 pcrl'in, F. (1963), Experimental study of the radioactive contami-
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332 Raney, F. C. (1963), Rice water temperature. Calif. Agr. 17(9), 6-7.
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362/Section V—Agricultural Uses of Water
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348 Eriksson, E. (1952), Cation-exchange equilibria on clay minerals.
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263 Lunin, J., M. H. Gallatin and A. R. Batchelder (1964), Inter-
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366 Magistad, O. C., A. D. Ayers, C. H. Wadleigh, and H. G. Gauch
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366 Pillsbury, A. F. and H. F. Blaney (1966), Salinity problems and
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PHYTOTOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS
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365 Ahmed, M. B. and E. S. Twyman (1953), The relative toxicity <
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366 Allaway, W. H., E. E. Cary, ami C. F. Ehlig (1967), The cyclin
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370 Barnettc, R. M. (1923), The inilucnce of soluble aluminum sal
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371 Barnette, R. M. (1936), The occurrence and behavior of Ie:
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372 Benson, N. R. (1953), Effect of season, phosphate, and acidity o
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373 Benson, N. R. and H. M. Reisenauer (1951), Use and manage
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374 Berry, R. A. (1924), The mammal properties of lead nitrate, j
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375 Biggar, J. W. and M. Fireman (1960), Boron absorption and re
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377 Bingham, F. T., A. L. Page, and G. R. Bradford (1964), Tolerano
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379 Bradford, G. R. (1966), Boron [toxicity, indicator plants], ii
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380 Bradford, G. R. (1963a), Lithium in California's water resources
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381 Bradford, G. R. (1963b), Lithium survey of California's wate
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382 Brenchlcy, W. E. (1938), Comparative effects of cobalt, nicke
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654 Pearson, G. A. (1972), in press Suitability for irrigation of waste-
water from food-processing plants. Journal oj Environmental
Quality.
6'-6 Rudolfs, W., L. L. Falk, and R. A. Ragotzkie (1950), Literature
review on the occurrence and survival of enteric, pathogenic, and
relative organisms in soil, water, sewage, and sludges, and on
vegetation. I. Bacterial and virus diseases. Sewage Indust. Wastes
22(10):1261-1281.
6116 Selitrennikova, M. B. and E. A. Shakhurina (1953), Result of
organization of fields for sewage in hot climate of Uzbekistan.
Gig. Sanit. 7:17-19.
6(7 Sepp, E. (1963), The use of sewage for irrigation. A literature re-
view. (Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, California State De-
partment of Public Health, Berkeley, California), p. 6.
668 Tanner, F. W. (1944), The microbiology oj foods (Garrad Press,
Champaign, Illinois), pp. 649-664.
""Viets, F. G. (1965), The plant's need for and use of nitrogen.
Amer. Soc. Agr on. Agr on. 10:503-549.
560 Wang, W. L. and S. G. Dunlop (1954), Animal parasites in sewage
and irrigation water. Sewage Indust. Wastes 26:1020-1032.
-------
Section VI—INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
WATER USE
SCOPE
WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS .
CONCLUSIONS
Recommendations
BASIC WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES.
EXTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES. .
Group A Processes
Group B Processes
Group C Processes
INTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES. ...
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER
STEAM GENERATION AND COOLING
Description of the Industry
Processes Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality.. .
Water Treatment Processes
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS (SIC 22)
Description of the Industry
Processes Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
Water Treatment Processes
LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS (SIC 24)
Description of the Industry and Processes
Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
Water Treatment Processes
PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC 26)
Description of the Industry
Processes Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
CHEMICAL AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC 28)....
Page
369
369
370
370
371
371
372
372
372
373
375
375
376
376
376
377
378
379
379
379
380
380
381
381
381
382
382
382
382
382
383
384
Description of the Industry
Processes Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality.. .
Water Treatment Processes
PETROLEUM REFINING (SIC 2911)
Description of the Industry
Refinery Water Consumption Trends
Processes Utilizing Water
Process Water Properties
Process Water Trealment
PRIMARY METALS INDUSTRIES (SIC 33)
Description of the Industry
Processes Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
Water Treatment Processes
FOOD CANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 2032 and 2033).
Description of the Industry
Processes Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality.. .
Water Treatment Processes
BOTTLED AND CANNED SOFT DRINKS (SIC 2086).
Description of the Industry
Processes Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality. . .
Water Treatment Processes
TANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 3111)
Description of the Industry
Processes Utilizing Water
Significant Indicators of Water Quality.. .
Water Treatment Processes
MINING AND CEMENT INDUSTRIES (SIC 10)
Mining
Cement
LITERATURE CITED
Pag
384
384
384
38;
ss;
38^
ss;
386
38C
387
388
388
388
38G
389
389
389
390
391
391
392
392
392
392
393
393
393
392
394
394
394
394
395
396
368
-------
INTRODUCTION
WATER USE
Since the advent of the industrial era, the use and
availability of water has been of primary concern to industry
both in the selection and design of plant sites and in plant
operation. By 1968 the water withdrawal of industry—
including both industrial manufacturing plants and inves-
tor-owned thermal electric utilities—had reached a total of
approximately 84,000 billion gallons per year (bgy). Of
these, about 93 per cent or 78,000 bgy was used for cooling
or condensing purposes; 5 per cent or nearly 4,300 bgy
was used for processing, including water that came in
contact with the product as steam or coolant; and less than
2 per cent or 1,000 bgy was used as boiler-feed water (U. S.
Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 197119
hereafter referred to as Bureau of the Census 1971).5 *
Of the total intake nearly 30 per cent or 25,000 bgy was
brackish water containing more than 1,000 milligrams per
liter (mg/'l) of dissolved solids. The freshwater intake
amounted to 59,000 bgy; 56,000 of these took the form of
surface water delivered by water systems owned by the user
company. Groundwater amounted to 2,300 bgy, a relatively
small percentage of the total intake, but its significance and
importance cannot be overlooked in view of the number of
industrial plants that use it for part or all of their supply.
Thirty per cent of the approximately 4,000 bgy used by
the manufacturing processes in 1968 was treated or secured
from a public water supply. Ninety per cent of all the water
the manufacturing industry used for boiler feed and pro-
cessing was represented in this figure. Water for cooling or
condensing represented over 90 per cent of total industrial
water use. The largest part of this was on a once-through
basis where only a minimum of treatment was economically
feasible.
Table VI-1 summarizes the information on water intake,
recycling, and consumption for each industrial group con-
sidered in this Section. Recycling may include reuse for dif-
ferent cooling or process systems, recirculation through cool-
ing towers or cooling ponds, recharge of water to an under-
ground aquifer, or reuse of effluents from sewage or waste
treatment plants.
TABLE VI-1—Industrial Plant and Investor-Owned Thermal Electric Plant Water Intake, Reuse, and Consumption, 1968
Water intake (bgy)
SIC Industrial group
Purpose
Cooling and condensing Boiler feed, Process
sanitary service, etc.
Gross water use,
Water recycled (bgy) including recycling Water consumed Water discharged
(bgy) (bgy) (bgy)
Total
20
22
24
26
28
29
31
33
Food and kindred products
Textile mill products
Lumber and wood products
Paper and a Hied products
Chemicals and allied products
Petroleum and coal products
Leather and leather products
Primary metal industry
Subtotal
Other Industries
Total Industry
Thermal electric plants
TOTAL
427
24
62
652
3,533
1,230
1
3,632
9,561
574
10,135
68,200
78,335
93
22
20
123
210
111
1
165
745
291
1,036
W
1,036 (4)
290
109
37
1,478
733
95
14
1,207
3,963
332
4,295
4,295
810
155
119
2,253
4,476
1,436
16
5,004
14,269
1,197
15,466
68,200
83.666
535
174
87
4,270
4,940
5,855
4
2,780
18,645
1,589
20,234
8,525
28,759
1,345
329
206
6,523
9,416
7,291
20
7,784
32,914
2,786
35,700
76,725
112,425
57
19
26
175
301
219
1
308
1,106
84
1,190
100
1,290
753
136
93
2,078
4,175
1,217
15
4,696
13,163
1,113
14,276
68,100
82,376
»Boiler-feed water use by thermal electric plants estimated to be equivalent to industrial sanitary service, etc., water use.
1 Total boiler-feed water.
Buinau of the Census 19715
* Literature citations appear at the end of the Section. They can be located alphabetically or by superscript number.
369
-------
370/Section VI—-Industrial Water Supplies
SCOPE
After describing industry's use of water in steam genera-
tion and cooling, the panel on Industrial Water Supplies
examined ten groups of one or more industries as defined by
the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) coding used
by the Bureau of the Census (U. S. Executive Office of the
President, Bureau of the Budget 1967).22
The industries included textile mills (SIC 22), lumber
and wood (SIC 24), pulp and paper (SIC 26), chemical and
allied products (SIC 28), petroleum refining (SIC 2911),
primary metals (SIC 33), food canning (SIC 2032 and
2033), bottled and canned soft drinks (SIC 2086), tanning
(SIC 3111), and mining and cement (SIC 10). Only the
major users of water were included, representing a variety
of industries in order to insure that a wide cross section o
water qualities would be described.
Industrial effluents cause water quality changes in the
receiving systems, but consideration of these changes wa:
not part of the charge to the Panel on Industrial Watei
Supplies. The other Sections in this Report include con
sideration of the effects of many specific constituents of suet
effluents as related to various water uses.
WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
Water quality requirements differ widely for the broac
variety of industrial uses, but modern water treatment tech
TABLE VI-2—Summary of Specific Quality Characteristics of Surface Waters That Have Been Used as Sources for Industria
Water Supplies
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/l and values are maximum*. No one water will have all the maximum values Shawn)
Boiler Makeup water
Cooling Water
Process Water
Silica (SlO::)
Alum mum (Al)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Copper (Cu)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Sodium & potassium
(Na+K)
Ammonia (NHj)
Bicarbonate (HCOj)
Su Hale (SO,)
Chloride (Cl)
Fluoride (F)
Nitrate (NOj)
Phosphate (P0<)
Dissolved Solids
Suspended Solids
Hardness (CaCOi)
Alkalinity (CaCOi)
Acidity (CaCO.j
pH, units
Color, units
Orgamcs:
Methylene blue ac-
tive substances
Carbon tetrachlonde
extract
Chemical oxygen de-
mand (COD)
Hydrogen sulfide(H2S)
Temperature, F
0 to 1 500
psig
150
3
60
10
600
1,400
19,000
35,000
15,000
5,000
500
1,000
i,200
23 mm diameter.
' One mg/l for pressures above 700 psig.
' No floating oil.
i Applies to bleached chemical pulp and paper only.
a 12,000 mg/l Fe includes 6,000 Fe+; and 6,000 Fe++.
ASTM Standards 1970' or Standard Methods 1971"
-------
Introduction/37 \
nology is capable of treating almost any raw water to render
it suitable for any industrial use. The treatment may be
costly, and may require large ground space not always
available at otherwise suitable plant locations. Sometimes
the substitution of a more expensive alternative supply is
necessary. Nevertheless, in most cases, the costs involved
are but a small part of the total production and marketing
costs" of the industrial product in question.
It is evident that the more nearly the composition of an
available water supply approaches the particular composi-
tion needed, the more desirable that water is, and, con-
versely, the more such compositions differ, the more difficult
and expensive it is to modify the water for use. Improper
operation or malfunction of control instruments or water
treating equipment may cause a deterioration of the treated
water, and this, in turn, can cause deterioration or loss of
product and damage to equipment. The poorer the quality
of the raw water, the more serious the consequences of such
malfunctions.
Improving the quality of a given water supply will only
incrementally decrease the cost of treatment for an industrial
installation, because it is often too late to make economical
alterations in the existing water treatment facilities. For the
same reason, if the quality characteristics of the water supply
are allowed to deteriorate from their usual range, the cost
for treatment can be substantially increased. On the other
hand, improved water supply characteristics at a given site
may mean lower water treatment costs for other industries
subsequently established there.
Table VI-2 summarizes quality characteristics of surface
waters at the point of intake that have been used as sources
of boiler makeup, cooling, and process water.
CONCLUSIONS
• Industry is diversified in kind, size, and product. It
incorporates many processes, including different
ones to achieve the same ends. Water quality require-
ments for different industries, for various industrial
processes within a single plant, and for the same
process in different plants vary widely.
• Water quality requirements at point of use, as dis-
tinguished from requirements at point of intake, are
established for a number of industrial processes but
are inadequately defined or nonexistent for others.
• Modern water treatment technology permits water
of virtually any quality to be treated to provide the
characteristics desired by industry at point of use.
Occasionally, this may be costly; but in general the
cost of treating water for specific processes is ac-
ceptable to industry, because it is only a small part
of total production and marketing costs.
• Although water quality at point of use is critical for
many industrial processes, industry's intake water
quality requirements are not as stringent as those
for public water supplies, recreational or agricul-
tural use, or support of aquatic life.
• Because of the diversity of industrial water quality
requirements, it is not possible to state specific values
for intake water quality characteristics for industrial
use. Ordinarily these values lie between those that
have been used by industries for sources of water
(Table VI-2) and the quality recommended for
other uses in other sections of this book.
Recommendations
Desirable intake water quality characteristics for
industrial water supplies can be meaningfully
designated as a range lying between the values that
have been used by industry for sources of water
(Table VI-2) and the quality characteristics recom-
mended for other water uses in other chapters of
this Section. Values that exceed those in Table VI-2
would ordinarily not be acceptable to industry.
-------
BASIC WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
A wide range of treatment processes is available to pro-
duce water of the required quality for industry at the point
of use. Treatment methods fall into two general categories:
external and internal. External treatment refers to pro-
cesses utilized in altering water quality prior to the point of
use. The typical household water softening unit is an external
treatment. Internal treatment refers to processes limited
basically to chemical additives utilized to alter water quality
at the point of use or within the process. Water softening
compounds used in laundering are forms of internal treat-
ment. Water treatment processes are in themselves users of
water. Normally, 2 to 10 per cent of the feed water ends up
as waste generated by treatment processes (see Table VI-3).
Thus, the actual water intake is greater than the treated
water produced.
EXTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
Figure VI-1 is a schematic diagram of the most common
external water treatment processes. Properly applied, alone
or in various combinations, these processes can convert any-
incoming water quality to a usable quality. A dramatic ex-
ample is the conversion of brackish water to a water that
exceeds the quality of distilled water.
Note that the flow chart illustrates many processes and
that a particular process is applied to remove a particular
contaminant. If that contaminant does not appear in the
water or is harmless for the intended use of the water, that
process would not be used. For example, a clear well water
might not need filtration prior to further treatment. In
addition, the water use determines the extent of treatment.
For example, to use Mississippi River water for cooling,
rough screening to remove the floating debris may be suf-
ficient for some applications, whereas clarification and filtra-
tion may be required for other uses. To use that same water
for makeup for a super critical pressure boiler would require
further treatment by ion exchange, perhaps strong cation,
strong anion, and mixed bed exchangers.
As previously stated, industry's need for water can be met
even under the poorest conditions. However, the use c
water treatment systems is riot without consequence. Ex
ternal water treatment processes concentrate a particula
contaminant or contaminants. Thus, in the quest for pun
water, a waste product is generated. The waste product is ;
Qollutant and the cost of its disposal must be considered a
-aart of the overall cost of water treatment.
The estimates of waste volume and solids in Table VI-;
are based on treating a water with an analysis such as showr
in Table VI-4. Table VI-4 also illustrates an analysis o
several common forms of water treatment. The estimate;
are thus typical only of the water described and will var;
with different water supplies. Waste volumes are stated as ;
percentage of inlet flow. Thus, a 2,000 gallon per minutt
(gpm) clarifier will discharge 40 to 100 gpm of sludge.
The following paragraphs briefly describe the available
treatment methods, outline their capabilities, and combinec
with Table VI-3, provide a general idea of the waste pro
duced. (The groupings A, B, and C do not imply treatmeni
schemes or necessarily indicate a sequence of treatment.)
The processes are applicable to various water characteris-
tics; it is immaterial whether the supply is surface or grounc
water. Since the equipment used can be of appreciable size,
available land area can be an important factor in the selec-
tion of a particular process.
Group A Processes
Rough Screens Generally installed at the actual point
of intake, rough screens are simple bars or mesh screens
used to trap large objects and prevent damage to pumps
&nd other mechanical equipment.
Sedimentation This process takes place in large open
basins used to reduce the water velocity so that heavier
suspended particles can settle out.
Clarification Chemical additives (e.g., aluminum
salts, iron salts, lime) are used in large open basins so that
practically all suspended matter, color, odors, and organic
compounds can be removed efficiently.
Lime Softening (cold) The equipment used here is
372
-------
Basic Water Treatment Processes/373
similar to that used for clarification. In addition to floccu-
lent chemicals, lime and sometimes soda ash are used in
large open basins. Clarification is obtained, and a large
portion of the calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are
removed.
Lime Softening (hot) The process is, in general, the
same as cold except that it is carried out at or above 212 F.
The results are the same but with the added benefit of silica
removal. The characteristics of wastes are the same but at a
high temperature. Note that further treatment of hot lime
TABLE VI-3— Waste Generated by Treatment Processes
Example of waste
Treatment process" Character of waste produced Waste volume weight6 dry basis
percentage flow pounds solids 1 , 000
gal processed
Rough screens Large objects, debris
Sedimentation Sand, mud slurry 5-10
Clarification Usually acidic chemical sludge 2-5 1.3
and settled matter
Cold h me softening Alkaline chemical sludge and 2-5 1.7
settled matter
Hot lime sof tenmg(+212 F) Alkaline chemical sludge and 2-5 1.7
settled matter
Aeration Gaseous, possible air pollutant,
such as hydrogen sulfide
Filtration, gravity, or pressure Sludge, suspended solids 2-5 0.1-0.2
(for packed bed units)
Adsorption, activated carbon for Exhausted carbon if not re- 2-5
TABLE VI-4 — Typical Raw Water Analyses and Operating
Results (mg/l,, unless otherwise indicated)
Constituent
Cations11
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Total Cations
Anions"
Bicarbonate
Carbonate .
Hydroxide
Sulfate
Chloride
Nitrate
Total Anions
Iron"
Silica"
Color''
Turbidity1
pH«
a Taken from Livingstone 1963s
' Developed by the Panel for illi
Expressed Raw water"
as
CaCO: 51 5
19.5
18.6
1 8
91 4
568
0
0
21.8
12 0
0.8
91 4
Fe 0 16
SiO 9 0
units 15.0
100 0
65-75
After
clarification
and
filtration
51.5
19 5
18. 6
1.8
91.4
47 8
0
0
30 8
12.0
0 8
91 4
Nil
90
2-5
0-2
6 0-8 0
After
cold lime
softening
and
filtration
38.7
17 5
18 6
1 8
76 6
0
33 0
0
30 8
120
0 8
76 6
Nil
9 0
2-5
0-2
9 0-11.0
After
clarification,
filtration,
and sodii/m-
cation
exchange
softening
1 0
1.0
87.6
1 8
91.4
478
0
0
30 8
12.0
0 8
91 4
Nil
9 0
Nil
Nil
6 0-80
After
clarification,
filtration,
and
demmerali-
zation
0
0
1-2
0
1-2
0
0
1-2
0
0
0
1-2
Nil
0 01
Nil
Nil
7.0-9 0
, adjusted slightly for ion balance and for expression as CaCO equivalents.
jstrative purposes.
Odors, tastes, color, organics
Manganese zeolite, for iron
removal
Miscellaneous, e.g., precoat,
membrane, dual media filtra-
tion fine straining
Reverse osmosis'
Electrodialysis'
Distillation
Ion exchange processes^
Sodium cation
2-bed demineralization
Mixed bed demineralization
Internal processes
generated. Small amounts
carbon fines and other solids
can appear in backwash
Carbon regeneration is sepa-
rate process (usually thermal)
in which air pollution prob-
lems must be met
Iron oxide suspended solids
As in other filters Precoat
waste includes precoat ma-
terials
Suspended and 90-99 percent
of dissolved solids plus chem-
ical pretreatment if required
Suspended and 80-95 percent
of dissolved solids plus chem-
ical prelreatment if required
Concentrated dissolved and
suspended solids
Dissolved calcium, magnesium
and sodium chlorides
Dissolved solids from feed plus
regenerants
Dissolved solids from feed plus
regenerants
Chemicals are added directly
into operating cycle At least a
portion of process steam con-
taming added chemicals, dis-
solved and suspended solids
from feed, and possibly con-
tamination from process can
be extracted from the cycle for
disposal or treatment and re-
cycle.
Similar to other
filtration prodesses
1-5
10-50
10-50
10-75
4-6
10-14
10-14
0.1-0 2
(plus precoat ma-
terials when used)
1.0-2.0
1.0-2.0
1.5
1 3
4-5
>5
" Processes are used alone or in various combinations, depending upon need.
6 Amounts based on application of process to raw water shown in Table VI-4. These values do not necessarily apply
when these processes are used in combinations.
' Feed must be relatively free of suspended matter.
J There are many variations, listed here are a few of the most important.
effluent is generally limited to filtration and sodium cation
exchange.
Aeration This process, which can be in several dif-
ferent physical forms, is applied to reduce the concentration
of carbon dioxide, thereby reducing the chemicals required
for cold lime softening. Aeration oxidizes iron and manga-
nese to allow their removal by clarification, lime softening,
or filtration. No solid wastes flow from an aerator, but re-
leased gases such as hydrogen sulfide can present a problem.
Miscellaneous There are other special variations of
all the primary treatment methods that can be applied
under specific circumstances.
Group B Processes
Filtration This process uses gravity or pressure units
in which traces of suspended matter are removed by pas-
sage through a bed of sand, anthracite coal, or other granu-
lar material. In general, the effluent at the primary stage
must be filtered prior to further treatment. Some waters
can be filtered without primary treatment. A filter is cleaned
by reversing the direction of the water flow (backwashing).
Adsorption This is a separation process designed pri-
marily to remove dissolved organic materials including
odor, taste, and color-producing compounds. Activated
carbon is generally used for this purpose. Backwaslu'ng of
fixed adsorption units produces small amounts of solids as
the feed has generally been filtered prior to passage over
the carbon. Expanded bed adsorption units do not require
regular backwashing. Chemical or thermal regeneration of
-------
VI—Industrial Water Supplies
(Items not enclosed in boxes indicate typical water
uses for treatment methods shown.)
Rjw Water Supply
Clear Waler. Pap
Cooling,
Rinsing, Potable
Beverage
Medjum Pressure Boilers •«-
FIGURE VI-1—External Water Treatment Processes
(Items not enclosed in boxes indicate typical water uses for treatment methods shown.)
-------
Basic Water Treatment Processes/37 5
carbon can remove adsorbed impurities and restore adsorp-
tive efficiency and capacity.
Manganese Zeolite This process, specifically used for
iron removal, is a special combined form of oxidation and
filtration with a feed of potassium permanganate.
Miscellaneous Many specialized forms applicable to
specific conditions are available. These include precoated
filters, membrane filters, strainers, and dual media filters.
Group C Processes
Ultrafiltration Various types of pressure filters in-
cluding membranes, cartridges, and discs can remove sus-
pended solids larger than 0.1 to 1.0 micron, depending on
the application.
Reverse Osmosis This relatively new development
uses high pressures to force water through a membrane, pre-
venting the passage of all suspended matter and up to 90-
99 per cent of dissolved solids. The product water can be
used directly or may require further treatment by ion ex-
change. The influent must be essentially free of suspended
solids.
Electrodialysis A relatively new development, this
process uses cationic and anionic membranes with applied
direct current to remove dissolved solids. The product water
can be used directly or may require further treatment by
ion exchange. The feed must be essentially free of suspended
matter.
Distillation This process uses thermal evaporation
and condensation of water so that the condensate is free of
suspended solids and 98-99 per cent of the dissolved solids
arc removed. Certain conditions may require the addition
of special chemicals. The product water can be used directly
or may require further treatment by ion exchange. The feed
must be relatively free of suspended matter.
Ion Exchange Ion exchange is a versatile process with
several dozen variations. Ion exchange technology is rapidly
advancing. New resins, regeneration techniques, and opera-
tion modes are being introduced. Some of the more common
applications arc shown in Table VI-3. The exact arrange-
ment of an ion exchange system depends upon raw water
quality, desired treated water quality, flow rate, and
economies. Total demineralization can remove in excess of
99 per cent of dissolved solids with feeds as high as 2,000
parts per million (ppm) or more. The waste produced by
an ion exchanger includes the backwash and rinse waters,
the regeneration effluent containing the exchanged ions, and
the excess regenerative chemical. In general, the feed to any
ion exchanger should contain no or only small quantities of
suspended matter, color, and organics.
Cation Cation exchange removes cations from the
water and replaces them with other cations from an ion
exchanger. When in the hydrogen or acid form, strong ca-
tion (i.e., strong acid) can exchange hydrogen ions for the
cations of either weak or strong acids, whereas weak cation
(i.e., weak acid) exchanges hydrogen only for that fraction
of cations equivalent to the weakly acidic anions present,
such as bicarbonate.
Sodium Cation This is the simplest form of ion ex-
change. Sodium ions are exchanged for hardness ions (e.g.,
calcium, magnesium).
Anion Anion exchange removes anions from the water
and replaces them with other anions from the ion exchanger.
When in the base form, strong anion exchangers are capable
of exchanging hydroxyl ions for the anions of either weak or
strong acids, whereas weak anion exchangers exchange only
with anions of strong acids.
Demineralization In industrial water treatment, de-
mineralization refers to a sequence of cation exchange in
which hydrogen ions are substituted for other cations fol-
lowed by anion exchange in which hydroxyl ions are substi-
tuted for other anions. The product is H+ plus OH~; i.e.,
water.
Mixed Bed Mixed bed exchange provides complete
demineralization in one step by the use of an intimate mix-
ture of cation and anion resin in one unit. It is generally
used for the polishing service step of high purity water. A
cation-anion exchange system might produce a water con-
taining 1.0 ppm of dissolved solids. After treatment by
mixed bed, the solids would be down as low as 0.01 ppm.
Miscellaneous There are several specialty ion ex-
changers including: dealkalizers—chloride anion exchange
for the removal of alkalinity; desilicizers—hydroxide anion
exchange for the removal of silica (without previous hydro-
gen cation). Degasification equipment is used to remove
carbon dioxide in order to reduce the work of the strong
anion units that follow.
INTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
Internal water treatment processes are numerous. They
include the addition of acid and alkali for pH control;
polyphosphates, phosphonates, or polyelectrolytes for scale
control; polymers for dispersal of sediment; phosphates and
alkali for precipitation of hardness; amines, chromates,
zinc, or silicates for corrosion control; sulfites or hydrazine
for oxygen scavenging; and polyphosphates for sequestra-
tion of iron or manganese. Here again, the chemical feed is
determined by the requirements. The industrial user pro-
duces the water quality that is needed, but a problem can
be created when the user must dispose of all or part of the
treated water. The choice of chemicals added to water must
be considered in light of their potential as pollutants.
-------
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER
STEAM GENERATION AND COOLING
Description of the Industry
Steam generation and cooling are required in most in-
dustries. Waters used for these purposes are in Standard
Industry Classifications 20 through 39 (with the exception
of 23 and 27), plus the electric utility industry and mining
(U. S. Executive Office of the President, Bureau of the Bud-
get 1967).22 (Water used as makeup for generation of steam
that comes into direct contact with a product and cooling
water that comes into direct contact with a product were
considered to be process waters and, therefore, were not
included in this Section.)
Both steam generation and cooling are encountered under
a wide variety of conditions that require a correspondingly
broad range of water quality recommendations. For ex-
ample, steam may be generated in boilers that operate at
pressures ranging from less than 10 pounds per square inch
gauge (psig) for space heating to more than 3,500 psig for
electric power generation. For any particular operating
pressure, the required boiler water quality recommenda-
tions depend upon many factors in addition to the water
temperature in the steam generator. Thus, the amount of
potentially scale-forming hardness present in the makeup
water to a low pressure boiler is of far less importance when
the steam is used for space heating than when it is used for
humidification of air. In the first case, virtually all of the
steam is returned to the boiler as condensate so that there
is only limited change in the amount of potential scale. In
the second case, no condensate returns to the boiler so that
scale-forming salts entering with the makeup water are con-
centrated.
The general recommendations for water to be used for
boiler feed water could not be applied directly to an indi-
vidual boiler without consideration of boiler design, operat-
ing practices, operating temperatures and pressures, makeup
rates, and steam uses. All of these affect the nature of
water-caused problems that might be anticipated in a boiler
and its auxiliaries. These statements apply equally to water
at source and at point of use.
Most high pressure boiler plants (Table VI-5) use some
form of ion exchange in treatment of water for boiler feed.
A few components of raw waters can cause abnormal dif-
ficulties and expense in these treatment plants. Large
organic molecules may block the exchange groups of the
ion exchange resins and cannot be removed by normal
regeneration procedures. Oily matter, especially of petrol-
eum origin, will irreversibly coat ion exchange materials
and filter media. Certain forms of silica may also block ion
exchange resins irreversibly. Strong oxidants in polluted
water have been known to destroy ion exchange resins in a
surprisingly short time. Although most of these problems
can be solved by available pretreatment methods, the equip-
ment needed for such treatment may require more space
than is available. This is especially true in industrial plants
located in cities.
Cooling water uses are similarly diverse. They may be
once-through or recirculated. Once-through cooling waters
are drawn from amply large sources such as rivers, lakes,
estuaries, or the sea. They are returned to these sources or
to other large bodies of water after having passed through
heat exchange equipment just once. The quantities of water
required for once-through cooling are so huge that it is
rarely economically feasible to alter their quality by treat-
ment. Therefore, when a plant uses water for cooling on a
once-through basis, the construction materials for the cool-
ing system must be selected to withstand corrosion by the
water available at the site. In such cases, the quality, as well
as quantity, of available water may affect plant site selec-
tion.
The treatments commonly applied to once-through cool-
ing waters are (a) screening for removal of debris, plants,
or fish that can interfere with water flow, and (b) chlorina-
tion for control of biological organisms that interfere with
water flow or heat transfer and contribute to localized cor-
rosion. A few components of the intake water have been
known to cause catastrophic failures in once-through cool-
ing equipment. Damaging substances include hydrogen
sulfide, oil, and suspended solids. Particularly pernicious
are plastic containers usually originating from garbage dis-
posal operations, or sheets of flexible plastic that can pass
through a pump and then spread across a tube sheet in-
376
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/377
TABLE VI-5—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use for Steam Generation and Cooling in Heat Exchangers
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values that normally should not be exceeded. No one water will have all the maximum values shown.)
Boiler leedwater
Cooling water
Quality of water prior to the addition ol chemicals used for internal conditioning
Characteristic
Silica (SiO:)
Aluminum (Al) . .
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Ammonia (NH<)
Bicarbonate (HCO )
Sulfate ($04)
Chloride (CO
Dissolved solids
Copper (Cu)
Zinc (Zn)
Hardness (CaCO.,)
Alkalinity (CaCO,)
pH, units
Organics:
Methylene blue active substances
Carbon tetractiloride extract
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Hydrogen sulfide(H2S)
Dissolved oxygen (Oj)
Temperature, F
Suspended solids
Low pressure
0 to 150 piig
30
1
1
0.3
(*)
(ft)
0.1
170
(ft)
(ft)
700
0.5
(ft)
350
350
7.0-10.0
1
1
5
(ft)
2.5
(ft)
10
Industrial
Intermediate
pressure
150 to 700 psig
10
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.25
0.1
120
(ft)
(ft)
500
0.05
0.01
1.0
100
8. 2-1 0.0
1
1
5
(*)
0.007
(ft)
5
High pressure
700to1,500psig
0.7
0.01
0.05
0 01
0.01
001
0.1
48
(«)
(ft)
200
0.05
0.01
0.07
40
8.2-9.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
(ft)
0.007
(ft)
0.5
Electric utilities
1,500to5,000psig
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
.07
0.5
«
(ft.rf)
0.5
0.01
0.01
0.07
1
8.8-9.4
0.1
(ft.t)
1.0
(ft)
0.007
(ft)
0.05
Once through
Fresh
50
(ft)
(ft)
(6)
200
(ft)
(ft)
600
680
600
1,000
(ft)
(ft)
850
500
5.0-8.3
(ft)
w
75
present
(«)
5,000
Brackish"
25
(*)
(«)
(ft)
420
(ft)
(ft)
140
2,700
19,000
35,000
(ft)
(«)
6,250
115
6.0-8.3
(ft)
w
75
present
(ft)
2,500
Makeup for recirculation
Fresh
50
0.1
0.5
0.5
50
(ft)
(*)
24
200
500
500
(ft)
(ft)
650
350
(ft)
1
1
75
(ft)
(*)
(*)
100
Brackish"
25
0.1
0.5
0.02
420
(ft)
(*)
140
2,700
19,000
35,000
(ft)
(ft)
6,250
115
(ft)
1
2
75
(ft)
<*)
(ft)
100
" Brackish water—dissolved solids more than 1,000 mg/l by definition 1963 Census of Manufacturers.
* Accepted as received (if meeting other limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations encountered.
' Zero, not detectable by test.
J Controlled by treatment for other constituents.
* No floating oil.
ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971l:
stantaneously shutting off a substantial part of the cooling
water flow.
Treatment of once-through cooling waters drawn from
underground aquifers is further limited if the water is con-
served by return to an aquifer through recharge wells. In
such cases treatment must not create changes that can cause
clogging of the return aquifer.
When cooling ponds are used for heat rejection, the eco-
nomics of water treatment are similar to those encountered
with once-through cooling waters. On the other hand, most
recirculating cooling water systems utilize cooling towers,
and in these the water withdrawn from surface, ground, or
municipal sources is small in comparison with the rate of
circulation through the heat transfer equipment. Under
these conditions, water treatment is economically feasible.
Indeed, it becomes a necessity because of the changes in
water composition produced by evaporation, air scrubbing,
and other processes occuring during recirculation.
As in the case of steam generation, there is such a great
variety of materials and operating conditions encountered
in industrial heat exchange equipment, such a wide range
of chemical and physical changes that can take place in the
recirculated cooling water, and such a variety of water
treatment and conditioning methods, that quality recom-
mendations for makeup water for recirculating cooling
systems can have only very limited practical significance.
The needs of any specific system must be established on the
basis of the makeup water composition and the construction
and operating characteristics of each system. In general, the
lower the hardness and alkalinity of the water supply, the
more acceptable it is for cooling tower makeup.
Processes Utilizing Water
Steam Generation In 1968, manufacturing plants
used about 1,036 billion gallons of water for boiler feed
(makeup), sanitary service, and uses other than process or
cooling (Bureau of the Census 1971).6 No basis is given for a
breakdown of this figure into its components, but boiler
feed is the largest part.
Boiler makeup requirements of steam electric powerplants
are small compared with their cooling water requirements.
They are estimated to be only about 0.3 million gallons per
day for a 1 million kilowatt plant operating at full load
(Water Resources Council 1968).24
-------
378/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
Based on the 1970 figures of 281 million kilowatts capacity
of steam electric plants, a maximum of about 31 billion
gallons of water was the total intake for steam generation in
these plants (Edison Electric Institute personal communication
1970).26 It is estimated that this quantity approximates the
"sanitary service and other uses" in the industrial require-
ments, so that of the 1,036 billion gallons for combined
"boiler feed and sanitary services" (Bureau of the Census
1971) s the intake for steam generation alone in 1968 is as-
sumed to have been approximately 1,000 billion gallons.
Recycling condensed steam back to the boiler will vary
from zero for some industrial uses and district steam generat-
ing plants to almost 100 per cent for thermal power genera-
tion plants.
Boiler makeup will vary from negligible losses and blow-
down in the thermal power plants to substantially the total
water intake in district steam generating plants with no re-
turn of steam condensate. Even for these district steam gen-
erating plants, the condensate usually goes to a sewer from
which it ultimately returns to a surface water course and so
cannot be said to have been consumed. It is estimated that
10 per cent of the intake water used for boiler feed in in-
dustrial plants is either lost to the atmosphere or incor-
porated in products. Thus, the total water consumption for
steam generation is about 100 bgy.
Discharge is boiler blowdown and steam condensate that
is lost to sewers. This corresponds to the difference between
intake and consumption or 900 bgy (Bureau of the Census
1971). 5
Cooling Waters Once-through cooling water use dur-
ing 1968 in industry other than commercial power genera-
tion was at the rate of approximately 3,000 bgy for steam
electric power generation, and 7,000 bgy for other uses
(Bureau of the Census 1971). 6 It is estimated that water
recirculation for cooling in these plants was at least 20,000
TABLE VI-6—Total Water Quantities Vsed For
Once-Through Cooling
Use
Water quantities (bgy)
Total cooling water drawn from source by commercial
steam electric power plants approximated 58,200 bg in
1970, including the Tennessee Valley Authority and a
number of other publicly owned steam electric plants
(Federal Power Commission 197 1).6 Recirculating cooling
systems in these plants are estimated to provide 10 to 15
per cent of the total cooling requirements for this industry,
which represents a small proportion of the total water in-
take. The use of recirculating cooling water systems is ex-
pected to increase rapidly as cooling water volume require-
ments increase and as restrictions become more stringent on
maximum discharge temperatures.
Including sea water, approximately one-third of the
water used for once-through cooling was brackish. Some
plants recirculate brackish water, but because of the limited
number of such operations, water quantities have not been
established for this type of cooling.
Recirculating cooling water systems require a much
smaller withdrawal for makeup than the amount withdrawn
Industrial steam-electric generator!
Otter
Commercial power
TOTAL
3,000
7,000
58,000
for once-through cooling systems of equivalent heat re-
moval capacity. Although the rate of recirculation is fre-
quently only two or three times as high as the once-through
flow rate for equivalent cooling, the withdrawal rate for
o ace-through cooling may be 20 to 80 times as high as that
required for makeup to a cooling tower system of equivalent
cooling capacity. The actual reduction in volume of water
drawn from source by recirculation depends upon the tem-
perature difference across the cooling tower and the chemical
composition of the recirculating water. No data are avail-
able to provide actual totals of water withdrawn from
sources for cooling tower makeup or returned as cooling
tower blowdown.
An increasing number of plants use municipal sewage
treatment plant effluent or industrial waste treatment plant
effluent as makeup water for recirculation through cooling
towers. This, in effect, is a double recirculation of available
water supplies or, from another viewpoint, an elimination
of most water withdrawal from natural sources. The use of
such treatment plant effluenl as cooling tower makeup
must be approached with caution since inadequate removal
of organic matter, particularly detergents, nitrogen com-
pounds, and phosphates, in the treatment plant can create
severe operating difficulties in cooling towers as a result of
foaming, excessive microbiological growths, or calcium
phosphate deposits.
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
Table VI-2 shows the quality characteristics of waters
that have been treated by existing processes to produce
waters acceptable for boiler makeup and cooling. In general
terms, the water fed to a steam boiler should be of such qual-
ity that it:
• forms no scale or other deposits;
• causes no corrosion of the metals present in the boiler,
feedwater system, or condensate return system;
• does not foam or prime;
• does not contain enough silica to form turbine blade
deposits in high-pressure boilers.
In order to produce waters meeting these requirements,
the waters from available supplies are first processed
through external water treatment equipment, such as
filters or ion exchangers, and then internal conditioning
chemicals are added. Table VI-5 shows quality require-
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/379
ments for boiler feed waters that have already been pro-
cessed through a required external water treatment equip-
ment, but have not yet received any required application of
internal conditioning chemicals.
The values for boiler feed water quality requirements
must be considered only as rough guides. Usually, more
liberal maximum concentrations are acceptable in feed
water for boilers operating at lower pressures within each
range. However, even here there are many deviations in
practice because of differences in the construction and opera-
tion of different boilers. For example, all other things being
equal, the higher the makeup rate, the higher the quality of
the makeup water should be.
Ideally, cooling waters should be:
• nonscaling with reference to such limited solubility
compounds as calcium carbonate, sulfate, and phos-
phate;
• nonfouling as a result of formation of sedimentary
deposits or of biological growths;
• noncorrosive at operating flow rates and skin tem-
peratures to materials of construction in the system,
including metals, wood, concrete, asbestos-cement,
and plastics.
Table VI-5 shows quality requirements for cooling waters
both once-through and makeup for recirculation, subse-
quent to any required external treatment (other than so-
called side stream niters or centrifugal separators for re-
moval of suspended matter from recirculating cooling
waters) but prior to the addition of any internal treatment
chemicals.
For both steam generation and cooling, the more nearly
the composition of water at the source (Table VI-2) ap-
proaches the quality required at point of use (Table VI-5),
the more desirable it is. However, in some instances it may
be preferable to resort to a lower-quality, lower-cost raw
water, if economic treatment can be expected to yield a
lower overall cost.
Water Treatment Processes
The water treatment processes marked by an X in Table
VI-7 are used in producing water of the appropriate quality
for either cooling or boiler makeup. In addition to external
treatment processes outlined in Figure VI-1, commonly
used internal conditioning processes are also included in
Table VI-7. Not all of these processes are used for the
treatment of any individual intake water. Only those pro-
cesses to produce the quality required are used.
The fact that external water treatment processes may be a
source of potential waste water problems has been men-
tioned. The blowdown from evaporative systems, both boiler
waters and recirculated cooling water, can become one of
these potential problems. This can be caused by increased
concentration of dissolved solids from the evaporative pro-
cess, by increased suspended solids scrubbed from the air or
TABLE VI-7—Processes Used in Treating Water for Cooling or
Boiler Makeup
Suspended solids and colloids removal:
Straining
Sedimentation
Coagulation
Filtration
Aeration
Dissolved solids modification Softening
Cold lime
Hot lime soda
Hot lime zeolite
Cation exchange Sodium
Alkalinity Reduction Cation exchange
hydrogen
Cation exchange hydrogen and sodium
Amon exchange
Dissolved solids removal:
Evaporation
Demmeralization ,
Dissolved gases removal:
Degasification
mechanical
vacuum
heat
Internal conditioning:
pH adjustment
Hardness sequestering
Hardness precipitation
Corrosion inhibition General
Embnttleroenl
Oxygen reduction
Sludge dispersal
Biological control
Cooling
Once through Recirculated
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X X
X X
Boiler makeup
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
developed by growth of biological organisms, or by chemi-
cals added to the recirculated water for control of scale, cor-
rosion, or biological growths.
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS (SIC 22)
Description of the Industry
In the 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census
1971),5 the textile industry was reported to employ 929,000
individuals in 7,080 plants, adding over $8 billion of value
annually through manufacturing. The Statistical Abstract of
the United States: 1969 (U. S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census 1969)18 reported that the industry
invested over $1 billion in new facilities during that year.
Cotton is the most important fiber in American textiles
and represents about one-half of the total fiber used. Wool
and rayon approximate 10-15 per cent of the consumption,
and uses of noncellulosic synthetic fibers are increasing
rapidly.
The basic processes involved in finishing textiles include
scouring, dyeing and printing, bleaching, and special finish-
ing (U. S. Department of The Interior Federal Water Pol-
lution Control Administration 1968).21 Wool is usually
scoured before being woven into cloth. Cotton is woven in
the dry state except for stiffening of the warp, known as
-------
380/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
sizing. Subsequently, the cloth is scoured to remove size and
natural impurities before bleaching and dyeing. Synthetic
fibers do not require scouring, but cloth made from blends
of synthetics and natural fibers may be scoured before
finishing.
Water of proper quantity and quality is essential to the
textile industry. Most of the early mills in the United States
were located in New England, where rivers were capable of
providing water for power and ample high quality process
water with only minimum treatment. In recent years the
trend has been for textile plants to move to the Southeast
and locate closer to the raw material (cotton). Need for
water as a source of energy has diminished because of the
ability to operate with various fuels and electricity. Raw
water quality has become less important, because develop-
ments in treatment technology have made it economically
possible to produce water of adequate quality with the exist-
ing wide range of raw water characteristics. This combina-
tion of circumstances makes raw water supply and quality
less vital in determining plant location today, although
emphasis on treatment to correct deficiencies in raw water
quality continues.
Processes Utilizing Water
Total 1967 water intake for textile industries using over
20 million gallons annually (684 plants) was 154 billion
gallons, 71 per cent of which was used as process water. Of
all water intake by the industry, 51 per cent is derived from
company-developed surface supplies, 10 per cent from
ground water, 1 per cent brackish, and 38 per cent from pub-
lic supplies. Gross water use by textile plants totalled 328 bg,
174 bg of which was reused in 353 of the 684 facilities
(Bureau of the Census 1971).5 Trends in new textile tech-
nology are toward increased reuse of water.
Cotton and wool finishing plants use 30,000 to 70,000 gal-
lons per 1,000 pounds of cloth. Synthetic finishing mills use
considerably less (3,000-29,000 gal/1,000 Ib), because lack
of natural impurities reduces washing requirements.
Wool usually is scoured by moving it through a two- to
six-bowl "train," the first one or two of which contain de-
tergents or soaps, and alkalis at 30-50 C. Subsequent bowls
are for rinsing and often may be operated in counterflow
pattern to conserve water. Usually scouring solutions are not
recycled, although effluent rinse waters may be used to make
up scouring baths.
Cotton scouring removes natural impurities, as well as
sizes added during conversion of fibers into cloth. Scouring
operations in series of tanks ("J" boxes) are carried out
under highly alkaline conditions (pH 12) and temperatures
of 80-120 C and must be followed by thorough rinsing to
remove residual color and other chemicals. Mercerizing
cotton has involved a major use of water in many mills, but
mercerizing is decreasing with increased adoption of cotton
and synthetic blends.
Bleaching cotton is done generally with chlorine, while
hydrogen peroxide is used for wool and blends containing
synthetic fibers. Chlorine is used under slightly alkaline
solution (pH 9) and hydrogen peroxide under acid condi-
tions (pH 2.5-3.0). Rinsing of bleached fiber or cloth re-
quires high quality water.
Dyeing also requires high quality water. Specific require-
ments and process conditions vary widely depending on
types of fibers and characteristics of dyes employed. Cotton
generally is dyed at moderately high pH, wool at slightly
acidic pH, and synthetics under various conditions depend-
ent upon character of fiber. Dyeing operations constitute
major uses of water in the textile industry.
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
The textile industry employs a great variety of raw ma-
terials, chemical additives, and manufacturing processes to
meet a broad range of finished product specifications. Ac-
cordingly, water quality requirements in this industry vary
extensively, depending on circumstances attending uses,
and no single listing of recommendations could be meaning-
ful for the industry as a whole.
To be desirable for use in the textile industry, water
should be low in iron, manganese, and other heavy metals,
dissolved solids, turbidity, color, and hardness; it should be
free from undesirable biological forms (Nordell 1961,13
McKee and Wolf 1963)!l. Although raw water supplies of
rather undesirable quality have been employed successfully
by textile industries (see Table VI-2) with appropriate
treatment to correct deficiencies, it is apparent that the
more closely raw water quality approaches requirements at
the point of use (Table VI-8). the more desirable that
source would be.
Turbidity and color are objectionable in water used in
textile industries, because they can cause streaking and stain-
ing. Iron and manganese stain or cause other process dif-
ficulties at low concentrations. Hardness is objectionable in
many operations, especially in scouring where soap curds
may be produced, and in processes where deposits of pre-
cipitated calcium and magnesium may adhere to the ma-
terial. In wool processing, all scouring, rinsing, and dyeing
operations may require zero hardness water. Zeolite-softened
or deionized water may be used for manufacturing syn-
thetic fibers (Nordell 1961).13 Nitrates and nitrites have
been reported as injurious in dyeing of wool and silk
(Michel 1942).10
In Table VI-8 typical ranges of desirable maximum con-
centrations of constituents that have been suggested for
waters used in textile production are summarized (Mussey
1957,12 Nordell 1961,13 McKee and Wolf 1963,9 Ontario
Water Resources Commission 197014). The values relate to
water quality at point of use before addition of internal
conditioning or manufacturing process chemicals. Although
data in Table VI-8 may give general guidelines to water
quality requirements in this industry, each plant must be
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/381
TABLE VJ-8—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of
Use by the Textile Industry
Characteristic
Typical maximum ranees
Iron, mi/I fe
Manganese, me/I Mn .
Copper, me/I Cu
Dissolved solids, me/I
Suspended matter, me/1
Hardness, mg I as CaCOi
Color, units
Turbidity, units
Sultate, mg I
Chlorides, me/I
Alkalinity, mg I as CaCO
Aluminum oxide, me/I AhOs
Silica, mg I SiO
Organic growths
0.0-0.3
0.01-0.05
0.01-5
100-200
0-5
0-50
0-5
0.3-5
100
100
50-200
8
25
absent
- Water quality prior to addition of substances used for internal conditioning.
considered in light of the manufacturing processes and other
circumstances specific to that installation.
Wafer Treatment Processes
Some ground supplies are capable of furnishing large
quantities of water having quality consistent with industry
requirements. However, in many instances other factors de-
sirable in plant location can make it necessary to use a raw
water supply of quality not meeting process requirements.
In particular, most surface sources are not capable of sup-
plying water suitable for textile industry uses without treat-
ment.
The 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census
1971)s indicated that of 154 bg water intake (for plants using
over 20 million gallons annually), 89 bg were treated in
some fashion. Table VI-9 summarizes the total quantity of
water and water treatment method employed by each
process for 1971 and the number of establishments employ-
ing them.
Another approach employed by many textile industries
is to obtain potable water through purchase from public
supplies. Although this often provides a satisfactory ar-
rangement, it must be noted that some waters adequate in
TABLE VI-9—Water Treatment Processes Employed by
Textile Industrial Establishments in 1971
Type of process
bey treated
Number of establishments
Aeration
Coagulation
Filtration
Softening
Ion exchange
Corrosion control
pH adjustment
Settling
Other
Total employing treatment
No treatment performed .
2
52
70
33
9
30
48
33
7
16
116
184
209
27
121
132
64
45
408
276
Bureau of the Census 1971'
quality for potable purposes do not meet requirements for
some types of textile processing. Also, methods of treatment
employed in some public systems may have adverse effects
on water quality for use in the textile industry.
The 1967 Census of Manufacturers reported discharge of
136 bg by the textile industry, leaving 18 bg (12 per
cent) evaporation or incorporation into products (Bureau of
the Census 1971).5 Of the 136 bg discharged, 54 bg re-
ceived some degree of treatment prior to discharge.
LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS (SIC 24)
Description of the Industry and Processes Utilizing Water
The total amount of lumber used for various purposes in
the United States has not changed significantly in the past
three decades (Landsberg et al. 1963).7 There have, how-
ever, been some important shifts in the end products manu-
factured by the industry. The use of pulpwood for veneer
logs has shown steady increases. Lumber for use in wooden
containers has been declining, as has wood used for fuel,
although fuel wood still accounts for almost 15 per cent of
lumber use.
In recent years, about 40 per cent of wood consumption
has been for building purposes and 20 per cent for the manu-
facture of a variety of wooden and paperboard containers,
furniture, and other wood products. Paper products, other
than containers, account for about 12 per cent of lumber
consumption. The remaining 13 per cent is used in a variety
of wood-related products such as charcoal, synthetic fibers,
and distillation products.
The wood and lumber products industry is a relatively
small water user. Of the 36,795 establishments surveyed in
the 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census
1971),5 only 0.5 per cent or a total of 188 reported the use
of 20 million gallons of water or more in 1968. Total water
withdrawn by plants using 20 million gallons or more per
year showed a decrease from 151 billion gallons in 1964 to
118 billion gallons in 1968. Less than 10 per cent of the
water withdrawn by these larger water using plants is given
any form of treatment prior to use.
In general, the lumber industry collects logs from the
forest and prepares them for use by sawing the logs into
various shapes. Earlier in this country's history, logs were
cut in the winter when the snow was on the ground to
facilitate their transfer by dragging them overland to rivers.
The rivers transported the logs to millsites. The logs were
frequently left in the water, if they could be fenced off or
driven into a backwater to prevent them from going further
downstream. While the log was floating, the water prevented
it from drying and cracking at the cut end.
Today, lumber may be transported to a mill that may
not be near a river. If the logs accumulate, the ends are
moistened by floating them in a pond or by spraying the log
pile to prevent cracking. The log is frequently debarked by
water jets before it is cut into the desired shape.
-------
382/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
TABLE VI-10—Quality Characteristics of Waters That Have
Been Used by the Lumber Industry
TABLE VI-11—Basic Categories of the Pulp and Paper
Industry
Characteristic
Value
Type ol plant
Number ol plants in
United States 1969
Suspended Solids
pH, units
3 mm, diameter
5 to 9
ASTM I97CH or Standard Methods 1971"
Some lumber is treated with chemicals to reduce fire
hazards, retard insect invasion, or prevent dry rot. These
preservative processes use small volumes of water in a
preparation of chromates, cupric ions, aluminum ions,
silicates, fluorides, arsenates, and pentachlorophenates.
Some forest products are processed mechanically or chem-
ically to make a variety of consumer products.
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
There are few significant indicators of water quality for
the lumber industry. The suspended solids should be less
than 3 millimeters in diameter and the pH should prefer-
ably be between 5.0 and 9.0 to minimize corrosion of the
equipment (Table VI-10). (Water used for transportation
does not qualify as process water.)
Water used to prepare solutions for treatment of lumber
should be reasonably free of turbidity and precipitating
ions. Frequently, because of the highly toxic nature of these
solutions, efforts are made to recycle as much solution as
possible. Thus, makeup water is required to compensate for
the portion of the solution lost when forced into the lumber
under pressure, and thus evaporated during seasoning.
Water Treatment Processes
For the lumber production phase only, straining may be
required. Clarification may be practiced for water used in
lumber preservation, but this would be necessary in only
very small volume.
PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC 26)
Description of the Industry
The United States is the world's largest producer and
user of paper and allied products. The industry's net sales
in 1970 were over $21 billion with over 52 million tons of
product produced (American Paper Institute 1970).' The
per capita consumption of paper products in 1969 was
roughly 560 pounds per person, an increase of more than
100 pounds per person in the past decade. It is anticipated
that close to 62 million tons of paper and paperboard will
be produced in the United States in 1980, as compared with
44 million tons in 1965 (Miller Freeman Publications un-
dated).11
The pulp and paper industries described encompass a
number of basic manufacturing processes involved in the
Paper and paperboard
Pulp mills .
Integrated pulp and paper mills
Roofing paper mills
Converting plants (units owned by pulp and paper companies)
Headquarters, offices, research and engineeri ng labs (separate from mills)
Totals .
493
48
228
77
787
152
1,785
production of a wide variety of paperboard and pap
products. These include packaging, building materials, ar
paper products ranging from newsprint to coated and u.
coated writing papers, tissues, and a number of other speci
types of paper and paperboard for domestic and industri
purposes. Table VI-11 shows the basic categories of tl
industry.
Processes Utilizing Water
The manufacture of pulp and paper is highly depender
upon an abundant supply of water. The major proce
water uses are for preparation of cooking and bleachir
chemicals, washing, transportation of the pulp fibers to tl"
next processing step, and formation of the pulp into the dr
product.
The industries involved in the manufacture of paper an
allied products rank third in the withdrawal of water fc
manufacturing purposes (behind primary metal industrii
and chemical and allied products). Of the 5,890 plan
surveyed by the 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of tl"
Census 1971),r> 619 plants reported withdrawing 20 millio
gallons of water or more in 1968. Table VI-12 shows tl"
amount of water withdrawn in 1964 and 1968 for thos
plants using more than 20 million gallons per year. Moi
than half of the water withdrawn in 1968 was treated pric
to use and recirculated about three times before dischargi
Less than 10 per cent of the water withdrawn was consume
in the manufacturing processes.
TABLE VI-12—Total Water Intake and Use—Paper and Allie
Products (billion gallons}
Water intake
Total
Treated prior to use
Gross water used (Includes recirculated water)
1968
2,252
1,311
6,522
1964
2,064
987
5,491
Water discharged
Total
1968
2,078
1964
1,942
Bureau of the Census 19715
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/383
TABLE VI-13—Water Process Used by Paper and Allied
Products Manufacturing
Manufacturing process
Typical water use in 1,000 gallons/ton product'
Wood Preparation
Hydraulic barking
Drum barking
Wood washing
Groundwood Pulp
Stone groundwood
Refiner groundwood
Cold soda pulp
Neutral Sulfite Semicriemical
No recovery
With recovery
Kraft and Soda Pulping
Prehydrolysis
Kraft Bleaching
Semibleach
Highbleach
Dissolving grades (soft wood)
Dissolving grades (hard wood)
Acid Sulfite Pulping
No recovery
MgO recovery
NHt recovery
Sulfite Pulp Bleaching
Paper grade
Dissolving grade
De-irking Pulp
Magazine & ledger
News
Paper Making
Coarse paper
Fine paper
Book paper
Tissue paper
Specialties''
Waste Paperboard
Building Products
Building papers
Felts
Insulating board
Hardhoard
Exploded
3
0.3
0.2
5
5
3
15
10
25
2
25
25
50
50
70
9
8
20
45
28
28
10
30
10
30
10
10
3
15
13
1
0 Figures shown represent averages over two-week period with 90 percent frequency.
' Varies widely depending upon product.
Environmental Protection Agency, unpublished data'
Approximately 70 per cent of the water used in the in-
dustry was withdrawn from surface supplies. Other water
sources were ground water supplies (about 1 7 per cent) and
public water supplies (about 11 per cent). Tidewater ac-
counted for the remainder of the water used. Water with-
drawn for process purposes constituted the largest percent-
age of water used by the industry (about 65 per cent) while
the other major water uses were for cooling purposes.
While the industry has been aptly categorized in general
terms by SIC code numbers, a typical plant falling under an
SIC code may be engaged in a variety of individual manu-
facturing processes. For this reason, a clearer picture may
be obtained by describing water use in terms of manufactur-
ing processes rather than by SIC subcategories. Table VI-13
classifies the processes used in producing pulp and paper
products manufactured in the United States.
These processes have been categorized based on the
logical sequence in production along with the use of water
made by each process. Presenting the information in this
fashion makes it possible to estimate water requirements for
any individual mill based on the manufacturing processes
employed and the tons of product produced.
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
A survey by the Technical Association of the Pulp and
Paper Industry (TAPPI Water Supply and Treatment
Committee unpublished data 1970," Walter 1971)23 of water
quality requirements for the paper industry revealed a total
of 23 specific water quality problems resulting from im-
purities in the raw water source. The primary causes of the
problems centered on hardness, alkalinity, turbidity, color,
and iron. In addition, manganese along with iron and color
was reported as having an adverse effect on bleaching pro-
cesses; manganese also produced black spots on paper. In
some cases, algae and bacteria interfered with the paper
machine operations by causing slime. In addition to causing
scale in the mill water supply, high hardness interferes with
washing operations and causes fouling in resin sizing and
digesting processes. Suspended matter and turbidity inter-
fere with the brightness of the product and cause difficulties
by clogging wires and felts in the paper machines. Highly
colored waters have an adverse effect on paper brightness
and are particularly undesirable for white and dyed papers
as well as pulps. Control of pH of the water supply at the
mill is important to avoid corrosion of the equipment and
for effective use of fillers, sizes, and dyes in the process
water.
To avoid some of the problems mentioned above, the
1967 Census of Manufacturers reported that in 1968 more than
one half of the water withdrawn for use by plants in the
pulp and paper industry utilizing more than 20 million
gallons per day was treated prior to use (Bureau of the
Census 1971).5 The treatment consisted of the various pro-
cesses shown in Table VI-14.
The source of water and its composition vary widely de-
pending on plant location. The treatment of the mill water
supply consequently varies. In general, however, TAPPI
TABLE VI-14—Water Treatment Processes—Paper and Allied
Products
Process
Billion gallons treated
Number of establishments
Aeration
Coagulation
Filtration
Softening
Ion exchange
Corrosion control
pH adjustment
Settling
Other
Total
62.8
821.8
890.4
116.)
53.5
187.5
357 5
494.5
93.1
28
194
272
239
148
126
119
107
45
1,311.4
466
Bureau of the Census 1971''
-------
ection VI—Industrial Water Supplies
TABLE VI-15—Summary of TAPPI Specifications for
Chemical Composition of Process Water for
Manufacture
Substance-max ppm
Turbidity (SiOi) . .
Color In platinum units
Total hardness (CaCOi)
Calcium hardness (CaCO.:)
Alkalinity to M.O. (CaCOj) •
Iron (Fe)
Manpnese (Mn)
Residual chlorine (Ch)
Silica (soluble) (SiOz)
Total dissolved solids
Free carbon dioxide (CO:)
Chlorides (Cl) .
Magnesium hardness (CaCOO
Fine paper
10
5
100
50
. 75
0.1
0.03
2.0
20
200
10
Kraft paper
Bleached
40
25
100
75
0.2
0.1
50
300
10
200
Unbleached
100
100
200
150
1.0
0.5
10D
500
10
200
Groundwood
- papers
50
30
200
150
0.3
0.1
50
500
10
75
Soda and
sulfite pulp
25
5
100
50
75
0.1
0.05
20
250
10
75
50
Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry 1957"
indicates that the chemical composition of process water
for use by the paper and allied products industry should
have the specifications shown in Table VI-15. The produc-
tion of some specialty papers, however, requires water of
considerably higher quality.
CHEMICAL AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC 28)
Description of the Industry
The chemical and allied products industry is quite com-
plex because of its wide range of products and processes.
This industry produces more than 10,000 commercial
products covering a broad range of uses. Most of the prod-
ucts are converted to another form by other industries be-
fore reaching the consumer. Thus, many are little known or
understood by the general public.
Processes Utilizing Water
The Bureau of the Census subdivides chemical and allied
products into 27 industries. Many of these are shown in
Table VI-16, along with estimates of the water intake for
process uses by each industry.
Water is essential to most of the processes used in chemical
manufacturing. It can be used to separate one chemical
from another or to remove a chemical from a gas stream.
It can be the medium in which a chemical reaction occurs.
It can be employed as a carrier to introduce materials into a
reaction system or to dissolve or wash impurities from a
product. It often is part of the final product. Water can also
be used in the vapor form as steam heat to facilitate chem-
ical reactions or process operations. It can be used in the
liquid form to remove heat generated by other chemical re-
actions or operations. Water is also the product of some
chemical reactions.
Generally, the minimum water quality required for a
specific process has been determined through experience
and is discussed below. In some cases the minimum quali
has never been established because the available water
use is acceptable and not necessarily the minimum quali
that can be used.
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
The number and diversity of manufacturing facilities
the chemical and allied products industry and their wid
spread geographical locations in the United States are sui
that the waters used for process applications vary widely
chemical constituents. Table VI-17 lists some of the quali
characteristics in raw water supplies that have been used
provide water for process use in this industry. The figures
Table VI-17 represent extremes, and no water would ha1
all the values shown.
Because of the multitude of products and processes in tl
chemical industry, only general characteristics can be a
plied for process water quality required at the point of us
The ranges of quality are so wide, even for similar produd
that specific characteristics are not meaningful. In tl
manufacture of plastic materials and resins, for exampl
some products require water equivalent to potable wati
with a maximum total dissolved solids limit of 500 mg/
while other products require a high level of treatment (i.e
clarification, demineralization, sterilization, and membrar
filtration) with a maximum total solids limit well belo
1 mg/1.
Low turbidity is the key quality requirement for most i
the process water used in the chemical and allied produc
industries. Other general quality requirements may invoh
TABLE VI-16—Process Water Intake by Chemical and Allie
Product Industries with Total Water Intake of 20 or
More bg During 1968
SIC
2E12
2813
2815
2816
2818
2819
2821
2822
2823
2824
2833
2834
2841
2861
2871
2892
28
Industry group and industry
Alkalies and Chlorine
Industrial Gas .
Cyclic Intermediates and Crudes .
Inorganic Pigments
Organic Chemicals, n.e ; '
Inorganic Chemicals, n.e.c.'
Plastic Materials and Resins
Synthetic Rubber
Cellulosic Man-made Fibers
Organic Fibers, noncellulosic
Medicmals anil Botanicals
Pharmaceutical Preparations
Soap and Other Detergents
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Fertilizers .
Explosives
Subtotal ....
Nonlisted Industries
Chemicals and Allied Products
Process water intake"
bg
18.9
5.3
19.3
21.2
394.0
75.2
50.9
15.1
30 5
7.7
2.7
3.9
1.9
0.8
24.2
28.0
699.6
33.8
733.4
per cent
2.6
0 7
2.6
2.9
53.7
10.3
6.9
2.1
4.2
1.0
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.1
3.3
3.8
95.4
4.6
100.0
" Not including use for sanitary, boiler feed, or cooling water purposes.
» Not elsewhere classified.
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/385
TABLE VI-17—Quality Characteristics of Waters That Have
Been Used by the Chemical and Allied Products Industry
(Unless otherwise indicated, units ate mg '1 and values are maximum:. No one water will have all the maximum
values shown.)
Characteristic
Concentration
Silica (SiO_)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Ms)
Ammonia (NHi)
Bicarbonate (HCO )
Sulfate (SO )
Chloride (CD
Dissolved Solids
Suspended Solids
Hardness (CaCOj)
Alkalinity (CaCO,)
pH, units
Color, units
Odor threshold number
BOD SO >
COD(0;)
Tempera ure
DO ((h)
w
10
2
250
100
(a)
600
850
500
2,500
10,000
1,000
500
5.5-9.0
500
" Accepted as received (if meeting other limiting values), has never been a problem at concentrations encountered
ASTM 1970< or Standard Methods 1971"
total dissolved solids, hardness, alkalinity, iron, and
manganese. Where these latter requirements apply, they
generally fall in the range of the Drinking Water Standards
(U. S. Dcpt. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service 1962).20 Thus, water from public and private
drinking water systems is widely used without further treat-
ment for process applications in the chemical industry. The
rigorous water quality requirements for certain products can
include nearly all of the characteristics used in describing
water quality; however, this high quality represents a very
small fraction of the industry's total water use for process
purposes.
Table VI-18 shows an example of the quality of process
water at point of use in a large chemical plant that manu-
facture^ a wide variety of products. The distribution of
water processes used is not to be considered typical for the
industry. The table is presented to show the levels of treat-
TABLE VI-18—Quality Characteristics of Process Water at
Point of Use in a Large Multiproduct Chemical Plant
Treatment process
Raw water (screened)"
Clarification, filtration, and chlonnatioir
Softening (ion exchange)"
Demmeralization (Ion exchange)
percent
71
10
14
5
Dissolved solids
mg/l
95
95
95
<1
Hardness (mg/l as
CaCO;)
50
50
<0.5
" Dissolved solids and hardness are actual values at this plant location. In most cases water of higher dissolved
solids (500 mg/l max) and higher hardness (250 mg/l max) would be acceptable.
'' Turbidity less than one unit.
* Includes steam and boiler feed water used in processes.
ment applied in merely one multiproduct plant. The pro-
cess water usage in that plant is 1.2 gallons per pound of
product. This is only 2 per cent of the plant's gross water
usage; cooling water accounts for all but a slight amount of
the balance.
Water Treatment Processes
The normal water purification process for raw surface
water supplies usually involves clarification (coagulation,
sedimentation, filtration). This may be supplemented by
softening, demincralization, and other special treatment
processes. However, most of the treatment methods shown
in Figure VI-1 could be used.
In many cases waters from public supplies or from private
wells are acceptable as received and are used without treat-
ment. This constitutes a large portion of the total process
water used in the chemical industry.
Generally, the cost of process water treatment is a small
part of the overall cost of manufacturing in the chemical
industry because of the modest water quality requirements
acceptable for many process uses. By contrast, certain pro-
cesses require exceedingly high-quality water resulting in
water treatment costs that can be more than a significant
share of the manufacturing costs.
PETROLEUM REFINING (SIC 2911)
Description of the Industry
The principal use of water in the petroleum industry is in
refining. Other operations, such as crude oil production
and marketing, rely on water but do not use significant
amounts. Some water is used in the exploration branch for
drilling wells and some is used in the operation of natural
gasoline plants, but the amount is insignificant in relation
to that used for the refining process.
Refinery Water Consumption Trends
The 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census
1971)5 indicated a gross water use (including recycle) of
7,290 bg. This represented an 18 per cent increase over the
1964 usage. However, the water intake to refineries report-
ing both in 1964 and 1967 was indicated to be 1,400 bg.
This stable demand can be attributed to the increased use
of air for cooling purposes, resulting from increasingly
scarce fresh water. In addition, the growing cost of water
quality improvement prior to use and prior to final dis-
posal encourages conservation and reuse. Of those refineries
included in the 1967 census report, 91 per cent are reusing
water.
The total discharge from these refineries was about
1,210 bg, a 7 per cent decrease from 1964.
About 13 per cent of the total water intake by refineries
comes from public water supplies, and the remaining 87 per
cent comes from company-owned facilities. The company-
owned water supply comes from surface (53 per cent),
-------
386/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
TABLE VI-19—Summary of Specific Quality Characteristics
of Surface Waters That Have Been Used as Sources for
Petroleum Water Supplies
Characteristic
Concentration mf/l
Silica(Si02)
Iron(Fe)
Cakaum(Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Sodium and Potassium (Na and K) .
Ammonia (NH3)
Bicarbonate (HCOa)
Sulfate(SO.)
Chlonde(CI)
Fluoride (F)
Nitrate (NOs)
Dissolved Soiids
Suspended Solids
Hardness (CaCOs)
Alkalinity (CaC03) .
pH, units
Color, units
Chemical Oxygen Demand (02) . .
Hydrogen SulfidefHjS)
85
15
220
85
230
40
480
900
1600
1.2
8
3500
5000
900
500
6.0-9.0
25
1000
20
ground (9 per cent), and tidewater (38 per cent). The use
of ground water is being phased out in many locations in
favor of impounded surface water. The quality character-
istics of surface waters treated to produce waters acceptable
for process use are given in Table VI-19.
Processes Utilizing Water
Of the total water intake to all refineries, 86 per cent is
used for heat removal by either once-through or recirculat-
ing cooling systems, 7 per cent is used for steam generation
and sanitary purposes, and 7 per cent for processing. The
water distribution in a hypothetical refinery limited to fresh-
water makeup is shown in Figure VI-2. Here, the distribu-
tion is about 56 per cent for cooling, 24 per cent for boilers
and sanitary purposes, and 20 per cent for processing. These
values differ from the overall average, because the cooling
water is circulated.
Process Water Properties
Process water used in refineries may be characterized 1:
the physical and chemical properties of the water. The rel
vant properties are described in the following paragrapl
and in Table VI-20.
A. Inorganic salts that cause deposition and corrosic
can be removed from crude oil by a solvent action. Desal
ing by intimate contact with water is the preferred methoi
Oil products are frequently purified by washing with ac
or caustic solution; diluent water and afterwash water
used in these processes. Catalytic cracking produces quant
ties of ammonia and carbon dioxide that form deposi
unless water is injected into (he system to keep them in soli
tion.
B. To transfer heat in numerous operations, barometr
condensers are used to create low pressure conditions i
fractional distillation. Some catalytic processes requii
quenching of furnace effluents. Hot water is sometimj
pumped through pipelines to facilitate the transfer of hig]
viscosity petroleum products.
C. Chemical reactions can occur in process water. Whe
quicklime is used in water softening, water enters into tlr
slaking process. At certain times in platforming, water
introduced to chemically condition the catalyst.
D. Water used merely as a carrier must be considerec
such as in the periodic cleaning of the plant or in transpor
ing solids through pipelines.
E. Kinetic energy in the form of hydraulically operate
cutters is used in decoking furnaces and descaling boilt
tubes. Hydraulically operated brushes are used to clea
condenser tubes.
F. Some processes use more than one of these propertii
simultaneously; e.g., water can be introduced into frai
tionator overhead lines both as a solvent and as a carrie
Ion exchange backwash also relies on these two properties i
water.
Use
TABLE VI-20—Process Water Uses in Oil Refineries
Quantity used gal/bbl°
Property (see above)
Treatment (see page 387)
Recommendations
Washing
Desalting
Barometric condenser . .
Caustic dilutanl
Absorber injection
Flue Gas quench
Water wash after caustic . . .
Tank ballast
Furnace quench
Fractional O.H. injection . .
Pipelines .
Lime slaking
Ion exchange backwash
1.5-6.0
2.0-8.0
3.0-6.0
0.1-0.5
0.4-1.5
0.5-2.0
C.1-0.4
01-03
30-70
01-03
Oil
A
B
A
A
B
A
B
A&D
B&C
C
A&D
1
T
1
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
1
2
Recycled plant effluent is satisfactory.
Precipitation of calcium and magnesium salts are undesirable in this process.
Recycled plant effluent may be satisfactory. Caution should be exercised because components in 1
effluent can react with components in Itie gaseous material being condensed. These reactions, i
curnng in intimate contact with water, can result in the formation of stable emulsions and/or calciu
soaps, which would require downstream chemical treatment.
Calcium, magnesium, carbonate, and bicarbonate! are undesirable
Calcium salts are undesirable.
Deionized water or steam condensate must be used in this process.
Calcium and magnesium salts are undesirable.
Sea water is satisfactory.
Recycl ed steam condensate employed lor this process.
Deionized water or steam condensate must be employed in this process.
Raw water supply with Ryznar Index adjusted below 6.0.
Raw water supply satisfactory. Recycled plant effluent not satisfactory.
Raw water supply or ion exchanged water, depending upon type of ion exchange.
° Gallons of water per barrel of crude oil processed. Hennery capacities are in the range of 20,000 to 180,00 barrels of crude oil per day.
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/387
Process Water Treatment
The treatments of refinery process water before use gen-
erally fall into three categories. These are shown below and
in Table VI-20.
1. No treatment needed. The dissolved and suspended
solids are limited only by the restrictions on the plant
effluent. In many instances, the plant waste discharge can
be recycled.
2. Some treatment, external or internal, needed. Some
normal constituents of water undergo physicochemical
changes, e.g., calcium carbonate is precipitated by heat.
These must be removed or neutralized.
3. Complete of removal solids needed. Usually, these
Figures in 1,000's gallons water/day
Circulating
cooling water
(750)
Cooling
tower
.blowdown
(750)
Total
water
(4150)
COOLING TOWERS !
ISSSSSSS
Process water
to waste
(850)
Condensate
to waste
(400)
Total
Plant
Waste
(2100)
Makeup
(1000)
FIGURE VI-2—Water Distribution in a Hypothetical $55 Million Refinery That Processes 50,000 bbl./Day of Crude (Courtesy
of Chemical Engineering Magazine)
-------
388/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
waters are vaporized and any water soluble salts remaining
are undesirable. These waters may be deionized water or
steam condensate.
PRIMARY METALS INDUSTRIES (SIC 33}
Description of the Industry
The primary metals industrial group is defined in the
SIC Manual as those "establishments engaged in the smelt-
ing and refining of ferrous and nonferrous metals from ore,
pig, or scrap; in the rolling, drawing, and alloying of fer-
rous and nonferrous metals; in the manufacture of castings,
forgings, and other basic products of ferrous and nonferrous
metals; and in the manufacture of nails, spikes, and insu-
lated wire and cable. The major group also includes the
production of coke." (U. S. Executive Office of the Presi-
dent, Bureau of the Budget 1967).22
Process water utilization by the primary metals industry
as given in the 7967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the
Census 1971)5 is summarized in Table VI-21. The produc-
tion of iron and steel utilized almost 88 per cent of all pro-
cess water used by the industry. For this reason, water
quality requirements have been included only for this seg-
ment of the industry.
Processes Utilizing Water
The iron and steel industry as defined for this report
includes pig iron production, coke production, steel making,
rolling operations, and those finishing operations common to
steel mills, such as coke reduction, tin plating, and galvaniz-
ing. Although many steel companies operate mines for ore
and coal, this Section does not dismiss ore beneficiation
plants, coal cleaning plants, or fabricating plants for a
variety of specialty steel products.
Most of the iron and steel making facilities in the United
States are centered in integrated plants. These have gen-
erally been located in the Midwest and East where major
water sources arc available. A few mills have been built in
water-short areas because of economic advantages that
outweighed the increased cost of recirculating water. The
major processes involved in the manufacture of steel require
process water, some in several ways. The succeeding para-
TABLE VI-21—Process Water Utilization
Industry
SIC No. Process water used, 1968
Iron and steel production
Iron and steel foundries
Copper industry
Aluminum industry
All other primary metal industries
Total process water, primary metals
331
332
3331;3351
3334; 3352
33
1,049
12
50
36
60
1,207
Bureau otthe Census 1971'
graphs present a brief description of the process and rt
process use of water.
The production of coke involves the heating of coal in tlr
absence of air to rid the coal of tar and other volati
products. Process water is used in the direct cooling of t?
incandescent coke after removal from the coke oven in
process called coke quenching. This quenching- process
nothing more than dousing the coke with copious amoun
of water.
Pig iron production is accomplished in the blast furnac
Process water is used to cool or quench the slag when it
removed from the furnace. The major use of process wati
in the blast furnace is for gas cleaning in wet scrubber
Steel is manufactured in open hearth or basic oxygen fu
naces. Process water may be used in gas cleaners for eitln
of these furnaces.
The major products of the steel making processes ai
ingots. Ingots, after temperature conditioning, arc rolk
into blooms, slabs, or billets depending upon the fin
product desired. These shapes are referred to as semifinishc
steel. Water is used for cooling and lubricating the roll
These semifinished products are used in finishing mills 1
produce a variety of products such as plates, rails, strui
tural shapes, bars, wire, tubes, and hot strip. Hot strip is
major product, and the manufacturing process for this itei
will be briefly described.
The continuous hot strip mill receives temperature cond
tioned slabs from reheating furnaces. Oxide scale is loosene
from the slabs by mechanical action and removed by hig
pressure jets of water prior to a rough rolling stand, whic
produces a section that can be further reduced by the finisl
ing stand of rollers. A second scale breaker arid series i
high pressure \vater sprays precede this stand of rolls i
which final size reductions are made. Cooling water is use
after rolling for cooling the strip prior to coiling. Most ho
rolled strip is pickled by passing the strip through solutioi
of mineral acids and inhibitors The strip is then rinsed wit
water.
Much hot-rolled strip is further reduced in thickness int
cold rolls in which the heat generated by working the met;
is dissipated by water sprays. Palm oil or synthetic oils at
added to the water for lubrication. After cold reduction, th
strip is often cleaned by using an alkaline wash and rins<
Tin plate is made from cold-rolled strip by either a
electrolytic or hot-dip process, more commonly by th
former. The electrolytic process consists of cleaning the stri
using alkaline cleaners, rinsing with water, light picklim
rinsing, plating, rinsing, heat treating, cooling with wate
(quenching), drying, and coating with oil. The galvanizin
or coating of steel strip with various other products is cat
ried out basically by the same general scheme as tinning.
The volume of water used in the manufacture of steel is
variable that depends on the quantity and quality of th
available water supply. The quantity presently being usei
varies from a minimum of about 1,500 gal/ton of producl
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/389
where water is reused intensively, to about 65,000 gal/ton,
where water is used on only a once-through basis. Both of
these figures include total water utilized, not just process
water. These figures contrast the range of water intake be-
tween plants in areas having extremely limited water sup-
plies and those in areas with almost unlimited water sup-
plies.
Data on the amount of process water required as com-
pared with other water uses indicate that only 24 per cent
of the water taken into a steel plant is termed process water
(Bureau of the Census 1971).5 Representatives of the in-
dustry have indicated that process water may account for as
much as 30 to 40 per cent of the total water intake.
Recycling of water is receiving much attention from the
industry as a method to reduce water utilization, reduce
stream pollution, and minimize the cost of controlling this
pollution. Although individual plants within the iron and
steel industry have been practicing reuse of water to varying
degrees for some years, the major changes are yet to come.
According to the 7.967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the
Census 197!),•'' the gross water used in the iron and steel
industry (SIC 331) in 1968 was approximately 6,500 billion
gallons. This gross water use when compared with a water
intake of about 4,400 billion gallons indicates that 2,100
billion gallons were reused. This quantity reflects total water
reuse, not just of process water. The consumption of water
by the industry amounted to approximately 263 billion
gallons in 1968. (No corresponding calculation can be made
because no data on process water discharge are available.)
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
The quality of surface waters that arc being utilized by
the iron and steel industry varies considerably from plant
to plant. The desired quality of water for various process
TABLE 22—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use
for the Iron and Steel Industry (SIC 33)
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg I and values that normally should not be exceeded. Table indicates quality
of the water prior to the addition of substances used for internal conditioning.)
Characteristics
Quenching,
hot rolling,
gas cleaning
Se lected rinse waters
Cold rolling
Partially Softened Demineralized
Settleable solids
Suspended solids
Dissolved solids
Alkalinity (CaCO;)
Hardness (CaCO.)
pH, units
Chloride (Cl)
Dissolved Oxygen (0;)
Temperature, F
Oil
100
(«)
(«>
(*)
(ft)
5-9
M
(<)
100
W
5 0
10
(«)
(ft)
(*)
5-9
w
(r)
100
1.0
5 0
5 0
W
(ft)
100
6-9
W
«
100
1.0
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.5
0.1
M
0.1
W
100
0.02
' Accepted as received if meeting other limiting values: has never been a problem at concentrations encountered.
'< Controlled by treatment for other constituents.
•- Minimum to maintain aerobic conditions.
>'• Concentration not known.
ASTM wm< or Standard Methods 1971'6
uses is difficult to define. For a few processes using relatively
small quantities of water, limits on some constituents are
known. For most of the process water used, however, only a
few of the water quality characteristics have been recog-
nized as a cause of operational problems. For the other
characteristics or properties neither the technological nor
economical limits are known. (However, the quality of the
water available has been much less important than the
quantity in determining where a steel mill should be built.)
Ranges of values for the selected quality characteristics for
existing supplies are listed in Table VI-22. The water qual-
ity indicators that are considered important to the industry
are settleable, suspended, and dissolved solids; acidity and
alkalinity; hardness; pH; chlorides; dissolved oxygen;
temperature; oil; and floating materials.
Water Treatment Processes
Most integrated steel plants have two or more process
water systems. One system is the general plant water supply.
It receives only mechanical skimming and straining for
control of floating and suspended materials that could harm
pumps and possibly internal conditioning. This water is
used for such diverse tasks as coke quenching, slag quench-
ing, gas cleaning, and in the hot-rolling operations. For
some of these operations, many mills use effluent from
another process or recycle water in the same process, and
the water might actually be of very poor quality. However,
the only limits for these process uses which could be estab-
lished based on present knowledge are those listed in
Table VI-22. The other process waters used by the steel
industry comprise only 2 to 5 per cent of the total volume
but often require considerably improved quality.
Almost universally, one of these two improved supplies is
clarified while the second is, in addition, either softened or
demineralized. The clarified water is usually a coagulated,
settled, and filtered supply that is either treated by the steel
company or purchased from a municipality. The use for
this water is mainly in the cold-rolling or reduction mill
where surface properties of the product are particularly
important.
The softened or demineralized water is required for rinse
waters following some pickling and cleansing operations.
The more particular processes from a water quality point of
view are the coating operations, such as tin plating, gal-
vanizing, and organic coating. Some plants use softened
and others demineralized water for identical purposes. The
quality limits desired for these two types of water, softened
and demineralized, are given in Table VI-22.
FOOD CANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 2032 AND 2033)
Description of the Industry
The U. S. canning industry is comprised of about 1,700
canneries. These plants produce some 1,400 canned food
items such as fruits, vegetables, juices, juice drinks, seafoods,
-------
Z90/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
meats, soups, and specialty products. In 1970, canned foods
amounted to about 28 billion pounds packed in 938 million
standard cases. The quantities of the major products are:
vegetables, 294 million cases; fruits, 153 million cases; juices,
130 million cases; fish, 26 million cases.
Processes Utilizing Water
One of the most important operations in commercial
canning is thorough cleaning of the raw foods. The pro-
cedures of cleaning vary with the nature of the food, but all
raw foods must be freed of adhering soil, dried juices, in-
sects, and chemical residues. This is accomplished by sub-
jecting the raw foods to high-pressure water sprays while
being conveyed on moving belts or passed through revolv-
ing screens. The wash water may be fresh or reclaimed from
an in-plant operation, but it must contain no chemicals or
other materials in concentrations that adversely affect the
quality or wholesomeness of the food product.
Washed raw products are transported to and from the
various operations by means of belts, flumes, and pumping
systems. These involve major uses of water. Although the
freshwater makeup must be of potable quality, recirculation
is practiced to reduce water intake. Chlorination is used to
maintain recycled waters in a sanitary condition.
Another major use of water is for rinsing chemically
peeled fruits and vegetables to remove excess peel and caus-
tic residue. Water of potable quality must be used in the
final rinsing operation.
Green vegetables are immersed in hot water, exposed to
live steam or other sources of heat to inactivate enzymes
and to wilt leafy vegetables, thus facilitating their filling
into cans or jars. Blanching waters are recirculated, but
makeup waters must be of potable quality. Steam genera-
tion, representing about 15 per cent of water intake, when
used for blancing or injection into the product must be pro-
duced from potable waters free of volatile or toxic com-
pounds. Syrup, brine, or water used as a packing medium
must be of high quality and free of chlorine.
After heat processing, the cans or jars are cooled with
large volumes of water. This water must be chlorinated to
prevent spoilage of the canned foods by microorganisms in
case cooling water is aspirated during formation of a vacuum
in the can.
Figure VI-3 shows a flow sheet of the various uses of
water and origin of waste streams.
Most fruit and vegetable canning, as opposed to canning
of specialty products, is highly seasonal. The demand for
water may vary 100-fold throughout the months of the
year. The water-demand variation may be severalfold
even for plants that pack substantial quantities of non-
seasonal items.
The gross quantities of water used per ton of product
vary widely among products, among canneries, and during
years in the same cannery. The proportion of gross water
supplied by recirculation has increased over the years, and
FIGURE VI-3—Uses of Water in Food Canning Industry
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/391
TABLE VI-23—Gross Water Intake (annual use over 20 mg)
for Canning Plants
Item
Water quantity (bgy)
Percent of intake quantity
Intake
Reuse
Consumption
Discharge
59
35
6
53
100
59
10
90
the trend is expected to continue. A tendency has been
noted to use more water per ton of product as the proportion
of recirculated water increases. New methods of processing
are being evaluated that will reduce the amount of water
being used for a given operation and will discharge less
organic matter into the wastewater. The trend toward more
recirculation of water will continue to increase. As recircu-
lation increases, methods will be employed to improve the
quality of the recirculated water and to reduce the amount
of fresh water added to the system. Unfortunately, the
maximum use of reclaimed water is hindered by specific
federal and state regulations originally adopted for other
guiding principles that do not now necessarily apply.
The same problem occurs with water conservation,
whereby regulations in certain instances demand fixed
volumes of water use that, because of process and equip-
ment changes, are no longer necessary.
Table VI-23, gives the rate of gross water intake as based
on the 7967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census
1971)5 for canning plants.
A breakdown of the quantities and percentages of the
total water used in the various process operations based on
data from the National Canners Association is as follows,
Table VI-24.
TABLE VI-24—Total Water Use in Canning Plants
In-plant use
Water quantity (bjy)
Percent of total use
Raw product washing .
Product transport"
Product preparation''
Incorporation in product"
Steam and water sterilization of containers
Container cooline
Plant cleanup
14.1
9.4
9.4
5.6
14.1
33.9
7.5
15
10
10
6
15
36
1
° Pluming and pumping of raw product.
'• Blanching, heating, and soaking of product.
' Preparation of syrups and brines that enter the container.
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
Of the 48 billion gallons of water intake for canned and
cured seafoods and canned fruits and vegetables 24 billion
gallons were drawn from public surface water supplies and
more than 20 billion gallons from groundwater sources.
Approximately 4 billion gallons came from private surface
water supplies.
The quality of raw waters for use in the food canning
industry should be that prescribed in Section II on Public
Water Supplies in this Report.
Table VI-25 has been prepared to indicate the quality
characteristics of raw waters that are now being treated for
use as process waters in food canning plants. The values
given are not intended to imply that better quality waters
are not desirable or that poorer quality waters could not be
used in specific cases. Significant water quality require-
ments for water at point of use are given in Table VI-26.
Although the quality characteristics indicated in Table
VI-26 may be desirable, it is recognized that many sources
of water supplies contain chemicals and other materials in
excess of the indicated levels, but with advance treatment
these waters may also provide any quality desired at a price.
If the water needs of the nation are projected into the
future, the time may come when a completely closed-cycle
system will be required in some areas. This means that the
waste effluent from a food plant may have to be treated to
achieve a high quality water for reuse.
Water Treatment Processes
Surface waters used by the food canning industry require
treatment before use as process waters. Usually, this treat-
ment involves coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and
disinfection. More extensive treatment may be required for
those waters incorporated in the product.
Container cooling waters are routinely treated by heavy
chlorination to render them free of significant types of bac-
TABLE VI-25—Qualify Characteristics of Surf ace Waters That
Have Been Used by the Food Canning Industry
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values are maximums.)
Characteristic
Concentration mg/l
Alkalinity (CaCO:1)
pH, units
Hardness (CaCO.,)
Calcium (Ca)
Chlorides (Cl)
Su Hates (SO,)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Silica (SiOO dissolved
Phenols
Nitrate (N03)
Nitrite (NO-)
Fluoride (F)
Organics: carbon chloroform extract
Chemical oxygen demand (0:)
Odor, threshold number
Taste, threshold number
Color, units
Dissolved solids
Suspended solids
Coliform, count/100 ml
300
8.5
310
120
300
250
0.4
0.2
50
to
45
w
(a)
0.3
(*)
to
to
5
550
12
to
«As specified in Water Quality Recommendatiom for Public Water Supply in this Report.
' Accepted as received (if meeting other limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations encountered
* Not detectable by test
ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971.it
-------
/Section VI—Industrial Water Supplies
TABLE VI-26—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of
Use by the Canned, Dried, and Frozen Fruits and
Vegetables Industry
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg /I and values that normally should not be exceeded. The Table indicates
quality of water prior to the addition of substances used for internal conditioning.)
Characteristic
Canned specialties (SIC 2032)
Canned fruits and vegetables (SIC 2033)
Dried fruits and vegetables (SIC 2032)
Frozen fruits and vegetables (SIC 2037)
mg/l
Acidil> (H-SO,)
Alkalinity (CaC03)
pH, units
Hardness (CaCO::)
Calcium (Ca)
Chlorides (Cl)
Sulfates (SO,)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Chlorine (Cl)
Fluorides (F)
Silica (SiO •)
Phenols
Nitrates (NO.)
Nitrites (NO.:)
Orgamcs:
Carbon tetrachloride extractables
Odor, threshold number
Taste, threshold number
Turbidity
Color, units
Dissolved solids
Suspended solids
Conform, count/1 00 ml
Total bacteria, count/100 ml
0
250
6.5-8.5
250
100
250
250
0.2
0.2
(a)
1 W
50
(3, 4)
10(4)
«
0.2 W
w
w
(/)
5
500
10
(/)
(?)
»Process waters for food canning are purposely chlorinated to a selected, uniform level. An unchlormated supply
must be available for preparation of canning syrups.
'' Waters used in the processing and formulation of foods for babies should be low in fluorides concentration. Be-
cause high nitrate intake is alleged to be involved in infant illnesses, the concentration of nitrates in waters used for
processing baby foods should be low.
" Not detectable by test.
•' Because chlermation of food processing waters is a desirable and widespread practice, the phenol content of
intake waters must be considered. Phenol and chlorine in water can react to form chlorephenol, which even in trace
amounts can impart a medicinal off-flavor to foods.
• Maximum permissible concentration may be lower depending on type of substance and its effect on odor and
taste.
/ As required by U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service (1962=").
' The total bacterial count must be considered as a quality requirement for waters used in certain food processing
operations. Other than aesthetic considerations, high bacterial concentration in waters coming in contact with frozen
foods may significantly increase the count per gram fer the food. Waters used to cool heat-sterilized cans or jars of
food must be low in total count for bacteria to prevent serious spoilage due to aspiration of organisms through con-
tainer seams. Chlorination is widely practiced to assure low bacterial counts on container cooling waters.
ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971"
teria. Waters used for washing and transporting raw foods
are generally chlorinated, particularly if all or a portion
of the water is recirculated. In some cases, waters in which
vegetables are blanched may require treatment to reduce
hardness.
BOTTLED AND CANNED SOFT DRINKS (SIC 2086)
Description of the Industry
Since 1954 there has been a marked reduction in the
number of plants producing soft drinks—from 5,469 in
1954 with a production of 1,176,674,000 cases to 3,230 in
1969 with a production of 2,913,110,000 cases (National
Soft Drink Association).* It is obvious that numerous sma
plants have been discontinued as producing units. This tren
continues.
Processes Utilizing Water
In the production of soft clrinks, water is used not only i
the finished product itself but also for washing container
cleaning production equipment, cooling refrigeration an
air compressors, plant clean-up, truck washing, sanitat
purposes (restrooms and showers), lawn watering, lov
pressure heating boilers, and air conditioning.
Estimates of the total water quantities utilized in the so
drink industry for all purposes are: intake, approximate!
18 bgy; recycle, 4 bgy; consumption, 4 bgy; and dischargi
14 bgy (Bureau of the Census 1971).5
The figure of 18 bgy intake is based upon production (
2.9 billion cases per year and an average of 6 gallons <
water used per case by the 130 largest plants surveyed the
represent only 5 per cent of the plants in the industry. (Th
figure of 6 gallons per case is based on the limited data no1
available.)
The 7967 Census of Manufacturers lists the gross water usag
in 1968, including recycle, as 9 billion gallons and tots
water intake as 8 billion gallons (Bureau of the Censt
1971).5 The reuse of water within the industry has for som
years increased and is still increasing as the older an
smaller plants are replaced by new and larger plants the
use recirculating rather than once-through cooling wate
equipment, modern bottle washers that use less water pe
case than older equipment and other devices. The increase
use of nonreturnable containers in recent years has resultei
in lower quantities of water used for bottle washing.
The consumption figure of 4 billion gallons is based upo
the water content of the total quantity of beverage prc
ducedin 1968.
The discharge figure of 14 billion gallons is the differenc
between the estimated 18 billion gallons of intake and th
4 billion gallons of product water.
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
Water that is mixed with flavoring materials to produc
the final product must be potable. Likewise, potable wate
is needed for washing fillers, syrup lines, and other produc
handling equipment. The water used for washing produc
containers must also be potable. Although other wate
uses do not require potability, it has not been customary t<
use nonpotable water for any purpose in a soft drink plant
The water that becomes a part of the final product mus
not only be potable, but must also contain no substance
that will alter the taste, appearance, or shelf life of the bever
age (Table VI-27). Because beverages are made from man\
* A case is defined as 24 bottles each containing 8 ounces of beverage
In the above figures, bottles larger or smaller than 8 ounces have beer
converted to 8 ounce equivalents.
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/393
TABLE VI-27—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of
Use by the Soft Drink Industry (SIC 2086)°
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/l and values that normally should not be exceeded. The Table indicates
the quality of water prior to the addition ol substances used for internal conditioning.)
Characteristic
Concentration mg/l
Alkalinity (CaCO,)
pH, units
Hardness (CaCO )
Chlorides (Cl)
Sulfates (SO<)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Fluoride (F)
Total dissolved solids
Organics, CCE
Coliform ba teria
Color, units
Taste
Odor
85
(*)
(*)
500 (c)
500 (<•)
0.3
0.05
W
W
0.2 W
(«0
5
(', /)
(', n
" The more important parameters are listed. Although not included in the table, all Drinking Water Standards
(U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962)*° for potability apply.
6 Controlled by treatment for other constituents.
If present with equivalent quantities of Mg end Ca as sulfates and chlorides, the permissible limit may be some-
what below 500 mg/l.
•i Not greater than PHS Drinking Water Standards (1962)'°.
«In general, public water supplies are coagulated, chlorinated, and filtered through sand and granular activated
carbon to insure very low organic content and freedom from taste and odor.
.' Not detectable by lest.
ASTM 1970* or Standard Methods 1971«.
different syrup bases, however, the concentration and type
of substances that affect taste, or other characteristics, are
not the same for all beverages. For this reason, a single
standard cannot apply to all types of soft drinks.
The majority of plants use only water from a public sup-
ply. Some use water from private wells. None use water
directly from surface sources. The quality characteristics
for intake water are essentially the same as requirements for
potable water.
Water Treatment Processes
There are few, if any, public water supplies that are
suitable as product water without some in-plant processing.
Almost 100 per cent of the bottling plants have as minimum
treatment sand nitration and activated carbon purification.
About 80 per cent of the plants also coagulate and super-
chlorinate the water preceding sand filtration and carbon
purification. When the total alkalinity of the intake water is
too high, lime is used to precipitate the alkaline salts.
There are very few bottling plants whose intake water is
so highly mineralized that the brackish taste affects soft
drinks. Among the reasons are the facts that flavoring com-
ponents in soft drinks mask the taste of many brackish
waters without altering the taste of the drink and that
towns with highly mineralized water supplies are either
avoided as locations for bottling plants or suitable private
supplies are used.
Uniformity of water composition is most desirable. Con-
trol of in-plant processing is difficult when the composition
of the water varies from day to day. Surface waters that are
subject to heavy biological growths or heavy pollution from
organic chemicals are also difficult to process.
Except for process water, most public water supplies are
suitable for all other usages without external treatment.
Occasionally, cation exchangers are used to soften water
for bottle washing, cooling, and boiler feed water, but in-
ternal conditioning is used in most plants for scale and
corrosion control.
TANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 3111)
Description of the Industry
The leather tanning industry is many industries, as each
type of leather constitutes a different process. Basically,
there are only three or four types of tannage (vegetable,
mineral, combination of vegetable-mineral, and synthetics)
but many finishing processes.
Processes Utilizing Water
Water is used in all processes of storage, sorting, trim-
ming, soaking, green fleshing, unhairing, neutralizing,
pickling, tanning, retanning, fat-liquoring, drying, and
finishing of the hides. It is an essential factor in each
process. The chemical composition of the water is considered
critical in obtaining the desired quality of leather. There is
limited reuse of process water in the tanning industry.
Data on water utilization by the leather tanning and
finishing industry as reported in the 1967 Census of Manu-
facturers (Bureau of the Census 1971)5 includes 14.8 bgy
intake, 3.7 bgy reuse and recirculation, and 0.8 bgy con-
sumption.
TABLE VI-28—Quality Requirements of Water at Point of
Use by Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry
(SIC 3111)
(Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/l and values that normally should not be exceeded. Table indicates
the quality of water prior to addition of substances used for internal conditioning.)
Characteristic
Alkalinity (CaCO.)
pH, units
Hardness (CaCO::)
Calcium(Ca)
Chloride (Cl)
Sulfate (SO,)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Organics' carbon chloroform extract . .
Color, units
Coliform bacteria
Turbidity
Tanning processes
W
6.0-8.0
150
60
250
250
50
W
W
5
(/)
(c)
General finishing
processes
W
6.0-8.0
(»)
<*)
250
250
0.3
0.2
0.2
5
(/)
W
Coloring
W
6.0-8.0
(c,d)
(c,d)
W
W
0.1
0.01
W
5
W
W
° Accepted as received (if meeting other listed limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations
encountered.
'' Lime softened.
' Not detectable by test
< Demmeralized or distilled water.
• Concentration not known at which problems occur.
/ PHS Drinking Water Standards (1962)."'
ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971"
-------
ection VI—Industrial Water Supplies
Significant Indicators of Water Quality
The chemical composition of the water is important in
producing high-quality leather. For some processes, such as
the finishing of leather, distilled or demineralized water is
best. The microbiological content of the water is equally im-
portant, but this can be controlled by use of disinfectants.
The quality requirements at point of use are shown in Table
VI-28.
Water Treatment Processes
Most tanning and leather product industries are located
in urban areas and use public water supplies or ground
water. A few tanneries use surface supplies, usually chlori-
nated. They may also need additional treatment such as
clarification, and iron and manganese removal.
A limited volume of water, whether from the public
water supply or company-owned systems, may be softened,
distilled, or demineralized.
MINING AND CEMENT INDUSTRIES (SIC 10)
Mining
Description of the Industry Industrial usage of the
term mining is broad and includes mining operations and
quarrying; extraction of minerals, petroleum, and natural
gas; well operations and milling (e.g., crushing, screening,
washing, froth flotation); and other processing used to
render minerals marketable.
Processes Utilizing Water Mining operations are
numerous, and many of them involve the use of water.
However, the amount of water used is often relatively small,
or its use is simply that of providing a suspending medium
(as in coal washing) with minimal requirements of water
quality. The principal consideration in these operations is
that water acidity be relatively low so that corrosion of
equipment is kept to a minimum.
On the other hand, a number of the operations involved
in this general category require the use of large quantities of
water with certain quality requirements relating to im-
purity, type, and level. These operations are froth flotation,
mine dump leaching, and secondary oil recovery. With re-
gard to froth flotation, an operation extensively used to re-
cover valuable minerals from low-grade ores, large ton-
nages of material are processed each day. For example, in
one large plant, 100,000 tons of copper ore per day are
treated for recovery of copper sulfide. Generally, flotation is
carried out at approximately 25 per cent solids by weight,
and freshwater makeup constitutes about 25 per cent of the
total water requirement. In such systems, water is normally
recycled so that the impurity level of both inorganic and
organic constituents builds up with repeated reuse. It is not
possible to list maximal limits of impurity levels for such
waters, but the levels found in the processing water of one
operating plant (i.e., a copper sulfide concentrator) are
TABLE VI-29—Analysis of Typical Freshwater Makeup a
Process Water for a Copper Sulfide Concentrator
Water type
Constituent (mg/1)
SO; Cl TDS pH
Freshwater makeup 100 87 104 . 16 8 140 8.
Process water 1530 1510 415 345 1634 12 2100 II.
° H is total hardness expressed as CaC03; Ca is total calcium hardness expressed as CaC03; M is total alkal
expressed as CaCO:i; 0 is total hydrate expressed as CaCO,; SO. is total sulfate; Cl is total chloride; TDS is
dissolved solids.
listed in Table VI-29. Also listed is the analysis of the fre;
water makeup that is added to the recycled water. This co
bination provides the total process water used for this pla
This fresh water is excellent for flotation. The acti
process water used can probably be best described as o
bordering on being problematic. The high Ca+"1" concent!
tion together with the high content of hydroxides of hea
metals (column 0) place this water in this category.
Another process that is used extensively in the industry
the leaching of mine waste for recovery of copper. Lat
quantities of leach solution—approximately 225 milli
gallons per day—are added to properties located in tl
country. Most of the properties are located in arid are,
so that water reuse is mandatory. Solutions returned to t
mine dumps for leaching have been subjected to treatme
for copper recovery by replacement with metallic iron ai
then to further treatment to set the level of iron in solutic
The analysis of a typical leach solution is presented
Table VI-30. Of these species, the amount of ferric ion
perhaps the most critical, in that if the concentration is t
high, precipitation of basic iron sulfate occurs within t
dump and renders the dump impermeable to solution flo
In this regard it is also important that there be no conce
tration of suspended solids in such leach solutions as th
too render the dump impermeable to flow of solution. As
result, these solutions are filtered prior to introduction
the mine dump.
Secondary oil recovery has assumed great importance
the oil industry. One of the techniques used in recoverii
oil is water flooding of a formation. With this techniqi
water is pumped into a formation under high pressure, and
mixture of water and oil is then recovered from anoth
well drilled into the formation. Such a process requir
TABLE VI-30—Typical Analysis of Leach Solution in Dun
Leaching of Copper
Constituent
Concentration (mg/1)
Al4^-
ME~
Fe++
Fe-"*
SOi™
DH
.... 12,000
12,000
6,000
6,000
64,000
3-3.5
-------
Major Industrial Uses of Water/395
careful consideration of a number of factors, including
permeability of the rock of which the formation is composed;
type and amount of clay in the rock; ionic composition of
the connate water; and composition, solids, and bacterial
content of the water injected into the formation. If the clay
content of the host rock is of a bentonitic nature (i.e., a
swelling type clay, which when used with fresh water is not
in equilibrium with the ions contained in the connate water),
the clay will swell and render the formation impermeable to
water flow. An effective means of obviating this is to re-
inject the same water, filtered of solids, into the formation.
Another means is to keep the salt content of the water high.
Stabilization of the water exiting from the formation
must be considered, because gases such as carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are released from the
water. If these gases are not added to the water prior to re-
injection into the formation, the water will not be in equilib-
rium with the connate water, salts, and rock of the forma-
tion. Precipitation of compounds may result, and permeabil-
ity will be altered.
Waters that are conveniently available are used for
water injection. In addition to formation and surface
waters, sea water is often used. The composition of sea water
and a water from a sand formation are listed in Table VI-31.
Anaerobic bacteria are also a problem in water flooding,
since they are capable of producing such compounds as
hydrogen sulfide in the water. Effective bactericides are
available to control this potential problem.
The quantity of water used in water flooding depends on
the production of the well involved. A commonly added
quantity would be 400 to 500 barrels per day, which is
equivalent to 16,800 to 21,000 gallons per day. In view of
all of the secondary oil production using this technique,
then, extremely large quantities of water are involved. For
example, in 1960 approximately 634 million barrels of oil
were produced by injection techniques in California, Illi-
nois, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming (Ostroff
1965).15
TABLE VI-31—Composition of Sea Water and a Formation
Water Expressed as mg/l.
Constituent
Sea water
Margmuia sand (La.)
cor
HCOs". . .
so<- .
cr . ..
Ca++
Mr"
Na++K+
Fe (total)
Ba++ .
IDS
pH . ...
142
2,560
18,980
400
1,272
10,840
0.02
34,292
0
281
42
72,782
2,727
655
42,000
13
24
118,524
^.5
Ostroff 1965"
Cement
The manufacture of cement involves combining lime-
stone with silica sand, alumina, and iron oxide, crushing
and grinding this mixture, burning at high temperature,
cooling, and regrinding clinker to fine size. If water is used
at all, it is used in the initial grinding step. In terms of
water consumed, approximately 200 gallons are used per
ton of finished cement.
Because of the high temperatures used in the burning
process (approximately 2500 F), water quality requirements
are minimal. The alkali content of the process water can be
a problem, however, if it is present in relatively high con-
centration, because the alkali oxides are volatilized and
condensed on the fine particulate matter produced during
the burning process. If the amount of oxide is relatively
high, oxide will build up as the fine particulate matter is
recycled to the kiln. Alkali oxide may be removed from the
fine particulate matter by water leaching, but this practice
results in the problem of disposing of water very high in
alkali salts. Even if water leaching is not used, the problem
of disposing of the oxide-bearing particulate matter also
exists.
-------
LITERATURE CITED
"American Paper Institute (1970), Annual report: a test of stamina—
action taken and results obtained by the American Paper Institute in a
year of recession (New York), 12 p.
2 American Public Health Association, American Water Works As-
sociation, and Water Pollution Control Federation (1971),
Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 13th ed.
(American Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.),
874 p.
3 American Society for Testing and Materials (1970), Water and
atmospheric analysis, part 23 of American Society for Testing and
Materials book of standards (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), 1052 p.
4 ASTM standards (1970) (see citation 3 above.)
5 Bureau of the Census (1971) (see citation 19 below.)
6 Federal Power Commission (1971), Data compiled from FPC form
67: Steam-electric plant air and water control data, for the year ended
December 31, J9[70]. [This information is available for inspection
and copying in the reference room of the Office of Public In-
formation, Federal Power Commission, Washington, D. C.
20426. ]
'Landsberg, H. H., L. L. Fischman, and J. L. Fisher (1963), Re-
sources in America's future (Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore), 1017 p.
8 Livingstone, D. A. (1963), Chemical composition of rivers and lakes
[Geological Survey professional paper 440-G], in Data of geo-
chemistry, 6th ed., M. Fleischer, ed. (Government Printing Of-
fice, Washington, D. C.), 64 p.
9 McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, eds. (1963), Water quality criteria, 2nd
ed. (California State Water Quality Control Board, Sacra-
mento), 548 p.
10 Michel, R. (1942), Water as the cause of poor colors and failures
in dyeing. Farb. u. Chemischrein 89.
11 Miller Freeman Publications (undated), The pulp and paper market:
an analysis oj the industry by Miller Freeman Publications, publishers
of Pulp and paper magazine (San Francisco).
12 Mussey, O. D. (1957), Water requirements of the rayon- and
acetate-fiber industry [Geological Survey water supply paper
1330-D], in Study of manufacturing processes with emphasis on present
water use and future water requirements. Water requirements of selected
industries. (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.),
p 141-179.
13 Nordell, E. (1961), Water treatment for industrial and other uses, 2nd
(Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York), 598 p.
14 Ontario Water Resources Commission (1970), Guidelines and cril
for water quality management :n Ontario (Toronto, Ontario).
15 Ostroff, A. G. (1965), Introduction to oilfield water technology (Prenti
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliff's, New Jersey), pp. 5, 7.
16 Standard methods (1971) (see citation 2 above.)
17 Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (19:
Water technology in the pulp and paper industry [TAPPI Monogrj
Series No. 18] (New York), Appendix, p. 162.
18 U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census (196
Statistical abstract of the United States: 1969, 90th ed. (Governm<
Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 1032 p.
19 U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census (1971), Wa
use in manufacturing, section MC67(l)-7 of J967 census of ma
facturers: industrial division (Government Printing Office, Wa
ington, D. C.), 361 p.
20 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Hea
Service (1962), Public Health Service drinking water standards, i
1962 [PHS Pub. 956] (Government Printing Office, Washingt.
D. C.), 61 p.
21 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Cont
Administration (1968), Textile mill products, in The cost
clean water, vol. 3: Industrial waste profiles (Government Printi
Office, Washington, D.C.), 133 p.
22 U.S. Executive Office of the President. Bureau of the Bud|
(1967), Standard industrial classification manual (Governm<
Printing Office, Washington, B.C.), 615 p.
23 Walter, J. W. (1971), Water quality requirements for the paj
industry. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 63(3): 165-168.
24 Water Resources Council (1968), Electric power uses, part
chapter 3 of The nations water resources (Government Printi
Office, Washington, D.C.), p. 4-3-2.
25 Edison Electric Institute (1970), Personal communication (Rich.=
Thorssell, 750 3rd Avenue, Mew York, New York).
26 Environmental Protection Agency (1971), Unpublished data, Geoi
Webster, Office of Water Quality Programs, Washington, D.C
27 TAPPI: Water Supply and Treatment Committee (1970), t
published data, presented at the TAPPI Air and Water Conferer
June 8-10/70.
396
-------
Appendix I—RECREATION AND AESTHETICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUANTIFYING AESTHETIC AND RECREA- Nonmonetary benefit evaluations 39)
TIONAL VALUES ASSOCIATED WITH CURRENT LEAST-COST EVALUATIONS 401
WATER QUALITY 399 SPECIAL EVALUATION PROBLEMS 401
EVALUATION TECHNIQUES 399
Monetary benefit evaluations 399 LITERATURE CITED 40
398
-------
QUANTIFYING AESTHETIC AND RECREATIONAL VALUES ASSOCIATED
WITH WATER QUALITY
Provisions of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (U. S.
Congress 1968),13 The National Environmental Policy Act
(U.S. Congress 1970a),14 and the Flood Control Act, Sec-
tion 209 (U.S. Congress 1970b),15 have added impetus to
the need for quantification of aesthetic and recreational
values associated with water quality.
Evaluation Techniques
The two techniques necessary to assess total aesthetic and
recreational values are (a) monetary benefit evaluations,
and (b) nonmonetary benefit evaluations.
Monetary benefit evaluations usually start by determining
costs of visiting a site from various distances and adopt a
weighted average based on calculations of individual costs
to visit a particular site from various zones and the number
of visitors from each zone. The representative unit cost is
then multiplied by the total number of expected visitors
(the demand) to determine the total minimum benefit. (Sec
Hotelling (1949),5 Trice and Wood (1958),12 Clawson
(1959),2 and Knetsch (1963).6) Another procedure for
imputing dollar values to benefits is to presume that
benefits are equal to foregone costs of doing the same thing
another way. Frankel (1965)4 showed that the cost of down-
stream removal of coliforms at a water treatment plant was
less than the upstream cost of disinfection at a waste water
treatment plant. The conclusion to be drawn was that the
benefits of chlorination at the particular waste water treat-
ment plant were not equal to the costs saved downstream,
and hence the practice could be discontinued at the waste
water treatment plant.
Nonmonetary benefit evaluations attempt to attach quantita-
tive scales in terms of dollars and dimensionless scores to
nonmonetary recreational and aesthetic values. These at-
tempts fall into three categories.
1 Waste treatment evaluation techniques Son-
nen (1967)11 devised a scheme of multipliers ranging from 0
to about 10 that, when multiplied by the identifiable mone-
tary benefits of waste treatment, yielded an estimate of in-
tangible benefits. The value of the multipliers was a function
of: (a) the downstream users' local, regional, or national
scope; (b) the private or public affiliation of the downstream
users; (c) the number of people involved in each downstream
use; and (d) the relative importance of each constituent in
the waste that might influence the enjoyment or use of the
water. Only the subfactor for constituent influence was re-
calculated for each constituent to be partially removed by
the alternative treatment processes under consideration. The
objective was a benefit-cost analysis of waste treatment al-
ternatives with intangible benefits given quantitative
weight. It was shown in a hypothetical stream discharge
case that net benefits calculated with monetary benefits
alone were maximized by a less complete removal process
than was optimal when nonmonetary benefits were included
in the analysis. Partial removals of 27 constituents to serve
five downstream users, including recreational and aesthetic
use, were evaluated.
Water Resources Engineers, Inc. (1968)16 modified this
procedure to evaluate alternatives for: (1) wastewater
reclamation to protect current recreation benefits and to
provide more; and (2) protection of a particular water to
levels (of coliforms) suitable for harvesting shellfish while
other competing uses of the water predominated (WRE
1969).17 Ralph Stone and Co. (1969),10 in assessing the
value of cleaning up San Diego Bay, asked 27 knowledgeable
people to rank the Bay's 12 possible uses, giving weights
from 1 to 10 to both the economic value and the social
value of each use to the community as the interviewee
perceived that value. In both the economic and the social
value responses, tourism, fishing, marina activities, and park
and recreation use ranked highest while industrial activity
rated low, and waste disposal rated last in both responses.
2 Water Resource Project Recreation Evalu-
ation WRE (1970)18 devised two methods for evaluating
intangible benefits as functions of the monetary benefits
identified: a "benefits foregone—subjective decision"
method, and a "nonmonetary expression of benefits"
method. In the former the intangible benefits associated
with wild, undeveloped streams are presumed to be equal
to the foregone monetary benefits that would accrue to other
users if the streams were fully developed. In the latter in-
tangible, aesthetic benefits are presumed to be estimable
fractions of the identifiable monetary benefits. These two
WRE methods have been demonstrated for both a wild
river area and a developed stream in the Pacific Northwest.
399
-------
WO/Appendix I—Recreation and Aesthetics
3 Ecological Impact Analysis Six notable studies
in recent years derived evaluation methods that require
ranking sites on various scales, with constant upper and
lower limits. (1) Whitman (1968)19 developed a rating
scheme for streams in urban areas based on seven factors
related to the environment: three factors are assigned 20
per cent relative weights, and four 10 per cent relative
weights. Each stream is to be given a rating from 0 to the
upper limit for each factor on the basis of how uniquely
each of the subjective criteria is satisfied. (2) Dearinger
(1968)3 developed weighted ratings for subfactors encom-
passing a range of environmental characteristics including
climate, scenery, hydrology, user characteristics, and water
quality. (3) Leopold (1969)7 ranked scenic values by placing
each stream in categories that measure the site's uniqueness
with respect to all others evaluated. His three major cate-
gories embraced physical factors, biological and water
quality factors, and human use and interest factors. No
superior-inferior ranking was implied for any category.
(4) Morisawa and Murie (1969)9 presented a 1 to 10
value-rating scale to apply quantitative weight to otherwise
subjective stream characteristics, placing major emphasis
on total dissolved solids content and sediment load with
respect to water quality. (5) Leopold et al. (1971)8 devised
a 3'X3' score sheet on which 86 "existing characteristics
and conditions of the environment" are scored according to
how they will be affected by any of 98 possible "actions
which may cause environmental impact." Of the 86 charac-
teristics, water quality was only one, although(temperature
was given a row of its own too. Unfortunately, no explicit
score is given to the goodness or badness of the scores, and
much subjective decision-making remains after these analy-
ses have contributed what objectivity they can. (6) Battelle-
Columbus (1971)1 desired a hierarchical arrangement of
critical environmental quality characteristics arranged in
four major categories: ecology, environmental pollution,
aesthetics, and human interest. The system measures en-
vironmental impacts in environmental quality units
(EQU); each analysis produces a total score in EQU based
on the magnitude of specific environmental impacts ex-
pressed by the relative importance of various quality char-
acteristics as prescribed by a predetermined weighting and
ranking scheme.
Current Least-Cost Evaluations
The economic objective for water-quality-oriented pro-
jects, such as water and waste treatment plants, has been
to meet stipulated water quality standards or criteria at
least cost. However, least-cost analysis, which is important
and proper at the design stage, has entered water quality
management evaluations too soon on most occasions. The
hasty assumptions are made that (1) certain uses are to be
provided or protected, and (2) water quality criteria to pro-
tect those uses are absolutely correct both with respect to
constituents named and concentrations assigned. But
caveats by the experts throughout this book about lack of
scientific evidence to support meaningful criteria attest to
ihe fallacy of these assumptions. Clearly if some prior
analysis, such as a benefit-cost analysis including aesthetic
values, could demonstrate (hat secondary treatment oi
wastes would provide adequate protection of the most
justifiable mix of downstream uses in a specific set of circum-
stances, then least-cost analysis would be the proper tool to
determine the cheapest secondary treatment process to
install. Unfortunately, the biggest stumbling block to this
more nearly ideal sequence of analyses has been the lack oi
procedures for quantifying all the relevant values discussed
above, including both monetary and nonmonetary ones.
But it should be recognized that least-cost analysis is prop-
erly applied only after the uses to be protected and the
quality criteria to protect them have been determined
through prior evaluation.
Special Evaluation Problems
There are problems that have not yet been addressed by
researchers.
• The perception of median value by the average
person enjoying himself or his surroundings has not
been normalized. The average recreator is not aware
of his environment in terms of the silt load or coli-
form organism measure? that the scientists use to
characterize the environment.
• A related problem is that of vicarious pleasure and
its benefit to society as a whole.
• There is no method available that defines absolute
and relative uniqueness. Methods that rank relative
uniqueness on scales of 1 to 10 do not answer the
optimal questions of water resource use, and methods
like WRE's (1970)18 cannot claim validity for more
that comparative evaluations of projects within a
single river basin.
• There is no single, meaningful measure of water
quality that can be related to the costs of attaining
it and the benefits stemming from it. In his study oi
waste treatment alternatives, Sonnen (1967)11 was
unsuccessful at separating the benefits that over-
lapped from removal of one constituent and were
undoubtedly counted again in assessing the benefits
of removal of others.
• The quantification of aesthetic and recreational
values associated with marine and estuarine waters
demands particular attention.
