440177007B
ESTUARINE
POLLUTION CONTROL
AND ASSESSMENT
Proceedings
of a Conference
VOLUME II
o
«
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF WATER PLANNING AND STANDARDS
WASHINGTON, D.C.
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The contents of this publication do not reflect official policies of either
the Environmental Protection Agency or any other governmental unit.
Statements contained herein are to be ascribed solely to their authors.
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CONTENTS
VOLUME II
OTHER POLLUTANTS
PORTS
Oil Pollution in the Coastal Environment 385
John W. Farrington
Consequences of Oil Pollution in the Estuarine
Environment of the Gulf of Mexico 401
Lewis R. Brown
Solid Waste Disposal and its Relationship to
Estuarine Pollution 409
Hans A. Feibusch
Impact of Chlorination Processes on Marine
Ecosystems 415
William P. Davis, D. P. Middaugh
The Impact of Synthetic Organic Compounds on
Estuarine Ecosystems 425
Jeffrey L. Lincer
Trace Metals in the Oceans: Problem or No? 445
Earl W. Davey, Donald K. Phelps
Pollution in Nation's Estuaries Originating from
the Agricultural Use of Pesticides 451
Ming-Yu Li
The Impact of Offshore Petroleum Operations on
Marine and Estuarine Areas 467
Keith G. Hay
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
The Effect of Estuarine Circulation on Pollution
Dispersal 477
Hugo B. Fischer
The Crucial Role of Systematics in Assessing
Pollution Effects on the Biological Utilization of
Estuaries 487
Melbourne R. Carriker
Bacteria and Viruses—Indicators of Unnatural
Environmental Changes Occurring in the Nation's
Estuaries 507
Rita R. Colwell
National Estuarine Monitoring Program 519
Philip A. Butler
A Brief Assessment of Estuary Modeling—Recent
Developments and Future Trends 523
R. J. Callaway
Factors Bearing on Pollution Control in U.S. Ports
Located in Estuarine Areas 529
Edward Langlois
Factors Bearing on Pollution Control in West
Coast Estuarine Ports 545
Frank Boerger
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
Sea Grant Estuarine Studies 555
Leatha F. Miloy
Escarosa: the Anatomy of Panhandle Citizen In-
volvement in Estuarine Preservation 567
Thomas S. Hopkins
The Role of the Public in Texas Estuary Protec-
tion 581
Vernon Smylie
The Role of Citizen Action Groups in Protecting
and Restoring Wetlands in California 593
Fred S. Farr
LEGAL ASPECTS
Land Use Controls and Water Quality in the
Estuarine Zone 607
Marc J. Hershman
Structuring the Legal Regulation of Estuaries 617
Angus MacBeth
Estuarine Management—the Intergovernmental
Dimension 629
John J. Bosley
Basic Factors of Population Distribution Affecting
Demand for Water Resources 637
John C. Belcher
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
Economic Analysis in the Evaluation and Manage-
ment of Estuaries
John H. Cumberland
659
Establishing the Economic Value of Estuaries to
U.S. Commercial Fisheries 671
Dennis P. Tihansky, Norman F. Meade
ill
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iv CONTENTS
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Organizational Arrangements for Management of Seven Ways to Obliteration: Factors of Estuarine
Atlantic Coast Estuarine Environments 687 Degradation 723
Maurice P. Lynch Joel W. Hedgpeth
Evaluation of Water Quality in Estuaries and Interactions of Pollutants with the Uses of
Coastal Waters 701 Estuaries 739
William J. Hargis, Jr. T, Jfugene Cronin
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OTHER
POLLUTANTS
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OIL POLLUTION IN THE
COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
JOHN W. FARRiNGTON
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole, Massachusetts
ABSTRACT
Petroleum and petroleum products such as fuel oil and lubricating oil are very complex mixtures of
chemicals with individual compounds numbering at least m the tens of thousands. This very com-
plex chemical mixture is introduced into the already complex system of interacting physical,
chemical, biological, and geological components which constitute the marine environment. Thus,
ihe investigation of the impact of oil pollution on the marine environment is a difficult undertaking
\vhich will require much more research before some of the potentially most serious problems are
fully understood.
INTRODUCTION
Oil pollution in the estuarine and coastal environ-
ment is the subject of many strong political, eco-
nomic, and environmental arguments. The advent
of new and/or expanding refinery operations, port
facilities, deepwatcr oil terminals, offshore drilling
and production, pipelines, ocean dumping, and
tanker traffic requires an understanding of the im-
pact of accidentally or intentionally discharged oil
on the coastal zone environment.
A major portion of our knowledge about oil pollu-
tion has been obtained during the past five years.
The acquisition of this knowledge was catalyzed by
such well publicized incidents as the massive Torrey
Canyon oil tanker spill, the Santa Barbara oil well
blowouts and smaller but extensively studied spills
such as the West Falmoufh. Mass., oil spill (Anon.,
1971; Smith, I'M*; Straughan and Kolpack, 1971;
Blumer et al., 1971 a).
The findings of many oil spill studies and labora-
tory and field surveys of oil pollution are subjects
of serious debate' within the scientific community,
and also within the governmental, public, and private
sectors of the world. The controversy involving
seemingly conflicting reports about the impact of
oil pollution resulted in the convening of a study
group by the National Academy of Sciences to
ascertain the state of our knowledge with respect
to the inputs, fates, and effects of oil pollution in
the marine environment and to point to areas in
need of further research. The study group met
in May 1973. The report will be issued late in 1974
or early 1975 after more than a year of debate and
revision. It is clear after reading the final drafts of
this report and also the background papers (NAS,
1973, 1974) leading to the first draft, that areas of
controversy remain. It is also clear from reading
these same reports and reviewing current literature
that significant progress towards understanding the
inputs, fate, and effects of oil in the marine environ-
ment has been achieved.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this paper are as follows:
1) To provide a summary of available information.
-) To discuss areas of controversy arid areas of
limited knowledge.
3) To suggest information which can be of use in
making management decisions regarding the estu-
arine and coastal environment.
4) To suggest some approaches towards providing
the further information needed to adequately under-
stand and/or monitor oil pollution.
A review and discussion of the engineering aspects
of the prevention, control, and abatement of oil pol-
lution will not be attempted. They are subjects
better treated by someone more knowledgeable in
the field of engineering. Readers interested in these
topics will find them discussed in the Proceedings
of the Conferences on the Prevention and Control of
Oil Pollution (API, 1909. 1971, 1973).
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
There are numerous sources of published informa-
tion about oil pollution. These sources include news-
paper accounts, technical reports, and refereed scien-
385
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386
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
tific journal publications. Generally, the latter is
the information source most highly regarded for its
accuracy and objectivity. Scientific journal articles
are usually rigorously reviewed by the authors' peers
prior to acceptance for publication. There are numer-
ous scientific journal articles dealing with oil pollu-
tion. There are, however, far more technical reports
reporting on oil pollution studies. The preponderance
of technical reports is the result of the need to get
information to decision makers, including the public,
as rapidly as possible. If a scientist waited for the
normal review and publication process in a scientific
journal he would experience a delay of approximately
6 to 18 months after writing a report of the study.
The demands for information often require a more
rapid transfer process from the arena of science to
that of decision makers. But a penalty is paid. The
peer review process is circumvented unless the deci-
sion makers arrange for peer review of the report.
They are well advised to do so, including peer review
of this report.
11 is fortunate that, as previously ment'.oned, the
subject of oil pollution in the marine environment
has recently been reviewed by the National Academy
of Sciences study group. Readers interested in a
detailed review of the subject are referred to the
Background Papers for this study and the Final
Report (NAS. 1973, 1974). There are also several
other reports from workshops, symposiums, or con-
ferences, and books which provide a broad review of
the literature or contain in one collection several
papers on recent progress (API, 1969, 1971, 1973;
Duce and Parker, 1974; Goldberg, 1972 a, b, c;
Ketchum, 1972; SCEP, 1970; Smith, 1974; NAS,
1971; Alathews et al., 197 L; Hoult, 196E; Boesch,
et al., 1974).
Two large collections of references dealing with
oil pollution studies are those of the Oil Spill Infor-
mation Center, University Library, the University
of California, Santa Barbara; and the Plymouth
Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of
the United Kingdom. I have avoided listing an ex-
tensive bibliography because there are ever 2,000
references dealing with the various aspects of oil
pollution contained in the files of the two biblio-
graphic collections, books, reports, and papers cited
above. Rather key references or references to reviews
are given.
SOURCES OF OIL INPUT
TO THE UNITED STATES COASTAL ZONE
There are several sources for oil entering the
marine environment. These are given in Tables 1
and 2 along with the estimated annual input rate
Table 1.—Estimate of petroleum and petroleum hydrocarbon inputs to the
marine environment
(Millions of metric tons per year)
Normal Operations
Offshore Production a__ ______ _ _ ._
Transportation a
Load on top tankers
Non-load on top tankers
Dry docking
Terminal operations
Bilges bunkering __
Coastal Refineries "
Coastal Municipal Wastes * _ _ _ _
Coastal Non-Refinery Industrial Wastes a
Urban Runoff b_.
River Runoff b
Atmosphere c __ _ _
Natural Seeps b
Accidents *
Offshore production
Tankers
Non-tankers .. - _ _ -_
World
0.02
0.31
0.77
0.25
0.003
0.5
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.6
0.6
0.6
0.06
0.2
0.10
6.113
U S.
0.003
0 05
0.12
0.039
0.0004
0.078
0.03
0 10
0.10
0.10
0.53
0.18
0.12
0.01
0.03
0.02
1.510
a Estimate with high confidence rating.
b Estimate with modest confidence rating.
c Estimate with low confidence rating.
Table 2.—United States petroleum and petroleum hydrocarbon inputs to the
marine environment
Offshore Production
Normal operations _-_
Accidents
Subtotal _ . .
Tankers
Normal operations
Accidents _ _ _.
Subtotal
Non-Tankers
Bilges bunkering _ ..
Subtotal
Coastal Refineries . __.
Coastal Municipal Wastes
Coastal Non-Refinery Industrial Waste
Urban Runoff
River Runoff _
Atmosphere _ _
Natural Seeps
Subtotal __.
Total _,
Million Metric
Tons per Year
0.003
0.01
0.013
0.209
0.03
0.239
0.078
0.02
0.098
0.03
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.53
0.18
0.12
0.10
1.51
%of
Total
0.20
0.66
0.86
13.84
1.99
14.73
5.17
1.32
6.49
1.99
6.62
6.62
6.62
35.10
11.92
7.95
for each source. Figure 1 provides a graphical pre-
sentation of the pathways of oil input to the marine
environment. Table 1 compares the estimates for
the world input and those for the United States
inputs. Table 2 presents the United States input in
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
387
NON-ACCIDENTAL
NORMAL OPERATION
INPUTS
ACCIDENTAL
INPUTS
FIGUKK 1.—Pathways of oil input.
terms of annual input rates and the percentage of
the total input in each category.
Several important points about these tables are:
1) The world input values and some of the United
States input values were taken directly from the
NAS (National Academy of Sciences) report (1973,
1974). Other values for the United States input
were calculated from values given in the NAS report.
2) The estimated input rates are in some cases
approximations with a wide range of uncertainty.
The NAS report ranked the estimates according to
the degree of confidence in the value given. These
rankings are given in Table 1.
3) These estimates are global or national averages.
The relative importance of the various sources of
oil entering the marine environment varies with geo-
graphical location and time. For example, a large
well blowout would be a massive input of oil to a
given location and even when averaged over a 10
year period of time would result in the offshore
drilling and production accidental input category
dominating inputs for that geographical location.
4) The largest inputs of oil are from normal
operations and are intentional discharges. Acci-
dents account for only 4 percent of the U.S. input
and 6 percent of the world input to the marine
environment.
5) Oil tanker operations account for l(i times as
much oil input as offshore production for the U.S.,
and 20 times as much for world inputs.
When considering the oil inputs to the coastal
zone, as opposed to the total marine environment,
some consideration must be given to the location of
the inputs from tanker operations. The largest input
in tanker operations is from ballasting operations.
These normally should occur at sea well away from
coastal areas. How much of this input actually
reaches the coastal areas is a complex function of
the physical, chemical, and biological weathering
and degradation of the oil and also the surface cur-
rent system off the coast. My guesstimate is that
very little of the total tanker discharge reaches the;
U.S. coast although the portion that does in the
form of tar particles, tarballs, or slicks may be
aesthetically unpleasing and contribute to the total
impact of oil pollution on the ecological integrity of
the coastal zone.
6) The atmospheric input figure given in Table 2
is the estimated U.S. input to the world oceans. The
input to the coastal zone from dry fallout and rain
is some unknown fraction of the value1 in Table 2.
7) The input from rivers and from land opera-
tions contiguous with the U.S. coastal waters is
substantial and accounts for ,">7 percent of the total
input.
8) The effect of the input from the various sources
can be quite different. For example1, accidental spills
are point source and point in time inputs which
may have immediate acute effects and long term
chronic effects. Municipal or industrial effluents on
the other hand may have no measurable immediate
impact but may have long term chronic effects as
the concentration of the petroleum chemicals builds
up in the ecosystem receiving the; input.
Management Decisions Suggested
by the Input Data
Several important points relating to the control
of oil pollution discharges are suggested by our cur-
rent knowledge of oil inputs to the coastal zone.
1) The largest category of inputs is the chronic
dribbling of oil into the coastal zone by industrial
and municipal effluents, urban runoff, and river
runoff from inland areas. Thus a substantial amount
of oil will be discharged to the U.S. coastal zone
regardless of whether it is transported to the coastal
zone via tanker or produced by offshore wells in the
U.S. coastal and continental shelf waters. Unless
steps are taken to reduce it this input will increase
as our oil consumption increases.
Management decision:-- which would have a signifi-
cant effect in reducing this input are:
a. Reduce per capita oil consumption.
b. Encourage re-refining or reuse of waste oils.
This would reduce inputs and help conserve
a valuable natural resource.
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388
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
c. Require the application and/or development
of technology to reduce the amount of oil in
industrial effluents, including refinery efflu-
ents. This applies both to effluents discharg-
ing directly to streams, rivers, or coastal
waters and those discharging to municipal
sewers.
2) Drilling and producing oil in offshore areas is
safer for the total marine environment than import-
ing equal quantities of oil because current estimates
are that approximately 0.014 percent of oil produced
offshore is discharged to the marine1 environment,
whereas about 8 times as much or 0.11 percent of
the oil transported by tanker is discharged to the
marine environment. This assumes that oil produced
offshore from a given location is piped ashore and
refined or used there without subsequent transporta-
tion by sea to other locations. The statement must
also be qualified in that it is assumed that the impact
of accidental spills and chronic small inputs from
oil tankers and from offshore production and drill-
ing have similar effects per unit amount of oil
input. Finally, this statement does not take into
account the ecological damage which may result in
coastal areas due to the construction and mainten-
ance of pipelines and onshore facilities.
IDENTIFICATION OF SOURCES
OF MYSTERY OIL SPILLS
Mystery oil spills for which the source is unknown
account for 30 percent of the oil spills in United
States waters (XAS, 1973, 1974). There are two
potential means by which the source of mvstery oil
spills can be identified. The first method is active
tagging of oil tanker cargoes, pipeline loads, and
storage tank contents with microscopic .spheres or
special chemicals. The size of the bureaucracy neces-
sary to ensure accurate records renders this method
impractical.
The second method involves detailed chemical
analysis of the spilled oils and potential sources.
The chemical parameters are then compared and
the best match of a potential source with tie spilled
oil is attempted. This technique is called "passive
tagging" and makes use of the unique chemical
composition of each oil to distinguish oils one from
another and match oils from source and spill sam-
ples. The technique is also referred to a*- "finger-
printing," which is perhaps unfortunate. Many non-
scientists in the field of oil pollution comrol have
mistakenly equated "fingerprinting" in identifying
mystery oil spill sources with fingerprinting in crim-
inology. This is not the case. The farmer is in it.-,
infancy as a technique.
The success of passive tagging in actually proving
beyond a reasonable doubt the source of a spill
depends on having a complete collection of all pos-
sible sources. Then the analytical chemist applies
increasingly more sophisticated analytical techniques
until the parameters of one potential source match
the parameters of the spit,! sample. However, if the
actual sourci is'not present in the sample Collection
incorrect identification could result. It could be that
a further application of more sophisticated chemical
analysis \\ould have shown that in fact the suurc<-
was not among the collection of possible sources.
Passive tagging can be used to eliminate" possible
sources and give a probability estimate" of the source.
The1 status erf passive tagging in criminal or civil
court case's involving oil pollution has yet to be
e-xtensively tested. The technique is erf use in proving
potential sources of a mystery e>il spill were" ne>t the
actual source. The technie|uc use-el in conjunctiem
with otheT corroborate e e"vicle"iice may provide1 suffi-
cient evidence to identify the source erf a spill. Aside
from the" le-gnl aspects, passive tagging may proviele-
se>me estimate- erf the" e'xtent and seve'riiy of enl pol-
lutiejn from a known source1 such as a re-nne"r\ efflu-
ent, producing well, or accidental ^pill of known
en-igin.
The- scientific and technical aspect •< as we-ll as
limitations erf passive- tagging are1 discusseel in detail
by Zafiriem et al. (1973), Ciruemel.! H973), Lynch
and Brown (1973), Miller (1973), and Coakley
(1973)
PATHWAYS OF TRANSFER
AND FATES OF OIL INPUTS
TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
A basic uiide-rstaneling erf the various pathways
of transfer and fate of e>il inputs has been arrive-e) at
from lalmratory stuelie>, fie-lel studies, and the> appli-
catiem of existing scientific knowleelge erf processe-s
in the marine1 environment. These pathways and
fates are diagrammed in Fig. 2 Fundamental ejus1^-
tions which are yet to be1 satisfactorily answe-red
about transfer pathways and fate's are.
• What portions erf oil inputs fe>llow eae:h of the
various pathways erf tronsf'-r?
• What are the rates erf bioche-mical ami chemical
elegradation of whejle; oil and components of enl
during the various stages of movement through the
marine1 environment?
• What are- the final rate's of removal erf oil bv
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
389
BEACHES
BIOCHEMICAL
OXIDATION
FIGURE 2.—Fate of oil inputs.
biochemical and chemical degradation, and by deep
burial in sediments?
Physical-Chemical Processes
Many of the processes which act on the oil result
in a fractionation of the oil and selective removal of
certain components from the marine environment
more rapidly than others. Lower molecular weight
components of the type found in kerosene, gasoline,
and in varying concentrations of crude oils and fuel
oils will evaporate more rapidly than the heavier
molecular weight components such as those making
up the bulk of lubricating oils. The lower molecular
weight components are also more soluble than the
heavier molecular weight molecules. For example,
several experiments (Boylari and Tripp, 1971;
Frankenfeld, 1973; API, 1974) have shown that
when No. 2 fuel oil is placed in contact with sea-
water, the aromatic hydrocarbons of the fuel oil are
dissolved or accommodated in the water to a greater
extent than are the saturated hydrocarbon compo-
nents of the oil.
The adsorption of oil onto or into suspended
sediments and subsequent washing with water can
result in fractionation of the oil with some compo-
nents adhering more readily to the sediments than
others (Meyers, 1972). However, this may not
always occur. Mixing of a No. 2 fuel oil with sedi-
ment by wave action and turbulence resulted in
essentially intact oil being incorporated into sedi-
ments (Blumer et al., 1971b).
Once oil is incorporated into sediments it may be
transported to other areas by resuspcnsion and trans-
port of the oil polluted sediment (Straughan and
Kolpack, 1971; NAS, 1973, 1974; Blumer et al.,
1970). Man also plays an important role in this
process by dumping oil polluted sediment from har-
bor dredging and sewage sludge in coastal areas
such as the New York Bight (Farrington, 1974).
The result of the natural or manmade processes is
to spread the oil polluted sediment and thus the
affected area increases even though dilution proc-
esses may ameliorate the effects somewhat.
Biodegradation of Oil
Extensive research has been aimed towards a
better understanding of the biodegradation of oil
and individual classes of compounds, and individual
compounds found in oil (NAS, 1973, 1975; Davis,
1967; Zobell, 1969; Ahearn and Meyers, 1973). The
majority of these studies are laboratory studies.
There is little doubt that several species of micro-
organisms, e.g. bacteria and yeasts, will completely
degrade certain components of oil given the right
conditions in the laboratory or in the field. It has
been established that the rate of degradation will
depend on many factors such as the concentrations
of nitrate, phosphate, and dissolved oxygen in the
water, the presence of other organic compounds,
and the history of previous exposure of an area to
oil inputs.
Bacteria capable of partially degrading oil have
been isolated from several locations in the world's
oceans. However, the rate at which the degradation
of oil will proceed in the various types of coastal
areas is unknown. Also questioned is the potential
pathogenicity towards marine organisms for some
species of bacteria which might increase in number
near or in an oil spill area (NAS, 1974). Likewise,
little is known about the toxicity of the chemicals
produced by microbial degradation of oil. In fact,
we have only rudimentary knowledge of the bio-
chemical pathways and products of the biochemical
degradation of oil (NAS, 1973, 1975; Davis, 1967;
Zobell, 1969; Ahearn and Meyers, 1973).
Oil in Marine Organisms:
Input, Retention,
Release, Metabolism
The pathways of oil incorporation into marine
organisms are outlined in the left portion of Figure 3.
Oil may enter marine organisms by ingestion of
contaminated food. Oil may also enter marine orga-
nisms from water across membrane surfaces such
as gills.
Data collected in three independent studies sug-
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390
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
COATING
A DIRECT KILL
B REDUCE RESISTANCE TO
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL
STRESSES eg TEMPERATURE,
DISEASES, OTHER POLLUTANTS
^ I PARTICIPATE OIL ^^
\* i ^N.
UBLE .»< t .
)|L •T^EMUSIFIEDOIL ^^
x"
DISSOLVED OR
ACCOMODATED _^ PLANKTON
INTO WATER t ^^
V\X
_>\/T
SEDIMENTS X SHELLFISH
WORMS
*, 2 OIL INGESTED OR INC(
» ACROSS MEMBRANES
SURFACES
A DIRECT KILL
B SUBLETHAL EFFE
J 1 REPRODUCT
2 CHEMICAL CO
FAILURE
3 STRESSED A"
TO OTHER SF
ABILITY TO A
AND TO CAPT
4 DISRUPTION t
eg SALMON
EFFECTS ON MARKET ING OF
COMMERCIALLY VALUABLE SPECIES
5RPORATED
eg GILL
CTS
,/E FAILURE
MMUNICATIONS
DISADVANTAGE
EClESeg
VOID PREDATOR
UREPREY
)F MIGRATION
1 TAINTING ASTHETICALLV UNPLEASANT
2 HUMAN HEALTH HAZARD-POTENTIAL
HAZARD LITTLE KNOWLEDGE
FIGURE 3.—Pathways of oil incorporation into marine life
and effects on marine life.
gest that oil incorporation into shellfish a,nd fish is
reversible to some extent when the shellfish or fish
are placed in clean water for a period of time
(Stegeman and Teal, 1973; Lee et al., 1972 a, b;
Anderson, 1973). Most, but not all, of the oil taken
up from water by the shellfish was discharged within
weeks to months. Indications, however, from a lim-
ited number of analyses for one experiment reveal
that oysters exposed for two months to oil from an
oil spill did not appreciably reduce their oil pollut-
ant content even after 180 days in cleaner waters.
The fact that this experiment gave somewhat dif-
ferent results than the other experiments may be a
result of the heavy dosage of oil experienced by the
shellfish under spill conditions.
Fish tested in the laboratory partially metabolized
several different aromatic hydrocarbons of the type
found in crude and fuel oils (Lee et al., 1972b).
Mussels, however, did not metabolize these com-
pounds under similar laboratory test conditions.
(Lee et al., 1972a). This points to the obvious
danger of extrapolating from one class or species of
organism to others. Furthermore, caution should be
exercised in extrapolating from the few compounds
tested to other compounds in petroleum since dif-
ferences in the molecular structure of compounds
can have profound effects on the rates at which the
compounds are metabolized, if they are metabolized
at all.
The above studies provided several replicate tests
of the uptake of petroleum hydrocarbons from water
by marine organisms and the retention and release
once these organisms are placed in clean water.
Aside from the few measurements mentioned above
(Blumer, 1971), there are no studies of the retention
of petroleum hydrocarbons taken up under condi-
tions of massive inputs to the organisms' habitat
by oil spills. There are also no studies on the uptake,
retention, and discharge of petroleum hydrocarbons
via ingestion with food. The studies cited above do
provide a good model for future studies of longer
duration which could test the effects of years of
exposure to chronic inputs of oil via uptake across
membrane surfaces from water or ingested with food.
An important question for which these studies
provide some insight is whether or not there is food
web magnification of oil pollutants. An example of
food web magnification is the process where oil pol-
lutants of X concentration in phytoplankton would
become 10X concentrated in the zooplankton which
eat the phytoplankton, and 100X concentrated in
the fish which eat the zooplankton. This process
would occur if the zooplankton and fish, the higher
members of the food web, accumulated all the pol-
lutant they ingested and did not metabolize or
discharge a portion of the pollutant. This process,
if operative, would mean that many commercially
valuable species of marine organisms which are
higher members of the food web may concentrate
petroleum pollutants to the extent that adverse
effects would ensue. There is also the question of
whether concentrations would reach a limit which
would adversely affect the human consumer. The
data collected in these and two other studies (Burns
and Teal, 1971, 1973) suggest that food web mag-
nification is not operative for some communities of
marine organisms.
Application of Existing Knowledge
BlODEGRADATION OF OlL INPUTS
Investigations of the feasibility of seeding oil
spills with bacteria shown to be capable of degrading
oil in the laboratory have been initiated (Miget,
R. J., 1973). This has been suggested as only a last
resort approach by the NAS report (1974). The
benefits accrued from releasing an essentially un-
controlled chain of unknown events are far out-
weighed by the potential hazards at this time.
Applications of existing knowledge about biodeg-
radation of oil may find widespread use in the near
future. Biodegradation of oil in industrial effluent
holding ponds, tanker ballast waters either in tanks
on the ships or in holding facilities on shore may be
a feasible method of partially cleaning up this type
of input to the marine environment while it is still
concentrated at its source (XAS, 1974).
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
391
PATHWAYS OF TRANSFER AND FATE
It is known to sonic degree how oil pollutants
move through the marine environment and where
they tend to accumulate. This information facilitates
surveys of the extent and damage, of the oil inputs
to the marine environment. It also provides input
to models which attempt to predict the movement
of oil spills and their severity and extent.
Another application is in the evaluation of the
advantages and limitations of methods of treating
or cleaning up oil spills. For example, the use of
non-toxic emulsitiers (see later section on effects)
or dispersants on an oil spill would result in increased
dissolution of the oil and accommodation into the
water column, adsorption into particulate matter,
and incorporation into sediments. On the one hand
this might further the biodegradation of the oil by
increasing mixing of oil, nutrients, oxygen, and nat-
urally occurring microbial populations capable of
degrading the oil. On the other hand, it would spread
oil throughout the water column and sediments,
potentially increasing the extent and severity of the
toxic effects on organisms. The incorporation of sig-
nificant quantities of the oil into sediments could
prolong the exposure of an area to the oil and have
an adverse effect on the bottom dwelling organisms.
Resuspension of the sediment and transport to other
areas \\ould increase the size of the affected area.
The use of sinking agents to remove the slick from
surface waters \\ould also result in the incorporation
of the oil into sediments and thus may not be ad-
visable for the same reasons cited in the previous
paragraph. Of course, in cases where dangers from
fire or extensive damage from coating of boats or
beaches is the primary concern then the use of sink-
ing or dispersing agents would be advisable.
The discussion in the preceding paragraphs under-
lines the point that prevention of accidental dis-
charges is preferable to cleanup operations. Like-
wise, it is clear that research and development con-
cerned with physical contamination and cleanup of
oil spills should continue.
Summary
Once oil is released to the marine environment it
is subjected to multiple processes and moves via
many pathways through the marine environment.
Research during the past few years has documented
beyond any doubt that the absence of a visible oil
slick in no way assures the absence of oil in the
underlying waters, sediments, or organisms. Further-
more, oil incorporated into sediments may persist
for years (Blurner ct al., 1970). Since sediments are
an integral component of their environment, this
same exposure may affect the adjacent marine en-
vironment in varying degrees.
An additional important point to make regarding
oil pollution of marine organisms consumed by man
is that negative indications of oil pollution by taste
panel tests have occurred even when the shellfish
tested contained at least 2 ppm (wet weight) of oil
pollutants from a No. 2 fuel oil spill as determined
by chemical analysis (Blumer et al., 1971b). The
chemicals responsible for the adverse taste may be
metabolized or released more rapidly than the bulk
of the oil pollutants in the organisms. Therefore,
negative taste panel tests do riot assure the absence
of oil pollutants. Furthermore, there has yet to be
a study to calibrate taste panel tests with seafood
containing known concentrations of oil.
Recommendation
It is essential that further research be conducted
on the transfer of oil pollutants into marine orga-
nisms, partitioning of the pollutants within the
organisms, metabolism within the organisms, and
release1 or discharge of oil pollutants once the orga-
nisms are no longer exposed to the oil pollutants in
their habitat. This information is basic to under-
standing the effects of oil pollution on marine
organisms, to understanding pathways of transfer
and fate of oil pollutants in the marine environment,
and to understanding if, when, and how oil pollutants
accumulate in seafood.
MEASUREMENT OF AND
CURRENT LEVELS OF OIL POLLUTION
IN THE UNITED STATES COASTAL ZONE
AND CONTINENTAL SHELF
Analysis of Marine Samples
to Detect Petroleum Pollution
Discussions of the procedures used and the prob-
lems encountered in analyzing marine samples for
quantities of oil not visible to the eye are given in
several references (NAS, 1973; NAS, 1974; API,
1969, 1971, 1973; Goldberg, 1972b; Goldberg,
1972c). The discussions are of a very technical
nature and are best summarized for a report of
this type as follows:
1) Several cases have been reported in which
petroleum hydrocarbons from accidental spills and
from chronic inputs have been detected.
2) No one method of analysis will provide reliable
estimates of the concentration of the entire range of
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392
ESTUAEINE POLLUTION CONTROL
petroleum compounds. Fuel oils and crude oils are
complex mixtures of compounds with wide molecu-
lar \veight ranges. There has yet to be a complete
analysis of a single crude oil.
3) There are marked differences between hydro-
carbons biosynthesized by organisms and hydrocar-
bons in petroleum. The latter are very much more
complex than the former and include a wide variety
of compounds which have not been found in orga-
nisms in laboratory culture experiments or in areas
where there is little or no petroleum pollution. How-
ever, many sources exist for small amounts of hydro-
carbons in marine samples: biological processes, geo-
chemical processes, pollution processes. Careful at-
tention to recognizing the possible inputs from these
sources is needed in order to detect man's input of
petroleum pollutants. In areas where natural oil
seeps occur, this problem is extremely difficult.
4) Reports of the presence or absence of petroleum
pollution should be carefully evaluated to be certain
that the methods of chemical analysis employed
would indeed provide the information claimed to
have been obtained.
Table 3.—Concentrations of petroleum pollutants in water, sediments, and
organisms of the coastal and continental shelf areas of the United States
Water.
Sediments:
Organisms:
Tar on Beaches:
less than 2 /Jg/hter to 50 //g/liter
less than 1 Mg/8 dry weight to 3500 ME/8 dry weight
less than 1 jug/g wet weight to 230 /jg/g wet weight
East Coast (1969)—5 g/meter to 8 g/meter
Florida, Miami Beach to West Palm Beach (1973)—avg. of
5.4 g/meter
California (1961)—3 to 100 g/meter
NAS (1973,1974), and references therein.
nism samples have been reported in the literature
to date exclusive of reports of visible sheens on
the water.
The fact that there are so few published measure-
ments of the extent and severity of oil pollution in
sediments and organisms in United States coastal
waters probably testifies to the difficulty of making
analytical measurements to detect petroleum pollu-
tion. (Goldberg, 1972a).
Present Concentrations of
Oil Pollutants in U.S. Coastal
and Continental Shelf Areas
There are a limited number of measurements of
oil pollutants in the water, sediment, and organisms
of the United States coastal zone. Only a few loca-
tions have been sampled more than once. In addition
to the lack of data, it is difficult to compare one
area with the other because of the differences in
methods of analysis and criteria for distinguishing
oil pollutant hydrocarbons from hydrocarbons pres-
ent due to biogenic or contemporary geochemical
processes. Despite these restrictions the data do
provide estimates of the present concentrations of
oil pollutants and are given in Table 3. These data
are taken mainly from the NAS Report with elimi-
nation of the data for coastal areas of other countries
and for deep sea samples.
General conclusions which can be drawn from
these data and the data given in the NAS Report
from which they were summarized are as follows.
1) Oil pollutants have been detected in sediment,
water, and organisms in areas of large oil spills.
2) Oil pollutants have also been detected in sedi-
ment, water, and organisms from areas where no
large spills have occurred in the past months or
years. These areas are near sources of small spills
and chronic dribbling inputs.
3) No more than an estimated 300 analyses for
petroleum pollutants in sediment, water, a.nd orga-
EFFECTS OF OIL
ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Aesthetic Effects
The coating of beaches, shorelines, and recrea-
tional and commercial boats and ships by spilled
oil is an obvious adverse effect. This represents a
financial loss to boat owners and to the recreational
and aesthetic value of a shoreline (NAS, 1974;
Butler et al., 1973).
Biological Effects
Toxic EFFECTS
Toxic effects involving the death of the organism
exposed to oil may occur soon after exposure to the
oil slick or to oil components transported through
the water or via sediments as indicated in Figures
2 and 3 and previous discussions. Toxic effects may
also occur at later dates as the concentrations of oil
in the organisms increase or the oil is transported
to new areas.
Toxic effects generally can be divided into two
categories: effects from smothering in the oil, or
effects from oil taken into the organisms or absorbed
into the organisms from water or sediments. Toxic
effects have been reported for spilled oil and from
studies in the laboratory (NAS, 1974).
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
393
SUBLETHAL AND CHRONIC EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS
These effects do not directly result in the immedi-
ate death of tlu; organism exposed to oil. There are
numerous ways that oil can have an adverse effect
on marine life without the result being immediately
apparent in the form of dead plants or animals. The
types of effects in this category which have been
observed or suspected as being important for indi-
vidual organisms are effects on:
Reproduction
Fertilization and development
Growth
Metabolism—photosynthesis and respiration
Behavior
Cells and organs
Some specific examples of the above are given
below. A more detailed presentation is given in the
NAS Report (1974).
1) The reduction in the intake and metabolism
of phytoplankton detritus by mussels (Gilfillan,
1973)—an effect on metabolism.
2) Reduction in the rates of photosynthesis of
phytoplankton cultures (Kauss et ah, 1973; Parker,
1974). This is an interference with the process by
which carbon dioxide is converted to food for the
major part of marine life—an effect on metabolism.
3) Interference with the chemical communication
between marine animals. Many marine animals com-
municate with one another via chemicals given off
to the water, i.e. odors. Some predators are attracted
to their prey by smell. One study has shown a sig-
nificant adverse effect on the finding of food by a
predator (Jacobson and Boylan, 1973).
Chemical communications or chemotaxis are also
important to the reproduction of some animals.
Male lobsters are attracted to female lobsters for
reproductive purposes by a chemical released by the
female. Low concentrations of chemicals resulting
from oil in the water may interfere with this process.
A third area where chemical communications is
important is in the area of migration to home rivers
by auadromous fish for the purpose of spawning.
One laboratory study lias shown that oil in sea water
repels salmon i'r«>ni entering the water of their home
stream (Rice, 1973).
The .significance of these studies is that they
demonstrate the potential effects that low concen-
tration* of oil in water might have if a spill or
chronic release occurred at the time of year when
marine animals were entering the reproductive
phase. The effects on predator-prey interactions
would be important throughout the year. Those
are effects on behavior which result in adverse
effects in other functions such as reproduction and
metabolism.
4) Blue mussels which were juveniles in the area
of the; West Falinouth oil spill at the time of the
spill developed almost no eggs or sperm the next
season (Blumer et al., 1971a). The development of
sand dollar eggs has also been shown to be adversely
affected by oil in the laboratory studies (Parker,
1974)—effects on reproduction.
3) Effects at the cellular and organ level in clams
have been reported. Soft shell clams from an area
near an oil spill had a higher incidence of gonadal
tumors than soft shell clams from a control area
(LaRoche, 1973)—effects on cells and organs and
probably on reproduction.
EFFECTS ON THE COMMUNITIES
OF MARINE ORGANISMS
Closely related communities of organisms may
also be profoundly affected. For example, effects
on marsh grasses may cause the marsh to be an
unsuitable place for the crabs and mussels which
live in the marsh. Effects on worms in the sediments
can affect the fish which feed on the worms. Many
worms also play an important part in sediment
stability. Their tubes contribute to holding the sedi-
ment in place. If the worms are killed and the tubes
decay the sediment may be easily eroded and the
polluted sediment transported to other areas. The
movement of the sediment will disturb other orga-
nisms living on the bottom even though they might
not have been directly affected by the oil.
OIL SPILLS
One of the most heated controversies regarding
oil pollution is that surrounding studies of the bio-
logical effects of oil inputs to the marine environ-
ment. The controversy is due in part to a seeming
contradiction of the reported effects or lack of effects
when comparing studies of oil spills. The contra-
diction arises when one does not carefully read
reports and take into account two basic sets of
factors for oil spill studies.
The first set of factors pertains to the oil spill
itself. These factors were set forth by Straughan
(1972) and have recently been restated (NAS,
1974). They vary from spill to spill arid influence
the effect and fate of the spilled oil. They are:
Type of oil spilled
Dose of oil in a given area
Physiography of the area of the spill
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394
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Weather conditions at the time of the spill
Biota of the area of the spill
Previous exposure of the area to oil pollution
Exposure to other pollutants
Treatment of spill, e.g. use of emulsifiers, dis-
persants, or sinking agents
A second set of factors influencing oil spill stud-
ies are:
1) A spill is not predictable as to its location and
time. In the past, studies of spills have been of the
nature of getting out into the; area with the best
available means at hand and studying what could
be studied within the expertise of the scientists in-
volved. In an ideal situation this would involve
biologists, chemists, geochemists, geologists, meteor-
ologists, and physical oceanographers. Sueh a team
of scientists is rarely sitting around waiting for an
oil spill to happen and as such it is difficult for
them to drop everything they are doing and head
out for the field or immediately begin laboratory
studies.
2) The different methods used to study oil spills,
the different animals or plants studied, and differ-
ences in the duration of the study vary from one;
spill to the next. Thus, the task of trying to com-
pare studies from one spill to the next is a frustrating
one somewhat akin to comparing measurements of
distance in kilometers to measurements oi distance
in miles without having more than a foggy idea of
the conversion factor.
The oil spill studies to date have shown that
spilled oil does adversely affect some marine orga-
nisms (NAS, 1973, 1974), The effects vary in
severity and duration. Complete recovery nay take
years and is not related to whether or not there are
visible concentrations of oil present.
LABORATORY STUDIES
OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
A comparison of laboratory studies of the effects
of oil on marine organisms suffers from many of tin;
same restrictions cited in the above section on oil
spills. A variety of oils have been tested on a variety
of marine organisms under a variety of laboratory
conditions.
However, several studies have been conducted
under conditions similar enough or conducted in the
same laboratory so that the following comments
can be set foriji (NAS, 1973, 1974). The studies
have shown, as one might expect, that concentrations
of oil at which biological effects occur can vary from
fuel oil to fuel oil and crude oil to crude oil when
tested against one species. The studies have also
shown that different species and adults and juveniles
of the same species vary in their susceptibility to
toxic effects when tested against the same oil.
EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE
DRILLING AND PRODUCTION
The question of the long-term effects of offshore
drilling and production on fisheries is one which has
no easy answer. Certainly, the fisheries in the Gulf
of Mexico have not been destroyed and are a viable
sector of the economy. This experience suggests at
first glance that no long-term effects have1 been
noticed. However, for the sake of argument I pro-
pose the following scenario: Prior to offshore produc-
tion in the Gulf of Mexico the fisheries there were
at a very low level of productivity due to natural
cause's. During the past 30 years or so the fishery
would have increased in productivity potential by a
factor of 10. However, because of some unknown
and undetected effect of the oil production the
fishery only increased in yield by a factor of 2. This
factor of 2 suggests by itself that the oil production
had no long-term effect and may have been some-
what beneficial. However, we cannot state for cer-
tain that there was no effect, since in reality we; do
not know what the fishery potential would have
been without the oil production. The hypothetical
factor of 10 \\ hich was used for the sake of the argu-
ment might have been realized without the presence
of the offshore drilling and production activities.
Likewise, it may be argued on a hypothetical basis
that without the offshore drilling and production
rigs the fishery may have declined due to natural
causes. Without knowledge of natural fluctuations
in fisheries it is impossible to conclude whether or
not offshore production adversely affects fisheries.
Several other factors suggest caution when using
the Gulf of Mexico fisheries as an example for
advocacy of drilling and production in other areas.
The oil produced may have a much greater effect
per unit \\eight than the oil produced in the Gulf
of Mexico. The fisheries may be of a different type
and dependent on species much more susceptible' to
the effects of oil. The combined effects of oil and a
different environment nun be more severe.
It is certain that pipelines corning onshore and
support facilities on shore can have a severe effect
on coastal areas if not properly managed (St. Amant,
1972).
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
EFFECTS OF REFINERY EFFLUENTS
AND OIL DISCHARGED
IN EFFLUENTS FROM
MUNICIPAL AND STORM SEWERS
Investigations of the effects of oil refinery efflu-
ents have shown that release of effluents in sheltered
tidal waters killed nearby marsh plants (Baker,
1971). Refinery effluents released to waters exposed
to rapid flushing characteristics had little1 noticeable1
effect (Baker, 1973). However, only a few segments
of the community of marine life were investigated.
No studies of the effects of oil discharged by
sewage and storm sewer effluents have been con-
ducted. It would be difficult to unravel the effects
of the oil from the effects of the other chemicals in
these effluents.
SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS
There is concern that oil pollutants and other
pollutants such as PCBs will act in concert such
that their combined effects are more severe than
predicted from the sum of their effects when acting
individually. No reports of such studies have been
published to date.
Human Health Considerations
The most significant potential human health haz-
ard is the consumption of seafood contaminated
with oil. There are at present no standards for decid-
ing if a particular concentration of oil in seafood
represents a human health hazard.
A very emotional controversy centers around the
carcinogenic potential of oil contamination of seafood
(Anon., 1974). The NAS Report (1974) states-
"That the amount of one carcinogen, benzopyrene,
entering; the oceans from oil is small compared to
the amount released into the1 total global environ-
ment from other sources." The report further states
"Our knowledge of the properties of all the constitu-
ents of petroleum is not complete and therefore
there might be some dangerous materials present
in petroleum that are still unidentitied.''
The manner in which the NAS report (1974) ap-
proached the problem of carcinogens in seafood could
be misleading to the public and decision makers The
report places emphasis on the point that the con-
sumption of oil contaminated seafood by the average
consumer would expose the consumer to a very small
amount ,of carcinogens relative to the amount he
is exposed to from other sources such as air pollu-
tion. I submit that tin' problem of consumption of
carcinogens in oil contaminated seafood should be
treated and explained as the problem of radionuclides
in seafood is treated and explained. Average inputs
or average consumptions should not be used. Rather,
care must be taken to ensure that all segments of
the population are protected (Bowen, 1974).
An acceptable level for oil in seafood should not
be set simply because the average New York resident
is exposed to 200 times or more carcinogens from
other sources. Rather, the acceptable risk level, if
there is one, should take into account the Maine
shellfisherman who eats far more shellfish and may
be exposed to far less carcinogen input from other
sources.
Summary
Documented studies of the effects of oil on marine
organisms are limited in number. The data available
show that different oils have different degrees of
effects on organisms. Effects range from immediate
lethality to subtle long-range effects. The effects of
a single oil vary from species to species and within
a species vary from adult to juvenile.
Our knowledge of the subtle sublethal and chronic
effects of oil is severely limited. Data from a few
studies provide a basis for concern. Certainly, fur-
ther studies are warranted based on the data col-
lected on these problems.
It is impossible to decide at present whether or
not offshore fisheries suffer long-term adverse effects
from offshore drilling and production. The data
needed is not available and will be extremely difficult
to obtain.
SUMMARY OF MAJOR AREAS
OF PROGRESS TO DATE
The last five years have provided significant over-
all advancement in our knowledge of the input, fate,
and effects of oil in coastal and continental shelf
areas. There has also been a significant increase in
the, awareness of oil pollution in the public, gov-
ernmental, and industry sectors. New laws and
regulations have resulted as well as research and de-
velopment of new technology to reduce oil pollution.
Inputs
Our knowledge of the sources of oil entering the
marine environment, is now at the stage where we
can estimate their relative importance and begin
studies to better quantify the inputs. It is known
that accidental inputs are a small fraction o1' the
total input even though accidental spills aie much
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396
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
more spectacular. It is known that offshore drilling
and production discharges only a small fraction of
the total oil input to the marine environment. It is
also known that the major input of oil to the marine
environment is the result of the chronic dribbling
losses which accompany present methods of using oil.
Pathways of Transfer
and Fates of Oil Inputs
to the Marine Environment
It has been demonstrated once again that the
cliche "out of sight, out of mind" should not apply
to environmental problems. The disappearance of
an oil slick docs not, moan that the o'l has dis-
appeared from the marine environment. Oil inputs
move by a variety of pathways through the marine
environment and are affected by many processes.
The ultimate fates of oil discharged to the marine
environment are chemical or biochemical degrada-
tion, and/or burial at depth in sediments. Our
knowledge is mostly of the qualitative nature of
these movements and processes. Extensive quanti-
tative estimates of rates of movement and rates or
processes affecting oil inputs are still lacking.
Effects of Oil
on the Marine Environment
The known or suspected effects are diagrammed
in Fig. 3. The aesthetic effects are ob\ious. The
immediate toxic effects are also apparent from stud-
ies of accidental oil spills. Subtle long-range chronic
and sublethal effects are known in a few cases and
suspected in many others. Effects can bo at the
level of cells and organs, whole organisms, or com-
munities of organisms.
The chronic long-term effects of offshore drilling
and production are largely guessed at or suspected.
The long-term environmental hazards or the long-
term safety of offshore drilling and production are
both unproven.
Human health hazards resulting from eating oil
contaminated seafood are suspected bui. not yet
proven.
APPLICATIONS OF
OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE
1) It appears that the major sources ot oil input
to the marme environment have been def'ncd. It is
clear that the oiiiv hope of a significant reduction
in the major oil input to the marine environment
in the immediate future is a reduction in the total
consumption of oil. Since this does not seem likely,
programs to reduce the dribbling of oil inio the
marine environment should be instituted. Pu;use or
re-refining of waste oils is an example of a program
which would help to reduce inputs and conserve a
valuable resource.
2) A reduction in ship accidents might be accom-
plished by better traffic and safety regulations. Re-
duction in the amount of oil spilled in an accident
might be accomplished by the construction of false
bottom tankers. The use of the false bottoms as
segregated ballast tanks would also reduce the
amount of oil entering the marine environment,
from tanker ballasting operations. A detailed discus-
sion of this subject is given in the Final Environmen-
tal Impact Statement, Maritime Administration
Tanker Construction Program (NTIS, 19731.
•3) Offshore drilling and production with its at-
tendant risks appears to be safer in the long run
for the mari'ie environment as a whole than import-
ing an equal quantity of oil This argument assumes
that, the oil produced offshore is piped ashore and
not transported elsewhere.
If we assume that we will continue to consume
oil and even increase consumption, then we should
proceed with offshore drilling and production as
soon as the problems with coastal land use plans,
jurisdiction over offshore operations, and socio-
economic problems are resolved.
The arguments about the long-term effects of
offshore drilling and production involve such large
segments of the marine environment that satisfac-
tory answers will only be obtained by conducting
the experiment. That is. conduct the offshore drilling
and production in such a manner as to ensure close
monitoring and control. Given close monitoring and
accompanying research in the laboratory and the
field there is a good chance of averting an ecological
catastrophe before it occurs. This does not mean
that all adverse effects will be detected, but rather
that any effects which escape the monitoring and
control processes will be small and acceptable in
return for the benefit of the oil resource utilization.
It should be emphasized the sacrifice of the long-
term pof"ufi>il productivity oi tin ofichore fr-hi-nes
resource is not ndvofaieu. In ;'act, this would IK a
primary consideration of any research ai;d monitor-
ing program.
4') The knowledge of puth'vay;; of transfer fl.id
fate of oil inputs is sumeieri* to provide an evaluiuiori
of some methods of combating oil slicks. In addition.
the movement of oil slicks and oil in the marine
environment is sufficient 1\ documented to be of
-oir.e use in making lir-t: ;•.! ;iroxini;,tiuii models of
the fate of oil spills (MIT, lO-'o).
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
397
5) We have a fair understanding of the immediate
toxic effects of oil. We also have a suspicion and in
some cases rudimentary knowledge of the subtle
sublethal and long-term chronic effects of oil on
marine life. The foundation has been laid for future
studies to detail the concentration levels and envi-
ronmental conditions at which oil will affect marine
life.
G) It is known that seafood consumed by man
can be contaminated by oil. This should stimulate
research to set acceptable levels for human consump-
tion. In this regard, it is essential that the worse
possible case be considered for the consumption of
oil-contaminated seafood. The experience in protect-
ing seafood consumers from radionuclides should be
used as a guide (Bowen, 1974). Use of an average
rate of consumption of oil contaminated seafood to
arrive at a decision whether there is a serious public
health hazard may expose a segment of the popula-
tion to unwarranted risk.
RESEARCH AND MONITORING NEEDS
Any study of marine environmental quality prob-
lems is based on current knowledge of biological,
physical, chemical, and geological processes in the
marine environment. Continued and increased fund-
ing of research towards understanding these basic
processes in the marine environment is absolutely
essential for short-term and long-term protection
and upgrading of marine environmental quality.
Research into general aspects of oil pollution
problems or in specific areas should be conducted
in a manner which is scientifically sound and flexible
enough to pursue interesting and relevant problems
as they develop. Available funds should be primarily
funneled to scientists via research grants. This
mechanism is preferable to the Request for Proposal
(RFP) route which seems to be gaining favor in
government environmental research management.
Research grants written by scientists arid reviewed
by their peers have a better chance of producing
useful scientific information than the RFPs issued
in the field of oil pollution research.
More extensive measurement of the extent and
severity of oil pollution in United States waters is
needed. Measurements should be made in a manner
which will provide answers as to pathways of trans-
fer, rates of transfer, processes of transfer, and fates
of oil inputs in the marine environment.
.Measurements in areas of offshore production, oil
ports, and refinery locations as well as control areas
remote from these locations are needed to detail
man-induced and natural fluctuations. Monitoring
should make use of sample archiving as a means of
reducing costs. Samples would be collected from
several locations within study areas and control
areas. However, only samples from key representa-
tive locations would be analyzed to determine if
adverse effects and/or increased petroleum contam-
ination were present. If such increases or effects
were detected, then the entire sample set for that
season or year could be removed from archives and
analyzed to determine the geographical extent and
severity of the effect or increase.
Cost of Oil Pollution Research
The sophisticated types of investigations which
are needed to understand the inputs, fates, and
effects of oil pollution in the marine environment
require substantial funds. For example, the costs
for collecting, analyzing and reporting data on the
level of petroleum pollutants in samples of water,
sediments, and organisms from four sampling sites
in an offshore production area and two control areas
would be about $180,000 per year if sampling were
conducted four times a year. If the costs of biological
analyses, geological and physical oceanographic stud-
ies are added and the total multiplied by monitoring
of three potential offshore drilling and production
locations on the Atlantic Continental Shelf, then
the cost would be about $2.5 million per year. These
estimates are based on current costs of obtaining
such data in research programs and may be re-
duced somewhat by concentration of activities
and reduction in cost per analysis because of the
large volume of analyses needed.
SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR RESEARCH AND MONITORING
Inputs
1) Reliable identification, quantification, and
monitoring of variability of inputs.
2) Development and application of better remote
monitoring capabilities.
Measurements
1) Development and/or application of reliable
methods for detecting and quantifying oil pollutants
in water, sediment, and organisms.
2) Application of these methods in conjunction
with investigations of biological effects, transfer
processes, and fates of oil inputs.
3) Wider geographical coverage and time series
measurements of oil pollutants in the marine envi-
ronment.
-------
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Transfer and Fates
of Oil Pollutants
1) Development of models for predicting move-
ment and fate of oil spills and chronic oil inputs.
This should be undertaken for harbor areas handling
large volumes of oil cargoes, offshore drilling and
production areas, oil storage areas, and pipeline
routes.
2) Research to better document the rates of bio-
degradation of oil in situ in the marine environment.
Thi.-j includes research to identify pathways of me-
tabolism or chemical reaction and the effects of the
products of these processes.
3) Research to better understand the uptake,
retention, metabolism and release of oil pollutants
from marine organisms. This includes further re-
search as to whether or not food web magnification
of oil pollutants is operative and, if bo, when and
where.
4) Research to quantify the rates and processes
affecting movement of oil through tie marine
environment.
Effects
1) Toxic effects measurements.
2) Long-term chronic, lethal, and sublethal effects
measurements both in the laboratory and in situ.
3) Research on human health aspects of oil pollu-
tion of seafood. Needs to be resolved as soon as
possible. This is a very emotional issue and one
which places federal, regional, state, and local health
authorities in a quandry. They have no guidelines to
use in deciding when to restrict or allow coi sumption.
4) All studies of effects should be accompanied by
reliable controls and quantitative measurements.
Oil Spill Studies
I have read several final or draft reports of oil
spill studies conducted by contractors to the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency. Most repoits were of
limited value. The study teams were environmental
divisions of industrial companies or small environ-
mental companies. The teams did not have or obtain
the necessary expertise to conduct a very competent
study. This could be excused up to two years ago
because the areas of study and difficulty associated
with the oil spill studies were not widely known to
either contracting officers in the Environmental
Protection Agency nor to the regional study teams.
There is now no excuse for throwing away any
more money on studies of the quality of those
conducted in the past.
A mechanism for ensuring quality of oil spill
studies and at the same time involving competent
scientists in oil spill studies is as follows.
Provide funding to a few key laboratories for
laboratory and field studies on the effect and fate
of new refinery discharges and offshore production.
This would ensure that a good solid nucleus of re-
search scientists and associated facilities would be
actively engaged in oil pollution research. When an
oil spill occurred which, in the judgement of the
Environmental Protection Agency project officers
and the research scientists, was of interest from the
point of view of gaining some knowledge about the
fate and effects of oil spills then a study team could
be formed by the expansion of the existing research
team.
This plan does away with the need for "instanta-
neous" emergence of a research team at the time an
oil spill study is desirable.
Laboratory and Field Studies
The understanding of inputs, transfers, effects,
and fates of oil inputs which is needed for effective
management of oil inputs and protection of the
marine environment will only be obtained by both
laboratory and field studies. For example, field
measurements will provide an estimate of the exist-
ing concentration levels of oil. Laboratory bioassays
can then proceed to determine if these have a long-
term effect. Conversely, laboratory studies can pro-
vide an estimate of the acceptable concentration
level of oil in the marine environment. Field studies
can establish how close the current concentration
levels are to the acceptable concentration level arid
project when closer control of inputs will be needed
in a given area. Furthermore, it is impossible to
reconstruct an entire natural ecosystem in a labora-
tory. Field studies are essential to investigate effects
on large segments of ecosystems or entire ecosystems.
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Anderson, J. W. 1973. Uptake and depuration of specific
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-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
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Baker, J. M. 1971. Refmeiy effluent—Proceedings, symposium
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Baker, J. Al. 1973. Biological effects of refinery effluent*.
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Bowen, V. T. 1974. Transuranic elements and nuclear wastes.
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Boylan, 1). B. and 15. W. Tripp 1971. Determination ol
hydrocarbons in seawatcr extracts of crude oils and crude
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Bums, K. A. and J Al. Teal. 1971. Hydrocarbon incorpora-
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Burns, K. A. and .1 M. Teal. 1973. Hydrocarbons in the
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Butler, J. N., B. F. Morris, J. Sass. 1973. Pelagic tar from
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Coakley, W. A. i!>73. Comparative identification of oil spills
by fluorescence -.pectroscopy imuerpiinting. p. 215-222 in
API (1973).
Davis, J. P). 1967. Pen oleum microbiology
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Else\ier Pub-
Duce, R A.., P. L. Parker led) 197! Pollutant transfer to the
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of the National S'ience Foundation, International Decade
of Ocean Exploration Pollutant Transfer Workshop,
January 11-12, 1974. IDOE, National Science Foundation,
Washington, D.C.
Farrington, J. W. 1974. Some problems associated with the
collection of nuuine samples, and analysis of hydrocaibons.
p 209-278, in reference 13. Also Technical Report 74-2.S,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Alass.
Frankenfeld, J. W. 1973. Factors governing the fate of oil
at sea, variations in the amounts and types of di.-solved
or dispersed materials during the weathering process, p.
485-495 in API (1973).
Gilfillan, E. S. 1973. Effects of seawater extracts of crude oil
on carbon budgets in two species of am--vK. p ij')l -095 in
API (1973)
Goldberg, E. D. 'convener) 1972a. Baseline stt'.iiies ,>' heavy
metal, halogenated hydrocarbon, and petroleum hydro-
carbon pollutants in the marine environment and research
recommendations. Deliberations of the International
Decade of Ocean Exploration Baseline Conference, .May
24-26, 1972. IDOE, National Science Foundation, Wash-
ington, D.C,
Goldberg, E. D. (convener) 1972b. Alarine pollution monitor-
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workshop held at Santa Catalina Marine Laboratory of
the University ot Southern California Allan Hancock
Foundation, October 25-28, 1972 Sponsored by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
Goldberg, E. D. (ed) 1972c. A guide to marine pollution.
Gordon and Breach, New York.
Gruenfeld, Al. 1973. Identification of oil pollutants A review
of some recent methods, p. 179-193 in API (1973).
Hoiilt, D. P. (ed) 1969. Oil on the sea. Plenum Pres>.
Jacobson, S. M. and D. B. Boylan. 1973. Seavvater soluble
fraction of kerosene: effect on chemotaxis in a marine stip.il,
Xassani/s ab&olelua. Nature 241:213-215
Kauss, P., T. (',. Hutchinson, C. Solo, .1. Hellebust, and Al.
Griffiths. 19/3. The toxicity of cmde oil and its components
to freshwater algae, p. 703~-711 in APf (1973).
Ketchum, B. H. (ed) 1972. The water's edge. Critical prob-
lems of the coastal /.one, MIT Press, (3ambridge, Mass.
LaRoehe, G. 1973. Analytical approach in the evaluation of
biological damage resulting from spilled oil. p. 347—3T4 in
NAS (1973).
Lee, R. F., H. Sauerheber, and A. A. Benson. 1972. Petrol.'um
hydrocarbons: Uptake and discharge by the marine mussel,
Alytilus eduhf,. Science 177:344-346.
Lee, R. F., R. Sauerheber, and G, H. Dobbs. 1972. Uptake,
metabolism, and discharge of polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbon, by marine fish Alautie Biology 17:201-208.
Lynch, P. F. arid G. W. Blown. 1973. Identifying sources of
pelK-leuii) by infiared spectroscopy. Environmental Science
and Technoloy 7:1123-1130.
Alafhews, \\. IT, F. I-'. Smith, and K. 1). Goldberg Ceu-1.
1971. Alan's impact on tern-s'riaJ and ocean eeo.-vstcms
MIT Press.
Aleyers, P. A. 1972. PhD. Thesis, Graduate School of
Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, h [
-------
400
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Miget, R. J. 1973. p. 221-306 in Ahearn and Meyers (1973).
Miller, J. W. 1973. A multiparameter oil po lution source
identification system, p. 195-203 in API (1973).
MIT Offshore Group. 197° Georges Bank study.
NAS. 1971. Marine environmental quality. Suggested re-
search programs for understanding man's effect on the
oceans. Ocean Affairs Board, National Acaderry of Sciences,
Washington, D.C.
NAS 1973. Background papers for a workshop on inputs,
fate-;, and effects of petroleum in the marine environment.
Volumes 1 and II. Ocean Affairs Board, National Academy
of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1974.
NAS. 1974. Petroleum in the marine environment: Inputs,
techniques for analysis, fates and effects. Ocean Affairs
Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.,
1974.
National Technical Information Service Report No. EIS
730725-F. 1973. Final environmental impact statement,
Maritime Administration Tanker Construction Program.
United States Department of Commerce.
Parker, P. L. 1974. Experimental design for an environmental
program: Hydrocarbon analysis in an oil producing area.
p. 279-289 in Smith (1974).
Rice, S. D. 1973. Toxicity and avoidance tests with Prudhoe
Bay oil and pink salmon fry. p. 667-670 in API (1973).
BCEP. 1970. Man's impact on the global environment, assess-
ment and recommendations for action, 1970. Report of the
study of critical environmental problems. MIT Press,
Cambridge, Mass.
Smith, J. 1968 (ed). 1968. Torrey Canyon pollution and
marine life. Report by the Plymouth Laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.
Cambridge University Press, London.
Smith, R. E. (ed). 1974. Proceedings of conference/workshop
on marine environmental implications of offshore drilling
Eastern Gulf of Mexico, 1974. State University of Florida
Institute of Oceanography, St. Petersburg, Fla.
St. Amant, L. S. 1972. The petroleum industry as it affects
marine and esluarine ecology. Journal of Petroleum Tech-
nology, p. 385-392.
Stegcman, J. J. and J. M. Teal. 1973. Accumulation, release,
and retention of petroleum hydrocarbons by the oyster
Crassostrea virginica. Marine Biology 22:37-44.
Straughan, D. 1972. Factors causing environmental change
after an oil spill. Journal of Petroleum Technology, p.
250-254.
Straughan, D. and R. Kolpack (ed). 1971. Biological and
oceanographical studies of the Santa Barbara Channel oil
spill 1969-1970. Volumes I and II. Sea Grant Publication
No. 2 Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern
California, Los Angeles, Calif.
Zaifirou, O. C., J. Meyers and R. Bourbonniere. 1973. Oil
spill-source correlation by gas chromatography: An experi-
mental evaluation of system performance. Proceedings of
the Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil
Spills, 1973. American Petroleum Institute, Washington,
D.C., 153-159.
ZoBell, C. E. 1969. Microbial modification of crude oil in the
sea. p. 317-326 in API (1969).
-------
CONSEQUENCES OF OIL POLLUTION
SN THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT
OF THE GULF OF MEXICO
LEWIS R, BROWN
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State, Mississippi
ABSTRACT
Incidence* of oil pollution have been recorded for over 200 years, but only within the last 10 years
has public attention been focused on the problem. Initially, the concern was for the aesthetic and
acute effect^; but attention has now been largely redirected toward low-level chronic effects,
especially those posing a human health hazard. Other areas of increasing concern are the potential
synergistic action of oil in conjunction with other pollutants and the long-term chronic effects of
oil on the ecosystem. Data available in the literature have served to identify the potential prob-
lems, but definition and resolution must await additional data. More emphasis must be placed
on translating scientific data into information utilizable for making estuarine management
decisions.
INTRODUCTION
The estuaries, unlike true marine' or freshwater
hab'tats, continually vary in salinity, and chemical
composition and concentration (Christinas, 1973;
Oitum, et al.. 1974). It has been shown that these
factors influence the toxicity of oil (Gilfillan, 1973;
Tagatz, 19(ili. Further complicating an assessment
of oil pollution on the estuarine ecosystem is the
fact that some biological species inhabit the estuan
onh at certain times of the year (e.g., shrimp),
while other permanent inhabitants (e.g., oysters)
have different life stages present at different times
of the year. Coupling these characteristics with the
interaction of other pollutants, the complexity of
the problem is ciearl v iHu-n rated.
While ail estuarine areas are under constant threat
of daniagi from oil pollution, particularly in terms of
(he acu'e effects caused by major disasters, the
esiuar'iu1 areas o>' the; gulf coast are uniquely sus-
ceptible 1o lov.-level, long-term, chronic pollution
because of the shallowiu-ss of the coastal waters and
the comparatively small tidal action. Considering
the ".'Htt thiit the gull receives 00 peicent of the
drainage of the contiguous United Stales • Geragiitv,
et al., l(.)73si and iMiny years are required for recycl-
ing the f the g'ilf. the precarious position
>f Uv Hjllf rob-4 e^tujnc.^- is evident.
Ciude oil is i. )' a clier..uYJ compound but consists
ol thousands <>f vhen.jea'ly idcntiiiable compounds
and no f\vo crude u.;l u> v>'>ter
wili cau.r"1 i vi,4bl( slui'js. Fortunately , this char-
acteristic alone makes it extremely easj- to detect oil,
even to an unskilled observer, and it is interesting to
note that the Federal Sheen Regulation takes ad-
vantage of this characteristic. Unfortunately, there
are water-soluble constituents in crude oil, and it
has been shown that these compounds can have a
deleterious effect on some biological species ''Gilfil-
lan, 1973; Nuzzi, 1973; Brocksen and Bailey, 1973;
Katz, 1973). Therefore, the lack of a visible sheen
does not insure that there is no damage to the ecosys-
tem resulting from oil pollution.
Ever since 1754 there, have been reports on oil
pollution (Nelson-Smith, 1973). The Torrey Canyon
incident in 1967 served to focus worldwide attention
on the problem of oil pollution, and there lias been
an almost overwhelming number of papers 011 oil
pollution since that time. While it has been, major
oil spills as the Torrey Canyon and Santa Barbara
that have been responsible for the, intense interest
in the impact, of oil pollution on the environment,
it is ironical to note that these major spills account
for only a fractional amount of the oil added to the
environment '-ach year. By and large, the huge
quantities of oil that lind their wav into the estuaries
c',' ^he gulf const have gone unnoticed by the public.
Only recently the public has been aroused to the
potential health hazards of low-level oil pollution.
For examplf :i l'J?3 !"nort 'Anonymous, U'7-i'
Hites and Biemann, 1972; on the pre.,ene<-' of a
variety of organics (including some from oil) in t lu
Charles River rnu.-.t hav tanked some miblie e<,n-
ci-n, r'irtieuh.'ly in view <_•", the -.\\ ';:lu{io'L 01, •,,.'
toxic compounds. Even mor" recently, press ^'
-------
ESTTAJUNE POLLUTION CONTROL
have resulted from the EPA report on the New
Orleans water supply, linking pollutants contained in
eb inking water derived from the Mississiopi River to
cancer (Anonymous, 1974a; Anonymous, 1974b).
Mercifully, the articles did not speculate on the po-
tential biological accumulation of these compounds
ir seafood. This problem will be addressed in more
detail later in this report.
The vudely circulated article by coh.mnist Jack
AJ!IM ,'-on emphasized the possible connection be-
fv, cui oil pollution and the almost Ms+er.'cally feared
liisca-ff, >':tii(;er (Anderhon, 1974). It is not the1 pur-
pose of this report to delve into the moral and'or
legai at-pecls of this disclosure (Seltzer, 1974), but
mereJy to illustrate vividly one of the inr jor areas iri
need of immediate scientihc research. In the eyes of
mam people, the fouling of beaches and i.lio death of
largo numbers of birds after a major oil spill shrink
TO insignificance in comparison to the threat of in-
gest ine; cancer-causing compounds in seafood or
drinking wat or.
Ecological disaster is ecological disaster, no more,
no le--s. The causative agent is inconsequential in
this respect, and pesticides and mercury already have
been brought to the public attention. Oil now is being
emphasized as the perpetrator of ecological doom.
The facts of the case are that the fundamental prin-
ciples of nature which govern the behavioral, phys-
joiogieni :;nd genetic; phenomena are the same ir-
je'np'vtive of the toxicant involved. T.io problem
reaib be"omcs more one of quant itatior and study
./ the causative agent rather than one of identifying
ami M-ueUing some sirangi new biological principles.
Aetnvttodh , there are some differences .11 speciiics,
hiil ii\- utilizing existing knowledge, the cost and
I.L'I-" rcqi.irecl to obtain the data necessa-y for mak-
ir'<- o.tuaiiiic- management decisions car bo ^igniti-
c.mtiy reduced.
Th'-re arc many facets to the problems of oil pol-
iu!;;,n in the estuanne environment winch «ill not
Iv !,K!n>seei i-i thi.s report. Tlie quantities and
sources of oil input and its fate in the environment is
the Mibject of another paper for this repo/t. Methods
•;1 i "eating oil wastes, cleanup procedure • a'"tei acci-
derUd ••p;IK and the impact of oil iHlhng and pro-
diiaion operations are not considered in this report.
r|'nn purpose of this report is to (3) c >mmen( on
>.:'• './ '"uLu'ss of a\ai'-ii!.u- in/orniaiii >n on oil poli'i-
n in fro;n .• standpoint of estuarine manual ment; (2)
iiisiiili'zlit f ad-
equate1 ecological base-line data for the; area,; ;2) the
impact of cleanup oporatie>ns; (3; the lack of estab-
lished control areas required fc>r comparative pur-
poses: '4) the inability to drpioy sufficiently large
toam^ of i-o'iMvtent experts \\ithir the lequin J time
frame-; and (.">) the nonuniformity of methodology
and technique* employed by investigators. As a re-
suit of the,;e defei is, there is a;s understandable
difference of 'ip'moii aieoiig iiive-.-tigatois as to
the long-range- effects }Vorn thesf oi' spills. While
differences of opinion arc healthy and are to be
expected in some cage's exi'iting data ,.re manipu-
lat" ' ! >1>K','C a lliv."
-------
POLLUTANTS
403
by oil pollution rather than objectively interpreting
the data as it exists (Mackin, 1973). Surely, many of
these seemingly conflicting points of view will be
resolved in the foreseeable future.
To date the available data have offered very little
information of direct value in making estuarinc
management decisions, but have identified some of
the areas of developing concern. Following is a brief
summary of the information available in four of the
more important areas of concern.
Potentially Carcinogenic
Compounds in Oil
The potential health hazard that could arise from
the biological magnification of carcinogenic com-
pounds from oil has been mentioned previously.
Highlights from the scientific literature will help to
put the problem in better perspective and serve to
illustrate some of the complexities involved. In the
first place there are reports relating constituents of
oil to cancers in a number of fish species (Battelle
^Memorial Institute, 1967; Tarzwell, 1970). Addition-
ally, there are reports that potentially carcinogenic
hydrocarbons are \\ idespread in the marine environ-
ment, even in plants and animals taken from areas
considerably distant from any known oil pollution
(Nelson-Smith, 1973; ZoBell, 1971; Newman and
Olson, 1974). This raises the question as to the source
of the compounds involved, arid it has been pointed
out that many carcinogenic hydrocarbons are pro-
duced by various species of bacteria, algae and higher
plants ('ZoBell, 1971; Borneff, et al., 196S). Labora-
tory studies have demonstrated that microorganisms
are capable of degrading these carcinogenic com-
pounds (ZoBell, 1971).
The fundamental principle of preferential utiliza-
tion of nutrients by bacteria is well established, and
it has been shown that this occurs in the case of oil
(Phillips, 1972!; furthermore, many of the most
resistant compounds pose the greatest potential
health hazard. Therefore, the basic issue involved is
what really happens in the environment. The re-
ports on the persistence of many of these carcinogenic
compounds tend to support the view that their
biodegradation in nature is a slow process.
Bioaccumulation of many pesticides, particularly
the chlorinated hydrocarbons, has received con-
siderable attention by the scientific community.
There is reason to believe that the same phenomenon
would be observed with components of oil, arid, in-
deed, there are reports to this effect (Nelson-Smith,
1973; ZoBell, 197]').
Differences of opinion exist in the scientific com-
munity on the possible links between oil pollution
and cancer. There is agreement that considerably
more research is needed before a true assessment can
be made.
These problems are particularly germane to the
gulf coast for reasons cited earlier: the continual in-
put of large volumes of pollutants, the long residt nee
time, and the utilization of seafood resources from
this region.
To date, the data available only have served to
identify this most important problem, but have nut
made available the kinds of information required lor
making estufirine management decisions.
Oil as a Concentrator
of Other Toxicants
Potentially, the role of oil as a concentrator of
other toxic materials may outweigh its other effects
in terms of contributing to the human health prob-
lem. For example, one study has shown that the
concentration of mercury in oil was 4,000 and 300,000
times greater than it was in sediments and water,
respectively, taken from the same area ('Walker
and Colwell, 1974). Further, increased oil content
of sediment sample^ was associated with increase's
in zinc, chromium, lead, copper, nickel, cadmium
and mercury (Walker and Colwell. 1974).
The problem of biological magnification of pesti-
cides and its potential significance to the health of
the ecosystem and to human health has already bo-en
mentioned. In this respect, a vtcent report r>n the
action of oil slicks as concentrators adds a new di-
mension to the impact of oil on the ecosystem.
Aldrin, dieldrin, DDT. and possibly lindune, hep-
tachlor expoxide, and chlordane were identified from
samples taken from surface slick", but were not in
detectable amounts in the sea water sample,-, froi'i
the same area (Seba and Corcoran, ] 969 '.
The implications of the concentrating ehar;<.-ter-
istics (.if oil for both toxic heavy metals and pe-< vide-*
are obvious.
Effect of Environmental Factors
on Oil Pollution
It is a well established fact that the physical
chemical, and biological structure of a system lias a
significant effect on the action of a given toxicant
oil is no) exception. For example, the toxicity of oil
increases as the oxygen concentration ^Battelle
Memorial Institute, 1967; Kontogiannvs anil Barneti.
1973) or salinity (Rice, 1973) decreases.
The point to be made here is that there is an ur-
-------
404
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
gent need to understand the action of oil under
different environmental conditions, since the facts
indicate clearly that while a given level of oil may be
ecologically tolerable under one set of circumstances,
it could be disastrous under other conditions.
Long-term Impact of
Oil on the Ecosystem
From the literature, a multiplicity of responses to
oil would be expected and have, indeed, been re-
ported. Such things as diminishing growth rates in
phytoplanktoii (Mommaerts-Billiet, 1973), phys-
iological stress and degeneration of gill tissue and
muscle in oysters (Clark, et al., 1974',, changing
respiratory rates in salmon and striped bass (Brock-
sen and Bailey, 1973), and altering behavioral pat-
terns (Rice,. 1973; Ecological Research Series, 1973;
Boylan and Tripp, 1971) r,re but a few of the vast
array of oil pollution effects.
To gain some concept of the potentially cata-
strophic ci'iects of oil pollution on the ecosystem,
it is necessary only to draw an analogy to the work
on pesticides.
1) Gross changes are not required to bring about
untimely extinction of a species.
2) A slight lowering of 1hc primary productivity
by reducing photosynthetie capability w.iuld reduce
dramatically the productivity of the entire ocean.
3) Changes in migratory habits, feeding areas, or
spawning grounds would jeopardize the current fishing
industry.
4) Slight changes in reproduction ritual could up-
set the balance of the ecosystem.
All biology is geared to survival of the species and
is reflected in a buildup of resistance to pollutants or
other adverse conditions that may well exact penal-
ties in other species— including man. For example, it
has been shown that mosquitofish that have acquired
a resistance to insecticides will accumulate1 these
compounds to such high levels that they are fatal
to higher members of the food chain (e.g., birds arid
snakes) (Ferguson, 1967).
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
When one considers the fantastic complexities of
the estuarino ecosystem with its highly complicated
interactions, the literally thousands of compounds
present in crude oil, the impact of environmental
conditions on the effects of oil on the system, the
multiplicity of responses elicited from the presence
of oil on the various organisms, and the impact of
other pollutants on the whole situation, it would
appear thai a complete understanding of the impact
of oil on the estuarine environment is impost! >le both
scientifically and economically.
The immensity of the overall problem makes it ev-
ident that a considerable effort must be put forth in
establishing the areas of priority and coordinating
individual research. Otherwise, as past experience
has demonstrated, there will be a proliferation of
small programs resulting in information that is
difficult, if not impossible, to use effectively for
managing the estuaries. The urgency of the situation
cannot be overemphasized.
In terms of priorities, emphasis should be placed
on gaining a better understanding of the long-term
chronic effects of oil pollution rather than studying
the acute effects resulting from major accidents. As
indicated earlier, the acute effects are obvious and,
by definition, are of a short duration, while the
long-term chronic effects may remain for many
years and may not manifest themselves until ir-
reparable damage to the area has been done. More
specifically, the following problem areas are in
urgent need of extensive research, conducted in such
a fashion that the data are utili/ablc for making
estuarine management decisions directed toward
maintaining our estuaries in a healthy viable state.
Areas of Research
1) Problems directly related to human health (par-
ticularly cancer). Projects in this category should
generate data on the fate of carcinogens from oil in
the environment, assess the role of oil in contributing
carcinogeni- to the environment, establish, the likely-
pathways of biological magnification to seafoods for
human consumption, establish standards in regard
to maximum levels allowable.- in the environments
from which human seafoods are harvested, and
establish methods and standards for allowable con-
centrations of various constituents in seafoods for
human consumption. A minor effort also should be
put forth to examine ways of reclaiming polluted
areas and to develop additional methods of pie-
venting pollution in regard to the carcinogens in oil.
2. Oil as a concentrator of otLer toxic pollutants.
With the widespread presence of many kinds of
agricultural (pesticides) and industrial (heavy met-
als) pollutants already present in the environment,.
knowledge of the interaction of these materials v.ith
oil is of vital concern. Numerous laboratory studies
have been conducted on the impact of various pol-
lutants on a wide array of biological specimens but,
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
40,3
essentially, no studies have been made on these
materials in the presence of oil.
The specific questions to be answered are: (1)
Does oil concentrate these other pollutants from the
environment, and (2) Does oil enhance the uptake of
other pollutants by the biota. The major thrust
should be investigations in the field and/or in pilot
plant systems as described below. To a lesser degree,
some laboratory investigations should be conducted
to determine if oil and these other pollutants act
independent!}', synergistically, or antagonistically.
A closer coordination with other research programs
could decrease substantially the cost of these studies
by a merging of efforts.
3. Long-term chronic effects of oil on the ecosystem.
The list of problems in this category is rather long
and priorities vary considerably from investigator to
investigator. Emphasis should be placed on the more
long-lasting, potentially disrupting influences that
may last for generations, rather than the shorter-
term effects for which there is evidence of quick
recovery and which are thus concerned primarily
with a single generation.
Furthermore, the data should be generated in such
a form as to be useful in estuarine management de-
cisions and, as a general rule, should include both
laboratory and field experimentation. Some of the
more important questions needing attention are:
(1) Does oil cause any genetic changes; (2) Does
oil alter reproductive processes; (3) Does oil increase
susceptibility to disease or increase the virulence
and/or numbers of pathogens; and (4) Does oil
interfere significantly with vital behavioral char-
acteristics. Of necessity, most of these studies will
require multi-year efforts.
It is probable that much valuable information
could be obtained by the long-term monitoring of the
environment after a catastrophic spill. It is highly
important that an immediate post-spill evaluation
be made by a coordinated team of competent sci-
entists; this evaluation could serve as a yardstick
both for immediate effect and for long-term recovery.
4. Effect of environmental conditions on oil toxicity.
Because of the constantly changing conditions in the
estuary, information concerned with the impact of
these various parameters on oil pollution is required
in order to manage the estuaries effectively. The
effects of salinity and temperatures are but two of the
parameters that can change significantly the im-
pact of oil on the ecosystem. The major value of this
information is in determining the time and condi-
tions wherein the estuaries are most vulnerable to
oil; it will be useful in establishing operational pro-
cedures within the estuaries.
Types of Research
Efforts Required
To formulate effectively the overall kind of pro-
gram required to meet the needs, three general
types of investigations are needed.
1. Laboratory investigations. Mam of the problems
can be handled effectively by individual researchers
working in individual laboratories, but there should
be some overall coordination of the specific objec-
tives to be accomplished, though not necessarily the
procedures to be employed. In other words, these
problems could best be answered by a grant typo
program, where the emphasis is on the creativity and
expertise of the individual scientist. Those results
will serve as vital inputs to larger program* con-
ducted under more natural conditions. Their value
cannot be minimized in terms of their contribution
to the effective long-range management of the estu-
aries.
2. Pilot plant investigations. Conceptually, the u'-r
of pilot plant systems is routine in the engineering
profession. These systems are necessary to test the
validity of laboratory findings on a more realistic
basis.
For oil pollution studies, the pilot plant could take
the form of either an artificially constructed im-
poundment in the field or a natural area that can be
regulated and controlled. Under these circumstances
a physically and biologically manageable system
with a minimal amount of perturbations from outside
forces can be studied. The system would more closely
approximate the natural environment and increase
the reliability of predictions based on the results of
the investigations.
There seems to be little doubt that investigations
of this nature have the greatest chance of generating
useful estuarine management data in the shortest
time frame. These efforts must involve large teams of
competent scientists working in a well-planned co-
ordinated program. Unquestionably, large amounts
of money will be required, but the cost effectiveness
will be an order of magnitude greater than if smaller
programs are conducted simply on the basis of multi-
ple use of control data alone. For example, the anal-
yses for oil in the water column and sediments are
time-consuming and expensive, and if different in-
vestigators are working in different locations or on
different organisms, each would require the same
analyses.
3. Investigations of accidental oil spills. As indicated
previously, two of the major reasons for the limited
value of the data derived from investigations of
accidental oil spills are (a) lack of adequate pro-spill
baseline data, and (b) the inability to deplov the
-------
106
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
desired scii-ntific staff in time to maximize the value
of the data obtained. While this report is directed
toward the impact of oil on the estuarne environ-
ment, it should be realized that a thorough under-
standing of the ecosystem is necessary for the most
useful management of this valuable res >urcc. This
understanding also is of vital importance in deter-
mining the impact of pollutants other th in oil (e.g.,
pesticides, thermal pollution, and so on). Economics
dictates that only representative areas can be sub-
jected to these1 kinds of investigations but years
will be required before- meaningful data are obtained.
In this connection, it slrmld be point H! out that
the institutions of higher learning are MI excellent
source- of expertise and resources for this type of
undertaking. While having the scientific guidance of
senior scientific personnel, much of tin- work can
be handled by graduate research assistants. In this
fashion, not only will tin1 scientific aspects of the
program be met economically, but als-> this plan
offers the obvious spin off value of con ributing to
the badly-needed reservoir of trained environmental
scientists for the future. Pursuing this lire of reason-
ing further, there is every reason *o believe that
many of these same people could become a functional
part of the environmental response tea>ns that are
needed to investigate accidents. Since the total
environmental team already would be in contact
and familiar with the ecosystem involved, the
problems of an effective response wot Id be min-
imized. In other words, these university environ-
mental teams will be most valuable to the govern-
ment and/or industrially contracted response teams
in terms of formulating the specifics of the in-
vestigation, supplying some of the scientific direc-
tion, and making available many kinc.s of highly
specialized equipment and facilities. There is every
reason to believe that this kind of interdisciplinary,
multi-institutional program can be moui ted success-
fully in an economically practicable and scientifically
meaningful fashion.
SUMMARY
If the amount of oil entering the environment
each year were reduced to zero, the problems associ-
ated with oil pollution would disappear with time.
While this may be desirable idcalistically, it is cer-
tainly unrealistic. More emphasis on preventing
accidents, improved technology in containing and
cleaning up accidental spills, and an accelerated
effort to reduce the input of oil from all sources will
reduce significantly the danger from cil pollution.
The literature, clearly indicates that a substantial
effort must be put forth immediately if we are to
maintain and/or reclaim our estuaries as a healthy
viable re&ource.
One cannot help but be impressed, in a negative
way, by the lack of usefulness of the data on oil
pollution in terms of estuarine management. To
date, the major value of the research has been in
identifying the potential long-range problems that
could result- from oil pollution of the estuaries. The
fact that an ecological catastrophe has not occurred
is fortunate and an increased research effort on oil
pollution should reduce significantly the probability
of such an event. The translation of scientific data
into information utilizable for making estuarine
management decisions must be accelerated and
more emphasis must be placed on determining the
costs (both monetary and ecological) as well as the
benefits of the various solutions to the oil pollution
problems.
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
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ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
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-------
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
AND ITS RELATIONSHIP
TO ESTUARINE POLLUTION
HANS A. FEIBUSCH
Environmental Impact Planning Corporation
San Francisco, California
ABSTRACT
The general relationship of solid waste to esfuarine pollution is described. Current major impact
of solid waste on estuarine pollution conies from fills, legal and illegal, wheie leachat.es contain
pollutants including pesticides, heavy metals, and oxygen-demanding materials. Most coastal
styles have regulated against the further use of estnarine areas for the disposal of solid wastes.
It is recommended that the Federal government establish a data bank to determine where the
various kinds of waste materials originate and where they are disposed. Long-range solutions to the
dangei of estuarine pollution by solid waste materials lie in reduction of the quantity of solid
wastes generated and in large-scale recycling efforts
INTRODUCTION
Each year the average1 person in the United States
uses 17,500 pounds of fuel (for warming offices and
houses, running automobiles and trains, firing fac-
tory boilers, and many other tasks), 23,000 pounds
of construction and other non-metallic materials,
ti,800 pounds of metallic ores, and almost 6,000
pounds of agricultural materials (Morton, 1974).
The annual per capita consumption in the United
States, then, is over 50,000 pounds, or nearly 150
pounds per person per day. Since "consumption"
really means one-time (usually short-term) use,
this quantity of material becomes a per capita solid
waste disposal problem. This contrasts rather dra-
matically \\ith the "tip of the iceberg" of solid
wastes visible to most of us who generally think of
solid wastes as household garbage and rubbish.
Hut household garbage and rubbish are just one of
the 11 major streams of solid waste produced in this
country, and account for a minute percentage of 1he
150 pounds per person per day total \\aste pro-
duction.
The 11 major streams of waste may be lumped
into the three broad categories of municipal waste,
agricultural waste, and industrial waste. Municipal
waste includes residential, commercial, and demoli-
tion wastes; agricultural waste includes animal
manures and waste from fruit and nut crops arid
from field and row crops; industrial waste includes
waste from food processing, manufacturing, and
lumbering, as well as chemicals and petroleum.
On a per capita basis, municipal wastes account
for about 3 to 5 pounds, agricultural wastes, about
15 pounds, and industrial wastes, nearly 130 pounds
per day.
Since nearly 80 million people in the United States
live within 50 miles of an ocean coastline, while
another 30 million live within 50 miles of the Great
Lakes and the St. Lawrence River (U.S. Department
of Commerce, 1973), the use of estuarine areas for
waste disposal is an important consideration because
these have historically been favorite solid waste
disposal sites for municipal and industrial wastes.
Agricultural wastes have generally been left on
fields, burned, or allowed to wash into water courses.
Fortunately, as will be shown later, most coastal
states have now prohibited the UM of estuarine areas
for waste1 disposal. So while filling of os1uarin(V areas
is still going on, principally ii: San Francisco Bay
and Hackensack Meadows in ,\e\v Jersey, no ex-
tensive new filling of estuarin.: -nas with solid
waste appears to be taking place.
CURRENT DISPOSAL METHODS
The four primary methods of solid waste disposal
are, in order of decreasing usage, landfill, resource
recovery, incineration, and ocean disposal. Since
estuarine areas have in the past been favorite1 sites
for "reclamation" by filling them with solid wastes,
this disposal method has had a primary impact on
them. Therefore, as resource recovery and incinera-
tion become more prevalent, less pressure exists to
fill estuaries with garbage. Of course, much solid
waste is illegally dumped in estuarine areas.
Landfill is by far the most prevalent method of
409
-------
410
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
disposal in use today, with about 90 percent of
municipal waste going there (Feibusch, 1970).
Unfortunately, most landfills still do not qualify
as "sanitary" landfills as these are defined by the
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). A
sanitary landfill according to the ASCE is "a method
of disposing of refuse on land without creating
nuisance or hazards to public health . . (volume)
and to cover it with a layer of dirt at the conclusion
of each day's operation . . ."
Properly developed sanitary landfills create useful
land for park and recreation facilities. On the other
hand, the ecological disruption caused by landfills,
particularly in marshland or wetland areas, is a
major negative environmental factor.
Significant amounts of waste (particularly in-
dustrial wastes) are being reused. The salvage in-
dustry today probably does an annual volume in
excess of $10 billion. However, most materials now
being salvaged are the homogeneous remains of
manufacturing processes that are free of contami-
nants and can therefore be directly reused. Recovery
of materials from municipal wastes is currently
receiving a great deal of emphasis fron- planners in
the waste management industry. In later sections
of this report, we will discuss what efforts the States
of Massachusetts and Connecticut are currently
making in implementing statewide resource recovery
plans.
Probably the major constraints to increased
salvage and reclamation efforts arc the absence of
sustained demand for salvageable material and the
incentives to use them. In any case, energy con-
siderations are now forcing all waste management
planners to reconsider resource recovery as a major
factor in solid waste; management.
The best available data indicate that incineration
accounts for about 8 percent of the solid waste dis-
posed in the United States. Many communities have
recently renewed their interest in incineration in
light of the predicted energy shortage. Modern
incinerators are said to be 90 percent efficient in
terms of residual waste. That is, for each 100 tons
of combustible material burned, 10 toas remain to
be disposed. Of course, the basic law- of physics
stating that matter cannot be destroyed is still
valid, so the 90 tons of material burned are dis-
charged either into the air or into sewers. The
problem of non-combustible materials also remains.
Studies in Los Angeles County indicate an overall
incinerator efficiency of 48 percent wuh respect to
the average raw refuse composition collected (in-
cluding bulky materials and non-combustibles).
Less than 10 million tons of solid wastes are dis-
posed of annually into the oceans off the continental
United States. In addition, at least 53 million tons
of dredging spoils are being dumped into the ocean
(Smith, 1971). The question of dredging spoils
disposal is currently the subject of a $30 million
study by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under
its national Dredged Material Research Program
arid will not be further discussed here.
REVIEW OF COASTAL STATES'
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT EFFORTS
In order to provide an up-to-date review of the
status of solid waste management efforts in the
individual states, a telephone survey of the 20 coastal
states was made between October 30, 1974, and
November 11, 1974. In each case, contact was made
with a senior official in state government responsible
for solid waste regulation arid management. Table 1
summarizes information obtained from this survey.
Eighteen of the 20 states surveyed have assumed
primary jurisdiction for solid waste management and
regulation Only California and Washington have
total local control. Actual situations in Texas and
Louisiana reveal effective local control, but South
Carolina under present procedures cannot exercise
effective state control. Seventeen of the 20 states
surveyed have adopted solid waste management
legislation since 1970, indicating at least a recogni-
tion of state responsibility in the solid waste manage-
ment field.