Further research must attempt to determine the levels of
each constituent that enhance, preserve, reduce, or elimi-
nate use of water. With these quality-use spectra, sociolo-
gists, psychologists, economists, engineers, and politicians
will eventually be able to characterize objectively the aver-
age, normative response of the populace to the environment
and to deduce the values and relative values people wish to
place on the conditions to be found there.
-------
LITERATURE CITED
1 Battelle-Columbus (1971), Design of an environmental evaluation sys-
tem, Final Report to Bureau of Reclamation (U.S. Department of
the Interior, Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio),
61 p.
2 Clawson, M. (1959), Methods for measuring the demand for and value of
outdoor recreation (Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.),
36 p.
3 Dearinger, J. A. (1968), Esthetic and recreational potential of small
naturalistic streams near urban arras, Research Report No. 13 (Uni-
versity of Kentucky Water Resources Institute, Lexington),
260 p
4 Frankel, R. J. (1965), Economic evaluation of Water—An engineeting-
economic model for water quality management, First Annual Report
(University of California, Sanitary Engineering Research La-
boratory Report No. 65-3) 167 p.
6 Hotelling, H. (1949), [Letter], in The economics of public if creation-
an economic study of the monetary evaluation of recreation in the national
park1, (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.),
pp. 8-9.
6 Knetsch, J. L. (1963), Outdoor recreation demands and benefits.
Land Economics 39:387-396.
7 Leopold, L. B. (1969), Qjiantitative comparison of some aesthetic factors
among rivers [Geological Survey circular 620] (Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 16 p.
8 Leopold, L B., F. E. Clarke, B. B. Hanshaw and J R Balsey
(1971), A procedure for evaluating environmental impact (Geological
Survey Circular 645, Washington, DC), 13 p.
9 Morisawa, M. and M. Murie (1969), Evaluation of natural rivers-
final report [U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Water
Resources Research, research project C-1314] (Antioch College,
Yellow Springs, Ohio), 143 p.
10 Ralph Stone and Company, Inc., Engineers (1969), Estuarme-
onented community planning for San Diego Bay, prepared for the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 178 p.
11 Sonncn, M. B. (1967), Evaluation of alternative waste treatment
facilities, Ph.D dissertation, University of Illinois, Sanitary
Engineering Series No 41, Urban.), Illinois, 180 p.
12 Trice, A II. and S. E. Wood (1958), Measurement of recreational
benefits: a rejoinder. Land Economics 3^-367-369.
13 U.S Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law
90-542, S. 1075, October 2, 1968, 12 p.
14 U.S. Congress (1970a), National Environmental Policy Act of 1969,
Public Law 91-190, S. 1075, 5 p.
15 U.S. Congress (1970b), Flood Control act of 1970, Public Law
91-611, Title II, 91st Congress, H.R. 19877, pp. 7-18
16 Water Resources Engineers, Inc (1968), Waste water reclamation
potential for the Laguna de Rosa, Report to the California State
Water Resources Control Board, 86 p.
17 Water Resources Engineers, Inc (1969), Evaluation of alternative
water quality control plans for Elkhorn Slough and Moss Landing
Haibot, presented to the California State Water Resources
Control Board, 63 p.
18 Water Resources Engineers, Inc. (1970), Wild rivers—methods for
evaluation, prepared for the LT.S. Department of the Interior,
Office of Water Resources Research, 106 p.
19 Whitman, I. L. (19G8), Uses of small urban river valleys, Baltimore
Corps of Engineers [Ph.D. dissertation] The Johns Hopkins
University, 299 p.
401
-------
Appendix II—FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPENDIX II-A
MIXING ZONES .
APPENDIX II-B
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY IN-
DICES
APPENDIX II-G
THERMAL TABLES
APPENDIX II-D
PESTICIDES TABLES .
APPENDIX II-E
403 GUIDELINES FOR TOXICOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON
PESTICIDES
APPENDIX II-F
408 PESTICIDES RECOMMENDED FOR MONITORING IN
THE ENVIRONMENT
410 APPENDIX II-G
TOXICANTS IN FISHERY MANAGEMENT
420 LITERATURE CITED.
43
44
44
44
402
-------
APPENDIX II-A
MIXING ZONES
A. Mathematical Model References
Mathematical models based, in part, on the considera-
tions delineated in General Physical Consideration of
Mixing Zones are available for prediction of heated-water
discharge from power plants into large lakes (Wada, 1966;32
Carter, 1969;6 Edinger and Polk 1969,10 Sundaram et al.
1969,30 Csanady, 1970,7 Motz and Benedict 1970,22 Pritch-
ard 1971,27 Stolzenbach and Harleman 1971,29 Zeller et al.
1971,36 Policastro and Tokar in press)?6 cooling ponds and
impoundments (Brady et al. 1969,4 D'Arezzo and Masch
1970),8 rivers (Jaske and Spurgeon 1968,17 Water Resources
Engineers 1968,35 Parker and Krenkel 1969,25 Kolesar and
Sonnichsen 1971),19 estuaries (Ward and Espey 1971)33 and
ocean outfalls (Baumgartner and Trent 1970).3
Mathematical models of the distribution of non-thermal
discharges into various receiving systems are also available
for diffusion in lakes, reservoirs and oceans (scale effects)
(Brooks I960,5 Allan Hancock Foundation 19651), diffusion
in bays and estuaries where tidal oscillations and density
stratification are factors (O'Connor 1965,23 Masch and
Shankar, 1969,21 Fischer 1970,12 Leendertse 1970),20 and
dispersion in open channels and rivers (Glover 1964,13
Bella and Dobbins, 1968,2 Dresnack and Dobbins, 1968,9
Fischer 1968,11 Thackston and Krenkel 1969,31 Jobson and
Sayre 1970,18 O'Connor and Toro 1970).24
Time-of-exposure models are discussed by Pritchard
(1971).2'
B. Development of Integrated Time-Exposure Data For a
Hypothetical Field Situation
1. A proposed discharge of a waste containing alkyl-
benzene sulfonates (ABS) to a lake containing rainbow
trout is under consideration. The trout regularly swim paral-
lel to the shoreline where the shallows drop off to deeper
water. The expected plume configuration, estimated ABS
concentrations, and time of exposure for a swimming trout
to various concentrations are shown in Figure II-A-1. No
avoidance or attraction behavior is assumed. It is decided
that an ET2 is appropriate for this situation (see Comment
a. below).
2. To test if this mixing zone meets necessary water
quality characteristics, toxicity bioassays with rainbow
trout are performed (see Section III, pp. 118-123). Ob-
serve mortality after each exposure to selected concentra-
tions at time intervals of approximate geometric or logarith-
mic progression: i.e., 10, 15, 30 and 60 minutes; 2, 4, 8,
between 12 and 16, 24, and between 30 and 36 hours; 2, 3, 4,
and if desired 7, 10 or more days. While only the shorter
time periods are involved in this example, greater periods
are necessary in some cases. After exposure, trout should be
held in uncontaminated water for extended periods so that
delayed effects of exposure can be evaluated. While mor-
tality was selected in this example as the response to be
assessed, a more conservative physiological or behavioral
response would provide a more positive factor of safety.
3. Plot percentage mortality on a probability (probit)
scale with time on a logarithmic scale as in Figure II-A-2,
and fit by eye a straight line to the set of points for ach
concentration. The object of this is to determine for each
concentration the median lethal time where the fitted line
crosses 50 per cent mortality (the ET50) and the ET2, the
time causing 2 per cent mortality.
4. Plot the sets of ET50 and ET2 values on logarithmic
paper and fit each set of points to create the toxicity curves
as in Figure II-A-3.
5. Substitute the information on plume characteristics
and time of passage (Figure II-A-1) and the toxicity curves
(Figure II-A-3) in the summation of effects formula:
T,
ET2 at
ET2 at C2 ET3 at C3
ET2 at Cn
<1
6
52
13
\2
52
11
Since the total is slightly over 1.0 a mortality greater
than 2 per cent is expected, and the recommendation is not
met. If the total was 1 .0 or less, a mortality of 2 per cent or
less would be expected and the recommendation would be
met.
403
-------
404I'Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Average Concentration = 8 mg/1
ET2 = °° (greater than 4 days)
Shoreline •'//////•'///.
Average concentration
= 30 mg/I
E'1'2 = 1 7 min.
Average concentration
= 15 mg/1
ET2 = 52 min.
FIGURE II-A-1—Predicted Concentrations of ABS in an Effluent Plume, and Times of Passage of Migrating Fish. Hypothetica
Comments
a. Use of the ET(X). A probability distribution is involved
in mortality, and it is therefore impossible to give any valid
estimate of an exposure time which would cause zero per
cent mortality. The probability of mortality merely be-
comes increasingly smaller as the exposure time becomes
less. Therefore it is necessary to choose some arbitrary per-
centage mortality as equivalent to negligible effect. Two
per cent was chosen as a useful level in the example above
since it is a low number yet still high enough that the ex-
trapolation of the probit line to that value has reasonable
validity. Other mortality levels can be selected to fit given
situations.
When mortality is the response measured rather than a
more conservative one, a safety factor can be utilized by
requiring the sum of the integrated time-exposure effects t
equal less than unity.
b. Toxicity Curves. For other toxicants, the curves ma
be greatly different from those shown in Figure II-A-3, e.g.
complex reflex or rectangular hyperbolas. Further dis
cussion of toxicity curves, and illustration of curves of var
ious shapes is given by Warren (1971,34 pp. 199-203) am
Sprague (1969).28
It is possible to calculate equations for the toxicity curves
or portions of them, as was done for temperature-mortalit;
data (pp. 151 ff.). However, the equations for many toxi
cants are cumbersome because of logarithms or other trans
formation. Since the equations are merely the result o
empirically fitting the observed experimental curves, it i
easier and about equally effective to read values of interes
directly from a graph such as Figure II-A-3.
-------
Appendix II-A—Mixing ^ones/405
-------
406/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
100
3
0
ffi
10
O
V
s
H
0.1
50% mortality
\
2% mortality
\
\
J I
I I
I I I
I I
minutes
60
50
40
30
20
10
I I I I I I I
10
100
Concentration, mg/1
The
FIGURE II-A-3—Toxicity Curves for ABS to Rainbow Trout.
times to 50 per cent mortality and times to 2 per cent mortality have been read from the lines fitted in Figure H-A-2.
-------
Appendix II-A—Mixing
c. Threshold Effective Time. Organisms may survive for
30 minutes, an hour, or sometimes several hours, even in
extremely high concentrations of the pollutant (see caveat
under d).
d. Lethal Threshold Concentration. Survival for an in-
definitely long period may be possible at the lethal threshold
concentration which may be close to concentrations which
are quickly lethal. Organisms which exhibit an abrupt lethal
threshold or a long threshold effective time may be es-
pecially vulnerable to sublethal effects and careful investiga-
tion of this possibility should be made.
e. Need for Experimental Determination of ET(X). Al-
though it would be convenient to have some rule of thumb
for estimating the ET(X) from the ET50, as is done by the
"2° rule" for short-term exposure to high temperature
(see Section III, pp. 161—162), there does not seem to be
any such simple generalization which can be applied to
toxicants in general. The relatively few examples which can
be found in the literature indicate variable relationships. A
series of comparisons between toxicity curves for 5 per cent
and 50 per cent mortality are given by Herbert (1961,14
196515) and Herbert and Shurben (1964).16 The ratios be-
tween LC5 and LC50 for the same exposure times are as
follows: fluoride 0.4; a demulsifier 0.55; ammonium chlor-
ide 0.55 (high concentrations) and 0.8 (low concentra-
tions); washing powders 0.75, and a corrosion inhibitor
0.88. Even for the same pollutant the ratio is different for
different concentrations when the time-concentration rela-
tion is curved, as it is for many substances. A difference is
also found when the toxicity curves are not parallel, as for
ABS in Figure II-A-3. The LC2/LC50 ratio for ABS varies
from 0.46 to 0.72 at high concentrations and short times,
and increases to 0,87 for the 96-hour exposures.
Because of this variability, no simple rule of thumb can
be proposed for estimating, from the 50 per cent values, the
concentrations which will produce negligible mortality or
the exposure times for negligible mortality. It is necessary to
determine this empirically by the steps used in constructing
Figure II-A-2.
-------
APPENDIX II-B
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY INDICES
Evaluation Systems for Protection
There are two basic approaches in evaluating the effects
of pollution on aquatic life: the first by a taxonomic group-
ing of organisms; the second by identifying the community
of aquatic organisms.
First, the saprobian system of Kolkwitz and Marsson
(1908,49 1909'>°), modified and used by Richardson (1928),63
Gaufin (1956),44 Hynes (1962)48 and Beck (1954,38 195539),
depended upon a taxonomic grouping of organisms related
to their habitat in clean water, polluted water, or both. This
approach requires a precise identification of organisms. It
is based on the fact that different organisms have different
ranges of tolerance to the same stress. Patrick (1951)59 and
Wurtz (1955)67 used a system of histograms to report the
results of stream surveys based on the differences in toler-
ance of various groups of aquatic organisms to pollution.
Beck (1955)3<) developed a biotic index as a method of
evaluating the effects of pollution on bottom fauna or-
ganisms. The biotic index is calculated by multiplying the
number of intolerant species by two and then adding the
number of facultative organisms. Beck designated a biotic
index value greater than 10 to indicate clean water and a
value less than 10 to indicate polluted water. Other tech-
niques based on the tolerance of aquatic organisms to pol-
lution have been reported by Gaufin (1958)45 and Beak
(1965).37
The breakdown of an assemblage of organisms into pol-
lution-tolerant, -intolerant, and -facultative categories is
somewhat subjective, because tolerance for the same
organisms may vary under a different set of environmental
conditions. Needham (1938)58 observed that environmental
conditions other than pollution may influence the distribu-
tion of organisms. Pollution-tolerant organisms are also
found in clean water areas (Gaufin and Tarzwell, 1952).46
Therefore, the concept of the use of taxonomic groupings of
organisms to evaluate water quality biologically has certain
difficulties and is not commonly accepted today.
The second approach is to use the community structure
of associations or populations of aquatic organisms to
evaluate pollution. Hairston (1959)47 defined community
structure in terms of frequency of species per unit area
spatial distribution of individuals, and numerical abundanct
of species. Gaufin (1956)44 found that the community struc
ture of bcnthic invertebrates provided a more reliable cri
terion of organic enrichment than presence of a specific
species.
Diversity indices that permit the summarization of large
amounts of information about the numbers and kinds o1
organisms have begun to replace the long descriptive list;
common to early pollution survey work. These diversit>
indices result in a numerical expression that can be used tc
make comparisons between communities of organisms.
Some of these have been developed to express the relation-
ships of numbers of species in various communities and
overlap of species between communities.
The Jaccard Index is one of the commonest used to ex-
press species overlap. Other indices such as the Shannon-
Weincr information theory (Shannon and Weaver 1963)64
have been used to express the evenness of distribution of
individuals in species composing a community. The divers-
ity index increases as evenness increases (Margalef 1958,M
Hairston 1959,47 MacArthur and MacArthur 1961,55 and
Mac Arthur 1964:>3). Various methods have been developed
for comparing the diversity of communities and for de-
termining the relationship of the actual diversity to the
maximum or minimum diversity that might occur within a
given number of species. Methods have been thoroughly
discussed by Lloyd and Ghelardi (1964),61 Patten (1962),60
MacArthur (1965),54 Pielou (1966,61 196962), Mclntosh
(1967)57, Mathis (1965)56, Wilhrn (1965),65 and Wilhm and
Dorris (1968)66 as to what indices are appropriate for what
kinds of samples. An index for diversity of community
structure also has been developed by Cairns, Jr. et al.
(.968)40 and Cairns, Jr. and Dickson (1971)41 based on a
modification of the sign test and theory runs of Dixon and
Massey (1951).42
Diversity indices derived from information theory were
first used by Margalef (1958)5'! to analyze natural com-
munities. This technique equates diversity with informa-
tion. Maximum diversity, and thus maximum information,
408
-------
Appendix II-B—Community Structure and Diversity Indices/409
exists in a community of organisms when each individual
belongs to a different species. Minimum diversity (or high
redundancy) exists when all individuals belong to the same
species. Thus, mathematical expressions can be used for
diversity and redundancy that describe community struc-
ture.
As pointed out by Wilhm and Dorris (1968),66 natural
biotic communities typically are characterized by the
presence of a few species with many individuals and many
species with a few individuals. An unfavorable limiting
factor such as pollution results in detectable changes in com-
munity structure. As it relates to information theory, more
information (diversity) is contained in a natural community
than in a polluted community. A polluted system is simpli-
fied, and those species that survive encounter less competi-
tion and therefore may increase in numbers. Redundancy in
this case is high, because the probability that an individual
belongs to a species previously recognized is increased, and
the amount of information per individual is reduced.
The relative value of using indices or models to interpret
data depends upon the information sought. To see the rela-
tive distribution of population sizes among species, a model
is often more illuminating than an index. To determine in-
formation for a number of different kinds of communities,
diversity indices are more appropriate. Many indices over-
emphasize the dominance of one or a few species and thus
it is often difficult to determine, as in the use of the Shannon-
Weiner information theory, the difference between a com-
munity composed of one or two dominants and a few rare
species, or one composed of one or two dominants and one
or two rare species. Under such conditions, an index such as
that discussed by Fisher, Corbet and Williams (1943)43 is
more appropriate. To use the Shannon-Weiner index, much
more information about the community is obtained if a
diversity index is plotted.
This section is the basis for the criteria on change of
diversity given in the sections on Suspended Solids and
Hardness, Temperature, and Dissolved Oxygen.
-------
APPENDIX II-C
THERMAL TABLES—Time-temperature relationships and lethal threshold temperatures for resistance of aquatic
organisms (principally fish) to extreme temperatures (from Coutant, in press75 1972). Column headings, where not self-
explanatory, are identified in footnotes. LD50 data obtained for single times only were included only when they amplified
temperature-time information.
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Abudeldul saxa- Adult
tilis (Sargent
major)
Adima lenica Adult
(diamond Killi-
lish)
Athermops affims Juvenile 6. 0-6. 2 cm
(topsmel!)
Brevoortia tyran- larval 17-34 mm Mixed
nus (Atlantic
menhaden)
Brevoortia tyran- Young-of-the-
nus (Atlantic year
menhaden)
Brevoortia tyran- Yearling
nus (Atlantic
menhaden)
Crassius auratus Juvenile 2gave Mixed
(goldfish)
Catostomus com- Adult (1-2 yr) .. 10-19.9 Mixed
mersonni (white (mode)
sucker)
Location
Northern Gulf
of California
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
LaJolla, Calif.
Beaufort Har-
bor, North
Carolina
(36°N)
Beaufort;
N.C.
Beaufort,
N.C.
Commercial
dealer
(Toronto)
Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario
Reference
Heath, W. G.
(1967)»»
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)"
Doudoroff
(1945")
Lewis (1965)"
Lewis and Hef-
tier (1966)"
Lewis and Het-
tler (196!)92
Fry, Brett, &
Clawson
(1942)« (and
Fry, Hart, &
Walker,
1946)"
Hart (19478')
Eitreme
Upper
Udper
Upper
Lower
Lower
"
"
"
"
Upper
Lower
Upper
Upper
Lower
Upper
Lower
Acclimation log time=a+ti (temp.) Data
/<
Temp«
32
35
35
35
35
18.0
20
14.5
18.6
20
255
7.0
10 0
12.5
15.0
20.0
21
27
16
18
21
22-23
1-2
10
17
24
32
38
19
24
38
5
10
15
20
25
20
25
Time a
42 9005
(0°/oi))« 21.9337
(5 »/oo)« 27 7919
(10Voo)« 26.8121
(20 o/0o)« 28.3930
42.2531
-0.4667
0.961U
0 7572
0 6602
0.5675
0 2620
(5VoJ 57.9980
(5 Voo) 85 1837
(26-30 °/oo)
(10 Voo)
(5 Voo) 357158
(4-6 Voo) 21.8083
20.0213
21.9234
33.6957
19.9890
31.9007
27.0023
22.2209
b
-0.0934
-0.4866
-0 6159
-0.5899
-0.6290
-1.2215
0.3926
0.2564
0.2526
0.2786
0.2321
0.1817
-0.1643
-2.3521
-1.0468
-0.6342
-0.4523
-0.4773
-1.1797
-0.6410
-1.0034
-0.8068
-0.6277
N<-
3
6
6
6
6
9
7
9
12
12
14
3
2
2
3
10
2
2
2
3
2
4
7
upper
-0.9945 37.0
-0.9930 43.0
-0.9841 43.5
-0.9829 43.5
-0 9734 43.5
-0.9836 33 5
0.9765 11 0
0.9607 4.0
0 9452 5.0
0.9852 5.5
0.9306 7.0
0.9612 4.0
35.0
35.0
7.0
7.0
-0.9174 34
-0.9216 35
41.0
43.0
27.5
-0.6857 29
30
-0.9606 31.5
-0.9888 32.5
limits
'C)
lower
36.0
40.5
41.0
41.0
41.0
31.5
5.0
-1.0
34.0
34.5
3.0
3.0
33
31
39.0
41.0
27.0
28
29.5
30
29.5
L050
30.5(24)
7.6(24)
8.8(24)
13.5(24)
28 (14)
31 (14)
34 (14)
36 (14)
39.2(14)
41.0(14)
1.0(14)
5.0(H)
15.5(14)
Lethal
threshold''
(°C)
31.0
10.5
5.0
6.0
>7.0
>8.0
6.5
6.5
32.5
41.0
26.3
27.7
29.3
29.3
29.3
2.5
6.0
" It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
* Number ot median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line= 1.0).
•i = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)."
• Salinity.
/ Log time in hours to 50% mortality. Includes 2-3 hr. required tor test bath to reach the test temperature.
410
-------
Appendix 7/-C/411
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex Location
Coregonus astedii Juvenile
(Cisco)
Coregonus hoyi Juvenile 60.0mm
(bloater) (age 1) 5.0. 5.B
Cypnnodon varie- Adult
gatus (sheeps-
head mmnow)
Cyprmodon vane- Adult
gatus vanegatus
(sneepshead
minnow)
Dorosoma cepedi- Underyearling
anum (gizzard
shad)
Dorosoma cepedi- Underyearling
anum (gizzard
shad)
Esox lucius Juvenile Minimum
(Northern Pike) 5.0cm
Esox masqumongy Juvenile Minimum
(Muskellunge) 5.0cm
Esox hybrid Juvenile 5.0cm
(luciusx masqui- minimum
nongy)
Fundulus chryso- Adult
tus (golden top-
minnow
Fundulus diapha- Adult
nus (banded
killifish)
Fundulus grandis Adult
(gulf killifish)
Fundulus hetero- Adult
clitus (mummic-
hog)
Mixed Pickerel
Lake,«
Washtenaw
Co., Mich.
Mixed Lake Michi-
gan at/
Kenosha,
Wise.
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Galveston
Island, Gal- , . .
Reference Extremt
Edsall and Upper
Colby,
1970i»2
Lower
Edsall, Rottiers Upper
& Brown,
1970™
Strawn and Upper
Dunn
(1967SS)
Simmons Upper
(1971)"
Acclimation
Temp
2
5
10
20
25
2
5
10
20
25
5
10
15
20
25
35
35
35
35
30
» Time
8wks
4wks
>2wks
2wks
Swks
Swks
4wks
>2wks
2wks
Swks
11 da
5 da
5 da
5 da
5 da
(0 0, on)
(5 o/oo)
(10 »/oo)
(20<>/i)>)
700 hrs.»
(from 21 3 C)
log time=a+b (temp.)
a
16.5135
10.2799
12.4993
17.2967
15. 1204
2 7355
2.5090
1.7154
15.8243
9.0700
17 1908
28.6392
21.3511
27.9021
35.3415
30.0910
30.0394
35.0420
b
-0.6689
-0.3645
-0 4098
-0.5333
-0.4493
0.3381
0.2685
0.1652
-0 5831
-0.2896
-0 5707
-0 9458
-0.6594
-0.6217
-0.7858
-0.6629
-0.6594
-0.8025
N* r=
4 -0.9789
3 -0.9264
6 -0 9734
8 -0.9487
7 -0.9764
5 0.9021
6 0.9637
9 0.9175
5 -0 9095
6 -0.9516
4 -0 9960
4 -0 9692
5 -0.9958
6 -0.9783
6 -0.9787
6 -0.9950
4 -0 9982
2
Data
- C
upper
23.0
24.0
28.0
30.0
30.0
1.5
1.0
3.0
4.5
9.5
26.0
30 0
28.0
29.0
30.0
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.5
41.4
limits Lethal
:'C) LD50 threshold-'
t°r\
lower
19.0
20.0
24.0
26.0
25 5
0.3
0 5
0.5
0 5
0.5
22.0
23.0
24 5
25 5
26.5
40.5
41.0
41.5
41.5
40.8
V "/
. 19.7
21.7
24.2
26.2
25.7(u)
<0.3
<0.5
3.0
4.7
9.7
22.2
23 6
24 8
26 2
26.7
40.5
veston, Texas
Put-m-Bay,
Ohio
Knoxville,
Tenn.
Maple, On-
Hart(1952)«» Upper
Lower
Hart (1952)1" Upper
Scott (We Upper
tario, Canada
Deerlake
Hatchery
Ontario,
Canada
Maple, On-
Scott (1964)>« Upper
Scott (1964)« Upper
tario, Canada
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Halifax Co.
and Annapo-
lis Co., Nova
Scotia
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Halifax Co.
and Annapo-
lis Co., Nova
Scotia
Strawn & Dunn Upper
(1967)"
Garside and Upper
Jordan
(1968)«<
Strawn & Upper
Dunn
(1967)>»
Garside and Upper
Jordan
(1968)8<
25
30
35
25
30
35
25
30
35
25.0
27 5
30.0
25 0
27 5
30.0
25.0
27.5
30.0
35
35
35
15
15
15
35
35
35
35
15
15
15
field &
3-4 da
"
"
(0 o/oo)-
(5°/(»)-
(20 o/oo)-
(0 O/M)'
(14 %to)
(32 o/oo)
(0 Voo)
(5 Voo)
(10 »/»)
(20 Voo)
(Oo/oo))
(14 Voo)
(32 o/oo)
47.1163
38.0656
31.5434
32.1348
41.1030
33.2846
17.3066
17.4439
17.0961
18.8879
20.0817
18 9506
18.6533
20.7834
19.6126
23 7284
21.2575
21.8635
22.9809
27.6447
24.9072
23.4251
-1 3010
-0.9694
-0.7710
-0.8698
-0.0547
-0 8176
-0.4523
-0.4490
-0.4319
-0 5035
-0.5283
-0.4851
-0.4926
-0.5460
-0.5032
-0.5219
-0 4601
-0 4759
-0.5179
-0.6220
-0.5535
-0 5169
3 -0.9975
4 -0 9921
5 -9.9642
2
4 -0.9991
6 -0 9896
5 -0.9990
5 -0 9985
5 -0.9971
5 -0.9742
5 -0.9911
5 -0.9972
4 -0.9941
5 -0.9995
5 -0.9951
9 -0.9968
7 -0.9969
8 -0.9905
8 -0 9782
7 -0.9967
9 -0.9926
8 -0.9970
35.5
38.0
39.0
35.5
38.0
39
34.5
35.0
35.5
34.5
35.0
35.5
34.5
35.0
35.5
43.0
43.5
43.5
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.0
34 5
36.5
37.0
35.0
36.5
36.5
32.5
33.0
33.5
32.5
33.0
33.5
33 0
33.0
33.5
39.0
40 0
40.0
38.5
39.5
39.0
39.5
34.0
36.0
36.5(U)
10.8
14.5
. 20.0
. 34.5
36.0
36.5
. 32.25
32.75
. 33.25(u)
. 32.25
32.75
33.25
00
32.5
32.75
33.25
00
38.5
. 27.5
33.5
27.5
28.0
34.0
31.5
" It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
6 Number ol median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
« Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression lme= 1.0).
1 mo.
'• Acclimated and tested at 10 °/oo salinity.
• Tested in three salinities.
> Tested at 3 levels of salinity.
-------
412/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/ate Length Weight Set
Fundulus par- Adult 6-7 cm . Mined
vipmnis (Cali-
fornia killifish)
(tested in seawaler
except as noted)
Location
Mission Bay,
Calif, (sea-
water)
Reference
Doudoroff
(1945)"
Acclimation
Extreme
Tempo
Upper 14
20
28
Lower 14
20
20
20
Time
(into 45%
log time=a+b (temp.)
a
23.3781
50.6021
24.5437
2.1908
2.7381
2.5635
2.6552
b
-0.6439
-1.3457
-0.5801
1.0751
0.2169
0.3481
0.4014
N''
4
11
7
3
6
4
8
F
-0.9845
-0.9236
-0.9960
0.9449
0.9469
0.8291
0.7348
Data limits
(°C) LD!
upper
34.0
37.0
40.0
1.6
7.0
4.0
4.0
lower
32.0
34.0 .
36.0
0.4
2.0
2.0
2.0 . .
Lethal
fl threshold'
CO
32.3
34.4
36.5
1.2
5.6
3.6
. . 3.8
sea water 1 day before
Fundulus pul- Adult
vereus (bayou
killifish)
Fundulus similis Adult
(longnose kirn-
fish)
Gambusia affims Adult Mixed
affmis (mosquito-
fish)
Gambusia affims Adult
(mosquitofish)
(freshwater)
Gambusia affims Adult
(mosquitofish)
(saltwater)
Gambusia aflinis Adult Mixed
holbrooki
(mosquitofish)
Garmannia Adult
chiquita (goby)
Gasterosteus acu- Adult 37mmave. 0.50 gave. Mixed
leatus (three-
spine stickle-
back)
Girella nigricans Juvenile 7.1-8.0 cm Mixed
(opaleye)
Ictalurus
(Amicurus) neb-
ulosus (brown
bullhead)
Ictalurus puncta- Juvenile Mixed
(us (channel (44-57 da
catfish) old)
. Jefferson
County,
Texas
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Knoxville,
Tenn.
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
Welaka,
Florida
Northern Gulf
of California
Coast
Columbia
River near
Prescott,
Oregon
LaJolla, Cali-
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)»»
Strawn and
Dunn
(T967)»»
Hart (1952)'"
Strawn &
Dunn
(1967)»
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)»9
Hart (1952)88
Heath (1967)8"
Blahm and
Parente
(1970)1"1 un-
published
data
Doudoroff
fornia (33°N) (1942)™
Florida to On-
tario (4 lo-
cations) com
bined
Centerton,
Ark.
(hatchery)
Hart (1952)»8
Allen &
Strawn
(1968)'2
testing)
Upper 35
35
35
35
Upper 35
35
35
35
Upper 25
30
35
Upper 35
35
35
35
Upper 35
35
35
35
Upper 15
20
30
35
Lower 15
20
35
Upper 32
Upper 19
Upper 12
20
28
Lower 12
20
28
Upper 5
10
15
20
25
30
34
Lower 20
25
30
Upper 26
30
34
(OVoo)
(5°/oo)
(10 %o)
(20 o/00)
(0 o/oo).
(5 Voo)
(10 Voo)
(20 «/oo)
(0 Voo>
(5 Voo)
(10 <>/oo)
(20 Voo)
(0 Voo)'
(5 »/oo)
(10 Voo)
(20 Voo)
28.1418
29.3774
25.0890
30.4702
22.9485
25 6165
26.4675
26.5612
39.0004
30.1523
23.8110
22.4434
23.1338
23 4977
22.1994
17.6144
18.9339
23 0784
22.8663
32.4692
38.3139
31.4312
28 1212
21.7179
19.3491
21.1277
19.2641
24.7273
1.4851
-1.3878
-0.1238
14.6802
16.4227
28.3281
23.9586
22.4970
24.2203
19.3194
34 7119
32.1736
26.4204
-0.6304
-0.6514
-0.5477
-0.6745
-0.5113
-0.5690
-0.5863
-0.5879
-0.9771
-0.7143
-0.5408
-0.5108
-0.5214
-0.5304
-0.5001
-0.3909
-0.4182
-0.5165
-0 5124
-0.8507
-0.9673
-0.7477
-0.6564
-0.5166
-9.5940
-0.6339
-0 5080
-0.6740
0.4886
0.6248
0.2614
-0.4539
-0.4842
-0.8239
-0.6473
-0.5732
-0.5917
-0.4500
-0.8816
-0.7811
-0.6149
8
7
5
>
6
6
6
6
2
6
6
5
5
8
6
5
5
7
6
3
3
5
5
3
3
6
7
4
8
6
6
4
10
3
11
12
19
5
13
U
2D
-0.9741
-0.9931
-0.9956
-0.9849
-0.9892
-0.9984
-0.9925
-0.9953
-0.9938
-0.9978
-0.9600
-0.9825
-0.9852
-0.9881
-0.9822
-0.9990
-0.9982
-0.9957
-0.9813
-0.9843
-0.9995
-0.9909
-0 9905
-0.9998
-0.9338
-0.9930
-0.9822
0.955C
0.9895
0.9720
-0.9782
-0.9526
-0.9881
-0.9712
-0.9794
-0.9938
-0.9912
-0.9793
-0.9510
-0.9638
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.5
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.0
39
40
41.5
42.0
42.5
42.5
42 5
42.5
42.5
42.5
42 5
37
38.5
40
40
37.0
32
31.0
35.0
33.0
5.0
8.0
13.0
29.5
31.5
33.0
35.0
37.0
38.5
37.5
39.0
40.6
42.0
39.0
40.0
41.5
40.0
40.5
41.0
41.0
40.5
38
37.5
39
40.0
40.5
40.0
40.0
40.5 .
40.5
39.5
40.0
36
37.5
38
38.5
36.0
26 ...
27.0
31.0 .
31.0
1.0
5.0
6.0
28.0
29.5
32.5
32.5
34.0
35.5
36.0
36.6
37.4
38.0
38.5
.. 37.0
37.0
37.0(u)
355
. 37.0
37.0
37.0(u)
1.5
5.5
. . 14.5
25 8
. 28.7
. 31.4
. 31.4
5.5
8.5
. 13.5
. 27.8
. 29.0
.. 31.0
32.5
. 33.8
34.8
. . 34.8
0.5
4.0
6.8
36.6
. 37.8
. 38.0
"Ids assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
* Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
'• Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line-
<' -Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).";
• Salinity.
1.0).
-------
Appendix II-C/413
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Ictalurus puncta- Juvenile
(us (channel (11. 5 mo)
catfish)
Ictalurus pimcta- Adult Mixed
(us (1. lanistris)
(channel catfish)
Lepomis macro- Adult Mixed
chirus purpures-
cens (bluegill)
Lepomis macro- Adult Mixed
chirus (bluegill)
Lepomis megalotis Juvenile >12mm Mixed
(longear sunfish)
Lepomis sym- Adult
metricus (ban-
tam sunfish)
Lucania parva Adult
(rainwater killi-
fish)
Memdia memdia 8. 3-9. 2cm 4. 3-5-2 gm Mixed
(common sil«er- (average (average
side) for test for test
groups) groups)
Micropterus sal- 9-11 mo. age
moides flori-
danus (large-
mouth bass)
Micropterus sal-
moides (large-
mouth bass)
Micropterus sal- Under yearling
moides (large-
mouth bass)
Micropterus sal-
moides (large-
mouth bass)
Mysis rehcta Adult Mixed
(Opposum
shrimp)
Location
Joe Hogan
State Fish
Hatchery,
Lonoke,
Arkansas
Welaka, Fla.
and Put-m-
Bay, Ohio
Welaka,
Florida
Lake Mendota,
Wisconsin
Middle Fork,
White River,
Arkansas
Jefferson Co ,
Texas
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
New Jersey
(40°N)
Welaka,
Florida
Put-m-Bay,
Ohio
Knoxville,
Tenn
Lake Men-
dota, Wis-
consin
Trout Lake,
Cook
County,
Minnesota
Reference Extreme -
Allen & Upper
Strawn
(19W)«
Hart(1952)»8 Upper
lower
Hart(1952)»« Upper
Lower
Hart(1952)88 Upper
Neill, Strawn & Upper
Dunn
(H66)»s
Strawn & Upper
Dunn
(1967)"
Strawn and Upper
Dunn
(1967)"
Holt & West- Upper
man (1966)»°
Lower
Hart (1952)88 Upper
Lower
Hart(1952)8» Upper
Lower
Hart (1952)" Upper
Hart (1952)™ Upper
Smith (1970)" Upper
Acclimation log time-a-l-b (temp.)
Temp"
25
30
35
15
20
25
15
20
25
15
20
25
30
15
20
25
30
20-23
30
25
30
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
7
14
21
29
7
14
21
28
20
25
30
20
25
30
20
25
30
20
30
30
35
22
30
7.5C
Time a
34.5554
17.7125
28.3031
34.7829
39 4967
46.2155
. 25.2708
28.0663
23.8733
25 7732
38.6247
30.1609
35 4953
20.5981
30.7245
(Oo/M)« 20.7487
(5»/oo) 23.5649
(20 Voo) 10 4421
(0»/oo> 21.2616
(5»/oo) 24.3076
(100/00) 24.3118
(20°/oo) 21.1302
19.8801
18.7499
65 7350
37.6032
-9.8144
-1 2884
-1.4801
-8.2366
35.5107
19.9918
17.5645
50.8091
26.3169
29.0213
36.0620
23.9185
34.3649
35.2777
>1wk 6.1302
b
0.8854
-0.4058
-0.6554
-1.0637
-1.1234
-1.2899
-0.7348
-0.7826
-0.6320
-0 6581
-1.0581
-0.7657
-0.9331
-0 4978
-9.7257
-0.4686
-0 5354
-0.2243
-0 4762
-0.5460
-0.5467
-0.4697
-0.7391
-0.6001
-2.0387
-1.0582
8.9079
2.5597
1.1484
1.3586
-1.0112
-0.5123
-0.4200
-1.4638
-0.6846
-0.7150
-0.9055
-0.5632
-0.9789
-0 9084
-0.1470
N'-
5
4
4
3
4
5
5
6
10
5
4
4
14
22
43
7
6
5
9
8
8
7
5
6
6
5
5
6
6
5
5
8
8
2
3
4
4
6
4
4
3
r
-0.9746
-0.9934
-0 9906
-0.9999
-0.9980
-0 9925
-0.9946
-0.9978
-0.9750
-0.9965
-0.8892
-0.9401
-0.9827
-0.9625
-0.9664
-0.9747
-0.9975
-0.9873
-0.9844
-0.9846
-0.9904
-0 9940
-0.9398
-0.9616
-0.9626
-0 8872
0.8274
0.8594
0.9531
0 9830
-0.9787
-0 9972
-0.9920
-0.9973
-0 9959
-0.9788
-0.9958
-0.9789
-0.9845
0.9245
Data limits Lethal
(°C) LD50 thrMhnUlt
upper
37.5
40.0
41.0
31.5
34.0
35.0
33.0
34.5
36.0
38
35.5
38.0
36.9
39.0
41.5
42.0
42.0
41.5
42.5
42.5
42 5
42.5
24.0
27.0
32.0
34.0
2
5
7
15
34
36.5
38
34
36.5
38.5
38.5
40
33.8
37.5
26
lower
35.5
37.5
38.0
30.5
33.0
34.0
31.0
32.5
33.0
34.5
34.0
36.0
35.4
36.5
37.3
39.0
39.0
39.5
38.5
39.0
39.0
39.5
20
23.0
28.0
30
1
1
2
7
32
33
34.5
33
35
37
37
37.5
32.0
35.5
16
CO
. 35.5
. 37.0
. 38
. 30.4
32.8
. 33.5
0.0
0.0
0 0
. 30.5
. 32.0
. 33.0
. 33.8
2 5
5.0
7.5
. 11.0
35.6
36.8
. 375
22.0
25.0
30.4
32.5
1.5
2.0
4.3
8.7
32
. 33
33 7(U)
5 2
7.0
. 10.5
32.5
. 34.5
36.4(11)
5.5
. 11.8
36.4
36.4(u)
31.5
. 16
a It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
'' Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
rf=Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).83
• Salinity.
-------
414:/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Neomysis awat- Adult >7mm . Mixed
schensis (opos-
sum shrimp)
Notemiionus Adult
crysoleucas
(golden shiner)
Notropis atheri- Juvenile 0-1. 9 g.mode Mixed
noides (emerald «1yr)
shiner)
Notropis cornutus Adult
(common shiner)
Notropis cornutus Adult 4. 0-5. 9 g Mixed
(common (mostly 2 yr) (mode)
shiner)
Notropis cornutus Adult
(common shiner)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 3. 81 ±0.29 0.30±0.15g Mixed
gorbuscha (pink water fry cm
salmon) (3. 8 mo.)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 5.44±0.89 1.62±1.03g Mixed
keta (chum water fry cm
salmon) (4 9 mo.)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile
keta (chum
salmon)
Location Reference
Sacramento- Hair (1971)"
San Joaquin
delta, Cali-
fornia
Composite Hart (1952)88
of 1. Welaka,
Fla. 2. Put-
in-Bay, Ohio
3. Algonquin
Park, On-
tario
Chippewa Hart (1947)"
Creek, Wei-
land, Ontario
Toronto, On- Hart(1952)88
tario
Don River, Hart(1947)8'
Thornhill,
Ontario
. Knoxville, Hart(1952>=8
Tenn.
Dungeness, Brett (1952)"
Wash.
(hatchery)
Nile Creek. Brett (1952)'4
B.C.
(hatchery)
Big Creek Blahm and
Hatchery, Parente
Hoodsport, (1970)111
Extreme
Upper
Upper
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
Upper
tower
Upper
Upper
Upper
lower
Upper
Acclimation
Temp« Time
10 3'
11.0
15.1
18 3
19.0
19.0
21.7
22.0
22.4
10
15
20
25
30
15
20
25
30
5
10
15
20
25
15
20
25
10
15
20
25(win-
ter)
25
30
5
10
15
20
25
20
25
25
30
5
10
15
20
24
5
10
15
20
23
5
10
15
20
23
9 10%'
50%
90%
log time=afb (temp.)
8
a
4694
b
-0.2150
N'
2
"
Data
- ('
upper
i limits Lethal
'C) LD50 threshol
lower
v *•)
73 (48)
72.5(48)
73.8(48)
76.1(48)
74.0(48)
24. 2-25 .
77.0(48)
. 77.5(48)
76.0(48)
42
30
31
34
26
7095
.2861
.0275
.2505
.3829
20.9532
36.5023
47.4849
33
26
.4714
.7096
45.4331
34.5324
24 9620
28,
.5059
28.1261
40.7738
45.0972
34
24.
5324
9620
25.5152
24.
11.
11
9660
1827
9021
12.8937
16.
14.
14.
14.
15
16.
15.
16.
15.
16.
2444
7111
3829
1773
8911
1894
3825
9245
9272
8763
-1.3507
-0.8933
-0.8722
-0.9226
-0.6615
-0.7959
-1.2736
-1.5441
-0.9858
-0.7337
-1.3979
-1.0116
-0 6878
-0 7741
-0.7316
-1.3522
-1 3874
-1.0116
-0.6878
-0.6794
-0 6297
-0.4215
-0 3865
-0.4074
-0 4074
-0 4459
-0.5320
-0 4766
-0 5252
-0.5168
-0.4721
-0.5995
-0.5575
-0.5881
3
4
15
9
10
3
2
3
3
6
1
2
4
5
B
6
3
J
4
S
6
10
4
H
H
7
K
'1
II
1!
a
4
t
4
4
-0.9998
-0.9844
-0.9869
-0 9665
-0.9940
-0.9519
-0.9803
-0.9805
-0.9753
-0.9560
-0.9915
-0.9973
-0.9946
-0.9729
-0.9999
-0.9560
-0 9915
-0.9938
-0.9978
-0.9573
-0.9840
-0.9884
-0.9681
-0.9690
-0.9839
-0.8665
-0.9070
-0.9750
-0.9652
-0.9927
-0 9972
-0.9995
305
32.5
34.5
36.0
37.5
24.5
27.5
30.5
32.5
34.0
29.0
31.5
33.0
34.0
35.5
36.5
30.0
32.0
33 0
34.0
35.5
38.0
24.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27 5
24 0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27.0
1
5
7
8
29
29
29
29.5
31.0
32.0
34
35
23.5
27.0
29.5
31.5
31 5
29.0
31.0
31.5
32 0
32.0
34.0
29.0 ..
3t.O
31.5
32.0
33.0
34.5
22.0
23.0
23.5
24.0
24 5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0
17
17
17
29.5
30.5
32.0
33.5
34.5
1.5
4.0
7.0
. 11.2
. 23.3
26.7
28.9
30.7
30.7
1.6
5.2
8.0
29.0
30.5
31.0
. 31.0
31.0
31 0(u
26.7
28.6
30.3
31.0
31.0
3.7
7 8
33 0
33 5(11
21.3±0
22 5±0
23 1±0
23.9±0.
23 9
21.8
22.6
23 1±0.
23.7
23.8±0.<
0.5
4 7
6.5
7.3
22.0
23.2
. 23.6
Wash,'- unpublished
data
° It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
»Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression lme=1.0).
* = Incipient etlhal temperature ot Fry, et al, (1S46)><
' All temperatures estimated from a graph.
' For maximum of 48 hr exposure. The lower temperature is uncorrected for heavy mortality of control animals at
"acclimation" temperatures above about 216.
' The author concluded that there were no geographic differences. The Welaka, Florida subspecies was N.c. bosii,
the others N.c. auratus, based on morphology.
1 Tested in Columbia River Water at Prescott, Oregon.
• Mortality Value.
-------
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Appendix 7/-C/415
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4.78±0.6 1.37±0.62g Mixed
Kisutch (coho water fry cm
salmon) (5. 2 mo.)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile
kisutch (coho
salmon)
Oncorhynchus Adult a 570 mm a 2500 g ave. Mixed
kisutch (coho ave
salmon)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4.49±0.84 0.87±0 45g Mixed
nerka (sockeye water fry cm
salmon) (4. 7 mo)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 67 mm ave. Mixed
nerka (sockeye (under
salmon) yearling)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 100-105 mm Mixed
nerka (sockeye (yearling) are for test
salmon) groups
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4. 44±0 40 1.03±0.27g Mixed
tshawytscha water fry cm
(Chinook (3. 6 mo.)
salmon)
Location Reference
Nile Creek, Brett (1952)"
B.C.
(hatchery)
Kalama Falls, Blahm 8,
Wash. McConnell
(hatchery)« (1970)"»
unpublished
dala
Columbia Coutant
River at (1970)76
Priest Rap-
ids Dam
Issaquah, Brett (1952)"
Wash.
(hatchery)
National Fish McConnell &
Hatchery* Blahm
Leaven- (1970)"»
worth, unpublished
Wash. data
National Fish McConnell &
Hatchery Blahm
Leaven- (1970)i»3
worth, unpublished
Wash.- data
Dungeness, Brett (1952)"
Wash.
(hatchery)
Acclimation
Temp°
Upper 5
10
15
20
23
Lower 5
10
15
20
23
Upper 10
141
Upper 17»
Upper 5
10
15
20
23
Lower 5
10
15
20
23
Upper 10
20
Upper 10 1°C
per day rise
to accl. temp.
12"
15.5"
17"
Upper 5
10
15
20
24
Lower 10
15
20
23
Time
(10%X
(50%)
(90%)
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)
10%'
50%
90%
10%
50%
90%
(1C%)>
(50%)
(90%)
00%)
(50%)
(90%)
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)
log Cme=a+b (temp.)
a
21.3050
19.5721
20 4066
20.4022
18.9736
15.4616
18.4136
15.9026
8.5307
8.5195
5.9068
17.7887
14.7319
15.8799
19.3821
20.0020
18.4771
18.5833
20.6289
17 5227
16.7328
15 7823
6.4771
9.0438
9.0628
13.2412
18.1322
17.5427
12.1763
13.6666
12 7165
17.4210
17.2432
17.2393
9.3155
16.4595
16.4454
22.9065
18.9940
b
-0.7970
-0.6820
-0.6858
-0.6713
-0.6013
-0.5522
-0.6410
-0.5423
-0.2969
-0.2433
-0.1630
-0.6623
-0.4988
-0.5210
-0.6378
-0.6496
-0.6458
-0.6437
-0.7166
-0.5861
-0.5473
-0.5061
-0.2118
-0.2922
-0.2859
-0 4475
-0.6178
-0.5900
-0.4004
-0.4432
-0.4057
-0.6114
-0.5885
-0.5769
-0.3107
-0.5575
-0.5364
-0 7611
-0.5992
N»
2
4
6
4
5
6
6
4
10
10
5
4
8
7
5
4
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
5
4
4
6
5
4
7
9
,'
-0.9847
-0.9681
-0.9985
-0.9956
-0.8533
-0.9705
-0.9730
-0.9063
-0.8483
-0.9767
-0.9383
-0.9833
-0.9126
-0.9602
-C.9981
-0.9671
-0.9750
-0.9553
-0.9739
-0.9552
-0.9539
-0.9887
-0.9392
-0.9534
-0.9955
-0.9598
-0.9533
-0.9443
-0.9720
-0.9748
-0.9549
-0.9450
-0.9364
-0.9847
-0.9996
-0.9906
-0.9850
-0.9923
Data
C
upper
24.0
26.0
27.0
27.5
27.5
1
3
5
7
29
29
29
29
29
30
24.0
26.5
27.5
27.5
26.5
0
4
5
5
7
29
29
29
29
29
29
32
32
32
29
29
29
32
32
32
29
29
29
25.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27.5
1.0
3.0
5.0
8.0
limits Lethal
C) LD50 threshold-'
lower
23.0
24.5
24.5
25.5
25.0
1.0
1.7
17.0
17.0
14.0 ...
0.14
26
22.5
23.5
24.5
24.5
24.5
0
0
0
0
1.0
17
17
17
21
21
21
14
14
14
17
17
17
17
17
17 .
20
20
20
22.5
245
25.5
25.0
25.0
0
0.5
0.5
1.0
\ w
. 22.9±0.3
. . 23.7
. 24.3±0.3
. 25.0±0.2
. 25.0±0.2
0.2
1.7
3.5
4.5
6.4
23.2
23.5
23.7
.... 14.0
. 17.0
22.0
7
. 22.2±0.3
23.4±0.3
. 24.4±0.3
. 24.8±0.3
24.8±0.3
0
3.1
4.1
4.7
6.7
. 21.5
. 22.5
23.0
. 23.5
. 23.5
23.5
23.5
. 23.5
. 22.5
23.5
21.5
. 24.3±0.1
25.0±0.1
25.1±0.1
25.1±0.1
0.8
2.5
4.5
7.4
" It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
'' Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
•- Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line- 1.0).
d = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).83
• 10 C—acclimated fish came directly from the hatchery.
i Data were presented allowing calculation of 10% and 90% mortality.
»14 C—acclimated fish were collected from the Columbia River 4-6 wks following release from the hatchery
(and may have included a few fish from other upstream sources). River water was supersaturated with Nitrogen,
and 14-C fish showed signs of gas-bubble disease during tests.
* River temp, during fall migration.
< Tested in Columbia River water at Prescott, Oregon.
> Per cent mortalities.
-------
416/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species State/age Length Weigh! Sex
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 39-124 mm . Mixed
tshawytscha averages
(Chinook for various
salmon) test groups
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 84 mm ave. 6.3gave. Mixed
tshawytscha
(Chinook salmon
spring run)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 40 mm. ave. Mixed
tshawytscha
(Chinook salmon)
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 90. 6 mm ave. 7. 8 gave. Mixed
tshawytscha
(chmook salmon
fall run)
Oncorhynchus "Jacks" 2500 mm ave. 2000 g. ave. Males
tshawytscha 1-2 yrs old
(Chinook
salmon)
Perca flavescens Juvenile 49 mm ave. 1.2 gave. Mixed
(yellow perch)
Perca flavescens Adult (4 yr .. 8.0-9.9 g Mixed
(yellow perch) mode) mode
Petromyzon Prolarvae
marinus (sea
lamprey, land-
locked)
Location
Columbia
River at
Prescott,
Oregon
Little White
Salmon,
River
Hatchery,
Cook,
Washington
Eggs from
Seattle,
Wash.
raised from
yolk-sac
stage in
Columbia
River water
at Prescott,
Oregon
Little White
Salmon
Riverhatch-
ery, Cook,
Washington
Columbia
River at
Reference
Snyder &
Blahm
(1970)i°5
unpublished
data
Blahm &
McConnell
(1970)™
unpublished
data
Snyder &
Blahm
(1970)10*
unpublished
data
Blahm &
McConnell
(1970)i°»
unpublished
data
Coutant
(1970)'«
Acclimation
Extreme
Temp0 Time
Upper 10<
(10%0
(9o<;;)
10»
on1;?)
(9of,;)
12
13
do':;)
(90',;)
18»
do?;)
(90";)
Upper 11 2-3-wks
10%.
50%
90%
20 1C/day rise
from IOC
10%
50%
90%
Upper 4
(10%)'
(90%)'
Upper 11 2-3 wks
10%i
50%
90%
Upper 20 1C day use
from IOC
10%
50%
90%
Upper 17'
19'
log time=j+b (temp.)
a
16.8109
18.9770
17.0278
15.7101
15.1583
15.2525
18.2574
12.4058
10.1410
12.7366
13.3175
11.5122
14 2456
13.3696
14.6268
19.2211
22.6664
21.3981
20.9294
13.5019
8.9126
10.6491
18.6889
20.5471
20.8960
21.6756
22.2124
20.5162
13.2502
9.4683
b
-0.57C7
-0.66?1
-0.5845
-0.5403
-0.5312
-0.5130
-0.6149
-0.3974
-0.3218
-0.4040
-0.4240
-0.3745
-0.4434
-0 4691
-0.5066
-0.6679
-0.7797
-0.725J
-0.7024
-0.4874
-0.31911
-0.3771
-0.6569
-0.7147
-0.7231
-0.743!
-0.752t
-0.6860
-0 4121
-0 2504
N'
3
i
3
8
8"
8
5"
6
7
6
11
12
10
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
6
6
5
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
rc
-0.9998
-0.9918
-0.9997
-0.9255
-0.9439
-0.9360
-0.9821
-0.9608
-0.9496
-0.9753
-0.9550
-0.9413
-0.9620
-0.9504
-0 9843
-0.9295
-0.9747
-0.9579
-0.9463
-0.9845
-0.9618
-0.9997
-0.9618
-0.9283
-0.9240
-0.9550
-0.9738
-0.9475
-0.8206
-0.9952
Dati
- (
upper
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
32
32
32
30
30
30
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
30
26
i limits Letha
°C) LD50 threshc
lower
25
23
25
20
20
20
23
17
17
17
20
20
20
17
17
17
21
21
21
8
8
8
17
17
17
21
21
21
26
22
v w
24.5
22.9
24.5
23. S
20.5
23.5
. 20.5
20.0
19. S
23.0
20.5
. 20.0
23.5
23.0
23.5
. 23.8
23.8
24.7
24.8
20
13.5
?
23.5
24.2
24.5
. 24.5
24.5
24.5
?
22
Grand Rapids
Dam
Columbia
River near
Prescott,
Ore.
Black Creek,
Lake Sim-
coe, Ontario
. Great Lakes
Blahm and
Parente
(1970)i°i
unpublished
data
Hart (1947)"
McCauley
(1963)"
Uppei 19 field plus
4 da.
Upper 5
11
15
25
Lower 25
Upper 15 and 20"
15.3601
7.0095
17.6536
12.4149
21.2718
17 5642
-0 4126
-0.2214
-0.6021
-0.3641
-0.5909
-0.4680
2
9
2
5
6
18
-0.9904
-0.9994
-0.9698
-0.9683
38
26.5
26.5
30.5
33.0
34
32
22.0
26.0
28.5 ..
30.0
29
?
21.3
25.0
27.7
29.7
3.7
28.5
• It is assumed in this We that the acclimation temperature reported is a title acclimation in the context ot Brett
(1952)."
11 Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression lme=1.0).
* = Incipient lethal temperature oi Fry, et al., (1946)."
< Fish tested shortly after capture by beach seine.
/ Data were also available for calculation of 10% and 90% mortality of June test groups.
»These were likely syliergistic effects oi high N2 snpursalniation in these tests.
*Excluding apparent long-term secondary mortality.
* Data were available for 10% and 90% mortality as well as 50%.
' Data also available on 10% and 90% mortality.
'•• Data available for 10% and 90% mortality as well ai 50%.
' River temperatures during fall migrations two different years.
"> No difference was shown so data are lumped.
-------
Appendix 7/-C/417
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species St3gB/3ge Length Weight Sex
Pimephales Adult (mostly mostly 0-2 g Mixed
(Hyborhynchus) 1 yr)
notatus (blunt-
nose minnow)
Pimephales Adult (1 yr) 2. 0-3 9 g Mixed
promelas (fat- mode
head minnow)
Poecilia latipmna Adult
(Sailfm molly)
Pontoporeia affmis Adult Mixed
Pseudopleuro- 6. 0-7.1 cm 3 4-4. 2 g Mixed
nectes amen- (averages (averages
canus (winter for test for test
flounder) groups) groups)
Rhimchthys Adult
atratulus
(blacknose dace)
Rhimchthys Adult (?)
atratulus (black-
nose dace)
Rhimchthys Adult 2.0-3 9 Mixed
atratulus (Black- (mode)
nose dace)
Salmo gairdnern Juvenile 4.5.1.04cm Mixed
(Rainbow trout)
Salmo gairdnern Yearling
(rainbow trout)
Salmo gairdnern Juvenile 9.4±EOcm Mixed
(rainbow trout) and15.5±
1.8cm
oca ion
Etobicoke Cr.,
Ontario
Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
Lake Superior
near Two
Harbors,
Minn.
New Jersey
(40°N)
Knoxville,
Tenn.
Toronto,
Ontario
Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario
Britain
East end of
Lake
Superior
London,
England
(Hatchery)
Hart (1947)8'
Hart (1947)8'
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)"
Smith (1971)i<»
unpublished
data
Hoff & West-
man (1966)")
Hart (1952)88
Hart (1952)88
Hart (1947)8'
Alabaster &
Welcomme
(1962)'»
Craigie, D.E.
(1963)"
Alabaster &
Downing
(1966)"
Acclimation
T
Upper 5
10
15
20
25
Lower 15
20
25
Upper 10
20
30
Lower 20
30
Upper 35 (0 »/oo>
35 (5 »/oo)
35 (10 °/oo)
35 (20 »/oo)
Upper 6
9
Upper 7
14
21
28
Lower 7
14
21
28
Upper 20
25
28
Upper 5
15
20
25
Upper 5
10
15
20
25
Lower 20
25
Upper 18
18-
Raised in soft water
Upper 20 (tested in soft
water)
20 (tested in hard
water)
Raised in hard water
20 (tested in soft
water)
20 (tested in hard
water)
Upper 15
20
log time- a+b (temp.)
24.6417
55.8357
28.0377
34.3240
50.8212
60.7782
6.9970
41.3696
27.4296
25 6936
28 8808
27.1988
9 1790
28.2986
24.3020
49.0231
60.8070
2.4924
2 2145
21 2115
19 6451
21 3360
19.8158
24.5749
20.1840
77.1877
49 1469
19.6975
26.5952
23.5765
18 4654
13 6531
14.6405
15.0392
15.1473
12.8718
15.6500
19.6250
b
-0.8602
-1.8588
-0.8337
-0.9682
-1.4181
-2.0000
-0 1560
-1.1317
-0.6279
-0.5753
-0.6535
-0.6146
-0 5017
-1.1405
-0.8762
-1.6915
-1.9610
0.8165
0.2344
-0.5958
-0.5224
-0 5651
-0.5771
-0.7061
-0.5389
-2.7959
-1.6021
-0.5734
-0 7719
-0 6629
-0.5801
-0 4264
-0.4470
-0.4561
-0.4683
-0.3837
-0.500
-0.6250
Nb
2
2
3
4
3
2
4
5
6
6
7
3
2
4
6
5
4
3
3
7
10
7
4
7
8
2
3
4
8
9
5
5
3
3
3
3
2»
2
-0.9974
-0.9329
-0.9490
-0 7448
-0.9670
-0.9902
-0.9835
-0.9949
-0.9791
-0.9852
-0.9507
-0.9237
-0.9181
0 7816
0.9970
-0.9935
-0.9979
-0.9946
-0.9632
-0.9926
-0.9968
-0.8521
-0.9571
-0.9897
-0.9937
-0.9787
-0 9742
-0.9787
-0.9917
-0.9781
-0.9841
Data limits
(°f\ i nun
Lethal
thvflphnlil/i
\ **) LU3U UIIVHIWIU-
fOn\
upper
27.0
29.5
32.0
34.0
35.0
30.0
33.0
36.0
42.5
42 5
42.0
42.5
12
24.0
26.0
29.0
30.0
1.0
2.0
6.0
7.0
33
35
35.5
27
31.5
33
35
27.5
30 5
31.5
33 5
34.0
29.6
29.1
29
29
29
29
lower
26.5
29.0
31.0
32.5
34.0
29.5
28.5
34.0
38.5
39.0
39.0
39.5
10 8
10.4
(30 da)
20.0
23.0
26.0
29.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
4.0
30
30.5
32.5
27 27(1 hr)
30.0
30.0
32.0
27.0
29.5
30.0
295
30.0
26.3
26.3
27
27
27
27 .
V «/
26.0
28.3
30.6
31.7
33.3
10
4.2
7.5
28.2
31.7
33.2
1.5
10.5
10.5
22.0
23.7
27.0
29.1
1 0
1.0
14
6.0
293
29.3
29.3
29.3
293
293
26.5
28.8
29.6
29.3
29.3
2.2
5.0
26.5
26.5
" It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
'• Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line 1.0).
J = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).-'
« Salinity.
.' Dissolved oxygen Cone. 7.4 mg/l.
« Dissolved oxygen Cone. 3.8 mg/l.
h See note (under Salmo salar) about Alabaster 1967.-
-------
418/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight
Salmo gairdnerh Adult 2650 mm 4000 g ave.
(anadromous) ave.
(Steelhead
trout)
Salmosalar Smolts(1-2 About 16 cm
(Atlantic salmon) yrs) ave.
Salmo salar Newly hatched
(Atlantic salmon) larvae
Salmosalar 30 da after
(Atlantic salmon) hatching
Salmosalar Parr(lyr) 10 cm ave.
(Atlantic salmon)
Salmosalar Smo«s(l-2 11.7±1.5cm
(Atlantic salmon) yrs)
Salmo salar Smolts (1-2 14. 6±1 . 3 cm
(Atlantic salmon) yrs)
Salmo trutta Newly hatched
(brown trout) fry
Salmo trutta 30 da after
(Brown trout, hatching
searun)
Salmo trutta Juvenile 10.1±0.8cm
(brown trout, 7.4±4.5
searun) cm
Salmo trutta Smolts (2 yr.) About 21 cm
(brown trout, ave.
searun)
Salvelinus fonli- Juvenile ...
nalis (Brook
trout)
cay
36 A
Mixed
Mixed
Mixed
Mixed
Mixed
Mixed
Columbia
River at
Priest
Rapids Dam
River Axe,
Devon,
England
Cullercoats
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
Cullercoats,
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
River Axe,
Devon,
England
River North
Coutant
(1970)"
Alabaster
(1967)6»
Bishai (I960)"
Bishai (1960)"
Alabaster
(1967)«8
Alabaster
Acclimation
Extreme
Temp« Time
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
19«
9 2 (field)
9.3"
10.9"
Tested in 30% seawater
9. 2 (field)
Tested in 100% sea-
water
9. 2 (field)
Acclimated 7 hr in sea-
water; tested in sea-
water
9. 2 (field)
6 (brought up to
test temp, in
6 hours)
5
10
20
9. 3 (field)
10. 9 (field)
11.7
log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits Lethal
/°l*\ I ncn IL...I — i
a
10.9677
43.6667
23.7273
126.5000
44.6667
14.7368
36.9999
13.59
8.9631
15.7280
11.5471
33.3750
28.0000
25.9091
b
-0.332!)
-1.6667
-0.9091
-5.000
-1.6667
-0.5263
-1.42811
-0.4287
-0.2877
-0.5396
-0.3406
-1.2500
-1.0000
-0.9091
^ Ml LUt
N*1 r*
upper lower
7 -0.9910 29 21
V . (/) (/)
2
2
2
2
6 -0.9678 28.0 20.0
4 -0.9791 25.0 22
3 -0.9689 26.0 22
3 -0.9143 26.0 22
2'
2
2o
w IIIIC3IIUI
. 21
22.0
22.2
. 23.3
. 23.5
Esk, Scotland (1967)"
Mixed
Mixed
Mixed
Mixed
Mixed
River Severn
Gloucester,
England
Cullercoats,
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
Cullercaats,
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
London,
England
(hatchery)
River Axe,
Devon,
England
. Pleasant
Mount
Hatchery,
Wayne Co.,
Penna. and
Chatsworth
Hatchery,
Ontario'1
Alabaster
(1967)«8
Bishai (I960)"
Bishai (I960)"
Alabaster &
Downing
(1966)"
Alabaster
(1967)«s
McCauley
(1958)»>
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Uppe
Upper
16.7
6 (raised to test
temp, over 6 hr
period)
5
10
20
6
15
20
9. 3 (field)
10.9"
10
20
14.5909
12.7756
15.2944
23.5131
14.6978
36.1429
21.5714
17.6667
18.4667
33.0000
17.5260
20.2457
-0.4545
-0.4010
-0.5299
-0.8406
-0.4665
-1.4286
-0.7143
-0.5556
-0.6667
-1.2500
-0.6033
-0.6671
2o
6 -0.9747 28.0 20.0
4 -0.8783 25.0 22.0
3 -0.9702 26.0 22.0
3 -0.9797 26.0 22.0
2»
2
2
2o
2
C -0.9254 25.5 24.5
1 -0.9723 27.0 25.0
. 22.0
22.2
. 23.4
23.5
"His assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
6 Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
« Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
'=Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)."'
> River temp, during fall migration
/ Alabaster fitted by eye, a straight line to median death times plotted on semilog paper (log lime), then reportei
only the 100 and 1000 min intercepts. These intercepts are the basis for the equation presented here.
o See note for Alabaster 1967.««
* Results did not differ so data were combined.
-------
Appendix 7/-C/419
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species State/age Length Weight Sex
Salvelmus fonti- Yearling X=7.88g Mixed
nalis (brook range 2-
trout) 25 g
Salvelinus fonti- Juvenile
nalis (namaycush
hybrid)
Salvelinus 1-2 yr. old 27. 7 gm ave. Mixed
namaycush (1yr)«2.8
(Lake trout) gm ave.
(2yr)
Scardmius Adult 10cm Mixed
erythrophthala-
mus (rudd)
Semotilus alro- Adult 2.0-3. 9 gm Mixed
maculatus mode
(Creek chub)
Semotilus alro- Adult
maculatus
(Creek chub)
Sphaeroides annu- Adult
latus (Puffer)
Sphaeroides macu- 13. 8-15. 9 cm 62. 3-79. 3 gm Mixed
latus (Northern (average) (average)
purler)
Thaleichthys Sexually 161 mm ave. 31gmave. Mixed
paciticus Mature
(Eulachon or
Columbia River
Smell)
Tilapia mossam- A months 8. 0-12. Ocm 10. 0-17. 0 gm
bica (Mozam-
bique mouth-
breeder)
Tinea tinea Juvenile 4.6=1-0. 4 cm Mixed
(tench)
Location
Codrington,
On), (hatch-
ery
Ontario,
Canada
Hatcheries in
Ontario
Britain (field)
Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario
Toronto,
Ontario
Knoxville,
Tenn.
Northern Gulf
of Calif.
Coast
New Jersey
(40 N)
Cowlitz River,
Wash.
Transvaal
Africa
England
Reference Extreme -
Fry, Hart & Upper
Walker
(1946)8»
Fry and Gib- Upper
son (1953)82
Gibson and Upper
Fry (1954)»s
Alabaster & Upper
Downing
(1966)"
Hart (1947)" Upper
Lower
Hart(1952)»» Upper
Heath (1967)" Upper
Holland West- Upper
man (1966)'°
Lower
Blahm & Upper
McConnell
(1 970)i oo
unpublished
data
Allanson & Upper
Noble
(1964)"
Alabaster & Upper
Downing"
(1966)
Acclimation
Temp" Time
3
11
15
20
22
24
25
10
15
20
8 Iwk
15
20
20
5
10
15
20
25
20
25
10 (Toronto only)
15 (Toronto only)
20 (Toronto only)
25
30
32.0
10
14
21
28
14
21
28
5 river temp.
22
26
28
29
30
32
34
36
15
20
25
log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits
toi*\ i nj
a b
13.4325 -0.4556
14.6256 -0.4728
15.1846 -0.4833
15.0331 -0.4661
17.1967 -0.5367
17.8467 -0.5567
17.8467 -0.5567
13.2634 -0 4381
16.9596 -0.5540
19.4449 -0.6342
14.4820 -0.5142
14 5123 -0.4866
17.3684 -0.5818
26.9999 -0.7692
42.1859 -1 6021
31.0755 -1.0414
20.8055 -0.6226
21.0274 -0.5933
16.8951 -0.4499
20.8055 -0.6226
19.1315 -0.5328
19.3186 -0.4717
228982 -0.5844
25.4649 -0.6088
11.3999 -0.2821
35.5191 -1.0751
21.5353 -0.5746
23 7582 -0.6183
-1.7104 0.6141
-3.9939 0.7300
-7.4513 0.8498
7. 7440 -0 2740
313.3830 -8.3878
14.0458 -0.2800
41 1610 -0.9950
94.8243 -2.4125
41.3233 -1.0018
34.0769 -0.8123
123.1504 -3.1223
68.6764 -1.7094
33.2000 1.0000
29.6667 0.8333
27.1429 0.7143
W>
3
6
9
7
6
10
3
6
8
9
4
5
5
2«
3
3
3
7
9
3
6
18
19
3
3
3
3
3
4
6
5
7
4
5
4
5
6
4
3
6
2«
3
2
upper lower
-0.9997 26.0 23.5
28.0 25.0
28.5 25.5
29.0 25.5
29.0 26.5 .
30.0 25.5
29.0 26.0
-0.9852 26.5 24.0
-0.9652 28.0 24.5
-0.9744 28.0 24.5
-0.9936 26 23
-0.9989 27 24
-0.9951 27 24
-0.9408 26.0 25.0
-0.8628 29.0 28.0
-0.9969 31 0 30.0
-0.9844 33.5 30.5 ..
-0.9911 35.0 31.0
29 28
-0.9969 31 30
-0.9856 33 30.5
-0.9921 36 32
-0.99S1 37 33
-0.9716 37.0 36.0
-0.9988 30.0 25.0
-0.9449 32 0 27.0
-0.9914 32.0 30.0
-0.9239 33.5 31.1
0.9760 10.0 6.0
0.9310 12.0 8.0
0.9738 16.0 10.0 .
-0.9142 29.0 8.0
-0.8898 37.10 36.5
-0.2140 37.92 37.5
-0.3107 38.09 37.9
-0.7781 38.10 37.0
-0.9724 38.50 37.6
-0.9209 38.4 37.6
-0.9938 38.4 38.2
-0.9053 38.77 37.9 .
Lethal
SO threshold'
<°C)
. 23.5
. 24.6
25.0
. 25.3
. 25.5
25.5
. 25.5
23.5-24.0
?
. 24.0-24.5
22 7
23.5
. 23.5
24.7
27.3
29.3
. 30.3
30.3
0.7
4.5
27.5
29
30.5
31.5
. 31.5
. 27.5
30.2
. 31.2
. 32.5
8.8
10.7
. 13.0
. 10.5
36.94
. 37.7
. 37.89
. 37.91
. 37.59
. 37.6
38.25
38.2
° It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)"
» Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line-1.0).
rf = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).-1
' See previous note for Alabaster 1967."
-------
APPENDIX II-D
Organochlorine Insecticides
Pesticide Organism
ALDRIN . . . CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus lasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus brevicaudus
Daphnia pulei
Simocephalus serrulatus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys California
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuna pacifica
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdnen
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscna .
DDT . . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus lascialus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma puiex
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
TDE (ODD) Rhothane® . . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus breviacaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
Acute toxicity LC50
rt/liter
9100
4300
50
8
28
23
1.3
180
200
28
13
17.7
45.9
7.5
1.0
0.8
2.3
0.24
4.0
2.5
0.36
7.0
1.9
3 5
19
8
5
2
7
2
4
9
16
5
0.64
0 86
0.68
10.0
4.5
3.2
380
Sub-acute effects
/if/liter
hours
96 ....
96
96
96
48
48
96
96 2.5^g/liter(30dayLC50)
96 22rf/liter(30dayLC50) .
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
0.26/4/1 (15 day LC50)
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
96
Reference
Sanders 1969'-
Sanders in press'1'
"
"
Sanders and Cope196612'
"
. Sanders and Cope 1968128
Jensen and Gaufin 1966""
Jensen and Gaufin 1966""
Henderson etal. 1959'"
"
Katz 1961H9
"
"
Sanders 1969'=<
Sanders in press12'
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966127
"
Sanders and Cope 1S68™
"
"
Macek and McAllister 1970''-'
"
"
"
"
FPRL Annual Report"7
Macek and McAllister 1970"i
"
"
"
"
Sanders 1969i24
Sanders in press'1-"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'27
"
Sanders and Cope 1968"8
420
-------
Appendix 7/-D/421
Organochlorine Insecticides—Continued
DIELDRIN CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simoceplialus serrulatus
Daphma pulei
INSECTS
Pteronarcys cahfornica
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuna pacifica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas .
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo jairdnen
Oncorhynchus kisuteh
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
Poecillia latipipna
Poecillia latipipna
Lepomis gibbosus
Ictaluras punctatus
CHLORDANE CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
ENDOSULFAN THIODAN CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
INSECT
Pteronarcys cahformca
Ischnura sp
FISH
Salmo gairdneri
Catastomus commersom
ENDRIN CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcys California
Acroneuna pacifica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
HEPTACHLOR CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
Acute toxicity LC50
fig/liter
460
EDO
20
740
5
190
250
O.b
39
24
0.5
0.58
IE
8
10
11
6
6.7
4.5
2E
40
4.0
20
29
15
52
22
44
56
57
5.8
52.9
2.3
71.8
0.3
3.0
3.0
0.9
0.4
3.2
1.5
2E
20
0.25
2.4
0.32
0.54
0.76
1.0
O.E
O.E
0.5
1.2
29
40
1 8
7.8
47
42
hours
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
9E
96
9E
9E
96
9E
96
9E
96
96
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
9E
9E
96
120
120
96
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
9E
9E
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
Sub-acute effects
/ig/liter Reference
Sanders 1969'"
Sanders in press126
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"
Sanders and Cope 1968™
2.0 (30 day LC50) Jensen and Gaufln 1966"»
0.2(30dayLC50)
Sanders and Cope 1968™
"
Henderson etal.1959113
Katz 1961119
"
"
3.0 (19 week LC50) Lane and Livingston 1970™
0.75 (reduced growth & reproduction— 34 "
week)
1.7 (affect swimming ability and oxygen con- Cairns and Scheir 1964""
sumption— 100-day)
FPRL'"
Sanders I969;=i
Sanders in press128
2.5(120hourLC50)
Sanders and Cope 19E6127
"
Sanders and Cope 1968™
Henderson etal.1959'11
"
Katr 19S1»»
"
"
Sanders 19691M
Schoettger 197012»
Sanders and Cope 1968™
Schoettger 1970129
. . Schoettger 19701!»
"
Sanders 196912<
Sanders in press126
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"
Sanders and Cope 1968™
1 . 2 (30 day LC50) Jensen and Gaufin 1 966" »
0.03(39dayLC50)
Sanders and Cope 1968™
"
Henderson etal.1959"3
"
KatzlSEI1"
"
"
Sanders 196912<
Sanders in press126
"
"
. Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"
-------
422/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Organochlorine Insecticides—Continued
Pesticide
HEPTACHLOR
LINDANE
METHOXYCHLOR
TOXAPHENE
Q 1*03 |jjs ft)
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Salmo gairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus . . .
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys calilornica . . . .
FISH
Pimephales promelas .
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdneri ....
Salmo Irutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca (lavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris . . . .
Gammarus fasciatus . .
Palaemonetes kadiakensis . .
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex . .
INSECT
Pteronarcys calilornica
Taeniopteryi nivalis
Stenonema spp
FISH
Pimephales promelas ..
Lepomis macrochirus . . .
Salmo tairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha .
Perca flavescens
.. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris ..
Gammarus fasciatus .
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas..
Lepomos macrochirus
lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides . .
Salmo gairdnerii
Salmo trutta.
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens .
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
Acute toxicityLCM
Mg/liler
1.1
0.9
2.8
56
19
17
19
59
17
48
10
10
520
460
4.5
87
61
83
32
27
2
41
68
44
64
0.8
1.9
1.0
0.5
3.2
5
0.78
1.4
0.98
0.63
7.5
62.0
62.6
66.2
27.9
20.0
26
6
28
10
15
2.3
3.0
1.3
14
18
13
2
11
3
8
12
13
5
Sub-acute effect:
HIT /liter
wt/"™
hours
96
96 . .
96
96 . .
96
96
96 . .
96
96 ...
96 . .
96
96
48 . .
48 ....
96 .
96 . .
96
96
96
96 ....
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
48 . . . . .
96
96 ...
96
96 0.125 (reduced e« hatchabilit))..
96
96
96 .... ....
96 ....
96 0.6 (reduced (rowth) 8 months
96
96
96
48 ... ....
48
96
96
96 ...
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
Reference
. .. Sanders and Cope 1968"'
"
"
. . Henderson etal. 19591"
"
. Bridies 19611"
Katz l96Ui»
. . . "
"
Sanders 19691"
. Sanders in press126
"
. . Sanders and Cope 19661"
"
. . Sanders and Cope 1968"!
Macek and McAllister 19701"
"
„
„
„
"
a
"
n
„
. . Sanders 19691"
. . Sanders in press126
"
"
„
.... Sanders and Cope 1966"'
"
Sanders and Cope 1968i2«
Merna unpublished data'1'
Merna "
. .. Merna unpublished data'"
. . Henderson etal. 1959'"
. .. Katz,1961ii»
"
"
Merna unpublished data™
... . Sanders 1969™
. . Sanders in press126
"
. . . Sanders and Cope 1966"'
"
Sanders and Cope 19(tm
"
. ... Macek and McAllister 1970«
l>
. '.'..
"
. Mankind McAllister 1970'"
"
"
"
"
"
-------
Appendix 7/-D/423
Organophosphate Insecticides
Pesticide
ABATE®
AZINPHOSMETHYL GUTHION®
AZINPHOSETHYL ETHYL GUTHION®
CARBOPHENOTHION THITHION®
CHLOROTHION.
CIODHIN®
COUMAPHOS CO-RAL ®
DEMETON SYSTOX®
Organism —
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
FISH
Salmo tairdnen
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Gammarus pseudolimneaus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus brevicaudus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys dorsata
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuna lycorias
Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis
Hydropsyche bettoni
Ephemerella subvana
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisiitch
Perca llavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
CRUSTACEANS
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
FISH
Salmo gairdneri
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lactustris
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus brevicaudus
CRUSTACEAN
Daphma magna
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus (asciatus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdneri
Ictalurus punctatus
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus tasciatus
Daphma magna
INSECTS
Hydropsyche sp.
Hexagema sp.
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdneri
Oncorhynchus kisutch
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus fasciatus
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Acute toxicity LCSO
jug/liter
82
10
158
0.15
0.10
1.2
21.0
12.1
1.5
12.0
33
5.2
52
5
14
4
17
13
3290
3500
4
3.2
19
5.2
1.2
1100
4.5
2800
700
15
11
250
1100
55
2500
0.07
0.15
1.0
5
430
18000
180
1500
15000
27
3200
100
Sub-acute effects No effect
up 'liter uff 'liter
A**/""" MS/ "IBI
hours
96
90
96
96
96
0.10-30 day
120 0.1 6 (20 day LCSO)
96
96 4.9(30dayLC50)
96
1.5 (30 day LCSO) 1.36-30 day
96 2. 2 (30 day LCSO) 1.73-30 day
7. 4 (30 day LCSO) 4. 94-30 day
4. 5 (30 day LCSO) 2. 50-30 day
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
24
24
96
96
96 .
96 ....
96 ....
96 ....
96 ...
Reference
Sanders 1969"'-'
Sanders and Cope 1968™
FPRL"'
Sanders 19691M
Sanders in press'1
Bell unpublished data'"
Sanders in press126
Bell unpublished data"'
Sanders and Cope 1968™
Bell unpublished data'"
"
"
"
Katz1961"»
"
Macek and McAllister 1970121
"
"
"
"
Macek and McAllister 197012'
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"
FPRL"'
Sanders 1969""
Sanders in press126
"
Wafer Qua/iy Criteria
1968
Pickering etal. 1962i»
"
Sanders 196912<
Sanders in press126
FPRL"'
FPRL"'
FPRL1"
"
Sanders 196912<
Sanders in press126
Wafer Qualify Criteria
1968
Carlson 1966110
"
Kab 1961'11
"
"
"
Sanders in press12'
Pickering etal. 1962>"
"
-------
424/'Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Organophosphate Insecticides—Continued
pactiririp
rBSUCIBc
DIAZINON
DICHLORVOS DDVP VAPONA®.
DIOXATHION DEINAV®
DISULFOTON DI-SYSTON® . . .
DURSBAN®
ETHION NIALATE®
EPN
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammatus pseudolimneaus
Gammarus lacustris
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
Daphnia magna
INSECTS
Pleronarcys California
Pteronarcys dorsata
Acroneuria lyconas . .
OphioEomphus rupmsulensis
Hydropsyche beltoni
Ephemerelia subvana . .
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus [aciatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys catifornica . . .
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris . . .
Gammarus fasciatus .. ..
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus . ...
Lepomis cyanellus . . .
Mitropterus satmoides ....
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus . . .
Palaemonetes kadiakensis .
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuria panlica
FISH
Pimephales promelas .
Lepomis macrochirus ...
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus lasciatus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassema sabulosa
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus ....
Salmo gairdnen . .
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris .
Gammarus lasciatus ....
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica . .
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus. . . .
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo clarkii .
Iclalurus punctatus . . .
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
FISH
Pimephales promelas . .
Lepomis macrochirus ...
Acute loxicity LC50
jig/liter
200
1.4
0.90
25
1.7
0.50
0.40
0.26
0.07
o.to
869
270
8.6
9300
34
61
36
52
21
38
5
24
8.2
3700
63
0.11
0.32
10
0.38
0.57
2.6
11
1.8
9.4
5.7
2.8
220
150
560
720
7500
15
7
0.56
110000
100
Sub-acute effects No effect
ng/liter /ig/hter
hours
0.27(30day LC50) 0.20 (30 day)
96
48
48
0.26 (21 day)
96
4.6(30dayLC50) 3. 29 (30 day)
96 1.25(30dayLC50) 0.83 (30 day)
2.2 " 1.29 "
3.54 " 1.79 "
. . 1.05 " 0.42 "
96 ...
96 ....
48
48
96 .. . .
96
96
96 ... ...
96
96
96 ..
96 .
96 .....
96 .
96 . ...
96 . .
96 1.9(30dayLC50)
!6 1.4(30dayLC50)
96 . ..
96 . .
96
96 . ... ....
96 . . ....
96 ... ...
96 . .
36 ....
96
36
96 . ...
36
36 . ...
96
96 . .
96
96
96
16
36 .
96
96
96 .
Reference
Bell unpublished data114
Sanders 1969124
Sanders and Cope 1966127
"
. Biesinger unpublished data1"
Sanders and Cope 1968128
. Bell unpublished data134
"
"
. Sanders 1969124
Sanders in press126
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"
. Sanders and Cope 1968128
. . FPRL»'
Sanders 1969124
Sanders in press126
Pickering et al. 1962"=
"
.
"
Sanders 19691"
. . Sanders in press126
"
. Sanders and Cope 196812«
Jensen and Gaufm 1964"'
. Pickering etal. 19621"
"
. . Sanders 1969124
Sanders in press126
... Sanders and Cope 1968'"
"
"
. . FPRL1"
FPRL137
. Sanders 19G91"
Sanders in press126
Sanders in press12'
Sanders and Cope 1968128
FPRL1"
"
"
"
. . "
Sanders 1969124
. . Sanders in press126
"
Solon and Nair 19701'°
. Pickering etal. 19621"
-------
Appendix 7/-D/425
Organophosphate Insecticides—Continued
Pesticide
FENTHION BAYTEX®
MALATHION
METHYL PARATHION BAYER E601
MEVIKPHOS PHOSDRIN®
Organism —
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammatus lasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocepnalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microloptius
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavesens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus pseudolimneaus
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus semilatus
Daphnia pulex
Daphnia magna
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcys dorsata
Acroneuna lyconas
Pteronarcella badia
Classenia sabulosa
Boyeria vmosa
Ophiogomphus rupmsulensis
Hydropsyche bettoni
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Iclalurus melas
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens
Italurus punctatus
Italurus melas
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus lasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Asellus brevicandus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
Acute toxicity LC50
jjg/liter
8.4
110
5
50
1800
0.62
0 80
4.5
2440
1380
1880
1540
930
1330
1320
1650
1680
1620
1.0
0.76
12
180
3000
3.5
1 8
10
1.0
1.1
2.8
9000
110
120
170
265
170
200
101
263
8970
12900
8900
5720
5170
5220
2750
4740
5300
3060
5710
6640
130
2.8
12
56
0.43
0.16
hours
96
96
120
96
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
95
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
Sub-acute effects No effect
UK/liter MK/liter Reference
Sanders 1969124
Sanders in press126
1.5(20dayLC50)
"
"
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"
Sanders and Cope 1968128
Macekand McAllister 19701-1
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
0.023 (30 day LC50) 0.008-30 day Bell unpublished data"*
Sanders 1969™
0.5 (120 hour LC50) Sanders in press''*
9.0
"
"
Sanders and Cope 19661-7
"
0.6-21 day Biesmger unpublished data1"
Sanders and Cope 1968'™
11.1 (30 day LC50) 9.4-30 day Bell unpublished data"'
0.3(30dayLC50) 0.17-30 day
Sanders and Cope 1968128
"
2 3 (30 day LC50) 1 . 65-30 day Bell unpublished data"<
052 " 0.28-30 day
0.34 " 0.24-30 day
580 (spinal deformity 10 month) 200-10 month exposure Mount and Stephen 1967m
7. 4 (spinal deformity several 3.6-11 months Eaton 1971111
months)
Pickering etal.19621"
Macek and McAllister 1970121
"
"
"
"
"
Macek and McAllister 1970"'"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
•
Sanders 1969'-'
Sanders in press126
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"
-------
426/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Organophosphate Insecticides—Continued
Pesticide
MEVINPHOS PHOSDRIN®.
NALEDDIBROM®
OXYDEMETON METHYL META-
SYSTOX®.
PARATHION . . .
Ormiism
INSECTS
Pteronarcys California
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus . ...
Micropterus salmoides
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris .
Gammanisfastiatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus .
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus .
Salmo gairdnen
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus ....
Salmo gairdneri .
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris . . .
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex . .
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
INSECTS
Pteronarcys California
Pteronarcys dorsata .
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
Acroneuna pacifica
Acroneuria lycorias
Ephemerella subvana
Ophigomphus rupmsulensis
Hydropsyche bettom
Acute lonicity LC50
Mj/liter
5.0
70
110
110
14
90
1800
230
1.1
0.35
8.0
180
132
190
1000
35
14000
4000
3.5
2.1
1.5
0.37
0.60
0.04
600
36
3.0
4.2
1.5
3.0
0.16
3.25
Sub-acute effects
/ig/liter
hours
96
96
96 ...
96
96 ...
96
96
96
48
48
96
96
96 . .
96 ...
96
96 .. . .
96 ...
96
96
96 1.6 (120 hour LC50)
96 ..
48
48
96
96 .. .
96 2.2(30dayLC50)
96 0.90(30dayLC50)
96
96
96 (M4 (30 day LC50)
0.013 (30 day LC50)
96 0.056 (30 day LC50)
96 0.22
0.45
No effect
/xg/liter Reference
Sanders and Cope 1968128
. . FPRLw
. FPRL'K
Sanders 1969'21
. . Sanders in press12'
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966127
Sanders and Cope 1968™
. . . FPRL1"
FPRL'K
Sanders 1969'='
Sanders in press1-"
. . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1968'"
FPRl1"
.... FPRL'"
.. . Sanders 1969^
Sanders in press1"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'='
"
Sanders in press121
"
Jensen and Gaufin 1964"'
Bell unpublished dab1"
. Sanders and Cope 1968>»
"
. . . Jensen and Gaufin 1964117
Bell unpublished data'"
Bell unpublished data1"
"
"
-------
Appendix II-D/427
Organophosphate Insecticides—Continued
Pesticide
PARATHION
PHORATE THIMET®
PHOSPHAMIDON
ROIINEL
TEPP
TRICHLOROPHON DIPTEREX
DYLOX
Organism
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis maccochirus
Lepomis cyanellus
Micropterus salmoides
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Orconecles nais
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Orconectes nais
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Ictalurus punctatus
FISH
Pimephales promelas
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus iacustns
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcys californica
Acroneuna pacifica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Acute toiicitylCM
Ml/liter
1410
65
425
190
9
0.60
50
2.8
16
7500
6.6
8.8
1SO
100000
4500
70000
305
39
210
1900
1100
40
0 32
0.18
69
35
16.5
11
22
109000
3800
Sub-acute effects
up 'liter
MK/11101
hours
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96 . .. .
96
96
49
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96 . .
96 . .
96
48
48
96 9.8(30day LC50)
96
96 8.7(30dayLC50) .
96
96
96
96
No effect
Ml/liter Reference
Solon and Nair 19701"
Pickering el al. 19621"
"
"
Sanders 1969'"
Sanders in press1!'
"
Sanders 1969'"
. Sanders in press1"
"
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"
Sanders and Cope )968>!«
FPRL1"
"
"
Solon and Nair 1970"°
. Sanders 1969^
. Sanders in press1"
Pickering et al. 1962121
"
Sanders 1969"'
Sanders and Cope 19661!B
"
Jensen and Gaufln 1964"'
Sanders and Cope 19681'8
Jensen and Gaufin 1964"'
. Sanders and Cope 1968'"
. . Sanders and Cope 1968128
. Pickering et al. 19621M
"
-------
428/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Carbatnate
Pesticide
CARBARYL SEVIN®
BAYGON ....
AMINOCARBMETACIL... .
BAYER 37344
ZECTRAN
Organism
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus (asciatus
Falaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
Asellus brevicaudus
Simocephalus setrulatus
Daphnia pulex
Daphnia magna
INSECTS
Pteronarcys California
Pteronarcys dorsata
Pleronarcella badia
Claassema sabulosa
Acroneuria lyconas
Hydropsyche bettoni
FISH
Pimephales promelas .
Lepomis macrochirus .
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta . . .
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca (lavescens
Ictalurus punctatus .
Ictalurus melas
. CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
INSECT
Pteronarcys califormca
. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys calilornica
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus salmoides
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Perca flavescens
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictalurus melas
Acute toxicityLCSO
rt/Mer
16
26
5.6
8.6
240
7.6
6.4
4.8
1.7
S.6
9000
6760
11200
6400
4340
1950
764
745
15800
20000
34
50
13
12
5.4
46
40
83
13
10
10
17000
11200
16700
14700
10200
8100
1730
2480
11400
16700
Sub-acute effects No effect
iifl 'lltpr ir /litor
/tg/iiiBi /zg/iiier
lours
96
96
96
96
96 . .
48
48
5.0 63 day
96
23. 0(30 day LCM) 11.530 day
96
96
2.2(30day LC50) 1.3 30 day
2. 7 (30 day LCM) 1.8 30 day
96 680 (delme survival and re- 210 (6 month)
production 6 months)
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96 ....
96
96
96
96
96
96
96 25 (20 day IC50)
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96 ... . .
96
96
Reference
Sanders 1969'-'
Sanders in press'-''
"
"
Sanders and Cope 196612'
"
Biesinger unpublished data11'
Sanders and Cope 1968"»
Bell unpublished data"'
. Sanders and Cope 1968'='
"
.. Bell unpublished data'"
"
Carlson unpublished data1*'
. Macek and McAllister 1970"i
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Sanders I969™
Sanders in press126
Sanders and Cope m>™
Sanders 1969™
Sanders and Cope 1968'"
Sanders 1969'2<
Sanders in press121
"
Sanders and Cope 1966"'
"
. Sanders and Cope 1968™
Macek and McAllister 1970'"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
-------
Appendix II-D/429
Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants
ACROLEIN AQUALIN
AMINOTRIAZOLEAMITROL
BALAN
BENSULFIDE
CHLOROXURON
CIPC
DACTHAL
DALAPON (SODIUM SALT)
DEF
DEXON
DICAMBA
DICHLOBENILCASARON®
FISH
Lepotnis macrochirus
Salmo Irutta
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Oncorhyncus kisutch
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus laciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus laciatus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
FISH
Lepomis macrocliirus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Simocephaltis serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys califormca
FISH
Pimephalespromelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Oncorhynchus kisutch
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
INSECT
Pteronarcys califormca
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
INSECT
Pteronarcys califormca
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia magna
Cypndopsisvidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes karJiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustns
Gammarus fasciatus
Hyallellaazteca
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulei
Daphnia magna
Cypndopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
INSECTS
Pteronarcys califormca
Tendipedidae
Callibacles sp.
Limnephilus
Enallegma
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Acute toiicity LC50
Ml/liter
80
46
79
30000
32000
325000
1100
1400
25000
8000
700000
16000
11000
290000
290000
340000
100
2100
3700
24000
3900
20000
11000
10000
8500
5800
3700
10000
7800
34000
9000
22000
7000
7800
10300
13000
20700
20000
hours
24
24
24
48
48
48
96
96
48
48
48
48
48
96
96
48
96
96
96
96
96
48
96
96
96
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
96
96
96
96
9G
48
Sub-acute effects No effect
100, 000 Ml/1 48 hr.
100, 000 Ml/1 48 hr.
100,000Mg/l48hr.
I00,000^g/I48hr.
100, 000 /ii/H8 hr.
100,000Mg/l96lir.
100,000,ig/l48hr.
100,000 Mj/l«hr.
100,000Mg/l48hr.
100,000Mg/M8hr.
100,000 Ml/I 48 hr.
100,OOOMZ/l48hr.
Bond et al. 1%0»«
Burdicketal. 1964"»
"
Sanders 1970125
"
"
"
"
"
Sanders 1970'25
Bond el al 1960><»
. . Sanders 1970125
Sanders 19701"
Hughes and Davis 1964"=
Hughes and Davis 1964™
Hughes and Davis 1964m
Sanders and Cope1966m
"
Sanders and Cope 1968"
Siirber and Pickering 1962111
"
Bond et al. I960'"'
Sanders 1969124
Sanders and Cope 1968t28
Sanders 1969I2<
Sanders and Cope 1968>»
Sanders 1969'"
Sanders 1970'M
"
"
"
'
"
Hughes and Davis 19621"
Sanders 1969124
Sanders 1970«5
Wilson and Bond 1969"1
Sanders and Cope 19681M
"
Sanders 1970'!s
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1968' !s
Wilson and Bond 1969>»
"
"
-------
430/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants—Continued
Pftctirirla
rnuQDB
DICHLONE PHYGON XL
DIQUAT . . .
DIURON .. ..
DIFOLITAN
DINITROBUTYL PHENOL
DIPHENAMID
DURSBAN
2,4-D(PGBE)
J,4-D(BEE)
Organism
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus bcustris .
Gammarus fasciatus .
Daphnia magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus . . .
Palaemonetes kadiakensit
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus salmoides
. CRUSTACEAN
Hyallella azteca
INSECTS
Callibaetes sp. .
Limnephilus .
Tendipedidae
Enallagma
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirui .
Micropterus salmoides
ESDI lucius
Srjzostedion vitreum vitreum .
Salmo fairdneri
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris .
Gammarus fasciatus
Simocephahis serrulatus
Daphnia pulex .
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Oncorhynchut kisutch .. .
. . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris .
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lasciatus
. . . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia majna .
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
CRUSTACEAN
Gunmarui luustns . . .
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
Pteronarcella badia
Claassenia sabulosa
. . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris ..
Gammarus lasciatus
Dapbma magna . . .
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonttes kadiakemis
Orconectes nais
... . CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris .. .
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia mijna
Cypridopsis vidua . ...
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
INSECT
Pteronarcys calitornica . .
Acute toiitity LC50
rt/liter
1100
100
25
120
200
450
3200
70
120
48
16400
33000
> 100000
> 100000
14000
35000
7100
16000
2100
11200
28500
160
700
2000
1400
1200
16000
NO
40
1800
56000
50000
58000
0.11
10
0.38
0.57
1600
2500
100
320
2200
2700
440
5900
5600
1800
3200
1400
1600
hours
96
96
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
96
48
48
96
96
48
48
96
48
96
16
16
48
48
48
96
96
96
96
P6
$6
48
48
48
41
96
96
41
48
4)
41
9>
Sub-acute effects No effect
uf /1 1 1 fir u& / li ter R of ere nee
. . Sanders 1969^
. . . Sanders 1970'"
"
"
"
"
"
. . . Bond (til. 1960""
Hughes and Davis 1362"i
Wilson and Bond 1969"-
. . . Wilson and Bond 1969>^
"
"
"
Surber and Pickering 1962'"
Gilderhus 1967"=
. . Surber and Pickering 1962"'
Gilderhus 1967"2
"
"
.... Bond et al. I960""
.... . . Sanders 1969121
Sanders 1970>-s
Sanders and Cope 1966"'
"
Sanders and Cope 1968"»
. . Bond etal. 19601*
Sanders 1969'"
. Sanders and Cope ISSt™
. Sanders 1970'"
100,000 (it/I 48 hr. Sanders 1970" 5
"
"
100,000,.!'! 48 hr.
"
100,000|;.l/l48hr.
Sanders 19691M
... . Sanders and Cope 19681X
"
"
Sanders 1969"'
. Sanders 1970™
"
"
"
"
100,000 *.J/1 48 hr. .
Sanders 1 969" '
... . . . Sanders 1970iJI>
"
... . - "
"
.
100,000^8/1 48-hr
. Sanders and CopeW
-------
Appendix //-D/431
Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants—Continued
Pesticide
2,4-0 (BEE)
2,4-D(IOE)
2,4-D(DIETHYLAMINESAlT)
ENDOTHALLDI SODIUM SALT
ENDOTHALL DIPOTASSIUM SALT
EPTAM
FENAC (SODIUM SALT)
HYAMINE1622
HYAMINE 2389
HYDROTHAL47
HVDROTHAL191
HYDROTHALPLUS
IPC
KVRON
MCPA
MOLINATE
FISH
Pimephales promelas
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
. CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasoatus
Daphnia mapa
Crypidopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Pimephales notalus
Lepomis macrochirus
Microplerus lafmoides
Notropis umbratilus
Micropterus salmoides
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus .
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia pules
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia magna
Cypndopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
FISH
Lepomis
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
Oncorhynctius kisutch
FISH
Pimephales promelas
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus tasciatus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulei
. CRUSTACEAN
Simocephalus serrulitus
Daphnia pulei
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus .
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphnia majna
Asellus brevicaudus
Pilaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectet nait
Acute toxioty LC50
in /liter
5600
2400
4000
eooo
110000
125000
120000
95000
200000
136000
320000
160000
23000
12000
4500
6600
55000
15000
1600
1400
53000
2400
1200
$10
500
480
3500
10000
19000
10000
10000
2400
2000
1500
4500
300
600
400
1000
5600
hours
96
96
48
48
96
96
9G
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
96
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
48
96
96
48
48
48
48
48
96
96
48
48
48
41
Sub-acute effects No effect
iiv/litef ittt /liter
pX/"1"' /iK/niei
1500 rf/l lethal to eggs in 48 300 *>g/l 10 mo.
hour exposure
100,000rt/l48hr.
100,000/i|/l48lH.
100,000*>!/l48hr.
100.000Mg MSrir.
100,000 Ml/1 96 hr.
100, 000 Mt/M8 hr.
100, 000 ,4/1 48 hr.
100, 000 Ml/I 48 hr.
100,000 Mi/l 48 hr.
100,000fig/l48hr.
Reference
Mount and Stephan 1967":
Sanders 1969"<
Sanders 1969"<
Sanders 1970'"
"
"
"
"
"
Walker 1964>"
"
"
"
Bond et al. t960"»
Sanders 1969"='
Surber and Pickering 1962'"
"
Sanders 19701"
Sanders 1969"<
Sanders 1970>"
Sanders and Cope 1966'='
"
Sanders 1970"s
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1968'"
Hushes and Davis 1962'"
Surber and Pickering 1962"'
"
Bond etal. I960"'
Surber and Pickering 1962'"
"
Sanders 1970'"
Sanders 1969'"
Sanders 1970"'
Hugnei and Davis 1964'"
Sanders 1969'"
Sanders 1970"'
. Sanders and Cope 1966>"
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"
Hujhes and Davis 1964"'
. Sanders 1969'"
. Sanders 1970i"
"
"
"
"
-------
432 /Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants—Continued
MONURON
PARAQUAT
PEBULATE
PICLORAM
PROPANIL
SILVEX (BEE)
SILVEX (PGBE)
SILVEX (IDE)
SILVEX (POTASSIUM SALT)
SIMAZINE
TRIFLURALIN
VERNOLATE
FISH
Oncorhynchus kisutch
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphma pulex
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
INSECT
Pteronarcys californica
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus .
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
FISH
Oncorhynchus kisutch
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Daphma pulex
Simocephalus serrulatus
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus brevicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
INSECT
Pteronarcys California
CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Daphma magna
Cypridopsis vidua
Asellus bravicaudus
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Orconectes nais
fig/htf
110000
11000
4000
3700
10000
27000
48000
16000
250
2100
4900
40000
8000
60000
1100
840
180
200
500
3200
16600
16000
83000
13000
1000
3200
6600
2200
1000
560
240
450
250
200
1200
50000
3000
1800
13000
1100
240
5600
1900
24000
Acute toiicity LC50
ir luurs
48
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
48
48
48
46
96
48
48
18
18
•18
48
'18
!I6
•18
48
48
96
96
48
48
48
48
48
48
4!
to
96
9i
43
44
44
4H
4»
Sub-acute effects No effect
~ ME/""" /ig/nier KBrerence
Bond etal. 19601°°
Sanders 1969>"
Sanders and Cope 19661"
"
100, 000 ni;\ 96 hr. Sanders and Cope 1968128
Sanders 1970 -;
Sanders 1969' -'
. . Sanders and Cope \m™
. . Sanders 1970™
Sanders 1 970' M
.
"
"
"
"
Hughes and Davis 1963"1
Sanders 1970'2s
"
"
"
"
100,000 tnl\ 48 hr.
Hughes and Davis 1963"*
Hughes and Davis 1963u5
Hughes and Davis 1963"'
Sanders 1969i»
. 100,000 ,jj/l 48 hr. . Sanders 1970™
100,000 ,ig/l 48 hr. Sanders 1970'"
100,000 ,.8/1 48 hr.
I00,000,ig/I48hr.
Bond et al. 1960""'
Sanders 1969ra
Sanders 1970"'*
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"
Sanders 1970"*
"
"
"
Sanders and Cope 1968'-'8
Sanders 1969i21
Sanders WO™
"
"
"
"
"
-------
Appendix 7/-D/433
Botanicals
Pfisticid6 Orcanism
ALLETHRIN CRUSTACEAN
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus lasciatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
FISH
Lepomis macrochirus
Salmo gairdnen
PYRETHRUM CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Gammarus fasciatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex . .
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
ROTENONE CRUSTACEANS
Gammarus lacustris
Simocephalus serrulatus
Daphnia pulex
INSECTS
Pteronarcys californica
Acute toxicity LC50
/ug/liter
11
8
56
21
2.1
56
19
12
11
42
25
1.0
2600
190
100
380
Sub-acute effects
u2 'liter
hours
96
96
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
48
48
96
96
48
48
96
No effect
uZ /liter RfiferenC6
Sanders 1969™
Sanders in press126
Sanders and Cope 1 966' -7
"
Sanders and Cope1966128
FPRLi"
"
Sanders 1969"4
"
Sanders and Cope 1966'"
"
Sanders and Copr mt™
Sanders 196b-'
Sanders anil Cope 196G -•
"
Sanders and Cope I968'28
-------
APPENDIX II-E
GUIDELINES FOR AQUATIC TOXICOLOGICAL
RESEARCH ON PESTICIDES
More than one billion pounds of pesticides were produced
in the United States in 1969 (Fowler et al. 1971).152 How-
ever, before such materials can be transported in interstate
commerce, they must be registed according to provisions of
the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
and amendments. Responsibility for implementing this act
is vested in the Pesticide Regulation Division of the En-
vironmental Protection Agency. Properties of pesticides
that must be considered in the registration process include:
efficacy on the intended pest; safety to the applicator and
to the consumer of treated products; and effects on non-
target species including those of aquatic ecosystems.
Guidelines for research into effects of pesticides on
aquatic life are of concern to this Panel. In view of docu-
mented effects of pesticides on aquatic life and the appar-
ently ubiquitous distribution of certain pesticides in fish
(Johnson 1968,158 Henderson, Johnson and Inglis 1969,155
Mollison 1970172), it seems reasonable to conclude that exist-
ing guidelines are not sufficient. Mount (1967)173 reported
that there were numerous studies on toxicological and
physiological effects of pesticides in fish, but that the data
were inadequate because of several common deficiencies.
Further, he concluded that there was a paucity of data that
could be used to correlate toxicological, physiological, or
analytical findings with significant damage to aquatic forms.
Therefore, research guidelines for predicting potential haz-
ards of pesticides to be used in, or those with a high probabil-
ity for contamination of aquatic communities must result in
findings that are relatable within the scientific disciplines
concerned.
Guidelines for research and objectives suggested by this
Panel are:
(1) to provide a research framework that generates
anticipatory rather than documentary information
concerning effects of pesticides on aquatic com-
munities ;
(2) to encourage research that is directly applicable
to the process of pesticide registration.
The framework (Figure II-E-1) is designed with fish a
the primary test animal(s). However, it is also compatibl
with parallel investigations intended to provide data es
sential to the protection of fish-food organisms. In all cases
sufficient numbers of individuals and replications must b
included to estimate statistical significance of results. A:
studies should report sources, physical quality, diseas
treatments, and holding conditions (photoperiod, diet am
feeding rate, water quality) of test animals. The Pane
recommends that chemical analyses be performed on tes
animals, diets, and holding waters to document pre
exposure of test animals to pesticides or other contaminants
Analytical methods should include results for reagent blanks
and they should document limits of sensitivity, detection
reproducibility, and recovery efficiency for extracts.
The guidelines are general and are not intended to limi
research nor to present specific methods. If pesticide investi
Cations can be tailored, at least in part, along acceptec
guidelines, then a much greater reservoir of interrelatec
anticipatory data will become available for the purpose o
registering pesticides and establishing water quality criteria
\\l, or parts of the guidelines, may be utilized by an investi
gator depending upon: the capacity of his laboratory anc
staff; extent and applicability of biological or chemical dat;
already available; intended use pattern(s) and target(s) o
the pesticides; or research objectives other than registration
I. PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS
A. Acute Toxicity: Static Bioassay (Litchfield and Wil-
coxon 1949,164 Lennon & Walker 1964,163 Nebeker &
Gaufin 1964,176 Sanders and Cope 1966,180 Burdick 1967,14'
Sprague 1969,182 Schoettger 1970,181 Environmental Protec-
lion Agency 1971).15(l
1. Purpose
The limitations of static bioassays are recognized;
however, they do provide the first, and probably quickest,
index of relative toxicity. Further, they are useful in esti-
mating the relative influence of variables such as species
susceptibility, temperature, pH, water quality, and rate of
chemical deactivation on toxicity. Thus, acute static bio-
434
-------
Appendix 7/-£/435
a
H
C/3
>
C/3
H
e!
O
a.
0-,
C/3
>-
C/1)
PH
U
fe
u
TJ
o
OS
B)
U O,
el
J3
a.
-------
436/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
assays are essential to delineate prerequisites for chronic
studies.
2. Scope
a. Initial bioassay
These studies are conducted with technical and
formulated pesticides using one type of water
(reconstituted). The 96-hour LG50 (tolerance limit
for 50 per cent of the test animals) is determined for
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) at 12 C, and for
bluegills (Lepomis machrochirus), fathead minnows
(Pimephales promelas), and channel catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus) at 22 C. Suggested species of invertebrates
included daphnids (Daphnia magna), glass shrimp
(Palaemonetes kadiakensis), scud (Gammarus pseudo-
limnaeus), and midge larvae (Chironomusplumosus).
b. Definitive bioassay
Bioassays conducted as described above. Trout
are tested at 7 C and 17 C, whereas bluegills, fat-
head minnows, and channel catfish are tested at
17 C and 27 C. Water quality (reconstituted) is
modified to include soft and hard waters, and water
of ca. pH 6 and 9 (Marking and Hogan 1967,167
Berger, Lennon and Hogan 1969).I39 Other tem-
peratures and potentially threatened species must
be added or substituted depending upon specific
conditions under which the pesticide is to be used.
c. Deactivation index
Several series of test concentrations as in a or b
are prepared and stored for appropriate intervals,
such as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 N days. After storage, the
solutions are bioassay conducted at the same time.
Division of the reference 96-hour LC50 values by
the values for stored solutions gives an estimate of
rate of pesticide deactivation when plotted against
storage time. Additional trials may be required to
determine effects of variables such as pH, tempera-
ture, light. Residue analyses of stored solutions
provide excellent support data for measures of
biological deactivation.
B. Acute Toxicity: Intermittent-flow Bioassay Jensen &
Gaufin 1964,157 Mount and Brungs 1967,174 (Standard
Methods 1971).185
1. Purpose
Intermittent-flow bioassays are designed to minimize or
overcome deficiencies characteristic of static bioassays, and
are particularly suited for long exposures of test animals to
pesticides with low water solubilities. Specialized apparatus
is required for such studies, but results are generally con-
sidered more reliable, and more representative of actual
toxicity than those derived from static bioassay. Neverthe-
less, the speed and flexibility of the latter make them essen-
tial in establishing operational designs (e.g., water quality,
temperature, species) for the former method.
2. Scope
a. 96-hour LC50
This is a standard btoassay and is obtained witl
any water supply (analyzed for chemical charac
teristics) suitable to the selected test species. Whei
variables such as temperature or water quality a(
feet toxicity (as determined in sections IA2b am
IA2c), flowing bioassays must be designed accord
ingly. In some instances, a design consistent witl
water quality and species in the locality of pesti
cide use may be appropriate. Because intermittent
flow bioassays require analyzed concentration
(rather than calculated values), analytical method
must be developed prior to the start of bioassays
The use of radio-labeled pesticides greatly assist
analysis. Also, test animals treated with radioactivi
pesticides are invaluable for preliminary estimate
of pesticide uptake, storage, and excretion. In ad
dition, gross observations should be made foi
pathological and behavioral changes.
b. Lethal threshold concentration (Threshold LC5(T
The Threshold LC50 is estimated subsequent tc
determination of the 96-hour LC50 and may re-
quire lower concentrations. In general, the bio-
assay is conducted as in IB2a, but continecl in 48-
hour increments after the 96-hour observation per-
iod. The Threshold LC50 is determined wher
further mortality has ceased in all test tanks, com-
pared to the control. If toxicant-related mortality
continues beyond 30 to 60 days, the bioassay mav
be discontinued and the LC50 reported according
to the test duration. Pesticide uptake, storage, and
excretion studies may be more meaningful, when
conducted on test animals, from these studies than
on those exposed for only 96 hours.
C. Growth and Reproductive Screening: Aquarium Fishes
(Hisaoka and Firh't 1962,166 Clark and Clark 1964,146
Breeder and Rosen 1966142).
1. Purpose
Mount (1967)173 indicated that growth and reproduction
of fish were important in assessing safe concentrations of
pesticides, and could be determined within one year. How-
ever, when estimates of potential hazards are needed for a
relatively large number of pesticides, and space and time
are limited, tests using fish with short life cycles may be
desirable for establishing priorities for later research. Species
such as the ovoviviparous guppy (Poecilia reticulata) and
oviparous zebrafish (Brachydamo reno) produce numerous
progeny that may reach sexual maturity within six weeks
under laboratory conditions. Thus, effects of pesticides may
be followed through several generations within a short time.
2. Scope
Zebrafish and guppies are exposed to pesticides in inter-
mittent-flow diluters. Also, the pesticide may be incor-
-------
Appendix 7/-E/437
porated into their diets if food chain studies suggest that
dietary uptake is a potentially significant route of exposure.
Observations are made on mortality, growth, egg produc-
tion, and hatchability, and on incidence of offspring anom-
alies (e.g., terata, mutations).
D. Chronic Effects: Diluter and Feeding exposures (Bur-
dick, et al., 1964,145 Macek 1968,165 Eaton 1970,148 Environ-
mental Protection Agency 1971,16° Johnson ct al. 19711M).
1. Purpose
In general, these studies are conducted as in IC2 and are
central to predicting safe concentrations of pesticides to
sport, commercial, or forage fishes, and to fish-food or-
ganisms.
2. Scope
Chronic studies may either include the complete life
cycle or a portion of the cycle. Full chronic studies are
conducted currently with fathead minnows, daphnids, and
scuds and involve continuous exposures of eggs, juveniles
and adults. Rainbow trout, brook trout (Satvelinusfontinalis),
channel catfish, bluegills, and largemouth bass (Aticropterus
salmorndes) are used in partial chronics, and adults arc ex-
posed continuously through spawning. Flow-through bio-
assays arc performed by exposing the test animals to pesti-
cides (or degradation products) in water, in their diets, or
both, depending upon relative stability of the pesticide
and its tendency to accumulate in fish-food organisms. Where
profiles of pesticide degradation in water are established,
studies simulating degradation should be incorporated into
the concentration spectra by periodic modification of toxi-
cant solutions (concentration and composition). Exposures
should include the reproductive phase or a selected interval
prior to reproduction depending upon species and antici-
pated time of pesticide application. Chronic studies should
evaluate effects on growth, and on natural and artificial
reproduction. Studies with invertebrates should include
measured effects on metamorphosis and reproduction.
Clinical observations on physiological, biochemical, and
pathological effects, as well as analyses for residues, degra-
dation products, and residue kinetics should be correlated
with effects on growth and reproduction.
E. Pond and Stream Ecosystem Studies (Cope, et al.
1970,147 Kennedy et al. 1970,1B1 Kennedy and Walsh
1970,"''"Lennon and Bcrger 1970162).
1. Purpose
Laboratory estimates of safe pesticide applications must
be confirmed by controlled research in lentic and lotic
ecosystems. Therefore, ponds or artificial streams are in-
valuable in studying the impact of pesticides under inter-
acting physical, chemical, and biological conditions.
2. Scope
Applications of pesticides are made according to antici-
pated rate and use patterns. However, concentration spectra
should include both excessive rates, and rates estimated to
be safe in laboratory studies. Species used in the studies
should approximate those found in intended areas of pesti-
cide usage. Factors to be studied include:
a. mortality
b. growth
c. reproductive success
d. gross behavior
e. clinical physiology, biochemistry and pathology
f. invertebrate metamorphosis
g. species diversity
h. trophic level production
i. energy transfer
j. fate of the chemical
II. SUPPORT SYSTEMS
A. Chemical Methods Development
1. Purpose
Residue analyses of water and of fish and fish-food or-
ganisms exposed to pesticides are potent indicators of
probable biological accumulation or degradation of these
chemicals. Biological systems used in the primary research
framework easily provide study materials which permit cor-
relations between biological effects and residues. The use of
radio-labeled pesticides early in the research framework
quickly pinpointed location of the pesticide and degradation
products and greatly assisted refinement of analytical
methods. Various combinations of isolation and identifica-
tion techniques are required to analyze metabolites or
degradation products in test animals exposed chronically to
pesticides.
2. Scope
Methods may begin with acute, static bioassays for deac-
tivation indexes (IA2c) or later with acute, intermittent-
flow bioassays. The studies are expanded as dictated by in-
terpretation of results. Concentrations of 14C-, 86C1-, 32P-, or
33S-labeled pesticides are determined radiometrically with-
out extraction and cleanup (Hansen and Bush 1967,1M
Nuclear-Chicago Corporation 1967,177 Biros 1970aHO). At
least four test animals (including fish) should be collected
at five intervals during the pesticide exposure to estimate
uptake and degradation rates. For smaller organisms, a
minimum of 100 milligrams of wet sample are required.
After development and refinement of analytical methods,
spot checks of radioactive samples will confirm residues.
Analyses of metabolites and degradation products require
that sample extracts be cleaned up with gel permeation or
adsorption chromatography (U. S. Department of Health
Education and Welfare 1968,187 1969,188 Stalling, Tindle and
Johnson 1971,m Tindle 1971 ).186 Radioactive residues must
be characterized by TLC autoradiography, and further
identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-
MS) or other spectroscopic methods (Biros 1970b,141
Stalling 1971).183
-------
438/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
B. Uptake, Storage and Excretion
1. Purpose
Investigations of chemical residues are undertaken early
in the research framework to obtain a working perspective
of pesticide persistence, degradation, and bioconcentration
in aquatic organisms. The studies should attempt to corre-
late residue kinetics with toxicology and chronic effects.
Thus, later research can be better designed to assess inter-
actions of pesticides with fish, fish-food organisms, and
water quality (113).
2. Scope
The studies should include:
a. radiomctric or chemical analyses or both, of test
animals at intervals during acute, intermittent-
flow bioassays to determine rates of accumulation
and residue plateaus;
b. determination of biological half-life of accumulated
residues after termination of exposure (Macek et
al. 1970) ;166
c. determination of degree of pesticide degradation in
water and test animals by comparing residues of
radioactive materials with concentration of parent
chemical, measured chemically (Johnson et al.
1971,159 Rodgers and Stalling 1971179). (Autoradio-
grams of thin-layer chromatographic plates may
provide the initial data on degradation products.)
C. Food-Chain Accumulation (Brock 1966,143 Johnson et
al. 1971,1'5'JMctcalfct al. 1971).m
1. Purpose
The functions of laboratory food chain studies include:
estimates of propensity for pesticide (or its degradation
product), uptake by each member of a 3-component food
chain, estimates of potential pesticide transfer to higher
trophic levels, and determinations of residue concentrations
likely to be encountered in forage of fish. (Residue values
are used in formulating pesticide-containing diets, section
1C and ID.)
2. Scope
A suggested laboratory food chain may be composed of:
an appropriate primary producer (green algae) such as
Scenedesmus, Ankistrodesmus and Chlorella Spp.; or decomposers
(bacteria) such as Aerobader, Bacillus, Achromobacter, Flavo-
bacter, Aeromonas Spp.; a primary consumer such as Daphnia
magna, D. pulex, or other suitable microcrustacea; and a
secondary consumer such as fathead minnows or small blue-
gills, largemouth bass, rainbow trout. Members of the food
chain are exposed to radio-labeled pesticides in diluters
(or other constant-flow devices) at concentrations appropri-
ate for the most sensitive element. Rate of uptake and resi-
due plateau are measured radiometrically and the identities
of parent compound or degradation products are confirmed
by chemical methods, whenever possible. The potentials
for biotransfer and biomagnification are determined by
feeding pesticide-treated lower members to higher trophic
levels with and without concurrent water exposures. Ai
alternative, but less desirable, type of feeding trial wouk
utilize artificial foods fortified with appropriate amounts o
pesticide.