Two states, Massachusetts and Connecticut, are
proceeding to implement statewide resource recovery
plans, while two other states, Delaware and Califor-
nia, are working with demonstrations that may have
significant results. Data concerning the location of
solid waste fills in estuarine areas were not readily
available, although the problem seems confined to
the states of Maryland, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Florida, Texas, and California. In Loui-
siana, a state with man)' estuarine areas, the popula-
tion in the five parishes where most of the estuaries
arc located is quite small. It is encouraging to note
that only one or two states allow new fills for solid
waste in estuarine areas, and that ocean dumping
appears to be practiced only in New York and New
Jersey.
PROBLEMS OF SOLID WASTE
LANDFILLS IN ESTUARINE AREAS
Laridfilling of solid wastes in estuarine areas
presents a twofold problem. First, it causes a reduc-
tion in the limited acreage of marshland and wetland
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
Table 1.
411
State
Maine
New Hampshire..
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey - .
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina.. . .
Georgia . _. __.
Florida
Alabama.
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas. .. _...
California
Oregon
Washington
Population
(Millions)
1 01
.76
5.76
96
3.07
18.35
7.31
.56
4.01
4.72
5.16
2.63
4.66
7.03
3.49
2 25
3.69
11 43
20 29
2 14
3.44
111.77
Jurisdiction
P*
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P(d)
P
P
P
P
P(a)
P((j)
1.**
P
L
Date of Enabling
Legislation
12/73
'72
4/71
'74
71
9/73
'70
7/73
'70
4/71
'69
9/71
'72
7;74
'69
'74
7
'69
1 J3
5/71
'72
Status of Resource
Recovery Efforts
?
?
p.|*«
?
P.I.
?
?
Demol
7
7
?
7
7
7
?
7
7
7
Demot
7
7
Number of
Existing Fills in
Estuarme Areas
2
7
1
1
7
7
1
None
15(c)
1
20
30 ±
None
?
None
None
?
Many(e)
31
1
7
New Estuarme
Fills Allowed
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
7
No
No
No
No
Ocean Dumping
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
7
7
No
7
7
No
7
?
7
No
7
Acres of Estuarme
Area (f)
(Thousands)
39.4
12.4
207.0
94.7
31.6
376.6
778.4
395.5
1406.1
1670.0
2206.6
427.9
170.8
1051.2
530.0
251.2
3545 1
1344.0
522.1
57.0
193.8
(a) State must use parish district attorney to prosecute Since district attorneys are also parish legal advisors, they do not prosecute
(b) Counties may assume control by adopting solid waste permit system Only 4 of 254 counties have done so.
(c) Small facilities on Eastern Shore serving total of 20,000 people.
(d) Can be overruled by any professional engineer-prepared plan
(e) Mostly small sites
(f) Presented by Dr Stanley A Cam, Assistant Secretary of Interior, in testimony to the Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation
* Primary state jurisdiction.
** Local control.
*** Statewide plan implementation
t Demonstration project
remaining in this country, and secondly, it creates
the danger of polluting vast areas outside of the
fills themselves through contamination of leachates
when water percolates through solid waste. A recent
article in Nation's Cities (Weddle, 1974) suggests
that dumps, both old and new, may he a potential
threat to many groundwater supplies. Certainly if
this is the case, estiuu'ine areas in which dumps are
located are also affected. Leachate generation in this
country, according to the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), may approach some 4(i billion
gallons annually. A significant percentage of this
lea chat e enters estuarine areas where it introduces
toxicants, heavy metals, and pesticides, and produces
oxygen depletion.
The Third National Congress on Waste Tech-
nology and Resource Recovery, sponsored jointly
by the EPA and the National Solid Waste Manage-
ment Association, in San Francisco November 14
and In, 1974, may provide the impetus needed to
tackle the problem of leachatc- contamination on a
national level.
SOLUTIONS—LESS WASTE,
MORE EFFECTIVE RECOVERY
As suggested in the previous section, much prog-
ress has been made in reducing the negative effect
of solid waste pollution on estuarine areas. However,
ultimately the answers to pollution problems from
solid waste of estuarine areas do not lie solely in
more rigid regulations or more detailed guidelines.
They lie also in producing less waste and in doing a
more effective job of recovering fractions of the
waste that we do produce.
Management plans for solid waste can no longer
be based on least iirst cost alone. They must be
based on the concept of least net cost, taking into
account a direct monetary outlay, the cost of
environmental pollution, and the value of resources
conserved. The "hierarchy of choices" concept for
solid waste management is suggested as a systematic
approach to solid waste management, minimizing
resource waste and maximizing resource recovery.
Under the hierarchy of choices, the best waste
-------
412
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
management choice is carried to its logical and
practical limit, and then the next best choice is
applied to what remains. There are six choices, and
the waste that is finally left over for burial is a small
fraction of the original amount. The hierarchy of
choices is as follows:
Source Reduction
This involves modifying some products; and mate-
rials and stopping the manufacture of others. It
would require that serious consideration be given in
the design stage to ultimate disposal of pny manu-
factured product. Superfluous packaging materials
are obvious candidates for this approach. Action by
state and federal legislatures, vigorous support from
local agencies, and strong citizen support would be
necessary to reduce the production of waste.
Reuse Without Processing
Some glass, metal, and paper articles are suitable
for direct reuse. More consideration must be given
to encouraging a collection system that separates
these materials at the point of origin. The contro-
versial Oregon "bottle law" is an example of state
efforts toward reuse of resources.
Reuse With Processing
Materials not suitable for direct reuse, but which
can be successfully blended with virgin materials at
time of processing (glass, aluminum, paper, tin cans),
can be separated at transfer points and made
available to industry as raw materials.
Conversion
The organic part of the remaining material can be
decomposed into a soil-like humus by composting or
pyrolyzed by applying heat in the absence of oxygen.
Composted materials would be applied to the land
to produce stable topsoil.
Change of State
The combustible material that still remains can be
incinerated, producing gas and energy. Incinerators
need to be located where there is a demand for steam
in the immediate vicinitv.
Burial
Some materials will always need to be disposed in
landfills. But these landfills should be located where
development plans call for changes in existing ground
elevations. Since the material that remains after
having been processed through the previous five
steps in the hierarchy is inert and earthlike, the
problem of landfill stability will bo greatly reduced.
The hierarchy of choices concept will have to be
employed in a flexible way, since local conditions
may obviate some and favor others, but if it is
employed in a systems engineering sense, it can be
appropriate under any given set of circumstances.
ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS
As a nation, we are currently involved in a massive
drive to find alternate sources of energy, having
recently discovered that a dependence of foreign oil
could have devastating effects on our way of life.
To a large extent, the whole problem of solid waste
management has become affected by the "energy
crunch." As with all such crash efforts, it will take
several years before we realize that the crucial prob-
lem_,is not how much energy we generate but what
our real net energy needs are. Thus it may be that
according to the hierarchy of choices concept in the
previous section, organic municipal and agricultural
wastes can be more useful when converted and added
to the land as a soil amendment rather than being
burned. Much work needs to be done to minimize
the need for energy in solid waste, management. The
institution of transfer stations where waste materials
are transferred from small to large vehicles is one of
the more obvious energy-saving devices being con-
sidered by many communities.
PROGRAMS WITH PROMISE
As we have mentioned, the States of Connecticut
and Massachusetts have taken a leading role in
developing statewide solid waste management plans
that emphasize resource recovery. The Connecticut
plan (Anon., 1974b) proposes 10 regional solid waste
recycling centers to be constructed by the Connec-
ticut Resource Recovery Authority (CRRA), a
non-profit, tax-exempt public service corporation.
Private firms in the resource recovery industry will
contract with CRRA to design, construct, and
operate the 10 regional centers. Firms have been
selected to build plants at Bridgeport and Berlin,
Conn. The plants are scheduled to go into operation
at the rate of one per year. The first two plants will
recover fuel, ferrous metals, aluminum, and glass.
-------
OTHEE POLLUTANTS
413
The State of Massachusetts, with a somewhat less
ambitious program than that of Connecticut, has
approved the development of the first resource
recovery facility in Lawrence to serve the regional
needs of the Merrimack Valley. This plant is to be
built, operated, and owned by private entrepreneurs.
Recovery of metals and fuel is envisioned (Anon.,
1974a)."
The city of St. Louis and Union Electric Company
are jointly undertaking a significant program for
utilization of refuse for energy production. Shredded
air-sorted refuse and coal have been used for some
time now on a test basis to generate electricity at
the Meramec Power Plant of Union Electric Com-
pany in St. Louis. Extensive tests have not revealed
any serious problems of air pollution, although modi-
fication of the refuse-coal composition and close
mixture control were found necessary. LTnion Electric
Company and the city are currently developing a
$70 million program for five to seven transfer
stations throughout St. Louis, making it possible
to use all of that city's combustible solid waste for
energy.
The Delaware Reclamation Project proposes to
use 500 tons of solid waste and 230 tons of sewage
sludge per day and recycle them into marketable
materials. This demonstration is essentially to prove
the viability of an aerobic digester to produce
humus. Other machinery would produce solid fuel,
carbon, fuel gas, ferrous and non-ferrous metals,
paper, and glass cullet. The plant will be designed
with enough capacity to handle all the wastes in
Newcastle County (Wilmington).
In the San Francisco Bay Area, a group of 15
local agencies joined together in 1972 to test the
feasibility of using composted organic solid waste in
the low-lying areas of the Sacramento-San Joaquin
Delta for levee stabilization, land building, and
agriculture. These local agencies, calling themselves
The Bay-Delta Resource Recovery Action Com-
mittee, took a first step not only in solving the
problem of solid waste (including sewage sludge) in
the bay area but also in forming the regional institu-
tion framework necessary to do this. This effort
was entirely voluntary without coercion from either
state or federal agencies.
Briefly, the plan called for strategically located
processing transfer stations where directly recover-
able materials would be removed. The balance would
be shredded and air classified, with the light fraction
being mixed with sewage sludge and composted,
while the heavy fraction would undergo further
recovery processing. The composted fraction would
then be shipped by barge to the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Delta, where it would be placed behind
dikes for support and to raise the land levels, which
have been dropping steadily for many years. The
composted material would be used to stabilize dikes
and to serve as a growing medium for agricultural
products. A pilot demonstration lasting three years
and using 200 tons of composted material per day
has been proposed. To date, the California legislature
has appropriated $2.3 million toward the demonstra-
tion. The local agencies are currently negotiating
with federal representatives for matching funds.
THE FEDERAL ROLE
Current Federal authority in the field of solid
waste management as it affects estuarine areas is
held by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under
the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899. The Corps,
under the same act, issues permits for dredging and
filling in navigable waters and may deny these
permits based on fish, wildlife, and water quality
consideration (Anon., 1974c).
The EPA's Solid Waste Management Program
has no regulatory authority. Its present role is
confined to establishing broad national policies,
administering research and development programs,
encouraging state and area-wide solid waste manage-
ment planning, and providing technical assistance.
Many of the concepts proposed in the hierarchy
of choices for sound solid waste management and
resource recovery are embodied in legislation cur-
rently pending before various committees of Con-
gress. The Resource Conservation Energy Recovery
Act of 1974 is the most comprehensive bill currently
being considered. It addresses freight rate discrimina-
tion for recycled products, source reduction efforts,
hazardous waste disposal standards, long-range state
solid waste management planning, and grant and
loan programs for large-scale energy recovery and
resource conservation demonstrations as well as full-
scale plants.
Committees of the House of Representatives are
discussing legislation for tax credits to recycled
products manufacturers and rapid amortization
proposals for recycling equipment. Both of these
pieces of legislation would have a major beneficial
effect on reducing the quantity of solid waste that
might be destined for estuarine areas.
New legislative proposals are urgently needed that
would require the EPA to establish and maintain a
data bank of waste materials generated and dis-
posed. No one today has even a general idea as to
how much and what kind of material we are throw-
ing away, where it is being thrown, and what
damage it is causing. The information gathering
effort required to develop this data bank is very
-------
414
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
large. However, intelligent long-range Claiming by
both industry and regulators will be impossible until
better information is available.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Each of us in this very affluent country consumes
on the average 150 pounds of raw material every day.
Since nearly half of us live within .">0 miles of coast-
lines having estuaries, estuaries offer convenient
dumping grounds for our leftovers. Fortunately,
most coastal states have recognized tte ecological
importance of estuarine areas and havo prohibited
their filling with solid waste. So while some filling
of estuarine areas is still going on, not many new
fills will be started.
Concerns for raw material and energy shortages
are likely to have a positive influence on resource
recovery and conservation efforts. This will help to
reduce the pressure on filling estuaries since less
waste, will be generated.
Most states have assumed regulatory control over
solid waste disposal and appear to have established
on-going enforcement programs to prevent estuarine
pollution. Massachusetts and Connecticut are em-
barking on ambitious statewide resource recovery
programs, while several demonstration projects with
great potential are being initiated elsewhere.
A systems engineering approach is urgently needed
to measure the least net cost of solid wgste manage-
ment programs, taking into account cost, of pollution
prevented and resources conserved. The hierarchy of
choices concept is a useful tool in selecting waste
management programs. In the hierarchy, source
reduction (i.e., not making the produc: in the first
place) is the ideal waste management solution, while
throwing it away is the worst.
It is to be hoped that the federal role in the solid
waste management field will soon be expanded with
the provisions embodied in the proposed Resource
Conservation and Energy Recovery Act of 1974
becoming law.
In general, it can be said that much improvement
has taken place in the solid waste management field
in the past few years, but a great deal more needs
to be done before; the threat of pollution of estuarine
areas from solid waste is eliminated.
REFERENCES
Anon. J!)74:i. Massachusetts selects Merrimack Valley as
first solid waste region. Solid Waste -Report 5 (3) :28.
. l!)74b. State to recycle 8.3C< of cities' solid wastes
Engineering News-Record" 193(17) :3'J-40.
. 1974c. The wetlands: how well are they protected?
Conservation Foundation Letter, September: 1-8
Feibusch, Hans A. and F. M. Stead. 1970. A solid wastes
management system for the Bay Region. San Francisco
Planning and Urban Renewal Association, November.
Morton, Rogers C. B., Secretary of the Interior. 1971. Letter
to Senator Walter Iluddleston September.
Smith, I). 1). and 1>. P. Brown. 1971. Ocean disposal of
barge-delivered liquid and solid wastes from United States
coastal cities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Solid Waste Management OtFiee.
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1973. Bureau of the Census.
Statistical Abstract of the United Slates: 1973 Govern-
ment Pi in ting Olhce, Washington, D.C.
Weddle, B. ,ind G. Garland 1974. Dumps: a potential threat
to our g,rcundwater supplies. Nation's Cities 12(101:21-22,
24-25, 42.
-------
IMPACT OF CHLORINATION
PROCESSES ON
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
WILLIAM P. DAVIS
D. P. MIDDAUGH
Gulf Breeze Environmental
Research Laboratory
Wadmalaw Island, South Carolina
ABSTRACT
The use of chlorine as n disinfectant and antifouling agent is reviewed. Chemical reactions of
chlorine in aquatic environments are discussed, with particular emphasis on the formation of
halogenated organic constituents in freshwater and marine systems. Studies of the effect of chlo-
rinated sewage effluents and cooling water from generating stations on marine organisms and
pco'-.vstoni-> are summarised.
INTRODUCTION
Chlorine1 gas has seen industrial use .since 1800 as
a bleaching agent and has become one1 of the most
versatile chemicals known. In freshwater it, is well
known as a disinfectant for drinking and recreational
water, biocide for slime and fouling control, and
treater of municipal wastes for pathogen control.
In these applications, vast quantities of chlorine are
used, and find their way through society's effluents
to natural ecosystem,--. The toxicity desired in disin-
fection and biocide applications can continue! with
non-desirable effects to wildlife and their ecosystems.
Recent findings of halogenated organics traceable
in drinking waler in f methods, including:
the electrolysis of brine,
electric current
2NaCl + 21W) -> 2NaOH + Cl, -)- II2
the salt process,
3NaCl+4HN03 -> 3NaN03 + Cl2 + N()Cl + 2H,O
and the hydrochloric acid oxidation process,
450-650°r
4HC1 + (}, > 2CI, + 211,0.
415
-------
416
E&TUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Chlorine in Freshwater Systems
Chlorine gas dissolves rapidly in water and hy-
drolyses,
Cl, + H20 <=> HOC1 + H+ + G1-.
This hydrolysis is nearly complete and only when
the pH is below 3.0, or the chlorine concentration
over 1000 mg/1 is there any measurable quantity of
molecular chlorine present. The oxidizing capacity
of chlorine is retained in the hydrolysis product,
hypochlorous acid. Hypochlorous acid dissociates to
form,
C10
This reaction is pH dependent. For a neutral pH
(7.0) at 20°C, the equilibrium is approximately 75
percent HOC1 and 25 percent C10~. For a pH of 8.0,
the reverse is true with approximately 25 percent
HOC1 and 75 percent C10~ (Sawyer and McCarty,
1969).
The addition of hypochlorite salts to water forms
hypochlorite ions followed by hypochlorous acid,
Table 1.—Summary of reactions of chlorine with organic compounds in
freshwater (modified from Ingols et al. 1953)
and
Ca(C10)2 = Ca+ + + 2 CIO
H+ + CIO- <± HOC1.
If ammonia or organic amines are present in the
water, they will react with hypochlorous acid to
form chloramines,
NH, + HOC1 = NH2C1 + H20.
Like the ionization of hypochlorous acid to
H+ + C10~, the reaction rate between ammonia
and hypochlorous acid is pH dependent, occurring
most rapidly in solutions with a pH of 8.3. This
reaction is also dependent upon temperature and
the ratio of ammonia to hypochlorous acid.
Monochloramines react with hypochlorous acid
to form di- and trichlorarnincs,
and
NH2C1 + HOC1 = NHC12 + H20,
2NH2C1 + HOC1 = NC13 + H20.
Organic Substrate
Alanme
Cysteine
Glycylglycine
Glycylglycylglyctne
Hemin
Hypochlorous Acid
RSOsH
Oxidative
Hydrolysis and deammization
Violent change
Monochloramme
RSSR
Terminal organic
monochloramme
oxidation
(1948) determined that at pH 5.0, the ratio was
16 percent monochloramine and 84 percent dichlor-
amine. For a pH of 8.0, the ratio was 85 percent
monochloramine and 15 percent dichloramine. Tri-
chloramine is found in significant quantities only at
pH values of less than 4 (McKee and Wolf, 1963).
Ingols et al. (1953) determined that hypochlorous
acid arid monochloramine in freshwater will react
with various organic constituents. Some of these
reactions resulted in the formation of organic
monochloramines although none were persistent,
Table 1.
The formation of chlorinated organic compounds
during chlorination of sewage effluents and power
plant cooling waters has recently been documented
(Jolley, 1973; Jolley et al. 1975). Isotopic 36C1
tracers and high-resolution anion-exchange chro-
matography were used to separate over 50 chlorine
containing constituents from chlorinated secondary
effluents. Fifteen of these were tentatively identified
and quantified, Table 2.
Table 2.—Tentative identifications and concentrations of chlorine containing
constituents from chlorinated sewage effluents (modified from Jolley, 1973)
Low pH favors a shift in equilibrium toward the
formation of di- and trichloramines. Fair et al.
Identification
5-Chlorouracil
5-Chlorouridme
8-Chlorocaffeine
6-Chloroguanme . _ .
8-Chloroxanthine __ -
2-Chlorobenzoic acid
5-ChlorosaIicylic acid
4-Chloromandelic acid
2-Chlorophenol
4-ChlorophenyIacetic acid .. . _
4-Chlorobenzoic acid
4-Ch!orophenol
4-ChlororesorcinoI ,
3-Chloro-4-hydroxybenzoic acid _
4-Chloro-3-methyl phenol
Cone, of Organic
compound ug/L
4 3
1.7
1.7
0.9
1.5
0.26
0.24
1.1
1.7
0.38
0.62
0.69
1.2
1.3
1.5
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
417
Chlorine in Marine Systems
Major source's of chlorine contamination in the
marine environment are related to postchlorination
of secondary sewage effluents with outfalls located on
coastal and estuarine waters, and chlorination of
seawater used for cooling of thermal electric generat-
ing plants (White, 1972, 1973; Markowski, 1959).
The addition of chlorine to seawater results in a
complex series of chemical reactions; the most ob-
vious one frees bromine,
C12
2Br~ = 2C1- + Br2.
This reaction goes to completion and is the basis for
the manufacture of bromine from seawater (Lewis,
I960).
The industrial extraction of bromine from sea-
water requires that the pH be reduced below 3.0,
so that molecular chlorine can release molecular
bromine. The hydrolysis products from adding
chlorine to seawater, HOC1 and C10~, will also
release bromine from the bromide ion in the form of
hypobromous acid and hypobromite ion,
and
CIO- + Br- = BrO- + Cl~,
BrO- + H+ <=* HOBr.
Houghton (1946) has also suggested that chlorina-
tion of water containing free ammonia and bromine
may result in the formation of bromamines. Johan-
neson (1958) added chlorinated water to a sodium-
ammonium salts solution buffered to pH 8.3. This
resulted in the formation of monobromamine and
some monochloramine. The addition of sodium
hypochlorite solution produced mostly monochlor-
amine. The hypochlorite in solution apparently
reacts with both the bromine and ammonia,
and
CIO- + Br- = BrO- + Cl~,
CIO- + NH, = NH2C1 + OH-
Injection of chlorine gas may result in localized
acidity, favoring the first reaction above, which is
rapid at pH values of less than 8.0. The second
reaction is favored when chlorine is added as sodium
hypochlorite since there is no accompanying reduc-
tion in the normal pH of 8.0-8.3,
When ammonia is present in seawater, it will react
with hypobromous acid to form monobromamine.
Monobromamine in turn will react with hypo-
bromite ion to form dibromamine,
and
NH, + HOBr = NH2Br + H20,
NH2Br + BrO- = NHBr2
Iii addition, monobromamine at near neutral pH
will form ammonium bromide which dissociates into
ammonium ion and free bromine (Johanneson,
I960).
and
NH2Br -f H+ «=* NH3Br+
Br+.
Block and Helz (1975) have prepared a reaction
series model to illustrate the theoretical degradation
processes occurring after the addition of chlorine to
natural, saline waters, Figure 1. Compounds in each
successive level can give rise to ones on a lower level.
In general, compounds occurring on lower levels
will not contribute to the formation of those in the
levels above.
The reaction occurring between levels I and II
is a result of chlorine decay from a diatomic gas to
hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ions, and sodium
hypochlorite. As pointed out by Moore (1951) and
Lewis (1966), this reaction occurs rapidly and goes
to completion within seconds after the addition of
chlorine. The inclusion of sodium hypochlorite
ill
IV
HOCuOCi.', NAOCL
NH2CL, NHCX2, NH2BR,
NHBR2, BRO-, HERO
HALOGENATED ORGANIC
CONSTITUENTS
CL~, BR"
FIGUKE 1.—Degradation processes for chlorine in saline
waters (modified from Block and Helz, in preparation).
-------
418
EOT MARINE POLLT/TION CoNTHOL
within level II is bawd on the results <.f \\ork by
Sugumand Helz (1970,).
The chemical composition and abundance of
products formed from level 11 to l<>vc] III is a
function of physical and chemical parameters of the
water, including but not limited to te npeiature,
pH, ammonia, and bromine, available us reaction
components. In seawater it is possibli that the
predominant species would be bromam;nes, espe-
cially if NH,+ ions are less abundant than Br~ ions.
Level IVincludes, halogenated organic constituents
which may be formed by level II or level j II species,
including chloramines, hypobromite and broma-
mines. The stable end products in level V occur
through a diverse group oi mechanis ns taking
place in steps I--IV.
Charge balance results in one atom of Cl passing
from level I to level V to each atom passing from
level I to level II. Reduction of hypoehlorite by Br--
or Fe2f arid Mn2+ may release Cl~ from level II to
level V. Movement of Cl~ from level III to level V
can also occur in a number of ways; the most
obvious, suggested by Laubusch (1971) involves
the destruction of chloramines when the OCl~/NHi+
ratio is large.
Some of the chlorinated organics identified by
Jolley (1973) arc persistent and the decay from level
IV to level V is probably a slow process, relative to
decay from levels I through III to level V.
TOXICITY OF CHLORINE
IN ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS
The relative toxicity of chlorine in wate- is related
to the amount and proportions of fret1 ai d residual
chlorine. Several investigators have found that free
chlorine, is generally more toxic to freshwater
organisms than chloramines (Douderoff and Katz.
1950; Mcrkens, 1958), even though the :oxicity of
the various forms of chlorine was of the .same order
of magnitude. Rosenberger (1971 ) and 3asoh and
Truchan (1973j, found that dichloramine was more
toxic than monochloramine in freshwater. A com-
prehensive review paper by Brung« (1973) sum-
marizes the toxic effects of residual chlorine on
freshwater aquatic organisms.
In seawater, Holland et al. (1960) cetermined
that dichloramine is apparently more toxic than
monochloramine and that the cbloramines were
more toxic than free chlorine. These findings may
reflect the complex chlorine-bromine reaction kine-
tics suggested by Johanncson (1958, !.960) and
Lewis (1966).
Chlorine Toxicity to
Marine Phytoplankton
The effects of chlorination and thermal pollution
on phy t oplankton productivity have been invest igated
in some derail. Table 3. Carpenter et al. (1972)
observed an 83 percent decrease in the productivity
of phytoplankton passed through the cooling system
of a nuclear generating plant on Long Island Sound.
Intake water was chlorinated at a rate of 1.2 rng/1
with a residua] of 0.4 ing/1 measured at the dis-
chaige. Addition of 0.1 mg/1 chlorine at the intake
with non-detectable residuals at the, outfall decreased
productivity by 79 percent. Essentially no decreases
in productivity were observed when phytoplankton
passed through the cooling system without addition
of chlorine. Hirayama and Hirano (1970) measured
the effect of chlorination on the photosynthetic
activity of Skcletoncma, costatum and found that cells
•were killed when subjected to 1.5 to 2.3 mg/1
chlorine for 5 arid 10 minutes.
(.icntilo (1972. 1973 unpublished data. Environ-
mental Hosearoh Laboratory, Xarragansett) ob-
served a 55 percent decrease in the ATP content ot
maiine phytoplankton exposed to 0.32 ing '1 re-
sidual chlorine for two minutes and a 77 percent
decrease after 4.~> minutes of exposure to chlorine
concentrations as U>w as 0.01 mg/1. A 50 percent
depression in the growth rates of 10 species of marine
pin toplankton exposed to chlorine concentrations
langing from 0.075 to 0.25 mg/1 for 24 hours was also
measured.
Morgan and Stross (1969) used photosynthetic
rates to evaluate the response of estuarine phyto-
plankton passed through the cooling system of a
steam electric power station on the Patuxent River.
Md. The photosynthetic rate increased with an
8°C rise in temperature when ambient water tem-
peratures were 16°C or less. Inhibition occurred
when ambient temperatures were above 20°C. In a
related study, conducted at the same site, Hamilton
et al. (197CH measured a 91 percent decrease in
primary productivity during intermittent chlorina-
tion.
Chlorine Toxicity
to Invertebrates
Mucbmore and Epel (1973) investigated the
effects of chlorination of wastewater on fertilization
in marine invertebrates, Table 4. Unchlorinated
sewage (from the Pacific drove, Calif.) was a \v-ak
inhibitor of ''ertilization in the sea urchin, Str<>i>fji/l-
oreiitrohix purpn rains. Exposure of gametes of the
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
419
Table 3.—Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine phytoplankton
_ - -
Species
Phytopiankton
Chlamydomoria sp
SkPletonema costatum. -
Phytopippkton., _ _ _ _ _
PhyiG.fidnk'Qn
Toxicant
Cl> injection
Hypochlorite solution
H/pochlonts solution
Ci • injection
Measured Residua!
Chlorine mg,l
0.05-0.40
0.69-12 9
0.18-2.4
0.32
0 01
). 0/5-0 25
.... 1
Duration of Test
12 hrs -1- 4 hrs incubation
5 mm
5 mm
2 nun
^5 mm
24 li-s
15 in,i
.
Effect(s)
50-98% loss of productivity
Reduced growth rate
None up to 0 29 mg/1; greater amis
inhibited growth
55% decease in ATP
,'7% decease in ATP
50% decrease in growth
91% recitation M photosynthesis
Reference
Carpenter et al. (1972)
Hirayama and Hirano (1970)
Gentile et al. (1972, 1973)
Hamilton et al. (1970)
Table 4.—Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine invertebrates
Species
Strongylocentrus
purpuratus (gametes). _
Urechis caupo (gametes)..
Phrafcmatopoma
cahfornica (sperm). _ __
Ostrea edulis . . .
Balanus sp
Acartia tonsi -
Mohta mtida
Palaernonetes pugio - __ .
Mussels -. _-._
tViyiilus "dulio ._ -_
Toxtcaiit
Chlorinated sewage
effluents
.Residual chlorine
CI > mje^ion
Residual chlorine
Ch injection
Measured Residual
Chlorine mg/l
0.02
0 11
C.2
1.0
0.2
1 0
10.0
2.0
5 ()
.' 5
2 b
2.5
2 5
4.5
10 0
2.5
1 0
1U.O
2 :
I 0
10.0
2 5
1 0
0.02-0 05
Duration of Test
5 nnii
5 inn
5 mm
5 mm
5 min
5 mm
4b mm -I- 10 C
10 mm
3 mm
5 mm
5 .rii in
5 mm
5 n,m
4 days
i,2, 4, 8 hrs /day for 10 days
8 days
15 dass
1 2, 4, Shis 'day for lOdaj:
5 days
15 days
!,2,4,8hrs;dayforlOd3ys
4 dayj
7 days
A few hrs
Effect(s)
Nono
100% inhibition of fert.
22% inhibition of fert
100% inhibition of fert
'2% loss of mctihty
86% loss of motility
None
Death and inhibited growth
fione
80% mortality
90% mortality
Najr 100% mortality 96 hrs after
exposure
None
Nont
100% mortality
100% mortality
None
100% mortality
100% moitality
95-100% mortality
100% mortality
100% mortality
Detachment and migration
Reference
Muchmore and Epel (1973)
Waugh (1964)
McLean (1972, 1973)
Turner et al. (1948)
James (1967;
.sf1:. urchin to a 10 percent unchlorinated «e\\a>ie-
i-'-anuter :mxture typically reduced iertihy,ati<>n
S'i~'Cis.-, by ;.'0 Tiercel1-). A 0 •"> percent dilutioii of
modorarelv chlorinaied sewage s, 11 nip;'! TRG
undilu+ed'i, nigiiifioantK rcnluccrl fertilization. It was
•a\?<, deferniiiiod that chlorinution had more effc-ct
oti sp, !\> cells than on c'^f^s. 1-ggy incubated Tor ">
,n,M!:Ui !s 111 a 0.77 nig/1 h\ pechl.)rit<- .solution and
yub^equc nt;y v/asiiod to remove the hypoi'liiorHe,
shosvt-.' ho rodiytion in fertility. T'lcubati'in <-f
^pcnn ^t " i'07 !!•:,?, 1 h\ jR'(.-}«):,rit,e oon'.'rntvd"1!!
resulted in a loss of fertilization ability. This was
attributed to a loss of sperm motility which was not
restored after washing to remove the hypochlorite.
Gametes of the echiuroid, Urediis caupo, and sperm
of th:> annelid worm, Phragmaiopoma calif arnica,
were not as sensitive to chlorine toxicity.
A number of power plant related studies have
been ronducted t<, determine tlie effect of chlorina-
tion ot sea'-vdU'S' on louling organisms. Waugh (1964;
observed no significant dift'c-rencc1 in the mortality
of '\. ,-^ter liif •.•;-••. Ostrea /:
-------
420
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
chlorine for 3 minutes at ambient temperature,
compared to control mortality. Exposure of larvae
to thermal stress (10°C above ambient) and 10 mg/1
chlorine for 6 to 48 minutes also had no significant
effect on survival 64 hours after treatment. Barnacle
nauplii, Elminius modestus, showed more acute
sensitivity to chlorinatiori. Residual chlorine read-
ings in excess of 0.5 mg/1 caused heavy mortality
and reduced growth for survivors.
McLean (1973) simulated the conditions en-
countered by marine organisms passing through a
power plant on the Patuxent River, Mel. Intake
chlorination to 2.5 mg/1 residual, entrainment for
approximately 3 minutes and sustained exposure
to elevated temperatures for up to 3 hours were
used as experimental parameters. While barnacle
larvae, Balanus sp. and copepods, Acar'.ia ionsi,
were not affected by a 3 hour temperature stress of
5.5 and 11°C above ambient, exposure; to 2.5 mg/1
chlorination for 5 minutes at ambient tempera-
tures caused respective mortality rates of 80 and
90 percent. The amphipod, Melita nitida, and the
grass shrimp, Palaemotietes puyio, showed L delayed
death response after exposure to 2.5 mg/1 for 5
minutes. Nearly 100 percent mortality was observed
for both species 90 hours after exposure to the
chlorination. McLean (1972) showed that estab-
lished colonies of the eurybaline colonial hydroid,
Bimeria fraitciscana, were not greatly affected by 1
and 3 hours of exposure to 4.5 mg/1 chlorina-tion.
Turner et al. (1948) determined that continuous
treatment of seawater conduits with 0.25 mg/1
chlorine prevented fouling daring a 90 da\ interval
when the flow velocity was 52 cm/second or Jess.
Intermittent treatment with JO mg/i "residual chlo-
rine1' for 8 hours a day was ineffective in pi eventing
fouling by anemones, mussels and barnacles.
James (1967), working in (treat Britain, observed
that chlorination levels of 0.02 and 0.05 mg/1 caused
detachment and movement of mussels in the direc-
tion of water flow through an aquarium with
eventual elimination of the mussels. He con-
cluded that the most effective \\ay to prevent
fouling by mussels was not to kill, but to discourage
settling in cooling water systems by continuous low
level chlorination.
Markowski (1960) compared the occurrence of
marine1 organisms on concrete slabs placed in the
intake and outfall canals of an electric generating
plant. Chlorine was injected into the condensors of
this plant for two hours a day at a concentration
betweeen 1 and 2.5 mg/1. No vegetation was ob-
served growing in the intake canal whe"e dense
animal populations occurred (predominantly in-
vertebrates, Coelenterata and Polyzoa). Tre outfall
canal contained a prolific growth of aJgae, h'i/tero-
tnorplia sp. but fewer invertebrate's. Balaifus run-
provisis, which was collected with some regularity
from the intake canal was never observed in the
outfall canal. The mollusk, Eubratichus sp. was more
abundant on the intake slabs than in the outfall.
Chlorine Toxicity
to Estuarine Fish
Tsai (1968. 1970, 1975) has observed decreases in
the abundance and occurrence of brackish water
fish species in certain areas of the Upper and Little
Patuxent Pavers receiving chlorinated sewage ef-
fluent. Tsai .suggests that chlorinated sewage ef-
fluent may also block the upstream migration of
such semi-anadromous species as the white catfish
and white perch. He attributed the blocking effect
to chlorination products rather than reduced dis-
solved oxygen or pH resulting from organic decom-
position of the effluent, Table 5.
Tsai (1973) measured the diversity index of fish
upstream and downstream of 98 sewage treatment
plants in Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania.
Sewage treatment plants were categorized as Type I
engineering facilities (sludge activation, aeration,
sedimentation and filtration) with effluent ehlorina-
tion; Type Tl, engineering facilities with chlorination
and ait effluent holding lagoon; and Type1 III,
engineering facilities with a lagoon arid e'ffluent
chlorination at the lagoon outlet. Reductions in the
number of fish, number of species and the specie's
diversity index were significant demnstream of
Type: I ami III plants. These reductiems we-re at-
tributed to total residual chlorine levels and tur-
bidity. Diversity indices sheAve'd no significant
changes in downstream areas associated with Type II
plants.
Massive* fish kills occurred on the James River,
Va., during May- June 1973 (Virginia State Water
Control Board, 1974). Species affected by the kill
includes! spot. LciosUnnus xant/inrun', white perch,
Morone aii/ei icana; bhiefish. I'oiitatomua saltatrix;
grey seatrout, Cynoacioti regalia and menhaden,
Brevoortia tyrannus. A majority of the fish kill in
the James Rive-r occurred adjacent to sewage treat-
ment plants. Chleiririation oxidation levels as high
as 0.7 mg/1 were observeel in the James. Effluents
from both plants she>we>el more than 3.0 mg/1.
Distress h\mptoms of fish dying included .spiral
K\\imining patterns, broke1)! vertebral columns, list-
less floating, inverted swimming, eiistension of the
air bladder in some1, loose body scale's, mucous on
the skin and hemorrhagiiig along the- fins and bejdv
surface.
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
421
Table 5.—Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine and freshwater fishes
Species
Freshwater and brackish
fishes...
L xanthurus
Polatomus saltatnx
C. regalis
Brevoortia tyrannus .
0. nerka
0. gorbuscha (freshwater).
0. gorbuscha
0. tshawytscha j
Morone amencana
Menidia menidia
F. heteroclitus
Trmectes rnaculatus
Pleuronectes platessa
(eggs)
(larvae)
Cyprinus carpio
Toxicant
chlorinated sewage
effluents
chlorinated sewage
sodium hypochlonte
chlorinated sewage
effluents
Residual chlorine
residual chlorine
free chlorine
4-Chlororesorcmol
5-Chlorouracil (0.001 mg/l)
Measured Residual
Chlorine mg '1
0.6-2.0
0.07-0 28
0.09
0.14
0.28
0.02-0.26
0.16
0.5
0.5
0 08
0.08
0.03
0.03
0.04-0.08
0.62
0.10
0.032
0.026
Duration of
Long term
May-June, 1973
96 hrs
24 hrs
6 hrs
24 hrs
72 hrs
80 mm + 10 C
10 mm -|- 10 C
10 mm
10 mm
10 mm
8 days
72 hrs
96 hrs
48 hrs
96 hrs
3-7 days
Effect(s)
Decreased popn. size and diversity
Probable kill 5-10 million fish
50% mortality
50% mortality
50% mortality
100% mortality
100% mortality
50% mortality
50% mortality
Avoidance
Avoidance
Avoidance
Avoidance
None
50% mortality
50% mortality
50% mortality
50% mortality
Reduced hatch
Reference
Tsai (1968, 1970, 1973)
Virginia State Water Control
Board (1974)
VIMS for VSWCB (1974)
Servizi and Martens (1974)
Stober and Hanson (1974)
Meldnm et al. (1974)
Alderson (1972)
Gehrsetal. (1974)
Live box tests conducted adjacent to the James
River sewage treatment plant (STP) demonstrated
a correlation between rates of effluent chlorination
and mortality of juvenile spot and croaker. With an
average daily chlorine feed of 1,200 pounds (total
flow of water was approximately 10 rngd during
tests) and a measured activated oxidant level of
3.0 mg/l, caged fish suffered 100 percent mortality
within 20 hours. After a cutback to a. chlorine feed
rate of approximately 400 pounds per day, only 20
percent mortality was observed among caged fish
after 20 hours.
On-site aquaria tests confirmed the results of the
cage tests. Water from an area adjacent to the outfall
of the James River (STP) was pumped through
aquaria containing juvenile spot. Mortalities ranged
from 91 to 100 percent after 40-S.l minutes of
exposure prior to the cutback in chlorination. After
chlorination rates were reduced, mortalities \\en
0-26 percent after 120 minutes of exposure.
Continuous flow laboratory bioassays •were also
conducted. The 90 hour LGso tor juvenile spot was
estimated at 0.09 mg,'l. The estimated 21 hour
LC;,o was 0.14 mg/l and the fi hour L0,-)0, 0.28 mg/l.
Separate field studies on the spot, Leiostoinus
xanthurus, found up to 40 percent of juveniles from
the 1973 year class exhibited deformities in the
vertebral column. These abnormal forms are iden-
tifiable as a distinct year class in 197.~> population
samples from the James River, (Labbish Ohao,
personal communication).
A study of the effect of chlorinated sewage
effluents on sockeye salmon, Onchorhynchus nerka,
and pink salmon, O. gorbuscha, has been conducted
by Servizi and Martens (1974). They used three
study sites to conduct cage bioassays. The first,
Site I, was adjacent to a primary treatment plant
with effluents chlorinated following settling and dis-
charged through a 000-foot pipeline directly into
the receiving stream. Site II Avas on a stream
receiving wastes from an activated sludge plant in
\\hich chlorinated effluents were discharged into a
large effluent holding lagoon and retained from 30
to (iO days Site III was located on a stream receiving
effluents which were chlorinated as they left a
non-aerated lagoon.
Measured chlorine residuals in the receiving
stream at Site 1 ranged from 0.02-0.20 mg/l. These
-------
422
ESTUARINE POLLUTION* CONTROL
concentrations resulted in 100 percent mortality of
caged sockeyo fingeriings placed ,'iO, (iO and 2,10 fed
belo\v the effluent discharge point. Additional tests
indicated that the primary effluent without chlorina-
tion was also toxic. However, fish exposed to the
unchlorinated effluent lived 10 times longer than
ones exposed when effluents were being chlorinated.
Toxicity of the unchlorinated effluents was attributed
to MBAH and ammonia.
Tests at Site II indicated that chlorinated
effluents retained for JU) to mg/1) resulted in :10 percent mortality after
48 minutes. Fifty percent mortality occurred after
13 hours of exposure to the unchlorinated effluents.
Suhlethal exposures of fingerling sockeye salmon to
the effluents from Site- III (1 '.$ hours of exposure
to 0.22 mg/1) resulted in gill damage, including
hyperplasia, swollen epithelial cells, and separation
of epithelium from pillar cells.
The toxicity of chlorine and heat to pink, Oncor-
hynchus r/orbusc.ha, and chinook salmon, 0. tshawyt-
sclia, has been determined by Stober and Hanson
(1974). Juveniles of each species were tested in sea-
water at. five chlorination concentrations, ranging
from O.O.T 1.0 mg/1. and four temperatures from
t 0--10°C. Salmon wen- exposed to each matrix for
7.5-T>0 minutes. A decrease in the tolerance of both
species to chlorination was observed with increased
temperature and exposure time. The most toxic ef-
fect was observed at a. t of 9.0-10°0 where the I.T5o
(lethal time for ,10 percent mortality) ranged from
approximately 10 minutes at 0 .1 mg/1 for chinooks
to 80 minutes for pinks.
Aleldrim et al. (1974) in flowing \\ater bioassays
studied the effect of chemical pollutants on estuarine
organisms. They found that white perch, Mom>tc
amencaiHt, consistently avoided levels as lo\\ as O.OS
mg/1 at temperatures from 7-17°0. Silv'ersides,
Men-itlia menidia, also avoided O.OS mg/1 at tem-
peratures from 8- 2S°C but showed a preference for
0.08 mg/1 when fish acclimated to 7°C were exposed
at 12°C. .Miinnnichogs, Funilulua hctcroclitux, and
hog chokers, Tniicctes inarulntua, avoided levels as
low as 0.03 mg/1.
Alderson (1972) found that the 48 and 90 hour
Tlm of free1 chlorine for plaice larvae, 1'lcuronede.n
platesKa, was 0.032 and 0.020 mg/1 resj)ectively.
Eggs were nof affected when exposed to 0.07.1 and
0.04 mg/1 free chlorine for 8 days, indicating that
the egg membrane gives considerable protection
over long periods. The 72 and 192 hour Tlm for
eggs was 0.7 and 0.12 mg/1 respectively.
(iehrs et, al. (1974) tested the sensitivity of car])
eggs. Cyprinus carpi", to t\\o of the compounds
identified by Jolley, 4-Chlororesorcinol and .1-Chloro-
uracil. Significant reductions in the hatchabilit> of
non-water hardened carp eggs \\ere observed in
concentrations of each compound as lov> as 0.001
mg/1.
In California, Young (1904) observed tumor-like
sore* around the mouth of white croakers, (!e>njonc-
IH-US hitcalu^, collected near the Hyperion sewage
outfall in Santa Monica Bay. "While there -\uis no
direct evidence To link the occurrence oi lesions with
chlorinated sewage effluents, a general decline in
fitness of croakers and other species found in close
proximity to the outfall area was observed.
REFERENCES
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chlorine on eggs and larvae of plaice, Pleuroncctes platessa
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(London) I'M 2-315.
Baseh, R. K. and J. (1. Tniehan. 1973. Calculated residual
chlorine concentrations safe for fish Interim Report,
Michigan Water Resource Commission. Bureau of Water
Management, Lansing, Mich.
Block, R. M. a-id (i. R. Helz. 1975. Biological and chemical
implications of chlorine in estuarine and marine systems.
Chesapeake Sci , In press.
linings, W. A. 1073. Kffects of residual chlorine on aquatic
life. Jour. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 45(10) :2I80-21<)2.
Carpenter, V, J , B. B Peck and S. J. Anderson. 1972.
Cooling water chlorination and productivity of entrained
phytoplankton. Marine Biology 16:37-40.
Davis, Wm. P. and I). P. Middaugh, 1970. A review of the
impact of chlorination processes upon marine ecosystems.
Proc. Conf. Environmental Impact of Water Chlorination,
Oak Ridge, 1975.
Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz. 1950 Critical review of literature
on the toxiciU of industrial wastes and their components
to fish. Sew. nnil Ind. Wastes 22V11) :1-1,'!2-M58.
Fair, ('. M., J. 0. Morris, S. 1. Chang, I. Weil, and R. P
Burden. 19-18. Chlorine as a water disinfectant. Jour.
Amer. Water Works Assoc. 40:1051-1061.
(iehj's, C. W., L. J). iOym.iu, li. L. Jolisy and J. K. Thompson,
1974 Effects of stable chlorine-containing orginics on
aquatic environments. Nature 249:675-070.
Cenhle, J. H., J. Cardir, M. Johnson, and S. Sosnowski.
1972. The efiecis of chlorine on the growth and .-'urvival
of selected species of estuarine phytoplankton and /oo-
plankton. Unpublished manuscri].t, EnviioTimenl.il Re-
search Laboratory, Narragansett.
, S. Cheei, and N Lackie. 1973. The use of ATP in
the evaluation of entramment. Unjniblished data. En-
vironmental Research Laboratory, Narragansett.
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
423
Hamilton. \). II., I). A Flemer, C. V. Keefe, and J. A. Mi-
hursky 1070. Powei plant.-.: Eil'ects of ehlorination on
esluaime primary productivity. Science 109:197-498.
Ihrayama, K. and H. Ilirano. 1970. Influence of high tem-
perature and residual chlorine on marine phytoplankton.
Marine Biology 7:205-21;}.
Holland, (i. A., J. E. Lasater, K. D. Neumann, and W. K
Eldridge. 1904. Toxic eflecls of organic and inorganic
pollutants on young salmon and trout State ot Washing-
ton, Dept of Fish Res. Hull. No. 5.
Houghton, (1 V. 1010. The hiomine content of underground
waters. Part. II: Observations on the ehlorination of water
containing tree ammonia and naturally occurring bromide.
Jour. Soc of Chemical Industry 05:324-328.
Ingols H. S., Tl. A. Wyekolt, T. W. Kethley, H. W. Hodgden,
E. L. Fincher, J. C. Hildebrand, and J." K. Mandel. 1953.
Bactericidal studies of chlorine. Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry 45:995-1000.
James, W. G. 1907 Mussel fouling and use of exomotive
chlorination. Chem. and Ind. 24:994-990.
Johanneson, J. K. 1958. The determination of monobroma-
mine and inonochloramine in water. Analyst 83:155-159.
, I960. Bromination of Swimming Pools Am. Jour.
Publ. Health 50:1731.
Jolley, R. L. 1073 Chlorination effects on organic constituents
in effluents from domestic sanitary sewage treatment plants.
Ph D. Dissertation, Univ of Tennessee.
Jolley, R. L., C. W Gehrs, and W. W. Pitt, 1975. Chlorina-
tion of cooling water: A source of environmentally sig-
nificant chlorine-containing organic compounds Proceeding
of the 4th National Symposium on Radioocology, Coivallis,
Ore. -
Laubnsch, K. J. 1971 Chlorination and other disinfection
processes. In: Water Quality and Treatment Am. Water
Works Assoc.
Lewis, B. G. 19GO Chlorination and muscle control. I.
The ehemi.stry of chlorinated seawater. A review of
the liteiature Central Electric lies. Lab., Lab. Note
No. RD;L/N/10G/GG.
Markowski, 8. 1959 The cooling water of power stations:
A new factor in the environment of marine and freshwatei
invertebrates, .lour Animal Eeol. 28:243-258.
. 1000. Observations on the response of some benthoriii;
organisms to power station cooling water. Jour. Animal
Ecol. 29:349-357.
McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolt. 1903. Water Quality Criteria.
2nd Ed., Publ. 3A, C'alif State Water Quality Control
Board, Sacramento.
McLean, R. I. 1972 Chlorine tolerance of the colonial hy-
droid, Htmtna fianciscuna. Chesapeake Sci. 13:229-230.
1973. Chlorine and temperature stress in esluarine
invertebrates. Join. Wat. Pollut. Conlr. Fed. 45:837-841.
Meldrim, J. W., J. J. Gift, and B. R. Petrosky. 1974. The
effect of temperature and chemical pollutants on the be-
havior of seveial estuarine organism-;. Ichthvological
Assoc. Inc. Bull. No. 11:1-129.
Merkens, J. C. 1058. Studies on the toxicity of chlorine and
chloramines to the rainbow trout. Water and Waste
Tieatment Jour. 7:150-151.
Moore, K. W 1951. Fundamentals of chlorination of sewage
and waste*. Water and Sewage Works 98:130—130.
Morgan, R. P., and R. G Stross. 1000. Destruction of phylo-
plankton in the cooling water supply of a steam electric
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Muchmore, 1)., and I). Epel. 1073 The (-fleets of chlorination
of wastewater on fertilization in some marine invertebrates
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Sawyers, C. N., and P. L. McCarty. 1960. Chemistry for
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Stober, Q. J., and C. H. Hanson. 1974. Toxicity of chlorine
and heat to pink, Onchrhynchus gorbnscha and chinook
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Sugam, 1! , and G. R Helx. 1970. Apparent ioni/ation con-
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T.sai, C. 1908. Effects of chlorinated sewage effluents on fishes
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Chlonne and sodium pentachloiophenate as fouling pre-
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-------
THE IMPACT OF SYNTHETIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
ON ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS
JEFFREY L LINGER
Mote Marine Laboratory and
Eco-Analysts, Inc.
Sarasota, Florida
ABSTRACT
The presence and effects of synthetic organic compounds is briefly reviewed with reference to the
recent literature on the estuarine ecosystem. Pesticides and industrial toxicants are discussed in
general with some attention given to synergistic and modifying effects. Recommendations for
future research are made which include elucidating the effects of synthetic organics at the eco-
system level.
INTRODUCTION
For the purposes considered herein, the term
"synthetic organic compounds" refers to manmade
compounds and includes pesticides, polychlorinated
bipheriyls (PCB's), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and
phthalate esters (PAE's) as well as toxic contam-
inants of some of these, like chlorinated dibenzodi-
oxins and dibeiizot'uraiib.
The estuarine ecosystem has been variously denned
but for the sake of simplicity it will be considered as
that zone where; fresh and salt water mix. This estu-
arine ecosystem serves a vital function in that most
marine finfish and shellfish depend on a high quality
estuary for some critical portion of their life history
(Clark, et al, 1969; Douglas and Stroud, 1971). In
addition, many salmonids and other anadromous
fishes spend a variable amount of time in this habitat
before ascending the rivers to spawn.
Unfortunately, the oceans are the recipients and
ultimate accumulation sites for persistent pollutants
like organochlorines (Dustman and Stickel, 1966;
Rise^brough, e:t al., 1972). In fact, an estimated 25
percent of all DDT applied to the land has found its
way to the se^a (S.C.K P.. 1970). Risebrough and his
co-workers (1'JGSu' indicate that 1 ] tons of DDT
per year are transported down the Mississippi River
to the Culf of Mexico alone! Because1 of their unique1
physical and cheir.ical characteristics, estuaries
tend to 1 '• toxicant traps. The1 detritus which forms
the base of the e's-ruarine food chain may contain
up to 50 ppm toUsi DDT. Odum, tt al., (1969), and
"Wood we'll, el al., (1967), estimated that total estu-
arine ecosystem I'-velr- as high as 14.7 kg/he'Cture
were possible.
DDT and other synthetic organics are termed
toxic when, because of their physical or chemical
properties, they interfere with normal biological
functions. The interference can occur at any level,
whether it be as subtle as pesticide-induced decreased
growth in oysters or as gross as reproductive failure
in bald eagles or mass fish mortality. Naturally-
occurring te>xic substances include resin from certain
plants and the toxins associated with red tide or-
ganisms. By far, however, most deleterious sub-
stances find their origin with modern-day man and
his evffe)rts to promote "progress."
A lexical breakdown of synthetic organic com-
pounds which are considered in this paper along
with available production and/or consumption in-
formation follows.
1. Pesticides are chemicals which kill organisms
identified as "pests" and include insecticides, fungi-
cides, piscicides, herbicide's, miticidcs, etc. Insecti-
cides are> commonly broken down into: (a) chlori-
nated hydrocarbons (organochlorines), like DDT, al-
elriii, dieldrin, heptachlor, toxaphene, ariel chlordarie;
(b) e>rganophe)sphates, like: malathion, parathion,
diazinon, anel guthion; ariel (c) carbamates, like
Sevin and zectran. Fungicides include dithiocarba-
mates (e.g., ferbam anel ziram), nitrogen containing
compounds (e.g., phenylmercuric acetate), triazines,
quinones, heterocyclics, and inorganics like the heavy
metals. H^xachlorobenzene (C6C16 e>r HCB) is a
fungicide but is, in addition, used in organic synthesis
processes. Herbicides are quite varied with the most
ce)mmon being the phenoxy acids like 2,4-D and
2,4,5-T. Frequently useel aquatic herbicides include
endothal anel diquat which are often used in com-
bination with a surfactant (like a detergent).
425
-------
426
ESTT AKINE POLLUTION CONTKOL
Table 1.—U.S. production of synt letic organic pesticides by class, 1967-1972*. In thousands of pounds.
Fungicides
Herbicides.. . .
Insecticides, fumigants, rodenticidest
Total „_. _
1967
177,886
439,965
503 796
1,121,647
1968
190 773
499 514
581 619
1,271,906
1969
182 091
423 840
580 884
1,186 815
1970
168 470
434 241
495 432
1 098 143
1971
180 270
458 849
564 818
1 203 937
1972
170 569
481 618
569 157
1 221 344
* Fowler, 1974.
t Includes small quantity of synthetic soil conditioners; does not include the fumiganis carbon tetrachionde, paradichlorobenzene or inorganic rodenticides
The U.S. production of the major synthetic or-
ganic pesticides is reproduced in Table 1. In 1971,
the production of synthetic organic insecticides in
the United States climbed nearly 14 percent from
the year before, reaching /5.17.7 million pounds, third
highest on record (Fowler, 1973). Insecticides ac-
counted for 49 percent of the tonnage of synthetic
pesticides produced. As one can see in Table" ], the
trend \\as reversed for 1972.
Table 2 reveals the domestic disappearance of
selected pesticides for the years I960 through 1971.
Except for the aldrin-toxapherie group, there is a
fairly consistent downward trend. Domestic disap-
pearance of DDT, for instance, was IS.2 million
pounds in 1971, down more than 28 percent from
1970. The consumption of the aldrin-toxaphene
group continued its rise during 1972. Sale,'; for that,
group (not including Strobane*) soared to 140
million pounds for 1972 (U.S. Tariff Commission,
1974).
2. ''Industrial Toxicants" is a catch-all term that
has been variously subdivided. Polyciilonimted
bipheiiyls (PCB's) are chlorinated compounds \\hich
find use in almost every sector of modern man's
\\orld and have recently come under close scrutiny
(Peakall and Lincer, 1970). In the past, they have
been used in such diverse products as printer's ink
to swimming pool paint; however, a voluntary cur-
tailment bv Monsanto has restricted their use.
Table 2.—Domestic disappearance of selected pesticides at producers' level,
United States, 1966-1971. In thousands of pounds. (Fowler, 1973).
Pesticide
Aldnn-toxaphene
group"
Calcium arsenate
Copper sulfate...
DDT
Lead arsenate..
2,4-D
245-T
1966*
86,646
2,942
104,020
45,603
b,944
63,903
r.oso
1967*
86,289
2,329
85,274
40,257
6,152
66,955
15,381
1968
38,710
1,992
87,452
32,753
4,747
68,404
15,804
19691-
89,721
2,117
99,840
30,256
7,721
49,526
3,218
197Cf
62.282
2,900
77,344
25,457
5,850
46,942
4,871
1971f
85,00
2,45
70,27
!8,2C
4,14
32,17
1,36
.
1'hthalale <-nlcrx (PAK's) were introduced in the
1920's to overcome the problems of camphor in the
plasticizer industry. Major uses of PAE's include
construction products, automobile and home furnish-
ings, clothing, food coverings and medical products.
Phthalates are also found in biochemical pathways
and several natural products such as poppies and
tobacco leaves (Graham, 1973; Alathur, 1974). The
documentation that PAE's \\ere readily assimilated
into blood from plastic storage bags and other medi-
cal devices was the original basis for the fear that the
human population might be continuously exposed
(Anonymous. 1973).
PCB's and PCT's (polychlorinated terphenyls)
are produced under the trade name Aroclor® by
Monsanto in the United States. PCB production
peaked during the period 1967- 1970 (Table 3). POT
production shows a similar, but later, production
peak during 1970 1971. PCT's are no longer being
produced and the manufacture of PCB's is directed
exclusively towards the heat transfer, transformer,
and capacitoi sales categories. In an effort to over-
come' some of the potential environmental problems
Table 3.—Production of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) and polychlorinated
terphenyls (PCT's) by Monsanto Industrial Chemicals Company for years
1959-1973. (Pers. comm., W. B. Papageorge).
* Year ending September 30.
t Year ending December 31.
*> Includes aldnn, chlordane, dieldrm, endrm, heptachlor, Strobane®,ind toxaphene.
Year
1959
1960 _...
1961 _.
1962
1963 ..
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970 .. . ...
1971
1972
1973
U.S. Production (Thousands of Pounds)
PCB's
>t-
37,919
36,515
38, 5! 3
« 734
GO 83o
60,480
65.8JS
,'5,309
82, 8M
76,389
8r> 0!>4
::4,SP4
38,600
42,!?j
PCT's
2,996
3,850
2,322
4,0
4,520
b,m
6,
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
of existing biphenyls, Aroclor 1010 was produced.
Approximately 23.") million pounds of Aroclor lOlfi
were sold domestically in 1973. The 1973 sales for
Aroclors 1221, 1242 and 1254 were recorded at 0.04,
6.20 and 9.98 million pounds, respectively. All other
PCB's showed no domestic sales (personal communi-
cation, W. B. Papageorge).
"Plasticizers" are obviously produced by a variety
of manufacturers, however, phthalates (DOP,
DIOP, DIDP and linear) are the major groups con-
sumed (Table 4). During 1972, production of phthalic
anhydride esters totaled 1,14."),(>93 pounds and sales
followed closely at ],13S,493 pounds (U.S. Tariff
Commission, 1974).
PRESENCE OF SYNTHETIC ORGANICS
IN ESTUARIES
Pesticides
Considering only the organochlorine pesticides,
DDE (the major breakdown product of DDT) is
probably the most widely distributed in fish and
wildlife (see Appendix A). Being lipophilic (i.e.,
"fat-loving"], DDE like other organochlorines is
not very soluble in water but accumulates in the fat
of organisms (for overview, see Table 1 in reference
entitled EPA, no date). Organochlorine pesticides
are passed from prey to predator with little lost by
way of excretion. This biological magnification with
each transfer from one food level (i.e., trophic level)
to the next results in animals at the tops of food
chains acquiring inordinate amounts of these poisons
(Woodwell, et al., 1967). For instance, DDE con-
centration reached 1,100 ppm (parts per million) in
the fat of brown pelican eggs collected off the coast
of California and 1,000 ppm in the eggs of the white-
tailed eagle collected in the Baltic (Risebrough,
etal., 1972).
Organochlorine pesticides are readily accumulated
by shellfish and this characteristic, has been taken
advantage of to characterize the geographic distri-
bution of pesticide contamination. As part of the
Xational Pesticide1 Monitoring Program by KPA
i Butler, 1973;. shellfish were collected from coastal
/5on'iti of the United Stales. Analyses of over S.OOO
sample:-1 ior l"> persistent o-ganochlormes showed
that DDT-type residues were ubiquitous, with the
ma,xinu!!'i DDT levei at anpioxinifltk h ~> ppm.
Dieldrin \\.is ihe second most ^.mnionly detected
eompou'"-! •uith a maximum of 0.23 ppm. Othc1'
organochk rim pesticides found occasionally which
ore also eytremelv toxic to c-tiinrhn- !i:V, included
•• 'idrir., iura x and toxapiier.e
Although n'.o.-t organophosphate and carbamate
Table 4.—Consumption of plasticizers by typs (in thousand metric tons) ,
Plasticizer
Adipates _.
DOP/D10P/DIDP ]
Epoxy ..
Linear phthalates -...
Polyesters
Tnmellitates j
Others _
Total.,
1972
28.0
6.8
345.0
50.0
109.0
22.7
8,1
310.0
G7S.6
'.373'""
?8.4
7.2
379.5
56.8
J25.5
25 4
8 5
113 0
744 3
!9/^
' 3
363 b
b9.1
14.i /.
?4 1
)':• i.
/*3 7
* Source. Anonymous, mitia'ed R. M. (1974).
pesticides are advertised !'
carbaryl (Scvin) at rates comparable to those us"d
to control oyster pests, the chemical could still !.•
detected in the mud 42 days post-treatment i^Kar
inen, et al., 1967) . Similarly, 14 days after a standard
ground application of malathi-m, the, orgaiuiphc'-'-
phate could still be found in the o, hom
Maryland and Florida (Johnson, et al., 10"4
Industrial Toxicants
Polychlorinatcd biphenyls (1'CB's! are ;is wid.-ly
distributed as DDT. Because of nilar molecular
shape and composition, the physical and ehemioi'J
properties of PCB's also confer the same lipophilic
characteristic that allows biological accumulation
and food chain magnification.
Estuarinc^ organisms like fiddler crabs and stirim;1
readily pick up PCB's from the sedimentf- ; Ximmo.
et al., 197la) and filter-feeding oysters nccnrnuUue
these chemicals, like organochlorine pesiicid"s. ''i->;ii
the \\ater (Lowe, et al., 1972>.
Like the organochlorine pesticides. PCB's aecuim;-
late to high levels in -';!T,;HI;,<;]I:- represontiap i ic ''H,
of food chains Va; iron, the (£,&* <->f ' 'i)!ii<> • v bro'\ •.
pelican,-; contaiiie'i 200 pjvv l.'CB s "\\tiili •(;•';! u
samples from the H-ahie xvhiie-t.'ii1; u eti,!,i( < *n \ ie-'
."40 ppm (Eiscbrough, et id.. 1972-.
An cver-.'ncreasing liM of i'n'u^t < , J ^^.icavis '• -•
been found in our -vaterv. ;i\ ,• P}ii
Le('n found in-\aier collecc d |V<,- ,
'n Ne\v England. l.f\cls of O.xs
ported with high": le"cis .'f-'^ociai
distai'-ce-, upsTiair ''f'irv*. 1 """»
(1972), report eii 'n PA!'" in •' l<
"•.!•
-------
428
ESTUAKINE POLLUTION CONTROL
North America. They found from 0.09 ppb DNBP
(di-n-butyl phthalate) in Missouri River water to
200 ppb in Mississippi River channel catfish and 500
ppb in tadpoles. Similar values for another phthalate,
UEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), were 4.9, 400
arid 300 ppb. These residue levels were roughly com-
parable to PCB levels in the same samples.
Although the above rivers drain directly into
estuaries arid one suspects that phthalates, like other
adsorbed toxicants, would "salt out" upon reaching
the saline environment, apparently no published re-
search on phthalates has been directed towards that
habitat.
Although the preliminary work of Bowes, et al.,
(1973), was directed at determining levels of chlori-
nated dibenzofurans and diberizodioxins in wildlife
populations exhibiting embryonic mortality, it did
not reveal either of these two compounds. However,
they reported hexachloronaphthalene in gull eggs
but no chlorinated compounds of interest in sea lion.
samples.
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
SYNTHETIC ORGANICS
ON ESTUAR1NE LIFE
Pesticides
Organochlorine insecticides have been shown to
interfere with almost every level of biological func-
tion tested in marine life (sec Appendix B) Levels of
DDT in the v, ater as low as 0.001 ppm caused marked
reduction in oyster growth (Butler, 1966a) and high
levels of organochlorines have been associated with
teratogenic effects in terns (Hays and Risebrough,
1972) and premature births in marine mammals
(Belong, etal., 1973).
Some organochlorines, like Mirex, a chemical used
to control the imported fire ant, Solenopsis saevissima,
in the southeastern states, are particularly toxic to
estuarine organisms. For example, juvenile shrimp
and crab« died \\hen exposed to one particle of rnirex
bait; and 1 ppb (part per billion) mirex in seawater
killed 100 percent of the shrimp exposed (Lowe,
et a).. 197Ja}. Similarly, 0.1 ppm dietary dieldrin
brought about muladaptive behavior in fiddler crabs
(Klein and Lincer, 19731.
Some urea heib-icides, like Diuron, significantly
idhibiT the growth 01' marim algae at levels as low
as I ppb (Walsh and Gr,j,v, 1971) and a few parts
nor million of DDT. dieldrin or eiidrin is enough to
reduce phyioplu,nkton photosynthesis (Wurster,
19(58; Meuzcl et a!., 1970).
Hv xacLl 'ruben/eni has be*1 a shown to be ^-specially
'.o\!c, 'u i>'"ds under laboratory conditions (Vos,
Table 5.—Relative sensitivity of typical estuarine organisms to three major
groups of pesticides. Higher numbers reflect greater sensitivity. Reworked
from Butler, 19661).
Plankton
Crab
Oyster . ,
Fish
Herbicides
1
1
1
1
1
Pesticide Type
Organophosphates
0 5
1 000
800
1
2
Organochlorines
3
300
100
100
500
ct al., 1968), but no tests on estuarine species have
been reported to the author's knowledge.
The sensitivity of a particular taxonomic group to
any particular toxicant will vary appreciably.
Although toxic to crustaceans, the carbamate Sevin
is fairly nontoxic to fish and mammals (Lowe, 1967).
In very general terms, Table 5 (reworked from But-
ler, 1966b) displays the relative toxicities of different
pesticide groups to estuarine fauna.
In a toxicity test which included 12 insecticides
and seven species of estuarine fish, the descending
order of toxicity was: endrin, DDT, dieldrin, aldrin,
dioxathion, heptachlor, lindane, methoxychlor, Phos-
drin, malathion, DDVP, and methyl parathion
(Eisler, 1970). For a more comprehensive listing of
the toxic effects on estuarine life, by pesticide, the
reader is encouraged to read Appendix Table 3 of
EPA, no date.
California seems to have taken the lead in 1963 in
describing the presence and effects of pesticides
relative to water quality criteria (McKee and Wolf,
1963). This precipitated many studies and many
questions. Perhaps the most important question a
decision-making politician or coastal-zone admini-
strator ought to ask with reference to toxic dis-
charges is "How much should be allowed in our wa-
ters and what chemicals should not be applied at all
near the estuaries?" Attempts have been made to
answer these and similar questions. The National
Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of
the Interior (1968) zoned in on this topic and recom-
mended that the following organochlorines not be
applied near the marine habitat because of their
extreme toxicif v:
Aldrin
BHC
Chlorduiie
Endrin
Heptachior
Lindane
DDT
Dieldiin
Lndosulfan
Methoxychlor
Perthane
TDR
Toxaphene
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
429
Mirex also has been shown to be exceptionally
toxic to estuarinc invertebrates like shrimp and
should be considered in this category. Hexachloro-
benzone is particularly toxic to birds (Vos, et al.,
1968) and deserves special attention around
rookeries.
A similar list for organophosphates included:
Coumophos
Dursban
Fenthion
Xaled
Parathion
Ilonnel
The above organochlorines and organophosphates
are acutely toxic at concentrations of 5 rng/1 or less
and should not be permitted to exceed 50 nano-
grams/1. The next group they discussed is generally
not quite as toxic but should not be allowed to ex-
ceed 10 mg/1 in estuarine waters. This group in-
cluded :
Arsemcals
Botanicals
Carbamates
2,4-D compounds
2,4,5-T compounds
Phthalic acid compounds
Triazine compounds
Substituted urea compounds
This kind of information and guidance as to allow-
able levels of these and most other common toxicants,
including radionuclides, heavy metals, PCB's, et
cetera, is presently being updated by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (see National Academy of
Science and National Academy of Engineering,
1972).
Industrial Toxicants
A great deal of research has been carried out on
the effects of PCB's on estuarine life (Appendix B).
Perhaps most of it has been done at the EPA Gulf
Breeze Laboratory. PCB's have been shown to
significantly decrease oyster growth at levels as low
as 5 ppb (Lowe, et al., 1972) and be lethal to shrimp
at 1 ppb (Nimmo, et al., 1971b). Duke, et al. (1970)
showed that crabs concentrated the PGB Aroclor
1254 and 72 percent of the shrimp exposed to 5 ppb
died after day 10. Hansen, et al. (1974a) demon-
strated that estuarine fishes and shrimp displayed
varying degrees of avoidance to the same PCB at
levels 0.001 to 10 ppm. Bioassays with Aroclor
1254 indicated that 5 ppb caused mortality to
estuarine fish and the effect was delayed (Hansen,
et al., 1971). In response to the change in emphasis of
PCB production and subsequent increase in Aroclor
1016 manufacture, Hansen and co-workers (1974b)
established the acute 96-hour LCVs for estuarine
shrimp, fish, and oyster.
The biochemical effects of PCB's have ak' f->:ne
under scrutiny. Keil, et al. (1971) te-'.cd the
effects of Aroclor 1242 (0.01-0.1 ppm) on marine
diatoms and found that it inhibited growth, UNA
synthesis and chlorophyll production. Aroclor 1221
has been shown capable of impairing osmoregulation
in the killifish at relatively high levels (7.5-75 ppm)
byKinter, etal., (1972).
Although no work has apparently been done on
the effects of PCB's on estuarine fish-eating birds,
some data are available on ducks. Friend and Tiainer
(19701 showed a marked influence of Aroclor 1254
on the duck's susceptibility to viral infection Heath,
et al. (1972), testing a series of PCB's, revealed that
toxicity was positively correlated with degree of
chlorination and Haegele and Tucker (1974) estab-
lished the effect of 1254 on eggshell thinning.
Very little toxicological work has been done with
dioxins, dibenzofurans, and phthalates and nothing
has been directed at the estuarine habitat, to the
author's knowledge. Miller, et al. (1973^ reported
on the effects of tetrachloro-dibenzo-dioxin (TCDD)
on various aquatic organisms. Approximately 50
percent of the young coho salmon exposed to 131
mg/1 died by day 20. They also showed a marked
growth inhibition by TCDD on both salmon and
rainbow trout.
Zitko and his colleagues (1973) reported on the
acute and chronic oral toxicity of chlorinated di-
benzofurans to immature brook trout. They con-
cluded that 2,8-dichlorodibenzofuran has a low acute
toxicity to that species since even a high level of 122
mg/kg produced no mortality.
Work on phthalate esters has been limited to
freshwater or anadromous organisms. In an effort to
establish LCio values for freshwater organisms,
Mayer and Sanders (1973) reported DNBP to be
less toxic to rainbow trout (96-hour LC^o = 0.5
mg/1') than to the other fish tested. Phthalate esters
are metabolized by freshwater fishes (Stalling, et al.,
1973) and both DEHP and DNBP are apparently
not acutely toxic to freshwater invertebrates.
Sanders, et al. (1973) reported that althviugh in-
vertebrates rapidly accumulate these compounds,
their 96-hour TL50 (2.1 — > 32 mg/1) is appreciably
greater than DDT, by comparison. However, the
TLoo values for aquatic organisms are 700 to 11.000
times that which inhibited reproduction in one of
the invertebrates tested (water fleas i.
Synergism and Modifying Effects
No report, however brief, on the effects of syn-
thetic organics on estuarine life would be complete
without including the area of synergistie effects and
-------
ESTUARJNE POLLUTION CONTROL
ii'g factors. The term "synerg.sm", un-
fortunately, has many definitions. For oar present
needs, we will consider it to mean more than the
anticipated additive effects.
This subject, has been addressed in depth elsewhere
(Livingston, et al., in press) however, a few examples
particular!}' germane to the estuary will follow.
Once again, most work in this area has been done in
freshwater, however, Lowe, et al. (197tb) reported
that oysters exposed to a mixture of 1 mg/1 each of
DDT, toxaphene and parathion showed reduced
growth and histopathological effects. When these
mollusks were exposed to the individual pesticides,
similar results were not observed.
Eisler (1970) reported on the modifyiig factors
affecting the toxicity of organochlorines and or-
ganophosphates to the mummichog, an estuarine
fish. The toxicity of organophosphates increased with
increasing temperature and salinity and decreasing
pH. The toxicity of organocliloriiies was greatest at
intermediate temperatures (20-2f>°C) ani least at
an intermediate pH (7-8). Salinity had little effect
on organochlorine toxicity.
Nimmo (1973) reported that subletha^ levels of
the PCB, Aroclor 1254, became lethal to estuarine
pcnaeid shrimp when the test organisms were
stressed by reduced salinity. Since this species is
migratory and experiences a wide variation in sa-
linity, this finding is particularly significant.
The effect of temperature may be of paramount
importance in modifying the toxiraty of pesticides to
estuarine invertebrates. For example, Kot nig, et al.
(in preparation; found that blue crabs contami-
nated with DDT did not di<> in a field experiment
until a cold front caused significant reductions in
\\a-ter temperature.
Effects of Synthetic Organics
at the Estuarine Ecosystem Level
With all due deference to the title of this report,
pitifully lit tie research has been addressed to the
ecosystem level. Although a variable amount of
effort has gone into testing the effects of particular
toxicants under field conditions (see Appendix C),
this is still not approaching the problem on the
ecosystem level.
Odum and others have developed methods for
simulating ecosystem energy and material flow on
analog computers, but this approach is still twice-
removcd from reality. On the other hand, such
models often indicate what types of information are
lacking arid also have the advantage that ihe effects
of even extreme manipulations can be tested through
many generations or seasonal cycles without any
damage to the real world.
Even at the community level, little has been done
with respect to the effects of synthetic organics. A
variety of community parameters have been sug-
gested as reflectors of a community's health. Mar-
galef's "species richness" and Peilou's "species di-
versity and evenness" are but a few. Researchers are
only now finding out that man}' of these parameters
are not the panaceas they thought they were. The
main problem lies with trying to use these techniques
out of the context for which they were originally
intended.
If it is possible to consistently and accurately
describe some ecosystem parameter, then it ought to
be theoretically possible to quantitate a change in
that parameter. The absence of this kind of effort in
the estuarine and other habitats is merely a re-
flection of our current inability to describe such
changes, not evidence of its non-existence.
RECOMMENDED RESEARCH
It goes without saying that there are existing pro-
grams that have to continue. One such program is
the National Pesticide Monitoring Program. It is
also imperative that we have an established frame-
work, like the one at the. Gulf Breeze Laboratory,
whereby chemicals which come under public scru-
tiny, can be quickly tested.
As an overview, emphasis in future research should
be given to determining ihe significance of the resi-
dues being reported in the literature. This can be
accomplished by stressing the diagnostic aspects of
experimentation during the planning stage and en-
couraging toxicological studies that have direct
relevance to the real world.
In this light, the area of field-testing toxicants
has progressed in a manner that reflects individual
idiosyncrasies and the idiomatic characteristics of
the funding and/or research organization (Appendix
C). Efforts should be made to, at least, roughly
standardize field-testing techniques with a keen
awareness of the possible modifying and synergistic
effects that one will encounter in the estuary. Inter-
pretation of Held exposures will require coordinated
efforts in the laboratory under less real, but, more
controlled, conditions. It is only there that statis-
tically and logistically complicated designs can reach
fruition and elucidate specific modes of action,
synergy, latent effects, food-chain magnification,
and so forth.
On the gobal scene, interdisciplinary efforts should
be made to more thoroughly characterize the ki-
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
netics, marketing patterns, and use of widespread
synthetic organic compounds, like phthalate esters,
other plasticizers, chlorinated dibenzofurans, and
dioxins and HCB. We need to know more about
their environmental kinetics, especially their metab-
olism in soil and water.
As to specific chemicals that need experimental
attention, PAE's, HCB, dioxins and dibenzofurans
are high on the list.
PAK's are widespread in freshwater fish \sith
higher residues appearing to be associated with in-
dustrial areas (Stalling, et al., 19715). They have
been shown to be more- toxic to aquatic organisms
than warm-blooded animals. These' esters disturb
reproduction and growth in aquatic invertebrates
and fish yel nothing is known about their effects on
estuarine species.
Although not widely reported in the literature,
HCB has been found in environmental samples
(Holden, 1970). In view of the possible analytical
confusion with benzene hexachloride (BUG), HCB
may be even more widespread. With this potential
and the documented toxicity of this compound to
birds in mind (Vos, et al., 1908), the effects of HCB
on fish-eating birds is of concern.
Initial work with the dioxin TCUJ) indicates
important effects on the growth and reproduction
of anadromous and freshwater species (Miller, et al.,
1978). Again, nothing is known about the effects
on estuarine species.
Dibenzoi'urans were not particularly lethal to the
trout they were tested on (Zitko, et, al., 1973), how-
ever, nothing is known about their sublethal effects.
In addition, because1 oi different osmoregulatory
mechanisms, the effects on etiryhaline species may
be considerably different.
As to the level of emphasis and the parameters
th.it need attention, efforts should be made to
characterize effects at the ecosystem and/or com-
munity level This is tb^ final biological-physical-
chemical integration that will reflect individual
perturbations at any sublevel if, in fact, they ore
significant. As a prelude to this, more intensive
research is necessary on the sublethal effects, with
specin 1 "tnphaMs on behavior and biochemist r\. In
t"ieis < 1 the experimental design -if laboratory
studios, more attention MiouM be gh en to synergistic
e1i'net« and latent response-. With ret'eience to the
iornier. usearch aimed to elucidating ihe modifying
effects ot sewage ;uul storm runoff is long overdue.
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chemicals. (T.S. production and sales, 1972. TC Publica-
tion i;Hl VS. Government Printing Office, Washington,
Vos, J. (,.. II. A, Breeman and IT. Pensehap. 1968. The oc-
currence of the fungicide liexach'orobenzene in wild birdn
and its toxicological importance. A preliminary communi-
cation. Med. Kijksfakuleit Landbouw-Wet. (Jent 33(3):
1 263-1208.
Walsh, Ci. V. and T. K. (I row. 1971. Depression of carbo-
hydrate in marine algae bv urea heibicides. Weed Science
19(51: ot>8-570.
Wiemeyer. S, X., B M. Mulhern, K. J Ligas, R. J. Hensel,
J. !•:.' \ialhisen, F. C. Robards and S. Postupakky. 1972
Residue of orjianochiorine pesticides, PCB and mercury
in bald caftle egRs and change-- in shell thickness- -19(i9 and
1970. Pestic Mora'. Jour. (i'CI ) : 50-55
Wildish, 1) j. 1970. The toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls
'PCB) in s(!ii water to Gammarr'it; oceanicus. }^nll l''nvir.
C'ont. Toxicol. 5: 202-20-1.
Willianip. 1) T. 1973. I)ibu'yI-anddi-^-<-thylht-Nv!i phMndaie
in fish. J. At;r. Food Chciu. 21(ti): 1128-'l 1'A).
Wood, I,, and B. A. Roberts. I9o3 Differen'iniioi i/f "f'Vc^s
of two pesticides upon ^msalpnuc Ctucim Si,,1 frj.n !!,<•
eatcrn -hore of N'irginia Proc. !S)t>3 National Siieilir in i,os
Ass.oc.: 75-85.
Woodwell, G. M., O F. Wur^ier and P. A Isaac-->n. isi'T/.
DDT icsidues in an east coast estuary A case of bif.lofiic.il
concentration of a persistent insecticide. Scieti"e I "(I.
821-824.
Wurstei, C. W., Jr. 1968. DDT reduces photosyntb.cHs b;
marine phytoplankton. Science 159: 1471-147o.
Zitko. \". 1971. Polychlorinated bipbenyK ai.d orftinochlorn, •
pesticides in some fresh wafer and jpanne I.si"-. Piiil.
Fnvir. Pont. Toxinol. 6: 464-470.
Zit.ko, \'. and P. M. K Choi. 197). P(,'B pr.d other halo,.*: ;il. ,\
hydrocarbons in the environment. l|li.,h. Kcs. B 1 Canada
Tech. Hep. No. 272.
Zitko, \'., O. Hut/linger and P. M. K. Ohoi. 1972. Con'iji,.'na-
tion of the Bay of Fundy-Gulf of Maim- area \\!'h jich-
chlorinated biphenjls, polychlorinated terphe;n Is. . hln-
rinated dibenxodioxins. and dibenzofunu's 'MHU. llf-;d!h
Perspectives Exp. l«s. No. 1: 47-50.
Zitko, V., D. J. Wildish, O. Hut/inger and P M K. ( !ioi
1973. Acute and chronic oral toxicity <-t chlo/iiiauK. iii-
benx.ofurans to salmonid fishes. Fnvir. Health P(-r-oe< lives
Kxp. Iss. No. 5: 187-189
-------
APPENDIX A
Synthetic Organic Residues Found in Estuarine Organisms
Tax.)
PISCES
Fish
Fish Bntam ..
S?atrout eggs
F,sh and fish oil
F'sl1 ir, estuaty
Fish
Pacific fish
Fish
Pacific fish-livers
Atlantic fish
Fish estuanne
Atlantic fish
Processed and unprocessed
Many species ...
iVbny species
Groupers, Gulf nf Mexico and
Bahamas ._ __ __ _
fi-.h
MAMMALIA
Doip'i'n _ ..
Dolphin and sea!
Seals.,. „
AVEJ
Bald eagle. _ _. . .
Seabirds, North Atlantic
ieabirds and their predators.
bald e-j^ie and eggs
Bala eagle and golden eagle.
Terns
Sea birds (Britain)
ogd biros and eggs
Pesticides
DDT, DDF, ODD
DDT, DDE, ODD, BHC, heptachlor
DDT
DDE, ODD
DDT
DDT
DDT
BHC heptachior aidrin toxapheie,
chlordane, methoxychlor, dieldun,
endrm, DDE, ODD, DDT
DDE, DDT ODD, hexachlorobenzene
DDF
DDE
DDE, DDT
DDT
dieldrin, DDT, DDE, TDE
DDE, ODD
DDT, ODD
DDT
DDT
DDE, dieldrin
DDE, ODD, dieldrin, DCBP, endrin,
heptachior
DDT DDE
DDT, HEOD
DDE, dieldrin
Industrial Toxicants
PCB's
Aroclor 1254
Aroclor 1242, 1254, 1260
Phenoclor DP6
Phfhalates
PCB's
Aroclor 1254
Aroclor 1260
HCB
PCB
Aroclor 1254
PCB
PCB
Aroclor 1254
Aroclor 1254
Comments
Shows "biological magnification"
Residues vary with species
Causes spawning failure
Residue greater in industrialized coastal area
(pinfish)
Residues up to 16 ug/g
Mortality following tidal ditch spray
than pelagic
Higher concentration in surface swimmers
Fatal to predators at different trophic levels
than buds
available to the Canadian consumer
Compilation of residue data
Geographic comparisons
Geographic comparisons
Reported 0.002 ppm (salmon eggs) — 0.11 ppm
(menhaden oil)
Concentrated in blubber
Largest amounts in blubber
Level consistent throughout all parts of body
Caused death?
Present in nonmigratmg Arctic birds
Data on DDT/PCB ratios
From many areas around North America
Higher levels in bald eagles
Deformities in young
Seasonal variation
Highest residues in freshwater fish-feeding
Reference
Woodwell, et a!., 1967
Moore & Tatton 1965
Butler, 1969
Jensen, et al., 1969
Duke etal., 1970
Butler, 1968
Rispbiough et a! 1967
Croker & Wilson 1965
Duke & Wilson 1971
Zitko, 1971
Butler 1966c
Koeman et al. 1969
Williams 1973
Zitko & Choi, 1971
Risebrough & de Lappe, 1972
Giam, etal., 1974
Johnson, etal., 1974
Butler, !966c
Holden & Marsden, 1967
Jensen, et al., 1969
Reichel, et al., 1969a
Bourne & Bogan, 1972
Risebrough, et al., 1968!)
Wiemeyer, et al., 1972
Reichel, et al., 1969b
Hays and Risebrough. 1972
Robinson, et al., 1967
Prestt, et al., 1970
436
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
487
Taxa
British sea birds. _
Sandwich tern__ . _
Birds and eggs _
Brown pelicans, petrels and
shearwaters.
Cormorant and gull. ..
Gull eggs ,
Eggs of Florida fish-eating
birds --.
Brain and eggs of endangered
petrel .
Bald eagles
Many species of fish-eating
birds
Shorebirds and fish-eating
birds
Heron egg, Britain
British seabird eggs
Pacific sea birds
Swedish sea birds
Birds and eggs, Long Island,
N Y
MOLLUSCA
Mollusks, Britain ._
Oysters -
Mussels
Oysters
Oysters -
Mussels
Oysters, clams, mussels, snails
PLANKTON
Phytoplankton .
Zooplankton
CRUSTACEA
Sandcrab
Crayfish and shrimp
Pesticides
DDT
DDE
telodrin, dieldrm, endrin, DDE
DDE, DDT
DDE
DDE, dieldrm
DDE
DDE
DDE
dieldrm, DDE, DDT, BHC, heptachlor
DDT DDE ODD
DDT, DDE, DDD
DDE, DDD
dieldrm, DDT, DDE, DDD, hepta-
chlor, BHC
DDT
DDE DDD
DDT
DDT
DDT, DDE, DDD, dieldrm
DDT, DDD, DDE
DDT, DDE, DDD
DDT, DDE, DDD
Industrial Toxicants
PCB
PCB
Phenoclor DP6
Pnenoclor DP6
Aroclor 1254
Aroclor 1254
PCB's
Aroclor 1254
Aroclor 1254
PCB's
PCB's
PCB
PCB
PCB's
Aroclor 1254
PCB
Aroclor 1254
Comments
Eggshells thin
More PCB's than organochlormes
Population decline due to pesticides
Some parts of mixture metabolized
Geographic comparisons
No dioxms nor benzofurans found in eggs and
tissue
Hexachloronaphthalene present but no dioxms
nor benzofurans found
2-20 ppm (OD) DDE; 1-161 ppm PCB
0.23-0.38 ppm (OD) in eggs
Confirmation by mass spectrometry
Compilation of residue data
Compilation of residue data and comparison of
DDE residues to eggshell thickness
Application of mass spectrometry
Higher levels in eggs of larger birds
"Biological magnification"
Residue levels higher in California birds than
northern migrants
"Biological magnification"
Traces present in all mollusks tested
Rate of shell growth indicator of pollution level
Lower average concentiation in less indus-
trialized area
Shell growth of juvenile completely inhibited
upon exposure
A good monitoring organism
Amounts varied with proximal land use
Concentrations tripled 1955-1969
Low residues shown for low trophic level
Concentrations due not only to agriculture
usage but industrial waste discharge (DDT
plant)
Concentrate rapidly to equilibrium
Reference
Schreiber & Risebrough, 1972
Holmes, etal., 1967
Koeman, etal., 1967
Koeman, et ai., 1969
Risebrough & de lappe, 1972
Zitko, et ai , 1972
Bowes, et a!., 19'3
Lmcer & Salkmd (sic), 1973
Kmg& Lmcer, 1973
Bagley, etal., 1970
Zitko &Choi, 19/1
Keith & Gruchy, 1972
Richardson, et a.., 1971
Moore & Tattou, 1965
Woodwell, etal., 1967
Risebrough, et al , 1967
Jensen, et al , 1969
Foehrenbach, 197?
Moore & Tatton, 1965
Butler, 1969
Jensen, etal., 1969
Duke, et al , 1970
Butler, 1968
Koeman, et al., 1969
Foehrenbarh 1972
Cox, 1970
Woodwell, et al., 1967
Burnett, 1971
Sanders & Chandler, 1972
-------
43S
ESTTAIUNE POLLUTION CONTROL
Taxa
oiinmp
Shrimp, crabs. .,
F'ddier crabs
MISCEU ANEOUS
Aquahc insect larvae
Se^ Lichin, snaiL ., --.. -
*-'at«r & sediment
ousperid^d organic matter,
-a>i Francisco Bay.
Crown uf thorns,, Pacific
u^een sea turtle egga, South
River water, New England
Pesticides
DDT, DDF. ODD
DDT, DDE, DDD, dieldrm
DDT compounds
DDE
Industrial Toxicants
Aroclor 1254
Aroclor 1254
Aroclor 1254
Phthalate esters
PCB (similar to 1254)
1242, 1248 1254
Phthalate
Comments
Sensitivity correlated to substantial reduction
in population
Higher concentration than oysiers
Residue levels in Uca
Failed to metamorphose to adult stage
AM insecticide ip gonads of sea urchin
A gradient with distance fVcm pollution source
Utilization of mass spectrometry methods
Estimated levels of 0.01-0.05 ppm
0.24-1.8 . ppm PCB (lipid basis). ND-0 08 ppm
DDE
Reported 0 9-1.9 ppb
Reference
Woodwell, et al , 196?