D. Clinical: Physiology, Biochemistry, Pathology (Mat
tingly 1962,169 Mattenheimer 1966,168 Natelson 1968,17
Pickford and Grant 1968,m Grant and Mehrle 1970,15
Mehrle 1970171).
1. Purpose
Clinical studies are most closely associated with chronii
investigations of pesticidal effects on growth and reproduc
tion. It is likely that these effects are expressions of earlier
more subtle physiological, biochemical, or pathologica
dysfunctions. Thus, selected clinical examinations may re
veal correlations that are useful in early detection of ad-
verse effects. These studies may also reveal impaired homeo-
stasis mechanisms for compensating ephemeral environ-
mental stresses (e.g., oxygen deficiency, starvation, exercise,
rapid changes in temperature, pH, salinity) that are nol
otherwise anticipated in this reserach framework.
2. Scope
Routine clinical studies are impractical during full
chronic investigations with fathead minnows (and other
small test animals), because of their small size and the dif-
ficulty in collection of adequate amounts of tissue. However,
at hatching, young are observed for incidence of abnor-
rnalcy; and other young removed for thinning, should be
used in histocytological examinations and stress tests. The
latter tests measure relative survival under stresses such as
those mentioned in IID1 above. Individuals from partial
chronic and pond or stream studies are also examined and
tested as in full chronic studies. Because of larger size, they
are useful in clinical studies. These studies, however, are not
recessarily intended as ends in themselves. Examples of ap-
propriate clinical examinations include:
a. stress response—induced production of cortisol by
injection of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (purified
mammalian AGTH);
b. thyroid activity—12Siodine (126I) uptake;
c. osmoregulatory ability—serum sodium, chloride,
and osmolality;
d. diagnostic enzymology—clinical analyses for ac-
tivities of liver and serum glutamate-oxaloacetate
transaminase, glutamate-pyruvate transaminase,
glutamate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase,
and lactate dehydrogenase;
e. ammonia detoxifying mechanism (brain and liver
glutamate dehydrogenase, brain glutamine synthe-
tase, and ammonia concentrations in brain and
serum);
f. cholinesterase activity of serum and brain;
g. general nutritional state and activity of microsomal
and mitochondrial enzymes—injection of ucarbon-
-------
Appendix 7/-£/439
labeled glucose and relative evolution of 14CC>2 by
liver; and
h. histocytological examinations of liver, brain, pan-
creas, gill, and kidney by light and electron
microscopy.
E. Fate of the Chemical
1. Purpose
The environmental fate of a pesticide is determined by its
interactions with physicochemical and biological processes.
Its distribution is the result of partition between the biota
and sedimentation processes, and degradation rates as-
sociated with each of these. Segmentally, these studies at-
tempt to predict the relative ecodistribution of pesticides,
identify physicochemical and biological degradation prod-
ucts, and describe their kinetics. Biological effects of these
compounds must be correlated with residues in order to
anticipate their ecological impact under the conditions of
use.
2. Scope
a. Biodegradation and Residue Kinetics
Fish and invertebrates—these studies on residue
degradation and uptake are more definitive than
the initial uptake studies involved in acute inter-
mittent-flow bioassays. Equilibrium of the residues
(parent compound or metabolites or both) in the
organisms during the exposure period must be
documented to strengthen correlation of exposure
concentrations and biological effects. Special con-
sideration must be given to multiple component
pesticides. Both the composition and isomer ratios
can be altered and should be included in determin-
ing safe levels of pesticide exposure. The chemical
burden and kinetics of uptake in the test organism
are determined by sampling at not less than four
intervals during the test exposures. No less than
three fish or other samples per concentration are
analyzed at each sampling period.
Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) and Gas-
liquid chromatography-mass spectrograph (GLC-
MS) analyses are then made on each sample to
determine which fractions of the radioactive resi-
dues are attributed to the parent compound(s)
and what changes occurred in the composition and
isomer-ratios of the pesticide. Thin layer chromato-
graphic examination of nonvolatile metabolites is
recommended for compounds which cannot be
analyzed by GLC (Biros 1970b,141 Johnson et al.
1971169).
Chemical information obtained from the various
invertebrate organisms is examined in light of pos-
sible impact on the food chain of fish and other
organisms. These data give an estimate of the rela-
tive importance of bioconcentration, biopassage,
and biodegradation in the various trophic levels in
predicting the effect on ecosystems (Eberhardt,
Meeks, and Peterle 1971).149
Microorganisms—These studies are designed to
ascertain whether or not a pesticide or its degrada-
tion product(s) is biodegradable by microorganisms
in an aquatic environment (Faculty of American
Bacteriologists 1957).151 Benthic muds are incu-
bated with the pesticide (or degradation product(s)
or both) in liquid culture. One sample is sterilized
to distinguish chemical or biological degradation,
or both. Variables investigated concerning the
basic microorganism-pesticide interaction during
incubation are:
• duration: 1-3-7-14-21-30 days;
• temperature: 15-25-35 C;
• pH: 5.0-7.0-9.0;
• oxygen tension: aerobic or anaerobic (nitro-
gen overlay).
b. Physicochemical Interactions
These studies are designed to determine the in-
teractions of water quality factors as they affect
rates of sorption, desorption, and loss of chemicals
from the aquatic system, and chemical modifica-
tions of the parent compound. These data permit
accurate assessment of the biological availability to,
and effects of the subject chemical on, the aquatic
biota.
Sediment binding studies (i.e., sorption, desorp-
tion rates) should consider the effects of as many
combinations of the following as possible:
• pH: 6, 7.5, 9;
• hardness: 10, 45, 300 ppm as CaCO3;
• temperature: 7, 17, 27 C;
• sediment type (heavy, light, high/low-or-
ganic) ; binding profile, i.e., degree of binding
as a function of particle size and composition.
Chemical degradation rates as influenced by the
previous characteristics should also be analyzed.
In addition, the importance of photodegradation
(visible and ultraviolet) must also be examined.
Product identification will utilize analyses by
GLC, mass spectrometry, and infrared spectrom-
etry. Degradation products will be synthesized
where necessary for biological or chemical testing.
Volatization and loss of pesticides from the aqueous
system must also be considered, particularly where
factors of pH or temperature are important.
-------
APPENDIX II-F
Pesticides Recommended for Monitoring in the Environmentf
Common or trade name
Aldnn
Amitrole
Arsenic-containing pesticides (Inorganic and organic)
Atrazme
Azmphosmethyl (Guthion®)
Benzene hexachloride (BHC)
Captan
Chlordane
2,4-D (including salts, esters, and other derivatives)
DDT (including its isomers and dehydrochlormation
products)
Dicamba
Dieldnn
Dithiocaroamate pesticides:
Maneb
Ferbam
Zmeb
Endrin
Heptachlor
Heptachlor epoxide
Lindane
Malalhion
Mercury-containing pesticides (Inorganic and organic)
Methoxychlor
Methyl parathion
Mirex
Nitralm (Pianavm®)
Parathion
PCNB
Picloram
Silvex (including salts, esters, and other derivatives)
Strobane®
2,4,5-T (including salts, esters, and other derivatives)
TDE (ODD) (including its isomers and dehydrochlorma-
tion products)
Toraphene
Triliuralm
Chemical name"
not less than 95 percent of 1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-
1,4,4a, 5,8,8a-hexahydro-1,4-endo-exo-S, 8-dimetha-
no-naphthalene
3-ammo-s-triazole
2-chloro-4-(ethylammo)-6-(isopropylamino)-s-tnazine
0,0-dimethyl phosphorodithioate S-ester with 3-(mer-
captomethyl)-1,2,3-benzotnazin-4(3H)-one
1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane,consisting of several
isomers and contain ing a specified percentage of gamma
isomer*
N-[(trichloromethyl)tnio]-4-cycionexene-1,2-dicarboxi-
mide
at least 60 percent of 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-3a,4,
7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-methanomdan and not over 40
percent of related compounds
(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)3Cetic acid
1,1,1 -tnchloro-2.2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane, technical
DDT consists of a mixture of the p.p'-isomer and the
o, p'-isomer (in a ratio of about 3 or 4 to 1)
3,6-dichioro-o-anisicacid
not less than 85 percent of 1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-
6,7 - epoxy -1,4,4a, 5,6,7,8,8a • octa hydro-1,4- endo-
exo-5,8-dimethanonaphthalene
[ethylenebis(dithiocarbamato)]manganese;
tns(dimethyldithiocarbamato)iron,
[ethylenebis(dithiocarbamato)|zinc,
1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,7-epoxy-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,
8a-octahydro-1,4-endo-endo-5,8-dimethanonaphtha-
lene
1,4,5,6,7,8,8-heptachloro-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-
methanoindene
1,4,5,6,7,8,8-heptachloro-2,3-epoxy-3a, 4,7,7a-tetra-
hydro-4,7-methanoindan
1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane, gamma isomer of
not less than 99 percent purity
diethyl mercaptosuccmate S-ester with 0,0-dimethyl
phosphorodithioate
1,1,1-tnchloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxyphenyl)ethane; tech-
nical methoxychlor contains some o.p'-isomer also
0,0-dimethyl O-(p-mtrophenyl) phosphorothioate
dodecachlorooctahydro • 1,3,4 - metheno -1H • cyclobuta
[cdlpentalene
4-(methylsulfonyl)-2,6-dinitro-N,N-diproylamline
0,0-diethyl O-(p-mtrophenyl) phosphorothioate
pentachloronitrobenzene
4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolimc acid
2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy)propiomc acid
terpene polychlormates containing 65 percent chlorine
(2,4,5-tnchlorophenoxy)acetic acid
1,1- dichloro - 2,2 - bis(p • chlorophenyl)ethane; technical
TDE contains some o, p'-isomer also
chlorinated camphene containing 67-69 percent chlorine
a, a, a-tnfluoro-2,6-dmitro-N, N-dipropyl-p-toluidine
Common or trade name Chemical name"
Secondary List of Chemicals for Monitoring
DCNA(Botran®)
Carbaryl
Dernetron (Systox®)
Diazmon
Disulfoton (Di-Syston®)
Diuron
Eidosulfan (Thiodan®)
Funac"
Fluometuron
Inorganic bromide from bromine-containing pesticides
Li!ad-contammg pesticides such as lead arsenate
Linuron ....
PiIP
Piopamh'
Tnazme-type herbicides-':
Simazme
Propazme
Prometryne
TIIA
2,6-dichloro-4-nitroanihne
1-naphthy! methylcarbamate
mixture of 0,0-diethyl S (and 0)-[2-(ethylthio)ethyl]
phosphorothioates
0,0-diethyl 0-(2-isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinyl)
phosphorothioate
0,0-diethyl S-(2-ethylthio)ethyl]phosphorodithioate
3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea
1,4,5,6,7,7-hexachloro-5-norbornene-2,3-dimethanol
cyclic sulfite
(2,3,6-tnchlorophenyl)aceticacid
l,1-dimethyl-3-(a, a, a-tnfluoro-m-tolyl)urea
,i-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-methoxy-1-methylurea
lientachlorophenol
:i',4'-dichloropropionanilide
;!-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-tnazirie;
;'-cliloro-4,6-bis(isopropylamino)-s-triazine;
:',4-bis(isopropylamino)-6-(methyltlii Chemical names are in accordance with Chemical Abstracts.
' Report individual isomers when possible.
> Some compounds are used primarily on one or two crops or in certain regions rather than country-wide; for ex-
ample, the herbicidesfenac and propanil are used mainly en sugar cane and rice, respectively.
' Note that atrazme has been moved to the Primary List.
< This list contains chemicals which, although not considered to be pesticides themselves, are of special interest in
monitoring studies.
/ Schechter, 1971.1"
440
-------
APPENDIX M-G
TOXICANTS IN FISHERY MANAGEMENT
There is much evidence that primitive people in Asia
and South America used poisonous plants to capture fresh-
water and saltwater fishes for food. In China, extracts from
toxic plants have been employed for thousands of years to
remove undesirable fish from ponds under intensive fish
culture. The practice of applying toxicants in sport fishery
management of waters by poisoning non-game fish has
been used as a management tool (Prevost I960).193 Some of
the many causes and instances of fishes in pest situations were
discussed by Lennon (1970).191
A survey commissioned by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations in 1970 disclosed that
29 countries on the five continents are using toxicants in the
culture or management of food and game fishes (Lennon
et al. 1970).192 Forty-nine of the 50 states in the United
States and most provinces in Canada have used or are using
piscicides in fishery programs. The toxicants arc employed
to correct various problems in farm, ranch, and fish-produc-
tion ponds; in natural lakes and reservoirs; and in streams
and rivers.
The chemicals that served most commonly as fish toxi-
cants since the 1930's were basically insecticides in nature
and formulation. Rotenonc and toxaphene, for example,
were applied predominantly as piscicides in the United
States and Canada in 1966 (Stroud and Martin 1968),1'14
but several dozens of chemicals including natural poisons,
inorganics, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and organophos-
phates have had testing or use to kill fish (Lennon et al.
1970).192
There is a significant change in the use of toxicants in
fishery management. Increasing concerns by the public
and government regarding broad spectrum, persistent
pesticides have resulted in stiff requirements for registration
of fish toxicants and regulation of their use in public waters.
Well justified emphasis is being placed now on the develop-
ment and use of piscicides that are specific to fish, harmless
at use levels to non-target plants and animals, non-persistent
in the aquatic environment, and safe to handle and apply.
An enormous amount of research is required now to secure
or retain registration of a fish toxicant. The research in-
cludes long-term studies on safety to man and mammals, on
efficacy to target fish, on residues in fish and other aquatic
life, and on degradation or dcactivation of the toxicant in
the environment.
Programs for the management of public waters are being
more closely scrutinized for any temporary or long-term ef-
fects they will have on the environment. More emphasis is
being placed on the enhancement and protection of the in-
tegrity of ecosystems as the main goal for management of
our living resources. The importance of preserving a di-
versity of aquatic habitats and natural communities as
important gene pools, which may be of inestimable value to
mankind in the future, as well as for education, research,
and aesthetic enjoyment must be clearly recognized. If
control measures are undertaken which will kill non-target
aquatic species (fish or invertebrates), then careful con-
sideration should be given to preserving populations of these
species for restrocking in order to reestablish stability of the
community. Furthermore, more attention should be given to
beneficial use of nuisance populations of aquatic organisms
and efficient harvesting methods should be developed as
part of any integrated control program.
There are five divisions of the management process that
must be considered by fishery managers and project review
boards. They are:
Demonstration of need
A fishery problem is at first presumed to exist, then
studied and defined, and proven or disprovcn. If proven, the
need for immediate or eventual correction is assessed and
weighed against all possible environmental, scientific, and
political considerations. The need then is documented and
demonstrated to those in a decision-making capacity.
Selection of method(s) for solution of problem
All possible solutions to the problem by means of chem-
ical, biological, physical, and integrated approaches must
be considered and evaluated in terms of effectiveness on
target fishes, safety to non-target plants and animals, and
environmental impact. An important rule of thumb is that a
toxicant should be used only as a last resort.
441
-------
442/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
The selection of an approach to solve the problem, there-
fore, must be accomplished on the basis of sound fact-find-
ing and judgment. Every opportunity for exploiting an
integrated approach to management and control deserves
consideration to protect the integrity of ecosystems.
The selection of an approach to management of native
fish populations and control of exotic species should be
approved by an impartial board of review.
Selection of a toxicant
If a chemical approach to solution of the problem is
chosen, the next major step is selection of the correct toxi-
cant. The toxicant must be one registered for the use, specific
to the target species, and relatively compatible with the
environmental situation.
Method of Application
The proximity of application transects on lakes or meter-
ing stations on streams is an important consideration. Ap-
plication points must be close enough together to avoid
locally excessive concentrations that may be harmful to
non-target life.
Every opportunity to achieve selective action on target
organisms by adjusting the application method or timing
should be exploited.
Pre- and post-treatment assessments
Careful surveys and assessments of the target and non-
target life in the problem area are needed prior to a treat-
ment. The data must be quantitatively and qualitatively
representative.
The actual application must be preceded by competent
ecosystem study of the habitat 1o be treated. Moreover, on-
gite bioassays of the candidate toxicant must be conducted
against representative target and non-target organisms col-
lected in the problem area. The dose (concentration plus
duration of exposure) of toxicjmt needed for the reclama-
tion is calculated from the results of the on-site bioassays.
Following an application, ihorough ecosystem studies
and assessments of target and non-target life must be made
in the problem area. Some surveys should be accomplishec
mmediately; others should be prosecuted periodically for
1 to 2 years to evaluate the effect of the treatment to deter-
••nine if the original problem was corrected, and to detecl
any long-term and/or adverse effects on non-target lift
and the environment in general.
All chemical treatments of public waters should be re-
viewed by impartial boards at appropriate state and federal
levels. Resource administrators, managers and scientists in
fisheries, wildlife, ecology, and recreation should be repre-
sented on the boards, and they should call in advisors from
ihe private and public sectors as necessary to evaluate pro-
posed projects realistically and fairly. A board must have
decision-making authority at each step of the treatment
process; thus, a smoothly working system for getting facts
irom the field to the board and its decisions back to the field
is necessary. Furthermore, a review board must have con-
tinuity so that it can assess the- results of preceding treat-
ments and apply the experience obtained to subsequent
management activities.
-------
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36Zeller, R. W., J. A Iloopcs and G. A Rohlich (1971), Heated
surface jets in a steady cross-current. Jouinal of the llydiaulic
Division, ASCE, HY9, 97.1403-1426.
APPENDIX II-B
37 Beak, T. W. (1965), A biotic index of polluted streams and its
relationship to fisheries, in Advances in }\'ater Pollution Research,
Proceeding of the 2nd Conference, O. Jaag, cd (Pcrgamon Press,
London), vol. 1, pp. 191-219.
38 Beck, W. M. (1954), Studies in stream pollution biology. L A
simplified ecological classification of organisms. Qjiait J. Fla.
Acad. Sa. 17(4): 211-227.
39 Beck, W. M (1955), Suggested method for reporting biotic data.
Sewage Indus!. Wastes 27(10): 1 193-1197.
40 Cairns, J., Jr., D. W. Albaugh, F. Busey, and M. D. Chanay
(1968), The sequential comparison index' a simplified method
for non-biologists to estimate lelative differences in biological
diversity in stream pollution studies /• Water Pollut. Conlr.
Fed. 40(9): 1697-1613.
41 Cairns, J. Jr., and K. L. Dickson (1971). A simple method for the
biological assessment of the effects of waste discharges on aquatic
bottom dwelling organisms. J }\'attr Pollut. Conlr Fed 40-
755- 782
42 Dixon, W. J. and F. J. Massey, Jr. (1951), Inlioduclwn to statistical
ana/ji?r (McGraw-Hill Book Co , New York), 370 p.
43 Fisher, R. A , A. S Corbet, and C B. Williams (1943), The rela-
tion between the number of species and the number of indi-
viduals in a random sample of an animal population. J. Anim.
Ecol. 12(l):42-58.
44 Gaufin, A R. (1956), Aquatic macro-invertebrate communities
as indicators of organic pollution in Lytlc Creek. Sewage Indus!.
Wastes 28(7):9()6-924.
45 Gaufin, A. R. (1958), The effects of pollution on a midwcstcrn
stream (Mad River). Ohio J. Set. 58. 197-208.
46 Gaufin, A. R. and C. M. Tarzwell (1952), Aquatic invertebrates as
indicators of stream pollution. Puhl Health Rep 67:57-64.
47 Hairston, N G. (1959), Species abundance and community or-
ganization. Ecology. 40(3):404-416.
48 Hyncs, II. B. N. (1962), The significance of macro-invertebrates in
the study of mild river pollution, in Biological problems in water
pollution, C. M. Tarzwell, ed.
49 Kolkwitz, R. and M. Marsson (1908), Okologie der pflanzlichen
saprobien. Bet. Dent. Hot Ges. 26 (9):505-519.
50 Kolkwitz, R. and M. Marsson (1909), Oekologie der tierischen
saprobien. Int. Rev. Gesam. Hydrobiol. Hydrograph. 2(1):126—152.
61 Lloyd, M. and R. J. Ghelardi (1964), A table for calculating the
"equitability" component of species diversity. J. Anim. Ecol.
33(2):217-225.
M Margalef, R. (1958), Information theory in ecology. Gen. Systems
3:36-71
'3MacArthur, R. FT. (1964), Environmental factors affecting bird
species diversity. Aer. Natur. 98(903):387-397.
14 MacArthur, R. II. (1965), Patterns of species diversity. Biol. Rev.
40(4): 510- 533.
'5MacArthur, R Fl. and J. W. MacArthur (1961), On bird species
diversity. Ecology 42(3):594-598.
16 Mathis, B. J. (1965) Community structure of benthic macroin-
vertibrates in an intermittent stream receiving oil field brines.
Ph D. Thesis, Oklahoma State University, 52 p.
"Mclntosh, R P. (1967). An index of diversity and the relation of
certain concepts to diversity. Ecology 48(3):392-404.
£8Needham, P R. (1938), 'front striams: conditions that determine their
productivity and suggestions for stieam and lake management (Corn-
stock Publishing Co., Inc., Ithaca, New York), 233 p
19 Patrick. R. (19')1), A proposed bio'ogical measure of stream condi-
tions. Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol. 11 : 299-307.
60 Patten, B. C. (1962), Species diversity in net phytoplankton of
Raritan Bay. J. Mar. Res. 20 (1) 57-75.
61 Pielou, E. C. (1966), The measurement of diversity in different
types of biological collections. J. Theor. Bio!. 13:131-144.
62 Pielou, E. C. (1969), An introduction to mathematical ecology (fohn
Wiley & Sons, New York), 28n p.
63 Richardson, R. E (1928), The bottom fauna of the middle Illinois
River, 1913-1925. /// Stale AW. Hut. Sum. Bull. 17:387-475.
64 Shannon, C. E and W. Weaver (1963), The mathematical theory oj
communication (University of Illinois Press, Urbana).
65 Wilhm, J. L. (1965), Species diversi'y of benthic macromverfebrates in a
slieam leceiving domestic and oil refinery ejfluents [Ph.O. dissertation]
Oklahoma State University, Si illwater, 49 p.
63 Wilhm, J S. and T. C Dorris (1968), Biological parameters for
water quality criteria litoscifnce 18(6):477-480.
6'Wurtz, C B (1955), Stream bi:Dta and stream pollution Sewage
Imliisl Wastes 27(11): 1270-1278.
APPENDIX II-C
6i Alabaster, J. S. (1967), The survival of salmon (Salmo solar L.)
and sea trout (S. Itutta L.) in fresh and saline water at high
temperatures Watei Res. 1 (10):7 17-730.
'"Alabaster, J. S. and A L. Downing (1966), A field and laboratory
investigation of the effect of heated effluents on fish. Fish. Mm.
Agr. Eish Food (Great Britain) Ser. I Sea Fish 6(4): 1-42.
71 Alabaster, J. S. and R. L. Welcomme (1962), Effect of concentration
of dissolved oxygen on survival of trout and roach in lethal
temperatures. Nature 194:107.
71 Allanson, B. R. and R. G. Noble (1964), The high temperature
tolerance of Tilapia mossambica (Peters). Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 93(4):323-332.
"Allen, K. O. and K. Strawn (1968), Heat tolerance of channel
catfish Ictalurus punctalus, in Proceedings of the, 21il annual conference
of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners (The
Association, Columbia, South Carolina), pp. 399-41 I.
7: Bishai, H. M. (1960), Upper lethal temperatures for larval sal-
monids. J. Cons. Cons. Perma. Int. Explor. Mer 25(2):129-133.
'' Brett, J. R. (1952), Temperature tolerance of young Pacific sal-
mon, genus Oncorhynchus. J. Fish. Res. Board of Can., 9(6):
265-323.
7£ Coutant, C. C. (1972). Time-t?mberature relationships for thermal
resistances of aquatic organisms, principally fish [ORNL-EIS 72-27]
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
7f Coutant, C. C. (1970), Thermal resistance of adult coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) and jack chinook (O. ishawytscha) salmon
-------
Literature Cited/'445
and adult steelhead trout Salmo gairdneri from the Columbia
River. AEG Kept. No. BNWL-1580, Batelle Northwest, Rich-
land, Wash.
77 Craigie, D. E. (1963), An effect of water hardness in the thermal
resistance of the rainbow trout, Salmo Gairdneni, Can. J. ^ool.
41(5):825-830.
78 Doudoroff, P. (1942), The resistance and acclimatization of marine
fishes to temperature changes. I. Experiments with Girella
mgncans (Ayres). Bid. Bull. 83(2):219-244.
79 Doudoroflf, P. (1945), The resistance and acclimatization of marine
fishes to temperature changes. II. Experiments with Fundulus
and Athennops. Biol. Bull. 88(2): 194-206.
80Edsall, T. A., D. V. Rottiers, and E. II. Brown (1970), Tempera-
ture tolerance of bloater (Coregonus hoyi}. J. Fish Res. Board Can.
27(11):2047-2052.
81 Fry, F. E. J., J. R. Brett and G. II. Clawson (1942) Lethal limits
of temperature for young goldfish Rev. Gan. Biol. 1 '50-56.
82 Fry, F. E. J., and M. B Gibson (1953), Lethal temperature ex-
periments with speckled trout x lake trout hybrids. J. Uered.
44(2):56-57.
83 Fry, F. E. J., J. S. Hart and K. F. Walker (1046), Lethal tem-
peratures relations for a sample young speckled trout, Salvelinus
fmitinahs. Pbl. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab. No. 66; LJniv. of Toronto
Stud , Biol. Ser. No. 54, Univ of Toronto press.
84Garside, E. T. and C. M. Jordan (1968), Upper lethal tempera-
tures at various levels of salinity in the euryhalinc Cyprinodon-
tids Fundulus heteroclitus and F. diaphamis after isosomotic acclima-
tion. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 25(12) :2717-2720.
86 Gibson, E. S. and F. E. J. Fry (1954), The performance of the
lake trout, Salvelinus namaycuih, at various levels of temperature
and oxygen pressure. Can J. ,^ool. 32(3) 252-260.
86 Hair, J. R. (1971), Upper lethal temperature and thermal shock
tolerances of the opossum shrimp, Xeomysis awatschensis, froin
the Sacramento-San Joaquiu estuary, California. Calif. Fish
Game 57(1).17-27.
87 Hart, J. S. (1947), Lethal temperature relations of certain fish of
the Toronto region Tram. Roy. Sac. Can. Sec. 5(41):57-71.
88 Hart, J. S. (1952), Geographic variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish [University of
Toronto biology series no. 60] ('I he University of Toronto
Press, Toronto), 79 p.
89 Heath, W. G. (1967), Ecological significance of temperature tol-
erance in Gulf of California shore fishes. J. Ariz. Acad. Sci.
4(3): 172-178.
90 Hoff, J. G. and J. R. Westman (1966), The temperature tolerances
of three species of marine fishes, J. Afar Res 24(2)'131-140.
91 Lewis, R. M. (1965), The effect of minimum temperature on the
survival of larval Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc 94(4):409-412.
92 Lewis, R. M. and W. F. Hettler, Jr. (1968), Effect of temperature
and salinity on the survival of young Atlantic menhaden, Rre-
rooitia tyrannus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4):344-349.
93 McCauley, R. W. (1958), Thermal relations of geographic races of
Salvelinus. Can. J. ^ool. 36(5) 655-662.
94 McCauley, R. W. (1963), Lethal temperatures of the develop-
mental stages of the sea lampiey, Petrorny^ori rnannus L. J. Fish.
Res. Board Can. 20(2):483-49().
95Neill, W. II., Jr., K. Strawn, and J. E. Dunn (1966), Heat resist-
ance experiments with the longear sunfish, Lepomis miegalo/is
(Rafincsquc). Arkansas Acad Sa Proc. 20 39-49.
96 Scott, D. P. (1964), Thermal resistance of pike (Rsox lucius L.)
muskcllungc (E. masqmnongy) Mitchill, and their F, hybrids.
J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 21 (5):1043-1049.
97 Simmons, H. B. (1971), Thermal resistance and acclimation at
various salinities in the sheepshcad minnow (Cypnnodon vanegatus
Lacepede). Texas A&M Univ. Soc. No. TAMU-SG-71-205.
98 Smith, W. E. (1970), Tolerance of Mysis relicta to thermal shock
and light. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(2):418-422.
"Strawn, K. and J. E. Dunn (1967), Resistance of Texas salt- and
freshwater marsh fishes to heat death at various salinities,
Texas-T. Series, 1967:57-76.
References Cited
100Blahm, T. H. and R. J. McConnell, unpublished data (1970),
Mortality of adult eulachon Thaleichthys pacificus chinook slamon
and coho salmon subjected to sudden increases in water tem-
perature, (draft). .Seattle Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.
101 Blahm, T. H. and W. D. Parente, unpublished data (1970), Effects
of temperature on chum salmon, thrcespine stickelback and
yellow perch in the Columbia river, Seattle Biological Labora-
tory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.
102Edsall, T A. and P. A. Colby (1970), Temperature tolerance of
young-of-thc-year cisco, Corcgonus artedii. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 99(3):526~531
"» McConnell, R J. and T. H. Blahm, unpublished data (1970),
Resistance of juvenile sockeye salmon O. nerka to elevated water
temperatures, (draft) Seattle Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.
104 Smith, W. E. unpublished data (1971), Culture reproduction and
temperature tolerance of Pontoporeia affinis in the laboratory.
(draft) National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
106 Snyder, G. R. and T. H. Blahm, unpublished data (1970), Mor-
tality of juvenile chinook salmon subjected to elevated water
temperatures, (draft Man ) Seattle Biological Laboratory. U.S.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.
APPENDIX II-D
106 Bond, C. E., R. H. Lewis and J. L. Fryer. (1960), Toxicity of
various hcrbicidal materials to fish. Second seminar on Biological
problems in water pollution. R. A. Taft San. Eng. Cen. Tech.
Rept. W60-3. pp 96-101
107 Bridges, \V. R (1961), Biological problems in water pollution,
Third Seminar. (1961) U.S.P.H.S. Pub. No. 999-WP-25, pp.
247-249.
™Burdick, G. E, H. J. Dean, and E. J. Harris (1964), Toxicity
of aqualin to fingcrling brown trout and bluegills. N.Y. Fish
Game J. 11(2) 106-114.
109 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1964), The effect upon the pump-
kinseed sunfish Lepomis gibbosus (Linn.) of chronic exposure to
lethal and sublethal concentrations of dieldrin. Xotidae .Vatur.
(Philadelphia) no. 370:1-10.
110 Carlson, C. A. (1966), Effects of three organophosphorus insecti-
cides on immature Ifftagema and Ilydropsyche of the upper Missis-
sippi River. Irons. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95(l)'l-5.
111 Eaton, J. G. (1971), Chronic malathion toxicity of the bluegill
(Lepomis maciochmis Rafinsque). Water research, Vol. 4, pp.
673-684.
112 Gilclcrhus, P. A. (1967), Effects of diquat on bluegills and their
food organisms. Progr. Fish-Cult. 29(2)-67-74.
113Hendeison, C., Q. H. Pickering.and C. M. Tarzwcll (1959),
Relative toxicity of ten chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
to four species of fish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88(l)'23-32.
114 Hughes, J. S and J. T. Davis (1962), Comparative toxicity to
bluegill sunfish of granular and liquid herbicides. Proceedings
Sixteenth Annual Conference Southeast Game and Fish Com-
missioners, pp. 319-323.
116 Hughes, J. S. and J. T. Davis (1963), Variations in toxicity to
bluegill sunfish of phenoxy herbicides. Weeds ll(l):50-53.
116 Hughes, J. S. and J. T. Davis (1964), Effects of selected herbi-
-------
446/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
cides on bluegill and sunfish. Proceedings Eighteenth Annual
Conference, Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commissioners,
Oct. 18-21, 1964, pp. 480-482.
117 Jensen, L. D. and A. R. Gaufin (1964), Long-term effects of
organic insecticides on two species of stonefly naiads. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(4):357-363.
118 Jensen, L. D. and A. R. Gaufin (1966), Acute and long-term
effects of organic insecticides on two species of stonefly naiads.
J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 38(8):1273-1286.
119 Katz, M. (1961), Acute toxicity of some organic insecticides to
three species of salmonids and to the threespinc stickleback.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Sac. 90(3)'264-268.
120 Lane, C. E. and R. E. Livingston (1970). Some acute and chronic
effects of dieldrin on the sailfin molly, Poecilia lalipinna. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3)-489-495.
121 Macek, K. J. and W. A. McAllister (1970), Insecticide suscepti-
bility of some common fish family representatives. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 99(l):20-27.
122 Mount, D. I. and C. E. Stephen (1967), A method of establishing
acceptable toxicant limits for fish—malathion and the butoxy-
ethanol ester of 2, 4-D. Transactions American Fisheries Society.
Vol. 96, No. 2, pp. 185-193.
123 Pickering, Q. II., C. Henderson and A. E. Lemke (1962), The
toxicity of organic Phosphorus insecticides to different species of
warmwater fishes Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. Vol 91, No 2, pp.
175-184.
124 Sanders, H. O. (1969), Toxicity of pesticides to the crustacean, Gam-
marus laaislns [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife technical
paper 25] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.),
18 p.
126 Sanders, H. O. (1970), Toxicitics of some herbicides to six species
of freshwater crustaceans. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 42(8, part
1): 1544-1550.
126 Sanders, H. O. 1972, In press. Fish Pesticide Res. Lab. Columbia,
Mo. Buieau of Spt. Fish, and Wildlife. The toxicities of some
insecticides to four species of Malocostracan Crustacea.
127 Sanders, H. O. and O. B. Cope (1966), Toxicities of several pesti-
cides to two species of cladocerans. Trans. Amei. Fish Soc. 95(2):
165-169.
128 Sanders, H. O. and O. B. Cope (1968), The relative toxicities of
several pesticides to naiads of three species of stoneflies. Limnol.
Oceatwgi. 13(1): 112-117.
129 Schoettger, R. A. (1970), To\icology of t/nodan in ser/ial fith and
aquatic invertebrates [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in-
vestigation in fish control 35] (Government Printing Office,
Washington, B.C.), 31 p.
130 Solon, J. M. and J. H. Nair, III. (1970), The effect of a sublethal
concentration of LAS on the acute toxicity of various phosphate
pesticides to the Fathead Minnow Pimephales promelas Rafmesquc.
Bull. Envr. Contain and Toxico. Vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 408-413.
131 Surber, E. W. and Q. H. Pickering (1962), Acute toxicity ofcndo-
thal, diquat, hyamine, dalapon, and silvex to fish. Piogt Fish-
Cult. 24(4):164-171.
132 Walker, C. R. (1964), Toxicological effects of Herbicides on the
fish environment. Water & Sewerage Works. 111(3): 113-116.
133 Wilson, D. C. and C E. Bond, (1969), The effects of the herbi-
cides diquat and dichlobenil (casoron) on pond invertebrates.
Part I. Acute toxicity. Transactions Am. Fishery. Soc. Vol. 98,
No. 3 pp. 438-443.
References Cited
134 Bell, H. L., unpublished data (1971) National Water Quality La-
boratory, Duluth, Minnesoata.
135 Biesinger, K. E., unpublished adla (1971), National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
136 Carlson, C. A., unpublished date (1971) National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
I37FPRL, unpublished data (1971), Fish Pesticide Res. Lab. Annual
Rcpt. Bur. Spt. Fish, and Wildlife. Columbia, Mo.
138Merna, J. W., unpublished data (1971), Institute for Fisheries Re-
search, Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Ann
Arbor, Michigan E.P A. gram: # 18050-DLO.
APPENDIX II-E
39Berger, B. L., R E. Lennon, and J. W. Hogan, (1969), Labora-
tory studies on antimycin A as a fish toxicant. U.S. Bureau ol
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Investigations in Fish Control
No. 26: 21 p
40 Biros, F. J. (1970a), A comparative study of the recovery oi
metabolized radiolabeled pesticides from animal tissues. Inter-
American Corif. on Toxicology and Occupational Medicine
Aug., 1970; p. 75-82.
41 Biros, F J (1970b), Enhancement of mass spectral dala bv means
of a time averaging computer Anal. Chcm. Vol. 42: p. 537-540
42 Breeder, C M and D. E. Rosen, (1966), Modes of Reproduetior
in Fishes. The Natural History Press, New York, 941 p.
43 Brock, 1" D. (1966), Principles of Microbial Ecology. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N>w Jersey; 306 p.
44 Burdick, G. E. (1967), l_ se of buastays in determining levels of lo\it
wailes harmful to aqun/ic oiga^nnn [American Fisheries Society
special publication no. 4] (The Society, Washington, D.C.)
pp. 7-12.
45 Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean and E. J. Harris (1964), Toxicity o
aqualin to fingerling brown trout and bluegills. .V.)". Fis/i Can,,
1. 11(2):I06-114.
46 Clark, J R and R. L,. Clark (1964), Sea-water sterns for <\pcr,
mental aqiiaimms [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife researcf
report 631 (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.)
192 p.
147 Cope, O. B, E M Wood, and G. H. Wallen (1970), Chionit
effects of 2,4-D on the blueEill (Leponus macroclurus). 'ham
Amei. Fnh Soc. 99(1) 1 12.
48 Eaton, J. G. (1970), Chronic malathion toxicity to the bluegil
(Lepomis maooc/mits Rafinesque). Water Research, Vol. 4. pi
673-684.
'49Ebcrhaidt, L L., R L Mecks, and T J. Peteile (1971), Food
chain model for DDT kinetics in a freshwater marsh, \aturi
230.60-62.
150 EPA, (1971), Chronic toxicity studies, test procedure, Bioassaj
methods for the evaluation c>f toxicity of industrial wastes anc
other substances to fish. In: Stand.ird Methods for the Evalu;\
tion of Water and Waste Water.
151 Faculty of American Bacterio'ogists (1957), Manual of Micro
biological Methods. McGraw-Hill Co. New York, 315 p.
152 Fowler, D L, J. N. Mahan, and H. H. Shepard (1971), Th(
pesticide review, 1970. U.S. Agricultural Stabilization anc
Conservation Service, 46 p.
'•"Grant, B. R and P M Mehrle (1970), Pesticide effects on fisl
endocrine function, in Progress in spot! fishety research, 1070 (Gov
eminent Printing Office, Washington, D.C.).
164 Hansen, D. L. and E. T. Bush (1967), Improved solubilizatior
procedures for liquid scintillation counting of biological ma
terials. Anal. Biochem. 18(2):320-332.
165 Henderson, C, W. L. Johnson, and A. Inglis (1969), Organo-
chlorine insecticide residues in fish (Nat'l. Pesticide Monitorinp
Program). Pesticides Monitoring Journal, Vol. 3, No. 3, pi
145-171.
156 Hisaoka, K.. K. and C. E. Firh't, (1962), Ovarian cycle and egp
production in the zebrafish, Brachycla mo rerw. Copeii, Vol. 4.
167 Jensen, L. D. and A R. Gaufi i (1964), Effects often insecticides
-------
Literature Cz'W/447
on two species of stonefly naiads. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(1):
27-34.
168 Johnson, D. W. (1968), Pesticides and fishes—a review of selected
literature. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol.
97. No 4; p. 398-424.
169 Johnson, B. T., R. Saundrrs, II. O. Sanders, and R. S Campbell
(1971), Biological magnification and degradation of DDT and
nldrin by freshwater invertebrates Journal of the Fisheries
Research Board of Canada. (In press)
16(1 Kennedy, II. D. and D. F. Walsh, (1970), Effects of malathion on
two freshwater fishes and aquatic invertebrates in ponds. U.S.
Bur of Spt. Fish, and Wildlife, Tech Paper 55; 13 p.
161 Kennedy. H. D., L. L. Filer, and D. F Walsh, (1970). Chronic
effects of mcthoxychlor on bluegills and aquatic invertebrates.
I' S Bur. Spt. Fish, and Wildlife, Tech. Paper 53, 18 p.
162 Lcnnon, R E. and B L. Bcrger. (1970), A resume of field applica-
tions of antimyein A to control Fish U S. Bur Spt. Fish, and
Wildlife, Investigations in Fish Control, No. 40; 19 p.
161 Lcnnon, R. E. and C. R. Walker (I<)(i4), Iturstigalimn in fish con-
trol I Laboratories anil methods fin screening fi\ii-rim/io! chemicals
[Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife service circular 185]
(Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C ), 18 p.
161 Litchfield, J. T., Jr. and F. Wilcoxoii (1949), A simplified method
of evaluating dose-effect experiments. Journal of Pharmacology
and Experimental Therapeutics, Vol 96; pp. 99-113.
166 M.icek, K J. (1968), Reproduction in brook trout (Salvelinus
fon//fuilis} fed sublethal concentrations of DOT. J l'*ish. Res.
Board Can 25(9) 1787-1 79(,.
1MMacek, K J., C. A. Rodgers, D. L Stalling and S. Korn (1970).
The uptake, distribution and elimination of dietaiy "C-DDT and
"C-dieldrin in i ambo\v trout I rans Amei Fish. Soc , Vol. 99,
No '1, p ()89 t>9~>
"'Marking. L. E. and J W Ilogan (19(i7), Tnvci/v of Haver 73 to
fish [Bureau of Sport Fisheiies and Wildlife investigations in
fish control 19| (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C!.
13 p
lf)8 Mattenheimer, 11 (196ti), Miuoinetlwds fin the clinical-chemical and
hioihcmica! laboratory (Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc , Ann
Ai bor, Michigan), 232 p.
169 Mattingly, D. (1962), A simple fluorimetric method for the esti-
mation of free 1 l-hydro\y corticoids in human plasma. J. dm.
r/ilhnl. 15:374-579.
170 Metealf, R. E., K S. Gurcharan, and I. P. Kapoor (1971), Model
ecosystem for the evaluation of pesticide biodegradabihty and
ecological magnification. ES&'F 5(8): 709-713.
171 Mehrle, P M. (ll*70), Annno acid metabolism of rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneri) as affected by clnorue dieldini exposure [Ph D. dissertation]
1. mversity of Missouri, Columbia, 7(> p.
172 Molhson, W. R. (1970), Effects of herbicides on water and its
inhabitants. Weed Science, Yol 18, p. 738-750
173 Mount, D I. (1967), Considerations for acceptable concentrations
of pesticides for fish production. In. A Symposium on Water
Quality Criteria to Protect Aquatic Life, Annual Meeting,
Kansas City, Missouri, Sept 1966, Edwin E. Cooper, Editor.
Ameiican Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 4; p. 3-6
174 Mount, D. I. and W A. Brnngs (1967), A simplified closing ap-
paratus for fish toxicology studies l\'ater Res. 1(1) 21-29.
175 Natelson, S. (1968), Microtechniques of Clinical Chemistry, C. C.
1 homas Co , Springfield, 111. 578 p.
176 Nebeker, A V. and A. R. Gaufin (1964), Bioassays to determine
pesticide toxicity to the atnphipocl crustacean, Gamniarus lacustns.
Proc. ['/ah Acart. Set Arts Letter* 41 (l):64-67.
177 Nuclear-Chicago Corporation (1967), Preparation of samples for
liquid scintillation counting. (The Corporation, Des Plaines,
Illinois), loose-leaf.
™Pickford, G. E. and B. F. Grant (1968), Response of hypophy-
sectomized male kilifish (Fundulus heter ochtus') to thyrotropin
preparations and to the bovine heterothyrotropic factor. Gen.
Camp. Endocnnol. 10(1) 1-7.
I79Roclgers, C. A. and D. L. Stalling (1971), Dynamics of an ester
of 2,4-D in organs of three fish species. Weeds. (In press).
180 Sanders, H. O. and O. B. Cope (196(5), Toxicities of several pesti-
cides to two species of cladocerans. Trans. Amer. Ftsk. Sor. 95(2):
165-169.
181 Schoettger, R. A. (1970), Toxicity of tlno/lan in several fish and aquatic
invertebrates [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife investigation
in fish control 35] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.), 31 p.
182 Sprague, J. B (1969), Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish.
I. Bioassay methods for acute toxicity. Water Research, Vol. 3;
p. 793-821.
183 Stalling, D L. (1971), Analysis of organochlorine residues in fish:
Current research of the Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory.
Proc 2nd. Intn. Conf on Pesticide Chem., Tel Aviv, Israel
(In press).
184 Stalling. D. L , R. C. Tindle and J. L. Johnson (1971), Pesticide
and PCB cleanup by gel permeation chromatograph. Jour.
Assn Official Anal. Chem , (In press).
185 Standard methods (1971), American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water, 13th ed (American Public Health
Association, Washington, D.C.), 874 p
186 Tindle, R C. (1971), Handbook of procedures for pesticide
residue analyses. U.S Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,
Fish-Pesticide Research in press.
187 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Food and
Drug Administration (1968), FDA guidelines [or chemistry and
residue data requirements of pesticide petitions (Government Printing
Office, Washinbton, D.C.), 22 p.
188 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1969),
Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Relationship
to Environmental Health (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D C.), 677 p.
APPENDIX II-F
189 Schechtcr, M S. (1971), Revised chemicals monitoring guide for
the National Pesticide Monitoring Program Journal. Vol. 5,
No. 1, p. 68-71
APPENDIX II-G
191 Lennon, R. E. (1970), Fishes in pest situations, p. 6-41 In C. E.
Palm (chrm). Principles in plant and animal pest control, vol.
5: Vertebrate pests: Problems and Control. National Academy
of Sciences, Wash., D.C.
192 Lennon, R. E., J. S. Hunn, R. A. Schnick, and R. M. Burress
(1970), Reclamation of ponds, lakes, and streams with fish
toxicants: a review. Fisheries Technical Paper 100, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome: 99 p.
193 pr^vost, G., (I960), Use offish toxicants in the Province of Quebec.
Can. Fish. Culturist, Vol. 28, 13-35.
194 Stroud, R. H. and R. G. Martin (1968), Fish conservation high-
lights 1963-1967. (Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, D.C.),
147 p.
-------
Appendix III—MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE 449 TABLE 4.
TATST F MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATIONS OF IN-
ORGANIC CHEMICALS IN FOOD AND WATER ... 48
ACUTE DOSE OF INORGANIC CHEMICALS FOR
AQUATIC ORGANISMS 450 TABLE 5.
-^ A T>T T- r, TOTAL ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF INORGANIC
TABLE /. „ TT o \ AO-
^ T _, CHEMICALS IN THE U.S.A 48.
SUBLETHAL DOSES OF INORGANIC CHEMICALS
FOR AQUATIC ORGANISMS 461 TABLE 6.
ORGANIC CHEMICALS TOXICITY DATA FOR
TABLE 3. . „ .n
„. AQUATIC ORGANISMS 48'
ACCUMULATION OF INORGANIC CHEMICALS FOR
AQUATIC ORGANISMS 469 LITERATURE CITED 511
448
-------
APPENDIX III—MARINE TABLES 1-6
PREFACE
Tables 1-3 in this Appendix have been compiled to pro-
vide information on the effects of inorganic constituents on
marine organisms. Data on bioassay tests with fresh water
organisms are included, especially when the information
concerning marine organisms is inadequate. This was also
done when the same investigator studied both fresh water
and marine organisms The substances tested are listed in
alphabetical order, generally based upon the constituent in
the compound considered to be critical. The entries are ar-
ranged within substances by year of publication and author.
The units used are those presented in the original publica-
tion. In some cases it is impossible to know whether the
concentration is expressed in terms of the element or the
compound tested, but if the information was presented in
the original publication, it is so indicated. The organism
used in the test is identified as in the original reference,
giving the specific name wherever it is available. Very ab-
breviated descriptions of the conditions of the test are pre-
sented. The value of the compilation is to indicate the range
of concentrations tested, the species used, and the references
to the original work The reader is urged to refer to the
original reference for more precise details about the test
conditions or to the author if the necessary details were
omitted in the publication.
Generally, in Table 1 the acute dose for a 96 hr LC50 is
presented. If the time of the test was different, it is indicated
in parentheses after the concentration listed, for example,
(48 hr).
L = Laboratory bioassay
BS = bioassay static
BGF = bioassay continuous flow
BA = bioassay acute
BGH = bioassay chronic
a = water temperature
b = ambient air temperature
c = pH
d = alkalinity (total, phenolphthalein or caustic)
e = dissolved oxygen
f= hardness (total, carbonate, Mg or CaO)
g = turbidity
h = oxidation reduction potential
i = chloride as Cl
j=BOD, 5 day; (J)=BOD, short-term
k = COD
1 = Nitrogen (as NO2 or NO3)
m = ammonia nitrogen as NH3
n = phosphate (total, ortho-, or poly)
o = solids (total, fixed, volatile, or suspended)
p = G02
BOD = biochemical oxygen demand
449
-------
450/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 1—Acute dose of inorganic chemicals for aquatic organisms
Constituent
Aluminum
(Al)
Ammonia
(NH3)
Acute dose 96 hr LC50
250 ppm
Uppm(fewHrs)
17.8 mg/l (short
time)
235 mg/l
133 mg/l
240 ppm (48 hr)
135 mg/l (48 hr)
18. 5 mg/l (48 hrs)
15 mg/l (48 hr)
6.0 ppm
JOO mi/1 (6 hrs)
4000-50QO mg/l
(6 hrs)
8.0 mg/l (time not
specified)
17. 5 mg/l (48 hr)
7.7 ppm
248 mg/l
490 mg/l
240 mg/l
114ms 1
1290 mg/l
240 mg/l
136 mg/l
37 mg/l
910 mg/l (24 hr)
238 ppm (2 day)
238 ppm (2 day)
510 ppm (2 day)
270 ppm (2 day)
Species
Micropterus sal-
moides
fish and river crab
Sebastes marmus
Sebastes marmus
Gambusia alfinis
Gambusia aflinis
Gambusia alfinis
Gambusia affmis
Lepomis
macrocluus
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
minnows
minnows
Daphma
Pimephales
promelas
Lepomis
macrochirus
Gambusia affims
Gambusia affims
"
Gambusia affims
Gambusia aflinis
Gambusia alfinis
"
Gambusia alfinis
Gambusia affmis
Gambusia affinis
Gambusia affims
Gambusia aflinis
Gambusia affinis
"
Conditions
AKSO,),:; 18 HB0; pH
7.2-7.6; 64-8 ppm
AlClj; sea water
19-22 C; turbid water;
turbidity 235 to 25
mg/l; AlstSOOv
18H.Q
highly turbid water
AI;CI , static acute bio-
assay turbid water;
a,c,d,e,g
AI2CI-,, static acute bio-
assay turbid water;
a,M,e,8
lap water, reoxygenated
20 C; NHjOH
cone, as NH(OH; tap
water; 20 C.
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a,c,e,f;
aerated distilled
NHiCI
hard water, NH.CI
distilled water; NHiCI
cone. asNHjOH,
tap water;
NH,CI; distilled aerated
water, static acute bio-
assay, a,c,d,f. NH.CI
asN;
21 C, in turbid water
using (NHOsS
in turbid water; NMI
using (NHi)2S03 H20:
20-21 C; turbidity
lowered from 220 to
25mj /I
using NHiSCN; turbid
water 16-23 C
turbid water; 20-21 C
using (NHOzSOi, re-
duced turbidity from
240-25 mg/l
highly turbid water,
(NH,)2Cr04
" (NH4)2Cr;Oj
turbid water
using NHiSCN, turbid
water 1 6-23 C
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,g, ammonium
acetate; high turbidity
PH7.6-8 8
same as above using
(NH)jCOj
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,g, high tur-
bidity; NH.CI
static acute bioassay,
a,c,e,f,d, high tur-
bidity; ammonium
chromate
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,f, high fur-
Literature citation*
Sanborn 1945108
Podubsky and Sled-
ronsky 1948"
Pulley 1950'°°
Pulley 1950""
Walleri et al.
1957>33
Wallen et al.
1957»3
Wallen et al
1957"'
Wallen etal.
1957'33
Turnbull et al.
1954""
"
Cairns Jr. and
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Ammonia 212 ppm (2 day)
(NH3)
37 ppm (2 day)
1,4000 ppm (2 day)
248 ppm (2 day)
240 ppm (2 day)
420 ppm (2 day)
3.1 mg/l
3. 4 mg/l
23.7mg,l
Scheier unpub- j 24. 4 mg/l
lished 19551 ••
LeClerc and Deva-
mirrck 1955"
LeClercand Devj-
mi nek 1955"
Meinck et al
1956"
Black etal. 1957-'
Cairns Jr. and
Sctaer 1957»
Wallen et al.
1957'33
Wallen et al.
1957'S3
"
Wallen et al.
1957'33
Wallen etal.
1957'33
Wallen et al.
1957«3
"
Wallen et al.
1957'33
Wallen et al.
1957"33
Wallen et al.
1957'33
"
Wallen et al.
1957'33
Wallen et al.
1957«3
"
90 mg/l
94.5mg;l
133. 9 mg/l
6 mg/l
8. 2 ppm
5. 2 ppm
fl.4(24hr)
24. 6 ppm (2 day)
202 ppm (1 day)
161 ppm (2 day)
50 ppm
139 ppm
725 ppm (1-4 day)
241 ppm (1 day)
173 ppm (2 day)
70 ppm
60 ppm (1 day)
32 ppm (2 day)
20 ppm
423 ppm (1 day)
433 (2 day)
292 ppm
299 ppm (1 day)
273 ppm (2 day)
203 ppm
200 mg/l (4 days)
300 mg/l (4 days)
160 mg/l (4 days)
\ 73. 4 mg/l (2 days)
Species
"
Gambusia aflinis
Gambusia affims
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
"
Priysa heteiostropha
"
Lepomis
macrocmcus
Pimephales
promelas
Pimephales
promelas
Salmo gairdnen
Salmogairdnen
Carassiuscarassius
"
"
Daphnia magna
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea, sp (eggs)
Daphnia magna
"
Daphnia magna
a
n
"
"
"
Cyprmus carpio
gudgeon
Rhodeus senceus
Daphnia
Conditions
bidity, ammonium
dichromate
static acute bioassay;
a, c,d,e,g, highly turbid
water; NH OH
static acute bioassay;
a,c; ammonium sul-
fate; d.e.g, highly
turbid water
ammonium sulfide;
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g; highly
turbid water used
same as above, but
ammonium sulfite
used.
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g, Ammonium
thiocyanate, highly
turbid
soft water, 30 C
soft water; 20 C
hard water; 30 C
hard water, 20 C
soft water, 20 C
soft water, 30 C
hard water, 20 & 30 C
In standard distilled
water; KHiCI
static acute bioassay; in
hard water; c.d.e.l
static acute bioassay;
soft water, c,d,e,f.
unionized NH,: static
acute bioassay;
a,b,c,d,e toxicity in-
creased with increas-
ing pH (from 7.0 to
8 2)
static acute bioassay.
a,c,d,fNHtClasN;
static acute bioassay;
a,c, "standard refer-
ence water" NH;CI
"
•
"
"
a,c; NH,OH; static
acute bioassay,
"standard reference
water"
"
static acute bioassay,
a,c, standard refer-
ence water and lake
water using ammon-
ium sultate
n
static acute bioassay;
a.c, standard reference
water; ammonium
sulfite
"
"
(NH<)2S04
"
"
Literature citation
"
Wallen et al.
1957'33
Wallen et al.
1957'33
"
"
Academy of Natur
Sciences I9602
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Henderson et al.
1960^
"
Lloyd and Herbert
1960"
Herbert and Shur-
ben 1964r>3
Oowden and Ben-
nett 19653'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
»
"
"
"
"
"
Malacca 196678
"
"
"
* Citations are listed at the end of the Appendix. They can be located alphabetically within tables or by their superior numbers which run consecutively across the tables for the entire Appendix.
-------
Appendix HI—Table 7/451
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent
Ammonia
(MHS)
Antimony
(Sb)
Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
0.4 ppm (7 days)
0 29 ppm (7 days)
0.35 ppm (5 days)
0.36 ppm (6 days)
0 41 ppm (2 day)
34-47 ppm (2 days)
6.3 mg/l (48 hr)
420 ppm (5 day)
90.0 ppm
3. 4 ppm
0 44 ppm (3 hr)
12 ppm
20 ppm
17 ppm
9 ppm
80 ppm
80 ppm
(See sodium arsemte also)
Arsenic 48 ppm (24 hr)
(As)
Barium
(Ba)
Beryllium
(Be)
29 ppm (48 hr)
27 ppm (72 hr)
100 mg 1 (4 days)
160 mg/l (4 days)
5 mg 'I (2 days)
2083 mg 1 (36 hr)
200 ppm (time not
given)
100 ppm (time not
given)
11 ppm (time not
given)
1640 mg/l
4440 mg/l (24 hr)
10, 000 ppm (2 day)
3, 200 ppm (2 day)
1 3 mg
"
"
"
Brown 1968"
Brown 1968"
Patrick et al.
Consbtuent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
Beryllium 11 ppm
(Be)
0.2 ppm
31 0 mg/l
(See sodium borate, also)
Boron 15, 000 mg/l
(B) (24 hr)
196891 18, 000-19, 000 mg/l
"
"
Lloyd and Orr
1969"
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 19601"
"
"
"
"
(6hr)
19,000-19,500 mg/l
(6hr)
18, 000 mg/l
(24 hr)
5, 600 mg/l
12,000 mg/l
(24 hr)
8, 200 mg/l (48 hr)
3, 600 mg/l
10, 500 ppm (2 day)
Cadmium 45 mg/l
(Cd)
0.056 mg/l
5 ppm
0.9 ppm
j
Boschetti and Mc-
Loughlm 1957'-'
'/
Holland et al.
1960"
Malacca 1966"
Doudoroff and Katz
1953"
Bijan and Des-
chiens 195612
"
Bijan and Des-
chiens 195612
Wallenetal.
1957133
"
Wallen et al.
19571"
"
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1956123
"
"
"
"
"
1.05 mg/l
72 6 mg/l
1.94 mg/l
1.27 mg/l
2. 84 mg/l
66 0 mg/l
0 17 ppm
0.008-0. 01 ppm
(7 day)
30 mg/l (1 day)
30 ppm (1 day)
0.1 2 mg/l (4-8
weeks)
27.0 mg/l
0.2 mg/l (8 wk)
0.1 mg/l (15 wk)
Calcium 8, 400 mg/l (24 hr)
(Ca)
10, 000 mg/l
10, 000 ppm
"
"
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Lepomis
macrochirus
minnows
"
Gambusia affmis
''
"
"
"
Gambusia affims
Onzias
guppy
Pimephales
promelas
"
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lebistes reticulatus
Lepomis cyanellus
Pimephales
promelas
Salmo gairdneri
"
"
Crassostrea
virgmica
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Crassostrea
virgmica
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Conditions
same as above but using
hard water and
beryllium sulfate
same as above but using
soft water
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hrs;
aerated water
20 C;borontifluonde
in distilled water; 20 C;
in hard water; 20 C;
boric acid; 20-23 C;
pH 5 4-7 3
"
sodium borate, 22-26 C;
pH8 6-9.1
"
"
boric acid, static acute
bioassay, a,c,d,e,g;
highly turbid water
20-23 C
Cd(NOi)i 4 H20
cone, as Cd, using
Cd(NO,i). 4 H,0
static acute bioassay,
a.c.d.f, hard water;
cadmium chloride
same as above, using
soft water
static acute bioassay,
c.d.e.f, soft water,
CdCI ' cone, as Cd.
same as above; using
no waiei
static acute bioassay;
c,d,e,f, soft water
CdCIs cone as Cd
same as above
same as above
same as above, but
using hard water
cadmium cyanide com-
plex, sodium cyanide
(439 ppm CN) and
cadmium sulfate
(528 ppm Cd) Syn-
thetic soft water;
static acute bioassay;
a.c; cone, as CN
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a,b,f; hard
water
»
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a,b,f
in flowing water; 20 C
salinity 31 ppt; CdCI-;.
2.5 HiO
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hr
aerated water.
20 C; Ca(N03)2
Ca*NO;) :,- static acute
bioassay; a,d,e,f
Literature citation'
„
"
Jackim et al.
1970"
Turnbull et al.
1954™
LeClerc and Deva-
mmck 1950",
1955"
Wallenetal.
1957i»
"
"
"
"
Wallen et al.
1957i>3
Doudorofl and
Katz 1953"
Shaw and Lowrance
1956' lz
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1960124
"
Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965"
"
"
Doudoroff et al.
1966"
Ball 1967>
"
Velsen and Alder-
dice 1967i>2
Shusterand Pringle
1969U3
Jackim et al.
1970"
Pringle (in press)'9
"
Doudoroff and
Katz 1953"
Trama 1954bt"
"
-------
452/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 1—Continued
Consb'tuent
Calcium
(Ci)
Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
10, 650 ppm
9, 500 ppm
11, 300 ppm
7, 752 mg/l (22-
27 hr)
160 mg/l
56, 000 ppm
13,400 ppm (2 day)
220 ppm (2 day)
240 ppm (1 day)
56, 000 ppm (2 day)
11, 300 ppm
saturation
5% (time not
given)
3, 526 ppm (f day)
3, 005 ppm (2 day)
8, 350 ppm (1 day)
4, 485 ppm (1 day)
3, 094 (2 day)
2, 373 ppm (3 day)
3, 200 ppm (5 day)
2, 980 ppm
3, 130 ppm (5 day)
10,650 ppm
„
"
"
Carassius auratus
Gambusia affinis
"
"
"
"
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Gambusia atfinis
Daphnia magna
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea sp (Eggs)
"
"
Nitzschia Imearis
Lepomis
macrochirus
Nitzschia Imearis
Lepomis macrochirus
(See also potassium chloride and sodium chloride)
Chloride 0.08 ppm (7 day) Salmo gairdneri
(CI)
10 ppm (24 hi)
19.25 ppm (16 hr)
Sphaerodes maculatus
lingering silvers
Conditions
CaCh; a,d,e,f, static
acute bioassay in
standard water
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a;c;ef,
aerated water; small
fish used.
same as above except
large fish used
in distilled water
Ca(OH)2
CaCO,;;a,c,d,e,g,
turbid water static
acute bioassay 13-
21 C
CaCh; turbid water;
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g
Ca(OH)i; a,c,d,e,g;
static acute bioassay,
turbid water, 21-23 C
"
CaSO,: a,c,d,e,g, turbid
water; static acute
bioassay 21-25 C
a,c,d,e,i; aerated water;
CaCI: large fish used
;: 14. 24 cm long;
static acute bioassay.
18-20 C; in soft water;
CaSO,
20-23 C: DO 0 18-0.22
ppm(CO==13.75-
69. 30 ppm) CaCI;
CaCI ; a,c. static acute
bioassay; standard
reference water
same as above
same as above
same as above
same as above
same as above
static acute bioassay;
a,c,e; CaSO:
same as above
static acute bioassay;
a,c,e, CaCh
same as above
continuous flow acute
bioassay; a,c,e; from
mono and dichlor-
amines. 20C;23Voo
salinity pHS.O
cone, as residual CI
Literature citation*
„
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955,"=
1958,2» 1959"
Industrial Wastes
1956"
Industrial Wastes
1956"
Jones 1957"
Wallen et al
1957i:»
"
"
"
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1957,26
1958"
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
1960'-
Ahllja 1964'
Dowrjen and Ben-
nett 19653'
"
"
"
"
"
Patrick et al.
1968"
"
Patrick et al.
1968"
"
Merkens 1958"
Eisler and Edmunds
1 QCC4 ,
1 30 tP
Holland etal.
(See potassium chromate and dichromate and sodium chromate and dichromate also)
Chromium
(Cr)
300 mg/l (24 hi)
145 mg/l (24 hr)
213 mg/l (48 hr)
82 mg/l
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
"
Gambusia affinis
22±0 2 C
Na2Cr04
Na:Cr-0
Na-CrOr
turbid water, 19-23 C;
pH 7. 5-7. 8; 240 mg/l
ammonium chromate
Abegg 19501
Abegg 19501
"
Turnbull et al.
1954"»
Wallen et al.
1957"3
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
Chromium 56 mg/l
(Cr)
104 mg 1
96 mg/l
135 mg/l
92 mg/l
103 mg 1
40.0 pom (48 hr)
320 ppm
382 ppm
369 ppm
196 mg,l (time not
given)
110 ppm
110 mg/l
170 mg/l
100 mg/l
113 mg/l
135 mg/l
0.21 IDE '1 (time
not given)
0.25mg l(time
not given)
17.3mg'l(time
not given)
40 6 mg/l (time
not given)
HOmg-'l
75 mg/l (48 hr)
60 mg/l (12 days)
0.01 mg/l (48 hr)
0.1 mg/l (48 hr)
0.1 ppm(1 day)
0.03 ppm (2 day)
0.2ppm(1 day)
5. 07 mg/l
67.4 mg/:
7. 46 mg/l
71. 9 mg/l
4. 10 mg/l
,/
"
"
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
Micropterus
salmoidos
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
sunfish
Salmo gairdneri
sunfish
sunfish
Navicula
"
snail
"
sunfish
Polycehs mgra
Carcmus maen.is
Daphnia nugna
Daphnia magna
Lymnaea sp (Eggs)
Pimephales
promelas
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Carassius auratus
Lebistes
reticulate
Conditions
turbid water, 18-20 C;
pH 5.7-7.4; ammon-
ium dichtomate (136
mg/l)
turbid water; 17-21 C;
pH 7.6-8.1 potassium
chromate (400 mg/l)
turbid water, 21-30 C;
pH 5.4-6 7 potassium
dichromate (280 mg/l)
turbid water; 20-22 C;
pH 7 7-8 6 sodium
chromate, (420 mg/l)
turbid water; 24-27 C;
pH 6.0-7 9 sodium
dichromate (264 mg/l)
KzCrjO?
in soft water; 18 C and
30 C
in hard water; 18 C
in hard water, 30 C
Cr hexavalent; static
acute bioassay; a,c,d,f,
g soft water, alkali
and hardness toxicity
dichromate
K;Cr;07
K-CrOj
KjCr.O?
in hard water, K?Cr>07
22 C; time value; soft
water
22 C; ", hard water
time value, 20 C, soft
water
"; hard water
KzCrjO?
20 C; hard water
chromic acid
potassium bichromate
chromic sulfate; a,c;
standard reference
water; static acute
bioassay
same as above
same as above
chromium potassium
sulfate, c,d,e,f soft
water; static acute
bioassay; cone, as Cr
same as above using
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
hard water
using soft water
same as above using
soft water
Literature citatioi
„
"
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958;«
1959"
"
"
Fromm and Schif
man 1958'2
Trama and Benoil
1958128
Trama and Benoil
1958'2»
Trama and Benoit
1958'28
Schiffman and
Fromm 1959UCl
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
1960=
"
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
"
Trama and Benoit
1960129
Raymount and
Shields 1962,™
1964i«s
"
Meletsea 1963s"
Dowden and Ben
nett 196539
"
Pickering and Hen
derson 1965»
"
"
„
"
-------
Appendix Ill—Table 7/453
TABLE I—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Chromium 67. 4-71. 9 me/I
(Cr)
3. 33-7. 46 mg 1
27. 3-133 mg/l
17 6-118 mi '1
45.8mg/l
180 ppm
1500 ppm
4 74 ppm
0.26 ppm
170 ppm
Copper 1.0 ppm (6. 5 day)
(Cu)
0.23 mi 'l(6l>r)
0.46m8'l(6hr)
3 3 mg '1 (24 hr)
0 74 ppm
7 0 mg '1 (48 hr)
0.18 ppm
84 ppm (2 day)
75 mg 1
56, 000 ppm (2 day)
38 ppm (1 day)
1 25 mg'lftime
not given)
48 hr
1 9 ppm
1 9mg'l
1.4 ppm
0 05 ppm
10 ppm
0.2 ppm
1.9 mg/l
0. 40 pom
Species
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pimelometopon
pulchrum (fat-
head)
minnows, Carassius
auratus
"
zebra damo adults
zebra danio eggs
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Gasterostens
aculeatus
Balanus balanoides
" crenatus
Orizias
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Pimephales
promelas
Gambusia affims
Gambusia affims
Gambusia affims
Salmo gairdnen
dry)
Lepomis
macrochirus
Dapbma magna
Japanese oyster
oysters
Pimephales
promelas
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
oysters
Limnodnlus hoff-
Conditions
Hard water, pH 8 2
Alk. 300 mg/l
soft water; pH 7. 5
Alk 18 mg 1
hard water; pH 8.2
K2Cr;0;, Alk. 300
mg 1
soft water; pH 7.5
K2Cr20;; Alk. 18
mg/l
soft water, pH 7 5
K;Cr207; Alk 18
mg '1
cone as Cr (KjCr-tM
"
a, c.d.e,; static acute bio-
assay fish acclima-
tized for 2 weeks in a
synthetic dilution
water using chrom-
ium-cyanide mixture
a.c.d.e, static acute bio-
assay fish acclima-
tized for 2 weeks in a
synthetic dilution
water.
static acute bioassay.
a,c,d,f,g; dichromate,
fish were acclimated
for 2 weeks in syn-
thetic dilution.
static acute bioassay,
a,c, using Cu(NOi);
hypertonic seawater
CuCb2H,0
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e, distilled
aerated water
20 C, pH 8 3
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,f, CuSO,
static acute bioassay,
turbid water,
a.c.d.e.g, CuSO,
24-27 C; using copper
sulfate in highly
turbid water
cupric oxide, static acute
bioassay a,c,d,e,g,
turbid water 19-20 C
CuSOt, a,c,e,f,i,p,
static acute bioassay
in soft water; 18-20 C,
CuCI:
Copper sulfate
pH8 2, 12 C
static acute bioassay;
a, c,d,f, hard water,
CuSO
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
hard wter
same as above using
soft water
CuCI; 2 H-0
static acute bioassay;
Literature citation*
Pickering and Hen-
derson 19669*
"
Pickering and Hen-
derson 196694
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 19682-
Cairns, Jr. and
Scheier 196828
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1968"
Trama and Benoit
19581"
Jones 1938ES
Pyefinch and Molt
1948101
"
Doudoroff and
Katz 1953"
Trama 1954a'26
Constituent Acute dose 96 br LC50
Copper
(Cu)
0.425 ppm
0,27 ppm
1.5 mg/l (2-3 d)
0.27 ppm
0.050 ppm
0.56 ppm (1 day)
90 ppm (1 day)
15 ppm (1 day)
10 ppm (2 days)
5 ppm (3 days)
20 ppm (3 day)
40 ppm (1 day)
2 ppm (1 day)
0.1 ppm
2 ppm (2 hr)
0.2 ppm (48 hr)
1.5 ppm
.19 ppm (12 days)
0.980 ppm
2. 8 ppm
0 8 ppm (2 day)
0 034 ppm (1 day)
I
j
Turnbull etal.
1954"»
Palmer and Ma-
loney 1955™
Wallen et al.
1957>33
Wallen etal.
19571"
Wallen etal
1957"'
TurnbulI-Kemp
1958'Si
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
1960'-
Cabeiszek and
Stasiak I96022
Fujiya 1960"
Fujiya I960,"
1961"
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson I960124
"
"
Fujiya 196114
32 fig '1 (time not
given)
0.150 ppm (2 day)
2 800 ppm (2 day)
1.5 ppm
1.2 ppm
1.14 mg/l
10. 2 mg/l
0.048 ppm
3.0 ppm
1.0ppm(1 day)
1.0 ppm (6 day)
1.0 ppm (6 day)
0.25 mg/l
Wurtz and Bridges
Species
meisten
Gyraulus
circumstriatiis
Physa
heterostropha
Nereis
Physa heterostropba
"
"
Carassius auratus
Poecilia reticulata
toad and frog
tadpoles
"
/;
Dragon fly larvae
"
Dapbma longispma
Nereis virens
Salmo gairdnen
GammarUs lacustris
Nereis virens
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo salar
juvenile salmon
Salmo gairdnen
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pimephales
promelas
"
Pimelometopon
pulchrum
Lepomis
macroctunis
Salmo salar
Orconectes rusticus
"
"
"
Oroconectes rusti-
cus embryo
Conditions
hard water CuSOi;
a,c,d,i
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,i; hard water;
CuSO,
same as above
21 C hard water as
CuSO;
same as above, young
static acute bioassay;
a,c,f, CuSOi hard and
soft water.
cone, as copper sulfite
Cone, as copper sulfite
"
cone, as copper sulfite
"
"
time not specified
CuSO! 5H:0
"
static acute bioassay;
a,e, CuSO
time not specified
CuCI
static acute bioassay;
CuSO,, a
a,c,e,f,l,m; field study
in a river
continuous flow, acute
bioassay g,c,f; with
3 Mg/l Zn anil 2/ig/l
Cu
in very soft water
(14 mg/l hardness)
static acute bioassay, a,
CuSO,
same as above
as CN~ using copper
cyanide complex;
static acute bioassay;
a,c; soft water
same as above except
cone as Cu
in hard water; CuSO,-
5H20
in hard water "
BSA.a, incipient lethal
level with 0 600 Zn
continuous flow acute
bioassay, a,c,e,f,
20 C, mtermolting
stage
same as above; adult
crayfish used
same as above; juvenile
crayfish used
same as above; re-
cently hatched young
which remained cling-
ing to pleopods of
female during 1st
molt were used.
time not given
Literature citation*
1961 1«
"
"
Raymount and
Shields 1962' '
Wurtz 19621*°
"
Wurtz 1962"°
Floch etal, 1963"
Floch et al. 1963"
"
"
Floch etal. 1963
-------
454/'Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent
Copper
(Cu)
Acute dose 96 hr LC50
0.57mg/l(2hr)
3. 85 mg/l (2 hr)
0.51 mg/l (2 hr)
2. 9 mg/l (2 hr)
22. 5 mg/l (2 hr)
0.4-0. 5 ppm
(2 day)
1.25 ppm
1.04ppm
26.0 ppm
5.2ppm
5. 2 ppm
430 mg/l
470 mg/l
84.0 Ml/I
75M8/I
0.795-0.815 ppm
(5 day)
1.25 ppm
0.2 mg/l (48 hr)
30 mg/l (48 hr)
100mg/l"
1 mg/l"
430 M8/I
470 Mg/l
1.7 mg/l
0.039 mg/l
0.20 mg/l
48 hr
3. 2 mg/l
Species
Wattersipora
Bugula
Spirorbis
Galeolana
Mytilus
Salmo gairdneri
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
adult minnows
Pimephales
promelas
Pimelometopon
pulchrum
"
Nitzschia linearis
Lepomis
nucrochirus
Psnaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
shore crab
cockle
Pimelometopon
pulchrum
"
Capeloma decisum
Physa Integra
Gammarus pseudo-
limnaeus
Salmo gairdneri
Fundulus
heterochtus
Conditions
copper sodium citrate
PH7.0-8 2
copper sodium citrate
PH7.0-8.2
copper sodium citrate
pH7 0-8.2
coper sodium citrate
PH7.0-8.2
copper sodium citrate
pH 7. 2-8.2
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,f
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e; CU++; fish
acclimatized 2 wks. in
syn. dil. water.
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e; fish acclima-
tized 2 wks in syn.
dil. water copper-
copper acetic acid; all
fish acclimatized 2
wks. in syn. dil. water.
a,c,d,e, static acute bio-
assay same as above
except that copper -
acetaldehyde was
used.
same as above except
that acetone; copper
mixture was used
static test
continuous flow bioassay
soft water; static bio-
assay
" continuous flow
bioassay
static acute bioassay,
a,c,e; CuCh
same as above
in the dark; 15 C;
CuSO,
"
"
"
static bioassay; hard
water
continuous flow bio-
assay, hard water
soft water
soft water
soft water
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hrs.
aerated water
Literature citation*
Wisely and Blick
19671"
Wisely and Blick
1967"'
"
"
"
Brown 1968"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier «»"•
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1968"
"
"
Mount 1968>"
Mount 1968"
Mount and Stephen
196984
"
Patrick et al.
196891
"
Portmann 1968"
"
"
"
Mount and Stephen
1969"
Mount and Stephen
1969"
Arthur and Leon-
ard 1970s
Arthur and Leon-
ard 1970s
"
Brown and Dalton
1970i«
Jackim et al.
1970'4
(See also potassium and sodium cyanides.)
Cyanide.
(CM-)
0.3 ppm (5. 25-
1.5 hi.)
0.33 mg/l (14 min.)
0.18 mg/l (24 hr)
0. 06 ppm (1 day)
0.01-0. 06 ppm
«1 day)
0.05-0. 06 ppm
«1 day)
Rhimchthys atratu-
lus and Semotilus
atromaculatus
Coregonus artedii
adult
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis auntus
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
ferro- and ferncyanides
used. Cone, as cya-
nide used; daylight
in soft water
continuous flow and
static acute bioassays;
a
same as above; static
only
same as above; contin-
uous flow
Burdick and Lip-
scheutz 1348"
Wuhrmann and
Woker 19481"
Turnbulletal.
1954130
Renn 1955>««
"
"
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Cyanide 0 06 ppm < 1 day
(CN-)
0.05-0. 07 ppm
«1 day)
0.02-0. 04 ppm
«1 day)
0.25 ppm (24 hr)
0.24 ppm (48 hr)
0 23 ppm
0.20 ppm (24 hr)
0.19 ppm (48 hr)
0.18 ppm
0.23 ppm (24
hours)
0.21 ppm (48 hr)
0.17 ppm
0.2mg,'l(11 min)
0 12-0. 18 mg/l
0.16 mg/l
0.01 mg/l (48 hr)
0.18 ppm
0.026 ppm
0.019 ppm
4.74 ppm
0.026 ppm
3.90 ppm
0.432 ppm
0 18 ppm
(See also Manganese (Mn))
Fluorine 64 mg/l (10 days)
(F)
2.7-4.6 mg/l
(218 hrs)
75-91 mg/l
222-273 ppm
(424 hrs)
242-261 ppm
(214 hrs)
2.3-7 3 mg/l (time
not given)
2.6-6.0 mg/l (time
not given)
5. 9-1. 5 mg/l (trait
not given)
Gold . 0.40 mg/l (time
(Au) not given)
Iron 74 ppm (2 day)
(Fe)
133 ppm (2 day)
10, 000 ppm (2 day)
Species
Micropterus
salmoides
Pomoxis 3>nnularis
Pomoxisannularis
Pimephales
promelas
"
"
"
"
Pimephales
promelas
"
"
Salmo gairdneri
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Salmo gairdneri
Lepomis
macroctiirus
"
"
"
"
Physa heterostropha
Lepomis
macrochirus.
fish
Salmo gaiidneri
Cyprmus carpio
Salmo gaiidnen
"
Salmo gaiidneri
"
"
stickleback
Gambusia aHmis
Gambusia affims
"
Conditions
static acute bioassay, a
static acute bioassay; a
continuous flow bio-
assay; a
NaCN, cone, as CN;
20 C
"
"
cone, as CN ; NaCN;
plus 0.14 ppm Zn
cone, as CN'; NaCN;
plus 0.13 ppm Zn
cone, as CN , NaCN
" plus 0.12 ppm
Cd
"plus 0.11 ppm
Cd
"plus 0.09 ppm
Cd
in hard water and soft
soft water
cone, as HCN
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e; all fish ac-
climatized 2 weeks in
syn. dil. water
all fish acclimatized 2
weeks in syn. sil.
water, static acute
bioassay; a,c,d,e
same as above; CN-Cr
complex used
same as above, CN-
napthemc acid mix-
ture
same as above; CN used
same as above, CN-Zn
complex used
static acute bioassay;
a,c,e
asme as above
using KF
using NaF; 55 C; 3.0
ppmCa
using NaF; 3 ppm Ca
and Mg; 65-75 F
3 ppm Ca and Mg, 46 F
3 ppm Ca and Mg; 55 F
18 C, in soft water using
NcF
13 C; in soft water using
NaF
1.5C;raso(t water
using NaF
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,g high tur-
bidity; Fed:
static acute bioassay;
Fe2(S04)aa,c,d,e,g;
turbid water; 19-23 C
static acute bioassay;
Fe»0j; a,c,d,e,g;
turbid water; 16-23 C
Literature cibtioi
„
"
"
Doudoroff et al.
1966'8
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Neil 1957"
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Doudoroff et al.
1966"
Brown 1968"
Cairns Jr and
Scheier 1968»
"
"
"
"
"
Patrick et al.
1968"
Tauwell 195713'
Neuhold and Sigl
1960»«
"
"
"
Angelovic et al.
1967'
"
"
Jones 19391"'
Wallen et at.
1957i33
"
-------
Appendix Ill—Table 7/455
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Iron 10, 000 ppm (2 day)
(Fe)
350 ppm (2 day)
36 ppm (1 day)
21 ppm (2 day)
15 ppm
Lead 0 3 ppm (4 '4 days)
(Pb)
1.4 mg/l (48 hr)
2.0 mg/l (24 hr)
6.3mg'l(24&
46 his)
10 mg 1 (24 & 46
hrs)
240 mg/l
75 mg 1
3. 2 mg/l
>100 mg/l
26 mg/l (time not
given)
240 ppm (2 days)
56,000 ppm (2 day)
0.34 mg/l (48 hr)
0.41 mg'l(24hr)
0.53mg l(24hf)
>75 ppm
2 4 ppm (24 hrs)
7.48 mg/l
5 58 mg/l
482.0mg'l
23 8 mg/l
442 0 mg/l
31 5 mg/l
20. 6 mg/l
49. 0 ppm (1 day)
27. 5 ppm (1 day)
27. 5 ppm (1 day)
3 12 mg/l
1-3 ppm (48 hrs)
Species
n
"
Daphma magna
"
mayflies, stonefhes,
caddisflies
Gasterosteus
aculeatus
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
"
Gambusia affmis
Pimephales
promelas
„
»
Carassiusauratus
Gambusia aflims
Gambusia affims
stickleback,
Oncorhynchus
kisutch
Oncorhynchus
kisutch
sticklebacks
Pimephales
promelas
Pimephales
promelas &
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pimepnales
promelas
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
tubi field worms
tubi ficid worms
tubificid worms
Salvelmus fontinalis
Fundulus
neteroclitus
Salmo gairdneri
Conditions
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,g; FeS; turbid
water; 20-26 C
same as above except
comp'd used was
FeSOi 20-21 C.
static acute bioassay;
a,c, standard ref
water; Fed
"
constant 02, pH and
hardness
static acute bioassay;
a,c, using Pb(N Oj)2
in tap water
"
"
", Pb(NO,,)2
PbiNO i.usedm
highly turbid water
in hard water
in soft water, PbCb
used
in hard water; PbCb
used
PbSOi used
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e, turbid water
Pb(NO,)?
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,e, PbO, high
turbidity
1000-3000 mg '1 of dis-
solved solids
1000-3000 mg '1 dis-
solved solids
1000-3000 mg 1 dis-
solved solids
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,f, hard water;
PbCh
same as above using
soft water
static acute bioassay,
c,d,e,f, soft water,
lead acetate 7 8 mg/l
DO.Umj'l Alk;
20 mg I hardness
static acute bioassay,
c,d,e,f, cone as Pb;
PbCI used, soft water
same as above with hard
water
same as above with soft
water
same as above with hard
water
same as above with soft
water
same as above with soft
water
static acute bioassay;
a,c; PbiNO,) pH 6.5
"
static acute bioassay;
a,c, Pb(NO.,)2
Literature citation*
Wallen et a!.
1957»i>
"
Dowden and Ben-
net 1965"
"
Warmck and Bell
1969'«
Jones 1938"
Turnbul! et al.
195413"
"
"
"
Wallen et al
19571's
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1956,i"
I960124
»
Jones 1957"
Wallen et al.
1957»3
Gill etal. I960"
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Lead
(Pb)
188.0 mg/l
Magnesium 16, 500 mg/l
(Ml)
17, 750 ppm (2 day)
15, 500 ppm (2 day)
3, 391 ppm (1 day)
3, 489 ppm
3, 803 ppm
19, 000 ppm (1 day)
10, 530 ppm (1 day)
(See also Potassium permanganate)
Manganese 5500 mg/l (24 hrs)
(Mn)
500 mg '1(48 hrs)
1000 mg/l (time not
given)
7, 850 mg/l (24 hrs)
1,400 ppm
Mercury 5 mg/l (75 hr)
(Hg)
0 05 mg/l (2 5hr)
0.30 mg /ID
800mg'l(")
40 mg 1 (22 hr)
0.9-60 mg/l
" , 0 027 mg/l (time
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson I960'"
"
Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965,»3
1966"
Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965"
'•
"
"
"
Whitley 1968i»
"
Whitley 1968i«
Dorfman and Whit-
worth 1969^
Kanyaetal. 1969"
not given)
0 04 mg/l
0.05 mg/l
O.SOmg-l
0 02mg-l
0.15mg, l(48hr)
2. 6 ppm (24 hr)
6.5X10-' M
9.0X10-* M
5 0X10 'M
(2 hours)
1.0X10-'M
(2 hours)
7.0X10-' M
(2 hours)
6.0X10-' M
(2 hours)
9.0X10-' M
(2 hours)
0.1 mg/l (48 hr)
6 mg/l (48 hr)
1 mg/l (48 hr)
10 mg/l (48 hr)
26 ppm (24 hr)
0.23 mg/l
Species
stonefhes, mayflies
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Gambusia affmis
Gambusia affmis
Gambusia affmis
Daphma magna
"
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea sp. (eggs)
fish, young eels
Tinea tinea
fish
Onzias
CypNnus carpio,
killifish, Daphma,
Salmo gairdneri
Artemia salma
Acttia clausi
Elmimus
Artemia
Artemia salina
phytoplankton
bivalve larvae
Rhodeus sericeus
gudgeon
Cyprmus carpio
minnow
Daphma
Ambassis safgha
Mytilus eduols
planulatus
Crassostrea com-
mercialis
Wattersipora
cucultata
Buluga neritma
Spirorbis lamellosa
Galeolana com-
mercialis
Artermia sanna
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Hemigrapsis
oregonensis
Clmocardium nuttalli
Daphma magna
Ambassia safgha
Fundulus
heteroclitiis
Conditions
02; pH and hardness
are constant
20-22 C; no feeding dur-
ing 96 hours; aerated
water
in turbid water;
MgCI 6H;0
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water MgCb
BSA, a,c,e,d,g; turbid
water MgSO.
BSA; a,c, standard
reference water;
MgCI-2
BSA; a,c, standard
reference water;
MgSOt
same as above
same as above
MnCL
MnFz
MnSOi HO; cone, as
Mn
MnCI:
cone, as Hg using
Hgl;;pH8.1
cone asHgpH 8.1
cone. asHgpH 8.1
cone asHgpH 8.1
cone, as Hg using
HgCbpHB.I
HgCfz (0.02 mg/l of
Hg)
cone, as HgCI2
pH 7 8-8.2, HgCI2
pH7 8-8.2, HgCl2
PH7.8-8.2, HgCh
pH7 8-8.2;HgCh
pH 7. 8-8.2, HgClz
pH7.8-8.2;HgCl2
pH7.8-8.2;KgCl2
15;mtliedark;HgCl2
15 C; in the dark; HgCU
"
Lake Erie water in
sealed containers;
HgCh
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hrs,
aerated water
Literature citation*
Warnick and Bell
19691"
Jackim et al.
1970"
Wallen et al.
1957iJ>
"
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"
"
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"
"
"
Iwao 193663
Oshima19318»
Simonm and Pier-
ron 193711*
Meinck et al.
1956"
Doudoroff and
Katz19533'
Tabata 1969m
Corner and Spar-
row 19563!
Corner and Spar-
row 1956"
"
"
Hueper I960"
Woelke 1961"«
Malacea 1966"
Malacca 1966"
"
"
"
Ballard and Oliff
1969'"
Wisely and Blick
1967>w
"
Wisely and Blick
19671"
Wisely and Blick
1967"'
"
"
"
Portmann 1968"
"
"
"
Ballard and Olift
1969"
Jackim et al.
19706*
-------
456/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE I—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
Molybdenum 70 me/I
(Mo)
370 me/I
Nickel 0.8 mg/l (time not
(Ni) given)
0.95 mg/l
1.0 mg/l (time not
given)
24 ppm
4 ppm
25 ppm (2 day)
5.18 mg/l
42. 4 me/I
5.18 mg/l
39. 6 me/I
9. 82 mg/l
4.45 mg/l
160 ppm (2 day)
270 ppm (2 day)
242 ppm (2 day)
75 ppm (2 day)
165 ppm (2 day)
495 ppm (2 day)
200 me/I (48 hr)
150 me/I (48 hrs)
300 me/I (48 hrs)
500 mg/l (48 hfs)
48 hrs
See also sodium nitrate
Nitrate 64 hours
(Nor)
8.1 mg/l (24 hours)
9. 5 me/I (48 &
96 hr)
pH 1.3 ppm (45 mm)
1.4 ppm (45 mm)
0.07 ppm (2 day)
10 mg/l
pH 4.0 (lime not
given)
pH 3. 65 (3 day)
0.069 ppm (1 day)
Pimephales
promelas
"
sticklebacks
Pimephales
promelas
sticklebacks
Pimephales
promelas
"
Salmo gairdneri
Pimephates
promelas
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Carassiusauratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo trutta
Salvelmus fontmalis
Salvelmus
namaycush
Ictalurus punctalus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Hemigrapsis oreeo-
nensis
Chnocardium
nuttalli
Salmo gairdneri
Daphnia magna
Gambusia affmis
Ictalurus punctatus
"
Salmo gairdneri
trout
Carassius auratus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lagondon
rhomboides
"
Conditions
Mo0.i, pH7.4;Alk. 18
mg/l; hardness 20
mg/l; soft water
MoO : pH 8 2; Alk.
360 mg/l, hardness
400 mg/l; hard water
concentration as Ni;
NliNO !:
BSA; a,c,d; nickei cya-
nide complex syn.
soft water
concentration as Ni,
15-18 C
BSA; a,c,d,f; hard
water mckelous
chloride
same as above using
soil water
field study on a river;
a,c,e,f,l,m
BSA, c,d,e,1; soft water;
nickel chloride; cone.
asNi
same as above using
hard water
same as above using
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
soft water
BSA.a.f, NiSO
BSA; a.f; NlSOi
same as above
same as above
same as above
same as above
15 C; in the dark;
NiSO
"
"
"
25 C; Lake Erie water;
daphnids 8-hours old
21-24 C, in highly turbid
water; NaNO :
static acute bioassay;
a, c, HS; Using ad-
vanced fingerlmgs
same as above, using
adults
static acute bioassay;
HCN;a,c,d,e,f,o
continuous flow, acute
bioassay HCI; a,c,e,f
static acute bioassay;
HCN; aerated sea
water, a;
aerated sea water;
static acute bioassay
HCN
Literature citation*
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1956123
"
Murdock 1953" •
Doudoroff et al.
196638
Jones 19576'
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 19601"
Herbert et ai.
196552
Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965,93
1966"
"
"
"
"
"
Willford 1966136
Willford 1966<36
"
"
"
Portmann 1968"
"
"
"
Brown and Dalton
197018
Anderson 19486
Wallenetal.
1957133
Bonn and Follis
1967"
"
Brown 19681;
Beldmg 1927"
Jones 19396:
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955>42
Consbtuent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
pH 282 ppm (2 day)
pH10.5
pH3.5
4-6 mg/l (6 hr)
100-110 me/I
(6 hrs)
0 16 ppm (3 day)
1.0 ppm (20 mm)
Phosphate 24 hours
(P0.3-)
720 mg/l
1380 mg.l
151 me/I
138 ppm (2 day)
Phosphorus 0 105 ppm (2 day)
(P)
0.053 ppm (3 day)
0.025 ppm
Potassium 2 0 ppm (2 day)
(K)
0.5 ppm (2 day)
2010 ppm
3, 000 ppm
450 ppm
630 ppm
5. 50 ppm
0. 22 ppm (1 day)
0.45 ppm
320 ppm
4, 200 ppm (2 day)
480 ppm (2 day)
1.6 ppm (2 day)
320 ppm (2 day)
324 ppm (2 day)
12 ppm (2 day.)
0.45 ppm
Daugherty and Gar- 0. 12 ppm
rett 19513s
Garrett1957«
1.08 ppm
0.48 ppm
Gambusia affims
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
minnows
minnows
Lepomis
macrochirus
Ictalurus punctatus
fingerhnijs
Lepomis
macrochirus
Gambussia affims
"
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
Hydropsyche
Stenonema
Lepomis
macrochuus
"
"
"
"
Rhinichithy!>
alratulus
meleagns
Lepomis
macrochirus
Gambusia alfmis
"
"
Gambusia af'ims
Gambusia aflinis
Gambusia aflinis
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Physa hetero'itropha
Physa heterostropha
Conditions
static acute bioassay;
HCI, turbid water;
a,c,d,e,g
maximum pH
a,c,d,e,i; dist aerated
water; large fish
used; 14 24 cm
length 20 C
in distilled water; HCI
in hard water, HCI
juveniles used, HCN;
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,f,p,
static acute bioassay;
a.c, HjS
22±0.2C
turbid water; 19-23 C;
NaH.PO,
turbid water; 19-24 C;
NaiPiO, 10H.O
turbid water, 17-22 C;
Na PO
BSA, a.c.d.e.g. turbid
water phosphoric
acid, 22-24 C
BSA, a,c,d,e,f,e,h,i,|,k,
n.o; colloidal pre-
moved; 26 C; cone.
asP
same as above
same as above
BSA; a, soft water;
KCN
"
BSA,a,c,d,e,f,KC!
BSA, a,d,e,f; KNO :
syn. dilution water
a,c,e,f; aerated dist
water; K.CrO , small
fish; continuous flow
acute bioassay
continuous flow, acute
bioassay K.CrOi;
medium size lish
a,c,e,l, pH 7.9 to 8.6
same as above using
large fish
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, a,c,e, KCN
BSA, a.c.e. KCN
BSA;a,c,e, faCr^O?
BSA; a.c.d.e.g. turbid
water KCI
BSA; a,c,d,e,e; highly
turbid water;
K;Cr04
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; KCN,
turbid water
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water; KiCrsO?
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water KNO
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water KMnO,
BSA, a.e, KCN; 5-9
ppm oxygen
BSA. a, e, KCN, 2 ppm
DO
BSA; a.e; KCN, 5-9
ppm DO
BSA; a.e; KCN 2 ppm
DO
Literature citatio
Wallen et al.
1957«3
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958'-'
Cairns Jr and
Scheier 1959"
LeClerc 1960"
"
Doudoroff et al.
1966"
Bonn and Follis
1967"
Abegg 19501
Wallen et al.
19571"
"
"
Wallen et al.
1957133
Isom 1960s=
"
"
Roback 1965i<>'
"
Trama 1954»m
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955"'
"
"
Lipschuetz and
Cooper 1955"
Cairns Jr. 19572
Cairns Jr. 19572
Wallen et al.
1957133
Wallenetal.
1957«3
Wallen et al.
1957133
Wallen et al.
1957133
Wallenetal.
1957133
Wallen et al.
195713.'
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958^
"
"
"
-------
Appendix HI—Table 7/457
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Potassium 320 ppm
(K)
320 ppm
320 ppm
195 ppm
1,337 ppm (5 day)
940 ppm
2,010 ppm
7. 8 ppm (5 day)
16 8 ppm
168 8 ppm
550 ppm
0 57 ppm
320 ppm
382 ppm
369 ppm
320 ppm
100 ppm (1 day)
0.43 ppm
0.45 ppm
0.12 ppm
1 OS ppm
0.48 ppm
320 ppm
320 ppm
0.49 ppm (2 days)
117 ppm (2 day)
0.16 ppm (2 day)
180 ppm (2 day)
1500 ppm (2 day)
440 ppm (2 day)
679 ppm (1 day)
5, 500 ppm (1 day)
1,941 ppm (1 day)
Species
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
Micropterus
salmoides
Nitzschia lineans
Lepomis
macrochirus
Physa heterostropha
Nitzschia lineans
Physa heterostropha
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macfochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
"
Salmo gairdnen
Lepomis
macrochirus
'
"
Physa heterostropha
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Brachydamo rerio
Brachydamo rerio
Lepomis
macrochirus
Brachydamo rerio
"
"
Daphma magna
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea sp.
Conditions
continuous flow, acute
bioassay, K /Cr -0 ;
aerated distilled water
pH 6 2, a,c,e,(,
BSA; a,e,, 5-9 ppm DO
" 2 ppm DO
BSA; a,c,d,e, KjCr04
BSA; a.c.e, KCI
same as above
same as above
BSA, a,c,e, K CrO,
same as above
same as above
BSA, a,c,d,e,i, aerated
dist. water, K.CrOj;
large fish used, 14-24
cm long
BSA, a,b,c,d,e,i,
aerated distilled
water, large fish used
14. 24 cm in length,
KCN
BSA; a,c,d,e,f, 18-30
C, K;Cr20;
same except in hard
water at 18 C
" at 30 C
distilled aerated water,
BSA, a,c,d,e,i;
K5CrjO;;fish14.24
cm
BSA; a,c,d,g, K CrO,
BSA; a,c,d,e,f, KCN
BSA, a,e, KCN, normal
oxygen content
BSA; a,e; KCN. ICTI
oxygen content
BSA;a,e, KCN, normal
oxygen content m
water
BSA.a.e, KCN, low
oxygen content
BSA, a,e, K-Cr*;
normal DO content
in water
BSA, a,e; KjCr-O?; low
DO content in water
BSA, a,c,d,e,f; dist
water adults KCN;
24 C; 5-9 ppm
BSA, a,c,d,e,f, KCN,
eggs 24 C; 5-9 ppm
DO; distilled aerated
water.
same as above (not
eggs)
BSA, a,c,d,e,f, K Cr-O-;
24 C, 5-9 ppm DO
adults
same as above using
eggs
same as above not
using eggs
BSA, a,c, standard tef.
water KCI
same as above
same as above
Literature citation*
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier1958M
"
"
Fromm and Schifl-
man 1958«
Patrick et al
1968"
"
"
Patrick et al.
1968«
Patrick et al.
1968"
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1959"
"
"
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Potassium . 2 ppm (1 day)
(K)
0.7 ppm (3 day)
0.4 ppm
796 ppm (1 day)
147 ppm (3 day)
130 ppm
705 ppm (1 day)
0.4 ppm
739 ppm (1 day)
905 ppm (1 day)
549 ppm (2 day)
0 6 ppm (3 day)
0.1 ppm
900 ppm
45 6 mg/l
17.6 mg/l
27.3mg
118. Omg/l
1
Schiffman and
Fromm 1959U°
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955'«
Cairns Jr. 1965M
"
"
"
Cairns Jr. et al.
19652"
"
"
"
"
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"
Dowden and Ben-
net 1965»
"
133. Omg I
37. 5 mg/l
30.0 mg/l
28 0 ppm (2 day)
3. 5 ppm (2 day)
4 2 ppm (4 day)
3 7 ppm
0.208 ppm
17.3 ppm
113.0 ppm
Selenium 2 5 mg I
(Se)
Silver 0.0043 mg/l (time
(Ag) not given)
0.04 mg/l
Sodium . 12, 946 ppm
(Na)
12, 000 ppm
0.23 ppm
45 ppm (1 day)
29 ppm (2 day)
27 ppm (3 day)
8, 200 ppm (2 day)
Species
Daphma magna
"
"
Lymnaea sp.
Lymnaea sp.
"
Carassius carassius
Daphma magna
Lepomis
macrochirus
Daphma magna
Daphma magna
"
"
"
Pimephales
promelas
Pimephales
' promelas
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Carassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Hydropsyche and
Stenonema
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Semotilus
atromaculatus
Nitzschia linearis
Physa heterostropha
Lepomis
macrochirus
Daphma
guppies
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Lepomis
mactochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pimephales
promelas
Notropsis hudsonius
Notropsis hudsonius
"
Gambusia affims
Conditions
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water, KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; KCN
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water
KzCrzO:
same as above
"
KiFe(CN),;BSA;a,c;
standard reference
water
same as above
same as above
same as above
BSA, a,c; KNO ;
standard reference
water
BSA; c,d,e,f, soft water,
K.CrOjConc. asCr
BSA; c,d,e,f, soft water;
K»Cri07 cone, as Cr
same as above using
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a; soft water;
K;Cr>07
"
BSA; KMnO;
BSA; KMnO:
BSA; a;c;e; foC^O?
BSA, a,c; KjCr-O,
same as above
23 C; cone as Se; added
sodium selemte
cone, of Ag, placed in
water as silver
nitrate
20-22 C; no feeding
during the 96 hours;
aerated water
static acute bioassay;
a,d,e,(, synthetic
dilution water; NaCI
static acute bioassay;
a,c,e,f, synthetic
dilution water; NaNOa
20 C
BSA; a,c, NaCN; syn.
soft water; cone, as
CN
BSA, a,c,d,e, NaAs02
"
"
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g; Na'jBiO;
used; turbid water
Literature citation*
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"
"
"
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965M
"
"
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"
"
"
Dowden and Ben-
nett 1965"
"
"
"
"
Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965'M
"
"
Pickering and Hen-
derson 1965'3
"
Roback 1965>°'
"
Kempetal. 1966«'
"
Patrick et al.
1968»i
"
"
Bringmann and
Kuhn 1959"
Shaw and Lowrance
1956»2
Jackim et al.
1970"
Trama1954b1"
Trama1954bi«
Doudoroff et al.
1966s8
Boschetti and Mc-
Loughlin 1957"
"
"
Wallen et al.
1957"'
-------
458/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Sodium 18,100 ppm (2 day)
(Ni)
500 ppm (2 day)
420 ppm (2 day)
925 ppm (2 day)
10, 000 ppm (2 day)
2, 400 ppm (2 day)
750 ppm (2 day)
9, 500 ppm
9, 000 ppm
0. 35 ppm
0.23 ppm
0.15 ppm
0,78 percent NaCI
72 hts.
0.33 percent NaCI
(24 hrs)
0.50 percent NaCI
(72 hrs)
5.9-7. 5 ppm
(2 days)
2.6-6.0 ppm
(2 day)
6,200 ppm
7, 500 ppm
6, 150 ppm
3, 200 ppm
3, 500 ppm
5, 100 ppm
6, 200 ppm
1,100 ppm
1,150 ppm
8, 250 ppm
24, 000 ppm
1.0 percent
(36 mins)
60.0 ppm (2 day)
26 ppm
30 ppm
45 ppm
14,120 ppm (1 day)
11, 723 ppm (2 day)
22 ppm
0.15 ppm
Species
n
Gambusia affinis
"
'
"
"
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pimephales
promelas
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Daptima magna
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Salmo gairdneri
"
Limnodnlus
hoftmeister
"
Erpobdella punctata
Helisoma
campanulata
Gyrauliis
circumstnstus
Physa heterostropha
Physa heterostropha
Sphaenumct. tenue
"
Asellus communis
Argia sp.
Nais sp.
Carcinus maenas
Salmo gairdnen
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pteronarcys
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
"
Conditions
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water, using NaCI
BSA; a,c,d,e,g;
Na-CrO;; turbid water
BSA; Na-CrjOT;
a,c,d,e,g; turbid water
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; NaF;
turbid water
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,g; turbid water;
NaNOj
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid
water, NaSiO
BSA, a,c,d,e,g; NajS;
turbid water
a,c,e,f; NaNO ; aerated
distilled water
BSA; a, c,d,e,i, aerated
water; distilled;
NaNO:; large fish
BSA; c.d.e.f, NaCN
hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
hard water
NaCI at 25 C
NaCI at 25 C
NaCI at 50 C
BSA; a; 45 F; NaF
BSA; a; 55 C; NaF
BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI
BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI
BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI
same as above using
hard water
BSA; a,f; hard water;
NaCI
BSA, a, NazCrOi
BSA; a; NaAsO;;
55-75 F
BSA; a; NaAsO-;
55-75 F
BSA; a; NaAsCh; 60 F
static acute bioassay;
a,c, standard reference
water; cone, as
NaSiO ; plus 950 ppm
NaHSO;
same as above, but with
785 ppm NaHSO;
same as above, but with
15 ppm NaHSO,
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water; cone.
as NazCrOi; plus
187 ppm Na;COs plus
88 ppm NaSiO ,
Literature citation*
„
"
"
"
"
"
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958,"
1959"
Henderson et al.
1959"
"
Henderson et al.
1959"
Prasad 1959"
Prasad 1959"
Prasad 1959"
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
1960=
"
Wurlz and Bridges
19611"
"
"
"
"
"
Wurtz and Bridges
1961"'
"
"
"
"
Learner and Ed-
wards 1963'°
Raymount and
Shields 1962'°:
Cope 1965"
"
Cope 1965"
Dowrjen and Ben-
nett 1965"
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Sodium 0.19 ppm
(Na)
76 ppm
9, 000 ppm (2 day)
2, 500 ppm (2 day)
13,750 ppm (1 day)
10,500 ppm (1 day)
6, 447 ppm (1 day)
14,125 ppm (1 day)
3,412 ppm (1 day)
18, 735 ppm (1 day)
0.21 ppm
0.28 ppm
22 ppm (1 day)
4, 206 ppm
12, 800 ppm (1 day)
6, 375 ppm (1 day)
5, 950 ppm (2 day)
3, 251 ppm
895 ppm (1 day)
630 ppm (1-4 days)
16 ppm (1 day)
13 ppm (2 day)
9 ppm
36. 5 ppm (2 day)
44.0 ppm (2 day)
80.0 ppm (2 day)
1.8 ppm (2 day)
1.4 ppm (2 day)
44 ppm (LC50)
60 ppm (LC50)
25 ppm
34 ppm
35 ppm
0.036 ppm
2800 ppm (1 day)
1800 ppm (2 day)
0. 7 ppm (1 day)
"
2,430 ppm (5 day)
12,940 ppm
Species
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Hydropsyclie
Stenonemii
Carassius rarassius
Culex sp (lame)
Daphnia magna
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lymnaea !,p (eggs)
Mollienesa latopinna
Daphnia magna
"
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Lepomis
macrochirui
Lymnaea sp. (eggs)
"
"
Amphipoda
Lymnaea sp. (eggs)
Daphnia magna
"
"
Salmo gairdneri
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pteronarcys
calif ornica
Daptima magna
Simocephalui
serrula'lus
Lepomis
macrocliirus
Salmo gairdneri
Carassius auratus
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pteronarcys
calilornica
Salmo gairdneri
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Nibschia linearis
Lepomis
macrochirus
Conditions
BSA; a,c; standard ref.
water; cone, as Na«-
CrO,; plus 240 ppm
Na=CO, plus2,078
ppm Na.SOi
BSA; a,c; standard ref.
water; cone, as Na-
Sid; plus 161 ppm
Na .CO:; plus 1,396
ppm Na^SCh
BSA; a; NaCI; soft
water
"
BSA; a; c; NaCI;
standard ref. water
"
BSA; a,c; NaCI;
standard ref. water
"
"
"
BSA; a,c; standard ref.
water; Na.CrO,; plus
130 ppm NaSiO :
same as above; cone, as
Na»CrOiplus3,044
ppm Na :SOi
BSA; a,c; NajCr,0;;
standard ref. water
BSA; a,c; standard
reference water;
NaNO
BSA, a,c, NaNO,;
standard ref. water
"
BSA; a,c; NaNOa;
standard ref. water
"
BSA; a,c; NaSiO ;
standard ref. water
BSA; a,c, NaSiOs;
standard ref. water
standard ref. water;
NaiS, a,c; BSA;
"
"
static acute bioassay; a,
NaAsO:
same as above
same as above
same as above
same as above
BSA; a,c,d,i,g; NaAslh
BSA; NaAsO:; a,c,d,i,g
Field study-river;
a,c,f,i,m; NaAsO-
same as above
same as above
static acute bioassay,
a,c,d,e,f; NaAsO 2
static acute bioassay;
a,e Na
-------
Appendix HI—Table 7/459
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent
Sulphide
Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species
Conditions
Literature citation*
(See sodium sulphide and hydrogen sulphide under sodium and hydrogen (H+))
Titanium
(Ti)
Uranium
(U)
Vanadium
(V)
Zinc . .
(Zn)
. 120 ppm
8.2 ppm
3. 7 ppm
3.1 ppm
135 ppm
2. 8 ppm
55 ppm
13 ppm
30 ppm
4.8 ppm
55 ppm
6 ppm
0. 7 ppm (4. 5 days)
0.072 ppm (64 hr)
2-6 ppm (24 hr)
3-4 ppm (48 hr)
13 ppm
4.8 ppm
1.4 ppm
0.58 ppm
0.6 ppm
2. 86-3. 63 ppm
10-12 ppm
7. 20 mg/l
3.5mf/l
8.02 mg/l
10-12 ppm
2.9-3. 8 ppm
10-12 ppm
1.9-3. 6 ppm
8.02 ppm
4. 9 ppm
0.79-1. 27 ppm
2. 66-5. 57 ppm
0.62-0. 78 ppm
2. 36-6. 36 ppm
Pimephales
promelas
"
Pimephales
promelas
"
"
"
Pimephales
promelas
"
"
"
Lepomis
macrechirus
"
Gasterosteus
aculeatus
Daphnia mama
Salmo gairdneri
fingerlings
"
Biomphalana biossyi
"
"
Biomphalaria biossyi
Salmo gairdneri
fingerlings
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
adult
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
(adult)
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Physa heterostropha
"
"
"
BSA; a,c,d,f; titanium
sulfate; hard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c,d,f; uranyl
acetate soft water
same as above using
uranyl nitrate
BSA, a,c,d,f, uranyl
sulfate hard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c; vanadium
pentoxide hard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c; vanadyl
sulfate hard water
same as above using
soft water
same as above using
bard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c; zinc sulphate
Lake Erie water; 25 C
hard water
hard water
14C;pH7.S±0.2;
oxygenated tap water
17C;pH7.8±0 2;
oxygenated tap water
20C;pH7.8±0.2;
oxygenated tap water
23C;pH7.8±0.2;
oxygenated
zinc chlorate and sulfate
used. 17.5 C, diluted,
well water used; 4.5
ppmCa
18-30 C; soft water
18-30 C, hard water
standard dilution water;
20 C; ZnCI 2 concen-
tration
standard dilution water;
20 C
standard dilution water
static acute bioassay;
a,c,d,e,f,i,n,g;18C;
hard water
same as above using
soft water
BSA; a,c,d,e.f,i; 30 C;
hard water
"; soft water
BSA; a,e; ZnCI2; cone.
as Zn« 5-9 ppm DO;
same as above using
2 ppm DO
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; 20 C;
Zn ion soft water
same as above using
hard water
BSA; a,c,d,e,g; 30 C;
Zn ion soft water
same as above using
hard water
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 1956i»,
1960124
"
Tarzwell and Hen-
derson 195612',
1 960i*>
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Jones 19391"
Anderson 1948°
Goodman 1951"
Goodman 1951"
Hodman and
Zakhary 1951"
"
"
Hoffman and
Zakhary 195156
Lloyd I960"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1957"*
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958,2«
1959"
" 19582«
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier W
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958"
"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1958"
"
"
"
"
"
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Zinc. . 6.91 ppm
(Zn)
3.5mg/l
4.2mg/l
12.5-12.9 mg/l
6.91 ppm
20 ppm
0. 6 ppm
4 ppm (48 hrs)
10 ppm
14 ppm
38. 5 ppm
56 ppm
4. 2 ppm (1 day)
1.9 ppm (2 day)
1.9 ppm (3 day)
1.9 ppm
49. 0 ppm (1 day)
49 ppm (2 day)
13. 4 ppm (38. 4
day)
10-12 ppm (48 hr)
10-15 ppm (48 hr)
10 ppm (48 hr)
3. 86 ppm (2 day)
26-40 ppm (48 hr)
27 ppm-85 ppm
(48 hr)
13. 4 ppm
3. 85 ppm
0.04-2 00 ppm
(1 day)
2.9-13.3 ppm
0.6^g
2. 86-3. 78 ppm
0.90-2. 10 ppm
Species
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
"
Lepemis
macrochirus
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
fingerlings
Lepomis
macrochirus
Limnodrilus hoff-
meisten
Physa beterostropha
Asellus commums
Argia sp.
Physa heterostropha
"
"
Physa heterostropha
Helisoma
companulata
Helisoma
companulata
"
Cypnnus carpio
Tilapia mossambica
Danio sp
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo gairdneri
smolts
Salmo gairdneri
Helisoma
campanulata
"
Salmo salar
aquab'c animals
Salmo salar
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Conditions
BSA; a,c,d,e,i; ZnCI,;
cone, as Zn+2;
aerated distilled
water; large fish
soft water; 30 C
soft water; 20 C
hard water; 20 & 30 C
continuous flow, acute
bioassay; a,c,e,f;
ZnCI-; aerated dis-
tilled water
BSA, a.c.e, ZnCb
zinc chlorate and sulfate
used; 17.5 C, diluted,
well water used, 4.5
ppmCa
LD50 value, BSA; a.c.d;
zinc sulphate cone, as
Zn
BSA; a,c,d,i; zinc sulfate
same as above
same as above
same as above
BSA; am sulphate
static acute bioassay,
zinc sulfate
static acute bioassay zinc
same as above
same as above
static acute bioassay
zinc
same as above
pH 7. 0-7. 2; 28-30 C
8 8 mg/l CO
"
"
BSA; a,c,d,f; zinc
sulphate
cone, as Zn using
ZnSO*; changing per-
cent salinity; hard-
ness 320 ppm; alk
240 ppm; aerated
water
cone, as Zn. using
ZnSOi; hardness 320
ppm; alk. 240 ppm;
aerated water, pH7.8
13 C; hard water;
zinc sulfate (3. 03 ppm
Zn) time not given
13 C, in soft water
ZnSOi; 0.87 ppm Zn
time not given
continuous flow acute
bioassay a,c,f; lab
waterhad3/ig/IZn
and 2 ^g /I Cu
cone, as Zn, LC50
Value; Zn added as
ZnSOt continuous flow
bioassay; a,c,d,e,f
18 C; in soft water;
BSA; a,f
30 C; in soil water;
BSA; 3,1
Literature citation*
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 1959"
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
I960'
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19602
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier unpub-
lished 1955K2
Cairns Jr. 195725
Lloyd 1960"
Herbert 1961"
Wurt! and Bridges
1961H1
"
"
"
Wurtz 1962"°
"
"
"
"
Wurtz 1962»»
"
Sreenivasan and
Raj 1963i»
"
"
Herbert and
Shurben 1964"
Herbert and Wake-
ford 1964-'
"
Raymount and
Shields 1964»«
"
Schoenthal 1964'"
Skidmore 1964»«
Sprague 1964m
Cairns Jr. 1965"
"
-------
460/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 1—Continued
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Zinc 6. 60-9 47 ppm
(Zn)
6.18-9.50 ppm
28 ppm (2 day)
105 ppm (2 day)
5. 2 ppm (2 day)
3. 9 ppm (2 day)
0 96 mg/l
33. 4 mg/l
5 46 mg/!
40. 9 mg/l
6. 44 mg/l
1 27 mg/l
0 88 mg/l
5 37 mg/l
1.69 mg/l (12 days)
3.95 ppm (1 day)
2 55 ppm (2 day)
1.83 ppm
1.71 ppm (7 day)
1.63 ppm (12 day)
0.95 ppm (1 day)
0.95 ppm (2 day)
0.87 ppm
0. 87 ppm (7 day)
4 9 ppm
32. 3 ppm
Species
«
"
Brachydamo rerio
(adult)
"(eggs)
Lepomis
macrochirus
Salmo gairdnen
Pimephales
promelas
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepom s
macrochirus
Carassius carassius
Lebistes reticulatus
Pimephales
promelas
Lepomis
macrochirus
Pimephales
promelas (eggs)
Pimephales
promelas
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Pimephales
promelas
"
Conditions Literature citation*
18 C; in hard water; "
BSA; a,f
30 C, in hard water, "
BSA; a, I
BSA, a,c,d,e,f; distilled Cairns Jr. et al.
water, aerated, 24 C; 196529
5-9 ppm DO, ZnCI>,
cone, as Zn
same as above "
BSA, a,c,d,e,f, aerated "
distilled water,
ZnCb;conc asZn,
24 C; 5-9 ppm DO
field study, river, Herbert etal.
a,c,e,l,l,m. 1965''-
BSA, c,d,e,1; soft water Pickering and Hen-
zinc sulfate, cone, as derson 196593
Zn
same as above using "
hard water
same as above using "
soft water
same as above using "
hard water
same as above using "
soft water
same as above using "
hard water
BSA, c,d,e,f, zinc ace- Pickering and Hen-
late, soft water, cone. derson 196593
asZn 1966"
BSA, c,d,e,f; soft water; Pickering and Hen-
ZnCb; cone as Zn derson 196593,
1966"
Pickering and Vigor
196595
BSA, a,c,d, zinc sulfate; "
tap water for eggs
same as above "
same as above "
same as above "
same as above "
BSA; a, c,d, zinc sulfate; "
tap water, minnow fry
same as above "
same as above "
same as above "
continuous flow acute Mount 1966s2
bioassay a,c,d,e, hard-
ness 50 mg I, pH 8.0
same as above with "
hardness 200 mg/l
and pH 6.0
Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50
Zinc 4. 6 ppm
(Zn)
16 0 ppm (5 days)
17.3 ppm (5 days)
8. 4 ppm (7 days)
14.3 ppm (5 day)
5X10 4M to
7. 5X10-1 M
2. 8-3. 5 ppm
4.2 ppm
1 ppm (32 hrs)
0.75 ppm (63 hrs)
0.56 ppm (96 hrs)
4. 3 ppm (5 day)
0.79-1 27 ppm
2. 86-3. 78 ppm
7. 2 ppm (20 day)
12.0 ppm (20 day)
10 0 mg 'I (48 hr)
100 mg/l (48 hr)
12mg'l(48hr)
200 mg/l (48 hr)
46 0 ppm
7 5 ppm
7. 6 ppm
12 0 ppm
46 ppm (24 hr)
9. 2 mg/l
promelas
10 ppm
Species
Salmo gair Inefi
Perca fluinitilis
Rutilus rutilus
Gobio gobio
Abramis biama
juvenile salmon
bryozoans, tube-
worms, tiivalve
molluscs
Salmo gairiinen
"
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lebistes reticulatus
Lebistes reticulatus
Lebistes reticulatus
Nitzschia Imearis
Physa heterostropha
Lepomis
macrochirus
Lepomis
macrochirus
"
Penaens duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Hemigrapsis
oregonensis
Clmocardium
nuttalli
tubificid wcrm
Pimephales
promelas
Xiphophorus
tubificid worm
Pimephales
Daphnia
Conditions
static acute bioassay,
c,e; zinc sulfate
same as above
same as above
same as above
same as above
alkylbenzene sulphonate
used
BSA; a,c,d,e,f,o
BSA; a.c.d.e, Zn++; all
fish acclimatized For
2weeksinsyn dil.
water
BSA, a,c,f,n,o
BSA; a,c,f,n,o
BSA; a,c,f,n,o
BSA, a,c,e; ZnCb
BSA; a,c,e; ZnCI :
BSA, a,c,e, ZnCh
same as above; contin-
uous flow acute bio-
assay. 1 8 mg/l DO;
a,c,d,e,f
same as above with
5. 6 mg/l DO
15 C; in the dark, ZnSOi
cone, as Zn
"
static acute bioassay,
a,c, zinc sulfate
23 C (inbred strains)
23 C"
pH7.5
TLm. Zn'+
Literature citation'
Ball 1967'
"
"
"
«
Srpague and Ram
sey1965»9
Wisely and Blick
19671"
Brown 1968n
Brown et al. 1968"
Cairns Jr. and
Scheier 19682^
Chen and Selleck
I968;"
"
"
Patrick et al
1968"
Patrick et al
1968"
"
Pickering 196892
"
Portmann1968"
»
//
"
Whitley 19B81"'
Rachlm and Perl-
mutter 1968i»!