Duke, et al., 1970
Foehrenbach, 1972
Sanders & Chandlci, 1972
Risebrough, et al., 1967
Duke, et al., 1970
Simoneit, et al., 1973
McCloskey & Deubert, 1973
Thompson, et al., 19"'4
Hites, 1973
-------
APPENDIX B
Effects of Synthetic Organic Compounds on Estuarine Organisms
Treatment
Seven pesticides; .1 to 5 ppb, 5 year monitorin]
Endrin, aldrm, heptachlor
Dieldrm, kepone
DDT, 1 ppb
DDT-toxaphene, parathion—together and sepa-
rately, <3.0 ppb
12 pesticides ranging from Imdane, 9.10 ppm to
CoRal 0.11 ppm
12 pesticides ranging from Imdane & aldnn <10
ppm, to N3514, <1 0 ppm
DDT >1 ppm
<1 ppm
DDT in oil spray, .2-1.6 Ib/A
0.3to0.8lb/A
Repeated applications
Aldrm 0.2 Ib/A
Gamma BHC 0.2 Ib/A
DDT—2 ppm fed
DDT 1-500 ppb
DDT 0.2 Ib/A
Strobane 0.3 Ib/A
BHC 0.1 Ib/A
DDT in oil spray, .3 to 16 Ib/A
Dieldrm, .000610.012 ppm
clams
oysters
oysters
oysters
clam
oysters
oyster eggs & larvae
clam eggs
oyster
isopods
amphipods
prawns
blue crab
spiders
crabs
insects
marsh crabs
red mites
fish
molluscs
snails
turtles
frogs
mammals
insects
prawns
crabs
fish
crabs
fish
shrimp
phytoplankton
fish
crabs
3 species
crabs
fiddler crabs
snakes
amphibians
lizards
turtles
sailfin molly
Organochlorme Insecticides
Observed Effects
Different species take up pesticides at specific rates. Subletha! long
range effects more significant than acute toxicity.
Linear relation between concentration and shell growth.
Sharp threshold of toxicity relative to shell growth
No effects for 3 months. 30% mortality 4th month.
10% less body weight. Tissue changes, loss of resistance to parasite
50% of eggs develop normally at given concentrations.
Same as above.
Remain closed or show spasmodic shell movements at higher levels,
decrease in shell deposition at lower levels.
High mortality.
High mortality.
High mortality.
10-100% mortality.
High mortality.
High mortality.
High mortality
Resistant.
Not affected.
Some deaths.
Not affected.
Not affected.
Not affected.
Not affected.
Not affected.
More affected than by DDT.
Less affected than by DDT.
Less affected than by DDT.
Less affected than by DDT.
Most toxic insecticide tested.
50% mortality. DDT in dead laboratory animals less than in seemingly
healthy ones in field.
Photosynthesis reduced.
Some mortality among animals that could not avoid pesticides.
Same as DDT.
Fiddler crabs lost ability to escape predators.
High mortality following symptoms of poisoning.
Killed by 72 hours. Raised serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase
to 1500 to 1700 units.
Reference
Butler, 1971
Butler, 1965
Lowe, et al , 1971b
Davis & Hidu, 1969
Butler, 1966a
Springer, 1961
Springer, 1951
Butler, 1966c
Wurster, 1968
George, etal., 1957
Herald, 1949
Lane & Scura, 1970
439
-------
440
ESTUAKINE POLLUTION CONTROL
.003 ppm
Dieldrm 012 to .003 ppm
.0015 and 0075 ppm
Aidnn & dieldrin
DDT 1 0 ppb/2 wks
0.1 ppb/5 wks
riDT, endnn 0.1 to .00001 ppm
DDT 50 ppm
Mirex, 1-5 particles of bait in standing sea water
or Mirex m flowing sea water 1 0 to 0 1 ppb
DDT2-5,ug/g
DDT <1 ppm
DDT 2-4 ppm on food
DDT in flowing sea water 0.1 ppm
0.05 ppm
DDT in flowing sea water 10 ppb
DDT 0.05 to 0.17 ppb
0.12 to 0.20 ppb
Mirex.OOl, .1, 1.0 & 10 ppb
DDT 10 ppm on detritus
Toxaphene
DDE
DDE, dieldnn
DDT group, dieldnn, heptachlor, toxaphene
DDE
Dieldrm; .1-50 ppm
Parathion
4 pesticides ranging fiom guthion .62 ppm, to TEPP
10.
Malatmon, dursban, 10-.01 ppm
sailfm molly
fiddler crab
trout
crayfish tissues
fish
minnows
eel mtestmt
juvenile shump
juvenile shrimp
juvenile bite crab
fiddler crabs
fish
shrimp
crab
fish
pmfish
oyster
fish
shrimp
shrimp
shrimp
juvenile shrimp
shrimp
crab larvae
fiddler crabs
fish
shrimp, crabs
duck
duck
duck
duck
fiddler crabs
oysters
oyster egjjs
clam eggs
minnows
Organochlorme Insecticides
Observed Effects
Survived to 120 hours. Raised SCOT to 6006-11,954 units.
100% mortality 1st to 31st week.
More than half survived to week 34, growth and reproduction ad-
versely affected.
Selectively inhibited cholmesterase activity in homogenized tissues.
Cholinesterase very sensitive to small amounts of pesticide.
Maximum concentration reached at 2 weeks 38,000 x test water cone.
Loss of 78-87% in 8 weeks.
Avoided water containing pesticides. Did not distinguish concentra-
tion differences.
Inhibition of water absorption. Inhibition of (Na+ and K+) activated
Mg 2+-dependent adenosme triphosphatase.
40 to 100% mortality
Up to 100% mortality delayed until shrimp in Mirex free water.
Up to 96% mortality, delayed.
Accumulated Mirex in bodies.
Accumulated Mirex in bodies. Gill parasites reduced.
35-100% mortality.
Accumulated DDT in bodies.
Feeding & shell growth stopped. Erratic shell movements.
50% mortality in 2-4 weeks.
Lowered Na+ and K+ in hepatopancreas, change in Na* and K+ only
after day 20.
100% mortality.
DDT concentrates in hepatopancreas. Flushed from hepatopancreas
within 6 weeks.
100% mortality 18 to 28 days.
Larval stages prolonged. Increased mortality.
100% lost coordination by day 5. Three-fold accumulation in claw
muscles.
Established 96 hour TLso values, includes data on synergy and histo-
pathology.
Eggshell thinning complete after 4 days on 40 ppm diet, electron
microscopy.
20 ppm DDT or 10 ppm dietary doses resulted in eggshell thinning.
Established effects on eggshell thinning
LCso values varied with age of ducks (1200-1600 ppm).
Levels correlated with maladaptive behavior and mortality. Latent
effects.
Organophosphate Insecticides
Observed Effects
Sharp threshold of toxicity relative to shell growth.
50% of eggs develop normally.
Did not avoid Malathion.
Did avoid Dursban.
Refeience
Lane & Livingston, 1970
Guilbault, etal., 1972
Hansen & Wilson, 1970
Hansen, 1969
Jamcki & Kmter, 1971
Lowe, et al., 1971a
Butler, 1968
Butler, 1967
Nimmo & Blackman, 1972
Nimmo, etal., 1971b
Nimmo, etal., 1970
Bookhout, etal., 1971
Odum, etal., 1969
Courtenay & Roberts, 1973
Peakall, etal., 1973
Davison & Sell, 1974
Haegele & Tucker, 1974
Friend & Trainer, 1974
Klein & Lmcer, 1973
Reference
Butler, 1965
Davis & Hidu 1969
Hansen, 1969
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
441
Paraoxon, DDVP parathion, methyl parathion
Malathion, naled, guthion and parathion
Parathion
Sevm 0.1 ppm
Sevm 0.01-10 ppm
Sevin
Matactl, mesurot, zectran, baygon, sevm
12 herbicides ranging from amitrol 733.70 ppm to
silvex 2.4 ppm nemagon, sevin
19 bactenocides, algicides, fungicides from un-
tmted sulmet 1000 ppm to phygon .014 ppm
2,4-D acid
4 herbicides in sea water
Nitritotnacehc acid
2,4-D, 0.01-10 ppm
Antirnycin A 7 ppb
Polystream (chlorinated benzenes)
Aroclor 1254 .94-100 ppb
Aroclor 1254 2.5-3.5 ppb
Aroclor 1254 in Corexit 7664 colloidal solution
emulsions
Aroclor 1254 1 ppb to 56 days
5 ppb 14-45 days
Aroclor 1254 100 ppb 48 hours
5 ppb 20 days
fiddler crabs
trout
crayfish tissues
fishes and pink shrimp
duck
juvenile fish
minnows
gastropod (oyster drill)
fiddler crabs
crayfish
trout
oyster eggs
clam eggs
oyster eggs
clam eggs
duck
6 genera algae
phytoplankton
minnows
38 species fish
other fish
oysters
plankton
crabs
oyster drill
juvenile shrimp
adult shrimp
Gamma rus
Gammarus
fish
shrimp
oysters
pmfish
shrimp
crabs
Organophosphate Insecticides
Observed Effects
Selectively inhibited cholmesterase activity in homogenized tissues.
Cholmesterase sensitive to small amounts of pesticide.
Revealed comparative AChE inhibition.
Established effect on eggshell thinning.
Carbarnate Insecticides
Observed Effects
Survived normally, neural parasite may not be related to toxicant.
Did not avoid Sevm.
Swelling at 6-7 hours exposure.
Selectively inhibited cholmesterase activity in homogenized tissues.
Cholmesterase very sensitive to small amounts of pesticides.
Herbicides, Bactenocides, etc.
Observed Effects
50% developed normally.
50% developed normally.
Established effect on eggshell thinning.
Carbohydrate concentration depressed. Varies with salinity.
Low toxicity as long as chelate:metal ratio favorable, NTA alone,
trace metal deficiency.
Avoidance of herbicide.
Killed in three days.
No effect.
Under recommended dosage, 50% of animals killed by day 7.
Industrial Toxicants
Observed Effects
51 to 100% mortality.
50% mortality, accumulated in hepatopancreas. 23% died after retur n
to sea water.
Lethal threshold 0.001 to 0.01 ppm.
Lethal threshold .01 to .1 ppm.
No apparent effect at 1 ppb;
Mortality occurred, though delayed at 5 ppb.
100% mortality.
Shell growth Inhibited.
Concentrated PCS.
72% mortality after day 10.
Concentrated PCB. '
Reference
Guilbault, et al , 1972
Coppage & Matthews, 19/4
Haegele & Tucker, 1974
Reference
Lowe, 1967
Hansen, 1969
Wood & Roberts, 1963
Guilbault, et al , 1972
Reference
Davis 8 Hidu, 1969
H^egele & Tucker, 1974
Walsh & Grow, 1971
hrikson, et al., 1970
Hansen, !969
Fmucane, 1969
Wood & Roberts, 196J
Reference
Nimrno et al , 19"' Jb
Wildish, 1970
Hansen, et al., 1971
DUKP, eta!., 1970
-------
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Aw'oi 1242 and Arocior 1254 + radiocarbon
Aioc'or '1^2 in wafer ,01 to .1 ppm
Arcc or i2!>4 in sediment 61.0 ppm (dry w' ) to 1 4
ppm foi 30 dayi
frr.c.i! J221, 7.5-75 pp-n
Arw'ar 1254
Arocioi 1254, 0001-10 ppm
Aruclor 10i6
Arocior '2M
Arvdor 1254
A...UOI !2o2 124>, 1248, 1254, 1260, 1262
Ataciui 1254
P\»." (TCDD) v water and food
l)i!jei'Z''fuia'"is
Hh'-haialp tsier
phytoplanktor
marine diatom
shrimp
crabs
killifish
shrimp
shrimp
fishes
oyster
sh'imp
fish
oyster
duck
duck
duck
salmoriids
salmomds
r?mbow trout
Industrial Toxicants
Observed Effects
Radiocarbon uptake reduced at as low as 1-2 ppb.
Inhibited growth, RNA synthesis and chlorophyl index.
Amount of PCB residue in anim?i varies with amount in substrate.
Decreased ability to osmoregulate.
60% died at 9 1 ppb (7 day exposure); no significant mortality at 0.62
ppb.
Demonstrated that some animals could avoid Arocior 1254 under
laboratory conditions.
Established acute 96 hour LCso's
5 ppb for 24 weeks reduced growth and produced tissue atrophy and
degeneration.
Showed PCB influence on susceptibility of birds to virus.
Toxicity positively correlated with percent chlorine.
Established effect on eggshell thinning.
Marked decrease in growth, latent effect.
Dietary doses up to 122 mg/kg resulted in no mortality.
LCic(96 hour) = 6.47 ppm.
Reference
Moore Harriss, 1972
Kiel, etal., 1971
Nimmo, etal., 1971a
Kmter, etal., 1972
Nimmo, et al , 1974
Hansen, et al , 1974a
Hansen, etal., 1974b
Lowe, et al., 1972
Friend Trainer, 1970
Heath, et al., 1972
Haegele & Tucker, 1974
Miller, etal., 1973
Zitko, etal., 1973
Mayer & Sanders, 1973
-------
APPENDIX C
An Overview of the Field-Testing of Pesticides
Ecosystem
F/W Pond
Enclosed area
of F/W
Pond
Tidal Marsh
Tidal Marsh
Tidal Marsh
Ditch
Tidal Marsh
Pesticide
DDT
DDT
DDT
Strobane, DDT
& HCB
Dieldnn
DDT, aldrm,
dieldnn &
BHC
Observed
Parameters
Mortality
Population
Mortality
Gross behavior
Growth (snails)
Mortality
Gross behavior
on fiddlers
Mortality
Mortality
Taxa
Fish
Plankton
Benthic Inverts.
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
Terr. Insects
Fish
Fish
Crabs
Shrimp
Insects
Mollusks
Amphipods
Worms
Mites
Birds
Fish
Crabs
Birds
Mammals
Fish
Crabs
Fish
Prawns
Anthropods
Iso- and Amphi-
pods
Crabs
Worms
Mollusks
Birds
Reference
Tarzwell, 1948
Tarzwell, 1948
Springer and
Webster, 1951
George et al.,
1957
Harrington &
Bidlmgmayer,
'.958
Springer, 1961
Ecosystem
Tidal Marsh
Ditch
Estuaries
Salt Marsh
F/W Pond
Mangrove
Swamp
Salt Marsh
Tidal Marsh
Salt Marsh
Pesticide
DDT
2,4-D
Dursban
Dibrom
Dursban
Dursban
Malathion
Observed
Parameters
Mortality &
population;
Residue moni-
toring
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Cholmesterase
Population
Mortality
Monitoring
Mortality
Cholmesterase
inhibition
Mortality
Cholmesterase
Taxa
Fish
Crabs
Fish
Crab
Oysters
Clam
Fish
Shrimp
Crabs
Oyster
Insects
Terr. Verts.
Fish
Crab
Mammals
Birds
Insects
Fish
Crab
Shrimp
BirHc
1IOS
Fish
Crabs
Shrimp
Mammal
Bird
Fish
Crab
Shrimp
Mollusks
Reference
Croker &
Wilson, 1965
Rawls, 1965
U.S.D.I.,1967a
U. S.D.I. ,1967b
Ludwig, et al.,
1968
U.S.D.I.,1968
Tagatz, et al.,
1974
443
-------
TRACE METALS IN THE OCEANS:
PROBLEM OR NO?
EARL W. DAVEY and DONALD K. PHELPS
National Marine
Water Quality Laboratory
Narragansett, R.I.
ABSTRACT
Increased input of mercury to the estuarine environment resulted in bioaccumulation in marine
food chains that affected man (Irukayama, 1966). Toxic effects of other metals on marine animals
has been demonstrated under laboratory conditions. However, cause and effect between elevated
environmental metals levels and toxicity to marine animals has yet to be conclusively demonstrated
under field conditions. Municipal waste water treatment plants, dredging and spoiling activities,
and the dumping of sewage sludge and industrial wastes are the major sources of metals to the
marine environment. These sources are likely to increase in the future unless the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL-92-500) are carefully enforced.
INTRODUCTION
Estuaries, because they are landward extensions of
the sea, have become centers of industrial, commer-
cial, and related activities. As a consequence, estu-
aries have received an increasing input of metals,
the byproducts of modern industry and technological
advancement. Metals can be introduced indirectly
from contaminated rivers and land runoff or directly
by pumping from land based industries and munici-
palities, ship and barge discharges, and aerial fallout
(Merlini, 1971). When viewed as a whole, ocean
systems appear to be beyond compromise in their
ability to dilute introductions from man's activi-
ties—after all, the continental masses are continually
bathed in their oceans and seas. Where then do
problems occur?
Ocean waters, especially estuaries, are not uni-
formly mixed and non-uniform dilution can cause
local concentrations of metals. Metals tend to be
concentrated at air-sea, sediment-water, or fresh-
water-saltwater interfaces and boundaries between
•water and living or dead particles (Fig. 1). Some
metals discharged even in small quantities can be
accumulated to alarming and lethal levels by certain
marine biota. Seafoods harvested by man can become
extensively impacted when excessive metals are
added to the sea. A classic example of the human
aspect of this problem first received widespread
attention when mercury poisoning occurred in Japan
in 1953 through consumption of contaminated fish
and shellfish (Irukayama, 1966).
Sediments in estuaries naturally tend to have
relatively high levels of metals. As long as the biologi-
cal component of estuarine benthic systems (bottom
related systems, including sediments, plants, and
animals living on or in them) is alive and well, the
naturally enriched sediments appear to be processed
and metals are biologically recycled into the system.
However, frequently these benthic systems are
stressed beyond the biological breaking point, and
the biota is eliminated or drastically reduced. If the
biological recycling system is destroyed, an anaerobic
sedimentary system develops, and among other
things, becomes a metals sink. The elements that
were formerly recycled accumulate to orders of
magnitude above those observed in biologically
active systems. There is a "leaching out" of these
metals, but the rates now controlled primarily by
physical-chemical processes go on at a very slow
pace.
Two problems emerge when sediments become
sinks rather than recyclers for metals.
1) Due to relatively rapid sedimentation that
occurs in upper estuarine areas, channels must be
dredged. Very frequently, dredged materials are
anaerobic and rich in elemental composition. Where
can they be dumped with assurance that those ma-
terials which enrich the sediment may not prove
noxious to man directly or indirectly through re-
duction in marine resources?
2) If an estuary which receives feedback from its
sediments in the form of nutrients—both organic
and inorganic—loses a part of this benthic recycling
activity, what are the long-term and short-term
effects? For example, does the creation of a metal
sink in estuarine sediments affect plankton produc-
tivity and species composition?
445
-------
446
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Aerial fa I lout of PM
Air-Water
Interface
SOM,PM
PMC hi )
SM lo)
saKI?.
Sediment-Water
Interface
\\\\
PM = particulate metals
SM = soluble metaIs
SOM = soluble metals,
organica! ly complexe'd
* especially under anaerobic
conditions
PM(hi)*
S W h i)
Organo-metallic formation
FIGUKE 1.—Generalized diagram for sites of metal concentration and transformation of metal forms in the marine environment.
The possible problems of metals in estuarios is
emphasized to illustrate the complexities that sur-
round this problem area. Some aspects of the metal
problem are of more direct concern to the welfare
of man and estuarine systems than others. In an
effort to prioritize and define metal problems in the
marine environment a metal matrix has been created.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Trace elements are essential to all life systems,
yet excess amounts are toxic. Also, non-essential
elements such as mercury, cadmium, lead, and so
forth can be toxicants and bioaccumulated to
large quantities to affect organisms within marine
food chains, including man. Therefore, a matrix of
existing toxicity and body burden data using marine
species as one axis and metals as the other has been
formulated in order to assess, broaden, and validate
the data base needed to establish criteria. The metals
matrix helps to point out information gaps, thereby
denning research goals; it also provides a basis for
comparing metal levels and their modes of applica-
tion in laboratory studies with levels and pathways
defined in the natural environment.
A summary of two metals matrices which were
constructed mainly from literature reviews by
Ketchum, et al., (1972), and Eisler (1973), more
recent additions from the open literature, arid in-
house experiments performed at the National Marine
Water Quality Laboratory (NMWQL) are pre-
sented in Tables 1 and 2.
RESULTS
The metals matrix indicates that we have informa-
tion on only 36 elements and of these only 18 have
toxicity data listed and of the 18 perhaps only four
(Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn) are sufficiently documented to
formulate good criteria. Since the XAIWQL has had to
respond to unexpected requests for elemental toxicity
and bioaccumulation data, in order to anticipate
future requests, we have undertaken an in-house
program to develop acute and chronic marine bioas-
say information on a wide spectrum of elements.
However, because combinations of marine biota
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
447
Table 1.—Matrix of elements versus marine biota response
Table 2.—Matrix of elements versus marine biota bioaccumulation
Element
Antimony
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Germamum___
Gold
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Selenium
Silver
Yttrium
Zmc
Environ-
mental
Oceans
Clean
0.01
0.0005
0.003
0.0000006
0.0001
0.000005
0.0001
0.003
0.00006
0.000004
0.0013
0.00003
0.005
0.00003
0.002
0.0004
0.00004
0.003
0.01
Spp.
(Phyla)
Tested
4 (3)
2 (2)
6 (4)
1 (1)
34 (7)
13 (5)
1 (1)
48 (9)
2 (1)
1 (1)
1 (1)
14 (7)
2 (2)
43 (8)
17 (4)
5 (2)
9 (5)
1 (1)
28 (8)
Organism
Redfish
Algae
Copepod
Mummichog
Oyster
Algae
Copepod
Diatom
Diatom
Pmfish
Diatom
Cihate
Oyster
Oyster
Algae
Copepod
Copepod
Oyster
Annelid
Most
Sensitive
Level
88*
3.5
0.1
0 0001
0.015
0.0001
0.01
0.001
1.0
0 069
0.027
0.15
16.0
0.0056
0.0002
0.01
0.0033
0.001
0.05
* All concentrations expressed in mg/kg.
versus elemental compounds exist in infin
a number of elements can be eliminated
sideration in the following categories :
1. Elements such as mercury with si,
formation for good water quality criteria.
2. Major constituents of seawator, s.a
„ Element
Response
Aluminum
Death Antimony
Inhib. cell div. Arsenic
72hr LCso Barium
Deer. enz. act. Beryllium
Slow sex. devel. Bismuth. .
Decr. culture Cadmium
yield Cerium
72hrLCso Cesium
Inhib. growth Chromium
Inhib. growth Cobalt
Death Copper...
Cell clumping Gold
Inhib. growth Iron
LCso of embryos Lanthanum
48hr LCso of Lead
embryos Manganese
Inhib. growth Mercury
96hr LCso Molybdenum...
72hr LCso Nickel
Abnormal larvae Plutonium
(98%) Polonium.
Abnormal larvae
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silver
ite variety, strontium
trom con-
Tin
Titanium.
Uranium
ffini^»^ ^ Vanadium
irticienij in- - - -
Yttrium..
Zinc. _
i. Na, MR,
Spp (Phyla)
Tested
7 (1)
42 (10)
88 (12)
3 (1)
1 (1)
1 (1)
136 (12)
16 (5)
20 (6)
30 (4)
34 (7)
101 (8)
3 (1)
73 (8)
4 (2)
102 (7)
51 (5)
198 (15)
5 (3)
45 (6)
38 (7)
1 (1)
6 (3)
11 (7)
15 (3)
20 (4)
11 (5)
18 (4)
18 (5)
5 (3)
2 (2)
6 (2)
1 (1)
6 (2)
2 (2)
130 (10)
Organism
Phytoplankton
Octopus
Squid (gills)
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
Abalone (digest, gland)
Fish
Algae
Zooplankton
Zooplankton
Squid (liver)
Mollusc
Annelid
Fish
Algae
Algae
Algae
Zooplankton
Zooplankton
Algae
Fish
Algae
Sponge
Annelid
Annelid
Octopus
Squid (liver)
Algae
Octopus
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
Fish
Pteropod
Mollusc
Mollusc
Level
Reached
5000*
0.92
198
262
8.4
7.7
1162.7
64
0.64
260
110
15,160
282
42,800
57
3100
226
7400
36
480
21,000(CF) *
61 pCi/gm
wet wt
2.3
10,000 (CF)
3.6
26.4
71
1044
4160
9.2
101
940
21
290
1000 uCi
99,220
Toxic
to Man
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
01, S04.
3. Major constituents of marine organisms, s.a. 0,
H,N,0.
4. Noble gases, i.e. He, Ne, et cetera.
o. Elements which are short half-life isotopes.
0. Rare earths.
The remaining, approximately 50 elements, can
be listed in priority according to the following con-
siderations:
1. Known toxicity to man.
2. Information indicating elemental impact in the
marine environment.
3. The form of the element in seawater.
4. No information available.
It must also be recognized that it is not necessarily
the total amount of a metal present in seawater or
marine sediments but the form of the metal which
may be important to consider with respect to its
effects on marine biota. Metals in seawater can be
operationally characterized as particulate (metals
* All values in mg/kg, except where noted.
# CF—concentration factor.
Toxic to Man: + yes; — no.
associated with particles larger than 0.4.V) or dis-
solved (< 0.4.V) • Dissolved metals can be cate-
gorized further as inorganically associated, organi-
cally bound, i.e. chelated, or metal-organic com-
pounds. Dissolved metal forms are likely to interact
with most marine biota; however, the effects may
differ if the metals are organically bound. If a metal
such as copper is chelated, there may be a reduction
in metal toxicity response by organisms such as ma-
rine phytoplankton; whereas, if the metal is an
organometallic like methyl-mercury, this compound
is more toxic than the inorganic form and can also
be concentrated in food chains. Particulate metals,
probably occurring in high levels near industrial
outfalls or ocean dumping activities, are likely to af-
fect filter feeding organisms which ingest and con-
centrate particulate matter. Consequently, the
form of the metals may be the dictating factor in the
response of marine biota to heavy metals.
-------
448
ESTUARINK POLLUTION CONTROL
On the basis of these considerations, elements are
chosen for short-term, acute bioassays. Acute bioas-
says involve a rapid response of a single species to
increasing concentrations of a toxicant. The results
of the acute bioassay are reported as the median
tolerance limit (TLm or TL30) which, signifies the
concentration of toxicant that kills 50 percent of the
organisms within a specified time span, usually in 96
hours. Organisms for acute bioassay are being
selected from a wide range of representalive marine
phylla arid growth stages.
Elements having low TJJ5o are in turn chosen for
long-term chronic bioassays. Chronic bioassays
involve a continuous exposure to a sublethal con-
centration of the toxicant. In the chronic bioassay,
any biological response, such as reduction of growth
or reproduction, behavior change, histopathological
change, et cetera, can be used to monitor effects.
Also, test organisms arc analyzed to determine possi-
ble bioaccurnulation of the element which could in
turn indicate a potential pathway back to man.
DISCUSSION
A definite need exists to carefully inventory all
natural and manmade element sources which might
impact the marine environment. Table 3 is a general-
ized inventory. Assessing potential ocean pollutants,
Robinson, et al, 1974, have presented an extensive
and important approach for budgeting pollutants;
however, the report deals only with the metals iron,
copper, and plutonium and concludes that plutoniurn
is the only element of potential global pollution.
Similar assessment should be made for all elements;
however, these assessments should be focused at
more localized areas, such as coastal or estuarine
areas as well as on a global scale. These inventories
would highlight elements of major environmental
concern which should be carefully bioassayed in the
laboratory. Also, these budgets should point out
specific areas of high metal impact in the United
States.
Field investigations of metal impacted areas
throughout the U.S. are necessary in order to de-
termine the extent, fate, and effects of metals on
marine biota. Have metals per se directly or indi-
rectly caused environmental damage and, if so, to
what extent? What are the inputs, rates, routes, and
reservoirs of metals within impacted areas? Special
consideration should be given to areas of:
1. Mining activities.
2. Smelters.
3. Industrial outfalls, especially metal plating
industries.
Table 3.—Inorganic chemicals to be considered as pollutants of the marine
environment.
Element
H (acids)
Be-.
Ti
V
Cr
Fe.___
Cu
Zn
Cd_._
Hg—
AL_._
CN
Pb
P..
As
Sb
Bi
Se
F
Natural cone in
sea water ^g/1
pH = 8
(alk = 0.0024)
0.001
2
2
0.04
10
1
2
0.02
0.1
10
0.02
2
0.45
0.02
0.45
1 340
World production
metric tons/year
(1968)
?
250
1,000,000
9 000
1 500 000
480 000 000
5 000 000
5 000 000
15 000
9 000
8,000,000
7
3 000 000
?
60 000
60 000
3 800
1,000
1 800 000
Routes of entry
into the sea
D,A
U
A ?
A
R(U)
D R
D R
DR
AR
A,R
D,R
D,R
AR
D
D
U
U
U
D R
Pollution
categories
III c
IV c '
IV b ?
IV a ?
IV c '
IV c
IV c
III c
II c
1 b
IV c
III c
1 a
IV c
II c
IV c
IV c?
Ill c ?
IV c '
D dumping, A through atmospheric pollution, R through rivers (runoff) or pipelines,
U unknown.
I-IV order of decreasing menace, a worldwide, b regional, c local (coastal, bays,
estuaries, single dumping).
Referenced from FAO Fisheries Reports, No. 99 Suppl. 1. Report of the seminar on
methods of detection, measurement and monitoring of pollutants in the marine en-
vironment Inorganic chemicals, Panel 3. Dyrssen, D., C. Patterson, J. Ui and G. F.
Weichart.
4. Sewage outfalls.
5. Desalinization plants.
6. Offshore ocean disposal areas for industrial
wastes, sewage sludge, and dredge spoils.
However, Cross and Duke (1974) have empha-
sized that it is essential that present efforts be con-
tinued and new efforts initiated to determine base-
line levels of trace metals in marine organisms and
the environmental variables that affect them. These
studies should be conducted not only in contam-
inated environments such as Long Island Sound,
New York Bight, and the Southern California
Bight, but also in relatively pristine or uncon-
taminated environments. The concentration of any
trace metals can be highly variable both within and
between species and influenced by a number of
environmental factors. Until we understand the
variability that exists in healthy ecosystems, it may
be difficult to identify a contaminated ecosystem.
Also, because trace metals occur naturally in the
marine environment as a result of weathering and
volcanic activity, the problem of determining the
contribution of anthropogenic additions of trace
metals to natural levels in marine organisms is more
difficult than with halogenated hydrocarbons or
refined petroleum products.
Other questions concerning potential metal pol-
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
449
lutants which need to be answered are as follows:
1. Arc certain industries, such as power plants,
producing excessive metal inputs which should be
controlled?
2. Can elemental transformations occur within
marine areas to produce more lethal and/or bioac-
cumulated compounds such as methyl-mercury?
If so, which elements are capable of transformation
and under what circumstances?
3. Dredge spoils removed from navigational chan-
nels are often taken from areas which act as traps
for sediments laden with river and estuarine-borne
waste. What are the long-term effects of these ocean-
dumped dredge materials upon the cleaner shelf
areas? How should ocean-dumped materials be
handled to lessen environmental impact to disposal
areas?
4. Liquid effluents from wastewater treatment
plants probably will be a major source of trace
metals to estuarine and coastal waters during the
next several decades. Efforts should be made to
evaluate the impact that these discharges will have
on concentrations of trace metals in harvestable
marine species that complete a major portion of
their life cycle in coastal areas.
According to Schroeclcr (1973), environmental
pollution by toxic metals is a much more serious and
insidious problem than is pollution by organic sub-
stances such as pesticides, weed killers, sulfur di-
oxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and
other gross contaminants. Most organic substances
are degrade bio by natural processes; no metal is
degradable. Elements in elemental form or as salts
remain in the environment until they are leached by
rains into rivers and into the sea. Therefore, every
effort must be made to slow down the environmental
build-up of those elements which are toxic and can
cause degenerative diseases.
The solution to problems of metal waste disposal
might be expected to be dilution into the vastness of
the sea. However, because metals can be concen-
trated by geological, chemical, and especially biolog-
ical processes in the sea, the solution to metal dis-
posal problems is not dilution. The solution must be
to stop pollution at its source by the development of
the proper technology to control and recycle metal
wastes. Metal wastes entering the marine environ-
ment should be reduced if the Federal Water Pol-
lution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (Public
Law 92-500) to minimize environmental pollutants
are carefully enforced.
REFERENCES
Cross, F. A. and T. W. Duke. 1974. Trace metals. In: G. V.
Cox (ed.), Marine Bioassays. Marine Technology Society,
Washington, D.C.
Eisler, R. 1973. Annotated bibliography on biological effects
of metals in aquatic environments. (No. 1-567) U.S.
Environ. Prot. Agen. Rpt. R3-73-007.
Irukayama, K. 1966. The pollution of Minamata Bay and
Minamata disease. In: Third International Conference on
Water Pollution Research. Water Pollution Control
Federation, Washington, D.C.
Ketchum, B. 1972. Marine aquatic life and wildlife. In: Water
Quality Criteria 1972. National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C.
Merlini, M. 1971. Heavy-metal contamination. In: D. Hood
(ed.), Impingement of Man on the Oceans. Wiley-Inter-
science, New York, N.Y.
Robinson, E., L. Falk, B. Ketchum, and S. Piotrowicz. 1975.
Metallic wastes. In: E. Goldberg (ed.), Assessing Potential
Ocean Pollutants. National Academy of Sciences, Wash-
ington, D.C.
Schroeder, H. A. 1975. Elements and Living Systems. Plenum
Press, New York.
-------
POLLUTION IN NATION'S ESTUARIES
ORIGINATING FROM THE
AGRICULTURAL USE
OF PESTICIDES
MING-YU LI
University of California
Davis, California
ABSTRACT
Estuaries are particularly vulnerable to pollution because they are repositories of wastes which do
not come from a point source, such as pesticides. Agricultural pesticides enter the estuarine environ-
ment by several means: direct application to water; runoff from treated lands; industrial dis-
charges; domestic sewage; atmospheric drift; and accidental spills. The fish kills in the Mississippi
River by insecticides are well known and particularly well documented. Monitoring data have been
limited primarily to chlorinated hydrocarbons because of their number, wide use, great stability
in the environment, and toxicity to certain forms of wildlife and other nontarget organisms. A
recent national survey on organochlorine residues in estuarine mollusks reveals that "at no time
were residues observed of such a magnitude as to imply damage to mollusks." However, residues
were large enough to pose a threat to other elements of the biota through recyling and magnifica-
tion. The maximum pesticide residues can be correlated with proximity of monitoring stations
to agricultural runoff. Long-term, sublethal effects of pesticides in estuaries are difficult to assess
at present, as most data on pesticide effects are limited to a few species and concentration that
is lethal in short-term tests under laboratory conditions. Pesticide pollution in the estuarine en-
vironment can be minimized through the use of alternative pesticides, more effective use of pesti-
cides, removal of pesticides from water, improvement of farm management practices, regulatory
control of pesticide use. and a better understanding of the pesticide behavior in the estuarine
ecosystem.
INTRODUCTION
The ocean's biological productivity is largely con-
centrated in the coastal zone, from the rivers seaward
to the salt marshes, the bays, and estuaries. Produc-
tivity is high here because basic nutrients, the
minerals and organic material washed down river
from land, feed plants and animals at the base of
the marine food chain. By weight, about a thousand
times more food is caught or harvested from the
coastal zone than from the open sea. To put it
another way, most fish and shellfish are caught
within sight of land. Some 70 percent of the valuable
sport fish depend on estuaries for their survival.
Like all wildlife, marine animals establish themselves
where conditions for life are most favorable—plenty
of food, areas for spawning, and freedom from
predators.
Estuaries are particularly vulnerable to pollution
for two reasons: (1) their natural populations are
in delicate balance and thus are easily upset by
pollutants, and (2) they are the repository for most
of a river's pollution load as the river meets the
estuary, slows down, and releases its wastes.
The most difficult pollution control problem—for
estuarine and coastal waters—is posed by wastes
which do not come from a point source, such as
pesticides from runoff and drifts, and fertilizers
spread on fields. They find their way into streams
and rivers and eventually the estuaries and oceans
in ever larger amounts. Some argue that these pol-
lutants are even more dangerous to estuarine plants
and animals (including man) than municipal and
industrial wastes.
Synthetic organic pesticides when used properly
have been of tremendous benefits to man and his
environment, but when misused or carelessly used,
they cause considerable harm. Fortunately, the ad-
verse effects have so far been relatively minor in
comparison to the beneficial role that pesticides have
played, and most likely will continue to play in
the production of food as the world's supply of raw
agricultural products continues to decline in propor-
tion to increasing population.
During recent years the overall use patterns of
pesticides have changed considerably. The risk or
hazards of using pesticides have increased with the
sharp rise in their consumption by agriculture, house-
holds, industry, and government. Today, more than
34,000 products made from one or more of 900
451
-------
452
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
chemical compounds are currently registered by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for
use in the environment.
Pesticides are poisons; they can present an im-
mediate danger to the user if applied improperly
or without sufficient knowledge of their toxic effects.
In addition, potential future hazards to human
health and other living forms can be created by
residues from long-lived pesticides that build up in
the food chain.
CURRENT PESTICIDE USE
IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Except for 1969 and 1970 when there \vere slight
declines, sales of synthetic organic pesticides in the
United States have increased every year since 1963
(Table 1). In 1972, the latest year for which figures
are available, production was 1,158 million pounds.
The volume of sales that year was 1,022 million
pounds, and the value of these sales was $1,092
million. The; volume and value of producers' sales
were the highest of any year for which records are
available.
"Pesticides Review 1973," published by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, provides information on
the calculated domestic use at the producers' level
for pesticides (Table 2). It is interesting to note
that, following a general decline in recent years,
DDT in 1972 was up nearly 78 percent over 1971.
The sharpest decline in 1972 was made by 2,4,5-T
which dropped 64 percent. Use of 2,4-D declined
over one-fourth in 1972; however, the use of the
aldrin-toxaphene group of pesticides increased by
nearly one-fourth that year.
It is predicted that the use of pesticides will con-
tinue to increase and the sales value was expected
to reach $1.4 billion in 1974 (Figure 1). One reason
for this optimism is that acreage devoted to the
major field crops accounting for most of the total
U.S. pesticide use will be increased by (i percent
that year. The five major crops (corn, cotton, rice,
soybeans, and wheat) account for approximately
75 percent of the total pesticide use in the United
States. Moreover, with prices of all farm crops at
or near all-time highs and yields per acre moving
up steadily, farmers will have more money available
to spend on pesticides, even after allowing for higher
prices. (Chemical Week, v. 114, no. 4, January 23,
1974). Additionally, the demand for farm products
is growing rapidly worldwide. Since the farmer is
the major supplier of farm products in woild trade,
he will need more pesticides to meet the growing
demand.
Table 1.—Synthetic organic pesticides: Production and sales, United States,
1963-721
Year
1963
1964
1965
1966 ]
1967 _|
1968 J
1969
1970 .
1971
19723
1963
1964
1965 . ...
1966
1967
1968
1969 . .
1970
1971
19723
Quantity
1,000 pounds
Change from
previous year
Percent
Value2
1,000 dollars
Change from
previous year
Percent
Production
763,477
782,749
877,197
1,013,110
1,049,663
1,192,360
1,104,381
1,034,075
1,135,717
1,157,698
1.6
2.5
12. f
15.5
3.6
13.6
-7.4
-6.4
9.8
1.9
444,046
' 473,815
576,787
715;362
959,260
1,028,469
953,592
1,058,389
1,282,630
1,344,832
3.9
6.7
21.7
24.0
34.1
7.2
-7.3
11.0
21.2
4.8
Sales (domestic and export)
651,471
692,355
763,905
822,256
897,363
959,631
928,663
880,914
946,337
1,021,565
2.8
6.3
10.3
7.6
9.1
6.9
-3.2
-5.1
7.4
8.6
369,140
427,111
497,066
583,802
787,043
849,240
851,166
870,314
979,083
1,091,708
6.6
15.7
16.4
17.4
34.8
7.9
0.2
2.2
12.5
11.5
1 Includes a small quantity of soil conditioners.
2 Value of production calculated, unit value x quantity, sales value as reported by
the Tariff Commission.
3 Preliminary.
Tariff Commission, Chemical Division, "Synthetic Organic Chemicals, United States
Production and Sales "
Table 2.—Pesticides: Domestic disappearance at the producers' level of selected
kinds, United States, 1967-72'-:
Pesticide
Aldrm-toxaphene
group
Calcium arsenate
Copper sulfate-__
DDT_
Lead arsenate
2,4-D
2 4,5-T
1967 3
1,000
pounds
86,289
2,329
85,274
35,757
6,152
66,955
15,381
1968 •>
1,000
pounds
38,710
1,992
87,452
28,253
4,747
68,404
15,804
1969"
1,000
pounds
89,721
2,117
99,840
25,756
7,721
49,526
3,218
1970'
1,000
pounds
62,282
2,900
77,344
20,457
5,860
46,942
4,871
1971 «
1,000
pounds
85,005
2,457
70,27?
13,234
4,142
32,174
1,389
1972<
1,000
pounds
105,980
1,751
72,214
23,546
5,024
23,179
498
* Disappearance for all domestic uses, including all nonagnculturat and chemical
intermediate uses. Includes any exports by firms other than producers.
2 Includes military shipments abroad, these are not considered exports
3 Year ending September 30.
4 Year ending December 31.
Calculated from data supplied by the chemical industiy, Tariff Commission, andj
Bureau of Mines.
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
453
'74: Another big year for pesticides
iFungicides
• insecticides
'69
'70
'72
'73
FIGURE 1.—Pesticide sales, 1969-1974. Source: Chemical
Week. v. 114, no. 4. January 1974.
Obviously, as the production and use of pesticides
continue to increase, the potential for environmental
contamination becomes more prevalent.
ROUTES OF PESTICIDE ENTRY
INTO THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
Pesticides can become widely dispersed in the en-
vironment, mainly by the action of wind and water.
Naturally, the most significant residues have been
found in. and near the areas of intensive use, but
traces have also been found as far away as the Ant-
arctic (Tatton and Ruzicka, 1967; Peterle, 1969).
Contamination of the aquatic environment by
pesticides has been of public concern for the last
two decades. The compounds most frequently in-
criminated are the organochlorine insecticides: DDT,
TDE, endrin, heptachlor aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane,
toxaphene, and lindane. There is little doubt that
DDT and, to a lesser extent, dieldrin have been the
major contaminants. Traces of these chemicals can
be found in almost all compartments of the world's
ecosystem. Rivers, streams, lakes, estuaries, oceans,
and bottom muds are major reservoirs for these
pesticide residues. These pesticides reach aquatic
environments through many routes (Edwards, 1973;
Reese et al. 1972; Nicholson, 1970; Nicholson and
Hill, 1970; U.S. Dept, of HEW, 1969).
Direct Application to Water
Many organic pesticides are applied directly on
water to control aquatic weeds, non-game fish, and
aquatic insects. Most of these applications are made
for a particular purpose and the amount of pesticide
used is closelv controlled. To minimize undesirable
side-effects, these operations are generally managed
by professionals. However, control of the amounts
used may be lax in massive applications (e.g., emer-
gency mosquito control). In some instances, non-
target species may be very adversely affected.
Post-use dissipation is an extremely important
factor in the application of herbicides for the control
of aquatic weeds in irrigation and drainage canals,
river banks and ditch banks. Most of the herbicides
registered for use in aquatic situations have water
use restrictions which require at least partial dissipa-
tion of the herbicide before normal water use is
resumed (Timmer et al. 1970). The pathways of
dissipation are almost as varied as the chemicals
themselves. For example, volatilization is the most
important means for the dissipation of aromatic
solvents and acrolein. Adsorption processes pre-
dominate in the dissipation of herbicides such as
diquat, paraquat, and possibly endothal. Biological
and chemical degradation processes account for
much of the disappearance of 2,4-D, silvex, dichlo-
benil and other herbicides.
Runoff and Sediment Transport
Runoff from terrestrial applications is generally
considered as the major route of pesticide movement
into the water environment. Intensive studies have
demonstrated that runoff is probably the single
most widespread and significant source of contamina-
tion (usually less than 1 ppb) of surface water
(Nicholson, 1970; Nicholson and Hill, 1970). Ter-
restrial application of persistent pesticides also re-
sults in their being directly carried into surface
waters and, through adsorption on silt and debris,
transported into rivers and eventually estuaries.
During runoff the pesticide may be adsorbed on
eroding soil particles, suspended in the runoff water,
or both. Pesticides of low persistence naturally would
have lower runoff than persistent ones. Chlorinated
hydrocarbons, because of their persistence and low
solubilities in water, are usually transported on the
soil particles.
Soluble pesticides enter surface waters dissolved
in the water runoff and drainage from the land.
However, most of the pesticides reach the water
with sediments washed from the land. The chlori-
nated hydrocarbons have been found extensively
in surfape waters, and in bottom sediments at 126
locations in the Mississippi River. The deposits are
assumed to come from agricultural usage (Barthel
etal. 1969).
Organic phosphates are generally more soluble
than the chlorinated hydrocarbons. Herbicides, par-
-------
454
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
ticularly the inorganic types, are highly soluble in
water. The greatest danger from the runo;T of soluble
pesticides is in the period immediately following
their application and prior to their becoming ad-
sorbed onto soil particles. To some degree, this
condition is under control in the major agricultural
areas since weather conditions are closely observed
and, to some extent, control the time of pesticide
application. The same, however, cannot be said for
household application.
Atmospheric Transport
Atmospheric transport to the aquatic environ-
ment can be due to (1) drift of pesticides applied
aerially, (2) volatilization of the pesticides from
the terrestrial environment, and (3) wind erosion.
Direct drift has been found to occur from spray-
ing operations, especially when using aerial applica-
tion (Frost and Ware, 1970). Fallout from aerial
pesticide application is a principal source of water
contamination (Spencer, 1971; Goldberg et al. 1971).
High levels of atmospheric contamination by pesti-
cides (DDT, toxaphene, parathion) were measured
in agricultural areas such as Dothan, Ala.; Orlando,
Fla.; and Stoneville, Miss. Higher pesticide levels
were found when pesticide! spraying was reported
than when no spraying was in progress. Only p,p'-
DDT and o,p'-DDT were found in the atmosphere
at all nine sampling localities, in both urban and
agricultural areas. Levels are highest in the agricul-
tural areas of the South, and are generally lower in
urban areas (Stanley et al. 1971).
Volatilization is a major pathway for loss of ap-
plied pesticides from plant, vrater, and sol surfaces
(Spencer et al. 1973). It has been shown that nearly
half the amount of DDT applied to the surface of the
soil in field conditions may volatilize, thus making a
slow, long-term contribution to the atmosphere
(Lloyd-Jones, 1971). Volatilization of a pesticide
depends on many other factors, such as air velocity,
pesticide concentration, pesticide vapor pressure,
temperature, relative humidity, soil water content,
and bulk density of the surface soil (Igue, 1970).
Pesticides can be transported by wind and depos-
ited in water far from an area of application; they are
now considered to be universally present in the air.
Their distribution to sites removed from a oplication
areas depends on prevailing patterns of wind cir-
culation and deposition rates. The European-African
land area was regarded as the source of chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides found in airborne dust at
Barbados (Risebrough et al, 1968). The insecticides
(absorbed on the dust) were carried some 3,600
miles (6,000 km) by the transatlantic movement of
the northeast trade winds. Recently, several studies
have also presented evidence that the trade wind
system of the Atlantic region may deposit amounts
of chlorinated hydrocarbons comparable to those
transported into the sea by major rivers (Sepa and
Prospero, 1971; Bideleman and Olney, 1974; Gaskin
et al. 1974).
Industrial and Municipal Wastes
Industrial waste constitutes perhaps the second
most significant source of pesticides in water. The
wastes from manufacturing and formulating plants,
unless very closely controlled, contain pesticides.
Additionally, the effluents from plants that use
pesticides in their manufacturing processes may
contain various amounts of pesticides. The distribu-
tion of DDT residues in Emerita analoga (Stimpson)
along coastal California was recently investigated
(Burnett, 1971). The findings showed that aquatic
organisms near the Los Angeles County sewer outfall
contained over 45 times as much DDT as those near
major agricultural drainage areas. The probable
source of this high concentration of DDT in the
sewer outfall was thought to be a plant that man-
ufactures DDT. This suggests that historically the
buildup of residues in California coastal marine
organisms could be attributed, to a significant degree,
to industrial waste discharge rather than merely to
extensive agricultural usage.
Pesticides can also enter water along with munici-
pal wastes, such as sewage effluents. A 1971 review of
pesticide monitoring programs in California prepared
by an Ad Hoc Working Group of the Pesticide Advi-
sory Committee to the State Department of Agricul-
ture reported that substantial quantities of pesti-
cides, mainly chlorinated hydrocarbons, have been
discharged to surface waters through municipal and
industrial waste discharges. The quantities of waste
waters discharged were so large that even low con-
centrations of pesticides in water could result in a
large emission. The report indicated that if large
emissions from the Los Angeles County sanitation
districts' outfalls have been occurring for a number
of years, this one source may overshadow all other
sources of DDT in southern California marine waters.
Effluents from sewers of large urban centers may
contain small amounts of pesticides originating from
home use but, the great magnitude of discharge does
not allow this source to be overlooked. It is signifi-
cant to note that as much as '2'i percent of the pesti-
cides in the San Francisco Bay waters, amounting
to 4,000 pounds per year, enter the bay through
municipal and industrial wastewater discharges.
Researchers at the University of Georgia Marine
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
455
Station studied the effects of estuarine dredging on
toxaphene concentrations of the marine biota (Dur-
ant and lleiinold, 1972). Results indicated that, in
the estuary, the sediments near a toxaphene plant
outfall in Terry Creek, Brunswick, Oa., were
found to be contaminated with toxaphene approach-
ing 2,000 ppm, and oysters collected two miles from
the outfall were found to contain residue levels near
6 ppm. In a later study Reimold and Durant (1974)
found that the monitoring of dredge spoil, fauna, and
flora showed toxaphene concentrations to be higher
during dredging than before or after. The concentra-
tions in oysters ranged between 2.0 and 5.0 ppm.
The eastern oysters, reported to be the best biological
monitors, did not demonstrate large changes in
toxaphene content resulting from the dredging. A
report released by the Georgia Marine Science Center
in 1973 discussed the effects of toxaphene contamina-
tion on estuarine ecology. It indicates that as the
toxaphene content in the plant effluent decreased
during the 3-year study period, the toxaphene con-
tent of fauna, flora and sediments decreased also.
This reflects in part the pollution abatement practices
initiated at the toxaphene production plant which
greatly reduced the quantities of toxaphene in the
plant effluent (Reimold, Adams and Durant, 1973).
Accidents and Spills
Accidents and spills occur dxiring storage, packag-
ing, transport, disposal, and application and may be
very serious because of the usually highly con-
centrated chemicals. Although they may affect only
a localized area for a short period of time, the pos-
sibilities are almost unlimited and much needs to be
done to bring this unintended entry of pesticides into
the aquatic environment under control.
On August 11, 1974, parathion, a highly toxic
organophosphorus insecticide, and dead fish were
discovered in the Yuma main canal, that city's
source of drinking water. Fortunately, none of the
poisoned water reached the city treatment plant
before the accident was discovered. No injuries or
death were reported, but the California Fish and
Game Department estimated 10,000 fish were killed.
Authorities said they were unable to determine how
the insecticide was put into the canal (San Francisco
Chronicle, Tuesday, August 13,1974).
FISH KILLS
Fish mortalities result from a variety of causes,
some natural and others man-induced. Fish kills
brought about by man may be attributed to munici-
pal or industrial wastes, agricultural activities,
transportation operations, and other projects such
as water manipulations that significantly alter the
quality of the aquatic environment.
Fish are significant indicators of water quality.
When fish die in large numbers at one time, it is
usually a sign of an unnatural phenomenon within
the aquatic environment. The destruction of fish
not only indicates a severe problem occurring in the
water environment, but reduces a natural resource of
recreational and often economic value.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
publishes an annual report on fish kills caused by
pollution since 1961. This report is the result of
cooperative teamwork between EPA, state pollution
control agencies, and private citizens. It includes
reports of fish kills where water pollution is known or
suspected to be the cause of death. Since numerous
kills resulting from pollution go unnoticed or un-
reported, the report cannot be considered complete.
Despite these gaps, the data compiled in these annual
reports provide useful and basic information, serve
to point out potential pollution problems, and alert
officials and the public itself to the need for stricter
safeguards to keep dangerous substances out of the
nation's water resources. In the 1972 report, for the
first time since inception, every state in the Union
participated.
Table 3 contains a 10-year (1963-1972) fish kill
summary by source of pollution. The 17.7 million
fish killed in 1972 brought the cumulative total of all
fish reported killed by water pollution since 1963 to
225 million. While there was a 76 percent decrease in
fish reported killed in 1972 compared to the record
73.6 million fish killed in 1971, the year 1972 was the
fifth highest year in the number of fish reported
killed.
Industrial pollution was identified as the largest
killer of fish during the 10-year period. About 85.5
million (38 percent) fish died from this type of pol-
lution. Municipal operations, which handle wastes
from cities, ranked second in the total number of
fish killed—60.4 million or 26.8 percent. Unknown
operations, a new classification added in 1971 to
include fish kill which cannot be linked to a specific
pollution source, accounted for 39.1 million (17.4
percent) of the fish kill. This resulted from 219 re-
ported incidents resulting in approximately 35.3
million fish killed in 1971 alone. Agricultural opera-
tions ranked fourth, and were responsible for the
killing of 17.5 million (7.8 percent) fish. The fifth
ranking category—other operations—accounted for
the death of 17.3 million (7.7 percent) fish.
Table 4 provides a 10-year summary of fish kill
by subcategories of the agricultural operations. It
-------
456
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 3.—Fish kill summary by source of pollution (No. of fish killed)
Year
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968.
1969.
1970..
1971..
1972... .
Total
% Total .. .
Agricultural
560,967
1,415,092
1,390,136
1 259 599
1 607 267
375,548
6,293,880
1,809,541
1,023,337
1,807.555
17,542,922
7.8%
Industrial
2 690 601
12,525 301
3,763 948
4 622 790
8 087 091
6 255 713
28 680 182
9,588 949
4,552 392
4,594 390
85,561 357
38.0%
Municipal
914 379
3 893 687
5 911 604
1 347 248
643 304
6 791 464
1 155 027
6 601 845
24 798 432
8 360,594
60 417 584
26.8%
Transportation
78 388
22 211
306 810
102 631
143 123
825 365
2 057 030
465 005
664 180
456 526
5 121 269
2.3%
Other Operations
100 912
13 423
20 941
1 410 569
638 266
578 124
2 450 909
3 820 994
7 257 478
1 028 869
17 320 485
7 7%
Unknown
2 471 283
35 257 226
1 369 284
39 097 793
17 4%
Total
6 816 530
17 869 714
11 393 439
g 742 837
11 119 051
14 826 214
40 637 028
22 286 334
73 653 045
17 717 218
225 061 410
100%
Source Data extracted from "Fish Kills Caused by Pollution" series, published annually by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
shows that pesticides comprised the leading source of
agricultural pollution, with 11.4 million (64.9 per-
cent) fish fatalities. Reports of fish kills under
pesticides include incidents in which spraying ma-
chinery and pesticide containers were cleaned or
dumped into nearby streams, lakes, or estuaries.
However, the majority of reported incidents resulted
from pesticides being washed into water by rainfall
after spraying for agricultural purposes.
Fish kills by type of water are summarized in
Table 5. For the period 1963-1972, approximately
60 percent (134.5 million) of the total reported fish
were killed in freshwater, while 37 percent (83.4
million) fish fatalities occurred in estuary-type water.
In 1971, about 77 percent (56.4 million) of the total
reported fish were killed in the estuary-type water,
arid for the first time since the annual report system
started in 1960, more fish were reported killed in
estuarine waters than in freshwater. The large kill in
1971 was primarily due to a number of large kills
totaling 31.4 million fish which were reported in two
localized areas—Escarnbia Bay, Fla., and Galveston
Bay, Tex. It should not be interpreted as a national
trend. The number of fish reported killed in estuary
water in 1972 decreased appreciably from the number
reported in 1971. Nevertheless, the significant in-
crease of fish kills in the estuaries since 1968 is of great
national concern since estuaries serve as breeding
and nursery grounds for many species of marine fish.
MONITORING OF PESTICIDES
IN RIVERS AND ESTUARIES
Reports of insecticide residues in streams and
rivers in the United States began to appear about 10
years after the introduction of organochlorine in-
secticides and it soon became obvious that small
amounts of these insecticides occurred in many
waterways. At present, all of the different organo-
chlorine insecticides have been reported from U.S.
Table 4.—Fish kill summary by agricultural operations (No. of fish killed)
Table 5.—Fish kill summary by type of water (No. of fish killed)
Year
1963
1964
1965
1966 - .
1967 ... .
1968
1969
1970 .
1971 .
1972
Total ... .
% Total
Pesticides
401,415
191,167
770,557
217,406
329,130
325,194
5,982,877
1,409,794
264,504
1,500,147
11,392,191
64.9
Fertilizers
1 400
67 040
2,697
1,200
10,000
15,116
73,569
4,069
65,760
30,944
271,795
1.5
Manure-silage
Drainage
158 152
1,156,885
616,882
1,040,993
1,268,137
35,238
237,434
395,678
693,073
276,464
5,878,936
33.6
Total
560 967
1 415 092
1,390,136
1,259,599
1,607,267
375,548
6,293,880
1,809,541
1,023,337
1,807,555
17,542,922
100
Source: Data extracted from "Fish Kills Caused by Pollution" scries, published
annually by the U S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Year
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968. .
1969. .
1970
1971
1972
Total..
% Total
Fresh
5,478,130
15,334,099
11 255,658
8,698,607
11,086,012
9,869,851
34,956,048
11,991,099
15,205,913
10,669,294
134,544,711
60
Salt
1,234,300
2,531,700
102,121
19,050
30,000
1,888
641,150
536,000
2,014,914
37,766
7,148,889
3
Estuary
104,100*
3,915
35,660
25,270
3,039
4,954,475
5,039,830
9,759,235
56,432,218
7,010,158
83,367,900
37
Total
6,816,530
17,859,714
11,393,439
8,742,927
11,119,051
14,826,214
40,637,028
22,286,334
73,653,045
17,717,218
225,061,500
100
Source: Data extracted from the "Fish Kills Caused by Pollution" series published
annually by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
*"Brackish water."
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
457
rivers, sometimes in large quantities. DDT has been
found in the largest amounts, but it is not always
the most common residue, although some rivers
have contained it in all the sampling programs. There
have been relatively few reports of residues of
chlordane, endosulfaii, and toxaphenc in U.S. water-
ways, although these are commonly used in the U.S.
Since 1962, there have been surveys of pesticides in
most of the major waterways. A National Pesticide
Monitoring Network was set up in 1964 as a coopera-
tive effort of the Federal departments making up the
membership of the Federal Committee on Pest Con-
trol. It was initially designed on the basis of the
minimum monitoring needed to establish baseline
levels of pesticides in substrates of food, humans, soil,
water, air, wildlife, fish, and estuaries and to assess
changes in these levels. This program continued until
the passage of the Federal Environmental Pesticide
Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-516) at which
time the program received legislative status. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had taken
important steps to assure an uninterrupted study of
environmental residues and to enlarge and upgrade
the program. Additionally, as the focal point of
legislative authority, EPA accepted the responsibil-
ity of financing several of the large projects by con-
tracts with another government agency having field
staff qualified to do the work.
Pesticides in the surface waters of the U.S. for
the period 1964-1968 were reported by Lichenberg
in 1970. The monitoring was restricted to chlorinated
insecticides. It was found that individual insecticides,
when present, were in fractions of a part per billion
(ppb).
A study entitled "Pesticides in Selected Western
Streams" was initiated in 1965 by the U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey as a contribution to the national program.
The period of 1965 through September 1968 is cov-
ered by two publications (Brown and Nishioka,
1967; Manigold and Schulze, 1969). In the 1967-
1968 period, 62 5 percent of the "whole water"
sampled contained no detectable insecticides (min-
imum detectable level 0.01 ppb) and the remaining
had individual pesticide levels only in fractions of a
part per billion. The pesticides monitored were rather
restricted in number (DDT and its metabolities; al-
drin; dieldrin; cndrin; heptachlor and its epoxide;
lindane; chlordane; toxaphene; endosulfan; phos-
phorothioates; PCB's; and three herbicides: 2,4-D;
2,4,5-T; and silvex'1.
During the period 1968-1971 (Schulze, Manigold
and Andrew, 1973) compounds found included the
common chlorinated insecticides and herbicides.
"Heptachlor and its expoxide were not detected
during the 3-year period, and aldrin was found only
once. DDT was the most frequently occurring in-
secticide, and 2,4,5-T the most common herbicide.
The amounts observed were small; the maximum
concentration of an insecticide was 0.46 mg/liter
for DDT, and of an herbicide 0.99 mg/liter for
2,4-D . . . Concentrations were highest in water
samples containing appreciable amounts of suspended
sediments." Pesticide concentrations never exceeded
the permissible limits established for public water
under the Water Quality Criteria published by the
Department of the Interior in 1968, although in
several instances concentrations were measured that
were above the environmental levels of 0.05 mg/liter
recommended for marine and estuarine waters.
Organochlorine insecticides are not usually in
solution in water because they are all of very low
solubility. Tests on river water emptying into the
ocean, even after draining land heavily sprayed with
pesticides, may contain relatively low concentra-
tions of pesticides. Yet, in certain conditions, such
as during periods of high turbidity caused by sedi-
ment load, it seems probable that rivers could carry
a heavy concentration of pesticides to the sea. The
mud at the bottom of many rivers is heavily con-
taminated with pesticides and will continue to be a
reservoir for periodic future contaminations.
As a part of a study to assess the potential con-
tamination of the San Francisco Bay from chlo-
rinated hydrocarbon compounds, bottom materials
from 26 streams tributary to the bay were analyzed
for chlordane, ODD, DDE, DDT and PCB residues.
These compounds were found in all stream bed
samples analyzed, thus illustrating their widespread
distribution in the bay. Chlordane was ubiquitous,
with a concentration range similar to that of the
other compounds (Law and Goerlitz, 1974).
Accumulation of pesticides in bottom sediments
plays a very important role in their disappearance
from contaminated water. Pesticide concentrations
in the sediments may be much higher than the con-
centrations in the water. Studies in major agricul-
tural river basins in California revealed that an
average pesticide concentration of 0.1 to 0.2 ppb
in river water may mean that bottom sediments
contain 20 to 100 ppb.
It can be expected that rivers would carry pesti-
cides down to the sea so that large amounts of resi-
due could be deposited in estuaries and near the
mouth of rivers. However, there is surprisingly
meager evidence of pesticide residues in those areas.
The report on "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the
Marine Environment" (National Academy of Sci-
ences, 1971) estimated that "as much as 25 percent
of the DDT compounds produced to date may have
been transferred to the sea. The amount of DDT
-------
458
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
compounds in the marine biota is estimated to he
less than 0.1 percent of total production, yet this
amount has produced a demonstrable impact upon
the environment."
It was estimated that 1.9 metric tons of pesticides
are carried into the San Francisco Bay annually by
the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers (Risebrough
et al. 1968), and that 10 metric tons reach the Gulf
of Mexico each year from the Mississippi River.
Although these may seem very large amounts, they
are small relative to the pesticide usage in the vicinity
of these rivers. These residues represent no more
than 0.1 percent of the amounts of pesticic.es used in
the area supplying water to the estuaries, but some
may be rapidly taken out to sea because of the strong
tidal exchange in the San Francisco Bay (Frost,
1969).
The Estuarine Monitoring Program was organized
by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries in 196.") to
monitor the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
reaching the major estuaries on the Atlantic, gulf
arid Pacific coasts. In July 1972, the National Marine
Fisheries Service of NOAA withdrew its financial
support and EPA took over the responsibility of the
entire estuarine study. This study has been rede-
signed to include marine life in all of the 200 primary
estuaries listed in the "National Estuarine Survey."
A recent publication entitled "Organochlorine
Residues in Estuarine Mollusks, 1965-72—National
Pesticide Monitoring Program" reports the findings
covering 15 coastal states during a 7-yeir period
(Butler, 1973). Shellfish were chosen as 'indicator'
organisms because they are sessile and readily con-
centrate pesticides from the environment, yet the
chemical is fhished out of their tissues at a uniform
rate when the pesticide is no longer present in the
environment (Duke, 1970). The findings of this
study are summarized as follows:
1. The analyses of 8.095 samples for 15 persistent
organochlorine compounds showed that DDT was
the most commonly identified pesticide and occurred
in 63 percent of all samples analyzed. In most cases,
estuarine pollution with DDT was intermiUent arid
at levels in the low parts-per-trillion range. The
maximum DDT residue detected was 5.39 ppm.
2. In most estuaries monitored, detectable DDT
residues have declined in both number and magni-
tude in several species of estuarine mollusks in recent
years. DDT pollution peaked in 1968 and has been
declining markedly since 1970.
3. Dieldrin was the second most commonly de-
tected compound with a maximum residue of 0.23
ppm.
4. Other organochlorine residues (endrin, mirex,
toxaphene, and polychlorinated bipheny s) were
found only occasionally and generally at low levels,
with exception of toxaphene.
The report further points out that "at no time
were residues observed of such a magnitude as to
imply damage to mollusks; however, residues were
large enough to pose a threat to other elements of
the biota through the processes of recycling and
magnification." It is also of interest to note that 38
samples (0.5 percent) had DDT residues exceeding
1.0 ppm. These samples were collected in California,
Florida and Texas in drainage basins having in-
tensive agricultural development.
With regard to California, where approximately
22 percent of the nation's pesticides are sold, the
report states:
DDT residues in mollusks were consistency larger in
California than in any other area monitored with the
exception of a single station in south Florida. There is a
clear pattern of maximum pesticide residues being cor-
related with proximity of the monitoring station to
runoff from agricultural lands. In southern California,
where most samples contained typically large residues,
residues were consistently higher at Hedionda and
Mugu Lagoons, the recipients of agricultural runoff
waters, than at Anaheim Slough which receives inter-
mittent runoff from the urban and industrialized sec-
tions of Los Angeles. Residues in samples from estuaries
draining the intensely cultivated central and southern
parts of the state were larger, by one order of magnitude
usually, than those in samples collected from water-
sheds north of San Francisco Bay where dairy land
predominates.
A preliminary report regarding the influence of
pesticide runoff in Monterey Bay, Calif., points to
the Salinas River as the source of pesticide pollution
(Haderlie, 1970). This is the only major river en-
tering the Bay, and it drains the 100 mile long
Salinas Valley with a drainage area of 4,000 square
miles. The Salinas Valley is one of the richest agricul-
tural areas in California, specializing in lettuce,
broccoli, celery, sugar beets and so on. During a 10-
year period between 1960 and 1969, it is conserva-
tively estimated that (53 tons of DDT were sprayed
on the crops and soil of the valley each year. Students
at the Hopkins Marine Station near the bay made a
study during the late spring of 1909 of the DDT
content of the sand-dwelling mole crab, Emerita.
This animal does not seem to concentrate DDT con-
tent in high concentrations. Emerita taken from the
open coast outside Monterey Bay had too little DDT
in their tissue to be measurable, yet Emerita taken
from sand near the mouth of the Salinas River had
DDT concentrations of 0.14 ppm. In addition, it
was noted that during the late spring and summer of
the same year, more dead seabirds were found along
the shore of Monterey Bay than ever before. At one
period 440 dead birds were found on one stretch of
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
459
beach less than a mile long. Of these, 37 percent had
been oiled, 14 percent shot, and 49 percent had died
of unknown causes. The livers of this third group of
birds were subjected to tests for chlorinated hy-
drocarbons. The dead seabirds contained concentra-
tions of pesticides as high or higher than that re-
corded anywhere. A brief summary of the data is as
follows:
DDE Concentrations in Livers
of Dead Seabirds
Brandt' cormorants 107-155 ppm
Western grebes 192-292 ppm
Fork-tailed petrel 373 ppm
Ashey petrel 412 ppm
Ring-billed gull 805 ppm
Although one cannot be certain that it was the high
concentrations of DDT residues that killed these
animals, circumstantial evidence seems to indicate
pesticides as the cause of death.
In an earlier study concerning the chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides in California bays and estu-
aries, it was found that pesticide residues in estuaries
geographically isolated from agricultural areas seldom
exceeded 100 ppb. Pesticide residues frequently
exceeded this level in agricultural regions and were
found as high as 11,000 ppb in shellfish from polluted
areas (Modin, 1969).
A similar study was conducted to investigate the
chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in shellfish (Pel-
ecypoda) from estuaries of Long Island, N.Y.
(Foehrenbach et al. 1971). Results indicate that
the distribution of residues could at times be cor-
related with agricultural use or type of community
in the watershed surrounding the various stations.
EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES
ON ESTUARINE ORGANISMS
It is becoming apparent that increased information
is necessary about the distribution, concentration,
and elimination of pesticides in estuarine areas.
Most literature reports on pesticides in estuaries
concern chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT,
endrin, dieldrin, and aldrin. However, the overall
picture of the dynamics of these compounds in the
estuarine environment is obscure.
Potentially more hazardous are pesticides that
persist in the environment and move up in the food
chain. For example, small amounts of chemicals
adsorbed by plankton and insects are transferred in
increasing concentration to fish, birds, animals,
and eventually to man. There is evidence that con-
centrated pesticide residues act adversely on the
reproduction and behavior of certain wildlife species
and may threaten their survival. In certain instances,
pesticide residues accumulated through food chains
have been implicated as causing death of contamin-
ated animals. For example, the loss of fish-eating
waterbirds at Tule Lake and Clear Lake in California
and the reduction of pelican population on the Pacific
coast were attributed to pesticides which had trav-
eled through biological networks and accumulated in
the bodies of these birds.
Several review papers have recently been published
which bear on the subject of pesticides and estuarine
organisms. Butler (1971) discussed the influence of
pesticides on marine ecosystems; Foehrenbach
(1972) described experiments on chlorinated pesti-
cides in estuarine organisms; Whitacre (1972) et al.
reviewed the pesticides and aquatic micro-organisms;
and Edwards (1973) summarized the literature con-
cerning the persistent pesticides in the environment.
Perhaps the most comprehensive review on the sub-
ject is the paper written by Walsh (1972) entitled
"Insecticides, Herbicides, and Poly chlorinated Bi-
phenyls in Estuaries."
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton probably act as primary concen-
trators of pesticides in water. There is evidence that
these toxicants reduce photosynthesis, but biocon-
centration by algae may be more important ecologi-
cally because they transfer many materials to higher
trophic levels. Under laboratory conditions, algal
samples were found to contain dieldrin concentra-
tions ranging from 0.1 to 100 milligram per kilogram
dry weight. Algal concentrations of dieldrin were as
much as 30,000 times those occurring in the water
(Rose and Mclntire, 1970). Algae are the primary
producers in the aquatic environment. Grazers and
higher consumer organisms depend upon algae as a
food source, either directly or indirectly.
Extensive pesticide accumulation by select algal
communities constitutes a contaminated food source
for animals which feed on those forms.
Invertebrates
Organochlorine insecticides are so toxic to aquatic
invertebrates that these aquatic organisms have long
been used to bioassay insecticides. A more complex
problem than that of toxicity is the accumulation of
-------
460
ES^UAKINE POLLUTION CONTKOL
pesticides in various aquatic organisms. When
pesticides reach water, they are rapidly adsorbed by
the bottom sediment, plankton, algae, aquatic in-
vertebrates, aquatic vegetation, and fish. Such
accumulations, often increasing through different
trophic levels in aquatic organisms, have been
demonstrated experimentally by several workers and
are well-known.
Organochlorine insecticides are relatively in-
soluble in water but seem to have a great affinity for
the tissues of aquatic invertebrates. Most of these
aquatic organisms seem to contain son'e residues
of these insecticides; the only difference is that those
from the more remote areas such as Antarctica seem
to contain less than those from more temperate
regions closer to main usage areas of these insecti-
cides. Other than this, the amount reported does
not seem to differ significantly between organisms
that live in freshwater, seawater, lakes, rivers, or
estuaries.
Organic particulate matter of estuarie? is an im-
portant food source for berithic organisms. In areas
where most of the primary production occurs through
the slow bacterial decomposition of such plant ma-
terials as marsh grasses, rushes, and mangroves, a re-
lease of pesticide residues to the water may occur.
This decaying plant detritus becomes an enriched
food source when utilized by other microorganisms.
The mud dwelling fiddler crab concentrated DDT
residues in its muscle tissues after consumption of
detrital food material from sediment (Odum et al,
1969). In the field, DDT residues appeared to be
associated with particulates in the range of 250 to
1,000 microns. Because crabs and other detritus-
feeding animals consume particulate matters of that
size range, the authors concluded that organic de-
tritus particles constitute a reservoir from which the
pesticides enter the food chain.
Oysters extract nutrition from the aquatic en-
vironment by filtering particles of food from the
water which is continuously passed in and out of
their bodies. The organisms accumulate pesticide-
contaminated particles in this fashion. Oysters
efficiently store trace amounts of pesticides and are
used as tstuarine monitoring organisms by the Gulf
Breeze Laboratory of EPA. They provide a sensitive
index of the initiation, duration and extent of chlor-
inated hydrocarbons' pollution in an estv.ary. The
concentration or elimination of residues in oysters is
dependent upon the level of pollution, the water
temperature, and their position relative to the water
flow. To eliminate DDT residues of 150 mg/kg may-
require three months or longer while residues of less
than 0.1 mg/kg may disappear in about two weeks.
Chronic exposure to sublethal concentrations of
pesticides can reduce productivity of estuarine fish
and shellfish (Butler, 1909). The'insecticides DDT,
toxaphene, and parathion are toxic to oysters at
concentrations of approximately 1 ppm in water.
When exposed to only 1.0 ppb of each of these in-
secticides separately, no effects were noted in young
oysters (Loew et al. 1971). The population of marsh
fiddler crabs was significantly decreased by treat-
ment of their habitat with abate, an organophos-
phorus insecticide, according to Ward and Howes
(1974). The population decrease may have resulted
from sublethal effects which rendered the animals
more vulnerable to predators.
The effects of organochlorine insecticides on
aquatic invertebrate populations mayr constitute
both direct and indirect hazards to other animals.
The most susceptible of these organisms are the
smaller Crustacea, which are killed by amounts of
the order of 1.0 ppm X 103. Still susceptible, but
less so, are the larger Crustacea.
Invertebrates that are not killed may exhibit a
variety of indirect effects of the pesticides, such as
loss of coordination and other behavioral symptoms,
loss of fertility, or retardation of growth (Edwards,
1973). Considerable changes in the species' habitat
structure may occur if predators and their prey
differ in susceptibility to these chemicals. All of
these effects may greatly influence overall popula-
tions of aquatic invertebrates and, since these are a
major food source for fish, may exert strong environ-
mental pressure on fish populations. Moreover, the
residues in their bodies may accumulate in the tissue
of fish and other animals that eat them and in this
way exert further environmental stress.
Vertebrates
The literature on residues of organochlorine in-
secticides in fish is very extensive. One can only
consider the subject very generally and select data
from some of the recent studies, which should serve
to provide a general assessment of current status of
pesticide levels in fish and other vertebrates. It is
well known that marine fishes contain insecticides
and, in general, are less susceptible to poisoning than
some other aquatic forms (Table 6).
In general, organophosphorus compounds tend to
be more acutely toxic than the organochiorirtcs, and
herbicides are less toxic than insecticides (Butler,
1971;. Effects of organophosphates may last for onh
hours or days, whereas the organochlorines are more
persistent and exert their effects following bioac-
cumulation and magnification in trophic pyramids.
Of all the organochlorines, DDT is by far the most
common and occurs in the greatest amounts. There
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
461
Table 6.—Acute Toxicity (24 hours) of 240 Pesticides to Estuarine Fauna
Pesticide
(ppm)
Fish j
Shrimp -
Oysters
No Effect
1.0
%
46
33
41
Toxic to 20% of Test Population
0.1-1.0
%
16
14
21
0 01-0.1
%
28
33
33
0.001-0.01
%
10
20
5
Source Butler, 1971
is some evidence that the amounts of organochlorine
residues accumulated by fish are influenced by the
lipid content of the fish; the more lipid they contain,
the less susceptible they are to the pesticide. Simi-
larly, the larger the fish, the greater the concentra-
tion of residues they may contain. Hannon et al.
(1970) found that fish in the higher trophic levels
tended to have a large proportion of the organochlo-
rine residues that they contain in the form of metabo-
lites such as DDE, DDD, heptachlor epoxide, and
dieldrin. It has been reported that there were greater
concentrations of organochlorine residues in fish
from higher trophic levels, even when movement of
the residues through a food chain was impossible
(Hamelink et al. 1971).
The amount of pesticide in a field population may
also vary over the seasonal cycle in different species.
Concentrations of DDT in the Triphoturus mexicanus
taken from the Gulf of California increased with size
of the fish (Cox, 1970). The annual variation in the
content of DDT and its metabolites in five species
of fish from the estuary near Pensacola, Fla., was
observed by Hansen and Wilson (1970). They stated
that pesticide residues in benthic fishes which remain
in one location are better indicators of pollution than
residues in pelagic fishes.
Fishes are generally more resistant to pesticides
than shrimps and oysters but are more sensitive
than other vertebrates to organochlorine pesticides.
Fishes do, however, var}' in their responses to avoid
water containing DDT, endrin, Dursban and 2,4-D.
When fish were given a choice of two concentrations
of the pesticides, the highest concentration oi 2,4-D
was avoided, but the highest concentration of DDT
was preferred (Hansen, 1969). The author suggested
that if the capacity to avoid a pesticide is controlled
genetically, fish which survive pollution by this
means would produce more offspring with the capa-
city to avoid the chemical. Thus, genetic ability to
avoid pesticides would have survival value for the
species. Fabaeher and Chambers (1971) found that
mosquitofish probably result from other factors in
addition to increased lipid content. These may in-
clude decreased uptake, "resistant" nervous tissue,
stress-tolerance, or others. The total mechanism or
resistance is probably a complex interaction of
many, many factors.
Organochlorine insecticides in the estuarine en-
vironment constitute both direct and indirect haz-
ards to fish and to those organisms that feed on
fish. The indirect aspect is that plankton and other
fish food may adsorb large quantities of these chemi-
cals, thus poisoning the fish that eat them. Alterna-
tively, when the fish take up residues, they may be
affected by them. Many indirect sublethal effects of
organochlorine residues on fish have been reported;
they include lower disease resistance, sub-normal
feeding rates, and reproductive failure, to mention a
few. Another hazard caused by pesticide residues in
fish results from the fact that these animals are a
major source of human food. If residues in fish are
large, they may accumulate in man to a possibly
hazardous level. In countries with more stringent
legislation, these fish would be unsalable as human
food. The rejection of fish products because of high
concentrations of pesticides, e.g., DDT in Cali-
fornia jack mackerel, can pose a hardship to fisher-
men and an economic burden on governments.
Estuarine Birds and Mammals
Extensive literature exists detailing effects of
pesticides on estuarine birds (Moore and Tatton,
1965; Heath et al. 1969; Anderson et al. 1969; Lament
et al. 1970; Lamont and Teichel, 1970). A recent
report by Johnston (1974) indicates a decline of
DDT residues in migratory songbirds killed when
the birds flew into television towers in Florida. The
results showed a progressive decline in the con-
centration of DDT and its metabolites (DDD and
DDE) in their fat depots for the period 1964 to 1973.
This decline is apparently correlated with decreased
usage of DDT in the United States during the same
time, according to the author.
Little is known, however, about pesticides in mam-
mals. DDT was found in seals from the Antarctica
and in grey seals, common seals, and harbor porpoises
in England and Scotland. Pesticides have also been
found in whales (Wolman and Wilson, 1970). Blub-
ber of grey whales and sperm, whales from waters
near San Francisco contained up to 6.0 ppm of DDT.
MINIMIZING PESTICIDE POLLUTION
IN THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT
Estuaries are vital nursery and feeding grounds
for major commercial fisheries. The possibility that
they might act as "a sink for the persistent pesti-
cides" is intolerable (Butler, 1971).
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462
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
There is little doubt that the persistent pesticides,
particularly DDT and dieldrin, are major long-term
contaminants of the aquatic environment, and small
traces can be found in almost all compartments of
our ecosystems. The situation with respect to estua-
rine pollution from pesticides emphasizes the need for
more basic research. Investigations to establish safe
limits for toxicants in water cannot be done on a
short-term basis. Effective research in this area
requires long-term commitment of government
agencies and the public at large.
Use of Alternative Pesticides
The main problem of finding alternatives for
persistent insecticides is not that suitable insecticides
cannot be developed, but is economic, because per-
sistent insecticides can be made and sold so cheaply.
Additionally, one dose gives protection against soil
pests for several seasons. The recent shift in pesticide
usage from the organochlorines to the so-called
"substitutes" or "non-persistent" pesticides is an
encouraging trend. However, the less persistent
substitutes such as organophosphates and carba-
mates, which are gaining in popularity, are also
more toxic to man and certain other non-target
organisms. Although there is a considerable knowl-
edge about the residues of these subslitutes and
about their metabolism in target organisms, little is
known about their overall effects on cur aquatic
environment.
Metcalf et al. (1972) demonstrated the possibili-
ties of producing selective and biodegradable ana-
logues of organochlorine insecticides using a model
ecosystem for the evaluation of pesticide biodegrada-
bility and ecological magnification (1972L). Metcalf
(1972b) emphasized that the principle of selectivity
and biodcgradability must be included in the future
development of better pesticides if we are to begin to
solve the many problems of human ecology and
environmental pollution arising from pest control.
The use of biological agents is promising. Two
bacterial pesticides arc; now commercially available
and have registered with EPA—Bacillus popittiae
and B. thuringiensis. These insecticides have a num-
ber of important advantages. They effectively con-
trol specific insects, do not harm humans, livestock,
fish, wildlife, and beneficial insects, and do not dam-
age plants. Furthermore, insects do not become re-
sistant to these control agents. On the other hand,
the bacterial insecticides are not as fasc-acting as
most conventional chemical insecticides. Usually,
bacterial insecticides are a more expcnsiva means of
insect control. And poor weather conditions may
prevent proper control.
Better Use of Pesticides
Many of the pesticide problems that have arisen
through the use of persistent pesticides are due to
careless use as well as unnecessary use of chemicals.
Too often, large areas of land have been indiscrim-
inately sprayed to control forest insects, mosquitoes,
or agricultural pests. Aerial sprays fall on all parts of
an ecosystem. Such spraying operations should be
severely limited, even with non-persistent pesticides.
A notable example is the disastrous effect on aquatic
animals resulting from the use of mirex to control
fire ants in the southeast United States. This pesti-
cide is highly persistent in the natural environment
and has been shown to be moderately carcinogenic
when injected in laboratory mice. Subsequent long-
term studies have demonstrated chronic toxic effects
on crabs and shrimp. A national survey of oysters
and other shellfish demonstrated that mirex is the
fourth most commonly found pesticide residue. It
was also reported that mirex contaminates shellfish
in estuarine drainage areas of southern states.
New formulations are now available to slowly re-
lease pesticides at the time needed. Recently, EPA
granted final label approval for the first commercial
marketing of a microencapsulated pesticide, Penn-
walt Corp's Penncap-M, which consists of a suspen-
sion in water of polyamide microspheres containing
methyl parathion. Such formulation offers a promis-
ing approach to achieving more efficient, more econ-
omical, safer, and more controlled use of pesticides.
Integrated Pest Management
In recent years, the concept of integrated pest
management has been re-emphasized. The goal is to
bring the best of all available control techniques to
bear against pest problems rather than to rely solely
on chemical pesticides. Its strategy is one of "man-
agement and containment" rather than "seek and
destroy." This method combines the intelligent man-
ipulation of natural control techniques with the
essential use of pesticides; it has been successfully
applied in several parts of the world. In Israel, effec-
tive programs have been set up against citrus pests;
in California for pests on cotton, alfalfa and grapes;
and in central Europe for pests in orchards.
Removal of Pesticides
Runoff from agricultural land is an important
source of pesticides in rivers and estuaries. Control-
ling such runoff through good soil conservation prac-
tices would substantially decrease the contamination
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
403
of water. In regard to industrial and municipal
discharge, efforts should be made to increase the
efficiency of extraction of pesticides from the water
and other detoxification processes such as microbial
degradation and energetic radiation (ultraviolet or
gamma ray).
Better Understanding
of Estuarine Ecosystems
There is an urgent need for detailed and extensive
studies 011 the effects of pesticides in the estuarine
and marine environments. Only with additional
scientific data will a sound estuarine management
policy be possible. Immediate attention is required
to clarify the effects of environmental variables on
the acute toxicities of pesticides to sport and com-
mercial fishes as well as on their effects on various ele-
ments in the food web. In addition to laboratory re-
sults, information is needed on toxicity under natural
conditions. For example, what effects do water chem-
istry, temperature, biota, and many other environ-
mental factors have on toxicity? What is the
significance of the size, age, and condition of the fish?
This information is essential if sound predictions
concerning the biological effects of pesticides are to
be made.
Little is known about the long-term, sublethal
effects of pesticides on fishes or other aquatic or-
ganisms. To gather information requires prolonged
exposures of fishes to variable concentrations of the
toxicant in question.
Much information is needed on the manner in
which an "unstressed" estuarine system operates
before one can properly assess the impact of a pesti-
cide or other ehemicals on such systems.
The interactions of the various communities with
each other and with their physical environment could
be affected by a pesticide. One way to quantify such
effects is to construct an experimental ecosystem in
which several species of organisms and their sub-
strates can be subjected to the pesticide (Duke,
1974) to obtain information on rates, routes and
reservoirs of accumulation. Once a satisfactory com-
partmental model is developed, substituting different
data enables the impact of different, variables Lo be
evaluated.
Governmental Control
of Pesticide Use
On October 21, 1972, the President signed into
law H.R. 10729, the Federal Environmental Pesti-
cide Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-516),
amending the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947. All provisions of
the Act must be in effect by October 1970. The new
act, FIFRA as amended, extends federal registration
and regulation to all pesticides, including those dis-
tributed or used within a single state. It requires th»
proper application of pesticides to insure greater
protection of man and the environment.
The FIFRA was administered by the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture until the authority was trans-
ferred to the Environmentp.l Protection Age;!<'\
(EPA) when it was established i)< Detvinher IOi'0.
EPA has the authority to cancel a pesticide registra-
tion if it was later determined that the directed use
of the pesticide posed a serious hazard to man or the
environment. EPA also can suspend a pesticide regis-
tration and stop interstate shipments immediately.
Unlike cancellation, suspension orders can be initi-
ated only when the products present an "imminent
hazard."
Within the last few years EPA has taken several
control actions against a number of persistent
organochlorine pesticides. In 1971 EPA initiated
cancellation proceedings under FIFRA against
DDT, mirex, aldrin, and dieldrin. After extensive
hearings, the agency announced cancellation of
nearly all remaining uses of DDT in June 1972,
based on potential future hazard to man and his
environment. The agency has also limited the use of
mirex against the imported fire ant in the south-
eastern United States, primarily because of hazard to
aquatic life.
On August 2, 1974, EPA issued suspension notices
for aldrin and dieldrin, citing evidence of "imminent
hazard." On October 1, 1974 EPA administrator
Russell Train ordered an immediate suspension of
further production of aldrin and dieldrin, because of
evidence they may cause cancer. This order became
final on May 27, 1975 when EPA Chief Administra-
tive Judge FI.L. Perlman announced that the U.S.
Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia had
ruled that aldrin and dieldrin create "imminent
hazards" when used.
On November 26, 1974, EPA gave notice of its
intent to cancel all registered uses of heptachloi and
chlordane which are now in widespread use for home,
lawn, and garden pest control. Their major agricul-
tural use is on corn crops. On July 30. 1975, EPA
ordered an end to the manufacture and sale of the:
two pesticides, citing an imminent humaij cancer
hazard and the available substitute pesticides now
registered with EPA. However, this suspension
order allowed continued production of these + \vo
pesticides for termite control by ground insertion
and the dipping of roots and tops of nonfood plants.
In 1971 and 1972, EPA issued suspension and
-------
464
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
cancellation notice for mercury pesticides. A variety
of organic mercury compounds are used in agricul-
ture as fungicides and in the paper industry as
slimicides. If they find their way into the aquatic
environment they are readily converted under
anaerobic conditions to methyl-mercury compounds,
which are very readily taken up by aquatic organisms
and accumulated in the food chain.
SUMMARY
Trends in the production and use of pesticides in
recent years indicate that there will be an increased
demand for pesticides during the next decade due to
the mounting demand for food and the need to reduce
the devastation of food supplies by insects, weeds,
and diseases. According to a World Health Organiza-
tion estimate, about a third of the agricultural
products grown by man worldwide are consumed or
destroyed by insects. There is little doubt that pesti-
cides will continue to play an important role in the
production of food.
The most difficult pollution control problem—for
estuarine and coastal waters—is posed by wastes
which do not come from a point source, such as
pesticides from runoff and drift. Agricultural pesti-
cides enter the estuarine environment through their
direct application to water, runoff and sediment
transport from the treated fields, atmospheric trans-
port, industrial and municipal waste discharge, ac-
cidents and spills.
Fish kills in the United States are well known.
Agricultural operations ranked fourth in the total
number of fish killed, and pesticide was the leading
source of agricultural pollution, with 11.4 million
fish fatalities between 1963 and 1972. In 1971 about
77 percent (56.4 million) of the total reported fish
kill occurred in the estuary-type water. The signifi-
cant increase of fish kills in the estuaries since 1968
is of great national concern since estuaries serve as
breeding and nursery ground for many species.
Monitoring data have so far been limited primarily
to chlorinated hydrocarbons, because of their num-
ber, wide use, great persistence in the environment,
and toxicity to certain wildlife and non-target or-
ganisms. At present, all of the different organochlo-
rine insecticides have been reported from U.S. rivers
and estuaries, sometimes in large quantities. Al-
though these residues do not seem to present immedi-
ate danger to fish and shellfish, they were large
enough to pose a threat to other elements of the
estuarine ecosystem through recyling and magnifica-
tion. Present monitoring data indicate that maxi-
mum pesticide residues can be correlated with prox-
imity of monitoring stations to agricultural runoff.
Long-term sublethal effects of pesticides in estu-
aries are very difficult to assess at the present time,
as most data on pesticide effects are limited to a few
species and concentrations that are lethal in short-
term tests under laboratory conditions. It is only,
perhaps, in regard to the persistent organochlorine
pesticides, DDT and dieldrin in particular, that
more information is available concerning their be-
havior in the aquatic environment. It is now rela-
tively easy to determine the concentration of a wide
variety of organochlorine pesticide residues in estu-
arine and marine samples. It is, however, much more
difficult to establish the significance of the residues
either at the species or community level.
Health hazards to man arising from pesticide pol-
lution in the estuarine environment have resulted
from the persistence of pesticides in water, bioaccum-
ulation in estuarine food chains, and some localized
contamination of the coastal waters. Depending on
the chemical nature of the pesticide and its biological
behavior, the health hazard to man may be of an
acute nature for people exposed locally or the result
of chronic low level exposure of the general popula-
tion from ingestion of contaminated food. Critical
assessment of the ultimate health hazards of indi-
vidual pesticides requires an adequate knowledge of
their behavior in the estuarine ecosystem, their
pathways through the dynamic system existing in
the estuaries, and their fate in terms of accumulation
or transformation. It is also necessary to have quan-
titative data for each of the various stages through
which a pesticide passes before it finally comes in
contact with the human organism. As in other areas
of toxicological research, there is the added difficulty
of extrapolating experimental studies in animals to
man in order to measure the probable hazards to man.
Recent regulatory actions taken by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency have placed a near total
ban on domestic use of DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, hep-
tachlor, and chlordane. Undoubtedly, for man}^ years
to come, these persistent chemicals will continue to
be detectable in the estuarine environment due to
seasonal flooding and the resuspension of estuarine
sediments.
Pesticide pollution in the estuarine environment
can be minimized through the use of alternative
pesticides, more effective use of pesticides, removal
of pesticides from water, improvement of farm man-
agement practices, and a better understanding of
pesticide behavior in the estuarine ecosystem.
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-------
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466
ESTUAHINE POLLUTION CONTROL
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Their Relationship to Environmental Health. Part I and
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Walsh, G. 1C. 1972. Insecticides, herbicides and poly-
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-------
THE IMPACT OF OFFSHORE
PETROLEUM OPERATIONS
ON MARINE AND
ESTUARINE AREAS
KEITH G. HAY
American Petroleum Institute
Washington, D.C.
ABSTRACT
American is facing a serious energy crisis, as domestic petroleum supplies are consumed at a
greater rate than new reserves can be located and placed in production. It is necessary to the
nation's economic and political security to expand the search for crude oil and natural gas into
the frontier areas of our Outer Continental Shelf. Expertise gained through more than two decades
of exploration for and production of crude oil and natural gas in the Gulf of Mexico, and the
advances in exploration, drilling and production technology and equipment, minimize the danger
of environmental damage from offshore petroleum operations. Studies of the impact of oil on the
marine and estuarine areas are continuing, and the results so far indicate that petroleum operations
can be and are being conducted in an environmentally acceptable manner.
INTRODUCTION
A great deal of misunderstanding exists concern-
ing the impact of petroleum operations on the
biological, economic, and environmental sectors of
the marine and estuarine areas. This misunderstand-
ing, in turn, has led to public concern, particularly
in light of proposed expansion of offshore petroleum
industry activities following the energy crisis.
It would be naive—and inaccurate--to suggest
that a significant expansion of exploratory, produc-
tion, transportation, and refining activities Mould
be ydthout some impact on shore and near-shore life.
But it would be equally naive—and inaccurate—to
suggest that such impact as would occur would be
all negative, or that any impact, per se, would be
intolerable from an environmental point of vie\\.
There is clearly an urgent need to not only protect
and sustain the viability of our estuaries, but to
develop secure domestic petroleum reserves as well.
Our economic and political structure was visibly
shaken by the ."i-month embargo of Arab crude oil
and products refined overseas from Arab crude, and
by the fourfold increase in the cost of imported oil
imposed by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries.
THE NATION'S ENERGY MIX
Petroleum, that is, crude oil and natural gas, pro-
vides this nation with 77 percent of its current
energy requirements. Crude oil supplies 4(5 percent;
natural gas, 31 percent. Our heavy dependence on
petroleum is the product of many factors, not the
least of which have been—and continue to be—
environmental considerations.
In the case of coal, which currently provides 18
percent of the energy market, environmental restric-
tions have played a major role in limiting production.
Bans or severe restrictions on the use of the more
economical mining methods, as well as sulfur emis-
sion control standards—some of which go far beyond
the need to protect national health and safety- —
have greatly hampered moves to increase coal pro-
duction and use. This has been an important factor
in increasing demand for petroleum, as an alter-
nate fuel in manufacturing and electrical power
generation.
Further demand has been placed on petroleum by
the seemingly interminable delays in trying to site
and construct nuclear power generating plants, and
in allowing onstream operations of existing facilities.
While technological problems have caused some of
these delays, environmental considerations were at
the base of many delays—and, in some cases, cancel-
lations—of nuclear plant construction. Thus, despite
the rosy future predicted for power from nuclear
reactors during the 1950's and YiO's, less than 2
percent of U.S. energy is now derived from nuclear
generators.
A similar fate has befallen potential hydroelectric
power plant construction. Virtually everv attempt
to develop a new hydroelectric power site is blocked
by environmental opposition. The few remaining
467
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468
ESTFARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
sites for hydropower installations have—-for all prac-
tical purposes—been ruled out of cons .deration by
environmental activities.
Thus, wo have been left with a growing depend-
ence on oil and natural gas as the suppliers —at
least for the next 10 to 15 years—of our nation's
energy. Continued reliance on potentially insecure1
and high cost foreign oil, however, is not a practical
solution to our energy problems. The economic con-
sequences of over-dependence on imports-—both
from a security and balance of payments aspect—
should have been indelibly engraved on the public
conscience in the aftermath of Winter L973 -74 and
in the outflow of U.S. dollars in 1974.
Yet, if we are to keep even our present level of
productivity—much less increase our industrial ac-
tivities to meet the needs of an economic upswing—
U.S. imports of crude and refined oils must tempo-
rarily continue. There is no viable alternative, just
as there is no viable alternative to increasing our
domestic exploration arid production activities. Only
increased availability of petroleum will permit the
nation to buy the time needed to develop alternate
energy sources.
There is, on the horizon, the vision of a number
of self-renewing, non-polluting energy sources. These
include—but are not limited to—ocean, tidal and
wind power, geothermal energy, nucleai fission, and
solar power. Prototype facilities and/or laboratory
models exist for some of these energy alternatives.
But it will be a number of years— perhaps into the
next century—before they become economically
feasible. Time, however, is the critical factor. For
all practical purposes, petroleum is the only major
energy source with the proven technology capable
of producing sufficient iuel to tide this nation over
until alternate energy sources become reality.
The United States Geological Survey estimates
that the remaining total petroleum resources of the
United States, discoverable and recoverable under
today's technology arid economics, may range as
high as 189 billion barrels of oil and 1,094 trillion
cubic feet of natural gas. The onshore potential,
however, appears loss readily recoverable than the
potential of the Outer Continental Siclf (OCS).
The large;', more readily located onshore areas are
believed to have been found and placed into produc-
tion. The primary locations for additional onshore
resources are thought to lie at greater depths and
in undeveloped hostile areas. Thus. • he need to
search out the oil and natural gas deposits of the
OCS assumes greater importance.
OFFSHORE PETROLEUM
EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION
The United Stales Geological Survey has esti-
mated that the discoverable, recoverable petroleum
resources of the OCS may range from 10 billion to
49 billion barrels of crude oil and -12 trillion to 181
trillion cubic feet of natural gas. By geographic
area, these deposits are thought to be within the
following estimated probability range:
Offshore Area
Atlantic _ . .
Gulf of Mexico
Pacific
Alaska ._
Crude oil
(•ill billions
of barrels)
2-4
3-8
2-5
3-31
Natural c/as
(in trillions
of dubic fed)
o-14
18-91
IMS
8-80
Development of this potential becomes all the
more expedient in light of the almost steady decline
in the ratio of U.S. proved reserves? to production,
stemming, for the most part, from, governmental
interference in the fuels marketplace. U.S. domestic
production peaked in the early 1970's. And it will
be several years before that situation begins to be
reversed by the flow of oil from Alaska's north slope,
increased production through secondary and tertiary
recovery methods, and new production from exist-
ing, but not full}- developed, fields. Nevertheless,
the master key to petroleum security rests firmly in
unlocking the as yet undiscovered potential of our
Outer Continental Shelf.
Petroleum exploration and production from ma-
rine areas is not an experimental undertaking. As
far back as the late 1890's, underwater drilling was
a fact of life in California, where piers were extended
into the water to support drilling and production
facilities. However, mod'-rn drilling and safety tech-
nology had its origin in petroleum operations in the
Gulf of Mexico, with drilling starting in earnest
following World War II.
To date, more than 19,000 wells have been drilled
in the U.S. marine environment. And, in fact, nearly
17 percent of all domestic oil and 19..5 percent, of our
natural gas production in the U.S., today, comes
from offshore activities.
Yet, despite the headlines which would indicate
otherwise, there have been only four significant oil
spills from drilling and production operations in our
offshore areas. And none, not even the much-
publicized spill in the Santa Barbara Channel in
1969, caused permanent ecological damage.
Since that spill, marine exploratory and produc-
-------
OTHER POLLUTANTS
469
tion technology has improved greatly. Both industry
and governmental specifications have undergone
significant upgrading to decrease oil spill potential.
Safety equipment, monitoring techniques, and per-
sonnel training in spill prevention and cleanup have
advanced. The capability of the industry to mini-
mize environmental damage has been substantially
enhanced.
EFFECTS OF OIL ON MARINE BIOTA
Quite frankly, prior to the Torrey Canyon acci-
dent off the Cornwall Coast of England, and the
Santa Barbara spill about two years later, there had
been little investigation of the fate of oil in the
environment. Such is no longer the case. While much
is yet to be learned in this area, a number of facts
have evolved from existing research.
In May 1989, a series of studies—part of a multi-
million dollar research program—was initiated by
the American Petroleum Institute. These studies
were designed to develop scientific answers to ques-
tions surrounding the fate of oil in the marine
environment and its biological impact. The studies
have been and are being conducted by some of the
nation's leading universities and independent re-
search laboratories. Research contracts have been
awarded to such institutions as the University of
Southern California, University of Maryland, Texas
A & M University, Scripps and Woods Hole Institu-
tions of Oceanography, Battelle Northwest and Bat-
telle Columbus Laboratories, Exxon Research and
Engineering, and the Bermuda Biological Station.
The petroleum industry, through the API pro-
gram, wanted to find out, for example, answers to
these questions. What happens to oil in the sea;
how much is evaporated, goes into solution, is phys-
ically dispersed; what are the mechanisms that
brought about these changes; and what are the
effects of climatic, oceanographic, meteorological,
and chemical influences on oil in the sea.
The studies sought answers to biodegradation
processes and how they vary as a function of climate,
bacterial composition and distribution, nutrient up-
take, and seasonal variation. The effects of oil on
the food chain have been studied, including the
impact on organisms at the egg, larvae, juvenile,
and adult stages, and on their subsequent genera-
tions. Questions as to the effect of dispersants
superimposed on an oil-polluted biosystem have been
considered. Bioassay data on No. 2 fuel oil, various
crude oils, and residual fuel oil were sought, includ-
ing the retention, concentration, and depuration of
such oils by marine organisms. Finally, the industry
wanted to determine the immediate and long-term
effects of an oil spill, and how this differs from
chronic oil pollution sustained by persistent natural
seepage.
At this early date, all of the results of this ambi-
tious research program are not in. However, the
facts that have evolved—coupled with other investi-
gations throughout the world—confirm certain data
and put to rest certain myths and speculations.
These known facts arc:
1) The fate of oil and its immediate and long-
term impact depend upon a highly complex inter-
relationship of physical, chemical, and biological
factors. These include evaporation, dispersion, flush-
ing, dissolution, photo oxidation, littoral deposition,
sedimentation, accumulation, microbial oxidation,
and last, but most important, organism uptake.
In the majority of spills, winds, currents, and
tides rapidly dilute or disperse the oil below toxic
concentrations.
2) Oil is ingested by marine organisms, such as
shellfish, shrimp, and finfish. The effects depend on
the particular species, its stage of growth, and the
amount and kind of oil ingested. Recent uptake
and depuration studies have been conducted by the
Battelle Northwest Laboratories in Puget Sound, at
the Texas A & M Marine Research Laboratory in
Galveston, and at the Scripps Institution of Ocean-
ography in California. Admittedly, laboratory stud-
ies have their limitations when it comes to predicting
the effects of oil on organisms in the real world.
Nevertheless, the results of such studies have con-
firmed that marine organisms do accumulate petro-
leum hydrocarbons, but once placed in an oil-free
environment, the organism quickly discharges the
ingested oil. For example:
(a) At Texas A & M, brine shrimp were found to
absorb and purge aromatic hydrocarbons in a matter
of hours. No metabolization of the oil fractions
occurred.
(b) At Scripps, however, three different species
of fish were found to detoxify these hydrocarbons
by metabolizing them in the liver and excreting the
byproducts in their urine.
(c) At the Battelle Northwest Laboratories, Pa-
cific oysters that had assimilated oil were found
to depurate the hydrocarbons within a few days
when returned to an oil-free environment.
(d) In the Plymouth Laboratory in England, the
spider crab Maia squinado was found to rapidly
detoxify and excrete naphthalene.
3) Biological damage to an ecosystem depends
upon such factors as: the type of oil spilled, biota
-------
470
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
ot tin1 area, the (lose of oil, the physiography of the
area ihe season, \veather conditions,,previous expo-
suit- of the area to oil, exposure to other pollutants,
and treatment of the spill
41 Three conditions must prevail for damage to
occur from a spill: (a) a refined oil must be in-
vohed; (b) the volume of oil spilled i eeds to he
large with respect to the receiving body of water;
and (c) storms or heavy surf must thorjughly mix
the water, oil and sediments in the area.
.">' Crude oil constituents, especially ihe volatile
aromatics- naphthalenes and ulefins-—which have
a low boiling point, are far more toxic than are the
remainder, and are more soluble in water. Fortu-
nate! v, these lighter constituents quickly evaporate,
so that the risk is a short-term one.
(5) Certain polynuelear promatics, such as 3,4
bcnzpyrene, are potential carcinogens. Some of them
occur in crude oil in minute quantities, ft has been
postulated that these carcinogenic polynuelear aro-
matics ar. assimilated by marine organiMns and are
concentrated as thev are passed up through the
food chain to man. There is no evidence, however,
that abnormal growths, either tumors or cancers, in
man or marine organisms result from oil spilled in
the marine environment and subsequently trans-
ferred through the food chain. Anoth.-r team of
scientists, who did their lesearch on the Sargasso
Sea ecosystem, found that petroleum hydrocarbon
concentrations were essenlially constant throughout
the food chain. Polynuclear aromatics, incidentally,
arc produced bv vegetation and phytenlanktem in
larpe quantities, and are, moreover, biodegradable.
7} Uef'ned oil, such as Xo. 2 fuel oil, is generally
more toxic than crude oil. When massive amounts
of such oil inundate coastal area.s for sustained
periods of time, extensive damage to marine fauna
can occur and complete restoration may take years.
Fortunatelv, such episodic; spills are ran.
8) No spill, not even the most severe .e.g. Torrey
Oanvon, West Falmouth, and the Tampieo Maru),
has resulted in any permanent damage to the en-
vironment. In most spills, biological rece>ve-ry is
achieved within a fe-w generations, inve>lving less
than one year.
',)) Only about 20 percent of the1 more1 than 100
spills classified, as "major," that occurred between
1900 nnd 1971, resulted in sizeable seabird mentality.
According to one study, for e>thcr fe>rms of marine
life, damage was described as extensive in approxi-
mately J."> percent of the spills. In several eif the
spills, damage to marine life was caused by the
misuse oi highly toxic dispersams. Such dispers-
ants have now been largely replaced by nontoxic
substitutes.
10) Low levels (10-100 ppml e)f oil dispersant
emulsions can, under laboraten'y conelitions, mince1
primary productivity of marine1 phytoplankton and
its preKluctiem of chlorophyll a. Oil dispersant emul-
sions at a k'vel e>f le>ss than 1 ppm, however, have a
stimulatory effect on the phytoplanktem resulting
in an increase in the1 ine-an productivity rate.
At such leiw concentratie)ns, e>il is a nutrient—a
semrce1 of carbon. When flagellates are1 exposed to
highly toxic water-setlublc oil concentratiems fe>r 24
hours, their growth rate and production of chloro-
phyll a is virtually stopped. When transferred to a
fresh medium, they resume1 normal growth rate's
(1 to li generations each 24 hours) and chlorophyll
a production within three to four days. Only a
relatively small number of flagellates need to survive
to repopulate rapidly a given area after a spill.
11) Salt marsh grasses, when exposed to oil, will
recover very quickly, especially if no detergent
treatment is undeTtaken and re pcated ejilings de>
not occur.
12) With rare1 exceptions, oil spills do not cause
death to free1 swimming finh'sh. Such fish evidently
sense the1 presence of e>il and swim clear of the slick.
However, fish that swim near the surface, such as
pipe fish and capelin, would be most susceptible;
theise1 found at intermediate depths, such as shiner
perch, would be less susceptible; and those inhabit-
ing the water column near the bottom, such as
flounder and sculpin, wejuld be least susceptible.
13) In genera], an organism is more1 susceptible
to e>il at the larval stage than at the juvenile stage;
and the juvenile stage is mejre vulnerable than the
adult stage-. The're' is always an exception to the rule.
It is found that the1 least susceptible stage for brown
shrimp is the1 post-larval period ejf life.
14) Chronic and acute exposures to oil in labora-
tory tests have ne>t resulted in any growth inhibition
in brown shrimp e»r oysters.
1.")) The1 health of a marine community in the
immediate- vicinity of a natural oil se>cp was compa-
rable to the1 health of a similar (control) community
far removed from seepage1 areas.
These, the-n, are1 some of the facts that are surfac-
ing from studies of the impact of oil on the marine!
environment. Many more eniestiems and myths re-
main to be clarified. They will require thorough
and dispassionate studies. Such work is ongoing,
not only by the oil industry and the federal govern-
ment, but by state and private laboratories through-
out the world.
OFFSHORE OIL SPILLS STUDIES
The widely circulated charges of massive and per-
manent damage to nearshore1 and estuarine life re-
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
471
suiting from petroleum exploration, drilling, and
production operations offshore have, to a large
extent, been generated out of fear of the unknown,
and nurtured by non-factual information from a
host of instant experts on the effects of spilled oil.
This was made particularly clear at the time of the
Santa Barbara spill. And, unfortunately, the dis-
proved charges are still repeated from time to time
in the media.
The facts concerning the damage from that spill
are readily available, the results of two independent
scientific studies of the area. The first, by the Allan
Hancock Foundation of the University of Southern
California, noted that, while there was some loss of
life among certain species of the Channel's flora and
fauna attributable to the spill, other factors present
in the area at the time of the spill contributed sig-
nificantly to the mortality rate. Among these con-
tributing factors were:
• For centuries, crude oil has been entering the
Santa Barbara Channel from natural seeps (natural
seeps off Coal Oil Point, for example, exude from 11
to 160 barrels of crude oil daily into the sea);
• In winter (as when this particular spill oc-
curred) marine life in the channel is at a low ebb—
a seasonal factor unrelated to pollution; and
• The worst floods in 40 years had taken place
just prior to the spill, placing sealife under extraor-
dinary stress from freshwater runoff, storm debris,
sewage, sediment, and pesticides.
The Allan Hancock Foundation study, based on
on-site observations and comparisons to pre-spill
data, found that, of the 18,000 birds in the channel
at the time of the January 1969 spill, 3,500 to 4,000
birds died from all causes. By May, seasonal migra-
tion had brought the bird population up to 85,000.
Only isolated traces of oil remained buried on the
beaches a year after the spill. Damage to the biota
was not widespread, but was limited to several
species; and the area has recovered well. The channel
fish catch was actually found to have increased in
a 6-month period following the oil spill, compared
to the year-earlier period. Despite the claims of
some people at the time of the spill, the incident
had no apparent effect on whales and seals.
Commenting on the Santa Barbara spill, a scien-
tist at the California Institute of Technology (which
was not a party to the 40-man investigation by the
Allan Hancock Foundation) concluded, "There is
one unavoidable fact—all animals are reproducing
now in the Santa Barbara area."
While marine operations have been undertaken
over a longer period of time in the California offshore
area, operations in the Gulf of Mexico have been
significantly greater, both in exploration and pro-
duction. More than 16,000 oil and gas wells have
been drilled in Gulf of Mexico waters . . . without
damage to the fish population.
The commercial fish catch in the gulf increased
from 571 million pounds in 1950 to 1.5 billion
pounds in 1973, according to the U.S. Department
of Commerce's National Marine Fisheries Service,
while the value of the commercial fish catch rose
from $50.4 million to $268 million—an increase of
432 percent. During the same period, the percentage
of the total commercial fish catch in the U.S. taken
from the Gulf of Mexico rose from 12 to 33 percent.
Most of this increase is attributable to improved
fishing techniques and the taking of menhaden (a
formerly non-commercial fish). However, the in-
crease does indicate that petroleum operations in
the area have not decreased the commercial fish
population.
Sport fishing has actually improved in the area
of the oil platforms. The platforms provide a founda-
tion for the growth of sea plants and invertebrates,
thereby creating the first step in the food chain.
About a dozen or more species of fish virtually
unknown in the area prior to drilling operations
have been recorded near the rigs. Many of these
fish are believed to have been brought to the instal-
lations by ocean currents as eggs or fry, and remained
to mature under the favorable food and cover condi-
tions created by the platforms.
Shrimp landings from the Gulf of Mexico, in 1973,
accounted for almost one-half of the total U.S.
shrimp catch (182.1 million pounds out of the 372.2
million pound total), and for 79 percent of the total
value of the U.S. shrimp catch. And tin1 National
Marine Fisheries Service reported marked produc-
tion increases in hard blue crabs taken from the
gulf in 1973.
In reference to the effects of oil spills from marine
platforms in the gulf, Dr. John G. Mackin, professor
emeritus of biology, Texas A & M University, has
concluded that they have had little harmful effect
on the area's marine life. Dr. Mackin has studied
the inshore and nearshore Gulf of Mexico ecology
and marine communities extensively since 1947. His
view is supported by Dr. Lyle St. Amant, assistant
director, Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commis-
sion, who stated recently—in connection with marine
operations in Louisiana gulf waters: "We cannot
detect any harmful effects on fish."
In-depth studies of the effect of petroleum off-
shore operations, over an extended period of time,
can and do provide vital information on changes
in the marine community. Too often, however, other
information is presented which lacks the necessary
foundation for accurate conclusions. Baseline stud-
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472
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
ies, which fail to extend through a continuum of
seasons and fail to cover a number of cycles, fre-
quently result in questionable data. For example,
a baseline study provides a reference point for a
particular area at a particular time. A second base-
line study taken later—without the benefit of a
continuous history of environmental events—would
provide a similar reference point for ts area and
point of time. The interstitial, unrecorded events,
however, could so distort the differences as to make
comparisons of little value.
A temporary gyre moving through the water
column—or a number of other ephemeral events—
could significantly alter the benthic marine com-
munity, perhaps leaving a permanent change in the
biota of the area. If unrecorded for want of the
baseline continuum, the conclusions drawn from
the change in the benthic community might easily—
and erroneously—be assigned to other causes, for
example, a later recorded oil spill, invalidating the
results of the more recent baseline study.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL
OF OIL SPILLS
The petroleum industry has expended a great
deal of effort, time, and money on oil spill prevention
through employee training courses and sound main-
tenance programs. Even with these continuing ef-
forts, some risks remain. Accordingly, the industry
has also taken the initiative in developing the means
to minimize spills that do occur.
The harbor cooperative has been one of the results
of industry efforts to increase response capability.
The form of these cooperatives varies with the needs
and location; the object, however, is to pool the
funds and/or equipment of companies in a given
area, thus significantly increasing their response
capability. In some cases, these cooperatives include
municipal fire departments, and other local govern-
mental agencies.
There are in existence, or in the planning stage,
some 100 harbor cooperatives in the United States.
They are located not only on the gulf, east and west
coasts, but also on inland lakes and rivers. These
include several basic forms of cooperatives: industry-
wide (oil companies in the area); communitywide
(oil companies, other companies, government agen-
cies, and public organizations in an area); and sub-
scription (an experienced local contractor supplying
cleanup equipment, materials and key manpower).
For example, one such cooperative—funded by
the oil companies searching for energy resources
in the Gulf of Mexico—employs a contractor to
store and maintain both shallow-water and open-sea
equipment in a state of 24-hour readiness.
Included are helicopters, skimmers, booms, com-
munications systems, bird rescue and cleaning ma-
terials, and sorbent generating equipment. All can
be easily transported by air, land, or water. Fast
response equipment is also stored at several strategic
locations, enabling on-the-scene activities to begin
at a spill as far as 100 miles distant, within 12 hours.
Oil spill cleanup cooperatives have demonstrated
their ability to respond promptly and effectively in
sheltered waters or in open seas under relatively
calm conditions. However, technology for handling
spills under heavy sea conditions needs to be further
developed. The petroleum industry is committed to
expanding its cleanup skills to meet needs wherever
they arise, and is continuing its efforts to ad-
vance the state of the art through research and
experimentation.
Among the projects under study or in develop-
mental process are these: establishing and updating
compendiums cataloging information on available
sorbents, surfactants, combustion promoters, sink-
ing agents, and biological agents; developing and
testing an open-sea oil skimmer; researching methods
for protecting shorelines and beaches exposed to oil
from spills, using petroleum-consuming microorga-
nisms and polymeric films; and improving training of
personnel in the use of techniques and equipment
for oil spill cleanup.
Work is also continuing to improve avian protec-
tion techniques. Experiments are under way on
methods to frighten sea birds away from spill areas,
using distress cries and other sonic techniques. And
substantial progress has been made in the area of
improved rescue and treatment of oiled waterfowl.
The industry feels that the best way to handle oil
spills is to prevent their occurrence. To this end, a
sophisticated array of hardware and practices has
been developed. An indication of the extent of spill
prevention techniques and equipment can be found
in the following description, although the material
mentioned is by no means all-inclusive.
At the well, where prevention begins, automatic
shutdown devices are installed as part of the offshore
drilling and production program. These devices de-
tect increases and drops in pressure, changes in flow
rates, and other production factors. Subsurface
valves, for example, close down the flow of oil in
event of an accident, malfunction, or other incident at
the surface. Master switches are installed which can
stop the entire production system, should an emer-
gency threaten life, property, or the environment.
Fire detection devices can trigger the emergency
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OTHER POLLUTANTS
473
shutdown system. For day-to-day operations, drain-
age and containment systems collect any spillage or
waste oil. Other safety devices in common use on
marine platforms include navigational aids to warn
vessels.
The platforms, themselves, are designed to with-
stand storms equivalent in intensity to that of the
worst storm recorded during a 25- or 100-year period,
depending on location. When storms of sufficient
intensity to affect drilling occur, all operations cease,
arid the drilling platform is secured. If the storm is
expected to be especially severe, personnel are re-
moved from the platform.
Other measures are taken during daily operations
to prevent pollution from petroleum activities. These
include the onboard processing of water from wells
to remove oils, or the transportation of these liquids
to shore for separation processing.
When an oil reservoir is depleted, the wells are
plugged with cement to protect underground strata,
and to prevent any leakage to the surface. Equip-
ment is removed, and underwater piping is cut off
below or at the seafloor, to eliminate any hazard to
commercial fishing.
Pipelines play a major role in transporting oil and
gas produced offshore to onshore facilities. There is
little reason to anticipate increased pollution from
this source, because pipelines are constructed to
safety standards set forth in strict industry codes
and, in the United States, in government regulations.
These standards include specifications for design,
construction, operation, and maintenance. They
make provision for automatic safety alarm systems,
shutdown devices, and regular inspections along the
lines to check for possible leakage, damaged piping
or construction; and, inland, for any watercourse
changes that might affect pipe security. The record
in oil pipelining has shown it to be the safest and
most secure mode of transporting oil.
before any attempt was made to develop the offshore
potential. The first year of recorded petroleum pro-
duction in the State of Louisiana was 1902, and for
Texas, 1889. While drilling in the estuarine areas of
Louisiana began in the 1930's, offshore exploration
and development began in the late 1940's, with
significant activities continuing since that time.
However, several sound projections can be made
concerning the impact of petroleum operations along
the east coast. First, advancements in the state of
the art of petroleum offshore operations will mini-
mize any environmental risks that might be associ-
ated with such activities. Additionally, there are in
effect today in the United States stringent environ-
mental laws, regulations, and controls that will
prevent the construction of environmentally un-
acceptable support facilities.
Second, the social and economic aspects of Atlantic
coast offshore and onshore support operations will
be minimized by the nature of the areas nearest the
most likely exploration and production activities.
Unlike the gulf coast region during the early years
of petroleum operations there, industrial complexes
already exist along the east coast, for example, the:
Newport News-Norfolk, Philadelphia-Baltimore,
and Greater Metropolitan New York areas. This
industry is well-suited to provide many of the
requirements anticipated in implementing any At-
lantic offshore programs.
Local helicopter services, water transport, ship-
yards, and other businesses would logically be called
upon to provide much of the materials and support.
needed offshore. And, certainly, the impact on local
payrolls, work orders, and employment opportunities
would be beneficial. At the same time, roads, schools,
and public services are presently in place, signifi-
cantly lessening any negative impact on government
finances from offshore exploratory and development
operations.
ONSHORE IMPACTS
A concern closely related to the need for an accept-
able environment is the question of onshore de-
velopment resulting from offshore production of
petroleum. The social, environmental, and economic
impacts of existing offshore and nearshore produc-
tion in the Gulf of Mexico arid the Santa Barbara
area, unfortunately, cannot be used as an accurate
gauge of impacts that might be anticipated in the
areas adjacent to potential frontier Outer Conti-
nental Shelf areas, such as the Atlantic coast. In
the Gulf of Mexico, for example, onshore petroleum
production development started a number of years
COASTAL ZONE
MANAGEMENT PLANNING
It takes from three to 10 years to bring a new oil
or gas field into full production, once petroleum is
discovered, if the search turrih up commercially
significant quantities of petroleum. Add to this time
the years required to develop leasing schedules,
hold environmental impact hearings and draw up
impact statements, hold lease sales and conduct
exploration activities, and the time before significant
impact could occur is placed into proper perspective.
That time could—and should—-be used to develop
the coastal zone management plans that would en-
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474
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
able orderly and environmentally acceptable sup-
port facilities to be built. And that time would also
allow for the programming of any governmental
services that might be required over the productive
life of the reservoirs. Thus, environmental, social,
and economic impacts could be anticipated and
intelligently accommodated within a logical time
frame.
SUMMARY
There is a critical need to develop energy resources
in the United States, resources that wiL protect the
political, social, economic, environmental, and mili-
tary security of the nation. Petroleum—crude oil
and natural gas—will be called upon to provide the
lion's share of that energy security until alternate
energy sources can be developed.
This nation and its people cannot afford the luxury
of waiting until our known supplies are exhausted,
in the blind faith that new sources will be provided.
Rather, we must pursue—in an orderly and expedi-
tious manner—the development of our petroleum
potential. The technology exists for such develop-
ment. And those potential sources of oil and gas
can be located and produced with minimal impact
on the environment.
While studies continue to evolve even safer meth-
ods of petroleum production, and while new energy
sources are being researched and developed, we must
proceed in the search for secure domestic petroleum
reserves. That means opening up new areas to
development—both offshore and in the more remote
areas, such as onshore Alaska—on a timely basis
designed to accommodate the petroleum industry's
capability to safely explore and develop leased areas.
There is no other viable alternative to such develop-
ment, if we are to reduce dependence on imported
crude oil and refined products.
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RESEARCH
APPLICATIONS
-------
THE EFFECT OF
ESTUARINE CIRCULATION
ON POLLUTION DISPERSAL
HUGO B. FISCHER
University of California
Berkeley, California
ABSTRACT
This paper gives a brief review of different types of circulation in estuaries, how they act to
disperse pollutants, and to what extent the dispersion process can be modeled by existing
analytical, numerical, and hydraulic models.
INTRODUCTION
One important feature of estuaries is their ability
to assimilate wastes and transport them to the ocean.
It is possible, by adequate mixing with the receiving
water, to discharge a larger quantity of waste into
an estuary than into the rivers that feed it, while
still meeting a given receiving water standard, be-
cause in addition to the inflow of river water the
estuary contains a continuous circulation of water
from the ocean to help with dilution. Pollution in
an estuary, or more precisely the concentrations of
undesirable materials, depends on two things: the
quantity and makeup of the waste discharges, and
the rate of flushing. In general, the flushing rate
increases towards the ocean end. At the landward
end the only flow available for flushing is that of
upland rivers, but the closer one approaches the
ocean the more recirculated ocean water is available
to increase the flushing rate and decrease the con-
centration of wastes. Temperature, also, is affected
by the flushing rate; except, close to the source
discharges of warm or cold water are diluted in the
same way as other wastes.
This paper discusses how flushing rates can be
quantified, predicted, and used as part of the process
of specifying allowable waste loadings. First, in
section II, we discuss the various mechanisms which,
in concert, drive the circulation of ocean water.
Section III describes a practical analysis for com-
puting flushing rates, while section IV describes
procedures that can be used in a more predictive
way, but are still in a state of research and develop-
ment. Section Y discusses both practical needs rele-
vant to current legislation and longer-term research
needs.
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
The flushing of estuaries results from three influ-
ences: the ebb and flood of the tide, the wind stress,
and the higher density of ocean water relative to
river water. Some estuaries are influenced equally
by the three factors, some by only one or two.
Which factors are important controls how the estu-
ary flushes its pollutants, and, perhaps more impor-
tantly, determines the effect of such projects as
dredging, harbor extension, and the like. This section
describes five types of circulation. The first, gravita-
tional circulation, results from the relative heaviness
of ocean water; the second, third, and fourth are
three different mechanisms caused by the tide; and
the fifth is circulations driven by wind.
Gravitational Circulation
Gravitational circulation is so called because it
results from gravity pushing heavier ocean water
landwards up the bottom of the estuary. Figure 1
is a simplified profile sketch of a purely gravitational
circulation; in three dimensions the circulation is
landward along the bottom of the deeper channels,
upward and transversely across the cross section,
and returning seaward mixed with freshwater in
the surface layers. This type of circulation has re-
ceived a great deal of analytical, laboratory, and
field study; Fischer (1976) discusses the results of
approximately 20 previous reports.
Where there is little tide, as in the Gulf of Mexico,
there may be little mixing between the ocean and
freshwater; the ocean intrudes as a wedge and the
freshwater rides over the ocean water. This situation
occurs frequently at the mouth of the Mississippi.
Similarly, in the Alaskan fjords the freshwater
477
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478
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
FIGURE 1.—A typical pattern of gravitational circulation in
a partially stratified east coast estuary.
Fresh Water_
Ocean
FIGURE 2.—Outflow of a layer of fresh river water over
stagnant saline water; tins flow pattern is typical of fjords.
overrides the salt and reaches the ocean almost
without dilution (see Figure 2). In these cases the
dispersal of a pollutant depends crucially on whether
it goes into the upper, freshwater, or the lower,
saline water. In fjords, the flushing time of the salt
water may be on the order of years, while the fresh
layer may traverse the fjord in a few days or at
most weeks. It is particularly important that design
procedures be used to make sure that pollutants are
not trapped in the slowly circulating low >r level.
Conversely, along the east coast most estuaries
are either partially or well mixed; the difference in
salinity between upper and lower layers in Chesa-
peake Bay, for instance, is usually on order of 15
percent of the difference between ocean and fresh
water. In these estuaries it does not matter so much
where the waste is discharged as turbulent mixing
will distribute the waste over the cross section.
Tidal Pumping
"Pumping" is a term used to describe circulations
induced by the ebb and flood of the tide. The tide
usually flows in more strongly in some channels
and out more strongly in others as though a pump
were pushing the water around. Sometimes sailors
of small boats know more about these currents than
do engineers, but they are very important in flush-
ing pollutants. Pumped currents can be simulated
by numerical programs; for instance Figure 3, taken
from a report by the California Department of
Water Resources (Nelson and Lerseth, 1972), shows
a computed pumped circulation in Sar Francisco
Bay. Note, for instance, the circulatory current in
San Pablo Bay (between Vallejo and San Rafael)
having a predicted magnitude of approximately
10,000 cfs. This is about five times the combined
inflow of the Sacramento and San Joaqu n Rivers.
Chopping
"Chopping" is a term sometimes used to describe
the detention of a pollutant by side embayments,
shoals, and the like. This mechanism is also very
important in the spread of pollutants, because of
the typical sequence of events shown in Figure 4.
In 4a a cloud of pollutant is being carried landward
by a flooding tide. In 4b part of the cloud is detained
in a side embayment, which is being filled by the
flood. In 4c the water surface has begun to drop
and the embayment is emptying back into the chan-
nel. Because of the hydrodynamics of tidal flows
the current in the channel does not slack until after
high or low tide, with the result that shoreline
irregularities spread out a cloud of pollutant some-
what as shown in the figure.
The Shear Effect
The shear effect is an additional spreading mecha-
nism which takes place in any flow, tidal or not. It
results from the faster flow velocities found at the
center and surface of the cross section, as compared
to the slower velocities near the bottom and shores.
Turbulent mixing spreads a pollutant across the
cross section, and then the difference in longitudinal
velocities spreads the pollutant up and down the
channel. In rivers this mechanism is primarily re-
sponsible for longitudinal dispersion, but in estuaries
the other mechanisms usually seem to be more
important.
Wind-driven Circulation
The visible effects of wind are white caps and
violent turbulence where waves break near shore.
Impressive as they may be, they usually have little
to do with pollutant dispersal, being limited in scale
and unable to accomplish long distance transport.
Wind does play an important role in some estuaries,
however, because it can drive large scale horizontal
circulation. In a large open bay a constant wind
will push water in the wind direction across shallows
and at the surface, while a return flow will be found
underneath in the deeper section. Figure 5 shows
such a circulation around an island in a bay which
is deeper on one side of the island than on the other;
the circulation goes with the wind on the shallow
side, and against it on the deeper side. This sort of
circulation has the same effect as tidal pumping; it
is as though a large pumj is pushing the water
around and dispersing the pollutant.
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
479
DELTA OUTFLOW - 1800 CFS
REDWOOD CITY O
15,000 CFS
10,000 CFS
5000 CFS
1000 CFS
Arrowheads indicate
direction of How
FIGURE 3.—Circulation due to tidal "pumping" in San Francisco Bay. This circulation pattern was obtained by a computer
program, and is taken from a report by Nelson and Lerseth to the California Water Resources Control Board.
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480
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
FIGUKE 4.—An example of the "chopping" "nechanism for
dispersing a pollutant. The side embayment acts as a storing
basin which fills and empties out of phase with the flow in the
main channel. A portion of the cloud of pollutant is detained
by the embayment and subsequently reinserted into the
channel some distance from the rest of the clcud.
WIND - INDUCED
CIRCULATION
FIGURE 5.—An example of a circulation driven by a steady
wind. The effect is similar to that of tidal "pumping," although
the cause is different.
Each of the mechanisms described above exists
to some extent in almost every estuary. In concert,
the circulations result in a "flushing discharge"
which can be used to compute pollutant concentra-
tions. Each mechanism can be analyzed, but with
varying degrees of accuracy and by different means.
In section IV we discuss several analytical tech-
niques and mention which is suitable for analyzing
which mechanism.
EFFECTS OF CIRCULATION
ON DISPERSAL
The combined effect of the various circulations
is to greatly increase the assimilative capacity of an
estuary by providing an effective flow much greater
than the flow of the rivers which feed the estuary.
This effective flow is the flow relevant to pollutant
concentration computations, and is the flow that
should be used for regulatory purposes. In the saline
portions of existent estuaries one can compute the
effective flushing discharge by a simple procedure.
All one does is to measure the average salinity near
an outfall: then, to a good approximation, the effec-
tive discharge is computed by the formula
= Q/
So
o -
(1)
where S0 is the ocean salinity, S the salinity near
the outfall, and Q/ is the inflow from upstream
rivers. The concentration of a pollutant discharged
in the vicinity of the outfall, is given by a mass-
balance computation using the effective discharge.
C = Co[Q/Qd]
(2)
Co and Q are the concentration and flow from the
outfall, and Qd is the result obtained from equation
(1) at the location of the outfall.
Concentrations upstream and downstream of the
discharge point decrease from the peak near the
discharge. A complete description of the analysis,
for a non-conservative pollutant, was given more
than 20 years ago by Stommel (1953). One impor-
tant result is that moving an outfall nearer to the
ocean does not decrease the concentrations of con-
servative pollutants in the estuary seaward of the
outfall; it does, however, decrease the peak concen-
tration and the concentrations landward of the
outfall.
Stommel's analysis does have some serious limita-
tions. First, it can only be used with an existing
salinity distribution. It is of no use at all to predict
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
481
changes in concentrations because of construction
projects. Second, the analysis assumes steady state;
the pollutant rnut,t be discharged at a constant rate,
and the inflow from upstream rivers must be con-
stant. Xeither of these conditions is often seen in
practice. Third, the analysis assumes complete and
instantaneous mixing of the pollutant across the
cross section, and a uniform salinity across the cross
section. In practice, mixing within a cross section
may take considerable time; for instance, a recent
dye experiment in a section of the Delaware Estu-
ary, v, here the estuary is about 1 mile wide, showed
that the cross sectional mixing time was approxi-
mately 10 days (see Fischer, 1974). If mixing is not
complete equation 2 gives a concentration that can
be much too low; higher concentrations will be found
in the vicinity of the outfall.
Concentrations near outfalls, and cross-sectional
mixing times, may be predicted in several ways.
Immediate diffusion of an effluent from a pipe may
usually be analyzed as a problem of mixing of a
buoyant jet. This subject has been studied in con-
siderable detail, as described in a recent review
paper by Koh and Brooks (1975). in the zone close
to the outfall where mixing is controlled by the
method of discharge, it is a straightforward matter
to predict the dilution within the jet. This zone is
usually small, however, and there is a substantial
mid-field zone in which the concentration disperses
as a plurne, and mixing is primarily due to the turbu-
lence in the receiving water. Figure 6 shows a sketch
of a plume diffusing in an estuary. The vertical and
horizontal extents of the plume and the time re-
quired for approximately complete mixing can be
predicted at least within an order of magnitude in
most cases, but if more exact results are needed
prototype dye dilution studies are usually required.
STATUS OF PREDICTIVE CAPABILITY
Analytical Models
The use of analytical models is generally limited
to estuaries which are long and narrow and can be
considered to be one-dimensional. A basic assump-
tion of most analytical models is complete mixing
across the cross section, as in the empirical analysis
described in the previous section. The use of ana-
lytical models is limited partly by their one-dimen-
sionality, and partly by the need to assume some
value of a longitudinal dispersion coefficient, whose
magnitude is difficult to predict. Analytical models
are sometimes useful: for instance, O'Connor (196.1)
gives analytical solutions for distribution of dissolved
oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand in several
FIGURE 6.—A sketch of the zones of mixing from an outfall
m an estuary. The direction of the drift changes with the
changing tide, but during the tidal flow the pattern is as
shown. At slack tide there is a build-up of concentration near
the outfall.
estuaries. Recently, attempts have been made to
relate the longitudinal dispersion coefficient to the
salinity gradient in order to predict salinity intrusion
analytically (Thatcher and Harleman, 1972, and
Fisher, Ditmars, and Ippen, 1972). These efforts
remain in the research stage, however, and in general
it can be said that analytical models are not a de-
pendable predictive tool unless based on empirical
observations of salinity distribution.
Numerical Models
The past 10 years have seen considerable effort
and progress in the development of numerical models
for marine pollution. Numerical models usually con-
sist of two parts; first, a model of the tidal hydro-
dynamics, and secondly, a model of the transport
and reaction of pollutants carried by the tides. At
the present time virtually all operative numerical
models are two-dimensional. That is, the velocities
and transports are considered to be only in hori-
zontal directions along and across the estuary. The
hydrodynamic portion of the model predicts the
vertically averaged velocity vector at various grid
points within the estuary, and then the transport
portion of the model simulates the motion of pollut-
ants which are carried by the computed velocities.
Some numerical models use a fixed rectangular
grid, while others use link and node arrangements
or variable grid spacings so that the grid spacing
can be adjusted to fit the requirements of different
parts of the estuary.
Numerical models are in current use to study pol-
lution problems in a number of estuaries. The state
of the art can be shown by three recent examples.
Figure 7 is from a report of a study of pollution in
Boston Harbor by the firm of Hydroscience, Inc.,
completed in July 1973. The study used the hydro-
dynamic model developed by Leendertse (1967) to
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482
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
predict tidal velocities throughout the harbor. Pol-
lutant distributions were computed for a number of
hypothetical releases of unit waste loads; the figure
shows the distribution 12 hours after a unit release
at the mouth of the Neponset River. The results of
the modeling study were used to predict concentra-
tions of pollutants resulting from alternative water
quality management schemes.
The second example is from a study of the disper-
sion capability of San Francisco Bay-Delta waters
by the California Department of Water Resources.
Figure 8 shows the computed distribution of pollut-
ant discharge. The methodology of this study was
somewhat different from that of Boston Harbor
because of the much greater size of the bay. The
north bay was modeled by a series of one-dimensional
segments, and the south bay by a two-dimensional
arrangement of segments. The scheme was prob-
ably not as accurate as the Boston Harbor scheme,
but the scheme used for Boston Harbor requires
much more computer storage and running time and
to date has not been used in an estuary approaching
the size of San Francisco Bay.
The third example is from a study of the dispersion
of wastes from a proposed industrial outfall in the
Delaware River. Figure 9 taken from a paper by
Fischer (1974), shows predicted and observed dis-
tributions of dye in the river 10 days after the
beginning of a continuous release. In this case most
of the spreading was due to transverse mixing and
the shear effect; the numerical model used, as de-
scribed in the report, was specifically designed to
model these effects.
Since numerical models are being used so widely,
it is important to recognize that they will have
limitations. The models seem to do a good job of
computing the effects of tidal pumping and chop-
ping. Wind-driven circulations can be predicted,
although our knowledge of the wind stress coefficient
is limited. Most numerical models do not model the
shear effect very well, partly because the true mag-
nitude of the transverse mixing coefficient is not
well known, and partly because the numerical proc-
esses tend to obscure the rate of diffusion in the
model. The greatest limitation of numerical models,
however, is their inability to account for stratifica-
tion or gravitational circulation. At the present
time, numerical models of the effects of stratifica-
tion are strongly empirical. In some cases two-
dimensional models which consider only a vertical
plane have been used, with some success, but in
many estuaries, gravitational circulation £,nd strati-
fication have important three-dimensional compo-
nents and no model is adequate. Finally, it should
be stressed that the transport portion of most
FIGURE 7.—A predicted distribution of pollutant concentra-
tion in Boston Harbor resulting from a two-hour discharge
at the mouth of the Neponset River. This figure is from a
report of a study by Hydroscience, Inc., to the Massachusetts
Water Resources Commission.
numerical models has received very little field veri-
fication. For instance, the distribution shown in
Figure 7 has not been verified in the bay itself.
Even the hydrodynamic models lack extensive field
verification, and their results must be viewed with
caution.
Hydraulic Models
Hydraulic models have been in use for many
years to study such problems as sediment transport,
velocity distributions, and the effects of projects
such as construction of barriers and harbors. Re-
cently, hydraulic models have also been used for
pollution studies. For instance, the San Francisco
Bay-Delta model is being used to study the effects
of the peripheral canal and a proposed ship canal
on intrusion of salinity into the Delta. Hydraulic
models have also been used to study the distribution
of an effluent from an outfall, by arranging an injec-
tion of a tracer into the physical model. Where a
model has already been built for other purposes,
use for a pollution study is relatively inexpensive.
Hydraulic models, like numerical models, are
capable of representing the effects of tidal pumping
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
483
IN MIA FOR
POLLUTANT DISCHARGE PATTERN "A"
TIDAL EXCHANGE RATIO - 0.24
NET DELTA OUTFLOW - 1800 CFS
POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS
REDWOOD CITY
FIGURE 8.—A predicted distribution of pollutant concentration in San Francisco Bay resulting from a stipulated set of inputs
taken from a report by Nelson and Lerseth to the California Water Resources Control Board.
-------
484
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
OBSERVED DYE DISTRIBUTION
1000 0 1000
COMPUTED DYE DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 9.—Computed and observed distribute us of dye
released from the site of a proposed industrial 01. tfall in the
Delaware estuary. The dye simulates the spreading of the
proposed waste discharge, and the dye results can be used to
compute expected concentrations of pollutants.
arid chopping, because they are adjusted to produce
the proper currents. Hydraulic models also repre-
sent the effects of stratification, although perhaps
not exactly. Where throe-dimensional circulations
and stratification are important a hydraulic model
is probably as accurate a tool as any for predicting
effects of circulation, oven though there is dispute
over the accuracy of the results. Figure 10 shows
one comparison of dispersion of dye in an estuary
vs. dispersion of a similar release in a model. Un-
fortunately, not many such comparisons exist be-
cause of the very large amount of dye required
in the prototype and the difficulty of making field
measurements.
Hydraulic models do have one serious liimitation.
In order to conserve space and maintain turbulent
flow it is necessary that the model be distorted, so
that the depth is relatively much greater than the
width. This means that near source distributions
are distorted, and that the turbulent mixing proc-
esses are not properly represented. Thus, hydraulic
models sometimes will not properly represent the
CONCENTRATIONS, /ig /1
DWR DYE STUDY
ARMY CORPS MODEL
FIGURE 10.—A comparison of the spread of dye in a physical
model of San Francisco Bay and in the bay itself. The dye
was released north of the San Mateo Bridge near the west
shore. The dashed lines are concentrations observed in the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers model; the solid lines are con-
centrations observed by the Slate of California Division of
Water Resources in the bay (corrected foi dye loss). Both
distributions are five tidal cycles after beginning of release
of the dye.
near field or medium field concentrations from an
outfall, even though the far-field distribution may
be reasonably correct. Hydraulic models are perhaps
best used in a qualitative sense; various different
arrangements of outfall locations or various different
designs for construction projects can be tried in the
model, and the results compared. Even though the
results may not be quantitatively exact, compara-
tive results will usually determine which design vill
produce the least degree of pollution.
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Estuaries can assimilate more waste with less
effect on the environment than can the rivers which
feed them, because of the flushing current from the
ocean. There is a simple procedure for estimating
the flushing current, based on measurement of salin-
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
485
ity in the estuary. In many cases this procedure
can be used with reasonable accuracy to predict the
concentrations of wastes resulting from an industrial
or municipal discharge.
In several types of cases this simple procedure
does not work: in estuaries of nearly constant salin-
ity or very wide estuaries and bays; in fjords or
strongly stratified estuaries; or where the shape of
the estuary is to be changed by major construction.
In these cases some form of hydraulic or numerical
modeling is needed to predict the effects of waste
discharges. Modeling, however, requires an under-
standing of the type of circulation to be expected in
the estuary and an understanding of the limitations
of the types of models available. Modeling is not an
art for the semi-skilled; there is no one model suitable
for use in all estuaries, and at present a relatively
small number of individuals have the training and
experience required to do useful modeling studies.
These considerations lead to the following recom-
mendations:
1. It should be understood that modeling is an art
for extremely qualified experts and that sophisticated
numerical models are not a necessary part of every
water quality plan. Models should be used only
where they are really needed, and then only by
persons with extensive familiarity with the model
and its limitations. Use of the wrong model can be
worse than use of no model at all.
2. There should be a national listing and classifica-
tion of estuaries to determine in which portions of
which estuaries the simple procedure for estimating
flushing currents is suitable, and in which it is not.
Such a listing would be of great use to EPA in
setting standards and proposing rules, as the Agency
could then specify the use of the simple method
where allowed by the listing, and require other
methods where the simple method is not allowed.
3. Continued research, development, and training
in the use of models is essential. This research should
include more complete verification of the accuracy
of present models, further development of numerical
models, and further investigations of the limitations
of numerical and hydraulic models. As part of the
research there should be a vigorous program of spe-
cific field testing of present and proposed models.
This research will have the benefits of producing
more generally applicable and dependable models
plus the desirable byproduct of increasing the pool
of persons qualified to use the models.
REFERENCES
Fischer, Hugo B. 1974. Numerical modeling ot dispersion in
estuaries. International Symposium on Discharge of Sewage
from Sea Outfalls, London, Paper No. 37: 1-8.
Fischer, Hugo B. 1976. Mixing and dispersion in estuaries.
Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 8: 107-134.
Fisher, John S., John D. Ditmars and Arthur T. Ippen. 1972.
Mathematical simulation of tidal time-averages of salinity
and velocity profiles in estuaries. MIT, Department of
Civil Engineering, Report No. 151.
Koh, R. C. Y. and N. H. Brooks. 1975. Fluid mechanics of
wastewater disposal in the ocean. Annual Review of Fluid
Mechanics, 8, in press.
Leendertse, J. J. 1967. Aspects of a computational model for
long-period water-wave propagation. Memorandum RM-
5294-PR, The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif.
Nelson, A. W. and R. J. Lerseth. 1972. A study of dispersion
of capability of San Francisco Bay-Delta waters. California
Department of Water Resources Report to the State Water
Resources Control Board. Agreement 9-2-23.
O'Connor, D. J. 1965. Estuarine distribution of non conserva-
tive substances. J. San Eng. Div. ASCE 91, SA.
Stommel, H. 1953. Computation of pollution in a vertically
mixed estuary. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 25: 1065-
1071.
Thatcher, Llewellyn, M. 1972. A mathematical model for
the prediction of unsteady salinity intrusion in estuaries.
MIT, Department of Civil Engineering, Report No. 144.
Hydroscience, Inc. 1973. Development of hydrodynamic and
time variable water quality models of Boston Harbor.
Report to the Massachusetts Water Resources Commission.
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THE CRUCIAL ROLE OF SYSTEMATICS
IN ASSESSING POLLUTION EFFECTS
ON THE BIOLOGICAL
UTILIZATION OF ESTUARIES
MELBOURNE R. CARRIKER
University of Delaware
Lewes, Delaware
ABSTRACT
The data of systematics form the essential foundation for pollution al biology. Living targets
of pollution must be identified precisely; imprecision nullifies results and renders them iion-
replicable. Most estuarine and coastal marine plant and animal groups are poorly known sys-
tematically. Major bottlenecks in the application of systematics to the problems of environ-
mental pollution result from the critical shortage of experienced systematic specialists and tech-
nicians, as well as lack of inventories of specialists, identification publications, and identification
services. Although water quality legislation implies the need for identification of organisms
involved in analyses of the biological impacts of pollutants, there has been no conspicuous financial
support for systematic work. Because basic and applied environmental research and its applica-
tion to the practical problems of pollution have grown far more rapidly than the supporting
base of systematic biology, it is imperative that existing human and material systematic re-
sources be conserved, and their further development be encouraged. Specific recommendations
are offered to maximize the service role of biological systematics in the identification and assess-
ment of the effects of pollution on the biological utilization of estuaries and coastal waters in
the United States.
INTRODUCTION
In the course of perhaps four billion years the
surface of the earth has become populated by an
estimated 10 million kinds of recent organisms,
ordered in self-sustaining, self-regulating, ecological
systems. About one million species of animals and
a half million species of plants have been described,
and an estimated additional half billion species are
extinct in fossil strata (Mayr, 1969). Evolution tends
to sustain these living systems, accumulating com-
plex arrays of organisms that stabilize the environ-
ment, and conserve and reuse resources to support
the maximum amount, of life; whereas disturbance
causes a systematic alteration of biotic structure
(Woodwell, 1969, 1974). Estuaries, biologically
complex, delicately balanced, coastal transitional
zones where seawater is measurably diluted by land
drainage are integral parts of the biosphere. If not
perturbed, they likewise tend to be stable, self-
sustaining, self-regulating, biologically productive
systems (Carriker, 1967).
But human tenants on the shores of estuarine
ecotones, through heedless technological activities
and massive discharge of deleterious residues, con-
tinue severely to disturb these coastal zones (Ket-
chum, 1972*). The consequences are eradication of
habitats; reduction, alteration, and extinction of
species; and impairment or destruction of the quali-
ties fundamental to the health of the biosphere and
the welfare of humans. The critical role of a wide
diversity of organisms in promoting the health of
the estuary is indisputably clear. We reaffirm with
Woodwell (1974) that humanity lives as one species
within a biosphere whose essential qualities are
determined by other species and that we must give
careful thought to these relationships. There is
urgent need, accordingly, to examine in some depth
the functions of systematics in the identification
and assessment of the effects of pollution on the
biological utilization of estuaries. This will be done
in this paper.
What is Systematics?
Systematics may be denned as the scientific study
of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of the
relationships among them (Simpson, 1961). Al-
though the term taxonomy is often used for the
theory and practice of identifying and classifying
organisms, systematics and taxonomy are often
loosely treated as synonymous (Davis and Heywood,
1965); this will be the practice in this paper.
Systematic biology provides scientific names for
organisms, describes them, preserves collections of
487
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488
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
them, provides classifications for them, keys for
their identification, and data on their distributions;
it investigates their evolutionary histories, and con-
siders their environmental adaptations (Michener,
1970). Systematists now study organisms in all
stages of their life cycles, disclosing unexpected
structural details by the use of scanning electron
microscopy, analyzing behavioral patterns and
chromosomal configurations, and comparing the
sequences of amino acids in protein and nucleic
acid molecules.
Systematic biology is perhaps the oldest of the
sciences, and is closely allied and complementary to
ecology. Systematics is one of the fundamental
perspectives in biology, integrating such disciplines
as ecology and behavior with functional morphology,
comparative physiology, biochemistry, genetics, and
evolution.
Why Identification?
The data of systematics form the essential founda-
tion of all other biological disciplines, especially of
such interactive sciences as marine biology, biologi-
cal oceanography, estuarine ecology, and pollutional
biology. Wilson (1971) rightly points out that most
of the central problems of ecology can be solved only
by reference to details of organic diversity, and that
even the most cursory ecosystemic analyses have to
be based on a sound systematic treatment of the
organisms considered. Pollutional ecology is no
exception.
The basic functional unit in biology is tiie organ-
ism. Similar organisms are grouped by systematists
in a species and given a scientific name, a symbol for
the recognition of the taxon. Historically, precise and
complete identification of organisms has tiot been
available for many species, and has commonly been
inaccurate for others. It is crucially important that
the biologist know the precise identity o~ the or-
ganisms he studies—even more so now in view of the
growing universal emphasis on estuarine and coastal
marine environmental work.
The identity of microbes, plants, and animals is
as significant to the microbiologist, botanist, and
zoologist, respectively, as proper identification of
elements, molecules, and compounds is to tiie chem-
ist. Or stated in another way, the systematics of the
whole organism is no less significant than that of the
molecules of which it is made (Hedgpeth, 1961).
Higgins (1974) notes that we have to learn to iden-
tify the living targets of pollution with the same
analytical competence as the chemist identifies the
elements, and to identify community structure in the
same way the analytical chemist deals with his com-
pounds. The increasing refinement and quantifica-
tion of biological investigation requires comparable
exactness in the identification of organisms used in
both basic and applied research. Imprecision in
identification neutralizes research rigor! If identi-
fications are in error, published work becomes non-
replicable, and thus unscientific. In view of this
significance, we examine next the utilitarian aspects
of systematics in estuarine and coastal marine work.
BIOLOGICAL CENSUSES AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Because differences in species reflect differences in
structure, function, and requirement of organisms,
the first step in any biological study should be identi-
fication of the organisms under investigation (Allen,
1974; Carriker, 1967; Steere, 1971). Hedgpeth
(1957) cogently summarized the argument with
reference to ecology: ". . . an ecological investiga-
tion is essentially a study of organisms in situ . . .
The primary data of any ecological investigation,
therefore, are the species of organisms concerned . . .
The first procedure in an ecological investigation is,
or should be, essentially an exercise in systematics,
the identification of species, and understanding,
inter alia, the relation of these species to other groups
in both the evolutionary and physiological senses."
The significance of specific names to ecologists may
be illustrated by this excerpt from a letter received
by Schmitt (1953): "I have all of my voluminous
field notes ready and only await the names of the
specimens which I sent you a long time ago. Have
you had a chance to go over them? I have the names
of most, but there are still many left and I can pub-
lish nothing until I get them." Elton (1927) con-
cludes that one of the biggest tasks confronting
anyone engaged in ecological surveys, owing to the
lag of the systematic study of some of them, is that
of getting all groups identified to the species. A
popular method of studying pbytoplankton in the
sea, which has purportedly obviated the need for
specific identifications, employs continuous plankton
recorders and chlorophyll extraction. Recent re-
search in mariculture, however, has demonstrated
the nutritional role of some species of phytoplankton,
and the nuisance value of others (Epifanio and
Mootz, 1974), evidence that number of individuals
and identification of chlorophyll are insufficient to
identify the value of species.
The magnitude of the task of conducting sound
biological censuses in order to obtain a reasonable
picture of biological conditions even in a limited
geographic area is difficult to comprehend in terms
of people, time, and money. Nonetheless, in this
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
489
decade "before and after" surveys have become
routine operations at sites of power plants and other
technological enterprises. Various commercial groups
have sprung up about the country to conduct the
work. Unfortunately, some of this work tends to be
superficial and lacks taxonomic credibility. To illus-
trate the magnitude of the job of conducting
thorough, systematically sound, biological censuses,
I will summarize three. These range in emphasis
from basic to applied.
Open ocean.—The first was a fundamental study
of the biota on a course some 0,880 miles long west of
Mexico, Ecuador, and Costa Rica, and in the Carib-
bean (Schmitt, 1939, 1953). In 24 days at sea,
Schmitt and associates collected some 11,000 biologi-
cal specimens at 14 stations. Preliminary sorting
was done as birds and fishes were frozen and in-
vertebrates and plants were chemically preserved.
Further sorting by two experienced biologists at the
Smithsonian Institution, so that the material could
be distributed to specialists for identification and
classification, required about two weeks. Shipping
to out-of-town taxonomists, and their acceptance
and reporting extended over 35 months. Specimens
went to nine different divisions in the Smithsonian
and to 21 specialists in four foreign countries and the
United States. Three years after distribution of
specimens began, most of the reports from specialists
were in hand, and by the end of another year most
of the reports were in print. In summary, 26 active
taxonomists were involved over a 3-year period; the
19 systematic papers published as of 1953 covered a
collection of 191 families, 330 genera, and 469 species
of animals, and 41 families, 70 genera, and 87 species
of plants!
Cape Cod Bay.—The second is a quantitative
biotic census undertaken in 1964 in Cape Cod Bay,
Mass., by the Systematics-Ecology Program, Marine
Biological Laboratory (Young et al., 1971). The aim
of the census was to provide a synthesis of informa-
tion on the kinds, abundance, distribution, and
diversity of benthic estuarine invertebrates retained
on a 1 mm mesh screen, in relation to particle size
and organic content of the sediments, depth, temper-
ature, and salinity in an as yet relatively undisturbed
embayment The bay was divided into 300 one-mile
square grids, and alternate quadrats, about 100 of
them, were sampled with four different types of gear.
Samples were washed and preserved on board the
research vessel, and hand sorted and identified at
least to the family level in the laboratory prior to
being distributed to systematic specialists. A total of
47 taxonomists collaborated in the identifications.
The field work consumed some five years, and six
more years were required for final sorting, distribu-
tion of specimens to specialists, return of the reports,
computer analyses, and preparation of final reports.
The local work at the laboratory involved eight
different senior people and approximately 40 to 50
full and part-time sorters at different times over the
11-year period of the project. In all, a total of 237
families, 485 genera, and 782 species has been identi-
fied (Michael, 1975; O'Connor, 1975).
Connecticut River.—The third census is a pre- and
post-operative long-term study at the site of the
Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Company nu-
clear generating station at Haddam Neck in the
tidal region of the Connecticut River. The survey
was designed to examine possible changes in the
physical, chemical, and biological features along a
5-mile stretch of the river in the vicinity of the plant
after appearance of the warm water plume. The
study was begun in 1965 and will be completed this
year (1975), 10 years later. When the plant began
commercial operation in 1968, it was one of the
largest nuclear plants in the world. A staff of 10 to
12, based at the Essex Marine Laboratory, on the
Connecticut River, conducted the study (Merriman,
1973, 1974). In the course of the study, some 20
systematists assisted with identifications. A total
of approximately 6,500 biological samples were
collected, including about 150 species of bacteria,
plants, invertebrates, and finfish. The final report,
to be published as a single volume, will contain
approximately 200 printed pages.
The question may arise as to whether such long-
term, time-consuming, expensive censuses are neces-
sary. Regrettably, obvious substitutes to this ap-
proach are not currently available; no better barom-
eters of the biological impact of perturbations exist
than organisms themselves, and there is yet no other
way to obtain baseline information prior to the
impact of perturbations. Identified organisms and
general information about them (that is, systematics
collections) still constitute the fundamental resource
for basic evidence and assessment of what has oc-
curred, what is occurring, and what can be expected
to occur in the environment (Allen, 1974).
STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
Accurate identification is the key which unlocks
the storage and retrieval system of scientific informa-
tion. All knowledge published on organisms is cata-
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490
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
logucd and stored in the world scientific literature
under the scientific name of the species, or where the
systematics is incompletely known, under the names
of higher taxa in the classification. If nothing has
been reported on a newly described and named
species, its identification permits accumulation of
information for future use. Accurate retrieval of
information, consequently, can only be as reliable as
precision of identification and classification. Names
make information accessible on such aspects of
organismic biology as geographic distribution,
ecological relationships, life cycles, behavior, com-
parative physiology, host-parasite relationships,
predators, disease organisms, biological and chemical
controls, and response and tolerance to adverse
environmental changes.
PREDICTIVE ATTRIBUTES
Michener (1970) indicates that placement of a
species which has been inadequate!}' studied in a
genvis and family makes possible prediction of some
of its biological attributes. Although this may be a
helpful practice under some circumstances, there arc
so many exceptions that it is not recommended for
the non-specialist. There is serious danger that
unfamiliar with species, he may apply tie rule of
thumb and draw false conclusions (Burbanck, 1975).
Allen (1974) notes that in current extensive testing
programs for determining tolerance levels of species
exposed to pollutants, species that are similar in ap-
pearance do not always respond similarly physiolog-
ically. Such considerations underscore the im-
portance of precise identification at all levels of
biological work.
ELIMINATION OF DUPLICATION
Xeedless duplication of biological research—which
is becoming increasingly costly and time consum-
ing--can be avoided by a careful check of the world
scientific literature. It is not uncommon for research
to be repeated unnecessarily because the investigator
did not consult the literature with sufficient thor-
oughness, or because identification of his organism (s)
was in error. Libraries, unfortunately, store too
many examples of the results of very expensive re-
search which have been discredited because of faulty
identification of species (Allen, 1974; Clausen, 1942;
Sabrosky, 19
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
491
BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS
Accurate identification will also become critical as
the use of pesticides is replaced by specific control
organisms. These species are often difficult to dis-
tinguish from closely related and nearly identical
forms that feed on different hosts. To date little has
been done to control estuarine and coastal marine
pests by other organisms.
INDUSTRY, FISHERIES, AND CONSERVATION
The following; striking examples were cited by
Schmitt (1953, 1954) of the value, often with sub-
stantial monetary return, of identification in these
fields.
1) Marine bivalves penetrated the outer casing of
a power cable lying on the bottom of the bay between
Palm Beach and West Palm Beach, Fla., in the
1940's, causing a series of serious blowouts. Adult
burrowing bivalves were identified as a new species
incapable of escaping from their burrows. The prob-
lem was easily solved by burying the cable beneath
the bottom of the bay where the molluscs suffocated.
2) A specialist on the systematics of benthic
sipunculid worms was asked in 1953 for copies of his
technical publications by an Alaskan cod fisherman
who had found that where these worms occur he
made good hauls of fish. The fisherman wanted to
plot the distribution of the worms in order to en-
hance his fishery and extend his operation.
3) In 1954 a sport fisherman took a specimen of a
mantis shrimp to a national museum. He sought in-
formation on its mode of life, distribution, and
abundance. A systematist, after identifying the
specimen, learned from the literature that the stoma-
topod is the favorite food of certain panfish taken by
fishermen in the Chesapeake Bay—and thus the
sport fisherman's interest in the species.
4) In the Carolinas shad enjoy legal protection.
In order to catch violators and enforce the conserva-
tion laws, state conservation agents must be able
to distinguish between four or five species of fish, all
superficially more or less alike.
HOW DOES SYSTEMATICS AID
IN IDENTIFICATION AND
CONTROL OF POLLUTION?
Pollutional biology is a subdivision of ecology, and
serious Geologists recognize that their work must be
based on sound specific identification of the organ-
isms they are interpreting (Humes, 1974). Patrick
(1949) was one of the first to stress this in the evalu-
ation of the kind and duration of stream pollution.
Her research demonstrated that there is no satis-
factory shortcut which avoids identification of
species involved. Tarzwell (1974) in the course of
some 40 years of investigating pollutional zones of
streams in various parts of the country, discovered
that what may be considered sensitive or resistant
species in one stream may not necessarily be so in
another stream; in a different region these sensitive
or resistant species may be replaced by closely re-
lated species. He also found that characterization of
population changes in streams over time as waste is
introduced can be made only by specific identifica-
tion of organisms. Pawson (1974), furthermore,
stressed that to understand interactions between
organisms and pollutants, one must be quite sure
that the organism in question represents one species,
and not a group of several species.
Systematic studies are also essential in establishing
the quantitative characteristics of estuarine com-
munities before real or possible pollution occurs;
otherwise, effects of pollution may not be detectable
(M. Abbott, 1974). Tarzwell (1974) noted that it is
both the qualitative and quantitative composition of
the biota of streams which indicate the severity of
pollution and the distribution of pollutional zones.
To control pollution, therefore, we must know the
organisms affected and be able to recognize introduc-
tion and extinction of species (Turner, 1974). The
need and value of accurate identification in pollution-
al biology are also emphasized by Pimentel (1971)
in a publication for the Office of Science and Tech-
nology on the ecological effects of pesticides on non-
target species, and by Battelle (1971) in a report for
the United States Environmental Protection Agency
on the effects of chemicals on aquatic life. Un-
fortunately, misclassification of Balanus sp. under
the phylum Mollusca in the latter work tarnished
the credibility of the systematic emphasis.
Some workers recommend the use of diversity
indexes for detection of the effects of pollution on
the community as a whole. A species diversity index,
however, being only a single parameter of a complex
system, has merit only if cautiously interpreted
(Hedgpeth, 1973), and provided, as should be the
practice, that species are carefully identified. This is
not always the case. Some investigators identify and
count microorganisms only to suborder and family,
and employ these taxa for calculation of the indexes
(Allen, 1974). We must emphasize that proper
systematic skills and familiarity with species-differ-
entiating traits are necessary to construe! accurate
indexes (Williams, 1974). In spite of the general
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492
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
value of indexes, however, individual species cannot
be overlooked: changes in their abundance may oc-
cur which are not detectable by the index alone
(Watling, 1974). To be properly used, species
diversity should also include the complexities of life
cycles and trophic levels (JBurbanck, 1975).
There is a tendency among some workers, when
dealing with groups of organisms which are difficult
or not well known taxonornically, to cany identifica-
tions only to familial or genetic levels. Turner (1974)
argues with reason that this is simply not enough!
By taking her identifications to the specific taxon,
she was able recently to recognize introducton of
tropical species of the wood boring bivalves, Tcre-
dinidae, into the warm water discharge canal of a
nuclear generating station in Ne\v Jersey. Had she
identified the borers only to genus, she would have
missed the tropical introductions altogether, and
this critical aspect of the impact of the power plant
on its local cstuarine environment would have gone
unnoticed.
Systematics can be used to considerable advantage
in assessing the effects of changing environmental
conditions by recognition and study of variations in
the morphology of organisms. The method has been
little explored and merits much more attention.
Estuarine species may be more plastic than oceanic
forms, and may thus reflect the effects of pollution
more readily (Watling, 1974); Rasmussen's (1973)
documentation of the variability of the genus Gam-
marus in his study of the Isefjord fauna is a good
example of morphological plasticity. Romano and
Schlicpcr (1971) recorded other examples.
Success in reducing or eliminating low levels of
harmful pollutants, recognized only with difficulty
by chemical means, is determinate biologically and
with reliability by the responses of the organisms
affected. Some pollutants may exert their effects in
very minute amounts over long periods of time.
Exposure to sublethal concentrations of detergent,
copper, and zinc, for example, caused fatal anatomi-
cal abnormalities in the second generation of the
polychaete Capitella capitata (Reish et al., 1974).
Other pollutants may be progressively concentrated
in food chains, and still others may interact synergis-
tically. The latter may result in insidious alteration
of aquatic environments, especially of estuaries
(Odum, 1970). Yet additional organisms, preadapted
to survive or thrive in certain polluted em ironrnents
that are noxious to most other organisrrs, become
indicators of that pollution (Olson ana Burgess,
1967). Systematic knowledge of "normal" biotic
structures provides the base for comparison with
that of poisoned communities.
One of the potentially most damaging categories of
change which can be brought about by man, re-
sulting in decimation of entire species, is lo^s of
genetic information through pollution-induced en-
vironmental change. Processes leading to extinction
of large animals and plants are no longer likely to go
unnoticed even if they cannot be interrupted. In
certain cases predictions of immediate consequences,
such as Cousteau's recognition of potential change
in the oceans should filter feeding whales be elimin-
ated, are recognized. However, dearth of information
on small estuarine metazoan organisms, like nema-
todes, prevents any reasonable capacity for predicting
the consequences of pollution to the environment
in the context of these small invertebrates. Although
levels of pollution are probably most effectively
measured by physical and chemical techniques, im-
pact of pollution is best measured in life systems,
and thus the requirement to recognize the total
dependence of pollutional ecology—no, all ecology—
upon the sophistication and thoroughness of its
foundation in systematics! The consequences of
pollution to the earth and to man arc of such magni-
tude that a compelling case is readily made for the
stud}' of a broad spectrum of micro-, rneta-, and
macroorganisms in assessing any influence of pol-
lutants. However, such undertakings remain so
primitive and inadequately supported that a major
research effort, to be measured in decades, is still
required to determine the full extent to which sys-
tematic knowledge, especially of small organisms, can
significantly aid in the identification and control of
pollution (Murphy, 1974).
What is said by Murphy about small metazoans
in the identification and control of pollution, applies
to an even more critical degree to such ubiquitous,
abundant, estuarine microorganisms as fungi, yeasts,
bacteria, viruses, and so forth. Bacteria, for example,
arc more important than most of us realize in pol-
lutant transfer, biological degradation, carbon as-
similation, and possibly in the control of soluble
concentrations of elements (Alexander, 1973).
Viruses, minute, highly mutable agents, are common
in estuaries, move in the ground water, and inhabit
water reuse systems, but lack of information on
their behavior in these systems has impeded develop-
ment of the reuse of water. Cooke (19(i9) is pessimis-
tic about the emergence of general descriptions of the
remarkably complex behavior of natural populations
of microorganisms in native waters, and notes that
research on the role of microorganisms in potlv.tional
biology must include study of specific chemical
compounds and measurement of their degradation
products. I would recommend, in addition, that
the research must include inteiihivc systematic
investigations (a) to piovide the essential scaffolding
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
493
upon which to hang the results of the pollutional
research and (b) to aid in its interpretation.
Summary.—Field systematics aids in the identi-
fication of the kinds, distribution, severity, and dura-
tion of pollution at individual, populational, com-
munity, and ecosystemic levels. It does so by re-
vealing (a) changes in the proportion of abundance
of individuals, (b) alteration in the composition of
species (by elimination of some and introduction of
others and changes in ecological succession), (c)
modifications in morphology, physiology, ecology,
behavior, and development at individual and popu-
lational levels, and (d) emergence of hardy indicator
species which survive or even thrive in the altered
environment. Systematics also aids in identifying
laboratory experimental organisms for study of the
biological effects of pollutants on them, and their
responses to the pollutants.
Systematics contributes to control of pollution in
the sense that populations and physio-ecological
systems, which themselves function in reducing or
rendering innocuous the effects of pollutants, can
be recognized and augmented. Such species systems
are abundant, especially in the microbiological realm
where they serve as shock absorbers in buffering the
effects of chemical perturbations.
Beneficial Effects
of Increase in Systematic
Knowledge and Services
An increase in knowledge and services in systema-
tics will accelerate the rate, and make possible
expansion, of systematics-dependent environmental
investigations currently in progress. It will also open
to investigation problems not now undertaken be-
cause of the difficulty or impossibility of obtaining
needed identifications. Questions are not now being
asked on the identification and control of pollution,
or go unanswered or are delayed, because of in-
adequacy of identification services and facilities;
answers to these questions would probably materially
enhance biological assessment of the impacts of
pollution, and thus of pollution control (Alichener,
1970). The interstitial fauna, for example, are poorly
known (Hulings and Gray, 1971), yet intertidal
beaches and tidal marshes in estuaries are the first
zones to be attacked by floating pollutants. Compre-
hensive knowledge of these fauna might reveal
improved ways of determining the impact of the
various fractions of these pollutants. Adequate
knowledge of interstitial organisms, most of which
are minute and many are abundant, would make
available large numbers of them for the assessments.
A decrease in knowledge and services of system-
atics would unquestionably mean that causes and
effects of pollution would remain unknown or con-
fused (Wigley, 1974). Pollutional researchers would
find themselves in the same situation faced by many
physiologists who a few years ago based researches
and conclusions on improperly identified organisms
(Humes, 1974). "Under these circumstances possibil-
ities for duplication of experimental work or for
making comparisons of seemingly similar situations
would be slender indeed, and in fact, any compari-
sons would be automatically invalid (Pawson, 1974).
If one remains unsure of the organisms he is dealing
with, results of investigations based on them will
likewise be questionable and uninterpretable. In
this regard, closely related species, particularly
sympatric species, must be very carefully identified.
Should systematics not be supported, Turner
(1974) envisions a decreasing number of system-
atists, and chaos when scientists report experimental
results on incorrectly identified organisms. Higgins
(1974) stresses that no cause and effect analyses of
any ecosystem can occur without precise identifica-
tion of both the biotic and abiotic components, and
because of its extraordinary complexity, this applies
to the estuarine ecosystem above all others. Murphy's
(1974) concern, if systematics continues at its pres-
ent low level of support, is that international, na-
tional, and local policy directed at pollutional control,
and purportedly based on ecological considerations,
will continue to be pursued with a totally inade-
quate data base.
WHAT HUMAN ESTUARINE ACTIVITIES
REQUIRE IDENTIFICATION SERVICES?
Allowing the world ecosystem to function in a
viable, healthy way is a responsibility as well as an
awesome challenge to man. The responsibility can
be met, in part, by maintaining a high level of biolog-
ical diversity which is commensurate with biotic
stability and insures against the onslaughts of cli-
mate and disease (Steere, 1971). But a pervading
thrust, intrinsic in man's recreational, fishing, tech-
nological, and control activities is making the task
of preserving diversity increasingly difficult. No-
where on the globe is this thrust more stridently
evident than along coasts and estuaries. Organisms,
including much of the human population, find them-
selves unwillingly embroiled, often helpless victims,
of biotic instability in increasingly ravaged environ-
ments.
Since kinds of species and numbers of individuals
are ingredients of diversity, it is necessary that
periodic biotic assessment of the impact of man'?
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494
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTKOL
Table 1.—h'uman estuarine activities requiring identification and classification
of organisms
Activity
Organisms
Species harmful or potentially harmful in recreational
activity which takes people into the water, or in the
course of which there is dangei of failing into the
water; example, sea nettles.
Species taken commonly such as fmfish, as well as
species which could be taken bu because of custom
are not, such as squid and conchs; potentially poi-
sonous species, as shellfish causm»paralytic poisoning
i in man.
I
j Species influenced by, affecting, or associated with
manmade bulkheading, piling, wharfs, anchors, buoys,
island structures, barnacles.
Species associated with, influenced by, or affecting cool-
ing waters, thermal plumes, cooling towers, radioac-
tive discharge, and plant conduits through which water
passes; attached algae.
Exploration and develop- Species associated with, influenced by, or affecting
ment for oil and gas ' exploration, rigs, towers, pipe lines, etc., spills and
discharges; fouling organisms of all kinds.
Species influenced by, affecting or neutrally associated
with mining of sand, gravel, metal;, and other mineral
resources (less gas and oil); surf c ams.
Recreation
Sports and commercial
fishing
Artificial structures
Construction and operation
of power plants
Extraction of minerals
Sediments' dredging and
filling
Placement of wastes
Biological control
Chemical control
Ecological surveys
(pollutional)
Impact statements
Species influenced by, affecting, or associated with
sedimentation and erosion resullmg from this ac-
tivity; tube worms, oysters.
Species influenced by, affecting, or .issociated with the
dumping of liquids and solids, or nvotved in effluent
sinks, mussels.
Species used in control as well as these affected directfy
01 indirectly by biological control; none yet employed
in coastal waters, but approach is promising.
All target and associated non-target jpecies in the area
of pesticide spraying, intertidal oysters and mussels.
Basic surveys, wherever possible all species sampled;
applied surveys as representative identification as
possible (the problem .don't always know what species
are representative of communities).
All species known, or postulated to be involved, in
anticipated activity.
activities bo made. A brief catalogue, suggestive of
those activities in which estuarine organisms require
systematic identification, is presented in Table 1.
What Organisms
Should Be Identified?
Only a few non-taxonomists appreciate how poorly
most plant and animal groups arc known taxonomi-
cally. A striking illustration of this was presented
by Romano's work on the microscopic marine fauna
of the Kieler Bucht, an area previously considered
to be well known. By thorough search and with the
application of new methods, Remane found 300 new
species, including representatives of !."> new families,
in 10 years (Mayr, 1969) I
In time, with improved systematic resources and
support, identification of most species should be
required. Why? The answer is implicit in observations
paraphrased from Wood well (1974): If qualities of
the environment that are essential for certain types
of life are changed, the structure of natural systems
will change. The species favored are those whose
populations can respond most rapidly to the changes.
These species are mostly small bodied, rapid1/ re-
producing forms that can exploit altered conditions.
Such modified conditions increase the frequency of
rapidly reproducing pest and weed species. When
chronic disturbance of any kind changes the struc-
ture of natural ecosystms, populations of hardy
resistant organisms characteristic of impoverished
sites increase, food chains are shortened, and the
capacity for support of all life is reduced.
Until more adequate systematic services and
financial support are available—but as a short term
expedient only—precise identification in applied
work could include appropriate representatives in
at least the functional categories of estuarine and
coastal organisms listed in Table 2. Which species of
plants and animals should be emphasized would
depend on the mission of each investigation. The
unsolved problem in this approach is the serious
difficulty of defining what constitute representative
organisms!
On the surface it might seem that the systematics
of estuarine species might be less complex than that
of marine groups because their number is proportion-
ately less. Potentially, however, the problem is as,
or more, complex, because the estuarine systernatist
has to be prepared to deal with, not only marine spe-
cies which normally move in and out of estuaries,
but those which may extend their ranges, be intro-
duced by storms, coastal birds, or human activities,
or float down rivers and streams during stormy
periods.
Why Not Ignore
Undescribed Organisms?
Is it necessary in both basic and applied biological
work to consider those organisms which man has not
yet named and described, and which, therefore, are
unavailable for consideration until taxonomically
treated?
Some (Khrlich, 1901; Raven et al., 1971; Sokal,
1970) would argue (a) that we should restrict identi-
fication and classification to those organisms which
are of actual or potential value, and (b) that to in-
sist that it is necessary to name every living organ-
-------
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
Table 2.—Functional groups of estuarine and coastal organisms which should
be considered for identification in the assessment of the impact of pollution.
Groups
Examples
Commercial and sports organ-
isms: used and potentially
useful
Phytoplankton, seaweeds, sponges, corals, bivalves,
gastropods, cephalopods, polychetes, decapod
crustaceans, fin fishes, sea turtles, porpoises,
dolphins, whales (see Shapiro, 1971)
Organisms poisonous or poten-
tially poisonous or harmful to
humans as food, in swimming,
or in other recreation
Organisms associated with com- Competitors, mutualists, commensals, predators,
mercial and sports organisms I and food organisms (see Henry, 1966), disease
and parasitic organisms viruses, bacteria, fungi,
sporozoans, ciliates, trematodes, cestorles, nema-
todes, copepods isopods, gastropods (see Smder-
mann, 1970).
Animals that bite or sting" sharks, sting rays, manta,
barracuda, moray eels, cat fishes, scorpion fishes,
toad fishes, sea bass, sea lions, killer whales,
tridacna clams, sea nettles, cone gastropods,
octopuses, sea urchins (see Halstead, 1959),
poisonous to eat shellfish which have consumed
toxic dmoflagellates, poisonous sharks and rays,
moray eels, poisonous fin fish (see Halstead,
1959); parasites amebas, trematodes, cestodes,
| nematodes; disease organisms viruses, bacteria,
fungi, yeasts (see Cheng, 1967).
Organisms fouling surfaces of i Algae, fungi, protozoans, sponges, coelenterates,
estuarine structures bryozoans, annelids, bivalves, tumcates (see
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1952).
Organisms over, on, and in areas j Most lower plant, invertebrate groups plankton,
to be, or being used for mm- nekton, epifauna and epiflora, mfauna, meiofauna.
ing, dredging, filling, waste
disposal, power plants, oil
and gas exploration and de- ,
velopment !
Organisms blocking screens of Primarily nekton fin fish, some crustaceans; macro-
power plant intakes and other scopic algae.
marine operations ]
ism in order to compiet( the job of systematic^, ig-
nores the necessity for judicious sampling in our
efforts to understand the universe, This point of
view, unfortunately, overlooks the critical question
"How are actual arid potential value determined?"
It also dismisses the significance of biological classifi-
cation which is intended to provide a framework on
which to arrange all levels of all available biological
information. Clearly, substantial gaps in the frame-
work leave voids in the content within \\hicli te-
lationships can be expressed (Heywood. 197!-!).
Others, whose poirt of \ie\\ I share, teel that the
primary job of exploring the flora and iauna of the
earth's surface desperately needs doing because the
natural resources of the glob" are being desirov'd
at a fearful rate and hundred1* of potential!1, in-
valuable species will be wiped out of existence even
before they are made known to science, much less
analyzed tor potential utilization (Fosberg, 1972;
Keck, 19.")!), Mayr, 1909, Shere, 1971). Many of
these species ma"\ be found useful h>-rtieulturaliy,
agronomically, and economically, as food, forage,
timber, fiber, pulp, medicine, ground cover, and so
on. (Keck. 19.">9). For example, (a) the sp^rm Vrale
is Hearing extinction with loss of its natural product ,
sperm oil, but botanists discovered that an ohseuie
desert plant called jojoba produces a liquid A\;'X
which may function as a substitute; (b* a little-
known beetle produces a medically important drug,
cortisone, in amounts equivalent to the adrenal
glands of 1,300 cattle; and (c) prostaglandins, im-
portant hormones availabh in vei\ ln:v.f:l naima1
••mpph. . occur in qua hi it \ in a -clt K"rg!,.. u,
the West Indies (Evans, 197o;. Furthermore. \\>' .)•,
not know whether certain organisms are essential to
the continued functioning of the ecological processes
on which our continued tenure on the planet,
depends (Fosberg, 1972) — and we dare not risk not
finding out!
To complete the task of identification of ail spcciev-
will require the labors of several more generations.
Considering the limited number of special 'MS, vu-
must take it for granted that a large part <>f tl«
majority of the kinds of plants and animals wi'i re-
main unsampled, unnamed, and unclassified For
decades to come (Mayr, 1909). At present probabh
one-third of the living species of fishes remain^ un-
known. Our inventory of invertebrate auimaK re-
mains seriously incomplete. Insects are far ami a\U'V
the most numerous in species, and the leas' kno,\ n.
Oceanic and estuarine plant and animal life i.< verv
incompletely understood. Knowledge of the '-pcei-s
of bacteria, viruses, yeasts, and fungi is ,-pat-e, a
serious deficiency considering their great r, 19'i'J- Tcrl'oi ^h,
1974; Uetz and Johnson, 197-1 •. Ha\ en et al, ( '.'»?!
even more pessimistic about the survival ot ^—i K •?,
doubt, that even ,"> percent of the woild's imd> -
scribed organisms can be added to our in1, v »ii>rv
before the currently undePcrihed SO porn '.'i <-r so
of the world's organisms become extinct.
Woodwe'l ' 1974 j vuidly summarized the t •••)(.':.-
and the consequence,- of extinction:-
Tliis is trio pal t.ern of life now, slow, progres-,i\'e. fi:, ni.i -
live and unidirecliorial as species are eiiniin.iii'd '!"•
pattern is aln-ady widespread, perhaps woi'kiv.i'," j",
some degree. It leads, not to a clear rrisis, B c:-\t'ic:,, -M
bul to the .slow erosion ot the quanu of envinmi'i' -ii
to the loss o) fist) in lishenes, 1o !hi' acoir.inri'.iiou f"
pests, plant and animal, to the gradual eros:.Oi' o. i;u;
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496
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
capacity of environment to stabilize wt.ter flows, to
provide clean water, fiber and food, to hold and recycle
nutrients on the land. It leads to accumulation of
biotically impoverished zones almost without notice,
zones that are progressively less capable of supporting
life, including man, and it leads to a steady increase in
requirements for human intervention in the basic func-
tion of environment: more dams and more pesticides.
I am convinced that all organisms on the globe
have a funoiiorial role, directly or indirectly, of
consequence to man. In spite of the enormity of the
iti.sk. \u' must proceed with a sense of urgency in
the systematic exploration of the world's biota in
order to salvage at least the most critical species
prior to their possible extinction.
HOW ADEQUATE ARE
TAXONOMIC IDENTIFICATION
PUBLICATIONS AND SERVICES?
The lack of inventories of systematic specialists,
publications on identification, and taxonomic identi-
fication services constitue a major bottleneck in the
application of systematics to the serious problems of
environmental deterioration. In the Un;ted States
we are fortunate, indeed, that an active dedicated
group of biologists has recently organized nationally
as the Association of Systematics Collections with
the primary goals of improving (a) the condition of
biological systematics collections as a national re-
source, and (b) the quality and efficiency of system-
atic services associated with these resources (Invin
et al., 1973). It is regrettable that several years may
elapse before these services will be available at the
level of performance at which they are so badly
needed.
Systematic Specialists
No current lists of systernatists and their fields of
specialization exist. An international directory of
botanical specialists appeared in 1958 (Roon, 1958),
and another on zoological taxonomists of the world
\\ as published in 1961 (Blackwelder and Bl ick welder,
1961). Regrettably, these are now somewhat out-of-
date. As a result one must generally rely >n \\ord of
mouth for this information, a. not verv efficient
means of distributing scientific data.
Identification Resources
Taxonomic informal ion on a limited number of
estuariiie and coastal marine plants and animals is
generally available and reasonably complete, but,
that on most others is scattered and cjverage is
Table 3.—Status of taxonomic publications for identification and classification
of macro- and meiofauna in the estuaries and continental shelf of the middle
eastern United States. (References are not listed in the literature section of
this paper).
Macrofauna
Porifera. deLaubenfels (1949), Hartman (1958), and Wells, Wells and Gray (1960)
are good sources, but no comprehensive guide is available.
Coelenterata, Hydrozoa Fraser (1944) is thorough but difficult to use, and species are
often difficult to distinguish, Nutting (1900-1915) is better but doesn't cover all
families, many species need redescribing.