Whitley 1968"-
Brungs 1969-"
Tabata 1959121
-------
Appendix III—Table 2/461
APPENDIX III-TABLE 2—Sublethal doses of inorganic chemicals for aquatic organisms
Constituent Chronic dose
Aluminum 106 mg/l
(Al)
190 ppm
206 ppm
136 ppm
<6.7ppm
Ammonia <134 ppm or
(NH3) 91 mg/l
<8 75 ppm
<106ppm
8.75 mg/l
17 ppm
1000 ppm
1000 ppm
50 ppm
3000 ppm
1000 ppm
100 ppm
1000 ppm
3000 ppm
1000 ppm
100 ppm
91 ppm
3.1 mg/l
86 mg 'I
75 mg/l
Species
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
"
"
Steurastrum
paradoxum
Salmo gairdnen
"
"
"
'
Salmo gairdnen
"
"
"
Daphnia magna
Leptodora kindtu
Cyclops vernalis
Mesocyclops
leukarti
Conditions Literature Citation
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1944'«
tion, in Lake Erie
water, AWSO,).t
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1944"-'
tion, a,e, BSA; alumi-
num ammonium sul-
fate
threshold of immobiliza- "
tion, BSA, a,e, using
aluminum potassium
sulfate
same, using aluminum "
sulfate
threshold of immobiliza- " 19481",
tion after 64 hrs, 19501K
Constituent Chronic dose
Ammonia 5 mg/l
(NH3)
152 mg/l
13 mg '1
0.04N
0.01 N
jl mg'l
420 mg 1
Al Cl , BSA, a: 25 C
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1944'19
tion m 64 hr. BSA,
a,e, ammonium chlo-
ride, 25 C
BSA, a,e; threshold of
immobilization, am-
monium hydroxide
threshold of immobiliza- "
tion; ammonium sul-
fate BSA, a,c
threshold cone of im-
mobilization using
NHjQH,25C
inhibition of growth Chu 1942""
loss of equilibrium in Gnndley 1946''-
27 3 mm in tap
water, ammonium
chloride, cone as am-
monia, a,c,e,f
420 mg'l
320 mg/l
420 mg/l
410 mgil
350 mg/l
420 mg'l
5.0-8.0 ppm (NH.,)
same as above, loss of " |
equilibrium m 52 5
mm
same as above, loss of
equilibrium in >1000
mm
same as above using
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium in 292 min
same as above using
3.5-10 Oppm
Antimony
(Stj) (See also Nal
distilled water, loss of ' ' J7 m
equilibrium in 725 mm.
same as above using "
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium in 4,320
mms
loss of equilibrium in Gnndley 1946™
15 mg, I
3. 5 mg/l
29 8 mm, tap water,
BSA, a,c,e,f. ammon-
ium sulfate, cone as
NH,
same as above using "
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium in 318
mms
same as above using "
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium in 847
mms
same as above using "
distilled water, loss of
equilibrium m -5.760
mms.
BSA, a threshold of im- Anderson 1948I: '
mobilization in 64 hrs.
ammonium chloride;
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1948151
tion
" "
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1948"1
tion
1.0 mg'l
Arsenic
Species
Diaptomus
oregonensis
Daphnia magna
Diaptomus
oregonensis
Gasterosteus
aculeatus
"
Daphnia magna
Navicula semmulum
"
"
"
"
Oncorhynchus
kisutch
Oncorhynchus
tshanytscha
Daphnia magna
protozoans
green algae
Daphnia
Micropterus
salmoides
Conditions Literature Citation
„
threshold of immobiliza- "
tion, using ( NH;) 'SO;
same as above "
immediate negative Jones 1948-'"
response
reactions are slow, some "
are overcome by the
exposure
threshold of immobilize- Anderson 1950IS!
tion, 25 C, NH Cl
50 percent reduction of Academy of Nat-
growth, soft water, ural Sciences
22 C 1960i«
50 percent reduction of "
growth, hard water,
22 C
50 percent reduction of "
growth, soft water,
28 C
50 percent reduction of "
growth, hard water,
28 C
50 percent reduction of "
growth, soft water,
30 C
50 percent reduction of "
growth, hard water,
30 C
22 C m hard and soft "
water 50 percent re-
duction m division
(growth)
in aerated fresh water. Holland et al.
loss in equilibrium I96019"
spasms with gills and
jaws gaping
in aerated salt water, "I960199
reduction in growth,
loss of equilibrium,
Alk 112 ppm, DO
8 4 ppm
thresho'd of immobile- Anderson 1948l!il
tion, antimony tri-
chloride, BSA; a
K'ShOiC H 0 , Inn- Bringmannand
drance ot food intake Kuhn 1959"
" hindrance of cell
division
" hindrance of "
movement
caused projectile vomit- Jernejcic )969!M
ingSbOH(C,HjO,,K!)
used
(As) (See also Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K))
20 ppm
250 ppm
30-35 ppm
4-10 Mg
0.5-2Mg
Salmo gairdnen and
minnows
minnows
Mytilus edules
Mytilus edules
cone of arsenic using Gnndley 194615»
sodium arsemte, fish
overturned m 36 hrs.
cone of arsenic using "
sodium arsenate, fish
overturned in 16 hrs
fins, scales damaged, Boschetti and Me-
diarrhea, heavy Loughlm 1957'"
breathing and hem-
orrhage around (in
areas
amount of As retained Sautet et al.
in flesh 1964™
amount of As retained in
shell when exposed to
100 g I of As
-------
462/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 2—Continued
Constituent Chronic dose
Arsenic
(As)
Barium
(Ba)
100 2/1 As
100e/IAs
1.8 mg/l
<83 ppm
Species
"
Stizostedion vitreum
vitreum (walleye)
Daphma magna
Conditions
bysuss accumulated
250-500 p(
excreta contained 550-
800 Mg
as As (3 0 ml of arse-
nous acid) regurgita-
tion of stomach con-
tents into throat
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BaCb; BSA;a;c
Literature Citation
»
"
Jernejcic 1969204
Anderson 1944149
* (see also Sodium (Na) I Potassium iK))
Beryllium
(Be)
Boron
Bromine
(Br>«
Cadmium
(Cd)
Calcium
(Ca)
12 mg/l
133 me/1
5000 mg/l
29 ppm
3 rag/1
10-HO-' M
5000 mg/l
80,000mg/!
10 mg/l
(see also Na)
<0.0026ppm
10.0 ppm
0.0026 mg/l
0 05-0. 10 mi/I
',42 ppm
0.1-0. 2 ppm
50 ppm
10-5-10-2 M
1,332 ppm
920 ppm
1730 mg/l
1440 mg/l
22,080 mg/l
12,060 mg/l
8, 400 ppm
Leptodora kindtn
Cyclops vernalis
lish
Daphnia magna
Carassius auratus
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Salmo gairdnen
"
marine fish
Daphnia magna
marine fish
Daphnia magna
Australorbis
glabratus
Sewage organisms
Crassostrea
virgimca
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Daphnia magna
"
Cyclops vernalis
Mesocyclops
leukarti
white fish fry
pickerel fry
Lepomis
macrochirus
threshold of immobiliza-
tion; 20-25 C; BaCh
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, 20-25 C; Bad-
same as above
BSA; a, threshold of im-
mobilization; Bad:;
25 C
using lagoon wastes
from Be plant fish be-
came sluggish after 21
days
cone, affecting liver en-
zyme activity
slight darkening of the
skin using boric acid
caused immobilization
and loss of equilibrium
of fish; using boric acid
violent irritant response
threshold of immobiliza-
tion; CaCl2, BSA, a;
in 64 hrs.
violent irritant activity
caused by irritation of
respiratory enzymes
threshold of immobiliza-
tion
produced distress syn-
dromes; distilled
water.
50 percent inhibition of
0: utilization, BOD,
a; CdSO
20-week exposure; little
shell growth lost pig-
mentation of mantle
edge; coloration of
digestive diverticulae
pathological changes in
•ntestmal tract, kid-
ney, and gills; changes
in essosmophil lineage
cone affecting liver en-
zyme activity
threshold of immobiliza-
tion; CaCI BSA: a;c
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, CaClj, BSA;
a;c, 20-25 C
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, 20-25 C using
CaCI.
same as above
same as above
same as above
CaCI 1 34 percent loss
of tissue fluid; pH
8 3; 22.5 C, dissolu-
tion of mucous cover-
ing of body causing
dehydration of muscu-
lature
Anderson 19481"
Anderson 1948'sl
"
Anderson 1948,'s'
19501M
Pomelee 1953^
Jackimetal. 1970™
Wurtz 1945256
Hiattetai. 195319'
Anderson 1948lrl
Hiatt et al. 1953"'
Anderson 1948"1,
1950'"
Harry and Aldrich
1958"'
Hermann 1S5919S
Sinister and Prmgle
1969M«
Gardner and Yevic It
19701*'
Jackim et al.
1970!M
Anderson 1944'49
Anderson 19481"
Anderson 1948'"
"
"
"
Abegg 1950'«
Constituent Chronic dose
Calcium 1. 25X10-" M
(Ca)
Chlorine 0.3 ppm
(Cl)
10 mg/l (5 days)
Chloride (see also sodium and potassium)
(CI-) 2 mM
Chromium
(Cr) (see also sodium and potassium)
<0.6ppm
<3.6ppm
6. 4-16.0 ppm
3. 2-6.4 ppm
3. 2-6. 4 ppm
0 32-1. 6 ppm
728 ppm
1.0 ppm
0.2 ppm
0.21 mg/l
not given
2-4 mg/l
2. 5 ppm
10-50 ppm
Cobalt > 26 ppm
(Co)
>3.1 ppm
2. 8 mg/l
5 mg/l
2. 5 mg/l
1.0 mg/l
0.5 mg/l
64.0 ppm
5 mg/l
0.5, 0.05, and
5 mg/l
Species
Cymnogaster ag-
gregata
trout
Macrocystis pyrifera
Salmo gain! nen
Daphnia mjgna
»
Chlorococcum
vanegatus
Chlorococcum
humicola
Scenedesmus
obliquus
Lepocinchssteimi
Lepomis
macrochirus
BOD
fish
Microregma
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo gairilnen
»
fish
Daphma mngna
Daphnia m.igna
Daphnia imigna
Daphnia
E. coh
Scenedesmus
Mtcroregmii
Sewage orginisms
Saphrolegma
Cyprmus carpio
(young)
Conditions
activation of brain
acetylcholinesterase
symptoms of restless-
ness, dyspnea, loss of
equilibrium & spastic
convulsions
10-15 percent reduction
in photosynthesis
change in respiration
rate
chromic acid, threshold
of immobilization,
BSAa;c;
threshold of immobiliza-
tion; chromic chlonde,
BSA; a, 64 hrs
complete inhibition of
growth for 56 days,
Cr as dtchromate
same as above
same as above
same as above
hydration of tissues of
body due to coagula-
tion of mucous cover-
ing body; 22. 5 C;
pH5.9
10 percent reduction in
02 utilization; lab
bioassay; j; chromic
sulfate.
retarded rate of growth
and resulted in in-
creased mortality
(Cr«)
threshold eltect
change in erythrocyte
surface area and in-
crease or decrease in
haematocrit value
raising of hematocnts
Cr as chromate, lab bio-
assay; tap water; glu-
cose transport by gut
segments reduced 40
percent from controls.
decreased extractable
protein content of
blended fish muscle
cobaltous chloride; BSA;
a,c, threshold of im-
mobilization.
threshold of immobiliza-
tion for 64 hr exposure
BSA; a; CoCI:
threshold of immobiliza-
tion using CoCb
threshold effects CoCI:
«
//
//
50 percent inhibition of
Oz utilization; BOD;
a, CoCI:
suppression of growth
inhibition of growth in
small carp
Literature Citatioi
Abou-Donia and
Menzel 1967>«
Cole 1941'"
Clendenning and
North I960'"
Amend et al.
1956i'8
Anderson 1944'"
" 194815'
Hervey 1949"6
/
,;
//
Abegg 19M'«
Ingols 1955M2
U.S. Dept of
Commerce
19582'-
Bnngmann and
Kuhn 1959""
Haisband and
Haisband
1963"°
Scmtfman and
Fromm 19592"
Fromm and Stoke!
1962180
Castell et al.
1970W3
Anderson 1944'"
Anderson 19481"
Ohio River Valley
Water Commis-
sion 1950™
Bnngmann and
Kuhn 19591^
-/
a
,i
Hermann 195919S
Shabalma 1964'-"
«
-------
Appendix 111—Table 2/463
TABLE 2—Continued
Constituent Chronic dose
Cobalt 5 mg/l
(Co) 10-50 ppm
Copper 1 Mg/l Cu
(Cu)
2. 5-. 0 (ig/l
0 1 mg/l Cu
2.0 ppm
0.13 ppm
0.096 mg/l
0.1 ppm
>0.2mg/l
0.02-0 3 mg/l
<0.2-0 3 mg/l
<0 2 mg/l
0.027 ppm
2.7mg/l
1.9 mg/l
0.0024 mg/l
0.178 mg/l
metal sheet; 45
percent Ni 55
percent Cu
0.027 mg/l
0 16 mg/l
0.1 mg/l
21 ppm
1 0 mg/l
0.1-0 5 ppm
0.563 ppm
1 00 ppm
16 ppm
1.1 ppm
0.044 ppm
Species
Saprolegnea
fish
Chlorella
pyrenoidosa
Chlorella
pyrenoidosa
Nitzchia palea
roach
large mouth black
bass
Crassostrea
virgmica
Daphma magna
Daphma magna
Bugula netntma
barnacles
Bugula nentma
'
Daphma magna
Cyclops vernalis
Mesocyclops
leukarti
Diaptomus
oregonensis
Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha
Balanus amphitnte
Daphma magna
sea urchin
Australorbis
glabratus
Sewage organisms
Sphaerotilus
oyster
Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha
(young)
Oncorhynchus
kisuthh silver
salmon
Rana pipiens
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo gairdneri
Conditions
suppressed growth
decreased extractable
protein content of
blended fish muscle
suppressed growth; 4-hr
exposure 20 C, GMg/l
Fe
decreased photosyn-
thetic rate
cannot withstand cone.
greater than given
in distilled water,
CuSO i lethal thres-
hold
turn green in 21 days
(unmarketable1)
threshold cone, of im-
mobilization using
cupnc chloride
threshold of immobiliza-
tion using CuSO
BSA,a;c
complete inhibition of
growth of attached
fauna
growth of young
barnacles is inhibited
retarded growth
retarded polypide forma-
tion
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, cupnc chloride;
BSA,a;(64hrs)
threshold of immobiliza-
tion
"
loss of equilibrium and
initial mortalities,
Cu(NO,)
malformation of the shell
bases; edges scalloped
not smooth
threshold cone of im-
mobilization using
cupnc chloride
as Cu, abnormalities
occur in eggs
produced distress syn-
drome.
50 percent inhibition of
0" utilization ,BOD;
copper sulphate, a,
inhibition of growth,
cone, of CuSO,
changes in digestive di-
verticuium tissues
with desquamation
and necrosis of
stomach epithelium.
loss of equilibrium and
initial mortalities in
19 hrs, cone as Cu
pH 7 9; Cu(NO,>>
survival, growth, repro-
ductive and feeding
responses
chronic static bioassay;
a,c, copper sulfate
water, copper sulfate as
Cu, BSA,a,e;p; 3
days, 3.5ppmZn
same as above using
Literature Citation
»
Castell et al.
19701"3
Nielsen 1939= »
"
Nielsen 1939"3
Cole 1941i«
Galtsoff 19431M
Anderson 1944"'
Anderson 1944i«
Miller 1946=i5
Miller 19462^
Miller 1946=i5
"
Anderson 1948'5i
Anderson 1948-
"
"
Weis 1948255
Anderson 19501'=
Cleland 19531'"
Harry and Aldnch
1958HI
Hermann 1959"''
Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences
19601"'
Fuiiya 1960182
Holland etal.
I960"'
Holland et al.
1960iw
Kaplan and Yoh
196121"
Lloyd 1961b2»
Lloyd 1961b2"
Constituent Chronic dose
Copper
(Cu)
35-45 percent of
incipient lethal
level
0.1 mg I
1-2 mg/l
2.3Mg'l
0 42M8'I
0 7 ppm
1-5 ppm CuSOi
10-20Mg'l
30 MB 'I
0 01-0 1 ppm
20 Mg 1
0 05 ppm
1. 25X10'i M
160Mg"
0.06 ppm
0.02 mg/l
<1 Oppm
<1 0 ppm
0.35-0. 43 toxic
units
0.056 ppm
5 6ug 1
0.055-0 265Mg/ml
0.025-0 05 ppm
33M8/1
10-50 ppm
Species
Salmo salar
Nereis virens
Carcmus
Salmo salar
"
goby
Dncomelama
formosana
sea urchin
sea urchin
Helix pomaiha
oysters
"
Cymalogaster
aggregata
common guppy
Salmo salar
Oncorhynchus
crayfish Orconectes
rusticus
crayfish
Salmo salar
Daphma
Salmo gairdneri
dmoflagellates
oysters
Pimephales
promelas
fish
Conditions
0 56 ppm Zn; and
soft water (7 days)
inhibition of migratory
habits
threshold of toxicity,
cone as Cu accumu-
lation in gut and
body wall
threshold of toxicity,
11-12 day exposure
as Cu , threshold for
avoidance for parr
as Cu, plus B.1 Mg 1
Zn, fish are 9 5-15.3
cm in length, avoid-
ance
reduced appetite and re-
duced 0? consumption
freshwater; pH 7 2,
still water
decrease in food con-
sumption, concentra-
tion of Cu along wall
of digestive gland and
in the loose spongy
connective tissue of
the stomach and
proximal intestine
retards body growth of
pluteal larvae, regress-
ing of arms is re-
tarded
affects growth of arms
increase in mucous
secretion and no
response to tactile
stimuli
green color in oysters
inhibition of self
purification
acetylcholmesterase
activity is inhibited
by Cu*=
reduction in number of
mucous cells
chronic static bieassay,
CuSO,, as Cu.
sublethal effects on
fmgerlings
inhibition of respiratory
enzymes degenerative
effect of cells and
tissues including dis-
ruption of gluthathi-
one equilibrium
continuous flow bio-
assay
same as above
reduction in number of
spawning salmon
inhibition of growth
threshold avoidance level
growth inhibition at 20 C
bodies became bluish-
green in color, and
shell showed excellent
growth, mantle edge
pigmentation in-
creased, and mortal-
ities increased
prevention of spawning
hard water
decreased extractable
protein content of
blended fish muscle
Literature Citation
Sprague and
Saunders 1963216
Raymount and
Shields 1964'2s
Reish 1964=='
Sprague et al
19642"
"
Syazuki 1964™
Wmkler and Chi
1964=55
Bougis 196515S
"
DeClaventi 1965™
Sprague et al
1965=15
Abou-Doma and
Menzel 1967»<
Cusick 19671"
Grande 19671 s'
Grande 1967""
Hubschman1967!»»
Saunders and
Sprague 1967=='
Mueck and Adema
19682"!
Sprague 1968=u
Mandelh 19692"
Shuster and
Prmgle 1969236
Mount and
Stephen 19692"
Castell et al.
1970i«3
-------
Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE ^—Continued
Constituent Chronic dose
Copper
(Cu)
Cyanide
(CN-)
Fluorine
(F)
Iron
(Fe)
0.2 mg/l
10-9-10-1 M
0.1-0. 3 ppm
0.126 mg/l
0.1 5 mg/l
0.7 mg/l
1 ppm
5X10-J M
7300 mg/l
0.1 mg/l
1 ppm
0.25 ppm
10 mg/l
not given
2 mM CN-
270 mg/l
95 mg/l
226 mg/l
180 mg/l
500 ppm
150 ppm
2.0 mg/l
< 152 ppm
130 ppm
< 38 ppm
5.0ppm(1 day)
Species
Oncorhynchus
tshanytscha
Kilhfish
Crassius auratus
trout
trout
Salmo gairdnen
fish
Mayoreila
palestmensis
Chlorella
fish
fish
goby, perch, mullet
Lepomis
macrochirus
Cypnnus carpio
minnow, gudgeon
Rhodeus senceus
squid
Daphma
Scenedesmus
Microregma
Eschenchia coh
Oncorhynchus
kisutch
Salmo gairdnen
trout, salmon,
roach
Daphma magna
"
Daphma magna
goby
Conditions
inhibition of growth
change in liver enzyme
activity
hard water using KCN;
respiratory depressant
overturned in 170 mms.
overturned in 170 mms.
CN-
fish overturned
gills become brighter m
colour due to inhibi-
tion by cyanide of the
oxidase responsible for
transfer of 0> from
blood to tissues
increased respiration of
organism in glucose-
containing solutions,
a.c, BSA,
Inhibition of photosyn-
thesis
fish overturned
respiratory depressant-
gills became brighter
in color
change m 0; uptake;
reduction in appetite
of some still water,
pH8 2 KCN
3 0 mg'llree CO^;
cone as CN~ super-
ficial coagulation of
mucous, Alk 1 5
tug I resulting in
death of some, pH
6 0; CN- complexed
with silver,
loss of equilibrium,
nervous system and
respiration are ef-
fected
affects the Ca efflux in
the axons; after 90-
150 mm rate constant
for loss of Ca was in-
creased 5-10 fold
23 C using NaF
threshold effect
24 C using NaF
threshold effect
27 C using NaF
threshold effect
Alk 47. 5 ppm, DO 8.4
ppm, after 72 hr ex-
posure survivors were
in poor condition, dark
m color with light
colored spots at end ol
snout
90 percent mortality in
21 days; BSA; a.d;
iidiu water
blockage of gills; Fe203
BSA; a, c; threshold of
immobilization FeSOi
BSA, a; c; threshold of
immobilization Fed;
BSA; a; threshold of
mobilization in 64
hrs;
reduction in appetite in
Literature Citation
Hazel and Meith
197011'
Jackim et al
1970='"
Cole 1941'"
Ohio River Valley
Water Commis-
sion 195022i
Southgate 1950™
Herbert and Mer-
ken 1952'93
Southgate 1 953™
Reich 19552=o
Reich 1955226
Neil 1956=' s
Jones 1964'™
Syazuki 1964™
Doudoroff et al
1966'"
Malacca 1966="
Blaustem and
Hodgkm 1969'"
Brmgmann and
Kuhn 1959'59
Holland etal.
I960'99
Herbert and Shur-
ben 1964191
Nielsen 1939219
Anderson 1944149
Anderson 1944149,
1950 "2
Anderson 19481",
1950152
Syazuki 1964249
Constituent Chronic dose
'ron
(Fe)
27 MS/I
1. 25X10-' M
10-100 mg/l
.Bad 5 mg/l
(Pb)
1.25 ppm
0 33-644 mg/l
0.04N
50 mg/l
30. 6 ppm
1.0 mg/l
1.25 ppm
2.0 ppm
1. 25X10-4 M
25 ppm
150 ppm
1000 ppm
10, 20, 40 mg/l
25 mg/l
Species
Phaeodactyhm
tricornutum
CymatogasttT
aggregata
Carassius auratus
fish
Daphma mai'na
tadpoles
Gasterosteu!,
aculeatus
cattish
barnacles
Cypnnus canio
Poecilia reticulata
Lebistes retieulatus
Cymatogaster
aggregata
Rana pipierr,
"
Rana pipiens
Lepomis cyar ellus
Salvelinus malma
Conditions
1 day exposure using
ferrous sulfate
Severe clumping of
diatom cells
inhibition of AChE
activity
epithelial edema, hyper-
secretion of mucous,
inflammation, capil-
lary congestion de-
struction of respiratory
epithelium, blockage
of gill filaments and
lamellae by micro-
ferruginous ppt and
occurrence of mtra-
cellular iron m epi-
thelial cells
precipitation of mucous
of gills decreasing
permeability of gills to
dissolved 0- (00^
6 2 ppm)
threshold cl immobiliza-
tion, 64- hrs PbCI>
BSA, a
negative reaction, lead
nitrate
Fish reacted negatively
then positively due to
osmotic pressure of
solution
iniury to blood cells
during exposure up to
183 days, cone as
lead acetate, in tap
water
deformation of shells
due to growth on un-
favorable substrates
harmed serum during
long exposure; cone.
asPb
retardation of growth,
increase m mortality,
delayed sexual matur-
ity
chronic static bioassay
Pb(NO); retardation
of growth, delay in
sexual maturity and
increased mortality
27 percent in 90 days.
inhibition of acetyl-
chlonesterase activity
Sloughing of the skin
after 20-days, loss of
righting reflexes, loss
of normal semi-erect
posture
total loss of righting re-
flexes, excitement,
salivation, and muscu-
lar twitchmgs present
upon 1st exposure;
darkening of liver,
gall bladder spleen &
kidney observed
for 48 hrs gastric
mucosa eroded red
blood cell and white
blood cell counts de-
creased with increas-
ing Pb.
avoided these concen-
trations
reduction of growth
Literature Citation
Davies 1966"2
ftftou-Donia and
Menzell 1967'"
Ashley 1970'='
Westfall 1945=51
Anderson 1948IS1
Jones 19482»5
Jones 1948213
Doudoroff and Katz
1953"-
Stubbmgs 1959"'
Fujiya 1961'83
Crandall and Good
night 1962'"
Crandall and Good-
night 19621"
Abou-Doma and
Menzel 1967'«
Kaplan et al.
1967»
"
Kaplan et al.
19672M
Summerfeit and
Lewis 1967218
Dorfman and Whit-
worth 19691"
-------
Appendix III—Table 2/465
TABLE 2—Continued
Constituent
Lead
(Pb)
Magnesium
(Mg)
Manganese
Chronic dose
10-7-10-2 M
0.1-0.2 mg/l
50 ppm
740 ppm
7. 2 ppm
Species
Killifish
Crassostrea
virgmica
Staurastrum
paracloxum
Daphnia magna
Botryococcus
Conditions
change in liver enzyme
activity
induced changes in
mantle & gonad
tissue.
certain inhibition of
growth using MgSOj
BSA, a; threshold of
immobilization MgCh
inhibition of growth
Literature Citation
Jackim et al.
19702<»
Pnngle (unpub-
lished)^8
Chu 1942i«
Anderson 1948'"
"
(Mn) (see also Potassium (K) and Sodium (NaV)
Mercury
(Hg)
Molybdenum
(Mo)
Nickel
(Ni)
Nitrate
PH
50 ppm
50 mg/l
1.25X10-4
10,000 ppm
10, 000 ppm
1,000 ppm
<0. 006 ppm
O.S1 ppm
3.2X10-= mg/hr
0.01 ppm
0.1 ppm
0.1 ppm
10-MO-2 M
54 mg/l
<0.7 ppm
0.7 mg 'I
1.5 mg/l
0 1 mg/l
0.05 mg/l
1.25X10-4 M
10 ppm
100 ppm
10 ppm
0 5-10 mg/l
0.0007N
1. 25X10-1 M
10, 20-40 mg/l
pH9 0
pH4.0
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Cymatogaster
aggregata
Lebistes reticulatus
Bufo valliceps
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Sewage organisms
Japanese eel.
Crassius auratus
Lebistes reticulatus
Bufo valliceps
Daphnia magna
killifish
Scenedesmus
Daphnia magna
Daphnia
Scenedesmus
E. coh
Microregma
Cymatogaster
aggregata
Lebistes reticulatus
Bufo valliceps
Daphnia magna
Cyanophyta
minnow
Cymatogaster
aggregata
Lepomis cyanellus
oyster larvae
fish
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, MnCI; BSA, a
as Mn, threshold of im-
mobilization; 23 C
activation of acetyl-
cholmesterase
inhibition of essential
sulfhydryl groups at-
tached to key enzyme,
lab bioassay
same as above; using
tadpoles
as above
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, HgCUa.BSA,
50 percent inhibition of
0 utilization, HgCh
BOD, a,
accumulation in the
kidney
cation combined with
essential sulfhydryl
group attached to a
key enzyme to cause
inhibition, a,c,e, BSA
same as above using
tadpoles
same as above
change in liver enzyme
activity
threshold cone for
deleterious effect
threshold of immobiliza-
tion Nl(NH,)>(SOi).
BSA, a,
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, NiCI
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, NiCI
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, NiCI
threshold of immobiliza-
tion. NiCI>
inhibition of acetyl-
cholmesterase activity
bioassay, a,c,e, cation
combined with essen-
tial snlfhydryl group
attached to key en-
zyme to cause inhibi-
tion
same as above, using
tadpoles
same as above.
growth inhibition
as Pb(NO,)'., showed
negative response
Pb(NO,);; caused 73
percent inhibition of
AChE activity
avoided these concen-
trations
injury to larvae
coagulation of proteins
of epithelial cells
Anderson 19481"
195015=
Bnngmann and
Kuhn 19591'9
Abou-Donia and
Menzel 1967i«
Shaw and Grushkm
1967--M
"
Anderson 19481"
Hermann 1959'85
Hibiyaand Ogun
1961"8
Shaw and Grushkm
1967"'
11
Jackim etal
1970!'"
Bnngmann and
Kuhn1959'ss
Anderson 1948r>i
Anderson 1950IW
Brmgmann and
Kuhn 1959ii8
"
Abou-Donia and
Menzel 1967'"
Shaw and Grushkm
19672-1
"
Sparling 19683«
Jones 1948™=
Abou-Ooma and
Menzel 1967"'
Summerfeitand
Lewis 1967"8
Gaardner 19321"'
Cole 19411"
Constituent Chronic dose
pH 62 ppm
pH2 8
pH5 4
pH11.4
pH6.5
pH 5 51 (3 day)
50-150 ppm
Potassium
(K)
0 6 ppm
0.63 ppm
373 ppm
1000 pom
200 ppm
2000 ppm
1000 ppm
20 ppm
432 ppm
10 5 ppm
15 ppm
17 0 ppm
0 072 ppm
Selenium >800 ppm
(Se)
2. 5 mg/l of Se
2 5 mg lot Se
90 mg 'I of Se
183 mg/l of Se
Sliver 6X10-«
(Ag) 3.3X10-1 M
0.0051 ppm
Species
Daphnia magna
Crassius auratus
Gasterosteus
aculeatus
oyster
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha
short-necked clam
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo gairdnen
Salmo gairdnen
/,
"
Daphnia magna
Sewage organisms
sewage organisms
sewage organisms
Rabora hetero-
morpha
fresh-water fish
Daphnia
Scenedesmus
Eschenchia coh
Microregma
Bacterium coh
Daphma magna
Conditions
threshold of immobiliza
tion.HCIBSA, a,c
coagulation of mucous
on gills, HjSOi
reacted negatively to pH
less than 5 4 and
greater than 11 4
"
pumping is reduced
0 1 NHCI, critical level,
flowing-salt
0; uptake became ab-
normal, increase in
consumption with 24-
hr exposure
inhibition of growth
threshold of immobiliza-
tion K'Cr>0- BSA
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, a,c,
KMnOi
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, a,c, KCI
loss of equilibrium in
23 8 mms K .Cr^OT,
BSA. a.c.e.f
loss ot equilibrium in
54 6 mms, BSA,
KjCnO, tap water,
cone as Cr
loss of equilibrium in
188 mm BSA,
KjCnO- tap water
cone as Cr
loss of equilibrium, in
42 Omms, K:Cr04;
BSA, a,c,e,f, cone, as
Cr
loss of equilibrium in 79
irms BSA K.CrO,;
cine as Cr, a.c.e.l
loss of equilibrium in
3580 mm, BSA;
KjCrOiConc asCr,
a,c,e,l
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, a.c, KCI
for 64 hrs
50 percent reduction of
BOD values, KjCrOi
50 percent inhibition of
Oj utilization, BOD,
KCN, a
50 percent inhibition of
0. utilization, BOD,
a K'Cr>0:
20 percent mortality in
7 days, KCN, BSA
accumulation of Se in
liver, from bottom
deposits in reservoir
medium threshold effect
using sodium selemte,
23 C
median threshold level;
using sodium selemte,
24 C
median threshold level,
using sodium selemte,
27 C
median threshold level,
using sodium selemte
inhibits enzymes,
20CAg;SOi
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, (64 hrs)
silver nitrate, a,
Literature Citatum
Anderson 1944"=
Westfall 19452"
Jones \m»n
"
Korrmga19522«9
Holland et al
19601"
Syazuki 1964'-18
Chu 1942'e<
Anderson 1944n»
Anderson 1944"9
Anderson 1944"9
Grindley 1946188
"
Grindley 1946i*8
Grmdley1946i88
//
'•
Anderson 1948i'i
Sheets 1957"'
Hermann 1959i95
Hermann 19591"
Abr3m1964l'5
Barnhart1958'"
Bnngmann and
Kuhn 1959i'9
"
"
Yudkm 19372"
Anderson 1948- '
-------
466
• Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 2—Confirmed
Constituent Chronic dose
Silver 0.03 mg/l
(Ag)
0 03 mg 'I
0.05 mg/l
0.04 mg/l
0.15x6,1
10-100 Mg/l
2ME/I
0.25 Mg/l
0.50 ^/l
0 1 ppm
0.1 ppm
0 1 ppm
10-HO-2 M
Sodium 6143 ppm NaCI
(Na)
8500 ppm
<3.4ppm
5000 ppm
9. 4 ppm
<0.32ppm
8200 ppm
210 ppm
9.1 ppm
953 ppm
290 ppm
17. 8 ppm
<20ppm
2970 ppm
820 ppm
234 ppm
Species
Daphnia
Microregma
Scenedesmus
Eschericha coli
Echimd larvae
Paracentrotus
"
"
Arbacia
Lebistes reticulatus
Bufo valliceps
Daphnia magna
Fundulus
heteroclitus
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
"
a
Daphnia magna
"
Daphnia magna
Phoxinus phoxinus
"
"
Daphnia magna
Phoxinus phoxinus
'•
"
Conditions
median threshold effect
"
"
"
as AgNOi, abnormalities
or inhibition of growth
of eggs
as AgNOi, delay in de-
velopment and de-
formation of resulting
plutei
threshold cone for ef-
fect, as AgNO,
threshold cone, for ef-
fect for eggs
cation combines with es-
sential sulfhdryl group
attached to key en-
zyme causing inhibi-
tion; BSA; a;c,e
same as above using
tadpoles
same as above
change m liver enzyme
activity
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA; NaCI: a, c
BSA; a;c, threshold of
immobilization.
NaNO,
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, NaCN
threshold for immobiliza-
tion, unfavorable
osmotic effect exerted;
BSA, NaNO,
cone causing immobili-
zation, BSA; Na.S
Threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, Na-CrOj
same as above using
NaBr
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, NaBrO,
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, NaAsO;
loss of equilibrium in
54 6 mm, BSA, a,c;
e,f, NaAsO;; tap or
disi water; cone as
Us
loss of equilibrium m
186 mm, BSA,a,c,e;
f; NaAsO ; tap water
or dist. water
loss of equilibrium in
2174 mins; BSA,
a,c;e,f; NaAsO;, tap or
dist water
threshold of immobiliza-
tion, BSA, sodium
arsenate
lost equilibrium in 205
mins BSA; a,c,e;f;
dist or tap water,
sodium arsenate dist.
or tap water
lost equilibrium in 467
mins, BSA, sodium
1 ' ' ' '
dist or tap water
lost equilibrium,
a;c;e;f; dist or tap
water; 951 mm
sodium arsenate
Literature Citation
Brmemann and
Constituent Chronic dose
Sodium 3680 ppm
Kuhn 19591SS (Na)
0.007 N
"
"
Soyer1963«»
"
2. 47 ppm
"
"
158 ppm
0.0003 N
i
Shaw and Grushkm
1967"'
"
"
Jackimetal.
197C201
Anderson 1944"=
0.201 ppm
0.276 ppm
Anderson 1944"' 0.159 ppm
Anderson 1946"°
Anderson 1946"o 0.33 ppm
Anderson 1946' ••"
85 ppm
Anderson 1946""
Anderson 1946"° 86 ppm
Anderson 1946""
Anderson 1946""
Gnndley 1946 -^ 0.195 ppm
I
" ! 73 ppm
"
0.35 ppm
Anderson 1946""
Gnndley 1946™ 82 ppm
427 ppm
" 0.286 ppm
Species Conditions
Daphnia magn; threshold of immobiliza-
tion, NaCI BSA a;c;
Gasterosteus fish displayed distress,
aculeatus tap water; BSA; c,e;
pH6 8 with H. SO,,
Na;S
Daphnia majn; 50 percent are im-
mobilized in 100 hr
exposure, BSA; a;c;
Na.SiO
" 50 percent are im-
mobilized in 100 hr
exposure; BSA; a,c;
Na SiO , plus
2 899 ppm N3 'SO
Gasterosteus survival time of 72 hrs
aculeatus tap water. BSA; c;e;
pH 6 8; Na S
Daphnia magna 50 percent immobiliza-
tion; BSA, 100 hr ex-
posure a, c, Na CrO,;
plus 119 ppm
Na SiO: 8. 2180 ppm
Na.SO,
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion during 100 hr
exposure BSA; a,c,
NajCrOi, plus 2984
ppm Na.SO
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion for 100 hr expo-
sure, BSA, a,c,
Na:CrO,, plus 93 ppm
Na SiO
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion during 100 hr
exposure Na^CrO*
plus 408 ppmNa CO ;
BSA, a:c.
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, 100-hr exposure;
a;c; BSA, Na.SiOj
plus 180 ppm Na SO
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, 100 hr exposure;
a.c.BSA. NajSiO
plus 182 ppm Na CO :
plus 0.146 ppm
Na.Crd
Daphnia magna 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, 100 hr exposure,
a,c BSA, Na.'CrO,
plus 240 ppm Na CO:
and 2079 Na;SOj
50 percent immobiliza-
tion, 100 hr exposure;
a,c; BSA, Na;SiOi
plus 155 ppm Na CO,
and 1343 ppm Na2SOi
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion; Na CrO,, BSA;
a,c, 100 hr exposure;
plus 87 ppm sodium bi-
sulfate and 440 ppm
sodium carbonate
cone asNa.CrO
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, Na_SiO ; BSA;
a,c; 100-hr exposure;
plus38ppmNaHS03;
and 194 pom NazCOs
Daphma manna 50 percent immobiliza-
tion; NajSiOjBSA,
a;c; 100 hr exposure,
plus 177 ppm NaHSO:
" 50 percent immobiliza-
tion, Na.CrO:, BSA;
a;c, 100 hr exposure;
70 ppm NaHSOi
Literature Citatio
Anderson 19481"
Jones 19482»s
Freeman and
Fowler 19531"
a
Jones 1948»o5
Freeman and
Fowler 1953'"
//
"
Freeman and
Fowler 19531"
"
-
"
"
"
"
Freeman and
Fowler 19531"
"
-------
Appendix Ill—Table 2/467
TABLE 2—Continued
Constituent
Sodium
(Na)
Sullide
(S-)
Titanium
(TO
Uranium.
(U)
Zinc .
(Zn)
Chronic dose
126 ppm
506 ppm
0.306 ppm
0.42 ppm
1.0 ppm
3. 6 ppm
100 ppm
4 ppm
4 ppm
4 ppm
4 ppm
6. 5 ppm
1.4 ppm
1.8 ppm
5.0 ppm
0.86 ppm
3. 8 ppm
4. 3 ppm
6. 3 ppm
3. 2 mg/l
3. 2 mg/l
3.2mg/l
4. 6 mg/l of Ti
2.0 mg/l of Ti
4.0mg'l oITi
13 mg/l
22 mg/l
1.7-2. 2 mg/l
28 mg/l of U
0. 5 mg/l of U
O.lmg'1
48 ppm
Species
"
»
"
sewage organisms
sewage organisms
sewage organisms
Cladopnora
Spirogyra zygnema
Potamogeton (plant)
zooplankton
Daphma magna
Simocephalus
serrulatus
Daphma magna
suckers
sunfish
Salvehnus malma
Crassius auratus
Cyprmus carpio
trout
trout
trout
Daphma
Scenedesmus
Microregma
Daphma
Scenedesmus
Eschenchia coh
Microregma
Eschenchia coll
roach
Daphma magna
Conditions Literature Citation
50 percent immobiliza- "
tion Na<$iO::; BSA;
a;c, 100 hr exposure;
+52 ppm NaHSO.i
and 2308 ppm Na2-
SO:
50 percent immobiliza- "
tion Na:SiO BSA,
a,c; 100 hr exposure;
plus 144 ppm NaHSO
and 0.861 ppm
Na=CrOj
50 percent immobiliza- "
tion Na.'CiO,; BSA;
a,c, 100 hr exposure,
plus 75 ppm NaHS04
and 3312 ppm Na2S04
50 percent immobiliza- "
tion; BSA, 100 hr ex-
posure, a,c; NajCrOi
j, 100 percent reduction Ingols 1955202
in D! utilization BOD;
Na_CrOi
reduction by 50 percent Sheets 195721S
in the BOD values,
BOD, NaCN
50 percent inhibition of Hermann 1959"5
0> utilization, BOD;
a, sodium arsenate
complete decomposition Cowell 1365'"
in 2 weeks, field study
in lake, a;c; NaAsOj
same as above Cowell 19651SS
same as above "
NaAsO :: field study in
lake, a,c, significant
reduction evident
median immobilization Crosby and Tucker
concentration: a,c,d; 1966;v"
i;g, BSA, NaAsO:
threshold of immobiliza Sanders and Cope
tion, NaAsOj; BSA, 1966™
78 F
same as above "
causes respiratory paral- Cole 194U"
ysis
" "
" "
" "
overturned in 2 hrs, Southgate 19482"
pH90
overturned in 10 mins., "
pH7 8
overturned in 4 mins.; "
pH6 0
median threshold level, Bringmann and
23 C Kuhn 1959"»
median threshold effect, "
24 C
median threshold level; "
threshold effect of Bringmann and
uranyl nitrate; as U Kuhn 1959 v<
threshold effect of
uranyl nitrate, as U
threshold effect of "
uranyl nitrate; as U
threshold effect of "
uranyl nitrate '
disturbs Oj balance ot Guskova and
water and inhibits Gnffein 1964189
development of en-
teric bacteria
cannot withstand Nielson 1939219
threshold of immobiliza- Anderson 1944"'-'
tion, BSA, a;c, zinc
sulfate (
Constituent Chronic dose
Zinc 25 ppm
(Zn)
24 mg/l
0.15 mg/l of Zn
0.04 mg/l of Zn
0 16 mg/l
1 mg/l
920 ppm
55 ppm
0.75 ppm
1.8 mg/l
1.4-2 3 mg/l
1.0-1. 4 mg/l
0.33mg-'l
1 25 ppm &
230 ppm
35-45 percent of
incipient lethal
level.
100 mg/l
00-50 ppm
53 3 mg, I
53 mg/l
12 6 ppm
30 ppm
0.15 ppm
Species
Salmo gairdneri
fish
Daphma magna
rainbow trout
Psammechmus
miciavis
Planorbis and
Bulmus (snails)
sewage organisms
sewage organisms
sewage organisms
Daphma magna
Eschenchia coll
Scenedesmus
Microregma
Poecilia reticulata
(common guppy)
Salmo salar
lobster
Lepomis
mactochiras
Lepiosteus osseus
Dorosoma petenense
Dorosoma
cepedianum
Alosa chrysochlons
Cyprmus carpio
Carassius auratus
Salmo salar
Salmo salar
shellfish
goby
oysters
Conditions
loss of equilibrium in
133 mm, a,c;e,f; zinc
sulfate, cone, as Zn;
BSA;
avoidance concentration
ofZnSOi 7H20
threshold cone, of zinc
immobilization using
?nf un ^
in(,nu^j
prevention ot hatching of
rainbow trout eggs in
sell water
abnormalities of fertili-
zation cleavage of eggs
of urchins when in
zinc sulfate, cone
of Zn
reduction in BOD
values by 50 percent
zinc sulfate
reduction of BOD value
by 50 percent in an
unbuffered system,
zinc borofluonde
reduction ot BOD
value by 50 percent
in an unbuffered sys-
tem; zinc cyanide
median threshold effect;
as Zn
same as above
same as above
same as above
retardation of growth,
increased maturity
and delayed sexual
maturity, as Zn,
ZnSOi
migration of salmon is
disturbed when cop-
per-zinc pollution ex-
ceeds this dosage
causes increase in Zn
levels in urine, excre-
tory organs, hepato-
pancreas and gills
continuous flow bioassay,
acute, a,c,(, accumu-
lation of Zn in bones
and gills
avoidance response in
50 percent of fish;
BSA, a,c,d,e,f, cone.
as Zn
avoidance cone, for parr;
cone, as Zn.
decrease in Q-i uptake
in presence of Zn
sulfate as Zn, 1 hr
exposure in polluted
sea water.
rate of 0^ uptake is de-
creased, reduction of
appetite, as zinc, 1
day exposure
green color evident,
cause inhibition of
selt-puntatvon
Literature Citation
Gnndley 1946188
Jones 19482IB
Anderson 1950152
Affleck 19521'7
Cleland 19531"
Deschiens el al.
1957'»
Sheets 1957^'
Sheets 19572'^
Sheets 19572"
Bringmann and
Kuhn 1959159
"
Crandall and Good-
night 19621'"
Sprague and
Saunders 19632«
Bryan 19641S2
Mount 19642"'
Sprague 1964242
Sprague et al.
19642"
Syazuki 19642"
Syazuki19642»
"
-------
468/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 2~Continued
Constituent Chronic dose
Zinc 160 ME/I
(Zn)
157 & 180 ppm
lO.Oppm
10.0 ppm
1 . 0 ppm
0.35-0. 43 toxic
units
Species Conditions Literature Citation
Poeciha reticulata zinc damaged epithelium Cusick 19S711'
Constituent Chronic dose
— -
Zinc O.Smgl
of gills, reduction in ' (Zn)
the number of mucous j
cells, pH 6, distilled
water, high mortality 100 ME/I
rate
Fundulus as Zn, sluggish and un- Eisler 1967178
heteroclitus coordinated after 2
hrs, DO. 7 2-7.4 , 5 6^g/l
ppm, 20 C; pH 8.0;
salinity 25 "/CD \
Lebistes reticulatus bioassay, a,e,c, com- Shaw and Grush-
bines with essential km 1967"'
sulfhydryl group at-
tached to a key en-
zyme.
5. 6 ME/I
0.18mg/l
Bufo valliceps same as above (using "
tadpoles)
Daphma magna same as above "
Salmo salar reduction in number of Saunders and
salmon reaching Sprague1967!29
spawning grounds
(avoidance reactions
of migrating salmon)
18 0 ppm
32.0 ppm
16 ppm (24 hr)
Species
Salmo gain! ner-
freshwater mussels
Cyanophyta
Salmo gairdnen
Pimphales
promelas
Salmo gairdien
Salmo gairdneri
Cyprmus carpio
Conditions
histological damage to
gills; Zn added along
with alkylbenzene
sulfonate
accumulation of Zn in
Leydig cells and
mucous cells of the
epithelial layers
avoidance reactions to
sub-lethal cone, of
Zn. low avoidance
threshold
avoidance reactions
reproduction inhibited,
no effect on survival
growth or maturation.
reduction of nutotic in-
dex of gcnadal cells
by 70 percent
complete inhibition of
mitotic division
hardness 25 ppm Ca;
asZn
Literature Citatior
Brown et al.
ISM""
Pauley and
Nakatam 1968="
SpraEue1968MI
SpraEue 1968-'"
Brungs1969>«
Rachlm and
Perlmutter
1969253
»
Tabata1969M"
-------
Appendix III—Table 3/469
APPENDIX HI-TABLE 3—Accumulation of inorganic chemicals for aquatic organisms
Constituent
Barmm(Ba)
Cadmium
(Cd)
Calcium
(Ca)
Chromium
(Cr)
Concentration in sea water
used
12 MC/l+2 mg/l stable
Cd "
12MC/I+20
Mg I stable
Cd
"
"
"
"
"
"
used
12 juc/l+20 rf/l stable
Cd
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
16 mg/l (5 days)
8 mg/l (30 days)
20 mg/l (20 days)
38 mg 100 ml CaCh
946 jrf/201 22 C
not measured
8.52XWcpm/ml
9.42X104cpm/ml
7.37X105cpm/ml
not measured
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
1 /jc Ca4sClz
7.37X10scpm/ml
105cpm/ml
10s cpm/ml
10-13. OMC injected into air
bladder
Species
Gracilana fohifera
Chasmychthys gulosus
"
"
"
"
"
"
Ulva pertusa
Venerupis philippmarum
"
"
"
Leander sp.
"
"
Strongylocentrotus
pulchernmus
"
"
Chasmychthys gulosus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Venerupis phitippmaium
"
"
Lepomis macrochirus
"
"
Daphmds
Tilapia mossambica
Lebistes
Lebistes
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Fucus vesiculosus
Ceramium rubrum
Enteromorpha intestmalis
Lebistes (15 days)
"
"
"
"
"
Damo
Crassius auratus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Tissue or organ
viscera
dig. tract
gill
skin
scales
vertebrae
muscle
tieadandlms
whole
mantle gill
adductor
other viscera
shell
viscera
muscle
shell
digestive tract
gonad
anstotle's lantern
test
viscera
digestive tract
gill
skin
scales
vertebrae
muscles
head and fins
SHI
mantle
adductor
other viscera
shell
gill
fresh weight after 48 IKS.
fish tissue
spine
body
body
Carcass
head
viscera
muscle
spine
carcass
head
viscera
muscle
thallus
"
Whole
spine (10 days)
head (10 days)
total (10 days)
viscera (10 days)
muscle (10 days)
whole (22 days)
intestine
liver
pancreas
spleen
kidney
head Kidney
gill
muscle
backbone
Concentration in tissue
634f4''l(i
252 MS. kg
484 MS 'kg
138.3mg,100g
2 7X10~!MC,gm
90 percent uptake in 24 hours
5.5X101' cpm, 10 mg
2.8X105cpm 100 mg
1.7x10scpm, 100 mg
1.4X10* com/100 raj
1.2X10" cpm, 100 mg
.2X10*cpm/100mg
2.8X105 cpm 100 mg
25 cpm/mg
25-40 cpm mg
25-40 cpm 'mg
60-100 cpm 'mg
200 cpm/mg
275 cpm/mg
40-60 cpm/mg
10 cpm/mg
30-40 cpm/mg
Concentration factor
1,200-13,000
3. 6 (6 days)
15 (3 days)
3 0 (2 days)
0 3 (2 days)
2 2 (10 days)
0.18 (3 days)
0.077 (3 days)
0.37 (8 days)
11 (4 days)
58 (8 days)
>100(3days)
8 3 (3 days)
52 (8 days)
>3
>250
0 38 (1 day)
725
110(1 5 days)
>8
>3
>10
>10
>6
11 (6 days)
0.92 (6 days)
0 80 (5 days)
0 22 (3 days)
0.1 6 (4 days)
0 96 (9 days)
19 (1 day)
9. 8 (1.5 days)
5. 1(3 days)
8 3 (1.5 days)
>1
Ca.0.6
62. ±0.4
0 7J±0.01
0.72±0 003 (10 days)
0 82±0.004 "
1 00±0 045 "
1.07±0.039 "
0 59±0 087 "
0.102±0.024 "
1 87±0 10
100.0±2.92
21.3±1.12
7.3±0.48
3.7±0 31
100-300
100-300
Literature Citation
Bedrosinn 1962="
Hiyama and Shimizu 19E4-«"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hiyama and Shimizu 1964280
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Mount and Stephan 1967294
"
"
Korpmcmkov et. al. 1956™
Boroughs et al. 1957»4
Rosenthal 1957»M
"
Rosenthal 19573UO
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Swift and Taylor 1960305
Taylor and Odum I960306
"
Rosenthat 1963301
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hibiya and Ogun 1961278
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
-------
470/'Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent
Chromium
(Cr)
Chromium
(Cr")
Chromium
(Cr)
Cobalt
(Co)
Concentration in sea water Species
Crassius auratus
"
0. 204 pCi ,/ml Lampsilis radiata
17,804cpm/8 Hermione
17,833cpm/e
18,226cpm/e
0.31M8/I "
"
"
"
"
O.IMK/I
0.3^/1
0.3/jg/l "
" "
" "
0.3^8/1 "
" "
" "
" "
3.0/j?/l "
" "
" "
" "
to^g/i "
" "
" "
" "
" "
10|ig/l Hermione
100/ig/l "
" "
" "
" "
500"
" "
" "
1=conc. of phytoplankton Mummichog
culture— Cr transferred down "
food chain "
"
"
"
(132 MCi/mg=imtial cone, in Zooplankton, post-larvae fish
phytoplankton culture.)
1 MCi CrClj/l Podophthalmus vigil
" "
" "
" "
S.SMCI "
51 CrCI; injected
Gadus macrocephalus
Chelidomchthys kumu
Evynms japonica
Lateolabrai japomcus
Senola qumqueradiata
Germo germo
Katsuworms vagans
Scomber japomcus
Cololabis saira
Sardmops melanosticta
Cleipea pallasu
Stichopus tremulus
Palmurus sp.
Polypus sp.
Ommastrephes sloani
Ostrea gigas
Pecten yessoensis
Meretrix meretrix lusoria
Porphora sp.
Tissue or organ
gonad
air bladder
soft tissues
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
''
''
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
gonad
muscle
gills
spleen
lirer
dig. tract
whole
"
gills
muscle
midgut gland
carapace
blood
gills
midgut gland!
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Concentration in tissue
30-60 cpm/mg
I.OOOcpm, mg
89.BpCi/g
10,373cpm/g(9day)
5,410cpm g (11 day)
3,713 cpm/8 (22 day)
8lM8/gdday)(dry)
0.4Mg'g(2day)(live)
0.7Mi'8(3day)(live)
0 9 Mi 'i (5 day) (live)
1 1 Mi 'i 0 (ay) (live)
1.3,4/8 (9 day) (live)
1. 7 Mi 'i 02 day) (live)
2. 3 Mi/8 05 day) (live)
2 7 Mi/8 09 day) (live)
14.0 Mg g (4 day) (live)
22 0 Mi '8 (8 day) (live)
26 0,4 '8 m (ay) (live)
34.0,4 '8 (15 (ay) (live)
24 Ml X (2 (ay)
40 " (4 (fay)
53 " (6 day)
68 " (8 day)
84 "(11 day)
106 Mi i 03 day)
206 " (3 day)
288 " (6 day)
428 "(11 day)
495 " (14 day)
856 " (3 day)
11 39 "(6 day)
1436 "(11 day)
1834 "(14 day)
5000 dpm mg(max) (2 days)
79-80 dpm mg (")
(2-4 days)
75 dpm /mg (max) (6 days)
50 dpm/mg(max) (14 days)
10 dpm/mg(max) (16 days)
3000 (max) (16 days)
1000 (max) (5 days)
800 dpm/mg(max) (0-8 days)
Concentration factor Literature Citation
Hibiya and Ogun 1961!;::
"
440 Harvey 1969-"
0.59 Chipman 1967268
0.31
0.21
3.0(5(Jys)
3. 5 (7. 5 days)
5. 0(9.0 days)
7 5 (12. 5 days)
8.0 1.15.0 days)
12.0 (19.0 days)
"
"
"
"
"
Chipman 19672"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Chipman 19672ES
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
9 0 Baptist and lewis 19672"
0.5
1.7
6 9
1.7
2.2
9.9
73.
6.2
Sather 1967'«
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
36 lcmkawa196VM
82
20
30
14
28
84
28
84
64
26
240
4,000
52
62
170
190
200
64
-------
Appendix III—Table 3/471
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent
Cobalt
(Co)
Copper
(Cu)
Concentration in sea water
2«rl
"
"
"
2.54dpm ml
25.4 dpm ml
254 dpm ml
2540 dpm 'ml
25, 400 dpm 'ml
254, 000 dpm, ml
2 54 dpm ml
25 4 dpm -ml
254 dpm ml
2540 dpm ml
25 400 dpm m
254, 000 dpm m
6. 8IX105 dpm 'animal
(average)
"
"
"
Black Sea
N. W. Pacific
Black Sea
N. W. Pacific
Black Sea
N W. Pacific
0 0006-0 015ppm
0 0008-.0240ppm
0 0023-0.0026
0.027 p Ci 'ml
Alakanuk
Alaska
"
"
"
Kenai, Alaska
"
Seward
4 5X10-VCi/125ml
4.5X10-5MCl/125ml
o°Co pCi/l
0.47pCi/l»Co
1.2pCi/l
60fJo
0.002Nsol'n
"
"
"
"
"
Species
Laminana sp.
Monostroma sp.
Chasmichtnys gulosus
Chasmichthys gulosus
Chasmichthyseulosus
Chasmichthys gulosus
Chasmichthys gulosus
Chasmichthys gulosus
Cambarus longulus longerostris
0.60g
" 0.49g
" 0.54g
Cambarus longulus longerostris
0 45?
" 0.65g
" C.55g
" 0 60?
" 0 Wi
" 0 54g
" 0.45g
" 0.55?
" 0.43g
Cambarus longulus longerostns
"
"
"
Ulva rigida
Ulva persuda
Cystoseira barbata
Sargassum thumbergn
Leander adspersus
Leander pacificus
Crassostrea vigimca
Crassostrea viginica
Lampsiles radiata
Oncorhunchus tshawytscha
(King salmon)
Oncorhynchusketa
Chum salmon
Oncorhynchus nerka
(Sockeye Salmon)
Salmon
Oncorhynchus nerka
Salmon
Oncorhynchus kisulch
(silver salmon)
"
"
Plectonema boryanum
"
"
Plectonema boryanum
Tndacna crocea
Plankton
Sea invertebrates
Fish
Algae
Plankton
Sea Invertebrates
Fish
Plankton
Algae
Sea invertebrates
Fish
Fundulus heteroclitus
"
"
"
Tissue or organ
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
gut
blood
muscle
gonad
integument
hepatopanoreas
whole
"
"
"
"
"
flesh
flesh
"
sot (tissues
muscle F. & M.
liver
roe
muscle
liver
roe
muscle M.
muscle F.
liver
roe
bone
muscle f.
muscle M.
livers
roe
whole cell
"
"
whole cell
kidney
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
kidney
liver
dried flesh
"
"
undried flesh
"
"
Concentration in tissue
IE6 dpm animal
1,OJ1 dpm animal
8, 984 dpm, animal
46, 000 dpm animal
785, 000 dpm animal
8, 761, 000 dpm 'animal
793 dpm, animal
3921 dpm animal
23, 322 dpm animal
78, 881 dpm, animal
35. 814, 000 dpm animal
26, 900, 000 dpm, animal
1.12X105dpm'g
2 93X10' dpm, g
3 09X10' dpm, g
2 97X10ldpm/g
2. 28X10= dpm g
1 96X10sdpm,g
99.3-1153ppm
313-3174 ppm
361-863 ppm
21 3 p Ci, g
0.36MCi/g (7 days)
0.32nCi'g "
0 2!/
-------
472/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent
Copper
(Cu)
Gold
(Au)
Iron
(Fe)
Concentration in sea water Species
N lOOOsol'n. Tautoga omtis
CuSO<
" "
" "
" "
.004N Fundulus heteroclitus
CuSo sol'n "
0 7/ig/l Lampsilis radiata
oral dose blue crab
"
" croaker
,
" croaker
"
,/ //
"
"
"
" blue crab
// /
" "
1.1X10-' mg/ml Dactyolpteruc volitans
(Gurnard)
Mackerel
Melanogrammus aeglefinus
(Haddock)
Whiting
Plaice
Cod
0.01 mg/l Trachurus japomcus
" Pleuronectes sp
" Scomber japomcus
Cololabis saira
" Lateolabrax japomcus
' Chrysophyrus major
" Sardmops maleanostncta
Theragra chalcosramma
" Clupea pallasii
" Acanthogobius flanmanus
" Anthocidans crassispma
" Stichopus japomcus
1 Panuhrus lobster
" Penaeus (common shrimp)
" Paneaeopsis sp shrimp
" Parahthodes camtschatica
" Neptunus marine crab
" Octopus fangsiai,o
" Turbo cornutus
0.01 mg/l Hahotus gigantea
" Hahotus diversicolor
" Meretrix meretrix lusoria
Venerupis japomca
Ostrea gigas
Porphyra tenera
Gelidiumamansn
Tissu: or organ
whole (dry)
blood system
alimentary tr.ict
residue
flesh
dried flesfi
"
"
soft tissues
gills
muscle
carapace
blood
kidney
gills
skin (scales)
liver
muscle
heart
spleen
gonad
dig gland
stomach-gut
gonads
flesh
flesh
flesh
flesh
flesh
flesh
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
intestme
"
"
"
Whole
"
"
"
Concentration in tissue Concentration factor
0.008 percent . .
0.010 percent Cu Dry
0.003 percent "
0 005 percent "
0.009 percent "
percent by weight of Cu
in dried flesh
0 0160 percent (1 hr)
0 0156 percent (2 hr)
0.0201 percent (3 hr)
1.6f.g g 228.5
.7 percent of oral dose after
4 days
. 6 percent of oral dose after
4 days
.08 percent of oral dose after
4 days
04 percent of oral dose after
4 days
0.01 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.056 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.009 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.02 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.03 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.0008 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.042 percent of oral dose
after 148 hours
.001 percent of oral dose .
alter 148 hours
12 percent of oral dose after
4 days
3 percent of oral dose after
4 days
. 8 percent of oral dose after
4 days
0.9X10-5 mj/t of Fish
1.0x10-5 "
6X10-3
0 4X10-= "
2X10-5
1.2X1.0mg/i "
700
600
1,800
3,000
3,000
400
2,000
400
1,800
2,000
10.00D
78,009
1,000
1,000
4,000
4,000
2,000
6,000
9,000
3,000
17,001)
13,001)
7,000
8,000
2,000
4,000
Literature Citation
„
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Harvey 19692"
Dukeetal. 1966"2
"
"
"
"
"
Duke et al. 1966"*
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Atenetal. I961!M
"
"
"
"
"
Ichikawa1961«»
"
"
"
"
"
Ichikawa 19612M
"
"
Icliikawa 19S1'8
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
''
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
-------
TABLE 3—Continued
Appendix III—Table 3/473
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Iron
(Fe)
0.00004 nCi/kg
0. 00004 nCi kg
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Black sea
N. W. Pacific
750 cpm/g
380 cpm/8
4.5X10-5 jjCi/125 ml
"
"
3.3 mg/l Fe
3.4 days I.Omj'l
I.Omg'l
3.3 raj/I
1.0 mg/l
3.3m?/l
1.0 mg/l
3.3 mg/l
124 pCi/l of 65Fe
"
Manganese
(Mn)
1000 fig/I for 15 flays, animals
were starved
1000,,8 IMn
absorption in 72 hours
"
"
"
"
"
absorption in 72 hours
Species
Lammaria sp
Undario pmnatifida
Hizikia fusiforme
Phytoplankton
Euphausids
Mytilus
kelp
Lepas (barnacle)
squid
squid
purple sea cucumber
sea urchins
Ulva ngida
Ulva persuda
quahog
clam
Plectonema boryanum
"
Mytilus eduhs
"
Mytilus edulis L
"
"
"
"
"
Algae, fish
"
"
Clupea harengus
Gadus sp
Scomber sp
Pleuronectes sp
Stichopus regahs
Sepia oflicinalis
Octopus vulgans
Hahotus tubercalata
Pectan jacobaeus
Ostrea eduhs
Mactra coralhna
Ulva lactuca
Enteromorpha sp.
Lammaria saccharma
Fucus serratus
Homarus vulgans
" 200-350 g
Homarus vulgans
200-350 g.
Homarus vulgans 200-350 g.
Homarus vulgans
Homarus vulgaris
"(728g)
"
"
"
"
"
Homarus vulgaris
Tissue or organ
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
muscle
liver
whole
whole
whole
whole
shell
tissue
feces
shell
tissue
feces
whole cell
"
"
"
soft tissue
"
digestive gland
"
gills
gills
mantle
mantle
whole
muscle
liver
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
whole blood
abdominal muscle
hepalopancreas
gills
shell
teeth of gastric mill
stomach fluids
hind gut and rectum
excretory organs
ovary
whole blood
abdominal muscle
hepalopancreas
gills
shell
teeth of gastric mill
Carapace edge
whole blood
urine
stomach fluid
abdominal muscles
hepatopancreas
gills
excretory organs
ossicles and teeth
Concentratom in tissue
O.SnCi kg
1.5nCi/kg
0.36nCi/kg
0.03 "
140.0 "
0.76 "
8 6
76.0 "
0 48 "
9.5X103cpm/g
670 cpm/g
1.2X10' cpm/g
1.1X103
2.3X10'
1.7X10=
0.18MCi/g(2day)
0.17MCi/s(2day)
0.21MCi/g(2day)
0 23MCi/g(2day)
UMJ/J
480 p Cl/g
80 pCl/g
264,OOOpCi/g
3 9 Mg/g wet tissue 15 day
0.8"
4.1 Mg/g wet tissue 15 day
26 9"
207"
106"
1.6"
3.4"
5.1"
3.3"
2 4 ug g wet tissue 15 day
0.8"
4.8"
20.8"
225"
155 Mg/g wet tissue
236Mg/g
Concentration factor
5,800
1,300
2,900
730
100
2,600(250)
2, 400 (30 C)
2,700(350)
3,200(400)
5 5
1 5
5. (3-4 day) (max)
5. 4 (2-3 day) (max)
1.3 (average)
1.8(max)(0 3 day)
1.0(max)(1day)
.4 (max) (2 7 day)
95
320
80
70
200
10,000
50,000
750
10,000
1,500
62C
1,300
1,500
300
7,500
1 42
0.66
0.18
0.15
2.30
2.14
1.91
1.42
Literature Citation
Ichikawa 1961284
"
Palmer and Beasley 1967295
Palmer and Beasley 1967295
"
"
"
"
"
"
Pohkarpovetal. 1967!!r>
Andrews and Warren 19692S>
"
"
"
Harvey 19692"
"
"
Hobden 19692«i
"
Hobden 1969'-»i
"
"
"
"
"
Welander 19693"'
"
"
Ichikawa 1961="-
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
'
"
"
Bryan and Ward 1965»
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Bryan and Ward 1965"'
"
"
"
"
Bryan and Ward 1965?"
Bryan and Ward 1965="
Bryan and Ward 19652"
"
"
"
"
"
"
-------
474/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Manganese 2.0/iC/l absorption in 72 hours
(Mn)
"
"
2.0,jC 1 in sea watei plus
10 mg Mn in stomach ab-
sorption in 72 hrs.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
2. OMC I m sea water plus 10
mg Mn in stomach absorption
m 72 hrs.
2/i2/l normal sea water speci-
mens; unstarved
10 mg Mn pipetted into stomach
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
0.3^Ci/IMn"
"
0.3^Ci/IMn"+C.1ppmMn
"
"
0 033 ppm stable Mn
"
"
"
"
0.033 ppm stable Mn
"
0.033 ppm
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
0.0004 pCi/ml"Mn
0.2 ppm stable Mn
0. 00015 pCi ml '-'Mn
0. 00015 pCi/ml
MnM
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
0.004 pCi/ml
Mn"
"
"
Species
Homarus vuleans (728 g)
"
"
Homarus vu leans (744 e)
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Homarus vulgaris (744 g)
Homarus vulgaris 200-350 g.
"
Homarus vulgaris 320 g.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
'
Anodonta nuttalliana
"
"
Anodonta nuttalliana
"
Unio
5. 1-6. Ocm
"
Umo6 1-7. Ocm
"
Umo 6 1-7 0 cm
"
"
Umo 7. 1-8. Ocm
"
"
"
"
Umo5.1-G.0cm
"
"
Umo 7. 1-8 Ocm
"
Umo 4. 1-5. Ocm
"
Umo 4. 1-5. Ocm
"
Umo 5. 1-6. Ocm
"
"
"
Umo 6. 1-7 Ocm
"
"
"
Unio 7 1-8. Ocm
"
"
"
Unio 5. 1-6. Ocm
Unio 6. 1-7. Ocm
"
"
Tissue or organ
shell carapace
shell claw
shell telson
whole animal
whole blood
urine
stomach fluid
abdominal mus:le
hepalopancieas
gills
excretory 01 gans
ossicles and teeth
shell, carapace
shell, claw
shell, telsoni
whole animal
excretory 01 gans
ovary
blood
hepatopancieas
stomach fluid
urine
muscle
shell
ossicles and teeth
excretory organs
gills
calcareous tissue
mantle
gills
adductor muscl;
dig gland and stomach
gonad and intestine
body fluid
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscle
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscli!
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscle
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscli!
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
shell
gill
mantle
visceral sac
visceral sac
shell
gills
mantle
Concentration in tissue
96 7 muc/g
18.7"
181.0"
52 5"
27 4"
12 3"
3 8"
2 1"
6 1 "
36 7"
17 3"
31 8"
134 0"
85 6"
151 0"
59 5m/jc 8
3 7Mg g
1.6"
<7hr)65Mg 8
(2") 165"
(2 hr) 385 "
(7 ") 85 "
(7") 10"
(7 ") 205 "
(2") 130"
(7 ") 100 "
(7 hr) 55 "
97,000cpm/e
45,000 cpm.'g
29,000cpm/gm
14,000cpm/g
18,000cpm/g
11.000cpm,g
3,000cpm'g
7621-9 5Mg'g
14185+12"
13088+1470 "
3571 J.835 "
2539±411 "
892±13.0"
18257+1179"
17765±581 Mg/g
4308±307 "
2565±296 "
956±21.0"
20737 il 972"
19659+984"
5034±622"
3067+319"
5070+1095 Mg/g
2514+504"
Concentration factor Literature Citation
7 06 Bryan and Ward 19652"
1 37
13.2
3.82
2.20
0 99
0.31
0.17
0.49
2.96
1.40
2 56
10 8
6 91
12 2
4.80 Bryan and Ward 19652"
Bryan and Ward 1965267
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Harrison 1967"«
"
Harrison 19672™
"
2.3X10' Merlmi 1967«i
6 OxIO1
5.5X10*
1 5XIO<
1 1
2.6XIO'
7.7XIO'
75X10" Merlmi 1967«»
1 8XIO'
1 1X10'
2.8X10'
8 8X10'
83X10' "
21X10'
1.3X10'
0.82X10'
36X10'
30X10'
7.6X10'
1.8X10'
1.9X10'
43.0X10'
22.0X10' Merlmi 19672"1
5.6X'0'
1.6X'0'
35.0X10'
26.0X10'
9.5X10'
2 OX Oi
30.0X10'
28.0X10'
s.ex'iO'
1.8X10'
30.0X104
23.0X10'
76X'0'
1.1X1D1
0.68X10'
3.1X104
3 7X10<
-------
Appendix III—Table 3/475
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Manganese 0 004 pCi/ml
(Mn) Mn<"
"
"
0 02 ppm stable Mn
"
"
"
"
"
"
0.02 ppm stable Mn
"
"
"
"
"
"
Cahf.
Calif
1 4M?'I
4.5X10-5
MCi /125ml
"
"
0.013 pCi ,/ml
"
Mercury 0.2 mg/l using HgCh
(Hg) 1000 mg '1 using HgCh
50 mg 1 Hg using HgCh
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
10 jug/IHj injected in 0.01 ml
sea water as HgCh
10 Mg/l Hg injected in 0.01 ml
sea water as HgCh
"
7. 6 MC injected dose into air
bladder
"
"
"
"
"
"
'
"
"
0.06ng/g Hg using mercuric
nitrate
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Species
Unio 6. 1-7. Ocm
Unio 7. 1-8. 0 cm
"
Unio 5 1-6 0 cm
"
"
"
Unio 4 1-6 1 cm
"
"
Unio 6 1-7 1 cm
"
"
"
"
Unio 7. 1-8. Ocm
"
"
Mytilus edulis
Mytilus califormcus
Lammaria digitata
Plectonema boryanum
"
"
Lampsiles radiata
"
Elmmius
Artemia
Leander serratus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Leander serratus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Crassius auratus
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Cod
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Tissue or organ
visceral sac
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscle
shell
gills
mantle
adductor muscle
shell
gills
mantle
visceral sac
adductor muscle
shell
gill
mantle
whole
whole
plant
whole cell
"
soft tissue
clam shell
whole body
whole body
Branchiostegite
Pfeopods
dorsal chitm
Eills
antennary gland
hepatopancreas
central nervous system
muscle
branchiostegite
pleopods
dorsal chitm
gills
antennary gland
hepatopancreas
central nervous system
muscle
intestine
liver
pancreas
spleen
kidney
head kidney
gill
muscle
backbone
gonad
air bladder
blood
heart
liver
spleen
gonads
kidneys
stomach
brains
eyes
gills
fins
scales
muscles
bones
heart
Concentration in tissue
299±64 0 Mg/g
1254±1292 "
7576±986 "
2154±212"
2008±29"
225±5.6"
11391±649"
4805±48° "
1104i115"
378±26.0Mg/g
18154±1562"
15008±1288"
4964±553 "
205S±135 "
515±31.5Mg'g
20279±616"
16316±703"
0.33/jg'g
0.13MCi/g
0 16"
0.19"
0 17"
30 9 pCi 'g
15 0"
0 92 mg- 1 dry wt.
0.47 mg/l "
4 3 mg 'g dry wt.
0 48 mg/g dry wt.
0 13 "
0 49 mg/g "
0.32mg'g "
0.02 mg/g "
0.04mgg "
000 mg/g "
13 OMg'gdry wt.
2.2 "
3.4 "
29.3 "
13. 3 Mg/g dry wt.
4.4 "
3.5 "
2 7 "
1000 cpm/mg
1000 "
1500 "
1500 "
11000 "
2500-3000 "
200-300 "
100-200 "
100-200 "
400-700 "
900-1400 "
2.511ng/g(7days)
4.574
0.876
1.998 "
0.4412
1.529
1.248
0.190
0.270
234 784
7.173
5.620
0.21162
0.675 5 days
1.711
Concentration factor Literature Citation
1.1X10' Merlini 1967291
0.53x10"
3.8X101
4 OX10i
1 1X10i
1 5X10i
8 7X10i
5.3X101
1 5X101
1.4X101
1 1X101
8 0X101
3 4X101
0 77X101
1.9X101 Merlini 1967^
13.0X10'
10.0X10"
3.5X101
1.4X10'
2.5X101
14.0X101
11 0X10"
830 Polikarpov et al. 1967286
800-830
236 Bryan 1969="'
15,350(250 Harvey 19692"
27, 700 (30 C)
35, 300 (35 C)
27, 900 (40 C)
2380 ' Harvey 19692"
1150
Corner and Rigler 1958™
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Corner and Rigler 19582"'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hibiya and Oguri 1961™
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
39.2 Hannerz 1968«s
71.47
13.69
31.22
6.89
23.89
19.50
2.97
4.22
3668.20
112.08
87.81
3.38
10.55
19.72
-------
476/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent
Mercury .
(Hg)
Nickel
(Ni)
Silver
(Ag)
Concentration in sea water Species
0.06 ng/g Hg using mercuric Cod
nitrate "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
0.05 ng/g Hg using mercuric Glossosiphonia complanata
chloride (mean value) Herpobdella octoculata
" sludge worms
" Planorbis sp.
" Lynmaea stagnahs
" Physa fontmahs
" Ephemeroptera larvae
" "
" Trichoptera larvae
" Tipula
" Ctoronomidae larvae
" "
0.05 ng/g Hg using HgCb damselfly nymphs
(mean value) Hydrophilidae larvae
" Coma sp.
" Notonecta glauca
" Gerns
" Planorbis sp.
" Lymnaea stagnahs
" Corixa sp.
0.30 ng/g Hg mercuric chloride Pike
" "
" "
0.30 ng/g Hg mercuric chloride Pike
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
0.06 ng/g Hg mercuric nitrate Cod
" "
" "
" "
" "
0.06 ng/g Hg mercuric nitrate Cod
" "
" "
" "
" "
"
" "
" "
8. 2±0. 2 cpm/g present in soil Tndacna crocea
Tridacna crocea
80.0±1.0 cpm/g present in soil "
7. 5 jic injected into air bladder Crassius auratus
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
7. 5 iix injected into air bladder Crassius auratus
" "
" "
" "
Tissue or organ
liver
spleen
gonads
kidneys
stomach
brains
eyes
gills
fins
stales
muscles
bones
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
blood
heart
liver
spleen
gut
kidneys
gonads
eyes
brain
gills
scales
tins
muscles
bone
blood
heart
liver
spleen
kidneys
gut
brain
eyes
gills
Tins
scales
muscles
bones
kidney
kidney
kidney
intestine
liver
pancreas
spleen
kidney
head kidney
gill
muscle
backbone
gonad
air bladder
Concentration in tissue
0.365
0.913
0.487
0.798
0.670
(0 193)
0.153
147 818
3.443
3 865
0.105
0 250
176 ng/g (8 days)
258 "
377 "
608 ng/g (8 days)
199 "
495 "
107 "
36
284 "
878 "
214 "
406 "
26
56
0.29 ng/g (2 days)
0 58 "
0 08 "
0 35 "
0 21 "
0.20 ng/g (2 days)
0.15 "
0.05 "
47.8 "
1.46 "
2 99 "
0.03
0.07 "
158. 0±2. 6 cpm/g
41.2±0 6 cpm/g
163.0±30 cpm/g
200-300 cpm/mg
2250 "
250-400 cpm/mg
200-500 "
~WO "
~400 "
-250 "
100 cpm/mg
150 "
200 "
500-2500 "
Concentration factor
5.70
14.2V
7.61
12.47
10.47
3 02
2 39
2309 70
53.79
60.39
1.64
3.91
670 (55 days)
534
517 "
414 "
293 "
637 (14 days)
138 (55 days)
28 (14 days)
513 (49 days)
517 "
175 "
362 (65 days)
655 "
603 "
414 "
483 "
431 "
560 (one month)
247 "
431 "
587
860
1,258
2.02J
663
1,653
357
120
947
2,928
713
1,35;
87
187
4.8
9.7
1.3
5.8
3.5
3.3
2.5
0.8
796.6
24.3
49.8
0.5
1.2
"
Literature Citation
Hannerz 19882"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
''
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hannerz 1968«5
"
"
Hannerz 1968™
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hannerz 1968"=
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Beasley and Held 1963^
"
"
Hibiya and Ogun 1961*"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hibiya and Ogun 1961"*
"
"
"
-------
Appendix Ill—Table 3/477
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water Species
Uranium 3. 0X10"' percent Charaphytae diatomae
(U) " tlsh
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
V //
Zinc 200,000cpm/l Meretrix meretrix luzona
(Zn)
" "
" "
" "
'' "
' "
" "
12,000 cpm/l "
45, 000 cpm /I (22 days) Cypnnus carpio
" "
" "
" "
" "
45, 000 cpm 1 (22 days) Cypnnus carpio
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
45, 000 cpm 1(3 day)
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
' "
5, 000 cpm (45 hrs) "
5, 000 cpm (45 hrs) Cyprmns carpio
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" '
" "
" "
" "
5, 000 cpm/l "
" '
" "
" "
" "
" "
5000 cpm/l Cyprmus carpio
" "
" "
" "
" "
20 ppm Salmo gairdnen
" "
injected dose 9 3 flc Crassius auratus
" "
" "
" "
"
" "
Tissue or organ
whole
whole
boned
kidney
gonads hard roe)
gonads (soft roe)
muscle
blood
brain
Kill
viscera (without liver)
mantle
liver
adductor muscle
siphon
marginal part of foot
central part of foot
ashed soft tissue
kidney
gill
scale
heart
skin
caudal fm
intestine
hepatopancreas
vertebrae
muscle
gall bladder
Rill
skin
scale
caudal fin
vertebrae
intestine
ga.l bladder
hepatopancreas
kidney
Bill
skin
scale
caudal fin
vertebrae
intestine
gall bladder
hepatopancreas
kidney
heart
muscle
gH
skin
scale
caudal fm
vertebrae
intestine
gall bladder
hepatopancreas
kidney
heart
muscle
tissue
gills
intestine
liver
pancreas
spleen
kidney
head kidney
Concentration in tissue Concentration factor
2 OX10-3 percent U
6.8X10-* percent U
5.4X10-6-1 2Xirr4
percent
i.05xim-9.4xirr«
percent
4.15X10^-3 7X10-5
percent
2.9X10-'-!. 9X10-6
percent
1.37X10-'-!. 32X10-6
percent
2 2X10-'-7.0X10-'
percent
3.22X10-7-1.0X10-=
percent
510cpm/g
275 "
270 "
245 "
165 "
165 "
145 "
140 "
15. 8 cpm/l 1.3
299 cpm/g
285 "
65 "
57 "
51 "
50 cpm/g
27 "
26 "
5 "
3 "
2 "
127 "
0 "
2 "
35 "
0 "
27 "
0 "
33 "
89 "
119 "
31 cpm/g
87 "
86 "
29 "
121 "
51 "
251 "
1180"
173 "
9 "
128 "
40 "
31 "
56 "
36 "
50 "
39 cpm/g
65 "
690 "
37 "
4 "
7. 4-12 ppm
60-63 ppm
475 cpm/mg 540-4400
250 "
200 "
75 "
130 "
175 "
Literature Citation
Kovalsky et al. 1967="'
"
"
"
"
"
''
"
"
Saiki and Mori 1955'02
"
"
'
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
"
"
Saiki and Mori 1955"'=
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Saiki and Mori 1955™
''
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Saiki and Mori 1955"=
"
"
"
Lloyd 1960»i
"
Hibiya and Oguri 1961"*
"
"
"
"
"
-------
478/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 3~Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Zinc . injected dose 9 3 /ic
(Zn)
"
"
(10.3,iC) 0.25 ppm Zn
" 0.5 ppm Zn
" 1.0 ppm Zn
(3. 08 ^c) 3.0 ppm Zn
(61.6;uC)6.0ppmZn
(10.3Mc)0.25ppmZn
(10. 3 ^00. 50 ppm Zn
(10. 3 ^c) 1.0 ppm Zn
(30.8 ^c) 3.0 ppm Zn
(61 6fiC)6.0ppmZn
8.5Mc/l;pH7.326hrs. in the
dark
8. 5Mc/l; 26 hrs in the light
pHS.6
8. SMC/I; 26 hrs.m the light
PH7.3
8 5/aC/l; m 26 hours pH 8. 6
in the dark
100 ,ug '115 day exposure
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
100/ig/l 15 day exposure
100 jig/1 43 day exposure
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
100 ME/I plus 6600 til Zn over
10 days (injected); 13 days in
sea water
"
1 00 ,
-------
Appendix III—Table 3/479
TABLE 3—Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water
Zinc 3000 Mg Zn injected into
(Zn) stomach, 300 firs later,
2000 ngZn, 7 hrs after
injection
3000 ,ug injection 150 hrs later
"
0 004,,c I 44 days
0.4 g radioactive brine-shrimp
mjested-44 days
2.5MC/I
"
7Xirvc/ml
0.002MC'!
«Zn
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
0 43 c/g 6'Zn
"
"
0.43 c/g "Zn
"
"
"
13nc/IZn+15(i|/l stable Zn
6 Mc">Zn1, 860 ng/l+ stable
Zn
6 Mc «=Zn
60 ME/I stable
Zn
13 Mc/lt6Zn+15 MS/I stable
Zn
6MC/ls5Zn+1, 860 Mg/l stable
Zn
6 Mc '1 "Zn+60 ni/l stable
Zn
u.1MC/l«Zn
same as above
"
"
Same as above
"
"
"
"
"
"
25MCi6sZn/l(1.8nCi/Mg)
7 1 jug/I 25 day exposure
600 Mg/g alter 30-31 days
uptake
2.2/4/1
0.028pCi/ml
25MCi«Zn/l
0,104x10-2 pCi
Species
Homarus vulgans (300 g)
"
"
"
Paralichthys
"
Littorina obtusata
"
Fucus edentatus
Cartena sp , Witzschia
closterium
mullet
mullet
oysters
mud crabs
clams
snails
marsh grass
blue crabs
mummichogs
croakers
oysters
mud crabs
clams
snails
marsh grass
blue crabs
mummichogs
croakers
Oysters
Clams
mud clams
blue crabs
mummichogs
croakers
scallops
Ulva pertusa
Vernerupis philippmarum
"
Leander sp.
Stronglyocentrotus pulchernmus
"
Crassostrea virgmica
"
"
"
Mercenana mercenana
"
"
Aeqmpecten irradians
"
"
"
Panoplus herbstn
"
Aronyx sp
Lammaria digitata
"
"
Lampsilis radiata
PlatichUiys stellatus
Crassostrea gigas
Tissue or organ
hepatopancreas
blood
excretory organs
urine
whole animal
"
whole
"
whole
whole
whole
"
whole
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
visceral mass
shell
visceral mass
shell
viscera
muscle
exoskeleton
dig. tract
gonad
test
dig. tract
gonad
test
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
"
whole
whole
"
whole
whole
"
whole
whole plant
"
soft tissues
whole
"
Concentration in tissue
240 fig/g wet wt
27 "
117 Mg/g wet wt.
24 Mg/g wet wt.
6.5X10'cpm/g(3days)
21 ps/8 (of animal)
4.2x10'cpm/g(4 days)
77±21 MMC/g (1 day)
54±32 " (Iday)
39±17 " (Iday)
38±10 " "
35±11 " "
32±4 " "
26±9
13±3
73±8 " (66 days)
20±5
20±6
20±6
13±8
22±1 "
18±6
22±2
1,111±502(tday)
503±166wc/g
853±281 "
323±172w*/g(1daj)
37S±229 "
60±46
5, 561 ±578 "
1t85(iCi/g(120hr)
350 Mg/g
114.2 pCl/g
40-90±37MgZn/g
0.99pCi/g-
Concentration factor
17
25
(15,900)
(13,200)
(230)
(135)
290 (4 days)
34 (3 day)
4 (3 day)
68 (4 days)
10
500
40
ISO
200 (11 days)
14 (14 days)
10
200
25 (1 day)
15
193
146
130
139
18
22
19
350
282
243
317
216
177
166
1800
4080
5.6X10-3-
Literature Citation
Bryan 19642"
"
"
"
Hoss 196428!
"
Mehran and Tremhlay 1965292
"
Regmer 1965298
"
"
"
Duke et al. 1966"?
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Duke 19672"
"
"
Duke 1967"i
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Dukeetal. 19G6272
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Cross etal 19682^
Bryan 1969206
"
Harvey 19692"
Renlro and Osterberg 19692"
Salo and Leet 1969™
-------
480/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 3~Continued
Constituent Concentration in sea water Species Tissue or organ
Zinc. 75MC/IZn65 Euphausids exoskeleton
(Zn) " " muscle
eyes
" " haemolymph
75/ic IZn« Prawns-shrimp exoskeleton
" " muscle
" " hepatopancreas
" " eyes
" " haemolymph
1.0(ig/l Crassostrea virginica soft tissue
" " mantle
gills
" " labial palps
" " muscle
" " dig. gland
" " remamiler
" " extracellular fluid
" " pallial fluid
Concentration in tissue Concentration factor
51.1±10.4cpm/mg
27.8±7.0 "
4.4±1.4 "
16.5±8.3 "
65.8±5.7cpm/mg
17.9±4.9 "
6.6±3.0 "
0.9±0.2 "
8.8±3.1 "
159.4±77.6ppm 1-2X10'
135 ppm
182"
123"
79 ppm
260 "
175"
6.5"
1.2"
Literature Citation
Fowler et al. 1970™
"
"
"
Fowler et al. 1970"'
"
"
"
"
Wolfe 1970»i
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
-------
Appendix III—Table 4/481
APPENDIX HI-TABLE 4—Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Inorganic Chemicals in Food and Water
Constituent
Maximum Permissible
Concentration
Substance Allowed to Contain
Given Concentration
Conditions & Comments
Reference
Ammonia 'NH }
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
Boron (B)
Bromine (Br)
Bromine (Br)
Bromine (Br)
Bromine (Br)
Cadmium (Cd)
Calcium (Ca)
Chromium (Cr)
Copper(Cu)
O.Smg'l
Sppm
3 5 mg 'Kg
0.1 mg/l
1.0mg/kg
0.2 mg/l
Sppm
1 0 mg/l
30ppm
Sppm
75ppm
50 ppm
40ppm
30ppm
25ppm
10 ppm
Sppm
SOppm
100 ppm
25 ppm
75 ppm
325 ppm
400 ppm
25 ppm
20 ppm
15 ppm
10 ppm
Sppm
60 ppm
40 ppm
25 ppm
400 ppm
125 ppm
SOppm
130 ppm
125 ppm
75 ppm
50 ppm
25 ppm
0.1 mg/l
0 01 mg/l
0 05 ms/l
75 mg/l
0.05 mg/l
0 05 mg/l
O.OSmg/in2
1 0 mg/l
1.0 mg/l
0.05 mg/l
2 mg/l
7 mg/l
20 mg/kg
60 mg/kj
300 mg/kg
drinking water
apples and pears
truils and vegetables
ready-to-drink beverages
food
drinking water
certain foods
drinking water
recommended limit for domestic water supplies; concentra- World Health Organization 1961"J (WHO 1961)
tion as NHt(+)
tolerance for residues ammonium sulfate Food & Drug Administration 1971"« (FDA 1971)
limit for residue on sprayed fruits & vegetables using copper FDA 1971s1"
arsenate, calcium arsentae & magnesium arsenate
limit for content Food Standards Committee for England & Wales 1959s"
regulation on content of food Food Standards Committee for England & Wales 195931<
recommended limit for domestic water supplies; cone, as WH01961"'
maximum permissible content
maximum allowable limit
cotton seed
citrus fruits
vegetables, broccoli, carrots, melons, parsnips,
potatoes
eggplant, okra, summer squash, sweet corn,
sweet potatoes, tomatoes
pineapple
cucumber, lettuce, peppers
cottonseed, peanuts
asparagus, cauliflower
lima beans, strawberries
cereals
beans, bittermelons, cantalopes, bananas, citrus
fruits, cucumber, guavas, litchi fruit, longan
fruit, mangoes, papaya, pepper, pineapple,
zucchini,
cherries and plums
malting of barley
parmesan & roquefort cheese
dried eggs, processed herbs and spices
raspberries, summer squash
citrus fruit
cherries and plums
walnuts and strawberries
apricots, nectarines, peaches
eggplant
muskmelon, tomato
broccoli, cauliflower, peppers, pineapples, straw-
berries
dog food
cereals
dehydrated citrus fruit for cattle
endive and lettuce
bananas
almond hulls, carrots, celery, snap beans, turnip
almonds, brussel sprouts, broccoli, cabbage,
cauliflower, eggplant,melon,peanuts,peppers,
pineapples, tomatoes
berries, cottonseed, cucumbers, grapes
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
for covering surface of food containers
closure area of packing containers
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
ready-to-drink beverages
cider and concentrated soft drinks
most foods
yeast and yeast products
solid pectin
Department of National Health & Welfare, Canada 1971
(CANADA 1971)"3
U. S. Department of Health, Education & Welfare, Public
Health Service Drinking Water Standards 1962 (PHS
1962)"'
residues from post-harvest application FDA 1971""
residues from post-harvest application FDA 1971318
tolerance for residues using nematocide ethylene dibromide; FDA1971"6
concentration as Br
tolerance for residues using nematocide ethylene dibromide; FDA 1971"6
cone, as Br
concentration as Bi tolerance for residues fumigated aftet
harvest with dibromide
bromate calculated as Br tolerance tor residues "
residues for Bromides calculated as Br "
tolerance for residues of inorganic bromides; concentration FDA 197131
asBr
soil treatment with nematocide 1,2-dibromo 3,chloropro-
pane tolerance for residues calculated as Br
tolerance for residues calculated as Br "
tolerance for residues calculated as Br FDA 1971"«
maximum permissible concentration of Cd in domestic sup- Kirkor 195131S
plies
mandatory limit of Cd in domestic supplies
tolerance limit of Cd in domestic supplies
permissible limit
mandatory limit for Cr' in domestic supplies
mandatory limit
limit not to be exceeded
concentration calculated as Cr using chromic chloride com-
plexes
recommended limit
permissible limit for domestic water supplies
permissible limit for domestic water supplies
established limits
established limits
established limits
PHS 1962"'
WHO 196V"S
World Health Organization International Standards for
Drinking Water 1958 (WHO 195t)>"
PHS 19623"
WH019613"
FDA 1971«s
FDA 1971'!'.
PHS 1962"7
WH01958"8
WH01961«
British Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries ind Food 1956'"
-------
482/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 4~Continued
Constituent
Copper (Co)
Cyanide (CN)
Fluorine (F)
Fluorine (F)
Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb)
Magnesium (Mg) .
Manganese (Mn) . .
Manganese (Mn)
Mercury (Hg) .
Nickel (Ni)
Nitrates .
Selenium (Se) .
Silver (Ag).
Zinc (Zn)
Zinc(Zn)
Maximum Permissible
Concentration
3 ppm
100 ppm
... 0.01 mg/l
0.01 mg/l
0.2 mg/l
25 ppm
250 ppm
100 ppm
25 ppm
125 ppm
90 ppm
50 ppm
20 ppm
0.1 5 percent
0.1 percent
0.095 percent
0.15 percent
1.2 mg/l
0.7 mg/l
1.5 mg/l
7 ppm
25 ppm
0.3 mg/l
0.3 mg/l
1.0 mg/l
0.1 mg/l
10 ppm
0.05 mg/l
0.1 mg/l
7 ppm
. 125 mi/I
0.05 mg/l
0.10 mg/l
0.50 mg/l
0.01 mg/l
0.005 mg/l
0.5 ppm
1.0 mg/l
50 mg/l
0.01 mg/l
0.05 mg/l
. 0.05 mg/l
5 mg/l
5 mg/l
65 ppm
25 ppm
15 ppm
. 10 ppm
7 ppm
5 ppm
2 ppm
0.5 ppm
0.1 ppm
30 ppm
Substance Allowed to Contain
Given Concentration
pears
certain foods
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
cereals and grains
spices
cereals
nuts, i.e. almonds, etc.
cereal flours
cereals cooked before eating
uncooked pork
cocoa
bakery products
egg white solids
frozen meat
yeast
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
apple, apricot, bean, beet, blackberries, blue-
berries, boysenbernes, broccoli, brussel
sprout, etc. most truits & vegetables
certain foods
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
certain foods
drinking water
drinking water
most fruit, i.e. apples, grapes, mangoes, peaches,
cherries, etc; tomatoes, young berries, rasp-
berries, peppers, 'etc.
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
certain foods
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
drinking water
peanut, vine hay & sugar beets
straws of barley oats & rye, wheat
bananas, fodder of field corn, sweet corn and
popcorn
apples, celery, crabapples, fennel, pears, quinces,
papayas
cranberries,cucumbers,jrapes,summer squash,
tomatoes, melons
grains of barley, oats, rye and wheat
carrots, sugar beets
corn, grain, cotton seed, kidney, liver, onions,
peanuts
asparagus
peaches
Conditions & Comments
tolerance for residues completed copped for copper carbo-
nate, post-harvest use
maximum quantities
maximum allowable limit
recommended limit
mandatory limit
post-h.irvest application of CaCN
post-hiirvest fumigation with HCN; tolerances for residues
"
"
limits lot to be exceeded
residuus of HCN shall not exceed these limits
"
"
"
"
"
"
recommended control limits optimum; 50-53.7 F
at79.:-90.5F
recommended limit
tolerarce of combined fluorine for insecticidal fluorine com-
pourds, cryolite and synthetic cryolite
maximum
recommended limit
permissible limit
excessive limit
recommended limit
maximum permissible levels mandatory limit for domestic
water supplies
"
"
tolerance of combined lead using lead arsenate
recommended limit for domestic water supply
recommended limit lor domestic water supply
permissible limit for domestic water supply
excessive limit for domestic water supply
recommend limit for domestic water supply
maximum permissible concentration
interim guidelines
maximum permissible concentration
recommended limit for domestic water supply
mandatory limit for domestic water supply
"
"
recommended limit for domestic water supply
"
using Z lion calculated as Zn
"
pre & post-harvest use, Zn ion calculated as Zn
pre and post-harvest use, Zn ion calculated as Zn
usmj Zr ion calculated as Zn
"
"
"
toleram:e for residues of fungicide basic zinc sulfate
Reference
FDA 1971MC
CANADA 1971"'
WHO 1958,™ 1961311
PHS 1962317
'•
FDA 1971»16
FBA I971318
''
'
'
''
'
'
PHS 19623"
"
WHO 1961s"
FDA 1971"=
CANADA 1971»i»
PUS 1962317
WH01958318
"
WHO 1961'"
CANADA 1971"3
PHS I9623"
WHO 1958,318 1961'"
FI)A!971"«
WHO 1961s"
PHS 1962s"
WHO 1958318
WH01961319
Kirkoi 19513'5
CANADA 19713"
Kirkor 195131S
WH01961319
PHS 1962s"
WH01958,3"1961»»
PHS 19623"
"
WH01958,!1»1961»»
FDA 1971"«
"
"
FDA 1971«ii
"
"
"
"
"
"
-------
Appendix III—Table 5/483
APPENDIX HI-TABLE 5—Total Annual Production of Inorganic Chemicals in the U.S.A.
(U.S. Department ol Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 197I):«
Constituent
Aluminum
(Al)
Ammonia
(NH3>
Barium
(Ba)
Bismuth
(Bi)
Boron
Calcium
(Ca)
Chlorine
Chromium
(Of)
Copper
(Cu)
Form of Element
AhO — 100 percent
Aids-liquid 8, crystal
AICIi-(100 percent) anhydrous
AUCv 3 H20-100 percent
AIFj-(tech)
Al2(S04)3-(comm)
17 percent AI-O,
synthetic— anhydrous
byproduct liquor
NH4CI gray & white
NH,NO,-100 percent
(NH4)!S04-1W percent
BaCO -100 percent
subcarbonate 100 percent (bhChCOJ-mt)
boric acid— 100 percent
NaBtOrlOHjO
carbide-(Comm)
CaHPOi— animal feed grades 100 percent
CaHPOi— other grades
CaCOj— 100 percent
100 percent CI2 gas
calcium hypochlonte (75 percent Cl)
HCI-100 percent
chromic acid— 100 percent
sodium bichromate and chromate
CuO-100 percent
CuiO-100 percent
CuSO,- 5 H -0-100 percent
Total Annual
Production
(short tons)
6,639.891
23,838
39,511
325,767
143,131
1,243,803
12,917,842
14,000
26 615
5,891,234
1,915,721
79,002
57
138,969
624,257
856,039
496,027
416,096
206,078
9,413,885
42,941
1,910,757
24,859
152,593
1,910
1,742
47,163
Product
Code
2819511
2819611 &
2819615
2819617
2819625
2819627
2819651
2819131
2819131
2819141 &
2819143
2819151
2819157
2819904
28199-
2819411
2819724
2819912
2819919
2819920
2819913
2812111
2819211
2819441,
2819447
2819431
2819929 i
2819931
2819934
2819935
2819936
Year
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
Constituent
Cyanide
(CN)
Fluorine
(F)
1969
I
1969
1969
1965*
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
Hydrogen
(H+)
Iron
(Fe)
Manganese
(Mn)
Mercury
(Hg)
Nickel
(Ni)
Phosphorus
(P)
1969
5 ^
1969
1969
1968*
Sulphide
1969 Zinc.
1969
(Zn)
Form of Element
HCN-100 percent
HF— 100 percent anhydrous
NaF-100 percent
Na«SiF ,— 100 percent
HF-100 percent
HiSOi-100 percent
Fed —100 percent
FeSO,-100 percent
MnSO,-4H:0
mercury— redistilled
NiSO<- 6 HjO-100 percent
elemental— whi>e & red (tech)
POCIj-100 percent
PiS —100 percent
PCIr-100 percent
AgCN-100 percent
AgNOs-
NaSH 100 percent
NazS— 60-62 percent concentrated
Na S-60-62 percent concentrated crystal
& liquid (total)
2nd -100 percent
ZnSO,-7 H -0-1 00 percent
Total Annual
Production
(short tons)
205,208
221,536
6,885
48,975
17,206
29,536,914
66,674
192,020
40,806
475,688(lbs)
20,388
628,957
31,404
55,759
57,312
1,795
(thousand av oz.)
113,809
27 364
22,222
122,022
27,986
57,774
Product
Code
2819451
2819461
2819728
2819751
2819465
28193-
2819942
2819943
2819950
2819953
2819956
2819958 &
2819959
2819960
2819961
2819963
2819971
2819972
2819729
2819782
2819781,
2819782, &
2819783
2819984
2819987
Year
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969
1969"
1969
1967*"
1969
1966*
1969
• 1969 through 1966 figures withheld to avoid disclosing the figures lor individual companies.
** Includes unspecified amounts produced and shipped on contract basis.
"• combined with II and 13 (or 1969.
-------
484/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
APPENDIX HI-TABLE 6—Toxicit^
Substance Tested
Insecticides Organochloride
Aldrm
Aldrin
Aldrm
Aldrin
Aldrin .
Aldnn . .
Aldrin
Aldrin
Aldnn
Aldrin
Aldrin
Aldnn
Aldnn .
Aldrin
Aldrin
Aldrin .
Aldrm
Aldrm
Aldrm
Tri-6-Dust
Chlordane . .
Chlordane
Chlordane
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT .
DDT
DDT .
DDT
DDT.. .
DDT
DDP . ...
Toxaphene
Parathion
Formulation
Technical
Technical
1DO percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
Technical
Technical
Technical
Technical
Technical
81 percent
Benzene Hexachoride
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
Wettable powder
Wettable powder
Wettable powder
Wettable powder
Wettable powder
Organism Tested
Palaemon macrodactylus*
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Mercenaria mercenaria
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Memdia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Tnalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Anguilla rostrata
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Micrometrus minimus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus aztecus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
SKeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Cyclotella nana
Cyclotella nana
Protococcussp
Chlorella sp
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Crassostrea virgmica
Common Name
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Sand slirimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
Hard clam
Miiminchog
Mumrriichog
Striped killifish
Atlantic silverside
Striped mullet
Bluehead
Northern puffer
American eel
Threespme stickleback
Shiner perch
Shiner perch
Dwarf perch
Dwarf perch
White shrimp
Brown shrimp
Korear shrimp
Korear shrimp
Threespine stickleback
American oyster
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
26
31
3.5
Larvae
Larvae
Eggs
Larvae
42
55
49
57
85
80
168
56
22-44
41.6±5.9
11.9±.45
22-44
27 mean height
Cone, (ppb act. ingred.)
in water
.74 (.51-1. 08)
3(1.1-!.})
8
9
33
500
1000
> 10000
410
4
8
17
13
100
12
36
5
27.4
7.4
2.26(1.09-4.74)
18
2.03(1-4.2)
35.
400"
18 (10-38)
11 (7-18)
160.
1000
100
10
1000
1000
100
10
1000
100
600
600
600
600
40
1.0
1.0
1.0
Methods of Assessment
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
37 percent survival
00 percent
TLM
TIM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TL-50
Tl-50
TLM
42 percent reduction in 0« evolution
32 percent reduction in Oz evolution
30 percent reduction in Oz evolution
35 percent reduction in 0> evolubon
39 percent reduction in Oi evolution
32 percent reduction in 02 evolution
36 percent reduction in 02 evolution
33 percent reduction in Oi evolution
33 percent reduction in 0: evolution
Effect of toxicant on growth of phytoplanl
(on
0. 50 value a
1.00 ratio of O.D.
0.74olExpL/O.D.
0.91 control
0.57
Weight difference between control and e)
perimental oysters
DDT .
DDT
DDT
DDT ..
DDT . .
DDT
DDT
DDT . ..
DDT .
DDT . .
DDT ..
DDT . .
DDT ...
DDT.
DDT
DDT .. .
Technical Grade
77 percent
77 percent
P, P1 isomer
P, P1 isomer
P,
P,
P,
- P,
. . . P,
. .. P,
. P,
. P,
. . . P,
' isomer
1 isomer
1 isomer
1 isomer
1 isomer
1 isomer
' isomer
' isomer
' isomer
Penaeus duorarum
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Callinectes sapidus
Callmectes sapidus
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Pink shrimp
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Blue ciab
Blue crab
Hermit crab
Mummichog
Mummichog
Striped kihfish
Atlantic silverside
Striped mullet
American eel
Bluehead
Northern puffer
13. 3 mm (Aug.) 0.12
0.86(0.47-1.59)
26
31
Adult
Adult
3.5
42
55
40
59
46
56mm
80mm
140mm
0.17(0.09-0.32)
0.6
2.
19. (9.-3S.)
35. (21-57)
6
3
5
1
.4
.9
4
7
89.
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
* N.B. Italic type fonts were not available in a suitable point size. Ed.
" Concentration of Tri-6-dust.
-------
Appendix HI—Table 6/485
Data for Organic Compounds
Test Procedure
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
10 day two-cell stage fertilized
10 day eggs introduced into test media
48 hr 50 percent ol eggs develop
normally
12 day 50 percent of larvae survive
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr static bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
0- production measured by Wmklet
Light-and-Dark Bottle Technique.
Length of test 4 hr.
Organisms grown in test media con-
taining pesticides for 10 days O.D.
measured at 530 m^
36 wk chronic lab bioassay
28 day flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
TempC
13-18
13-18
20±.S
20±.5
20± 5
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20±.5
13±1
14-18
13±1
14-18
17.4-22.3
17.4-22 3
13-18
13-18
20± 5
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5-.k1
9-25
21-29
13-18
13-18
20
20
10
21
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Salinity °/o
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25
28
25(25-26)
16
28
31 4
31 4
12-30
12-30
25
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
27-29
24-33
12-30
12-30
24
24
8.6
8 6
2.4
24
24
24
24
U
24
24
24
Other Environmental Criteria
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb. 1-12JTU
pH8.0D.0.7.1-7.7mg/l
pH8 OD.0.7.1-7.7mg/l
pH 8.0 0.0. 7. 1-7.7 mg/l
pH 8. 00.0. 7. -7. 7 mg/l
pH8 ODD 7. -7. 7 mg/l
pH 8. 00.0. 7. -7. 7 mg/l
pH8 OD0.7. -7.7mi/l
pH8 0 D.0.7. -7. 7 mg/l
pHS.OD.0.7. -7. 7 mg/l
pHS.OD.O 7. -1.7 mg/l
pH 8 0 0.0 7. -7.7 mg/l
pH 6 8-7 4 Total alkalinity -
45-57 ppm
5.0 JTU Turbidity
Turbidity 7 (5-10) JTU
Turbidity 18 JTU
Turbidity 7 JTU
pH=8 15-8.2
pH=8.15-8 2
Turb 1-12 JTU
Turb. 1-12 JTU
pH 6.8-7 4 Total Alkalinity
as CaCo., 45-57 ppm
250 ft.-c for 4 hrs
500 ft -c continuous
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH = 8.0
pH = 8 0
pH=8.0
pH = 8.0
pH=8.0D07.1-7.8
pH=8.0D07.1-7.8
pH=8.CD07.1-7.8
Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mj kg
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence
intervals 1 0(0.23-0.42)
0.38(0.22-0.54)
None
None
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
t-values
Results analyzed 8 4
using Hailed 5.3
T-test significance 5 3
at 0.05 level 29
5.5
2.5
5.2
2.9
2.3
None
"
"
"
Mean in water weights were statistically DDE -13.0
different at 0. 05 after 22 wks. DDE - . 20
DDT=29.0
Toxaphene=9.0
Parathion=.007
95 percent confidence intervals 0. 19 (muscle)
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None SL
95 percent confidence 1.5
Interval/slope tune. 1.9
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Other Parameters
Tissue changes
associated with
{ill, kidneys,
digestive tu-
bules, visceral
ganglion and
tissues beneath
gills. Mycehal
fungus also
present.
Reference
Earnest (unpublished)"3
"
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1969s2'
Eisler 196912'
Davis and Hidu 1969824
Davis and Hidu 1969s24
Davis and Hidu 1969'-i
Davis and Hidu 19693"
Eislw 1970s32'
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970bS2»
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970b32'
Katz 1961s33
Earnest and Benville (unpublished)3"
"
"
"
Chin and Allen 1957323
Chin and Allen 1957=-'
Earnest (unpublished)353
Earnest (unpublished.)5*3
Katz 1961333
Derby and Ruber 1971«»
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Ukeles 1962s"
"
"
"
"
Lowe etal. 1971b3«
Nimmo et ai. (unpublished)""
Earnest (unpublished)3'3
Earnest (unpublished)3'3
Eisler 196932'
Eisler 196932!
Maboodetal.1970"2
Manoodetal. 19703"
Eisler 196932'
Eisler 1970a3M
Eisler 1970b3»
Eisler 1970bIM
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970bS2<>
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b32'
Eisler 1970b32=
f> Mixture of 1.0 ppb of DDT, Toxaphene, Parattiion.
•• Residue after 36 week exposure.
-------
486/'Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6~
Substance Tested
DDT. . ..
DDT ... .
DDT ... .
DDT ...
DDT ..
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Formulation
P, P' isomer
Technical trade
Technical grade
P, P' isomer
P, P' isDmer
. 85 percent
85 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
Organism Tested
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Crassostrea virgmica
Nassa obsoleta
Common Name
Three'-pine stickleback
Shinei perch
Dwarf perch
Shinei perch
Dwarf perch
Korea i shrimp
Korea i shrimp
Sand .hrimp
Grass shrimp
Hernvt crab
American oyster
Muthnail
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
22-44 mm
48-104
48-104
26 mm
31 mm
3.5 mm
Egg
Adult
Cone. (p|ib act. mgred.)
in water
11.5
7.6
4.6
.45(0.21-0.94)
0.26(0.13-0.52)
16.9(10.8-33.4)
6.9(3.7-13.1)
7
50
18
E40.
1,000
Methods ol Assessment
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
No. egg cases deposited significant
le
than control. Control=1473 Expt.=18
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
Endrin
Endnn
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endnn
Endnn . . .
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endnn
Endnn
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor . . .
Heptachlor
Heptachlor .
Heptachlor
. 100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
Technical
Technical
Technical
0.012 percent W/V
0.012 percent W/V
. Technical
Technical
99 percent
99 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
Technical 98 percent
Technical 98 percent
Technical 98 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
Technical 90 percent
Powder 75 percent
Technical 98 percent
Technical 98 percent
Technical
Technical
Technical
Technical
99 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
, 100 percent
. 100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Angutlla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Poecilia latipmna
Poecilia latipmna
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Nassa obsoleta
Crassostrea virgmica
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Fundulus similis
Brevoortia patronus
Mugil cephalus
Mugil cephalus
Memdia menidia
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Anguilla rostrata
Sphaeroides maculatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cyprmodon vareigatus
Leiostomus lantnurus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Cymatogaster aggregata
Micrometrus minimus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus beteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Mumimchog
Mumimchog
Striped kilhfish
Allantic silverside
Striped mullet
American eel
Bluehead
Northern puffer
Threespme stickleback
Slime perch
Dwarf perch
Sailfir mollie
Saillir mollie
Shinei perch
Dwarf perch
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Heririt crab
Mud snail
Amer can oyster
Mumimchog
Mummichog
Slnpi d kilhfish
Longnose killifish
Menhaden
Striped mullet
Stnpud mullet
Atlantic silverside
Bluet ead
American eel
Northern puffer
Threnspine stickleback
Threrspine stickleback
Stiee isfiead minnow
Spot
Shin: r perch
Dwarf perch
Shim r perch
Dwaif Perch
Korean shrimp
Sand shrimp
Bras; shrimp
Hermit crab
Murrmichog
Muirmichog
Strip ;d killifish
Atlarticsilierside
Stnpsd mullet
Amei ican eel
(Hue lead
37 mm
51 mm
40mm
57mm
85mm
57 mm
80 mm
168 mm
22-44
48-104
48-104
?
26 mm
31 mm
3.5
Adult
Egg
42 mm
51 mm
40 (mm)
83 (mm)
54 (mm)
90 (mm)
57 (mm)
131 (mm)
22-44
25-37
48-104
48-104
48-104
48-104
26
31
3 5
42
35
40
54
too
56
80
5
5
4
5
23
.9
6
34.
13.1
3.7
5.
7.5
6.
12.
1.9(0.71-3. 20)
2.44(1. 16-!). 11)
4.7(2.1-9.4)
.12(0.05-0.25)
1.7
1 8
12
1,000
790
0.6
.6
0.3
0.23
0.8
2.6
0.3
0.05
O.t
0.6
3.1
0.5
1.5
0.32
0.45
0 8
0 6
0.12(0.06-0.25)
0.13(0.06-0.27)
14.5(8.2-25.9)
8
440
55
50
50.0
32
3
194
10
.8
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
Reduced reproduction control— young bo
65 Exp.— young born 37
SGOT activity'
increase
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-53
LC-50
No. egg cases deposited significantly
tton Control. Confrol=1473 E«pt=
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
IC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
le
•2
-------
Appendix HI—Table (5/487
Continued
Test Procedure
96 hr static lab bioassay
SB hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr inter, flow lab bioassay
96 hr inter (low lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr inter, flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr exposure to 1 .0 ppm then 133
day post exposure in clean water
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab biaassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
34 wk flowing water
48 hr flowing water test
96 hr inter, flow lab bioassay
96 hr inter flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hi inter flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static exposure of adults to
1 0 ppm. 133 day post exposure in
clean water
48 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bi oassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr flowing lab bioassay
24 hr flowing lab bioassay
24 hr flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hi static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr flowing lab bioassay
24 hr (lowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
Temp C
20±.5
I3±1
13±1
14-18
14-18
13-18
13-18
20
20
20
24±1
20± 5
20±.5
2fl±.5
2J±.5
2D±.5
2D±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20^.5
20±.5
13±1
13±1
17-30
27±1
14-18
14-18
13-18
13-18
20
20
20
20± 5
24±1
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
25
27
29
20±.5
20±.5
20i.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
20
28
17
13±1
13±1
14-18
14-18
13-18
20± 5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20±.5
Salinity
25
26
28
18
27
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
?
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25
15
29
25-30
1
28
12
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
19
29
21
24
24
24
24
24
25
25
29
23
26
18
28
28
12-30
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
°/oo Other Environmental Criteria
Tot. Alk. as CaCoi 24-57 ppm
pH6.8-7 4
Turb. 12JTU
Turb 4 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8.0
pH=8.0
pH=8.0
pH=8 0
pH=8.0
pH=8 0
pH = 8.0
pH=8.0
pH=8.0
pH = 8.0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH6 8-7 4 Tot. AlkCaCo,
45-57 ppm
Turb 6 JTU
Turb 24 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=80
pH = 8.0
pH=8 0
pH=8.0
pH = 8 0
pH = B.8-7.4 Tot. Alk. as (CaCOj)
45-57
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8 0
pH-8.0
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH= .0007. -7.8
pH=8.0007. -7.8
Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mg/kg
None
95 percent confidence intervals G.55(.44-.65) ppm
95 percent confidence intervals 1 .0(0.48-2.0) ppm
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
None
None
No. of eg? cases deposited significantly
different at 0.001 level
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None Blood 11. 98
Brain 13.3
Gill 37. 6 ppm
Activity significantly greater at 0.05
level
95 percent confidence interval 2.33(0.00168-
0.00307) ppm
95 percent confidence interval 1 . 26(0. 00086-
0.0017)
95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
None
None
None
No. of egg cases deposited significantly
different at 0.001 level
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence interval 0.13(0.02-0.27)
95 percent confidence intervals 0.11(0.08-0.15)
95 percent confidence intervals
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Other Parameters Reference
Katz 1961'"
Earnest and Betmle (unpublished)'-"
Earnest and Benville (unpublished)3"
Earnest and Benville (unpublished)3'1'
"
Earnest (unpublished)"3
Earnest (unpublished)159
Eisler 1969'27
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Eisler 1970css»
Eisler 1970a™
Eisler 1970b«9
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970b3«
Eisler 1970bs»>
Eislei 1970b»
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970bSM
Katz 1961333
Earnest and Benville (unpublished)354
Earnest and Benville "
Lane and Livingston 1970335
Lane and Scura 1970"5
Earnest and Benville (unpublished)354
Earnest and Benville "
Earnest (unpublished)353
Earnest "
Eisler 19693"
Eisler 19693"
Eisler 19691"
Eisler 1970c33"
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Eisler 1970a»
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b»
Lowe19653»
Eisler 19700s"
Eisler 1970b3'9
Eisler 1970b3"
Eisler 1970b329
(CaCo3) 45-57 ppm
-------
488/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6—
Substance Tested
Heptachlor .
Heptachlor
Lindane
Lmdane
Lmdane
Lmdane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lmdane
Lindane
Lmdine . ..
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane . ...
Lindane
Lindane
Lindane . .
Lmdane
Lindane
Lindane
Methoiychlor
Methoxychlor
Methoiychlor
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor .
Methoxychlor ... .
Methoxychlor .
Methoxychlor .
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor . .
Methoxychlor
Methoxychlor .
Mirex
Mircx
Mirex
Mirex
Mirex
Mirex
Mirex
Mirex .
TDE
TDE
Toxaphene
Toxaphene
Toxaphene . .
Toxaphene . .
Toxaphene
Thiodan® .
Thiodan®
Formulation
100 percent
. 72 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 89. 5 percent
89. 5 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
. 100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
. 100 percent
100 percent
89. Si percent
Technical
Bait (.3 percent mirex)
Bait (.3 percent mirex)
Technical
Technical
Bait (0.3 percent mirex)
Bail (0.3 percent) mirex
99 percent
99 percent
Polychloro dicyclic Terpenes
with chlorated camphene
60 percent emulsion con-
centrate
100 percent
Polychloro bicyclic Terpenes
willt chlorinated camnhene
Predominatory
100 percent
67-69 percent CL
96 percent
96 percent
Organism Tested
Sphaeroides maculatiis
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp.
Dunahella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Nassa obsoleta
Crassostrea virgmica
Mercenaria mercenary
Mercenana mercenana
Fundulus heterochtus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalossoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculalus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Gasterosteu: aculeatus
Tetrahymena pyriformis
Penaeus a/tecus
Palaemonetes pugio
Penaeus dirorarum
Penaeus duorarum
UCA pugilator
Callinectes sapidus
Callinectes sapidus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Palaemon macrodactylus
Callinectes sapidus
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Common Name
Northern purler
Threes jine stickleback
Korear shrimp
Korear shrimp
Sand sirimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
Mud snail
Eastern oyster
Hard clam
Hard clam
Mumirichog
Mummchog
Striped kilhfish
Atlanti . silverside
Striper mullet
American eel
Bluehead
Northern putter
Threespme stickleback
Koreai shrimp
Korear shrimp
Sand shrimp
Grass ihrimp
Hermrcrab
Mumimchog
Mnmmichog
Striper killifish
Atlantic silverside
Stripec mullet
American eel
Bluehead
Northern puffer
Threespme stickleback
Brown shrimp
Grass shrimp
Pink sirimp
Pink shrimp
Fiddle 'crab
Blue c'ab
Blueciab
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Blue crab
Hard tlam
Hard i:lam
Threer.pine stickleback
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
168
22-44
26
31
3.5
15
Egg
Egg
Larvae
42
55
49
57
85
56
90
168
22-44
26
31
3.5
42
55
40
57
too
56
86
203
22-44
24
25
55
55
20
23
Adult
...
Adult
Eggs
Larvae
22-44
Cone, (ppk act. ingred
in water
188
111. 9
5,000
5,000
9,000
5,000
5,000
12.5(4.7-32.7)
9. 2 (5. 8- 1 5. C)
5
10.
5.
10000
9100
> 10000
> 10000
20
60
28
9
66
56
14
35
50
.44(0.21-0.83)
6.7(4.37-10.7)
4.
12.
7.
35
35
30
33
63
12.
13.
150.
69.1
0 9
One particle of mirex
bait/shrimp
One particle of mirex
bait/shrimp
1.0
0.1
One particle of mirex
bait per crab
1 particle of bait/crab
5.6X104
(4.0-7.8)X10<
8.3(4.8-14.4)
2.5(1.6-4.0}
40
40
70
10
10
20.3(8.6-47.9)
370 (180-700)
1120
250
7.8
17.1(8.4-39 8)
3.4(1.8-8.5)
.) Methods of Assessment
LC-50
TLM
Ratio O.D. Expt.
Ratio O.D. Control
0.75 0 D. expt/O.D. control
0.57 O.D. exp/O.D. control
0.60 O.D. exp/O.D. control
0.30 O.D. expt/O.D. control
1.00 O.D. expt/O.D. control
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
Reduced deposition of egg cases from 147
by control to 749 by Expt.
TLM
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
16.03 percent decrease in population size
48 percent paralysis or death in 4 days
63 percent paralysis/or death in 4 days
100 percent paralysis/or death in 11 day;
36 percent paralysis/or death in 35 days
73 percent paralysis/or death in 14 days
84 percent paralysis/death in 20 days
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
.77 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.700.D. expt/O.D. control
53 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.54 O.D. expt/O.D. control
. 00 OD. expt/O.D. control
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
-------
Appendix Ill—Table 6/489
Continued
Test Procedure
96 hi static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
Test organisms grown in test media
containing pesticides for ten days
Absorbance measured at 530 rry
96 br static lab bioassay
96 hr flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay. Acute toxicity
experiment followed by 133-day post
exposure in clean water.
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr intermittent-flow ab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassa
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr growth test
Static bioassay
Static bioassay
Flowing water bioassay
Flowing water bioassay
Flowing water bioassay
96 hr flowing water bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr flowing water lab bioassay
Test organisms grown in test media
for 10 days absorbance measured at
530 mi
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr (lowmf water lab bioassay
TempC
28±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
13-18
13-18
20± 5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
24±1
24±1
24±1
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
20± 5
20±.5
2D±.5
13-18
13-18
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20
20±.5
20±,5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
26
22
25
17
14
29
29
21
13-18
13-18
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
13-18
21
24±1
24±1
20±.5
13-18
13-18
Salinity »/m>
24
25
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25
0
21
33
29 o/oo
29 "/DO
27 o/oo
27
19.3
12-30
12-30
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
12-30
8 6
25
12-30
12-30
Other Environmental Criteria
pH=!.OD01.1-1.8
pH 6.8-7. 4 Total Alkalinity
500 ft c-contmuously
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8.0D.0.7.1-7.7
pH=8.0D0.7.1-7.7
pH=8.0D.0.7.1-7 7
pH=8.0
pH=8.0D.0. 7.1-7.7
pH=80DO 7 1-7.7
pH=8 OD.0.7.1-7.7
pH=8.00.D.7.1-7.7
pH=8.00D 7.1-7.7
pH=8.00D.7.1-7 7
pH=8 ODD 7.1-7.7
pH=8.00.D.7. 1-7.7
pH=B.OO.D.7 1-7.7
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
pH=8 ODD 7. -7 7
pH=8 ODD 7. -7.7
pH=8 OD07. -7 7
pH=8.0D07 -7.7
pH=8 ODD 7. -7.7
pH=8.0D07 -7.7
pH=8.0 DO 7. -7.7
pH=8 0007. -7.7
pH=8.0007. -7.7
pH=8.0D07 -7.7
pH=8.0D07. -7.7
pH=6 8-7 4 Total alkalinity
(CaCos) 45-57
Cultures grown in Tetrahymena
broth
None
None
None
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
Turbidity 1-12 JTU
Turb 1-12 JTU
Turn 1-12 ITU
Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mg kg
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
None
None
No. of eggs deposited significantly less at
0.001 level. X->10.8 Chi-square
analysis
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Measured effect is an average of the re-
sults ol tests in which a significant dif-
ference existed (P< 0.05)
1.1
. 0.26ppm
0.30 ppm
0.3
95 percent conMer.ce interval
95 percent confidence interval
None
95 percent confi dence interval
95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
Other Parameters Reference
Eisler 1970b!M
Katz 19613S3
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Earnest (unpublished)3*3
Earnest (unpublished)3*3
Eisler 1869-"2'
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 196932'
Eisler 1970c3s»
Davis and Hidu1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969-21
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Eisler 1970a32><
Eisler 1970D329
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970bs»
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 19700s"
Eisler 1970b32"
Eisler 1970b™
Katz 1861™
Earnest (unpublished)3"
Earnest "
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 196932'
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1970a3»
Eisler 1970bM»
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970I>32»
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b329
Katz 1961s33
Cooley et al. (unpublished)151
Loweetal. 1971a3M
Loweetal. 1971as<°
Loweetal. 197laIM
Lowe et al. 1971a"»
Loweetal. 1971as<°
Loweetal. 1971a"o
Mahooiletal.WO3*2
Earnest (unpublished)"3
Earnest "
Ukeles 1962s"
"
"
"
Earnest (unpublished)3'3
Mahood et al. 1970s"
Davis and Hidu 1969™
Davis and Hidu 1969S2<
Katz 19613SS
Earnest (unpublished)3"
Earnest "
-------
490/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6-
Substance Tested
Formulation
Organism Tested
Common Name
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
Cone, (ppb act. mgred.) Methods of Assessment
in water
Insecticides Organophosphates
Abate
Abate
Abate
Abate
Abate .
Abate
Abate
Abate
Abate
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
Baytex
CORAL
CO-RAL
CORAL . .
CO-RAL
CO-RAL
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
DDVP
Delnav
Delnav
Delnav
Dicapthon
Dicapthon
Dioxathion
Dioxatliion
Dioxathion
Dioxalhion
Dioxathion
Dioxathion
Dioxathion
Dioxathion
Dipterex
Dipterex
Oipterex
Dipterex
Dipterex .
Dipterex
Dipterex
Dipterex
Di-syston
Di-syston
Di-syston .
Di-syston
Dursban .
Durshan .
Dursban
Dursban
Guthion
Guthion
Guthion
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
50 percent soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Soluble powder
Technical
Technical
Dunahella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Pbaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodaclylum tricornutum
Skelelonema costatum
Skeletonema costal™
Cyclotella nana
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Cyclotella nana
Cyclotella nana
Palaemon macrodactylus
. Palaemon macrodactylus
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassosttea virgmica
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenary mercenana
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Crangon septemspinosa
Palaemonetes vulgaris
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus neteroclitus
Fundulus maialis
Menidia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides rnaculalus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgaris
Pagurus longicarpus
Mercenana mercenana
Mercenana mercenana
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majahs
Memdia menidia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp
Chlorella sp
Monochrysis luthen
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgmica
Crassostrea nrgmica
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenana mercenana
Cymatogaster aggregate
Cymatogaster aggregate
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crassostrea virgmica
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Korean shrimp
Kornan shrimp
Korsan shrimp
Konan shrimp
Eastern oyster
Eas'ern oyster
Hard clam
Hard clam
Thr«spine stickleback
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
Munmichog
Munmichog
Striped kihlfish
Atlantic silvertide
Striped mullet
Am incan eel
Blu ihead
Northern puffer
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Heimit crab
Haid clam
Haidclam
Munmichog
Mummichog
Striped killifish
Atlinticsilverside
Striped mullet
American eel
Blushead
Noithern puffer
Am sncan oyster
American oyster
American oyster
Haidclam
Haidclam
Shiner perch
Shner perch
Korean shrimp
Koiean shrimp
American oyster
Haidclam
Haidclam
Eg?
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
22-44
26
31
3.5
42
55
40
50
84
59
80
168
26
31
3.5
Eggs
Larvae
42
56
84
50
85
59
80
168
Larvae
Eggs
Lame
Eggs
Larvae
55
55
Eggs
Eggs
Larvae
1000
too
1000
100
1000
100
1000
2550 (934-D540)
249(72.5-853)
1000.
100
10
1000
100
10
1000
100
10
1000
100
5 3(3.13-11.92)
3.0(1.5-6 0)
110
>1000
9120
5210
1470
4
15
45
3700
2680
2300
1250
200
1800
1440
2250
38
285
82
3340
5740
6
20
15
6
39
6
35
75
50,000
50,000
100,00)
100,000
50,000
500,00)
50,000
1,000
5860
3670
55280
1390
3.5
3 7
0.25(0.10-0.63)
0.01 (II. 002-0.046)
620
860
860
36 percent reduction in 0. evolution
23 percent reduction in 0 evolution
38 percent reduction in 0> evolution
28 percent reduction in 0- evolution
55 percent reduction in 0 evolution
23 percent reduction in 0; evolution
80 percent reduction in 0 evolution
TL-50
TL-50
27 percent reduction in 0? evolution
27 percenl reduction in 0; evolution
16 percent reduction in Da evolution
29 percent reduction in 0': evolution
29 percent reduction in 0. evolution
35 percent reduction in 02 evolution
19 percent reduction in Q? evolution
51 percent reduction in On evolution
26 percent recuction in 0. evolution
50 percent reduction in 0? evolution
48 percent reduction in Oj evolution
TL-50
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
.54(0.0. expt/O.D cont.)
.85(O.D.expt/O.D cont)
39(00 expt/OD cont.)
.54(0.0. expt/O.D. cont.)
.70(0.0. expt/O.D. cont.)
.00(0.0. expt/O.D. cont.)
.55 (0.0. expt/O.D. cont.)
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TL-50
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TLM
-------
Appendix III—Table 6/491
Continued
Test Procedure
02 evolution measured by Winkler
Light-and-Dark Bottle Technique
1 1. of culture incubated 20 hrs in
pesticide soln. then placed in test
bottles
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
02 evolution measured by Winkler
Lijht-and-Oark Bottle Technique
1 1. of culture incubated 20 hrs in pesti-
cide soln. then placed m test bottles.
9G hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
48 br static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 br static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 br static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 br static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
Organisms grown in test media con-
taining pesticide for 10 days optical
density measured at 530 m^
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr flowing water lab bio.
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr. intermittent flow lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
Temp C
13-18
13-18
13-18
13-18
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
24±1.
24±1.
20
20±.5
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20± 5
20±.5
20± 5
20.5±1
205±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
24±1.
24±1.
24±1.
24±1.
24±1.
20.5±1.
20.5±1.
13-18
13-18
24±1.
24±1.
24±1.
Salinity "
12-30
12-30
12-30
12-30
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
25
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
22-28
22-28
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
25
25
12-30
12-30
n,i Other Environmental Criteria
250 ft.-c for 4 hrs.
Turb. 1-12JTU
250 ft.-c for 4 hrs
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb. 1-12 JTU
pH6 8-7. 4 total alkalinity
45-51 ppm
PH8.0D07. -7.7
pH 8.0 DO 7 -7.7
PH8.0D07. -7.7
pH 8. ODD 7. 0-7. 7
pH 8.0 DO 7. -7.7
PH8.0D07. -7.7
PH8.0D07. -7.7
PH8.0D07. -7.7
pH 8 8 DO 7 -77
pH 8. ODD 7. 1-7 7
pH8 0 DO 7. 1-7. 7
pH 8.0 DO 7 1-7 7
pH 8.0 DO 7 1-7.7
PH8.0D07 1-7.7
pHS.0007 0-7.7
pH8 0
pHS.O
pH8 0
pH8 0
pHS.O
pHS.O
pHS.O
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Turb. 1-12 JTU
Statistical Evaluation
All percent t-6.1
significant t-4.1
at 0.05 t=3.8
level t=2.5
t=4.8
t=2.2
t=6.8
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
All percent t -5.4
siinificant t=6.7
at 0.05 t=2 6
level t=2.5
1=2.5
t=3.5
t=2.3
t=5.9
t=3.2
t=3.8
t=2.7
95 percent confidence intervals
95 percent confidence intervals
None
Nont
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
None
None
None
Residue levels ing kg other Parameters
Reference
Derby and Ruber 1971'"
Earnest (unpublished)353
Earnest (unpublished)"3
Derby and Ruber 1971s26
Earnest (unpublished)355
Davis and Hidu1969324
Katz1961™
Eisler 19693"
Eisler 19693"
Eisler 1969'"
Eisler 1970a™
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970b»>
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970bSM
Eisler 1970b3M
Eisler 19701)™
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1969'"
Eisler 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969™
Davis and Hidu 1969'-'
Eisler 1970a"-s
Eisler 1970I1'9
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970b'»
Eisler 1970b'!»
Eisler 1970b»»
Eisler 1970b'M
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 1962s"
UKeles1962'"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962'"
Davis and Hidu 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1869'-'
Millemann 1969'"
Millemann 1969MS
Earnest (unpublished)353
Earnest "
Davis and Hidu 1969»4
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 196932<
-------
492/'Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6-
Substance Tested
Guthion
Guthion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malattoon
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Malathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Paralhion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Patathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Parathion
Phorate
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
Phosdrm®
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
TEPP
Insecticides Carhamates
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Bayeon
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Baygon
Formulation
93 percent
95 percent
95 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
57 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
100 percent
Organism Tested
Cyprmodon variegatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Tetrahymena pynformis
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgimca
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus majalis
Memdia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Anguilla rostrata
Sphaeroides maculatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heterochtus
Fundulus ma/alis
Memdia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaeroides maculatus
Cyprmodon vanegatus
Cyprmodon vanegatus
Crangon septemspmosa
Palaemonetes vulgans
Pagurus longicarpus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus ma/alis
Memdia memdia
Mugil cephalus
Anguilla rostrata
Thalassoma bifasciatum
Sphaercides maculatus
Protococcus sp.
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp.
Chlorella sp
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis luthen
Monochrysis lutheri
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgimca
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum Incornutum
SKeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema costatum
Cyclotella nana
Common Name
Sheepshead minnow
Thresspine stickleback
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Sane shrimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
American oyster
American oyster
Mummichog
Mummichog
Striped kilhfish
Atlantic silverside
Striped mullet
Bluehead
American eel
Northern puffer
Tririespme stickleback
Sand shrimp
Grass shrimp
Her mt crab
Mummichog
Mummichog
StrnedkriMsli
Atlantic silverside
Striped mullet
American eel
Blunhead
Northern puffer
Sheepshead minnow
Shespshead minnow
Sanl shrimp
Grass shrimp
Hermit crab
Munmichog
MuTimichog
Strued killifish
Atlantic silverside
Strued mullet
American eel
Bluphead
Northern puffer
American oyster
American oyster
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
40-70
22-44
Log-phase
26
31
35
lit
Larvae
42
56
84
50
48
80
57
183
22-44
26
31
3.5
38
55
84
50
48
59
90
196
40-70
40-70
26
31
3.5
42
56
84
50
100
59
80
168
Egg
Larvae
Cone, (apb act. mgred.)
in water
2
4.8
10,000
81.5(111.6-26.1)
33.7(21.3-53.1)
33
82
83
9070
2660
70
80
250
125
550
27
82
3250
76.9
2
3
7
8,000
58,000
13,800
5,700
5,200
16,900
12,300
75,800
10
5
11
69
28
65
300
75
320
300
65
74
800
1X105
5X105
1X10=
3X105
3X105
1X105
1X105
3X105
>1X1D4
>1X1D<
1000
100
10
1000
100
10
1000
100
10
tooo
Methods of Assessment
Acetylchohnesterase activity' in cont
^-experimental groups contral=l
expt.=0.097
TLM
8.8 percent decrease in a population :
measured as absoibance at 540 n>
TL-50
TL-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
TLM
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
Acetylcholmesterase activity' in conl
vs.-expt. groups Control- 1.36 Exp
0.120
Acetylcholmesterase activity' in con*
vs-expt groups Control=1.36 Ex|
0.086
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
LC-50
.62 OD expt/OD control
.00 OD expt/OD control
. 65 OD expt/OD control
.27 OD expt/OD control
.4900 expt/OD control
.58 OD expt/OD control
.83 OD expt/OD control
.38 OD expt/OD control
TLM
TLM
25 percent reduction in Oj evolution
32 percent reduction in devolution
27 percent reduction in Oi evolution
23 percent reduction in 0; evolution
28 percent reduction in 0: evolution
40 percent reduction in 02 evolution
30 percent reduction in 02 evolution
23 percent reduction in 02 evolution
29 percent reduction in 02 evolution
53 percent reduction in 02 evolution
' ACn hydrolysed/hr/mg. brain
-------
Appendix III—Table 6/493
Continued
Test Procedure
72 hr static exposure
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr growth test in Tetrahymena broth
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 In static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static exposure
72 hr static exposure
96 hr stall dab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
0 evolution measured by Wmkler
Light-and-Dark Bottle technique
1 1. of culture incubated 20 hrs in
pesticide solution, then placed in
test bottles 4 hrs
Temp C
21+2
26
13-18
13-18
20+ 5
20+. 5
20+ 5
24+1
24+1
20
20+.5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+.5
2D+.5
23+ 5
20+ 5
20+. 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+. 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
21+2
21+2.
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20
20+ 5
20i 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20+ 5
20 5+1
20 5+1
20 5+1
20 5+1
20 5+1
20.5+-1
20 5+1
20 5i1
24+1
24+1
Salinity »/o
4
25
0
12-30
12-30
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
4
4
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
a Other Environmental Criteria
pH=7 ±0 2
pH 6 8-7 4 Total Alkalinity as
Ca Co, 45-57
Turb1-12JTU
Turb1-12JTU
pH=8 ODD 7.1-7. 8
pH=80D07 1-7 8
pH = 8 ODD 7 1-7 8
pH=8 0 DO 7 0-7 7
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH = 8 0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH=8 0
pH=6.8-7.4 45-57 Total alkalinity
as CaCo,
pH=8 0 DO 7. 1-7. 7
pH=8 ODD 7 1-7 7
pH=8 0007.1-7 7
pH=8 ODD 7. 0-7 7
pH = 8.0
pH7± 2
pH7i 2
pH=8.0DO=7 1-7.7
pH=8 000=7 -7 7
pH=8 0 00=7. -7.7
pH=8 0
pH = 8.0DO=7 -7 7
pH = 8 ODO=7 -7 7
pH=8.0DO=7. -7 7
pH=8 ODO = 7 -7.7
pH=8 000=7 -7 7
pH=8 000=7 -7 7
pH=8 ODO=7. -7 7
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
250 ft.-c 4 hrs
Statistical Evaluation
Statistical difference at 0.001 level 1=
21.40
None
Statistical difference al 0 05 level
95 percent confidence interval
95 percent confidence interval
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Statistically different at 0.001 level t -
21 0169
Statistically different at 0.001 level t -
4 603
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
All percent 1=4.5
significant t=4.6
at 0.05 t=6.8
level 1=1.9
t=2.5
1=3.8
1=4.3
1=2.1
1=2.9
t=11.0
Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
Coppage (unpublished)352
Katz 1961333
Cooley and Keltner (unpublished)350
Earnest (unpublished)353
Earnest (unpublished)353
Eisler 1969s27
Eisler 1969J«
Eisler 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969321
"
Eisler 1970aJ28
Eisler 1970b"9
Eisler 1970b!!9
Eisler 1970bs'9
Eisler 1970b32»
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970b!«
Katz1961333
Eisler 1969-1"
Eisler 196912'
"
Eisler 1970aMS
Eisler 1970b'29
Eisler 1970b129
Eisler 1970b129
Eisler 1970b»
Eisler 1970bS2»
Eisler 1970b12'
Eisler 19]OJ3i9
Coppage (unpublished)352
Coppage (unpublished)352
Eisler 196S-""
Eisler 19691"
Eisler 1969s"
Eisler 1970aM'
Eisler 1970b'»
Eisler 1970b129
Eisler 1970b'2'<
Eisler 1970b129
Eisler 1970b329
Eisler 1970bs2»
Eisler 1970b329
Ukeles 1962J"
Ukeles 1962317
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s"
Davis and Hidu 196932<
Dam and Hiiu 19693'-'
Derby and Ruber 1971s'-1-1
Derby and Ruber 1971125
Derby and Ruber 1971s-'
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971s2*
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971325
Derby and Ruber 1971325
-------
494/'Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6~
Substance Tested
Sevin® ...
Sevin®. .
Sevin® ..
Sevin® .
Sevin® .
Sevin®
Sevin® ...
Sevin® ..
Sevin®
Se«n® .
Sevin®
Sevin® .
Sevin®.
Sevin® .
Sevin®. ..
Sevin® . . .
Sevin®
Sevin® .
Sevin®
Sevin®. . .
Sevin®
Sevin®. ..
Sewn®
Sevin®
Sevin® .
Sevin®.
Sevin®
Sevin® ..
Sevin®
Sevin® .
Sevin® . .
Sevin®
Insecticides Miscellaneous
Apholate
Apholate ...
Apholaie .
Apholate .
Apholate
Apholate
Herbicides Benzole acid
Chloramben...
"
»
»
"
»
"
"
<<
"
»
n
Formulation
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
95 percent
100 percent
100 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
95 percent
98 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
80 percent
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Organism Tested
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Monochrysis luthen
Chlorella sp.
Chlorella sp.
Protocols sp.
Protococcus sp.
Palaemon macrodactylus
Palaemon macrodactylus
Upogebia pugettensis
Callianassa californiensis
Callianassa californiensis
Cancer magister
Hemigrapsis oregonensis
Crassostrea gigas
Crassostrea virgmica
. . Crassostrea virgimca
. Mercanaria mercenana
. . Mercenana mercenana
Clmocardium nuttall
Clmocardium nuttalli
Mytilus edulis
Parophrys vetuliis
Cymatogaster aggregate
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Onchorynchus keta
Cancer magister
Cancer magister
Cancer magister
Cancer magister
Palaemoneles vulgans
Palaemonetes vulgans
Nassa obsoleta
. Nassa obsoleta
Nassa obsoleta
. Fundulus majahs
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Common Name
Korean shrimp
Korean shrimp
Mud shrimp
Ghost shrimp
Ghost shrimp
Dungeness crab
Store crab
Pacifii oyster
Ameri:an oyster
Amen an oyster
Hard :lam
Hard :lam
Cocklii clam
Cocklis clam
Bay nussel
English sole
Shine" perch
Threespme stickleback
Threespine stickleback
Spot
Chum salmon
Dungeness crab
Dungeness crab
Dungeness crab
Dungeness crab
Grass shrimp
Grass shrimp
Mud snail
Mud snail
Mud snail
Striped killifish
Life Stage or Size Cone, (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment
(mm) in water
3
3
Adult
Juvenile (male)
Adult (female)
Larvae
Eggs
Larvae
Eggs
Larvae
Adults
Juvenile
Larvae
Juvenile
Juvenile
Juvenile
22-44
18mm
Juvenile
egg/prezoeal
Zoea
Juvenile
Adult
29.5
29.5
13.4
13.76
12.71
41.5
1003
100
1000
1000
10,000
1000
10,000
. 12.0(8.5-135)
7 0(1.5-28)
40 (30-60)
30
130
600(590-6101
270 (60-690)
2200(1500-2100)
3,000
3,000
3,820
>2,500
7,300
3,850
2,300(1400-2900)
4,100(3;'00-5000)
3,900(3(100-4000)
6,700(5M)0-7700)
3,990
100
2,500(2:'00-2700)
6
10
280
180
>5XIOt
5.50X1C5
>3X10<
1.0X10'
1.0X10'
>5.X1(I=
1. 15X1C5
5.XW
1.5X10*
5.X101
1X10=
1.5X10<
1.0X10'
2.5XW
2.225X10=
4.X10'
2.75X10=
4.X10*
1.5X10'1
3.5X10"
.65 OD. expt/O.D control
«. 80 OD. expt/O.D. control
• .00 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.80 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.00 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.74 0 D. expt/O.D control
'.00 0 D. expt/O.D. control
TL-50
TL-50
TLM
TLM
TLM
EC-50 (Paralysis or death) loss of equilil
num
EC-50 (Paralysis loss, of equilibrium i
death)
EC-50 prevention of development
straight linge shell s'lage.
TIM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
EC-50 prevention of development to straigl
Imge shell stage.
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
65 percent survived in experimental ar
control test
TLM
Prevention of hatching and molting
Prevention of molting and death
Death or paralysis
Death or paralysis
TLM
Post exposure TLM
TLM
Reduction in the # of egg cases depositi
from 103 tor control to 70 for expL
Reduction m of egg cases deposited fro
103 by control to 16 by expt.
TLM
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0; evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0; evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
• No growth but organisms were viable.
-------
Appendix Ill—Table 6/495
Continued
Test Procedure
10 day srowtri test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr intermittent-flow lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
14 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
5 months continuous flow chronic lab
bioassay
96 hi static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
50 days static conditions
96 hr static lab bioassay
100 day post exposure to 96 hr static
lab bioassay at 10 ppm.
96 hr static lab bioassay
f
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
f
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after todays
f
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 1 0 days
/•
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
f
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
Temp C Salinity °/oo Other Environmental Criteria
20 5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
13-18
13-18
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±2
24±1
24±1
24±1
Z4±1
20±2
20±1
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±2
20±.5
16-29
15
10±1
10±1
18±1
18
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
12-30
12-30
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
24-30
25
25
25
25
25
24
24
24
24
24
24
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
Turbidity 1-12 JTU
Turbidity 1-12 JTU
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH7.9-8 1
pH 7 9-8 1
pH 7 9-8 1
PH7.9-8 1
pH=6.8-7 4 Total alkalinity
45-75 ppm
pH7 8
DH7.8
pH7 8
pHJ.8
pH7 8
PH7.8
pH=7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH = 7 3-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH = 7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12, 12
pH=7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH = 7. 9-8.1 6000lux12/12
pH=7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH = 7.9-8 1 6000lux12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH = 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
95 percent confidence limits
95 percent confidence limits
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Reduction significant at 0.01 level.
Analysis by Chi-square
Reduction significant at 0.01 level.
Analysis by Chi-square
None . .
Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method, 194733'
"
"
"
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
"
"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s41
Ukeles 1362s"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962341
Earnest (unpublished)153
Earnest (unpublished)1"
Stewart etal. 196734«
Stewart etal.1967346
Stewart etal.1967346
Stewart et al. 1967346
Stewart etal 196734«
Stewart etal. 19673«
Davis and Hidu 1969s24
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Stewart etal. 19673«
Butler etal.1968322
Stewart etal. 196734«
Stewart etal.196734'
Stewart etal. 1967s46
Stewart etal.1967346
Katz 1961333
No pathology; Lowe 1967339
mild AChE
inhibition.
Millemann 1969s*5
Buchanan etal 1969s'-1
Buchanan et al. 1969s-'
Buchanan et al. 1969s21
Buchanan et al. 1969321
Eisler 1966326
Eisler 1966SM
Eisler 1966'-"
Eisler 1966s26
Eisler 1966s-1'
. Eisler 1966326
Walsh 1972S4S
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Wa.sh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh
Walsh "
. Walsh "
Walsh "
.' 02 evolution measured fay Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes.
-------
496/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6-
Substance Tested
»
«
"
«
"
Dipyridylium
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Diquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Paraquat
Nitrile
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Dichlobenil
Organochlorine
MCPA
MCPA
Phenoxyaceb'c acid
2,4-D
2,4-D ..
2,4-D
2,4-D
2,4-D ..
2,4-D .
2,4-D.
2,4-D .
2,4-D
2,4-D
Formulation
Ammonium salt
Ammonium salt
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Methyl ester
Dibromide
Dibromide
Dibromide
Dibromide
Dibromide
Dibromide
. Dibromide
Dibromide
. Dichlonde
. Dichlonde
. Dichlonde
Dichlonde
. Dichloride
. Dichloride
Dichloride
Dichloride
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Ester
Ester
Salt
Salt
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical and
Technical acid
. . Technical acid
Technical acid
Organism Tested
Phaeodactylum tnrarautum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Crassostrea virgmica
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea virgmica
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea virgmica
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone, (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment
(mm) in water
3.25X10'
3.0X10«
2X10'
2.5X103
1. 75XW
5X10'
1.5X10'
5X10'
2.75X10:
5X10'
. . . . >.5X10"
2 X105
>5 X10<
3XW
>5X10«
1.5X1IH
>5XW
1.5X104
>5X106
5X104
2.5X10«
2X10<
5X10'
5X10'
3.5X10'
1.X104
9X10"
6X10'
. 1.25X10'
6X10<
1XW
6X10»
1.5X105
2.5X10*
Ameritan oyster Egg 1.562X10*
American oyster Larvae 3.13X10"
American oyster Egg 8X10'
American oyster Larvae 740
American oyster Egg 2.044X10'
American oyster Larvae 6.429X10*
6X10"
. . 5X10*
9X10<
7.5X10<
6X10'
5X10<
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oj evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Os evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0? evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
50 percent decrease in 0. evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
SO percent decrease in growth
-------
Appendix HI—Table 6/497
Continued
Test Procedure
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mil)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu)
after 10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) alter
10 days
TempC
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20
20
20
20
20
20
Salinity " o
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
o Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=l. 9-3.1 6000 IUX12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH=7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12 '12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'"
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 3-8. 16000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lUX 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lui 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
None
None
None
None
None
None
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method"7
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh 1972»
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh '
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Reference
Davis and Hidu 1969s21
Davis and Hidu 1969I!<
Davis and Hidu 1969s-'
Davis and Hidu 1969121
Davis and Hidu 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969s"
Walsh 1972S«
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
. .. Walsh "
/ 02 evolution measured by Gilson differental respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes.
-------
498/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6-
Substance Tested
2,4-D .
2,4-D .
2,4-D .
2,4-D . .
2,4-D ..
2,4-D .. .
2,4-D .
2,4-D
2,4-D . .
2,4-D
EMID
EMID
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
Phthalic
Endothall
Endothall
Endolhall
Endothall
Endothall.
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall ..
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall
Endothall . .
Endothall .
Endothall....
Endothall
Endothall . .
Picolinic acid
Tordon®mi ...
Tordon® 101 ...
Tordon®101 .
Tordon® 101. .
Tordon® 101 .
Tordon® 101 .
Tordon® 101 .
Tordon® 101 ...
Formulation
Technical acid
Technical acid
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butoxyethanol ester
. 2,4-Dcmpd
. 2,4-Dcmpd
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical aicd
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Amme salt
Amine salt
Amme salt
Amme salt
Amine salt
Amine salt
Amine salt
Amine salt
Organism Tested
Pnaeodacfytam tricornutum
Phaeodaclylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea Virginia
Cnlorococctim sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Crassostrea virginica
Crassostrea virginica
Mercenary mercenaria
Mercenana mercenaria
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
.. Dunaliella tertiolecta
. Isochrysis galbana
. . Isochrysis galbana
. Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone, (npb act ingred.) Methods of Assessment
(mm) in water
6X10'
5X10'
1X105
7.5X10<
1X105
7.5X10'
1X105
7.5X10'
2X105
1.5X10''
American oyster Eggs 1.682X10'
American oyster Larvae 3.0X10'
1.5X10''
1.0X10'
1.5X10''
1.25X105
5X10'
5X10'
7.5X10'
5X10'
1X10=
5X10'
. 4.25X1«S
5X10'
6X10'
2.5X10''
7.5X10-'
1.5X10"
>1X10"
3X10"
>1X10*
4.5X10'
>1X103
2.25X13'
>1X10'
. . 2.5X10'
American oyster Egg 2.822X10'
American oyster Larvae 4.D08XIO*
Hard clam Egg 5.102X10'
Hard clam Larvae 1.25X1Q*
... . . . >2X10=
1X105
>2X10S
1.25X18'
. 1X105
5X10'
. . >72XU1«
1X105
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
TLM
TLM
50 percent decrease in 02 Evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease iri growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease iri growth
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
SO percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
-------
Appendix Ill—Table 6/499
Continued
Test Procedure
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
j
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) alter
10 days
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
1
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
41 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) liter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 nays
f
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
TempC
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
24±1
24±1
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Salinity
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
"/on Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 litchfield & Wilcoxon Method™
pH 7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-6. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 1 6000 lux 1 2/1 2 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method"1
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lul 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
None
None
. , None
None
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method"'
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 I1IX12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
Residue levels mj/kg Other Parameters Relerence
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Davis and Hidu 1969s"
Davis and Hidu 1969J"
Walsh 1972"8
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
. Walsh "
. Walsh "
Walsh 1972"8
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Davis and Hidu 1969"'
Davis and Hidu 1969™
.. Davis and Hidu 1969*"
Davis and Hidu 1969»<
Walsh 1972"»
Walsh "
Walsh "
. . Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
0: evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml ol culture in log phase. Test length 90 minutes
-------
500/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6-
Substance Tested Formulation
Propimic acid
Dalapon
Dalapon .
Dalapon
Dalapon
Dalapon
Dalapon .
Dalapon
Dalapon
Silvex
Silvex .
Silvex
Silvex
Silvex
Silvex
Silvex
Silvex
Toluidme
Trifltiralin
Tnlluralm
Trifluralin
Trifluralin
Trilluralin
Trifluralin
Tnfluralin
Trifluralin
Triazine
Ametryne
Ametryne
Ametryne .
Ametryne
Ametryne .
Ametryne
Ametryne
Ametryne
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine
Prometone
Prometone..
Prometone.
Prometone
Prometone
Prometone .
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
. . . Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical and
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical and
Technical acid
Organism Tested
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Duruliella tertiolecb
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Crassostrea virgmica
Crassostrea virgimca
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone. (p|ib act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment
(mm) in water
2.5X10'
5X10*
2.5XHH
1.X10*
4X10'
2X10'
2.5X10"
2.5X10'
2.5X105
2.5X10'
2X105
2.5X104
2.5X105
5X10=
Ameri an oyster Egg 5.9X10'
Ameri'ian oyster larvae 710
5X10=
2.5X10'
>5X10=
5X10'
4X10'
2.5X10'
.... >5X10S
2 5X10'
20
10
40
40
to
10
10
20
100
100
300
300
100
100
100
200
400
500
2X10'
1.5X10'
1X10'
1X10'
50 percent decrease in Oj evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0: evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0: evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
TLM
TIM
50 percent decrease in 0- evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 > evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0. evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0: evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0: evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in Oi evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0, evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
-------
Appendix III—Table 6/501
Continued
Test Procedure
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mil) alter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) alter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) alter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
48 hr static lab tuoassay
14 day static lab bioassay
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 day.
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) alter
10 days
/
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
TempC
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
24±1
24±1
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Salinity °/oo
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.3-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 160001m 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
None
None
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method1"
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12 "
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method3"
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 1.9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Davis and Hidu ms™
Davis and Hidu 1969'21
Walsh 19723"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh 1972*">
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
. .. Walsh '
Walsh "
/ 0: evolution measured by Gilson Differential Respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 min.
-------
502/'Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6-
Substance Tested
Prometone
Prometone
Simaime
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine .
Simazine
Formulation
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Organism Tested
Pbaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone, (ppb act. ingred.)
(mm) in water
100
250
2.5X10'
2X10'
4X10'
5X10'
600
500
600
500
Methods of Assessment
50 percent decrease in DJ evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in jrowlh
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0- evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 0- evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
Herbicides Substituted urea compounds
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron .
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Diuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Fenuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron . .
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
Monuron
. Technical
. Technical
. Technical
Technical
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical
Technical
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical aicd
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
. Technical acid
Technical a~id
Protococcus
Chlorella sp
Dicratena inornata
Nanochlons sp
Chlcrocouum sp
Chlorococcum sp
Cltlorococcum sp
Chlorococcum sp
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunahella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella euchlora
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Monochrysis lutheri
Monochrysis lutheri
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp
Chlorella sp
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella euchlora
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Monochrysis lutheri
Monochrysis lutheri
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Protococcus sp.
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Dunaliella tertioleta
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Dunaliella euchlora
Dunaliella euchlora
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Monochrysis lutheri
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
0.02
4.00
?
(
10
?
20
10
10
20
g
0.4
?
10
10
c
0.02
0.4
. 4.0
10.
10.
2,900
290
2,900
1,000
750
2,000
1,250
1,500
290
1,250
750
290
2,900
290
1,250
750
1.
20
1.
100
100
too
90
150
1
20
100
130
1
90
100
.. 1
20
.52 OPT. DEN. expt/OPT DEN control
.34 OPT DEN. expt/OPT DEN control
32 3 percent decrease (CH:0)x
18.8 decrease (CH20)>
61 percent inhibition of growth
65.6 inhibition (CH20)
50 percent reduction 0- evolution '
50 percent reduction m growth
50 percent reduction 0 • evolution '
50 percent reduction in growth
17. 9 percent decrease (CHjO)x
.44 OPT. DEN. expt/OPT. DEN control
37.4 percent decrease fCH 0)x
50 percent reduction 0:> evolution/
50 percent reduction in growth
35.7 percent decrease (CH-0)
.00 optical density expt/ optical densit
control
.79 OPT. DEN expt/OPT DEN control
.00 OPT. DEN expt/OPT DEN control
50 percent reduction 0» evolution/
50 percent reduction in growth
.33 Opt. Den. Expt/ Opt Den Control
.82 Opt. Den. Expt/Opt Den. Control
.00 Opt. Den. Eipt Oft. Den. Control''
68 percent inhibition of growth
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease in 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in 0 _• evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
.46 Opt. Den. Expt/Opt. Den. Control
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease growth
67 Opt. Den. Expt/Opt. Den. Control
.00 Opt. Den Expt/Opl. Den. Control
.82 Opt. Den. Expt/Opt Den. Control
50 percent decrease 02 evolution
50 percent decrease growth
.90 OD expt/OD control
.00 00 expt/OD control*
.30 OD expt/OD control
54 percent inhibition of growth
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
50 percent decrease 0; evolution
50 percent decrease growth
1.00 00 expt/OD control
.00 00 expt/OD control*
50 percent decrease 02 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
.83 OD expt/OD control
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease in growth
.6500 expt/OD control
.00 OD expt/OD control
' 0: evolution measured with a Gilson differential despirometer on 4 ml of culture in log-phase.
' Cone, which decrease growth by 50-75 percent as determined by Walsh and Grow Diuron 10 ppb; fenuron 1000 ppb; monuron 100 ppb; neburon 30 ppb.
»No growth but organisms viable.
-------
Appendix HI—Table (5/503
Continued
Test Procedure
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as APS. (525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as APS. (525 mu) after
10 days
Measured as APS. (525 mu) after
todays
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10da» growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
today growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
lOday growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
f
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
TempC
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20±.5
20±.5
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20±.5
20
20
20
20
20±.5
20±.5
20±.5
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5=H
20
20
20
20
20
20 5±1
20
20
20.5±1
2u.5±1
20.5±1
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20
20
:0
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
20
20
20.5±1
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
Salinity °/oo
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Other Environmental Criteria
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8 16000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH 7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
PH7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
500 It.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
pH7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7.9-8 1
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
500 ft -c continuous
pH 7. 9-8.1
pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
pH7 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12
pH 7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
pH 7 9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
pH = 7.9-8 1
pH=7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8.1
pH=7 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft -c continuous
pH=7. 9-8.1
pH=7.9-8 1 6000 lux 12/12
500 It.-c continuous
pH=7.9-8 1
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
500 It.-c continuous
500 It.-c continuous
Statistical Evaluation
„
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
»
None
None
Significant at 0.05 level
Significant at 0.05 level
None
Significant at 0.05 level
Litchfield & Wilcoion method1"
"
"
Significant at 0.05 level
None
None
Significant at 0.05 level
Litchfield & Wilcoxon method"'
"
Significant at 0.05 level
None
None
Litchfield and Wilcoion method1"
"
None
None
None
None
Litchfield 8, Wilcoxon method1"
"
"
"
"
None
None
None
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon method1"
"
None
None
None
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method1"
"
"
"
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method1"
"
"
None
Litchfield 8, Wilcoxon Method13'
"
None
None
Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh and Grow 1971="
Walsh and Grow 1971S«
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Ukeles'"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh and Grow 1971">
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh '
Walsh "
Walsh 1972s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh and Grow 1971s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972s"
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
-------
504/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 6~
Substance Tested
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Neburon
Bactencides, Fungicides
Nematocides, and misc.
Aroclor
Aroclor
Aroclor
Aroclor
Aroclor
Chloramphenicol
Chloramphenico!
Delrad
Delrarl
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide A
Dowacide G
Dowacide G
Giseofulvm
Giseofulvm
Lignasan
Lignasan
Lignasan
Lignasan
Lignasan
Nabam
Nabam
Nabam
Nabam
Natam
Nabam
Nabam
Nabam
Nemagon®
Nemagon®
Nitrofurazone
Nitrofurazone
Omazene
Omazene
Omazene
Omazene
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitrilotnacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitrilotnacetic acid
Nitrilotnacetic acid .
Nitnlotriacetic acid .
Nitrilotnacetic acid .
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Formulation
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
Technical acid
1254
1254
1254
1254
1254
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
97 percent
6. 25 percent
6. 25 percent
6. 25 percent
6. 25 percent
6. 25 percent
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Mononydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Organism Tested
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Chlorococcum sp
Chlorococcum sp
Dunahella tertiolecta
Punahella terlio lecta
Dunaliella euchlora
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis galbana
Monochrysis lutheri
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Tetrahymena pynformis
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus duorarum
Leiostomus xanthurus
Lagodon rhomboides
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Crassostrea virgmica
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp.
Dunahella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Mercenana mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenana mercenaria
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp.
Dunahella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Protococcus sp
Chlorella sp
Dunahella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tncornutum
Monochrysis luthen
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Crassostrea virgmica
Mercenana mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria mercenaria
Crassostrea virgmica
Cfassostrea virgmica
Cyclotella nana
Tisbe lurcata
Acartia clausi
Trignopusjapomcus
Pseudodiaptimus coronatus
Eurjtemora atoms
Nereis virens
Common Name
Pink s'uimp
Pmksmmp
Spot
Pmlist
Hard clam
Hard [lam
Hard [lam
American oyster
Hard i lam
Hard Ham
Hard Ham
Hard i lam
Hard tlam
Hard Mam
Hard clam
Hard clam
American oyster
Hard clam
Hard cam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
American oyster
American oyster
.Crabzuea
Sand worm
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
Log-phase
25-38
95-125
24
30
Egg
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Eggs
Larvae
Eggs
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Ett
Larvae
Adult
Cone. (p|in act. ingred.)
in water
40
40
30
20
30
20
40
40
20
30
40
40
40
30
10
0.94
3.5
5
5
7.429X1IH
5.XW
72
31
2.5X10*
5X10*
5XW
2.5X10'
2.5X10*
1X10'
750
<250
<250
<250
<1.X10!
6
6
6
0.6
6
1X10'
1X103
100
1X10'
100
<500
1.75X10'
<500
1X10<
780
>1X10*
>1X10*
81
378
78
340
5X10'
2.7X10'
1.35X10'
3.2X10'
7X105
1.25X10'
1.65X10"
5.5X10"
Methods of Assessment
.41 OD expt/OD control
.31 OD expt/OD control
68 percent inhibition in growth
50 percent decrease 0- evolution
50 percent decrease growth
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease growth
.47 OD expt/OD control
50 percent decrease 0 : evolution
50 percent decrease growth
.00 OD expt/OD control
.10 00 expt/OD contiol
50 percent decrease 0 evolution
50 percent decrease growth
13.30 percent decrease in population si;
measure at 540 mM
51 percent mortality
50 percent mortality
50 percent mortality
50 percent mortality
TLM
TIM
TIM
TLM
.75 OD expt/OD control
.74 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.520.0. expt/O.D. control
.480.0. expt/0.0. control
. 22 O.D. expt/O.D. control
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
.000.0. expt/O.D. control
.000.0. expt/O.D. control
.31 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.55 O.D. expt/O.D, control
.00 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.53 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.630.0. expt/O.D. control
.27 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.00 O.D. expt/O.D. control *
.480.0. expt/O.D. control
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TIM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
38 percent growth as compared to control
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
*No growth but organisms viable.
-------
Appemhx III—Table 6/505
Continued
Test Procedure
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
f
10 day growth test
/
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
. /
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
/
10 day growth test
Temp C
20 5±1
20.5±1
20
20
20
20
20
20.5±1
20
20
20.5±1
20.5±1
20
20
Salinity °/oo
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Other Environmental Criteria
500 H.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
pH=7.9-8 UOOOIUX12/12
pH=7. 9-8.1
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
pH=7.9-8 1
pH=7. 9-8. 16000 lux 12/12
500 II. -c continuous
pH=7.9-8 1
pH=7.9-8 16000 lux 12/12^
500 ft.-c continuous
500 ft.-c continuous
pH=7.9-8.1
pH=7 9-8.16000 lux 12, 12
Statistical Evaluation
None
None
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon method117
"
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon method3"
"
None
None
Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method131
None
Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 19623"
Walsh and Grow 19713<»
Walsh 1972'"
Walsh "
Walsh "
Walsh "
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 19723"
Walsh "
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962s"
Walsh 1972"«
Walsh "
96 hr static lab bioassay
15 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-
water
35 day chronic exposure m flowing sea-
water
18 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-
water
12 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-
water
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
W day growth test
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr state lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
48 hr static lab bioasssy
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
72 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab hioassay
26
29
20
11-18
16-22
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20 E±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24 ±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20
15(T)
15(t)
15(1)
15(1)
15(1)
15(1)
20
0 Grown in Tetrahymena broth
32
28
16-32
20-32
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-2D
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
32 250 ft-c 14 hrs on/10 hrs off
30
30
30
30
30
30
20
Decrease significant at 0.05 level
Significant at 005 level
Significant at 0.001 level
Significant at 0.05 level 46 ppm
13ppm
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Cooley and Keltner (unpublished)"0
Nimmo et al. (unpublished)"'
Nimmo et al. (unpublished)355
Hansenetal. 1971s32
Hansenetal 19711"
Davis and Hidu 1969121
Davis and Hidu 1969321
Davis and Hidu 1969s21
Davis and Hidu 1969'-"'
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 1962'"
Davis and Hidu 19693-1
Davis and Hidu 1969!21
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969321
Davis and Hidu 1969™
Davis and Hidu 1969 ''
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukelesl962>"
Ukeles 19621"
Ukeles 1962";
Ukeles 1962 "•
Ukeles 1962
Ukeles 1962'"
Ukeles 1962
Davis and Hidu 1969 >->
Davis and Hidu 1969"'
Davis and Hidu 1969 '
Davis and Hidu 1969 '-'
Davis and Hidu 1969"1
Davis and Hidu 1969-
Davis and Hidu 1969 ''
Davis and Hidu 1969'-"
Davis and Hidu 1969T'1
Davis and Hidu 19693-1
Davis and Hidu 1969 <-<
Enckson et al. 1970331
NMWQL197015'
NMWQL19703"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL1970'«
NMWQL19703"
NMWQL19TO'"
NMWQL19703"
• 0. evolution measured with a Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log-phase.
-------
506/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE
Substance Tested
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid .
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitnlofriacetic aciif
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid -
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlotnacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitnlotriacetic acid
Nitnlatnacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phenol
Phygon®
Phygon®
Phygon®
Phygon®
PVP-lodme
PVP-lodme
PVP-lodme
PVP-lodme
PVP-lodme
Formulation
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium sal!
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Monohydrated sodium salt
Organism Tested
Nereis virens
Palaemonetes vulgans
Palaemonetes vulgans
Palaemonetes vulgans
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setilerus
Homarusamencanus
Homarus amencanus
Homarus amencanus
Uca pugilator
Uca pugilator
Pagurus longicarpus
Pagurus longicarpus
Nassa obsoleta
Nassa obsoleta
Mytilus edulis
Mytilus eduhs
Mercenary mercenary
Mercenana mercenary
Astenas forbesi
Astenas forbesi
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Stenotomus chrysops
Stenotomus chrysops
Roans saxatilis
Rocms saxatilis
Roccus saxatilis
Roccus saxatilis
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp.
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Crassostrea virgmica
Mercenana mercenary
Mercenana mercenaria
Mercenana mercenaria
Mercenana mercenaria
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgmica
Protococcus sp.
Chlorella sp.
Dunaliella euchlora
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Monochrysis lutheri
Common Name
Sand wtrm
Grass shrimp
Grass shrimp
Grass slmmp
White shrimp
White shrimp
American lobster
American lobster
American lobster
Fiddler ;rab
Fiddler :rab
Hermit :rab
Hermit :rab
Oyster
Mud snail
Mud snul
Bay muisel
Bay muisel
Hard dim
Hard dim
Starfish
Staifish
Mummchog
Mummishog
Mummijhog
SCUD
Scup
Striped bass
Striped bass
Striped bass
Striked bass
American oyster
Hard cl.im
Hard cl.im
Hard dim
Hard dim
American oyster
Amencen oyster
Lite Stage or Siz
(mm)
Adult
Adult
Adult
Sub-adult
Sub-adult
Sub-adult
(292 grams)
Sub-adult
(292 grams)
First larval stage
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Larvae
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Sub-adult
Sub-adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Sub-adult
Sub-adult
Juvenile (65 mm)
Juvenile (65 mm)
Juvenile (63 mm)
Juvenile (65 mm)
Egg
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
e Cone, (ppb act. ii
in water
5.5X10"
4.1X10«
1.8X10"
1 OX10«
1X10'
5X10'>
3.8X10"
3 15X10'
1X10-'
1X10'
1X10"
5.5X10"
1 8X10«
3.5X10'
5.5X10«
5.1X10"
6 1X10"
3.4X10"
>1X10!
>1X10'
3X10"
3X10'
5.5X10"
5 5X10"
1X101
3 15X10"
3 15X10«
5.5X10"
5.5X10"
3X10«
10X10"
3X10'
3X10*
1X105
1X10-
1X105
5.825X10'
5.263X101
5.5X10'
14
1.75XW
14
41
1 X10=
2X10'
5X101
5XW
5X10i
igred.) Methods of Assessment
TL-50
H-50
TL-50
subjected to histopathologic examination
78 percent mortality
90 percent mortality
TL-50
TL-50
100 percent mortality
25 percent mortality
46 percent mortality
TL-50
TL-50
46 percent mortality
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
Examined lor histopathology
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-50
TL-100, Histopathology
TL-0
.5900. expt/O.D. control
.63 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.51 O.D. expt/O.D. control
".000.0. expt/O.D. control
'•.00 O.D. eipt O.D. control
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
.59 O.D. expt/O.D. control
.65 O.D. expt/O.D. control
».OOO.D. expt/O.D. control
'•.00 O.D. eipt 0.0. control
. 61 O.D. expt/O.D. control
1 No growth but organisms viable.
-------
Appendix III—Table 6/507
Continued
Test Procedure
168 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
166 hr static lab bioassay
22 day chronic flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
7 day static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
45 day chronic flowing lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
1S8 hr static lab bioassay
24 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
96 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
168 hr static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
48 hr static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
10 day growth test
TempC
20
20
20
20
18-24
20
20
20
20
ambient
20
ambient
18-24
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20.5=1=1
205±1
20.5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
24±1
24±1
24i1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
20 5±1
20 5±1
20.5±1
20.5±1
20.5t1
Salinity °/o
20
20
20
20
30
30
20
20
20
30
24-30
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
22-28
o Other Environmental Criteria
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg/l; pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg 1; pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg/l; pH 7. 8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4mg'l, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg 1, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg 1, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg 1, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg.lpH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O ca
4 mg 1 pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4mg lpH7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg 1, pH7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg 1, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4 mg 1, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg,l, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O ca
4 mg 1, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D 0 ca
4mg,l, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4 mg/l, pH7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg 1, pH7.8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4mg.l,pH7.8
Subdued natural light D 0. ca
4 mg/l, pH 7 8
Subdued natural light D.O. ca
4 mg/l; pH 7 8
No
No
No
Nc
No
No
No
Nc
Nc
No
No
Nc
No
No
No
No
Nc
Statistical Evaluation
Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters
Reference
Digestive diverticulata histopathology
Intestinal
Pathology
Renal
Pathology
NMWQL 1970*"
NMWQL1970"4
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970'"
NMWQL 1970"4
NMWQL 19703'4
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s1'
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970™
NMWQL 1970SS1
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970™
NMWQL 1970™
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970 <"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s3'
NMWQL 1970!S1
NMWQL 1970SS<
NMWQL 19703S4
NMWQL 1970"
NMWQL 1970s"
NMWQL 1970s3'
NMWQL 1970'"
NMWQL 1970»<
NMWQL 1970s"
Ukeles 1962"'
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962347
Ukeles 1962s"
Davis and Hidu I9693-'
Davis and Hidu 1969324
Davis and Hidu 1969s"4
Davis and Hidu 19693»*
Davis and Hidu 1969321
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Ukeles 19623"
Ukeles 1962"7
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962s"
Ukeles 1962-
-------
508/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE
Substance Tested Formulation
PVP-lodme
PVP-Iodme
Roccal®
Rocw!®
Sulmet Tinted
Sulmet Tinted
TCC
TCC
TCP
TCP
Organism Tested
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenary mcrcenaria
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria meicenaria
Mercenaria mercenana
Mercenaria mercenana
Crassostrea virgimca
Crassostrea virgimca
Common Name
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
Hard clam
American oyster
American oyster
Life Stage or Size
(mm)
Egg
Larvae
Eg!
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Cone, (ppli act. ingred.)
in water
1.71X10'
3.494X10'
190
140
1X10*
1X10'
32
37
600
1X103
Methods of Assessment
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
TLM
-------
Appendix III—Table 6/509
Continued
Test Procedure
46 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
12 day static lab bioassay
48 hr static lab bioassay
14 day static lab bioassay
Temp C Salinity "on Other Environmental Criteria
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
24±1
Statistical Evaluation
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Residue levels tug kg Other Parameters Reference
Davis and Hidu 1969™
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969';'
Davis and Hidu 1969121
Davis and Hidu1969M4
Davis and Hidu 1969'-='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
Davis and Hidu 1969'='
-------
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-------
512/Appendix HI—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
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282 Holtzman, R. B. (1969), Concentrations of the naturally occurri
radionuclides 226Ra, 210Pb, and 210Po in aquatic fauna, in P.
ceedings of the 2nd national symposium on radioecology, D. J. Nels<
and F. C. Evans, eds. [USAEC Conf. 670503] (National Tec
nical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia), pp. 535-546
283 Hoss, D. E. (1964), Accumulation of 65An by flounder of the gen
Parahchthya. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(4) :364-368.
284 Ichikawa, R. (1961), On the concentration factors of some ii
portant radionuclides in marine food organisms. Bull. Jap. S
Sci. Fish. 27:66-74.
285 Jenkins, C. E. (1969). Radionuclide distribution in Pacific salmo
Health Phys. 1 7(3) :507-512.
286Johnels, A. G., T. Westermark, W. Berg, P. I. Persson, and
Sjostrand (1967), Pike (Esox lucius L.) and some other aquai
organisms in Sweden as indicators of mercury contamination
the environment. Oikos 18(2) :323-333.
287 Joyner, T. (1961), Exchange of zinc with environmental solutio
by the brown bullhead. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90:444-448.
288 Joyner, T. and R. Eisler (1961), Retention and translocation
radioactive zinc by salmon fingerlings. Growth 25(i'):151-15(i.
289 Korpincnikov, V S., A. N. Svttovidov and T. S. Trosin (195f
Absorption and output of radioactive calcium by Daphnia cych
and guppies. C. R. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 110:1122-1125; Nutr. Abs
Rev. 27:869.
290 Kovalsky, V. V., I. E. Vorotnitskaya, and V. S. Lekarev (196/
Biogeochemical food chains of uranium in aquatic and terraneo
organisms, in Radioecological concentration processes, B. Aberg ai
F. P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon Press, New York), pp. 329-331
291 Lloyd, R. (1960), Toxicity of zinc sulfate to rainbow trout. An
Appl. Biol. 48:84-94.
292 Mehran, A. R. and J. L. Tremblay (1965), [Metabolism of zii
by Littorina obtusata L. and Fucus edenlatus.} Rev. Can. Biol. 24(3
157-161.
293 Merlini, M. (1967), The freshwater clam as a biological indicator
radiomanganese, in Radioecological concentration processes, B. Abei
and F. P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon Press, New York), pp. 97 /
982.
284 Mount, D. I. and C. E. Stephan (1967), A method for detectir
cadmium poisoning in fish. J. Wildlife Manage. 31(1):168-172.
296 Palmer, H. E., and T. M. Beasley (1967), 56Fe in the marine ei
-------
Literature Cited/517
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296 Pohkarpov, G. G., Yu. P. Zaitscv, G. V. Barinov, and V. P.
Parchevsky (1967), General features of the concentration processes
of radioactive substances by hydrobionts in different seas of the
world ocean, in Radwecological concentration processes, B. Aberg and
F. P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon Press, New York), pp. 771-790.
297 preston, A (1967), The concentration of 66Zn in the flesh of oysters
related to the discharge of cooling pond effluent from the C.E.G.B.
nuclear power station at Bradwell-on-Sea, Essex, in Radwecological
concentration processes, B. Aberg and F P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon
Press, New York), pp. 995-1004
298 Regnier, J E (196r)), Qnc-65 uptake in a two-step marine food chain
(Ph.D. dissertation] University of Florida, Gainesville, 175 p.
298 Renfro, W. C and C. Osterberg (1969), Radiozinc decline in starry
flounders after temporary shutdown of Hanford reactors, in
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and F. C. Evans, eds. fUASEC Conf. 670503] (National technical
Information Service, Springfield, Virginia), pp. 372-379
300 Rosenthal, H. L (1957), The metabolism of strontium-90 and cal-
cium-45 by Lebistes. Bwl. Bull 11 3.442-450.
301 Rosenthal, H. L. (1963), Uptake, turnover, and transport of bone-
seeking elements in fishes. Ann. \ew York Acad Set. 109(1) :278—
293.
302 Saiki, M and T. Mori (1955), [Studies on the distribution of ad-
ministered radioactive zinc in the tissues of fishes]. Bull. Jap. Soc.
Sa Fish. 21(8):945-949.
303 Salo, E O. and W. L. Leet (1969), The concentration of 65Zn by
oysters maintained in the discharge canal of a nuclear power
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304 Sathcr, B T. (1967), Chromium absorption and metabolism by the
crab, Podophthalnius vigil, in Radwecological concentration processes,
B Aberg and F. P. Hungate, eds. (Pergamon Press, New York),
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306 Swift, E. and W. R. Taylor (1960), Uptake and release of ealcium-
45 by Fucus vesiculosus Biol. Bull 1 19:342.
306 Taylor, W. R. and E. P. Odum (1960), Uptake of iron-59 by marine
benthic algae. Bwl. Bull. 119:343.
307Vogel, F. S. (1959), The deposition of exogenous copper under
experimental conditions with observations on its neurotoxic and
nephrotoxic properties in relation to Wilson's disease. Journal of
Experimental Medicine 110(5) :801-81().
308 Welander, A. D. (1969), Distribution of radionuclides in the en-
vironment of Em'wetok and Bikini Atolls, August, 1964, in Pro-
ceedings of {he 2nd national symposium on radioecology, D. J. Nelson and
F. C. Evans, eds [USAEC Conf. 670503] (National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, Virginia), pp 346-354.
309 White, G. F. and A. Thomas (1912), Studies on the absorption of
metallic salts by fish in their natural habitat I. Absoiption of
copper by Fundulus heterochtus. J. Bwl. Chern 11 :381-386.
310 Wiser, C. W. and I). J. Nelson (1964), Uptake and elimination of
eobalt-60 by crayfish. Amer. Midland \atur. 72(1): 181-202.
311 Wolfe, D. A. (1970), Levels of stable zinc and 657n in Crassostrea
virgimca from North Carolina. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 27(1):
47-57.
TABLE IV
312 British Ministry Agriculture Fisheries and Food (1956), Copper in
foods. Revised recommendations for limits. Chemical Age 74:485.
313 Department of National Health and Welfare (1971), Food and Drug
Directorate, Government of Canada.
314 Food Standards Committee for England and Wales (1959). Arsenic
in food regulations, 1959. Chem. and Industry (Brit.) p. 726
315 Kirkor, T. (1951), Protecting public waters from pollution in the
U.S.S.R. Sewage Indust. Wastes 23(7) :938-940.
316 U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and
Drug Administration (1971), Code of Federal Regulations.
311 U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public
Health Service (1962), The Public Health Service drinking water
standards, rev. 1962 [PHS Pub. 956] (Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.), 61 p.
sis World Health Organization (1958), International standards for drink-
ing-water, 2nd ed. (Geneva), 206 p.
319 World Health Organization (1961), European standards for drinking
water (World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland).
TABLE V
320 U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (1971),
Current Industrial Reports Inorganic chemicals. 1969 M 28A
(69)-14, 28 p.
TABLE VI
321 Buchanan, D. V., R. E. Milleman and N. E. Stewart (1969), Effects
of the insecticide Sevin® on survival and growth of the Dungeness
crab Cancer magister J. Fish Res. Bd. Canada 26.
322 Butler, P. A., R. E. Milleman, and N. E Stewart (1968), Effects of
insecticide Sevin on survival and growth of the cockle clam
Chnocardium miltalli. Journal Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 25:1631-1635.
323 Chin, E. and D. M. Allen (1957), Toxicity of an insecticide to two
species of shrimp, Penaeus a.ztecus and Penaeus setiferus. Texas J. Sci.
9(3):270-278.
324 Davis, H. C. and H. Hidu (1969), Effects of pesticides on embryonic
development of clams and oysters and on survival and growth of
the larvae. Fish. Bull. 67(2) :383-404.
326 Derby, S B. (Sleeper) and E Ruber (1971), Primary production:
depression of oxygen evolution in algal cultures by organophos-
phorus insecticides. Bull. Environ. Contam. Tixocol. 5(6):553-558.
326 Eisler, R. (1966), Effects of apholate, an insect sterilant, on an
estuarine fish, shrimp, and gastropod. Progr. Fish-Cult. 28(2)'154-
158.
327 Eisler, R. (1969), Acute toxicitics of insecticides to marine decapod
crustaceans. Crustaceana 16(3) :302-310.
328 Eisler, R. (1970a), Factors affecting pesticide-induced toxicity in an
estuarine fish [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife technical
paper 45] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 20 p.
329 Eisler, R. (1970b), Acute toxicities of organochlorme and organophosphor us
insecticides to estuarine fishes [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
technical paper 46] (Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.), 12 p.
380 EisSer, R. (1970c), Latent effects of insecticide intoxication to
marine molluscs. Hydrobiologia 36(3/4) :345-352.
331 Erickson, S. J., T. E^ Maloney, and J. H. Gentile (1970), Effect of
nitrilotriacetie acid on the growth and metabolism of estuarine
phytoplankton J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 42(8 part 2) :R329-
R335.
332 Hansen, D. J., P. R. Parrish, J. I. Lowe, A. J. Wilson, Jr., and
P. D. Wilson (1971), Chronic toxicity, uptake, and retention of a
polychlorinated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254) in two estuarine fishes.
Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6(2) :113-119.
333 Katz, M. (1961), Acute toxicity of some organic insecticides to
three species of salmonids and to the three-spine stickleback.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90(3):264-268.
334 Katz, M. and G. G. Chadwick (1961), Toxicity of endrin to some
Pacific Northwest fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90(4):394-397.
336 Lane, C. E. and R. J. Livingston (1970), Some acute and chronic
-------
518/Appendix III—Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
effects of dieldrin on the sailfin molly, Poecilia latipinna. Trans
Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3):489^95.
336 Lane, C. E. and E. D. Scura (1970), Effects of dieldrin on glutamic
oxaloacetic transaminase in Poecilia latipinna. J. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 27(10) :1869-1871.
337 Litchfield, J. T. and F. Wilcoxon (1947), A simplified method of
evaluating dose-effect experiments. J. Pharmacol. Exp. 1 her. 96:
99-113.
338 Lowe, J. I. (1965), Some effects of endrin on estuarine fishes. Proc.
Southeast Ass. Game Fish Commissioners 19:271 -276.
339 Lowe, J. I. (196_7), Effects of prolonged exposure to Sevin on an
estuarine fish, Leiostomus xanthurus Lacepede. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 2(3):147-155.
340 Lowe, J. I., P. R. Parrish, A. J. Wilson, Jr., P. D. Wilson, and
T. W. Duke (197la), Effects of mirex on selected estuarine orga-
nisms, in Transactions of the 36th North American wildhje and natural
resources conference, J. B. Trefethen, ed. (Wildlife Management
Institute, Washington, D.C.) vol. 36, pp 171-186.
341 Lowe, J. I., P. D. Wilson, A. J. Rick, and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (1971b),
Chronic exposure of oysters to DDT, toxaphene and parathion.
Proc. Nat Shellfish Ass. 61:71-79.
342 Mahood, R. K., M. D. McKenzie, D. P. Middaugh, S. J. Bollar,
J. R. Davis and D. Spitsbergen (1970), A report on the cooperative
blue crab study—South Atlantic states (U. S. Department of the
Interior, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries), 32 p.
343 Millemann, R. E. (1969), Effects of Dursban on shiner perch, in
Effects of pesticides on estuarine organisms [Progress report, res. grant
5 Rol CC 00303] U. S. Public Health Service, National Com-
municable Disease Center, pp. 63-76.
344 NMWQL (1970), National Marine Water Quality Laboratory, An
evaluation of the toxicity of nitrilotriacetic acid to marine
organisms. Progress report F.W.Q.A. Project 18080 GJ4.
346Nimmo, D. R., A. J. Wilson, Jr. and R. R. Blackman (1970),
Localization of DDT in the body organs of pink and white
shrimp. Bulletin oj Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
5(4):333-341.
346 Stewart, N. E., R. E. Millemann, and W. P. Breese (1967), Acul
toxicity of the insecticide Sevin and its hydrolytic product '
Naphtol to some marine organisms. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 96(1]
25-30.
347 Ukelcs, R. (1962), Growth of pure cultures of marine phytoplankto
in the presence of toxicants. Appl. Microbiol. 10(6) :532-537.
348 Walsh, G. E. (1972), Effects of herbicides on photosynthesis an
growth of marine unicellular algae. Hyacinth Control J. 10:45-48
349 Walsh, G. E. and T. E. Grow (1971), Depression of carbohydral
in marine algae by urea herbicides Weed Set. 19(5) 56!i-r)7().
References Cited
350 Cooley, N. R. and J Keltner unpublished data from Gulf Breez
Laboratory, Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breez<
Florida.
361 Cooley, N. R., J. Keltner and J. Forester, unpublished data froi
Gulf Breeze Laboratory, Environmental Protection Agcnq
Gulf Breeze, Florida
362 Goppagc, D. L. unpublished, Organophosphate Pesticides: Specif
level of brain AChE inhibition related to death in Sheepshea
minnows, (submitted to Trans. Amer. Fish Soc.)
353 Earnest, R., unpublished data (1971), Effects of pesticides on aqual
animals in the estuarine and marine environment, in Annv,
Progress Report 1970 (Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory, Bu
Sport Fish. Wildl. U. S. Dcpt. Interior, Columbia, Mo.)
364 Earnest, R. D. and P. Benville, unpublished, Acute toxieity of foi
organochlorine insecticides to two species of surf perch. Unpul
hshed data Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory; Bureau Spoi
Fisheries and Wildlife; U. S. D. I.; Columbia, Missouri.
365 Nimmo, D. R., R. R. Blackman, A. J. Wilson, Jr., and J. Foreste
unpublished data, Toxicity and distribution of Aroclor® 1254 i
pink shrimp (Penaeus duorarum). Gulf Breeze Laboratory, Ei
vironmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, Florida.
-------
GLOSSARY
absorption penetration of one substance into the
body of another.
acclimation the process of adjusting to change, e.g.
temperatures, in an environment.
acute involving a stimulus severe enough to rapidly
induce a response; in bioassay tests, a response ob-
served within 96 hours typically is considered an acute
one.
adsorption the taking up of one substance at the
surface of another.
aerobic the condition associated with the presence of
free oxygen in an environment.
aerobe an organism that can live and grow only in
the presence of free oxygen.
allocthanous said of food material reaching an aquatic
community from the outside in the form of organic
detritus.
alluvial transported and deposited by running water.
amoebiasis an infection caused by amoebas, especially
by Entamoeba histolytica.
amphoteric able to react as either acid or base.
anadromous fish fish that typically inhabit seas or
lakes but ascend streams at more or less regular inter-
vals to spawn; e.g., salmon, steelhead, or American
shad.
anaerobic the condition associated with the lack of
free oxygen in an environment.
anaerobe an organism for whose life processes a com-
plete or nearly complete absence of oxygen is essential.
anhydremia a deficiency of water in the blood.
anorexia loss of appetite.
anoxic depleted of free oxygen; anaerobic.
antagonism the power of one toxic substance to di-
minish or eliminate the toxic effect of another; inter-
actions of organisms growing in close association, to
the detriment of at least one of them.
application factor a factor applied to a short-term or
acute toxicity test to estimate a concentration of waste
that would be safe in a receiving water.
assimilation the transformation and incorporation of
substances (e.g., nutrients) by an organism or ecosys-
tem.
backwashing cleaning a filter or ion exchanger by re-
versing the flow of liquid through it and washing out
captured matter.
benthic aquatic bottom-dwelling organisms including:
(1) sessile animals, such as the sponges, barnacles,
mussels, oysters, some worms, and many attached
algae; (2) creeping forms, such as insects, snails, and
certain clams; and (3) burrowing forms which include
most clams and worms.
bioaccumulation uptake and retention of environ-
mental substances by an organism from its environ-
ment, as opposed to uptake from its food.
bioassay a determination of the concentration or dose
of a given material necessary to affect a test organism
under stated conditions.
biomass the living weight of a plant or animal popula-
tion, usually expressed on a unit area basis.
biotic index a numerical index using various aquatic
organisms to determine their degree of tolerance to
differing water conditions.
biotoxin toxin produced by a living organism; the
biotoxin which causes paralytic shellfish poisoning is
produced by certain species of dinoflagellate algae.
black liquor waste liquid remaining after digestion of
rags, straw, and pulp.
bloom an unusually large number of organisms per
unit of water, usually algae, made up of one or a few
species; a bur of iron or steel, square or slightly oblong,
rolled from an ingot to a size intermediate between an
ingot and a billet, generally in the range of 6"X6"
to 10"XI2" (Section VI).
blowdown the discharge of water from a boiler or
cooling tower to dispose of accumulated salts.
body burden the total amount of a substance present
in the body tissues and fluids of an organism.
boiler feedwater water provided to a boiler for con-
version to steam in the steam generation process;
usually a mixture of make-up water and returned steam
condensate.
buffer capacity the ability of a solution to maintain
its pH when stressed chemically.
capillary water the water held in the small pores of a
519
-------
520/Water Quality Criteria 1972
soil, usually with a tension greater than 60 centimeters
of water.
carrying capacity the maximum biomass that a sys-
tem is capable of supporting continuously (Section
IV); the number of user-use periods that a recreation
resource can provide in a given time span without ap-
preciable biological or physical deterioration of that
resource, or without appreciable impairment of the
recreation experience for the majority of the users
(Section I).
catadromous fish fishes that feed and grow in fresh
water but return to the sea to spawn, e.g., the American
eel.
chelate to combine with a metal ion and hold it in
solution preventing it from forming an insoluble salt.
chemotaxis orientation or movement of a living
organism in response to a chemical gradient.
chronic involving a stimulus that lingers or continues
for a long period of time, often one-tenth of the life
span or more.
climax community the stage of ecological develop-
ment at which a community becomes stable, self-
perpetuating, and at equilibrium with the environment.
coagulation a water treatment process in which chem-
icals are added to combine with or trap suspended and
colloidal particles to form rapidly settling aggregates.
coliform bacteria a group of bacteria inhabiting the
intestines of animals including man, but also found
elsewhere. It includes all the aerobic, nonspore form-
ing, rod-shaped bacteria that produce from lactose
fermentation within 48 hours at 37 C.
colloid very small particles (10 anistroms to 1 micron)
which tend to remain suspended and dispersed in
liquids.
colluvial material that has moved down hill by the
force of gravity or frost action and local wash and ac-
cumulated on lower slopes or at the bottom of the hill.
conjunctivitis an inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane that lines the inner surface of the eyelid and the
exposed surface of the eyeball.
conservative pollutant a pollutant that is relatively
persistant and resistant to degradation, such as PCB
and most chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides.
cumulative brought about or increased in strength by
successive additions.
demersal living or hatching on the bottom, as fish eggs
than sink to the bottom.
detritus unconsolidated sediments comprised of both
inorganic and dead and decaying organic material.
diurnal occurring once a day, i.e., with a variation
period of 1 day; occurring in the daytime or during a
day.
diversity the abundance in numbers of species in a
specified location.
dredge spoils the material removed from the botto-
during dredging operations.
drench to administer orally with water a large dose of
substance such as medicine to an animal.
dystrophic said of brownwater lakes a ad strear
usually with a low lime content and a high organ
content; often lacking in nutrients.
emesis the act of vomiting.
enteric of or originating in the intestinal tract.
epilimnion the surface waters in a thermally stratifu
body of water; these waters are characteristically wt
mixed.
epiphytic living on the surface of other plants.
euphotic zone the lighted region that extends ve
tically from the water surface to the level at whk
photosynthesis fails to occur because of ineffective ligl
penetration.
eutrophic abundant in nutrients and having high rat
of productivity frequently resulting in oxygen depletic
below the surface layer.
evapotranspiration the combined loss of water froi
a given area during a specified period of time 1;
evaporation from the soil or water surface and 1;
transpiration from plants.
exchange capacity the total ionic charge of the ac
sorption complex active in the adsorption of ions.
exophthalmos an abnormal protrusion of the eyebal
external treatment passage of water through equij
ment such as a filter or \vater softener to meet desire
quality requirements prior to point of use.
facultative able to live under different conditions, ,
in facultative aerobes and facultative anaerobes.
fecal coliform bacteria bacteria of the coliform grou
of fecal origin (from intestines of warm-blooded an
mals) as opposed to coliforms from non-fecal sources.
filial generation the offspring of a cross mating.
finfish that portion of the aquatic community made u
of the true fishes as opposed to invertebrate shellfisl
flocculation the process by which suspended colloid,
or very fine particles are assembled into larger massi
or floccules which eventually settle out of suspensioi
the stirring of water after coagulant chemicals ha\
been added to promote the formation of particles th;
will settle (Section II).
food chain the transfer of food energy from plants c
organic detritus through a series of organisms, usuall
four or five, consuming and being consumed.
food web the interlocking pattern formed by a serif
of interconnecting food chains.
free residual chlorinatioii chlorination that main
tains the presence of hypochlorous acid (HOC1) c
hypochlorite ion (OC1~) in water.
fry the stage in the life of a fish between the hatching c
the egg and the absorption of the yolk sac (Section
-------
Glossary / ^\
III and IV); in a broader sense, all immature stages
of fishes.
groundwood the raw material produced from both
logs and chips, used mainly in the manufacture of
newsprint, toweling, tissue, wallpaper, and coated
specialty papers.
half-life the period of time in which a substance loses
half of its active characteristics (used especially in
radiological work); the time required to reduce the
concentration of a material by half.
hemostasis the cessation of the flow of blood in the
circulatory system.
histopathologic occurring in tissue due to a diseased
condition.
hydrophobic unable to combine with or dissolve in
water.
hydrophytic growing in or in close proximity to
water; e.g., aquatic algae and emergent aquatic vascu-
lar plants.
hypertrophy nontumorous increase in the size of an
organ as a result of enlargement of constituent cells
without an increase in their number.
hypolimnion the region of a body of water that ex-
tends from below the thermocline to the bottom of the
lake; it is thus removed from much of the surface
influence.
internal treatment treating water by addition of
chemicals to meet desired quality requirements at
point of use or within a process.
intraperitoneal into the abdominal cavity.
kraf t process producing pulp from wood chips in the
manufacture of paper products; involves cooking the
chips in a strong solution of caustic soda and sodium
sulfidc.
labile unstable and likely to change under certain in-
fluences.
LC50 see median lethal concentration.
LD50 see median lethal dose.
lentic or lenitic environment standing water and
its various intergrades; e.g., lakes, ponds, and swamps.
leptospirosis a disease of animals or man caused by
infection from an organism of the genus Leptospira.
lethal involving a stimulus or effect causing death
directly.
life cycle the series of life stages in the form and mode
of life of an organism, i.e., between successive recur-
rences of a certain primary stage such as the spore,
fertilized egg, seed, or resting cell.
limnetic zone the open-water region of a lake, sup-
porting plankton and fish as the principal plants and
animals.
lipophilic having an affinity for fats or other lipids.
littoral zone the shallow shoreward region of a body
of water having light penetration to the bottom; fre-
quently occupied by rooted plants.
littoral zone the shoreward or coastal region of a
body of water.
lotic environment running waters, such as streams or
rivers.
lysimeter a device to measure the quantity or rate of
water movement through or from a block of soil,
usually undisturbed and in situ, or to collect such perco-
lated water for quality analysis.
macronutrient a chemical element necessary in large
amounts, usually greater than 1 ppm, for the growth
and development of plants.
macrophyte the larger aquatic plants, as distinct from
the microscopic plants, including aquatic mosses, liver-
worts and larger algae as well as vascular plants; no
precise toxonomic meaning; generally used synony-
mously with aquatic vascular plants in this Report.
make-up water water added to boiler, cooling tower,
or other systems to maintain the volume of water re-
quired.
marl an earthy, unconsolidated deposit formed in fresh-
water lakes, consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate
mixed with clay or other impurities in varying propor-
tions.
median lethal concentration (LC50) the concen-
tration of a test material that causes death to 50 per cent
of a population within a given time period.
median lethal dose (LD50) the dose of a test ma-
terial, ingested or injected, that kills 50 per cent of a
group of test organisms.
median tolerance limit (TL50) the concentration of
a test material in a suitable diluent (experimental
water) at which just 50 per cent of the test animals are
able to survive for a specified period of exposure.
mercerize to treat cotton thread with sodium hy-
droxide so as to shrink the fiber and increase its color
absorption and luster.
mesotrophic having a nutrient load resulting in
moderate productivity.
metabolites products of metabolic processes.
methemoglobinemia poisoning resulting from the
oxidation of ferrous iron of hemoglobin to the ferric
state where it is unable to combine reversibly with
molecular oxygen; agents responsible include chlorates,
nitrates, ferricyanides, sulfonamides, salicylates, and
various other substances.
methylation combination with the methyl radical
(CH3).
mho a unit of conductance reciprocal to the ohm
micelle an aggregation or cluster of molecules, ions, or
minute submicroscopic particles.
micronutrient chemical element necessary in only
-------
522/Water Quality Criteria 7.972
small amounts for growth and development; also
known as trace elements.
mouse unit the amount of paralytic shellfish poison
that will produce a mean death time of 15 minutes
when administered intraperitoneally to male mice, of
a specific strain, weighing between 18 and 20 grams.
necrosis the death of cellular material within the body
of an organism.
nephrosclerosis a hardening of the tissues of the
kidney.
nitrilotriacetate (NTA) the salt of nitrilotriacetic
acid; has the ability to complex metal ions, and has
been proposed as a builder for detergents.
nonconservative pollutant a pollutant that is
quickly degraded and lacks persistence, such as most
organophosphate insecticides.
nonfouling a property of cooling water that allows it
to flow over steam condenser surfaces without accumu-
lation of impediments.
nonpolar a chemical term for any molecule or liquid
that has a reasonable degree of electrical symmetry
such that there is little or no separation of charge; e.g.,
benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and the lower paraffin
hydrocarbons.
nutrients organic and inorganic chemicals necessary
for the growth and reproduction of organisms.
oligotrophic having a small supply of nutrients and
thus supporting little organic production, and seldom
if every becoming depleted of oxygen.
organoleptic pertaining to or perceived by a sensory
organ.
parr a young fish, usually a salmonid, between the
larval stage and the time it begins migration to the sea.
partition coefficient the ratio of the molecular con-
centration of a substance in two solvents.
pCi—picocurie a measure of radioactivity equivalent
to 3.70X10"2 atoms disintegrating per minute.
pelagic occurring or living in the open ocean.
periphyton associated aquatic organisms attached or
clinging to stems and leaves of rooted plants or other
surfaces projecting above the bottom of a water body.
pesticide any substance used to kill plants, insects,
algae, fungi, and other organisms; includes herbicides,
insecticides, algalcides, fungicides, and other substances.
plankton plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zoo-
plankton), usually microscopic, floating in aquatic
systems such as rivers, ponds, lakes, and seas.
point of supply the location at which water is ob-
tained from a specific source.
point of use the location at which water is actually
used in a process or incorporated into a product.
prime to cause an explosive evolution of steam from a
heating surface, throwing water into a steam space.
process water water that comes in contact with an
end product or with materials incorporated in an er
product.
productivity the rate of storage of organic matter
tissue by organisms including that used by the orga
isms in maintaining themselves.
pycnocline a layer of water that exhibits rapid chanj
in density, analogous to i.hermocline.
psychrophilic thriving; at relatively low temperature
usually at or below 15 C.
recharge to add water to the zone of saturation, as
recharge of an aquifer, the term may also be appli(
to the water added.
refractory resisting ordinary treatment and difficult
degrade.
rip-rapping covering stream banks and dam fac
with rock or other material to prevent erosion fro
water contact.
safety factor a numerical value applied to short-ter
data from other organisms in order to approximate tl
concentration of a substance that will not harm or ir
pair the organism being considered.
sessile organism motionless organisms that reside ir
fixed state, attached or unattached to a substrate.
SCSton suspended particles and organisms betwei
0.0002 and 1 mm in diameter.
shellfish a group of mollusks usually enclosed in a se
secreted shell; includes oysters and clams.
shoal water shallow water.
slaking adding water to lessen the activity of a chemic
reaction.
sludge a solid waste fraction precipitated by a wat
treatment process.
smolt a young fish, usually a salmonid, as it begi
and during the time it makes its seaward migration.
sorption a general terra for the processes ofabsorptit
and adsorption.
species diversity a number which relates the densi
of organisms of each type present in a habitat.
Standing crop biomass the total weight of organist
present at any one time.
Stoichiometric the mass relationship in a chemic
reaction.
Stratification the phenomenon occurring when a bo(
of water becomes divided into distinguishable layers
subacute involving a stimulus not severe enough
bring about a response speedily.
sublethal involving a stimulus below the level th
causes death.
succession the orderly process of community chan;
in which a sequence of communities replaces 01
another in a given area until a climax community
reached.
sulfhemoglobin the reaction product of oxyhemogl
bin and hydrogen sulfide.
sullage waste materials; or refuse; sewage.
-------
Glossary/523
superchlorination chlorination wherein the doses are
large enough to complete all chlorination reactions
and to produce a free chlorine residual.
surfactant a surface active agent altering the inter-
facial tension of water and other liquids or solids, e.g. a
detergent.
synergistic interactions of two or more substances or
organisms producing a result that any was incapable
of independently.
tailwater water, in a river, or canal, immediately
downstream from a structure; in irrigation, the water
that reaches the lower end of a field.
teart a disease of cattle caused by excessive molyb-
denum intake characterized by profuse scouring, loss of
pigmentation of the hair, and bone defects.
teratogen a substance that increases the incidence of
birth defects.
thermocline a layer in a thermally stratified body of
water in which the temperature changes rapidly rela-
tive to the remainder of the body.
TLm see median tolerance limit.
trophic accumulation passing of a substance through
a food chain such that each organism retains all or a
portion of the amount in its food and eventually ac-
quires a higher concentration in its flesh than in the
food.
trophic level a scheme of categorizing organisms by
the way they obtain food from primary producers or
organic detritus involving the same number of inter-
mediate steps.
true color the color of water resulting from substances
which are totally in solution; not to be mistaken for ap-
parent color resulting from colloidal or suspended
matter.
-------
524/Water Quality Criteria 7972
CONVERSION FACTORS
Units Multiplied by Equal
Acres 4.047XK)-1 Hectares
4.356X10" Square feet,
4.047X103 Square meters
1.562X10-3 Square miles
4.840XH)3 Square yards
Angstrom units IX 10~8 Centimeters
3.937X10-9 Inches
Barrels (oil) 42 Gallons (oil)
1.590X102 Liters
British thermal units 7.776X102 Foot pounds
3.927X10^" Horse-power hours
0.252 Kilogram calories
2.929X10-" Kilowatt hours
Centimeters 3.937X10"1 Inches
Degrees centigrade (°CXf) +32 Farenheit degrees
Degrees farenheit (°F —32)f Centigrade1 degrees
Feet 12 Inches
1.640X10-" Miles (nautical)
1.894X10-" Miles (statute)
0.305 Meiers
1/3 Yards
Gallons 3.069X10~6 Acre feet
3.785X103 Cubic centimeters
0.134 Cubic feet
2.31X10- Cubic inches
3.785X10~3 Cubic meters
4.951 X10-3 Cubic yards
3.785 Liters
8 Pints (liquid)
4 Quarts (liquid)
(Imperial) 1.201 U. S. gallons
(U.S.) 0.833 Imp.-rial gallons
(Water) 8.345 Pounds (Water: 39.2 F)
Gallons/day 5.570X10-' Cubic feet/hour
3.785 Liters/day
Gallons/minute 8.021 Cubic; feet/hour
2.228 X10-' Cubic feet/second
6.308X10-1' Liters/second
(Water) 6.009 Tons (water: 39.2 F)/
day
Gallons/square foot/ 40.74 Liters/square meter/
minute minute
Gallons/square mile 1.461 Liters/square kilometer
Gallons/ton (short) 4.173 Liters/ton (metric)
Grams 3.527X10-' Ounces
2.205X10~: Pounds
Grams/liter 58.41 : Grains/gallon
103 Parts per million
(assumes density of 1 gram/milliliter)
-------
Conversion Factors/525
CONVERSION FACTORS—Continued
Units Multiplied by Equal
Grams/liter 8.345X1Q-3 Pounds/gallon
0.243X10-2 Pounds/cubic foot
Grams/cubic motor 0.437 Grains/cubic foot
Inches 2.54 Centimeters
Kilograms 2.20.") Pounds
1.102X10-3 Tons (short)
9.842X10-" Tons (long)
Kilometers 3.281 X103 Foot
3.937X104 Inches
0.021 Miles (statute)
0.540 Miles (nautical)
1.094X103 Yards
Liters 1.000028 X103 Cubic; centimeters
3.532X10"2 Cubic; feet
01.03 Cubic inches
1.000028 X10~3 Cubic motors
1.308 XIO-3 Cubic; yards
0.227 Gallons
Liters 'square kilometer. 0.588 Gallons/'square mile
Meters 3.281 Feet
30.37 Inches
5.400X10-" Miles (nautical)
0.214X10-" Miles (statute)
1.094 Yards
Microns 104 Angstrom units
10-4 Centimeters
3.281X10-6 Feet
3.937X10~:> Inches
10-f> Motors
10~3 Millimeters
Miles (nautical) 0.070X103 Feet
1.852 Kilometers
1.852X103 Meters
1.151 Miles (statute)
2.027X103 Yards
Miles (statute) 5.280XW Feet
0.33GX104 Inches
1.609 Kilometers
1.609X103 Meters
0.809 Miles (nautical)
1 .700X103 Yards
Milligrams 3.527X1Q-5 Ounces
2.205X10-6 Pounds
Milliliters 1.000028 Cubic centimeters
0.102 X10-2 Cubic inches
3.381X10-2 Ounces (U. S.)
Millimeters 3.281X10"3 Feet
3.937X10-2 Inches
10-3 Motors
103 Microns
1.094X10-3 Yards
-------
526/Water Quality Criteria 1972
CONVERSION FACTORS—Continued
Units
Multiplied by
Equal
Million gallons/day 1.547 Cubic foot/second
0.028 Cubic mctcrs/.sccond
28.32 Liters 'second
Pounds 0.4.14 Kilograms
Hi Ounces
4.4()4X10~4 Tons (long)
4..130X10"4 Ton« (metric)
.I.OXIO-4 Tons (short)
Pounds/acre 1.122 Kilograms'hectare;
Pounds/gallon 0.120 Grams cubic centimeter
7.480 Pounds cubic foot-
Pounds/square inch ... . (i.80.">X10"~2 -Ytmospheres
.">. 171 Centimeters of mercury
(OC)
70.31 Centimeters of water
(4C)
0.89.">X104 Dynes square centi-
meter
70.31 Grams square centi-
meter
27.08 Inches of water (39.2 F)
2.036. Inches of mercury
(32 F)
7.0.'}] XIO2 Kilograms''.square meter
1.440X102 Pounds square foot
Square feet l>.29liX10"5 Acres
1.44X102 Square inches
9.290X10-- Square meters
3.,187X10~8 Square miles
1 ii Square yards
Square meters 2.471 X 10~4 Acres
]Q-4 Heel ares
104 ... Square centimeters
10.70 Square feet
1 ..V>OX 103 Square inches
3.801X10"7 Square miles
1.190 Square yards
Square miles 0.40X102 Acres
2.590X102 Hectares
2.788X107 Square foot
2..">90 Square kilometers
3.098X10fi Square yards
Tons (metric) 103. Kilograms
3..V27X104 Ounces
2.20.-)X103 Pounds
0.984 Tons (long)
1.102 Tons (short)
Tons (short) 8.897X108 Dynes
9.072X102 Kilograms
3.2X104 Ounces
-------
Conversion Factors/527
CONVERSION FACTORS—Continued
Units Multiplied by Equal
Tons (short) 2X103 Pounds
0.893 Tons (long)
0.907 Tons (metric)
Watts 3.414 BTU/hour
44.25 Foot-pounds/minute
1.341 X 10~3 Horse power
1.434 X 10~2 Kilogram-calories/
minute
Yards 91.44 Centimeters
3 Feet
36 Inches
0.914 Meters
4.934X10"4 Miles (nautical)
5.682X10~4 Miles (statute)
-------
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Committee on Water Quality Criteria
GERARD A. ROHLICH is C. W. Cook Professor of Environ-
mental Engineering and Professor at the Lyndon B.
Johnson School of Public Affairs at the University of
Texas at Austin. He received B.S. degrees from Cooper
Union in 1934 and the University of Wisconsin in 1936,
and an M.S. in 1937 and a Ph.D. in Sanitary Engineer-
ing in 1940 from the University of Wisconsin. Dr. Rohl-
ich's expertise is in wastcwater treatment and in eutro-
phication and pollution of lakes and streams. He is a
member of the National Academy of Engineering.
ALFRED M. BEETON is Associate Director (Biology) of the
Center for Great Lakes Studies, and Professor of Zool-
ogy at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. He
received a B.S. degree from the University of Michi-
gan in 1952, an M.S. in 1954 and Ph.D. in Zoology in
1958 from the University of Michigan. Dr. Beeton's
major research interest is the eutrophication of the
Great Lakes. He is Coordinator of the Water Quality
Sub-program of the University of Wisconsin Sea Grant
Program.
BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM is Associate Director of the Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole,
Massachusetts. He received an A.B. in Biology from
St. Stephens College, Columbia, in 1934, and a Ph.D.
from Harvard University in 1938. A specialist in
nutrient cycling and phytoplankton physiology, he is
the holder of two Honorary Sc.D. degrees and the
1972 recipient of the David B. Stone Award.
CORNELIUS W. KRUSE is Professor and Chairman of the
Department of Environmental Health in the School of
Hygiene and Public Health at the Johns Hopkins
University. He received a B.S. in civil engineering at
the Missouri School of Mines in 1934, an M.S. in
Sanitary Engineering at Harvard University in 1940,
and a Doctor of Public Health from the University of
Pittsburgh in 1961. Dr. Kruse is a specialist on infec-
tious and toxic agents in external environments.
THURSTON E. LARSON received a B.S. in Chemical Engineer-
ing in 1932 and a Ph.D. in Sanitary Chemistry in
1937 from the University of Illinois. He is a specialist
in water chemistry and head of the Chemistry Sectioi
of the Illinois State Water Survey. Dr. Larson is ;
past-president of the American Water Works Associa
tion.
EMILIO A. SAVINELLI is a specialist in water and wastewate
treatment and Prcsidem; of Drew Chemical Corpora
Parsippany, New Jersey. He received a B.C.E. h
Sanitary Engineering in 1950 from Manhattan Colleg'
and a M.S.E. in 1951 and a Ph.D. in Chemistry ii
1955 from the University of Florida.
RAY L. SHIRLEY received his B.S. and M.S. in agriculture
at the University of West Virginia in 1937 and 1939
respectively, and a Ph.D. in agricultural biochemistr
from Michigan State University in 1949. Dr. Shirle1
specializes in animal nutrition and metabolism. He i
Professor of Animal Science and in charge of the Nu
trition Laboratory at the University of Florida, Gaines
ville.
Panel On Recreation and Aesthetics
MICHAEL CHUBB is Associate Professor of Environmenta
and Recreational Geography at Michigan State Uni
versity. He received a B.Sc.F. from the Faculty o
Forestry, University of Toronto in 1955, a M.S. ii
resource development in 1964 and a Ph.D. in Geog
raphy from M.S.U. in 1967. He has been employed ii
river development for the Ontario Department of thi
Environment and has served as a recreation planne
with the Michigan Department of Natural Resources
He is a specialist in recreation resource carrying capac
ity and recreation survey research.
MILO A. CHURCHILL is Chief, Water Quality Branch
Tennessee Valley Authority. He received a B.S. ir
Civil Engineering from the University of Illinois ir
1933, and a Master of Public Health from The John
Hopkins University in 1952. He is a specialist in effect
of impoundment on water quality, bacterial quality o
streams and reservoirs, and stream reaeration.
NORMAN E. JACKSON is Acting Assistant Chief, Planning
Division, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Directoratt
of Civil Works, Washington, D. C. He received a B.S
528
-------
Biographical Notes 529
in Civil Engineering from Vanderbilt University in
1935 and a M.S. in Sanitary Engineering from The
Johns Hopkins University in 1950. A former Director
of Sanitary Engineering, District of Columbia, and
Special Assistant to the Director, Department of En-
vironmental Services, D.C., he specializes in urban
water and wastewatcr facilities and in planning water
resources in regional and basin settings.
WILLIAM L. KLEIN is chemist-biologist for the Ohio River
Valley Water Sanitation Commission at Cincinnati,
•Ohio. He received a B.S. degree from Kent State in
1949, and a Master of Public Health in 1957 in Sani-
tary Chemistry and Biology from the University ol
North Carolina. He is a specialist in water pollution
control, water monitoring, and associated data evalua-
tion.
PERCY H. MCGAUHEY is a professional consultant in civil
and sanitary engineering and Director Emeritus of
Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley. He received an M.S. degree from the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin in 1941, and an honorary D.Sc.
from Utah State University in 1971. He is the author
of Engineering Water Qiiahty Management (McGraw-
Hill, 1968). His specialties are wastewatcr reclamation,
organic clogging of soils, economic evaluation of
water, and solid wastes management.
ERIC W. MOOD is Associate Professor of Public Health
(Environmental Health), Yale University School of
Medicine. He received a B.S. degree in engineering
from the University of Connecticut in 1938 and an
M.P.H. degree from Yale University in 1943. For
several years he has been chairman of the Joint Com-
mittee on Swimming Pools and Bathing Places, Ameri-
can Public Health Association. He is a member of the
Expert Advisory Committee on Environmental Health,
World Health Organization, and is the recipient of an
honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Upsala College.
RALPH PORGES is Head of the Water Quality Branch of the
Delaware River Basin Commission. He received a B.S.
in Chemical Engineering from Rutgers University in
1936 and spent four years as a Research Fellow at the
University of North Carolina. He was with the U.S.
Public Health Service for 26 years, specializing in
stream pollution and plague and typhus control. He is
a holder of the William D. Hatfield Award of the
Water Pollution Control Federation.
LESLIE M. REID is Professor and Head of the Department of
Recreation and Parks at Texas A&M LJniversity.
He received a B.S. in Forestry from the Michigan
Technological University in 1951, an M.S. in Resource
Development from Michigan State University in 1955,
and a Ph.D. in Conservation in 1963 from the Uni-
versity of Michigan. His major research interest is in
natural resources planning. He is consultant with the
National Park Service and a past-president of the
Society of Park and Recreation Educators.
MICHAEL B. SONNEN is a Senior Engineer with Water Re-
sources Engineers, Inc. in Walnut Creek, California.
He received a B.E. in Civil Engineering at Vanderbilt
University in 1962, an M.S. in Sanitary Engineering in
1965, and a Ph.D. in Sanitary Engineering in 1967,
both from the University of Illinois. His major research
interest is the evaluation of costs and benefits accruing
to water users supplied with various qualities of water.
ROBERT O. SYLVESTER is Professor and Head, Division of
Water and Air Resources, Department of Civil En-
gineering, University of Washington. He received a
B.S. in Civil Engineering from Harvard University in
1941. His teaching, research and professional interests
have centered around water quality, water supply,
and water resources-quality management.
C. WILLIAM THREINEN is Administrative Assistant, Depart-
ment of Natural Resources, State of Wisconsin, Madi-
son. He is also acting assistant director of the Bureau of
Fish Management in the Department of Natural
Resources. He received his B.S. degree from the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, and his M.S. in public administra-
tion from Harvard University. He specializes in rough
fish problems in Wisconsin, population dynamics of
largemouth bass, lake use studies, \\ild rivers planning,
and access site utilization and development.
Panel On Public Water Supplies
RUSSELL F. CHRISTMAN is Director, Division of Environ-
mental Affairs and Professor of Applied Chemistry at
the L'niversity of Washington. He received an M.S. in
1960 and a Ph.D. in 1962 in Chemistry from the Uni-
versity of Florida. His major research activities involve
the identification of organic materials in natural
water systems.
PAUL D. HANEY is a member of the firm of Black & Veatch,
Consulting Engineers, Kansas City, Missouri. He re-
ceived a B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from
the University of Kansas in 1933, and an M.S. degree in
Sanitary Engineering from Harvard University in
1937. He is a diplomate of the American Academy of
Environmental Engineers and a past-president of the
Water Pollution Control Federation.
ROBERT C. MC\VHINNIE, Chief of Planning and Resource
Development, Board of Water Commissioners, Denver,
Colorado. He received a B.S. degree in civil engineer-
ing from the University of Wyoming and has taken
advanced courses in sanitary engineering from the
University of Colorado. He is Director of the Metro-
politan Denver Sewage Disposal District and chairman
of the Technical Advisory Committee on Urban Flood
Control. He specializes in odor, temperature, and phe-
nolic compounds in public water supplies.
-------
530/ Water Quality Criteria 1972
HENRY J. ONGERTH is Chief of the Bureau of Sanitary
Engineering, State Department of Public Health,
California. He received a B.S. degree from University
of California (Berkeley) in civil engineering (sanitary
option) in 1935 and an M.P.H. in 1950 from the Uni-
versity of Michigan. He was a member of the advisory
committee of the 1962 revision of the Public Health
Service Drinking Water Standards and chairman of
the Public Advisory Committee presently working on
the 1972 revision of the Drinking Water Standards.
He is a member of the American Academy of Environ-
mental Engineers and a specialist in fluorides, chlorides,
and sulfates in water.
RANARD J. PICKERING is Chief of the Quality of Water
Branch, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological
Survey at Washington, D.C. He received an A.B. with
Highest Honors in 1951 and an M.A. in 1952 from
Indiana University, and a Ph.D. from Stanford Uni-
versity in 1961, all in Geology. His specialties are low
temperature geochemistry and behavior of radionu-
clides in fluvial environments.
JOSEHP K. G. SILVEY is Distinguished Professor, Chairman
of Biological Sciences, and Director of the Institute
for Environmental Studies at North Texas State Uni-
versity, Denton. He received his B.S. from Southern
Methodist University in 1927, his M.A. in 1928 and
his Ph.D. in Zoology from the University of Michigan
in 1932. He is a specialist in eutrophication and in reser-
voir ecology with reference to the effect of micro-
organisms on taste and odors.
J. EDWARD SINGLEY is a Professor in the Department of
Environmental Engineering Sciences at the University
of Florida. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in
Chemistry from Georgia Institute of Technology in
1950 and 1952, respectively, and his Ph.D. degree in
Water Chemistry from the University of Florida in
1966. He is a specialist in the chemistry of water and
wastewater treatment.
RICHARD L. WOODWARD is Vice President of Camp Dresser
& McKee Inc., consulting engineers in Boston, Massa-
chusetts. He received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from
Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, in 1935, an
M.S. in Sanitary Engineering from Harvard Univer-
sity in 1948, and a Ph.D. in Physics from the Ohio
State University in 1952. He specializes in water
quality problems and water and wastewater treatment.
Panel on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
JOHN CAIRNS, JR. is University Professor of Zoology and
Director of the Center for Environmental Studies,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blackburg, Virginia. He received an A.B. from Swarth-
more College in 1947, and an M.S. in 1949 and a
Ph.D. in 1953 from the University of Pennsylvania. He
is a specialist in the effects of stress upon aquatic
organisms.
CHARLES C. COUTANT is Project Supervisor of Therma
Effects Studies in the Environmental Sciences Divisior
of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, I'en
nessee. He received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degree
in Biology from Lehigh University in 1960, 1962, anc
1965, respectively. A general aquatic ecologist b'
training, he specializes in man's impacts on aquatii
life, through impoundments, pesticides, general in
dustrial pollution, and thermal additions.
ROLF HARTUNG is Associate Professor of Environmenta
and Industrial Health at the School of Public Healtl
at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. He re
ceived a B.S. in 1960, an M.W.M. in 1962, and a Ph.D
in 1964 in Wildlife Management from the Universif
of Michigan. He is a specialist in toxicology, and hi
interests include diseases produced by toxicants h
man and wildlife.
HOWARD E. JOHNSON is Associate Professor of Fisheries am
Wildlife at Michigan State University. He received ;
B.S. degree from Montana State University in 1959, ai
M.S. in 1961, and a Ph.D. in Fisheries in 1967 fron
the University of Washington. His major research in
terests are the effects of toxic materials on aquatic lif
and the distribution of biocides in aquatic systems.
RUTH PATRICK is Chairman and Curator of the Departmen
of Limnology of the Academy of Natural Sciences o
Philadelphia. She received a B.S. degree from Coke
College in 1929, and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from thi
University of Virginia in 1931 and 1934, respectively
She is also Adjunct Professor at the University o
Pennsylvania. In 1971 she was appointed a member o
the Hazardous Materials Advisory Committee of th<
Environmental Protection Agency, and a member o
Governor Shapp's Science Advisory Committee ii
1972. Her research is on the structure and functioning
of aquatic communities of rivers and estuaries witl
particular interest in diatoms.
LLOYD L. SMITH, Jr. is Professor, Department of Entomol
ogy, Fisheries, arid Wildlife, University of Minnesto;
at St. Paul. He received his B.S. degree from thi
University of Minnesota in 1931, his M.S. degree ii
1940, and his Ph.D. degree in 1942 from the Universif
of Michigan. His areas of expertise are fishery dynam
ics, effects of water quality on fish production, anc
aquatic biology. He has been chairman of ORSANCC
aquatic life advisory committee since its formation.
JOHN B. SPRAGUE is Associate Professor in the Departmen
of Zoology at the University of Guelph, Ontario. Hi
received a B.Sc. in 1953 from the University of Wester:
Ontario with the University Gold Medal and an M.A
in 1954 and a Ph.D. in 19.39 in Zoology from the Uni
versity of Toronto. He served on the Fisheries Researcl
Board of Canada, studying effects of pollution 01
-------
Biographical Notes ,/S7>\
aquatic organisms. He is a specialist in biological ef-
fects of mine wastes and heavy metals and in methods
of bioassay with aquatic organisms.
Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
RICHARD T. BARBER is Associate Professor (Zoology and
Botany) at Duke University and Director of the
Cooperative Research and Training Program in
Oceanography at Duke University Marine Labora-
tory. He received a B S. degree from Utah State Uni-
versity in 1962 and a Ph.D. in Oceanography from
Stanford University in 1967. His major research ef-
fort is in the Coastal Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis
program, and his specialties include growth of phyto-
plankton in nutrient-rich systems, microbial oxidation
of organic matter in seawater, and organic-metal in-
teractions in marine systems.
JAMES H. CARPENTER is an Associate Professor in the De-
partment of Earth and Planetary Sciences at The Johns
Hopkins University. He is presently on leave at the
National Science Foundation as Head, Oceanography
Section, Division of Environmental Sciences. He re-
ceived a B.A. with a major in chemistry and a minor in
biology from the University of Virginia in 1949, and an
M.S. in 1952 and a Ph.D. in 1957 in Oceanography
from The Johns Hopkins University. His research con-
cerns the physical, chemical and biological processes
that influence nutrient and metal concentrations in
estuarine and coastal waters.
L. EUGKNE CRONIN is Director of the Chesapeake Biological
Laboratory, Natural Resources Institute, University
of Maryland, College Park. He received his A.B. from
Western Maryland College in 1938 and his M.S. in
1942 and Ph.D. in 1946 in Biology from Maryland
University. His specialties arc estuarine ecology and
the physiology and population dynamics of marine in-
vertebrates.
HOLDER W. JANNASCH is Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole
Occanographic Institution in Woods Hole, Massa-
chusetts, where he heads the program in Marine Ecol-
ogy at the Marine Biological Laboratory. He received
his Ph.D. in General Microbiology at the University
of Gottingen, Germany. His field of research is the
physiology and ecology of aquatic microorganisms.
G. CARI.ETON RAY is Associate Professor at The Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. He received
a Ph.D. degree in Zoology from Columbia L'niversity
in 1960. Currently he is also a research associate at the
Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural
History in conjunction with the Marine Mammal
Program of the International Biological Program under
support of the National Science Foundation. He is an
authority on physiological ecology, acoustics, and be-
havior of marine mammals.
THEODORE R. RICE is Director of the Atlantic Estuarine
Fisheries Center, National Marine Fisheries Service,
Beaufort, North Carolina. He received his A.B. from
Berea College in 1942, and his M.S. in 1947 and Ph.D.
in 1949 in Biology-Ecology from Harvard University.
His fields of research are radioecology, estuarine ecol-
ogy, and environmental contaminants. He served on
the National Academy of Sciences Committee that
prepared "Radioactivity in the Marine Environment."
ROBERT W. RISEBROUGH is an Associate Research Ecologist
at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of the University of
California. He received an A.B. in Zoology from Cornell
University in 1956 and a Ph.D. in Molecular Biology
from Harvard University in 1962. His principal research
interest is the pollution ecology of coastal waters.
MICHAEL W'ALDICHUK is Program Head, Pacific Environ-
ment Institute, West Vancouver, British Columbia.
He received a B.A. in Chemistry in 1948 and an M.A.
in 1950 from the University of British Columbia, and
a Ph.D. in Oceanography in 1955 from the University
of Washington. From 1954 to 1969, he specialized in
oceanographic studies related to marine pollution
problems while with the Fisheries Research Board's
Biological Station in Nanaimo. He is Chairman of the
IMCO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN
Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of
Marine Pollution (GESAMP).
Panel on Agricultural Uses of Water
HENRY V. ATHERTON is Professor of Dairy Industry and
Dairy Bacteriologist in the Animal Sciences Depart-
ment at the University of Vermont and the Vermont
Agricultural Experiment Station. He received his B.S.
degree and his M.S. degree from the University of
Vermont in 1948 and 1951, respectively, and his
Ph.D. in Dairy Technology and Biochemistry from
the Pennsylvania State University in 1953. His research
interests are in milk quality as influenced by bulk
milk cooling on farms, farm water supplies, and dairy
sanitation.
ROBERT D. BLACKBURN is at the Agricultural Research
Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plantation
Laboratory, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. He graduated
from Auburn University in 1959 with an M.S. in
Botany. He is an authority on aquatic weeds and a
consultant to the U.S. Navy, FAO, and the Puerto
Rican Water Resources Authority. He is editor of
Hyacinth Control Journal.
PETER A. FRANK is Research Plant Physiologist with the
Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture. He received a B.S. in 1952, an M.S. in
1953, and a Ph.D. in Plant Physiology and Biochem-
istry from Michigan State University in 1955. His
interests are the physiology, ecology, and management
of aquatic vegetation.
-------
532/Water Quality Criteria 1972
VICTOR L. HAUSER is an Agricultural Engineer, U.S. Water
Quality Management Laboratory, Agricultural Re-
search Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Durant, Oklahoma. He received his B.S. from Okla-
homa State University in 1952 and his M.S. in Agri-
cultural Engineering from the University of California
in 1957. He is a specialist in water conservation in
agriculture and in ground water recharge. His current
research is in the field of water quality management.
CHARLES H. HILL, JR. is in the Poultry Department, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh. He received his
B.S. in 1948 from Colorado A&M College, and his
M.S. in 1949 and his Ph.D. in Nutrition Chemistry in
1951 from Cornell University. His specialties include
nutritional requirements of poultry and the roll of
nutrients in disease resistance.
PHILIP C. KEARNEY is Leader of the Pesticide Degradation
Laboratory, Agricultural Environmental Quality In-
stitute, National Agricultural Research Center, Belts-
ville, Maryland. He received his B.S. from the Uni-
versity of Maryland in 1955, his M.S. in 1957 and his
Ph.D. in Agriculture from Cornell University in 1960.
His research interests are in the environmental impli-
cation of pesticides and their biochemical transforma-
tion.
JESSE LUNIN is currently the Environmental Quality Special-
ist on the National Program Staff of the Agricultural
Research Service. He received a B.S. in Soil Science
from Oklahoma State University in 1939, an M.S. in
1947 and a Ph.D. in 1949 from Cornell University in
Soil Chemistry. His research interests are soil-water-
plant relations and water quality and waste manage-
ment.
LEWIS B. NELSON is Manager of the Office of Agricultural
and Chemical Development, Tencessee Valley Author-
ity, Muscle Shoals, Alabama. He received a B.S. in
Agronomy at the University of Idaho in 1936, an M.S.
in 1938 and a Ph.D. in 1940 in Soil Science at the
University of Wisconsin. His interests are soil and
water conservation research, soil fertility, and fertilizer
technology. He is head of TVA's National Fertilizer
Development Center.
OSCAR E. OLSON is Professor and Head of the Experimental
Station, Biochemistry Department at South Dakota
State University, Brookings. He received his B.S. degree
in 1936 and his M.S. degree in 1937 from South Dakota
State University, and his Ph.D. in Biochemistry in
1948 from the University of Wisconsin. His research
interests are selenium poisoning and nitrate poisoning.
PARKER F. PRATT is Professor of Soil Science and Chairman
of the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural
Engineering, University of California, Riverside. He
received his B.S. degree from Utah State University
in 1948 and his Ph.D. in Soil Fertility from Iowa State
University in 1950. He is a specialist in long-term ef-
fects of irrigation on soil properties and crop produc
tivity, quality of irrigation waters, and nitrates an
salts in drainage waters.
GLENN B. VAN NESS is Senior Veterinarian, Animal Healt
Diagnostic Laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland, APHIS
U.S. Department of Agriculture. He received h
D.V.M. from Kansas State University in 1940. H
special interests arc in the ecology of infectious disesat
of livestock, and he has published studies of ecology (
anthrax and bacillary hernoglobinuria.
Panel on Industial Water Supplies
IRVING B. DICK is a consulting chemical engineer. He n
ceived his BSE in Chemical Engineering from th
University of Michigan in 1926, and after 42 yeai
with Consolidated Edison Company of New York h
retired in 1968 as Chief Chemical Engineer. His ir
terests are fuel oil additives, fuel combustion, and watc
treatment for uses in power generation.
CHARLES C. DINKEL is the Liirector of Field Services c
Drew Chemical Corporation, Parsippany, New Jersey
He received a B.S. in Chemistry from Wagner Colleg
in 1948. and an M.S. in Oceanography from the Scrip]:
Institution of Oceanography at Lajolla in 1951. He i
a member of the American Chemical Society and
specialist in water and wastewaler treatment.
MAURICE C. FUERSTENAU is Professor and Chairman of th
Department of Metallurgical Engineering at the SoutJ
Dakota School of Mines and Technology. He receive!
his B.S. from the South Dakota School of VTincs an<
Technology in 1955, and an M.S. in 1957 and a Docto
of Science in Metallurgy in 1961 from the Massachu
setts Institute of Technology. He is a specialist in inter
facial phenomena and extractive metallurgy.
ARTHUR W. FYNSK is a Senior Consultant in the Engineer™
Service Division, Engineering Department, of E. I
duPont de Nemours & Company. He received a B.S
in Civil Engineering in 1950 and an M.S. in Sanitan
Engineering in 1951, both from the Massachusett
Institute of Technology. He is a specialist in industria
water resources and treatment.
GEORGE J. HANKS, Jr. has been Manager —Environmenta
Protection for the Chemicals and Plastics Group o
Union Carbide Corporation since 1968. He received ;
B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Princetoi
University in 1942.
WILLIAM A. KEILBAUGH is Manager of Research and De
velopment of the Cochrane Division of Crane Co.
King of Prussia, Pennsylvania. He received an A.B. ir
Chemistry from Allegheny College, Meadville, Penn
sylvania in 1939, and is a specialist in water and waste1'
water treatment.
JAMES C. LAMB III is Professor of Sanitary Engineering ai
the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. He
received a B.S. in 1947 from Virginia Military Institute
-------
Biographical Notes/533
and an M.S. in 1948 and an Sc.D. in 1953 in Sanitary
Engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. His research specialties include treatment pro-
cesses for industrial wastes and water quality manage-
ment.
JAMES K. RICE is President and General Manager of Cyrus
Wm. Rice Division of NUS Corporation, a firm of
consulting engineers and scientists. He received his
B.S. and M.S. in Chemical Engineering from Carnegie-
Mellon University in 1946 and 1947, respectively. His
field of expertise is industrial water and wastewater
treatment and reuse.
J. JAMES ROOSEN is Director of Environmental Studies for
the Engineering Research Department of The Detroit
Edison Company, Detroit, Michigan. He received his
B.S. in Chemical Engineering in 1959 from the Uni-
versity of Detroit where he also conducted graduate
studies. His expertise is in water systems engineering
and research as applied to the electric utility industry.
ROBERT H. STEWART is a partner of Hazen & Sawyer,
New York City, a firm offering engineering services in
management of water resources. He received his A.B.
from Harvard College in 1953, his M.S. in 1958 and
M. Eng. in 1959 from Harvard University. His special-
ties are the design and management of water supply
systems for industries and public utilities.
SIDNEY SUSSMAN is technical director, Water Treatment De-
partment, Olin Corporation. He received a B.S. in
Chemistry from Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn in
1934 and a Ph.D. in Chemistry from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology in 1937. He is a specialist in
industrial water technology and accredited as a Cor-
rosion Specialist by the National Association of Cor-
rosion Engineers. He is the author of the chapter on
water for cooling and steam generation in the Ameri-
can Water Works Association's handbook and serves
on the Association's Committee on Standard Methods.
CHARLES H. THORBORG is associated with Gulf Degremont,
Inc., Liberty Corner, New Jersey. His B.S. degree in
Mechanical Engineering was received in 1961 from
Fairleigh Dickinson University, Rutherford, New
Jersey. For the past ten years he has been concerned
with water and wastewater treatment.
BERNARD J. WACHTER is with WAPORA, Inc., Washington,
D. C. He is a biophysicist specializing in industrial
water treatment. Prior to joining WAPORA, he was
editor of the journal, Industrial Water Engineering.
WALTER J. WEBER, JR. is Professor of Environmental and
Water Resources Engineering and Chairman of the
University Program in Water Resources at the Univer-
sity of Michigan at Ann Arbor. He received a Sc.B. in
Engineering from Brown University in 1956, an M.S.E.
in Sanitary Engineering from Rutgers University in
1959, an A.M. in Applied Chemistry in 1961 and a
Ph.D. in Water Resources Engineering in 1962 from
Harvard University. His professional interests are in
municipal and industrial water and waste treatment
and the chemistry of natural waters.