Coplenterata, Anttnzoa no complete source.
Rhynchocoela Coe (1943) is excellent, but some knowledge of internal morphology is
required.
Annelida, Polychaeta some groups, such as the distinctly errant families, are covered
well in sources like Pettibone (1963), but there are serious difficulties with some
sedentary families, for example, the Cirratuhdae and Capitellidae. Day (1973) is
also helpful.
Sipunculida- the recent paper by Cutler (1973) is very helpful.
Moilusca' the second edition of Abbott's (1974) book is indispensible since it lists ail
molluscs found off this coast and gives references to descriptions.
Crustacea, Cirnped:a' the unpublished preliminary report by Zullo (1963) is helpful,
but is relatively unavailable.
Crustacea, Mysidacea. Tattersall (1951) is thorough, but difficult to use; a handbook
by R. Wigley is in preparation.
Crustacea, Cumacea: no complete source is available; a handbook by L. Watlmg is in
preparation.
Crustacea, Tanaidac.ea. no complete source is available.
Crustacea, Isopoda. the handbook by Schultz (1969) is excellent for identification.
Crustacea, Amphipoda1 Bousfield (1973) is excellent for the more commonly found
species; some of Ihe older monographs are needed occasionally.
Crustacea, Stomatopoda: Manning (1974) covers the few local species.
Crustacea, Decapoda: Williams (1965, 1974) are both excellent.
Bryozoa: papers by Osburn (1912) and Mature (1957) are very useful, however, a com-
prehensive guide is much needed.
Echmodermata, Asteroidea no complete source is available, but Gray et al. (1968) is
helpful.
Echinodermata, Ophiuroidea: no complete source.
Echmodermata, Holothuroidea Deichmann (1930) is very good
Urochordata: the monograph by Van Name (1945) is excellent, but difficult to obtain.
Meiofauna
Protozoa: Borror (1973) covers the genera of ciliates. While there is a profuse litera-
ture on Foramimfera, no comprehensive key exists there aie no complete sources
for other protozoan groups.
Platyhelmmthes: no complete source.
Gastrotncha. no complete source, taxonomy is unsettled.
Kmo'hyncha. American species lareeiy unknown, and generally overlooked
Nematoda no complete source, many species from American Atlantic waters have been
described, but (he nem
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
497
seriously incomplete and spotty. Especially lacking
are taxonomic monographs on major and minor taxa;
illustrated keys, manuals, check lists, and atlases;
and authoritatively identified, representative, ac-
cessible collections of organisms, their photographs,
and resource literature (Carriker, 1967).
Selection of some taxonomic groups for study is
too often guided by chance rather than by careful
choice on the basis of the greatest void in knowledge.
Jn other groups, systematists have not had the time
or assistance to prepare syntheses, even though much
ol the technical information may be at hand. Then
there are whole phyla, especially among marine
invertebrates, for which there are no authoritative
specialists. Moreover, early stages in the life history
of the biota arc generally less well-known than adults;
least known are the micro-, meio-, and small meg-
abenthos. These several groups therefore pose in-
surmountable systematic barriers to most ecologists.
The absence of systematic information has been
circumvented by some biologists by giving potential
species arbitrary codes until such time as these or-
ganisms can b<> investigated systematically. This
expedient, however, excludes the value of positioning
species in the classification scheme for interpretative
analysis based on relationships.
The seriousness of the problem of inadequate
identification resources is emphasized by Chace
(reproduced in Schmitt, 19f>8, Appendix A) and
Wat ling and Maurer (1974).
Chaoe in a revision of his list on the status of the
systematics of recent invertebrates other than in-
sects, included comments on 44 major taxa. The
following observations are representative.:
. . . iJen!ifi'tation difficult or impossible without, living
material; more specialists greatly needed; virtually im-
possible to obtain identifications; the only experienced
taxonomist is too busy with teaching and administra-
tion for identifications, large collections still awaiting
identification; lew publications; the only specialist is
retired, pooily knovra groups, need much more study;
the only specialise just deceased; intensive studies now
in progress; group fairly well covered, but world mono-
graph needed; eo\erage rea-oriably goo.i except for
Atlantic species.
Clearly, prospects for identification u ere not promis-
ing.
The data compiled by Watling arid Maurei (1974)
indicate that a grave problem still faces benthic
ecologies in establishing monitoiing programs, and
rhat progress in systematics has been slow since the
preparation of Chace's list (Table, 3).
Watling (19741 observed that most groups (the
Molluse.il. foe example", hav<; received systematic
coverage that is u.yuallj invervly propor+ional to
their ecological importance but directly proportional
to their size, color, and ease of handling! Though
some improvement is evident in the number and
quality of identification publications, the level is
still far from what is required and must be achieved
in a reasonable time if we are to meet the needs of
pollutional ecology and other fields of biology.
In some regions of the United States the serious
void in identification publications is being partially
filled by series of illustrated identification manuals
prepared apcriodically by collaborating systematic
specialists as resources and time are available.
One of these, the "Marine Flora and Fauna of the
Northeastern United States," is well underway and
provides a model for the organization of similar
series on other coastal regions where none exists
(Carriker, 1974). The first manual was published in
1973, and since then five additional ones on coastal
plants and invertebrates have appeared, printed for
the advisory board of the series by the National
Marine Fisheries Service in NOAA Technical Re-
ports. Some 80 systematic specialists in the United
States and a few abroad are contributing manu-
scripts. Much of the work on the "Marine. Flora and
Fauna" is done as a ''labor of love," support, if any,
coming from whatever source is a~\ ailable.
A second series, "Manuals on Marine Organisms,"
dealing with tropical Atlantic American fauna, being
prepared by (}. L. Voss and F. M. Bayer and associ-
ates, University of Miami, is representative of biota
of the southeastern United States. Two guides,
written for u.^e by non-specialists in the fisheries and
environmental fields, have been published, and
several more are in preparation. Basic information
on poorly known groups is published in another
series, "Fauna Caribaea."
A third series, "Biota of Freshwater Ecosystems,"
sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency
with the assistance of the Smithsonian Institution,
is a valuable series of identification manuals on
North American organisms prepared by specialists
(Smithsonian Institution, 1072-1978). Although not
directly applicable to coastal waters, the set is an
important supplement in the identification of fresh-
water organisms floating into estuaries from streams
and lakes. To date 11 manuals have appeared in
print and others are in preparation.
Systematic Services
For many kinds of organisms one investigator
easily obtains enough specimens in a short time to
swamp several identifiers for months. Moreover,
there are many more requests that) can bt filled for
service identifications for '-coiogists, amateur1-1, pub-
lic health officials, and those conducting stream and
-------
49cS
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
forest surveys; for lists of organism;- for impact
studies; and for the needs of pollution assessment
and monitoring. These, and other economically ori-
ented service needs, have far outstripped the capac-
ity <'f taxonomists and their assistants to cope with
the flood of requests (Irwin et al., 1973). In spite
of the fact that many state governments, experi-
ment stations, or agricultural schools employ per-
sonnel to provide identification services of species
common in their geographic areas, the number of
professionally capable systernatists is still small. The
federal gove rnmerit maintains national identification
services for several groups of economi3ally impor-
tant organisms, such as insects and related taxa,
and parasites of domestic and other animals. Some
of the federal services provide in-house identifica-
tions only, while others serve outside agei cies and
the general public. Kve-n with these seivices, none-
theless, identifiers for many taxonomic groups are
quite unable 1o keep up with the current demand
for determinations, much less provide for prospec-
tive future1 needs. Some sorting centers have been
created for marine organisms, but none makes spe-
cific identification:-, and lag time- is exasperating
(Miehener, 1970).
In addition to current requests, most taxonomists
are faced with a great accumulation of uncorked,
undetermined specimens which have piled up for
years (Schmitf, 19~>3). Because systeriatists who
are willing TO function in a service role are invariably
overworked and under-assisted, they are unable to
cope with ihe demands on (heir time. The needs of
other biologists are thus often poorlv served, and
available comparative collections are frequently in-
adequately curated for proper study (Tnvin et al.,
1973).
Traditionally, identifications have been provided
fret1 of charge by taxonomists or organisations will-
ing to make them. This practice is patently unfair,
and has contributed to the lack of technical assist-
ance to systematists, to the prolonged delay in
obtaining identifications, and to the unattractiveness
of the service function. It is gratifying to report,
however, that this trend is shifting, and some grants
are now including funds fo'1 (axonomic services.
Most critical in the long view, after all is said and
done, is the fact that the service role often prevents
systematists from getting on with the urgent research
of preparing the basic floras, faunas, .ind mono-
graphs -the very foundatiem cf the service function.
Then1 is thus unquestionably a strong basis for
the alarm expressed, especially by orgamsmic biolo-
gnis, over the service1 role of svsternaties to tin1
fl:v,jMn anel the future ;>f tb" lield of systematic^
itself! It is clear that a strong, coordinated, long-
range, natitmal plan is urgently re-enured.
Members of the- Associatiem of Systematics Col-
lections (ASC) have1 already formulated such a plan
called "America's Systematics Collections: A Na-
tional Plan" (Irwin et al., 1973). This stresses the
importance of systematics collections to science,
seiciety, and education, and outlines an approach,
carefully developed by the newly organized com-
munity of systematists, for the recognition and
development of systematics collections as an impor-
tant national resource and service.
Specific ge>als of the \SC include: (1) manage-
ment of the- national inventory of specimens and
associated elocumentation in museums and herbaria
to insure a) permanent conservation of specimens,
b) ready access to them and their documentation,
and c) space, facilities, and library resources; and
(2) addition of new specimens and asse>ciated infor-
matics. Specific service-related aims include (1)
make available upon demand specimens or taxon-
related information in a variety of useful forms,
(2) enable incorporation of specimens anel associ-
ated data in an information management system,
anel (3) enable reaely access to specimens themselves
and to associates! elocumentation and library ma-
tt-rials. The ARC,- is moving ahead to implement
these goals. Some of their activities, carried out
through a series of ASC Councils, include: (1) iden-
tifying systematics collections of importance as
national re-sources; (2) developing standards for
systematics collections; (3) implementing electronic
data processing m collectiem management proce-
dures; (4) developing more effective- use- of system-
atics collections in the study anel re-solution of prob-
lems affectmg the ejuality of the1 emironment; and
(f>) developing technical training programs for pro-
fessional service personnel and their placement.
A major emphasis of the ASC is ce>rrcct identifica-
tion of species to indicate- environmental changes
ant! their effects on human welfare. The association
accordingly includes in its plan a survey of public
and private agencies to determine actual or potential
availability of resources te> support, among other
systematic activities, contracts for specific identifica-
tion services.
Systematic resource's in the United States of im-
portance in estuarine biological work also include
collections of living specimens. The American Type
Culture Collection, for example, is a national iden-
tification center in Rockville, Md , which for a fee
identifies live viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozo-
ans. The organization is now establishing J1 national
computerized microbiological strain data, center
-------
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
499
which will permit investigators to compare micro-
biological data with that at other centers in the
country. Another important national research re-
source is the Culture Collection of Algae at Indiana
University, Bloomington. Identification services are
not provided because of lack of personnel, but living
type cultures of algae are available for a nominal
charge.
Non-Specialists and Identification
The non-specialist is usually able to identify and
classify only those species which specialists have
already described, named, and reported in the scien-
tific literature. Because of the frequent difficulty of
use of the original systematic reports by nonspecial-
ists, systematists synthesize the original literature
into a form which is more readily applied in identi-
fication and classification. These syntheses take the
form of illustrated manuals, check lists, taxonomic
monographs, and general systematic books. An ex-
cellent example of the last category is the recent
volume by P\. T. Abbott (1974) on the marine
molluscs of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North
America. Others are E. L. Bousfield's (1973) fine
publication on the shallow water gammaridean
amphipods of New England, and Light's manual
on the intertidal invertebrates of the central Cali-
fornia coast (Smith and Carltoii, 197.")).
Because closely similar species may be confused,
it is highly desirable that the non-specialist confirm
his preliminary identifications by comparing spec
mens with correctly identified specimens in museum
and herbarium collections. This procedure is all the
more important as similar and closely related species
not listed in publications readily available to non-
specialists may be overlooked.
For careful research, comparison alone may not
provide the necessary authoritative confirmation.
In this case the assistance of a specialist, or an
assistant closely associated with the specialist, should
be solicited. Identification is riot always a simple
matter of identifying one standard form of indi-
vidual. In a scries of individuals from many locali-
ties, complications may be introduced because of
such modifying factors as individual, sexual, sea-
sonal, oiitogenetic, and geographic variations, as
well as the possibility of intergradation with neigh-
boring species (Schmitt, 1953). Moreover, intro-
duced and immigrant species may be present that
answer to the same criteria in a key as do local
species. Hedgpeth (1975) informs me that over
50 non-native species occur in San Francisco Bay
alone'.
Because of the taxonomic complexity of many
organisms, and the consequent danger of misidenti-
fication, voucher specimens should be made avail-
able, preferably in museums and herbaria, whenever
possible. These insure that the value of ecological,
behavioral, physiological, biogeographic, and other
biological work based on identifications will not be
reduced due to questions about inaccuracy of deter-
mination of the organisms involved (Irwin et al.,
1973).
TRENDS IN SYSTEMATICS—
SYSTEMATISTS ENDANGERED?
Unquestionably the degree of success of the service
function of systematics in future years will be deter-
mined by the health of the field of systematics
today. It is thus important to review the current
state of the discipline.
In Darwin's time systematists enjoyed a high
reputation. The turning point in disfavor came about
the turn of the century, not because of the work of
systematists but because other fields of biology
seemed more promising (Hedgpeth, 1961). System-
atics then received a substantial stimulus with the
creation of the National Science Foundation in
1950. Although increased funding resulted in a mul-
tiplication of systematic research, subsequent finan-
cial support from all sources has been insufficient
to keep pace with the needs ,jf systematics in either
basic or applied areas. Consequently, the current
resources of the field are inadequate to meet not
only present national service r ;>eds, but much less
the needs of the future.
For one thing, decreasing numbers of students
are attracted to careers in systematic biology. The
•easons, not hard to find, contribute to the low
number of trained systematists: a tight job market
and reluctance of many university departments to
hire systematists, overshadowing of systematics by
such fields as ecology and behavior, reduced amount
of available support for graduate students in the
form of fellowships, and general deemphasis of
systematics in graduate curricula (Humes, 1974).
In fact, systematists have been all but excluded
from many of the best biology departments in this
country (Wilson, 1971). As a result, many teaching
systematists are trying, with little success (Steere,
1971), to leave aeademia and move into museums
which seem to have become the last i.^-uon of
defense for systematics--which is wrong! (Pawson,
1974).
Because systematics does not occupy a prominent,
position in most educational institutions, much of
the systematic research conducted in the country
is done in fragments of time snatched between ad-
-------
500
ESTVARINK POLLUTION CONTROL
niinistrative or teaching duties by biologists whose
major responsibilities are nonsystematic.
In spite of the fact that the/ potential worth of
systematics to society is now greater than ever,
only a handful of graduate university departments
in the United States and Canada are now strong
in systematics. These departments have to be asso-
ciated in some way with research collections to
conduct their teaching and research; and whereas
several state universities and colleges used to main-
tain museums with biological research collections,
few do now because of funding problems. Default
in this area has thus led to surrender of important
regional collections to the United Stai es National
Museum. The result of this drift in collections has
been to remove resource materials from new scholars
to some1 degree and to widen the split 1 etween edu-
cational opportunity and young biologists who could
participate in this discipline. Many who become
taxonomists, therefore, do so in spite of these diffi-
culties, or are self-trained (Mosquin, 197]; Watling,
1974; Williams, 1974).
Systematists at the doctoral level inquire many
years of training. Most rarely wish to devote full
time, or even part time, to the service aspects of
systematics, particularly since such services are not
professionally satisfying and have seldom been finan-
cially compensated. Hopefully, with growing na-
tional recognition of the importance of systematics,
more systematists will be encouraged to participate
in service oriented investigations; the resulting serv-
ice resources (keys, manuals, monographs, computer
programs, and so on) then being turned over to
technical taxonomically trained assistants to carry
out the service activities. It is important that the
significant role of taxonomic assistants be fully
recognized, and that they become the major working
force in taxonomic service centers under the direct ion
of professional supervisors.
Since the number of pure research positions in
systematics is limited and most systematists earn
their living as teachers, curators, members of identi-
fication services, or in other brandies of biology,
the borderline between systematists and other biol-
ogists has blurred. This is providing opportunity in
systematics for biologists of varied interests (Mayr,
191)9). Many ecologists are a good example. Because
of the scarcity of systematists, identification has
fallen increasingly on the ecologist, and as a conse-
quence some have become highly profcient in the
systematic? relating to their field of research. The
blending of systenntics with closely related disci-
plines, both as purr science and in its application,
augurs well for the future of svstemat sts. So does
the growing appreciation of the correct image of
the modern systernatist; that is, one who concerns
himself not only with preserved specimens in col-
lections, but who also works in the field and in the
laboratory studying whatever phase of morphology,
physiology, ecology, behavior, biogeography, and
life history contributes to a fuller quantitative under-
standing of the likenesses, differences, groupings,
arid evolution of the species of his specialty (Turner,
1974). Mayi (1969) notes that the systematist has
every reason to be optimistic about the future of
his field. The laudable efforts of the Association of
Systematics Collections may help to materialize this
optimism. For the moment, though, we have to
agree with Redfield's (19.18) observation for an
earlier period, that "The line of advance1 in taxo-
nomic knowledge is held by a perilously thin force
of specialists.''
With growth and strengthening of biological re-
search, has come increased usage of systematics
collections. Researchers in increasing numbers are
visiting the few systematics collections in their spe-
cialties. The number of loans of specimens similarly
has grown. Burgeoning collections and loan requests
are outstripping staff capabilities. Nearly every
major institution responsible for major systematics
collections is crowded, and space is inadequate for
effective research and efficient care of specimens.
A further depreciating factor is the prevalent short-
age of clerical and subprof. ssional help, especially
in institutions having ambitious systematic pro-
grams and limited finances (Schmitt, 1953). It is
thus no surprise that systematics collections are
deteriorating. To all of this must be added the factor
of inflation which results in lowered income.
Summaiy. — Kven though requirements for iden-
tification of estuarine and coastal organisms have
greatly accelerated, present trends in systematics
appear bleak indeed.
Relative to the population, growth of the country,
(a) there are fewer highly tiained systematists;
(b) there is a significant decline in the number of
practicing taxonomists (Higgins, 1974); (c) there
is less financial support for them and for systematic
activities in all institutions; (d) there are fewer
positions and (e) training opportunities; and (f)
there is a scarcity of journals in which to publish
(Gosline, 1974). '
It is increasingly difficult to have organisms iden-
tified; capable sysfematisis are so much in demand
that they give1 service only to a selected few. gener-
ally with preference to those who furnish specimens
which remain in their collections or new species
-------
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
501
that are to be described (Allen, 1974; Tarzwell,
1974).
The fate of biological collections in colleges and
universities depends to a deplorable extent upon the
research emphasis of the moment. As responsible
personnel move to other institutions, collections are
left in grave danger, or they are turned over to the
large museums and herbaria of the country. These
changes invariably occur without increase of their
supportive resources. As a consequence these large
institutions are increasingly charged with carrying
out and supporting systematic biology. At least one
danger of this trend is the weakening of instruction
in systematic biology and thus the balanced and
orderly development of the science of biology itself
(Schmidt, 1952).
Progress has been made in some aspects of sys-
tematics. but serious setbacks have occurred in
others. For example, there has been increased empha-
sis on the taxonomy of both phytoplankton ((-spe-
cially nanoplankton) and zooplankton (especially
larval forms and their developmental stages), but
the systematics of nematodes which appear to be
the most abundant of the metazoans and are prob-
ably the most diverse in number of species, has
hardly progressed from the status of 19th century
science (Murphy, 1974).
There is a definite, health}' trend toward nu-
merical taxonomy and phenetics to define species
assemblages, but a marked increase in casual iden-
tifications in applied systematics often by ecologists
engaged in biomass and community structural stud-
ies (M. Abbott, 1974).
Finally, Steere (1971), writing about institutions
which house biological systematics collections, re-
ports that in the previous three years, operating
expenses almost doubled, and endowment returns
and contributions halved. Predictably this has led
to substandard salaries, deterioration of personnel
strength (because of unchanged staff size in the
face of swelling collections and increased demands
for service), reduction of activities, and deferral of
expansion. This situation is totally unacceptable
if modern biology is to develop in these institutions
and they are to fulfill their service roles in applied
systematics!
Water Quality Legislation
and Systematics
Water quality legislation assures "the protection
and propagation of a balanced, indigenous popula-
tion of shellfish, fish, and wildlife" in any body of
water into which, for example, thermal discharge
is to be made (Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, Amendments of 1972, Public Law 92-500, Sec-
tion 316 (a); see also Section 102 (a) and Hedgpeth,
1973). The legislation implies the need for identifi-
cation and classification of organisms, both target
and non-target species, involved in analysis of the
biological impact of pollutants. By way of example,
consider the voluminous reports which have ap-
peared on such subjects as ecological effects of pesti-
cides on non-target species (Pimentel, 1971) and
data on water quality criteria (Batelle, 1971; NAS-
NAK, 1972). As of this date, however, this emphasis
of the federal legislation has not resulted in con-
spicuous financial support for systematic work on
any of the important taxa.
It is certain that requirements for identification
of biota will not only continue, but will increase,
because of the escalating concern of many agencies
and the public with problems and issues of environ-
mental quality. Emphasis at the moment reflects
needs anticipated and created by the energy crisis.
Other issues concern mercury, lead, asbestos, PCB's,
NTA, and oil spills (for example, see Eisler, 1973).
It is certain new concerns will emerge in the future.
Specimens in museums, herbaria, and live culture
collections, and those made to meet immediate
needs, will continue to provide baseline data prior
to and following environmental alterations (Allen,
1974). Organisms involved must thus be correctly
identified; if not, costly mistakes can occur. It is
consequently with dismay that one reads: "The
taxonomic level to which animals are identified
depends on the needs, experience, and available
resources" (Weber, 1973).
Adequate environmental assessment cannot be
obtained without the resources of systematics col-
lections. The Environmental Protection Agency has
made a preliminary effort to contribute toward im-
proving the quality of data upon which environ-
mental decisions are based (see, for example, the
identification manuals of Correll and Correll (1972)
and the Smithsonian Institution (1972-1973)), but
unfortunately these efforts are giving way increas-
ingly to mission oriented and mandated activities
(Allen, 1974). Also note that monitoring of biota
was demanded in licensing by the Atomic Energy
Commission, but there has been no visible increase
in the demand for systematists resulting from these
requirements (Higgins, 1974).
Man is an organism, of course, but since he does
not generally submit to being used as a barometer
of environmental conditions, he delegates this re-
sponsibility to other forms of life. This is a weighty
responsibility and necessitates that the taxonomic
-------
ESTUARINB POLLUTION CONTROL
position of his substitutes be solidly established for
rj'n^ose? of comparison mid prediction'
CONCERNS AND CONCLUSIONS
Basic and applied environmental research and its
application to such practical problems as pollution,
Lav grown far more rapidly than the supporting
base oi systematic biology. As a conseqience of this
deiieic and the conditions described in this paper,
system a lists find themselves in a paradoxical quag-
mire. Thus, though willing, they are unable ade-
quately to fill the needs of environmental biologists,
pollution scientists, and others for systematic serv-
ic< o. The concerns may be summarized as follows:
i) There is an increasing shortage of systematists
ro handle and supervise identifications and classifi-
ditirns; as a consequence, more and more inade-
quately trained persons are performing this service;
'-) There is ar insufficient number of systematists
to i-'jtiduct the basic research necessary to produce
(be systematic tools required in applied systematic
hioiogy:
.'V} Identification and classification aids are inade-
>j\u-;e or insufficient for most taxa, and are entirely
missing for others;
4) The number of i axonomically well-trained
technicians to relieve s\ steniatists of the work of
routine identification is grossly insufficient;
"> i Compensation to systematic specialists for
taxorioniic services is generally nonexistent, a lack
foreign to professional services in other scientific
and engineering fields;
0,) There is a total absence of currei t directories
of systematic specialists, identification service cen-
ters, identification aids, and a national computerized
storage-retrieval system for the systematic resources
of The natior;
7 Roth young and experienced systematists find
it ',-i'jji-.-asi?i«;ly difficult to obtain positions in their
fields of specialization;
S) Young people are unable to obtain training in
systematic in most colleges and universities where
th.' field receives d< creasing emphasis aid support;
•)') Valuable repiesentalive, collections from envi-
ronmental studies arc discarded or lost, and no
voucher specimens are reposited in rruseums and
herbaria for future reference-;
10; Environmental agencies have pa d lip service
to the importance of syslematics in environmental
woik, bu( L:-ivc not provided the financial support
neetssary to help prepare svstematies more effec-
tivi !y for thif role;
311 Most museums, herbaria, and living collec-
tions receive inadequate financial support and are
understaffed, with the result that systematics col-
lections are receiving insufficient care, are deteriorat-
ing, and the service function is suffering—the prob-
lem being seriously compounded by inflation.
The most pressing systematic service needs at the
moment are (a) well trained technicians, (b) sys-
tematists with the time to supervise them, (c) iden-
tification aids, and (d) funds to help systematists
carry out their functions and elevate systematic
biology to the position where it can more effectively
contribute to science and to society.
It is imperative that everything possible be done,
not only to conserve the human and material system-
atic resources already existing, but also to support
and encourage further development of these re-
sources in a hospitable climate, appreciatively recog-
nizing the economic and intrinsic worth of their
contributions. The tasks facing systematists are
unquestionably monumental and long-term.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are offered to
maximize the service role of biological systematics
in the assessment of the effects of pollution on the
biological utilization of estuaries and coastal waters
in the United States:
(1) A major, national, coherent force working in
behalf of systematics in the country is the Associa-
tion for Systematics Collections. The ASC estimates
that it will cost $63.3 million in the next five years
to effect its national plan for the conservation and
development of systematics collections as a national
resource and service (Invin et al., 1973). The various
councils of the ASC are now preparing proposals
for financial support to carry out the plan. We urge
federal and private agencies to look with favor on
these proposals. A unique feature of the ASC plan
is its integrated national character, a necessary
attribute t o provide systematic services in any estu-
ary or coastal area in the country. Support must
go to aid in the development of aspects of the plan
as a whole, rather than for parochial units of re-
stricted regional interest. In view of the increasing
number of persons who are making professional
identifications without the advantage of adequate
training, we further urge the ASC to establish a
roster of persons qualified to make service identifica-
tions in the various groups of organisms.
(2) In the face of growing, critical, environmental
problems in estuaries and coastal waters, institu-
tions and agencies will accelerate their search for
-------
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
503
financial support through grants and contracts to
attack these problems. In the interest of aiding the
service- aspects of systematics, we urge funding
agencies to look favorably upon requests involving:
(a) compensation to systematic specialists in the
private sector for identifications and confirmation
of identifications; (b) proper curation of biological
research collections resulting from environmental
and other broad investigations to serve as voucher
specimens; (c) services for taxonomically trained
assistants; (d) enlargement of identification service
centers in museums and universities, including train-
ing of taxonomic technicians to handle specimens
from major pollutional surveys; (e) fellowships for
advanced training at those major museums and uni-
versities having faculties in evolutionary biology,
in combination with ecology, comparative physi-
ology, or other organismic biology; (f) support of
systematists in governmental agencies and elsewhere
dealing with whole organisms, giving them time to
develop their systematic specialties and to contrib-
ute to the upgrading of practical systematics through
the preparation of basic and applied systematic
resources.
(3) A serious void in identification publications
is comprehensive illustrated identification manuals.
Accordingly, we urge funding of a comprehensive,
illustrated, coastal flora and fauna series for each
major coastal region of the United States which
\\ould invite the talents of the community of sys-
tematists in the preparation of each series. A mini-
mum of ?25,000 will be needed per year for each of
the three series already in progress on the east coast,
and at least similar amounts will be necessary for a
new series for the gulf coast, and another for the
west coast—a total of $725,000 for the first five
years.
(4) A number of persons of considerable compe-
tence as systematists, many at the doctoral level,
unable to obtain positions either in museums or in
universities, are now supervising environmental de-
partments of engineering and power companies.
Their training as systematists has thus been a waste
to society. We endorse Hedgpeth's (1975) recom-
mendation that each power and engineering com-
pany hire a systematist specializing in a different
taxonomic group to provide identification service for
a reasonably natural geographic region. Thus on
the Pacific coast one power company might provide
service for polychaetes, another for crustaceans, and
so on. Nominal fees should be charged for the
service.
(.">) A major long-term research effort, to be meas-
ured in decades, is still required before the full
extent to which systematic knowledge can signifi-
cantly aid in the identification and control of pollu-
tion is known. Moreover, completion of the task of
identification of most undescribed species will re-
quire several more generations. We thus urge that
adequate support for systematics be sustained for
many years to come, allowing the maximum return
on the investment in terms of basic systematic
knowledge and taxonomic services.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to the following persons
for valuable assistance in the preparation of the manuscript:
Marie B. Abbott, R. Tucker Abbott, William D. Burbanck,
Robert P. Higgins, Arthur G. Humes, Raymond B. Manning,
Frank J. S. Mature, Jr., Andrew MoErlean, Margaret S.
McFadien, Daniel Merriman, Allan D. Michael, Donald G.
Murphy, Joel O'Connor, David L. Pa/wson, Waldo L. Schmitt,
Carl N. Shuster, Clarence M. Tarzwell, Ruth D. Turner,
Leslie A. Watling, Roland L. Wigley, Robert T. Wilce, and
Austin B. Williams.
Contribution No. 103, University of Delaware, College of
Marine Studies.
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BACTERIA AND VI RUSES-INDICATORS
OF UNNATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL
CHANGES OCCURRING IN
THE NATION'S ESTUARIES
DR. RITA R. COLWELL
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
ABSTRACT
Microorganisms are useful indicators of alterations in the natural environment. As presently
employed, however, "indicator organisms" such as fecal coliforms and total cplifprms have severe
limitations. Other organisms have been proposed in recent years as potential indicator organisms,
viz., streptococci, clostridia, and pseudomonads. The indicator organism concept is reviewed
and recommendations for future studies are made. In particular, detection, isolation, and identi-
fication of viruses, effects of pollutants on the natural microbial flora, and reevaluation of microbial
indicators are critical areas requiring research.
INTRODUCTION
The bacteria, yeasts, and fungi naturally present
in waters and sediments play an essential role in
the mineralization and cycling of nutrients necessary
for normal plant and animal growth. A variety of
microorganisms may appear in given ecosystems
from time to time because of the ubiquity of many
bacterial species; in general, the normal flora of the
aquatic habitat is distinguishable from bacteria asso-
ciated with warm-blooded animals and man. More-
over, the numbers and types of bacteria present in
the natural habitat are generally in balance so that
conditions are stable within recognizable, normal
levels. When abnormal conditions occur, changes
in the microbial populations will ensue. For exam-
ple, with pollution from domestic or farm animals,
influx from wastewater treatment plants, and so
forth, the immber of bacteria of animal or human
origin increases. Hence, a hazard to man may
develop.
Estuariiie eutrophication and coastal pollution
pose increasingly serious environmental problems.
Nutrient loads in estuaries are based on watershed
characteristics, influent stream concentrations, and
overall watershed management policies. The role of
microorganisms, in particular the bacteria, is to
break down the dead organic material and wastes
so that organic nutrients necessary for plant growth
are provided and organic wastes are removed by
mineralization. Thus, the role of the bacteria, yeasts,
and fungi, is, simply stated, to keep the wheel of
nature turning by recycling complex organic and
inorganic materials. Nutrients, in moderation and
in proper balance, permit normal algal productivity
which, in turn, supports animal life.
Changes in environmental conditions may cause
more subtle effects on the normal microbial flora,
leading to such conditions as increased disease in
man.y resident fish species or unpleasant anoxic con-
ditions arising from hydrogen sulfide production,
INDICATOR ORGANISMS
In the case of microorganisms, indicators are usu-
ally considered in relation to human health risk.
The most common forms of water-borne human
disease are caused by bacteria excreted from the
intestines of man and warm-blooded animals. Fecal
contamination is recognized as dangerous. However,
pathogens normally are present in small numbers
and are difficult to culture and identify. Thus, the
more easily identified organisms that are commonly
and specifically present in feces serve as indicator
organisms. The most widely used are the so-called
coliform bacteria, with Eschen'chia coli or the less
specifically fecal coliforms being tested for in most
cases.
Thus, for well over a hundred years, bacteria
have been used as indicators of unnatural or un-
desirable environmental conditions, mainly as indi-
cators of human health hazards, i.e., warning signs
that potential human pathogens may be present.
In 188.") Escherich described the bacterial species
he believed to be characteristic of human feces and,
therefore, an indicator of fecal pollution. The bac-
terial species of Escherich is now classified in the
507
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508
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Escherichia-Enterobader group and comprises, with
other species, the complex now referred to as the
coliform group. These organisms are to ':his day the
indicator microorganisms employed by authorities
in determining rate and extent of pollution from
domestic sewage.
Eijkman, in his studies carried out over 70 years
ago, recommended an elevated temperature incuba-
tion test that gave a positive reaction with fecal
coliform organisms and a negative reaction with
those of non-fecal origin (Eijkman, 1904). The
Eijkman test procedure is the basis of the EC test,
which is widely used to detect fecal coliforrns. Un-
fortunately, no test is available for differentiating
coliforms of human versus animal origin. The
Eijkman test, however, does indicate fecal coli-
forms. The generally accepted principle is that the
presence of fecal coliforms indicates the potential
presence of disease-producing microbes (Kabler et
a!., 1964).
Present methods depend on enumeration of lactose-
fermenting bacteria by an MPX procedure and fur-
ther biochemical testing to establish whether these
organisms are coliforms, fecal coliforms, or E. coli.
General standards have been developed to relate
the quantitative occurrence of these various types
to presumed acceptable or unacceptable levels of
fecal contamination (Hoskins, 1934; Geldreich et
al., 1902).
Streptococcus spp. known as enterococci occur in
the gut of warm-blooded animals and man. Studies
of streptococci in water and sewage have shown that
these organisms can serve as indicators )f fecal pol-
lution. The sanitary significance of fecal streptococci
has been clarified and these bacteria can now be
efficiently and accurately enumerated in water sam-
ples. All of the species or types of fecal streptococci
found in feces of human beings and animals can be
isolated from sewage and water contaminated with
sewage, including estuarine and coastal waters
(Hartley and Slanetz, 1960). A definite relationship
between the densities of coliform bacteria and en-
terococci in sewage has long been known (Litsky
et al., 1958). In fact, an increase in the coliform
index is generally followed by a predictable increase
in the enterococcus index, with a direct relationship
between the numbers of coliform bacteria and en-
terococci. Unfortunately, enterococci are found else-
where in nature, occurring on plants, in dairy
products, and so forth, so that sources of these
microorganisms must be carefully scrutinized at each
time of assessment (Mundt, 1964; Geldreich et al.,
1964). Because of their resistance to adverse condi-
tions, enterococci are fairly widespread Therefore,
one must expect, and deal with, higher "natural"
levels. The isolation of enterococci from nature has
been enhanced by improved methods and media for
isolation. For example, azide dextrose broth, used
as a presumptive test, and ethyl violet azide broth,
a confirmation test, permit two to three orders of
magnitude improvement in the isolation and iden-
tification of enterococci (Litsky et al., Woo).
A variety of pathogenic microorganisms may be
present in the feces of warm-blooded animals, viz.,
Brucella, Salmonella, Shigella spp., Mycobacteriutn
tuberculosis, Pasteurella, Leptospira, Vibrio cholerae,
Entamoeba histolytica, and various enteric viruses.
Most of these genera noted are present in the feces
of diseased animals. Hence, the main factor involved
is the occurrence in a population and shedding of
the microorganisms into water via feces. Thus, the
density of pathogens in the aqueous environment is
affected by a variety of factors: (a) type and degree
of sewage treatment; (b) ability of microorganisms
to survive the effects of antibiosis, predation, and
chemical nature of the water; (c) dietary habits
and socio-economic status of the community; (d)
the prevalence of specific disease in the community;
(e) endemic conditions in the human and animal
population; and (f) existent carrier rates in the pop-
ulation (Brezenski and Russomanno, 1969). There-
fore, the introduction of specific pathogens via
sewage or runoff into estuaries and coastal waters
is not constant, but rather tends to be intermittent.
With the uneven microorganism distribution in
water, coupled with effects of dilution and environ-
mental parameters, such as temperature and salinity,
the density and distribution of pathogenic micro-
organisms has resulted in the search for indicator
organisms, as opposed to looking for the individual
pathogen. More accurate and simplified techniques
for the isolation of Salmonella have been developed
in recent years so that confirmation of Salmonella
can be achieved (Cheng et al., 1971). Despite the
fact that detection methods for Salmonella have
been improved, they are still likely to be missed.
Where the bacteriological quality of the water is
poor, fecal coliforms and salmonellae can be isolated.
Often in estuaries and coastal waters, wild fowl
will contribute to the salmonellae population load
(Strobel, 196S). Salmonella, in recent years, have
been directly isolated from polluted tidal estuaries,
but at low percentage recovery, i.e., 1 to 200 fecal
coliforms (Brezenski and Russomanno, 1969). Ne-
vertheless, the prevalence of Salmonellae is greater
than previously thought to be. Factors, such as
salinity, temperature, and others associated with
the saline environment cannot be depended upon
to eliminate such pathogens. Greater survival of
salmonellae and fecal coliforms in shellfish, when
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
509
the water temperature reaches below 5°C, has been
observed by several workers. Clearly, isolation of
salmonella from a polluted marine environment has
been improved by application of better techniques
and enrichment media (Grunnet et al., 1970). How-
ever, these pathogens, because1 of the complexity of
the methods required for isolation and identifica-
tion, are not ordinarily searched for in an analysis
of water quality.
More recently the anaerobic bacteria, i.e., the
Clostri
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510
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
varying environmental conditions. Furthermore,
conditions causing large reductions in coliforms do
not always show correspondingly reduced numbers
of Salmonella (Dutka, 1973).
The shortcomings of the coliform group as an
indicator of pollution have led to the increased de-
sirability of employing the streptococci as indicators
of recent and dangerous pollution. The fe 3al strepto-
cocci rarely multiply in water, as some of the coli-
forms have been found to do. Thus, they offer some
advantages as indicators of recent fecal pollution.
Also, it has been suggested that domestic sewage
pollution can be differentiated from animal wastes,
land runoff, and storm water pollution by fecal
coliform-fecal streptococcus ratios (Geldreich, 19712).
In general, the fecal streptococci are more resist-
ant to the natural water environment and to purifi-
cation processes than the coliforms or fecal coliforms.
At points distant from the original source of pol-
lution, the fecal streptococci are often the only
indicators of the fecal nature of the pollution.
Studies have shown that the survival of fecal strep-
tococci parallel the survival of enteric viruses better
than the coliforms (Cohen and Shuval 1973). It
has been suggested by some workers that the fecal
streptococci may, in some cases, provide a better
estimate of the probable virus content (Cohen and
Shuval, 1973).
Dissatisfaction with the fecal coliform and fecal
streptococci has led to a search for other, better
indicators. Coliphagcs (bacterial viruses) have been
suggested as indicators of sewage pollution. How-
ever, no consistent relationship is observed between
coliform arid coliphage levels (Hilton and Stotzky,
1973). Although the complexity of the bacteriophage
method and time required before final results are
available discount their use as indicators of fecal
pollution of water, bacteriophages can serve well
as models for detection of enteric viral pollution of
water and in epidemiological applications (Scarpino,
1974).
Pseudomonas aeruyinosa is slowly gaining favor
as an indicator of water quality, espec,ally as an
indicator of potential upper respiratory ';ract infec-
tions (Foster et al., 1971; Kenner and Clark, 1974).
Relatively recent approaches to estimating bac-
terial quality of water are uptake of phosphorus,
using radioactive phosphorous (Khanna, 1973), and
assay for fecal sterols for water pollution indication.
The intestinal bacterial flora is associated with pro-
duction of characteristic fecal sterols discharged in
feces (Martin et al., 1973). Fecal compounds, in par-
ticular coprostanol and cholesterol, thus, have been
examined and a coliform-coprostanol relationship
has been reported. However, a consistency in the
relationships from the data presently available has
not been observed (Dutka, Chan and Coburn, un-
published data). Fecal sterols may well prove useful
in the future as pollution indicators, but the method
will require substantial developmental research be-
fore proper evaluation and application are possible.
Natural Estuarine
Microbial Communities
Microorganisms autochthonous to a given estua-
rine system play a fundamental role in mineralization
and cycling of nutrients. Estimation of the microbial
biomass comprising the natural flora of estuaries can
be accomplished by direct counts and morphological
observations using acridine orange staining and epi-
fluorescence illumination of the bacteria collected
011 non-fluorescent membrane filters. Measurement
of the activity of microbial populations directly in
the environment can also be accomplished using
methods such as uptake rates of radioactively-
labeled organic substrates (Wright, 1973). The use
of ATP to measure standing crops of microorganisms
is widely accepted (Holm-Hansen, 1969) and the
ATP method offers promise as an indicator of
microbial activity.
The role of bacteria in the detrivore food chain
is only beginning to be understood (Hamilton, 1973;
Rosswall, 1973). Effects of pollutants on these
natural processes require extensive study since very
little information, relatively speaking, is presently
available.
Deterioration of Coastal
and Estuarine Waters
Many studies have shown that coliform bacteria
introduced into tidal, coastal, and deep sea waters
disappear rapidly. A large number and variety of
factors have been shown to be involved in the die-off
of coliforms, especially Escherichia coli, in seawater.
Dilution, bacteriocidal action of seawater, grazing
by zooplankton, adsorption on estuarine and coastal
sediments (Ketchum et al., 1952), salinity, effect
of heavy metals in seawater (Jones, 1963; 1971),
lysis of coliforms by indigenous marine bacteria
such as Bdellovibrio spp., and bacteriophages (Mit-
chell et al., 1967; Carlucci and Pramer, 1960), low
nutrient levels in seawater (Jannasch, 1968), day-
light (Pike et al., 1970) and temperature have been
offered as explanation for the die-off of E. coli in
seawater and for the absence of fecal coliforms in
ocean locations far from land. Nutrients have a
marked beneficial effect on the survival of E. coli
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
511
in seawater. Some nutrients, such as cysteiiie, very
likely act by chelating metal ions in seawater
(Scarpino and I'ramer, 1962).
Furthermore, above certain BOD levels, viz. 1—10
mg/1 initial BOD, seawater will temporarily lose its
toxicity and the maximum bacterial density becomes
dependent on the initial BOD. In fresh seawater
with BOD levels of 10 lo 120 mg/1, the relationship
between the log of the maximum bacterial densities
and the initial BOD appears to be linear. Thus, by
themselves, total and fecal coliform bacteria may
not be reliable indicators of the degree of recent
fecal pollution in seawater because, given sufficient
nutrient levels, the bacterial density will increase
(Savage and Hanes, 1971). Growth of coliform
bacteria, isolated from soft-shelled clams, in estua-
rine water has been demonstrated (Lear, 1962). The
conclusion which can be drawn from the data avail-
able is that the various factors in seawater which,
under clean, unpolluted conditions, will act to elimi-
nate coliforms from estuarine and coastal waters
cannot be depended upon in waters receiving heavy
nutrient input. In fact, increases in coliform popula-
tions will occur and it is possible that survival of
pathogens may be enhanced.
A signal to this effect is the relative ease with
which antibiotic-resistant coliforms can be isolated
from estuaries and coastal waters (Colwell and
Sizemore, 1974; Feary et al., 1972). Many of these
bacteria have been shown to harbor R factors carry-
ing multiple antibiotic resistance which could be
transferred to sensitive Salmonella typhimurium,
Shigella dysenteriae, and E. coli. Of serious concern
is the fact that these bacteria are isolated from shell-
fish waters. Furthermore, chloramphenicol-resistant
bacteria of fecal origin may pose a particular health
hazard, with reference to R factors which carry re-
sistance determinants to chloramphenicol. Transfer
of chloramphenicol resistance to Salmonella typhi, a
water-borne organism, or to Vibrio parahaemolyticus,
would make treatment of typhoid fever or V. para-
haemolyticus food poisoning more difficult. It would
appear, therefore, wise for sanitary quality measure-
ments of shellfish waters to include estimates of
chloramphenicol-resistant fecal coliforms. An impor-
tant conclusion of the work on antibiotic-resistant
types found in rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters
is that the R + E. coli comes from urban sewage
(Smith, 1970).
The coincidence of infectious disease in fishes
with stress caused by temperature, eutrophication,
sewage, industrial pollution, and pesticides has been
documented (Snieszko, 1974). Estuaries and coastal
areas affected by pollution expose the fish in these
areas to frequent stresses, i.e., unfavorable or fluctu-
ating water chemistry, organic pollutants, and so on
(Wedemyer and Wood, 1974). If the occurrence of
stress coincides with the presence of pathogenic
microorganisms, outbreaks of disease will occur. In-
terestingly, in treated sewage the number of coli-
forms is reduced, but in the bacterial population, the
coliforms appear to be replaced by Aeromonas which
multiply in the slime lining of the pipes carrying
the sewage (Heuschmann-B runner, 1970). The
quantity of Aeromonas in water can be related to
the degree of pollution. Many Aeromonas, Pseudo-
monas, and Vibrio species are bacterial fish patho-
gens. Marine fishes in areas exposed to pollution
have been reported to show exophthalrnus, open
external sores, epitheliomas, and papillomas. In
fishes experimentally exposed to the polluted water,
skin hemorrhages, opaqueness of eyes, and blindness
were observed. In terminal stages fluid accumulated
in the body cavity and internal hemorrhaging oc-
curred. Aeromonas, Pseudomonas and Vibrio were
isolated from the diseased fishes. All strains isolated
from marine fishes were halophilic (Snieszko, 1974).
The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a relation-
ship between incidence of disease in fish populations
and pollution of estuarine and coastal waters with
domestic and industrial sewage. A weakening of the
fish, with subsequent invasion by microorganisms,
causing disease and/or death, appears to be related
to pollution. Unfortunately, in several incidences,
widespread distribution and prevalence of Aero-
monas spp. was noted with a general lack of coliforms
and other sewage-related organisms. Recovery of
"almost pure cultures of Aeromonas spp." from the
effluent of sewage-treatment plants has been ob-
served, particularly in estuarine water (Snieszko,
1974). It can only be concluded that the incidence
of diseases of aquatic animals in which Aeromonas
plays an important role will increase. The additional
factors of low dissolved oxygen, high temperature,
and pollution by chemicals, such as pesticides, pe-
troleum, and heavy metals, must, contribute to out-
breaks of infectious diseases of aquatic animals. In
fact, fishes although long considered important ani-
mals for assaying water pollution are becoming
valuable indicators of the environmental health of
bodies of water. The Chesapeake Bay is highly pol-
luted by every type of waste. Some of the waste
causes eutrophication, with increase of bacteria and
algae and oxygen depletion. Fish kills are a frequent
occurrence, particularly in summer months. Epi-
demics causing massive mortalities of fish in Chesa-
peake Bay have been recorded (Snieszko, 1974).
Deterioration of estuarine and coastal waters can
be detected in increased nutrient input, with con-
comitant rise in indicator or noxious microorganisms,
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512
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
and in increased prevalence of disease among compo-
nents of the natural biota, especially the commercial
fishes.
PROBLEM AREAS
Indicator Organisms
The value of the coliform test as the principal
microbiological criterion for sanitary quality of estu-
arine and coastal waters is a controversial issue.
E. coli (Type I) appears to be the most reliable
indicator of fresh fecal pollution, rather than total
coliforms. It is questionable whether colifornis can
be regarded as true indicators of fecal pollution at
all (Bonde, 1974).
Results obtained from Most Probable Numbers
(MPX) measurements have not been sufficiently
examined to determine the variability of MPN data.
Results obtained from the same area at short inter-
vals of time, i.e., hours, need to be examined criti-
cally. If such results are extremely variable, the
value of monitoring MPN on daily or weekly inter-
vals is highly doubtful.
There is no single test for the coliforms. Since
most of the E. coli strains ferment lactose, with
production of acid and gas, this characteristic is
useful in presumptive, quantitative determinations.
Unfortunately, recent work in microbial genetics has
shown that not all strains of E. coli are able to
ferment lactose. Furthermore, this characteristic is
not restricted to E. coli and may be found in other
related bacteria often present in polluted waters.
Hence, false presumptive tests are not infrequent.
Another difficult}' is that coliforms may bo affected
by their stay in water or sediment and may grow
slowly or even lose some of their "typical'' character-
istics; hence, difficulties in isolation, identification,
and enumeration are encountered.
Relatively high occurrence of "false-positives" in
IMPN estimates of fecal streptococci in estuarine
and marine waters has been reported (Buck, 1969).
In heavily polluted marine waters, false-positives
are not a problem. Mainly in estuarine or marine
waters of low or varying salinity, all positive tubes
need to be examined microscopically for the pres-
ence of nonstreptococcal forms. In fact, an indige-
nous population of false-positive microorganisms
may exist in coastal waters.
Indicator microorganisms other thar coliforms
also pose problems. Pseudomonas spp. are widely
distributed in nature. Determinations of P. aerugi-
nosa, a known pathogen for man and warm-blooded
animals, have been suggested for estuarine waters
where high water temperatures and available nutri-
ents can allow growth of this microorganism. Aero-
monas, fecal streptococci, Clostridium per/ringens,
Bijidobaderium, Bacillus, Thiobacillus, and direct
demonstration of Salmonella spp. have all been sug-
gested as indicator organisms. A conclusion that
can be drawn from the data available in the liter-
ature is that all of these indicators should be con-
sidered and that more than one indicator organism
should be examined. That is, two or more indicator
species should be enumerated to improve the reli-
ability of estimating pollution and /or human health
hazard.
Survival of pathogens and indicator organisms in
ostuarine and marine water and sediment is an im-
portant problem. Fecal streptococci are supposed
to indicate recent fecal pollution and Cl. perfringens,
because of its spore-forming capacity is considered
to be highly resistant, hence of longer survival in
nature. Coliforms and Salmonella typhi often survive
in sediment much longer than in the overlying water.
The distribution in mud reflects the effluent flow
pattern in the overlying water, with much higher
densities of coliforms found in mud. Salmonellae
can be isolated from bottom sediments with far
greater frequency than directly from the overlying
water (Van Uonsel and Geldreich, 1971; Hendricks,
1971). However, it should be pointed out that the
mud-water interface is not a static system. Cur-
rents, storms, seasonal turnovers, and dredging op-
erations can shift sediment, scattering it widely.
Such redistribution creates the additional hazard of
recirculation of older pollutants in lower layers of
sediment. This, coupled with the fact that sediment
bacteria are part of the diet of tubificid worms and
other sediment-residing biota, provides a mechanism
of concentration and transfer of coliforms and poten-
tial pathogens among the indigenous fauna (Wavre
and Brinkhurst, 1971).
Survival of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci
varies according to season. During the summer
months, fecal coliforms can survive slightly longer
than fecal streptococci. During the autumn months,
survival is about the same and in spring and winter,
fecal streptococci may survive much longer than
fecal coliforms. Within bodies of water, thermal
transitional zones may create bacterial gradients,
especially along inshore areas, acting to confine
nutrients, bacteria, and nuisance algal growths to
the nearshore area. One of the potential hazards of
such a thermal barrier, notably in estuaries, is that
effluents discharged into a nearshore area are not
diluted, as would occur under normal conditions,
but are contained by the barrier effect of a thermal
bar (Menon et al., 1971). Factors influencing the
survival of enteric indicator organisms have been
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
513
summarized in a recent symposium (Gameson,
1974).
Viruses
During the past decade, there has been worldwide
interest and concern that significant levels of viruses
are being transmitted through potable and recrea-
tional water. Conclusive evidence for the transmis-
sion of enteric viruses via this route lies in out-
breaks of infectious hepatitis, where sanitary prac-
tice or water treatment has broken down or con-
taminated shellfish have been consumed (Berg,
1973). The opinion that viruses in estuaries and
coastal waters pose a threat to human health can be
justified by the following facts. Most enteric viruses
are more resistant than indicator bacteria to in-
activatioti by water disinfectants. Infectivity tests
have shown infection can be caused by one polio-
virus TCDso unit (Berg, 1971).
A consistently high endemic level of infectious
hepatitis has occurred in the U.S. with the con-
comitant knowledge that the infectious hepatitis
agent is relatively resistant to inactivation in the
aquatic environment. Sporadic outbreaks of non-
bacterial gastroenteritis suspected of being water-
borne have, occurred, coupled with a most likely
high endemic level of the disease. Finally, surface-
water domestic pollution has increased to the point
that direct recycling of wastewater and reclamation
of estuarine waters is very nearly a reality in the
case of some water systems (Akin et al., 1974).
Clearly, the danger of water transmission of enteric
viral disease is great enough to warrant the more
careful consideration viruses are now receiving.
More than 100 new human enteric viruses have
been described in the 25 years since the advent of
viral propagation techniques using tissue cultures
(Scarpino, 1974). All of these enteric viruses are
known to be excreted in quantity in the feces of
man, including enteroviruses (poliovirus, coxsackie-
virus, and echovirus), infectious hepatitis, adeno-
viruses, and reoviruses. Viruses do not multiply
outside of living susceptible cells; hence, human
enteric viruses can be expected to decrease in num-
bers with time, even when nutrient levels are high.
However, the major question is how long will human
enteric viruses survive when discharged into estua-
rine and coastal waters. The presence of enteric
viruses in estuarine and ocean waters has been
amply documented (Metcalf and Stiles, 1965, 1908;
Shuval, 1970). Survival of enteroviruses in the
marine environment has been demonstrated by a
number of investigators. Enteric virus survival in
estuary and ocean waters has been shown to be
dependent upon temperature, biotic flora, degree of
pollution, and virus type (Metcalf and Stiles, 1968).
A virucidal activity in scawater has been demon-
strated, but it may have only a minor role in inacti-
vating enteric viruses in estuarine and ocean wa-
ters.
The importance of enteric viruses is not in their
numbers but in their infectivity (Scarpino, 1974).
One tissue-culture dose is considered to constitute
an infectious dose, meaning that only a few virus
particles are needed to initiate an infection in a
susceptible host. Thus, it has been necessary only
to show the presence of viruses in water, with less
emphasis placed on quantitation. Since enteroviruses
of human origin in estuarine and coastal waters
may remain infectious for a significant period of
time, depending on environmental factors, it has
been suggested that enteroviruses themselves may-
serve as the most valid indicator of pollution. Polio-
virus and infectious hepatitis virus (hepatitis A)
have both been suggested as indicator agents. Un-
fortunately, the data show that virus inactivation
or die-off in marine water is unpredictable. Marine
water with the same salinity collected from the same
site on different days may show wide variations in
viral survival patterns (Atkins et al., 1974).
Thus, the major effort, at present, in research on
water-borne viruses is in development of sensitive
methods for recovering viruses from marine waters
and for determining survival times of these viruses
in different types of water (Berg, 1974; Malina and
Sagik, 1974). Monitoring of estuarine and coastal
waters for enteric viruses will eventually be common-
place. For the present, routine monitoring of potable
water and wastewater for enteric viruses is yet to
be accomplished on a large scale.
Methods available to detect viruses in water
are many arid varied, including gauze pads for
pre-concentration in situ; membrane filter adsorp-
tion; electrophoresis; ultrafiltration hydroextraction;
precipitation, adsorption-elution; separation with
two-phase polymers; soluble \iltrafilter; and ultra-
centrifugation (Foliguet et al., 1973; Hill et al.,
1971). The main problem in virus isolation, namely,
the large volumes of water that must be examined
(up to 100 liters per sampling) appears to have been
overcome (Hill et al., 1972; Sobsey et al., 1973). A
virus concentration unit, designed by Melnick and
co-workers, is being used for virus monitoring in
water supplies throughout the world. At the Inter-
national Conference on Viruses and Water, Mexico
City, June 9-12, 1974, it was clear that adequate
methods for concentrating large volumes of water
for enterovirus monitoring are now available.
In general, the methodology for isolation and
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514
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
characterization of indicator viruses is in the de-
velopmental stage. Perfecting these techniques is
the main concern of research work underway. Still
unknown is how widespread viruses are in estuaries
and coastal waters. Also, the incidence of viral dis-
eases transmitted via polluted estuarinc imd coastal
waters is not known. Some new methods for viral
detection may improve and speed up virus isolation
and characterization, viz., the use of Australian
antigen as a marker for hepatitis B virus. Australian
antigen has already been isolated from clams con-
taminated by untreated sewage from a coastal hos-
pital (Mahoney et al., 1974). Other such markers
may be discovered as research on the em erovi ruses
progresses. Survival of viruses in estuarine and
coastal waters remains to be fully clariiied. There
is no doubt but that research to answer these ques-
tions must be done.
Alteration of the
Natural Microbial Flora
An aspect of the ecology of estuarine and marine
waters, about which next to nothing is known, is
the alteration of the natural microbial flora induced
by introduction of pollutants. That bacterial species
in an estuary demonstrate seasonal cycles has been
shown (Kaneko and Colwell, 1972). It is logical to
assume that microorganisms associated with the
biota, water, and sediment of estuaries and coastal
waters are in a delicate balance.
Introduction of sewage, industrial wastes, or other
pollutants will first impact upon the microflora. The
microbial response is very rapid, within hours or
days, at the most. A shifting of microbial species
and physiological types will occur in response to
the influx. Species selection will take place, as, for
example, the dominance of A er onion as spp in sewage
effluent. The effects of such shifts in the microbial
populations are completely unknown. Vet, they
may result in fish kills, clam mortalities, IT arsh grass
diseases, and noxious odors and appearai.ee of the
receiving waters.
Microbial populations may well prove to be the
"fine-tuning" mechanism of 1 he ostuarine and marine
ecosystem. However, not enough research is being
done to provide the necessary information. Since
new methods for automating microbial dita collec-
tion and processing by computer have b.jen devel-
oped (Oliver and Colwell, 1974), such questions are
no longer so overwhelmingly complex and, in fact,
can be answered, if the proper research effort is
provided.
Efforts of Specific Effluents
on Microbial Populations
Recent work has shown that in areas receiving
petroleum, pesticide, or heavy metal discharges, the
microbial flora contains significant petroleum-de-
grading, pesticide-metabolizing, or heavy-metal-
mobilizing bacteria (Walker and Colwell, 1973;
Nelson and Colwell. 1974). Similarly, in estuarine
and marine waters receiving sewage, pulp mill, or
canning wastes, the heterotrophic bacterial popula-
tions increase significantly. The point which can be
made is that, these respondent bacterial species may
be usefully employed as markers or indicators of
such pollution. Little research effort has been
directed explicitly along this line. It is suggested that
such efforts may prove substantially rewarding for
those concerned with chronic, low-level environ-
mental impact, where the grosser symptoms of
environmental deterioration are not seen.
Implicit in such an application is, however, that
extensive and relatively complete knowledge of the
natural microbial flora is available. Alas, this is
not so and, again, the plea which is now nearly a
cacophonic chorus, sung by botanists, zoologists,
limiiologists, oceanographers, and. now, micro-
biologists, is that baseline studies must be done.
Numerous studies and countless analyses have been
discarded due to the lack of the necessary baseline
data. It is of great importance that the yardstick
for measurement is available and that yardstick is
baseline data. Unpolluted environments, as well as
polluted ones, must be studied to determine the
natural balance of the autochthonous microbial
species, so that impacts of pollutants can be assessed.
Microbial species may act to concentrate such
pollutants as heavy metals, or serve to pass polluting
materials on through the food chain, especially in
the case of filter or detritus feeders and protozoans
(Wavre and Hrinkhurst, 1971; Burke, Small, and
Colwell, in press).
EVALUATION OF PRESENT STATUS
AND RECENT ADVANCES
There have been improvements in the methods of
isolation and characterization of the indicator
organisms of human health significance, namely,
E. coli Type I, Salmonella, Enterococci, Clostridia,
arid Enteroviruses. However, the concept of a single
indicator organism as the measuring unit for the
health of an estuarine or coastal ecosystem is in
dispute. The indicator organisms are each subject to
the vagaries of environmental and biological param-
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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
515
ett-rs, so that consistent results in survival studies
are not always obtained. Entcroviruses appear to
be the better indicators of human health hazard
but the technology of virus isolation and char-
acterization is cumbersome and complex, too much
so for routine monitoring applications.
Indicator organisms for measuring the health of
the ecosystem itself are not available although
biological assessment of water pollution has been
studied in Central Europe, comprising a saprobity
system (Bick, JOGS). Estuarine and marine microbial
ecology, in fact, is still in its infancy, relative to
molecular and medical microbiology. Understanding
of the role of microorganisms in the food chain is
sparse and unreliable, at best. Too few competent
experiments have been done and much too little
information is available on this very important
aspect of the estuarine and marine ecosystem.
It is obvious that microorganisms are expected to
degrade the pesticides, heavy metal compounds,
petroleum, and other pollutants entering the estuaries
and coastal waters. Yet. embarrassingly little is
known about the mineralization of these pollutants
in situ. It is not only the pollutants that are of great
concern, but the overall processes naturally occurring
in any body of water, as well as the processes that
occur when any perturbing force acts on the system.
Bodies of water are in constant flux. Clearly our
knowledge of processes mediated by microorganisms
is far too meager for appropriate management con-
siderations. Furthermore, the realization that micro-
organisms nm actually concentrate carcinogens
in petroleum or convert relatively harmless
petroleum components to carcinogens is only just
now being perceived by both scientists and manage-
ment.
The improved methods for coliform. enterococci,
virus, Olostridia, and other microorganism isolation
and characterization are directly applicable for use in
the estuarine environment. The more recent work
on isolation of bacteria and viruses from estuarine
and coastal water provide improved methodology
useful in assessing the human health hazard extant
in the nation's estuaries and coastal waters.
The information now being obtained on microbial
mobilization of heavy metals, pesticides, detergents,
petroleum, and other pollutants in estuaries and
coastal waters will permit better assessment of the
capability of such ecosystems to withstand the influx
of such pollutants. One result may prove to be that
the scope and magnitude of pollutants now entering
certain of the nation's estuaries and coastal water
regions are beyond the capacity of ihe indigenous
micivbial populations to mineralize them; hence,
accumulations of residues of these pollutants may
be building up, especially in the sediments at these
sites.
FUTURE NEEDS
1. The indicator organism concept must be revised.
For indications of public health dangers, combina-
tions of indicator organisms should be employed,
viz., fecal coliforms, enterococci and Clostridia, or
fecal coliforms and enteroviruses, and others. The
advantages and disadvantages of each indicator
organism should be determined so that they may be
applied more intelligently to environmental assess-
ment.
Additional indicator organisms must be sought
which will point to ecosystem alteration. These may
be sulfur bacteria, iron bacteria, Aeromonas spp., or
physiological groups, such as mercury-mobilizing
bacteria or detergent-degrading microorganisms.
Clearly, a need for ecosystem indicators is developing
rapidly as the demand for environmental impact
assessment increases.
Further research to determine the variability of
Most Probable Number (MPN) of coliforms must
be done. It is critical that the variability of this count
be determined, especially for given sites at short
intervals, i.e., hours, so that the value of monitoring
MPN on daily, weekly', or monthly bases can be
properly assessed.
2. Improved methods for virus isolation and
identification are needed. Also, an understanding of
virus survival in estuarine and coastal waters and
sediment is required. More ominous are the human
carcinogenic viruses. The presence, survival, and
distribution of these viruses in estuarine and coastal
waters must bo assessed, particularly in those areas
receiving pollutants which can act as co-carcinogens.
3. The impact of pollutants on the biota of
estuaries and coastal waters must be determined.
Reports concerning diseases of fishes near sewer
outfalls and in the New York Bight area are dis-
turbing. The chronic effects of sewage and indus-
trial wastes on the microflora should be examined.
4. There is a serious lack of knowledge of the
microbial contributions to the estuarine and marine
ecosystems. The role of bacteria and other micro-
organisms in mineralization and cycling of nutrients
is, at best, vaguely understood. A great deal of re-
search work in both basic and applied microbial
ecology is both necessary and urgent.
5, There is a genuine need for automation in our
warning system. The use of fluorescent antibodv
lasers or other scanning devices may provide auto-
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516
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
matic warning systems. With such systems, bodies
of water may be studied around the clock so that
deviations from the normal will be immediately
detected. At the present time such deviations must
be excessively large to be detected. Also, present
methods require 24 hours minimum for detection.
Research must be done on the basic problems of
rates of function of'microbes in natural wa.ter. Since
the rates of processes will affect the environment in
which indicator organisms reside, this aspect of
estuarine microbiology must receive proper atten-
tion. The bulk of the literature on aquatic systems
deals with detection of indicator organisms of various
types. Thus, the rates of microbially catalyzed
processes involved in overall fluxes withi.i aquatic
systems, with time, have not been properly assessed.
Clearly, insight into the operations of natural sys-
tems, particularly rate processes, will provide the
predictive capabilit3r for eutrophication, i.e., estab-
lishment of systems that are undesirable for given
reasons, whether they be economic, aesthetic, or
ecological. Basic research, in this case, must precede
the application, simply because the basic informa-
tion is lacking.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ESTUARINE
MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING
Unfortunately, the recommendations offered are
the obvious, namely, to restrict or thoroughly treat
domestic and industrial wastes entering the nation's
estuaries. Increased nutrient loads are resulting in
alterations in the microbial flora, with dominance of
nuisance or pathogenic species. Control of petroleum
discharge, as one example, into the estuarine en-
vironment is mandatory, if the commercial fisheries
and natural wetlands are to be preserved.
Better control of land use, particularly retention of
marsh areas and wetlands, is required. The wetlands
may be the "natural septic system" of the estuaries
and wider oscillations in the microbial populations
may occur, if the natural "buffering effect" of the
wetland areas is not preserved.
Finally, better use must be made of microbial
indicators. The,}- are, indeed, the "early-warning"
system of the estuarine and coastal zones. More
intelligent use of microbial indicators and a wider
range of indicator organisms are needed. Early or
chronic environmental effects may be detectable, if
the microbial indicators are employed wisely and
carefully. The estuaries and coastal zones of the
nation are a valuable resource. It ie both appropriate
and timely that we harness the microorganisms.
They mav well tell us more about the environment
than we had imagined to be possible.
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NATIONAL ESTUARINE
MONITORING PROGRAM
PHILIP A. BUTLER
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Gulf Breeze, Florida
ABSTRACT
Abcml 8,000 .-.ample,-, of estuarine molluscs were monitored for pesticide residues in the peiiod
1905-1972. Residue trends and typical pollution situations are briefly described. Beginning in
1972, fish were substituted for molluscs. The basic needs for a continuing monitoring program
are described.
INTRODUCTION
The importance of estuaries as either temporary or
permanent homes for a majority of the commercially
important fish and shellfish led to numerous early
studies on man-induced changes that might affect the
viability of these essential ecosystems. Preeminent
among early studies were efforts to define the role of
persistent pesticides which could collect in or pass
through estuarine systems in surface runoff from
rivers to the sea.
Concern about the potential threat of such pollu-
tants in the marine environment was heightened
by the occurrence of significant kills of iish and other
non-target organisms in rivers and tidal marsh areas.
That such kills were primarily accidental did not
decrease the possibility that less obvious but not
necessarily less significant events might be taking
place as a result of chronic, low levels of pesticide
contamination in estuaries. It was not known to
what extent such contamination might follow the
use of registered synthetic chemicals for the control
of plant and animal pests in the surrounding drainage
basin.
To assess the significance of persistent chemical
residues it has been necessary to monitor their exist-
ence, magnitude, and seasonality in the environ-
ment. These field data, however, are useful only to
the extent that the effects of these chemicals on the
most sensitive life stages of significant species in the
estuarine community are understood. Such informa-
tion must be gained under controlled laboratory con-
ditions and, regrettably, data of this type are still
mostly fragmentary.
MONITORING BIVALVE SHELLFISH
However, laboratory studies of the eastern oyster
and related molluscs had progressed by 1905 to the
point that estuarine molluscs could be utilized as
biological tools to monitor levels of synthetic chlo-
rinated pesticides in the field (Butler, 1907). It was
recognized that residue data from field samples would
not be entirely comparable, to data obtained in
laboratory exposure tests. Still, within certain limits,
field data would indicate the kinds of pollutants
present and whether the levels of contamination
posed a threat to the biota or to human health.
In July 1965, the Gulf 13reeze Environmental
Research Laboratory, at the time part of Interior's
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, initiated a com-
prehensive estuarine monitoring program in coopera-
tion with other federal and state agencies in l.">
coastal states.
Laboratory studies had shown that molluscs
containing moderate pesticide residues were able to
eliminate them in about two weeks in the absence of
continuing pesticide pollution in their environment.
Consequently, the monitoring program was organ-
ized so as to sample oyster, mussel, or clam popula-
tions, depending on specie's availability, at 30-day
intervals for a proposed o-year period in each geo-
graphic area. Such a program could identify not
only seasonal pollutional patterns but also long-term
trends.
In the period 1965—72, approximately 8,000
samples were analyzed for chlorinated pesticides.
The data sho\\ that high levels of pesticide residues
occurred in molluscs from estuaries associated with
intensive; agriculture, with large volumes of munici-
pal waste; discharge, and with industrial wastes from
pesticide manufacturing plants. In many areas,
there was good correlation between the fluctuating
levels of residues in molluscs and the seasonal agri-
cultural use of pesticides.
The overall picture of pesticide pollution in the
nation's estuaries as revealed by the monitoring
data was one of widespread contamination with
519
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520
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
DDT and its metabolites but at generally lo\\ (non-
toxic) levels. In a few areas DDT residues were
large enough to suggest damage to the fauna but at
no time was a human health problem indicated
(Butler, 1973).
DDT residues in estuarine molluscs peaked iri the
1968-69 period. Since then there has bien a well-
defined decline in the number of positive samples
and in the magnitude of residue^ in nearly all
estuarine areas. The decrease in the number of
samples with detectable residues lias bee a u.i much
as 66 percent in areas where adequate data are avail-
able for evaluation.
Data Utilization
Monitoring data can be of inestimable value in
detecting pesticide pollution sources and in develop-
ing the background information necessary for the
efficient management of estuarine systems. In this
monitoring program, three characteristic pollution
situations have been identified and a description of
them will illustrate the general usefulness of moni-
toring data in establishing some of the guidelines for
regulating the manufacture and registration of
pesticides.
The Rio Grande River Basin on the south Texas
coast is an area of intensive farming of grein, citrus,
and fiber crops. The subtropical climate permits
multiple harvests annually. During the mid-1960's,
the recommended farm use of pesticides in this area
was about five times the amounts recommended in
neighboring river basins. Oysters monitored in the
Laguna Aladre consistently contained DDT residues
about five times that of oysters from other Texas
estuaries. There is good evidence that ;he DDT
residues in the food of speckled seatrout in this area
were large enough to seriously interfere with the de-
velopment of the young. It seems clear, in retrospect,
that the registered use of persistent peslicides on
Rio Grande Basin farmland:- permitted the agricul-
tural segment of the economy to work to the detri-
ment of the local fishing industry. The continued
use of DDT would have eventually eliminated the
seatrout. The demonstrated need for pest control
throughout the year in this area requires the sub-
stitution of non-persistent pesticides and biological
controls which will not degrade the environment.
In southwest Florida, hovtcver, the use of DDT
on maturing corn and sugar cane- was distinctly
seasonal. The runoff from uirnilandh in the Caloo-
sahatchee River Basin contained sufficient DDT
during the February-April period in 1967 and 196S
so that residues in local ojsters were a )ove the
suggested 'action' level of -3 ppm. There is no reason
to suspect this amount of DDT would be harmful to
oysters themselves, nor are oysters preyed on in
nature? to the extent that tissue residues of this
magnitude would be detrimental to some carnivore—
including man. Nonetheless, these residues would
prevent the oysters being legally harvested. In this
instance, the use of DDT would have increased food
production on the farm and reduced it in the sea.
The cure, again, is the utilization of a less persistent
pesticide either alone or in combination with some
biological control of the agricultural pests.
The third situation was encountered on the
Georgia coast. Oysters monitored in St. Simons
Sound in 1967 were found to contain toxaphene
residues, a oesticide not known to have been used
in the area. Levels of toxaphene in water and sedi-
ments were high enough to admit the possibility of
damage to many faunal groups. By the judicious
placement of trays of oysters to monitor upstream
sites, increasingly large toxaphene residues were
accumulated, and the source of the pollutant was
identified as a component of the waste in the effluent
of a pesticide manufacturing facility. In this case,
identification of the source resulted in a cleanup of
the contaminated river bottom by dredging and the
construction of evaporation ponds for onshore
disposal of the toxic effluents.
MONITORING ESTUARINE FISH
The gradual decline in pesticide residues in
monitored oysters during 1970-72 pointed out the
need for a pollution yardstick that would be indica-
tive over a longer interval of time. The monthly ef-
fort in monitoring oysters no longer seemed war-
ranted in view of the continuing absence of positive
samples in many areas. Both laboratory and field
data had shown that, in contrast to molluscs, persis-
tent pesticides accumulate1 with time in fish tissues.
Older fish in polluted waters contain progressively
larger pesticide or trace element residues than do
younger fish. However, body residues in individual
fish fluctuate unpredictably. This may be the result
of dietary stress, spawning, or some other normal
metabolic process.
Since fish are readily available, a revised program
was initiated in 1972 to monitor them in all of the
principal estuaries of the United States and its
territories. Certain criteria were established to
minimise unknown fluctuations. Sample size was
increased to 50 individuals. Fish are sampled during
their first year prior to spawning. This narrows the
time in which residues could be acquired and avoids
their loss in gamete production. Both particle-feeder
and carnivorous fish are monitored in each estuary
-------
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
521
to broaden the possibility of finding any pollutants
present. During the first two years,of the program,
fish wen1 monitored semi-armually to determine
whether this was necessary or whether annual
collections might be sufficiently informative.
Data Utilization
Analyses of the more than 1,500 samples of
estuarine fish (37,500 individuals) monitored since
July 1972 show that, in a majority of areas, DDT
and other chlorinated pesticide residues have not
been detectable. These data confirm the trend found
in the1 molluscan monitoring and show that this type
of estuarine pollution has indeed declined since the
restriction in DDT use. The analyses show, too,
that in those few estuaries where oysters were
grossly polluted with DDT during the 1905-72
monitoring, yearling fish still have significantly large
DDT residues. These residues, in the absence of the
agricultural use1 of DDT, are presumably the results
of recycling between the physical and biological
substrates in the estuary. Or, alternatively, these
residues may be the result of a continuing influx
of DDT from up-river reservoirs in farm soils and
river sediments.
It is apparent that the monitoring of estuarine
fauna for persistent chemicals remains a continuing
need. We must be in a position to gauge the effective-
ness of legal restraints on the usage of known
pollutants as well as be able to detect at an early
date the appearance of other, perhaps still unknown,
persistent chemicals that may be toxic to the biota
or endanger man's food supply.
REFERENCES
Butter, Philip A. 1967. Pesticide residues in estuarine mol-
lusks In: Proc. of 1he National Symposium on Estuarine
Pollution. Stanford University, Stanford.
Butler, Philip A. 1973. Organochlorine residues in estuarine
mollusks, 1965-72—National Pesticide Monitoring Pro-
gram. Pe»t. Monit Jour., 6(4): 238-362.
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A BRIEF ASSESSMENT
OF ESTUARY MODELING -
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
AND FUTURE TRENDS
R. J. CALLAWAY
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon
ABSTRACT
A brief, very informal, overview of estuarine modeling is presented; the great variety in estuarine
environmental settings is exhibited with east and west coast examples. Typical problems con-
fronted by the environmental scientist and engineer are discussed as well as some of the solution
techniques employed to solve them.
INTRODUCTION
Estuaries are classified according to their vertical
salinity and velocity profiles. For the simplest sys-
tem, the profiles exhibit little vertical gradient in
either parameter. More complex systems, such as
fjords, can exhibit several changes in current direc-
tion in the vertical. Tidally affected rivers are also
sometimes referred to as estuarine although ocean-
ographers consider the estuary section of a river as
that containing a measurable amount of salt.
There are many categories of "models." One
distinction that is made here is between a research
model, which an investigator may never document,
and a production model, which might be implemented
as a tool for management decision making (one
popular catch-phrase underlying present day funding
rationalizations).
Usually, no model is ever "final" since it is
continually being revised as research develops. This
is particularly true in estuarine systems where the
dynamics of motion and dispersion of pollutants is
highly complex. Added difficulties are encountered in
the modeling of chemical and biological interactions.
For best use, feedback between the modelers and
the experimenters is required on a continuous and
cooperative basis. All too often problems arise due
to a lack of communication between the two groups,
the modelers usually earning a reputation of the tail-
wagging-the-dog
Some would suggest that a bad model is better
than no model at all since it does at least make an
investigator think about the system, formalize his
concepts, and make orderly v>hat could otherwise be
a chaotic field investigation. A good model will be a
plus, of course, and can be the basis for the formal
structure of a given estuarine research program.
Suffice it to say that the field investigation designed
with a sample scheme based on a "good" model has
several orders of magnitude greater chance of
bringing glory to its research team than to one that
simply "samples."
PROGRESS IN THE LAST FIVE YEARS
Progress has been made in many aspects of
estuarine simulation techniques in recent years.
Theoretical development has been relatively slow
except in the case of fjords, which have not been
especially amenable to treatment due mostly to a
lack of observational data. The so-called partially-
mixed estuaries are also at an intermediate stage
of development because of difficulties in treating
vertical exchange processes. Theoreticians have been
wrestling with this aspect for several years with little
success. Indeed, many believe that a whole new
theoretical approach will be required although it is
difficult to envision a breakthrough which will lend
itself to practical application in the near future.
In lieu of analytical solutions of differential equa-
tions, numerical solutions can be employed. The
former method is used on simplified, general, re-
presentations of a given system. The simplifying
assumptions employed allow investigations of many
aspects of a system by, usually, rather formidable
mathematical devices. When the devices aren't
available or the system is too complex, then recourse
to numerical methods is employed and the computer
is used to carry out the relatively simple but extremely
repetitive algebraic operations. There is a place for
both methods; as a rule of thumb, research models
523
-------
524
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
are initially of the analytical variety while produc-
tion models are an end product of research and
employ numerical integration techniques.
Of considerably more interest to environmental
scientists has been progress in analyzing chemical
and biological interactions. While it is a necessity to
simulate hydrodynamic processes in the best possible
manner, so-called pollution problems usually are
concerned with the input and effect of anthropogenic
materials in the estuary or environment. If a pol-
lutant is to be so considered then it must affect the
human population either directly or through a
certain chain of events. This chain may be initialized
by the uptake of materials by a given organism not
primarily utilized by man. Pollution, as denned by a
government organization, for instance, may not be
extant until several higher organisms have con-
centrated the substance to a detectable level—one
which may or may not have deleterious effects on
man. This kind of process has been known for many
years, of course, but only recently have models been
developed to the point of practical application, i.e.,
analysis or synthesis of these events.
Many of the models used today are variations of
the rabbit and fox theme: a given population of
rabbits is preyed upon by foxes; the fox population
grows due to plentitude of food; both populations
increase up to a point where the rabbits become
scarce due to excessive predation. Eventually the fox
population dies off due to starvation until a new
equilibrium point is reached, and the cycle begins
anew. Such events can be, and are, studied by
mathematical models, each population being rep-
resented by a differential equation with appropriate
growth and death rates, and so forth. Interaction
between the two is accomplished in the mathematical
treatment by coupling the equations through, e.g., a
predation term. This explanation, wliile overly
simplistic, illustrates many of the simulations of
plankton growth and dieoff now analyzed through
numerical experimentation. Many other reactions
are also described in terms of this approach. It might
be said that the easy part of the analysis is the
mathematics; obtaining the right relationships, co-
efficients, their forms and dependencies is, and will
remain, the difficult part of the problem.
SOME EXAMPLES
It will be assumed that the reader is unfamiliar
with the models that have been developed for, or
applied to, the systems to be described. What do
these models do and, equally important, what don't
they do?
East Coast
First, consider a simulation on a small (25 sq.
nautical miles (n.m.)) well-mixed embayment on
the east coast of the United States—Jamaica Bay,
N.Y. This work was performed by Dr. J. J.
Leendertse and his associates at the Rand Corpora-
tion with financial support mainly from the city of
New York. As stated by Leendertse (1970) the study
was ". . . intended as a first step toward providing a
tool for a quantitative assessment of an environ-
mental problem, i.e., the study of technical alter-
natives in the management of fluid waste discharges
in well-mixed estuaries and coastal seas."
The work developed in stages—from representing
tidal motion in the system, verification of hydraulics,
simulation of dissolved oxygen and coliform con-
centrations, and a determination of the effect of
storm water overflow on the system. The study is
essentially complete; an evaluation of the benefits
derived from this well-conducted effort in proportion
to the costs incurred has not yet been made available.
However, the project was designed to assess the
effectiveness of several multi-million dollar sewage
treatment schemes in the bay area. It is safe to
conclude that the project costs are a minute fraction
of the construction costs to be expended. A benefit/
cost ratio greater than 1 can only be determined if
construction cost savings were suggested by the
model. It is quite possible that the model could
project alternatives that would prove more costly
than the initial plan costs but of more benefit to
water quality. No doubt the economists have an
appropriate ratio for this not unlikely event.
West Coast
As another example, a west coast study by Calla-
way, et al., (1969) is described. The system studied
was the Columbia River from the Pacific Ocean to
Bonneville Dam (146 miles, plus many islands and
tributaries); rather vast and vastly different from
Jamaica Bay. During low runoff periods, the lower
25 n.m. of the system are, by oceanographic def-
initions, estuarine. The problem here war. based on
a federal government decision ". . . to model the
Columbia River system from the Canadian border to
the Pacific Ocean for the purpose of evaluating
existing and/or potential thermal pollution
problems."
The first part of the study consisted of a descrip-
tion of the mathematical methods used, and the
theory and documentation of the program. The
second part described input and verification pro-
cedures, provided a test program, and gave examples
-------
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
525
of output. The authors end with the following
admonition: "If a slide rule will do the work don't
use this model or anyone else's."
As a final example, the fjord system of Puget
Sound is briefly discussed. This work is presently
being supported by the EPA with Dr. Donald
Winters, University of Washington, as principal in-
vestigator. This study is more complex than the two
just mentioned, due in part to the lack of, and
difficulty in obtaining, observational data upon which
to develop theory. It is more comprehensive in that
it is a grant objective to demonstrate ways in which
such models can be used in the numerical assessment
of biological activity in fjords. To date, the project
has determined several important features con-
cerning nutrient limitation and the effect of light
penetration on plankton growth (Winters, et al.,
1975). In addition, it has provided hydrodynamic
input (Winters, 1973) to a commercial production
model of parts of the sound.
FUTURE TRENDS AND NEEDS
Most of the major needs relating to simulation
models of estuarine phenomena do not concern
modeling as such, but basic research on vertical
diffusion processes, kinetics of sedimentation proces-
ses, air-sea interactions, rate processes of uptake by
organisms, and so on. Model building is an interest-
ing and useful occupation and proceeds at a greater
rate than fundamental research on the aforemen-
tioned subjects. This is fortunate since the model
can be used to guide that research, point out short-
cuts, arouse suspicion of results, and suggest linkages
that would not be apparent without recourse to a
model which is capable of thinking in a nonlinear
fashion. (Lord Rayleigh and a few other selected
individuals are capable of nonlinear intuition. One
can only hope that his like will continue to remain a
pace ahead of the next generation of computer
juggernauts.)
In summary, we seem to have gone through a
period of extensive model development; in some
degree progress has been in parallel with advances
in computer hardware. Computerized model de-
velopment, involving numerical witchcraft, has
rapidly caught up with, and is capable of treating,
what we know of biochemical interactions. Further
progress will be at a slower rate in the future because
basic research is required on all aspects of estuarine
problems, including hydrodynamics.
In this day of "mission oriented" research, there
is a danger in neglecting non-mission identified
programs. This neglect is, of course, pitiful in the
extreme when the neglecter is also a federal
budgeteer.
REFERENCES
Callaway, R. J., K. V. Byram, and G. R. Ditsworth. 1969.
Mathematical model of the Columbia River from the
Pacific Ocean to Bonneville Dam. Part I. Theory, program
notes, and programs. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Pac. N.W.
Water Lab.
Leendertse, J. J. 1970. A Water-Quality Simulation Model
for Well-Mixed Estuaries and Coastal Seas: Volume I,
Principles of Computation. The Rand Corp. Memorandum
RM-6230-RC.
Ward, G. and W. Espey. 1971. Estuarine Modeling: An
Assessment. Capabilities and Limitations for Resource
Management and Pollution Control. Sup. of Docs. Wash-
ington, B.C. St. No. 5501-0129.
Winters, D. F. 1973. A Similarity Solution for Steady-State
Gravitational Circulation in Fjords. Est. and Coast Mar.
Sci. 1:387-400.
Winters, D. F., K. Banse, and G. C. Anderson. 1975. The
Dynamics of Phytoplankton Blooms in Puget Sound, a
Fjord in the Northwestern United States. Mar. Biol.
29:139-176.
-------
FACTORS BEARING ON
POLLUTION CONTROL IN
U.S. PORTS LOCATED
IN ESTUARINE AREAS
EDWARD LANGLOIS
Portland Harbor Pollution
Abatement Committee
Portland, Maine
ABSTRACT
Ports must meet environmental demands during a period when they are faced with abrupt changes
in terminal design and operations. Attention must be given to increased costs, due to delays and
confusions that will affect the economic productivity of our ports. Additional and equal attention
must be placed on the effect port development will have on the existing and future ecology of
our ebtuarine areas.
INTRODUCTION
Concern for the port environment is a recent
phenomenon—10 years ago, the concern did not exist
on a broad basis as it does today. Admittedly, it is
still a new field in which the government and indus-
try along with individuals are seeking ways of
operating within new legislation and guidelines.
Environmental concerns at the level we know them
today have grown so suddenly, U.S. ports have
found it necessary to make immediate adjustments
to cope with them. These concerns include: legisla-
tion, federal agencies, dredging-disposal of spoils,
federal permits, environmental impact statements,
disposal of oily wastewater and ballast water, dis-
posal of sanitary wastes, dilapidated piers-floating
debris, land acquisition, oil spills, coastal zone man-
agement, deepwater poits, insurance demands, and
vessel traffic safety s> stems.
Ports are also faced with abrupt changes in ter-
minal and ves.se' design and operations, including
increased size of petroleum and haiiardouh liquid
carriers, super cargo ships in the container trade,
bulk carriers, lash and feeder ships, tug-barge con-
cepts, speedy hydro-foils, catamarans and surface
effect ships, conversion or abandonment of finger
piers, reclaiming flat lands for multi-million dollar
container facilities, specialized ports, and regional
port concepts. The .-^D rperatoi and customer con-
tinue to demand :'iSt tuni aruunds. .-ill have environ-
mental implications.
FUNCTION AND TRENDS
OF U.S. PORTS
If we are to give proper attention to the subject,
it is necessary to place in perspective the role U.S.
ports play in our economy today, and the projection
of "things to come." The value of U.S. port opera-
tions and their impact on our economy are shown in
|§| DOMESTIC
iri
r—l 3
FOREIGN IN
I I cT)
r-
LJ TOTAL OF DOMESTIC & FOREIGN ^
500 M
to to
o- i?
8
n
1
FIGUBB 1.— Waterborne commerce ID U.S., calendar
1947-1972 in million of tons (2,000 Ibs.).
yeai
-------
530
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
FOREIGN COMMERCE
DOMESTIC COMMERCE
LOGS AND
LUMBER 4 2%
S^NO, GRAVEL.
AND STONE 2 I"/,
SEASHELLS
1 8%
FIGURE 2.—Principal commodities carried by water-calendar year 1972 total commerce.
1972 figures, released by the U.S. Maritime Admin- carried by water for calendar year 1972 are shown
istration: "Port commerce totals over 1.6 billion in Figure 2.
tons contributing 30 billion dollars annually in direct
dollar income providing livelihood for over 1.2 mil- VESSEL TRAFFIC
lion people—representing over 3 billion dollars in
terminal facility investments." Two excellent studies were recently completed,
The growth trend in port commerce since 1947 projecting future tonnage at United States ports
is shown in Figure 1, and the principal commodities to 2000.1
-------
PORTS
531
DOMESTIC SHIPPING
FIGURE 3.—Trends and projection of domestic ocean cargo
growth, coastal and intercoastal (including Puerto Rico,
Hawaii, and Alaska) 1969-2000, as projected in the Kearney
Study.
Figure 3 shows significant trends in domestic
ocean cargo (coastal and intercoastal, including
Puerto Rico, Hawaii and Alaska), as projected in
the Kearney Study.
The Litton Systems Study on the future of ocean-
borne shipping explores trends in the volume of
oceanborne trade, from 1950-1966 with projections
to 2043. See Figure 4.
The study also projects trends in growth of the
world merchant fleet from 1966 to 2043, which will
_OJ
1966 19/3 1983 2003 2043
YEAR
FIGURE 4.—Litton Systems, study of the projection of volume
of oceanborne trade into 2043.
- Tanker Capacity Required
Dry Cargo Shtp Capacity Required
1966 1973 1983 2003 2043
YEAR
FIGURE 5.—Litton Systems Study showing forecast of growth
in the world merchant, fleet into 2043.
have an impact on vessel traffic, hence concern for
the port environment (Figure 5).
The studies show that within the next 15 years
development of coastal petroleum tank barge trade
will occur as a means of secondary distribution.
During the past six years (1968 date of Litton
Study), there has been a growing use of tank barges
carrying petroleum in the coastal trade. See Figure 6.
The Coast Guard is concerned about the increased
movement of petroleum and other liquids in tank
barges, towed or pushed along our coastlines. They
currently monitor the tank barge service to deter-
mine trends and problems.
On July 7, 1972, Congress passed P.L. 92-339,
which among other issues, made it mandatory that
all operators of tow boats under 300 tons be licensed
by the Coast Guard (qualify for Tow Boat Operators
License).
Barges carrying liquid product in the coastal trade
must be inspected for seaworthiness by the Coast
Guard; however, towboats under 300 tons are not
required to come under Coast Guard inspection.