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
APHA (see American Public Health Associ-
ation)
ASTM (fee American Society for Testing
and'Materials)
Abcgg, R. (1950), 452, 456, 462
Abott, R.T. (1950), 27
Aberg, B. et al. (1969), 313, 314
Aboaba, F.O. (see Bruhn, H.D. ct al., 1971),
26
Abou-Donia, M.E. (1967), 251, 462-465
Abram, F.S.H. (1964), 465
Abu-Errish, G.M. (1967), 316
Academy of Natural Sciences (1960), 450,
452-454, 458, 459, 461, 463
Ackcfors, H. et al. (1970), 237
Ackinan, R.G. (1970), 253, 254
—(tee Addison, R.F et al., 1971), 254
— (tee Dyer, VV.G. et al., 1970), 254
Aclarne, B. (tee England, B. et al., 1967),92
Adams, A.W. et al. (1966, 1967), 315
—(tee Mugler, U.J. et al., 1970), 315
Adams, F. (1957), 344
Adams, G R. (1969), 238
Addison, R.F. ct al. (1971), 254
—(tee Ackman, R.G. ct al., 1970), 254
Acielman, I.R. (1970), 193, 256
Adema, D.M. (1968), 463
Adler, F.E W. (1944), 228
Adolph, E.F. (1933), 305
Affleck, R.T. (1952), 467
Agriculture Research Service (1961), 180
(1963), 346, 347
(1969a), 318, 319, 349
(1969b), 165
—(see alsn U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agri-
culture Research Service)
Ahling, B. (1970), 83
Ahmed, M.B. (1953), 250, 342
Ahuja, S.K. (1964), 452
Aiken, D.E. (see Zitko, V. et al., 1970), 254
Akin, G.W. (see Bower, C.A. et al., 1965), 335
Alabaster, J.S. (1962), 417
(1966), 417-419
(1967), 417, 418, 458
Albaugh, D.W. (see Cairns, J., Jr. et al.,
1968), 408
—(see Cairns, J., Jr. et al., 1969), 117
Albcrsmeyer, W. (1957), 147
(1959), 147
Albert, W.B. (1931), 340
—(see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932), 340
Alderdice, D.F. (1967), 118, 451
Aldous, J.G. (1968), 130
Aldrich, D.G. ct al. (1951), 344
Aldrich, D.V. (1958), 462, 463
Alexander, G.V. (see Romncy, E.M. ct al ,
1962), 341
Allan Hancock Foundation (1965), 403
Allanson, B.R. (1964), 419
Allaway, W.H. et al. (1966, 1967), 345
- (tee Kubota, J. et al., 1963), 344
— (tee Kubota, J. et al., 1967), 316
Alice, W.C. (1913), 135, 137
Allen, D.M. (1957), 485
(1958), 267
Allen, H.L. (1971), 25
Allen, J.P. (1960), 196
Allen, K.O. (1968), 160, 412, 413
Allison, I.S. (1930), 350
AltschaefH, A.G. (tee Harrison, W. et al.,
1964), 279
Alvard, W. (1964), 124
Aly, O.M. (1971), 80
— (tec Faust, S.D. et al., 1971), 80
Ambcrg, H.R. (see Haydu, E.P. et al., 1952),
256
Amend, D.F. (1969), 173
Amend, D.R. (1952), 78
— et al. (1969), 462
American Conference of Governmental In-
dustrial Hygienists (1958), 59
American Paper Institute (1970), 382
American Petroleum Institute (1949), 258
(1963), 258
American Public Health Association (1957),
29
American Public Health Association, Ameri-
can Water Works Association, and Water
Pollution Control Federation (1971), 21
— (see alto Standard Methods, 1971), 51, 119,
275
American Public Health Association, Engi-
neering Division and Conference of State
Sanitary Engineers, Joint Committee on
Bathing (1936, 1940), 29
American Society of Civil Engineering
(1967), 220, 221
American Society of Limnology and Ocean-
ography (1972), 22
American Society of Testing & Materials
Book of Standards, Part 23, (1970)
Table VI-2 370
Table VI-5 377
Table VI-10 382
Table Vl-17 385
Table VI-22 . 389
Table VI-25 391
Table VI-26 392
Table VI-27 393
Table VI-28 393
American Water Works Association (1971),
61, 68, 69, 71, 74, 89
Committee on Tastes and Odors (no
date), 74
(1970), 302
Research Committee on Color Problems
(1967), 63
Task Group 2500R (1966), 74
Ames, A.M. (1944), 89
Andeilim, V.C. et al. (1972), 226
—ct al. (in press 1972), 246, 252
— (tee Connors, P.G. et al., in press 1972a,
1972b), 226
Andeison, B.G. (1944), 145, 243, 250, 461-
467
(1946), 243, 245, 466
(1948), 124, 135, 242, 250, 255, 456,
459, 461--466
(1950), 119, 120, 461-465, 467
— (see Duodoroff, P et al., 1951), 121
Ancle, son, B.T. (1971), 24
Anderson, D.W. (1968), 197, 227
(1969), 176
(1970), 197
—et al. (1969), 227
— (see Riscnbrough, R.W. et al., 1969, 1970),
227
-(see Connors, P.G. et al., 1972a), 226
Anderson, E.A. et al. (1934), 93
Anderson, G.C. (1960), 20
Anderson, J.B. (see Van Horn, W.M. ct al.,
1949), 256
Anderson, J.M (tee Zitho, V. et al., 1970),
254
Anderson, L.D. (see Bay, E.G., 1965, 1966),
18
Anderson, P.W. 1968), 80
—(tee Faust, S.D. et al., 1971), 80
Anderson, R.B. (1970), 225
Anderson, R.O. (1959), 160
Andres, L.A. (tee Maddox, D.M. et al.,
1971), 26
Andrew, R.W. (tee Biesingcr, K.E. et al.,
1971), 180
Andrews, H.L. (1969), 473
Andrews, J.W. (1971), 149, 160
(1972), 154
Andujar, J.J. (1966), 29
Anet, E.F. (see Bishop, C.T. et al., 1959), 317
Angelovic, J.W. et al. (1961), 249
- et al. (1967), 454
—(see Sigler, W.F. et al., 1966), 248, 453
535
-------
536/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Ansell, A.D. (1968), 155
Applcby, W.G. (*ee Sparr, B.I. et al., 1966),
346
Applcgate, R.L. (see Ilannon, M.R. ct al.,
1970), 183
Applegate, V.C. ct al. (1957), 243
Ariel, I. (see Dupont, O. ct al., 1942), 56
Arklcy, R.J. (see Bingham, F.T. ct al., 1970),
344
Arlc, H.F. (1959, 1960), 347
—(see Bruns, V.F. ct al. 1955, 1964, un-
published data 1971), 347
Armiger, W.1I. (see Foy, C.D. et al., 1965),
338
Armour, J.D (1970), 175
Armstrong, J.G. ct al. (1958), 315
Arndt, C.I I. (1931), 340
Arnholt, J.J. (see Kaplan, 1I.M. ct al., 1967),
464
Arnold, F A. (see Leone, X C. et al., 1 954), 66
Ainon, D I. (1953), 22, 252
Aronovski, I. (tee Wassermann, M. ct al.,
1970), 83
Aronson, A L (1964, 1971), 31 3
Arthur, J.W. (1970), 190, 454
(1971), 189
Aschncr, M. et al (1967), !47
Asher, C.J. (see Broyer, T.C. et al., 1966), 344
Ashley, L.M. (1970), 464
Ashton, P.G. (1969, 1971), 14
Asimov, Isaac (1966), 272
Aten, A.H.W. et al. (1961), 472
Athanassiadis, Y C. (1969), 245
Athcrton, H.V. (1970), 301, 302
- ct al. (1962), 302
Alton, F.M. (see Wobeser, G. ct al., 1970),
173, 251
Aub, J.C. (1942), 87
Autian, J. (see Nematollahi, J. ct al., 1967),
174, 175
A vault, J.W. Jr. (1968), 26
Avigan, J. (1968), 145
Axlcy, J.I I. (see Woolson, E.A. et al., 1971),
318, 340
Avers, A.D. ct al. (1952), 329
—(see Magistad, O.G ct al., 1943), 324, 336
Aycrs, J.C. (1963), 302
Aycrs, J.P. (1951), 230
—(see Ketchum, B.H. et al., 1951), 280
Backus, R.I1. (see Harvey, G.R. ct al., 1972),
264
—(see Horn, M.H. et al., 1970), 257
Bader, R.G. (1972), 15, 238
Bair, F.L. (1969), 335
—(tee Pratt, P.F. et al., 1964), 339
—(see Pratt, P.F. ct al., 1967), 335
Baglcy, G.E. (1967), 228
—ct al. (1970), 176
—(see Krantz, W.C. ct al., 1970), 266
—(see Mulhen, B.M. et al., 1970), 227
Bagnall, L.D. (1970), 26
Bailar, J.C., Jr. (1956), 74
Bailey, D.E. (1913), 307
Bailey, T.A. (1956), 26
Baker, M.N. (1949), 1
Bakkum, W.C.M. (see Aten, A.IIW. et al.,
1961), 472
Balassa, J.J. (1961), 60, 70
(1964, 1965), 311, M3
(1966), 56
(1967), 245, 309, 316
(1968), 312
—(tee Schrocder, 1T.A. et al., 1963a,b), 62,
310, 311, 313
Balch, R. (1955), 173
Baldwin, N.S. (1957), 1(,0
Baldwin, R.E. (see Konichgen, B.M. ct al.,
1970), 149
Ball, I.R. (1967), 179, 1-S2, 187, 451, 460
(1967a,b), 119
Ball, L.B. (1945), 252
Ball, R.C. (tee Hamelink, J.L. et al., 1971),
183
Ballantync, E.E. (1957), 308
Ballard, J.A. (1969), 45.'.
Balsey, J.R. (see Leopold, L.B. et al., 1971),
400
Baiuback, K. (see Kehoc, R.A. ct al., 1940),
70
Bandt, II.H. (1948), 249
Bandt, H.J. (193.3), 147
(1955), 147, 148
Banker, R.F. (1968), 90
Baptist, J.P. (1967), 470
Baranowski, A. (1969), 25
Barber, C.W. (tee Hill, C.II. ct al., 1963), 311
Bardach, J.E. ct al (1965), 190
Barclet, J. (1913), 72
Barinov, G.V. (see Polikarpov, G.G. ct al
1967), 471, 473, 475
Barlow, C.H. (1937), 350
Barnes, D.K. (see Ilaivcy, E.N. et al
1944a.b), 135, 136
Barnes, I. (see White, D. F,. ct al., 1970), 31 <>
Barnes, J.M. (1953), 319
Barnctt, A J.G. (1952), M5
Barncett, R M (1923), 340
(1936, 1940) 345
Barnhart, R.A. (1958), 255, 465
Baroni, C. et al. (1963), 56
Earth, E.F. (1970, 1971) 55
—et al. (1966), 55
Barthel, W.F. (tee Curley, A. ct al., 1971), 313
Bartley C.H. (see Slanctz, L.W. et al., 1965),
276
Bartley, T.R. (1969), 34(,
(1970), 347
Barton, M.A. (1969), 39
Barton, E. (1932), 93
Bartrand, D. (see Deschiens, R. et al., 1957),
467
Bartsch, A.F. (1959), 18
Basch, R.E. et al. (1971). 189
Basu, S.P. (1959), 139
Batchelder, A R. (1960), 337, 338
—(see Lunin, J. et al., 1963), 336
—(see Lunin, J. ct al., 1964), 338
Bates, R.R. (see Courtney, K.D. et al., 1970),
79
—(see Innes, I.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Battcllc-Columbus (1971), 400
Bauer, H ct al. (1961), 83
Baumann, E.R. (1962), 301
Baumgartner, D.J. (1970), 403
Bay, E.G. (1964, 1965, 1966), 18
(unpublished data), 18
Baylcss, J.D. (1968), 279
Bazell, R.J. (1971), 249
Beadle, L.D. (1958), 18
Beak, T.W. (1965), 408
Bear, F.E. (we Prince A.L. et al., 1949), 34:
Beard, J.W (1967), 91
Beaslcy, T.M. (1967), 473
(1969), 476
Becth, D.A.. (1943), 316
(1962), 86
(1963), 345
(1964), 86, 316
—(see Braclk-y, W.B. et al., 1940), 314
Bechtel Cor,:). (1969), 222
Bcch, W.Ivf. (1954, 1955), 408
Becker, D.E. (see Brink, M.F. et al., 1959).
316
Beck, W.J . (see Hosty, T.S. ct al., 1970), 278
Becker, C D. ct al. (1971), 161
Becker, E (1964), 61, 70, 88, 89
Beckman, E.L. (1963), 32
Bccling, D.L. (1927), 456
Beclrosinm, P.H. (1962), 469
Beeson, W.M. (1964), 315
(1965, I966a,b,c), 317
- (tee O'Donovan, P.B. ct al., 1963), 312
— (see Ott, E.A. et al., 1966a), 316
Becton, A.M. (1969), 23, 124, 127, 230
(1972), 19
Bchnkc, A.R., Jr. (1942), 137
Behrman, A.S. (1968), 301, 302
Bciningen, K.T. (1968), 135
Bclisle, A.A. (see Blus, L.J. et al., 1972), 227
-(see Mulhern, B.M. ct al., 1970), 176, 227
Bell, H.L. (1969), 249, 455
— (unpublished, 1971), 147, 148, 150, 423-
426, 428
Bell, J.F. <.-t al. (1955), 196
— (tee McKce, M.T. et al., 1958), 196
Bella, D.A. 11968), 403
Bellrose, F.C. (1951, 1959), 228
Bender, M.E. (1969), 183
—ct al. (1970), 179
Benedict, B.A. (1970), 403
Bennett, B.M. (1963), 56
Bennett, H.J. (1965), 249, 450, 452, 455,
457, 458
Bcnoit, D.A. (1958), 452, 453
(I960), 452
(1971), 120, 122
—(unpublished data, 1971), 180, 181
Benoit, R.J. ct al. (1967), 127
Benschop, H. (1968), 265
—(tee Vos, J.G. et al., 1968), 227
Benson, N G. (1970), 27
Benson, N.R. (1951, 1953), 340
Bcnville, P. (unpublished), 210, 485-487
Bergcr, D.D. (1970), 198
Berg, G. (1967), 91
(1971), 91, 92
—etal. (196"'), 91
-------
Author Index/537
—et al. (1968, 1971), 92
—(see Clarke, N.A. ct al., 1962), 91
Berg, L.R. (1963), 316
Berg, W. et al. (1966), 252
—(see Johnels, A.G. et al., 1967), 172
Berg, W.E. et al. (1945), 138
—(see Whitakcr, D.M. et al., 1945), 137
Berger, B.L. (1969), 435
(1970), 437
Berglund, R. (1967), 252
Bergrund, F. (1969), 72, 313
Berlin, M. (1963, 1969), 313
Herman, D. (see Berg, G. et al., 1967), 91
Bernstein, L. (1958), 324, 325
(1959), 328
(1965a), 326, 327
(1965b), 325, 326
(1966), 334
(1967), 328, 329, 334
Berry, R.A. (1924), 343
Berryman, M.H. (see Mitrovic, U.U. et al.,
1968), 191
Berrien, P.L. (see Whitworth, W.R. et al.,
1968), 27
Bcrtme, K.K. (1971), 72, 251
Berwick, P. (1970), 79
Beseh, K.W.T. (wZitho, V. ct al., 1970), 254
Best, L.C. (see Geldreich, E.E. et al., 1965,
1968), 57
Bestougeff, M.A. (1967), 144
Betson, R.P. (1970), 39
Beulow, R. (1972), 75
Beycrlc, G.B. (1960). 154
Bhoota, B.V. (see Camp, T.R. et al., 1940), 89
Bibr, B. (1970), 60
Bidstrup, P.L. (1950), 78
Biely, J. (1948), 308
Biesinger, K.E. (1971), 119, 120, 122
—(unpublished data, 1971), 180-182, 424,
425, 428
—et al (unpublished data, 1971), 180
Biggar, J.W. (1960), 341
Biggs, R.B. (1970), 281, 282
Bijan, H. (1956), 244, 451
Bingham, F.T. (1968), 339
— et al. (1964), 343
—et al. (1970), 344
—(see Page, A.L. et al., in press, 1972), 342
Bird, E.D. (see Black, A.P. ct al., 1965), 301
Birke, G. ct al. (1967), 314
(1968), 252
Biros, F.J. (1970a), 437
(1970b), 437, 438
Bisbjerg, B. (1970), 345
Bischoff, A.I. (1960), 17, 18, 183
Bishai, H.M. (1960), 160, 418
Bishop, C.T. et al. (1959), 317
Bishop, L.M. (see Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934), 317
Bitman, J. et al. (1969), 198
Blabaum, CJ. (1956), 250
Black, A.P. (1963a,b), 63
—et al. (1963), 63
—et al. (1965), 301
Black, M.H. et al. (1957), 450
Blackburn, R.D. et al. (1971), 26
—(see Holm, L.G., 1969), 26, 27
—(see Maddox, D.M. et al., 1971), 26
Black, B.C. (1953), 161
Blake, J.R. (;ee Williams, M.W. ct al., 1958),
78
Blackman, R R. (see Nirnmo, D.R. ct al.,
1970), 267
— (•iff Nimmo, D R. et al., 1971), 176, 268
Blahn, T.H. (unpublished data, 1970), 412,
414-416, 419
Blaney, H.F. (1966), 332, 335
Blankenstein, E. (see Miettinen, V. et al.,
1970), 172-174
Blau, A.D. (see Street, J.C. et al., 1968), 83,
198, 226
Blaustcin, M.P. (1969), 464
Blaylock, E.G. (1969), 273
Blick, A.P. (1967), 460
Bhck, B. (1967), 455
Bliek, R.A.P. (1967), 454
Bhgh, E.G. (1971), 251
Blinks, L.R. (1947), 136
— (see Whitaker, D.M. ct al., 1945), 137
Bliss, C.I. (1937), 153
Bloom, S.E. (see Pcakall, D B. et al., in press,
1972), 225, 226
Bloomfield, R.A. ct al. (1961), 315
Blumer, M. (1968), 145
(1969, 1972), 257, 253, 262
(1971), 144, 145, 237
—et al. (1970), 258, 262
Blus, L.J et al (1972), 227
The Boating Industry (1971), 9
Bodansky, M. (1923), 65
Boetins, J. (1954), 148, 14
-------
538/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Brcwerton, H.V. (see Hopkins, C.L. et al.,
1966), 184
Bridges, C.H. (1961), 453, 458, 459
Bridges, W.R. (1961), 422
Brigglc, L.W. (see Foy, C.D. et al., 1965), 338
Brightbiil, C.K. (1961), 8
Bringmann, G. (1959), 457, 461, 462, 464-
467
(1959,0, 243, 250, 253, 255, 256
(1959b), 253, 256
Brink, M.F. et al. (1959), 316
Brinklcy, F.J. (1943), 139
British Ministry of Agriculture
Fisheries & Food (1956), 481
Britton, S.W. (tee Brand, E.D. et al., 1951),
138
Brock, T.D. (1966), 437
Brockway, D.R. (1950), 187
Broecker, W.S (1970), 244
—(see Goldberg, E.D et al., 1971), 241, 244,
245, 251
Brookhaven National Lab. (1969), 165, 220
Brooks, N.H. (1960), 403
Brooks, R.R. (1965), 246
Brosz, W.R. (see Embry, L.B. ct al., 1959),
307, 308
Brown, C.L. (1968), 124
Brown, E. et al. (1970), 51
Brown, E.H. (see Edsall, T.A. et al., 1970),
411
Brown, G.W. (1970), 125
Brown, J.G. (see Lillcland, O. et al., 1945),
329
Brown, J.W". (1955), 329
—(see Ayres, A.D. et al., 1952), 329
Brown, R.P. (1969), 278
Brown, V.M. (1968), 120, 133, 142, 178, 181,
451, 454, 456, 460
(1970), 454, 456
—et al. (1968), 460, 468
—et al. (1969), 122
—(tee Mitrovic, U.U. et al., 1968), 191
Broyer, T.C. et al. (1966), 345
Brues, A.M. (tee Ducoff, U.S. et al., 1948), 56
Bruhn, H.D. et al. (1971), 26
—(tee Koegcl, R.G. et al., 1972), 26
Brungs, W.A. (1967), 121, 435
(1969), 120, 122, 182, 234, 460, 468
(1972), 132, 176
—(unpublished data, 1971), 180
—(in preparation, 1972), 189
Bruns, V.F. (1954, 1955, 1957-1959, 1964,
1969), 347
—(unpublished data, 1971), 347
—ct al. (1955, 1964), 347
Brust, H.F. (tee Olson, R.A. et al. 1941), 249
Bruvold, (1967), 90
Bryan, G.W. (1964), 467, 478, 479
(1965), 473, 474
(1969), 475, 479
Bryant, A.R. (see Chang, S.L. et al., 1958),
91
Buchanan, D.V. et al. (1969), 267, 495
Buchanan, W.D. (1962), 56, 243
Bucher, CJ. (see Hovens, W.P. et al., 1941),
29
Buck, D.H. (1956), 128
Buck, O.H. (1956), 16
Buck, W.B. (see Hemphill, F.E. et al., 1971),
313
Buckingham, R.A. (1970), 39
Buehler, E.V. et al. (1971), 67
Bugbce, S.L. (1972), 18
Bugg, J.C. et al. (1967). 266, 267
Bullard, R.W. (1970), 32, 33
Bullock, T.H. (1955), 152
Burcar, P.J. (tee Wersaw, R.L. et al., 1969),
183
Burden, R.P. (see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948), 55
Burdick, G.E. (1948), 1<>0, 454
(1964), 184
(1967), 434
—et al. (1958), 190
— et al. (1964), 429, 437
—et al. (1968), 184, 195
—(see Doudoroff, P. et a]., 1951), 121
Bureau of the Census (see U.S. Dept. of
Commerce, Bureau of the Census)
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1971), 9
Burgess, F.J. (1967), 220, 222
Burke, J.A. (1970), 175
Burks, B.D. (1953), 17
Burks, S.L. (1972), 144
Burns, J. (1972), 28
Burnson, B. (1938), 89
Burrcss, R.M. (see Lemon, R.E. et al.,
1970), 440
Burrows, R.E. (1964), 140, 187, 188
Burttschcll, R.H. et al. (1959), 80
Busccmi, P.A. (1958), 2^
Busey, F. (tee Cairns, J., Jr. ct al., 1968), 177,
408
Bush, E.T. (1967), 437
Bush, R.M. (1972), 21
Bushland, R.C. (see Cl.iborn, H.V. et al ,
1960), 320
Buss, C.I. (see Fitzhugh, O.G. et al., 1944), 86
Buswell, A.M. (1928), 6<>
Butcher, J.E (see Harris, L.E. et al., 1963),
312
Butler, G. (1966), 55
Butler, G.D. (1959), 8
Butler, G.W. (1961), 316
(1966), 244, 339, 343
Butler, P.A. (1966a,b; 1969), 37
—et al. (1968), 495
Butt, C.G. (1966), 29
Butterfield, C.T. (1946), 55, 89
(1948), 55
—et al. (1943), 55
Bycrrum, R.U. (see Decker, L.E. et al.,
1958), 60
—(tee Mackenzie, R.D. ft al., 1958), 62
Byers, H.G. (1935), 316
—et al. (1938), 316
Byers, R.K. (1959), 70
Byran, G.W. (1971), 248
Cabejszek, I. (I960), 453
Cade, T.J. et al. (1970), 227, 267
Cain, S.A. (1961), 27
Cairns, J. Jr. (1956), 180
(1957), 450, 452, 456, 459
(1958), 68, 145, 182, 452, 456-459
(1959), 145, 452, 456-459
(1963), 190
(1964), 421
(1965), 457, 459, 460
(1967), 117
(1968), 16, 126, 152, 408, 452-454, 460
(1969), 117, 119
(1971), 117, 408
—(unpublished data, 1955), 450, 452, 456
457, 459
—et al. (1965), 457
—et al. ('968), 117
—(see Berioit, RJ. et al., 1967), 127
—(see Patrick, R. et al. 1967), 22
—(tee Patrick, R. ct al., 1968), 119, 451, 452
454, 457, 458, 460
—(see Sparks, R.E. et al., 1969), 117
Calabrcse, A. et al. (unpublished), 250, 255
Calandra. J. C. (see Frawley, J.P. ct al.
1963), 78
Calderwood, H.N. (tee Galtsoff, P.S. et al.
1947), 116, 147
Callicot, J.H., Jr. (1968), 29
Calvin, M. (see Hon, J. ct al., 1968), 145
Camarena, V.M. (see, Tracy, H.W. et al..
1966), 90
Camp, A.A. (tee Couch, J.R. et al., 1963), 2(.
Camp, Dresser, McKee (1949), 350
Camp, T.R. et al. (1940), 89
Campbell, A.G. (see Gibbard, J. et al..
1942), 36
Campbell, E.A. (1961), 312
Campbell, R.N. (1962), 349
Campbell, R.S. (tee Johnson, B.T. et al.,
1971), 436-438
Canada Focd & Drug Directorate (personal
communication), 251
Canada Interdepartmental Committee on
Water (1S'71), 241
Cangelosi, J.T. (1941), 60
Cannell, G.IL (see Pratt, P.P. et al., 1967),
334
Canter, L.W. (see Rowe, D.R. el al., 1971),
266
Cappel, J (.;«« Treon, J.F. et al., 1955), 77
Capps, D.L. (1971, 1972), 308
Carey, F.G. (1969), 138
Cargo, D.G. (1971), 19
Carlisle, H. (1947), 79
Cailson, C.A. (1966), 423
(1971), 427
Carlson, C.W.
—(ice Ad?ins, A.W. et al., 1966), 315
—(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308
—(see Krista, L.M. et al., 1961), 195
—(see Krista, L.M. et al., 1962), 308
Carpenter, S.J. (1955), 25
Carriker, M R. (1967), 279, 281, 282
Carritt, D.E (1954), 281
Carson, W.G. (1970), 145
Carter, H.H. (1969), 403
Carswell, J.K. (1972), 75
Castro, E. (see Creger, C.R. et al., 1963), 26
-------
Author Index/539
Carter, D.L. (see Kubota, J. et al., 1967), 316
Carter, R.F. (1965), 29
Gary, E.E. (see Allaway, W.H. et al., 1967),
345
— (see Kubota, J. et al., 1967), 316
Case, A.A. (1957), 315
Casper, V.L. (1967), 266, 267
Cassard, D.W. (see Weeth, HJ. et al., 1960),
307
Castell, C.H. et al. (1970), 462, 463
Catoe, C.E. (1971), 258
Cotzias, G.C. et al. (1961), 60
Cecil,-H.C. (see Bitman, J. et al., 1969), 198
Census of Manufacturers, 1967, 381, 382, 385,
388, 389, 391-393
Cerva, L. (1971), 29
Cervenka, R. (1959), 248
Chadwick, G.G. (1961), 487
(1971), 147
Chalmers, T.C. (see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967),
36
Chamberlain, T.K. (see Lynch, J.J. et al.,
1947), 24
Chambers, C.W. (see Butterfield, C.T. et al.,
1943), 55
Chambers, J.S. (1950), 38
Chanay, M.D. (see Cairns, J., Jr. et al.,
1968), 117,408
Chang, A.T. (1953), 344
Chang, S.L. (1959), 55
(1967, 1968), 91
—et al. (1958), 92
—(see Berg, G et al., 1967), 91
—(see Clarke, N.A. ct al., 1962), 91
—(see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948), 55
Chapman, C. (1968), 279
Chapman, G.A. (see Bouck, G.R. ct al.,
1971), 137
Chapman, H.D. (1966), 339
(1968), 341
—(see Liebig, G.F., Jr., 1942), 340, 342
Chapman, W.H. et al. (1968), 173
Cheek, C.H. (see Swinnerton, J.W. et al.,
1962), 138
Chemical Engineering News, (1971), 310
Chen, C.W. (1968), 460
Chen, K.P. (1962), 56
Cheng, C.M. et al. (1971), 351, 352
Chesters, G. (1971), 318
—(see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968), 183
Chi, L.W. (1964), 463
Childress, J.D. (1965), 341
—(see Romney, E.M. et al., 1962), 342
Chin, E. (1957), 485
(1958), 267
Chin, T.O.Y. et al. (1967), 91
Chipman, W.A., Jr. (1949), 261, 262
(1967), 470
—(see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1947), 116, 147
Chisholm, D. et al. (1955), 340
Chisholm, J.J., Jr. (1964), 70
Chiu, T.F. (1953), 345
Cholak, J. (see Kekoe, R.A. et al., 1940), 70,
87
Chorin-Kirsch, T. (see Aschncr, M. et al.,
1967), 147
Chow, T.J. (1962), 121
(1966, 1968), 249
—(see Murozumi, M. et al., 1969), 249
Christensen, G.M. (1971), 119, 120, 122
—(unpublished data, 1971), 180-182
Christensen, R.E. (see Anderson, D.W. ct al.,
1969), 176, 227
Christiansen, J.E. (1966), 335
(1970), 197
Christiansen, A.G. (see Wcibel, S.R. et al.,
1966), 318, 319
Christman, R.F. (1963a,b), 63
(1966), 63, 80
Chu, S.P. (1942), 22, 461, 465
Chubb, Michael (1969, 1971), 14
Chupp, N.R. (1964), 228
Church, B.C. (see Kutches, A.G. et al., 1970),
320
Churchill, M.A. (1959), 167
(1969), 162
(1972), 9
Claborn, H.V. et al. (1960), 320
Clapp, C.L. (see Scholandcr, P.F. ct al.,
1955), 138
Clark, A. (see Owens, M. et al , 1969), 24
Clark, D.E et al. (1964), 320
Clark, H.F. (see Gcldreich, E.E. et al.,
1962a,b, 1965), 57
—(see Kabler, P.W. et al., 1964), 351
Clark, J. (1967), 221
Clark, J R. (1964), 435
(1969), 152
Clark, N.A. (see Huff, C.B. ct al., 1965), 301
Clark, R. (1968), 124
—(see Sapiro, M.C. et al , 1949), 314
Clark, R.B. (1971), 261
Clark, R.L. (1964), 435
Clark, R.M. (1967). 91
—et al. (1967), 92
— (see Berg, G. et al., 1967), 91
Clark, R.T. (1943), 139
Clarke, F.E. (see Leopold, L.B. ct al., 1971),
400
Clarke, G.L. (1947), 255
Clarke, N.A. (1959), 55
(1961), 92
-ct al (1962), 91, 92
Clarke, W.E. (see Hunter, B.F. et al., 1970),
196
Clarkson, T.W. (1971), 72
Clawson, G.H. (see Fry, F.E.J. et al., 1942),
161, 410
Clawson, M. (1959), 399
Cleland, K.W. (1953), 463, 467
Clcmmens, H.P. (1958, 1959), 173
Clements, H.F. (1939, 1947), 340
Clendenning, K.A. (1958), 250
(1960), 247, 248, 252
— (see North, W.J. et al., 1965), 145
Clendenning, V.A. (1960), 462
Cleveland, F.P. (see Trcon, J.F. et al., 1955),
76, 77
Clinc, J.F. et al. (1969), 328
Clore, W.J. (1958), 347
Close, W.H. (see Mount, L.E. et al., 1971),
305
Cohen, J.M. (1961), 78
—ct al. (1960), 64, 69, 71, 93
—(see Hannah, S.A. et al., 1967), 89
Coburn, D.R. et al. (1951), 228
Code of Federal Regulations, (1967), 273, 274
Cohen, J.M. (1966), 318
— (see also Weibcl, S.R. et al., 1966), 318, 319
Colburn, William, (1971), 14
Colby, D. (see Burdick, J.E. et al., 1964), 184
Colby, P.A. (unpublished data, 1970), 411
Colby, P.J. (1967), 193
(1970), 160
Cole, (1966), 76, 77
Cole, A.E. (1941), 144, 462-464, 467
Coleman, N.T. (1967), 339
— (see Bingham, F.T. ct al., 1970), 344
Coleman, P.R. (see Hunter, B.F. ct al.,
1970),
Coleman, R. (1939), 340
— (see Dorman, C et al., 1939), 340
Collier, R.S. (see Calabrese, A. ct al., un-
published), 250, 254, 255
Collins, T.F.X. (1971), 79
Comes, R.D. (1967), 183
(1970), 347, 348
—(see Frank, P.A. et al., 1970), 346
Comly, H.H. (1945), 73
Commoner, B. (1970), 274
Conn, L.W. et al. (1932), 62
Conners, P.G. et al. (1972a), 226
—ct al (in press, 1972b), 226, 246, 252
—(see Andcrlin, V.C. et al., 1972), 226
Conney, A.H. (1969), 320
Cooch, F.G. (1964), 197
Cook, J.W. (see Williams, M.W. et al.,
1958), 78
Cook, R.S. (1966), 228
Cook, S.F. (1969), 18
Cooley, N.R. et al. (unpublished data), 489,
493, 505
Cooper, A.C. (1962), 135, 137-139
Cooper, AL. (1955), 456
Cooper, E.L. (1953, 1960), 154
Cooper, H.P. et al. (1932), 340
Cooper, K.W. (see Harvey, E.N. ct al.,
1944a), 135
Cope, O.B. (1961), 119, 184
(1965), 453, 458
(1966), 248, 420- 434, 453, 458, 467
(1968), 420-433
—et al. (1970), 437
Copeland, B.J. (1964), 144
(1969), 124, 279
Coppagc, D.L. (unpublished), 267, 268, 493
Copson, H.R. (1963), 55
Corbet, A.S. (see Fisher, R.A. et al., 1943),
409
Corino, E.R. (see Revelle R. et al., 1972),
257
Corneliussen, P.E. (1972), 77, 78
Corner, E.D.S. (1956), 248, 455, 475
(1968), 261
Cordone, A.J. (see Shapovalov, L. et al.,
1959), 27
Cornelius, W.O. (1933), 147
-------
54Q/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Cort, W.W. (1928), 18
(1950), 19
Corwin, N. (1956), 276
—(see Ketchum, B.H. ct al., 1958), 258
Cottam, G. (1969), 24
Couch, J.R. et al. (1963), 26
—(see also Creger, C R. et al., 1963), 26
Couch, R.E. (see Gunn, C.A. et al., 1971), 40
Coulston, F. (see Stein, A.A. ct al., 1965), 76,
77
Council on Environmental Quality (1970),
221, 278, 279
(1971), 244, 249, 257
Courchame, R.J. (1968), 55
Courtenay, W.R., Jr. (see Lachner, E.A.
et al., 1970), 27
Courtney, K.D. (1971), 79
—ct al. (1970), 79
Coutant, C C. (1968), 137, 139, 152, 164
(1969, 1971), 152
(1970), 165, 415, 416, 418
(1970,i), 152, 153, 161
(1970b), 153
(1970c), 152, 161, 169
— (unpublished da a, 1971) 161
(1972) 410
—(see Becker, C.D. ct al., 1971), 16]
Cowcll B.C. (1965), 467
Cowgill, P. (1971), 14
Cowli-y, L.J. (see Acldison, R.F. ct al., 1971),
254
Cox, D H. ct al. (1960), 314
Cox, R. (see Zwcig, G et al., 1961), 320
Crabtree, D.G. (1970), 227
Craighcad, F.C., Jr. (1966), 28
Craigic, D.E. (1963), 417
Crandall, C.A. (1962), 181, 464, 467
Crawford, J.S. ct al. (1969), 315
Crawford, M.D. (1967), 68, 70
—ct al. (1968), 68
Crawford, R F (1960), 314
Crawford, R.P. ct al. (1969), 321
Crawford, T. (1967), 68
Crcgcr, C.R. (1963), 26
— (see Couch, J R. ct al., 1963), 26
Crema, A (1955), 56
Crofts, A.S. (1939), 340
Cromartie, E. (see Baglcy, G.E. ct al., 1970),
176
—(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1971), 176, 227
Cronin, L.E. (1967), 27
(1970), 245, 246, 282
—et al (1969), 279
Crooke, W.M. (1954), 344
Crosby, D.G. (1966), 458, 467
Cross, F.A. et al. (1968), 479
Grossman, R.A., Jr. (1970), 26
Csanady, G.T. (1970), 403
Csonka, E. (see Miller, V.L. et al., 1961), 313
Cucuel, F. (1934), 72
Cummings, R.W. (1941), 345
Curley, A. et al. (1971), 313
Curran, E.J. (1971), 262
Cusick, J. (1967), 463, 468
D'Agostino, A. (1969), 23
Dahl, L.K. (1960), 88
Dahling, D.R. (see Burge, G. et al., 1968), 92
Daines, R.H. (see Prince, A.L. et al. 1949),
343
Dale, W.E. et al. (1963), 76
—(see Hayes, W.J., Jr. et al., 1971), 76
Dalenberg, J.VV. (tee Aten, A.H.W. et al.,
1961), 472
Dalkc, P.D. (1964), 228
Dalton, R A (1970), 45 1, 456
Damant, G.C.C. (1908) 137
Dainron, B.L et al. (19(>9), 313
Dana, S.T. (1957), 14
Daniel, J.W. (1969), 31 5
—et al. (1971), 313
Dantzman, C.L. (1970), 306
D'Arezzo, A.J. (1970), '03
Dart, R.E. (see Galigan, D.J. ct al.. 1957), 66
Das, R.R. (1969), 25
Dasmann, R.F. (1966), 78
Daughcrty, F.M. (1951), 456
Davids, H.W. (1951), 62
Davidson, D.F. (1967), 86
Davidson, R.S. (see Kemp, H.T. et al ,
1966), 457
Davies, A. (see Thomas, S.B. et al,, 1966),
302, 306
Davies, A.G. (1966), 46^
Davies, B (see Harrcl, R.C. ct al., 1967), 144
Davis, C.C. (1964), 23
Davis, E M. (see Arigelovic, J.W. et al.,
1967), 454
Davis, G E (1971), 1 17
Davis, O.K. (1951, 1957), 307
(1966), 317
—(see Gox, D.H et al., I960), 314
— (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1950), 314
—(see Shirley, R L. et al., 1970), 343
Davis, H.C. (1969), 485 487, 489, 491, 493,
495, 497, 499, 501, 505, 507, 509
Davis, J. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1970),
227
Davis, J.J. (1960), 301-303
Davis, J.R. (see Mahood, R.K. et al., 1970),
489
Davis, J.T. (1962), 429-431
(1963), 432
(1964), 429
(1967), 458
Davis, Earry C. (see Sonnen, Michael B.
et al., 1970), 39
Davies, R.O. (1958), 13<>
Davison, K.L. ct al. (19(>2), 315
—ct al. (1964), 314
—ct al. (1965), 315
— (see Jainudcen, M.R. et al., 1965), 315
Dawley, E.M. (see Ebel, W.J. et al., 1970),
161
—(tee Ebel, W.J. et al., 1971), 137
Davis, H.C. (1960, 1969), 281
(1969), 265-268
Derby, S.B. (Sleeper) (1971), 485, 491, 493
Dawson, J.1I. (1959), 347
Dawson, M.D. (see Kerridge, P.O. et al.,
1971), 338
Dean, H.J. (tee Burdick, G.E. et al., 1964)
429, 436
—(see Burdick, G.E. et al., 1968), 183, 184
190, 195
Dean, H.T. (1936), 66
Dean, J.M. (see Crows, F.A. et al, 1968), 475
—(see Fowler, S.W. et al, 1970), 480
Dean, R.B. (1970), 55
— (see Berg, G. et al, 1968), 92
Deans, R J. (1964), 315
Dearingei, John A. (1968), 39, 400
DcBoer, L.M. (1961), 68
Decker, C.F. (see Decker, L.E. ct al, 1958)
60
- -(see Mackenzie, R.D. et al, 1958), 62
Decker, L.E. et al. (1958), 60
DcClaventi, IB. (1965), 463
Deche, K. (1955), 352
De-Eds, F (1950), 60
Defoe, D.L. (see Ncbeker, A.V. et al, 1971)
177
Dejinal, V. (1957). 56
DeMann, J.G. (tceTurnbull, H. et al, 1954)
145, 191, 244, 450-455
Den-iint, R.J. (see Frank, P.A. et al, 1970)
346, 347, 348
DC Mont, J.D. (in press), 135
Denz, F.A. (1953), 319
Deobald, H J. (1935), 309, 312
do Ohvcha, L.P.H. (1924), 255
Department of Lands & Forests, Ottawr
(1968), 28
Department of National Health & Welfare
[Canada] (1971), 481, 482
Dcsehiens, R. (1956), 244, 451
(1957), 467
- (tee Floch, H. et al, 1963), 453
Devlaminck, F. (1950), 457
(1955), 245, 450, 451
DeVos, R.H. (see Koeman, J.H. ct al, 1969).
83, 175
—(sec Vos, J.G. et al, 1970), 198, 225, 226
DeVries, D.M. (see Sparr, B.I. et al, 1966),
346
DeWolfe, T.A. (see Klotz, L.J. et al, 1959).
349
Dick, A.T. (1945), 252
Dickens, F. (1969), 124, 279
Dickson, K.L. (1971), 117, 408
Diesch, S.L. (1966), 29
—(see Crawford, R.P. et al, 1969), 321
Dill, W.A. (see Shapovalov, L. ct al, 1959),
27
Dillion, R.T. (see Van Slyke, D.D. et al,
1934), 138
Dimick, R.E. (1952), 255
—(see Haydu, E.P. et al, 1952), 256
DiPalma, J.R. (1965), 56
Diskalenko, A.P. (1968), 73
DiToro, D.M. ct al. (1971), 277
D'ltri, E.M. (unpublished data, 1971), 172
Dixon, W.J. (1951), 408
Dobbins, W.E. (1968), 403
Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1966), 272
Doell, C.E. (1963), 8
Donawick W.J. (1966), 313
-------
Author Index/541
Doneen, L.D. (1959), 335
Dorfman, D. (1969), 455, 464
Dorman, C. (1939), 340
—et al. (1939), 340
Dorns, T.C. (1964, 1966), 144
(1968), 35, 144, 275, 408, 409
—(see Harrel, R.C. et al., 1967), 144
Doudoroff, P. (1942), 412
(1945), 410, 412
(1950), 139
(1953), 177, 179, 180, 242, 247, 250, 251,
253, 451, 453, 455, 464
(1956), 189, 252, 314, 315, 330, 346
(1957), 135, 139, 255
(1961), 242
(1965, 1967), 131
(1969), 324
(1970), 131-133, 139, 151
(1971), 270
—et al. (1951), 121
—et al. (1966), 123, 140, 189, 241, 451, 453,
454, 456, 457, 464
— (see Hart, J.S. et al., 1945), 142
—Off Hermann, R.B. et al., 1962), 132
— (see Shumway, D.L. et al., 1964), 132
—(see Stewart, N.E. et al., 1967), 132
Dougan, R.S. (1966), 302
Douglas, F.D. (see Simon, J. et al., 1959), 315
Dovel, W.L. (1970), 282
—(see Flcmer, D.A. et al., 1967), 279, 281
Dowden, B.F. (1965), 249, 450, 452, 455,
457, 458
Downing, A.L. (1966), 417-419
Downing, K.M. (1954), 190
(1955), 187, 243
(1957), 187
Drake, C.H. (tee Favero, M.S. ct al., 1964),
31
Dresnack, Robert (1968), 403
Dressman, R.C. (see Lichtcnberg, J.J. et al.,
1969), 319, 320
— (see Lichtcnberg, J.J. et al., 1970), 182
Drill, V.A. (1953), 79
Drinker, K.R. et al. (1927), 317
—(see Thompson, P.K. et al., 1927), 317
Droop, M.R. (1962), 22
Druce, R.G. (see Thomas, S.B. et al., 1966),
302, 306
Drury, D.E. (1969), 189
Du Bois, K.P. (1959), 56
— (see Frawley, J.P. et al., 1963), 78
DuCoff, H.S. et al. (1948), 56
Dudley, R.G. (1969), 132
Dudley, W.A. (see Romoser, G.L. et al.,
1961), 311, 316
Duffy, J.R. (see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1971),
183
Dugdale, D.C. (1970), 277
Duggan, R.E. (1972), 77, 78
Duke, T.W. (1967), 479
—et al. (1966), 472, 479
—et al. (1970), 83, 176, 264
—et al. (1971a), 489
—(see Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971), 267
Dunlap, L. (1971), 172
Dunlop, R.H. (see Wobeser, G. et al., 1970),
173, 251
Dunlop, S.G. (1954), 350, 352
(1961), 351
(1963), 188
(1968), 351, 352
Dunn, J.E. (1967), 410-417
—(tee Neill, W.H., Jr. et al., 1966), 413
Dunstan, W.M. (1971), 275, 276
Dupont, O. et al. (1942), 56
Dupuy, J.L. (1968), 38
Durfor, C.N. (1964), 61, 70, 88, 89
Durham, W.F. (1962), 78
Durnum, W.H. et al (1971), 306, 310-313,
316
Duryee, F.L. (see Kutches, A.J. et al., 1970),
320
Dustman, E.H. ct al. (1970), 198, 313
Duthie, J.R. (1968), 74
Dyer, W.J. et al. (1970), 254
Dye, W.B. (1959), 344
EIFAC (tee European Inland Fisheries
Advisory Commission)
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
(1971), 434, 437
Earlc, T.T. (1948), 27
Earley, E.B. (1943), 345
Earnest, R.D. (unpublished data, 1971), 266,
267, 485-487, 489, 491, 493, 495
Easterbrock, C.C. (see Sundaram, T.R. et al..
1969), 403
Eaton, F.M (1935, 1944), 341
(1950), 335
(1959), 328
Eaton, J.G. (1970), 120, 122, 184, 185, 437
(1971), 123, 189, 425
—(unpublished data, 1971), 179, 180
Ebcl, W.J. (1968), 135
(1969), 135, 137
(1971), 137
-ct al. (1970), 160
Ebeling, G. (1928), 249
Eberhardt, L.L. et al. (1971), 439
Edinger, J E. (1969), 403
Edison Electric Institute (1970), 378
Edmondson, W.T. (1961, 1968, 1969), 20
(1970), 20-22
(1972), 19
Edmunds, (1966), 452
Edsall, T.A. (1970), 160
—(unpublished data, 1970), 411
—et al. (1970), 411
Edson, E.F. (1954), 319
(1957), 78
Edwards, H.E. (1967), 184
Edwards, R.W. (1963), 458
Egan, D.A. (1970), 313
Egusa, S. (1955), 137, 138
Ehlig, C.F. (1959), 328
—(see Alloway, W.II. et al., 1967), 345
Eichelbcrger, J.W. (see Lichtenberg, J.J.
et al., 1969), 319, 320
—(see Lichtenberg, J.J. et al., 1970), 182
Eimhjellen, K. (see Jannasch, H.W. et al.,
1971), 277, 280
Eippcr, A.W. (1959), 26
Eisler, R. (1966), 452, 495
(1967), 468
(1969, 1970a,b), 266-268, 485, 487, 489,
491, 493
(1970c), 487, 489
— (see LaRochc et al., 1970), 261
Ekman, R. (see Abcrg, B. ct al., 1969), 313,
314
Elder, J.B. (tee Dustman, E.H. et al., 1970),
198, 313
El-Dib, M.A. (1971), 80
Eldriclge, E.F. (1960), 89
Eldridge, W.E. (see Holland, G.A. et al ,
1960), 242, 246, 247, 451, 452, 461, 463-
465
Eller, L.L. (see Kennedy, H.D. et al., 1970),
195, 436
Ellis, M.D. (see Ellis, M.M. et al., 1946), 249
Ellis, M.M. (1937), 22, 131, 139, 187, 191,
245, 253, 254
—et al. (1946), 249
Elms, D.R. (1966), 301
Elrod, R.P. (1942), 57
Elson, P.F. (1965), 248
(1967), 184
— (see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1964), 463, 467
— (tee Sprague, J.B. et al., 1965), 122, 463
- (see Sprague, J.B. ct al., 1971), 183
Elvehycn, C.A. (1935), 138, 309
Embry, L B. et al. (1959), 307, 308
— (see Emcrick, R.J. et al., 1965), 315
—(see Goodrich, R.D. et al., 1964), 315
— (see Hoar, D.W. et al., 1968), 315
- (see Wcichenthal, B.A. ct al., 1963), 315
Emenck, R J. et al. (1965), 315
—(see Adams, A.W. et al., 1966), 315
—(tee Goodrich, R.D. et al., 1964), 314
—(sec Hoar, D.W et al , 1968), 315
— (tee Olson, O.E. ct al., 1963), 315
—Off Weichcnthal, B.A. ct al., 1963), 315
Emerson, J.L. et al. (1970), 79
Emery, R.M. et al. (1972), 20
Enderson, J.H. (1970), 198
Engelbert, L.E. Off Lawton, G.W. et al.,
1960), 353
England, B. et al. (1967), 92
Engle, J.B. (see Galtsoff, P.S. ct al., 1947),
116, 147
Englehorn, O.R. (1943), 135
English, J.N. ct al. (1961), 34
—et al. (1963), 148
—(see Booth, R.L. et al., 1965), 75
—(see Surber, E.W. ct al., 1965), 148
Enns, W.R. (1968), 18
Environmental Protection Agency, 57, 58, 91
—(unpublished data, 1971), 48
-(draft, 1972), 301
—(in press, 1972), 318
Div. of Water Hygiene, Water Quality Office
(1971), 37
Office of Pesticides, Pesticides Regulation
Division (1972), 319
Episano, C. (fee Maloues, R. et al., 1972), 135
Eppson, H.F. (tee Bradley, W.B. et al., 1940),
314
-------
542/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Ericksson, E. (1952), 337
Erickson, K. (1964), 321
Ericksen, L.V. (1959), 147
Erickson, S.J. et al. (1970), 268, 505
Erne, K. (see Borg, K. et al., 1969), 198, 252,
313
Esmay, M.L. et al. (1955), 302
Espey, W.H. (1967), 229, 281, 282
(1971), 403
Ettinger, M.B. (1962), 55
—(see Earth, E.F. et al., 1966), 55
—(see Burttschell, R.H. et al., 1959), 80
—(see Ludzack, F.J. et al., 1957), 145
European Island Fisheries Advisory Com-
mission (1965), 127
(1969), 140, 241
Evans, A. (1969), 135, 136, 138
Evans, E.D. (tee Stevens, N.P. et al., 1956),
145
Evans, E.T.R. (1946), 195
Everhart, W.H. (1953), 142
(1971), 179, 181
Eye, J.D. (1968), 130
Eylar, O.K. (see Murphy, W.H. et al., 1958),
350
FAO (see Food & Agricultural Organization)
FDA (see U.S. Department of Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare, Food and Drug
Administration)
FPRL Annual Report (unpublished data,
1971), 420-424, 426, 427, 433
FRC (tee Federal Radiation Council)
FWPCA (see Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Administration)
Faber, R.A. et al. (1972), 227
Faculty of American Bacteriologists (1947),
439
Fagerstrom, T. (1971), 172
Fair, G.M. et al. (1948), 55
—et al. (1968), 275
Fairhall, L.T. (1942), 87
(1957), 62
Falk, H.L. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
—(tee Courtney, R.D. et al., 1970), 79
Falk, L.L. (see Rudolph, W. et al., 1950), 89,
351
Falk, R. (see Aberg, B. et al., 1969), 313, 314
Falkowska, Z. et al. (1964), 250
Farmanfarmaian, A. (see Jannasch, H.W.
et al., 1971), 277, 280
Farr, P.M. (see Couch, J.R. et al., 1963), 26
Farr, F.M. (see Grcger, C.R. et al., 1963), 26
Fast, A.W. (3968), 165
—(unpublished data, 1971), 165
Faulkner, L.R. (1966), 348, 349
(1970), 348, 349
Faust, S.D. (1968, 1971), 80
—et al. (1971), 80
Favero, M.S. et al. (1964), 31
Fay, L.D. (1964, 1966), 196
Federal Power Commission (1971), 378
Federal Radiation Council (1960), 273
(1961), 273, 274
—(see also U.S. Federal Radiation Council)
Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration (1963), 75
(1966), 57
(1968), 59, 91
Feltz, H.R. et al. (1971), 183
Fenderson, O.C. (1970), 225
Feng, T.P. (1946), 59
Ferguson, D.E. (1968), 184
Ferguson, H.F. (see Simons, G.W., Jr. et al.,
1972), 29
Perm, V.H. (tee Mulvihill, J.E. et al., 1970),
310
Fertig, S.N. (1953), 319
Fettcrolf, C.M. (1962), 147
(1964), 148, 191
—et al. (1970), 18
—(see Basch, R.E. et al., 1971), 189
Field, H.I. (1946), 195
Fifield, C.W. (see Litsky, W. et al., 1953), 31
Fimreite, N. (1970), 251
—et al. (1970), 252
Finn, B.J. (tee Halsteac, R.L. et al., 1969),
344
Finney, D.J. (1952), 121
Fireman, M. (1960), 341
Firh't, C.F. (1962), 435
Fischer, H.B. (1968, 1970), 403
Fischman, L.L. (see Landsberg, H.H. et al.,
1963), 381
Fishbein, L. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969),
76
Fisher, D.W. (see Likens, G.E. et al., 1970),
125
Fisher, H.L.
1968), 173
Fisher, J.L.
1963), 381
Fisher, R.A. et al. (1942.), 409
Fisheries Research Board of Canada (un-
published, 1971), 179
Fishman, M.J. (see Brown, E. et al., 1970), 51
Fitch, C.P. et al. (1934), 317
Fitzhugh, O.G. (1941), 60
—et al. (1944), 86
Flemer, D.A. (1970), 281
—et al. (1967), 279, 281
Fletcher, J.L. (1971), 2f>4
—ct al. (1970), 254
—(see Dyer, W.J. et al., 1970), 254
Flinn, D.W. (1965), 1
Flis, J. (1968), 187
Florida State Board of Health (unpublished
data), 18
Fleming, R.H. (see Sverdrup, H.V. et al.,
1942), 216
—(see Sverdrup, H.V. el al., 1946), 241
Floch, H. et al. (1963), 453
Foehrenbach, J. (1972), 37
Foget, C.R. (1971), 262
Follis, B.J. (1967), 193, 456
Food & Agriculture Organization (1967),
216
(1971), 239, 241, 247
Food and Drug Administration (unpub-
lished data), 79
(see Chapman, W.H. et al.,
(see Landsberg, H.H. et al.,
Food Standards Committee for England am
Wales (1959), 481
Forbes, S.A. (1913), 145
Ford, W.L. (1952), 280
Forester, J. (see Cooley, N.R. et al., un
published data), 489
Foster, G.L. (see Sparr, B.I. et al., 1966), 34
Foster, M. ft al. (1970), 258
Foster, R.F. (1943), 21
(1956, 1957), 180
Fowl, D.L. (1972), 318, 345
—et al. (1971), 434
Fowler, I. (1953), 466, 467
Fowler, M. (1965), 29
Fowler, S.W. et al. (1970), 480
—(see Cross, F.A. et al., 1968), 479
Fox, A.C. (see Hannon, M.R. et al., 1970)
183
Foy, C.D. ct al. (1965), 348
Foyn, E. (1965), 222
Francis, G. (1878), 317
Frank, N. (1941), 57
Frank, P.A (1967), 183
—ct al. (1970), 346-348
F'rank, R. (personal communication), 175
Frank, K.W. (1935), 86
(1936) 309
—(see Smith, M.I. et al., 1936), 86
Frankel, R.J. (1965), 399
Frant, S. (1941), 60
Franklin, P.M. (see Thomas, S.B. et al.
1953), 302
Frens, A.M. (1946), 307
Fraser, M.H. et al. (1956), 57
Frawley, J.P. et al. (1963), 78
—(see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958), 78
Frear, D.E.H. (1969), 80, 174
Frcdeen, F.H. (1964), 18
Freegarde, M. et al. (1970), 261
Freeman, L. (1953), 466, 467
Freeman, P .A. (1971), 179
Fremling, C.R. (1960a,b), 17
French, C.R. (see Brand, E.D. et al., 1951)
138
Freund, G.F. (see Black, A.P. et al., 1965)
301
Friend, M. (1970), 226
Fries, G.F. t«?cBitrnan, J. et al., 1969), 198
Frink, C.R. (1967), 24
Frisa, C. (see Burdick, G.E. et al., 1968), 183
195
Frisch, N.W. (1960), 63
Frolich, E. ct al. (1966), 342
Fromm, P.O. (1958), 452, 457
(1959), 457, 462
(1962), 462
(1970), 187
Frost, D.V. (1967), 56, 309, 310
—(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968b), 309
Fry, F.E.J. (1947), 120, 152
(1951), 161
(1953), 419
(1954), 160, 419
(1957), 139
(1960), 131
-------
Author Index/543
(1964), 152, 154
(1967), 152, 161
—(unpublished, 1971), 154
—et al. (1942), 410
—et al. (1946), 153, 160, 170, 410-419
Fryer, J.L. (see Bond, C.E. 1960), 429-432
Fujuya, M. (1960). 248, 453, 363, 364
(1961), 453
—(see Bardach, J.E. ct al., 1965), 190
Fukai, R. (1962), 240
Fulkcrson, W. (see Wallace, R.A. ct al.,
1971), 72, 173, 240, 252
Fuller, R G. (see Kemp, H.T. et al., 1966),
457
Fuller, W.H. (see Hilgcman, R.H. et al.,
1970), 344
Funnell, H.S. (1969), 313
Fyfc, R.W. (see Fimreite, N. ct al., 1970), 252
Gaarder, T. (1932), 241, 465
Gaertner, H. (1951), 350
Gage, J.C. (1961, 1964, 1969, 1971), 313
Gage, S. De M. (see Simons, G.W., Jr. et al.,
1922), 29
Gaines, T.B. (see Dale, W.E. et al., 1963), 76
Gakstatter, J.L. (1965), 183
Galagan, D.J. (1953, 1957), 66
Gall, O.K. (1940), 345
Gallatine, M.II. (1960), 337
—(see Lunin, J. et al., 1960, 1964), 338
—(see Lunin, J. et al., 1963), 336, 337
Galtsoff, P.S. (1931), 148
(1932), 248
(1943), 463
(1946), 246
(1949), 261, 262
(1964), 148
—et al. (1935), 147
—et al. (1947), 116, 147
—(see Doudoroff, P. ct al., 1951), 121
Gamm, S.H. (see Mulvihill, J.E. et al.,
1970), 310
Gammon, J.R. (1970), 128, 157
Gange, T.J. (see Page, A.L. et al., in press,
1971), 343
Gannon, J.E. (1969), 124, 127
Garbcr, M.J. (see Pratt, P.F. ct al., 1967), 334
Gardner, G.R. (1970), 462
Gardner, M.J. (see Crawford, M.D. et al.,
1968), 68
Garner, G.B. (1963), 315
(1970), 246
—(see Bloomfield, R.A. ct al., 1961), 315
Garrett, J.T. (1951, 1957), 456
Garrigou, F. (1877), 72
Garsidc, E.T. (1968), 411
Gart, J.J. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Cast, M. (in press), 179, 180
Gastler, G.F. (1957), 308
—(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308
Gauch, H.G. (see Magistad, O.C. et al.,
1943), 325, 336
Gaufin, A.R. (1952, 1956, 1958), 408
(1953), 22
(1964), 424, 426, 427, 435, 453
(1966), 420, 421
—et al. (1965), 195
Gaylor, D.W. (see Courtney, K.D. et al.,
1970), 79
Gcbhards, S. (1970), 124
Ceiling, E.M.K. (1959), 56
Gciscr, P.B. (see Leone, N.L. et al., 1954), 66
Geldreich, E.E. (1966), 31, 36
(1970), 31, 36, 57, 352
(1971), 16, 57, 302, 351, 352
—et al. (1962a,b, 1964, 1965, 1968), 57
— (see Kabler, P.W. ct al., 1921), 351
Gendcrcn, H. (1970), 265, 267
Gcnoway, R G. (1968), 137, 139
Gentile, J.H. (unpublished data, 1972), 247
— (see Erickson, S.J. et al., 1970), 268, 505
Gerbig, C G. (see Emerson, J.L. et al.,
1970), 79
Genckc, S. (1939), 345
Gerlach, A.R. (see Terricre, L.C. et al.,
1966), 183
Gcrlad, R.W. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60
Gerloff, G.R. (see Hansen, O. ct al., 1954), 22
Gersh, I. et al. (1944), 137
Gcrtel, K. (1963), 302
Geycr, J.C. (tee Brady, O.K. ct al., 1969),
403
—(iff Fair, G.M. et al., 1968), 275
Ghassemi, M. (1966), 63, 80
Ghelardi, R.J. (1964), 408
Gibbard, J. et al. (1942), 36
Gibson, E.S. (1954), 160, 419
Gibson, M.B. (1953), 419
Gilbertson, M. (see Connors, P.G. et al , in
press, 1972b), 226
Gilderhaus, P.A. (1967), 430, 458
Gill, J.M. et al. (1960), 455
Gill, S.L. (1946), 36
Gillespie, R.W. et al. (1957), 321
Gillett, J.W. (1969), 185
Gillis, M.B. (see Nelson, T.S. et al., 1962), 316
Oilman, A Z. (1965), 56
Ginn, J T. (1944), 60
Girling, E.F. (see Curlcy, A. et al., 1971) 313
Gish, C D. (see Blus, L.J. et al., 1972), 227
Gissel-Nielson, G. (1970), 345
Glass, G. (see Biesingcr, K.E. et al., 1971),
180
Glenn, M.W. (1967). 316
Glover, Robert E. (1964), 403
Glueckauf, E. (1951), 135
Godsil, P.J. (1968), 346
Goepfert, J.M. (see Cheng, C.M. et al.,
1971), 351, 352
Goerlitz, D.F. (1963), 63
(1966). 63, 301
Gohccn, A.C. (see Hewitt, W.B. et al., 1958),
349
Goldberg, E.D. (1957), 243
(1970). 172, 251
(1971), 72, 242, 244, 245
(1972), 226
—et al. (1971), 251, 256
—(see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 226,
227
Goldberg, M.C. (see Wcrsaw, R.L. et al.,
1969), 183
Goldman, C.R. (1964, 1972), 23
Goldman, J.C. et al. (1971), 23
Goodgal, S. (1954), 281
Gooding, D. (1954), 247
Goodman, J. (1951), 459
Goodman, L.S. (1965), 56
Goodnight, C.J. (1962), 181, 464, 467
Goodrich, R D. et al. (1964), 315
Gomaa, H.M. (1971), 80
Gonzalez, J. et al. (unpublished, 1971), 247
Gorham, F.P. (1898, 1899, 1904), 135
Gorham, P.R. (1960, 1964), 317
—(see Bishop, C.T ct al., 1959), 317
Gortner, R.A. (tee Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934),
317
Gotsev, T. (1944), 59
Gouine, L. (see Fctterholf, C.M., 1970), 18
Gould, T.C. (1967 , 311
Gradv, G.F. (see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967), 36
Graetz, D.A. (see Lotsc, E.G. ct al., 1968),
183
Graham, J.M. (1949), 160
Graham, R.J (1968), 144
Grande, M. (1967), 463
Graham, R. (see Sampson, J. ct al., 1942),
316
Grant, A.B. (1961), 316
(1965), 345
Grant, B.F. (1968), 438
--(unpublished, 1971), 176
Grant, B.R. (1970), 438
Grant, C.M. (see Pomeroy, L R. et al., 1965),
281
Gravelle, C.R. (\ee Chin, T.D.Y. ct al.,
1967), 91
Graves, W.L. (see Brady, D.K. et al., 1969),
403
[Great Britain] Dept. of the Environment
(1971), 51, 55
Green, R.S. (see Breidcnbach, A.W. ct al.,
1967), 318
Greenbank, J. (w Hart, J.S. et al , 1945),
142
Greenwood, D.A (see Harris, L.E. et al.,
1963), 312
—(see Shupc, J.L. et al., 1964), 312
Grccr, W.C. (1957), 145
—(see Wallen, I.E. ct al., 1957), 245, 450-457
Greeson, P.E. (1970), 313
Grcgorius, F. (1948), 62
Greiber, R. (1972), 56
Greichus, Y.A. (see Harmon, M.R. et al.,
1970), 183
Greig, R.A. (1970), 198
Greitz, U. (see Aberg, B. et al., 1969), 313,
314
Gress, F. (see Schmidt, T.T. ct al., 1971), 83
Grice, A.D. (see Wcibe, P.H. et al., in press,
1972), 280
Grice, G.D. (see Harvey, G.R. et al., 1972),
264
Griffin, A.E. (1960), 71
Griffin, J.J. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al.,
1968), 226, 227
Griffin, L.N. (1964), 467
Griffith, D. de G. (1970), 261
-------
544/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Griffith, W.H., Jr. (1962-1963), 195
Grimmet, R.E.R. et al. (1937), 316
Grindlcy, J. (1946), 461, 465-467
Grob, D. (1950), 78
Grodhaus, G. (1963), 18
Grogan, R.G. et al. (1958), 349
Gross, M.G. (1970), 278, 279, 281
—(see Goldberg, E.D. ct al., 1971), 241, 244,
245, 251
Gross, W.G. (1946), 62, 311
Grow, T.E. (1971), 503, 505
Grucc, G D. (see Vacarro, R.S. et al., 1972),
280
Grudina, L.M. (see Malcshevskaya, A.S.
c al., 1966), 313
Gruminer, R.H. (-ire Lewis, P.K. et al.,
1957), 316, 317
Grushkin, B. (1967), 465, 466, 468
Guess, W.L. (see Nematollahi, J. et al.,
1967), 174, 175
Gumtz, G.D. (1971), 262
Gunn, C.A. et al. (1971), 40
Gunn, S.A. (1967), 311
Gunncrson, C.B. (1966), 80
Gunnerson, C.G. (see Breidenbach, A.W.
ct al., 1967), 318
Gunter, G. (see Cronin, L.E. et al., 1969), 279
Gunther, F.A. et al. (1968), 227
Gurcharan, K.S. (see Metcalf, R.L. et al.,
1971), 437
Guseva, K.A. (1937, 1939), 250
Guskova, V.N. (1964), 467
Guss, P.L. (see Ilalverson, A.W. 1962, 1966),
316
Gustafson, G.G. (1970), 175-177
Gutknccht, J. (1963), 478
Guyer, B.E. (see Esmay, M.C. ct al., 1955),
302
Gwatkin, R. (1946), 315
Haas, A.R.C. (1932), 341
Haegele, H.A. (1970), 198
Uaga, H. (see Kariya, T. et al., 1969),
Ilaga, Y. (see Kariya, T. ct al., 1969), 455
Hair, J.R. (1971), 414
Hairston, N.G. (1959), 408
Hale, W.H. et al. (1962), 315
Hall, A. (tee Bardach, J.E. et al., 1965), 190
Hall, A.E. (see Applcgate, V.C. et al., 1957),
243
Hall, E.E. (see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932), 340
Hall, E.S. (1965), 63
Hall, T.F. (1961), 26
Halstead, B.W. (1965), 38
Halstead, R.L. et al. (1969), 344
Halverson, A.W. et al. (1962, 1966), 316
Hamclink, J.L. et al. (1971), 183
Hamilton, A. (1971) 172
Hamilton, J.W. (1963), 345
(1964), 86
flamlin, J.M. (see Jackim, E. et al., 1970),
244, 255, 451, 454, 455, 457, 462, 465, 466
Hammel, W.D. (see Anderson, E.A. ct al.
1934), 93
Hammond, A.L. (1971), 251
Hammond, P.B. (1964), 313
Hampson, G.R. (1969), 258
Han, J. ct al. (1968), H5
Hanko, E. (see Borg, K. ct al., 1969), 198,
252, 313
Hannah, S.A. et al. (1967), 89
Hannan, H.H. (1971), 24
Hannon, M.R. et al. (1970), 183
Ilannerz, L. (1968), 172, 173, 251, 475, 476
Hansel, W. (1962), 315
—(wDavison, K.L. et al., 1964), 314
—(see Jamudeen, M.R. et al., 1965), 315
Hansen, D.J. et al. (1971), 176, 177, 505
Hansen, D.L. (1967), 4 57
Hansen, O. et al. (1954), 22
llanshaw, B B. (see Leopold, L B. et al ,
1971), 400
Ilapkirk, C.S.M. (iff Grimmett, R.E.R.
et al., 1937), 316
Harbourne, J.F et al. (1968), 313
Harding, R.B. (1959), 328
Hare, G.M. (1969), 239
Harleman, D R.F. (1971), 403
Harmcson, R.H. ct al. (1971), 73
Harms, R.H. (see Damron, B.L. et al., 1969),
313
Harmstrom, F.C. (1958), 18
Harre.1, R.C. et al. (1967), 144
Harrington, R.B. (see On, E.A. ct al., 1965,
1966b,c,d), 317
—(see Ott, E.A. ct al., 1965a), 316
Harris, E.J. (see Bruclick, G.E. et al., 1964),
429, 436
— (see Brudick, G.E. et al., 1968), 183, 184,
190, 195
Harris, E.K. (see Cohen, J.M. et al., 1960),
64, 69, 71, 93
Harris, L.E. et al. (1963), 312
Harris, M. Off Berg, W.L. et al., 1945), 138
—(see Whitcher, D.M. ct al., 1945), 137
Harriss, R.C. et al. (1970), 173
Harris, R.H. (1968), 89
—(see Singley, J.E. et al., 1966), 63
Harris, S.J. (see Bitman, J. et al , 1969), 198
Harrison, F. (1967), 474
Harrison, W. ct al. (1964), 279
Harry, ILW. (1958), 462, 463
Hart, E.R. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Hart, J.S. (1944), 139
(1945), 142
(1947), 160, 410, 414, 416, 417, 419
(1952), 160, 411 414, 417, 419
—et al. (1945), 142
—(see Fry, F.E.J. et al., 1946), 153, 160, 170,
410-419
Hart, W.B. (see Doudorof, P. et al., 1951), 121
Hartley, W.J. (1961), 3'6
Hartung, R. (1965, 1967a), 196
(1966), 196, 262
(1967b), 197
(1968), 145
(1970), 196, 146, 183
Harvey, E.N. et al. (1944a), 135
(1944b), 135, 136
(1962), 95, 97, 99, 135
Harvey, G.R. et al. (1972), 264
Harvey, H.H. (1962), 1:6, 137-139
Harvey, H.W. (1947), 250
Harvey, R.S. (1969), 470-473, 475, 479
Haskell, D.C. (1958), 139
Ilasselrot, T.B. (1968), 172
Hasseltine, H.E. (see Lumsden, L.L. et al,
1925), 36
Hatch, R.C. (1969), 313
Hatcharcl, C.G. (see Freegarde, M. et al.
1970), 261
Hatcher, B.W. (see Maclntire, W.H. et al.
1942), 343
Hatcher, J.T. (1958), 341
Hatchcock, J.N. ft al. (1964), 316
Hathrup, A.R. (1970), 347
Haverland, L.H. (1961), 307
—(see Wecth, H.J. ct al., 1960), 307
Hawk, R.E (see Curlcy, A. et a'., 1971), 313
Hawkes, A.L. (1961), 196
TTawkinson G.E. (see Gersh, I. et al., 1944)
137
llawksley, R.A. (1967), 181
Haydu, E.P. (1968), 117
—(unpublished data), 247, 253
—et al. (1952), 256
Hayes, B.W. (see Mitchell, G.E. et al., 1967)
315
Hayes, W.J., Jr. (1962), 78
(1963), 79
—et al. (1971), 75
—0«' Dale, W.E. ct al., 1963), 76
—(in press), 77
Haynes, W.S. (see Vigil, J. ct al., 1965), 73
Hays, H. (1972), 226, 227
--(see Connors, P.G. et al., in press, 1972b)
236
Ilayward, H.E. (1958), 324
Hazel, C.R (1970), 464
—et al. (1971), 187
Hazcn, A. (1892, 1896), 63
(1895), 69
Heath, A.G. (see Sparks, R.E. ct al., 1969)
117
Heath, R.G., 198
—et al. ('969), 197, 226
—et al. (in press, 1972), 226
Heath, W.G. (1967), 410, 412, 419
Hedstrom, C.E. (1967), 92
Heggeness, H.G. (1939), 340
lleidel, SG. (1971), 306
—(see Durum, W.H. ct al., 1971), 306, 310-
313, 316
Heinle, D.R. (1969), 162
Held, E.E. (1969), 476
Heller, VG. (1930, 1932, 1933), 307
(1946), 62, 211
Helm, W.T. (see Siglcr, W.F. et al., 1966).
248, 453
Helminen, M. (see Henriksson, K. ct al.,
1966), 198, 252
Hem, J.D. (1960), 130
(1970), 87, 313
—(see Durum, W.H. et al., 1971), 306, 310-
313, 316
Hemmingsen, E.A. (1970), 136
Hemphill, F.E. et al. (1971), 313
-------
Author Index/54:5
Henderson, G. (1956), 243, 256, 451, 455,
456, 459
(1957), 122, 234
(1959), 458
(1960), 243, 244, 253, 451, 453, 455,
456, 459
(1965), 451, 452, 455-457, 460
(1966), 145, 180-182, 453, 455, 456, 460
—et al. (1959), 420-422
—et al. (1960), 190, 450
—ct al. (1969), 182, 434
—(see Black, H.H. ct al., 1957), 450
— (see English, J.N. et al., 1963), 148
—(see Pickering, Q.H. ct al., 1962), 184,
423-426
Henley, D.E. (1970), 147
—(see Silvey, J.K. et al., 1972), 82
Hennessey, R.D. (see Maddox, D.M. et al.,
1971), 26
Henrikson, K. et al. (1966), 198, 252
Henry, W.H. (1965), 340
Henson, E.B. (1966), 17
Hentges, J.F., Jr. (1970), 26
Herbert, D.W.M. (1952), 464
(1960), 178, 187, 450
(1961), 407, 459
(1962), 143
(1963), 459
(1964), 122, 182, 403, 450, 453, 459, 464
(1965), 122, 187, 407, 453
—et al. (1965), 455, 456, 460
Hermann, E.R. (1959), 462, 463, 465, 467
Herman, S.G. (1968), 266-268
—(see Risenbrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 83,
175, 198, 264
Herrmann, R.B. ct al. (1962), 132
Hershkovitz, G. (see Kott, Y. et al., 1966), 245
Hervcy, R.J. (1949), 180
Hess, A.D. (1956, 1958), 17
Hess, J.B. (see Kott, Y. et al., 1966), 245
Hester, H R. (see Sampson, J. ct al., 1942),
316
Hettler, W.F. (1968), 410
Hewitt, E.J. (1948), 345
(1953), 342
(1966), 344
Hewitt, VV.B. et al. (1958), 349
—(see Grogan, R.G. et al., 1958), 349
Heyroth, F.F. (1952), 66
Hiatt, R.W. (1953), 462
—et al. (1953), 245, 246
—(see Boroughs, H. et al., 1957), 409
Hibiya, T. (1961), 465, 469, 470, 475-478
Hickcy, J.J. (1968), 197, 226
(1970), 197
—(see Anderson, D.W. ct al., 1969), 176, 227
Hicks, D.B. (1971), 147
Hidu, H. (1969), 265, 268, 281, 485, 487,
489, 491, 493, 495, 497, 499, 501, 505, 507,
509
Higgins, J.E. (see Bugg, J.G. et al., 1967),
266, 267
Hilgeman, R.H. et al. (1970), 344
Hill, C.H. (1963), 311
—(see Hathcock, J.N. et al., 1964), 316
Hill, E V. (1947), 79
Hill, M.N. (1964), 216
Hill, W.R. (1939, 1947), 87
Hillebrand, O. (1950), 24
Hills, B.A. (1967), 136
Hilscher, R. (see Simons, G.W., Jr. ct al.,
1922), 29
Hilsenhoff, W.L. (1959, 1968), 18
Hiltibran, R.C. (1967), 26
Hiltz, D.F. (see Dyer, VV.J. et al., 1970), 254
Hmchliffe, M.C. (1952), 19
Hinc, C.H (1970), 181, 252
Hmgley, H.J. (see Dyer, W.J. et al., 1970),
254
Hmgley, J. (see Ackrnan, R G. et al., 1970),
254
Hmklc, M.E. (see White D.E. ct al., 1970),
313
Hinman, J.J., Jr. (1938), 93
Hiratzka, T. (1953), 79
Ilirohata, T. (tee Kuratsune, M ct al.,
1969), 83
Hiroki, K. (see Theede, H. ct al., 1969), 193,
256
Hirono, T (see Murata, I. et al., 1970), 60
Hisaoka, K.K. (1962), 435
Hissong, E.D. (see Prinzlc, B.II. et al., 1968),
38, 246, 247
Hitchings, G.H. (1969), 320
Hiyama, Y. (1964), 469, 471
Hoadley, A.W. (1968), 31
Hoak, R.D. (1961), 89
Hoagland, E. (tee Weibe, P.M. et al., in
press, 1972), 280
Hoar, D.W. et al. (1968), 315
Hobden, D.J. (1969), 473
Hodges, E.M. (see Shirley, R.L. ct al., 1970),
343
Hodgkin, A.L. (1969), 464
Hodgson, J.F. (1960), 342
(1963), 339
Hodgson, J.M. (see Bruns, V.F. et al., 1955),
347
Hoekstra, W.G. (see Lewis, P.K. et al., 1957),
316, 317
Hoclscher, M.A (see Ernbry, L.B. et al.,
1959), 307, 308
Hoff, J G. (1963), 147
(1963), 148
(1966), 160, 413, 417, 419
Hoffman, D.O. (1951), 459
Hoflund, S. (see Sapiro, M.L. et al., 1949),
314
Hogan, J.W. (1967), 435
—(see Berger, B.L. ct al., 1969), 435
Hogan, M.D. (see Courtney, K.D. ct al.,
1970), 79
Hoglund, B. (1972), 164
Hoglund, L.B. (1961), 139
Hokanson, J.F. (1964), 315
Hokanson, K.E.F. (1971), 190, 191
Holden, A.V. (1970), 55, 176, 225
Holden, P. (1958), 17
Holden, W.S. (1970), 83
Holeman, J.N. (1968), 281
Holland, G.A. et al. (1960), 242, 246, 247,
256, 451, 452, 461, 463-465
Holluta, J. (1961), 7
Holm, C.H. (see Meyers, J.J. et al., 1969), 32
Holm, H.H. (see Patrick R. et al., 1954), 116
Holm, L.G. et al. (1969), 26, 27
Holmes, C.W. (see Mount, L.E. et al., 1971),
305
Holmes, D.C. ct al. (1967), 83, 175
Holmes, R.W. (1967), 258
Holt, G. (1969), 198
Hoopcs, J.A. (see Zcller, R.W. et al., 1971),
403
Hopkins, C.L. et al. (1966), 184
Hopkins, S.H (see Cronin, L.E. et al., 1969),
279
Hopper, M.C. (1937), 343
Hoppert, C A. (see Decker, L.E. et al., 1958),
60
- (see Mackenzie, R.D. et al., 1958), 62
Horn, M.1I. et al. (1970), 257
Home, D.A. (see Fletcher, G.L. et al., 1970),
254
Horncr, G.M. (see Vandccaveyc, S.C. ct al.,
1936), 340
Horning, W.B. (1972), 160
Hoss, D.E. (1964), 479
Hosty, T.S. ct al. (1970), 278
Hotchkiss. N. (1967), 27
Hotclling, H. (1949), 399
Hovens, W.P. ct al. (1941), 29
Howard, T.E. (1965), 241
—(see Schaumburg, F.D. ct al., 1967), 120
Howell, J.H. (we Applegate, V.C. et al.,
1957), 243
Hoycr, W H. (see McKce, M.T. et al., 1958),
196
Hoyle, R.J. (see Fletcher, G.L. ct al., 1970),
254
Hoyt, P.B. (1971), 339
(1971b), 344
Hubbard, W.M. (see Kehoe, R.A. ct al.,
1940), 70
Hubbcrt, F., Jr. (see Hale, W.H. et al.,
1962), 315
Hubert, A.A. (see Bell, J.F. et al., 1955), 196
Hublow, W.F. et al. (1954), 245
Hubschman, J.H. (1967), 453, 463
Huckins, J.N. (1971), 175-177
Hueck, H.J. (1968), 463
Hucpcr, W.C. (1960), 455
(1963), 56, 75
Huet, M. (1965), 279
Huff, C.B. et al. (1965), 301
—(see Gcldrcich, E.E. et al., 1962a,b; 1965),
57
Iluggett, R.J. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al.,
1968), 226, 227
Hughes, D.F. (see Anderson, D.W. et al.,
1969), 176, 227
Hughes, J.S. (1962), 429-431
(1963), 432
(1964), 429
(1967), 458
Huguct, J.H. (see Gill, J.M. et al., 1960), 455
Hummerstone, L.G. (1971), 248
Hungate, P.P. (see Cline, J.F. et al., 1969),
328
-------
546/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Hunn, J.S. (tee Lennon, R.E. et al., 1970),
440
Hunt, E.G. (1960), 17, 18, 183
Hunt, G.S. (1957), 145, 195
(1962), 145
(1966), 196, 262
Hunt, L.M. (see Clark, D.E. et al., 1964), 320
Hunter, Brian (unpublished data), 196
Hunter, B.F. et al. (1970), 196
Hunter, C.G. (1967), 76
—et al. (1969), 76
Hunter, F.T. et al. (1942), 56
—(see Lowry, O.H. et al., 1942), 56
Hunter, J.E. (1971), 308
Hunter, J.G. (1953), 342, 344, 345
Hunter, J.V. (1971), 80
Hutchins, L.W. (1947), 238
Hutchinson, (1969), 19
Hutchinson, G.E. (1957), 142
(1967), 23
Hutchinson, G.L. (tee Stewart, B.A. ct al.,
1967), 73
Hymas, T.A. (1954), 79, 319
Hynes, H.B.N. (1961), 184
(1962), 408
ICRP (see International Commission on
Radiological Protection)
IMCO (Intergovernmental Maritime Con-
sultative Organization)
(1965a,b), 262
Ichikawa, R. (1961), 470-473, 478
Ide, P.P. (1967), 184
Idler, D.R. (1969), 254
Idyll, C.P. (1969), 28
Industrial Wastes (1956), 452
Ingle, R.M. (1952), 124
Inglis, A. (see Henderson, C. et al., 1969),
182, 434
Ingols, R.S. (1955), 248, 462, 467
Ingram, A.A. (1959, 1967), 18
—(see'Bay, E.G., 1966), 18
Ingram, W.M. (1963), 55
(1967), 17
—(see Kemp, L.E. et al., 1967), 35
—(see Ludzack, F.J. et al., 1957), 145
Innes, J.R. et al. (1969), 76
Interdepartmental Task Force on PCB
(1972), 82
International Commission on Radiological
Protection (1960), 83, 273
(1964, 1965), 273
International Committee on Maximum
Allowable Concentrations of Mercury
Compounds (1969), 314
Ippen, A.T. (1966), 279
Irukayama, K. (1967), 251
Irvine, J.W. (see Hunter, F.T. et al., 1942),
56
—(see Lowry, O.H. et al., 1942), 56
Isaac, P.C.G. (1964), 281
Ishinishi, N. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969),
83
Isom, B.C. (1960), 254, 456
Ison, H.C.K. (1966), 55
Ito, A. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83
Ito, Y. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83
Ivanov, A.V. (1970), 75
Ivriani, I. (see Wassermann, M. et al., 1970),
83
Iwao, T. (1936), 250, 251, 455
Jack, F.H. (see Cox, D.H. et al., 1960), 314
Jackim, E. et al. (1970), 244, 255, 451, 454,
455, 457, 462, 465
Jackson, M.D. (see Bradley, J.R. et al.,
1972), 318
Jacobs, L.W. et al. (1970), 340
Jacobson, L.O. (see Ducoff, H.S. et al.,
1948), 56
Jaglan, P.S. (see Gunther, F.A. et al., 1968),
227
Jainudeen, M.R. et al. (1965), 315
James, E.G., Jr. (1949), 305
James, G.V. (1965), 301
Jamnback, H. (1945), 18
Jangaard, P.M. (1970), 254
Jannasch, H.W. et al. [1971), 277, 280
Jargaard, P.M. (1970) 240
Jaske, R.T. (1968), 403
(1970), 160, 162
Jeffries, E.R. (see Hublow, W.F. et al., 1954),
246
Jellison, W.L. (m Parker, R.R. et al., 1951),
321
Jenkins, C.E. (1969), 471
Jenkins, D.W. (1964), 25
Jenne, E.A. (see Malcoln, R.L. et al., 1970),
25
Jensen, A.II. (see Brink, M.F. et al., 1959),
316
Jensen, A.L. et al. (1961)), 175, 176
(1971), 162
Jensen, E.H. (1971), 3*4
Jensen, L.D. (1964), 424, 426, 427, 435
(1966), 420, 421
—(see Gaufin, A.R. et U., 1965), 195
Jensen, S. (1969), 251, 264, 313
(1970), 83
(1972), 225, 226
—et al. (1969), 83, 172, 198, 226-268
—et al. (1970), 177, 268
Jensen, W.I. (1960), 196
Jensen-Holm, J. (see Nielson, K. et al., 1965),
79
Jernejcia, F. (1969), 2^3, 461, 462
Jernelov, A. (1969), 172, 198, 251, 313
(1971), 172
(1972), 174
—(see Jensen, S. et al. ' 970), 268
Jerstad, A.C. (see Miller, V.L. et al., 1961),
313
Jitts, H.R. (1959), 281
Jobson, H.E. (1970), 403
Joensuu, O.I. (1971), "'2, 172, 251
Johansson, N. (see Jersen, S. et al., 1970),
177
Johnels, A.G. (1969), 257
—et al. (1967), 172, 173, 175, 176
—(see Berg, W. et al., 1966), 252
—(see Birke, G. et al., 1968), 252
—(see Jensen, S.A. et al., 1969), 83, 198, 22(
264, 267
The Johns Hopkins University
Dept. of Sanitary Engineering & Wat<
Resources (1956), 74
Johnson. A.H. (see Conn, L.W. et al., 1932
62
Johnson, B.T. et al. (1971), 437-439
Johnson, D., Jr. et al. (1962), 316, 317
Johnson, D.W. (1968), 184, 434
Johnson, H.E. (1967, 1969), 184
Johnson, J.L. (unpublished data, 1970), 1"
— (see Stalling, D.L. et al., 1971), 437
Johnson, N.M. (see Likens, G.E. et al., 1970
125
Johnson, M.W. (see Sverdrup, H.V. et 3.
1942), 216
- (ice Sverdrup, H.V. et al., 1946), 241
Johnson, W.C. (1968), 346
Johnson, W.K. (1964), 55
Johnson, W.L. (see Henderson, C. et a
1969), 132, 434
Johnston, W.R. (1965), 335
Jones, B. (1971), 164
Jones, J.R.E. (1938), 68, 242, 250, 453, 45;
(1939), 181, 250, 253, 454, 456, 459
(1940), 250
(1948), 241, 255, 461, 464-467
(19!>7'i, 245, 452, 455, 456
(1964), 189, 464
Jopling, W.F. (see Merrell, J.C. et al., 1967
352
Jordan, C.M. (1968), 411
Jordan, D H.M. (1964), 122
—(see Herbert, D.W.M. et al., 1965), 45
456
Jordan, H.A. et al. (1961), 315
Jordan, H M. (we Brown, V.M. et al., 1969
122
Jordan, J.S. (1951, 1952), 228
Jordan, R A. (see Bender, M.E. et al., 1970
179
Jorgensen, P.S. (see Williams, M.W. et a
1958). 78
Joshi, M.S. (see Page, A.L. et al., in pres
1971). 343
Joyner, T. (1961), 478
Kabler, P.W. (1953), 351
(1966'l, 301, 302
—ct al. (1964), 351
—(see Chang, S.L. et al., 1958), 91
—(see Clarke, N.A. et al., 1962), 91
—(see Geldeich, E.E. et al., 1962a,b; 1964
57
Kaeberle, M.L. (see Hemphill, F.E. et a
1971), 313
Kaempe, B. (see Nielson, K. et al., 1965), 7<
Kabrs, A.J. (see Adarns, A.W. et al., 1967
315
Kaiser, L.R. (see Vigil J. et al., 1965), 73
Kalmbach, E.R. (1934), 196, 197
Kalter, S.S. (1967), 91
Kamphake, L.J. (see Cohen, J.M. et al
1960), 64, 69, 71, 93
-------
Author Index/547
Kamprath, E.J. (1970), 340
Kanisawa, M. (1967), 56
(1969), 60
—(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968a), 312
—(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968b), 309
Kanwisher, J.W. (see Scholander, P.F. et al.,
1955), 138
Kaplan, H.M. (1961), 463
—et al. (1967), 464
Kapoor, I.P. (see Metcalf, R.L. et al., 1971),
437
Kardashev, A.V. (1964), 244
Kardos, L.T. (1968), 352
Kare, M.R. (1948), 308
Kariya, T. et al. (1969), 455
Karppanen, E. (see Henriksson, K. ct al.,
1966), 198, 252
Katko, A. (see Merrell, J.C. et al., 1967), 352
Kato, K. («« Yoshimura, H.etal., 1971), 83
Katz, E.L. (see Pringle, B.H. et al., 1968), 38,
246, 247
Katz, M. (1950), 139
(1953), 177, 179, 180, 242, 247, 250,
251,253,451,453,455,464
(1961), 242, 267, 420-423, 485, 487,
489, 491, 493, 495
(1967), 91
(1969), 140
—(see Van Horn et al., 1949), 256
Kaupman, O.W. (1964), 196
Kawahara, F.K. (see Breidenbach, A.W. et
al., 1967), 318
Kawalczyk, T. (see Simon, J. et al., 1959),
315
Kawano, S. (1969), 60
Kay, H. (see Simon, C. et al., 1964), 73
Kearney, P.C. (see Woolson, E.A. et al.,
1971), 318, 340
Keaton, C.M. (see Vandecaveye, S.C. et al.,
1936), 340
Keck, R. (see Malous, R. et al., 1972), 135
Keen, D.J. (1953, 1955), 230
Keeney, D.R. (see Jacobs, L.W. et al., 1970),
340
Kehoe, R.A. (1940a), 70, 87
(1947, 1960a,b), 70
Kcimann, H.A. (see Hovens, W.P. et al.,
1941), 29
Keith, J.A. (1966), 198
—(see Fimreite, N. et al., 1970), 252
Keller, F.J. (1963), 125
Keller, W.T. (see Whitworth W.R. et al.,
1968), 27
Kelly, C.B. (see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278
Kelly, S. (1958), 55
(1964), 90
Kelman, A. (1953), 349
Keltncr, J. (unpublished data), 493, 505
—(see Cooley, N.R. et al., unpublished
data), 489
Kemeny, T. (1969), 76
Kemp, H.T. et al. (1966), 457
Kemp, P.H. (1971), 140, 241
Kemper, W.D. (see Stewart, B.A. et al.,
1967), 73
Kendrick, M.A. (1969), 277
Kennedy, F.S. (tee Wood, J.M. et al., 1966),
172
Kennedy, H.D. (1970), 437
—et al. (1970), 195, 437
Kennedy, V.S. (1967), 152
Kennedy, W.K. (1960), 314
Kenner, B.A. (see Geldreich, E.E. et al.,
1964, 1968), 57
Kenzy, S.G. (see Gillespie, R.W. et al.,
1957), '21
Kerridge, P.C. ct al. (1971), 338
Kcrswill, C.J. (1967), 184
Ketchum, B.H. (1939), 275
(1951, 1953, 1955), 230
(1952), 230, 280
(1967), 228, 229
—et al. (1949, 1958), 275
—et al. (1951), 280
—(see Redfield, A. et al., 1963), 275
—(see Revelle, R. et al , 1972), 257
Kctz, (1967), 91
Keup, L.E. (1970), 301
—et al. (1967), 35
Keys, M.C. (see Bower, C A. et al., 1965), 335
Khan, J.M. (1964), 471
Kienholz, E.W et al. (1966), 315
Kiigemai, U. (see Terriere, L.C. et al., 1966),
183
Kimble, K.A. (see Grogan, R.G. et al.,
1958), 349
Kimerle, R A. (1968), 18
Kimura, K. (see Kariya, T. et al., 1969), 455
King, D.L. (1970), 23
King, J.E. (m Lynch, J.J. ct al., 1947), 24
King, P.II. (1970), 130
King, W.R. (see Buchler, E.V. et al., 1971),
67
Kinnan, R.N. (see Black, A.P. et al., 1965),
301
Kinnc, O. (1963), 162
(1970), 152, 162
Kip, A.F. (see Lowry, O.H. et al., 1942), 56
—(see Hunter, F.T. et al., 1942), 56
Kirk, W.G. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1970),
343
Kirkor, T. (1951), 481, 482
Kirven, M.N. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al.,
1968), 83, 175, 198, 264, 266-268
Kitamura, M. (1970), 251
Kiwimae, A. et al. (1969), 313
Kjellander, J.O. (1965), 301
Klavano, P.A. (see Miller, V.L. ct al., 1961),
313
Kleeman, I. (1941), 60
Klein, D.A. (see Atherton, H.V. et al., 1962),
302
Klein, D.H. (1970), 172, 251
(1971), 172
Klein, Louis (1957), 1
Klein, M. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Klingler, G.W. (1968), 145
(1970), 146
Klingler, J.W. (1970), 196
Klotz, L.J. et al. (1959), 349
Klumb, G.H. (1966), 302
Klussendorf, R.C. (1958), 316
Knetsch, J.L. (1963), 399
Knight, A.P. (1901), 249
Knowles, G. (see Owens, M. et al., 1969), 24
Koegel, R.G. et al. (1972), 26
Koehring, V. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1935),
147
Koeman, J.H. (1970), 198, 225, 226, 265,
267
—et al. (1969), 83, 175
—(see Vos, J.G. et al., 1970), 118, 225
Koenuma, A. (1956), 256
Koff, R S. et al. (1967), 36
Kofoid, C.A. (1923), 89
Kofranck, A.M. (see Lunt, O.R. et al., 1956),
329
Kohchi, S. (see Kwatsune, M. ct al., 1969), 83
Kohe, H.C. (see Lunt, O.R. et al., 1956), 329
Kohls, G.M. (see Parker, R.R. ct al., 1951),
321
Kohlschutter, H. (see Meinck, F. et al.,
1956), 145, 241, 243, 250, 251, 450, 455
Kolbye, A.C. (1970), 240, 251
Kolesar, D.C. (1971), 403
Kolkwitz, R. (1908, 1909), 408
Konrad, J.G. (1971), 318
Kopp, B.L. (1969), 93
Kopp, J.F. (1965), 245
(1969), 56, 59, 60, 62, 64, 70, 87
(1970), 309-312, 314, 316
Korn, S. (see Macck, K.J. et al , 1970), 436
Korpincnikov, V.S. et al. (1956), 469
Korringa, P (1952), 27, 241
Korschen, L.J. (1970), 266
Korschgcn, B.M. et al. (1970), 149
Kott, Y. ct al. (1966), 245
Kovalsky, V.V. et al. (1969), 477
Kramer, R.H. (see Smith, L.L., Jr. et al.,
1965), 128, 154
Krantz, W.C. ct al. (1970), 266
Kratzer, F.H. (1968), 316
Kraus, E.J. (1946), 79
Kraybill, H.F. (1969), 185
Kreitzer, J.F. et al. (in press, 1972), 226
—(see Heath, R.G. et al., 1969), 197, 198, 226
Kreider, M.B. (1964), 32
Kreissl, J.F. (1966), 301, 302
Krenkel, P.A. (1969), 152, 403
(1969a), 152
Krishnawami, S.K. (1969), 147
Krista, L.M. (1962), 308
—et al. (1961), 195, 308
—(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308
Kristoffersen, T. (1958), 301
Krone, R.B. (1962), 16
(1963), 127
Kroner, R.C. (1965), 245
(1970), 309-312, 314, 316
Krook, L. (ireDavison, K.L. et al., 1964), 314
Krygier, J.T. (1970), 125
Kubota, J. ct al. (1967), 316, 344
Kuhn, R. (1959), 457, 461, 462, 464-467
(1959a), 243, 250, 253, 255, 256
(1959b), 253, 256
Kunin, R. (1960), 63
Kunitake, E. (see Kuratsune, M. et al.,
1969), 83
-------
548/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Kunkle, S.H. (1967), 39
Kupchanko, ^.E. (1969), 145, 147
Kuratsune, M. et al. (1969), 83
Kutches, A.J. ct al. (1970), 320
Labanauskas, C.K. (1966), 342
Lackey, J.B. (1959), 252, 253
Lackncr, E.A. et al. (1970), 27, 28
La Casse, W.J. (1955), 25
Lagerwerff, J.V. (1971), 342
Lakin, H.W. (1967), 86
—(see Bycrs, H.G ct al., 1938), 316
Lamar, W.L. (1963), 63
(1966), 63, 301
(1968), 301
Lament, T.G. (tee Mulhern, B.M. et al.,
1970), 227
Lamson, G.G. (1953), 66
Lance, J.C. (1970), 352
—(in press, 1972), 352
Landsberg, J.ll. et ,d. (1963), 381
Lane, C.E. (1970), 481, 487
Lange, R (tee Jensen, S. et al., 1970 , 268
Langelier, W.F. (1936), 335
Langham, R F. (see Decker, L.E. ct al.,
1958), 60
—(see MacKcnzic, R.D. et al., 1958), 62
Langille, L.M. (see Li, M.F. ct al., 1970), 254
LaQuc, F.L. (1963), 55
Larghi, L.A. (tee Trelles, R.A. ct al., 1970),
56
Lanmore, R. (1963), 124
LaRochc, G. (1967), 262
(1972), 240, 246, 248, 257
—et al. (1970), 261
Larochellc, L.R. (see Sproul, O.T. et al.,
1967), 92
LaRozc, A. (1955), 249
Larscn, C. (1913), 307
Larsen, ILL. (1964), 321
Larson, T.E. (1939), 55
(1961), 68
(1963), 89
—(see Harmeson, R.H. et al., 1971), 73
Larwood, C.FI. (1930), 307
Lasater, J.E. (see Holland, G.A. ct al., 1960),
242, 246, 247, 451, 452, 461, 463-465
Lasater, R. (see Wallcn, I.E. ct al., 1957),
145, 245, 450-457
Lassheva, M.M. (tee Malishevskaya, A.S.
et al., 1966), 313
Lathwell, D.J. ct al. (1969), 24
Laubusch, E.J. (1971), 55, 301
Lauff, G.H. (1967), 216
Lavcntncr, C. (see Aschncr, M. et al., 1967),
147
Lau, J.P. (1968), 353
—et al. (1970), 353
Lawlcr, G.H. (1965), 164
—(see Sunde, L.A. et al., 1970), 20
Lawrence, J.M. (1968), 26, 305
Lawton, G.W. et al. (1960), 353
Lazar, V.A. (see Kubota, J. ct al., 1967), 316
Leach, R.E. (see England, B. et al., 1967), 92
Leak, J.P. (see Lumsden, L.L. ct al., 1925), 36
Learner, M.A. (1963), 458
LeBosquet, M. (1945), 550
LeClerc, E. (1950), 451
(1955), 245, 450, 451
(1960), 245, 456
LeCorrolla, Y. (see Flock, H. et al., 1963), 453
Leduc, G. (see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1966),
123, 140, 189, 241, 451, 453, 455, 457, 464
Lee, C.R. (1967), 345
Lee, D.C. (see Broyer, T.C. ct al., 1966), 345
Lee, D.H.K. (1970), 73
Lee G.B. (see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968), 183
Lee, G.F. (1962), 80
(1971), 83
Lee, R.D (see McCabc, L.J. et al., 1970), 56,
70
Leendertse, J.J. (1970) 403
Leet, W.L. (1969), 479
Lcfcvre, P A. (see Dank 1, J.W. ct al., 1971),
313
Legg, J.T. (1958), 344
Lehman, A.J. (1951), 79
(1965), 76, 77, 79
Lehman, H C. (1965), 3
Lcitch, I. (1944), 305
Lcka, [I. (see Papavassiliou, J. ct al., 1967),
57
Lckarev, V.S. (see Kovalsky, V.V. et al.,
1967), 477
Lemke, A.E. (see Henderson, C. et al., 1960),
190
—(see Pickering, O.H. ct al., 1962), 184,
423-426
Lcmke, A.L. (1970), 161
Lemon, E.R. (see Kubota, J. et al., 1963), 344
Lener, J. (1970), 60
Lcnglois, T.H. (1941), 126
Lennon, R.E. (1964), 434
(1967), 119
(1970), 437, 441
—et al. (1970), 441
—(see Bcrger, B.L. et al., 1969), 435
Leonard. E.N. (1970), 454
Leonard, J.W. (1961), 27
Leone, LA. (see Prince, A.L. et al., 1949), 343
Leone, N.C. et al. (1954), 66
Leopold, A. (1953), 1
Leopold, L.B. (1971), 400
—et al. (1964), 22, 126
—et al. (1969), 400
Lcspcrance, A.L. (1963 1971), 344
(1965), 307
—(see Weeth, H.J. et a!., 1968), 307
LeRiche, H.H. (1968), 341
Leuschow, L.A. (see Machenthun, K.M. et
al, 1960), 20
Lcvander, A.O. (1970), 86
Levy, M.D. (1923), 65
Lewis, C.W. (1967), 470
Lewis, D. (1951), 315
Lewis, K.H. (see McFanen, E.F. et al., 1965),
38
Lewis, P.K. et al. (1957), 316, 317
Lewis, R.F. (1965), 302
Lewis, R.H. (see Bond. C.E. et al., 1960),
429-432
Lewis, R.M. (1965, 1968), 410
Lewis, W.M. (1960), 249, 464, 465
Li, M.F. et al. (1970), 254
Lichtenberg, J.J. (1960), 74
(1969), 320
(1970), 182
—ct al. (1969), 319
—(see Brcidenback, A.W. et al., L967), 318
Lichtenstein, E.P. et al. (1966), 318
Lieber, M. (1951), 62
(1954), 60
Lieberman. J.E. (see Leone, N.C. et al
1954), 66
Liebig, G.F. et al. (1942), 340, 342
—et al. (1959), 340
Ligas, FJ. (see Krantz, W.C. et al., 1970]
266
Lignon, W.S. (1932), 340
Likens, G.E. (1967), 22
—ct al. (1970), 125
Likosky, W'.H. (see Curlcy, A. et al., 1971]
313
Lilleland, O. et al. (1945), 329
Lillick, L. (see Ketchum, B.H. et al., 1949]
275
Lincer, J.L. (1970), 175, 267
—(see Cadi, T.J. et al., 1970), 227
—(.see Peak all, P.B. et al., in press, 1972;
225, 226
Lincoln, J.H. (1943), 21
Lind, C.T. (1969), 24
Lindroth, A. (1957), 135
Lindsay, N.L. (1958), 69, 71
Lindstrom, O. (see Swenson, A. et al., 1959]
313
Link, R.P. (1966), 313
Linn, D.W. (see Siglcr, W F. ct al., 1966]
248, 453
Linnenbom, V.J. (see Swinnerton, J.W. e
al., 19621, 138
Lipschuetz, M. (1948), 190, 454, 456
Litchfield, J.T., Jr. (1949), 121, 434, 49J
497, 499, 501, 503, 505
Litsky, W. ct al., (1953), 31
Little, C.O. (see Mitchell, G.E. et al., 1967]
315
Little, E.C.S. (1968), 26
Liu, O.C. (1970), 277
Livermoie, D.F. (1969), 26
—(see Bruhn, H.D. et al., 1971), 26
—(see Koegel, R.G. et al., 1972), 26
Livingston, R.E. (1970), 421
Livingston, R.J. (1970), 487
Livingstone, D.A. (1963), 301, 373
Ljunggren, P. (1955), 59
Lloyd, M. (1964), 408
Lloyd, R. (1960), 178, 179, 187, 450, 45?
477
(1961), 122, 133, 182, 187
(1961a), 120
(1961b), 120, 463
(1962), 142
(1964). 122
(1969). 122, 187, 242, 451
—(see Herbert, D.W.M. ct al., 1965), 453
456
Locke, L.N. (1967), 228
-------
Author Index/549
—(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970), 227
Lockhart, E.E. et al. (1955), 61, 89
Loforth, G. (1969), 251
(1970), 173
—(see Ackefors, H. et al., 1970), 237
Lombard, O.M. (1951), 56
Longbottom, J.E. (see Lichtenberg, J.J. et
al., 1969), 319, 320
—(see Lichtenberg, J.J. et al., 1970), 182
Loos, J.J. (see Cairns, S., Jr. et al., 1965), 457
Loosanoff, V.L. (1948), 241, 281
(1962), 281, 282
Lopinot, A.C. (1962), 147
(1972), 28
Lorcnte, de No., R. (1946), 59
Lotse, E.G. et al. (1968), 183
Loveless, L. (see Romoser, G.L. et al., 1961),
311, 316
Low, J.B. (1970), 197
Lowe, J.I. (1965), 37
(1967), 495
(1971), 267
—et al. (1965), 487
—et al. (1971a), 489
—(see Duke, T.W. et al., 1970), 83, 176, 177,
264
—(see H.msen, D.J et al., 1971), 176, 505
Lowman, F.G. (1960), 251, 253
—et al. (1971), 240, 243, 244, 246-248
Lowrance, B.R. (1956), 253, 451, 457
Lowry, O.H. et al. (1942), 56
Lucas, R.C. (1964), 14
Ludemann, D. (1953), 251
Ludwig, D.D. (1962), 301
Ludzach, FJ. (1962), 55
—ct al. (1957), 145
Lumsdcn, L.L. et al. (1925), 36
Lund, (1965), 301
(1967), 92
Lund, J.W.G. (1950), 275
Lundgren, K.D. (fee Swensson A. ct al.,
1959), 313
Lunin, J. (1960), 337, 338
— et al. (1960, 1964). 338
—et al. (1963), 336
Lunt, O.R. et al. (1956), 329
—(ire Frolich, E. ct al., 1966), 342
Lunz, R G (1938, 1942), 281
Lyle, W E. (see Moubry, R.J. ct al., 1968),
320
Lynch, J J. ct al. (1947), 24
Lynch, M.P. (see Harrison, W. ct al., 1964),
279
Lyon, W.S. (see Wallace, R.A. et al., 1971),
72, 173, 240, 252
Maag, D.D. (1967), 316
Mace, H.H. (1953), 142
Macck, K.J. (1968), 184, 437
(1970), 420-423, 425, 428, 438
—(unpublished data, 1971), 184
Macklin, L.J. (see Romoser, J.L. et al.,
1961), 311, 316
Macklis, L. (1941), 340
Machenthun, K.M. (1963), 55
(1967), 17, 18
(1969), 17, 35
(1970), 302
—et al. (1960), 20
—(see Keup, L.E. et al., 1967), 35
Machin, J.G. (1961), 124, 281
Machle, W. (1948), 62
Maddox, D.M. et al. (1971), 26
Madsen, M.A. (see Harris, L.E. et al., 1963),
312
Magistad, O.C. et al. (1943), 324, 336
Magnusson, H.W. (1950), 38
Mahan, J.N. (see Fowler, D.L. et al., 1971),
434
Mahood, R K. ct al. (1970), 489
Malacca, I. (1963), 452
(1966), 450, 451, 455, 464
Malancy, G.W. (1959), 252
— ct al. (1962), 301, 302
Malcolm, J.F. (see Fraser, M.H. et al., 1956),
57
Malcolm, R.L. et al. (1970), 25
Malherbe, H.H. (1967), 92
Malishcvskaya, A.S. et al. (1966), 313
Mailman, W.L. (see Litsky, W. et al., 1953),
31
Malone, F.E. (1960), 1
Maloney, T.E. (1955), 453
—(w Erickson, S.J. et al., 1970), 268, 505
Malous, R. et al. (1972), 135
Mandclli. E.F. (1969), 87
Manheim, F.T. ct al. (1970), 281
Mann, K.H. (1970), 254
Manny, B.A. (1971, 1972), 25
Mansueti, R.J. (1962), 279
Manzke, H. (see Simon C. et al., 1964), 73
Maramorosch, K. (1967), 91
Marchetti, R. (1965), 190
Margalef, R. (1958), 408
Margaria, R. (see Van Slykc, D.D. et al.,
1934), 138
Marion, J.R. (1971), 248
Marisawa, M. (1969), 400
Marking, L L. (1967), 435
Marsh, M. (see Drinker, K.R. ct al., 1927),
317
—(ice Thompson, P.K. et al., 1927), 317
Marsh, M.C. (1904). 135
Marshall, A.R. (1968), 279
Marshall, R R. (1968), 124
Marsson, M. (1908, 1909), 408
Martin, A.G. (1939), 25
Martin, D.J. (fee Risebrough, R.W. et al.,
1972), 225
Martin, E.G. (1969), 124
Martin, J.1I. ct al. (in press, 1972), 252
— (see Andcrlini, V C. et al., 1972), 226, 246
— (see Gonners, P.G. et al., 1972a), 226
Martin, R.G. (1968), 8, 441
Martin, S.S. (see Sigler, W.F. ct al., 1966),
248, 453
Masch, F.D. (1967), 281, 282
(1969, 1970), 403
Mascoluk, D. (see Addison, R.F. et al., 1971),
254
Masironi, R. (1969), 68
Mason, J.A. (1962), 36
Mason, J.W. (see Rowe, D.R. et al., 1971),
266
Mason, K.E. (1967), 311
Mason, W.P. (1910), 69
Massey, F.J., Jr. (1951), 408
Mathews, D.C. (see Hiatt, R.W. et al., 1953),
245, 246, 462
Mathis, B.J. (1968), 144
Mathis, W. (see School, H.F. et al., 1963),
174
Matrone, G. (see Hathcock, J.N. et al., 1964),
316
—(see Hill, C.H. et al., 1963), 311
Matson, W.R. (see Bender, M.E. et al.,
1970), 179
Matsuzaka, J. (see Huratsune, M. et al.,
1969), 83
Mattenheimer, H. (1966), 438
Matingly, D. (1962), 438
Mauldmg, J.S. (1968), 89
— (see Black, A.P. et al , 1963), 63
—(see Singley, J.E et al., 1966), 63
Maurer, D. (see Melons, R. et al., 1972), 135
Mayer, F.L., Jr. (1970), 184
(1972), 176
Meaclc, R.H. (1969), 281
—(see Manheim, F.T. et al., 1970), 281
Mcagher, J.W. (1967), 348
Mcdcof, J.C. (1962), 38
— (see Gibbard, J et al., 1942), 36
Medvinskaya, K.G. (1946), 89
Meehan, O.L. (1931), 243
Meeks, R.L. (sec Eberhardt, L.L. et al.,
1971), 439
Mcgregian, S (see Butterfield, G.T. et al.,
1943), 55
Mehran, A.H. (1965), 479
Mchring, A.L., Jr. (see Johnson, D., Jr. ct al.,
1962), 316, 317
Mchrlc, P.M. (1970), 438
(unpublished, 1971), 176
Mciller, F.J. (1941), 60
Mciman, J.R. (1967), 39
Mcinck, F. et al. (1956), 145, 241, 243, 250,
251, 450, 455
Mcith, S J. (1970), 464
- (see Hazel, G.R. ct al., 1971), 187
Meloy, T.P. (1971), 262
Menzel, B.W. (1969) 152
Menzel, D.B. (1967), 251, 462-465
—(see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1972), 225
Menzel, R.G. (1965), 332
—(personal communication, 1972), 332
— ct al. (1963), 332
Menzie, C.M. (1969), 80
Mercer, W.A. (1971), 302
'Jhe Merck, IndeK of Chemicals & Drugs (1952),
65
(1960), 70, 72, 86, 241
Mcrilan, C.P. (1958), 314
Merkcns, J.C. (1952), 464
(1955, 1957), 187
(1958), 189, 452
Mcrlini, M. (1967), 474, 475
Mcrna, J.W. (unpublished data, 1971), 422
Merrell, J.C. et al. (1967), 352
-------
550/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Mcrriman, D. et al. (1965), 157
Mcrritt, M.C. (see Lockhart, E.E. et al.,
1955), 61, 89
Mertz, W. (1967), 311
(1969), 62
Mctcalf, R.L. et al. (1971), 438
Metcalf, T.G. (1968), 276
—(see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278
—(see Slanetz, L.W. ct al., 1965), 276
Metzler, D.W. (see Coburn, D.R. et al.,
1951), 228
Meyer, K.F. (1937), 38
Meyers, J.J. et al. (1969), 32
Miale, J.B. (1972), 73
Michapoulos, G. (see Papavassiliou, J. et al.,
1967), 57
Michel, R. (1942), 380
Michigan Dept. of Agriculture (personal
communications, 1970), 184
Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources (1969),
261
(1970), 14
Middaugh, D.P. (see Mahood, R.K. et al.,
1970), 489
Middlebrooks, E.J. (see Goldman, J.C. et al.,
1971), 23
Middleton, P.M. (1956, 1961b), 75
(1960, 1.961 a), 74
(1962), 80
—(w Braus, R. et al., 1951), 74
—(see Burttschcl, R.H. et al., 1959), 80
—(see also Rosen, A.A. et al., 1956), 75
Mienke, W.M. (1962), 240
Miettinen, J.K. (tee Miettinen, V. et al.,
1970), 172-174
Miettinin, V. et al. (1970), 172-174
Mihara, Y. (1967), 328
Mihursky, J.A. (1967), 152
Mikolaj, PG. (1971), 262
Milbourn, G.M. (1965), 332
Miles, A.A. (1966), 321
Millar, J.D. (1965), 149
Millcmann, R.E. (1969), 491, 495
—(see Buchanan, D.V. et al., 1969), 267, 495
—(see Butler, P.A. et al., 1968), 495
—(see Stewart, N.E. et al., 1967), 495
Miller, C.W. et al. (1967), 346
Miller Freeman Publications (undated), 382
Miller, J.P. (tee Leopold, L.B. et al., 1964).
22, 126
Miller, J.T. (see Byers, II.G. et al., 1938), 316
Miller, M.A. (1946), 463
Miller, R.R. (1961), 27
Miller, R.W. (in press), 135
Miller, V.L. et al. (1961), 313
Miller, N.J. (1971), 310
Millikan, C.R. (1947), 435
(1949), 344
Milne, D.B. (1971), 316
Milner, J.E. (1969), 56
Minakami, S. (see Yoshimura, H. et al.,
1971), 83
Miner, M.L. (see Shupe, J.L. et al., 1964),
312
Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries & Food
(1967), 273
Ministry of Mansport, Canada (1970); 262,
263
Minkina, A.L. (1946), 249
Minter, K.W. (1964), 144
Mironov, O.G. (1967), 261
(1971), 261
Mitchell, G.E. et al. (1967), 315
Mitchell, H.H. (1962), 304
Mitchell, I. (see Courtney, K.D. et al., 1970),
79
—(see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76
Mitchell, J.D. (see Miegler, D.J. et al.,
1970), 315
Mitchell, T.J. (1969), 2" 3
Mitchencr, M. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al.,
1968a), 312
—(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968b), 309
Mitrovic, U.U. et al. (1968), 191, 460
—(see Brown, V.M. et al., 1968), 468
Mizuno, N. (1968), 344
Mock, C.R. (1967), 279
Modin, J.C. (1964), 26"'
Mocller, H.C. (1962, 1964), 78
—(see Williams, M.W. tt al., 1958), 78
Moffet, J.W. (1957), 27
Modin, J.C. (1969), 37
Moiseev, P.A. (1964). 214
Molinaii, V. (see Deschiens, R. et al., 1957),
467
Mollison, W.R. (1970), 434
Molnar, G.W. (1946), 32
Monk, B.W. (see Ebel, W.J. et al., 1970), 161
—(see Ebel, W.J. et al., 1971), 137
Mood, E.W. (1968), 33
Moon, C.E. (see Emery, R.M. et al., 1972), 20
Moorby, J. (1963), 332
Moore, B. (1959), 30, 31
Moore, D.P. (see Kerridge, P.C. et al., 1971),
338
Moore, E.W. (1951), 246
(1952, 1958), 89
Moore, H.B. (see McNultey, J.K. et al.,
1967), 279
Moore, J.A. (1971), 79
Moore, M.J. (1971), 302
Moore, P.O. (see Allaway, W.H. et al., 1966),
345
Moore, R.L. (1960), 18
Moore, W.A. (see Black, H.II. et al., 1957),
450
Moreng, R.E. (see Kicnholz, E.W. et al.,
1966), 315
Morgan, G.B. (1961), 256
Morgan, J.J. (1962), 130
Morgan, J.M. (1969), 60
Morgan, R. (see Amend, D.R. et al., 1969),
462
Mori, T. (1955), 477
Morikawa, Y. (see Kuratsune, M. et al.,
1969), 83
Morris, B.F. (1971), 257
Morris, H.D. (1949), 344
Morris, J.C. (1962), 80
(1971), 92
—(see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948), 55
Morris, J.N. (1967), 70
—(see Crawford, M.D. et al., 1968), 68
Morris, M.J. (1956), 305
Morris, V.C. (1970), 86
Morrison, F.B. (1936, 1959), 305
Morrison, S.R. (see Mount, L.E. et al., 1971'
305
Mortimer, C.H. (1941), 21
Mosley, J.W. (1964a,b), 36
(1967), 91
(1969), 277
—(see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967), 36
Mosley, W.H. (see Chin, T.D.Y. et al., 1967]
91
Mott, J.C. (1948), 453
Motz, L.H. (1970), 403
Moubry, R.J. et al. (1968), 320
Moulton, F.R. (1942), 66
Mount, D.I. (1964), 467
(1965), 121
(1966), 68, 179, 460
(1967) 120-122, 184, 185, 425, 431
434, 435, 469
(1968), 120, 122, 180, 184, 234, 454
(1969) 180, 454, 463
(1970). 160, 171
—(unpublished, 1971), 173, 174
—(personal communications, 1971), 173
Mount, L.E. et al. (1971), 305
Mt. Pleasant, R.C. (1971), 55
Moxon, A.L. (1936), 309
(1937). 316
Mrak, E.M. (1969), 182, 185
Mrowitz, G. (see Simon, C. et al., 1964), 73
Mueting, L. (1951), 350
Mugler, D.J. et al. (1970), 315
Muhrcr, M.E. (see Bloomfield, R.A. et al.
1961), 315
Mulawka, S.T. (see Pringle, B.H. et al.
1968), 38, 246, 247
Mulbarger, M. (see Barth, E.F. et al., 1966)
55
Mulhern, B.M. et al. (1970), 227
—et al. (1971), 176
—(tee Krantz, W.C. et al., 1970), 266
Mullen, R N. (see Atherton, H.V. et al.
1962), 302
Muller, G. (1955, 1957), 351
Mulligan, H.F. (1969), 25
—(see Larhwell, D.J. et al., 1969), 24
Mullison, W.R. (1966), 79
Mullin, J.B. (1956), 245
Mullison, W.R. (1970), 183
Mulvihill, J.E. ct al. (1970), 310
Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (1965)
278
(1963), 282
Munson, J. (1947), 340
Murata, 1. et al. (1970), 60
Muratori, A., Jr. (1968), 34
Murdal, G.R. (see Moubry, R.J. et al.
1968), 320
Murdock, H.R. (1953), 250, 253, 256, 455
Murie, M. (1969), 400
Murozumi, M. et al. (1969), 249
Murphy, W.H. et al. (1958), 350
Murphy, W.H., Jr. et al. (1958), 350
-------
Author Index/551
Murphy, W.J. (see Williams, H.R. et al.,
1956), 29
Murray, G.D. (see Breed, R.S. et al., 1957),
321
Musil, J. (1957), 56
Muss, D.L. (1962), 68
Mussey, O.D. (1957), 380
Muth, O.H. (1963), 316
— (see Allaway, W.H. et al., 1966), 345
—(see Oldfield, J.E. et al., 1963), 86
Myers, L.H. (see Law, J.P. et al., 1970), 353
McAllister, F.F. (see Meyers, J.J. et al.,
1969), 32
McAllister, W.A. (1970), 420, 422, 423, 425,
428
MacArthur, J.W. (1961), 408
MacArthur, R.H. (1961, 1964, 1965), 408
McBride, J.M. (see Sparr, B.I. et al., 1966),
346
McCabe, L.J. (1970), 70
—ct al. (1970), 56
—(see Winton, E.F. et al., 1971), 73
McCall, J.T. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1957),
307
McCance, R.A. (1952), 304
McCarthy, E.D. (see Han, J. et al , 1968), 145
McCarthy, H. (1961), 26
McCauley, R.N. (1964), 145
McCauley, R.W. (1958), 418
(1963), 416
McClurc, F.J. (1949), 310
(1953), 66
McComish, T.S. (1971), 154, 160
McConnell, R.J. (1970), 415, 416, 419
McCormick, J.H. et al. (1971), 154, 160
McGormick, W.C. (see Silvey, J.K.G. et al.,
1950), 74, 89
McCrea, C.T. (see Harbourne, J.F. et al.,
1968), 313
McCroan, J.E. (see Williams, H.R. et al.,
1956), 29
McCulloch, W.F. (1966), 29
—(see Crawford, R.D. et al., 1969), 321
McDerrnott, G.N. (see Booth, R.L. et al.,
1965), 75
—(see English, J.N. et al., 1963), 34, 148
—(see Surber, E.W. et al., 1965), 148
McDermott, N.G. (see Black, H.H. et al.,
1957), 450
MacEachern, C.R. (see Chisholm, D. ft al.,
1955), 340
McElroy, W.D. (see Harvey, E.N. et al.,
1944a), 135
—(see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 136
McEntee, K. (1950), 319
(1962), 314
(1965), 315
—(see Davison, K.L. et al., 1964), 314
MacFarlane, R.B. (see Harriss, R.C. et al.,
1970), 173
McFarren, E.F. et al. (1965), 38
McGovock, A.M. (1932), 138
McGirr, J.L. (1953), 319
McGrath, H.J.W. (see Hopkins, C.L. et al.,
1966), 184
Mclllwain, P.K. (1963), 315
Maclnnes, J.R. (see Calabrese, A. et al.,
unpublished), 250, 253, 255
Maclntire, W.H. et al. (1942), 343
Mclntosh, D.L. (1966), 349
Mclntosh, I.G. et al. (1943), 315
—(see Grimmett, R.E.R. et al., 1937), 316
Mclntosh, R.P. (1967), 408
Mclntyre, C.D. (1968), 165
McKee, J.E. (1963), 2, 55, 74, 144, 177, 179,
189, 241, 255, 308-314, 317, 321, 339, 380
McKee, M.T. et al. (1958), 196
McKendry, J.B.J. (see Armstrong, J.G. et
al., 1958), 315
MacKenzie, A.J. (see Mcnzel, R.G. ct al.,
1963), 332
McKenzie, M.D. (see Mahood, R.K. et al.,
1970), 489
MacKenzie, R.D. et al. (1958), 62
McKim, J.M. (1971), 120, 122
^(unpublished data, 1971), 180
McKinley, P.W. (see Malcolm, R.L. et al.,
1970), 25
McKnight, D.E. (1970), 196
McLaran, J.K. (see Clark, D.E. et al., 1964),
320
MacLean, A. (1939), 61
MacLean, A.J. (see llalstead, R.L. ct al.,
1969), 344
McLean, E.D. (see Shoemaker, H.E. et al.,
1961), 340
McLean, G.W. (see Pratt, P.F. ct al., 1964),
339
McLean, W.R. (1962), 36
MacLeod, J.C. (see Smith, L.L , Jr. et al.,
1965), 218
McLoughlin, T.E. (1957), 451, 457, 461
McManus, R.G. (1953), 56
McNabb, C.D. (see Mackenthun, K.M. et al.,
1960), 20
McNary, R.R. (tee Kehoe, R.A. et al., 1940),
70
McNeil, W.J. (1956), 139
McNultey, J.K. et al. (1962), 279
MacPhee, A.W. (see Chisholm, D. ct al.,
1955), 340
McQuillan, J. (1952), 57
McRae, G.N. (1959, 1960), 347
NAS (see National Academy of Sciences)
NCRP (see National Council on Radiation
Protection & Measurements)
NMWOL (see National Marine Water
Quality Laboratory)
NRC (see National Research Council)
Nagai, J. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83
Nair, J.H., III (1970), 424, 427
Nakagawa, S. (see Murata, I. et al., 1970), 60
Nakatani, R.E. (1967), 137, 468
Narf, R.P. (1968), 18
Narver, D.W. (1970), 154
Nason, A.P. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al.,
1967), 245
—(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968a), 312
Natelson, S. (1968), 438
National Academy of Engineering
Committee on Ocean Engineering
(1970), 274
National Academy of Sciences (1969), 19, 172
Committee on Effects of Atomic Radia-
tion on Oceanography and Fisheries
(1957), 38
National Academy of Sciences—National
Research Council (1957), 271
(1959a,b; 1962), 273
(1961), 270-273
(1972), 70
Committee on Oceanography (1970),
220, 222, 274
Committee on Pollution (1966), 4
National Council for Streams Improvement
(1953), 249
National Marine Water Quality Laboratory
(1970), 505, 507
(1971), 268
National Radiation Protection and Measure-
ments (1959), 273
National Research Council
Agricultural Board (1968), 348
Committee on Animal Nutrition (1966),
306
(1968a), 305, 311, 312, 317
(1968b), 305, 306, 312
(1970), 306, 311, 314
(1971a), 305, 312, 315
(1971b), 306, 311, 317
Committee on Biologic Effects of At-
mospheric Pollutants (1972). 313, 343
National Research Council
Committee on Oceanography (1971),
241
Food & Nutrition Board (1954), 88
National Water Quality Laboratory (1971),
154, 160
Naughton, J.J. (see Hiatt, R.W. et al.,
1953), 245, 246, 462
Naumova, M.K. (1965), 62
Neal, W. (tee Castell, C.H. ct al., 1970), 462,
463
Ncal, W.B. (see Ducoff, U.S. et al., 1948), 56
Nebeker, A.V. (1964), 434, 453
(1971), 133, 138, 164
—et al. (1971), 177
—(see Gaufin, A.R. et al., 1965), 195
Ncedham, P.R. (1938), 408
Needier, A.W.H. (tee Gibbard, J. ct al.,
1942), 36
Neeley, H.C. (1970), 174
Nehring, D. (1963), 256
Neil, J.H. (1956, 1957), 464
Neill, W.H., Jr. ct al. (1966), 413
Neller, J.R. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1951,
1957), 307
Nelson, A.A. (see Fitzhugh, O.G. et al.,
1944), 86
Nelson, C. (see Page, A.L. et al., in press,
1972), 342
Nelson, D.A. (see Calabrese, A. et al., un-
published), 250, 253, 255
Nelson, D.J. (1964), 471
Nelson, D.L. (see Olson, O.E. et al., 1963),
315
-------
552/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Nelson, N. (1971), 173, 174
Nelson, T. (see Gaufin, A.R. ct al., 1965), 195
Nelson, T.S. et al. (1962), 316
Nematollahi, J. et al. (1967), 174, 175
Nesheim, M.C. (1961), 86
Neuhold, J.M. (1960), 454
—(see Angelovic, J.W. et al., 1961), 249
— (see Mayer, F.L., Jr. et al., 1970), 184
Neumann, E.D. (see Holland, G.A. et al.,
1960), 242, 246, 247, 451, 452, 461, 463-
465
Nueshul, M. (see Foster, M. ct al , 1970), 258
—(see North, W.J. et al., 1965), 145
Nevitt, G.A. (see Galagan, D.J. et al., 1957),
66
Xew Scientist (1966), 83
Newburgh, L.H. (1949), 32
Newland, H.W. (1964), 315
Ncwland, L.W. (see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968),
183
Newmann, A.L. (see Jordan, H.A. et al.,
1961), 315
Newmann, E A. (see Buchler, E.V. et al.,
1971), 67
Newton, M.E. (1967), 147
(1971), 149
—(sec Basch, R.E. et al., 1971), 189
— (see Fettcrholf, C.M., 1970), 18
Nichols, M.S. (1956), 250
Nicholson, H.P. (see Fcltz, H.R. ct al., 1971),
183
Niehaus, J.F. (1967), 91, 92
Nielsen, N.O. (see Wobeser, G. ct al., 1970),
173, 251
Niclson, K. et al (1965), 79
Nielsen, R.L. (see Mclntosh, I.J. et al.,
1943), 315
Niclson, S.S. (1939), 463, 464, 467
Nilsson, R. (1969), 245
(1970), 179
(1971), 74
Nimmo, D.R. (unpublished data), 485, 505
—et al. (1970), 267
—et al. (1971), 176, 268
Nishizumi, M. (see Kuratsune, M. et al.,
1969), 83
Noble, R G. (1964), 419
Nockles, C.F. (see Kienholz, E.W. et al.,
1966), 315
Noddack, I. (1939), 243
Noddack, W. (1939), 243
Nogawa, K. (1969), 60
Nollcndorfs, V. (1969), 342
Nordell, E. (1961), 130, 380
Norgen, R.L. (see Miller, C.W. et al., 1967),
346
Norman, N.N. (1953), 351
North, W.J. (1958), 250
(1960), 247, 248, 252, 462
(1967), 237, 258
—et al. (1965), 145
Norton, William R. (see Sonnen, Michael B.
et al., 1970), 39
Notomi, A. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971),
83
Nuclear-Chicago Corp. (1967), 437
j\uhilinn Reviews (1966a,b), 312
Nyborg, M. (1971 a), 339
(1971b), 344
O'Conner, D.J. (1965) 277, 403
(1970), 403
—(.iff Di Toro, D.M. e: al., 1971), 277
O'Conner, O.T. et al. 11964), 179
O'Cuill, T. (1970), 313
O'Donovan, D C. (196i), 301
O'Donovan, P.B. et al. (1963), 312
Odum, E.P. (1960), 46')
Odum, 1I.T. (1967, I9"'l), 220
Oerth, J.J. (1962), 343
Officers of the Departn cut of Agriculture &
the Government Chemical Laboratories
(1950), 308
Ogata, G. (see Bower, C.A. et al., 1968), 335
Ogata, M. (see Kuratsi nc, M. et al., 1969),
83
Oglesby, R.T. (1969), 20
Oguri, M. (1961), 465, 469, 470, 475-478
O'Hara, J.L. (1959), 344
Ohio River Valley Sanitation Commission
(see ORSANCO), 57
Ohio River Valley Water Commission
(1950), 462, 464
— (see also ORSANCO)
Oki, K. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83
Okun, D.A. (iff Fair, G.M. ct al., 1968), 275
Olcott, U.S. (see Risebrough, R W. ct al.,
1972), 225
Old, H N. (1946), 36
Oldfield, J.E. et al. (1963), 86
- (see Allaway, W.H. ei al., 1966), 345
Oliff, W.D. (1969), 455
Oliver, 11. (see Sautel, J . et al., 1964), 461
Oliver, R.P. (1966), 301
Olivier, H. (iff Sautet, J. et al., 1964), 243
Oliver, L. (1949), 18
Olsen, J.S (see Bowen, V.T. et al., 1971), 240
Olson, O.E. (1957), 308
(1967), 86
—et al. (1963), 315
—(see Embry, L.B. ct al., 1959), 307, 308
— (see Halvcrson, A.W. et al., 1962), 316
—(see Krista, L.M. et al., 1961), 195, 308
—(see Scerley, R.W. et al., 1965), 315
Olson, P.A. (1956, 1958), 180
Olson, R.A. et al. (1941), 249
Olson, T.A. (1967), 22C, 222
Olsson, M. (1969), (see Jensen, S.A. ct al.,
1969), 83, 198, 226, 264, 267, 268
—(see Jensen, S.A. et al., 1970), 177
Olsson, S. (see Jensen, S A. et al., 1969), 175,
176
Ontario Water Rescurccs Commission,
(1970), 380
Orlob, Gerald T. (see Sonnen, Michael B.
ct al., 1970), 39
Onnerod, P.J. (1958), 344
Orr, L.D. (1969), 122, 187, 242, 451
ORSANCO (1950), 254
(1955), 245
(1960), 244, 249
(1971). 188
Water Users Committee (1971), 57, 35
Orsanco Quality Monitor (1969), 34
Orthlieb, F.L. (1971), 258
Oseid, D. (1971), 193
Oshima, S. (1931), 250, 251, 455
Osmun, J.V. (see Sparr, B.I. et al., 1966), 34
Osterberg, C.L (1969), 479
— (see Bowen, V.T. ct al., 1971). 240
— (iff Cross, F.A. ct al., 1968), 479
Ostroff, A.G. (1965), 395
Otis, C.H. (1914), 25
Ott, E.A. et al. (1965, 1966b,c,d), 317
—et al. (lS66a), 316
Otter, H. (1951), 352
Otterlincl, G. (1969), (see Gcnsen, S.A. et al
1969), 83, 175, 176, 198, 226, 264, 267, 26
Outboard Boating Club of America (1971'
34
Owens, M. ct al. (1969), 24
Owens, R.D. (.iff Shirley, R.L. ct al., 1950;
314
PUS (see also U.S. Department of Healtr
Education, and Welfare, Public Heall
Service)
(1962), 70, 90
Packer, R.A. (1972), 321
Packham, R.F. (1965), 63
Paden, V/.R. (see Cooper, II.P. ct al., 1932}
340
Pacz, L.J.P. (seeTrelles, R.A. et al., 1970), 5
Page, A.L. =t al. (in press, 1971), 343
—et al. (1972), 342
—(iff Bingham, F.T. et al., 1964), 343
Page, N.R. (1967), 345
Pahren, H.R. (see Black, H.H. et al., 1957)
450
Palensky. (unpublished data), 147, 148
149
—(unpublished, 1971), 147, 148
Pallotta, A.J. (see Inncs, J.R.M. et al., 1969)
76
Palmer, C.M. (1955), 453
Palmer, H.E. (1967), 473
Palmer, I.S. (see Halverson, A.W. et al.
1966), 316
Palinork, K .H. (see Jensen, S. et al., 1970)
268
Papageorge, W.B. (1970), 175, 176, 205
Papavassiliou, J. et al. (1967), 57
Papworth, D.S. (1953, 1967), 319
Parchevsky, V.P. (see Polikarpav, G.G.
1967), 471, 473, 475
Parente, W.D. (unpublished data, 1970)
412, 414, 416
Paris, J.A. (1820), 55
Parizck, J. (I960), 310
Parker, C.A. (see Frecgarde, M. et al., 1970)
261
Parker, F.L. (1969), 152, 403
(196')a'l, 152
Parker, H.E. (1965, 1966d), 317
— (see Otl, E.A. et al., 1966c), 317
Parker, R.R. et al. (1951), 321
-------
Author Index/553
Parrish, P.R. (see Hansen, D.J. et al., 1971),
176, 177, 505
—(see Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971), 267
—(see Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971 a), 489
Parsons, T.R. (1968), 241
Patrick, R. (1951), 408
(1968), 120
—(unpublished data, 1971), 180
—et al. (1954), 116
—et al. (1968), 119
— (see Dourdoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121
Patras, D. (1966), 29
Patrick, (1971), 190
Patrick, R. (1949, 1966), 22
—et al (1967), 22
—et al. (1968), 451, 452, 454, 457, 458, 460
Patt, J.M. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60
Patten, B.C. (1962), 408
Patterson, C. (1966), 249
— (see Murozumi, M. et al , 1969), 249
Patterson, W.L. (1968), 90
Pauley, G.B. (1967), 137
(1968), 468
Pavelis, G.A. (1963), 302
Payne, J.E (see Kaplan, H.M. et al., 1967),
464
Payne, W.L. (see Hill, C.H. et al., 1963), 311
Payne, W.W. (1963), 56, 75
Peakall, D.B. (1968), 266-268
(1970), 175, 226
(1971), 226
—et al. (in press, 1972), 225, 226
—(see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 83,
175, 198, 264
Pearce, G.W. (see Date, W.E. et al., 1963), 76
—(see Schoof, H.F. et al., 1963), 174
Pearce, J.B. (1969), 277
(1970), 222
(1970a), 279, 281, 282
(1970b), 279-281
(1970c), 280
(1971), 280
Pearson, E.A. (see Gill, J.M. et al., 1960), 455
Pearson, G.A. (in press, 1972), 353
Pearson, R.E. (1972), 160
Pease, D.C. (1947), 136
—(seeHarvey, E.N. et, al., 1944a), 135
—(see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 316
— (see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 316
Peck, S.M. (1943), 83
Pecor, C. (1969), 184
Peech, M. (1941), 345
Peek, F.W. (1965), 160
Peeler, H.T. (see Nelson, T.S. et al., 1962),
316
Peirce, A.W. (1957, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1963,
1966, 1968a, 1969b), 307
Pelzman, RJ. (1972), 27
Penfound, W.T. (1948), 27
(1953), 26
Pensack, J.M. (1958), 316
Pennsylvania Fish Commission (1971), 160
Pensinger, R.R. (1966), 313
Pentelow, F.T.K. (1935), 147
(1936), 148
Peoples, S.A. (1964), 309
—(see Ziveig, G. et al., 1961), 320
Pepper, S. (tee Thorhaug, H et al., 1972),
238
Pcretz, L.G. (1946), 89
Perkins, P.J. (see Hunter, B.F. et al., 1970),
196
Perlrnutter, A. (1968), 460
(1969), 468
Perrin, F (1963), 332
Persson, J. (see Aberg, B. et al., 1969), 313,
314
Persson, P.I. (see Johnels, A.G. et al., 1967),
172, 173
Peterle, T J. (see Eberhardt, L L. et al.,
1971), 439
Peterson, L.A (see Struckmeyer, B.E. et al.,
1969), 342
Peterson, N.L. (1951), 89
Peterson, P J. (1961), 316
Peterson, S.A. (1971), 26
Peter, J B. (see Rozen, A.A. ct al., 1962), 80
Peters, J. (tee Innes, J.R.M. ct al., 1969), 76
Peters, J.C. (1964), 124
Petrucelli, L. (tee Innes, J.R.M. ct al., 1969),
76
Pctukhov, N.I. (1970), 73
Pfander, W.H (1963), 315
Pfitzenmeyer, H.T. (1970), 279
—(see Flemer, D.A. et al , 1967), 279, 281
Pickering, Q.II. (1959), 458
(1962), 429, 431
(1965), 451, 452, 455-457, 460
(1966), 145, 180-182, 190, 453, 455, 456,
460
(1968), 182, 460
—et al. (1962), 184, 423-426, 430
—(unpublished, 1971), 180, 181
—(in press), 179, 180
—(see Henderson, C. ct al., 1959), 420-422
—(see Henderson, C. et al., 1960), 190, 450
Pickett, R.A. (tee O'Donovan, P.B. et al.,
1963), 312
Pickford, G.E. (1968), 438
Piech, K.R. (see Sundaram, T.R. et al.,
1969), 403
Pielou, E.C. (1966, 1969), 408
Pierce, P.E. (see Curley, A. ct al., 1971), 313
Pierce, R.S. (see Likens, G.E. et al., 1970),
125
Pierre, W.H. (1932), 340
(1949), 344
Pierron, A. (1937), 455
Pillsbury, A F. (1965), 335
(1966), 332, 335
—(see Reeve, R.C. et al., 1955), 334
Pillsbury, D.M. (1939, 1957), 87
Pimentel, D. (1971), 185
Pinchot, G.B. (1967), 80
Pinkerton, C. (1966), 318
Pintler, H.E. (see Mcrrcll, J.C. et al., 1967),
352
Pinto, S.S. (1963), 56
Piper, C.S. (1939), 342
Pippy, J.II.C. (1969), 239
Pirkle, C.I. (see Hayes, W.J., Jr. et al.,
1971), 76, 77
Plantin, L.O. (see Birke, J. et al , 1968), 252
Platonow, N. (1968), 313
Plotkin, S.A. (1967), 91
Plumlec, M.P. (tee O'Donovan, P.B. et al.,
1963), 312
Plummer, P.J.G. (1946), 315
Podubsky, V. (1948), 253, 450
Polgar, T.T. (see Saila, S.B. ct al., 1968), 278
Policastro, A.J. (in press), 403
Polikarpov, G G. (1966), 240
— ct al. (1967), 471, 473, 475
Polk, E.M , Jr. (1949), 403
Poltoracka, J. (1968), 165
Pomelee, C.S. (1953), 310, 462
Pomeroy, L.R. et al (1965), 281
Ponat, A. (tee Thecde, II. et al., 1969), 193,
256
Pond, S. (see Addison, R.F. et al., 1971), 254
Porcella, D.B. (tee Goldman, J.C et al.,
1971), 23
Porgcs, R. et al. (1952), 11
Porter, R.D. (1970), 197, 198, 226
Portmann, J.E. (1968), 454-456, 460
Postel, S. (tee Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60
Potts, A.M. et al. (1950), 60
Potter, V. (1935), 86
Powers, E.B. (1943), 139
Prakash, A. (1962), 38
Prasad, G. (1959), 458
Pratt, H M. (tee Faber, R.A. ct al., 1972), 227
Pratt, M.W. (see Chapman, W.H ct al.,
1968), 173
Pratt, P.F. (1966), 329, 340
(1969), 335
—ct al. (1964), 339
—ct al. (1967), 334
—(see Shoemaker, H.E. et al., 1961), 340
Prentice, E.F. (see Becker, C.D. et al., 1971),
161
Preston, A. (1967), 471
Prevost, G. (1960), 441
Prewitt, R.D. (1958), 314
Price, H.A. (1971), 83
Price, T.J. (see Duke, T.W. et al., 1966), 472,
479
Prier, J.E. (1966), 322
(1967), 92
Prince, A.L. et al. (1949), 343
Pringle, B.H. (1969), 451, 462, 463
(in press, 1972), 451
—(unpublished data), 250, 465
—ct al. (1968), 38, 246, 247
Pritchard, D.W. (1971), 168, 169, 403
Proust, J.L (1799), 72
Prouty, R.M. (see Blus, L.J. et al., 1972), 227
—(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970), 227
Provasoli, L. (1969), 23
Provost, M.W. (1958), 17, 18
Pruter, A.T. (unpublished, 1972), 216
Prytherch, H.F. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al.,
1935), 147
Pshenin, L.P. (1960), 256
Public Health Service (see PHS & U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Public Health Service)
Public Works (1967), 33
-------
554/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Publis, F.A. (see Nebcker, A.V. et al., 1971),
177
Pugh, D.L. (1963), 315
Pulley, T.E. (1950), 242, 450
Purdy, G.A. (1958), 144
Pyefinch, K.A. (1948), 453
Quicke, J. (see Sautet, J. et al., 1964), 243,
461
Quillin, R. (see Malaney, J.W. et al., 1959),
252
Quinn, J.I. (see Sapiro, M.L. et al., 1949),
314
Quirk, J.P. (1955), 335
Quortrup, E.R. (1942), 196
Rachlin, J.W. (1968), 460
(1969), 468
Radeleff, R.D. (1970), 319
—(see Claborn, H.V. et al., 1960), 320
Ragatz, R.L. (1971), 29
Ragotzkie, R.A. (see Rudolfs, W. et al.,
1950), 89, 351
Rainwater, F.H. (1960), 51
(1962), 333
Raj, R.S. (1963), 459
Raleigh, RJ. (see Harris, L.E. et al., 1963),
312
Ralph Stone & Co., Inc., Engineers (1969),
399
Ramsay, A.A. (1924), 307
Ramsey, B.A. (1965), 453, 460
Randall, C.W. (1970), 130
Randall, D.J. (1970a), 136
(1970b), 138
Randall, G.B. (see Favero, M.S. et al., 1964),
31
Randall, J.S. (1956), 57
Raney, E.G. (1969), 152
Raney, F.C. (1959, 1963, 1967), 328
Ranson, G. (1927), 147
Rapp, G.M. (1970), 32, 33
Raski, D.J. (see Hewitt, W.B. et al., 1958),
349
Rasrnussen, G.K. (1965), 340
Ratcliffe, D.A. (1970), 227
Rathbun, E.N. (see Gersh, I.etal., 1944), 137
Ravera, J. (see Bowen, V.T. et al., 1971), 240
Rawls, C.K. (1964), 27
Raymount, J.E.G. (1962), 452, 453, 458
(1963), 453
(1964), 247, 248, 452, 459, 463
Redden, D.R. (see Silvey, J.K.G. et al.,
1950), 74, 89
Redfield, D.C. (1949), 275
(1951), 280
—et al. (1963), 275
—(see Ketchum, B.H. et al., 1949), 230, 275
—(see Turner, H.J. et al., 1948), 247
Reed, D.J. (seeGunn, C.A. et al., 1971), 40
Reed, J.F. (1936), 340
Rees, J. (personal communication), 175
Reeve, N.G. (1970), 339
Reeve, R.C. et al. (1955), 334
Regnier, J.E. (1965), 479
Reich, D.J. (1964), 248, 463
Reichcl, W.L. (see Bagl=y, G.E. et al., 1970),
176
—(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970, 1971), 227
Reinchenbach-Klinke, H.H. (1967), 187
Reid, B.L. (see CrawfoM, J.S. et al., 1969),
315
Reid, D.A. (see Foy, C.D. et al., 1965), 338
Reid, G.K. (1961), 142
Reid, W.B. (see Eraser, M.H. et al., 1956), 57
Reimer, C.W (1966), 22
—(see Benoit, R.J. et a ., 1967), 127
Reinert, R.E. (1970), 184, 197
Reinhard, C.E. (see Aiderson, E.A. et al.,
1934), 93
Reisenauer, H.M. (1951), 340
Reish, K. (1955), 464
Renberg, L. (1972), 225, 226
Renfro, W.C. (1933), 135
(1969), 479
Renn, C.E. (1955), 454
—(see O'Conner, O.T. et al., 1964), 179
Rennenkampff, E.V. (1939), 345
Reuther, W. (1954, 1966), 342
Revelle, R. et al. (1972), 257, 262
Reynolds, D.M. (see Turner, H.J. et al.,
1948), 247
Reynolds, L.M. (1970). 227
(1971), 175, 176
Reynolds, Reginald (1946), 1
Rhoads, F.M. (1971), 343
Rhoades, J.W. (1965), 149
Rhoades, L.I. (1970), 226
Rice, T.R. (see Lowrnan, F.G. et al., 1971),
240, 243, 244, 246-248, 251, 253
Richards, F.A. (1956), 276
—(see Redfield, A.C. et al., 1963), 275
Richards, F.A. (see Lowman, F.G. et al.,
1971), 240, 243, 244, 246-248, 251, 253
Richardson, R.E. (1913), 145
(1928), 22, 408
Richter, C.P. (1939), 61
Riddick, T.M. et al. (1958), 69, 71
Rider, J.A. (1962, 1964), 78
— (see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958), 78
Ricche, P. (1968) (see Risebrough, R.W. et
al., 1968), 83, 175, 19S, 264, 266-268
Rigler, F.H. (1958), 475
Riley, F. (1971), 221
Riley, G.A. (1952), 230
—(see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932), 340
Riley, J.P. (1956), 245
Riley, R. (1967), 92
Ringen, L.M. (see Gillespie, R.W. et al.,
1957), 321
Risebrough, R.W. (1963), 266-268
(1969), 226
(1970), 175, 176
(1972), 226, 266
—(in press, 1972), 226, 227
—et al. (1968), 83, 175. 198, 226, 227, 264
—et al. (1970), 227
—et al. (1972), 225
—(see Anderlini, V.C. e: al., 1972), 226, 246,
252
—(see Anderson, D.W. ct al., 1969), 176, 227
—(see Conners, P.G. et al., in press, 1972b
226
—(see Faber, R.A. et al., 1972), 227
—(see Schmidt, T.T. et al., 1971), 83
— (see Spitzer, P., unpublished), 227
Rissanen, K. (see Miettinen, V. et al., 1970
172-174
Ritchie, D.E. (tee Flemen, D.A. et al., 1967
279, 281
Rittinghouse, H. (1956), 196
Roback, S.S. (1965), 456-458
—(see Pptr.ck, R. et al., 1967), 22
Rocbeck, G.G. (s e Hannah, S.A. et al
1967), 89
—(see McCabe, L.J. et al., 1970), 56, 70
Robert A. Fait Sanitary Engineering Cent<
(1953), 241
Roberts, H., Jr. (see Menzel, R.G. et al
1963), 332
Roberts, M. (see Hunter, C.G. et al., 1969
76, 77
Roberts, W.K. (1963), 315
Robertson, E.A. (see Bugg, J.C. et al., 1967
266, 267
Robertson, W.B., Jr. (see Krantz, W.C. et al
1970), 266
Robertson, W.K. (see Shirley, R.L. et al
1957), 307
Robins, C.R. (see Lachner, E.A. et al., 1970
27
Robinson, J. (1967), 75
— (see Humer, C.G. et al., 1969), 75
Robinson, J.G. (1968), 161
(1970), 160
Robinson, J.R. (1952), 304
Robinson, J.W. (see Korschgen, B.M. et al
1970), 149
Robinson, L.R. (1963), 63
Robinson, S. (see Chin, T.D.Y. et al., 1967'
91
Robinson, V.B. (see Imerson, J.L. et al
1970), 79
Robinson, W.D. (see Mclntosh, I.G. et al
1943), 315
Rodgers, C.A. (1971), 438
— (see Micek, K.J. et al., 1970), 438
Rodhe, W. (1969), 21
Roessler, M.A. (1972), 238
Rogers, B.A. (see Saila, S.B. et al., 1968), 27
Rogers, C.F. (see Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934), 31
Rogers, W.B. (see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932;
340
Rohlich, G A. (1967), 19
—(tee Lawton, G.W. et al., 1960), 353
—(see Zeller, R.W. et al., 1971), 403
Romney, E.M. et al. (1962, 1965), 342
Romoser, G.L. et al. (1961), 311, 316
Root, D.A. (see Camp, T.R. et al., 1940), 89
Rosata, P. (1968), 184
Rose, D. (1971), 248
Rosen, A.A. (1956), 75
(1962), 80
(1966), 74
—(see Burttschell, R.H. et al., 1959), 80
Rosen, C.G. (see Achefors, H. et al., 1970)
237
-------
Author Index/555
—(see Wood, J.M. et al., 1969), 172
Rosen, D E. (1966), 162, 435
Roseneau, D.G. (see Cade, T.J. et al., 1970),
227, 267
Rosenfeld, D. (see Wassermann, M. et al.,
1970), 83
Rosenfeld, I. (1964), 316
Rosenfels, R.S. (1939), 340
Rosenthal, H.L. (1957, 1963), 469
Rottiers, D.V. (see Edsall, T.A. et al., 1970),
411
Rqunsefell, G.B. (1953), 142
Rourke, G.A. (see Cohen, J.M. et al., 1961),
78
Rowe, D.R.ct al. (1971), 266
Rowe, G.T. (see Vaccaro, R.S. et al., 1972),
280
Rowe, V.K. (1954), 79
(1955), 319
Royal Society of London, (1971), 220, 222
Rubcr, E. (1971), 485, 491, 493
Rucker, R.R. (1951, 1969), 173
Rudinger, G. (see Sundaram, T.R. ct al.,
1969), 403
Rudolfs, W. et al. (1950), 351
—et al. (1953), 253
Rudolfs, W. et al. (1950), 89
Rumbsby, M.G. (1965), 246
Russel, J.C. (see Silvey, J.K.G. et al., 1950),
74, 89
Russell-Hunter, W.D. (1970), 19
Rust, R.H. (1971), 342
Ruttner, F. (1963), 142
Ruzicka, J.H.A. (1967), 267
Rythcr, J.H. (1954), 274, 276
(1969), 216, 217, 264
(1971), 275, 276
SCEP (see Study of Critical Environmental
Problem)
Soalfeld, R.W. (1956), 164
Sadisivan, V. (1951), 317
Saeki, Y. (see Murata, I. et al., 1970), 60
Saffiotti, U (see Baroni, C et al., 1963), 56
Saiki, M. (1955), 477
Saila, S.B. et al. (1968), 278
Salinger, A. (see Hosty, T.S. ct al., 1970), 278
Salinity Laboratory (1954), 324, 325, 330,
331, 333, 341
- (see also U S. Department of Agriculture,
Salinity Laboratory)
Salisbury, R.M. (see Winks, W.R. ct al.,
1950), 315
Salo, E O (1969), 479
Saloman, C.H. (1968), 124, 279
Salotto, B V. (see Earth, E.F. et al., 1966), 55
Sampson, J. et al. (1942), 316
Sanboorn, N.H. (1945), 450
Sanders, H.L. (1956, 1958), 279
Sanders, H.O. (1966), 420-433, 458, 467
(1968, 1969), 420-433
(1970), 429-432
(in press, 1972), 420-428, 433
—(see Johnson, B.T. et al., 1971), 436-438
Sanders, O. (1971), 175
Sanders, R.L. (1969), 258
Sanderson, W.W. (1958), 55
(1964), 90
Santner, J F. (1966), 190
Sapiro, M.L. et al. (1949), 314
Sartor, J.D. (1971), 262
Saruta, N. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83
Sass, J. (1972), 258, 262
— (see Blumer, M. et al., 1970), 258, 260
Sather, B.T. (1967), 470
Sattlcmacher, P.G. (1962), 73
Saunders, D.ll. (1959), 342, 344
Saundcrs, H.O. (1966), 434
— (in press), 176
Saunders, R (see Johnson, B.T. et al., 1971),
436-438
Saunders, R L. (1963), 122, 463, 467
(1967), 463, 468
—(see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1964), 463, 467
—(see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1965), 122, 463
Sautet, J. et al. (1964), 243, 461
Saville, P.D. (1967), 312
Savino, FX. (see Johnson, D. ct al., 1962),
316, 317
Sawyer, C.N. (1946), 55
(1947), 20, 22
Saycrs, W.T. (see Feltz, II R. et al., 1971),
183
Sayre, W.W (1970), 403
Scharrer, K. (1933, 1935), 342
Schaumburg, F.D. et al. (1967), 120
Schaut, G.G. (1939), 193
Schechter, M.S. (1971), 319, 440
Scheier, A. (unpublished data, 1955), 450,
452, 456, 457, 459
(1957), 450, 452, 459
(1958), 68, 145, 182, 452, 456-459
(1959), 452, 456-459
(1963), 190
(1964), 421
(1968), 453, 454, 460
— (see Cairns, J., Jr. et al., 1965), 457
-(see Patrick ct al , 1968), 119, 451, 452,
454, 457, 458, 460
Schields, J. (1962), 452, 453
(1963), 453
(1964), 452
Schiffman, R.H. (1958), 452, 457, 462
(1959), 457
Schipper, LA. (1963), 315
Schislcr, D.K. (see Kienholz, E.W. et al.,
1966), 315
Schlickennecler, W (1971), 55
Schlicper, C (see Thcecle, If. ct al., 1969),
193, 256
Schmidt, E.L. (see Murphy, W.II. et al.,
1958), 350
Schmidt, T.T. et al. (1971), 83
Schneider, O.K. (see Uoudoroff, P. et al.,
1966), 123, 140, 189, 241, 451, 453, 456,
457, 464
Schneider, Mark (no date), 136, 137
Schneider, P.W., Jr. (see Bouck, G.R. et al.,
1971), 137
Schnich, R.A. (see Lcnnon, R.E. et al., 1970),
440
Schoenthal, N.D. (1964), 184, 459
Schocttger, R.A. (1970), 421, 434
Schoficld, R.K. (1955), 335
Scholander, P.F. ct al. (1955), 138
Schoof, H.F. ct al. (1963), 174
Schoonover, W R. (1963), 330
Schriebcr, R.W. (in press, 1972), 266
— (see Connors, P.G. et al., 1972a), 226
Schroeder, H H. (1961), 60, 70
(1964), 311, 313
(1965), 60, 311, 313
(1966), 56
(1967), 56, 309, 316
(1968a), 312
(1968b), 309
(1969), 60
(1970), 245
-ct al (1963a), 62, 310, 311, 313
—et al. (1963b), 62, 311
—ct al. (1967), 245
Schroepfer, G.J. (1964), 55
Schropp, W. (1933, 1935), 342
Schubert, J.R. (see Oldficld, J.E. ct al.,
1963), 86
Schults, W D. (see Wallace, R.A. et al ,
1971), 72, 240, 252
Schulz, K.II. (1968), 83
— (see Bauer, H. et al., 1961), 83
Schulz, K.R. (see Lichenstein, E.P. ct al.,
1966), 318
Schultz, L.P. (1971), 19
Schulze, E. (1961), 148
Schuster, C.N., Jr. (1969), 462, 463
Schwartz, L. (1943), 83
(1960), 86
Schwarz, K. (1971), 316
Schweiger, G. (1957), 250-252
Sciple, G.W. (see Bell, J F. et al., 1955), 196
Scott, D.P. (1964), 42, 43, 411
Scott, K.G. (1949), 87
Scott, M.L. (1961), 86
(1969, 1970), 316
Scrivncr, L.H. (1946), 195, 308
Sculthoipc, C.D. (1967), 24-27
Scura, E.D. (1970), 487
Seagran, H.L. (1970), 198
Sedlak, V.A. (see Curley, A. et al., 1971), 313
Sccrlcy, R.W. (see Emerick, R.J. ct al , 1965),
315
Seillac, P. (1971), 342
Scghctti, L. (1952), 321
Selitrenmkova, M.B. (1953), 352
Sell, J.L. (1963), 315
Selleck, R.E. (1968), 460
Sclleck, B. (see Cotzias, G.C et al., 1961), 60
Selye, H. (1963), 308
Sepp, E. (1963), 351
Serronc, D.M. (see Stein, A.A. ct al., 1965),
76, 77
Servizi, (unpublished data), 252
Shabalina, A.A. (1964), 462
Shakhurina, E.A. (1953), 352
Shankar, N.J. (1969), 403
Shanklin, M.D. (.see Esmay, M.L. ct al.,
1955), 302
Shannon, C.E. (1963), 408
Shapiro, J. (1964), 63
-------
556/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Shapovalov, L. et al. (1959), 27
Sharp, D.G. (1967), 91
Sharpless, G.G. (see Hilgeman, R.H. et al.,
1970), 344
Shaw, J.H. (1954), 66
Shaw, M.D. (1966), 301
Shaw, W.H.R. (1956), 253, 451, 457
(1967), 465, 466, 468
Sheets, T.J. (1967), 345
—(see Bradley, J.R. et al , 1972), 318
Sheets, VV.D (1957), 465, 467
—(see Malaney, G.W. et al., 1959), 253
Shelbourn, J.E. (see Brett, J.R. et al., 1969),
154, 160
Shelford, V.E. (1913), 135, 137
Shell, E \V. (see Avault, J.W., Jr. et al ,
1968), 26
Shelton, R. (ire Hosty, T.S et al. 1970), 278
Shelton, R.G.J. (1971), 144
Sheintab, A. (see Kott, Y. et al., 1966), 245
Shepard, H.H. (ire Fowler, D.L. et al., 1971),
434
Shephard, F P. (1963), 17
Sherk, J.A., Jr. (1971), 229, 281, 282
Sherman, G.D. (1953), 344
Shields, J. (1962), 458
(1964), 247, 248, 459, 463
Shigematsu, I. (1970), 245
Shilo, M. (1967), 317
Shimizu, M. (1964), 469
Shnnkin, M.B. (tee Leone, N.C. et al., 1954),
66
Shimono, O. (ire Kuratsune, M. ct al., 1969),
83
Shiosaki, R. (see England, B. et al., 1967), 92
Shirakata, S. (1966), 135, 137, 138
Shirley, R.L. (1951), 307
(1970), 305
—ct al. (1950), 314
— et al (1957), 307
—ct al. (1970), 343
- (see Cox, D.H. et al., 1960), 314
Shoemaker, II E. et al. (1961), 340
Shoop, C T (ire Brett, J R. ct al., 1969), 154,
160
Shults, W.D. (ire Wallace, R.A. et al , 1971),
173
Shumway, D.L. (1966), 147-149
(1967), 131
(1970), 131, 133, 139, 151
(1971), 270
—(unpublished data, 1971), 147-149
—et al. (1964), 132
—(see Stewart, X E. et al., 1967), 132
Shupe, J.L. et al. (1964), 312
—(see Harris, L.E. ct al., 1963), 312
Shurben, D.G. (see Mitrovic, U.U. ct al.,
1968), 191
Shurben, D S. (1960), 187
(1964), 182, 403, 450, 459, 464
Shuster, O.N., Jr. (1969), 451
Sigler, W.E. (1960), 316, 454
(1961), 316
—ct al. (1966), 248, 453
—(see Angelovic, J.W. ct al., 1961), 249
Sigworth, E.A. (1965), 78
Silva, F.J. (ire McFarren, E.F. et al., 1965),
38
Silvcy, J.K.G. (1953), 'M
(1968), 79
—et al. (1950), 74, 89
—et al. (1972), 82
Simmons, II.B. (1971), 411
Simmons, J.H. (see Holmes, D.C. ct al.,
1967), 175
Simon, C. et al. (1964) 73
Simon, P.P. (see Potts, A.M. et al , 1950), 60
Simon, J. et al. (1959), 315
Simonm, P. (1937), 45?,
Simons, G.W., Jr. et al. (1922), 29
Simmons, J.H. (see Holmes, D C. et al.,
1967), 83
Sims, J R (1968), 339
Simpson, C.F. (see Damron, B L. et al.,
1969), 313
Sinclair, R.M. (1971), 27
Sincock, John L. (1968), 194
Smgley, J E. et al. (1966), 63
—(sre Black, A.P. et al , 1963), 63
Sjostrand, B. dee Berg, W. ct al., 1966), 252
—((re Birke, G. et al , 1968), 252
- (ire Johncls, A.G. rial., 1967), 172, 173
Skca, J. (see Burdick, G.E ct al., 1968), 183,
184, 195
Skidmore, J F. (1964), 177, 459
Skinner, G.E. (1941), 57
Skirrow, G. (1965), 241
Skoog, F. Ore llansen, O. et al., 1954), 22
Skougstad, M W (see B'own, E. ct al , 1970),
sT
Skrentry, R F. (see Lichenstein, E.P. ct al ,
1966), 318
Slantez, LAV. et al. (1965), 276
— (see Hosty, T.S. ct al , 1970), 278
Slater, D.W. (1971), 9
(1972), 8, 9
Slemon, K.W. (see Armstrong, J.G. et al.,
1958), 315
Small, E.F. (see Cross, F.A. et al., 1968), 479
-(ire Fowler, J.W. et al., 1970), 480
Smith, A L (see Lynch, J.J. ct al., 1947), 24
Smith, B Ore Costell, C*H. et al., 1970), 462,
463
Smith, n.D. (1969), 273
Smith, E.E. (see Pomcroy, L.R. ct al., 1965),
281
Smith, G S. (see Gordan, H.A. et al., 1961),
315
Smith, IFF. (sre Huff, C.B. et al., 1965), 301
Smith, J.E. (1968), 258, 261
Smith, L.L , Jr. (1960), 154
(1967), 193
(1970), 193, 256
(1971), 190, 191, 193
(i.i press, 1971), 153
—et al. (1965), 128
Smith, E.M. (iee Zwcig G. et al., 1961), 320
Smith, M.A. (see Applegate, V.C. ct al.,
1957), 243
Smith, M.I. (1937, 1941), 86
— et al. (1936), 86
Smith, N.R. Ore Breed, R..S. et al., 1957), 321
Smith, O.M. (1944), 65
Smith, P.F (1954), 342
—(see Hilgeman, R.H. et al., 1970), 344
Smith, P.W. (1963), 124
Smith, R.O. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1935]
147
Smith, R.S. ct al. (1951, 1952, 1961), 31
Smith, S H. (1964), 27, 157
Smith, V/.E. (1956), 164
(1970), 413
(unpublished data, 1971), 417
Smith, W.H. Ore Ott, E.A. et al., 196:
1966b,c,d), 317
— (ire O(t, E.A. et al., 1966a), 316
Smith, V/.W. (1944), 89
Smithen lan, R.O. Ore Avault, J.W., Ji
et al., 1968), 26
Snccd, K.F,. (1958, 1959) 173
Sncgircff, L.S. (1951), 56
Snihs, J.O. Ore Abcrg, B. et al., 1969), 31:
314 '
Snycler, G.R. (1970), 416
Snyder, P.}. (see Rowc, D R. ft al., 1971
266
Soane, B.K. (1959), 342, 344
Sobkowicz, II. (ire Falkowska, Z. et al
1964), 250
Sollman, T.H. (1957), 56, 59, 64
Sollo, FAV , Jr. (sre Hauneson, R.H. et al
1971), 73
Solon, J.M. (1970), 424, 427
Sommer, Fi. (1937), 38
Sommcrs, S.C. (1953). 56
Sonis, S. (.re Jackim, E ct al., 1970), 24-
255, 451. 454, 455, 457, 462, 465, 466
Sonnen, Michael B. (1967), 399, 400
—et al. (IS 70), 39
Sonnichscn. J C. (1971), 403
Sonoda, M. (sre Kuratsune, M. ct al., 1969'
83
Sorgo, E.F. (1969), 238
Saunders,, R L. (1967), 248
— (ire Sprague, J.B. ct al., 1965), 248
Sonthgate, B.A. (1948), 249, 255, 467
(1950, 1953), 464
Southward, A.J. (sre Corner, K.D.S. et al
1968), 261
Southward, E.G. (see Corner, E.D.S. ct al
1968), 261
Souza, J. (tee Blumcr, M. ct al., 1970), 25i
260
Soyer, J. (i 963), 252, 255, 466
Spafford, W J. (1941), 308
Spann, J.W. ct al. (1972), 226
— (see Heath, R.G. et al., 1969), 197, 198, 22
Sparks, A.K. (1968), 38
Sparks, R.E. et al. (1969), 117
Sparling, A.B. (1968), 465
Sparr, B.I. et al. (1966), 346
Sparrow, B.W. (1956), 248, 252, 455
Spcctor, W.S. (1955), 65
Spencer, N R. Ore Maddox, D.M. ct al
1971), 26
Spiegelbcrg, U. (sre Bauer, II. et al., 1961), 8
Spigarelli, S.A. (1972), 164
-------
Author Index/557
Spitsbergen, D. (see Mahood, R.K. et al.,
1970), 489
Spitzer, P. (unpublished), 227
Spooner, C.S. (1971), 39
Sprague, J.B. (1963), 240, 463, 467
(1964), 248, 467
(1964a), 179
(1964b), 179, 181
(1965), 122, 240, 248, 453, 460
(1967), 248, 463, 468
(1968), 463, 468
(1968a). 179, 182
(1968b), 179
(1969), 118-122, 189, 234, 404, 424
(1970), 118-120, 145, 234, 254
(1971), 118, 119, 183, 234, 248
—et al. (1964), 463, 467
—et al. (1965), 122, 248, 463
Sproul, O.J. et.al. (1967, 1972), 92
(1972), 92
Sprunt, A.N. (see Krantz, W.C. et al., 1970),
266
Spurgeon, J.L. (1968), 403
Squire, H.M. (1963), 332
Sreenivasan, A. (1963), 459
Stadt, Z.M. (see Galagan, D.J. et al., 1957),
66
Stake, E. (1967, 1968), 25
Staker, E.V. (1941, 1942), 345
Stalling, D.L. (1971), 175, 176, 438
(1972), 174-176, 200, 201
—(unpublished, 1970), 175
—(unpublished, 1971), 177
—(in press, 1971), 175
—et al. (1971), 437
—(see Macek, R.J. et al., 1970), 438
Standard Methods (APHA) (1971), 435
Table VI-2, 370
Table VI-5, 377
Table VI-10, 382
Table VI-17, 385
Table VI-22, 389
Table VI-25, 391
Table VI-26, 392
Table VI-27-28, 393
Standard Methods (EPA) (1971), 51, 52, 54,
55, 63, 67, 74, 75, 80, 82, 90, 120, 190, 275,
435
Stanford Research Institute (unpublished
data, 1970), 348
Stanford University (see American Society of
Civil Engineering, 1967), 220, 221
Stark, G.T.C. (1967), 121
(1968), 460
—(see Brown, V.M. et al., 1968), 468
Starr, L.E. (see Williams, H.R. et al., 1956),
29
Stasiak, M. (1960), 453
Stearns, R.D. (see Thorhaug, A. et al., 1972),
238
Stedronsky, E. (1948), 253, 450
Steele, R.M. (1968), 164
Stein, A.A. et al. (1965), 75, 77
Steinhaus, E.A. (see Parker, R.R. et al.,
1951), 321
Stephan, C.E. (1967), 120, 184, 185
(1969), 180, 452, 463, 469
Stephan, C.F. (1967), 122, 425, 431
Stevenson, C.A. (see Leone, N.C. et al.,
1954), 66
Stevenson, R.E. (see Chang, S.L. et al., 1962),
91
—(see Clarke, N.A. et al., 1962), 91, 92
Stevens, D.J. (see Bouck, G.R. et al., 1971),
137
Stevens, N.P. et al. (1956), 145
Stevenson, A.H. (see Smith, R.S. et al., 1951),
31
Stewart, B.A. et al. (1967), 73
Stewart, E.H. (see Menzel, R.G. et al., 1963),
332
Stewart, K.M. (1967), 19
Stewart, N.E. et al. (1967), 132, 495
—(see Buchanan, D.V. et al., 1969), 267, 495
—(see Butler, P.A. et al., 1968), 495
Stickel, (unpublished data, 1972), 197
Stickel, L.F. (1970), 226
—(tee Dustman, E.H. et al., 1970), 198, 313
Stickney, J.C. (1963), 136
Stickney, R.R. (1971), 149, 160
(1972), 154
Stiff, M.J. (1971), 179
Stiles, W.C. (1968), 276
Stob, M. (1965), 317
—(see Ott, E.A. et al., 1966c), 317
Stock, A. (1934, 1938), 72
StofT, H. (m Meinch, F. et al., 1956), 450,
455
Stoke, A. (1962), 250
Stokes, R.M. (1962), 462
Stokinger, H.E. (1958), 59, 65
(1963), 72
Stolzenbach, K. (1971), 403
Stoof, H. (see Meinck, F. et al., 1956), 241,
243, 250, 251
STORET, (see Systems for Technical Data)
Story, R.V. (see Kehoe, R.A. et al., 1940),
70, 87
Stout, N. (1971), 9
Stover, H.E. (1966), 301
Straskraba, M. (1965), 24
Straube, R.L. (see Ducoff, H.S. et al., 1948),
56
Strawn, K. (1967), 410-413, 417
(1968), 412, 413
—(see Neill, W.H., Jr. et al., 1966), 413
Straun, K. (1961), 154, 157, 160
(1968), 160
(1970), 154, 160
Street, J.C. et al. (1968), 198, 226
—et al. (1969), 83
— (w Mayer, F.L., Jr. et al., 1970), 184
Strickland, J.D.H. (1968), 241
Strickland-Cholmley, M. (1967), 92
Strong, E.R. (see DoudorofT, P. ct al., 1951),
121
Stroud, R.H. (1968), 9, 441
(1969), 28
(1971), 221
Struckmeyer, B.E. et al. (1969), 342
Stubbings, H.G. (1959), 464
Study of Critical Environmental Problems,
261
Study Group on Mercury Hazards (1971), 72
Stumm, W. (1962), 130
(1963), 54
Stunkard, H.W. (1952), 19
Stutz, H. (see Faust, S.D.etal., 1971), 80
Sturgis, M.B. (1936), 340
Sturkie, P.O. (1956), 316
Sudheimer, R.L (1942), 196
Sugerman, J. (see Bay, E.G., 1965), 18
Sullivan, R.J. (1969), 243
Summerfiet, T.C. (1967), 464, 465
Sumner, M.E. (1970), 339
Sund, J.M. (tee Simon, J et al., 1959), 315
Sundaram, T.R. et al. (1969), 403
Sunde, L.A. et al. (1970), 20
Sunde, M.L. (1967), 305
—(personal communication, 1971), 305
Surber, E.W. (1931), 243
(1959), 18
(1961), 24
(1962), 429-431
—et al. (1965), 148
—(see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121
—(see English, J.N. et al , 1963), 34
Sutherland, A.K. (see Winks, W.R. et al.,
1950), 315
Sutton, D.L. (see Blackburn, R.D. et al.,
1971), 26
Sverdrup. H.V. et al. (1942), 216
—et al (1946), 241
Svetovidov, A.N. (see, Korpincnikov, V.S.
et al., 1956), 469
Swader, J. (see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958),
78
Swain, P.M. (1956), 145
Swan, A.A.B. (1961), 313
Swanson, C. (see Lilleland, O. et al., 1945),
329
Swedish National Institute of Public Health
(1971), 173
Swensson, A. (1959), 313
—(see Kiwimae, A. et al., 1969), 313
Swartz, B.L. (tee Koff, R.S. et al., 1967), 36
Swartz, L.G. (see Code, T.J. et al., 1970),
227, 267
Sweeney, C. (see Burdick, G.E. et al., 1968),
195, 183
Swift, E. (1960), 469
Swift, M.N. (ste Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60
Swingle, H.S. (1947), 24
Swinnerton, J.W. ct al. (1962), 138
Swisher, R.D. (1967), 190
Sy, S.H. (see Koegel, R.G. et al., 1972), 26
Syazuki, K. (1964), 463-465, 467
Sykcs, J.E. (1968), 216
Sylvester, R.D. (1960), 20
Symons, J.M. (see McCabe, L.J. et al.,
1970), 56, 70
Synoground, M.O. (1970), 160, 162
Systems for Technical Data (STORET)
(1971), 306
Syverton, J.T. (1958), 350
—(see Murphy, W.H. et al., 1958), 350
-------
558/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
TAPPI (see Technical Association of the
Pulp and Paper Industry)
Tabata, K. (1969), 455, 460, 468
Tagatz, M.E. (1961), 145
Tai, F.H. (we Struckmcyer, B.E. et al.,
1969), 342
Takeuchi, T. (1970), 172
Takigawa, K. (see Kuratsune, M. et al.,
1969), 83
Tanabe, H. (tee McFarrcn, E.F. ct al., 1965),
38
Tanner, F.W. (1944), 351
Tardiff, R.G. (see Winton, E.F. et al., 1971),
73
Tarjan, R. (1969), 76
Tarrant, K.R. (1968), 83, 182, 227, 318
Tarzwell, C.M. (1952), 408
(1953), 22
(1956), 243, 256, 451, 455, 456, 459
(1957), 454
(1959), 458
(1960), 243, 244, 253, 451, 453, 455, 459
(1962), 122, 234
—(see Henderson, C. et al., 1959), 420, 422
—(see Henderson, C. et al., 1960), 450, 456
—(see LaRoche, G. et al., 1970), 261
Tatton, J.O.G. (1967), 267
(1968), 83, 182, 227, 318
—(see Holmes, D.C. et al., 1967), 83, 175
Taylor, C.B. (1951), 57
Taylor, J.L. (1968), 124, 279
Taylor, N.H. (1935), 312
Taylor, N.W. (see Rosen, A.A. et al., 1956),
75
Taylor, T. (see Blackburn, R.D. et al., 1971),
26
Taylor, R. (1965), 332
Taylor, R.E. (see Hale, W.H. et al., 1962),
315
Taylor, W.R. (1960), 469
Teakle, D.S. (1969), 349
Teal, J.M. (1969), 138
—(see Horn, M.H. et al., 1970), 257
Technical Association of Pulp and Paper
Industry (TAPPI) (unpublished, 1970),
384
Water Supply and Treatment Com-
mittee (unpublished, 1970), 383
Teel, R.W. (see Garifin, A.R. et al., 1965),
195
Tejning, S. (1967), 314
Tempel, L.H. (see Esmay, M.L. et al., 1955),
302
Templeton, W.L. (1958), 244
—(in press, 1971), 273
Ten Noevcr de Brauw, M.C. (see Koeman,
J.H. etal, 1969), 83, 175
—(see Vos, J.G. et al., 1970), 198, 225, 226
Tennant, A.D. (see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970),
278
Terricre, L.C. et al. (1966), 183
Terrill, S.W. (see Brink, M.F. et al., 1959),
316
Thackston, Edward L. (1969), 403
Thatcher, L.I. (1960), 51
Thatcher, T.O. (1966, 1970), 190
Thaysen, A.C. (1935), 147
(1936), 147, 148
Theede, H. et al. (1969), 193, 356
Thomann, R.V. (see DiToro, D.M. et al.,
1971), 277
Thomas, A. (1912), 471
Thomas, B.F. (see Thomas, S.B. et al., 1953),
302
Thomas, E.A. (1953), 22
Thomas, G.W. (1967), 339
Thomas, N.A. (1970), 18
(1971), 147
Thomas, R.E. (1944), 85
—(see Law, J.P. et al., 1970), 353
Thomas, S.B. (1949), 301, 302
(1952), 57
(1958), 303
—et al. (1953), 302
—ct al. (1966), 302, 30;.
Thomas, W.C., Jr. (see Black, A.P. et al.,
1965), 301
Thompson, D.J. (see Emerson, J.L. et al.,
1970), 79
Thomason, I.J. (1961), 348
Thompson, J.E. (1968), 74
Thompson, J.G. (see Maclntire, W.H. et al.,
1942), 343
Thompson, J.N. (1969, 1970), 316
Thomson, J.S. (1944), '.iQS
Thompson, P.K. et al. (1927), 317
—(see Drinker, K.R. et al. 1927), 317
Thomson, W. (see Hazel, C.R. et al., 1971),
187
Thorhaug, A. et al. (1972), 238
Thorne, J.P. (1966), 335
Thorup, R.T. (see Sproul, O.J. et al., 1967),
92
Tibbo, S.N. (see Zitko, V. et al., 1970), 254
Tilden, J.E. (see Fitch, (IP. et al., 1934), 317
Tillander, M. (see Mietinen, V. et al., 1970),
172-174
Tiller, B.A. (see Brown, V.M. et al., 1969),
122
Timmons, F.L. (1966), 25
—Cr«Bruns, V.F. etal., 1955), 347
Tindle, R.C. (see Stalling, D.L. et al., 1971),
437
Tipton, I.H. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al.,
1967), 245
Titus, H.W. (tee Johnson, D. et al., 1962),
316, 317
Tobias, J.M. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60
Toerien, D.F. (see Goldman, J.C. et al.,
1971), 23
Tokar, J.V. (in press), 403
Tomassi, A. (1958), 69, 71
Tomlin, A.D. (1971), 183
Tomlinson, W.E. (see Vtiller, C.W. et al.,
1967), 346
Tommcrs, F.D. (1948), 241, 281
Top, F.H. (see Crawford, R.P. et al., 1969),
321
Toro, D.M. (1970), 403
Townsley, S.J. (see Boroughs, H. et al., 1957),
469
Tracey, H.W. et al. (1966), 90
Trainer, D.O. (1966), 228
(1970), 226
Trama, F.R. (1954a), 453
(1954b), 451, 456, 457
(19515), 452, 453
(1960), 452
Trautman, M.B. (1939), 124
Traxler, J.S. (see Li, M.F. et al., 1 970), 254
Freichler, R. (see Coburn, D.R. et al., 1951)
228
Trelles, R.A. et al. (1970), 56
Tremblay, J.L. (1965), 479
Trembley, F.J. (1965), 160, 165
Trent, D.S. (1970), 403
Trcon, J.F. (1955), 77
—et al. (1955), 76
Tresslcr, W.L. (see Olson, R.A. et al., 1941)
249
Trice, A.H. (1958), 399
Trosin, T.S. (see Korpincnikov, V.S. et al.
1956), 469
Truchan, J.G. (see Basch, R.E. ft al., 1971)
189
True, L.F. (see Hilgeman, R.H. et al., 1970)
344
Tsai, C.F. (1968, 1970), 189
Tschenkes, L.A. (1967), 86
Tsuji, H. (t'e Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 8!
Tsukano, Y. (see Lichenstein, E.P. et al.
1966), 318
Tucker, G.L. (see Lockhart, E.E. et al., 1955)
61, 89
Tucker, F.H. (see Dorman, C. et al., 1939)
340
Tucker, J.M. (see Bower, C.A. et al., 1968)
335
Tucker, R.K. (1966), 458, 467
(1970). 198, 227
Tur, J. (see Falkowska, Z. et al., 1964), 250
Turekian, K.K. (tee Goldberg, E.D. et al.
1971), 241, 244, 245, 251
Turmbull, H. et al. (1954), 145, 191, 244
450-455
Turnbull-Kemp, P. St. J. (1958), 453
Turner, H.J., Jr. et al. (1948), 247
Turner, M.A. (1971), 342
Turner, R.O. (see Malaney, G.W. et al,
1962), 301, 302
Tusing, T. (see Frawley, J.P. et al., 1963), 7:
Twitty, V.C. (see Berg, W.E. et al., 1945)
137, 13.8
Twyrnan. E,.S. (1953), 250, 342
Tzannetis, S. (see Papavassiliou, J. et al.
1967), 57
Ueda, T. (ste Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 8'
Uhler, F.M. (1939), 25
Uhlig, H H. (1963), 64
Ui, J. (196'', 1970), 251
Ukeles, R. (1962), 174, 265, 283, 485, 489
491, 493, 495, 503, 505, 507
Ulfarson, L. (see Kiwimae, A. et al., 1969)
313
Ulland, B.M. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969)
76
Ullberg, S. (1963), 313
-------
Author Index/559
Underwood, E.J. (1971), 309-314, 317, 345
United Kingdom Ministry of Technology
(1969), 120, 179
U.S. Army, Coastal Engineering Research
Center (1966), 17
U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
(1972)
—(see Stickel, (unpublished data, 1972),
194
U.S. Congress (1948), 2
(1965), 2, 10
(1968), 10, 39, 399
(1970a,b), 399
U.S. Department of Agriculture (1961), 350
Agriculture Research Service,
(1963), 346
(1967), 86
(1969), 318, 347
—(see also Agriculture Research Service)
Division of Economic Research, 2
Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), 324
—(see also Salinity Laboratory)
U.S. Department of Commerce
Bureau of the Census (1969), 377
(1971), 244, 369, 377-383, 385, 388,
389, 391-393, 483
Table VI-1, 369
Table VI-9, 381
Table VI-12, 382
Table VI-14, 383
Table VI-21, 388
Fisheries of the U.S. (1971), 2
National Oceanographic and Atmos-
pheric Administration, 2
Office of Technical Services
(1958), 462
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare (1966), 20
(1969), 76, 78, 348, 437
Education and Welfare (1969), 319
Food and Drug Administration (1963,
1964), 310
(1968), 437
(1971), 240, 481, 482
Public Health Service (1959), 66
(1961), 73
(1962), 50, 51, 273, 385, 392, 393,
481. 482
(1965), 36, 302
(1968), 37
U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare—Public Health Service, and Ten-
nessee. Valley Authority, Health & Safety
Dept. (1947), 25
U.S. Department of the Interior
(1969), 221, 243-245, 248, 250, 255
(1970), 221
(1971), 8
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
(1967), 9
(1970), 39
Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration (see also FWPCA)
(1966), 57
(1967), 18
(1968), 2, 4, 31, 55, 80, 91, 195, 241,
379
Geological Survey (1970), 72
U.S. Department of Science and Industrial
Research (1961), 242
U.S. Executive Office of the President
Bureau of the Budget
(1967), 369, 370, 376, 388
U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1960), 84,
318
(1961), 274, 318
(1961a,b), 84
—(see also Federal Radiation Council)
U.S. Federal Security Agency
Public Health Service (1953), 62
U.S. Geological Survey (1969), 91
U.S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review
Commission (1962), 39
U.S. Tariff Commission (1970), 264
Urry, F.M. (see Street, J.C ct al., 1968), 83,
198, 226
Uspenskaya, V.I. (1946), 181
LIzawa, H. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971),
83
Vaccaro, R.F. (see Ketchum, B.H. et al.,
1958), 275
Vacarro, R.S. et al. (1972), 280
Valcrio, M.G. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al.,
1969), 76
Vallee, B.L. (1959), 93
Valtonen, M. (see Miettincn, V. et al., 1970),
172-174
Van Dam, L. (see Scholander, P.F. et al.,
1955), 138
Van der Mass, H.L. (see Vos, J.G. ct al.,
1970), 198, 225, 226
Van Donsel, DJ. (see Gcldreich, E.E. et al.,
1968), 57
Vandyke, J.M. (1964), 122, 453
van E,sch, G.J. (we Baroni, C. et al., 1963), 56
Van Gundy, S.D. (1961), 348
Van Hoevcn, W. (see Han, J. ct al., 1968),
145
Van Horn, M. (see Malaney, G.W. et al.,
1962), 301, 302
Van Horn, W.M. (1955), 173
(1958), 193
(1959), 256
—et al. (1949), 256
— (see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121
Van Lierc, E.J. (1963), 136
Van Ness, G.B. (1964), 321
(1971), 322
Van Slyke, D.D. et al. (1934), 138
VanThiel. P.H (1948), 321
Vance, C. (we Heath, R.G. et al., in press,
1972), 226
Vandecaveye, S.C. et al. (1936), 340
Vanselow, A.P. (1959), 340
(1966a), 342
(1966b), 344
—(see Aldrich, D.G. et al., 1951), 344
—(see Liebig, G.F. et al., 1942). 340, 342
Vatthauer, R.J. (see Jordan, H.A. et al.,
1961), 315
Veith, G.D. (1971), 83
Veldee, M.V. (see Lumsden, L.L. et al.,
1925), 36
Vclscn, F.P J. (1967), 451
Velz, C.J. (1934), 89
Vergnano, B. (1953), 342, 344, 345
Vermeer, K. (1970), 227
Vermillion, J.R. (1957), 66
(see Galagan, D.J. et al., 1957), 66
Vernon, E.H. (1958), 164
Verrctt, J. (1970), 83, 225
Victoreen, J.T. (1969), 302
Viets, F.G., Jr. (1965), 352
(see Stewart, B A. et al., 1967), 73
Vigil, J. et al. (1965), 73
Vigor, W.N. (1965), 460
Vinogradov, A.P. (1953), 240
Vinton, W.H., Jr. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al.,
1963a,b), 62, 310, 311, 313
—(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1964, 1965),
311, 313
Vohra, P. (1968), 316
Volganev, M.N. (1967), 86
Volker, J.F. (1944), 60
Vollenweider, R.A. (1968), 22
Von Donsel, D.J. (1971), 16
Voors, A.W. (1971), 68
Vorotnitskaya, I.E. (see Kovalsky, V.V. et al.,
1967), 477
Vos, J.G. (1970), 198, 225, 226
(in press, 1972), 225
—et al. (1968), 225, 227
—et al. (1970), 198, 225, 226
WHO (see World Health Organization)
WRE (see Water Resources Engineering,
Inc)
Wada, Akira (1966), 403
Wadlcigh, C.H. (1955), 329
— (see Ayres, A.D. et al., 1952), 329
—(see Magistad, O.C. ct al., 1943), 324, 336
Wadsworth, J.R. (1952), 309
Wagstaff, D.J. (
-------
560/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
—et al. (1957), 145, 245, 450-457
Waller, W.T. (1969), 117
Walsh, D.F. (1970), 437
—(tee Kennedy, H.D. et al., 1970), 195, 437
Walsh, G.E. (1971), 503, 505
(1972), 265, 266, 495, 497, 499, 501,
503, 505
Walsh, L.M. (see Jacobs, L.W. et al., 1970),
340
Walter, C.M. (1972), 18
Walter, J.W. (1971), 383
Walters, A.H. (1964), 301
Walton, G (1951), 73
—(see Braus, R. et al., 1951), 74
Wang, P.P. (see Klotz, L.J. et al., 1959), 349
Wang, W.L. (1954), 350, 352
(1961), 351
Wanntorp, H. (see Borg, K. et al., 1969), 198,
252, 313
Warburton, S. (see Vigil, J. et al., 1965), 73
Ward, E. (1965), 473, 474
Ward, G.II. (1971), 403
Ward, M.K. (see Williams, H.R. et al., 1956),
29
Warington, K. (1954, 1956), 345
Wark, J.W. (1963), 125
Warner, R.E. (1965), 121
Warnick, S.L. (1969), 249, 455
Warren, C.E. (1965), 131
(1971), 19, 117, 139, 404
—(see Hermann, R.B. et al., 1962), 132
—(see Shumway, D.L. et al., 1964), 132
Warren, S. (1969), 473
Wassermann, D. (see Wasserman, M. ct al.,
1970), 83
Wassermann, M. et al. (1970), 83
Warren, S.L. (see Dupont, O. et al., 1942),
56
Water Quality Critena (1968), 423
Water Resources Council (1968), 377
Water Resources Engineers, Inc. (1968), 399,
403
(1969), 399
(1970), 399, 400
Water Systems Council (1965, 1966), 301
Watkinson, J. (see Harbourne, J.F. et al.,
1968), 313
Watson, C.G. (in press, 1971), 273
Wattie, E. (1946), 55, 89
—(see Buttcrfield, C.T. et al., 1943), 55
Waybrant, R.C. (see Hamelink, J.L. et al.,
1971), 183
Wear, J.I. (1957), 344
Weaver, W. (1963), 403
Weber, C.W. (see Crawford, J.S. et al.,
1969), 315
Weber, W.J. (1963), 54
Webster, H.L. (see Conn, L.W. et al., 1932),
62
Weed Society of America (1970), 318
Weeth, H.J. (1961), 307
(1965, 1971, 1972), 308
—et al. (1960), 307
—ct al. (1968), 308
Weibel, S.R. et al. (1955), 319
—et al. (1966), 318
Weichcnthal, B.A. et al. (1963), 315
Weidner, R.B. (see Weibel, S.R. et al., 1966),
318, 319
Wcigle, O.M. (1932), 9;i
Weil, I. (see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948), 55
Weilcrstein, R.W. (see Williams, M.W. et al.,
1958), 78
Weir, P.A. (1970), 181, 252
Weir, R. (see Frawley, J.P. et al., 1963), 78
Weiser, H.I I. (see Malaney, G.W. et al.,
1962), 301, 302
Weiss, C.M. (1965), 183, 463
Weiss, Ray (no date), 138
Welander, A.D. (1969), 471, 473
Welch, E.B. (1969), 22
(1972), 21
—(see Emery, R.M. et al., 1972), 20
Welch, P.S. (1952), 130
Welch, R.L. (1971), 83
Welcomme, R.L. (1962), 417
Wclsch, C W. (see Bloomfield, R.A. et al.,
1961), 315
Welsch, W.F. (1954), 60
Wcldon, L.W. (see Holm, L.G. et al., 1969),
27
Welker, B.D. (1967), 124
Wcnk, E. (see Revelle, R. et al., 1972), 257
Wentworth, D.F. (see .Sproul, O.J. et al.,
1967), 92
Wcrsaw, R.L. et al. (19(>9), 183
Wershaw, R.L. (1970), 513
Wessel, G. (1953), 22, 252
West, J.L. (see Adams. A.W. etal., 1967), 315
Westermark, T. (1969), 251
—(see Berg, W. ct al., 1966), 252
—(see Birkc, G. et al., 1968), 252
—(see Johnels, H.G. et al., 1967), 172
Wcstfall, B.A. (1945), 4(>4, 465
(1937), 86
—(see Elhs, M.M. et al.. 1946), 249
—(see Smith, M.I. et al., 1936), 86
Westgard, R.L. (1964), 137
Westgate, P.J. (1952), 342
Westlake, D.F. (1966), 24
Westlake, W.E. (see Gunther, F.A. et al.,
1968), 227
Westman, J.R. (1963), 147, 148
(1966), 160, 413, 417, 419
Weston, R.F. (see Turnbull, H. et al., 1954),
145, 191, 244, 450-45!)
Weston, J. (1966), 198
—(see Kiwimae, A. et al., 1969), 313
Wetmore, A. (1919), 227
Wetzel, R.G. (1969, 1971), 25
Wheeler, R.S. (1949), 305
Whetzal, F.W. (see Weichenthal, B.A. et al.,
1963), 315
Whipple, D.V. (1931), 148
Whipple, G.C. (1907), d, 89
Whipple, W.J. (1951), 173
Whisler, F.D. (in press, 1972), 352
Whitledge, T. (1970), 2''7
Whitaker, D.M. et al. (1945), 137
—(see Berge, W.E. et al., 1945), 138
Whitaker, J. (see Sunde, L.A. et al., 1970), 20
White, C.M. (see Cade, T.J. et al., 1970), 267
White, D B. (see Harriss, R.C. et al., 1970),
173
White, D.E. et al., 1970), 313
White, G.F. (1912), 471
White, J.C., Jr. (see Angelovic, J.W. et al..
1967), 454
Whitehead, C.C. (1971), 320
Whitcley, A.H. (1944a), 135
—(see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 136
Whitley, L.S. (1968), 455, 460
Whittle, G.P. (see Black, A.P. et al., 1963), 6:
Whitman, I.L. (1968), 40, 400
Whitworth, W.R. (1969), 455, 464
—et al. C 968), 27
Wicker, C.F. (1965), 279
Wiebe, A.H. (1932), 138
Wiebe, J.P. (1968), 162
Wiebe, P.M. et al. (in press, 1972), 280
—(see Vacarro, R.S. et al., 1972), 280
Wiemeyer, S.N. (1970), 197, 198, 226
Wilber, C.G. (1969), 241. 243, 245, 248, 250
255, 256
Wilcoxon, F. (1949), 434
Wilcox, L.V. (1965), 324, 335
—(see Lunin, J. et al., 1960), 337
—(see Reeve, R.C. et al., 1955), 334
Wilcoxon, F'. (1947), 495, 497, 499, 501, 503
505
(1949), 121
Wilder, D.G. (1952), 242, 250
Wilhm, J.L. (1965), 408
(1966), 144
(1968), 35
Wilhm, J.S (1968), 275, 408, 409
Wilkms, D.A. (1957), 343
Willford, W.A. (1966), 173, 456
Williams, A.B. (1958), 279
Williams, C.B. (see Fisher, R.A. et al., 1943)
409
Williams, C.H. (1971), 79
Williams, H.R. et al. (1956), 29
Williams, K.T. (1935), 316
—(see Byers, H.G. et al., 1938), 316
Williams, M.W. et al. (1958), 78
Williams, R.J.B. (1968), 341
Willis, J.N. (see Duke, T.W. et al., 1966)
472, 479
Willm, E (1879), 72
Wilson, A.J., Jr. (1970), 266
—(see Duke. T.W. et al., 1970), 83, 176, 264
—(see Hansen, D.J. et al., 1971), 176, 177
505
—(see Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971), 267
—(see Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971 a), 489
—(see Nirnmo, D.R. et al., 1970), 267
—(see Nimmo, D.R. et al., 1971), 176, 268
Wilson, D.C. (1969), 184, 429, 430
Wilson, C.S. (1966), 321
Wilson, P.D. (see Flansen, D.J. et al., 1971),
176, 268, 505
—(see Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971), 267
—(see Lowe, J.I. et al., 1971a), 489
—(see Nimmo, D.R. et al., 1971), 176, 268
Wilson, R.H. (1950), 60
Wilson, W.B. (see McFarren, E.F. et al.,
1965), 38
-------
Author Index/561
Winchester, C.F. (1956), 305
Wing, F. (see Tracy, H.W. et al., 1966), 90
Winkler, L.R. (1964), 463
Winks, W.R. et al. (1950), 315
Winter, A.J. (1964), 315
Winterbcrg, S.H. (see Maclntirc, W.H. et al.,
1942), 343
Wintncr, I. (see O'Conner, O.T. et al.,
1964), 179
Winton, E.F. (1970), 73
—ct al. (1971), 73
Wirsen, C.O. (see Jannasch, H.W. et al.,
1971), 277, 280
Wisely, B. (1967), 454, 460
Wisely, R.A.P. (1967), 455
Wiser, C.W. (1964), 471
Wobeser, G. et al. (1970), 173, 251
Woelke, C.E. (1961), 252, 455
(1967), 120
Wojtalik, T.A. (1969), 162
(unpublished data, 1971), 163
Woker, H. (1948), 187, 454
(1955), 190
—(see Wuhrmann, K. ct al., 1947), 187
Wolf, H.H. (1963), 380
Wolf, H.W. (1963), 2, 55, 74, 144, 177, 179,
189, 241, 255, 308-314, 317, 321, 339, 371
Wolfe, D.A. (1970), 480
Wolfe, M A. (see dine, J.F. et al., 1969), 328
Wolgemuth, K. (1970), 244
Wolman, A.A. (1970), 266
Wolman, M.G. (see Leopold, L.B. et al.,
1964), 22, 126
Wood, C.S. (1964), 253
Wood, E.M. (see Cope, O.B. et al., 1970), 436
Wood, J.W. (1968), 138
—et al. (1969), 172
—(see Hublow, W.F. et al., 1954), 245
Wood, R.L. (1972), 321
Wood, S.E. (1958), 399
Woodward, R.L. (1958), 59, 65
—(see Chang, S.L. et al., 1958), 91
—(tee Cohen, J.M. et al., 1960), 64, 69, 71, 93
— (see Cohen, J.M. et al., 1961), 78
Woolsey, T.D. (see Smith, R.S. et al., 1951,
1952, 1961), 31
Woolson, E.A. ctal. (1971), 318, 340
Work, R.C. (see McNultey, J.K. et al.,
1962), 279
World Health Organization (1958, 1961),
481, 482
(1959), 18
(1963, 1970), 65
(1967), 252
Wretling, A. (1967), 252
Wright, F.B. (1956), 301, 302
Wright, M.J. (1962, 1965), 315
—(see Davison, K.L. et al., 1964), 314
—(iff Simon, J. et al., 1959), 315
Wright, R.L. (1966), 149
Wu, H. (1962), 56
Wuhrmann, K. et al. (1947, 1952), 187
(1948), 187, 454
(1955), 190
Wunderlich, W.E. (1962), 27
(1969), 26
Wurtz, A. (1945), 244, 245, 462
Wurtz, C.B. (1955), 408
(1961), 453, 458, 459
(1962), 453, 459
Wyatt, J.T. (see Silvey, J.K. et al., 1972), 82
Yae, Y. (see Yoshirnura, H. ct al., 1971), 83
Yamagata, N. (1970), 60, 245
Yamaguchi, A. (see Kuratsune, M. et al.,
1969), 83
Yamamoto, II. (see Yoshirnura, H. et al.,
1971), 83
Yasutake, W.T. (see Amend, D.R. et al.,
1969), 462
Yaverbaum, P.M. (1963), 250
Yeo, R.R. (1959), 347
— Off Bruns, V.F. ct al., 1964), 347
Yevich, P.P. (1970), 246, 462
Yoh, L. (1961), 463
Yonge, C.M. (1953), 279
Yoshimura, H. et al. (1971), 83
Yoshimura, T. (see Kuratsune, M. ct al ,
1969), 83
Young, J.E. Off Clark, D.E. et al., 1964), 320
Young, J.O. (1967), 311
Younger, R.L. (see Clarke, D.E. et al., 1964),
320
Yount, J.L. (1963), 24
(1970), 26
Yudkin, J. (1937), 465
Yule, W.N. (1971), 183
Yurovitskii, Yu. G. (1964), 132
Zabik, M.J. (1969), 183
Zaitsev, Yu, P. (see Pohkarpov, G.G. et al.,
1967), 471, 473, 475
Zakhary, R. (1951), 459
Zehendcr, F. (tee Wuhrmann, K. et al.,
1947), 187
Zeller, R.W. et al (1971), 403
Zillich, J.A (1969), 147
(1972), 189
Zimmerman, E.R. (w Leone, N.C. et al.,
1954), 66
Zimmerman, J.E. (see Jordan, H.A. et al.,
1961), 315
Zinc, F.W. Off Grogan, R.G. ct al., 1958),
349
Zingmark, R. (see Foster, M. et al., 1970), 258
Zitko, V. et al. (1970), 254
ZoBcll, C.E. (1969), 261
Zweig, G. et al. (1961), 320
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
2, 4, 5-TP (2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy-propionic
acid), 79
2,4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), 79
Livestock intake, 319
ABS (alkylbenzene sulfonate), 67, 190, 403
ABS concentrations
Predictions, 404
Rainbow trout mortality, 405
ABS toxicity curves, 406
Acanthamoeba, 29
Acartia tonsa, 246
Achromobacter, 438
Acid soils
Aluminum toxicity, 339
Acipenser, 132
Actinastrum, 147
Actmomycetes, 147
Acute bioassay procedures
Fish, 1'19
Acute gastroenteritis
Polluted shellfish, 277
Adsorption
Backwashing, 373
Chemical regeneration of carbon, 373
Organic materials removal, 373
Thermal regeneration of carbon, 373, 375
Aeration
Clarification, 373
Carbon dioxide reduction, 373
Filtration, 373
Lime softening, 373
Aerobacter, 438
Aerobic waters
Sulfonates, 67
Aeromonas, 438
Agricultural crops
ECe values, 326
Salt tolerance, 325, 326
Agricultural irrigation
Arid regions, 323, 324
Subhumid regions, 324
Agricultural waters
Aquatic organisms
Pesticide tolerance, 321
Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides con-
tent, 318
Climate, 333
Clostndium, 321
Clostridium perfngens, 321
Clostndium tctani, 321
Disease-producing organisms, 32]
Erysipelas, 321
Escherichia-Enterobacter-Klebscilla, 321
Listeriosis, 321
Nutritional effects, 326
Parasitic organisms, 321
Pathogens, 321
Salinity in irrigation, 324, 325
Salmonella, 321
Toxicity to livestock, 319
Tularemia, 321
Agriculture
Field crops
Salt tolerance, 326
Forage crops
Salt tolerance, 327
Fruit crops
Salt tolerance, 325
Herbicides, 345
Insecticides, 345
Iron bacteria, 302
Irrigation, 300
Irrigation waters, 33:>
Milk storage, 302
Ornamental shrubs
Salt tolerance, 326
Pesticides, 318
Plant growth
Temperature effects, 328
Polluted water, 300
Salt tolerance of crops, 337
Soil bacteria
Arthrobacter, 302
Soil-irrigation effects, 333
Soil salinities
Root zone-yield significance, 325
Summer showers, 33:i
Trace elements in soils, 338
Vegetable crops
Salt tolerance, 327
Water for livestock, 304
Water supply management, 300
Winter precipitation, 333
Agriculture runoffs
Freshwater nutrients, 274
Air-saturated scawater, 261
Alabama
Water hyacinth, 27
Alga
Uranium effects, 256
Algae
Chromium toxicity, 180
Copper toxicity, 180
Manganese toxicity, 250
Molybdenum concentration, 253
Rad tolerance, 272
Uranium concentrate, 256
Algae growth, 23, 275
Algal blooms, 317
Algal growth
Artificial destratification, 165
Temperature effects, 165
Algal nutrition
Phosphates, 253
Algal-pH interaction, 141
Alkali disease
Livestock, 316
Alkaline waters
Calcium carbonate saluratation, 54
Hardness, 54
pH value, 54
Taste, 54
Alkalinity
Corrosive waters, 54
Natural waters, 54
Weak acid anions, 54
Alkalinity composition, 52
Aluminum-pH relationship, 242
America! Fisheries Society, 28
American Kestrels
Egg shell thinning, 197
Shell thi cvning-DDE relationship, 226
American Oyster
Silt tolerance, 281
American Public Health Association, 29, 3(
America a Society of Ichthyologists and He
petologists, 28
Ammonia
Corrosiveness, 55
Groundwater, 55
Public water supply, 65
Rainbow trout mortality, 242
Sewage treatment, 55
Surface water, 55
Water distribution systems
Algal nutrient, 55
Microbial nutrient, 55
Water disinfectant, 55
Water solubility, 186
Ammonia-dissolved oxygen relationship, 24
Ammonia-pH relationship, 188
Ammonia loxicity
Fish species, 187
Amphibians
Muscular dystrophy, 250
Anabaena ci/cinalis, 147
Anabaena flvs-aquae, 317
Anaerobic sediments, 239
Anaerobic soil-water environment, 322
Anas platjirhynchos, 196, 226
Anas tubripts, 195
Anas strepera, 228
562
-------
Subject Index/563
Anemones
Chlorine tolerance, 247
Animal protein
Marine environment, 216
Animal protein consumption
Fish source, 216
Animals
Cadmium content, 245
Drinking water intake, 306
Water consumption, 308
Water content
Daily calcium requirements, 306
Daily salt requirements, 306
Water requirements
Beef cattle, 305
Dairy cattle, 305
Horses, 305
Sheep, 305
Swine, 305
Anion exchange, 375
Ankistrodesmus, 438
Annual temperature cycle, 171
Anopheles Jreeborm, 25
Anopheles quadnmaculatus, 25
Antarctica
Cadmium level, 246
Antarctica fowl
Mercury tolerance, 252
Antarctica Fern
Cadmium levels, 246
Mercury tolerance, 252
Anthrax
Bacillus anthracis, 322
Antimony
Bioassay of fish, 243
Green algae effects, 243
Antimony poisoning
Humans, 243
Anus acula, 228
Anus sp., 228
Aphamzornmon flos-aquae, 317
Aquaculture, 277
Aquatic acclimation
Ecological balance, 154
Aquatic animals
Gas bubble disease, 132
Ionizing radiation absorption, 145
Manganese concentration, 250
Oxygen uptake, 270
PCB-reproduction effects, 177
Silver toxicity, 255
Aquatic birds
Cl. bolulmum outbreaks, 196
Aquatic communities
Alteration, 165
Animal populations, 194
Oxygen concentrations, 131
Thermal criteria, 166
Thermal patterns, 165
Toxicants, 220
Aquatic ecosystems (See also Aquatic orga-
nisms)
Artificial impoundments, 124
Balance, 110
Biota, 109
Bogs-wildlife relationships, 194
Community structure, 109, 110
Dimethylmercury content, 172
Dissolved solids, 142
Environmental change, 109
Estuaries, 219
Habitats, 109
Marshes-wildlife relationships, 194
Monomercury content, 172
Muskegs-wildlife relationships, 194
Oxygen requirements, 132
Pesticide contamination, 182
Pollutants, 194
Pollutants effects, 220
Pollution effects, 237
Seepage-wildlife relationship, 194
Suspended solids interactions, 126
Swamps-wildlife relationship, 194
Temperature sensitivity, 157
Wastes lethal toxicity, 117
Water level fluctuation, 194
Water pollutants, 109
Water temperature, 151
Water temperature fluctuations, 160
Aquatic ecosystem—wildlife relationship, 194
Aquatic environment, 109
Biological monitoring, 116
Chemical structure, 110
Dialkyl phthalate residues, 174
Dredging effects, 124
Iron contaminants, 249
Mercury from coal burning, 172
Mercury from industrial processes, 172
Mercury from weathering processing, 171
Organic mercury, 172
Physical characteristics, 110
Pollutant concentrations-disease relation-
ship, 236
Radioactive materials, 190, 270
Radioactivity levels control, 273
Radioisotope introduction, 271
Radioisotopes-food web relationship, 271
Selenium content 254
Summer nutrient additions, 276
Aquatic food chains
Mercury content, 174
Aquatic form
Chronic radiation dose effects, 273
Aquatic habitats, 110
Mercury contamination, 173
Aquatic invertebrates
Thallium toxicity, 255
Aquatic life
Asphyxiation, 137
Behavior effects, 236
Bioassay system, 235
Bioresponse testing, 234
Carbon dioxide effects, 139
Chlorine toxicity, 189
Chromium sensitivity, 247
Chromium toxicity, 247
Community structure, 408
Detergent toxicity, 190
Dissolved gas pressure, 135
Extreme temperature exposure, 161
Floating logs effects, 128
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 191, 193
Inorganic chemicals-marine environment
interactions, 239
Lead concentration effects, 181
Local habitats, 157
Metal hydroxide toxicity, 179
Metal toxicity, 179
Migration temperature, 164
Oil-detergents toxicity, 261
Oil loss effects, 144
Oil spills effects, 258
Oily substances toxicity, 145
Oxygen requirements, 131
pH metals relationship, 179
pli toxicity, 140
Pesticide effects, 434
Pollutants-genetic effects, 237
Pollution effects evaluation, 408
Reproduction water temperature relation-
ships, 164
Spawning temperatures, 164
Supersaturation
Physiological adaptation, 137
Temperature acclimation, 171
Thermal criteria, 157
Thermal requirements, 164
Thermal resistance, 161
Thermal tolerance, 160
Water temperature limits, 165
Water temperature safety factor, 161
Winter maxima temperature, 160
Aquatic macrophytcs
Aesthetic values, 26
Sports fishermen, 26
Aquatic mammals
Surface oil hazards, 196
Aquatic microorganisms
Bioassays, 235
Water characteristics alteration, 127
Aquatic molluscs
Mercury intake, 173
Aquatic organisms
Aliphatic hydrocarbon synthesization, 145
Arsenic chronic effects, 243
Arsenic lethal doses, 243
Arsenic poisoning, 243
Average temperature tolerance, 170
Bioassays, 109
Boron toxicity, 244
Bromine toxicity, 245
Cadmium chrome effect, 246
Chlorine exposure, 189
Chlorine toxicity, 189, 246
Chronic exposure to mercury, 174
Clean water relationship, 408
Community diversity, 408
Community structure, 109
Copper lethality, 248
Diversity indices, 408
Dredging effects, 124
Environmental changes, 152
Flavor impairing materials uptake, 148
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 256
Inorganic chemicals
Accumulation, 469-480
Dosage, 450-460
Sublethal doses, 461-468
-------
564/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Irradiation, 271
Larvae pollution sensitivity, 236
Lethal threshold temperatures, 410
Mercury compounds, 252
Mercury concentration in tissue, 174
Migrations, 236
Methylmercury intake, 172
Mortality levels, 162
Organic compounds
Toxicity data, 484-509
Organochlorine compounds
Accumulation, 183
Organochlorine pesticide accumulation,
185
pH effects, 141
Paniculate material
Bottom-settling effects, 281
Phosphates-primary production effects,
281
Phosphates tolerance, 253
Phytoplankton growth, 124
Pollutant concentrations, 233
Pollutant sublethal effects, 233
Polluted water, 408
Pollution-nutrition relationship, 237
Polychlorinated byphenyls in tissues, 177
Polychlorinated byphenyls toxicity, 176
Primary productivity, 281
Radioactivity effects, 190, 270
Radioisotope concentrations, 193, 271
Radioisotope content, 192
Reproductive cycle-chronic toxicity ef-
fects, 235
Species protection, 109, 110
Sublethal lead effects, 250
Temperature changes, 151
Temperature-reproduction relationships,
171
Temperature resistance, 410
Temperature tolerance, 151
Testing, 119
Thallium nitrate effects, 256
Thermal criteria, 168
Thermal responses, 152
Thermal shock, 168
Thermal shocks mix, 170
Threshold values, 282
Toxic concentrations acceptability, 118
Uranium toxicity, 256
Waste contamination, 109
Waste exposure time, 231
Water quality management, 109
Water temperature, 151
Aquatic plant communities
Bicarbonate alkalinity, 194, 195
Aquatic plant growth
Cation requirement, 23
Aquatic plants
Barium chloride lethality, 244
Free oil effects, 144
Ionizing radiation absorption, 195
Mercury content, 251
Oil emulsions effects, 144
Oxygen requirements, 131
Oxygen uptake, 270
Silt deposits accumulation, 195
Aquatic pollution
Larvae mortality, 236
Aquatic populations
Dissolved oxygen concentrations, 270
Thermal alterations, 152
Aquatic populations survival
Water temperature elfects, 161
Aquatic species
Critical temperatures, 171
Harvest control, 110
Hydrogen sulfide chronic exposure level,
193
Aquatic systems (See also Aquatic ecosystems
and Aquatic organisms)
Dissolved solids
Animal growth, 142
Plant growth, 142
Herbicides content, 183
Inorganic materials interaction, 111
Organic material interaction, 111
Pesticide distribution 183
Physical factors
Bottom contour, 111
Currents, 111
Depth, 111
Flow velocity, 111
Light penetration, 111
Reacration capability, 111
Temperature, 111
Volume of water, 111
Water exchange rate, 111
Temperature-chemical reactions, 111
Aquatic test animals
Daphma, 119
Daphnia magna, 119
Aquatic testing organisms
Acclimation, 120
Aquatic vascular plants
Bicarbonate alkalinitv, 24
Biomass for waterfowl, 27
Biornass vs. boating, 27
Carbon dioxide effects, 24
Carbonate alkalinity effects, 24
Control methods, 26
Current velocity effects, 24
Dissolved oxygen effects, 24
Evaporation effects, 24
Harvest, 26
Light penetration effects, 24
Nutrient supplies effects, 24
Oxygen balance, 24
Prediction model, 24
pH effects, 24
Phytoplankton interaction, 25
Sediment composition effects, 24
Swimming tolerance, 63
Water circulation, 24
Aquatic vectors
Culexfatigans, 17
Disease
Encephalitis, 17
Malaria, 17
Schistosomiasis, 17. 18
Midge production, 18
Mosquitos, 17, 18
Snails, 19
Aqueous ecosystem
Persistent pollutants, 264
Arabis mosaic virus, 349
Arbacia
Silver nitrate effects, 255
Arcatia tonsa
Chlorine exposure times, 247
Ardea herodias, 227
Argentina
Epidcmiological studies, 56
Arid regions
Climate
Irrigation waters, 333
Drainage waters, 334
Irrigation water quality, 333
SAR values, 338
Arizona
Fish fauna, 27
Irrigation water, 352
Aroclor®, 176, 177, 226
Arrow oil spill, 262, 263
Arsenic
Aquatic organisms poisoning, 243
Biological oxidation, 56
Chemical forms, 56
Cumulative poison, 243
Derma tological manifestations, 56
Drinking water, 56
Carcinogenic effects, 309
Human consumption, 309
Toxicity, 309
Epidemiological studies, 56
Farm animals
Water toxicity, 309
Food intake concentrations, 56
Growth stimulant, 56
Human chronic exposure, 56
Human tolerance, 56
Inorganic, 56
Microorganism poisoning, 243
Pentavalent inorganic form, 56
Pesticides, 243
Public water supply, 56
Surface water, 56
Toxicity in water, 309
Toxicity to man, 56
Toxicity variance, 243
Water intake concentration, 56
Arsenic is carcinogen, 56
Arsenic poisoning
Human icactions, 56
Toxic symptoms, 56
Arsenic-selenium relationship, 240
Arsenicals, 310
Arthrobacter, 302
Arthropods
Fish food, 193
Arthropods-hydrogen sulfide relationship
193
Ashy petrel
Cadmium effects, 246
Mercury concentrations, 252
Asia
Fishery management, 441
Ocean sediments, 281
-------
Subject Index/565
Asian clam (Corbicula mamlensis), 27
Atlantic
Barium concentration, 244
Tar ball abundance, 257
Atlantic Coast
Fisheries, 221
Waste disposal, 222, 278
Atlantic coast streams
Carbon dioxide content, 139
Atlantic salmon
Copper concentrations, 181
Copper lethal effects, 248
Zinc copper reactions, 240
Atomic energy installations
Radiation-aquatic life relationships, 273
Au Sable River, 14
Australia
Water use
Livestock, 307
Aylhya qffines, 195
Aylhya amencana, 195, 228
Aythya collans, 228
Aylhya ralimena, 195, 228
BOD (r«? also biochemical oxygen demand),
55, 330
BOD test
Effluent quality, 55
Sewage treatment measurement, 55
BOD5 (5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand
test), 275
Bacillus, 438
Bacillus anlhracif, 322
Back Bay, Virginia
Aquatic plant production, 194
Silt deposits, 195
Bacteria
Coliform index, 58
Public water supply, 57
Rad tolerance, 272
Bacterial pathogen detection, 276
Baha, California
Sedimented oils, 145
Tampico Maru spill, 258
Bald Eagle
Dieldrin accumulation effects, 227
Bankia sttacia, 243
Ballanus ballanoides, 261, 255
Baltimore, Maryland
Urban streams, 40
Banana waterlily
Waterfowl food, 194
Barium
Adverse physiological effects, 59
Dust inhalation, 59
Human dosage, 59
Industrial use, 243
Injection-toxic effects, 59
Muscle stimulant, 59
Nerve block, 59
Public water supply, 59
Solubility, 59
Vasoconstriction, 59
Barium chloride
Bioassays, 244
Barnacles
Chlorine tolerance, 247
Silver toxicity, 255
Bathing beaches
Bacteriological standards, 30
Long Island Sound, 31
Bathing places
Diseases, 29
Water quality, 29
Bathing waters, 29
Chemical quality, 33
Contamination, 29
Fecal coliform index, 31
Illness incidences, 31
Meningoenccphalitis, 29
Water quality requirements, 30
Bays
Nonthcrmal discharge distribution
Mathematical model, 403
Beach quality
Jetties and piers, 17
Bear River Migratory Bird Refuse
Cl. botuhnum outbreak, 196
Benthic communities
Sedimented oils effects, 196
Beryllium
Surface waters, 310
Water solubility, 244
Bicarbonates
Fruit crops, 329
Bilharziasis (schistosomiasis), 18
Bikini
Manganese radionuclide uptake, 251
Bioaccumulation of mercury, 172
Bioassay design
Biological characteristics, 236
Bioassay evaluation, 121
Bioassay methods
Flow-through, 119
Static, \ 19
Bioassay procedures, 120
Bioassay tests
Physiological processes, 237
Bioassays
Application factors, 121
Aquatic life stages, 235
Aquatic life tainting, 149
Aquatic microorganisms, 235
Chemical concentration, 123
Continuous flow, 119
Dissolved oxygen, 121
Exposure effects, 236
Laboratory experimentation, 119
Lethal threshold concentrations, 122
Long-term testing, 236
Minnow mortality, 128
Pollutants, 122
Safe-lethal concentration ratios, 121, 122
System design, 235
Toxicant concentration, 121
Toxicant mixtures
Sublethal effects, 122, 123
Toxicants
Long-term effects, 118
Toxicity measurements, 118
Toxicity tests, 121
Water quality, 118
Water tainting, 149
Biochemical oxygen demand (seealsoftOT)), 34
Biographical notes
(Committee and panel members), 528-533
Biological communities
Canals, 171
Embayments, 171
Biological methylation, 172
Biological monitoring program
Bioassays, 116, 117
Field surveys, 116
In-plant, 116
Simulation techniques, 116
Biological treatment procedures
Virus removal, 92
Biological wastes
Organic toxicants, 264
Biomonitoring procedures, 120
Btomphalana glabrata, 18
Bioresponses
Long-term testing, 236
Biosphere
Toxic organics hazards, 264
Biota temperature deviations, 151
Bird feathers
Mercury concentrations, 252
Bird life
Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide tox-
icity, 227
Lead ingestion effects, 228
Birds
Mercury contamination, 198
Mercury poisoning, 172
PCB toxicity, 198
Bismuth
Sea water, 244
Bivalve larvae
Mercuric chloride lethality, 252
Black duck
Winter food requirements, 195
Black flies-pH effects, 141
Black Sea
Yeast uranium uptake, 256
Black waters oxygen content, 132
Blackfiy larvae, 18, 22
Bloodworms (Chuononndae), 22
Bluegill sunfish
Antimony tolerance, 243
Phosphorus toxicity, 254
Bluegills, 435, 437, 438
Blue-green algae, 22
Anabaena, 22
Anabaena flot-aquae, 317
Aphaniynnenon flos-aquae, 317
Coelnsphaenum keutzmgianum, 317
Discharge canals, 171
Gloeotnchia echimdata, 317
Microcoleus fagmatus, 22
Microcystis aeruginosa, 22, 317
Nitrogen-sea water relationship, 276
Nodulana tpumigena, 317
Schmothnx calcicola, 22
Toxicity, 317
Blue-green algal
Green Lake, Washington, 20
-------
566/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Lake Sammamish, Oregon, 20
Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20
Lake Washington, Washington, 20
Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire, 20
Livestock water intake, 317
Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), 37
Bluegills, 128
Aroclor® exposure, 177
Aroclor toxicity, 176
Cadmium lethality, 180
Chromium toxicity, 180
Hardwater—zinc toxicity, 182
Hydrogen sulfide tolerance, 193
Malathion exposure effects, 185
pH effects, 141
Pesticide synergisis, 184
Phthalate ester toxicity, 175
Phenol toxicity, 191
Softwater-zinc toxicity, 182
Bluegill sunfish
Cadmium lethality, 180
Blythe, California
Irrigation water, 348
Boating
Social aesthetics, 14
Boca Cieza Bay
Dredging effects, 279
Boilers
Slowdown, 378
Cooling waters, 379
Once-through, 376
Equipment damage, 376
Feedwater, 377
High-pressure, 376
Heat transfer equipment, 377
Ion exchange, 376
Ion exchange resins, 376
Low-pressure, 376
Makeup treatment processes, 379
Oily matter, 376
Once-through cooling
Underground aquifers, 377
Oxidants, 376
Recirculated water
Biological growths, 379
Corrosion, 379
Scale control, 379
Recycling steam condensate, 378
Regeneration, 376
Scale-forming hardness, 376
Silica, 376
Waste water potential
Biological organisms, 379
Suspended solids, 379
Water makeup, 378
Water quality requirements, 376, 377
Boilers evaporation process
Dissolved solids concentrate, 379
Boilers feed water quality requirements, 379
Boric acid
Minnow fatality, 245
Boron
Groundwater, 310
Natural waters, 310
Public water supply, 59
Sea water, 244
Boston
Oil pollution, 145
Botanicals
Recommended concentrations, 187
Bottled and canned soft drinks
Description of industry, 392
Water composition, 333
Water quality indicators, 392
Water quality requirements
Point of use, 393
Water reuse, 392
Water softening proctsses, 393
Water treatment processes, 393
Water use
Consumption, 392
Discharge, 392
Intake, 392
Recycle, 392
Water use processes, 392
Bottom fauna
Sunken oil effects, 262
Bottom materials resuspension
Nutrient fertilization occurrence, 281
Toxic materials release, 281
Bottom sediments
Hydrogen sulfide content, 256
Oil degradation, 262
Botulism
Bird mortality, 197
Botulism epizootic areas, 196, 197
Botulism poisoning, 196
Boundary waters canoe irea, 13
Brachydamo rerw, 435
Brackish waters
Oyster-pH relationship, 241
Branla Canadensis, 228
British Columbia
Irrigation water contJ minates, 349
Bromine
Water taste effect, 245
Brook trout, 437
Chromium chronic effects, 180
Copper-reproduction effects, 180
Hard water
LC50 values, 181
Mercury toxicity, 173
Methylrnercury content, 173
Oxygen requirements, 131
pH effects, 141
Softwater
LC50 values, 181
Water temperature-mortality relationship,
162
Brown pelican
Heavy metals pollution, 226
PCB-shell thinning relationship, 226
Reproductive failure, 197
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
Brown trout (Salmo truttt,), 27
pH effects, 141
Brownsville Ship Channel
Spoil deposits, 279
Burbot
pH effects, 141
Burea of Land Management, 9
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, '), 10
Bureau of Reclamation, 9
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 9
Di-n-butyl phthalate
Toxicily to fish, 175
Buzzards Bay
Fuel oil spill, 258
CAM (Carbon absorption method), 75
CAM sampler
Low-flow, 75
High-flow, 75
CCE (Carbon-chloroform extract), 75
Carcinogenic properties, 75
Drinking water, 75
Water quality measurement, 75
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), 275, 33<
Cabot tein
Oily water effects, 196
Caddis flies
pH effects, 141
Iron effects, 249
Caddo Lake, Texas, 26
Cadmium
Absorption effects
Ruminants, 310
Cardiovascular disease, 60
Cumulative poison, 179
Drinking water, 310
Electroplating plants, 60
Ground water, 310
Itai-itai cisease, 245
Fish poisoning, 179
Hepatic tissue, 60
Mammal poisoning, 179
Natural v.-aters, 310
Pesticides, 245
Poisoning, 60
Public water supply, 60
Renal (issue, 60
Shell growth effects, 246
Toxicity, 60, 310
Water pollutant, 245
Zinc smelting by-product, 239
Cadmium concentration
Public Wciter supply, 60
CalanuSj 261
California
Agriculture waters
Climatic effects, 333
Aquatic animal introduction, 28
Fish fauna, 27
Grasscarp introduction, 28
Lithium toxicity, 344
California coastal waters
Cadmium level, 246
Mercury content, 252
California current, 32
California Fish and Game Commission, 28
California mackeral
DDT contamination, 237
Cambarus, 173, 176
Canada
Lakes, 21
Pesticides use, 440
-------
Subject Index/567
Canada Geese
Lead ingestion effects, 228
Canadian prairies
Fish contamination, 240
Mercuries in birds, 251
Mercury in fish, 251
Canals
Cooling water, 171
Herbicides content, 347
Plant growth', 23
Canvasback
Lead ingestion effects, 228
Winter food requirement, 195
Cape Cod, Massachusetts
Coastal waters-temperature effects, 238
Caramus auralus, 141, 181, 187, 193, 244
Carbamate insecticides
Mammalian toxicity, 78
Recommended concentrations, 186
Carbon dioxide in water, 139
Camnus rnaenus, 247, 248
Carp (Cyprinus carpis), 27
Ammonia exposure effects, 187
Arsenic toxicity, 243
Flavor impairing contaminants, 149
Flavor tainting, 147
Iron lethality threshold, 249
pH effects, 141
Casmerodius albus, 227
Castalia flaua, 194
Castle Lake, 23
Catfish
pH effects, 141
Cation-anion exchange, 375
Cation exchange, 375
Calos/omus commersonm, 193
Cattail
pi I effects, 141
Cattle
Drinking water
Sodium chloride content, 307
Molybdenum tolerance, 314
Teart toxicosis, 314
Water needs, 304, 305
Cattle feed
Arsenic selenium relationship, 240
Caiurnix, 226
Cement industry
Description, 395
Water leaching
Oxide-bearing particulates, 395
Water leaching processes, 395
Water quality requirements, 395
Water use, 395
Ceratophyllum, 24
Cercariar, 322
Cercaria stagnicotae, 19
Channel catfish, 128, 435, 437
Phthalate ester toxicity, 175
Flavor-impairing contaminants, 149
Chattahoochee River, 305
Chemical and allied products
Industry description, 384
Manufacturing facilities, 384
Plant locations, 384
Process water usage, 385
Treatment processes
Chlorination, 385
Clarification, 385
Demineralization, 385
Filtration, 385
Ion exchange, 385
Raw water, 385
Softening, 385
Water quality, 384
Indicators, 384, 385
Water quality requirements
Low turbidity, 384
Water use, 384
Chemical and allied product industry
Process water intake, 384
Chemical-environmental interaction, 239
Chemical industry
Process water characteristics, 384
Chemical treatment procedure
Virus removal, 92
Chesapeake Bay, 19
Dredging effects, 279
Eurasian milfoil, 27
Ferric hydroxide content, 249
Nitrogen content effects, 281
Phosphates contents effects, 281
Spoil biomass, 279
Chicks
Water salinity intake, 308
Chile
Aquatic animal introduction, 28
Dcrmatological manifestations, 56
China
Fishery management, 441
Seaweed culture, 223
Chinook salmon
Ammonia concentrations, 242
Cadmium-zinc effects, 246
Chlorine lethal threshold, 246
Chromium toxicity, 180
Gas bubble disease, 138, 139
Gill hyperplasia-ammonia relationship,
187
Chtronomus plumontt, 435
Chlordla pyrenmdosa, 245
Chlorella Spp, 438
Chlorides
Foliar absorption, 328
Fruit crops sensitivity, 328
Irrigation water, 328
Public water supply, 61
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Insecticides, 318
Human intake, 77
Water solubility, 318
Pesticides, 197
Chlorination
Bacteria resistence, 277
Virus resistence, 277
Chlorine
Aquatic organisms tolerance, 247
Hydraulic systems, 246
Paper mill treatment, 189
Potable water treatments, 189
Power plant treatment, 189
Sewage effluents treatment, 189
Textile mill treatment, 189
Toxicity, 246
Water solubility, 246
Chlorine disinfectant
Public water supply, 50
Chlorine-pH relationship, 246
Chlorine pollutants
Aquatic organism toxicity, 247
Chlorophenoxy herbicides
Public water supply, 78, 79
Recommended safe levels, 79
Toxicity, 79
Chlorophyll a, 21
Chlorosis, 329
Chromium
Drinking water
Ruminants use, 311
Freshwater organisms sensitivity, 247
Human toxieity, 62
Lake waters, 311
Oyster mortality, 247
Public water supply, 62
River waters, 311
Valence forms, 62
Chtyiaoia qiuiifjuecirrha
Chesapeake Bay, 19
Clailophma, 20, 124
Clams
Disease vectors, 36
Gloria* batrachin, 28
Clarification, 372
Chemical additives, 372
Clear Lake, California
Pesticides
Trophic accumulation, 183
Clear Lake, Texas
Brown shrimp production, 279
White shrimp production, 279
Climate
Agriculture waters, 333
Humid-arid regional differences, 336
Irrigation waters, 333
Climate conditions
Evapotranspiration, 336
Clostndium, 321
Cloitu/hiim holiiluntm, 196
Clostndium hemolvtium, 321
Clostndium perfrigetu, 321
Clostndium tetanic, 321
Coagulation process
Public water supply, 50
Coastal contaminants, 264
Coastal engineering projects
Sedimentation, 279
Suspended loads, 279
Coastal environment
Contaminants, 217
DDT compound pollutants, 226
Coastal marine environment
Toxic wastes, 224
Coastal marine waters
Recreational activities, 219
Shell fish yields, 219
Coastal plain estuaries
Oxygen depletion, 270
-------
568/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Coastal regions
Pollutant retention time, 230
Coastal waters
Cadmium content, 245
Dissolved oxygen distribution, 270
Eutrophy, 19
Marine fish production, 217
Marine life-oil contamination effects, 261
Paniculate materials content, 281
Persistent pollutants, 225
Pollutant retention time, 230
Pollution effects, 222
Waste disposal sites, 221
Waste disposals, 228
Zones of passage, 115
Coastal zone management
Experiments, 282
Cobalt
Drinking water
Farm animals use, 311
Surface waters, 311
Vitamin B12, 311
Cod
Phosphorus tolerance, 254
Coelosphaernwi huet?jngianum, 317
Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kuutch), 27
Aroclor® toxieity, 176
Barium chloride effects, 244
Carbon dioxide concentrations, 139
Chlorine lethal threshold, 246
DDT contamination, 237
Dissolved oxygen requirements, 139
Oxygen requirements, 132
Potassium chromate lethality, 247
Coho salmon fry
Cadmium sensitivity, 180
Coke production
Water use, 388
Coldwater fish
Dissolved oxygen criteiia, 132
Coliform bacteria
Public water supply
Sanitary quality, 57
Coliform index
Pathogenic microorganisms, 58
Color
Public water supply, 63
Colorado reservoir
Fish mortality-selenium effects, 255
Colorado River, 14, 40
Ncmatode content, 348
Columbia Basin, Washington
Irrigation waters, 348
Columbia River
Atomic energy installations, 273
Gas bubble disease, 135
Salmon spawning, 273
Commercial fisheries
Water temperature, 151
Committee on Bathing Beach Contami-
nation, 29
Committee on Bathing Places, 29
Committee on The Biologic Effects of Atmos-
phere Pollutants, 343
Committee on Exotic Fishes and Other
Aquatic Organisms, 28
Common egret
Dieldrm accumulation effects, 227
Common tern
Heavy metals pollution, 226
Connecticut
Fish fauna, 27
Osprey shell thinning, 227
Contaminated waters, 322
Continental shelf
Solid waste disposal, 280
Water quality-suspended solids relation'
ship, 222
Continental weathering. 251
Conversion tables, 524-527
Cooling ponds, 377
Power plant discharge, 403
Cooling systems
Recirculating, 377, 3^8
Cooling tower makeup
Organic matter removal, 378
Cooling towers
Operating difficulties, 378
Cooling water, 377, 378
Centrifugal separators, 379
Noncorrosive, 379
Nonfouling, 379
Nonscaling, 379
Rccirculated, 376
Recirculating rate, 378
Requirements, 377
Source composition quality, 379
Stream filteis, 379
Treatment processes, 579
Cooling water entrain m<;nt, 168
Cooling water systems
Cooling towers, 377, j78
Copepods
Chlorine exposure, 246
Crude oil effects, 261
Diesel oil effects, 261
Copper
Algae controls, 247
Difficiency in humans, 64
Drinking water
Poultry, 311
Ground water, 64
Human metabolism, (4
Human toxieity, 312
Lake waters. 311
Nutritional anemia, 64
Public water supply, (4
River waters, 311
Surface water, 64
Swine, 312
Trace element, 311
Copper uses, 248
Corbicula mamlensis, 27
Coregonm, 141
Coregonus artedu, 164, 184
Coregonui clupeaforrms, 164
Coregonur hayi, 184
Coregonus hiyi, 184
Corps of Engineers, 9
Cotton bleaching, 380
Crabs
Arsenic toxieity, 243
Chromium toxieity, 247
Copper effect, 248
pH sensitivity, 241
Crappies, 128
Crassius aMutus, 245, 252
Crassostrea gtgus
Copper toxieity, 248
Crassostrea tirginua, 246, 248, 250, 253, 255
281
Crater Lake, Oregon, 16, 40
Crayfish
Aroclor® toxieity, 176
Manganese tolerance, 250
Mercury content, 173
Cncotopus bi,:inctus, 18
Crop contamination
Polluted irrigation waters, 348
Raw sewage, 352
Crop pathogens
Fungi, 348
Crops
Herbicide residues, 347
Herbicide tolerances, 346
Insecticides residues, 346
Manganese toxieity, 344
Crude oil
Aquatic life toxieity, 261
Crude oil production, 257
Clenopharyngodon idella, 27
Culexfatigar,s, 17
Cultus Lake, British Columbia
Mercury levels, 252
Currituck Sound, North Carolina
Silt deposits, 195
Cyanide
Chlorination, 65
Human toxieity, 65
Industrial waste concentrations, 189
Oral toxieity, 65
Public water supply, 65
Tempc -al urc- toxieity effects, 1 90
Cyanide toxieity, 189
Cyclops, 322
Cyclolflla merfeghitnana, 22
Cypnnus carfw, 27, 141, 147, 149, 187, 243
DDT
Carcinogenic effects, 76
Human exposure, 76
Milk contamination, 320
DNC (Dinitroorthocresol), 319
DNOC (See DNC)
Dairy sanitation, 302
Daphma, 122, 141, 173, 243, 250
Chromium chronic effects, 180
Nickel chloride threshold, 253
Selenium threshold, 255
Uranium effects, 256
Daphnia magna, 435, 438
Bromine mortality, 245
Cadmium sensitivity, 180
Copper tolerance, 180
Ferric chloride effects, 249
Lead toxieity, 181
Nickel sensitivity, 181
-------
Subject Index I ^fy
PCB-reproduction effects, 177
Phthalate ester toxicity, 175
Reproduction-zone effects, 182
Daphma pulex, 438
Daphrua sp., 256
Gas bubble disease, 138
Daphnids, 435
Deep sea
Manganese nodules, 250
Organic waste disposal, 277
Permanent thermocline, 217
Solid wastes disposal, 280
Deep sea dumping, 277
Deep water decomposition, 275
Deep water-photosynthesis relationship, 275
Defoliants
Recommended concentration, 186
Demineralization
Cation exchange, 375
Dermatological manifestations
Chile, 56
Detergents
Phosphates, 191
Toxicity, 190
Detroit River
Duck refuge, 195
Sedimented oil, 145
Diatoms
Cyanide, toxicity, 190
Cyclotella menegfnmana, 22
Gomphonema paivulum, 22
Melosira vanans, 22
Naincula cryptocephala, 22
Niltchia palea, 22
Diesel oil spill
Shell fish fatality, 258
Dilution water
Toxicants testing, 120
Diquat (1, l'-ethylene-2, 2'-dipyridylium di-
bromide), 79
Discharge canals
Blue-green algae, 171
Discharge temperature, 378
Dissolved gases
Cavitation, 136
Partial pressures, 135
Dissolved gas-pressure criteria, 138
Dissolved oxygen
Anaerobic reduction prevention, 65
Lakes, 65
Reservoirs, 65
Public water supply, 65
Dissolved solids
Public water supply, 90
Distillation
Thermal evaporation, 375
Water condensation, 375
Distilled water
Ferrous iron concentrate, 69
Zinc taste threshold, 93
Ditch water
Sewage contaminates, 351
Ditchbank treatment, 346
Domestic wastes
Phosphorus content, 22
Dorosoma cepedianum, 139
Double-crested Cormorants
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
Dracunculus, 322
Dragonflies
pH effects, 141
Drainage-soil erosion effects, 126
Drainage waters
Arid regions, 334
Cadmium content, 245
Drinking water
CCE, 75
Arsenic content effects, 56
Humans, 309
Mice, 309
Rats, 309
Barium content tolerance, 59
Cadmium content, 60, 310
Animals use, 310
Carbamatc insecticides, 78
Chemical content, 481, 482
Chromium content, 62
Copper content
Farm animals use, 311
Poultry, 311
Cyanide content, 65
Fluoride content, 66
Insecticide contamination, 76
Insecticides content, 76
Lead content
Livestock, 313
Ruminants, 313
Nitrates content, 315
Nitnlotriacetate content, 74
Nitrite content, 315
Nitrite toxicity, 73
Organoleptic properties, 80
Organophosphorus insecticide, 78
Pesticides content
Livestock, 319
Radionuclide content, 85, 318
Salinity, 195
Selenium content, 86
Farm animals, 316
Rats, 316
Sodium chloride content
Cattle, 307
Day-old poults, 308
Laying hens, 307
Sheep, 307
Swine, 307
Sodium content, 88
Sodium sulfate content, 307
Sulfate ions content, 89
TDS concentration, 90
Vanadium content, 316
Zinc content, 93
Drinking water quality, 31
Drinking water standards, 50, 51, 57, 59, 70,
90, 91, 301-303, 310, 332
EC (electrical conductivity), 325
ECe (electrical conductivity of saturation ex-
tract), 325
EIFAC (European Inland Fisheries Advisory
Commission), 127
EQU (environmental quality units), 400
ESP (exchangeable sodium percentage), 330,
335
ESP values
Soils, 331
E. histolytical, 29
Ecological impact analysis
Environmental characteristics
Climate, 400
Hydrology, 400
Scenery, 400
Users, 400
Water quality, 400
Streams, 399
Ecological problems
Simulation techniques, 117
Ecology, 400
Ecosystems
Biota, 219
Hydrographic patterns, 219
Eggshell thinning-DDT relationship, 198
Eel grass
Boron effects, 245
Eels
Arsenic toxicity, 243
Manganese tolerance, 250
Kichhorma crasupn, 27
Electrical semiconductors
Arsenic content, 243
Electrodialysis
Anionic membrane, 375
Canonic membrane, 375
Ion exchange, 375
Electroplating industry
Ground water
Waste contamination, 310
Elodea, 24
Embayments
Cooling waters, 171
Plant growth, 23
Emulsified Oils, 144
Emulsified oils toxicity, 145
Endothal (disodium 3, 6-endoxohexa-hydro-
phlhalate), 79
England
Bathing waters, 29
Salt water beaches, 31
Eniwetok
Manganese radio nuclide uptake, 251
Entamofba coll, 351
Enttijrioebii histolylica, 351
Enteric viral contamination
Sewage effluents, 91
Enterobacler (aerobacter) aerogenes, 57
Enterobacter cloacae, 57
Environment
Physical manipulation, 124
Environmental conditions
Laboratory experiments, 282
Environmental management
Waste stream constituents, 116
Environmental pollution, 400
EPA
Pesticide Regulation Division, 434
Ephemera, 141
Ephemera simulans, 133
Epidemiological studies
-------
570/'Water Quality Criteria, 7972
Argentina, 56
Tiawan, 56
Erysipelas, 321
Erysyselolhnx rhusiopathtae, 321
Eschenca colt, 57
Nickel concentrations, 253
Uranium effects, 256
Eschenchia-Enterobacter-Klebscilla, 321
Esox lucius, 172, 193
Estuaries
Cadmium pollution, 246
Commercial fishing, 221
Dissolved oxygen distribution, 270
Eutrophy, 19
Fertilization by man
Algae growth, 20
Slime organisms growth, 20
Water weeds growth, 20
Fertilizing pollutants, 276
Fish breeding grounds, 217
Fisheries support, 221
Marine fish production, 216
Migratory fishes, 217
Motile benthos, 281
Nonthermal discharges distribution
Mathematical model, 403
Nutrient enrichment, 277
Organic pollutants, 264
Overenrichment, 20
Particulate transport, 16
Plant growth, 23
Pollutant distribution, 230
Pollutant retention time, 228, 230
Power plant discharge, 403
River wastes, 221
Sanitary quality, 276
Sewage pollution, 275
Shad spawning, 221
Sport fishing, 221
Sublethal pollutants, 239
Tidal cycle, 216
Tidal flow, 220
Urban population, 219
Waste disposal, 228
Zones of passage, 115
Estuarine birds
PCB Contamination, 264
Estuarine ecology, 277
Estuarine ecosystems
Dredging effects, 279
Pesticide toxicity, 264
Estuarine environment
Oil pollution, 261
Estuarine fish
PCB concentrations, 177
Estuarine organisms
Oxygen needs, 270
Estuarine pollution
Pesticides, 37
Production reduction, 221
Waste products, 277
Estuarine turbidity
Clam eggs tolerance, 281
Oyster tolerance, 281
Estuarine waters
Cadmium content, 245
Pesticide contamination, 37
Estuary Protection Act, 10
Estuary sediments, 127
Eulachon, 164
Eurasian milfoil
(Myrtophyllum sptcatum I, 27
Europe
Estuarine birds
PCB Contamination, 264
Marine aquaculture
Oyster, 73
Well waters
Nitrates content, 73
European Atlantic coasts
Temperature effects, 238
European Inland Fisheries Advisory Com-
mission, 140
Eurytemona qffims, 247
Chlorine exposure time, 247
Eutrophic lakes
Green Lake, Oregon, 20
Supersaturation, 136
Evaporation, 328, 329
Evapotranspiration, 324
Humidity, 323
Solar radiation, 323
Temperature effects, 323, 325
Wind effects, 323, 325
Evapotranspiration by plants
Irrigation waters, 323
The Everglades, 40
Exaphtalmus, 137
External radiation, 271
Sources, 194
FAO (see also Food and Agriculture Organi-
zation), 131, 252
FDA (see also Food and Drug Administra-
tion), 72
FRC (see also U.S. Federal Radiation Coun-
cil), 273
PDF (fast-death factor), 317
FWPCA (Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration), 55
Falco pereginus, 197, 227
Falco sparuerius, 197, 226
Farm Animals
Brain mercury content., 313
Drinking water copper content, 311
Kidney mercury content, 313
Liver mercury content, 313
Methemoglobinemia, 51, 315
Selenium needs, 316
Toxic water
Arsenic, 309
Vanadium toxicity, 316
Zinc toxicity, 316
Farm ponds
Pesticide contamination, 318
Farm water supply
Pesticide content, 320
Farmstead water
Ground water, 302
Federal quarantine regulations, 302
Fasicola hepattca, 350
Fathead minnows, 128, 435, 438
Antimony effects, 243
Aroclor® exposure, 177
Beryllium chloride toxicity, 244
Cadmium lethality, 179
Chlorine toxicity, 189
Chromium chronic effects, 180
Copper-reproduction effects, 180
Detergent toxicity, 191
Hard water
LC50 values, 181
Nickel-LC50 values, 181
Zinc toxicity, 182
Hydrogen sulfide bioassays, 193
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Malathion exposure effects, 185
Methylmercury mortality, 173
Nickel concentration
Reproduction limitations, 181
Nickel effects, 253
Nickel lethality, 253
Oil refinery effluents effects, 144
Oxygen requirements, 132
PCB-reproduction effects, 177
Phthalate ester toxicity, 175
Soft water
LC50 values, 181
Zinc toxicity, 182
Nickel-LC50 values, 181
Uranium exposure effects, 256
Fauna introduction
Aquatic plant control, 28
Commercial fishing, 28
Forage, 23
Insect control, 28
Official agencies, 28
Pond culture, 28
Predation, 28
Sport fishing, 28
Federal Drinking Water Standards, 318
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenti-
cide \ct, 434
Federal Power Commission, 10
Federal quarantine regulations
Farmsteads, 302
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1948),
2
Federal Water Project Recreation Act, 10
Filter-feeding organisms
Oil ingestion, 262
Filtration. 373
Backwashing, 373
Primary treatment, 373
Fingernail clams, 22
Finland
Mercury contamination, 252
Fish
Acute ammonia toxicity, 187
Aluminum effects, 179
Antimony content, 243
Cadmium effects, 246
Carbon dioxide concentrations, 139
Chromium toxicity, 180
Commercial value, 240
Contamination, 240
Cyanide toxicity, 190
Dissolved oxygen-pH tolerances, 241
Dissolved oxygen requirements, 131, 134
-------
Subject Index/571
Ferricyanide toxicity, 190
Free oil effects, 144
Gas bubble disease, 135, 137
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Iron lethality threshold, 249
Manganese toxicity, 250
Mercury
Accumulation, 252
Concentration, 72
Content, 1-98
Fatality dosage, 181
Intake, 173
Metal toxicity, 177
Muscular dystrophy, 250
Nickel toxicity effects, 253
Oil effects, 162, 261
Oil emulsions effects, 344
Pesticide levels
Toxic monitors, 321
Polychlorinated byphenyls
Content, 175
Dietary exposure, 176
Exposure, 176
Residue, 175, 176
pi I changes tolerance, 241
pH-chlorine relationship, 189
Pesticide residues, 183
Pesticide-survival relationship, 184
Phenolics-taste relationship, 191
Phosphorus experimentation, 254
Phosphorus poisoning, 254
Phosphorus sensitivity, 240
Rad dosage, 272
Reduced oxygen concentrations
Level of protection, 133
Safe environmental level, 194
Sulfide toxicity, 255
Supcrsaturation, effects, 137
Supersaturation tolerance, 138
Suspended solids tolerance, 128