REGIONAL PORTS
Discussions are taking place in several port areas
throughout the country, focusing on a regional port
concept. Those areas include the Washington Public
Ports Association, the San Francisco Bay area, and
the New York ports of Buffalo, Ogdensburg, Oswego,
and Albany.2 There is some thought that the "re-
-------
532
ESTUAKINE POLLUTION CONTROL
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
BARGES
1960
1973
YEAR
FIGURE 6.—Trend in use of tank barges (towed or pushed)
in inland waters and coastal services, under Coast Guard
inspection. Note: Inland waters and coastal numbers were
not separated until 1973. Percentage increases for individual
services will be recorded separately in the fu oure.
gional port concept" is sponsored by the federal
government and is an intrusion into the free enter-
prise system. However-, it must be noted that studies
at current port areas were initiated at the local level.
One of the principal objectives of the studies is to
determine the value of a number of small ports
versus a regional port to serve U.S. trade, and keep
U.S. products flowing into competitive world mar-
kets. A secondary benefit would be cleaner coastal
water with all commercial activity centralized at
one port, rather than a number of small ports. The
major pollution concern would be to mobilize funds,
expertise, manpower, and equipment at one port to
prevent and control possible oil spills and other
pollutants from vessel traffic and port operations.
FEDERAL LEGISLATION
Some of the pertinent federal legislation influenc-
ing port environment and operations from 1969 to
the present include, by title:
Refuse Act of 1889
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA)
of 1948. (As amended 152-61-65-66-70-72) P.L.
91-224 (4-3-70)
Federal Water Quality Standards Act of 1971.
P.L. 92-500 (10-18-72)
Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972. P.L.
92-340 (7-10-72)
Marine, Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972. (Ocean Dumping Act) P.L. 92-532
(10-23-72) (As amended 1974, P.L. 93-254)
Deepwater Ports Facilities Act of 1974.
Coastal Zone Management Act P.L. 93-583
(10-27-72)
This legislation, with resulting regulations and
federal agency administration, requires constant at-
tention and monitoring by port personnel.
FEDERAL AGENCIES INVOLVED
As new federal legislation was passed, and regula-
tions and directives written, port directors and ter-
minal operators found it difficult to keep informed.
Communications between federal agencies and port
directors were improved by a, series of meetings
arranged through the American Association of Port
Authorities and the U.S. Maritime Administration.
Figure 7 is a matrix listing of federal agencies
involved in a port environment, depicting areas of
overlap in duties and responsibilities, which tend to
cause confusion in the port industry. This situation
is particularly reprehensible when the agencies work
in consort to prepare adverse reports on a specific
project, but then file separate objections as if their
determinations were individually and independently
reached.
It is difficult to quantify the extent of the confu-
sion, its impact and resulting delays and costs, other
than to state that it exists and attention must be
given to clarifying the situation. The matrix shows
there are 69 separate port environment activities
involving over 50 federal agencies or bureaus. It
shows over 550 different steps must be taken to
process port-related activities.
DREDGING-DISPOSAL OF SPOILS
The Army Corps of Engineers, in fulfilling its mis&ion
in the development and maintenance of the navigable
waters of the United States is responsible for the dredg-
ing of large volumes of sediments each year. Annual
quantities approach 400 million cubic yards of dredge
material for both maintenance and new work. Costs
-------
POETS
533
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PORTS
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536
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
presently (1974) exceed $150 million per year and can
be expected to increase sharply, reflecting at least in
part, the cost of attempting to reduce the potential for
pollution of the environment.
* * * * *
The Corps presently maintains over ].9,000 miles of
waterways and 1,000 harbor projects. In the past, the
Corps' decisions concerning open-water disposal of
dredged materials have been based primarily on eco-
nomic considerations. Plans for future dredging and
disposal activities must now reflect proper considerations
of costs and environmental constraints.
*****
Due to the fact that dredging and the disposal of
dredge materials occur in such highly variable environ-
mental situations, it has been generally e.ccepted that a
universally applicable methodology cannot be satis-
factorily developed. Consequently, it was concluded
that a broad based program of research was required to
provide definitive information on the environmental
impact of dredging and dredged material disposal
operations.'
*****
The overall objective of the Dredged Material Re-
search Program (DMRP) is to provide sufficient deci-
sion-making tools to those agencies with dredging and
disposal responsibilities to enable them to choose the
most environmentally compatible, technically satis-
factory, and economically feasible disposal alternatives.4
See Figure 8.
In 1973, Committee XV (Environmental Affairs)
of the American Association of Port Authorities
conducted a survey among its members to determine
environmental port problems. Thirty-six U.S. cor-
porate members responded. Dredging and disposal
of spoils proved to be the major problem of 16 of
the reporting ports.
In 1974, AAPA Committee III (Ship Channels
and Harbors) conducted a National Seaport Federal
Waterway Funding Survey. Of the 54 responses, 24
cited serious disposal problems causing increased
costs and delays for channel construction and main-
tenance. "Spoils disposal problems are evidently
affecting many port regions," the report indicated.
FEDERAL PERMITS
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments of L972 established a new system of permits
for discharge into the nation's waters, replacing the
1899 Refuse Act Permit Program. The federal agen-
cies given responsibility for protecting our oceans
and waterways with their permitting authority may
be found in the matrix (Figure 7).
The Army Corps of Engineers retains authority
to issue permits for the disposal of dredge fill material
in specific disposal sites, subject to EPA veto of
RESEARCH AREA
RESEARCH TASK
Environmental Impact and Aspects of Open Water Disposal
Environmental Impacts and Aspects of Land Disposal
New Disposal Concepts
Productive Uses of Dredged Material
Disposal Areas Reuse and Multiple Utilization
Dredged Material Treatment Techniques and Equipment
Dredging/Disposal Equipment and Techniques
A. Evaluation of Disposal Sites (1) ;
B. Fate of Dredged Materials (1)
C. Effects of Dredging and Disposal on Water Quality (1)
D. Effects of Dredging and Disposal on Aquatic Organisms (1)
E. Pollution Evaluation (1)
A. Environmental Impact Studies (1)
B. Marsh Disposal Research (1)
C. Containment Area Operation Research (1)
A. Open Water Disposal Research (2)
B. Inland Disposal Research (3)
C. Coastal Erosion Control Studies (3)
A. Artificial Habitat Creation Research (1)
B. Habitat Enhancement Research (2)
C. Land Improvement Research (3)
D. Products Research (2)
A. Dredged Material Drainage/Quality Improvement Research (2)
B. Wildlife Habitat Program Studies (1)
C. Disposal Area Reuse Research (1)
D. Disposal Area Subsequent Use Research (2)
E. Disposal Area Enhancement (2)
A. Dredged Material Dewatering and Related Research (2)
B. Pollutant Constituent Removal Research {1)
C. Turbidity Control Research (1)
A. Dredge Plant Related Studies (3)
B. Accessory Equipment Research (2)
C. Dredged Material Transport Concept Research (4)
* Numbers in parenthesis indicate the beginning ysar of the research task.
FIGURE 8.—-Outline of dredged material research program.
-------
PORTS
537
disposal sites. However, in the new Corps permitting
system, no time schedule for processing permits has
been developed. When objections are raised at the
district level, an extensive time lapse develops while
a decision is considered at a higher level.
There is no indication that the requirement to
obtain permits for port projects is opposed by the
port industry. However, it is important that there
be no long delays in granting permits which might
result in added costs to port projects, with possible
adverse effect on the water quality in estuarine
areas.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENTS
The EIS is now a responsibility under the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969—Sec-
tion 102 (2) (c). The program is administered by
the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ),
established under Section 202 of the NEPA.
An EIS must be filed for all projects which signifi-
cantly affect the quality of the human environment
and for which a major federal action, such as funding
or licensing, is involved. The EIS must take into
consideration the economic values of a project as
well as the environmental impact. A healthy balance
must be retained for the welfare of the ports and
the country.
The Army Corps of Engineers has 900 environ-
mental impact statements to write on maintenance
projects alone. At the present rate, the Corps can
only handle about 60 EIS a year, although, as of
January 1, 1976, every Corps project will require an
EIS.5 Several ports have indicated problems result-
ing from the requirement to provide an EIS. It is
difficult to quantify and document each problem;
however, general comments express concern over
agency guidelines being changed during preparation
of the project and where more than one agency is
involved, the conflicting guidelines used by different
agencies in judging the project.
DISPOSAL OF OILY WASTE
AND BALLAST WATER
Based on the President's message of May 20,
1970, directing the attention of the port industry
to the problem of "Facilities for the Reception of
Ships' Oily Waste and Ballast Water," the Maritime
Administration (Division of Ports and Terminals)
and the American Association of Port Authorities
established an ad hoc committee to review, study,
and propose action. The committee consisted of
representatives from the U.S. Maritime Administra-
tion, Environmental Protection Agency, American
Institute of Merchant Shipping, American Petro-
leum Institute, U.S. Coast Guard, and the American
Association of Port Authorities.
As a result of this Committee's recommendation,
a contract was awarded to conduct a study to :6
a. Determine the volumes of oil waste which would
arrive at U.S. ports under various restrictions or
permissible discharge.
b. Define systems for collecting and processing
these volumes.
The study identifies the types of oily wastes
brought into nine selected ports by commercial ship-
ping and estimates 1970 quantities based on "no
discharge" criteria, the "1969 Amendments," and
the "no sheen" criteria. Quantities for 1975 and
1980 are also estimated, with the report concluding
that 16.5 billion gallons of oily waste would be
collected at U.S. ocean and inland ports in 1975,
rising to almost 17.0 billion by 1980. If reception
facilities are not available, there is no way to deter-
mine if, in fact, any of these wastes would reach
estuarine areas. Ships today are prohibited from
pumping bilge and ballast water in U.S. ports. If,
however, the IMCO Convention specifics are not
in force by 1980, ships will still be able to pump
these wastes at sea.
Conceptual designs for collecting, treating, and
disposing of the oily wastes, with no additional en-
vironmental degradation, range from the use of oil-
water gravity separators in small volume ports, to
large storage tanks adjacent to separator and/or
refining capabilities in larger ports.
The suggested role of government is limited to
assisting business in expanding existing capabilities
through grants, loans, and research. When govern-
ment-owned facilities are available, the study recom-
mends leasing to entrepreneurs.
The problem has not at this time been defined
regarding costs versus income to an entrepreneur, a
port authority, or private terminal operator who
must provide the necessary facilities. These would
include:
a. Reception capabilities
b. Storage capabilities
c. Separation and treatment capabilities
d. Obtaining necessary permits to discharge sepa-
rated water back into surface waters
e. Service charge to ship operator with possible re-
sulting increased cost to consumer
f. Disposing of reclaimed oil, or disposing of
waste oil
g. Possible delays to vessel with resulting costs
-------
538
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
The role of the entrepreneur is not clearly defined.
Refinement of regulations and policies is necessary
before any large investments are made by the busi-
nessman.
Industry has entered into several programs to
alleviate the problem of disposal of oily waste gen-
erated aboard ship, without direct discharge into
the seas and waterways:
a. Load on top method
b. Holding tanks
c. Improved tank cleaning
d. Oil water separator
e. Segregated ballast tanker
Research by the Coast Guard and the American
Institute of Merchant Shipping have not as yet
established numbers or costs on these methods or
total effectiveness of these programs. At this time
it appears that no statistics are available. Very few
American flag vessels are capable of the above.
Coast Guard is making an effort to learn the impact,
effectiveness, and costs of these innovative programs.
The study revealed that only two ports in the
country (Burns Waterway Harbor, Ind., and Seattle,
Wash.) were capable of receiving and processing
bilge and tank cleaning water.
The Maritime Administration is currently in-
volved in a project to accept, treat, and dispose of
ship-generated oily waste at their recently acquired
Cheatham Annex Complex in York County, Va. To
date, no product has moved through the facility
so no numbers are available.
The Maritime Administration also awarded a con-
tract to determine the feasibility of "Floatable Oily
Waste Treatment Systems." This study determined
that it would be too expensive to use old Liberty
ship hulls, placed in U.S. harbors for this project.
There is also a limited supply of Liberty ships avail-
able. No further action is planned.7
The Maritime Administration has also commis-
sioned studies to determine the functional capabili-
ties and costs for volume acceptance of oil waste
separation units aboard ship. If a unit can be
developed to function properly aboard ship, it would
help to eliminate the port problem of providing
reception facilities. To date it appears no feasible
shipboard unit will function properly under all con-
ditions to handle the problem.
Ports must have an oily waste implementation
program operational within 12 months after 15 na-
tions have signed the IMCO Agreement, or by
January 1, 1977.8
DISPOSAL OF SANITARY WASTES
It is increasingly apparent vessels will be pre-
vented from discharging untreated sewage in U.S.
territorial waters. EPA has established a "no-
discharge" standard for all vessels.
The Coast Guard proposed regulations to imple-
ment EPA's standards for marine sanitation devices
were published in the Federal Register on March 1,
1974. The proposed regulations govern the design,
construction, testing, certification, and manufacture
of marine sanitation devices. Public hearings were
conducted inviting comments and suggestions. The
Coast Guard is presently redrafting the regulations
based on the input.9
More than half of the comments received were
directed in whole or in part to the EPA standard.
The gist of these comments was objection to the
federal no-discharge requirement. In view of this
general discontent with the standards, the Coast
Guard has broached with EPA the question of the
efficacy and appropriateness of the existing stand-
ards. Discussions between the agencies is currently
underway.9
The Coast Guard and Navy are studying and
experimenting extensively with equipment and meth-
ods of operation within their own vessels to meet
EPA and state requirements and standards.
The Maritime Administration also has an exten-
sive research and development program on the dis-
posal problem of sanitary wastes. Using Liberty
ships to accept sanitary wastes from vessels and
municipalities was explored but proved too costly
and ineffective.10
The recreational fleet, which is a significant factor
in the water quality of any port must also meet
standards and criteria. Marinas to service this type
of vessel have introduced pump-out and reception
facilities ashore, but no inventory has been taken
to date and the impact is not known.
Alajor commercial ports in the United States have
done little to provide for the reception of liquid
sanitary wastes from commercial vessels of all types
and sizes. The only ports with significant waste
reception facilities are Burns Harbor, Ind., Toledo,
Ohio; Miami, and Jacksonville, Fla.11 It would ap-
pear that port areas will need guidance as to required
hookups to receive sanitary waste at pier facilities
and proper lead time to install them.
While attention is being given to the reception of
sanitary wastes from vessel operation, it is impor-
tant to note that port and harbor waters will not
improve in quality until such time as all municipal
wastes now emptying into the harbors are diverted
to municipal treatment plants.
-------
PORTS
539
DILAPIDATED PIERS—FLOATING DEBRIS
A problem having great significance on the im-
mediate port environment has been the deterioration
of dilapidated port structures resulting, in part, in
varying degrees of floating debris. In the past, a
cooperative, yet not specifically defined program of
federal and local effort functioned to remove dilapi-
dated wharves and to collect and remove drift from
navigable waterways.
To add additional confusion to an already mis-
understood and fragmented program, involving the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Coast Guard,
the Federal Office of Management and Budget
(OMB) in early 1973, announced its opposition to
any federal subsidy for removal of drift and dilapi-
dated piers. This decision was based on costs and
OMB opinion that this is a local port problem.
Dilapidated structures and floating debris involve
three major port environmental problems:
a. Visual pollution
b. Floating debris hindering the collection and dis-
posal of spilled oil
c. Large floating logs, a danger to small boats
The Department of Transportation, through the
U.S. Coast Guard, sponsored an exhaustive debris
study. The types and quantities of waterborne debris
found in coastal, harbor, and estuarine areas are
described in the report. Regional variations of the
types and quantities of debris, its sources, and the
natural effects on concentration and quantity are
described. Debris handling practices are discussed
find equipment is identified and evaluated.12
Many recommendations are made including the
suggestion that the Coast Guard initiate or become
involved in joint debris oriented programs with the
Environmental Protection Agency, the Corps of
Engineers, and the Navy. It is claimed in the 460-
page study that this will help to eliminate over-
lapping efforts by these organizations.
Inconsistencies in the debris programs find the
Army Corps of Engineers financing some port debris
pickup programs, while physically participating in
others. Among the ports who finance their own
debris pickup and patrol programs are Baltimore
and Miami.
LAND ACQUISITION
In January 1975 the Environmental Affairs Com-
mittee of the American Association of Port Authori-
ties, conducted a survey among its 80 U.S. corporate
members to determine if they were experiencing any
problems because of environmental legislation in
acquiring the necessary land for expansion of exist-
ing port facilities. Nine ports reported problems in
acquiring land for expansion and nine others reported
problems in obtaining land within their existing
port facilities. The survey also asked if U.S. ports
were experiencing problems in obtaining permits
to develop the land. The survey indicated permit-
ting problems existed at the local, state, and federal
levels.
The Port of Oakland, Calif, reported as follows:
With regard to the portion of your questionnaire and
survey dealing with land acquisition, we face problems
of securing necessary approvals from as many as 31
different agencies in a typical port project. I hope in
the coming year, AAPA through its various committees,
will develop firm and strong recommendations as to
how these problems can be met and what solution
should be sought.13
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
ACT OF 1972
Response to the above survey indicates that the
35 responding ports are aware of this Act. However,
only 23 of the responding ports reported they were
involved in the planning and implementation of the
Act in their state, and only 23 had assigned personnel
to be involved in the planning and implementation.
Twenty-nine ports felt port authorities should be
involved.
Thirty ports reported they had growth plans re-
quiring expansion involving over 15,000 acres be-
tween now and 2000. It was disturbing to note,
however, that only 17 ports had brought their growth
plans to the attention of the coastal zone manage-
ment authorities in their state.
A factor that will be of considerable importance
to this program and the future of U.S. ports, is the
Maritime Administration (MarAd) NOAA Memo-
randum of Understanding which was consummated
November 20, 1973, regarding MarAd assistance in
port and navigation facilities development in the
coastal zone. In view of the integral role which
coastal zone management plays in MarAd programs
and activities, MarAd will receive from NOAA indi-
vidual state and territory coastal zone management
programs for review and return a written evaluation
and commentary. Under this agreement, MarAd
will be in a position to exercise some influential
comment on pollution and pollution control at the
port level. To date, MarAd has received no coastal
zone management plans for review.
-------
540
POLLUTION CONTROL
OIL SPILLS IN OUR
PORTS AND HARBORS
This is an ever-increasing problem and one that
requires considerable attention from government and
industry at all levels. Oil spills from vessel and ter-
minal operations are mostly unintentional, the cause
of a miscue by manpower, or malfunction of equip-
ment. In some instances oil is spilled intentionally
by poor judgment through pumping of ballast or
bilges. Regardless of the type of incident, oil is
deposited in our waterways, costing millions of dol-
lars in cleanup and ecology damages. Research and
development projects through EPA, MarAd, Coast
Guard, Navy and industry have resulted in improv-
ing the still primitive state of the art to attack an
oil spill by controlling, removing, and disposing of
it. But much remains to be done.
There is a newly formed national trade association
representing the interests and serving the needs of
the oil spill and hazardous substances control indus-
try. Membership is open to all interested parties;
however, members are primarily (1) third party
contractors; (2) manufacturers or suppliers of equip-
ment; (3) individuals in private or governmental
capacities involved with oil and hazardous sub-
stances spill cleanup and containment operations.14
Objectives of the new organization are: (1) com-
munication of the industry's practices, trends and
achievements; (2) establishing liaison with govern-
mental agencies; (3) developing industry standardiz-
ing programs; (4) assisting the industry, wherever
appropriate, regarding insurance; and (5) obtaining
radio frequency allocations for oil spill operations.
EPA has published regulations involving shore-
side facilities, and the Coast Guard hns published
regulations on shipboard operations, both designed
to control oil spillage. So far, both programs are
lagging.15
EPA estimates there are more than 14,000 oil
spills in U.S. harbors and waterways a year. EPA
reports nearly 3 million gallons of oil were spilled in
83 cases investigated by EPA in the first quarter
of 1974. EPA has introduced a new 2.6 million
gallon test tank at Leonardo, N.J., in an effort to
find better ways of handling the nation's "intolerable
number of oil spills."16
More than 100 ports in the world are capable of
handling the large supertankers, and there are over
300 tankers of 200,000 DWT, or more. This is clear
evidence that consideration must be given to facili-
ties to handle this size vessel serving our energy
needs. The Port Facilities Act of 1974 was designed
to give attention to this subject.
ATTITUDES IN
ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS
The American Association of Port Authorities,
comprised of over 80 U.S. ports, recognizes the port
industry's responsibility to the environment. In
1970, AAPA authorized the formation of Committee
XV (Environmental Affairs), with specific duties
and responsibilities.
In 1972, AAPA Directors authorized competition
among U.S. ports for the "Recognition of Outstand-
ing Environmental Programs" award to encourage
additional attention to environmental responsibili-
ties by port authorities. In 1973, 14 U.S. ports
entered the competition and in 1974, 11 entered.
Extensive briefs were presented to the judges, who
represented EPA, Coast Guard and MarAd.
Programs included improvement and beautification of
port property through planting of grass, trees, and
shrubs; painting structures; providing barrier screens;
installing sewage systems; eliminating open burning;
removing deteriorated piers; oil spill contingency plans;
port personnel participating in community environ-
mental programs; construction of park with lighted
walkways; fountain, picnic tables, etc.; directives to
reduce air pollution; encouraging businessmen in the
port to improve their environmental habits; program to
prevent salt water intrusion into viable estuaries; dust
control program; dredging and spoil disposal programs;
traffic control systems to prevent accidents; providing
equipment to control pickup and dispose of spilt oil
in the harbor; debris removal; establishing performance
standards; 100 acre public park with bicycle park and
trails; recycling program for port generated paper;
bond issues to finance pollution control equipment;
regulations on noise abatement; and landscape design.
Several ports are now employing personnel with
full time assignments on environmental affairs. The
California Association of Port Authorities has an-
nounced the appointment of a planning and envi-
ronmental consultant.17
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
FOR DEEP WATER PORTS
The Administration has recognized the need for
establishing offshore deepwater port facilities and
the need for new comprehensive legislation to govern
their establishment and operation.
INSURANCE DEMANDS ON U.S. PORTS
Indications at this time are that ports are not
experiencing any major financial hardships imposed
by additional costs for insurance because of environ-
mental constraints. However, a prominent Wash-
ington attorney with experience and expertise on
-------
PORTS
541
pollution control laws and their impact on the
Marine Industry, concluded his paper before a re-
cent conference in Washington with this statement:
The foregoing pages outline a body of law that is com-
prehensive, complex and constantly changing. It isn't
surprising, therefore, that the traditional response of
many marine industry executives has been 'Let the
insurance carriers worry about the law. I need to tend
to my business'. While this approach may have worked
in the past, rapid growth of regulatory requirements
affecting the design and operation of vessels and shore-
side facilities gives rise to the inescapable conclusion
that effectively accommodating to the regulatory en-
vironment is a substantial part of the "business" which
needs tending to and can, in fact, mean the difference
between profit and loss. When pollution abatement
requirements can add nearly 25 percent to the cost of a
vessel, it is clearly essential to make certain that such
requirements do not discriminatorily affect your opera-
tions vis-a-vis those of your (domestic or foreign)
competitors.18
VESSEL TRAFFIC SAFETY SYSTEMS
Coast Guard continues to expand its activities
and responsibilities to improve maritime safety in
harbors and waterways as it accelerates implemen-
tation of the Ports and Waterways Safety Act of
1972. Traffic safety can be the number one deterrent
to vessel casualities, thereby reducing the spillage
of oil in the waterways. The U.S. Coast Guard seems
to have an effective program underway. Systems in
San Francisco and Puget Sound are presently in
operation and regulations have been drafted to re-
quire their mandatory use. Systems for other selected
ports are in the planning or construction stage.
Ports and waterways have been ranked according
to their need for vessel traffic systems. The list is
based on an analysis of casualty statistics utilizing
an algorithm developed through the VTS Issue
Study. (March 1973.)
The Coast Guard programs on bridge to bridge
radio-telephone communications will contribute
greatly to traffic safety, and reduction of casualties.
The need for attention to the orderly control of
shipping in and out of our waterways is apparent
with the increased size, carrying capacity, and vol-
ume of traffic existing today and projected for the
future. The following chart depicts the growth and
size of petroleum carrying vessels from 1956 to
present date:
Name
Sinclair Petrolore_
Universe Leader..
Universe Apollo...
Manhattan
Nissh Maru
Tokyo Maru
Idemitsu Maru._.
Universe Ireland _.
Tons
Bbl. cap. Launched
56,089
85,550
104,520
108,590
130,250
130,250
206,000
326,000
350,000
550,000
800,000
900,000
950,000
950,000
1,700,000
2,500,000
1956
1957
1959
1962
1962
1966
1966
1968
The following table prepared by the U.S. Navy
shows the crash stop capabilities of tankers under
full astern conditions:
17,000 ton vessel 5 minutes 1/5 of a mile
200,000 ton vessel 21 minutes 2.5 miles
400,000 ton vessel 30 minutes 4.5 miles
The stopping ability of the giant ocean carriers can
be a serious problem both in open and congested
waters.
TRENDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Three basic trends are apparent. These are indicative
of the approach, attitudes, involvement, frustra-
tions, and concern for the future of U.S. ports and
the water quality in our harbors, waterways, and
estuarine areas.
a. Federal, state and local legislation, guide-
lines, regulations, and directives will continue
and will have their impact on port operations
and water quality.
b. The port industry is making adjustments in
policy and administration to participate in en-
vironmental programs.
c. Facilities, equipment and personnel required
to respond to these environmental constraints
will present a financial burden to the port
industry.
Basic recommendations:
a. Recommend that immediate responsibility
be given to a Special Advisory Board to evalu-
ate and resolve confusion, delays and over-
lapping responsibilities from federal, state and
local legislation, guidelines, regulations, and
directives and their resulting environmental
impact on ports. It is further recommended
that this board include members of the port
industry.
b. Recommend that immediate attention be
given to determine the financial burdens placed
on U.S. ports, through environmental con-
straints and how this might affect the future
of U.S. ports and U.S. markets in world trade.
It is recommended that attention and support
be given to H.R. 1084, a bill "To amend the
Merchant Marine Act of 1920, to establish a
-------
542
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
grant program to enable public ports to comply
with certain federal 'standards, to direct the
Secretary of Commerce to undertake a compre-
hensive study of the present and future needs
of public ports in the United States, and for
other purposes."
Federal legislation on security measures, safety
regulations (OSHA), and environmental con-
straints is bound to have a serious financial
effect on U.S. ports. These issues require care-
ful evaluation as to their effectiveness versus
costs.
Review procedures that result in conflicts and
communication gaps between local, district, and
Washington headquarters of federal agencies in-
volved in these projects.
The cost to purchase and develop new land for
relocation of facilities and obtaining permits for
dredging and spoils disposal for these projects needs
to be reviewed.
RECOMMENDATION : (Federal permits)
1. Reduce number of federal agencies required to
judge an environmental project. Immediate and
careful attention should be given to the matrix
(Figure 7), to determine its accuracy and to make
recommendations that result in less confusion with
resulting delays.
RECOMMENDATION: (Oily waste and ballast water—
sanitary)
1. Entire problem needs review and refinement.
Coast Guard, EPA, MarAd and AAPA must try
to resolve this. Legislation calls for definite action
by 1980. The industry does not appear prepared to
meet that deadline. Further research and develop-
ment on shipboard equipment to process the wastes
are necessary.
2. The Water Resources Congress has made a
recommendation worthy of consideration: "We
strongly favor federal regulation and authority to
pre-empt state regulations insofar as discharges
from vessels in navigable waters are concerned. We
also urge development of standards and standard
procedures for the removal of shipboard wastes to
shoreside facilities."
TRENDS : (Shipping and port industry) The following
trends are apparent and require attention:
Increase in cargo movements—increased volume
of ship movements—increased size of vessels—new
terminal design—port to port service—requirement
for new land for port development—deepwater
ports—reduction in use of traditional port facilities—
changes in handling bulk, liquid and general cargo
(large container ships)—overcrowded waterways—
increased costs for dredging and disposal of spoils—
regional ports—the increased use of LNG vessels
—and demand for fast turn-around of ships.
RECOMMENDATION : (Environmental impact
statements)
1. Clarify conflicting guidelines from federal agen-
cies for content of material for acceptance of envi-
ronmental impact statements. Particular attention
should be focused on requirements of Department
of Interior (Fish and Wildlife) versus Department
of the Army (Corps of Engineers).
2. There also appears to be an unnecessary dupli-
cation of effort in preparing an EIS. An applicant
must prepare an EIS on a project, and the federal
agencies with responsibility to this project must also
prepare an EIS on the same project. Tliis results in
serious time delays.
3. Investigate background of projects requiring
an EIS from the Corps. They are behind schedule.
Recommend more manpower.
RECOMMENDATION : (Shipping and ports)
1. An overview is needed to establish basic policy
changes in funding dredging projects at existing
ports versus deepwater ports. The future of tradi-
tional ports versus regional ports must be examined.
The effect of a large number of smaller vessels versus
the supership in relation to vessel safety and avoid-
ance of accidents requires attention.
2. Additional attention is required on the carriage
of LNG and the location of port facilities to receive
this cargo. Safety precautions must be examined,
and further attention is required on how a port and
a port community must respond to a major collision
of an LNG ship with a tanker or general cargo ship
in a restricted ship channel or while tied up at berth.
3. Concern should be continued on the inspection of
equipment and licensing of personnel in the carriage
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PORTS
543
of petroleum products in tank barges (of all sizes)
engaged in traffic along the coast.
RECOMMENDATION: (Dredging and spoil disposal)
1. Review criteria published by EPA on con-
straints to dispose of spoils for a more realistic
approach.
2. Attention should be given to assure adequate
congressional funding of the Corps dredging responsi-
bilities. The amount of money funded by FY 1976
will not meet the needs for new project and mainten-
ance work.
3. Determine cost to government and ports caused
by delays, confusion, and misunderstanding due to
conflicting guidelines and demands of state and local
environmental agencies versus federal agencies.
RECOMMENDATION: (Dilapidated piers—floating
debris)
1. Careful review of present study being conducted
by the Corps. Particular attention is necessary to
damage, with resulting costs, to bridges washed out
during storms from floating debris.
RECOMMENDATION : (Land acquisition—Coastal
Zone Management Act)
1. Individual ports should review their states'
Coastal Zone Planning Program under the Coastal
Zone Management Act to determine how it might
affect land acquisition for port development.
2. Attention is also required as to why no Coastal
Zone Planning Program has been presented to
Mar Ad under the 1973 memorandum agreement
between MarAd and NOAA.
3. Ports should become acquainted with the
Coastal States Organization, which was formed in
1969 to provide a vehicle for the interested states
to make their views known on marine and coastal
programs and policies.19
RECOMMENDATION : (Oil spills)
1. More R & D on prevention, cleanup equipment
and expertise to respond to a spill. Provide adequate
depths in channels and waterways traveled by oil
barges serving port areas to prevent groundings
with resulting oil spills. Improved and expanded
training program for Coast Guard officer assuming
on scene command at oil spills. Suggest specialized
designated officer classification.
2. Expansion of Coast Guard and private "oil
spill" training schools. Examine current program
at Texas A & M. Enlarge through government
financing if necessary.
3. More attention is needed at the federal level
through the office of EPA (and possibly Coast
Guard) in providing local communities with criteria,
guidelines, and assistance in locating disposal sites
for both liquid and solid wastes collected from oil
spills. This is a very critical issue, and attention to
this problem is essential.
RECOMMENDATION : (Deepwater ports)
1. Before implementation of guidelines and poli-
cies, clarification is needed regarding jurisdiction,
including issuing of licenses, permits, policing, regu-
lations, construction, underwater lands, safety, pipe-
lines, oil spill control and removal, and so forth.
2. Additional study is required on the effectiveness
of a single point mooring in open deepwater ports.
3. If the deepwater (offshore) port issue is broad-
ened beyond the reception of petroleum products,
such as the reception and transfer of dry bulk cargos,
considerable additional attention is required, par-
ticularly as it relates to existing land oriented port
areas.
RECOMMENDATION: (Insurance demands)
1. An evaluation of this issue requires additional
attention. Ports do not seem immediately affected
at this time, but it is apparent that vessel insurance
in handling petroleum products will have some effect
on product cost.
RECOMMENDATION : (Vessel traffic control)
1. The Coast Guard has an excellent program.
Funds should be continued so as not to impair its
operation.
2. Avoidance of accidents is the basic deterrent
to oil spills.
CONCLUSION
There are many unsolved problems that need at-
tention. The federal government is concerned; the
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544
E&TUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
port industry is concerned. Both hope to solve the
problems that still exist in order to improve the envi-
ronmental health and welfare of our ports and
estuarine areas.
REFERENCES
1. An analysis of the markets for domestic waterborne ship-
ping by A. T. Kearney, Inc., of Chicago for MarAd.
(Published Feb. 1974 at cost of $600,000.)
Oceanborne Shipping: Demand and Technology Forecast.
(Litton Systems for U.S. Dept. of Commerce. June, 1948)
2. The U.S. Maritime Administration has endorsed the in-
tention to establish Regional Ports through the office of
Marvin Pitkin.
3. Excerpts from paper given before 1974 Pollution Control
in the Marine Industries, sponsored by the International
Assoc. for Pollution Control in Washing ;on, D.C., of
May 14, 15 and 16 by A. J. Green, Jr., Research Sanitary
Engineer, Office for Environmental Studies, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg,
Miss.; and F. H. Griffis, Major, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers. Program Manager, Dredged Material Re-
search Program, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Ex-
periment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss.
4. Section 123 (i) of Public Law 61-911 directs the Army
Corps of Engineers (with EPA assistance) to undertake
"A Comprehensive Program of Research, Study and
Experimentation Relating to Dredge Spoil," which
"shall include but not be limited to, investigations on the
characteristics of dredged spoil and alternative methods
of its disposal." The Corps has begun the $30,000,000
5-year study under the direction of the chairman of the
eight-man advisory committee, BG, Allen Clark, Jr.,
USA (ret).
5. Statement of .Major General John Morris, of the Army
Corps of Engineers at a convention of the Gulf Intra-
coastal Canal Association in February 1974,
6. Disposal of Oily Waste and Ballast Water from Vessel
Operation Study contract was awarded to Frederic R.
Harris Inc., in the amount of $654,000.
7. "Floatable Oily Waste Treatment Systems" Study was
awarded to Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction
Company; contract amount: 8399,040.
8. Statement of Ernest Bauer, chief, Division of Ports and
Terminals, MarAd, at the American Association of Port
Authorities Convention at San Juan, Puerto Rico,
October 1974.
9. From a report dated July 2, 1974 from the desk of J. H.
Costich, Comdr. U.S. Coast Guard, chief, Environmental
Coordination Branch, by direction of the Commandant to
Committee XV of the American Association of Port
Authorities.
10. Conducted by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction
Co. of Seattle, Wash, entitled, "The Feasibility of Using
Surplus Ship Hulls for Floatable Harbor and River Waste
Treatment Systems" (Published in 1973).
11. According to a survey made by Marine Engineering Log
of 70 major U.S. ports and published in the June 7, 1973
12. Department of Transportation Study conducted by the
Battelle Columbus Laboratories. Published March 1974,
entitled "Waterborne Debris in Marine Pollution
Incidents."
13. Ben E. Nutter, executive director, Port of Oakland,
Oakland, Calif. (February 6, 1975).
14. Oil Spill Control Assoc. of America, 20245 West Twelve
Mile Road, Suite 205, Southfield, Mich. General Counsel,
Marc K. Shaye.
15. EPA published regulations involving shoreside facilities;
Coast Guard published regulations on shipboard opera-
tions—designed to control oil spillage. (Both programs are
lagging, according to statements of both EPA and Coast
Guard).
16. EPA introduced a new 2.6 million gallon test tank at
Leonardo, N.J.—better ways of handling—(Comments
of John R. Quayles, Jr., deputy administrator of EPA,
Oct. 2, 1974 at Leonardo, N.J.).
17. Appointment of James L. Lammie, former district engi-
neer at San Francisco.
18. Statement of J. Gordon Arbuckle, attorney with Pattpn,
Boggs & Blow, Washington, D.C., before the Pollution
Control in the Marine Industries Conference, sponsored
by the International Assoc. for Pollution Control,
Washington, D.C., May 14, 15, 16, 1974.
19. Coastal States Organization was formed under the aus-
pices of the National Governors' Conference. Chairman:
A. R. Schwartz, Texas Coastal and Marine Council,
Austin, Tex.
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FACTORS BEARING ON
POLLUTION CONTROL IN
WEST COAST ESTUARINE PORTS
FRANK BOERGER
San Francisco Dredging Committee
San Francisco, California
ABSTRACT
The value of west coast estuarine ports is established; port operational problems attributable
to pollution control are defined and analyzed. Major problem areas, including regulations and
procedures, are explained with examples. It is concluded that water pollution control regulations
cause the most problems and that they are characterized by unjustifiable delay, risk, uncertainty,
and confusion. Remedial recommendations are given.
INTRODUCTION
West coast ports are major transportation inter-
faces ir> a worldwide commodity flow system. Wheth-
er publicly or privately owned, single or multi-
purpose, these ports contribute significantly to the
nation as well as the regions in which they are lo-
cated in terms of the availability of goods, balance of
trade, and regional employment and development,
Jn 1973, west coast ports handled 95 million tons of
cargo valued in excess of $17 billion.1 Figures on
community impact of a west coast port are included
in Exhibit 1 of Appendix ].
West coast ports have generally done an exemplary
job in keeping abreast of the demands of shippers
and consumers. Keccnt changes in cargo handling
concepts (containers, lighter aboard ship, roll on-rol]
off) have necessitated many waterfront improve-
ments as well as the development of new facilities and
the purchase of new equipment. Most World War
II ships have been phased out and the new genera-
tion of ships requires wider and deeper channels,
berths, and maneuvering areas. According to a
Maritime Administration survey,2 west coast ports
invested over $308 million in now and renovated fa-
cilities during the period 1966 to 1972; federal in-
vestments to facilitate port operations have been
many times this amount. Many ports have entered
into long-term lease arrangements to amortize the
heavy indebtedness incurred by the need to
modernize.
Oth'jr transportation sectors have also under-
taken rapid modernization of their port-related
facilities in accommodate efficient and economical
intermod.'i! transportation of ocean-going cargo.
Many ports now have large container freight stations
where goods arriving by truck are consolidated into
containers and vice-versa. New port rail yards have
been developed which handle a variety of cargos,
including, for example, containers on truck trailers,
for distribution throughout the U.S.
Since the passage of the various clean air and
water acts and the National Environmental Policy
Act, west coast ports, especially those located in
estuarine environments, have had to fa.ce many
new problems. The regulations and regulatory pro-
cedures associated with these laws have added seri-
ous technical and financial burdens, often allowing
some ports a competitive advantage over others.
Frequently, the real benefits of pollution control
programs, as developed by the regulatory authorities
pursuant to legislative mandate, are in question;
problems ensue over the use of funds on pollution
control programs without adequate justification.
Embarking on any pollution control program
requires time, justification, technical capability,
money, effort, and specific direction. Whenever a
major expenditure is required to achieve pollution
control requirements, it impacts all social and eco-
nomic sectors dependent on the port activity. De-
cisions to develop or improve related facilities may
be postponed, new equipment orders are often can-
celled, and lease negotiations may be tabled. In the
case of west coast ports, the major problem areas
appear to involve water pollution control programs,
primarily due to a lack of funds, technical capability,
or definitive requirements. While some air and noise
quality control problems have been reported, these
are apparently isolated and relatively minor com-
pared to water pollution control problems.
Federal water pollution control programs which
are creating difficulties for west coast ports include
545
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546
ESTUA.RINE POLLUTION CONTROL
those mandated by the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972 and the Ocean
Dumping Act. Additional authority given to regula-
tory agencies by the Fish and Wildlife Act of 1958
(and the subsequent Army/Interior Memorandum
of 1967) and the National Environmental Policy
Act are responsible for related problem;-;.
The implementation and administration of these
Acts have significantly contributed ~o pollution
control problems facing west coast ports. The first
major pollution control program which affected
west coast ports involved dredging. Experience
with the regulation of this program can be character-
ized by the following features:
A. Uncertainty—over whether or r.ot dredging
will be permitted, future requirements and regula-
tory agency activities.
B. Delays—time required to deal with and coordi-
nate actions of all regulatory agencies involved.
C. Multiplicity of agencies involved—many single
purpose agencies, often each with authority over
permitting dredging and frequently called upon to
review a project more than once, must approve
dredging projects.
It is of serious concern to west coast p>orts that the
above features may also affect other programs dis-
cussed under the following major problem areas.
MAJOR PROBLEM AREAS
Pollution control problems for wesl coast ports
can be categorized in three main areas: ship opera-
tions, port operations, and port mairtenance and
improvement.
A. Ship operations
1. Sewage discharge from ships while in port.
2. Ballast or oily waste discharge from ships
•while in port.
3. Accidental oil or other spills from vessels
while in port.
B. Port operations
1. Waste treatment plants
2. Area runoff
C. Port maintenance arid development. (This
area involves both the improvement and re-
placement of landside facilities and the new
and maintenance dredging of navigation chan-
nels and berths.)
1. Status of applicable regulations and pro-
cedures.
2. Multiple agency involvement and delays
associated with permit processing.
3. Technical feasibility of, justification for,
arid costs associated with applicable pollu-
tion control programs.
4. Testing and monitoring requirements.
EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION
OF FACTORS
A. Ship Operations
1. Discharge of sewage from ships in port directly
into the surrounding waters is prohibited by a
number of agencies. Most ship sanitary facilities
are fitted to discharge directly overboard; very few
have holding tanks, treatment plants, or collecting
manifolds that would allow sanitary wastes to be
pumped to shoreside treatment plants while in port.
One solution is to disallow the use of shipboard facil-
ities and use only shoreside toilets; another is to
use portable self-contained units placed on board
while a ship is in port. Neither solution is fully ac-
ceptable to either ship operators or ports since they
both involve extra expense and inconvenience.
Impact on shipping not otherwise normally suscepti-
ble to U.S. regulations (e.g. foreign operators) must
be considered in determining the degree and accepta-
bility of such requirements. Adverse effects on ocean
shipping services—en toto largely provided by other
than U.S. carriers—must be viewed in terms of
world trade, balance-of-payments, and competitive-
ness.
Many local pollution control agencies, such as
California's Regional Water Quality Control Boards,
in order to comply with Environmental Protection
Agency requirements, adopted blanket policies of
prohibiting discharges from ships2 apparently with-
out adequately investigating available alternatives,
the magnitude of the ship discharge problem, or the
costs involved. Further, in several areas, ports are
required to police such prohibitions and can be held
responsible for deliberate or accidental discharges.
In implementing this policy, the California board
lias a commitment to install dockside sewers before
approving any application to the Corps of Engineers
for a permit involving the construction or main-
tenance o<" a wharf or pier facility.
2. Ballast and oily wastes must frequently be dis-
charged from ships before taking on new cargo and
for trimming purposes. Such discharges, like the
discharge of sewage, are prohibited in port. Some
ships clean at sea while others make special trips to
cleaning facilities. With regard to trim ballast, vessels
must often depart from port in unstable condition
until they are far enough at sea to discharge excess
ballast or wastes.
Most municipal sewage treatment systems can-
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PORTS
547
not handle the materials and volumes involved
even if their lines are connected to port areas. The
only generally available landside solution is to pump
ballast and oily wastes into tank trucks or rail cars
for transport to special treatment or refining facili-
ties. This solution is very expensive, time consuming,
and infrequently available.
3. Accidental spills of oil or other deleterious sub-
stances into port waters are always a possibility. The
U.S. Coast (iuard has- developed stringent regula,-
tions covering the transfer of such materials; these
have significantly reduced the probability of spills.
The only reasonably reliable, available method of
preventing spills from causing damage in port ap-
pears to be through the use of floating curtains to
control and facilitate spill cleanup. These curtains
are deployed around the vessel on docking and float
above and below the water level while transfer op-
erations occur. The question has arisen in many
ports over who should purchase and operate these
curtains.
B. Port Operations
1. Ship wastes, if pumped ashore, must be treated
before they are returned to port waters. In most
cases, pipelines, pumping stations and pro-treatment
facilities would have to be installed to convey the
wastes to municipal plants if they could accept them.
Many municipal sewage treatment districts in which
ports are located cannot accept the volumes and
types of wastes which ships must discharge.
The most likely solution will probably involve
construction of dual pipeline collection systems from
each berth to separate sanitary and industrial treat-
ment plants. Final distribution could be either
through existing municipal systems, if they can
accept the wastes, or through new pipeline outfall
networks.
2. Storm water overland runoff is believed to be a
major contributor to water pollution.4 Port areas
generate large amounts of direct runoff due to the
magnitude of their land coverage. Port runoff prob-
lems are aggravated by their proximity to navigable
waters and the fact that they are necessarily low
lying areas often subject to overflow from upland
tributary runoff.
Surface runoff from ports may traverse areas of
manv porl-related activities including ra.ilyards and
truck depots, scrap salvage operations, open storage,
and ship repair facilities. Pollution control agencies
are increasingly alert to controlling non-point source
discharges. If it becomes necessary to treat port area
runoff, all r-torm sewers as well as surface runoff will
have to be intercepted and conveyed to a treatment
plant prior to discharge in port waters. Understand-
ably, many west coast port officials are concerned
over the costs involved with constructing and operat-
ing such a system.
C. Port Maintenance and Development
Ports, like other industries, must modernize and
take advantage of new technology and changing
trends to provide efficient service and to remain
competitive. The waterfront environment is un-
usually harsh and port maintenance must be per-
formed on a continuing basis. Unlike most industries,
however, the costs associated with port moderniza-
tion and maintenance are very high compared to
either port facility investment or return.
Investments from which accrued benefits are of a
common, long range and often intangible nature and
which promote general prosperity but are beyond the
capability of private enterprise are frequently under-
taken by the government. In the case of ports, such
benefits, in the form of marine commerce and in-
ternational trade, are recognized, and the govern-
ment invests large sums in port modernization and
maintenance. This is common for ports worldwide.5
Since many pollution control measures would fall
into the above category, it would appear reasonable
to assume that the government should participate in
underwriting expenditures associated with port pol-
lution control.
Having the government as a partner is absolutely
essential to west coast estuarine port maintenance
and development; however, the partnership has
many disadvantages. Federal funding programs to
deepen and widen navigation channels, for instance,
take an average of 17 years to accomplish. During
such long time spans, technology, pollution control
programs, and regulations change, and consequent!]'
the costs and usefulness of such projects.
The following specific problem areas indicate
factors limiting and controlling west coast port de-
velopment and maintenance from the standpoint of
pollution control:
1. The status and applicability of pollution con-
trol regulations is often confusing. Most industrial
point source discharges have been covered by stand-
ards issued by the Environmental Protection Agency
under the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972, P.L. 92-500. Compliance with the National
Pollution Discharges Elimination System (NPDES)
permit program of P.L. 92-500, while expensive, has
at least clarified many point source issues and fo-
cused attention on otheis. Ports are the terminus for
many pipelines of which the origins and contents are
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548
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
often unknown; yet, under the NPDES program,
ports are required to apply for and procure permits
or curtail discharges from all but storm drain
pipelines.
Pollution control regulations, while often pro-
mulgated and enforced by federal agencies, are
frequently interpreted and enforced in more stringent
forms by state and local agencies. In the case of
dredged material disposal regulations, the overlap-
ping jurisdictions of both regulatory agencies and
federal laws combined with failure of EPA to develop
guidelines required by Section 403 (c) ha« caused
great confusion. This situation was described by a
member of the California State Water Resources
Control Board as "A deplorable lack of coordination
between agencies which often results in long delays
which are unfair to applicants (for dredging permits)
and work a hardship on the agencies involved."6
The greatest concern expressed by west coast ports
regarding pollution control involves dredging. The
status of dredging-related regulations is especially
confusing since they are mandated by both the
Ocean Dumping Act, P.L. 92-532, and by P.L.
92-500. Dredge disposal criteria for ocean disposal
have been promulgated pursuant to P.L. 92-5.32,
but not for inland water disposal as required by
P.L. 92-500. This situation has left estuarinc ports
without any clear-cut regulations. In response to this
dilemma, Region IX EPA issued its interpretation
of the P.L. 92-532 ocean disposal criteria, rrodified to
meet local requirements, and, as an interim measure,
has extended these criteria (with some ndditional
modifications) to cover inland water disposal. To
further complicate the situation, only one of the
seven California State Regional Water Quality Con-
trol Boards adopted these criteria, with modifications
of their own; the other six boards reportedly use
various criteria. This situation frequently results in
more stringent requirements for some ports and con-
sequently in higher dredging costs for those ports.
Region IX EPA stated that final dredging criteria
would be issued over a year ago. Many projects and
agencies have awaited these criteria, promised on a
monthly basis; a draft was released in late October
1974.
2. Prior to undertaking port development or
maintenance projects, ports must procure permits
from many regulatory agencies, most of which ad-
minister pollution control programs. Primarily be-
cause many pollution control regulations appeal-
relatively nebulous and because most pollution con-
trol agencies are under-staffed to efficiently handle
permits, obtaining permits is usually arduous.
Again, dredging causes the majority of problems.
Both for maintenance arid development purposes,
dredging permits are sought more frequently by more
ports than any other permit. All too frequently, a
port spends months going through this process to get
permits to accomplish annual maintenance dredging;
often contracts must be held up or delayed because
the status of or an impending decision regarding a
permit is unknown. Many development projects have
been deferred or cancelled during the permitting
process because of uncertainties, delays, and escalat-
ing costs. A participant in a recent dredging con-
ference described the situation: "It seems like \vo are
on a merry-go-round--improper guidelines, rigidly
applied, rewult in virtually impossible project,
requirements."7
3. The technical feasibility of complying with
many pollution control regulations, their justification
in terms of environmental benefits, and the costs of
compliance in economic and social terms are very
important issues to west coast ports. The most
serious of these issues surrounds dredging, which
provides the "lifelines" of ship navigation channels
to ports.
There have been many commentaries on the
adequacy, impact, and effectiveness of pollution
control regulations involving dredging. With respect
to the basis for the regulations, a board of consul-
tants to the U.P. Army Corps of Engineers stated
that "A correctional campaign based on inadequate
evidence may be self defeating."8 There are many
arguments which indicate this may characterize the
pollution control program for dredging.
First, the impact of dredging activity on w.iter
quality relative to natural resuspension of sediments
appears to be small. For example, Dr. Ray Krone, a
sediment expert from the University of California, has
shown that in San Fiancisco Bay, the amount of
material resuspended into the water column by
estuarine wind and waves is many times greater tha.n
that due to dredging.9 With regard to toxic metals, OH
which major pollution control efforts are expended,
it is believed that the major cause of their presence
in the. water column is urban runoff.10 Given the
urban and industrial activity common to estuaries
along the west coast, it is highly probable that the
impact of dredging on water quality is relatively
very minor. A* an overview on this /natter, Dr. Krone
observes that 'The . . . (EPA) . . . appears to feel
compelled to establish guidelines for dredged spoil
disposal even in the absence of information showing
that publishing such guidelines will lead to improve-
ment of water quality, in view of the largi ,si;ir;.s of
money that observation of the proposed guidelines
will require, and that otherwise could be spent in
preventing the admission of waste discharges into,
the waters to prevent aecumuHtiou o!' toxic ma* erals
on all sediments, such guidelines should be pivpurcd
with sound knowledge of the effects of disposal on
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PORTS
549
the estuary or stream. As the proposed guidelines
show repeatedly, even cursory knowledge is
lacking."11
Second, no studies have conclusively shown signif-
icant deleterious impacts on water quality caused by
routine maintenance or well planned new dredging.
Dredging, which approximates natural resuspension
of sediments, does not add materials to the water
column. While no significant changes have occurred
in dredging practices in San Francisco Bay in the last
50 years (except that the amounts have increased),
the local Water Quality Control Board reports that
bay water quality is improving.
Third, the costs associated with compliance with
dredging related pollution control regulations are
high. In the San Francisco Bay, for example, the
normal practice for dredging within the central bay
is to dispose of the material at a deep aquatic site
just off Alcatraz Island; the regulations prescribe
disposal for "polluted" material at some 30 miles
offshore in the ocean or on land. The cost for dis-
posing in the prescribed ocean site is approximately
three times that of disposing at the Alcatraz site.
Without adequate justification, ports are very re-
luctant to commit such large additional expenditures.
An estimate of additional costs due to dredging
regulations as applied in San Francisco Bay has been
developed and is included in Appendix I, as
Exhibit 2.
Since ports are often bound by lease agreements,
additional expenses for disposing of dredged mate-
rials are usually unbudgeted or unknown amounts
which must come from other accounts if available
at all. In one instance, funds which had been made
available for public fishing piers and parks had to be
used instead to cover the added costs of compliance.
While the recreational benefits of the public fishing
facilities are known, no one can identify significant
benefits of complying with the dredging regulations.
Another factor aggravating the added cost situa-
tion is that many single purpose agencies with pol-
lution control authority can and do exercise a de
facto veto power over the conduct of dredging
projects. A recent statement by a representative of
the U.S. Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife
illustrates the limited perspective that results in
controls on ports; with regard to the necessity and
merits of port dredging projects, the representative
stated that "Although the proposed EPA criteria
state that the selection of disposal sites will be based
on considerations of the need for disposal, economic
costs involved, available alternatives, and the extent
of environmental impact, the Bureau will continue
to evaluate dredging projects only from the stand-
point of the impact on fish and wildlife resources.
Decisions of the Bureau will not be swayed by eco-
nomic considerations."12 The Bureau has pointed out
that it is their obligation to review dredging projects
and to try and serve as advocates for sound biological
planning.
It is not apparent that pollution control regulatory
agencies are able to adequately identify any signifi-
cant deleterious impacts which begin to compare
with the lost benefits of foregone dredging projects
or the added costs associated with compliance with
the regulations. The agencies have been queried
regarding the impacts of the regulations on numerous
occasions with unsatisfactory results. To one query
from a Congressman, for example, who asked the
EPA "What specific beneficial effects will be
achieved as a result of implementing the (dredging)
guidelines?" EPA responded: "We believe the
(guidelines) will provide a better tool to evaluate
dredged spoil disposal in San Francisco Bay waters
than was formerly available through the use of
national (EPA) guidelines. Accordingly, the re-
sulting evaluations should adequately protect the
environment while avoiding the imposition of un-
reasonable burdens on navigation interests."13 With
regard to this particular response there is significant
disagreement over whether or not the regulations
have been shown to adequately protect the environ-
ment and whether or not they impose unreasonable
burdens on navigation interests.
4. Testing and monitoring programs are required
as conditions of dredging permits issued by govern-
ment regulatory agencies. The costs of these pro-
grams is high, averaging from approximately 7 per-
cent to 20 percent of the cost of the dredging. Much
data has been produced from these mandatory pro-
grams but its usefulness in protecting the environ-
ment is highly questionable. Three questions re-
garding program usefulness have never been satis-
factorily answered: (a) what is the relationship
between constituents tested and water quality: (b)
what is the relationship between the limits placed on
the constituents (which define whether or not dredg-
ing is allowed) and water quality: (c) do the pre-
scribed methods of analysis yield results which are
indicative of actual deleterious impacts on water
quality?
After reviewing the pollution control regulations
and testing and monitoring procedures which are
prescribed for dredging, Dr. Ray Krone observed
that "The levels (limits) of constituents are arbi-
trarily set without justification or support of any
kind. The real difficulty, from the standpoint of their
use for management of dredged spoil disposal, how-
ever, arises because of the analytical (testing) meth-
ods required . . . The methods of analysis described
appear to determine gross constituents or indexes of
-------
550
EsruARiNE POLLUTION CONTKOL
possible pollutants, rather than actual deleterious
materials released to the environment."14
APPARENT NEEDS
The factors discussed above limit and control
west coast estuarine port operation, often to a seri-
ous extent. Ports can and do play a vital role in
pollution control efforts. The following points express
needed reforms in the pollution control efforts as
applied to west coast ports:
1. Pollution control regulations and testing proce-
dures must be adequately based and justifiable with
regard to results. Their entire impact, including that
on the environment as well as on the economy and
ports in particular must be evaluated prior to im-
plementation. Also, before any regulations are im-
plemented, agencies administering them should be
fully aware of costs and of feasible alternatives
available to meet regulation requirements. To this
end, agencies proposing regulations or testing proce-
dures should be required to develop both environ-
mental and economic impact statements and to hold
public hearings prior to promulgation of the regula-
tions. This view has been endorsed by both the board
of directors and the general membership of the Cali-
fornia Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference.16
Sound, complete, reasonable, and workable pollution
control regulations can only be developed after social,
economic, and environmental impacts and priorities
are established, evaluated, and their relationships
thoroughly understood.
2. Pollution control regulations must be applied
uniformly; specific directions for their use must be
supplied to all agencies at federal, state, and local
levels which might use them.
3. Pollution control regulatory agencies must be
adequately funded and staffed to develop fair,
efficient and economical permit and review proce-
dures for the administration of pollution control
programs.
4. When pollution control measures are judged to
be in the general interest, funds should be made
available by the government to implement such
measures. West coast ports, already financially
burdened through many recent modernization
efforts, provide man}^ major contributions to the
general interest. Some funding is apparently author-
ized in the amount of f 15 million to remove' in-place
toxicants from navigable waterways according to
Section 115 of P.L. 92-500; to date, however, west
coast EPA representatives do not know how these
funds can be made available.
CONCLUSIONS
In order for west coast estuarine ports to participate
as fully as possible in pollution control programs, un-
certainty, delays, and confusion now associated with
such programs must be minimized. The perplexing
problems which characterize the pollution control
program for dredging hopefully can be reduced or
eliminated from future programs involving other
fields of port activity. A mechanism for the sharing
of costs associated with port pollution control pro-
grams should be developed and implemented. In
addition, a streamlined decisionmaking process for
the issuance of port maintenance and development
permits should be instituted, allowing full and rapid
consideration of the value of port activity.
APPENDIX I
(Referenced to Text Superscripts)
I. From U.S. Department of Commerce figures compiled by
the Maritime Administration.
2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Maritime Administra-
tion, North American Port Development Expenditure
Survey, March 1974.
3. California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San
Francisco Bay Region, Interim Water Quality Manage-
Plan, April 1971.
4. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control
Board, Memorandum from Executive Director on pro-
posed shellfish policy, August 1974.
5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Institute for Water Re-
sources, Foreign Deep Water Port Developments,
December 1971.
6. California Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference,
Summary Proceedings: Ecology, Economics and Dredg-
ing—A Balancing Point for Navigation, October 1973.
7. Same as #(5.
8. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment
Station, Disposal of Dredged Spoil (Technical Report
H-72-8) November 1972.
9. Dr. Ray B. Krone, Paper to San Francisco Bay Regional
Water Quality Control Board, March 20, 1974.
10. Same as #4.
11. Dr. Ray B. Krone, Paper Evaluating EPA Draft Dredge
Disposal Criteria, November 8, 1972.
12. Same as #6.
13. Letter from Paul DeFalco, Jr., Regional Administrator,
EPA Region IX, to Congressman Robert L. Leggett,
November 30, 1973.
14. Same as #9,
15. Resolution adopted by the California Marine Affairs
and Navigation Conference, October 1973.
-------
PORTS
551
Exhibit 1
Economic Impact of Port of Seattle*
Transportation and Transportation Services
Water Transportation:
Steamship companies— personnel afloat
Tug & barge companies — personnel afloat...
Ship chandlers and other vessel suppliers. ,.
Commerciai fishing . .
Repair and construction of commercial
vessels... .. . .. _.
Subtotal* Water Transportation
Surface Transportation:
Rail.
Truck
Air
Subtotal: Surface Transportation —
Transportation Services
Marine construction
Physical handling of maritime cargoes
(longshore and stevedoring, crating,
stuffing & unstumng of containers, local
drayage, and warehousing)
Administrative activities— private (person-
nel ashore of steamship and tug &
barge companies, freight forwarders,
customs house brokers, foreign trade
departments of banks, insurance com-
panies, and trade associations).
Administrative activities — public (Port of
Seattle Commission, federal, state, &
local agencies, foreign consulates and
Other waterfront related activities (marine
surveyors, admiralty lawyers, consul-
tants, maritime labor unions, and news
media)
Subtotal: Transportation Services. _
Total. Transportation and Transportation
Services.. . _.
Manufacturing
Food /kindred products
Wood /paper products _. ..
Metal products
Machinery & equipment.
Other manufacturing . ._
Total: Manufacturing
Wholesale Trades
Grand Total Direct Impact
Number
of Jobs
678
1,047
35
254
675
1,527
4 216
967
457
10
1,434
189
2,585
1,704
2,111
242
6,831
12,481
1 400
1,689
464
2,921
2,125
8,599
4 320
25,400
Gross Annual
Payroll
$ 8,401,000
9,785,000
457,000
2*01,000
6,525,000
12,988,000
$ 40,557,000
$ 9,008,000
4,993,000
100,000
$ 14,101,000
$ 1,563,000
24,486,000
14,445,000
20 512 000
3,808,000
$ 64,814,000
$119 472 000
$ 10 629 000
11 848 000
3 748 000
24 715 000
16,865 000
$ 67,805 000
$ 40 324 000
$227,601,000
Sales and /or
Revenues
$130,000,000
48,000,000
900,000
5,692,000
15,000,000
24,027,000
$223,619,000
$ 18,437,000
13 137,000
500,000
$ 32,074,000
$ 4 747 000
45,763 000
8,233,000
47 120 000
4,393,000
$110,256,000
$365,949 000
$ 78 279 000
42 040 000
13 072 000
82 483 000
77,546 000
$293 420 000
$ 95 154 000
$754,523,000
Exhibit 2
Estimated Additional Costs for San Francisco Bay Dredging Projects as a Result
of Application of E.P.A. Dredge Disposal Criteria*
January 1,1972 to October 1,1973
Dredging Applicant
1. Humble Oil
2. USN Hunters Point...
3. WPRR Oakland.
4. Bethlehem Shipyard.
(one project)
5. Port of Oakland j
6. Exxon Benicia H
7. Schniber Oakland...
8. Corps Oak IHC
10. PG & E Oleum.
11. Port of Richmond
12. San Leandro Mrna..^
Project
Size
(Cubic
Yards)
10,000
170,000
6,000
125,000
25,000
95,000
80,000
36,000
900,000
121 000
12,000
10,000
350,000
Disposal Site
Requested
Carquinez Strait
Hunters Point
Alcatraz
Hunters Point
Hunters Point
Alcatraz
Carquinez Strait
Alcatraz
Alcatraz
South Bay
Carquinez Strait
Alcatraz
Hunters Point
Disposal Site
Approved
Alcatraz
Deep Ocean
Deep Ocean
Deep Ocean
Alcatraz .
Deep Ocean
Alcatraz
Deep Ocean
Deep Ocean
Alcatraz
Land
Land
Estimated
Additional
Cost
$ 9,600
77,000
18,000
220,000
9,000
113,000
76,800
68,400
1,440,000
138 000
12,000
?
?
$2,181,800
* From Newsletter *6, California Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference, Oct.
30,1973.
* From Seattle Maritime Commerce and its Impact on the Economy of King County,
Seattle Port Commission, 1971.
-------
THE
PUBLIC'S
ROLE
-------
SEA GRANT
ESTUARINE STUDIES
LEATHA F. MILOY
Texas A & M University
College Station, Texas
ABSTRACT
Approximately '20 percent of funds dispensed under the National Sea (irant College and Program
Act of I960 (PL 89-688) has been directly related to estuarine studies. Since 1971 $13 million in
federal funds, matched by §8 million in non-federal support, has been directed to this area. In the
same period 533 projects in support of ecosystems research, coastal zone management, pollution
studies, environmental modeling, and applied oceanography were conducted under the Sea Grant
Program.
Brief case histories of estuarine related studies in Narragansett Bay, Long Island Sound, the
Neuse and Albemarle River Basins, Apalachicola and Escambia Bays, Barataria Bay, Matagorda
Bay, and Puget Sound are presented as examples of Sea Grant work.
The applied nature of Sea Grant studies is emphasized by examples of the utilization of Sea Grant
estviarine-related research. Particular attention is given to how these studies have been used by
local, state, and federal decisionmaking bodies.
A partial bibliography citing 58 Sea (irant reports on estuarine research is presented.
INTRODUCTION
Incubators for much of life in the sea, estuaries are
fragile environments, taking sustenance from land
and sea in an unending cycle.
Influenced by both land and sea, the nation's
estuaries are vital resources of the coastal margins.
And the delicate balance of these nursery grounds is
further complicated by man's increasing pressure on
the coastal zones of this country.
An intricate network of natural phenomena and
manmadc intrusions converge in America's coastal
zones. Each of these has a direct bearing on the
estuarine environment. Research to learn more about
estuaries encompasses a much broader scope than
the estuary itself. One must understand the nature
of adjacent bays, the islands which bar the sea
from the land, shipping lanes which criss-cross the
nei'.rshore environment, freshwater inflows which
t'eeU the sen. ihi' biologica' mysteries underlying the
ocean's food chain, the f.'Tects of man's use of the
nearby land and ocean, and the physical, chemical,
and biological parameters of the nearby ocean.
Crealeil t<> "achieve gainful use of marine re-
sources'' Ihrou'.^h the establishment of sea grant
colleges, the National Sea Grant Program has
focused a significant effort toward understanding the
forces which influence the nation's estuaries Through
a partnership, arnaigen.ent between the federal
government and the- nation's colleges and univcr-
sities, the Sea Grant Program, administered by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce, has
directed more than $21 million in federal funds
toward marine environmental research since 1971.
In 1974, 165 projects were underway along all U.S.
coasts and the Great Lakes.
Sea Grant: How It Works
When the Congress created the Sea Grant Pro-
gram in 1966 (PL 89-688), it was envisioned as a
marine resource effort which would be patterned,
in part, after the successful land grant program
fostered by the Morrill Act of 1862. Whereas the
land grant program concerned itself with food
production from the land, Sea Grant is concerned
not only with food production from the ocean but
also with the development and use of other re-
sources—minerals, recreation, transportation, and
others—which relate to the sea. To accomplish its
mission, by law Sea Grant must carry on work in
applied research, education, and advisory services.
Administered by the National Science Foundation
from 1966 until the creation of NOAA in 1970, the
program is a matching fund arrangement. As much
as two-thirds of the funds for Sea Grant programs in
universities and colleges come from the federal
government with at least one-third coming from
555
-------
556
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 1.—Sea Grant Program Support by Category of Effort FY71-74
Category
EDUCATION/TRAINING
ADVISORY SERVICES
RESEARCH
•Marine Technology Research & Development
•Marine Environmental Research
•Socio-Economics & Legal Research
•Marine Resources Development
PROGRAM MGM'T
TOTALS SG $
(MF$)
1971
S(i$
(Ml- $)
1,860,350
(1,937,878)
1 096 359
(591,344)
1,8?0 889
(925,890)
2,652 990
;l, 708, 638)
524 531
(228,905)
3 685 288
(2,322,529)
904,843
(753,463)
12,545,250
(8,468,647)
1972
SG$
(MF$)
1,957,700
(1,469,975)
2,184 135
(1,158,523)
3,159,949
(1,794,834)
3,135,814
(1,707,906)
845,176
(440,173)
3 665 132
(2,144,644)
1,390,273
(1,010,114)
16,338,179
(9,726,169)
1973
SG$
(MF$)
1 483 194
(2,125,273)
2 658 562
(1,389,705)
3 037 103
(1,626,595)
4 030 467
(2,411,610)
1 115 015
(533,816)
4 532 119
(2,813,753)
1,619 758
(1,052,076)
18 476 218*
(11 952 828)
1974
SG$
(MF$)
1,217,128
(1,869,726)
3 568 695
(1,791,681)
2 941 518
(1,851,898)
3 384 116
(2,344,411)
909 659
(624,113)
5 018 347
(3,046,353)
1,721,477
(1,358,018)
18 760 940**
112 886 200)
Total
SG$
(MF$)
6,518,372
(7,402,952)
9,507 751
(4, 931, 253)
10,959,459
(6,199,217)
13,203 387
(8,172,565)
3,394,381
(1,827,007)
16 900 886
(10,327,279)
5,636,351
(4,173,671)
66 120 587
(43 033 844)
*Does not include $857,900 awarded as amendments to grants originating in FY72.
**Does not include $293,000 for 7 awards not requiring matching funds.
institutional sources. This matching requirement has
created a partnership between government and
institutions which is the cornerstone of the Sea
Grant concept.
Since 1971, the program has granted $66 million
to universities and others. An additional $43 million
has been matched by grantees as shown in Table 1.
Support to institutions from the National Sea
Grant Program takes several forms: project support
for a single activity; coherent area support for several
projects centered around one primary problem;
institutional support for programs undertaking work
in several research areas and in education and
advisory service areas; special designation as Sea
Grant College for universities exhibit; ng excel-
lence and commitment while receiving institutional
support.
Sea Grant's intent io to bring many types of
expertise into marine-related work. Grantees include
scientists, engineers, teachers, lawyers, economists,
businessmen, arid industrialists. In FY1974 3,796
individuals were involved in Sea Grant supported
projects—2,334 full-time equivalents as shown in
Table 2.
In 1975 eight Sea Grant Colleges tiad been
named—Oregon State University (1971), Texas
A&M University (1971), University of Rhode
Island (1971), University of Washington (1971),
University of Wisconsin (1972), University of
Hawaii (1972), University of California (1973),
State University of New York/Cornell (1975).
The Partnership
Since the program is operated to serve state and
regional needs, the mechanisms for bringing univer-
sity resources to bear upon these area problems and
needs necessarily include local involvement. A
typical university Sea Grant program, for instance,
will have several advisory councils or committees
helping define the most important problems for
study.
Through marine advisory service field agents who
live and work in the communities bordering the
coast, local problems are identified. These field
agents work closely with fishermen, businessmen,
port directors, and others who are dependent upon
the sea for a living. Through field agents, problems
are brought back to the institution. Often informa-
tion already exists which can help. In other instances,
Table 2.—Individuals involved in Sea Grant Projects TY 1974
Type
Graduate Students
Undergraduate Students
Technicians _-
Clerical __ „
Other _. .. .. .
Total
FTE's
Research Advisory
Services
1 140 325 ,
562 26 I
274 70 1
307 ?5 !
232 80 i
99 119 |
2,614 605
1,742 365
Fduc=»
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
557
research efforts must be mounted to acquire informa-
tion needed to make decisions. As information is
generated it is fed back to the local areas through
meetings, workshops, publications, films, or one-to-
one teaching sessions.
Problems may range from the demand for trained
personnel to the need for organized workshops on
new state or federal regulations. But all are evaluated
by local groups and university personnel to arrive
at decisions about how solutions may be generated.
Where research, education, or advisory services
projects are called for, proposals are written, and
evaluated for scientific and technical quality by
experienced professionals from the universities, state
or federal agencies, private laboratories or industry.
Even before the institution submits its comprehen-
sive proposal for federal support, the project has
been subjected to many kinds of reviews and judged
on its relevance to local problems.
Once the NOAA Office of Sea Grants is asked to
support a project, other technical reviews are made,
plus a further review is made to determine its ap-
propriateness to the Sea Grant mission. A National
Sea Grant advisory panel, composed of knowledge-
able individuals from industry and universities,
participates in this review process and decides on
grants to be made. This panel, with personnel from
the Office of Sea Grants, must take into considera-
tion not only the technical quality of the proposal
but also the total funding available to the National
Sea Grant Program.
Through this process of review and evaluation,
projects eventually undertaken as part of the Sea
Grant Program are assured of having high technical
and scientific quality and relevance to the needs of
the local community or state.
MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
Concern for environmental quality and estuarine
research is a manifestation of how the Sea Grant
partnership works. Sea Grant's chief concern is
people, people who work in the sea, live uear its
shore, or benefit from its bountiful resources, and
one of the important concerns of people is the quality
of the environment. Sea Grant advisory field agents,
working closely with local groups, help identify
problems which affect the quality of the coastal and
nearshore environment. Local support for Sea Grant
projects often shows up as matching dollars for the
project. As evidence of the local acceptance of the
program, the mandatory matching requirement has
exceeded the demand. Forty-one percent of the total
Sea Grant funding for the current fiscal year is
from matching money.
Table 3.—Numbers of projects by categories FY1971-1974
Category
RESEARCH AND STUDIES IN
DIRECT SUPPORT OF
COASTAL MGM'T DECISIONS
•CZM Social Sciences
•CZM Natural Sciences
ECOSYSTEMS RESEARCH
•Ecosystems Research
POLLUTION STUDIES.. ..
•Oil Spills ....
• Pesticides j
•Thermal and Radioactive...
•Metals . . J
• Other H
ENVIRONMENTAL MODELS...
• Physical Processes
• Biological Processes ._ __
•Other
APPLIED OCEANOGRAPHY....
•Chemical. __ .. ..
•Physical
TOTAL
Numbers of Projects (Total)
*1971
(21)
(13)
(17)
(15)
(16)
"
1972
(38)
13
25
(11)
11
(46)
5
8
11
9
13
(20)
9
6
5
(9)
2
7
123
1973
(58)
22
36
(28)
28
(45)
3
6
5
5
26
(23)
10
6
7
(9)
1
8
163
1974
(67)
32
35
(25)
25
(40)
3
5
6
4
22
(25)
12
8
5
(8)
1
7
165
*Project information for FY1971 is available only by major areas of emphasis.
Although there is no specific research category
labelled "Estuarine Studies," Sea Grant recognizes
the importance of support to all aspects of the near-
shore marine environment. Because of the many
forces which impact upon the nation's estuaries,
studies in several categories are considered vital to
understanding the complex estuarine environment.
Work in support of marine environmental quality
is carried out in five major areas of emphasis under
Sea Grant: Research in Support of Coastal Zone
Management Decisions; Ecosystems Research; Pol-
lution Studies; Environmental Models; and Applied
Oceanography.1
These major topics are further broken down into
sub-topics as indicated in Table 3. Work in the
coastal zone is clearly the most important area of
investigation with 67 projects underway in the 1974
fiscal year. Pollution studies including oil spills,
pesticides, thermal, radioactive, and metal pollution,
rank second.
For the period FY1971-1974, $13 million in
federal funds and $8 million in matching funds have
been devoted to marine environmental quality
studies. This area of research has received signifi-
cantly more non-federal support than matching
funds required by law. Characteristic of the entire
1 Under the Sea Grant legislation, the Great Lakes are considered
"salty" and studies undertaken in these important waters are included
in the tables presented here.
-------
558
ESTUABINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 4.—Sea Grant Supported Marine Environmental Research FY1971-1974
Major Emphasis
Research in support of coastal management decisions. .
Ecosystems Research
Pollution Studies
Environmental Models _ _ .
Applied Oceanography
TOTAL SG $
(MF$)
% of all Sea Grants.
1971
S(!$
(Ml- $)
944,947
(742,149)
599 500
(431,230)
420 184
(211,910)
348,697
(178,677)
339 662
(144,672)
2 652 990
'1 708 638)
21.1
1972
SG$
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
559
completed an intensive ecological study of a small
salt marsh embayment on the west side of Narragan-
sett Bay.
Measurements of major populations, their metabo-
lism, and seasonal patterns of the total salt marsh
metabolism were made to ascertain energy flow
within the embayment. The scientists simulated
additions of sewage and heated effluent water to the
salt marsh inlet. They concluded that sewage from
a housing development around the marsh would
lead to total depletion of dissolved oxygen in the
marsh waters and that the introduction of heated
water, such as power plant effluent, would cause
small, but measurable lowerings of dissolved oxygen.
Long Island Sound—Using a mathematical model
in New York, researchers with the State University
of New York (at Stony Brook) are testing manage-
ment schemes for improving water quality in Long
Island Sound. One idea being evaluated could lead
to better flushing of the western end of the sound and
New York Harbor. It calls for building gates, or
locks, across the upper East River, a major source
of pollutants in the once-productive sound.
At ebb tide in the East River, the gates would be
open to allow unhindered flow of clean sound water
through the river, down into New York Harbor,
and out into the New York Bight. Six hours later,
at slack water, the locks would be closed, blocking
the flow of polluted harbor and river waters back
into the sound. After another six hours, the gates
would be reopened to repeat the cycle.
Tests of the tidal flushing scheme with the model
indicate that sewage concentrations would drop 78
percent in the western end of the sound and 50
percent in New York Harbor. The predictions assume
that half the East River sewage now enters the
sound.
South Atlantic
Neuse and Albermarle River Estuaries,—Sprawling
between North Carolina's mainland and its Outer-
Banks are 2.6 million acres of sounds and estuaries,
an area which ranks near the top of the state's list
of most valuable resources. The North Carolina Sea
Grant program conducts research aimed at con-
tributing to the state's ability to make sound policies
concerning the estuarine environment.
Scientists at the University of North Carolina are
tracing nutrients—nitrogen and phosphorus as they
travel into and through the estuaries to determine
the effects these nutrients have on the resource.
Computers are used to map changes in the estuarine
waters throughout the Neuse and Albermale River
estuaries. These maps also show changes in the
estuaries over time.
The research has provided evidence that oxygen
concentrations often drop in the summer, as algae
blooms thrive and salt water settles to the bottom.
Fish begin to migrate out of large areas where oxygen
is low, leading scientists to believe more nutrients
in the estuaries could lead to longer periods of low
oxygen. Such periods could be harmful to fish and
organisms that cannot leave the waters.
State agencies that must monitor and control
water quality are using the information derived from
these studies to gauge the impact of upstream
sources of sewage and nutrients on the estuaries.
Already Sea Grant researchers have recommended
maximum temperature standards for industrial ef-
fluents to officials formulating water quality policy.
University of North Carolina teams also are
undertaking work to learn more about the soils in.
the estuarine environs and the processes which
shape the state's shoreline. The state's barrier
islands and the rest of its coastline are threatened
by erosive forces of ocean waves and currents.
Meanwhile, another research team is using Hat-
teras Beachgrass, a variety developed by NCSU
soil scientists several years ago, to stabilize dunes.
Advantages of the Hatteras grass include its hardi-
ness. Where only five percent of American beach-
grass test plantings survived the first year, the
survival rate for Hatteras jumped to 70 percent,.
In a related activity, the soil scientists joined with
the Corps of Engineers in a project to stabilize the
soil which is dredged from rivers and channels. They
have found that it is possible to build productive
marshlands from the dredging spoils in some areas.
In field studies and with the computer, University
of North Carolina Sea Grant scientists have traced
water flow through the state's tidal inlets and
sounds. Field research focused on water circulation
in the Oregon Inlet and Croatan-Roanoke Sound
areas and in the Neuse River estuary. Using the
computer, NCSU civil engineers modeled water
quality, surface-elevation, and water movements in
Pamlico Sound under various conditions including
hurricane winds. A water quality model of thr,
Neuse River estuary has been verified with field
data. Information gained in both the field and com-
puter studies is useful in predicting water flow and
water quality and can provide valuable information
for resource management decisions.
Gulf Coast
Apalachicola and Escambia Bays.—Apalaoldoola
Bay and its drainage system are important concerns
-------
560
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
to nearby coastal counties. Franklin County, for
example, is economically dependent upon the finfish
and shellfish resources of the bay, which produces
over 80 percent of Florida's oyster crop. Researchers
from the State University System of Florida,
studying the possible effects of the agricultural
chemical Mirex, provided data from their Sea Grant
work to the state's Department of Natural Re-
sources Endangered Land Task Force, to the EPA,
and to the Florida House of Represents tives.
The teiru w;is- asked to expand the scope of the
project on Mirex, a chemical used to control fire
ants, to include the productivity and water quality
in the bay's drainage syslem. Funding came from
the Franklin County Board of Commissioners and
the Florida Department of Pollution Control.
Based on data from the Sea Grant research
project in Apalachicola Bay, the State of Florida is
purchasing 17,000 acres of land at a price of $4.2
million.
Data collected in Apalachicola Bay will be com-
pared with information derived from another study
in Escambia Bay which has gained national atten-
tion in recent years due to a series of devastating
fishkills symptomatic of deteriorated water quality.
As part of an interagency task force established
by an EPA. conference in 1972, Sea Grant is involved
in efforts to reverse the bay's deterioration and guide
the recovery process. Data from the project, has
already been used in planning for a projected 30
percent population increase for the Pensacola metro-
politan area over the next 15 years.
The importance of studying interrelationships
between and among bays has been documented in
the project. Under certain conditions, for instance,
Pensacola Bay bottom water moves into the East
and Escambia Bays. Knowledge of this movement is
important in predicting movement of sludge out of
Escambia Bay and in determining sites for waste
outfalls. The study has already provided data to
state officials in the development of a wastewater
management plan for the drainage basin.
The data has also been used in evaluating an oil-
drilling permit request and by real estate interests
in coastal development.
Barataria Bay.—Initiation of Louisiana's Sea
Grant program in 1968 gave Louisiana State Univer-
sity scientists their first opportunity tc mount a
major multidisciplinary study of the state's fragile
and fertile coastal marshes—seven million acres of
estuaries and wetlands.
In early 1969 field activities began on the Barataria
Bay Project, named for a major bay-marsh complex
in southeastern Lousiana. Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission personnel describe the area as the
most biologically productive estuary in a region
acknowledged as the major nursery ground for
commercial fisheries in the northern Gulf of Mexico.
Initial studies were made at widely dispersed
locations to assess factors that varied spatially, such
as salinity and vegetative types, as well as those
that changed with tidal stage and season. The
investigation has since been extended to the littoral
zone from the Mississippi River mouth to the off-
shore area of the Barataria Bay system and to
various marsh types and swamps. The results
showed that the marshes and swamps play the key
role in organic production necessary for nutrient
generation in situ and in sediments in Barataria
Bay system. Nutrients to the Barataria from the
Mississippi River are limited to high flooding stage
of the river in early spring, but the river flooding
inundates the entire nearshore zone of the Louisiana
coast with vast amounts of organic matter and
inorganic nutrients annually from winter to late
spring. Under investigation is the influence of the
Mississippi flooding on the chemical parameters of
water and sediment in the major oyster producing
area east of the river, in relation to oyster growth,
quality, and condition for parasite infection.
Perspectives gained from the first several field
seasons led investigators to formulate a detailed
plan for study, synthesis, and operational research
of the total estuarine ecosystem. They have already
characterized estuarine productivity by means of a
detailed model and energy flow data.
This synthesis of nutritive processes will provide
a scheme by which the relative importance of every
consumer species in the marsh, as well as the rnarsh
plants themselves, can be assessed in terms of
utilization of commercially important shrimp and
fish. Further, through estimates of plant material
flushed into open waters, the contribution from
coastal marshes to offshore food chains can be
examined. From this information, economic ques-
tions concerned with alternate uses of the estuarine
marsh and its living resources can be examined
rationally.
Knowledge gained from the project has already
been used to evaluate the impact of man's activi-
ties—primarily oil production related—and will
later lead to recommendations for management
practices in Louisiana's coastal region.
Matagorda Bay.—An example of the comprehen-
sive approach Sea Grant researchers take toward
estuarine studies is Texas A&M University's four-
part resource evaluation of the Matagorda Bay area.
The study was undertaken to complement work
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
561
done for the General Land Office of Texas by the
Texa ant. support for
coastal management decisions increased in the past
two fiscal years (Table 4), but matching funds have
amounted to approximately 43 percent of the total
spent, making a cumulative expenditure of $7.8
million since 1971.
Pollution control and ecosystems research, on the
other hand, has declined during the same period.
S^a Grant Program directors at several universities
see this as a continuing trend. They reason that
pollution studies for example, have been designated
as part of the EPA mission and with federal appro-
priations for Sea Grant programs growing s!o\\ly,
the funds available must be directed to problem
areas where other federal agencies have not been
given responsibilities for granting and contracting.
With the creation of guidelines for state support
under the Office of Coastal Zone Management,
NOAA, states are beginning to plan ways to im-
plement the coastal management law. With federal
guidelines clearly asking for state management
programs, the Sea Grant funded work which has
already been done in many of the coastal states is
proving invaluable, cementing the university-state-
federal partnership.
In Rhode Island, for example, one of the first
states to pass comprehensive coastal management
legislation, the University of Rhode Island's Coastal
Resources Center has been designated as the
research arm of the Coastal Resources Management
Council. The first fact-finding mission of the Center
resulted in recommendations for the use of the state's
barrier beaches. Based on research supported by Sea
Grant, the Center made recommendations on con-
struction and vehicle traffic which piovidod the basis
for state beach regulations.
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.562
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
In other states, too, Sea Grant programs have
developed supporting data upon which state agencies
can begin to develop management plans. At the
University of Michigan, a valuable review of state
coastal management programs was prepared early
in 1972, even before the federal coastal zone act
was passed. Summaries of state coastal management
programs were examined, including estuarine and
wetlands preservation measures. The comprehensive
examination of selected state programs became a
valuable information source for states seeking coastal
zfu e legislation.
In 1970, the Oregon State University Sea Grant
Program prepared and distributed thousands of
copies of a report entitled "Crisis in Oregon Estu-
aries" which reviewed the value and vulnerability
of these natural resources. Fourteen major estuaries
were discussed with special emphasis given to their
present and potential contributions to the state's
economy and the threats posed io the economy by
misuse and poor management practices. The State
of Oregon shortly passed coastal zone legislation
encompassing all areas west of the coastal mountain
range. Sea Grant also helped prepare the impact
statement which led to the designation cf the South
Slough of Coos Bay as the nation's first (and only,
/it this writing) National Estuarine Sanctuary.
Stimulus for Public Decisions
Proper management of natural resources involves
understanding ail the ramifications of any given
move—as in a game of chess. And the University
of Michigan Sea Grant Program tacklss resource
management problems exactly that wt.y. In fact
they developed a game so stimulating that it is
used by regional planning commissions and other
state and local officials to help them see the con-
sequences of decisions they make in coastal and
water resource planning.
Called WALRUS (Water and Land. Resource
Utilization Simulation), the game was developed
to provide a means of communication a ad interac-
tion among the Sea Grant scientists and the public
that they seek to serve. Played with four or five
teams of about five members each, the players
represent different economic and geographical in-
terests. As the game progresses they learn that no
matter what decisions they make, the environment
is going to reflect them—for good or for bad.
AD along the Sea Grant network, scientists and
research managers are seeking closer ,nteraction
with state agencies and public officials. The purpose:
to bring well-developed information into the deci-
sion making arena. A survey of Sea Grant programs
reveals many examples of the results of such rela-
tionships :
• In New York, findings of seven Sea Grant
projects assessing the state's power plant siting
practices have been presented to the State Depart-
ment of Environmental Conservation, the Public
Service Commission, the Governor's Office and the
Legislature. The information is being used in testi-
mony at both state and federal hearings.
« In a report for the California Coastal Zone
Commission entitled'' Governing California's (.-oast.''
the University of California Sea Grant Program has
analyzed alternative mechanisms for carrying out
the state's coastal zone management plan. The
Commission's policy on water quality and pesticides
is based on work by Sea Grant researchers at the
University of Southern California.
• In Florida, Sea Grant supported work in the
University of Miami's Ocean and Coastal Law
Program has contributed to passage of legislation
designating Biscayne Bay as the state's first marine
preserve area and to the Florida Coastal Mapping
Act, the first of its kind in the nation.
• The Louisiana Coastal Zone Statute, ponding
before the state's legislature, was drafted for the
Louisiana Advisory Commission on Coastal and
Marine Resources with Sea Grant support.
• The Senate Report ''Papers on National Land
Use Policy Issues," incorporated information devel-
oped by the MIT Sea Grant Program.
« University of Rhode Island Sea Grant re-
searchers have been involved in formulation of state
marine sand and gravel regulations, a barrier beach
plan, and in the preparation of other information
needed by legislators.
• In Texas, for instance, a series of small work-
shops in 1970 eventually led to the state's first
major conference or. marine and coastal resources--
one called by the governor of the state. Out of the
meeting came recommendations for state action
which have since led to the creation of a Coastal and
Marine Council and several legislative committees.
Later, Texas A&M Sea Grant work -jr> d;-epwater
terminals had a direct influence or the creation of
a state Offshore Terminal Commission. Work now
underway on the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway has
been instrumental in developing public hearings on
the use of the waterway.
In a number of states Sea Grantees serve- on
commissions or councils responsibl? for policy mak-
ing in marine and estuarine matters. States having
such arrangements include Texas, Oregon Mas-
sachusetts, Louisiana. Rhode LJ-inri, Wa,--lJng1on,
and Hawaii. In other instances Hea Grantees hold
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
563
appointments on national marine councils and are
active in committees of the National Academy of
Sciences and Engineering.
Sea Grant's presence is also felt in local communi-
ties through a number of other channels—workshops
for teachers. 4-H meetings, civic club lectures, tele-
vision and radio programs, films, bulletins, news-
letters and special publications, atlases, maps,
meetings and conferences. Through its research,
education, and advisory service components in more
than 50 colleges, universities, and other institutions,
Sea Grant hopes to bring about a greater public
awareness of the importance of marine and estuarine
resources.
Coordination with Other Agencies
Interaction with other federal agencies is achieved
through strenuous review process for all Sea Grant
supported research. Written reviews are required
for all projects and representatives of federal agencies
involved in marine-related activities are present at
annual reviews conducted on university campuses.
These site visit teams conduct an indepth evaluation
of work underway as well as the work proposed for
the coming year. Typically, site visits have rep-
resentation from one or more of the following agen-
cies: National Marine Fisheries Service, EPA, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers. Written reviews are
solicited from these agencies as well as the Office
of Education, HEW, and the National Science
Foundation
Interaction with the Research Applied to the
Xeeds of the Nation (RANN) program of NSF
has resulted in routine exchanges of proposals.
Within NCAA, the Office of Coastal Zone Manage-
ment and the Office of Sea Grants coordinate grant-
ing and contracting arrangements. The closeness of
these two programs makes frequent interaction
imperative.
At the state level, program and project reviews are
solicited for pome research projects. At most univer-
sity site visits, local representation is arranged.
Among the groups asked to review the research
programs are representatives from state departments
of natural resources, fish and game commissions,
state planning offices, marine councils, navigation
districts, port authorities, county commissions, and
regional councils of government. Sea Grant institu-
tions also seek participation of these groups, along
with industrial and academic representation, on
their own advisory councils.
As a result of the careful scrutiny given to research
proposals, the work undertaken by Sea Grant
programs is technically feasible and locally ac-
ceptable. This continuing review process assures
that universities are meeting the needs of the state
without duplicating efforts of other agencies.
CONCLUSION
Careful study of Sea Grant work in support of
estuarine quality leads to several observations about
future work and about the Sea Grant concept in
general.