Temperature acclimation, 161
Thallium exposure, 256
Thermal requirements, 151
Turbidity effects, 128
Water temperature exposure, 160
Zero net growth, 154
Fish development
Light sensitivity, 162
Salinity sensitivity, 162
Thermal sensitivity, 162
Fish-eating birds
PCB accumulation, 226
Fish eggs
Fluoride effects, 249
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 191
Iron hydroxides effects, 249
Fish farm ponds
Growth factors, 128
Fish fauna, 27
Fish fry
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 191
Fish food
Aquatic macrophytes, 25
Fish food organisms
Arsenic concentrations, 243
Fish growth rates
Water temperature, 157
Fish hatcheries
Aquaculture, 151
Fish kills
Water temperature, 171
Fish life processes
Biochemical-physiological deficiencies, 239
Fish reproduction
Thermal sensitivity, 162
Fish tainting
Phenolatcd compounds, 147
Fish taste
Phenolics, 191
Fisheries
Economics-human health relationship, 240
Mercury contamination effects, 237
Pollutant effects, 221
Fisheries pond culture
Phytoplankton, 24
Fishery management, 441
Aquatic vascular plants, 27
Application, 442
Methods, 441
Need, 441
Posttreatrncnt assessment, 442
Pretreatment assessments, 442
Toxicant selection, 442
Toxicants
Rotenone, 441
Toxaphene, 441
Fishing license
Water recreation, 8
Fission products, 191, 271
Fjords
Oxygen depletion, 270
Pollutant retention time, 230
Flatworm
Manganese content, 250
Flavobacter, 438
Floating oils, 144
Flood irrigation, 350
Florida
Growing seasons, 336
Lakes, 27
Soils-copper toxicity, 342
Walking catfish introduction, 28
Water hyacinth, 27
Florida elodea (Hydnlla verticilla), 26
Florida oil barge
Fuel oil spill, 258, 260
Florida State Board of Health, 18
Flounder spawn
Crude oil effects, 261
Flowing water
Organisms pollution, 18
Flukes
Miracidia, 322
Flouride
Dental fluorosis, 66
Public water supply, 66
Water pollution control, 66
Fluoride poisoning
Livestock, 312
Fluoride uses, 248
Fluorine
Animal intake, 312
Well water, 312
Fluorine occurrances, 248
Foaming agents
Ground water, 67
Public water supplies, 67
Surface water, 67
Synthetic anionic surfactants, 67
Synthetic detergents, 67
Food and Agriculture Organization (see also
FAO), 441
Food canning industry
Chloiination processes, 390
Description, 389
Food cleaning, 390
Fruits, 392
Gross water intake, 391
High-pressure water sprays, 390
Process water, 391
Coagulation, 391
Disinfection, 391
Filtration, 391
Sedimentation, 391
Rccirculation processes, 390
Steam generation, 390
Total water use, 391
Vegetables, 392
Water-demand variation, 390
Water processes, 390
Water quality indicators, 391
Water quality requirements
Point of use, 392
Water quantity, 390
Water sources, 391
Water supplies
Chemical content, 391
Water treatment processes, 391
Water use, 389, 390, 391
Food canning processes
Water quality, 390
Food and Drug Administration (see also FDA)
Mercury concentration standards, 72
Food and Drug Directorate
Canada, 251
Food poisoning
Clotlndiurn botulinum, 196
Food quality
Chemicals content, 481, 482
Inorganic chemical concentrations, 481,
482
Forest Service, 39
Fouling organisms
Chlorination lethality, 247
Frasier River, British Columbia
Sockeye salmon production, 164
Fresh water
Aluminum toxicity, 242
Animals
PCB mortality, 176
Boron effects, 244
Chemical characteristics
Alkalinity, 111
Hardness, 111
Nutrients, 111
pH, 111
Ecosystems
-------
572/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Pollutant concentrations, 264
Fathead minnow
Bioassay tests, 253
Fish-pH requirements, 241
Gas bubble formation, 136
Indicator communities, 22
Iron
Biological effects, 249
Mercury concentrations, 173
Mercury content, 72
Mixing zones
Definition, 112
Water quality characteristics, 112
Molybdenum-phytoplankton growth ef-
fects, 252
Nickel toxicity, 253
pH extremes, 241
pH values, 140
Phosphate content, 253
Sorption process, 228
Fresh water aquaculture
Pollution effects, 223
Fresh water aquatic organisms
Environmental relationship, 109
Fresh water fish
Biologically magnified mercury, 173
Dissolved solids
Osmotic stress, 142
Lead concentrations, 250
Manganese lethality, 251
Oxygen needs, 270
pH effects, 141
un-ionized ammonia toxicity, 187
Fresh water fisheries
Chemically inert suspended solids, 128
Fresh water lakes
Malaria vectors, 25
Fresh water macrophytes
Biologically magnified mercury, 173
Fresh water organisms
Ammonia toxicity, 242
Chromium toxicity, 247
Cyanides toxicity, 248
Oxygen requirements, 132
Uranyl salts toxicity, 256
Fresh water phytoplankton
Biologically magnified mercury, 173
Fresh water systems
Agriculture runoff nutrients, 274
Fresh water receiving systems
Biological characteristics, 111
Chemical characteristics, 111
Physical characteristics, 111
Waste discharges, 111
Fresh water stream pollution
Pathogen occurrence, 57
Salmonella detection, 57
Fundulus, 251, 253
Fundulus heterochtus, 244, 246, 247, 255, 261
Fundulus sp., 173
Fungicides
Recommended concentration, 186
Furrow irrigation, 350, 351
GBD (gas bubble disease), 135
GLC (gas-liquid chromatography), 439
GLC-MS (gas-liquid chromatography-mass
spectrograph), 439
Gadwall
Lead ingestion effects, 228
Galveston Bay
Background concentrations-wind action,
281
Suspended material concentrations, 281
Gambusia affims, 191, 245
Gammarus, 141, 173, 176
Gammarus fasciatus, 176
Gammaruspseudohmnaeus, [89, 191, 435
PCB-reproduction effects, 177
Gammarus sp., 256
Gas bubble disease, 138
Gas analysis methods
Gas-liquid chromatography, 138
Instrumentation, 138
Gas bubble disease, 135, 137
Etiology, 135
Exopthalmus, 137
Hydrostatic pressure, 135
Sublcthal effects, 138
Gas bubble formation
Aquatic life interface, 137
Hydrostatic-dissolved gas-pressure re-
lationship, 136
Gas nuclei
Bubble formation, 136
Gasterosteus aculeatus, 242, 255
Generation plants
Thermal power, 378
Genetic studies
Aquatic pollutants, 237
German lakes
Tainting, 147
Germany
Mercury content in water, 72
Grizzard shad
Carbon dioxide sensitivity, 139
Glass shrimp, 435
Aroclor® toxicity, 176
Global oil pollution of seas, 257
Gloeotnchia echmulata, 317
Glossary of terms, 519-523
Goldfish
Ammonia tolerance, 187
Barium concentration, 244
Bromine mortality, 245'
Hydrogen sulfide bioassays, 193
Mercuric chloride effe< ts, 252
Nickel chloride lethality, 253
Nickelous chloride effects, 253
pH effects, 141
Sodium selenite tolerance, 254
Softwater lead content. 181
Gomphonema parvulum, 22
Gonyaulax, 38
Toxic dinoflagellates, 38
Gonyaulax contenella, 38
Gonyaulax tamarensis, 38
Grand Canyon, Coloradc, 14
Grand Canyon National Park, 40
Grass carp (Clenopharyntgodon idella), 27
Great Blue Herons
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
Great-crested Grebe
Mercury contamination, 252
Great Lakes
E. botulism outbreaks, 196
Fish contamination, 240
Pollutant ictention time, 230
Predatory aquatic birds, 197
Sea lamprey, 27
Thermocline changes, 161
Green algae
Antimony effects, 243
Great South Bay, New York
Nitrogen-phosphorus ratios, 276
Green Lale, Washington, 20
Blue-green algal, 20
Reclamation, 20
Greenland snow
Lead content, 249
Ground waters
Ammonia content, 55
Artesian, f>2
Boron content, 310
Cadmium content, 60, 310
Contamination, 352
Contamination by deep-well injection, 52
Contamination by leaching, 52
Copper content, 64
Dissolved inorganic salts, 301
Farmstead use, 302
Fluorine concentrations, 248
Foaming agents, 67
Iron content, 69, 249
Manganese content, 71, 250
Minerals, 301
Nutrient concentration, 22
Public water supply, 50
Quality. 52
Radioactivity, 84
Radionuclides content, 317
Salinity, 330
Sodium concentration, 88
Soluble salts content
Farmsteads, 302
Sulfate concentration, 89
Sulfonates, 67
Temperature variation, 89
Waste contamination, 310
Waste mixing, 52
Ground water degrading, 52
Ground water quality
Public water supply, 52
Growing season
Florida, 3?>6
Michigan, 336
New York. 336
Guinea worm, 322
Gulf coast
Channelization, 279
Dredging, 279
Estuaries, 279
Filling effects, 279
Spoils dumping, 279
Waste dumping, 278
Gulf of Mexico
Lake sediments, 145
Gulf Stream, 32
-------
Subject Index/573
Guppies
Lead-growth effects, 181
Nickel chloride lethality, 253
Gyraulus, 19
Haliaetus albialla, 252
Hahaetus leucocephalus, 227
Hallett Station, Antarctica
Camium in water ford, 246
Halogens
Water treatment, 301
Hamburg, Germany, 351
Harbor channels
Wastes buildup, 278
Harbor oil spillage, 263
Hard water
Antimony salts, 243
Boron toxicity, 245
Beryllium chloride toxicity, 244
Cadmium content, 180
Chromium concentration, 180
Copper concentrations, 180
Lead solubility, 181
Nickel content, 253
Zinc-fecundity effects, 182
Hard water lakes, 25
Hardness
Public water supply, 68
Heat exchangers
Quality requirements, 377
Heat rejection, 377
Herbicides
2,4-D, 79, 346
2,4,5-T
Embryo toxicity, 79
Tetratogenic effects, 79
Terata toxicity, 79
2,4,5-TP, 79
Amitrole, 347
Canals, 347
Chlorophenoxy, 76
Dalapon, 346
Human ingestion, 79
Recommended concentration, 186
Silvex, 346
TCA, 346
2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 79
Toxicity, 26
Herring
Phosphorus poisoning, 254
Herring Gulls
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
Heterodera schachtn, 348
Historical background
Agriculture, 2
Baseline data, 4
Commercial, 2
Disease, 1
Environmental quality, 1
Environmental Protection Agency, 2
Purification by filtration, 1
Recreation, 2
Water quality criteria, 2, 4
Water quality guidelines, 1, 2
Water standards, 4
Water uses, 2, 4
Homarus amencanus, 242, 280
Horses
Molybdenum tolerance, 314
Horsehair worms, 322
Hudson Canyon
Solid wastes dumping, 280
Human health
Radiation restrictions, 273
Humans
Chronic lead poisoning, 250
Methemoglobinemia, 315
Rad dosage, 272
Rem dosage, 272
Humid region
Climatic factors, 336
Deep horizons, 336
Evapotranspiration, 336
Humid area irrigation
Saline waters, 337
Humid regions
Irrigation water quality, 336
Rainfall predictions, 336
SAR values, 338
Soil acidity, 338
Soil characteristics, 336
Temperature ranges, 336
Trace elements, 338
Hydnlla verlicillata, 26
Hydrocarbons
Degradation, 261
Marine microorganism degradation, 260
Hydrocooling
Raw produce, 302
Hydrodynamics
Temperature changes, 152
Hydroelectric power
Thermal fluctuations, 162
Hydrogen Sulfide
Water solubility, 193
Hydrogen sulfide-pH relationships, 192
Hydrosoils, 183
Hydrostatic pressure, 135, 136
Hypothetical power plant
Temperature change
Water cooling, 169
ICRP (International Commission on Radio-
logical Protection), 273
IDOE (International Decade of Ocean Ex-
ploration), 226
Ictalundae, 141
Ictalurus punctatus, 128, 149, 435
Ictalurus serracanthus, 171
Illinois
Grass carp introduction, 28
Illinois River
Sedimented oils, 145
Impoundments
Power plants discharge, 403
Incipient lethal temperature, 161
Calculations, 161
Indonesia
Marine aquaculture, 223
Industrial effluents, 370
Detergent content, 190
Industrial raw water
Intake systems
Asian clam pest, 27
Industrial wastes
Cyanide content, 189
Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20
Organic toxicants, 264
Sea disposal, 278, 280
Industry
Food canning
Water use, 389
Heat-exchange equipment, 377
Petroleum refining water use, 385
Steam generation, 376
Textile mill products, 379
Water cooling, 376
Infectious hepatitus
Polluted shellfish, 277
Inorganic chemicals production
United States, 483
Inorganics
Pollutants-life cycle effects, 240
Inorganics-bacteria interaction, 239
Insecticides
Aldrin, 77
Cattle feed, 320
Chlordane, 77
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 76, 318
DDT, 77
Dieldrin, 77
Drinking water, 76
Endrin, 77
Heptachlor, 77
Heptachlor epoxide, 77
Human absorption, 76
Human ingestion, 78
Lindane, 77
Methoxychlor, 77
Methylcarbamates, 318
Organophosphates, 318
Toxaphenc, 77
Toxicity, 76, 78
Intensive aquaculture
Carrying capacity, 224
Cultivated organisms, 224
Waste accumulation sensitivity, 224
Pollution sensitivity, 224
Internal radiation, 271
Sources, 194
International Commission on Radiological
Protection, 85
Intertidal organisms-oil spill effects, 258
Invertebrates
Copper toxicity, 247
Gas bubble disease, 138
Ion exchange
Regeneration techniques, 375
Total demineralization, 375
Waste, 375
Ionizing radiation
Animal absorption, 272
Biological effects, 195, 272
Genetic effects, 272
Plant absorption, 272
Irish Sea, Windscale, England
Atomic energy installation, 273
-------
574/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Iron
Farm animals
Toxicity, 312
Ground waters, 69
Industrial uses, 249
Insects tolerance, 249
Public water supply, 65, 69
Surface waters, 69
Iron bacteria
pH effects, 141
Irrigation, 300
Canals, 346
Ditches
Plant growth, 23
Duration, 334
Efficiency
Suspended solids, 332
Frequency, 334
Management, 326
Sprinklers, 324
Thermal fluctuations, 162
Irrigation waters
Absorption, 324
Acrolein content, 346
Adsorption, 324
Animal pathogens, 350
Arid regions
Climate, 333
Ascans ova, 350, 351
Bacterial plant pathogens, 349
Beryllium toxicity, 341
BOD values, 330
Bacillary hemoglobinuria, 322
Boron content, 341
Brackish, 336
Calcium carbonate precipitation, 334, 335
Chemical composition
Calcium-magnesium, carbonate—bicar-
bonate, 333
Calcium-magnesium, sulfate-chloride,
333
Sodium-potassium, sulfate-chloride, 333
Chlorides content, 328
Citrus fungus, 348, 349
Climate, 336
Climate effects, 333
Coliform content, 351
Copper sulfate content, 346
Crop yields, 324
Crops, 323
Diseases, 350
Ditch effluent, 334
Drainage, 334
Drainage from rainfall, 334
Enteric viruses, 350
Evaporation, 323
Evapotranspiration by plants, 323
Flukes, 322
Fruit crops
Salt tolerance, 328
Herbicide content, 346
Application to crops, 348
Herbicide dissipation, 346
Herbicide levels, 347
Herbicide residues levels, 348
Human pathogens, 350
Irrigation waters (cant )
Humid-arid region differences, 336
Humid regions, 336
Infective nematodes
Helerodera schachtn, 348
Pratylenchus sp., 348
Meloedogyne tiapla, 348
Tylenchorhynchus sp., 348
Inorganic sediments;, 336
Iron content, 343
Leaching rains, 338
Leaching rates
Climate, 334
Infiltration, 334
Leaching requirement;, 334
Crop indicator, 334
Limestone
Aluminum solubility control, 340
Lithium toxicity, 344
Microorganisms, 350
Nematode vector, 349
Nematodes
Longidorus, 349
Tnchodorus, 349
Xiphinema, 349
Nitrates, 329
Organic matter content, 336
pH values, 330
Parathion, 346
Pathogens, 351
Percolation, 334
Permeability hazard, 335
Pesticides controls
Xylene, 347
Pesticide residues, 346
Pesticides, 345
Phenoxy herbicides, VI
Physicochemical properties of soil, 323
Phytoloxic constituents, 324
Phytoloxic trace elements, 338
Plant disease control, :>49
Plant growth, 323, 324
Plant nematodes distribution, 348
Plant pathogens, 348
Introduction, 349
Nematodes, 349
Precipitation distributian, 333
Radioactive contamination, 332
Radium-226 concentration
Fresh produce, 332
Runoff reuse, 348
SAR values, 331
Sago pondweed content, 25
Saline content, 324
Salinity, 337
Guidelines, 335
Hazards, 335
Measurements, 325
Salinity-nutrition effect, 326
Salinity tolerance of plants, 325
Salt tolerance of crops, 334
Salts-soil permeability effects, 335
Saturation percentage, 324
Semiarid regions
Climate, 333
Sodium, 329
Sodium adsorption, 330
Soil ha2:ard to animals, 332
Soil hazard to humans, 332
Soil salinity
Sodium content, 329
Soils
pH values, 333
Steady-state leaching
Iron uptake, 334
Moisi.uie distribution, 334
Precipitation, 334
Residual soil moisture, 334
Salt concentration, 334
Uniform mixing, 334
Strontium-90 concentration
Fresh produce, 332
Surface horizon, 333
Suspended solids, 335
TDS content, 335
Temperature, 328
Trace elements, 337, 339
Trace elements toxicity, 338
Tubercle bacilli, 351
Waste water, 351
Water quality, 323, 324, 333
Water quality criteria, 337
Xylene content, 346
Irrigation water-crop relationships, 337
Israel rearing ponds
Tainting, 147
Itai-itai disease, 60, 24
Japan
Fish-management lethality effects, 251
Itai-ttai disease, 60
Seaweed culture, 223
Japanese fishing
Mercury contamination, 252
Japanese quail
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226
Jellyfish, 1 9
Kelp
Boron effects, 245
Chlorine effects, 247
Chromium effects, 247
Copper- photosynthesis relationships, 248
Lead tolerance, 250
Mercuric chloride effects, 252
Kelp resurgence
Pollution effects, 237
Killfish
Silver lethality, 255
Kentucky
Recreational water, 39
Klamath Lake Wildlife Refuges, 346
LAS (linear alkyl benzene sulfonate), 67, 190
LBVV (Lettuce Big Vein Virus), 349
LC50 (median lethal concentration), 118
LOT (load on top), 262
Laboratory control conditions
Biological effects, 239
Labrador current, 32
Lagondon rhon:boides, 177
Lagoons
Mosquito infestations, 18
Lake
-------
Subject Index/575
Classification, 19
Enrichment, 20
Hypothetical integrated time-exposure
data, 403
Lake Erie
Arsenic content, 243
Biotic shifts, 23
Dophnia magna-manganese effects, 250
Nickel chloride effects, 253
Suspended matter, 126
Watershed, 23
White fish population, 164
Lake fish
Reproduction-temperature relationships,
162
Lake herring
Reproduction temperatures, 164
Lake Huron
Antimony content, 243
Lake hypolimnia, 157
Lake Michigan, 11
Chubs contamination, 184
Coho Salmon contamination, 184
DDT contamination, 237
Lake herring contamination, 184
Pesticide residue
Coho Salmon fry mortality, 184
Lake trout contamination, 184
Temperature, 164
Lake Poinsett, South Dakota
Pesticides
Trophic accumulation, 183
Lake productivity
Plankton, 82
Lake St. Clair
Mercury content, 198
Lake Sammamish, Oregon, 20
Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20
Lake sediments
Gulf of Mexico, 145
Minnesota, 145
Lake stratification
Turbidity effects, 127
Lake Superior
Pollutant retention time, 230
Lake Tahoe, California, 16, 40
Lake therinoclines, 157
Lake trout
Reproduction temperatures, 164
Lake trout fry
Mortality
DDT-DDD residue, 184
Lake Washington
Chlorophyll a content, 21
Eutrophy from sewage, 20
Oligatrophic-mesotrophic lake, 20
Oscillatona rubescens content, 20
Phosphate content, 22
Lake waters
Carbon content, 23
Chromium content, 311
Copper content, 311
Lead content, 312
Lake water cooling
Hypothetical power plant, 166
Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire, 20
Lakes
Biomass, 22
Blue-green algae, 22
Carbon-algae relationship, 23
Deep layers, 132
Dissolved oxygen, 65
Dissolved oxygen regime, 133
Dinamic characteristics, 21
Eutrophy, 19
Fish crops, 20
Florida, 27
Hypolimnion, 132
Ice formation, 161
Industrial discharge-temperature relation-
ship, 195
Mosquito infestation, 18
Nontherrnal discharge distribution
Mathematical model, 403
Nutrient concentrations, 22
Nutrient effects, 20
Organic mercury content, 172
Overenrichment, 20
Oxygen concentration, 132
Particulate transport, 16
Pesticides content, 183
Phosphorus content, 81
Plankton content, 20
Pollutant retention time, 230
Pollution distribution, 230
Power plant discharge, 403
Sedimentation, 17
Soluble oxygen depletion, 111
Trophic states, 21
Waste water inflow
Nutrient concentration, 22
Surface water temperatures, 164
Water density-surface water temperature
relationship, 164
Wind waves, 17
Zones of passage, 115
Land and Water Conservation Fund, 10
Land-water relationships, 126
Largemouth bass, 437, 438
Antimony effects, 243
Carbon dioxide sensitivity, 139
Dissolved oxygen requirements, 134
Gas bubble disease, 138
Mortality-water temperature relationships,
171
Oxygen requirements, 132
Plume entrainment effects, 170
Largemouth black bass, 128
Larus argentatus, 227
Laying hens
Drinking water
Sodium chloride content, 307
Lead
Chronic toxicity, 181
Hard water solubility, 181
Human intake by food, 70
Industrial exposure, 70
Intoxication in children, 70
Lake waters, 312
Public water supply, 70
Excessive levels, 70
River waters, 312
Soft water solubility, 181
Surface waters, 70
Toxicity, 70
Water hardness, 181
Toxicity in animals, 313
Waterfowl ingestion, 196
Lead in fish
Safc-to-lcthal ratio, 181
Lead-multiple sclerosis relationship, 250
Lead-muscular dystrophy relationships, 250
Lead poisoning
Cattle, 313
Children, 70
Livestock, 313
Symptoms in man, 250
Zoo animals
New York City, 249
Leander squilla, 247
Lebistes, 181
Leeches, 22
Leiostomus zanthurus, 177
Lcntic water
Gas bubble disease, 135
Lepomif gibbosus, 141
Lepomis macrochirus, 128, 141, 149, 177, 180,
182, 184, 191, 193, 243, 254, 435
Lepomis microlaphus, 128
Leptospirosis, 29
Agricultural waters, 321
Lesser scaup
Winter food requirements, 195
Lime softening, 372, 373
Clarification, 373
Filtration, 373
Flocculent chemicals, 373
Silica removal, 373
Sodium cation exchange, 373
Ltstena monocylogenes, 321
Listeriosis, 321
Livestock
Agricultural water toxicity, 319
Anthrax, 322
Body water loss
Diuretic effects, 304
Evaporation, 304
Chronic fluoride poisoning, 312
Drinking water
Lead content, 313
Pesticides content, 319
Fluoride poisoning, 312
Insecticide poisoning, 319
2,4-D intake, 319
Lead poisoning, 313
MCPA intake, 319
Mercury absorption, 313
Mercury intake, 314
Methyl mercury, 313
Parasitic protozoa, 322
Livestock water
Livestock
Pesticides in water, 318
Pesticides poisoning, 319
Phenoxyacetic acid derivatives, 319
Water consumption, 304
Water intake
-------
576/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Iron content, 312
Mercury content, 314
Molybdenum intake, 314
Nitrates effects on reproduction, 315
Nitrates poisoning, 314
Nitrites poisoning, 314
Radionuclides toxicity, 317
Selenium poisoning, 316
Toxic algae, 317
Water salinity effects, 307
Zinc in diet, 317
Livestock water
Pesticide content, 318
Acaricidcs, 319
Fungicides, 319
Herbicides, 319
Insecticides, 319
Molluscides, 319
Rodenticidcs, 319
Lobsters
Aluminum concentration, 242
Lead tolerance, 250
Long Island, New York
Great South Bay, 276
Marine waters, 37
Osprey shell thinning, 227
Long Island Sound, 31
Cadmium in water fowl, 246
Mercury concentration, 252
PCB in fish, 226
Longidorus, 349
Lola lota, 141
Louisiana
Water hyacinth, 27
Louisiana marshes
Background values, 281
Lower Yakima Valley, Washington
Irrigation water
Plant-parasitic nematodes, 348
Lumber and wood industry
Description, 381
Processes using water, 381
River use, 381
Lumber industry (See also Lumber and wood
industry)
Solution treatment, 382
Water quality characteristics, 382
Water quality indicators, 382
Water turbidity, 382
Lymnaea, 19
Lumnata frnarginata, 19
MBAS (methylcne blue active substances),
67, 190
MCPA
Livestock intake, 319
MPC (maximum permissible concentration),
274
MPN (most probable number), 36
MS (matric suction), 324
Macrocystis, 245
Macrocystis pyrijera, 247, 248, 250, 252
Macroinvertibrate population
Suspended solids effects, 128
Mallards
Oily water effects, 196
Makeup water
Municipal sewage treatment, 378
Mallard Ducks
PCB-shell thinning relationship, 226
Lead ingestion effects, 228
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226
Man-made radioisotopes, 271
Manganese
Distribution systems ccposits, 71
Ground water, 71
Industrial use, 250
Natural water
Trace element, 313
Public water supply, <>5, 71
Seawater phytoplankton growth, 250
Surface waters, 71
Manganese toxicity, 250
Manganese zeolite, 375
Marine alga
Mercury sensitivity, 173
Marine animals
Manganese concentra:ion, 251
Nickel content, 253
PCB mortality, 176
Marine aqua culture
Disease sensitivity, 224
Economic factors, 223
Europe, 223
Extensive culture, 222
Southeast Asia, 223
Floating cage culture, 223
Intensive culture, 222. 223
Species harvest, 222
United States, 223
Water exchange effects, 223
Water quality, 223, 224
World food production, 222
Marine aquatic life
Boron toxicity, 245
Water quality criteiia. 219
Marine biotoxins, 37
Marine birds
Oil pollution effects, 258
Marine communities
Aluminum hydroxide sffects, 242
Marine contaminants, 264
Marine ecosystems
Halogenated hydrocarbons, 264
Intertidal zones, 220
Pollutant concentralioi, 225
Pollution effects, 216, 220
PCB contamination, 264
Sewage treatment products, 274
Shell thinning-DDT relationship, 227
Toxic pollutants, 220
Water quality, 216
Marine embayments
Fertilization by man
Algae growth, 20
Slime organisms growth, 20
Water weeds growth, 2
Marine environment
Acute toxicities
Bioassays, 233
Animal nutrition, 240
Animal protein production, 216
Antagonism, 240
Aquatic organisms
Bioanalysis, 233
Assessment methods
Bioassay design, 235
Base metal contamination, 239
Beryllium photosynthesis, 244
Biological production, 220
Biological species, 217
Bioresponsc testing, 234
Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, 230
DDT compound pollutants, 226
Energy flow, 220
Exchanges, 219
Fecal coliform index, 276
Fishery production indicators, 222
F'ood chain bioaccumulation, 240
Hazard assessment, 234
Incipient LC50-acute toxicity relation
ship, 234
Inorganics
Toxicity, 234, 235
Inorganic chemicals pollution, 238, 239
Materials cycling, 220
Mercury levels, 252
Metals accumulation, 240
Mixing zones, 231
Modell ng, 235
Modification effects, 219
Nutnert elements additives, 275
Oil conta nination, 257
Oil pollution
Gas chromatography identification, 258
Oil pollution control, 257, 262
Ore processing releases, 239
Organic laaterial production, 275
Organic pollutants, 264
pi I fluctuation, 241
Persistent pollutants
Atmospheric fallout, 264
River runoffs, 264
Ship dumping, 264
Pesticide content, 37
Petroleum hydrocarbon losses, 257
Plant nutiition, 240
Pollution
Sublethal effects, 236
Pollutant bioanalysis, 233
Pollutant categories, 238
Pollutant distribution, 228, 229
Pollutant toxicity, 233
Pollution effects, 218
Radioactive discharges, 273
Species diversity, 220
Synergism, 240
Temperature pollution, 238
Variable conditions, 217
Marine fish production
Estuaries, 216
Marine fisheries
Coastal waters crops, 221
Estuarine crops, 221
Ocean crops, 221
Marine life
Pesticide1 toxicity, 264
Marine organisms
-------
Subject Index/511
Cadmium concentrations 246
Contaminant accumulation, 217
Copper accumulation, 248
Crude oil toxicity, 258
DDT contamination, 264
Environment modification tolerance, 224
Hydrocarbon ingestion, 260
Mercury content, 251
Oil ingestion, 237
Marine organisms mortality
Oil spills effects, 258
Marine organisms
Oil toxicity, 261
Oil toxicity studies, 261
Organics toxicity, 264
Oxygen loss, 270
Oxygen needs, 270
Pollutants effects, 221
Pollutant uptake, 228
Thermal limits, 238
Uranyl salts toxicity, 256
Vanadium concentration, 257
Marine phytoplankton
Ethyl mercury phosphate lethality, 173,
252
Organic material production, 275
Marine plants
Cadmium content, 245
Fertilizing elements, 275
Manganese concentration, 251
Nickel content, 253
Marine system organic chemicals
Fungicides, 265
Halogenated hydrocarbons, 268
Herbicides, 265
Insecticides, 266
Pesticides, 265
Plasticizers, 268
Surface-active agents, 268
Tar, 268
Toxicity, 265
Marine vegetation
Boron effects, 245
Marine waters
Ecosystems, 219
Fish residue concentrations, 225
Human uses, 219
Mutagen pollutants, 225
Persistent pollutants, 225
Phosphate input control, 254
Pollutant accumulation rates, 225
Pollutant-physiological function relation-
ship, 225
Sludge disposal, 277
Teratogen pollutants, 225
Marine wildlife
Aldrin toxic effects, 227
Birds, 224
Dieldrin effects, 227
Eggshell thinning, 225
Embryos mortality-PCB relationship, 226
Endrin effects, 227
Fish, 224
Food webs, 224
Heavy metals pollution, 226
Heptachlor effects, 227
Invertebrates, 224
Lead ingestion, 228
Mammals, 224
Organochlorine insecticides, 227
PCB accumulation, 226
Plankton as food, 224
Pollutant concentrations in fish, 225
Radionuclides accumulations, 226
Reproductive capacity, 225
Reptiles, 224
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226
Marshes
Alkalinity-salinity relationship, 196
Malaria vectors, 25
Plant growth, 23
Mayflies
Iron effects, 249
pH effect, 141
Oxygen requirements, 133
Maylasia
Marine aquaculture, 223
Melmdogyne hapla, 348
Meloidogyne incognita, 348
M.javamca, 348
Mendota Lake, Wisconsin, 20
Melosira variant, 22
Mcnistee River, 14
Mercury
Acute poisoning, 72
Agricultural use, 72
Alkyl compounds, 72
Animal organs, 313
Beer, 72
Bird mortality, 198
Chronic exposure, 72
Chronic poisoning, 72
Fish tolerance, 72, 181, 198
Freshwater, 72
Global production, 251
Human ingestion, 72
Human intake in food, 72
Industrial exposure, 72
Industrial uses, 251
Livestock, 314
Maximum dietary intake, 72
Natural waters, 313
Ocean contaminants, 251
Poultry, 313
Public water supply, 72
Rain water, 72
Sea water, 72
Springs, 72
Surface waters, 313
Swordfish contamination, 237
Tap water, 72
Toxicity, 72
Tuna fish contamination, 237
United States
Rivers, 72
Streams, 72
Mercury apsorbtion
Livestock, 313
Mercury in fish
Human poisoning, 172
Trophic level in food chain, 172
Mercury in water
Germany, 72
Mercury pollution, 72
Mercury toxicity, 251
Metals toxicity
Fish, 177
Metals toxicity-pH relationship, 241
Metheglobinemia
Humans, 315
Drinking water, 73
Farm animals, 315
Heredity defects, 73
Water analysis, 73
Methylcarbamates
Insecticides, 318
Methyl mercury
Livestock, 313
Methylene blue
Foaming agents measurement, 67
Methymercury in environment, 172
Mice
Drinking water
Arsenic content, 309
Michigan, 14
Au Sable River, 14
Growing seasons, 336
Mamstee River, 14
Pere Marquette River, 14
Pine River, 14
Michigan Department of Natural Resources,
14
Microbial oil decomposition
Oxygen requirement, 261
Microbial species
Paniculate substratum, 127
Microbiological degradation
Oil in sea, 263
Microbiological index
Estuarine sanitary quality, 276
Microcystis aerugmosa, 317
Microptirus salmoids, 128, 132, 134, 138, 139,
149, 243
Micropterus salmorndes, 437
Mtcroregma, 256
Nickel concentrations, 253
Midge larvae, 435
Midges, 22
Milk contaminants
DDT, 320
Dieldrin, 320
Minamata disease, 172
Minamata, Japan
Mercury contamination of fish, 172
Minamata Bay, Japan
Mercury discharge, 251
Mercury lethal levels, 251
Mineralized water, 90
Minerals
Sorptive capacity, 127
Mining and cement industry (See also Mining
industry and Cement industry)
Description, 394
Mining industry
Formation water composition, 395
Freshwater makeup, 394
Copper sulfide concentration, 394
-------
578/ Water Quality Criteria, 7972
Froth flotation operations, 394
Leach solution analysis, 394
Leaching processes, 394
Oil recovery
Released gases, 395
Water composition, 394
Water flooding, 394
Water injection, 395
Process water
Chemical composition, 394
Copper sulfide concentration, 394
Recycled water, 394
Sea water composition, 395
Secondary oil recovery, 394
Water flooding
Anaerobic bacteria, 395
Quantity, 395
Water processes, 394
Water quality requirements, 394
Water quantity, 394
Water reuse, 394
Water use
Formation, 395
Impurity levels, 394
Sea water, 395
Surface waters, 395
Minnesota
Lake sediments, 145
Minnows
Boric acid lethality, 245
Ferric hydroxide effects, 249
Manganous chloride lethality, 251
pH effects, 141
Phenol toxicity, 191
Sodium arsenate
Lethal threshold, 243
Miracidia, 322
Mississippi
Grass carp introduction, 28
Water hyacinth, 27
Mississippi River, 372
Detergent concentration, 191
Pesticide content, 319
Missouri
Cadmium in springs, 245
Mine waters
Cadmium content, 310
Missouri River, 11
Coliform densities, 57
Tainting, 147
Water plant intake, 57
Water quality
Bacterial content, 57
Mixed bed exchange
Complete demineralization, 375
Mixed water body, 171
Mixing zone
Aquatic species
Pollution exposure time effect, 231
Bioassay methodology applicability, 114
Biological considerations, 113
Configuration, 114
Discharges, 112
Hypothetical field situations, 403
Mathematical models, 112, 403
Nonmobile benthic organisms, 113
Organisms exposure, [13
Overlapping effects, 114
Physical considerations, 112
Plankton protection, 113
Plume configuration, 114
Receiving systems, 111, 114
Receiving waters, 231
Short-time exposure
Thermal effects, 11 \
Short-term exposure
Toxicity effects, 11^-
Strong swimmers, 113
Water quality, 403
Time exposure calculations, 113, 114
Water quality characteristics, 231
Weak swimmers, 113
Molluscs
Cadmium concentration, 246
Chromium toxicity, 247
Copper toxicity, 180
Gas bubble disease, 1 '15
Pesticide content, 37
Toxic planktonic algae, 38
Mollusks (See Molluscs)
Molybdenum
Alga growth factor, 253
Cattle, 314
Industrial use, 253
Livestock, 314
Toxicity to animals, 344
Molybdenum tolerance
Farm animals, 314
Horses, 314
Sheep, 314
Swine, 314
Molybdenum toxicity
Rats, 314
Monona Lake, Wisconsin, 20
Moriches Bay, New York
Nitrogen—phosphorus ratios, 276
Morone americana, 249
Morone saxalihs, 27, 279
Moses Lake, Oregon, 21
Mosquito fish
Boron effects, 245
Phenol toxicity, 191
Mosquitos, 17, 18
Mud-water interface
Hydrogen sulfide content, 191
Muddy waters, 127
Mummichog
Chromium toxicity, 247
Oil toxicity, 262
Municipal raw water
Intake systems
Asian clam pest, 27
Municipal sewage discharge, 274
Municipal treatment systems
Wastewaters, 351
Municipal wastewater
Pathogens, 351
Municipal waters
Chlorinated disinfectant, 80
Mynophyllum, 24
Myriophyllum spicatum, 26, 27
Mytilus edulis, 37
NCRP (National Council on Radiation Pro-
tection and Measurements), 273
NSSP (National Shellfish Sanitation Pro-
gram), 36
NTA (ni(rilotriacetate), 74, 191, 276
Affinity for elements, 74
Affinity for toxic metals, 74
Biodegradation, 74
Naeglena gruben, 29
Nannochloj'is atomus, 276
National Council on Radiation Protection, 8i
National P?rk Service, 9, 10, 14
National Recreation and Parks Association
14
National Shellfish Sanitation Program, 36
Natural radiations
Oceans, 271
Natural stale of waters, 21
Natural streams
Water quality, 39
Natural surface waters
Ferric content, 249
Fluorine content, 248
Total dissolved solids
Carbonates, 142
Chlorides, 142
Nitrates, 142
Phosphates, 142
Sulfates, 142
Natural water temperature
Evaporation, 32
Solar radiation, 32
Wind movement, 32
Natural walers
Acidity, 140
Acute toxicity studies, 234
Alkalinity, 140
Calcium carbonate, 54
Hydrolyzable coagulates, 54
Aluminum ionization, 179
Ammonia content, 55
Aquatic l.fe, 35
Beryllium content, 244
Boron, 310
Cadmium content, 310
Carbon dioxide, 140
Carbonate system, 140
Chemic al system
Carbonate equilibria, 54
Chromium occurrence, 62
Galena content, 312
Manganese content, 313
Mercury content, 313
Nitrates concentrations, 314
Nitrite concentration, 314
Oxygen concentration, 131
pH change, 140
pH-cyanide levels, 189
pH fluctuations, 140
pH values-, 80, 140
Phosphates content, 253
Pollution, 39
Recreational resources
Carrying capacity, 13
Salmonella organisms, 31
Sodium concentrations, 88
-------
Subject Index/513
Sorption process, 228
Sunlight absorption, 126
Sunlight penetration, 16
Suspended solids, 16
Temperature, 32
Viruses, 322
Water quality
Alkalinity, 54
Zinc content, 316, 317
Natural weathering-lead effects, 249
Navuula, 147
Namcida (ryptocephala, 22
Nereis diveisicolor, 248
Keren viiens, 247, 248, 261
New England
Coastal waters
Nitrogen compounds, 276
New Jersey coast
Solid waste disposal, 280
New York
Ground water contaminants, 310
Growing seasons, 336
New York Bight
Acid- iron wastes disposal, 280
Fish fin rot, 280
Spoil deposit slope, 282
New York City
Zoo animals
Lead poisoning, 249
New York Harbor
Benthic community alterations, 279
Sewage sludge dump, 279
Newfoundland
Fish survey, 254
Newfoundland coast
Phosphorus poisoning, 254
Nevada
Beef heifers
Saline waters effects, 307
Nickel
Daphma magna sensitivity, 181
F'ish sensitivity, 181
Industrial uses, 253
Ion toxicity, 253
Nickel lethal concentrations, 253
Niigata. Japan
Meicury poisoning, 251
Nitrate in milk, 314
Nitrate nitrite concentration
Toxicity, 73
Nitrate-nitrogen
Ruminants, 314
Water quality, 302
Nitrate poisoning
Infant inethemoglobinemia, 73
Nitrate tolerance
Poultry, 315
Nitrates
Irrigation water, 329
Plant growth, 329
Nitrates intake
Farm animals, 315
Livestock, 314
Nitrates-reproduction effects
Livestock, 315
Nitrilotriacetate
Drinking water, 74
Nitrite tolerance
Poultry, 315
Nitrites
Methemoglobinemia, 73
Public water supply, 73
Nitrites poisoning
Livestock, 314
Nit&chia d'hcalisfum, 173
Nitzschia palra, 22
Nodulana spumigena, 317
North America
Ci. hemolyticum in water, 321
Estuarinc birds
PCB contamination, 264
Marine waters
DDT compounds pollutants, 226
Osprey shell thinning, 227
Well waters
Nitrates content, 73
North American birds
Eggshell thinning, 197
North Atlantic Ocean
Marine organisms
PCB contamination, 264
North Dakota State Department of Health,
89
Northeast Pacific
Barium in fish, 244
Northern pike
Mercury assimilation, 172
Mercury sensitivity, 173
Northern pike eggs
Hydrogen sulfide concentrations, 256
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Northern pike fry
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
.Nuphar, 24
Nutrient-rich water
Diatoms content, 22
Nympbaea odorata, 25
Ocean outfalls
Power plant discharge, 403
Ocean sediments
Mercury concentrations, 172
Oceamtes ocfamcus, 246
Oceanodroama homochroa, 246, 252
Oceans
Lead input, 249
Natural radiation, 190, 271
Nonthermal discharge distribution
Mathematical model, 403
Oil contamination, 257
Oil persistence, 260
Particulate material discharge, 278
Pollutants, 216
Uranium content, 256
Waste dumping, 278
World War II oil spills, 261
Ochromonas, 256
Odonata, 141
Odor
Water contaminant indicator, 74
Odoriferous achnomyces
Water flavor impairment, 148
Ohio River, 31
Channel catfish contamination, 149
Oil and grease
Public water supply, 74
Oil detection
Remote sensor characteristics, 259
Oil industry (See also Petroleum industry)
Rock formation
Permeability, 395
Water flooding technique, 394
Oil pollution
Control procedures, 262, 263
Description, 258
Sea birds, 261
Oil pollution sources, 257
Oil refinery effluents
Bioassays, 144
Fish toxicants, 144
Oxidation ponds, 144
Tainted fish, 147
Toxicants
Fathead minnows, 144
Waste water, 144
Oil slicks, 257
Oil spills
Biological analyses, 258
Chemical analyses, 258
Ecological effects, 258, 260
Oil toxicity
Bioassay, 261
Oil-water experiments, 261
Okanagan Valley, British Columbia, 349
Oklahoma
Livestock
Water salinity effects, 307, 308
Old Faithful, 40
Olor columbianus, 228
0. Gorbuscho, 252
Once-through cooling
Brackish water, 378
Chlorination, 376
Equipment failure, 376
Screening, 376
Sea water, 378
Water quantities, 378
Withdrawal rate, 378
Once-through cooling waters, 378
Oncorhynckus hsutch, 27, 132, 139, 176, 180,
184, 244, 246, 247
Oncarhvnchus nerka, 139, 153, 160, 164, 173,
252
Oncorhynchus tshawylscha, 138, 139, 153, 180,
187, 242, 246
Open channels
Nonthermal discharges distribution
Mathematical model, 403
Open ocean
Fish production, 217
Organic chemicals toxicity
Marine system, 265
Organic compounds
Toxicity data, 484-509
Organic matter-infaunal feeding habits re-
lationships, 279
-------
580/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Organic toxicants
Biological wastes, 264
Industrial wastes, 264
Pesticides, 264
Sewage, 264
Organic-carbon adsorbable public water
supply, 75
Organochlorine pesticides
Recommended concentrations, 186
Organophosphate insecticides
Recommended concentrations, 186
Organophosphates
Insecticides, 318
Organo-insecticides
Mammalian toxicity, 78
Organophosphorus insecticide
Public water supply, 78
Oriental oyster drill (Tritonaliajaponica), 27
Organic water pollution
Oxygen reduction, 133
0 sallatoria, 147
Oscillatona agardhi, 147
Oscillatona pnnceps, 147
Oscillatona rubescens, 20
Osprey
Mercury contamination, 252
Ottawa River, Ohio
Sedimented oil, 145
Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Com-
mission, 9
Oviparous zebrafish, 435
Ovoviviparous guppy, 435
Oxidation ponds
Algal blooms, 144
Phytoplankton, 144
Primary productivity, 144
Surface oils, 144
Oxygen
Fish requirements, 131
Oxygen content of water, 261
Oxygen depletion, 274
Oyster beds
Sewage contamination, 277
Oyster culture, 223
Oysters
DDT residue, 37
Aluminum concentration, 242
Arsenic content, 243
Cadmium content, 245
Chlorine sensitivity, 246
Chromium tolerance, 247
Copper toxicity, 248
Disease vectors, 95
Gill discoloration, 147
Hydrogen sulfide lethality, 255
Lead tolerance, 250
Nickel concentrations, 253
Silver concentration, 255
Toxic plankton intake, 38
Ozone
Water treatment, 301
PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls), 83, 175,
198
Contaminants
Chlorinated dibenzofurans, 176
Residues
Salmon eggs, 177
Toxicity, 175, 198
PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 174, 175
PH
Acidity indicator, 140
Alkalinity indicators, ) 40
Fluctuation, 194
Hydrogen ion activity. 140
Public water supply, 80
pH in soils, 339
pH-metals relationships, 179
pH-reedhead grass relationship, 194
PI (precipitation index), 335
PI-SAR equation, 335
Pacific
Barium concentration, 244
Pacific Coast
Gonyaulax contenella, 38
Temperature effects, 238
Waste dumping, 278
Pacific Northwest
Precipitation, 333
Pacific Ocean, 32
Pacific salmon
Chlorine tolerance, 245
Gas bubble disease, 137
Hydrogen sulfide bioassay, 255
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 256
Thermal tolerance, 137
Pacific testing grounds
Manganese isotope concentrations, 251
Paints
Arsenic content, 243
Palaemonetes kadiakensis. 435
Paleomonetes, 176
Panaeus deorarum, 176
Pandion hahaetus, 221, 25?.
Paper and allied products
Industry description, 382
Manufacturing processes
Acid sulfite pulping. 383
Building products, 383
De-inking pulp, 383
Groundwood pulp, 383
Kraft and Soda pulping, 383
Kraft bleaching, 383
Neutral sulfite semichemical, 383
Paper inaking, 383
Prehydrolysis, 383
Sulfite pulp bleaching, 383
Waste paperboarcl, 383
Wood preparation, 383
Water processes, 383
Water quality indicators
Alkalinity, 383
Color, 383
Hardness, 383
pH control, 383
Iron, 383
Turbidity, 383
Water treatment processes
Aeration, 383
Coagulation, 383
Errosion control, 383
Filtration, 383
Ion exchange, 383
pH adjustment, 383
Plant location, 383
Settling, 383
Softening, 383
Paper and pulp industry
Water supply, 382
Surface water use, 383
Water intake, 382
Water supply, 383
Water use, 382
Paper products consumption, 382;
Paracentrotus
Silver nitrate concentrations, 255
Paracentrotus lundis, 252
Parasitic organisms
Flukes, 322
Paniculate material
Detritus origin, 281
Particulate material suspension
Estuarine organisms responses, 281
Marine organisms responses, 281
Paseo del Rio, Texas, 40
Pastuerella tw'arerms, 321
Pathogen source
Fecal contamination, 58
Pathogenic microorganisms, 27fi
Pathogens in sea, 280
Pecten novazfilandicae, 246
Ptiagodroma invea, 246, 252
Pt'lecanus erylhrorhynchos, 227
Pelecanus occidentals, 197, 226
Penaeus aziecus, 279
Penaeus set.jei us, 279
Perca, 141
Perca flaversctns, 149, 164
Perca flaviatihs, 256
Perch
pH effects, 141
Thallium nitrate content, 256
Pere Marquette River, 14
Perigrines
DDE residue accumulation, 227
Dieldrin accumulation effects, 227
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
Peregrine falcon
Reproductive failures, 197
Pertomyzon rti'rmus, 243
Pesticide chemicals
Dietary int.ike, 78
Pesticide-pH relationship, 183
Pesticide persistence, 183, 184
Pesticide tables
Botanicals, 433
Carbamates, 428
Defoliants, 429-432
Fungicide!;, 429-433
Herbicides;, 429-432
Organochlorine insecticides, 420-422
Organophosphate insecticides, 423-427
Pesticides
Acute toxic interaction, 185
Acute toxicity values, 185
Aquatic contamination, 182
Aquatic life, 434
Aquatic life toxicity, 184
-------
Subject Index/581
Arsenic content, 243
Cadmium content, 245
Carbamate, 76
Cattle feed, 320
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 76
Chemical characteristics, 76
Environment accumulation, 182
Environmental effects, 182
Environmental monitoring, 440
Estuarine pollution, 37
Farm animal feed, 320
Fat soluble, 320
Fish tolerance levels, 184
Livestock water, 318
Malathion, 183
Metabolic degradation, 183
Methoxychlor, 183
Nonmetabolic degradation, 183
Organic toxicants, 264
Organochlorine compounds, 183
Organophosphate toxicity, 184
Organophosphorus, 76
PCB analysis, 175
Phthalate esters content, 174
Public water supply, 76
Recommended concentrations, 186
Research framework, 434
Research guidelines, 434
Residue in fish, 183
Stream transport, 183
Toxicity, 76, 182, 320
Toxicological research, 434
Water entry, 318
Water for livestock, 304
Water solubility, 183, 318
Pesticides in fish
Physiological effects, 434
Toxicological effects, 434
Pesticides in water
Concentrations, 319
Properties, 319
Sources, 182
Pesticides poisoning
Livestock, 319
Pesticides research
Acute toxicity, 434, 435
Aquatic organisms
Bioconcentration, 438
Degradation, 438
Bacteria
Achromobacter, 438
Aerobacler, 438
Aeromonas Spp., 438
Bacillus, 438
Daphnia magna, 438
Daphne pulex, 438
Flarobacter, 438
Microcrustacea, 438
Bioassays, 435, 437
Biochemistry, 438
Blue gill, 438
Chemical analysis, 434
Chemical degradation, 439
Chemical methods, 437
Chronic effects, 437
Clinical studies, 438
Deactivation index, 435
Degradation in water, 438
Environmental fate, 439
Fathead minnow, 438
Fish
Residue degradation, 439
Residue uptake, 439
Food-chain accumulation, 438
Green algae
Anhstrodesmus, 438
Chlorella spp., 438
Scenedesmus, 438
Growth of fish, 435
Largemouth bass, 438
Lethal threshold concentration, 435
Microorganisms, 439
Pathology, 438
Persistence, 438
Photodegradation, 439
Physicochemical interactions, 439
Physiology, 438
Pond ecosystem studies, 437
Rainbow trout, 438
Reproduction of fish, 435
Residue analyses, 437
Residues
Biological half-life, 438
Stream ecosystem studies, 437
Test animals
Chemical analyses, 438
Radiometric analyses, 438
Pesticide tolerance
Aquatic organisms
Agriculture waters, 321
Petroleum hydrocarbons
Biological effects, 258
Petroleum industry
Refining operation-water use, 385
Petroleum refineries
Process water use, 386
Water intake, 386
Petroleum refining
Description of industry, 385
Discharge, 385
Process water properties
Ammonia from catalytic cracking, 386
Carbon dioxide from catalytic cracking,
386
Caustic solution purification, 386
Chemical reactions, 386
Heat transfer, 386
Inorganic salts, 386
Kinetic energy, 386
Plant cleaning, 386
Process water treatments, 387
Water distribution, 387
Water quality characteristics
Surface waters, 386
Water supply sources, 385
Petroleum-species toxicity ranges, 145
Petromyzon mannus, 27
pH changes
Benthic invertebrates sensitivity, 241
Fish sensitivity, 241
Plankton sensitivity, 241
Phalacrocorax auntus, 227
Pheasants
Mercury concentrations, 252
Phenol toxicity, 191
Phenolic compounds
Chemical oxidation of Organophosphorus
pesticides, 80
Hydrolysis of Organophosphorus pesticides,
80
Hydroxy derivatives, 80
Phenoxyalkyl acid herbicides
Microbial degradation, 80
Photochemical oxidation of carbamate
pesticides, 80
Public water supply, 80
Phenolic compounds sources
Domestic sewage, 80
Fungicides, 80
Industrial waste water discharges, 80
Pesticides, 80
Philippines
Marine aquaculture, 223
Phosphate
Algal nutrient, 253
Public water supply, 81
Phosphates-eutrophication relationship, 253
Phosphorus
Laboratory studies, 254
Phthalate esters
Chronic toxicity, 80, 175
Human growth retardation, 82
Human health, 82
Plastics plasticizers, 82
Public water supply, 82
Phthalate ester residues
Aquatic organisms, 174
Physa, 19
Physa snails, 22
Physical treatment procedures
Virus removal, 92
Phytophlhora cactorwn, 349
Phytophthora citrophthora, 349
Phytophthora parasitica, 349
Phytophthora sp., 348, 349
Phytoplankton
Aluminum tolerance, 242
Crude oil effects, 261
Phytoplankton growth, 275
Phytoplankton-nitrogen relationship, 276
Pike
Mercury concentration, 173
PH effects, 141
Pike perch
Arsenic toxicity, 243
Ptmephales promelas, 128, 132, 141, 144, 173,
177, 180-182, 185, 189, 191, 193, 243,
244, 253, 435
Pine River, 14
Pink shrimp
Aroclor® toxicity, 176
Pintails
Lead ingestion effects, 228
Placentia Bay
Fish mortalities, 254
Phosphorus in cod, 254
Plankton
Barium content, 244
-------
582/'Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Diatom population, 82
Growth stimulation
Artificial lake heating, 165
Mercury sensitivity, 173
Public water supply, 82
Plant communities
Salinity effects, 195
Plant growth
Aluminum concentrations effects, 340
Arsenic levels, 340
BOD, 330
Boron, 341
Cadmium, 342
Canals, 23
Chromium, 342
Cobalt, 342
Copper concentration, 342
Embayments, 23
Estuaries, 23
Fluoride, 343
Irrigation ditches, 23
Lead toxicity, 343
Lithium, 343
Manganese, 344
Marshes, 23
Molybdenum, 344
Nickel, 344
Ponds, 23
Public water supply sources, 23
Rivers, 23
Shallow lakes, 23
Vanadium, 345
Plant life
Nickel toxicity, 253
Plant organisms
Aluminum adsorption, 242
Plant-parasitic nematodes, 348
Plant-pathogenic virus, 349
Plants
Boron tolerance, 341
Boron toxicity, 341
Evapotranspiration, 323
Molybdenum accumulation, 344
Nickel toxicity, 344
Nitrate accumulation, 329, 352
Nutrient requirements, 22
Radionuclides absorption, 332
Soil salinity tolerance, 325
Tin content, 345
Titantium content, 345
Toxic elements, 352
Tungsten content, 345
Zinc toxicity, 345
Plecoptera, 141
Pleuronectiformes
Water tainting, 149
Pluchea sencea, 348
Plume
Thermal exposure, 170
Plume entrainment, 170
Largemouth bass mortality, 170
Plume water
Bottom organisms, 170
Pocideps cristatus, 252
Poecilia reticulata, 435
Pollutant-carcinogenic effects, 240
Pollutant exposure time calculations, 232
Pollutant-mutagenic effects, 240
Pollutant-teratogenic effects, 240
Pollutant toxicity-pH relationship, 241
Pollutants
Biological effects, 233
Genetic effects, 237
Polluted dredge spoils, 579
Polluted shellfish
Acute gastroenteritis, 277
Infectious hepatitis, 277
Polluted water
Algae, 23
Carbon dioxide conteit, 139
Coliform data interpretation, 57
Shellfish, 36
Polycehs mgra, 250
Polychaete
Chromium toxicity, 247
Copper effects, 248
Copper uptake, 248
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Accumulation in humans, 83
Chlorinated dibenzoft rans contamination,
83, 225
Epidemiological studies, 83
Estuarine birds, 264
Human exposure effects, 83
Human ingestion, 83
Industrial uses, 264
Industrial uses, 83
Public water supply, 83
Rainwater, 83
Sewage effluents, 83
Solubility, 83
Toxicity, 83
Tusho disease, 83
Polyjnyxa grarmzis, 349
Pom'oxis, 128
Ponds
Malaria vectors, 25
Plant growth, 23
"Pop-eye" (See Exophtal:nus and Gas bubble
disease)
Potable waters
CCE, 75
Algae control
Copper sulfate, 347
Phosphorus concentration, 81
Potamogeton, 21
Potamogeton pectinatus, 24, 194
Potamogeton perfohatus, 194
Potomac River Basin
Watershed alteration, 125
Poultry
Mercury toxicity, 313
Nitrate tolerance, 31 5
Nitrite tolerance, 315
Water requirements, 3D5
Zinc in diet, 317
Poultry feed
Arsenic-selenium relationship, 240
Power boats
Water turbulence effects, 14
Power plants
Cooling systems
Water temperature effects, 161
Discharge water temperature, 162
Power plants discharge
Algae growth, 165
Cooling ponds, 403
Estuaries. 403
Impoundments, 403
Lakes, 403
Ocean outfalls, 403
Rivers, 403
Pratylenchus sp. 348
Prawns
Chromium toxicity, 247
Precipitation
Pacific Northwest, 333
United Slates, 333
Primary metals
Description of industry, 388
Primary metals industry
Coke production
Water use, 388
Demineralized water use, 389
Iron production
Water use, 388
Plant locations, 388
Process water use
Aluminum, 388
Copper, 388
Iron foundries, 388
Steel foundries, 388
Steel production
Water use, 388
Water intake, 389
Water quality indicators, 389
Water quality requirements, 389
Water recycling, 389
Water treatment processes
Clarification, 389
Plant water supply, 389
Water use, 388
Primary productivity
Photosynthctic rate, 21
Primordial radioisotopes, 190
Daughter!;, 271
Decay products, 271
Private w.itcr supply
Methemoglobinemia, 72
Virus disease, 91
Providence Harbor
Dredge spoils dumping, 278
Psfudomonas aenigmosa, 31
Psychrophilic bacteria
Milk storage, 302
Public Health Laboratory Service, England,
29
Public watei management, 441
Public water supply
Alkalinity. 54
Ammonia as pollutant, 55
Ammonia nitrogen content, 55
Anionic surfactants concentrations, 67
Arsenic
Hyperkertosis-skin cancer correlation,
56
Arsenic content, 56
Bacteria, 57
-------
Subject Index/583
Public water supply (cont.)
Bacterial indicators
Fecal coliform, 57
Bacteriological characteristics, 50
Barium content, 59
Boron, 59
Cadmium, 60
Concentrations, 60
Contamination, 60
Carbamate insecticide, 78
Chelates toxicity, 74
Chloride, 61
Concentration, 61
Taste, 61
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Poison to humans, 76
Chlorination effects on turbidity, 90
Chlorophenoxy herbicides, 79
Chlorine disinfectant, 50
Chlorine use, 246
Chromium, 62
Chromium concentrations, 62
Chronic alkyl mercury poisoning, 72
Coagulation, 63
Coliform bacteria, 57
Collection apparatus
High-flow samples, 75
Low-flow samples, 75
Mini-sampler, 75
Colloidal ferric oxide, 69
Color, 63
Color removal, 63
Contaminants, 51
Copper, 64
Cyanide, 65
Dissolved oxygen, 65
Excreted waste, 91
Filterable residue, 90
Fluoride, 66
Fluoride content, 66
Foaming agents, 67
Ground water, 50
Bacteria-aquifer reaction, 52
Characteristics, 52
Chemical-aquifer reaction, 52
Hydrologic characteristics, 52
Pollutant decomposition, 52
Quality, 52
Growth-producing organisms, 89
Growth promoting factors, 81
Hardness, 68
Human health, 51
Industrial consumers, 68
Iodine-131 content, 84
Iron
Distribution systems deposits, 69
Taste, 69
Iron content, 69
Irrigation uses, 59
Itai-itai disease, 60
Lead toxicity, 70
Lead-210 content, 85
Low-energy radionuclides, 84
Manganese
Concentration, 71
Taste effect, 71
Manganese content, 71
Public water supply (cont.)
Mercury, 72
Metal ions, 68
Methylene blue reactions, 67
Microbial hazard measurements, 57
Mineral salts concentrations, 90
Monitoring programs, 51
Nitrate-nitrite concentration, 73
Nitrates content, 73
Nitrites content, 73
Odor, 74
Oil and grease, 74
Human health hazard, 74
Odor-producing problems, 74
Taste problems, 74
Organics-carbon adsorbable, 75
Organophosphorus insecticide, 78
pH, 63, 80
Anticorrosion procedures, 80
Pesticides, 76
Phenolic compounds, 80
Phosphate concentration
Noxious plant growth, 81
Phosphates, 81
Eutrophication, 81
Controllable nutrient, 81
Phthalate esters, 82
Plankters
Odor problems, 82
Taste problems, 82
Plankton, 82
Plankton counts, 82
Plankton-pH relationship, 82
Platinum cobalt standards, 63
Polychlorinated biphenyls, 83
Productivity-respiration relationship, 82
Quality recommendations, 50, 51
Radioactivity, 84
Radiochemical analysis, 85
Radioiodine isotopes, 85
Radionuclide concentrations, 85
Radiophysical analysis, 85
Radium-226 concentration, 85
Radium-228 content, 85
Raw water analytical analysis, 52
Reservoirs, 79
Rural areas, 52
Sampling
Chronological, 51
Spatial, 51
Sanitary quality indicators
Coliform bacteria, 57
Selenium, 86
Selenium toxicity, 86
Silver, 87
Silver concentration, 87
Silver solubility, 87
Sodium, 88
Soluble colored substances, 63
Strontium-89 content, 84
Strontium-90 content, 84
Sulfite concentration, 88
Surface water classification, 53
Temperature, 89
Total dissolved solids (TDS), 90
Toxic content, 50
Treatment processes, 51
Nitrates-nitrites, 73
Tritium, 84
Turbidity, 90
Turbidity-coagulation relationship, 90
United States, 61
Unmixed bodies of water
Oxygen depletion, 65
Uranyl ion, 91
Viruses, 91
Water hardness
Detergents, 68
Soaps, 68
Water management, 52
Water quality
Chronic hazard, 51
Periodic hazard, 51
Water sources exchange, 52
Water transmition of virus, 91
Water treatment processes, 50
Well water distinctions, 52
Zinc content, 93
Public water supply sources
Plant growth, 23
Puget Sound
Oriental oyster drill, 27
Puerto Rico, 18
Pulp and paper industry
Categories, 382
Manufacturing process, 382
Purnpkinseed
pH effects, 141
Rad (Radiation absorbed dose), 196, 272
Radiation absorption calculators, 196
Radiation calculations, 272
Radiation detection, 190, 270
Radiation sources
Decay products, 271
External, 271
Internal, 271
Primordial radioisotopes, 271
Radioactive materials
Aquatic environment, 270
Cycling, 271
Surface waters, 271
Tritium, 192
Radioactive materials cycling, 191
Radioactive wastes, 191, 193, 271
Radioactivity
Aquatic environment, 190
Aquatic organisms, 270
Characteristics, 190
Exposure pathways, 194
Graded scale of action, 84, 86
Gross alpha concentration, 85
Gross beta concentration, 85
Ground water, 84
Human tolerance, 84
Marine environment, 190
Nuclear facilities, 84
Public water supply, 84
Gross alpha concentrations, 85
Gross beta concentrations, 85
Sources, 190
Surface waters, 84
-------
584/Water Quality Criteria, 7972
Transient rates, 84
Tritiated water, 85
Radioactivity characteristics, 27
Radioactivity-genetic changes relationship,
196
Radioisotopes
Daughters, 190
Food web interaction, 271
Man-made, 191, 271
Tracers, 271
Tritium tracers, 271
Radioisotopes as tracers, 192
Radioisotopes—food web relationship, 193
Radionuclide intake
Iodine-131, 84
Radium-226, 84
Strontium-89, 84
Strontium-90, 84
Radionuclides
P32, 38
Zn65, 38
Drinking water, 318
Ground waters, 317
Human intake, 84
Irrigation water, 332
Livestock, 317
Shellfish, 38
Surface waters, 317
Water for livestock, 304
Radium-226
Fresh produce, 332
Rainbow trout, 435, 437, 438
Ammonia excretion, 187
Ammonia sensitivity, 242
Ammonia toxicity, 187
Antimony tolerance, 243
Cadmium lethality, 179
Chlorine residue, 189
Chromium chronic effects, 180
Chromium toxicity, 180
Copper concentrations, 180
Ethyimercury content, 173
Fluoride lethality, 249
Iron sensitivity, 249
Gas bubble disease, 138
Hypothetical lake study, 403
Metal concentrations lethality, 178
Methylmercury assimilation
pH effects, 141
Pesticide synergisis, 184
Phthalate ester toxicity, 175
Softwater
LC50 values, 181
Thallium nitrate effects, 256
Water quality
Mortality probability, 403
Zinc-swimming speed relationship, 182
Rainfall-soil erosion effects, 126
Rainwater
Pesticide content
Alpha-BHC, 318
ODD, 318
DDE, 318
DDT, 318
Dieldrin, 318
Gamma-BHC, 318
PCB, 83
Rapid sand nitration
Public water supply, 50
Rappia manlnna, 194
Rappia occidentals, 194
Rats
Drinking water
Arsenic content, 309
Selenium, 316
Molybdenum toxicity, 314
Rattail maggots (Enstali: tenox), 22
Raw milk storage, 302
Raw milk supplies
Sanitation standard, 332
Raw produce
Hydrocooling, 302
Washing, 302
Raw shellfish
Human consumption, 36
Raw surface water
Disinfection processes, 58
Dissolved oxygen, 65
Process treatment, 58
Quality, 50
Raw water
Ammonia chlorine demand, 55
Ammonia—chlorine reaction, 55
Analytical analysis, 52
Bacteriological quality, 57
Color, 63
Dissolved oxygen, 65
Quality, 50
Sources, 50
Raw water
Fluoride concentrations, 66
Fluoride fluctuations, 66
Monitors, 76
Raw water quality
Uranium content, 91
Raw water source
Radionuclide concentr itions, 85
Raw water supply
Ammonia, 65
Bacteria species, 302
Iron, 65
Manganese, 65
Microbial contaminants, 301
Raw water sources
Nitrite concentrations, 73
Raw water supply
Odor-producing microorganisms, 74
pH, 80
Receiving waters
Circulation effects, 230
Mercury content, 172
Mining
Metallic ion leaching, 239
Mixing zones, 231
Persistant pollutants, 230
Pollution concentration, 230
Sewage load, 275
Sorption process, 228
Waste disposal, 228
Waste disposal toxicity, 228
Recharge wells, 377
Recirculating cooling water systems, 378
Recreation
Park planning, 8
Water quality, 8
Water quality loss, 10
Water resources, 8
Recreation- lesthetic relationship, 8
Recreation water
Aesthetic value factors, 13
Algal biornass measurement, 21
Contarr ination from outboard motor ex-
haust, 148
Objectionible aesthetic quality, 12
Primary productivity, 21
Reservoirs on rivers, 13
Turbidity. 13
Water resource relationships, 15
Recreation water quality
Excessive nutrients, 12
Excessive temperature, 12
Recreation water values
Biological factors, 13
Physical factors, 13
Rccreatiorral resources
Water carrying capacity, 13, 14
Recreatiorral water
Adsorptiorr of materials, 16
Aesthetic values, 35
Aesthetics, 30
Agriculture runoff effects, 37
Appearance, 16
Aquatic life, 35
Aquatic macrophytes, 26
Aquatic organisms
Species introduction, 27
Aquatic vectors, 17
Beach maintenance, 17
Beach zone effects, 16
Bioaccumulation, 230
Blackfly larvae, 22
Boating, 34
Boating safety, 35
BOD, 34 '
Carp introduction, 27
Chemical concentrations, 30
Chlorophyll a, 21
Chromium pollution
Cncotoput bicmclus, 18
Colorado River, 40
Contamination
Naeglena group, 29
Crater Lake, 40
Cultural encroachment effects, 35
Diseases, 1 7
Eutrophication rate—relationship, 21
Everglades, 40
Fingernail clams, 22
Fish, 35
Free-living amoeba, 29
Grand Canyon National Park, 40
Great Lakes
Coho salmon transplant, 27
Hypolirnnetic oxygen, 21
Jellyfish, 1')
Kentucky watersheds, 39
Lake eutrophication, 19, 20
Lake Tahoe, 40
-------
Subject Index/585
Leeches, 22
Light penetration, 16
Micronutrients
Calcium, 22
Carbon, 22
Carbonates, 22
Magnesium, 22
Nitrogen, 22
Phosphorus, 22
Potassium, 22
Sodium, 22
Sulfur, 22
Malaria vectors
Anopheles freeborm, 25
Anopheles quadnmaculatus, 25
Marshes macrophytes, 26
Microbacteriological indicators, 31
Microbiological content, 31
Micronutrient
Boron, 22
Cobalt, 22
Copper, 22
Manganese, 22
Molybdenum, 22
Silica, 22
Titanium, 22
Vanadium, 22
Zinc, 22
Midges content, 22
Nutrient content, 22
Nutrient enrichment measurement, 23
Old Faithful, 40
Organic nutrients
B«, 22
Biotin, 22
Glycylglycine, 22
Thiamine, 22
Oxygen deficit, 21
Pacific Coast
Striped bass transplant, 27
Brown trout introduction, 27
Pathogenic bacteria content, 31
Pathogenic microorganisms, 30
Pestiferous mosquitoes, 25
pH characteristics, 33
Photosynthesis, 24
Physa snails, 22
Plant growth
Nuisance factor, 25
Quality, 30
Lead content, 34
Requirements, 30
Regulations, 14
Shoreline-surface area ratio, 14
Southeast Michigan
Boating, 14
Suspended solids (SS), 34
Temperature, 16
Toxic wastes, 18
Unites States, 34
Urban areas, 35, 39
Vector mosquitoes, 25
Water fowl, 35
Water quality, 29, 34, 35
Recreational water quality
Bacteriological analysis
Bathing places, 29
Chemical analysis
Bathing places, 29
Engine exhaust, 34
Environmental characteristics, 400
Pollution sources
Bathing places, 29
Waste discharges, 35
Waste disposal systems, 34
Water-dependent wildlife, 35
Red River, 352
Redear sunfish, 128
Redfish Bay, Texas
Dredging effects, 279
Redheads
Lead ingestion effects, 228
Winter food requirements, 195
Rem (roentgen equivalent man), 196, 272
Reservoir productivity
Plankton, 82
Reservoir sediments, 18
Reservoir water
Geosmin, 147
Reservoirs
Algae-manganese relationship, 250
Dissolved oxygen, 65
Eutrophy, 19
Food storage, 13
Hydroelectric power, 13
Mosquito control, 13
Mosquito infestation, 18
Nonthermal discharge distribution
Mathematical model, 403
Soluble oxygen depletion, 111
Zones of passage, 115
Reverse osmosis, 375
High pressure water, 375
Rhode Island Sound
Dredge dumping, 278
Ring Doves
PCB-shell thinning relationship, 226
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226
Ringnecked ducks
Lead ingestion effects, 228
River crabs
Nickel toxicity, 253
River flow
Regulatory waters, 333
tail water, 334
Underground drainage, 334
River Havel
Manganese content, 250
Uranium effects on protozoa, 256
River surveys
Bioassays, 117
River temperature effects, 160
River transport, 219
River waters
Chromium content, 311
Copper content, 311
Dissolved constituents, 142
Estuary mixing, 16
Lead content, 312
Organisms transport, 115
Pesticide content, 318
Pollutant retention time, 230
Sewage contaminates, 351
Rivers. 39
Aquatic macrophytes, 24
Arid areas, 333
Ditritus from particulate material, 281
Eutrophy, 19
Fertilization by man
Algae growth, 20
Slime organisms growth, 20
Water weeds growth, 20
Ice formations, 161
Irrigation flow, 333
Nonthermal discharge distribution
Mathematical model, 403
Particulate concentrations, 126
Particulate transport, 16
Plant growth, 23
Power plant discharge, 403
Sediment-aquatic plant relationship, 17
Sediment loads, 281
Semiarid areas, 333
Thermal effects, 160
Zones of passage, 115
Roach
Thallium nitrate effects, 256
Rocky Mountains
Lake fish, 20
Rough screens, 372
Roundworms, 322
Rudd
Boron effects, 245
Ruminants
Cadmium absorption, 310
Chromium intake, 311
Drinking water lead content, 313
Nitrate nitrogen, 314
Rutilus rutilis, 256
SAR (sodium adsorption ratio), 329, 330, 335
SAR values
Irrigation water, 331
SDF (slow-death factor), 317
SIC (standard industrial classification), 370
(see also Suspended solids)
Sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), 24
Waterfowl food plant, 194
St. Andrew's, New Brunswick
Zinc in salmon, 240
Saline lands reclamation, 329
Saline irrigation waters
Field crops, 325
Forage crops, 325
Fruit crops, 325
Vegetable crops, 325
Saline water
Crop tolerance, 324
Irrigation, 324
Livestock use, 308
Plant growth, 324
Poultry use, 308
Salvehnusfontinalis, 437
Salmo gairdnetr, 138, 141, 172, 173, 179-182,
184, 187, 189, 242, 243, 249, 256, 435
Salmo salar, 181, 240
Salmo trutta, 24, 141
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586/Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Salmon
Flavor impairing phenols
Industrial wastes, 149
Tainted water, 148
Salmon eggs
PCB residues-mortality relationships, 177
Mercury effects, 252
Salmonella, 31, 321, 351
Salmonella sp., 31
Salmonella typhimurium, 313
Salmonid spawning
Oxygen requirements, 133
Salmonids
pH effects, 141
Salt water beaches
England, 31
United States, 31
Salvelmus fontmalu, 131, 134, 141, 162, 180-
182
Salvelmus namaycush, 164, 184
San Antonio River, 40
San Antonio, Texas, 40
San Diego Bay, 399
San Francisco Bay-Delta system
sediment flow, 127
San Joaquin Estuary
Simulation modeling
Phytoplankton prediction, 277
San Joaquin Valley, California
Soils ESP values, 330
Sandworm
Oil toxicity, 261, 262
Santa Barbara
Oil well blowout, 258, 260
Santa Barbara spill
Animal communities fatality, 258
Plant communities fatality, 258
Sea bird deaths, 258
Sargassum, 242
Sauger
Spawning temperature, 171
Scenedesmus, 147, 253, 256, 438
Nickel concentrations, 253
Scordimus erythrophthalmus, 245
Schistosoma eggs, 18
Scud, 435
Sea biota
Oil effects, 262
Sea birds
Oil ingestion, 262
Oil lethal dosage, 262
Oil pollution mortality, 258, 261
Sea bottom sediments
Iron contaminants, 249
Sea disposal operations
Dredge spoils, 278
Sea food
Chlorine combinations—taste effects, 246
Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), 27
Antimony tolerance, 243
Sea nettles (see Jelly fish)
Sea oil contamination, 257
Underwater reservoir seepage, 257
Sea oil spills
Sea birds fatality, 258
Sea-run trout
Hydrogen sulfide bioassay, 256
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 256
Sea surface
Atmospheric oil precipitates, 257
Sea surface oil
Marine birds fatalities, 258
Remote sensing, 258
Sea water
Alkalinity, 241
Aluminum salts precijDitate, 241
Ammonia toxicity, 242
Arsenic concentration, 243
Barium precipitate, 243
Beryllium content, 244
Bismuth concentration, 244
Boron concentration, 244
Bromine content, 245
Cadmium content, 245
Chemistry
Alkalinity, 241
Chlorine pollutants, 247
Chromium concentrations, 247
Copper concentration, 248
Dissolved oxygen, 275
Euphotic zone, 241
Fluoride content, 248
Ion exchange process, 228
Manganese content, 250
Mercury content, 72, 252
Nickel content, 253
Oil dispersal methods. 262, 263
pH extremes, 241
pH variations, 241
Photosynthesis, 241
Potassium chromate effects, 247
Redfish-aluminum chloride toxicity, 242
Sorption process, 228
Sulfate content, 255
Uranium content, 256
Uranium toxicity, 256
Sea water-antagonism relationship, 240
Sea water-fresh water differences, 241
Sea water-synergism relationship, 240
Sea food
Cadmium mutagenic effects, 246
Cadmium teratogenic effects, 246
Sublethal pollutants-food value effects, 237
Seattle, Washington
Green lake, 20
Seaweed culture, 223
Sedimentation, 372
Sedimentation process
Public water supply, 50
Seepage areas
Malaria vectors, 25
Selenium
Human toxicity, 86
Industrial uses, 254
Insolubility, 86
Livestock, 316
Physical characteristics, 254
Public water supply, 86
Toxicity, 254
Selenium poisoning
Alkali disease, 316
Livestock, 316
Selenium toxicity
Livestock, 316
Semiarid areas
Irrigation water quality, 333
Climate, 333
Seston (See also Particulate materials), 281
Sewage
Beneficial use, 277
Nickel salts-biochemical exidation effects
253
Organic pollution, 275
Organic toxicants, 264
PCB, 83
Sewage effluents
Detergent content, 190
Mercury concentration, 172
Sewage emissions
Municipal areas, 274
Sewage fungus (Sphaerotilus), 22
Sewage sludge
Ecological effects, 279
Heavy metals concentrations, 279
Sewage treatment
Ammonia, 55
Economic factors, 277
Sewage treatment plants
Effluents, 378
Organic material removal, 275
Sewage treatment processes
Viruses, SI
Sewage wastes
Degradable organic materials, 274
Sewage water
Trace elements concentration, 352
Virus survival, 92
Shallow lakes
Nutrients 22
Plant growth, 23
Power boats, 14
Sheep
Drinking water
Sodium chloride content, 307
Molybcenum tolerance, 314
Shellfish
Bacteria content, 36
Bacteriological quality, 36
Clams, 36
Commercial value, 36
Contamination, 36
DDD content, 37
DDE content, 37
DDT contamination, 37
DDT content, 37
Arsenic content, 243
Dieldriri content, 37
Dinofl,agellates, 38
Estuarine waters
Pesticide contamination, 37
Gonyaulux content, 37
Gonyaulax tamargnsis, 38
Marine biotoxins, 36
Mussels, 36
Oil ingestion, 327
Paralytic poisoning from ingestion, 37
Pesticide effects, 36
Pesticide levels, 37
-------
Subject Index/587
Pesticide toxicity, 37
Polluted water, 36
Public health-pollution effects, 277
Radionuclides, 36
Radionuclides content, 38
Toxic trace metals content, 38
Toxicity, 37
Trace metals, 36
Oysters, 36
Virus vectors, 36
Water quality, 36
Shipworrn
Arsenious trioxide control, 243
Shoveler
Lead mgestion effects, 228
Silver
Argyria, 87
Argyrosis, 87
Commercial uses, 254
Cosmetic effects in humans, 87
Industrial uses, 255
Public water supply, 87
Water treatment, 301
Similkamen Valley, British Columbia, 349
Simulndae, 141
Sludge deposits
Crab shells necrosis, 280
Hydrogen sulfide content, 193
Lobster necrosis, 280
Sludgeworms (Tubificidae), 21
Snails
Barium chloride lethality, 244
Snake River
Gas bubble disease, 135
Snow petrel
Cadmium level, 246
Mercury content, 252
Sockeye salmon
Gas bubble disease, 139
Pyridyl mercuric acetate tolerance, 173
Water temperature, 160
Sodium
Ground waters, 88
Human diet, 88
Irrigation water, 329
Public water supply, 88
Soils, 329
Solubility, 88
Surface waters, 88
Sodium cation
Ion exchange, 375
Sodium hypochlorite
Water treatment, 301
Sodium intake
Human health, 88
Sodium selenite toxicity, 254
Goldfish tolerance, 254
Soft drink industry (See Bottled and canned
soft drinks)
Soft water
Antimony salts, 243
Beryllium chloride toxicity, 244
Cadmium content, 180
Chromium concentration, 180
Copper concentration, 180
Copper toxicity, 240
Lead solubility, 181
Nickel content, 253
pH effects, 140
Sodium selenite, 254
Soil
Acidity, 330
Aeration, 330
Alkalinity, 330
Alkalinity calculations, 335
Filtration
Bacteria removable, 352
Fungus
Wheat Mosaic Virus, 349
Management, 339, 340
Pathogenic virus vectors, 349
Salinity, 337
Sodium, 329
Soil Conservation Service, 10
Soil tolerance to chemicals, 339
Soil water and electrical conductivity, 334
Soils
Arid, 333
Arsenic toxicity, 340
Boron accumulation, 341
Cadmium content, 342
Chromium accumulation, 342
ESP values, 331
Fluoride content, 343
Humid region, 336
Irrigation, 333
Lead toxicity, 343
Mineralogic.il composition, 336
Molybdenum concentrations, 344
pH content, 337
pH values, 330, 339, 344
Selenium content, 345
Sodium content, 329
Soluble aluminum, 339
Suspended solids, 332
Zinc toxicity, 345
Solid wastes
Biological effects, 279
Sea dumping, 280
Solid wastes disposal, 278
Solid wastes-sport fishing relationships, 280
Soluble colored substances
Polymeric hydroxy carboxylic acids, 63
South Africa
Wafra spill, 262
South America
Cl. hemolyticum in water, 321
Fishery management, 441
South Bay
Oyster shell layers, 279
South Carolina Intracoastal Canal
Dredging effects, 279
South Dakota
Fowl drinking water, 308
Southeast Asia
Marine aquaculture, 223
Southeast Michigan
Recreational water and boating, 14
Southern California
Marine ecosystems-DDT residues relation-
ship, 227
PCB in fish, 226
Soviet studies
Marine radioactivity, 244
Spatula clypeala, 228
Sphaerolilus, 21
Spinner perch
Manganese toxicity, 251
Sporocjrstt, 322
Sport fisheries
Water temperature, 151
Spotted bullhead
Spawning temperature, 171
Spring water
Dissolved gases, 136
Zinc content, 93
Sprinkler irrigation, 332, 350
Iron content, 343
Raw sewage, 351
Suspended solids, 338
Trace elements, 338
Steam
Condensate recycling, 378
Steam electric plants
Boiler makeup requirements, 377
Tennessee Valley Authority, 378
Steam generation, 377
Boilers, 376
Boiler feed, 377
Discharge, 378
Economics, 379
External water treatment equipment, 378
Industry, 376
Source water composition, 379
Water consumption, 378
Water quality requirements, 378
Water treatment processes, 379
Total water intake, 378
Steel head trout
Pyridyl mercuric acetate tolerance, 173
Sterna hirundo, 226, 246, 252
Sterna viltata, 246, 252
Stickleback
Aluminum nitrate lethal threshold, 242
Lead-sublethal effects
Manganese tolerance, 250
Nickel effects, 253
Nickel lethal limits, 253
Silver nitrate content, 255
Stizosledion canadense, \ 71
Stizosledion mtreum, 243
Stizostedian vitreum vitrfum, 128, 193
Stonflies
Iron effects, 249
pH effects, 141
STORET (Systems for technical data), 306
Stratified lakes
Thermal patterns, 165
Streain channelization, 124
Stream waters
Benthic fauna, 22
Blood worms, 22
Blue-green algae, 22
Rattail maggots, 21
Sewage fungus, 22
Sludgeworms, 21
Streams
Water quality, 400
-------
588/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Streams
Blackfly larvae, 18
DDT contamination, 184
Diluting capacity, 230
Dissolved oxygen requirements, 133
Flow turbulence, 115
Industrial discharge-temperature relation-
ship, 195
Nutrient enrichment, 22
Organic mercury content, 172
Over enrichment, 20
Oxygen concentration, 132
Pesticides content, 183
Pollution, 230
Coliform measurement of contaminants,
57
Fecal contamination, 57
Oil slick, 147
Silt-fish population effect, 128
Site uniqueness measurement
Biological factors, 400
Human use, 400
Interest factors, 400
Physical factors, 400
Water quality factors, 400
Toxic waters concentrations
Application factors, 123
Transport, 126
Streptopelia risona, 226
Striped bass (Morone saxatilis), 27
Eggs hatching conditions, 279
Strongyloide*;, 322
Strontium-90
Fresh produce, 332
Sturgeon
Oxygen requirements, 132
Subirrigation, 350
Suisun Marsh, California
Water salinity, 195
Sulfates
Ground water, 89
Laxative effects, 89
Public water supply, 89
Sulfidc toxicity, 191, 193
Sulfides
By-products, 255
Toxicity, 255
Water solubility, 191
Sunken oil
Bottom fauna mortality, 262
Supersaturation
Water quality, 135
Supplemental irrigation, 337
Surface horizon, 333
Surface irrigation
Suspended solids, 332
Surface irrigation water
Ccrcoriae, 350
Helminth infections, 352
Surface sea water
Lead content, 249
Surface waters
Aesthetic quality, 11
Aluminum content, 309
Ammonia content, 55
Arsenic content, 56
Barium concentration, 59
Beryllium content, 310
Chromium concentration, 62
Classification, 53
Cobalt content, 311
Contamination, 50
Copper, 64
Copper concentration, 64
Dissolved inorganic salts, 301
Dissolved solids, 142
Enteric viral contamination, 91
Fluorine content, 312
Foaming agents, 67
Gas nuclei, 135
Hardness, 142
Hardness factors, 142
Hydrated ferric oxide, 69
Hydrated manganese oxides, 71
Industri \\ wastes
Chromium content 311
Iodine-131 content, 84
Iron content, 69
Lead content, 70
Manganese content, 71, 250
Mercury content, 313
Minerals, 301
Mosquito productivity, 25
Natural color, 130
Natural temperatures, 151
Nutrient concentration, 22
Nutrient content analyses, 306
Nymphaea odorata, 25
Pesticide contamination, 318
Pesticide content, 318
Pesticide entry, 318
Phosphorus content, 8'
Quality characteristics 370, 371
Surface water use
Quality characteristics
Food canning industry, 391
Surface waters
Radioactive materials, 192, 271
Radioactivity, 84, 190, 270
Radionuclides content, 317
Sodium concentrations, 88
Strontium-89 content, 84
Strontium-90 content, 84
Sulfonates, 67
Supplies, 50
Suspended particles, 16
Suspended particulate concentrations, 126
Suspended sediment content, 50
Suspended solids, 335
Temperatures, 16
Temperature variation, 89
Vanadium, 316
Water color-aquatic life effects, 130
Watershed, 22
Surface water-photosynt hesis relationship,
275
Surface waters saturation
Oxygen loss, 270
Surface water supply
Deleterious agents, 51
Toxic agents, 51
Virus, 91
Suspended particulates
Biological effects, 281
Suspended sediments
Physical-chemical aspects, 281
Suspended solids
Soils, 332
Swamps
Malaria vectors, 25
Oxygen content, 132
Sweden
Environmental mercury residues, 252
Environmental methylmercury, 172
Industrial mercury use, 252
Mercury in fish, 172, 251, 252
Supersaturation, 135
Swimming water
Chemical quality, 33
Clarity, 33
Sewage contamination, 31
Temperature ranges, 32
Turbidity, 33
Water quality requirements, 30
Swine
Drinking water
Sodium chloride content, 307
Copper intake, 312
Molybdenum tolerance, 314
Swordfish
Meicury content, 237
TAPPI (Technical Association of the Pulp
and Paper Industry), 383
TAPPI manufacture specifications
Process water
Chemical Composition, 384
TDS (Total dissolved solids), 90, 335
Specific conductance measurements, 90
TL50 (Medim tolerance limit), 118
TLm (Median tolerance limit), 118
TNV (Tobacco necrosis virus), 349
TMV (Tobacco mosaic virus), 349
TSS (Total soil suction), 324
TVA (see Tennessee Valley Authority)
Taiwan
Epidemiological studies, 56
Tampico Bay, Calif.
Pollution-kelp resurgence relationship, 237
Tampico Maru
Diesel fuel spill, 258, 260
Tanning Industry
Description, 393
Quality requirements
Point of use, 393
Water process, 393
Water quaity
Microbiological content, 394
Water quality indicator, 394
Water treatment processes, 394
Water use
Chemical composition, 393
Tap water
Aluminum nitrate
Lethal threshold, 242
Manganese-sticklebacks lethality effects,
250
Tritium content, 85
-------
Subject Index/589
Tar balls, 257
Neuston net collection, 257
Teal
Lead ingestion effects, 228
Temperate lakes
Thermal stratification, 111
Temperature
Coolant waters, 89
Oxygen transfer in water, 16
Plant growth, 328
Public water supply, 89
Recreational water, 16
Surface waters, 16
Temperature exposures, 170
Tennessee Valley Authority, 9, 378
Tennessee Valley streams
Fish population, 162
Teredo, 243
Tern
Mercury concentrations, 252
Tern eggs
Cadmium levels, 246
Texas
Caddo Lake, 26
Ponds, 24
Textile industry
Census of Manufacturers, 1967, 381
Deionized water, 380
Potable water, 381
Surface water intake, 380
Water color, 380
Water hardness, 380
Water intake sources, 380
Water quality, 380
Water quality requirements, 380, 381
Water treatment processes, 381
Water turbidity, 380
Water use, 380
Zeolite-softened water, 380
Textile mills
Locations, 380
Raw water quality, 380
Textile mill products
Cotton, 379
Industry description, 379
Noncellulosic synthetic fibers, 379
Rayon, 379
Wool, 379
Textile processes
Scouring operations, 380
Water use, 380
Textiles
Silk dyeing damage, 380
Wool dyeing damage, 380
Thalasseus sandmcensis, 196
Thaleichthys pacifaus, \ 64
Thallium
Industrial use, 256
Neuro-poison, 256
Rat poison, 256
Thermal criteria
Hypothetical power plant, 166
Thermal electrical power
Thermal fluctuations, 162
Thermal exposures
Developing fish eggs sensitivity, 170
Thermal fluctuations
Navigation, 162
Thermal plume stratification, 170
Thermal Tables
Time-temperature relationships
Fish, 410-419
Opossum shrimp, 413, 414
Thiobacillus-Ferrobacillus, 141
Tidal cycles
Seston values, 281
Tidal environment, 168
Tidal oscillations, 219
Tidal water
Organism transport, 115
Top minnow
Mercury toxicity, 173
Nickel toxicity, 253
Torrey Canyon spill, 262
Oil-detergent toxicity, 261
Oil spill effects, 258, 260
Total dissolved gases
Water quality, 135
Toxic algae
Livestock, 317
Toxic organics, 264
Hazards, 264
Biosphere, 264
Toxic water
Concentration calculations, 123
Toxicants
Ammonia, 186
Fishery management, 441
Insecticides, 441
Toxicity in water
Livestock, 309
Tracers
Radioiaotopes, 271
Tritium, 271
Trapa hatans, 27
Tnchobilhazia, 18
Tnchodorus, 349
Tnchoptera, 141
Tntonaha japonic a, 27
Tropical waters
Biological activity, 441
Trout
Boron effects, 245
Dissolved oxygen requirements, 134
Flavor-imparing chemicals
n-butylmercaptan, 148
o-cresol, 148
2,4-dichlorophenol, 148
pyridine, 148
Lakes, 20
Odoriferous actinomyces, 148
Phenol toxicity, 191
Zinc toxicity, 182
Tularemia, 321
Tule Lake, 346
Tuna fish
Mercury content, 237
Turbidity
Coagulation, 90
Filtration, 90
Public water supply, 90
Sedimentation, 90
Turkey Point, Fla.
Power plant-temperature changes, 238
Tylenchorhynchus sp., 348
Tylenchulus semipenetrans, 348
Typha, 141
Ultrafiltration, 375
Ultraviolet sterilization
Water treatment, 301
Ulna, 21
Underground aquifers, 377
United States
Agricultural nitrogen use, 274
Agricultural waters
Leptospirosis, 321
Aquatic vascular plants, 25
Arid areas
Water quality characteristics, 333
Coastal waters
Temperature variations effects, 238
Inland waters
Biota, 142
Irrigation water, 351
Lake waters
Chromium content, 311
Copper content, 311
Iron content, 312
Lakes, 21
Malaria vectors, 25
Marine aquaculture
Oyster, 223
Marine environment
Radioactivity content, 190
Mercury consumption, 251
Northeastern coast, 32
Pesticides use, 434, 441
Polychlorinated byphenols in freshwater
fish, 177
Precipitation, 333
Public water supplies, 61, 62
Radioactivity in water, 85, 270
Recreation waters, 34
River waters
Composition, 333
Copper content, 311
Lead content, 312
Rivers
Chromium content, 311
Mercury content, 72
Salt water beaches, 31
Semiarid areas
Water quality characteristics, 333
Streams
Mercury content, 72
Surface waters
Mercury content, 313
Pesticides content, 319
Synthetic organic chemicals
Production, 264
Water quality, 129
Water temperatures, 151
United States Atlantic coasts
Temperature effects, 238
-------
590/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972
United States Bureau of Commercial Fish-
eries, 37
United States Census, 1970, 9
United States Department of Agriculture, 10,
346
United States Department of Defense, 9
United States Department of Housing and
Urban Development, 10
United States Federal Radiation Council,
84, 85, 318
United States Salinity Laboratory, 324, 325,
328, 330, 334
Upper Chesapeake Bay
Biota seasonal patterns, 282
Fish nursery, 281
Physical hydrography, 282
Upper water layers
Oxygen content, 276
Uranium
Industrial uses, 256
Water solubility, 256
Uranium—sea water interaction, 256
Uranyl ion
Public water supplies, 91
Urban streams
Baltimore, Md., 40
Flow variability, 40
Washington, D.C., 40
Urban waters, 39
Urban water quality, 40
Urban waterways contamination, 40
Urechis eggs
Uranium effects, 256
Utah
Fish fauna, 27
Valhsnena amencana, 194
Vanadium
Commercial processes, 257
Drinking water, 316
Industrial uses, 257
Surface waters, 316
Vanadium toxicity
Farm animals, 316
Vashon glacier, 20
Virgin Islands coast
Solid waste disposal, 280
Virology techniques, 92
Viruses
Classification, 322
Infections, 322
Public water supply, 91
WHO (World Health Organization), 251
WRE (Water Resources Engineers, Inc.), 399
Wafra spill, 262
Wales
Bathing waters, 29
Walking catfish (Glorias batrachus), 28
Walleye
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Walleye eggs
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Walleye fingerlings, 128
Warmwater fish
Dissolved oxygen criteria, 132
Warm water temperatures
Fish kills, 171
Washington
Irrigation water
Plant ncmatode distribution, 348
Washington, D.C.
Urban streams, 40
Water chestnut introduction, 27
Waste material disposal recommendations,
282
Waste treatment
Benefit-cost analysis, 399, 400
Evaluation techniques, 399
Waste water
Animal waste disposal systems, 353
Chlorine disinfection 276
Fish tainting, 147
Food processing plants, 353
Nitrogen removal, 3f 2
Organic content, 353
Waste water effluents
Pollutant concentrations, 264
Waste water injection, 115
Waste water potential
Blowdown, 379
Boiler waters, 279
Evaporative systems, 379
External water treatment processes, 379
Recirculated cooling water, 379
Waste water reclamaticn
Recreational benefits, 399
Waste water treatment
Copper concentrations, 74
Lead concentrations, 74
Waste water treatment plants
Discharges, 147
Waste water treatment processes
Recreation, 13
Water
Carbon dioxide content, 139
Manganese stability, 251
pH values, 140
Pesticides content, 346
Water adsorption
Clay minerals, 16
Microorganisms, 16
Toxic materials, 127
Water alkalinity, 54
Carbonate-bicarbonate interaction, 140
Water analyses
Metals-biota relationship, 179
Water birds
Surface oil hazards, 196
Water chemistry-plants interrelationships, 24
Water chestnut (Trafia wtans), 27
Water circulation
Pollutant mixing, 217
Water color
Compensation depth, 130
Compensation point, 130
Inorganic sources
Metals, 130
Organic sources
Aquatic plants, 130
Humic materials, 130
Peat, 130
Plankton, 130
Tannins, 130
Origin, 130
Water color-industrial discharge effects, 13
Water color measurements
Platinum-cobalt method, 130
Water components
Metallocyanide complex
Toxicity, 140
Water composition, 306, 371
Air scrubbing, 377
Evaporation, 377
Water cont aminant indicator
Odor, 74
Taste, 74
Water com animation
Nitrates, 314
Pesticides
Farm ponds, 318
Water density
Lakes, 164
Water-dependent wildlife, 34
Water development projects, 10
Water disinfectant
Ammonia-chlorine reactions, 55
Water distribution systems
Ammonia, 55
Water entry of pesticides
Direct application, 318
Drift, 318
Faulty waste disposal, 318
Rainfall, 318
Soil runoff, 318
Spills, 318
Water flavor impairment, 148
Water flea
Thallium nitrate effects, 256
Water hardness
Biologies! productivity, 142
Definilion, 142
Lead toxicity, 181
Metal toxicity level, 177
Scale deposits, 68
Utility facilities, 68
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), 27
Water level control
Shell fish harvest, 399
Water management techniques, 50
Water nitrate concentrations, 73
Water oxygen
Salinity effects, 276
Temperature effects, 276
Water oxygen depletion
Duckweed, 24
Water hyacinth, 24
Water lettuce, 24
Water plurne
Configuration effects, 170
Water pollutants
Oxygen level reduction, 133
Toxicity, 133, 140
Waterfowl mortalities, 195
Water polluting agents
Enteric microorganisms, 321
Water pollution
-------
Subject Index/591
Crude oil toxicity, 144
Oils, 144
Water pollution control, 11
Water pressure tension, 135
Water processes
Mining industry, 394
Paper and allied products, 383
Tanning industry, 393
Water productivity,_ 140
Water quality
CCE..75
m-crcsol
Threshold odor concentration, 80
o-cresol
Threshold odor concentration, 80
/>-cresol
Threshold odor concentration, 80
Acid conditions
Adverse effects, 140
Aethetics, 8, 399
Agarsphenamine, 87
Agricultural importance, 300
Algae content
Farmsteads, 301
Alkaline conditions
Adverse effects, 140
Alkalinity, 140
Analysis, 352
Animal use
Daily calcium requirements, 306
Daily salt requirements, 306
Aquatic vascular plants, 23
Benefit-cost analysis, 399
Biomonitoring receiving systems, 109
Biomphalana glabrata, 18
Boating, 28
Body burdens of toxicants, 116
Carbonate buffering capacity, 140
Chemical and allied products, 384
Chemical compound concentrations,
Fish tainting, 148
Oyster changes, 147, 148
Coastal region nutrient, 270
Commercial fin fishing, 28
Commercial shell fishing, 28
Composition, 371
Contamination
Outboard motor oil, 148
Cotton bleaching processes, 380
Deterioration, 10, 321
Dietary nutrient content, 305
Dilution water
Toxicant testing, 120
Dissolved oxygen concentrations, 134
Dissolved oxygen criteria, 133, 134
Element content
Cobalt, 306
Iodine, 306
Magnesium, 306
Sulfur, 306
Estuaries, 222
Estuary nutrients, 270
Eutrophy, 21
Evaluation techniques, 399
Farm animals use, 321
Farmsteads
Water quality (cont.)
Nonpathogenic bacterial contaminants,
301
Fish production requirements, 195
Flavor impairment, 148
Food canning processes, 390
Harbors, 35
I lardness
Equivalent calcium carbonate, 68
Polyvalent cations, 68
Hydrogen ion concentration, 140
Industrial discharge
Color effects, 130
Industrial effluents, 370
Inorganic chemicals concentration, 481,482
Insecticides content, 195
Irrigation waters, 323, 324, 333, 336, 337
Isotope content, 307
Kraft pulp mills, 147
Livestock use
Biologically produced toxins, 304
Excessive salinity, 304
Mineral content, 304
Parasitic organisms, 304
Pathogenic organisms, 304
Pesticide residues, 304
Radionuclidcs, 304
Toxic elements, 304
Marine ecosystems, 216
Marketing costs, 371
Mercury pollution, 172
Mesotrophy, 21
Midge production, 18
Minerals, 88
Mortality probability, 404
Municipal sewage, 274
Nitrate-nitrogen level, 302
Nutrients, 19
Odor-producting bacteria
Farmsteads, 302
Oil loss effects, 144
Oil refinery effluents effects, 144
Oil spills effects, 144
Oligotrophy, 21
Organic mercury toxicity, 173
Outboard motor exhaust, 148
pH, 140
Paper and allied products, 383
Particulates
Aquatic life, 16
Biological productivity, 16
Pathogens from fecal contamination, 58
Phenol
Threshold odor concentrations, 80
Phenols, 80
Phosphorus concentrations, 81
Physical factors, 13
Plankton density, 82
Pollutant bioassays, 118
Polychlorinated byphenals content, 83
Preserving aesthetic values, 11
Radioactive materials restrictions, 273
Receiving systems-biota interaction, 109
Recreation, 8, 29, 399
Requirements, 370, 371
Point of intake, 371
Point of use, 371
Sanitary indicators, 57
Shell fish, 36
Significant indicators, 378
Sodium content, 88
Soil-plant growth effects, 324
Soils, 323
Sport fin fishing, 28
Sport shell fishing, 28
Suspended solids effects, 222
Supersaturation, 135
Swimming, 28
Tainting, 147, 149
Textile dyeing processes, 380
Textile industry
Point of use, 380, 381
Thermal criteria, 152
Thermal regimes, 152
Total dissolved gases, 135
Toxic wastes, 18
Toxicants, 404, 407
Toxicity curves calculations, 407
Trace metals
pH effects, 140
Treatment equipment, 371
Virus-disease relationship, 91
Waste material Application factors, 121
Zinc content-taste relationship, 93
Zone of passage, 115
Water Quality Act (1965), 2
Water quality calculation
Lethal threshold concentration, 407
Threshold effective time, 407
Water quality characteristics
Aesthetics, 400
Drifting organisms, 113
Ecology, 400
Environmental pollution, 400
Human interest, 400
Migrating fish protection, 113
Mixing zones, 231
Multiproduct chemical plant, 385
Water quality criteria, 10, 91
Acute pollutants, 118
Chronic pollutants, 118
Crop responses, 300
Cumulative pollutants, 118
Inorganic chemical protection, 239
Least-cost analysis, 400
Lethal pollutants, 118
Marine aquatic life, 219
Marine environment
Methods of assessment, 233
Selenium toxicity, 345
Subacute pollutants, 118
Sublethal pollutants, 118
Wildlife, 194
Water quality deterioration
Wisconsin Lakes, 20
Water quality effects
Suspended particulates, 16
Water quality evaluations
Monetary benefit, 399
Site determination, 399
Nonmonetary benefit, 399
Waste treatment techniques, 399
-------
592/Water Quality Criteria, 7972
Water quality indicators
Chemical and allied product industry, 384
Tanning industry, 394
Water quality management, 400
Aquatic organisms, 109
Water quality-plant growth interrelation-
ships, 24
Water quality projects
Economic objectives, 400
Water quality recommendations,
Ground water, 52
Public water supply, 50
Water management, 52
Water quality requirements
Agriculture, 300
Farmstead use, 301
Human farm population, 301
Long-term biological effects, 114
Water quality standards, 52
Artificial ground water recharge, 53
Mixed water body, 171
Water quality variation, 18
Water receiving systems
Nonthermal discharge distribution
Mathematical model, 403
Water recreation
Boating, 9
Camping, 9
Commercial, 9
Corps of Engineers, 9
Fishing, 9
Fishing licenses, 8
Legislation, 9
Management, 11
Participants, 9
Picnicking, 9
Point discharges, 12
Private, 9
Programs, 9
Public, 9
Regulations, 9
Sightseeing, 9
Sportsmen, 8
Subsurface drainage, 12
Surface flows, 12
Swimming, 9
Waterfowl hunters, 9
Water skiing, 9
Water recreation facilities costs, 9
Water requirements
Beef cattle, 305
Cattle, 305
Dairy cattle, 305
Horses, 305
Livestock
Water balance trials, 305
Water loss, 304
Water needs, 304
Poultry, 305
Sheep, 305
Swine, 305
Water resources
Project recreation evaluation
Intangible benefits, 399
Nonmonetary expression of benefits, 399
Recreation, 8
Water resource use
Evaluation problems. 400
Water-related diseases
Bacillary hemoglobinuria, 321
Water safety
Fish indicators, 320, 321
Water salinity
Duckling mortality, 195
Livestock consumption, 307
Toxicity in dairy cattle, 307
Water salinity ions
Bicarbonates, 309
Calcium, 309
Chloride, 309
Magnesium, 309
Osmotic effects, 307
Sodium, 309
Sulfates, 309
Water solubility
DDT, 197
Water supply
Quantity for livestock, 304
Raw water quality, 50
Reservoirs, 13
Suspended solids
Clay, 301
Sand, 301
Silt, 301
Thermoduric microorganisms
Farmsteads, 302
Water supply management
Agriculture, 300
Water supply sources
Ammonia content
Cold temperature, 55
Aquatic vegetation control, 79
Water surface
Turbidity-absorptior effects, 127
Water surface tension, 136
Water tainting, 149
Bioassays, 149
Biological causes, 14"'
Chemicals, 147
Water tainting tests, 149, 150
Bluegill, 149
Channel catfish, 149
Exposure, 149
Fish, 149
Flatfishes, 149
Largemouth bass, 149
Organolcptic evaluation, 149
Salmon, 149
Trout, 149
Yellow perch, 149
Water temperature, 152
Acclimation, 153
Aquatic ecosystems, 151
Aquatic life
Analysis, 168
Migration, 164
Spawning, 164
Aquatic sensitivity, 168
Artificial temperature elevations, 160
Channel catfish, 1 54
Commercial fisheries, 151
Community structure, 165
Fish
Zero net growth, 154
Fish exposure, 160
Fish growth rates, 157
Fish spawning conditions, 163
Food organisms production, 164
Growth comparisons, 158
Lethal threshold, 152
Life expectancy, 32
Nuisance organisms growth, 165
Ocean currents effects, 32
Power plant discharge, 166
Safety factor
Aquatic life, 161
Seasonal changes, 154
Short-teim exposure, calculations, 168-17
Sockeye salmon, 154, 160
Spawning period, 162
Sport fisheries, 151
Spring fall, 164
Spring rise, 164
Suspended particulates—sunlight penetr;
tion effects, 127
Warming rates, 127
Thermal springs effects, 32
Winter maxima, 160
Water temperature acclimation, 153
Water temperature-botulism poisoning r<
lationship, 197
Water temperature calculations, 154, 157
Water temperature criteria, 152, 154, 166
Hypothetical power plant, 167
Prolonged exposure, 153
Seasonal prolonged exposure, 154
W'ater temperature resistence
Chinook salmon, 153
Water temperature tolerance
Salmon, 153
Water temperature variation
Aquatic life development, 162
Water transmissions of virus, 91
Water transport
Particjlate matter, 16
Siltation, 16
Water treatment
Chemical
Halogens, 301
Sodium hypochlorite, 301
Economics, 377
Health hazards, 57
Heat, 301
Ozont, 301
Raw water at farmsteads, 301
Silver, 301
Ultraviolet sterilization, 301
Water treatment facilities
Agriculture, 300
Water treatment processes, 372, 379
PCB, 33
pH effects, 80
Adsorption, 373
Aeroation, 373
Alkalinity reduction, 272
Alkalinity removal, 375
Anion exchange, 375
Boiler makeup, 379
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Subject Index/593
Cation exchange, 375
Chemical and allied products, 385, 386
Chlorination, 92
Clarification, 372
Coagulation, 50
Colloid removal, 379
Color stabilizing effect, 63
Cooling, 379
Corrosion control, 375
Demineralization, 375
Dissolved gases removal, 379
Dissolved solids removal, 379
Dissolved solids modification
Softening, 379
Distillation, 375
Electrodialysis, 375
External, 372, 374
Contaminants, 372
Raw water analysis, 373
Waste products, 372, 373
Filtration, 373
Foaming agents, 67
Food canning industry, 391
Hardness precipitation, 375
Internal, 372, 375
Ion exchange, 375
Iron sequestration, 375
Lime softening, 372, 373
Lumber industry, 382
Manganese sequestration, 375
Manganese zeolite, 375
Mixed bed exchange, 375
Nitrates-nitrites, 73
Oil and grease, 74
Oxygen scavenging, 375
pH control, 375
Paper and allied products, 383
Petroleum refining, 385
Phenolic compounds, 80
Plankton counts, 82
Rapid sand filtration, 50
Reverse osmosis, 375
Rough screens, 372
Scale control, 375
Sedimentation, 50, 372
Sediment dispersal, 375
Silica removal, 375
Sodium, 88
Sodium cation, 375
Sodium removal, 88
Suspended solids removal, 379
Temperature effects, 89
Textile industry, 381
Turbidity, 90
Ultrafiltration, 375
Water treatment technology, 370
Water use
Chemical and allied products, 384
Chemical manufacture, 384
Coolant, 89
Drinking water, 301
Farm household, 301
Farmsteads, 300
Drinking, 302
Household, 302
Food canning industry, 391
Potable water, 390
Industrial plant sites, 369
Industrial requirements, 378
Industry, 369
Boiler-feed, 369
Bottled/canned soft drinks, 370
Chemical and allied products, 384
Chemical products, 370
Condensing-cooling, 369
Food canning, 370, 389
Lumber and wood, 370
Manufacturing plants, 369
Mining/cement, 370
Once-through cooling, 376, 378
Petroleum refining, 370, 385
Plant intake, 369
Primary metals, 370
Pulp and paper, 370
Steam generation, 370, 376
Sources, 370
Tanning, 370
Textile mills, 370
Treatment facilities, 371
Treatment processes, 372
Treatment technology, 370, 371
Industry intake
Brackish water, 369
Freshwater, 369
Ground water, 369
Surface water, 369
Irrigation, 89
Livestock, 304
Lumber and wood industry, 381
Lumber and wood processing, 381
Milk for marketing, 301
Mining industry, 395
Objectionable odors, 301
Paper and allied products, 382
Paper and pulp industry; 382
Manufacturing purposes, 382
Surface supply, 383
Paper and pulp process, 382
Primary metals industry, 388
Coke products, 388
Hot strip mill, 388
Pig iron products, 388
Steel-making processes, 388
Tin plate, 388
Produce preparation, 301
Recycling, 369
Textile industry, 380
Washing
Milk-handling equipment, 302
Raw farm products. 302
Waste carrier, 89
Water use processes
Bottled and canned soft drinks, 392
Steam generation, 377
Water virus survival, 276
Waterborne disease, 91, 351
Waterfowl
Lead poisoning, 228
Lead toxicity, 228
Winter patterns, 195
Waterfowl food plants
Alkalinity-growth relationship, 194
Reedhead grass, 194
Waterfowl foods
Salinity, 195
Waterfront preservation, 10
Watershed alterations
Channelization, 124
Clearing of vegetation, 124
Diking, 124
Dredging, 124
Filling, 124
Impounding streams, 124
Rip-rapping, 124
Sand and gravel removal, 124
Shoreline modification, 124
Watersheds, 39
Waubesa Lake, Wise., 20
Well water
Contamination from farming, 73
Fertilization contamination, 73
Fluorine content, 312
Nitrate content, 73
West Falmouth, Mass.
Oil spill, 258
Whales, 217
Whistling swans
Lead ingestion effects, 228
White amur (see grass carp)
Whitefish
pH effects, 141
White Oak Creek, Oak Ridge
Atomic energy installations, 273
White Oak Lake, Oak Ridge
Atomic energy installations, 273
White pelicans
Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227
White perch
Ferric hydroxide effects, 249
White suckers
Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193
Whitetailed sea eagle
Mercury contamination, 252
Widgeongrass
Waterfowl food, 194
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, 10, 39
Wild celery
Waterfowl food, 194
Wildlife
Food protection, 194
Light penetration-plant growth relation-
ship, 195
PCB content, 175
Shelter, 194
Survival, 194
Wildlife embryos
2,4,5,T herbicide contaminant, 225
Chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins toxicity,
225
Chlorinated phenols, 225
Pentachlorophenol fungicide contaminant,
225
Wildlife species
Pollutants-life cycle relationship, 225
Wilson's petrel
Cadmium effects, 246
-------
594/"Water Quality Criteria, 1972
Windscale, England
Radiation outfall, 273
Wisconsin lakes, 20
Inorganic nitrogen content, 22
Inorganic phosphorus content, 22
Wood preservatives
Arsenic content, 243
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Oil spill studies, 258
World oceans
River sediment loads, 281
Xiphmema, 347
Xiphinema index, 349
Yellow perch
Spawning conditions, 164
Yuraa, Arizona
Irrigation water pesticides content, 346
Yusho disease
PCB, 83
Zinc
Bioaccumulation, 257
Dietary requirement
Livestock, 317
Poultry, 317
Human metabolism need, 93
Natural waters, 316, 317
Public water supply, 93
Water hardncss-toxicity effects, 182
Zinc solubility
Alkalinity, 93
pH value, 93
Zinc toxicity, 257
Farm a-iimals, 316
Zone of passage
Coastal waters, 115
Estuaries, 115
Lakes, 11!>
Reservoirs, 115
Rivers, 115
Water quality, 115
Zooplankters
Gas bubble disease, 138
Zooplankton
Aluminum tolerance, 242
Asphyxiation, 137
poster a marinus, 245
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19740—499-296
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