As American universities struggle through their
current identity crisis, many new thrusts are likely
to emerge. The university of the future, for example,
may assume several roles—an ivory tower of knowl-
edge, a processor of trained professionals and skilled
craftsmen, a generator of new knowledge through
basic research. In all of these roles, however, the
university will become more of an agent for social
change, a medium for transmitting information
designed to improve the quality of life. In this
regard, the university will assume greater responsi-
bility for applied research, blending together old
and new knowledge and delivering better alterna-
tives for future decisions. This trend is already
emerging, particularly in state-supported institu-
tions; and through partnerships such as Sea Grant,
the pace is accelerated.
This trend has been brought about, in some degree,
by the recognition of state and federal agencies of
the manpower and knowledge resource which univer-
sities represent. Tapping these resources is a logical
mechanism for tackling many state and national
problems. With each new generation of students
adding to the knowledge base, universities remain
at the forefront of knowledge. As students, profes-
sional teachers, and researchers extend themselves
into applied and decision-oriented research fields,
the total university resource can be brought to bear
on identified needs.
The preceding examples of Sea Grant work in
environmental quality are evidence of the future of
university-based programs which draw together
teams of professional scientists, engineers, and
social scientists to focus on broad resource issues.
The studies arc also illustrative of the impact
potential when partnerships exist between fedora!
and state interests.
Although much has been accomplished under the
Sea Grant banner, its greatest contribution lies ir
the innovativeness of its approach and the spirit
of service which it has sparked in American colleges
and universities.
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564
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
REFERENCES
The citations listed here are representatives of the estuarine
related publications resulting from Sea Grant supported work.
The list does not include all publications which support
estuarine studies; it is intended as a sampling with particular
emphasis on the studies cited in the preceding report.
Ahr, Wayne, M. et al. September, 1973. Resource Evaluation
Studies cm !he Matagorda Bay Area, Texas. Texas A&M
University, Sea Grant College Program, (TAMU-
SG-74-204).
Amein, Michael July, 1973. Computation 01' Flow Through
Masonboro Inlet, N.C. North Carolina S:ate Universitv,
Sea Grant Program (UNC-SG-73-15).
Armstrong, John M. 1972, The Structure of Management
and Planning for the Coastal Zone. University of Michigan
Sea Grant Program.
Arnal, Robert E. February, 1972. Environmental Studies of
Monterey Bay and the Central California Coastal Zone.
Moss Landing Marine Laboratories of the California State
University a.nd Colleges, Sea Grant Project.
Bassi, D. E. and D. R. fiasco. January, 1974. Field Study of
an Unconfined Spoil Disposal Area of the G ulf Intracoastal
Waterway in Galveston Bay, Tex. Texas A&M University,
Sea Grant College Program (TAMU-SG-74-208).
Blake, Carl T. and W. W. Woodhpuse, Jr. February, 1972.
Vegetative Dune Stabilization in North Carolina. Uni-
versity of North Carolina (Sea Grant Reprint #17).
Bopp, Frederick and Robert B. Briggs. December, 1972.
Trace Metal Environments Near Shell Banks in Delaware
Bay. University of Delaware, Sea Grant Program
(DEL-SG-9-72).
Bowermari, Frank R. and Kenneth Y. Chen. December, 1971.
Marine Del Iley: A Study of Environmental Variables in
a Semi-Enclosed Coastal Water. University of Southern
California, Sea Grant Program (USC-SG-4-71).
Broome, Stephen W., William W. Woodhouse and Ernest D.
Seneca. July, 1973. An Investigation of Propagation and
the Mineral Nutrition of Spartina Alterniflora, North
Carolina Slate University, Sea Grant Program (UNC-
SG-73-H1.
Brown, G. A., V. C. Rose, et al 1974~ Power Plant Site
Considerations at Charlestown, R.I. University of Rhode
Island, Bea Grant College Program (Marine Technology
Report No. 23).
Christodoulou, Georgios C., William F. Leimkuhler and
Arthur T. Ippen. January, 1974. Mathematical Models of
the Massachusetts Bay Part III. A Mathematical Model
for the Dispersion of Suspended Sediments in Coastal
Waters. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sea Grant
Program (MITSG-74-14).
Connor, Jerome J., John D. Want, Douglas A. Briggs, Ole
S. Madec-ii. October, 1973. Pait I: Finite Element Modeling
of Two• Dimensional Hydrodynamic Circulation. Part II:
Analytical Models for One- and Two-Layer Systems in
Rectangular liasiiw. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Sea Oratit Program (MITSG-74-4).
1 Hiley. James K. and Donald R. F. Harleman October, 1972.
Numerical Model for the Prediction of Transient Water
Quality in Estuary Netwoiks. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-72-15).
Dalrymple, Robeit A. and Robert G. Dean. 1972. "The
Spirn! \Va\-emaker for Littora! Drift Studies," Proceedings
13th Annual Coastal Engineering Conference. Univeislty
of Florida, Sea Granc Program.
D'Amato, Richard. August, 1973. The Movement, of Effluent
from the City of Miami Sewage Ocean Outfall. University
of Miami, Sea Grant Program, (Tech. Bulletin -#27).
Day, John W.. Jr., et al. May, 1973. Community Structure
and Carbon Budget of a Salt Water Marsh and Shallow
Bay Estuarine System in Louisiana. Ctnter for Wetland
Resources, Baton"Rouge, La. (LSU-SG-72041.
Doret, Stephen C., Donald R. F. Harleman, et al. June, 1973.
Characteristics of Condenser Water Discharge on the Sea
Surface (Correlation of Field Observations with Theory).
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sea Grant Pro-
gram (MITSG-73-12).
Ducsik, Dennis W. ''editor). June, 1971. Power, Pollution
and Public Policy. The Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, (MIT Repoit No. 24).
Farrington, J. W. and J. G. Quinn. 1073. "Petroleum Hydro-
carbons and Fatty Acids in Waste water," Journal of the
Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 45, No. 4.
Farrington, John W. and James G. Quinn. 1973. "Petroleum
Hydrocarbons in Narragansett Bay," Estuarine and Coastal
Marine Science, Graduate School of Oceanography, Uni-
versity of Rhode Island, Vol. 1, pp. 71-79.
Feldt, Allan G., et al. May, 1972. W.A.L.R.U.S. I: Water
and Land Resource Utilisation Simulation. University of
Michigan, Environmental Simulation Laboratory,
(MICmi-SG-72-208).
Frankei, Shiela L. and Bryan '.I. Pearce. November, 1973.
Determination of Water Quality in the Massachusetts
Bay (1970-1973). Massachusetts "Institute of Technology,
Sea Grant Program, (MITSG-74-8).
Frieberinhaviser, Mark A. and Alyn O Duxbury. March,
1972. "A Water Budget Study of Puget Sound and its
Subregions," Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 17, Xo. 2.
Grace, Jean McKean and Lois S. Nishirnoto. 1974. Marine
Atlas of Hawaii: Bays and Harbors. (Honolulu: The
University Press of Hawaii).
Grant, Malcolm J. January, 1973. Approaches to State
Coastal Management. University of Rhode Island, Marine
Advisory Service, (Marine Bulletin No. 13).
Grant, Malcolm J. 1973. I Diode Island's Ocean Sands:
Management Guidelines of Sand and Gravel Extraction in
State Waters. University of Rhode Island, Marine Advisory
Service, (Technical Report No. 10).
Hann, Roy W., Jr. 1969. Management of Industrial Waste
Discharges in Complex Estuarine Systems. Texas A&M
University, Sea Grant College Program, (Technical Report
No. 15).
Hann, Roy W., Jr. 1969. Neches Estuary Water Quality
Study. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant College Program,
(Technical Report No. 14).
Ho, C. L. and J. Lane. 1973. ''Interstitial Water Composi-
tion in Barataiia Bay, Louisiana, Sediment," Estuanne
and Coastal Marine Science. 1:125-135
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
565
Ho, Clara L., et al. February, 1970. "Chemistry of Water and
Sediments in Barataria Bay," Coastal Studies Bulletin
(No. 5).
Hood, D. W., W. E. Shiels and E. J. Kelley. July, 1973.
Environmental Studies of Port Yaldez. University of
Alaska, Sea Grant Program (SG Report #73-1).
James, Wesley P., Roy W. Hann, et al. December, 1972.
Environmental Aspects of a Supertanker Port on the Texas
Gulf Coast. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant College
Program, (TAMU-SG-73-201).
Klemas, V., F. C. Daiber, et al. June, 1973. Coastal Vegeta-
tion of Delaware, the Mapping of Delaware's Coastal
Marshes. University of Delaware, Sea Grant Program
(DEL-SG-15-73).
Kuenzler, Edward J., Alphonse F. Chestnut and Charles M.
Weiss. March, 1973. Structure and Functioning of Estuarine
Waterways Exposed to Treated Sewage Wastes, III. Uni-
versity of North Carolina, Sea Grant Program (UNC-
SG-73-10).
Lee, Thomas N. and Claes Rooth. January, 1972. Exchange
Processes in Shallow Estuaries. University of Miami, Sea
Grant Program (SG Special Bulletin #4)."
Manochar-Maharaj, V. and R. C. Beardsley 'Part I); J.
Karpen (Part II). November, 1973. Part I: Spring Run-Off
into Massachusetts Bay, 1973; Part II: Dissolved Nutrient-
Seawater Density Correlations and the Circulation hi
Boston Harbor and Vicinity. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-74-9).
Mather, John R., Frank J. Swayne and Bruce J. Hartmann.
January, 1973. The Influence of the Climatic Water
Balance on Conditions in the Estuarine Environment.
University of Delaware, Sea Grant Program (DEL-
SG-5-73).
McGuinness, W. V. February, 1972. State of the Art for
Selected Marine Resources Problems on Long Island. State
University of New York, Sea Grant Program (CEM-
4103-456).
Meredith, Dennis L. June, 1972. Nuclear Power Plant Siting:
A Handbook for the Layman. University of Rhode Island,
Sea Grant College Program (Marine Bulletin #6).
New York State Sea Grant Program. February, 1973.
"Managing Our Coastal Zone," Proceedings of a Conference
on Coastal Zone Management.
Nixon, ScoU W., et al. 1973. Ecology of Small Boat Marinas.
University of Rhode Island, Marine Advisory Service,
(Marine Technical Report Series No. 5).
Nixon, S. W. and C. A Oviatt. Autumn, 1974. "Ecology of a
New England Salt Marsh," Ecological Monographs, Col.
43, No. 4. pp. 463-498.
O'Connor, Michael P., et al. 1972. Recent Estuarine Sediment
History of the Roanoke Island Area, North Carolina.
University of North Carolina Sea Grant Program, (Reprint
No. 33).
Office of Sea Grants. May, 1972. The National Sea Grant
Program: Program Description and Suggestions for Pre-
paring Proposals. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville,
Md.
Olsen, Stephen B. and Malcolm J. Grant. January, 1973.
Rhode Island's Barrier Beaches: Volume 1, A Report on a
Management Problem and an Evaluation of Options;
Volume II, Reports and Recommendations at the Com-
munity Level. University of Rhode Island, Coastal Re-
sources Center, (Marine Technical Report No. 4).
Oregon State University. 1970. Crisis in Oregon Estuaries: A
Summary of Environmental Factors Affecting Oregon
Estuaries. Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program.
Ortolano, Leonard. April, 1970. Quality Standards for the
Coastal Waters of Long Island, New York. State University
of New York, Sea Grant Program, (CEM-4047-408).
Ortolano, Leonard and Philip S. Brown, Jr July, 1970. The
Movement and Quality of Coastal Waters: A Review of
Models Relevant to Long Island, N.Y. State Uuiver-dty
of New Yoik, Sea Giant Program, (CEM-4047-411)
Overland, James E. September, 1973. A Model of Salt Intru-
sion in a Partially Mixed Estuary. New York Institute of
Ocean Resources, (Technical Report 73-1;.
Prather, S. II. and R. M. Sorensen. September, 1972. A Field
Investigation of Rollover Fish Pass, Bolivar Peninsula,
Tex. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant College Program,
(TAMU-SG-72-202).
Seneca, Ernest. D. and Stephen W. Broome. September, 1972.
"Seedling Response to Photoperiod and Temperature by
Smooth Cordgrass, Spartina Alterniflora, from Oregon
Inlet, N.C.," Chesapeake Science, Vol. 13, No. 3. pp.
212-235
Schenck, Ililbert, Jr. and Albert Davis. "A Turbidity Survey
of Narragansett Bav," Ocean Engineering. Vol. 2, pp.
169-178.
Schmeltz. E J. and R. M. Sorenson. A Review of the Charac-
teristics, Behavior and Design Requirements of Texas Gulf
Coast Tidal Inlets. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant
College Program (TAMU-SG-73-202).
Schwartz, Frank J. and A. F. Chestnut. June, 1973. Hydro-
graphic Atlas of North Carolina Estuarine and Sound
Waters, 1972. University of North Carolina, Sea Grant
Program (UNC-SG-73-12).
Sensabaugh, William M. and James A. Purpura. 1974.
Coastal Construction Setback Line. University of Florida,
Sea Grant Program (SUSF-SG-74-002).
Spaulding, M. L., G. A. Brown and F. M. White, 1974.
Applying a Water Quality Model to Pollution Management.
University of Rhode Island, Sea Grant College Program
(Marine Technical Report #26).
Thatcher, M. Llewellyn and Donald R. F. Harleman. Febru-
ary, 1972. A Mathematical Model for the Prediction of
Unsteady Salinity Intrusion in Estuaries. Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-
72-7).
Vagners, Juris and Paul Mar. 1972. Oil on Puget Sound, An
Interdisciplinary Study in Systems Engineering. Seattle:
University of Washington Press.
Wick, William Q 1973. "Estuaries Under Attack," Water
Spectrum. 5 (3):12-18. Oregon State University Sea Grant
College Program Reprint, ORESU-R-73-028,
Woodhouse, W, W,, Jr., E. D. Seneca and S. W. Broome. July
1972 Marsh Building With Dredge Spoil in North Carolina.
North Carolina State University Sea Grant Program
(AES Bulletin 445).
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ESCAROSA: THE ANATOMY OF
PANHANDLE CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT
IN ESTUARINE PRESERVATION
THOMAS S. HOPKINS
The University of West Florida
Pensacola, Florida
ABSTRACT
Florida's gulf coastline measures over 700 statute miles, and has the most diverse estuarine flora
and fauna of any state. Because of its growing population and its readily accessible coastline
probably no other estuarine system has received pressures comparable to those exerted on Florida's
gulf coast ecosystem from 1950 to the present. This paper revolves around the "Florida Panhandle"
in general and Pensacola in particular.
Citizen involvement begins through information services provided by newspaper, radio, and TV.
In Pensacola, the newspaper media had the greatest impact and long-term effect.
There are a variety of vehicles and mechanisms for citizen involvement and many were brought
into play in the panhandle. One of the most effective approaches is through sportsmens' organi-
zations. Homeowners' associations also can be effective vehicles, but they may be self serving and
are more subject to varying levels of bureaucracy. Regional planning organizations are a proper
vehicle but they are even more dependent upon and subject to government bureaucracy. Govern-
mental advisory groups can be effective if they can maintain good relations with the board tha*
appoints them and if they can understand that governments cannot correct overnight the damages
done by poor planning through decades. Regional, state, and federal hearings are an excellent
outlet for citizen pressures.
It is concluded that the Regional Planning Council should be the lead agency in coordinating
citizen efforts in estuarine preservation.
INTRODUCTION
Florida's gulf coastline measures over 700 statute
miles and has the most diverse estuarine flora and
fauna of any state in the United States. The reasons
for this diversity are the extraordinary environ-
ments and climates found over the 700-mile span.
The southern tip of Florida is a drowned lacustrine
plain characterized by mangrove swamps and la-
goons with lush marine-grass meadows. The mean
air temperature is 70°F. in January and 83°F. in
July.
Stretching northward from Cape Romano, the
coastline changes to barrier islands, sand beaches,
and low dunes. Mangroves, tidal marshes, and sub-
marine meadows are major features in the area
which also encompasses two major bay systems:
Charlotte Harbor and Tampa Bay. The area north-
ward from Anclote Key (Tarpon Springs) is pri-
marily tidal marsh and submarine meadows. The
fourth area, and the setting of this particular dis-
cussion, is the panhandle of Florida, characterized by
barrier islands, high energy beaches, tidal marshes,
and numerous bays. The mean air temperature of
this fourth area is 53°F. in January and 82°F. in
July.1
Because of Florida's growing population and con-
sequent development along its readily accessible
coastline, there is probably no estuarine system in
the nation that has received the pressures suffered
by Florida's gulf coast ecosystem from 1950 to the
present.1'6 The locality for this scenario detailing
citizen response to estuarine degradation shall be
limited to the area entitled "the Florida Panhandle"
and centers primarily around Pensacola and Escam-
bia Bay. This area was the site of five federal-state
enforcement conferences between 1970 and 1972.2>6
The plight of Escambia Bay has received nation-
wide publicity with newspaper stories and pictures
appearing from Los Angeles and San Francisco in
the west to Trenton, N.J., in the east.7'9 In addition,
Sports Illustrated classified the Escambia River as
one of the nation's 10 dirtiest rivers; Skin Diver
magazine's environmental editor, Bill Barada, fea-
tured an article on the Escambia story called "Death
Trap."10 Yet all of this publicity is ariticlimatic to
the roles played by citizens in the area, aroused
citizens who already had been doing something
about their dying estuarine ecosystems.
The purpose of this paper, then, is to discuss the
efforts and achievements of individuals and citizen
groups in their struggle for estuarine preservation
567
-------
568
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
and the improvement of water quality in northwest
Florida. My attempt is to show that citizen involve-
ment has been effective even when it was isolated,
unpopular, or smothered by red tape; that citizen
action has resulted in positive action which makes
the outlook for effective preservation much brighter
today than six years ago. I treat the various efforts
or groups one-by-one not- only for convenience but
also for the fact that very little integration of effort
or interaction initially took place. I conclude the
paper with a recommendation for a means to achieve
coordinated, effective, continuous estuarine preserva-
tion in the area emphasized.
THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA
IN CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT
Whereas nationwide publicity cited above aroused
interest and anger in far-flung corners of the United
States, major credit for local citizen awareness
should go to the staff of the Pensacola News-
Journal. A review of newspaper listings from 1962
through early 1970 tells a very complete story of a
responsible press coverage: in 1962, one article; in
1963, seven pertinent articles; in 1964, 13 pertinent
articles; in 1967, more than 20 articles detailing
growing population problems; in 1968, more than
60 articles and thought-provoking editorials; in
1969, more than 200 continuing stories and edi-
torials detailing the day-to-day castastrophies of
Escambia Bay.12
Pensacola newspaper reporting by Mike Albertson
and Tom Bell together with thoughtful editorials
and editorial cartoons directed by Earle Bowden
brought awareness and education to the citizenry
of the two-county area known as Escarosa. These
three men are, in the author's opinion, primarily
responsible for providing the major impetus for
environmental awareness and continued citizen
involvement.
By 1970, the electronic media, both radio and
television, began to focus on the problem and open
the door to citizen involvement. Of particular note
and value was the coverage of station WEAR-TV,
an ABC affiliate; not only were viewers exposed to
the fish kills in the area waters but also to the
subsequent federal-state hearings on their causes
and on water pollution in general. That citizen re-
sponse began to increase could be measured by a
radio program, "Pensacola Speaks," cs,rried by sta-
tion WCOA. Listener after listener, night after
night, lamented the pollution problem and asked
what might be done. In addition, educational tele-
vision station WSRE (Channel 23) carried panel
^Monster in Our Midst*
Judgment Day
ILLUSTRATION 1
discussions on the pollution question simulcast with
"Pensacola Speaks."
VEHICLES AND MECHANISMS
FOR CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT
The following discussion will highlight failures and
successes of efforts to prevent or correct what might
be called the Escambia catastrophe. In addition, it
will briefly mention various vehicles and patterns
for citizen involvement.
Sportsmen Organizations
In 1968, a group of interested saltwater fishermen
organized the Northwest Florida Sports-fishing As-
sociation. The membership swelled to considerable
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
569
ILLUSTRATION 2
size and a major thrust was to bring about solutions
to estuarine degradation in the area. Its principal
purpose was to be a pressure group and to a limited
end it was successful. However, the association was
unsuccessful in raising sufficient funds to get an
unbiased study of bay and estuarine pollution. It is
difficult to pinpoint the disintegration or demise of
the organization, but it coincides with the interven-
tion of federal investigators in the pollution of
Perdido and Escambia Bays and the formation of
the West Florida Natural Resources Council. Per-
haps this sports fishing association felt it had served
its purpose; at any rate, citizen involvement began
with it in 1968.
Whereas the Northwest Florida Sports-fishing As-
sociation began in 1968 and died in 1969, another
group of sportsmen were growing concerned about
estuarine preservation. The Bream Fishermen Asso-
ciation (hereafter referred to as BFA) was a small,
close-knit group of outdoorsmen dedicated to good
practices of wilderness protection, preservation, and
conservation. These were not men who would be
content to be a pressure group only; they were
citizens with definite plans of action. They launched
their first efforts on behalf of the national seashore
in 1969 and received their baptism of political fire
from members of the Santa Rosa Island Authority
who objected to their attempts to get petitions
signed by the citizenry visiting the beach. Their
next major effort was in early 1970. They felt that
there was too much talk and not enough action
concerning actual biological conditions in the once
fertile interface between Escambia River and Es-
cambia Bay. During April, May, and June, 3970,
the BFA spent over a thousand man hours conduct-
ing a voluntary creel census to document fishing
and its results on the Escambia River—a task long
neglected by any state agency. The results and
conclusions of this census were far-reaching and the
enthusiasm of the association recruited new citizen-
scientists to its cause. The results were made public
in 1971.13 In a nutshell, analysis of 1,234 different
fishing trips involving 2,558 fishermen showed that
the average fisherman would catch one fish for two
hours' effort and its average weight would be less
than a quarter pound! This creel census was only a
starter, however, for the BFA also set about to
correct matters in an amazingly effective program
for 1970.
Convinced that the conditions in the lower portion
of Escambia River could be improved by several
means, the BP'A (1) started a night pollution con-
trol program, (2) bioassay stations, and (3) a fish
feeding program.14
The night pollution program was not just a mili-
tant conservation group's idea of harassing industry.
The BFA knew full well that the state agency re-
sponsible for monitoring pollution simply did not
have enough manpower to be everywhere at once—
especially at night. A keynote of BFA's success was
early detection of a break in a flyash holding pond
at a local, coal-burning electric power plant in
December, 1970. Along the same lines, bioassay
stations were established and maintained in and
near industrial outfalls. In both cases, recorded
data was turned over to the responsible parties in-
volved. The fish-feeding program stemmed from the
-------
570
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
fact that water quality was so poor that fish either
would not spawn or, equally bad, their fry would
not have sufficient food. BFA members bought over
2,000 pounds of commercial fish food and distributed
it on the spawning beds.
In appreciative response, local merchants ap-
plauded BFA's courageous efforts and donated a
new fiberglass boat, an outboard motor, gasoline,
oil, and boat landing services. BFA and its citizen
army was on the move.
In the spring and summer of 1971, the "night
patrol" turned into the "dawn patrol" as BFA
monitored the tidal marsh headwaters of Escambia
Bay, collecting data on dissolved oxygen temperature
and fish kill conditions. Not only were actual fish
kills located in the bay, but also an early warning
system was devised. This monitoring program was
maintained through 1973 and resulted in valuable
data concerning tidal flushing (stagnation) by upper
bay waters which infiltrate the tidal marshes.15'16
During 1972, BFA made a major effort over a
one-year period to document species d: versity in the
river immediately below the Jay Oil Field adjacent
to the Escambia River in north-centra) Santa Rosa
County. With the help of a grant from Humble Oil
to the University of West Florida, the association
developed a complete faunal iriventor> of the poten-
tial impact area. Such information is not yet gener-
ally available but will be of considerable value in
assessing the impact of an oil spill on the upper
estuarine area. In this project, 40 BFA members
worked a total of 3,489 hours in the field!17'18
BFA activities continued to mount in 1973. Mem-
bers discovered that yellow bullheads in the Yellow
River system are subject to an important melanoma
cancer, a fact that proved of interest to both the
Environmental Protection Agency and the Smith-
sonian Institution. During the Oil Field Study,
BFA took coliform samples in the river to establish
coliform levels and origins prior to bay entry. Mem-
bers acted as environmental lobbyists to prevent
Getty Oil Company from exploratory drilling in
East Bay, and the association alertly filed protests
with the EPA in Atlanta concerning proposed ex-
pansion of Pensacola's northeast treatment plant
which was already discharging into an overly-
enriched Escambia Bay. This timely protest resulted
in the decision that the northeast plant cannot be
expanded without concurrence and approval of EPA
and the approved Water Quality Maragement Plan
being prepared for the t wo-county area through the
Regional Planning Council.18
The year 1974 brought even greater BFA activity
in estuarine preservation. BFA members gave ma-
terial assistance to the EPA Escambia Bav Recovery
Team by providing manpower for transplanting
marine grasses in the upper estuary. On another
cooperative front BFA members aided the Depart-
ment of I1 ollution Control by collecting sorely needed
data on Perdido River and Bay.
On the lobbying front, the organization has been
very effective on several issues: (1) diking Yellow
River flood plains; (2) continuing opposition to ex-
pansion of Pensacola's northeast treatment plant
on Escambia Bay: (3) writing formal objections to
the Corps of Engineers on matters of estuarine re-
source preservation; and (4) filing a court injunction
resulting in a favorable ruling against the introduc-
tion of "Asian Grass Carp" into Deer Point Lake
on the grounds that this species could easily escape
from that system and enter northwest Florida's
estuaries.19'2"
In summary, the Bream Fishermen Association's
efforts prove that sportsmen organizations can be
successful in activities involving estuarine preserva-
tion. The key ingredients in these activities are
leadership, initiative, and energy. As demonstrated
above, the BFA, a citizens' organization, has taken
an exemplary leadership role in working in the field
with local, state, and federal agencies; in keeping
citizens aware of threats to northwest Florida
through its "Conservation Newsletter" and displays
at the county fair; and in political lobbying.
Homeowners' Associations
Although it may bo argued that homeowners'
associations, like industries, have a vested interest
in estuaries, homeowners on estuarine bayous, ba\-
fronts, and waterways seem to be positively moti-
vated toward good water quality. In the panhandle
area we can document some interesting cases of
homeowner involvement with estuarine preservation.
Mulatto Bayou-Avalon Beach homeowners.—The
mouth of Mulatto Bayou, a bayou historically
important as a nursery area on the east side of
Escambia Bay, was severely altered in the construc-
tion of Interstate 10 bridge across Escambia Bay.20
After completion of the project, a new access to the
bayou was provided. Homeowners in the area, how-
ever, used various means of political pressure and
lobbying to get the State of Florida to correct silt-
ing in the bayou proper.21 They argued, incorrectly
I believe, that the construction activities had caused
the main portion of the bayou to become silted in.
I met with the homeowners and showed them reason-
able proof that the origin of their problem was not
road construction, but improper dredging activities
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
571
by a real estate developer. After a great deal of
discussion, the homeowners became aware that the
desired dredging could create even more damage to
the system which they wanted so desperately to
correct.22 But their awareness and understanding
came too late. The State Department of Transpor-
tation had already let bids and issued a contract to
an out-of-state dredging company.23 Last minute
letters to state agencies involved were fruitless.24
Although a hearing was held at the request of the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
because the dredging would be in violation of con-
ferees' rulings, the Corps of Engineers did not cancel
its permit and the Mulatto Bayou area was dredged,
with disastrous results.25
In this example, the homeowning citizens had the
best of intentions; their efforts, however, resulted
in a death blow to a system struggling to survive.
Perdido Bay homeowners.—Perdido Bay receives a
large amount of effluent from a kraft pulp plant
located at the head of the bay. Perdido Bay also
has received large amounts of poorly treated sewage
through Bayou Marcus Creek. The bay is divided
by the state line of Florida and Alabama. Although
the kraft mill waste and sewage originate in Florida.
Alabama residents headed by Mrs. JoAnn Allen
strongly have contended and demonstrated that
these pollutants reach their shores. Mrs. Allen has
courageously maintained pressure not only on offi-
cials in Florida and Alabama but on federal officials
in Atlanta, Ga., as well. Her efforts were at least
partly responsible for Alabama's request for a full-
5-.ale investigation in 1969 and continued hearings
into the present. Although some of the problems
are not fully corrected, the water quality of Perdido
Bay is markedly improved as a result of the con-
tinuous vigilance and relentless lobbying of this
untiring Alabama resident.2'4
Bayou Tej-ar Association of homeowners.—Bayou
Texar is aii estuarine subsystem of Pensacola Bay.
It is within the Pensacola city limits and receives
its primary sources of freshwater from Carpenter's
Creek whose headwaters are outside the city lim-
its. To begin with, Carpenter's Creek has been
severely abused by channelization and suburban
development. In addition, it is a major recipient of
septic tank seepage, lift station overflow, storm
sewer drainage, and ordinary runoff from streets,
yards, and parking lots. As a result, it has in the
past ]Q or 15 years carried an immense load of silt,
organics, and elemental nutrients into the bayou
proper. A worsening situation compounded by out-
dated sewer lines and a malfunctioning lift station
caused the homeowners around the bayou to begin
lobbying city government for environmental relief.
In addition, they approached the University of West
Florida for guidance arid scientific advice26 and pro-
vided funds for small-scale research. With the Bayou
Texar Association research funds behind him, and
the association endorsing him, Dr. Gerald A.
Moshiri of the university succeeded in capturing
the interest of the Office of Water Resources Re-
search (OWRR) on the causes of nutrification.27.29
But even after basic research was funded by OWRR,
the association members did not rest their case.
They have donated time, space, and facilities for
the completion of the research. Further, they have
maintained their pressure on both the city and the
county to correct the problems in the drainage basin
and around the bayou. In addition, they have
secured a special engineering study designed to pro-
vide some approaches to the restoration of a severely
damaged estuarine area.
Woodland Lake homeowners.—The Gulf Breeze pe-
ninsula is a large finger of land projecting westward
into Pensacola Bay. At its westward extremity are
three bayou ecosystems: Hoffman's, Gilmore's, and
Woodland Lake Bayou. As eutrophication levels in
Escambia Bay and Pensacola Bay reached peaks,
their nutrient-rich waters began to permeate and
stagnate in these estuarine bayous. Following the
lead of the Bayou Texar Association, the Woodland
Lake homeowners approached the university in 1971
via Dr. Sneed B Collard of the biology faculty.30
Through Dr. Collard, a scientific approach to restor-
ing the bayou was designed. With methodical care,
the Woodland Lake Association began the necessary
lobbying process through local, state, and federal
officials. Records indicate that the Corps of Engi-
neers generally investigated the restoration project
but could not fund it.31 The state Department of
Pollution Control endorsed it as a ''model project"
and commended it to the Environmental Protection
Agency.32'33 The regional office of EPA seems to
have liked the proposal and forwarded it to the
Washington office.34 After over a year of revising,
endorsing, revising, and resubmitting, all came to
nought when the Washington office of EPA notified
the city of Gulf Breeze that "the model project"
endorsed by so many "does not directly fulfill our
high priority research needs" and that they could
not support the project.85 This was the culmination
of almost two years of citizen effort. A less dedicated
group of citizens might have given up, but not these.
The city of Gulf Breeze still backs the bayou
restoration and the citizens themselves are putting
-------
572
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
their dollars and their hands to the task of clearing
the choked opening to the bayou that has developed.
After natural flushing is restored, the members must
face the benthic sludge problem and the long, slow
process of removing it. Their optimism is over-
whelming—they will restore Woodland Lake Bayou
in spite of the odds and the bureaucratic heart-
breaks over the months. They optimistically look
for the day when the shrimp and fish return to their
restored estuarine ecosystem.
Regional Planning Organizations
West Florida Natural Resources Council.—Formed
in June, 1969, by executive order of Governor Claude
Kirk, Jr., the West Florida Natural Resources
Council (WFNRC) was an ambitiouslj precocious
attempt to establish coastal zone management in
the Florida panhandle. It probably grew out of (a)
the obvious conflicts in coastal zone use; (b) the
very thought-provoking editorials of tho Pensacola
News-Journal which called upon the University of
West Florida for leadership in environmental inves-
tigation ;3fi (c) the interests of an estuar ne-oriented
biology faculty; and (d) the farsightedness of Dr.
Harold B. Crosby, its first chairman, In a presiden-
tial memo dated July 8, 1969, Dr. Crosby, former
president of the University of West Florida, ex-
plained to the faculty, "Many factors combined to
make it necessary and desirable to establish such a,
council. Amongst them is increasing concent of the
people of West Florida over water pollution arid
the apparent changes in physical and biological
quality of the coastal and estuarine environment."
The charges to the council were spi cifically as
follows:
1. To establish in the West Florida region at the earliest
practical time, under the control and supervision of
the council, task forces to recommend and implement
plans:
(1) for the study ami abatement of the water pollu-
tion problems of Kscambia and Santa Rosa
counties;
(2) for the study and abatement of the dog fly;
(3) for the study of Choctawhatchec Bay and related
waters.
2, To establish a data bank at The University of West
Florida relating to water pollution, dog fly, and
estuarine studies and provide for information dis-
semination program.
3. To develop a unified inter-agency (local, state, and
federal) and interstate effort to investigate and solve
the above listed problems in a systematic fashion.
The first meeting of the council was held June
1969, with Governor Kirk in attendance. Chairman
Crosby moved quickly to establish council com-
mittees and to organize task forces (a table of
organization appears in Figure 1). It should be
stressed that this organization was considerably
more than a hastily organized group of scientists,
politicians, and community leaders gathering to-
gether for a common cause: estuarine preservation
and coastal zone management.37
Council meetings were open not only to the public
but also to agency officials who attended and partici-
pated in meetings. Congressman II. L. F. Sikes ex-
pressed his support and in fact acted on the council's
behalf in Washington, D.C.3S
By August 15, 1969, the West Florida Natural
Resources Council was ready to approve budgets
totaling o\er $700,000 for the various task force
operations, as follows:39
Eseambia-Santa Rosa Pollution $1,50,000
Choctawhatchee Bay 203,306
Dog Fly Control 356,670
Local citizens, however, were critical of the pro-
posed allocations. It appeared to them that dog fly
control and tourism were more important than
"clean water." Although this reaction reflected ac-
curately some local attitudes, the council was simply
hearing and acknowledging proposed first-year costs.
The question of where the money would come from
was still to be examined.
The first task force to make a report, of progress
to the council was the Kscambia-Santa Rosa Water
Pollution Task Force which on October S, 1969, re-
ported to the eager citizenry that Kscambia River
and Bay were grossly polluted and that the major
polluters were three local manufacturing industries
and the local power generating plant.40 This report
was delivered to a standing-room-only council meet-
ing and it was what the area citizens were anxious
yet fearful to hear. Relatively clear answers to
questions that the Pensacola News-Journal had
asked previously and with increasing tempo were
provided to the citizens that day. The report gave
them a springboard for involvement.
At the same time that the council was establish-
ing its credibility and achieving local praise for its
efforts, unforeseen and intangible difficulties were
beginning to take a form that, would bring about the
ultimate demise of this laudable attempt to estab-
lish approaches to coastal zone management. These
forces are not unrelated:
1) Lack of fiscal support. Although the West
Florida Natural Resources Council had been in op-
eration over four months, it did not have a meaning-
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
573
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574
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
ful "bankroll" to support any of its task forces. In
addition, its own administrative costs were growing.
2) Governmental reorganization. The State of Flor-
ida consolidated several agencies and clarified certain
roles in environmental protection, which probably
destroyed the previous vacuum in coastal zone
responsibility.
The fiscal woes of the council increased as the
new state agencies jockeyed for larger budgets and
operating room. It became clear that tha WFNRC
and its concepts so strongly endorsed in June were
taking a back seat by December 1969.
President Crosby provided new life for the council
in May 1970, by appointing Dr. Joe A Edmisten
as director of the council and coordinator of Coastal
Zone Studies.41 Fiscal problems continued to plague
the council and by July 1970, only about $43,000 of
the needed $700,000 had been found and allocated.
For the Escambia-Santa Rosa Water Pollution Task
Force, $18,000 was provided by the Department of
Pollution Control; $25,000 was provided for the
Dog Fly project from other state funds. But in spite
of this limited funding, citizen involvement con-
tinued and it was during this period that the Bream
Fishermen Association (BFA) joined the "clean
water" task force. At this time, the W1(1NRC was
optimistic that more funds would be found.
The council met in August to hear a proposal for
a "coastal zone inventory" and urged the Depart-
ment of Natural Resources to adopt a uniform
inventory plan.42 This resulted in Dr. Edmisten
urging Governor Kirk to declare the Escambia Bay
a natural disaster area, "To become eligible for
federal aid in the form of grants and loans designed
to help fishermen and shrimpers of the area stay in
business . . . until we are able to restore Escambia
Bay to its original healthy state."44 The council's
executive committee explored this possibility in
September 1970, with many citizen groups being
represented. After considerable debate, it concluded
that the area was not eligible for federal funds.45
The council met again in October 1970, and learned
that the newly formed Coastal Coordinating Council
(CCC) operating out of the Department of Natural
Resources was implementing a plan for a statewide
uniform inventory of natural resources. The CCC
would start its plan using Escambia and Santa Rosa
Counties as a pilot area called "Escaros." This
appears to have been the last real meeting of the
council.46
In summary, the West Florida Natural Resources
Council was born in a time of need and undoubtedly
realized some major achievements in citizen involve-
ment and estuarine preservation. It died slowly but
steadily as other state agencies increased their activi-
ties arid manpower resources in the panhandle region.
West Florida Regional Planning Council.—The West
Florida Regional Planning Council (WFRPC) was
created in 1964 under the authority of chapter 160
of the Florida Statutes. Starting as a one-city one-
county agency, the planning council now serves
three counties and many municipalities.47
In the area of estuarine preservation, the state
has designated the WFRPC as the planning agency
for "Development of Regional Impact in Escambia,
Santa Rosa, and Okaloosa Counties." At the federal
level it has similar designations, particularly in
the area of water quality management where this
policy interfaces with the Environmental Protection
Agency in comprehensive planning. Although the
WFRPC has a professional staff its operations are
governed by a citizen board representing the cities
and counties under the WFRPC umbrella.47
One of the major achievements of the regional
planning council was the development of water
quality management for Escambia and Santa Rosa
counties. This plan was funded under Section 3c
of the Federal Water Quality Act of 1965. The grant
application was filed in 1972 and work began. The
plan is oriented toward estuarine preservation and
is cost effective. Its goal is to significantly reduce
the amounts and richness of surface discharge into
estuarine areas.48'49
In addition to the plan cited above, the regional
planning council acted as a coordinating agency to
develop a plan for the restoration of Bayou Texar,
cited earlier. The council also works with projects
in the three-county area involving prospective de-
velopment—e.g., what impact a large multi-service
shopping mall and its collective runoff will have on
the estuarir.e receiving waters.
In summary, the WFRPC is a citizen board with
responsibility for regional planning in a geographi-
cally complex estuarine area. Its professional staff
and citizen board arc called upon to make far-
reaching decisions.
Governmental Advisory Groups
County Commissioners' Pollution Advisory Commit-
tee.—In the fall of 1970, after another year of
disastrous fish kills, citizen outrage, and editorial
comment, the county commissioners of Escambia
County followed a recommendation offered by
Wayne E. Tisdale, regional engineer for health and
rehabilitation services, and created an advisory com-
mittee.50 The citizen select committee was chosen
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
575
to represent business and commerce, sport and
commercial fishing, industry, agriculture, the legal
profession, and education. Acting Commission Chair-
man Sam Armour, "charged the committee with its
responsibility to seek solutions to the pollution
problems in Escambia County and to advise the
Board of County Commissioners accordingly . . ."51
The committee, hereafter referred to as ACOP,
began to meet weekly and many citizen manhours
were invested. It heard presentations by regional
engineers from two state agencies, the county envi-
ronmental health director, and several concerned
citizens who reviewed the environmental problems
from their viewpoints. In addition, the committee
mailed out three questions to selected citizens in
the community for written responses. These ques-
tions were as follows:
(1) "How to Stop the Present Pollution of Our Environ-
ment"—Please outline any constructive solutions you
may have relative to the air and water pollution of
Escambia County. Of particular value will be specific
technical/legal recommendations that can be imple-
mented immediately by Escambia County.
(2) "How to Prevent the Pollution of Our Environment
in the Future"—Please outline any constructive solu-
tions you may have relative to preventing pollution in
the future. Recommendations relative to air and water
quality standards for new industries, expansion of
County and City sanitation facilities, etc., will be of
value.
(3) "How to Restore the Damage Done by Past Pollu-
tion Practices"—Past and present pollution practices
have seriously damaged many of our areas. These
areas must be restored to some reasonable resemblance
of their original quality. Recommendations for their
restoration (clearing the bottom, restoring fish and
aquatic life, etc.) are requested. In addition, your ideas
on how to fairly distribute the cost of such restoration
would be appreciated.
The committee's purpose was to get as compre-
hensive a response as possible so that meaningful
recommendations could be made to the county com-
missioners. In addition, the committee established
several citizen subcommittees. For example, a "Solid
Waste Disposal" subcommittee was set the task of
studying how the county landfill was contributing
to the pollution of Perdido Bay.
The Pollution Advisory Committee was very forth-
right and set to its task with considerable zeal. For
example, in its first 30 days, it developed a series of
thoughtful, action-oriented recommendations deal-
ing with the estuarine environment.52 Although rec-
ommendations were rarely adopted by the county
commission, the thrust of the committee created
beneficial side effects and interest on the part of
the commissioners themselves. For example, the
commissioners held hearings concerning the estab-
lishment of nutrients and thermal discharge limits.
This procedure allowed industry representatives to
present their views with citizens in attendance.53
Although the advisory committee was frustrated
in attempts to establish regulations for local indus-
try, it was very successful in negotiating safe practice
regulations for the Humble Oil arid Refining Com-
pany which was requesting permission to install
pipelines in the delta region of Escambia and Perdido
Bays. Indeed, the attentiveness and cooperation
given by the Humble Oil Company in meeting with
citizen committees might serve as a model for other
agencies seeking permission to carry out potentially
deleterious projects in the estuarine area.54
The advisory committee pursued its regulatory
interests in 1971, working closely with the Depart-
ment of Pollution Control and developed a model
local program which was unfortunately tabled.55'66
On the plus side, however, was the opportunity for
citizens to interact with state officials in a construc-
tive way to bring about estuarine preservation.
In 1972 the Escambia County Commission was
reorganized, and the new chairman created a new
citizens organization called VOICE (Voices of Inter-
ested Citizens of Escambia). Although the Advisory
Committee on Pollution (ACOP) was allowed to
continue, it became apparent that it would be akin
to a forgotten stepchild. Nevertheless, the committee
has continued to meet and act on matters referred
to it by the commissioners. Ironically, the county
commissioners reorganized again in 1974, and the
new chairman has indicated that the services of
VOICE will be discontinued. The fate of ACOP
has not been announced.
In summary, the Citizen's Advisory Committee
on Pollution matters in Escambia County was cre-
ated in response to citizen concern over rampant
environmental degradation in the county. The com-
mittee was very active in its initial year of operation,
but as is so often the case, a citizens' committee is
quite capable of recommending solutions which are
beyond financial, legal, or political grasp of the local,
state, or federal government agency to which it
reports.
Technical Advisory Committee, West Florida Re-
gional Planning Council, Water Quality Management
Plan.—Without going into great detail concerning
this activity, it should be noted that the Water
Quality Management Plan cited earlier was devel-
oped through the guidance and approval of a com-
mittee containing not only local, state, and federal
professionals but lay citizens as well. Serving on this
committee were citizen advisors Clyde Richbourg of
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576
E&TUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
the American Seafood Company, and Tony Raibl,
representing the Bream Fishermen Association.
Regional, State, and Federal Hearings
Earlier, I referred briefly to hearings a': the county
level resulting from efforts of the County Commis-
sioner's Advisory Group. State and federal agencies
have held hearings also, and these hearings are a
meaningful outlet for citizen concern and education.
Enumeration of three such hearings follows.
Regional Planning Council Hearings.—The West
Florida Regional Planning Council helc. a series of
public hearings concerning the Water Q aality Man-
agement Plan. Although these hearings were adver-
tised in the newspaper and on TV, they were rather
poorly attended. The final hearing in May 1974,
attracted only 54 people, including participants.49
This number is less than 0.1 percent of the city of
Pensacola's population, much less of the two-county
area represented. It would appear that with pres-
sures of the economic recession we are in, citizens
are turning their backs on interests and concerns of
four years ago. This probably will be evident in
federal hearing attendance data as well.
State Agency Hearings.—The scenario for hearings
concerning Escambia Bay begins earlier than 1969.
However, the first major hearing which drew a size-
able citizen turnout was on May 21, 1969. At this
time, the Florida Air and Water Pollution Control
Commission with Governor Claude Kirk, Jr., in
attendance held a hearing entitled "Investigation of
Water Quality in Escambia River, Escambia Bay,
Pensacola Bay, and Perdido." Presentations were
made by four state agencies, the city of Pensacola,
and the state of Alabama. Several persons asked to
be heard and were granted appearances. These in-
cluded the chairman of the Pensacola Anti-Pollution
League and a representative of the Florida Wildlife
Federation. The hearing, well-attended for the time,
drew 150 persons.57'68
Federal Agency Hearings.—Beginning in January
1970, the Federal Water Pollution Control Admin-
istration, which held hearings on Escambia Bay on
January 21 and 22, began a series of enforcement
conference hearings concerning water quality in
Escambia Bay and Perdido Bays.2'6 Although the
1970 hearing on Escambia Bay attracted over 290
participants, the second session on February 23,
24, 1971, attracted less than half the previous num-
ber and the third session on January 24-26, 1972,
showed a further decline in audience participation.
This decline in attendance is regrettable, for such
hearings arc vital to estuarine preservation. Federal
agencies should be encouraged to report in open
hearings what they are doing about their agency-
stated goals, and citizens need an opportunity to
tell federal and state officials what concerns them.
Even though some citizen concerns may be ephem-
eral on the one hand, and state and federal action
or processes slow on the other, constant and better
communication is imperative. In this regard, it is
unfortunate that the Escambia-Perdido Bay con-
ferences have not been reconvened each year and
that many citizens believe that such enforcement
conferences have been unsuccessful in bringing about
any real change in pollutants and water quality.
Miscellaneous Clubs and Other Organizations
During the period of greater citizen concern over
Escambia Bay, there was a great deal of orga-
nizational interest from the standpoint of group
education. Additionally, many of these groups or
organizations actually mobilized in force to attend
hearings, workshops, or write letters. Not wishing
to ignore or play down the role of any citizens'
group, I \\ant to acknowledge the contributions of
those organizations that I can recall which were
interested and active:
Sierra Club of Pensacola
National Wildlife Federation, local chapter
Frances M. Weston Chapter, Audubon Society
Save-Our-Beach Committee
Florida Federation of Garden Clubs
League of Women Voters
Pensacola Womens Club
Junior League of Pensacola
Pensacola Junior Chamber of Commerce
Rotary of Pensacola
Kiwanis of Pensacola
Greater Pensacola Chamber of Commerce
Choctawhatchee League for Environmental
Action Now (CLEAN)
Gamefish Protection Association (Okaloosa-
Walton County)
All of these organizations and perhaps others as
well were concerned enough to invite me, enforce-
ment officials from state agencies, or industry spokes-
men to meet with their groups so that they could
become acquainted with estuarine problems. Of the
above groups, the Sierra Club of Pensacola is cur-
rently the most active in preservation.
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
577
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-------
578
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. This paper has discussed the background and
context of citizen awareness and involvement in
estuarine preservation in northwest Florida.
B. Vehicles and mechanisms for citizen involve-
ment are through (a) sportsmens' organizations,
(b) homeowners' organizations, (c) planning coun-
cils, (d) local, state, or federal advisory groups, and
(e) attendance at local, state, and federal hearings.
Other routes of involvement include civic clubs,
conservation groups, and semi-professional societies.
C. In all cases, there are certain pragmatic, legal,
fiscal, or economic issues that influence the success
of the concerned individual or organization.
D. Considering these realities, it is proposed that
the best avenue for estuarine preservation in the
geographic locale of northwest Florida would be
through the West Florida Regional Planning Coun-
cil (Figure 2 shows schematically how the Regional
Planning Council concept would be applied). It
should be noted that if the WFRPC assumed this
added responsibility, additional staffing would be a
necessity. On the other hand, use of this existing
agency would seem to be the most cost effective
and would be consistent with its legislatively man-
dated role. Furthermore, it is the agency most
closely in tune with the Coastal Coordinating Coun-
cil which would be responsible for the implementa-
tion of Coastal Zone Management in Florida.
REFERENCES
1. McNutty, J. K., W. N. Lindall, Jr. and J. E. Sykes, 1972.
Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and
Study, Florida; Phase I, Area Description. NOAA
Tech. Rpt. NMFS CIRC-368.
2. Escambia Proceedings—Conference in the Matter of
Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia River
Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of
the Escambia Basin within the State of Florida. (January
21-22, 1970 Gulf Breeze, Florida) 2 Volumes. U.S. De-
partment of the Interior—Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Administration.
3. Perdido 1970 Proceedings—Conference in the Matter of
Pollution of the Interstate Waters of Perdido Bay and its
Tributaries Florida and Alabama. January 23-24, 1970
Gulf Breeze, Fla. U.S. Department of trm Interior—
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration.
4. Escambia 1971 Proceedings—Conference in the Matter of
Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia River
Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of
the Escambia Basin within the State of Florida. Second
Session, February 23-24, 1971, Pensacola, Fla. Environ-
mental Protection Agency.
Its Tributaries—Florida and Alabama. Second Session,
February 25-26, 1971, Pensacola, Fla. Environmental
Protection Agency.
6. Escambia 1972 Proceedings—Conference in the Matter of
Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia River
Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of
the Escambia Basin Within the State of Florida. Third
Session, January 24-26, 1972, Gulf Breeze, Fla. Environ-
mental Protection Agency.
7. Los Angeles Times, Part I, Page 1, September 4, 1970;
Section B, Page 6, October 18, 1970.
8. San Francisco Chronicle, Part I, Page 8, September 13,
1970.
9. Sunday Times Advertiser, Part 2, Page 1, November 28,
1971.
10. Sports Illustrated. 1970, February 23, 1970. p. 14.
11. Barada, Bill, 1972. Skin Diver Magazine, February,
pp. 21-23.
12. Compilation by library staff of John C. Pace Library,
University of West Florida, 1962 to May 1970 19 pp.
Xerox copy.
13. Hixson, W. C., J. I. Niven, and T. S. Hopkins, 1971.
Results of a Creel Census of the Lower Escambia River
Sports Fishery.
14. Bream Fisherman Association Newsletter, June 1971.
15. Letter from BFA to TSH dated August 9, 1971 with data.
16. Letter from BFA to TSH and state agency representatives
of DPC, DNR, along with EPA engineer, Larry Olinger.
No data 1973 with data from 22 July to October 20, 1973.
17. BFA Newsletter Spring 1972.
18. BFA Conservation Newsletter Vol. 3—No. 1.
19. BFA Conservation Newsletter Vol. 4—No. 1.
20. Pensacola News-Journal, Page 1A, 7A.
21. Pensacola Journal, p. 7B, September 14, 1968.
22. Summarized in letter from TSH to Vincent Patton,
Executive Director, Department of Air and Water Pollu-
tion Control dtd. December 1, 1969.
23. State Road Project No. 58002-3413, Contract No. 8516
to Jahncke Service Incorporated dtd. May 5, 1969.
24. Letter from J. W. Apthorp, Executive Director, State of
Florida Board of Trustees of the Internal Improvement
Trust Fund to Mrs. F. A. Meloy dated March 23, 1970.
25. Livingston, R. J., T. S. Hopkins, J. K. Adams, M. D.
Schmitt and L. M. Walsh, 1972. The Effects of Dredging
and Eutrophication of Mulatto Bayou. Fund Report of
Florida Department of Transportation.
5. Perdido 1971 Proceedings—Conference in the Matter of
Pollution of the Interstate Waters of Perdido Bay and
26. Letter from W. H. F. Wiltshire to TSH dated September
3, 1970.
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
579
27. OWRR Moshiri, G. A. 1971a. Phytoplankton Produc-
tivity and the Role of Nutrient Enrichment Factors in
Bayou Texar, Pensacola, Escambia County, Fla. NSF
Institutional Grant $770 and Bayou Texar Association
Grant, $500.
Moshiri, G. A. 1971b. Determination of a Nitrogen-
Phosphorous Budget of Bayou Texar, Pensacola, Es-
cambia County, Fla. OWRR Grant, $3,707.
28. OWRR, Moshiri, G. A. 1972. Determination of Nitrogen-
Phosphorous Inputs, and Prediction of the Effects of
Such Inputs on the Eutrophication Time-table of Bayou-
Texar, Pensacola, Escambia County, Fla. OWRR Grant
$28,345 and .$11,608.
29. OWRR Moshiri, G. A. 1973. Inter-relationships between
Certain Microorganisms and Some Aspects of Sediment-
Water Nutrient Exchange in Two Bayou Estuaries,
Pensacola, Escambia County, Fla. OWRR Grant $30,215.
30. Letter from L. A. Hunsley to S. B. Collard dated April 29,
1971.
31. Letter from H. A. Griffith, District Engineer to L. A.
Hunsley dated September 2, 1971.
32. Letter from C. G. Mauriello (FAWPC) to J. E. Ravon,
Regional Administrator, EPA, dated November 2, 1971;
letter from E. P. Lomasney, EPA Region IV to L. A.
Hunsley dated December 14, 1971.
33. Letter from V. D. Patton (DPC) to J. E. Ravon, Regional
Administrator EPA, Region IV, dated September 21,
1972.
34. Letter from J. E. Ravon (EPA, Atlanta) to V. D. Patton
(DPC) dated October 4, 1972.
35. Letter from W. A. Rosenkrenz, EPA, Washington, to
L. A. Hunsley, dated February 9, 1973.
36. News Journal Editorials of December 29, 1968, March
30, 1969, April 13, 1969, and June 22, 1969.
37. Minutes—West Florida Natural Resources Council—
Organizational Meeting, Pensacola, Fla. June 27, 1969.
38. West Florida Natural Resources Council, Executive Com-
mittee Minutes, Pensacola, Fla. July 30, 1969.
39. Minutes—West Florida Natural Resources Council,
Pensacola, Fla. August 15, 1969.
40. Minutes—Escambia-Santa Rosa Water Pollution Task
Force of the West Florida Natural Resources Council,
October 8, 1969.
41. UWF News Release dated May 20, 1970—duta taken
from draft approved by Gamma College Provost, A. B.
Chaet who was Professor Edmisten's Provost.
mittee and Program Committee Minutes. Pensaoola,
Fla., August 19, 1970.
43. Meeting of the Escambia-Santa-Rosa Task Force of the
West Florida Natural Resources Council. Minutes.
September 2, 1970.
44. Letter from J. A. Edmisten to Gov. Claude Kirk, Jr.,
dated September 4, 1970.
45. West Florida Natural Resources Council Executive Com-
mittee Meeting. Minutes, September 16, 1970.
46. West Florida Natural Resources Council, Executive Com-
mittee Meeting. Minutes, October 2, 1970.
47. West Florida Regional Planning Council Handbook.
Mimeo.
48. Draft—Presentation of Alternatives for Water Quality
Management, Plan—Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties.
Prepared for Escambia-Santa Rosa Regional Planning
Council by Henningson, Durham, Richardson, and Hart.
Pensacola, Fla. November, 1973.
49. Minutes—WTest Florida Regional Planning Council Water
Quality Management Plan for Escambia and Santa Rosa
Counties, Fla. Final Public Hearing in Conjunction with
Florida Department of Pollution Control. Thursday,
May 23, 1974.
50. Letter from W. E. Tisdale to County Commissioners
dated July 22, 1970.
51. Minutes—Meeting of August 6, 1970; Escambiu County
Pollution Advisory Committee in County Commission
Chambers, Escambia County Courthouse.
52. Letter Progress Report from C. A. Lowen- to Chairman,
Board of County Commissioners, dated September 5,
1970.
53. Minutes of Meeting of the Board of County Commis-
sioners held Friday, December 4, 1970 with enclosures
54. Letter from T. S. Hopkins to Countv Commissioners
dated December 16, 1970.
55. Letter from C. G. Mauriello, FDAWPC to Chairman
Lane dated April 28, 1971.
56. ACOP Recommendations 13, 14, 15 dated May 27, 1971.
57. Report of Investigations into Pollution of Pensacola
Area Waters. Florida State Board of Health Bureau of
Sanitary Engineering, Northwest Florida Regional
Office Pensacola, May 19, 1909.
58. Memorandum to FWPCA Files from Howard Zeller,
Water Quality Standards Coordinator, Southeast Region,
dated May 23, 1969.
42. West Florida Natural Resources Council Executive Com- 59. News Journal, Page 1C, December 1, 1974.
-------
THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC
IN TEXAS ESTUARY PROTECTION
VERNON SMYLIE
Public Relations Consultant
Corpus Christi, Texas
ABSTRACT
The projected superport inside the South Texas bay system at Harbor Island, near Corpus
Christi, stirred public indignation to a high level. Here is the way the people of South Texas
reacted—and the methods they used to make their voices heard.
INTRODUCTION
The Texas coast is, historically, the most unap-
preciated part of Texas.
Texas is land, lots of land—267,339 square miles
which form a highly individualistic link between the
Old South and the Rockies and between the Great
Plains of the Midwest and the sub tropics of the
U.S.-Mexico border. It is more than 800 straight-line
miles from the northwest corner of the Texas pan-
handle to the southernmost curl of the Rio Grande
below Brownsville. The east-west distance from the
broadest bend of the Sabine River to the pointed tip
above El Paso is almost as great.
If all states were as big as Texas, there would be
only 13 states. There is room enough in Texas for
220 states the size of Rhode Island or six states the
size of New York. The largest of Texas' 254 counties
is almost as big as New Jersey. If a state were
molded to the same size and shape as Texas and
placed directly east of Texas, it would reach 35 miles
into the Atlantic Ocean beyond St. Augustine, Fla.
A state cut from the Texas pattern and located
directly west of Texas would extend 160 miles into
the Pacific Ocean beyond San Diego, Calif. Texas
above itself would come within 50 miles of the Cana-
dian border. Beaumont, some 25 miles west of the
Louisiana border, is nearer to Sarasota, Fla., than
it is to Ei Paso. And El Paso is nearer to Los Angeles,
Calif., than it is to Beaumont. Dalhart, at the top of
the Texas panhandle, is closer to Pocatello, Idaho,
and Billings, Mont., than to Brownsville.
Texas is crops and cattle and mineral wealth—and
all the economic, manufacturing, industrial, and
metropolitan muscle such broad-based elements of
prosperity can be expected to produce. For 38 con-
secutive years Texas has been No. 1 among the
states in mineral output. It is first in petroleum
production and first in petroleum refining. More than
one-fourth (26.5 percent) of all crude oil refining in
the United States is in Texas. Texas refines more
crude oil than the total amount refined in California
and Louisiana, the second and third ranking states.
More than 35 percent of the proved natural gas
reserves in the United States are in Texas. Both agri-
culture and ranching are multi-billion-dollar annual
businesses. Texas usually leads all states in producing
cattle, sheep, lambs, goats, cotton, and grain sor-
ghums. It competes with Louisiana for first position
in rice growing.
Today, the mythical concept of Texas and Texans
remains rooted to the wide open spaces despite the
fact that Texas has become one of the most urbanized
of all states, powered not by rugged individualism
but by big-dollar economics and a prosperity-nur-
tured growth mania. In 1940—barely a generation
ago—Texas had a population of 6,414,824 and was
predominantly rural. By 1970, the population had
grown to 11,749,100, and four of every five Texans
(79.7 percent) lived in urban areas. There are 24
standard metropolitan areas in Texas—approximate-
ly 10 percent of the United States' total. There are
two Texas metropolitan areas among the top 20 in
the United States and 10 Texas cities have popula-
tions of 100,000 or more. Six metropolitan areas are
on the Texas coastal plain, including three cities
with 100,000-plus population.
In the 1920s, Houston advertised itself as the
place "where 17 railways meet the sea." The slogan
was right on target. Galveston, with its island loca-
tion and natural harbor, had dominated shipping and
commerce on the upper Texas coast for decades. In
1914, Houston was handed its chance to emerge
commercially when a ship channel was dredged from
the Gulf of Mexico inward across Galveston Bay
arid up Buffalo Bayou. Galveston had the better
location but Houston had the better connections
with inland points. The ship channel, it turned out,
581
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582
ESTUAKINE POLLUTION CONTROL
compounded the Houston growth impact by provid-
ing a settling strip for industries with a need for deep-
water dockage and plant space.
The ecological atrocities, both along coastlines
and across inland expanses, can be traced historically
to the frontier concept that mankind &Jid the en-
vironment are natural adversaries. The concept was
an implied part of the manifest destiny credo that
the land was there to be conquered and used and not
necessarily understood. The shaky status of civiliza-
tion on the front fringe of the advance across the
North American continent gave impetus to this
fundamental concept. If the inlands or the shoreline
were respected, the degree of respect was measured
by the degree of hazard imposed by the environment
and not by the environment's intrinsic worth. It was
only when mankind achieved a stranglehold on the
environment and began converting conquest to ex-
cesses that the need to live in harmony with environ-
mental resources came into focus.
Texas, rich in land and rich in both surface and
subsurface resources, has grown by the frontier ethic
of environmental conquest and has prospered hand-
somely. Houston has raised itself from its humble
beginning as a shaky real estate promotion with a
political hue to become one of the great cities of the
world. Currently, Houston is the sixth largest city
in the United States. By the start of the 21st cen-
tury, just 25 years away, it easily could rank second
only to New York. Already its position as one of the
nation's four great anchor cities—New York in the
east, Los Angeles on the west coast, Chicago in the
north-center position, and Houston in the south-
center—is assured. Nearly 400 corporations now
make their headquarters in Houston ard Buffalo
Bayou is as busy as Main Street as ocean-going
tankers and cargo vessels -move to and from the
docks of industrial installations crowded along its
banks all the way to open water. Channel dockage
space is so much in demand that branch channels are
being shaped into the mainland to meet the require-
ments of still greater industrial development.
Houston is not the sum of it all, but the Houston
growth saga has been an .inspiring certification of
the conquest concept- for other communities along
the Texas coast. Deepwater channels invariably
attract industry and, at least during the free-wheeling
fifties, engendered dreams of million-plus popula-
tions. Corpus Christi, reached by a deepwater
channel in the late 1920s, bounced from Kith to 6th
place among Texas cities between 1940 and 1950.
Jefferson County, with upstream deepwater at Port
Arthur and Beaumont, rose into the top half-dozen
Texas counties in population by 1960. Brazoria
County, with deepwater at Freeport, has nore than
quadrupled its population since 1940. The deepwater
urge so possessed Brownsville that a channel was
fashioned across a tidal prairie for a distance of
nearly 20 miles, creating the illusion that ships,
somehow, were crossing unbroken grazing land.
Point Comfort, in Calhoun County, likewise became
a deepwater port, and Galveston County, without
space for industrial expansion on Galveston Island,
settled for industrialization, with deepwater access,
on the nearby mainland at Texas City.
The Texas coastline, by its dimensions and con-
struction, accommodates economic and urban ex-
ploitation. It is a long coastline—a great arc reaching
367 miles from the Sabine River on the Louisiana
border to the United States-Mexico boundary at the
mouth of the Rio Grande. The coastline meanders
mightily, following the contours of countless bays
sealed from the splash of the Gulf of Mexico by a
chain of narrow islands and peninsulas. If the Texas
coast is measured by every twist and turn of the
shoreline, its length is 624 miles.
The Mississippi River and its tributaries form a
gigantic funnel which drains the entire national
heartland, diminishes the rivers of the Deep South,
and furnishes a flow that dominates and shapes the
Louisiana coast. Texas, for the most part, is outside
the Mississippi basin and beyond its influence. In-
stead of being beholden to a single river system, the
Texas coast is fed primarily by eight river systems,
most of which empty into bay systems of some
complexity. The bay systems are, in one fashion or
another, connected to the gulf by inlets between
islands and peninsulas.
The Texas coastal islands and peninsulas actually
are barrier bars—the work of waves which break on
the continental shelf. The shelf reaches miles offshore
and follows the contour of the mainland in a rather
irregular fashion. Because the water above the shelf
is relatively shallow, the waves scrape bottom, break,
and cast their load of sand particles forward. The
sand deposits build into bars which eventually grow
into islands. Tidal inlets form where water breaks
across the barrier bars in times of storm. Accumula-
tions of marsh grass and silt between the bars and
the mainland, where bays and lagoons run thin,
turn some islands to peninsulas. There is evidence
that some mainland ridges were prehistoric barrier
islands which established total links with the existing
land mass.
The estuarine settings of the Texas coast—where
river flow and the wash of the gulf have achieved a
delicate balance—have proved attractive to settle-
ment and, as already indicated, handy for industrial
and urban exploitation. The inlets from the gulf are
easily pierced to create deepwater channels. The
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
583
rivers offer sources of freshwater attractively con-
trolled by dam construction. Every stream is a po-
tential channel and every river mouth has possibili-
ties as a turning basin. From the vast surface re-
sources of Texas come fodder for ocean-going
freighters. Mineral resources provide the crude oil
which makes possible coastal refining complexes,
and natural gas provides power for plants which
broaden the industrial productive base.
Not every community along the Texas coast can
have deep water. There just are not enough inlets
from the gulf to turn the decpwater dream into
every town's reality. For those who must settle for
less, there is the Intracoastal Canal, which cuts
across protected waters and marshlands of the land-
locked bays and lagoons all the way up the Texas
coast. The Intracoastal Canal continues across the
southern swamps of Louisiana to the Mississippi
River and coastal points to the east. Harlingen and
Victoria, both on the coastal plain but a few miles
removed from coastal bays, have settled for barge
canals. Raymondville, likewise removed, has built
Port A'lansfield on the shore of Texas' southernmost
lagoon and has engineered a barge channel through
the center of Padre Island to the gulf. Even Dallas,
some 200 miles removed from the gulf, dreams of a
coastal connection by turning the Trinity River into
an elongated barge canal.
The Texas shrimp and fish business is a multi-
million-dollar enterprise, but so great is the industrial
overshadow that commercial fishing hardly is visible.
Tourism is a late arrival, primarily because the
economy already had plenty to go on. Yet despite
industrial overkill, municipal malfeasance, official
neglect, and public indifference, Texas' estuarine
resources still are sufficiently substantial to fight
for—and people by the thousands are becoming a-
ware of that fact.
THE PUBLIC STEPS IN
Houston, as a city, is a shining example of urban
success. The way Houston has treated its access
to the Texas coast is less than exemplary. It is
frightening.
Buffalo Bayou originates west of Houston, passes
through the city, widens into a turning basin and
channel, then winds its way eastward to the northern
niche of Galveston Bay. The bay is one of the largest
estuarine areas along the Texas coast, gathering, in
addition, the waters of the San Jacinto and Trinity
rivers.
Buffalo Bayou must be the filthiest stream in the
world. Years ago an investigator for Harris County
pronounced the bayou's flow to be 80 percent sewage.
In 1967, Dr. Joseph L. Melnick of the Baylor Uni-
versity Medical School examined the bayou's water
in downtown Houston—long before it reached the
ship channel area—and found what he calculated to
be enough viruses to infect 77 million persons per
hour. "It's just plain sewer water," Dr. Melnick, a
virology expert, said. "You shouldn't bathe in this
water. You shouldn't even get it on your skin. You
shouldn't have anything to do with it." Four years
later—in June 1971—two of Houston's sewage plants
were discharging 103 million gallons of unchlori-
nated waste into Buffalo Bayou each day.
Galveston Bay, of course, is paying the price of
such wanton pollution. A large part of the estuary
has been closed to shellfish harvesting because of the
bacterial pollution from raw and unchlorinated
sewage. Fish kills attributable to both urban and
industrial pollution are common. Fish deformities
are becoming more apparent. And the bay—the
prime recreation center for Houstonians for many
years—now is shunned as unfit for swimming, fishing,
and other water pleasures. The bayshore, once lined
with piers and boat stalls, has little more than a
scattering of battered posts sticking from its dis-
colored waters as reminders of happier days.
The prospects of bringing Galveston Bay back to
a healthy condition are, at best, poor. The Trinity
River canal project still hangs around, threatening
the bay's most significant source of freshwater and
hazarding, by inundation, prime estuarine marsh-
lands. Thermal pollution—the tampering with water
temperature in the bay—is being posed by electric
generating plants. A proposed dyke-and-levee sys-
tem threatens tidal flow from the gulf. But while the
prospects of making Galveston Bay a recoverable
resource fade, there is grassroots reaction in Hous-
ton, at Wallisville, and, especially significantly, at
Corpus Christi.
Before it reaches sewage stations and the long
chain of industrial waste outlets, Buffalo Bayou
meanders through ritzy River Oaks, a residential
area ranking with the finest anywhere in the United
States.
The benign little bayou forms part of the setting—
and its value in its natural state is recognized by
wealthy homeowners as well as public-interest
conservationists. In 1971, a plan was developed to
straighten the bayou channel in the name of flood
control. Thus was born The Bayou Preservation
Association, an alliance of property owners and
environmentalists who mounted a full-scale op-
position program and went public. The flood control
project was stopped, and, perhaps most significant of
all, the Association gathered the support of the Harris
-------
584
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTHOL
Courty Soil and Water Conservation District, the
Flood and Drainage Committee of the Houston
Chamber of Commerce, and the Houston Builders
Association in seeking an officially acceptable com-
prehensive plan for flood-plain management in the
Houston area.
The achievement, in itself, was modest, and, for
many of those involved, it was self-serving. But it
was a forward step in coping with the Buffalo Bayou
problem—a foot-in-the-door move toward bigger
things in the somewhat belated effort to attach value
to the quality of a clean stream and a healthy estu-
ary.
An attempt to stop construction and operation of
the Wallisville Dam on the lower reaches of the
Trinity River still hangs in legal limbo, but the mere
fact that such a step was taken and was treated
with credence in the courts is noteworthy.
The Wallisville project, which would dam the
Trinity at a point where the river flows into that
part of Galveston Bay known as Trinity Bay, would
create a shallow lake over nearly 13,000 acres of
marine nursery grounds. While it would stop the
movement of salt water up the Trinity channel, it
also would adversely affect the flow of freshwater
into the bay.
The suit was brought by two individuals j oined by
various environmental groups, including the Houston
Sportsmen's Club, the Texas Shrimp Association,
the Environmental Protection Fund, the Houston
Audubon Society, and both the national organization
and the Houston Chapter of the Sierra Club. The
suit is based on the premise that the Wallisville
project is related, in its implications, to the channeli-
zation of the Trinity to Dallas—and that the en-
vironmental implications of such wholesale tamper-
ing with one of Texas' more significant streams have
not been fully assessed. Win or lose, the Wallisville
Dam foes are sure to give heart to others who would
undertake other fights to halt assaults 3n Texas
estuaries. They already have—as is evidenced in the
pitched battle to stop the construction of a superport
at Harbor Island, a marshy triangle of land inside
the Texas island chain near Corpus Christi.
THE HARBOR ISLAND BATTLE
Harbor Isand is located just inside San Jose and
Mustang islands. The waters which move through
Aransas Pass, the inlet from the gulf between San
Jose and Mustang, break against the eastern point
of Harbor Island and surge along its sides and through
a shallow channel in its center into a system of 11
bays that form the shoreline of the souther n half of
the Texas coast.
The gulf waters surging along the south side of
Harbor Island move into Corpus Christi Bay, then
into Nueces Bay, Laguna Madre, and Baffin Bay.
The Nueces River system and a variety of smaller
streams match the flow from the mainland. The sea-
water flow through Harbor Island nourishes Redfish
Bay. Along Harbor Island's north side, the Lydia
Ann Channel carries water from the gulf to Aransas,
Copano, Port, St. Charles, San Antonio, and Hynes
bays. The estuarine balance in the latter bays is
maintained by the flow of the Guadalupe-San
Antonio river system and the lesser Aransas and
Mission rivers.
There already is a deep water channel from the
gulf through the San Jose-Mustang inlet. It courses
south of Harbor Island across Corpus Christi Bay
to the Corpus Christi metropolitan area. A fork of the
channel—also deep enough to accommodate ocean-
going vessels—attaches itself to the industrialized
north shore of Corpus Christi Bay for a short dis-
tance.
The Harbor Island superport would provide
dockage for medium-sized VLCCs—the so-called
supertankers designed to carry million-barrel crude
oil cargoes from distant ports. The superport plan
is sponsored by the Nueces County Navigation
District No. 1 and enjoys the support of most of the
community's powerful industrial interests and
certain vocal segments of the Corpus Christi business
establishment. To construct such a facility would
necessitate substantial widening of the San Jose-
Mustang inlet, fashioning of a super turning basin
where inflow waters make their three-way separation
into the various bays, cutting of berthing space into
Harbor Island, relocating of the shallow channel
through Harbor Island to Redfish Bay, and dredging
of the inlet, turning basin area, and berthing area to
a water depth of more than 72 feet.
The proposed superport provoked what The Cor-
pus Christi Caller described as "The Battle of Harbor
Island, 1973 Style." The Coastal Bend Conservation
Association assumed the lead role, supported by the
San Antonio-based Committee to Save Our Texas
Beaches and Bays. The opposition began forming in
mid-August, 1973. The showdown dates were Sep-
tember 19-20—the appointed time for a public
hearing before the U.S. Engineers in Corpus Christi.
The results of the hearing were not conclusive, of
course. But the month-long effort by conservation-
ists to muster and consolidate public support added
a blueprint for future action by environmentalists.
The superport opponents began with a sound basis
for opposition. There was a plausible alternative:
the monobuoy. A motiobuoy system would provide
for the unloading of the big tankers far out in the
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
585
gulf through the use of hoses attached at the water
surface to floating buoys and at the gulf floor to
underground pipelines leading to shore. JMonobuoys
would eliminate the need for an onshore port—and
they could be expected to be more than theoretically
effective. More than 100 monobuoy systems are in
use around the world. Some have been in use since
1959.
Furthermore, it turned out, the monobuoy system
had strong support and the dredging approach had
outspoken critics in official circles. No less an author-
ity than the U.S. Coips of Engineers—the ageiic\
holding the hearing—had expressed itself this way
in a June 1973, report entitled "Report on Gulf
Coast Deepwater Port Facilities in Texas, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida': Of the three
facility systems investigated—dredged channels,
artificial islands, and monobuoys—the monobuoy
system is the most economically and environmentally
feasible."
Speaking specifically of the Texas Coastal Bond—
the area centered around Harbor Island—the Corps
added: "This zone supports active commercial and
sport fisheries and represents a significant recrea-
tional region whose utility could be diminished by a
deep port development in the area ..."
A report entitled "Environmental Aspects of tt
Supertanker Port on the Texas Gulf Coast," pub-
lished in December 1972, by Texas A & M Univer-
sity, contained 1 his statement •
In addition to the first cost aspects of channel deepening,
other considerations which, when take_n in toto, appear
to rule out this approach as an alternative to the offshore
port, include such tilings as annual maintenance costs
and environmental impacts other than those associated
with disposal of dredge spoil . . .
The U.S. Army Engineer Institute for Water
Resources had retained Robert R. Nathan Associ-
ates, Inc., of Washington D.C., to prepare a report
entitled "U.S. Deepwater Port Study" in August
1972. The report stated:
Dredging ;md spoil disposal for deepwater ports, if re-
sorted ro on a massive and extensive scale, could create
environmental problems almost equal to those of pe-
troleum spills . . . However, for the most part, offshore
facilities requiring limited or no dredging offer an eco-
nomic, and environmentally less destructive Alternative
fos' etude x'troleu'n imports . . .
The Texas Environmental Coalition focused
directly on the proposed Harbor Island project with
''!A Statement Condensing Deepwat r Port Location
in the Corpus Christi, L'exas, Area." The statement
was drawn by Espev, Huston, and Associates of
Austin, Tex., and contained this comment: "Estab-
lishment of a major oil depot with very large tankers
coming into the Aransas Pass area will increase the
oil pollution because some leakage, spillage, and
escape is unavoidable . . ."
One of the strongest statements was found in
"Offshore Terminal Systems Concepts," prepared
by Soros Associates, Inc., of New York for the U.S.
Department of Commerce Maritime Administration.
The statement read:
The traditional coastal port consists of entrance chan-
nels, anchorage areas, turning basins, and shoreside
terminal berths . . . Many existing port structures
would be undermined by further dredging. As bulk
carrier depth requirements reach 60 to 100 feet, the
practical limitations of the traditional port will have
long been exceeded for practically all the existing
primary bulk cargo ports, particularly on the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts. The problems of turning and handling
these large vessels within the traditional port confines
will become dangerous even if dredged channels and
basins could otherwise handle the deep drafts. Dredging
beyond 50 feet in depth would be very difficult to justify
both economically and environmentally.
The office of the Governor of Texas provided two
general comments in "Texas Coastal Resources
Management Program," a comprehensive report to
Interagency Council on Natural Resources and the
Environment. The comments:
Bays and estuarine areas are irreplaceable resources
essential to more than 70 percent of all marine organ-
isms . . .
... it is recommended that the State of Texas and its
citizens . . . prohibit the sale or lease of State-owned
wetlands for development except where essential to
fulfill some definite human need and where no feasible
alternative exists.
Thus armed with significant opinion, the Harbor
Island superport opponents put their position to a
public test. On Labor Day weekend, circulars en-
titled "Save Our Beaches, Save; Our Bays" were
passed out to motorists pulled to a stop on Harbor
Island to await ferry movement to the Mustang
Island community of Port Aransas. The circulars
explained that a plan was afoot to build a superport
on Harbor Island, then added:
A superport on Harbor Island would require a channel
almost three times as wide and nearly twice as deep as
the present inlet from the Gulf of Mexico.
The cost would be enormous. The flood danger from
tidal surges, particularly during hurricanes, would
constitute a tremendous risk to lives and property. Un-
controlled oil spills could blacken a half-dozen bays,
ruin our island beaches, do immeasurable damage to
bird and marine life, and destroy a multi-million-dollar
tourist and recreation area.
-------
586
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Don't let anybody fool you—there is no wiy to control
a tidal wave and no fool-proof way to stop the spread
of an oil spill.
And don't let anybody tell you that a superport inside
the Texas island chain is necessary to support the Texas
economy or to provide jobs. It isn't necessary. The U.S.
Engineers have made analyses which show that an
offshore terminal in the Gulf of Mexico wculd cost less
and accomplish the same purpose.
The message urged anyone interested in stopping
the Harbor Island superport project to sign a coupon
on the bottom of each circular. The response was
tremendous. By the end of the 3-day holiday period,
some 4,000 persons had read, signed, and returned
the circulars. More than 1,500 other signatures were
gathered, mainly in Corpus Christi, prior to the
September 19-20 hearing.
A major newspaper advertising campaign was
mounted. A dramatic three-color, two-page display
featuring a map showing the proposed Harbor Island
superport location and projecting the possible con-
sequences of a major oil spill in the port area was the
starter. The advertisement was captioned: "Are
You Willing to Pay This Price for a Superport on
Harbor Island?" The price, of course, was the pos-
sible saturation of the bay and estuary areas with
crude oil.
The authoritative quotations cited above were put
together in a full-page blockbuster with this caption:
"Before You Let Anybody Talk You Into Believing
the Harbor Island Superport Would Be Good for
Corpus Christi and the Texas Coastal Bend, Read
These Findings." The advertisement, like the cir-
culars, contained a coupon for opposition signatures.
The next advertisement made it clear that there
was an alternative to the Harbor Island superport.
The heading stated:
Can Corpus Christi Have
The Benefits of a Superport
Without Jeopardizing Our
Beaches and Bays?
It Certainly Can—If
The Port Is Built in the Gulf
Instead of on Harbor Island.
The pro-monobuoy statements by the U.S. Engi-
neers were prominently displayed.
As the hearing date neared, 10 reasons why the
Harbor Island superport should be opposed were
offered:
1. The Harbor Island Superport Plan Already Is
Obsolete. A superport inside our bay system at
Harbor Island, as proposed, would accommodate
only medium-sized supertankers. Ships almost
twice that large already are under construction and
still larger vessels are being planned.
2. The Harbor Island Superport Limits Our Econ-
omic Benefits. If the large supertankers can't dock,
they can't unload. If they can't unload, we lose
economically. An offshore monobuoy system would
make possible the discharging of crude oil from
supertankers of all sizes.
3. The Harbor Island Superport Has an Unsigned
Price Tag. If a 72-foot channel can be dredged, will
we then be asked to dig it deeper for bigger ships?
How will the channel be maintained? What will be
the final cost? Who'll pay the bill? Why haven't these
questions been answered?
4. Harbor Island Will Put Us Behind in the Super-
port Race, The construction of an inland superport
is a mammoth, slow process. The Caller-Times of
August 26, 1973 stated that officials have estimated
results of the Harbor Island feasibility study "may
not be available for up to three years." Construction
then could require an even longer period of time,
pushing the completion date to 1979 or later. If the
Seadock monobuoy is put into operation up the
Texas coast at Freeport in 1976, we could find our
area three or more years behind in superport develop-
ment.
5. Harbor Island Is a Throwback to Isolated Port
Planning. The energy crisis is a national concern.
So is the docking of supertankers. That's why coast-
wide port systems have been studied so carefully.
The attempt to force isolated consideration of Har-
bor Island as a superport site is a step backward in
port planning;.
6. Harbor Island Endangers Our Entire Bay
System. The inlet between St. Joseph and Mustang
islands is the prime source of fresh seaAvater for our
entire Coastal Bend bay system. The system in-
cludes San Antonio, Copano, St. Charles, Aransas,
Redfish, Nueces, Corpus Christi, and a dozen smaller
bays, plus the Laguna Madre. A superport directly
inside the inlet would be a pollution nightmare. It's
hard to imagi ne a more damaging superport site.
7. Imagine the Effects of a Harbor Island Oil
Spill! An uncontrolled crude oil spill at a superport
on Harbor Island could blacken our beaches and
bays, endanger bird and marine life, and destroy a
multi-million-dollar tourist and recreation area.
Let no one fool you—there is" no foolproof way to
control a big cil spill.
8. The Harbor Island Superport Is a Multi-Danger
Plan. The danger of ship collisions and groundings
hangs over any plan to build an inland superport.
An explosion could turn a supership loaded with
crude oil or liquified gas into a gigantic floating
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
587
AreYouWingtoPay This Price
For the Hartor Island Superport?
£oveOur4eaches! gave Our «Bays!
ILLUSTRATION 1
Before You bet Anybody
Talk You Into Believing
The Harbor Island Superport
Would Be Good forCorpusChristi
and theTexasCoastal Bend,
Read These findings:
THE OFFICE OF THE GOVERNOR OF TEXAS
TEXAS ENVIRONMENTAL COALITION
* Wf
I
I U 5 CORPS OF ENGINEERS
I TEXASA«MUNIVE()8ITY
U S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
| MARITIME ADMINISTRATION
§croeOu¥$ags!
THIS IS Ml ill SNU
p«* t-fcm'it »
Scrae Our««aches
Save Our 3tays.
STOP THE INLAND SUPERPOOT
. SIGN MEBS
ILLUSTRATION 2
"Hi>>«BHH
ILLUSTRATION 3
-------
588
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
bet's Heap FPOIR the Yoang People.
We'll Award $1OO to
Who Writes the Best 25O Word better
TelliRgWhj? Oar Coastal Beaches
And Bags Should Be Saved From
The Ravages of a Saperporfc
OR Harbor Island.
gave Ow^eciches! gave Our Says!
V THE COASTAL BEND C
M ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTKATION 4
bomb. There also is a real danger to life and property
from tidal surges caused by channel widening and
deepening to accommodate supertankers.
9. Harbor Island Will Blight Our Existing Econ-
omy. A superport inside our coastal islands will de-
face landforms with dredged spoil and pollute bay
waters. It is bound to strike a solid blow to sport
fishing, commercial fishing, bird life, tourism, and
our own enjoyment of our environment. The cost in
dollars will run into millions. The cost that can't be
measured in dollars will be staggering.
10. All Major Studies Favor Offshore Superport
Plans. The only thing new about superport planning
is the high-pressure attempt to force the building of
a superport on Harbor Island. Major studies con-
ducted by and for federal and state agencies con-
cerned with superport development favor offshore
ports far out in the gulf.
The 10-point broadside was contained in a full-
page newspaper advertisement with these instruc-
tions :
Here's What You Can Do To Stop the Harbor
Island Superport—
Go to the U.S. Engineers' hearing at 6:30 p.m.
Thursday at Roy Miller High School Audi-
torium ...
Speak out at the hearing to save our beaches
and bays by keeping the superport outside our
Coastal Bend bay system.
An advertisement—also displayed on a full-page
scale—urged: "Let's Hear From the Young People."
It offered, in the name of the Coastal Bend Con-
servation Association, a prize of $100 to the student
writing the best 250-word letter "telling why our
coastal beaches and bays should be saved from the
ravages of a superport on Harbor Island." There
was a second-place prize of $50 and four other prizes
of $25 each. The contest was open to any student at
any level—elementary, junior high, high school, or
college—at any school or educational institution in
the Corpus Christi area.
Each letter had to begin with the words: "I op-
pose a superport on Harbor Island because . . ."
There were more than 100 responses.
As the hearing approached, The Corpus Christi
Caller summarized the situation in a lengthy article
published September 16. The article listed the pros
and cons of the Harbor Island superport as follows :
PROS:
Economic boost.
Bring in new industry.
Decrease ship numbers (not tonnage).
Channel will stabilize bay system.
Help ease fuel crisis.
CONS:
Destro}' fish, shrimp and crab nursery grounds.
Dredging and spoil disposal harm.
Oil spill danger.
Increased flood threat from hurricanes.
Expense of channel maintenance.
Demand on land, water, air resources from
secondary development.
Port officials, the article stated, claim '"the eco-
nomical advantages of a landlocked inshore port
situated inside the Aransas Pass Bar far offset any
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
589
possible ecological or environmental damage that
might occur to the Corpus Christi Bay area."
But, the article added, "environmentalists main-
tain that construction of the port in estuarine areas
will destroy valuable marine nursery grounds which
are important for the preservation of gulf fisheries.
They also argue that port development will inevita-
bly lead to further industrialization that would
decrease the quality of the area's environment."
The article, in its own right, pointed out that
"more than 3,000 acres of land are estimated to be
needed for facility construction. Much of this land is
shallow and vegetated, functioning as nursery and
feeding grounds for marine organisms and birds.
Ninety-five percent of commercial fish species are
said to be dependent on estuarine areas." It also
cited the fact that Ernest Simmons, coastal fisheries
supervisor for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart-
ment, pointed out that construction of the deepwater
port would immediately destroy many acres of
prime spawning and nursery grounds for sea trout,
redfish, flounder, blue crabs, and shrimp. "The
deepwater port would thus affect adversely a multi-
million dollar fishing industry. We would also lose
feeding grounds for waterfowl and other birds,"
Simmons was quoted as saying.
Rudy Martinez, a biologist with Parks and Wild-
life, and John G. Degani, field supervisor with the
Division of River Basin Studies in the U.S. Bureau
of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife, concurred with
Simmons in print. Martinez was quoted as saying:
"We are sloAvly losing our nursery grounds in this bay
system as industry is coming in and people are build-
ing. The Harbor Island development would cut down
on the amount of nursery grounds available for
organisms." Most marine life spends some part of
its life cycle in these areas, Martinez added.
Dr. Henry Hildebrand, of the Department of
Biology at Texas A & I University-Kingsville,
claimed publicly that the tremendous amount of
spoil created by the dredging activities would keep
the water turbid for months. "The fine clay sedi-
ments would create a turbidity off Port Aransas
which would have serious impact on sports fishery.
The fisherman will have to go much farther out to
find the fish," the biologist said. Hildebrand said
that besides the initial turbidity caused by the
dredging, runoff from spoil disposal areas would have
adverse consequences. "Draining from disposal areas
of the colloidal clay sediments which would be
dredged up could adversely affect the organisms in
Redfish Bay and possibly cover up the grass-flats/'
he stated
Hildebrand also commented that the 72-foot chan-
nel would profoundly affect the bay production of
fish. The Aransas Pass Channel is a bottleneck for
migrations in and out of the bays, he said, and thus
the most sensitive area in the coastal system. "Little
shrimp use certain clues to enter the estuaries from
the gulf. Tidal and salinity changes resulting from
a deeper channel would affect the migration pattern,"
he warned.
Dr. Charles Holmes of the Office of Marine Ge-
ology, U.S. Geological Survey, said: "The feeling
among geologists is that the channel will fill in, but
at a rate not known. The question should be in-
vestigated."
The hearing before the U.S. Corps of Engineers
opened before a full house. The Miller High School
Auditorium was packed—both the main level and
the balcony. In the lobby, environmentalists passed
out "Save Our Beaches, Save Our Bays" bumper
stickers. Outside, a king-sized billboard trailer
attached to an automobile carried an easily under-
stood message. It stated: "Stop the Superport."
Edward C. Fritz of Dallas, chairman of the Texas
Committee on Natural Resources and a leader in the
Wallisville battle, testified: "The development plan
for a multi-purpose deep draft inshore port near
Port Aransas as presented by the Nueces County
Navigation District is environmentally unsound. To
construct the necessary deep draft access channels
alone could seriously alter the balance of nature in
the area. Any ecological modifications necessary to
build and maintain a superport complex would have
a serious and far reaching impact on the biosphere of
an area. This particular plan threatens to wreak
total havoc on the especially delicate and complex
natural interrelationships in the Port Aransas region.
Thus serious consideration should be given to the
denial of a permit for this scheme. Indeed, serious
consideration needs to be given to the question of
whether or not any superport ought to be constructed
at all in the Corpus area. One for Texas should be
sufficient, and there are other areas with greater ad-
vantages to Texas and the nation."
Jake Powers, a petroleum consultant, told the
gathering: "The Nueces County area is indeed for-
tunate in having a majority of its income derived
from the petroleum industry ... In fact many of us
depend on petroleum in one facet or another as our
basic income. We look forward to additional oil and
the income it might bring. We do, however, feel like a
superport would not benefit this area as well as an
offshore terminal or monobuoy plan."
Yancey White—an attorney who is a graduate of
the United States Merchant Marine Academy, a
veteran of the United States Navy, and a former
ship's officer in the United States Merchant
Marine—pointed out that the secondary purpose of
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590
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
the proposed Harbor Island superport was to load
bulk carriers with grain for foreign shipment. "The
hard evidence does not support the proposition that
a bulk loading facility for grain at Harbor Island
would be of any substantial benefit to the Port of
Corpus Christi," White testified. "The reasons are
simple and capable of factual support. The principal
reason is that many of the countries purchasing our
grain have severe draft limitations which restrict the
size of the vessel that can enter the harbor for along-
side discharge. To be specific, India, one of the pri-
mary purchasers of American grain, has severe draft
limitations and cannot accept today vessels with 40-
foot drafts which Corpus Christi is capable of load-
ing. The maximum draft for which a vessel can
enter a harbor in Venezuela is 34 feet. The maximum
draft for alongside discharging in Mexico is approxi-
mately 30 ... Stated in simple terms, it is futile to
load a bulk carrier with grain to a 70-foot draft when
the port of discharge can only accommodate a vessel
of 30 feet. This is true because many, if not the ma-
jority, of the grain importing countries are under-
developed nations and thus do not have adequate
port facilities to receive large bulk carriers."
The chairman of the Corpus Christi Chamber of
Commerce's Superport Committee was Edward H.
Harte, publisher of The Corpus Christi Caller-Times.
Later, in an editorial column, Harte gave his ap-
praisal of what happened at the hearing at Miller
High School. The Harbor Island superport project,
Harte wrote, took a "terrible drubbing."
After the hearing, the environmentalists had the
final words. In another double-page, three-color
newspaper advertisement, they offered the public a
sketch of a serene Harbor Island petting with this
text :
Harbor Island ... it's one of the Coastal Bend's
great natural resources.
Around it flow the fresh seawaters which enter
our island chain to feed our entire bay system
from the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge at
Austwell to the lower reaches of Laguna Madre.
Its wetlands nurture our very existence, pro-
viding spawning beds for marine life and a
nesting ground and natural habitat for countless
species of birds. Along its sub-sea-level fringe
is Texas' only mangrove swamp. Its delicate
dunes have fashioned the contours of history.
There are some natural resources wMch must
be sacrificed to that human on-rush known as
progress.
This one must not be.
The unnecessary dredging of a deep-draft
superport on Harbor Island for the unloading
of crude oil from supertankers will deface the
island itself, pollute our bays, endanger our
commercial and sports fishing, and destroy
our recreational and tourist attractions.
The public hearing held last week before the
U.S. Corps of Engineers in Corpus Christi
made it abundantly clear that the people of the
Coastal Bend and those who share our concern
about the well-being of the Texas shoreline
want supertankers kept and unloaded where
supertankers belong—in the deep waters of
the gulf.
As one speaker pointed out, there is no last-
gasp need for an inland superport on Harbor
Island. To suggest that an inland superport is
the only answer is to ignore the economy and
efficiency of the offshore monobuoy unloading
system.
Yes, the people spoke—not simply from the
podium but by their presence. More than 700
persons attended the hearing. Nearly 6,000
others—enough to fill the Miller High School
auditorium almost six times—sent their ex-
pressions in opposition to the superport in
writing.
Harbor Island is a great natural resource—
but it is even more.
It is the key to maintaining and improving the
quality of life in the Coastal Bend.
It must not be sacrificed.
And it won't be.
The Harbor Island superport proposal has had
rough seas ever since the September 1973, public
hearing. In A'larch 1974, Bechtel, Inc., a consulting
engineering firm, put a $260 million price tag on the
project. That is far more than the original estimates
of less than $100 million. The $260 million cost,
Bechtel pointed out, is based on a start of construc-
tion within 13 months. A start, as of this writing, is
not insight.
Perhaps the most significant factor for environ-
mentalists is Bechtol's open reference to the project
as Phase 1. What are the other phases? Where does
the superport project lead? What is the full scope of
potential estuarine destruction? In view of the
Wallisville Dam litigation, these questions become
especially relevant.
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
591
Untimely oil spills in the South Texas bay system
related to the Mustang-San Jose inlet also have
drawn attention to the hazards posed by the project.
An oil spill closed the Port of Corpus Christi for
two days. Almost a week was required to clear the
channel of the 6,000-barrel spill. A smaller spill in
San Antonio Bay, near the nesting grounds of the
nearly-extinct whooping cranes, also attracted pub-
lic attention.
Exxon, one of the industrial giants advocating the
Harbor Island superport, came across its own tracks
with a national magazine advertisement headed:
"Offshore Oil Terminals. A safer, more economical
way to get millions of barrels of oil from ship to shore
to you."
An awareness of the value of Texas estuaries is
growing. The importance of the role of the public in
Texas estuary protection is undeniable. The blue-
prints have been drawn. The battle has been joined.
And, for the first time, a genuine appreciation of the
Texas coast seems near.
REFERENCES
McComb, David G. 1969. Houston: The Bayou City, Uni-
versity of Texas Press, Austin, Tex.
ABC Television News Special. May 29, 1972. Oceans: The
Silent Crisis.
Smith, James Noel. 1972. The Decline of Galveston Bay, The
Conservation Foundation, Washington D.C.
Smylie, Vernon and Eric. 1972. Texas in Fact, Texas News
Syndicate Press, Corpus Christi, Tex.
The Dallas Morning News. 1972-73 and 1974-75. The Texas
Almanac, Dallas, Tex.
Record of Public Meeting on Application of Nueces County
Navigation District No. 1 for a Department of the Army
Permit to Begin Development of a Multi-Purpose Deep-
Draft Inshore Port Near Port Aransas (Corpus Christi
Bay), Tex., U.S. Army Engineer District, Galveston, Tex.,
Volumes I and II, December, 1973.
Various news articles and advertisements published in The
Corpus Christi Caller-Times, Corpus Christi, Tex., 1972-74.
Published materials of the Coastal Bend Conservation Asso-
ciation, Corpus Christi, Tex.
-------
THE ROLE OF CITIZEN
ACTION GROUPS IN
PROTECTING AND RESTORING
WETLANDS IN CALIFORNIA
FRED S. FARR
Horan, Lloyd, Dennis & Farr
Carmel, California
ABSTRACT
The shocking; destruction by man of California's wetland and coastal resources has occurred for
more than a century, by competing uses for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational
purposes. More than 80 percent of California's 21 millioii people live within one-half hour's drive
of the coast. Pressures on resources in coastal areas is unbearable. This paper tells what citizen
action groups have done in attempting to reverse these trends.
INTRODUCTION
Citizen action efforts in wetland and coastline
protection in California, although of recent origin,
are illustrative of some of the most dramatic and
most productive results in the nation.
For more than a century following California's
admission to the Union in 1850, it was common and
accepted practice to misuse the c< astline and to
destroy the wetlands. Since 1900, 90 percent of the
fertile and productive marshes, lagoons and sloughs
in southern California have been diked, drained,
polluted, filled, or dredged to make wax for free-
ways, shopping centers, subdivisions, industries,
condominium:-), and marinas. Of the 381,000 acres
of coastal wetlands existing in all o! California 73
years ago, only 125,000 acres remain today.
Citizen action groups, tired of M itnessing the
slow but certain destruction of coastal shoreline
waters and wetland habitat, decided to call a halt
to such activities. Effective effort.^ of citizen groups
in California have sometimes been on the local level
and other times statewide. Th" methods used varied
considerably.
Hopefully, the California illustrations cited .vill
be beneficial to other citizen groups in the nation-
wide effort to save decreasing coaxal wetlandh from
further destruction.
CARMEL RIVER BEACH
AND UPLAND ARTICHOKE FIELDS
Saving threatened wetlands from destruction by
fund raising for public purchase presents problems
in that the amount of money needed is difficult to
raise during the time available before the destructive
action occurs, and should the purchase be successful
who is to administer the wetland?
The saving of the Carmel Hivcr Beach, lagoon,
and wildlife refuge from high density development
was done by separate but interdependent citizen
action groups--one concern<:{ iiseH primarily with
public education and fund raising, while the other
carried on the political action,
Shortlv after World War I! the C.'iunel River
Beach, with it-- unsurpassed view of Point Lobos,
\\as up for grabs. Adjac< nt to the beach was a
beautiful 27-aere lagoon, providing habitat fo- the
brown pelican, blue heron, and many other species,
some rare and endangered. Const ant filling. To in.iKo
room for new homes in a nearbv subdivision, ihrc-a.t-
ened the lagoon's very existcm e,
Determined to save this beach and wetland irorn
development, Carmel eitm us turned ii> 1950 to
their Point i ,obos League, a non-profit onraiiizsition,
whose purpose was to preserve natural, scenic and
recreations! areas for use and enjoyment by all of
the people. Alargaref Owirigs of th< Itague solicib'd
the aid ot her friend, Newton B. Drury, chief of
California's State Division of Beaches and Parks,
who said of this effort, "No scenic and recreational
resource in the United States is more .-.orcly in need
of pieservation."1 However, Drury, former director
of National Park Service, was hemless under Cali-
fornia law to purchase the Carmel River Beach and
lagoon without local matching funds With Dniry's
support, Francis Whitakei, ihv Point L.>ho-. L.'aa;u-x' •
i The Living Wildeineon—Sumer, 1P50, p. 17
-------
AK POLLUTION CONTROL
president ('who was also Cariwl's blacksmith;,
gathered artists, lawyers, doctors, journalists, retired
military, and conservationists to his Forge in the
Forest, where a campaign for vigorous fund jaising
\vu< launched and a goal of $25,000 set. The league's
effoits resulted in local artists donating 12-1 excel-
lent paintings. Auctions and other money raisers
produced $15,000 in donations to save the beach
and lagoon. Of this effort, a \ve'l known journalist
wro'e.
'.'( ."slr'juuoiiH have b»jen in (he bc:-,t I.TP' • TViition fi:'ili-
tion, fron. small donors These arc the peop't, from till
over the United States—as well as little Cannel—who
have known the sweeping curve of the beach with its
yellow-white .sand against the blue-green lagoon at the
Cannel River mouth under the wild S;intf, Lucia Moun-
Follo'ving the league's successful fund raising, the
first breakthrough came when the state was able to
acquire the 27-ajre lagoon for a wildlife refuge.
Pushed by the Point Lobos League Monterey
County rnarl< available 1 o the state ,12"),000 in
funds which It had earmarked for parks and beaches
elsewhere in the county. The people of Oarmol
h/iving dune their part, the state then proceeded in
i!-)o-t u, acquit an adjeccn' SO-acre beach and bluff,
thus '.'rf"jti'!n- the Carrnel Hivei Beach and Wildlife
To the i '>,st of che beach and wild lift refuge lies
the 292-aen Odello artichoke fields that straddle
.Highway i For 47 years the Odello family had
fanned these lands, but in 1071 tLe\" f< It (hat the
tini" had come to sf4l. J'rcposed was a $(iO million
development including ('44 dwelling umts, a (iOO-
I'ooni hotel and a 300-acrr spa to be If cat«'d next
r<> *h. vvildlifo rcf.me. Rescuing by the co inty would
he r>!|u>red t' make the project po.-Mble.
Worried about population increases, in that the
proposed development would house more people
than !iv«d in Carmcl, citizens again oiganizcd to
sj'Af iii'-ir ei vp'onmert Traffic congestion, smog,
tav hjnieiiS, damtige to the state beach and wildlife
refuge, and flooding of the Carm.pl River were all of
g'-ep! concern to the people. At first the controversy
w :s ivughr, solely on the political front. From the
b.'gianit'g there was widespread commurity fe^lin;.-,
that the Odello family should be allowed to develop
their lands n* had others bef(,.re them Also, strong
\vati ^upjyort fur purchase of ihe land for rublic ojjen
f'l'tice pr"-ervition. To mee^t the develoaer's chal-
itriige, two organizations were formed, Ilach acted
separately biit of ueci.'ssity depended upon one an-
, i.hoT- if the 1. rid wer" to be- faved. One organization
known as the Carni"! Area l,V.alitioa. together with
other conservation groups, carried on the necessary
political activity before the county planning com-
mission and board of supervisors. The other organi-
zation, 01AF ('Odello Land Acquisition Fund) was
an IRS to,x approved nonprofit corporation which
confined its activities to fund raising. The land-
owners and developer* were pushing for rapid ap-
proval of thfl plan and rezornng of the property. The
coaiitio:1 was strongly resis'ing' 'his effi.rl, thu.'
hoping to bii3" time while OLAF ".as pursuing the
herculean task -_>f i.tisirif the i-umey t(> purc}i:ise
the land from the disinterested landowner?) at a
then unkrujwn price. Once the land was rezoned,
the new inflated value caused by rezoning w(>uld
put the price out of reach for public acquisition.
From. February 1971 until the late spring of
1974 the battle to save the land continued. Pruden-
tial Life Insurance Company policy holders on the
Menterey Peninsula, and elsewhere were disturbed
that their company was 1he financial backer of the
plan. In May J971 the company withdrew financial
support and immediately thereafter the landowners
indicated an interest in selling the westerly half of
their property to OLAF, but only after rezoning
was approved.
By June 1971 OLA F, backed by a $50,000 pledge
from the city of Cannel. had raised $200,000 in cash
and pledges and was trying to interest the State of
California in acquiring the western half of the land
to protect the state river beach and wildlife refuge.
Tn July 19'"- the planning commission. :A a packed
meeting, voted 6-2 to approve the development and
m October, with growing support for public acquisi-
tion, ihe Monterey County Board of Supervisors
reversed the planning commission, in a 3-2 vote but,
without prejudice. meaning that the developers were
free to re-apply.
The efforts of the eooJ'tion and conservation orga-
nizations were gaining increased support locally and
throughout c'no state, ''nd OLAF's fund raising
efforts weic- truly amazing. Contribution?, flowed
in from as far away as Hong Kong, Venezuela, and
Washington, D.C. One social security recipient do-
nated, find urged others who could afford it to
contribute the small increase allowed in social secur-
ity benefits' An J 1-year-old boy on a stn et corner
collected $]()«"> in three hours time for OLAF. A
wealthy woman gave a $30,000 Pebbl^ Beach lot,
and u drugpii-l offered $.0-r> per bottle for the return
of used pill bottles, receiving 4,OHO pill bottles and
sending a check for $108. The city of Carmel's
pledge for $.riO.O{!0 was Lifer ii-creased J.o $100,000.
High soh'. u' svudei.t,- made door-to-doo71 cam-
paigns, and ao ecumenical church service on the
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
595
banks of the ('anuel River gained more support;
soon the- national and east coast media with NBC,
CBS, New York Times, National Observer, The
Washington Post, and Halifax Nova Scotia Herald,
as well as the National Geographic Magazine, all
became interest(H! in Cannel's trying to ^avo its
open space
The State of California appraised the westerly
loo acres of the land al $1,750,000, and the Odellos
agreed to accept this amount, but the state was
only willing to provide one-half the cost.
Responding to the efforts of the coalition and
OLAF, the county board of supervisors under the
leadership of Willard Branson, its chairman, tried
to form itself into a redevelopment agency to help
obtain the matching funds using lax increment
bonds. Complicated political arid legal problems
caused the redevelopment, idea to be abandoned.
Then local assemblyman Hob Wood won legislative
approval authorizing the purchase of the artichoke
fields as an adjunct to the Carinel River State
Beach. With the $100,000 pledge from the city of
Carmel and the $250,000 raised by OLAF, and
reduction by $100,000 in the landowners' selling
price, the state furnished the balance and the sale
was completed.
Thus, the westerly J55 acres of this land adjoin-
ing the wildlife refuse were forever preserved as a
part of California's Carmel River Beach State Park
and Wildlife Refuge, and "fforts are ^till continuing
to save the easterh one-half of the- Odello land for
open space.
Happily, the state leased the lands back to the
Odellos. and green artichokes interspersed with
yellow mustard, still dominai" the flatland nexl to
the Carmel River Beach, lagoon and wildlife refuge
across the bav from Point Lob"S.
UPPER NEWPORT BAY
A 55-year struggle to preservf one of the lasi
remaining wetlands in southern California culmi-
nated in a victory for conservationists when it was
announced in mid-November of 1974 that the State
Department of Fish and Game would supervise in
Upper Newport, Bay, Orange County, a 741-acre
ecological preserve, the largest in the state.
Upper Newport Bay is located 26 miles south ol
Los Angeles and more than 80 million people, or
one-half ot the population of California, live within
its MO-mile radius. The ?^/i mile long "Upper Bay,
with it's 1,000 acres of relatively undisturbed wet-
lands, provides a most important habitat for no less
than five slate and federaFy lecogmzed species of
endangered birds as well as important varieties or
iish and plant life.
The saving of this important land and \\ 'tter from
certain destruction of its natural resources is a lessor
in community mobilization, effective public educa-
tion, successful litigation, and determined citizen
followthrough.
Prior to 1901 all tideiands in rhe Newport Ba\
area were held in trust by the State ol Cali)ornia.
In 1901 the state, sold 273 acres of cideiands to
James Irvine, the predecessor of 1h* Irvine Com-
pany which is today the largest landowner in south-
ern California. In J919 the state granted to Orange
County, in trust, other tidal and submerged lands
for the development of a harbor in the Upper Bay.
As the result of litigation in 1926 between Orangr
County and the Irvine Company, Irvine was ad-
judged to be the owner of the lands above mean
high tide, including three small islands whose owner-
ship by Irvine blocked effective use, of the bay for
Orange County's proposed harbor development. In
addition, precipitous bluffs owned by Irvine sur-
rounded much of the bay, thus making access to
the water difficult. Irvine wanted to develop its
upland properties and obtain access to the bay, and
Orange County desired to develop the harbor under
its tideiands' grant. Consequently, a plan was
evolved under which a land exchange would bo
made. It would permit Orangv. County to develop
the harbor, a marine stadium, and certain parks
in return for Irvine's owning and developing ii>e
contiguous lands for low and medium density hous-
ing and for aquatic commercial uses. The proposed
land swap was approved by the 1957 legislature.
subject to approval of the State Lands Commission.
In J966 the State Lands Commission withheld its
apoioval on the grounds that the project would
create commercial areas completely privately u-: •
trolled and add to the preponderant private .•iumma-
tion of the bay. The following v->ar, however, urvle,
a new administration in Sacramento the La nils Com-
mission reversed itself and approved the ei change -
Following such approval, a group known a.-, the
I'Yier.ds of Upper NewpoH Bay wa* organized, ft
feared the exchange would result in both los-i of
shoreline to the public as well as Ir.ss of imperuint
wildiife habitat.
The Friends faced an uphill struggle in that t] c
harbor district, the board of supervisors-, ^ he State
Lands Commission and the state legisbitm-' had a1!
given the necessary approval All that 'ipp; ire/ :•>
remain for final clearance was c-,)urr sanction '-f 'he
land exchange and a dredging and fi'.hi.r," cgm nieni.
This would be accomplished by a so-.'.allt Su,,< aor
-------
r>96
ESTUARINK POLLUTION COM'ROL
Court. What was to be a uoncontroversial matter
became a hotly contested adversary proceeding cul-
minating in a significant appellate court decision of
major importance in tideland litigation, and a splen-
did victory for Friends of Upper Newport Bay.
Joining the Friends of Upper Newport Bay in
1969 was an organization known as Change County
Foundation for Preservation of Pubdc Property.
The foundation assisted in the appeal of the trial
court's judgment approving the land exchange. Due
to the vehement opposition of the Friends of Upper
Newport Bay, several most important events took
place between the filing of the action and the trial
court's decision. The Orange County Grand Jury
had passed a resolution questioning the advisability
of the exchange and the board of supervisors under-
went a change of membership. The new board ex-
pressed a desire to rescind the exchange agreement
as not being in the public interest and filed an
appeal of the decision approving the exchange. Six
citizens intervened in the county's appeal, contend-
ing that the exchange would result in Irvine's owning
almost seven miles of prime waterfront along newly
created harbor lines while providing only three miles
or less of marginal waterfront property for the
public. They were assisted by attorney Phillip S.
Berry, former Sierra Club president, and Herman F.
Selvin, former president of the state bar, represented
Orange County in the appeal.
In February 197-H tlu; court of appeal reversed
the trial court's approval of the exchange after care-
fully review ing California, s tidelands trust. The court
included in its grounds for reversal ihe fact that
". . . Orange County presently owned and controlled
(he entire shoreline of the bay area and that as a
result of the exchange, it would be relinquishing
two-thirds of that shoreline to be conveyed into
private ownership."3
This decision was the turning point in the deter-
mined struggle to save Upper Newport Bay. Irvine
as a result of the decision agreed to negotiate the
sale of it-j wetlands long Bought by conservation
groups for a wildlife refuge. Banked by Friends of
Upper Newport Bay and many other Orange County
citizens, the State Department of Fish and Game
negotiated the sale of 527 potentially highly develop-
able acres from Irvine to the state for $3.48 million.
Two hundred seventeen acres of tidelands held by
Oni.nge County were tben added to complete the
744-acre wetlands preserve.
Credit for preserving what is toda.y California's
largest wetland ecological reserve goes primarily to
the 100 ded'caled citizen members of the Friends
of L'pptr Newport, Bay who gave directly of their
time, talent, and money. Not only did they carry
on an extensive campaign in educating public offi-
cials at the local, county, state and federal levels,
but they also conducted public tours of Upper New-
port Bay for some 1.5,000 people in addition to
special tours for approximately 10.000 students.
Working with the Orange County Foundation for
Preservation of Public Property, the Friends were
able to raise $80,000 for legal expenses to assist in
the appeal. In addition, the Sierra Club and the
citizen intervenors in the lawsuit played important
roles in helping save Upper Newport Bay.
While the Upper Bay's major hurdle, that of
public ownership, is resolved, there are still prob-
lems in achieving full utilization and restoration of
the bay for wildlife preservation and for public en-
joyment. The waters of the Upper Bay are threat-
ened by storm drainage runoff from the massive
adjacent urban population. Federal assistance to
California and the Orange County communities
encompassing the bay would help immeasurably to
prevent such drainage pollution. It is also essential
to protect the bluff iand surrounding the Upper
Bay from destructive development. To complete
the task of protecting Upper Newport Bay, the
citizen groups will continue to work until their goal
is finally accomplished.
ELKHORN SLOUGH
One of the largest, most important wetlands re-
maining ;n California was saved from a major oil
refinery being located near its shores—not on the
issue of saving the wetland, but rather by citizen
action groups interested in clean air.
Elkhorn Slough at Moss Landing in Monterey
County, the second largest salt marsh in California,
lies about 100 miles south of San Francisco on the
edge of the Monterey Bay. During the bird migra-
tion in the fall and early spring, its 7-milc slough
and ],430-acre Salicornia Marsh attract over 90
species of birds, some rare and endangered, in addi-
tion to a variety of fish, clams, oysters and barnacles.
The biggest threat to Elkhorn Slough came in
1965 when Humble Oil, then the nation's largest
marketer of petrol cum products, announced plans
to construct a $70 million refinery at Moss Landing.
Humble Oil, backed by the Salinas Chamber of
Commerce, the Moss Landing Harbor District, and
the Salinas Californian, one of the two daily news-
papers in the county, proclaimed that Monterey
County needed Humble Oil's refinery to provide a
permanent labor force of 250-300 employees, plus
1,500 to 2,000 construction jobs and $1,300,000 in
new tax revenues for the county. The proposed
-------
THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
597
450-acre refinery site was already zoned for heavy
industry, with both Kaiser's Dolomite Processing
Plant and P.G.&E.'s power plant operating in the
area. All that was needed by Humble was a use
permit from the county planning commission.
While early in 1965 the county's air pollution
control advisory committee recommended the grant-
ing of the permit contingent upon meeting all air
pollution standards imposed by the county, some
30 miles across the bay downwind from the Humble
site, residents of the Monterey Peninsula doubted
that a clean, odorless, non-smog producing plant
could be built. Prevailing afternoon winds blow from
the ocean in the summer months down the long,
green Salinas Valley, and there were those who
feared that such winds would carry damaging smog
into fertile agricultural lands.
To meet the Humble challenge, there was formed
on the Monterey Peninsula the Committee on Clean
Air. Its president, Charles Kramer of Pebble Beach,
a retired business executive, met with the board
chairman of Humble Oil, who insisted that there
was no air inversion in Monterey County and no
danger of smog. Finding talks with Humble Oil
officials to be fruitless, Kramer's committee encour-
aged the formation of a multi-county air pollution
control district, and between March and July of
1965, 13,000 residents signed a petition against the
proposed refinery. Public opinion was mounting on
the Monterey Peninsula against the refinery and
other petrochemical industries that might follow.
The Monterey Peninsula Herald and its owner,
Col. Allan Griffin, were strongly against Humble.
This effort was joined by the Sierra Club, Audubon
Society, the growers, American Association of Uni-
versity Women, League of Women Voters, and
Salinas doctors' wives. Equally strong public opinion
and support for Humble's plant were developing
among business, labor, and Chamber of Commerce
groups in Salinas, the county seat of Monterey
County.
The nine member county planning commission's
first meeting on the use permit was held early in
1965 and then continued until May. The chief ques-
tions it faced were:
1. Could a clean smog-proof refinery be built, and
2. Would there be an influx of associated petro-
chemical industries once the refinery was approved?
While air pollution consultants urged that an air
pollution control district be immediately formed to
enforce a strong clean air ordinance, Humble's attor-
ney advised the planning commission that an oil
refinerv was "one of the most desirable industries
that we can attract." A water expert from Humble
added that there would be no oil spills from either
crude oil or refined products being transported by
tankers and barges or being unloaded through sub-
merged marine pipelines. This was before Torrey
Canyon.
On July 28, 1965, after a 4-hour hearing ended at
midnight, the Monterey County Planning Commis-
sion by a 5-4 vote recommended against granting
the use permit to Humble Oil. The swing vote was
cast by Peter Cailloto, a local hardware merchant,
whose business could be jeopardized by his decision,
because of the strong support in Salinas for the
plant. He nevertheless stated he was worried about
air pollution and its damage to agriculture. "One
fact is obvious," he said, "you can smell odors from
a refinery."
The planning commission's decision was an upset
victory for the refinery's opponents; the final deci-
sion, however, would be on the appeal to the board
of supervisors. As the controversy progressed, Hum-
ble inserted large advertisements in the newspapers,
urging people to ask their county supervisor to sup-
port the refinery.
To counteract Humble's campaign, Dr. Philip A.
Leighton of Stanford University, one of the top air
pollution experts in the country, pointed out in a
series of articles in The Monterey Peninsula Herald
how air pollution in other parts of California com-
menced with reduction of air visibility, followed by
plant damage and then by eye irritation. In Monte-
rey County he found that pollution was already at
the plant damage threshold and he was particularly
concerned with the location of the proposed refinery
adjacent to the largest steam generating plant in
the nation. When the P.G.&E. plant's expansion
was completed, it would produce 2.1 million kilo-
watts, whose capacity would almost equal the 2.2
million kilowatts of all power plants in Los Angeles
County which, when burning both crude oil and
natural gas, emitted an average of 150 tons of nitro-
gen oxides daily. The availability of inexpensive
crude oil at the refinery for the steam plant also
concerned these experts who summarized their posi-
tion with these words: "The question of preserving
the priceless heritage of clean air versus the broad-
ened tax base and jobs provided by industrialization
has been faced by many other communities and
resolved in favor of industrialization. These com-
munities are now paying the price in terms of smog."4
The county supervisors before making their deci-
sion visited Anacortes, Wash., to witness first hand
the operation of two refineries in that area.
< The Monterey Peninsula Herald, August 25, 19f>5, Air Pollution Expert
tella of Refinery Peril, Dr. Philip A. Leighton.
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598
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Finally, on September 3, 1965, D-Day arrived at
the county board of supervisors where the hearing
was conducted under the able leadership of its chair-
man, Tom Hudson, who, while personally against
the project, was fair to all who spoke. After 13 hours
of hearing and debates (the hardest fought in the
history of the county), the 3-2 decision was finally
reached at 3 a.m. to overrule the planning commis-
sion and grant the permit for the refinery.
While a broadened tax base and new jobs won
out over clean air, the residents of the Montery
Peninsula would not give up; they ware fighting
mad at the supervisors' decision and they immedi-
ately circulated a referendum petition to place the
questions on the ballot, and within 21 days, 12,572
signatures were gathered. The referendum petition
presented to the board of supervisors was rejected
by the county counsel stating that the vote was an
administrative rather than a legislative act and thus
not subject to a referendum. To add a further road-
block, the county clerk would not proceed to verify
the signatures on the petitions until instructed to
do so by the county counsel. The matter went to
court and a judge had to be brought in to hear the
case after all Monterey County judges disqualified
themselves.
On February 8, 1966, almost one year after
Humble had announced its original plans to build
the refinery, the court sustained the county counsel's
decision. Still undaunted, a new avenue of approach
was started to prevent construction of the refinery.
The new tack was to obtain proxies and to carry
the issue to the stockholders' meeting of Standard
Oil of New Jersey, parent company of Humble Oil.
Humble Oil and Standard Oil of New Jersey re-
ceived numerous letters with credit cards enclosed
reminding the oil companies that the card holders
did not want to patronize those who would inflict
an oil refinery on Monterey Bay.
At last, sensing the severity of purpose, the unity
and determination of Monterey County's clean air
proponents, Humble began to quietly look elsewhere.
On June 11, 1966 it announced receiving a favorable
rezoning permit to enable it to locate its refinery
near Rodeo on Suisun Bay. On May 17, 1966,
Humble Oil finally announced abandonment of its
proposed plant at Moss La.nding on ElkJiorn Slough
in favor of a site at Benecia on Suisun Bay near
other established Northern California oil refineries.
Thus ended the historic battle to save clean air
which started on February 15, 1965 and ended on
May 17, 1966, and resulted in saving one of the
great salt marshes from almost certain death. Hum-
ble's clean air problems followed it to Benecia.
The only new industry located on Elkhorn Slough
since Humble's departure is a highly successful
mariculture plant whose activities are compatible
with the preservation of the wetland. Upland de-
velopment and the possibility of new heavy indus-
tries continue to be a threat to Elkhorn Slough;
however, Nature Conservancy has acquired some
500 acres within the salt marsh, and Moss Landing
ranks among the 10 top priority wetlands for public
acquisition in the report entitled, "Acquisition Pri-
orities for the Coastal Wetland of California."6
SAN FRANCISCO BAY
The saving of San Francisco Bay, the most im-
portant natural harbor on the Pacific Coast, is an
outstanding example of effective citizen education
and adroit political action which resulted in legisla-
tion creating a permanent effective regional agency
that preserves, protects, and provides for limited
but wise development of the bay in the public
interest.
When California was admitted to the Union in
1850, the bay's water surface consisted of 680 square
miles. 100 years later, 200 square miles of this water
surface was lost by man's activities in diking, filling,
reclaiming, and polluting the bay. In addition, 17
square miles of tidal and submerged land had been
filled along the waterfronts of bay area cities.
In 1850, 5,000 sea otter pelts were taken in San
Francisco Bay. Today, no sea otters are found in
the bay. While in 1900, the bay oyster harvest was
10 to 15 million pounds, there is no oyster harvest
today. The once prominent San Francisco Bay
shrimp industry is practically non-existent and there
has been a loss of 1.8 million winter nesting water
fowl. The various cities around the bay, by 1950,
were slowly but surely looking to the San Francisco
Bay as a thing to fill for expanded residential, com-
mercial, and industrial development.
Particularly alarmed about this situation in 1959
was Mrs. Clark Kerr whose husband was then
president of the University of California. She was
accustomed to meeting at the San Francisco Airport
distinguished visitors whom she would drive across
the bay to the University of California at Berkeley.
Frequently, they commented about the beauty and
marvel of the bay, and Mrs. Kerr, while appreciat-
ing her visitors' remarks, was also aware not only
of the plans of her own city of Berkeley to fill 2,000
acres of the bay, but the plans of other cities to
expand into the bay. Mrs. Kerr, disturbed about
this damage to a great resource, called a meeting of
6 Cooperative Report, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife—California
Department of Fish and Game, April 1974.
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
599
university women, a retired Harvard economics pro-
fessor, and a few conservationists concerned about
the future of the bay. This was the start in 1959 of
the save the San Francisco Bay effort.
The save-the-bay people's first success was dis-
suading the Berkeley City Council from filling in
its wetlands. They then turned their eyes on the
rest of the bay. At Mrs. Kcrr's urging, the Univer-
sity of California's Institute of Governmental Affairs
studied and published, under the able leadership of
Mell Scott, "The Future of the San Francisco Bay,"6
a comprehensive report showing how the bay's great
resources were being destroyed.
How to stop the filling was a difficult regional
problem in that the bay's shoreline involved the
jurisdiction of nine counties and 32 cities, many
having plans to extend their cities beyond their
waterfronts. Also included in plans for bay filling
were some of the most formidable financial giants
of the west. One plan in San Mateo County alone
called for an investment of $3 billion, which encom-
passed bulldozing down of the San Bruno Moun-
tains near the San Francisco Airport to create more
flatland for bay development.
There being no existing effective regional body
to deal with the problem of bay fill, the save-the-
bay group looked to their legislators at the state
capitol for aid. Failing to obtain legislative assistance
in 1963, they tried again in 1964, this time enlisting
the support of Senator Eugene McAteer of San
Francisco, a shrewd, tough, and able legislator.
AfcAteer, knowing that he did not yet have suffi-
cient support to control filling of the bay, was never-
theless able to get enacted temporary legislation
creating a nine man study commission with a
$75,000 appropriation whose purpose was to "define
the public interest in the San Francisco Bay—to
determine the effects of further filling upon naviga-
tion, fish, wildlife, and water pollution," and to
report and to recommend legislation in 1965 to pro-
tect the public interest in the bay. To the 1965
legislature the study commission recommended that
a San Francisco Bay conservation and development
commission be established whose duty would be to
formulate a comprehensive and enforceable plan to
preserve the bay and protect it from piecemeal filling
while the plan was being completed.
Coordinated planning for the future preserva-
tion, growth, and development of the entire bay
area was important in 1965 and there was a need
to impose a moratorium on further filling of the
bay. Each of these issues would present formidable
and perhaps insurmountable political opposition in
6 Published by University of California Institute of Governmental
Studies, October 1963.
the legislature. Senator McAteer wisely chose to
make the agency's goal single purpose, confined
only to the bay itself, and he skirted the question
of a moratorium on all filling in the bay by provid-
ing power to regulate filling through a permit system.
His 1965 legislation was carefully drafted so that it
could not be hamstrung by opposing lobbyists.
The save-the-bay group working very hard to
muster support in Sacramento was assisted by a
popular San Francisco disc jockey who plugged
"Save the Bay" daily on his 6 to 9 a.m. show, even
calling the governor out of bed to give his comments
on the bay! Small sackfuls of sand arrived in legisla-
tors' offices with the message, "You'll wonder where
the water went if you fill the bay with sediment."
Bus loads of people attended all of the committee
hearings and, after an extremely hard fought battle,
the bill known as the McAteer—Petris Act was
passed and became law in June 1965, providing for
developing a long range plan for the San Francisco
Bay to be prepared by the new bay conservation
and development commission. Its members were
both elected and appointed, many of them being
representatives of governmental agencies—federal,
state, county, and city. During the planning stage,
anyone wishing to fill or remove materials from
the bay was required to obtain a permit from the
commission.
In January 1969 the plan, consisting of a set of
policies for the future of the bay, was finished and
submitted to the legislature. Once again, a major
battle ensued, but this time without the leadership
of Senator McAteer, who had died. The developers
and owners of bay lands regarded the 1969 session
of the legislature the last and final chance to fore-
stall regulations that would prevent them from
carrying out their development plans for the bay.
Likewise, the backers of the bill were most cognizant
that its passage would be the final legislative step
in providing the guidelines and governmental orga-
nization necessary to save the bay. Consequently,
both sides worked long and hard in the legislative
halls of Sacramento.
After a fierce legislative struggle, followed by a
change of leadership in the state senate, people be-
came aroused and a petition three miles long con-
taining over 250,000 signatures was presented to
the governor demanding that the bay be saved.
Finally, legislation was approved making the com-
mission a permanent body. The law, when signed
by Governor Reagan established the San Francisco
Bay Conservation and Development Commission
(BCDC) giving it regulatory powers over all filling
and dredging in the bay, limited jurisdiction over
substantial development within a 100-foot strip
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600
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
inland from the bay, and limited jurisdiction over
proposed filling of salt ponds and managed wetlands.
(The Bay Conservation and Development Com-
mission's activities, experience, and personnel laid
the foundation for Proposition 20, the Coastal Zone
Conservation Act of 1972.)
Of the gallant struggle started by the University
woman in Berkeley in 1959, Russell Train, chairman
of the Council on Environmental Quality stated:
Concerned citizens demonstrated a vigor of purpose and
a tenacity that outlasted setbacks, and persisted year
after year and session after session until the legislature
responded. It is as though, having come to the end of a
long Westward journey of conquering the land, Cali-
fornia contemplated the bay and decided to let it live.7
PROPOSITION 20
The November 1972 election in California marked
the passage of Proposition 20, California's Coastline
Protection Initiative. For more than a century there
have been increasing demands and competing pres-
sures for commercial, industrial, residential and
recreational uses of the natural resources along Cali-
fornia's 1,072-mile shoreline. Committees of the
legislature as well as numerous coastal study com-
missions for 25 years had repeatedly pointed out
the inability of local government to respond to the
regional and statewide needs to protect California's
magnificent and divergent coastal resources.
Conservation groups having been unable in 1970
and 1971 to obtain coastline protection in Sacra-
mento made a herculean effort in 1972 but could
not overcome the strength of major lobbying forces
in Sacramento. Not to be outdone. California's
Coastal Alliance, whose membership induced over
100 civic, conservation, sports, business, and some
labor organizations, used California'? direct initi-
ative and obtained 500,000 signatures to qualify
the Coastal Protection measure for the November
ballot. The Alliance under the able leadership of its
president, Janet Adams of San Mateo, was able to
get the initiative passed by a 55 percent statewide
vote. The people of California through Proposition
20 said:
The permanent protection of the remaining natural and
scenic resources of the coastal zone is a paramount con-
cern to present and future residents of the state and
nation; and
It is the policy of the state to preserve, protect, and
where possible, to restore the resources! of the coastal
zone for the enjoyment of the current and succeeding
generations.8
7 The Saving of the San Francisco Bay, by Rice C'dell, published by
Conservation Foundation—Foreword by Russell Train, p. VIII.
8 Section 27001 California Public Resources Code
Proposition 20 did not provide a permanent solu-
tion to the coast's problems. What it did do was
establish temporary commissions to plan for the
future and to temporarily control development by
requiring that Coastal Commissions:
1. Prepare a plan for the future of the California
coast to be submitted to the legislature before Janu-
ary 1, 1976.
2. Control all development within the state's
coastal waters and on land within 1,000 yards of
the coast to insure that unwise development does
not make the coastal plan useless before it can be
completed.
Proposition 20 created one state and six regional
commissions which cease to function after Decem-
ber 31, 1976 unless continued by the legislature.
The sta,te commission's able chairman is Melvin B.
Lane, who served with distinction as chairman of
BCDC. Lane brought with him from BCDC its
articulate and experienced executive director, Joseph
Bodovitz, who serves as an executive director of the
state commission. Also BCDC's former chief planner,
Jack Shoup, heads up the planning effort of the
state coastal commission.
Public input and citizen participation are most
noticeable in both the planning and permit proce-
dures of the coastal commissions.
In developing each of the elements of the prelim-
inary plan extensive public hearings were held by
each regional commission as well as by the state
commission.
Nine elements of the coastal plan are:
Marine environment
Coastal land environment
Geology of the coastal zone
Appearance and design
Recreation
Energy
Transportation
Intensity of Development
Government organization, powers and funding
necessary to carry out the coastal plan.
Of particular interest to protectors of estuaries is
that section of the plan dealing with coastal waters,
estuaries, and wetlands under the marine element:
"All remaining coastal estuaries, wetlands and other
buffer areas necessary to protect wetlands and their
wildlife and bird habitat values shall be preserved,
enhanced, and, when possible, restored."9
• Preliminary Coastal Plan, p. 39 (Hearing California Coastal Zone
Conservation Commissions).
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
601
To carry out this objective, the plan proposes that
before any alteration of wetlands is permitted an
overall plan of the wetland must be prepared and
approved by the state commission. New develop-
ments in wetlands would be only permitted after
there is demonstrated a statewide need and no
feasible alternative. The plan also calls for control
of development in upland areas adjacent to estuaries
so as to prevent adverse impact on estuarine values.
The preliminary coastal plan has been widely
distributed throughout the state. In the history of
California, no other plan proposed to be submitted
to the legislature for consideration and approval
has had as much public input and review as the
preliminary coastal plan. Public hearings conducted
throughout the state encourage citizen participation
and input. Many of the meetings have been held at
night to enable working people to participate. Indi-
viduals and organizations have provided a vast
amount of letters, statements, and position papers
regarding the plan. As a result of such public input,
the preliminary plan will be revised and improved
before presentation to the legislature.
Hearings on permit applications for developments
have also provided much opportunity for individ-
uals and organizations to participate and present
their views to the regional commissions and to the
state commission on the appeals, and at each meet-
ing of the state as well as the regional commissions
15 minutes time is set aside to permit any citizen
or organization to address the coastal commission
on any matter other than specific matters that may
be pending before that commission.
The public input at the preliminary coastal plan
hearings proved to be enlightening for the individ-
uals and groups who appeared as well as for the
commissioners listening to the public comment.
Commissioners were berated as being "socialists,"
"communists," and "dictators", as well as saviors
of the coasts, estuaries, plankton, coastal bluffs, and
the ocean. The public learned that the coastal plan
was a sincere and reasonable effort to save the coast
and not, as some critics commented, "a land grab
by a starry-eyed group of self-perpetuating bureau-
crats." The commissions learned that the plan as
presented was perhaps too bulky, was not fully
understood by many citizens, and was not likely
in its preliminary form to be understood or appreci-
ated by the legislature.
The revised plan was to be presented to the legis-
lature before January 1, 1976. With more than 80
percent of California's population living within a
30-minute drive, the coast needs legal protection.
Hopefully, an intelligent support group of informed
citizens of California, having lived through and par-
ticipated fully in the growing pains of the coastal
commission will unite to give California the kind of
legislation needed. Failure to enact meaningful
coastal legislation will result in a return to the
wasteful, piecemeal, sprawling development that
has overrun many parts of the California coast,
congesting coastal streets, walling off coastal vistas,
filling bays and estuaries, and denying public access
to the coastline.
The decision of the California legislature will be
anxiously awaited by users of coastal resources
throughout our nation.
WETLANDS AND THE COURTS
The judiciary in California, as elsewhere in the
nation, has played a most significant role in inter-
preting and enforcing environmental legislation.
Citizen groups have contributed much in bringing
the issues to the attention of the courts and in
helping to finance environmental litigation.
The tidelands and wetlands of California have
for years been subject to considerable litigation.
Title to the tidelands was acquired by the state
upon its admission to the Union in 1850. By legisla-
tive enactment in 1868 and subsequent amendments
the state's tidelands were impressed with a public
trust for navigation, commerce, and fisheries. Tide-
lands embraced in the California statutes have been
interpreted by the courts to: ". . . extend from the
Oregon line to Mexico and include the shores of
bays and navigable streams as far up as tide water
goes and until it meets the lands made swampy by
the overflow of freshwater streams."10
Among the significant opinions concerning tide-
lands in which citizen groups played a vital role
was the case of Marks v. Whitney11 decided by the
California Supreme Court in 1971. This was an
action to quiet title by the plaintiff Marks who
owned lands on Tomales Bay, lying between the
mean low and mean high tide, a portion of which
were in front of defendant Whitney's property
facing the bay. Marks sought a declaration from
the court that he had a right to fill and develop
the tidelands.
The lower court held that defendant Whitney did
not have standing to raise the issue that such tide-
lands were subject to the public trust. The court
found that Whitney had an easement to use a wharf
across the tidelands property of Marks' subject to
Marks' right to fill and develop the tidelands.
Actively participating in the appeal of the trial
1° People v. California Fish Co. 166 Gal. 576 at p. 591
11 6 C3d. 251
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602
ESTTJARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
court's decision was the Sierra Club on behalf of
its 60,000 members, who asked the court to declare
the tidelands of Marks' to be subject to the public
trust and to find that Whitney had standing to
raise the issue. The Sierra Club also asked the court
to determine the extent and scope of public ease-
ments in navigable waters over tidelands.
The appellate court took judicial notice that
Whitney's lands lying between the lines of mean
high and low tide were tidelands and were, there-
fore, impressed with the public trust. This court
pointed out that the public trust in tidelands for
navigation, commerce and fisheries has been held
to include the right to fish, bathe, hunt, swim, and
use for boating and general recreational purposes. Of
particular interest to protectors of wetland is this
language:
There is a growing public recognition that one of the
most important public uses of the tidelands—a use
encompassed within the tideland trust—^s the preserva-
tion of those lands in their natural state, so they may
serve as ecological units for scientific study, as open space
and as environments which provide food and habitat
for birds and marine life, and which favorably affect the
scenery and climate of the area.12
It also found that Whitney did have standing to
sue in that the relief sought by Marks in filling and
developing the tidelands would take away Whitney's
rights, to which he was entitled as a member of the
general public.
A bombshell in environmental law in California
is the now famous Friends of Mamouth v. Board
of Supervisors13 involving the construction of a ski
lodge in Mono County. The statewide impact of the
California Supreme Court's decision is of major
concern to wetlrmd protectors as well as to all
environmentalists.
Here the developer litid obtained £. conditional
use permit for the construction of two multi-storied
condominiums v, ithout there having been issued an
environmental impact report under California's 1970
Environmental Quality Act (CEQA).14 The Friends
of Mamoufh, a citizen action group, contended that
CEQA applied to private as well as public proj-
ects. The Xutional Environmental Protection Act
(NEPA)16 upon which the California Act was
modeled applies to public, not private orojects.
The California Supreme Court held that state and
local governmental agencies must file an environ-
mental impact report for all projects both public
and private which require a governmental permit,
lease, or other entitlement for use if such activities
may have a significant effect on the environment.
Proposed developments in wetlands having a signifi-
cant effect on the environment are governed by
CEQA. Developments on the San Francisco Bay,
however, are subject to BCDC (The San Francisco
Bay Conservation and Development Commission)
and the Coastal Zone Conservation Act16 governs
developments lying within 3,000 feet inland from
the mean high tide.
In Lane v. City of Redondo Beach17 aggrieved
citizens established that a court may grant declara-
tory relief to protect the public's right of access to
tidelands and navigable waters.
The city of Redondo Beach had passed an ordi-
nance permitting the closing off of certain city
streets. The redevelopment agency under its re-
development plan had sold off the land on which
the streets were located and structures on the land
had been completed. The plaintiffs contended that
such action denied easy access to the beach for
lower income citizens, children, and senior citizens
in violation of their right under the California con-
stitution18 and the government code19 guaranteeing
free a.nd unobstructed access to navigable waters
from public streets and highways of a city.
The city countered that it had the right to pass
the ordinance closing the streets and unless there
was abuse of discretion, fraud, or an ultra vires act
the plaintiffs could not attack the city's action.
Not so, said the appellate court, adding that a
municipality may close off a public street but it
does not have the right to close off public access to
tidelands or navigable waters.
The basic purpose of entrusting tidelands to municipali-
ties in trust, is to insure the right of free public access
to tidelands or navigable waters. (Calif. Const. Art. XV,
Sec. 2 & 3) The object of the trust is destroyed if a
municipality . . . can deprive the public of its right of
access to tidelands or navigable waters.20
Three young men from San Francisco's Lowell
High School, disturbed about a development over-
looking Lake Merced south of Golden Gate Park,
decided to try and stop the project which they felt
would cause damage to the lake. Without finances
or experience they nevertheless won a $100,000
settlement which was put into a trust fund for
coastal environmental protection.
In 1971, for an Eagle Scout project, a 17-year-old
boy, Allan Riley, produced a film and report on
" Marks v. Whitney, 6 Cal. 3d 251 at p. 259
» 8 Cal. 3d 247
14 Sec. 2100-21165—California Public Resources Code
" 42 USC 4321
" Sec. 2700-27650—California Public Resources Code
« Court of Appeal, Second Appellate District 2nd Civ. No. 45249.
18 California Constitution, Article XV, Section 2.
19 California Government Code, Sec. 39933.
20 Lane v. City of Redondo Beach, ibid.
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THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
603
Lake Merced. He wanted to .clean up and preserve
the lake and was concerned about a large condo-
minium development under construction on the
lake's edge. While Allan was checking various agen-
cies and being brushed off as some kind of "an
ecology nut," Proposition 20, California's Coastal
Protection Act. became law. He found that the
Act provided that if a body of water, not subject to
tidal action lies within 3,000 feet inland from the
coastline, (i.e., within the coastal zone permit area),
the body of water together with a strip 1,000 feet
around it shall also be included. He contended that
a coastal commission permit was required for such
development and one had not been obtained, so he
went to court and won a preliminary injunction
forcing the developer to seek a permit. For one and
a half years Allan carried on the fight alone until
he went off to college; then he enlisted two of his
former Lowell High School friends, Jonathan Holt
and George Duesdieker, to carry on. These young
men worked very hard, and for a month never went
to bed before 3 a.m. in their diligent efforts to
gather all essential facts in preparation for the hear-
ing before the regional coastal commission.
Disappointed that the regional commission granted
the permit to the developer, they nevertheless pur-
sued the matter, taking an appeal to the state
coastal commission, basing their appeal on inade-
quate sewage disposal, damage to bird habitat in
the lake, traffic density, and earthquake hazard.
The state commission, by a vote of 11-1, denied
their appeal in 1973, but the youths would not give
up. They interested a San Francisco attorney,
Margaret Halloran, in their cause. Struck by their
enthusiasm, she represented them in suing both the
developer and the coastal commission, challenging
the commission's procedures in granting the permit.
San Francisco Superior Court Judge Ira Brown
issued an injunction stopping the project on Octo-
ber 1, 1973, and then took the matter under sub-
mission for 8 months. On June 5, 1974, he informed
the parties that he was intending to invalidate the
permit and order the case back to the commission.
The delay was costing the developers vast sums of
money in interest rates alone, so the developer
settled in cash for $100,000 with no strings attached.
The youths could have kept the money but they
preferred to see it go into a trust fund to help en-
vironmental causes. Attorney Halloran stated that,
without the tremendous research and the fact-
gathering by the youths, the case would not have
been won. These Lowell High School students proved
how effective youth can be in pursuing their legal
remedies to a conclusion. They paved the way for
others by setting aside their winnings in an environ-
mental trust fund.
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LEGAL
ASPECTS
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LAND USE CONTROLS
AND WATER QUALITY
IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
MARC J. HERSHMAN
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
ABSTRACT
A complex institutional problem has arisen in the management of estuarine resources due to
overlapping and contradictory regulatory programs at the federal, state, and local levels. A
contributing factor to this problem is the split between regional and community-focused resource
management involving state and local land use planning, and specific resource management
programs involving federal controls over air and water, and federal review of major construction
projects affecting the environment. Noting that state and local government initiatives in control
of lands adjacent- to estuaries are increasing, and that the federal Coastal Zone Management Act
of 1972 was designed to bridge the fields of regional and community-focused management and
federal resource management both technically and institutionally, the paper concludes
that state-level coastal zone management efforts should be upgraded. Further, coordination
requirements included in many federal laws should be given more study and financial support
to make them effective.
INTRODUCTION
Most water quality issues have a land use com-
ponent to them. Site selection for an industrial plant,
modification of the land-water interface (the angle
and shape of the land being "washed" by the water),
and the land use activities affecting water runoff and
drainage all affect the quality of the receiving water.
The impact of land use on water quality is reviewed
by an array of institutions developed in the United
States over many years. This paper argues that our
key problem in dealing with estuarine resources is an
institutional rather than a technical one. The technical
issues of environmental impact assessment, judicial
clarity of private property rights, and others are
important, but the primary question is: Who's in
charge? This institutional problem arises from num-
erous conflicting federal and state laws, a federalism
system where power is split between states and the
federal government, and the current changing role of
state and local governments in resource management
activities.
For the estuarine zone, the institutional problem
arises because of two different factors:
1) Legally apportioned responsibilities among
levels of government are based on geographic land-
water interactions; and
2) Specific resource management (air and water
quality, physical facility development) tends to be
considered separately from community-focused re-
source planning and management.
There are three types of land-water interaction in
the estuarine zone, each of which has different sets
of institutions for resolving disputes. The first relates
to water drainage, water capture, or rights to water
use. Private law has developed to accommodate
rights of adjoining neighbors in the exercise of these
water-related interests. Further, local planning and
districting laws frequently aid in accommodating
problems between landowners seeking to use the
same resource. These water use problems are nor-
mally controlled by adjudicating private rights in
court, and by actions of local planning and zoning
agencies or special districts.
A second area of land-water interaction is called
"foreshore," bank, or tidelaiids where there is a
mixture of state and private ownership. Occasionally,
rights are totally in one party or another. Sometimes
a "public trust" is established and private rights
may only be exercised subject to an overriding
public interest. Of late, the foreshore area is managed
primarily at the state level with federal review where
navigable waters are involved.
A third area where land and water interact in the
estuarine zone involves waters and waterbottoms in
streams, lakes, bays, and other coastal waters where
state ownership of waterbottoms and natural re-
sources coexists with the federal navigational servi-
607
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608
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
tude. Thus, state law normally controls the resources
of the area (fish, minerals, and water consumption)
but the federal servitude requires rev..e\v of most
actions to determine impact upon federal navigation
and environmental interests.
It is seen that each area of land-water interac-
tion—water use by the landowner, the foreshore,
and waterbottoms—has its own primary mixture of
institutions regulating and managing the resources.
Estuaries, and their associated wetlands and uplands,
can, and usually do, involve all three are.is thus mag-
nifying the institutional problem.
Critical institutional problems arise because air
and water quality issues and physical facility de-
velopment proposals are managed separately from
community-focused resource planning issues. Federal
jurisdiction is primarily concerned with the former
method of management whereas state and local
governments are primarily concerned with the latter.
The term "community-focused resource planning"
refers to a number of factors for which it is difficult
to find one all-inclusive term. It applies, funda-
mentally, to human needs in an urbai or urban-
fringe context, where the needs are reflected in types
of land use planning and controls. It refers to pro-
cedures to meet housing needs for a divsrse popula-
tion and to meet police, fire, and health standards.
It can reflect community attitudes about growth,
limits to growth, and quality of construction or
aesthetic principles. It can reflect concepts of "key
area" or "areas of critical environmental concern."
It can consider employment, education, economic
and other social needs as a function of land use con-
siderations.
Community-focused resource planning stands
apart from specific resource management such as air
and water quality controls, water resource develop-
ment, fish and wildlife impact evaluations, and spe-
cific transportation/facility project developments.
Specific resource management programs strive for
technical precision through alleged objective criteria
based on applied research, pilot projects, models,
and so forth. They are normally implemented
through federal laws and regulations with decisions
made by technically trained federal, state, or local
officals. On the other hand, community-focused re-
source planning is controlled almost exclusively by
the political process. Implementation of precise tech-
nical standards will almost always yielc to a hard-
ship case, strong public (or political) sentiments
forcing a decision one way or the other, or an
emergency situation.
Control of land uses which affect estuarine water
quality is caught in a crossfire between the specific
resource management functions of federal agencies
(EPA—water quality; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice—fish-habitat improvement; Corps of Engi-
neers—navigation improvement) and community-
focused planning considerations such as the need for
higher employment, protection of a scenic stream,
or housing demands. Local governments responsible
for community planning have hundreds of federal
regulations and inducement programs to deal with,
many of which are competing or contradictory. The
difficult struggle in the area of land use controls is to
determine when a consideration of community-
focused needs should, or could, override specific
resource quality standards. Or, to put the case the
other way, when should a federal standard, for ex-
ample, the requirement that structures be elevated
above predicted flood stages within a flood plain,
control the flexibility of local government to re-
spond to a local community need? The laws,
institutions, and administration of specific federal
resource management programs and local commu-
nity-focused resource planning programs reflect this
struggle daily.
This paper analyzes this struggle in the context
of coastal and estuarine land use problems. For
practical and constitutional reasons, a major over-
haul of the current system of managing land-water
interaction problems is not recommended. However,
it is suggested that there are three ways in which the
structure can be improved. First, it is recognized
that the btate level of government could play a
stronger role, and perhaps act as a mediator where
local community needs and federal resource programs
differ. Second, it is recognized that coordination
between different agencies having specific manage-
ment functions needs to be upgraded. Third, there
is a need to compile descriptions of experience
throughout the world in certain technical matters
which can aid in decisionmaking where land-water
interaction problems are involved.
To show why these particular institutional prob-
lems need attention and to describe ways in which
the problems currently arise, four types of manage-
ment processes used in the estuarine zone are dis-
cussed, with emphasis on developments over the
last five years. First, the paper discusses federal
controls over activities affecting wetlands. Second,
major project review at the federal level is discussed.
Third, recent developments and initiatives at the
local and state level are outlined. Finally, the Coastal
Zone Management Act of 1972, potentially an im-
portant tool in the future, is discussed. The recom-
mendations stated briefly above are discussed in
more detail in the conclusion.
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LEGAL ASPECTS
609
FEDERAL CONTROLS OVER
ACTIVITIES AFFECTING WETLANDS
Most marshes and estuarine areas are near or
associated with bodies of water that are considered
navigable. Tidal waters are considered navigable as
are streams capable of conveying any kind of com-
merce. Where there are navigable waters the United
States government has regulatory jurisdiction under
the commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution.1 In
recognition of this authority to regulate commerce
Congress has granted significant authority to execu-
tive agencies to deal with specific resource manage-
ment activities. For example, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers regulates activities affecting navigable
waters and navigation.2 The Environmental Pro-
tection Agency looks at water quality3 and air
quality,4 among other things. The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service arid the National Marine Fisheries
Service are concerned with fish and wildlife resources6
of the nation. Each of these agencies, given certain
specific authorities and responsibilities by Congress,
analyzes the effect proposed activities may have
upon these resources by balancing the need for the
particular activity with the impact on the resource.
In the last five years Congress, the courts, and
administrators have attempted valiantly to upgrade
the federal review procedure and make it a workable
one. Many of the laws and procedures are still new
and many details of this review process have not been
fully worked out.
With respect to most activities affecting wetlands
primary jurisdiction is in the Army Corps of Engi-
neers under the Rivers arid Harbors Act of 1899.6
When bridges or causeways are involved, the Coast
Guard has primary jurisdiction.7 Any local govern-
ment or private entity wishing to perform work
(water diversions, piers, bulkheads and jetties, drain-
age, dredging, and others') must apply to the Corps of
Engineers for a permit before that work may begin.
Originally, the Corps evaluated projects from the
standpoint of navigational interests alone. In the
last 20 years, however, changes have occurred in
this procedure which have substantially expanded
it. These will be briefly described.
The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act8 was
originally passed in 1934 and has been amended
numerous times since then. It requires that the di-
rector of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service,
the National Marine Fisheries Service,9 and the
chief official of the state resource agency concerned
with fish and wildlife resources provide comment to
the Corps of Engineers on the effect of the proposed
project on fish and wildlife resources. These com-
ments are attached to the report of the district engi-
neer and frequently form the basis for denials,
compromises, or the imposition of mitigative features
as permit conditions and other arrangements be-
tween the applicant and the Corps of Engineers. The
past decade has seen significant growth in the fish
and wildlife review procedure. In August 1974, the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a set of
guidelines10 developed in the past 10 years to assist
field personnel review applications for Corps permits.
In recent years other events have occurred requir-
ing that interests beyond navigation be considered
by the Corps of Engineers prior to approval of a
permit. In 1970, Zabel v. Tabb,11 decided by the U.S.
Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, held that the Corps
of Engineers may deny a permit for activities in
navigable waters on ecological grounds alrme. It
recognized that the Corps must consider the con-
gressional intent in the Fish and Wildlife Coordina-
tion Act and the National Environmental Policy
Act in its decisionmaking process.
In 1972, three acts were passed, all of which will
affect aspects of Corps procedures: the Ocean Dump-
ing Act,12 the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,13
and the Coastal Zone Management Act.14 The Ocean
Dumping Act requires the Corps of Engineers to
apply Environmental Protection Agency standards
and criteria in approving ocean disposal of dredge
spoil materials where the transport for dumping
passes through U.S. territorial waters.15 Similarly,
under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of
1972, the Corps must apply EPA criteria in allowing
disposal of dredge spoils in navigable waters.16
Under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972,
Congress has given states the primary responsibility
for determining land and water uses affecting the
coastal zone.17 (The potential effect of this new law
is discussed in more detail later.) The precise impact
of these three new laws passed in 1972 is still being
debated by the Corps of Engineers and other
agencies.
In response to these many changes, the Corps of
Engineers began modifying its procedures, first, by
expanding the definition of the word "navigable wa-
ters" to align with the case law developed by U.S.
courts in definingthe term. By regulation,18 all waters
up to the mean high tide line, including wetlands
wholly or partially covered at high tide are included,
whether privately or publicly owned. Further, waters
which are "navigable-in-fact," and capable of sup-
porting commerce or which in the past, or potentially
in the future can become "navigable-in-fact" are
included. Most recently the Corps of Engineers
issued new guidelines expanding its scope of reviewr
over activities affecting navigable waters19 which
provide a higher standard of review when wetlands
or marshes are involved.20
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610
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Currently, wetlands control at the federal level
involves the Corps of Engineers (or Coast Guard)
as the primary agency with comments, or input com-
ing from many other interests. At the federal level
input is received from the U.S. Fish ard Wildlife
Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service, the
Environmental Protection Agency, and, where the
nature of the application requires, other agencies of
the federal government having an interest. Further,
the Corps receives input from state and local agencies
having an interest in the project application, the
number of agencies varying with the state. Beyond
the review exercised by government agencies, the
Corps becomes the focal point for pressure from the
applicant to have his project approved, and pressure
from public interest, environmental, or other groups
who oppose the change in the wetlands environment.
If a proposed project is large and potentially
damaging to the environment in a "significant" way,
or if there is a great deal of public controversy
surrounding a proposed project, the Corps may de-
cide that an environmental impact statement must
be prepared under the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969.21 The decision to prepare such a
statement is discretionary with the federal agency
depending 011 its interpretation of whether a permit
allowing construction is a "major Federal action
significantly affecting the quality of the human
environment." If an environmental impact state-
ment is prepared the same agencies review the draft
statement, or provide input to the Corps; as in the
case of general permits for activities in na\ igable wa-
ters. The agency and public comments tend to relate
to the adequacy of the environmental impact state-
ment as well as the substantive environmental
issues. Further, the procedures followed are more
specific, resulting, usually, in a more detailed and
thorough review. (Review of major public works
projects is discussed in the next section.)
Three key matters involving the Corps review
process just described will have to be addressed in the
coming few years. First, the review process may be
too narrow to allow for sound decisions. It is project
oriented—the responses relate to a specific action at
a particular time. Also, the review is single-resource
oriented, i.e., the focus of attention is the single
purpose the project is to serve or the effect the
project has upon a single resource such as a wildlife
habitat affecting one species. Often, impacts on the
ecosystem as a whole are not evaluated. Further, the
procedure seems deficient in that regional considera-
tions and community-focused resource planning
dimensions of review are missing. Receiving input on
a specific project proposal from varieties of agencies
may not provide the overview necessary for sound
management and decisionmaking.
The second matter needing attention in the next
few years is the role of the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. In addition to reviewing dredge spoil
disposal practices discussed above, EPA reviews all
dredging permits to determine impact on water
quality.22 This agency also influences land use de-
cisions greatly through required planning programs.23
These powers have yet to be implemented for the
most part. For example, the New Orleans District of
the Corps of Engineers does not get direct input
from EPA, but EPA provides information to the
Fish and Wildlife Service which combines the in-
formation with its review. At the Washington level,
there is debate over how extensive EPA and Corps
control over dredge spoil disposal should be. Despite
these uncertainties, EPA's recent statements regard-
ing protection of the nation's wetlands24 and land
use implications of EPA programs25 indicate that
this agency's review of wetlands decisions will in-
crease in the future.
A third aspect of the federal wetlands control
program which may change dramatically in the
next few years is the role of state and local govern-
ments. Though some states make very specific rec-
ommendations to the Corps of Engineers on these
matters, other states have not yet developed specific
programs. Most states are upgrading current efforts
or developing new ones to more effectively manage
wetland resources. Some assistance may come as the
Coastal Zone Management Act (to be discussed
later) is implemented. A key question is whether
state authority will increase and replace aspects of
federal government review, thus shifting the focus of
attention from federal agencies to state agencies. It
is possible that states will be given greater considera-
tion and perhaps be the determinative voice in the
federal review process. Further, they may be able to
better address regional and community-focused
considerations.
MAJOR FEDERAL
PROJECT REVIEW
Operating parallel to the review of individual
permit applications for activities affecting navigable
waters is the planning and implementation of major
public works projects, normally dealing with utility
or transportation development, which affect coastal
zone and estuarine resources. Most of these involve
significant modification of the land-water interface
with resulting changes in water movement and cir-
culation and with notable effects on geology, water
chemistry, and biology. Projects in this category in-
clude river channel improvement; new roads and
highways crossing estuarine areas; large fill projects
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LEGAL ASPECTS
611
for airports or port improvements; dams and res-
ervoirs for irrigation and flood protection; major
shore protection works to offset erosion, accretion,
and sedimentation; stream channelization for drain-
age ; and other kinds of activities.
The Corps of Engineers and other major federal
agencies are normally responsible for these kinds of
activities. They do not apply for a permit as dis-
cussed in the previous section. For the most part
Congress determines the rules to be used in deciding
when, where, and how a major public works project
using federal funds is to be developed. For example,
the Department of Transportation administers the
Federal-Aid Highway Act26 which contains numer-
ous requirements for consideration of environmental
values in planning and constructing highways.
Similarly, the Federal Aviation Administration in
airport site selection, the Federal Power Commission
in power plant site decisions, and other such agency
determinations follow congressional guidelines and
procedures. (In the case of the Corps of Engineers,
Soil Conservation Service, and others, where Con-
gress has not established specific guidelines in an
organic law, the U.S. Water Resources Council has
promulgated "Principles and Standards for Planning
Water and Related Land Resources"27 to help
establish if a proposed project is in the public inter-
est.) How are federal decisions on major public
works projects reviewed for impact on wetlands and
estuarine water quality?
The key review of major federal projects is done
pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA) ,28 Under that act, all federal projects which
significantly affect the quality of the human environ-
ment must be preceded by an environmental assess-
ment and the preparation of an environmental
impact statement. Hundreds of law suits have been
filed by environmental protection organizations in
recent years using NEPA and the impact statement
requirements as their basis.29 The Council on En-
vironmental Quality which administers the impact
statement procedure, has codified much of the case
law under this process in their recent guidelines.30
Further, federal regulations coming from numerous
construction agencies over the past year have
stressed procedures within that agency for making
NEPA reviews.31
NEPA review can be criticized from three stand-
points. First, the federal agency promoting and
developing the project is responsible for preparing
the impact statement. They are responsible for
conducting an impartial reevaluation of the merits
of the project long after the inital decision to pro-
ceed A\iih the project has been made. Hence, federal
agencies are frequently in the awkward position of
trying to respond to the pressures for project re-
view and analysis on environmental grounds and
meet requirements under law to proceed with the
project.
Second, the procedure of major federal project
review is fundamentally a free-for-all. There is no
executive guidance to agencies. Major federal agen-
cies which oppose one another on specific projects—
e.g., the Corps of Engineers which is sponsoring a
major dredging project and the U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Service which opposes it—have no arbiter to
which to take their claim. The issue freqxiently
becomes political or ends up in litigation. Occasion-
ally through negotiation, interagency agreements on
projects are arranged but this is often an exercise in
finding a middleground the agencies can live with
which may or may not represent the best public
interests.
Third, and perhaps the fundamental problem with
the procedure for reviewing major federal projects
is its "project orientation." The federal agency
sponsoring the project must comply with a law
designed to promote the project. Congress has passed
numerous flood control acts, highway development
acts, navigation improvement bills, and many others.
The agencies implementing the laws are engineering-
oriented agencies with specialized functions. Hence,
authority for resource development proj ects is spread
among special-function agencies. This impedes de-
velopment of a broader approach to determining
project need and the consideration of values beyond
those immediately associated with the project.
What may be missing is a more meaningful role for
state and local government in looking at regional
considerations and community-focused needs.
LOCAL AND STATE INITIATIVES
IN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Theoretically, considerations of community-fo-
cused needs and regional concerns are provided by
local and state agencies through planning and land
use control laws (zoning, subdivision control, emin-
ent domain) ,32 Planning and zoning controls arose to
serve the need of making land uses in an urban
environment compatible. Today, planning and zon-
ing concepts are being applied to new areas of con-
cern arising primarily outside of urban areas.
In the last five years these controls have been
significantly expanded to cover coastal zone, wet-
lands, and estuarine areas. The following are repre-
sentative examples. Wisconsin passed a Shorelands
Zoning Act34 creating standards for local govern-
mental units to control disturbance of wetland? and
shorelines. Delaware recently took action to protect
its beach dunes35 along the Atlantic Ocean. The
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612
ESTTJARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
State of Washington has passed a Shorelands Manage-
ment Act36 which controls all development activities
from the line of vegetation to 200 feet inland along
the shores of the ocean, bays, and lakes of the state.
California has passed recently the California Coastal
Zone Conservation Act37 which, in a zone extending
from the 3-mile territorial limit to 1,000 meters
inland requires permits for all development activi-
ties. The State of Florida passed the Environmental
Land and Water Management Act38 in 1972 which
delineates areas of critical state concern and develop-
ments of regional impact for application of state and
regional policies. Maine has passed a Site Location
Law39 controlling major facility development. Ha-
waii40 and Vermont41 have established commissions
which review all major land use activities in these
states.
In most of the examples there is a mixture of con-
trol activity between state and substate units of
government. Traditionally, state law provides gen-
eral guidance and limits of authority while imple-
mentation is at a lower level of government. The
courts have upheld these laws as valid exercises of
governmental power42 but occasionally courts re-
strict the exercise of that power to protect the
property rights of the individual affected.43 Thus,
states and local governments are experimenting with
new laws and ordinances in controlling key areas and
resources normally found outside of the urban en-
vironment. This trend will probably continue.
State and local initiatives to plan ami manage
coastal regions, critical areas, or resources in a key
area, must deal with specific resource or project
management under federal laws whenever navigable
waters or federally assisted programs are involved.
For example, in California's coastal area, many
activities managed by the California Coastal Zone
Conservation Commission are also reviewed by fed-
eral agencies having resource or project functions
within that region. Potentially, state and local
management of regional or community-focused
resources can conflict with resource and project
management exercised by federal agencies. This has
occurred in California where Interior Department's
plans for Outer Continental Shelf oil development
and California's plans for coastal zone management
are bound to conflict.44 This becomes a struggle
between the state's exercise of its police power and
the federal government's powers to regulate com-
merce among the states.
This state-federal struggle gives rise to technical,
legal and institutional problems. At the technical
level, frequently incompatible results arise from an
evaluation of the goals and needs of a particular area
(done by the state or local unit) and the aralysis of
resource or project development under federal stand-
ards and criteria. The perspectives of the respective
agencies are quite different. From a legal and in-
stitutional standpoint, clarification is needed to
distinguish between regional or community-focused
decisions made at the state and local level and the
resource and project management decisions exer-
cised at the federal level. It is uncertain whether the
courts must choose between the two or allow the
two decision processes to exist side-by-side.45 Con-
gress may, as a matter of policy, begin to restrict
and reduce federal management roles in an effort to
upgrade the role of state and local government. With
strengthened state and local programs emerging and
demanding an effective voice in decisionmaking, a
shift in power may evolve over a period of years.
This would constitute a reversal of a trend started
in the early part of this century whereby Congress
used its powers under the interstate commerce clause
to exercise many resource management functions at
the federal level.
FEDERAL COASTAL ZONE
MANAGEMENT ACT
If the state and local initiatives described are to
succeed as the mode for regional and community
focused management, they must be legally and
technically prepared for the job. One law specifically
designed to encourage and upgrade state and local
initiative in this area is the Coastal Zone Manage-
ment Act of 1972,46 a quietly passed, almost un-
noticed, bill. The 30 coastal and Great Lakes states
(territories and possessions as well) can apply for
assistance in the development and implementation
of coastal management programs. The key purposes
of the law are to balance environmental protection
and economic development objectives in the land
and water use decisions in the coastal zone, and to
upgrade the state's decisionrnaking process. Slates
do not have to participate under the Coastal Zone
Management Act, but ail have.
Initially, states receive planning funds to develop
a "coastal management program" which consists of
three key elements. The iirst is to establish the
boundaries of the coastal zone. This is a difficult
task because the coastal zone is defined as the area in
which shoreland uses have a direct and significant
impact on coastal waters. Hence, to establish the
boundaries of the coastal zone is to establish the
uses to be managed. The second element is to develop
analytical tools for deciding between alternative uses
of land or water in the coastal zone. This con.-:ists of
developing resource inventories and environmental
assessment techniques, identifying areas of particular
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LEGAL ASPECTS
613
concern, and determining priority uses for particular
areas in the coastal zone. The third, and perhaps the
most important element, is to improve the decision-
making processes within the states in two ways:
raising the level of government at which decisions
are made and requiring full cooperation between
levels of government; and, outlining the decision-
making process between various decisionmakers
and determining criteria and standards they are to
use.
Once states have developed a coastal management
program they apply to have it approved by the ad-
ministering office (NOAA in the U.S. Department
of Commerce). Once approved, the federal consist-
ency provisions of §307 of the Coastal Zone Manage-
ment Act come into effect. Under these provisions,
all federal projects, federal funding, assistance, and
permit activities, must be consistent with the state's
coastal management program subject to certain
qualifications.47 The §307 federal consistency provi-
sions may ultimately be the handle on which state
and local management programs, exercised under
the state's police power, can operate at a par with,
or perhaps have key influence over, federal resource
and project management programs in a particular
state's coastal zone.
The coastal management program is very new and
many questions remain unanswered. Most states
received initial planning grants in June 1974, and the
next few years should see considerable planning
activity. However, the Act is not adequately funded
and even with states upgrading programs rather than
starting new ones, progress may come slowly. CZM
must gain acceptance within a state as well. Pro-
grams in local planning and zoning, fisheries manage-
ment, mineral production, and water development
must be used in the program and coordination be-
tween CZM and these traditional resource manage-
ment programs must be complete.
CONCLUSION
Previous sections of this paper have reviewed four
major fields of regulation and control over land uses
which affoct cstuarine water quality: federal controls
over activities affecting wetlands and navigable
waters, major federal project review, local and state
initiatives in planning and management, and the
federal Coastal Zone Management Act. As men-
tioned in the introduction, this paper does not sug-
gest a major overhaul of the system since for con-
stitutional and political reasons this would be nearly
impossible. The main problem is an institutional
one, and the concern is how to spend funds over the
next five or 10 years to meet this institutional prob-
lem.
There are three primary ways to upgrade the
current system to meet aspects of the institutional
problem: greater support for state coastal manage-
ment efforts; required coordination between federal
programs and between federal and state agencies
making similar reviews; and further research and
information on technical matters relating to land
use controls.
State coastal management initiatives should be given
greater support as they are potentially the most
important component in the review system. It was
developed earlier that at the federal level the U.S.
Corps of Engineers, with input from numerous other
federal agencies, is the key agency deciding uses of
wetlands and estuaries, and that under NEPA,
federal agencies involved in major projects must
prepare environmental impact statements. At the
other end of the scale, private interests and local gov-
ernments either promote and actively seek, or oppose
proposed projects and changes in their areas. Hence,
much of the dialogue on reconciling resource manage-
ment and project proposals with community-focused
resource needs is between local and federal interests.
Missing in this dialogue, and potentially most useful
in' resolving problems and seeing a broader per-
spective, is the state level of government.
It has been described how states have begun to
take initiatives in the last few years to develop
programs where key areas, or regions, are managed at
state level or by local governments subject to state
standards and review. Since the coastal management
program is specifically designed to upgrade the
state's role in the management effort, it should be
given greater attention. A number of reasons support
this view. 1) Most federal officials and resource
users feel that land and water use decisions should be
made at the lowest level of government possible.
They argue that local units tend to be controlled
by political interests and thus argue that the state
level should be involved as well. Congress specifically
expressed this in the Coastal Zone Management Act
by asserting that states in cooperation with local
governments should be the focal point for coastal
management activities. Also, the current trend in
federal administrative matters seems to be in the
direction of providing more authority and responsi-
bility at the state and local level.
2) Although the land use bill in Congress failed,
and many interpret this as an anti-land use control
sentiment in Congress, most people believe that the
coastal zone is a different, unique, and highly stressed
area. Land use controls are normally accepted at the
local and municipal level for urban problems. People
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614
ESTIJARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
seem ready, indeed, to accept land use controls at a
higher level of government where urban fringe and
non-urban areas are in the coastal and estuarine zone.
3) The Coastal Zone Management Act is con-
ceived and designed to meet the key coastel and estu-
arine problems. It combines technical and institu-
tional upgrading as its primary goal, requiring states
to address both the question of the manager and the
criteria the manager uses for making decisions. The
coastal management program is not conceived in
isolation from ongoing programs but specifically
requires coordination and resolution of differences
between state, local, regional, and federal agencies.
Further, the policies of the Coastal Management
Act seem most suited to resolving tough coastal
zone controversies. It is not a mission oriented pro-
gram but is specifically designed to balance environ-
mental and economic development objectives
through analytical techniques and procedures.
Finally, it has no vested interest to assert although
some have accused it of being a special in jerest pro-
gram in its assertion of the importance of the coastal
zones over noncoastal areas.
4) Finally, the coastal management program is
designed to look at both land and water uses and
the interaction between the land and water. It is not
limited from a geographical standpoint as is the
Environmental Protection Agency ("waters of the
United States"), the Corps of Engineers (' navigable
waters") or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
("navigable waters"). It can include adjacent up-
lands as well as water bodies in the definition of the
coastal zone. This may facilitate providing a nexus
between the community-focused resource planning
typical of the local government unit, and the specific
resource or project management functions of federal
agencies. It also affords an opportunity to consider
regional problems from both the community need
perspective and the resource/project perspective.
In a recent publication a suggestion was put for-
ward that a program of wetlands control is needed
similar to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
of 1972 wherein federal authority would be para-
mount and specific standards would be promulgated
for implementation at the state and local level.49 This
would be an unwise approach. First, it would sep-
arate wetlands from associated upland areas thus
inhibiting the ability to control the major source of
the impacts on wetlands and estuaries. Second, such
a wetlands control program would be aimed at
enhancement of fish and wildlife resources dependent
upon the wetlands resource which, as mentioned
before, may not give sufficient consideration to com-
munity-focused needs and regional concerns.
There is a difference in philosophy in the approach
of the Coastal Zone Management Act and the Fed-
eral Water Pollution Control Act. The Coastal Zone
Management Act stresses that states should be given
maximum flexibility under very general guidelines
issued at the federal level; these guidelines relate to
the process, not the substance of decisionmaking.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act mandates
that federal standards be developed for all emissions
and effluents and that states implement these stand-
ards. The coastal management approach seems sound
in the long run. Where guidelines provide for flexi-
bility and innovation at the state and local level,
commitment to the program by state and local offi-
cials becomes greater. They are more likely to sup-
port its implementation after participating in the
formulation of the program.
Further, states differ geographically, socially, and
politically. If programs are developed which rec-
ognize differences and peculiarities of a state or local
area, officials may be more motivated to influence
their own people to accept the program than they
would be if the program were designed at the federal
level. Two states come to mind as examples of these
points. California is a leader in the nation in the
development of controls over coastal development,
perhaps because they have the greatest problems to
solve and a highly educated and active citizenry.
They will probably progress at a greater speed
implementing their own program than would a
federal agency implementing a national coastal
program in California. On the other hand, Louisiana
is a conservative southern state, predominantly rural
(with the exception of NTew Orleans) and with prob-
lems of educational, economic, and cultural lag. A
great deal of pushing at the federal level will not
make a significant difference in Louisiana. Yet, when
a local project or program is conceived and executed
within the state, the local politicians put a great deal
of weight behind it and see that it is developed.
The second major area where the current system of
land use controls affecting estuarine water quality
can be upgraded is in the required coordination be-
tween certain federal programs and related federal and
state agencies granting permits and licenses. This
coordination needs more structuring and funds
should be provided for the coordination function.
A few examples will illustrate the need and perhaps
suggest some remedies. Under the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System administered by
EPA,50 a certification must be made to the Corps of
Engineers that a proposed activity in navigable wa-
ters will not adversely affect water quality. Since
EPA's primary responsibility is to issue permits to
numerous point source emitters, this coordinating
mechanism on Corps wetlands permits has been put
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LEGAL ASPECTS
615
at the bottom of the list of priorities; yet, this might
be one of the most significant inputs to the Corps of
Engineers on wetlands permits. Specific funds should
be established to facilitate this review, and the
factors to be analyzed should be articulated and
described in a manual or workbook.
Another area where better coordination is needed
is between state and local wetlands review programs
and the Corps of Engineers' permit program. Most
states are not equipped or staffed to make adequate
input to the Corps on these activities. Federal per-
sonnel could be detailed to state offices to assist in
providing this input where the primary permit activ-
ity is a federal one. Training programs involving
state and federal officials are needed to sensitize
officials to attitudes and perceptions at the other
level of government.
A third area where coordination is badly needed
is between state and local efforts at managing coastal
resources and other U.S. proprietary functions,
especially those associated with offshore oil and gas
leasing, coast guard and military bases, and other
federal land management functions. There have been
frequent instances of differences of management
philosophies and management techniques between
adjacent federal and state lands in the coastal zone.
Lastly, certain technical matters need greater at-
tention if the proper procedures and tools for de-
termining land use and water quality interaction are
to be developed. First, the concept of an impact
beyond local significance needs to be made opera-
tional so it can be used in decisionmaking with some
degree of consistency. In the areas of ecology, eco-
nomics, transportation, and others, tools and tech-
niques are needed for measuring or assessing the
extent of impact or significance of a local decision.
Second, the cumulative effect of many small, in-
dividual decisions affecting coastal land and water
use must be determined. Techniques and tools are
needed to measure cumulative effects. Third, land
use controls have traditionally included government
restrictions imposed on private land use in specific
districts. Recently, ideas have been discussed called
"positive land use controls" involving tax incentives,
land trades, transfer of development rights, and so
forth.51 These are designed to offset the inequities
resulting from imposition of certain land use controls.
Also, they provide greater flexibility in forging new
land use control strategies. These three technical
matters are not readily "solved," nor are there easy
"answers." A better approach in providing assistance
to agencies dealing with these matters is to compile
and describe experience in this country and abroad,
and present that experience in compilations in which
the materials are well indexed and abstracted.
FOOTNOTES
1 U.S. Constitution, Art. I, Sec. 8.
J 33 TJ.S.C. §403
1 33 U.S.C. §1251 et. seq.
* 42 U.S.C. |1857 et. seq.
616 U.S.C. §661 et. seq.
6 33 U.S.C. §403
' 49 U.S.C. §1165g(6)(A). When "Corps" is referred to throughout this
paper, "Coast Guard" could be inserted if the project proposed is a bridge
or causeway.
8 16 U.S.C. §661 et. seq.
9 The NMFS was originally part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
at the time the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act was enacted.
10 "Guidelines for Review of Fish and Wildlife Aspects of Proposals in
or Affecting Navigable Waters," 39 Fed. Reg. 29552 (1974).
11 430 F. 2d 199 (1970)
12 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, 33 U.S.C. §1401
et, seq.
"33 U.S.C. §1251 et. seq.
» 16 U.S.C. §1451 et. seq.
"33 U.S.C. §1413
i« 33 U.S.C. §1344
» 16 U.S.C. §1452
» 33 C.F.R. §209.260
i» 33 C.F.R. §209.120
20 33 C.F.R. §209.120 (g)(3)
" 42 U.S.C. §4321 et. seq.
22 33 U.S.C. §1341
28 33 U.S.C. §1288 and §1313
"> 38 Fed. Reg. 10834, March 20, 1973
26 Environmental Protection Agency, "Land Use Implications and Re-
quirements of EPA Programs" (undated draft), 13 p. See also F. Bosselman,
D. Fuerer and D. Callies, EPA Authority Affecting Land Use (undated
manuscript prepared for Environmental Protection Agency).
2« 23 U.S.C. §101, et. seq.
2' 38 Fed. Reg. 24778, Sept. 10, 1973.
!« 42 U.S.C. 4321, et. seq.
" F. Anderson, NEPA in the Courts, Resources for the Future (Balti-
more: 1973). Legal and non-legal literature has dealt with NEPA at length
in recent years.
" 40 C.F.R. §1500
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616
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
81 See, e.g., "Housing and Urban Development, Environmental Review
Procedures" 24 C.F.R. §58 (39 Fed. Reg. 36554, Oct. 10, 3974); "Depart-
ment of Transportation Procedures for Considering Environmental
Impacts" 39 Fed. Reg. 35234 (Sept. 30, 1974); "USDA Forest Service,
Environmental Statement-Guidelines for Preparation" 39 Fed. Reg.
38244 (Oct. 30, 1974).
32 The authority for these controls ai ises out of the state'n police powers.
In most cases, state legislatures have delegated the exercif.e of the power
to local units of government. Courts have been the prime agency deter-
mining whether controls exceed constitutional limits by denying the land
owner the due process requirement that just compensation be paid for a
"taking" of land. See F. Bosselman, D. Callies and J. Ban:a, The Taking
Issue, Council on Environmental Quality (1973).
33 See, generally, F. Bosselman and D. Callies, The Quiet Revolution in
Land Use Control, Council on Environmental Quality (1971).
" Wis. Stat. Ann. §59.971 (Supp. 1973).
» 7 Del. C. §6801 et. seq.
" Wash. Rev. Code Ann. §90.58.010
>' 3 Pub. Res. Code 27000 et. seq. (Dec. 1973).
3» 26 Fla. Stat. Ann. §§380.012-380.10
" 38 M.R.S.A. §481-488.
<« Land Use Law, Haw. Rev. Stat. Ch. 205.
41 Environmental Control Law, 10 Vt. S.A. §§6001-6091 (Supp. 1970).
" See Just v. Marinette County, 56 Wis. 2d 7 (1972) upholding the
Wisconsin Shorelands Management Act; and, In the Matter of Spring
Valley Development by Lakesites, Inc., 300 A 2d 736 (Me. 1973) upholding
the Maine Site Location Law, 38 M.R.S.A. §481 et. seq.
41 See State v. Johnson, 265 A 2d 71] (Me. 1970) construing the Maine
Wetlands Act, Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. 12, §4701 et. seq., and San Diego
Coast Regional Commission v. See the Sea, Ltd., 109 Cal. Rptr. 377
(1973), limiting the application of the California Coastal Zone Conserva-
tion Act, Pub. Resources Code, §27000 et. seq.
44 Hearings before National Ocean Policy Study, U.S. Senate Committee
on Commerce, Santa Monica, Calif., Sept. 27, 28, 1974.
45 See, Askew v. American Waterway Operators, Inc. 93 S. Ct. 1590
(1973); Hershman and Folkenroth, "Coastal Zone Management and Inter-
governmental Coordination," 54 Ore. L. Rev. 13-33 (1975).
46 16 U.S.C. §1451. Federal assistance in land use planning activities in
the past has been limited primarily to comprehensive planning under the
HUD 701 program. An attempt to pass a land use planning bill (H.R.
10294) was recently defeated by the U.S. House of Representatives on
June 11, 1974. It may be considerable time before it is again addressed by
Congress. This leaves the Coastal Zone Management Act as the only
federally approved land use program at this time. Land uses under the
law are limited, however, to those having a direct and significant impact
on coastal waters.
47 They are to be consistent "to the maximum extent practicable" in
some cases, hi other cases certifications of consistency must be filed, and
in some cases disputed matters are to be resolved by the Secretary of Com-
merce in consultation with the Executive Office of the President. The
reader is referred to the text of §307.
48 "The Wetlands: How Well Are They Protected?" Conservation
Foundation Letter, Sept. 1974.
48 Id., at p. 8. The idea is attributed to "some environmentalists" by the
publication's editor.
" 33 U.S.C. §1251 et. seq.
" See, e.g., "Inroads Toward Positive Land Use Management," State
of Oregon (Executive Department) 1974; I. Heyman, "Innovative Land
Regulation and Comprehensive Planning," Santa Clara Law., 13:185-235,
(Winter 1972); D. Liatokin, ed., Land Use Controls: Present Problems
and Future Reform, Center for Urban Policy Research (Rutgers Univ.
1974).
-------
STRUCTURING THE LEGAL
REGULATION OF ESTUARIES
ANGUS MACBETH
Natural Resources Defense Council
New York, New York
ABSTRACT
Estuaries are large scale, highly productive physical systems. Regulation and management of
estuarine resources is divided among a multitude of agencies at all levels of government. Federal
regulation has operated through expanding the mandate of federal agencies to include review
of most estuarine resources and consultation with agencies responsible for them. The weakness
of this system lies in (1) the unwillingness of the agencies to accept the expanded mandate; (2) the
lack of agency expertise to comply with the expanded mandate; (3) the failure to fully staff and
fund the consultation mechanism; (4) unequal distribution of resources between the public,
private, and governmental bodies. This can be remedied by (a) funding public groups which
contribute to agency proceedings; (b) establishing national estuarine laboratories with mixed
research and regulatory responsibilities; (c) full funding and staffing of the consultation mech-
INTRODUCTION
Estuaries are large scale physical systems of high
biological productivity and great complexity de-
pendent on land, freshwater and saltwater com-
ponents for their natural operation. The estuarine
environments support both resident and highly mi-
gratory biota, both fish and fowl. The protection
of the biota is now a national goal under the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.*
The physical position of estuaries at the confluence
of rivers with the ocean has also made them natural
foci for the development of commerce and the in-
dustrial and urban centers which feed commerce.
The legal mechanisms which control the develop-
ment and use of the estuarine zones are enormously
varied and serve a wide variety of policies: the land
use regulations governing shorelands and wetlands
which traditionally have been developed and en-
forced by local government; the technological water
pollution control programs affecting particular dis-
charges to the waters; water quality standards gov-
erning the water itself; structural schemes of water
diversion or of damming, in all of which there is
typically a shared federal and state responsibility;
and the direct regulation of biota exploitation
through fishing and hunting laws developed by the
state. T\pk.ill\, these authorities are divided be-
tween different ievek of government-—federal, state
and local—with a number of agencies within each
affecting the various elements of the estuarine
system.
This paper will focus on the biological production
of an estuarine system in order to analyze a typical
interaction of legal authorities affecting the estu-
ary's ability to meet its potential for biological pro-
duction. The emphasis will be on the Hudson estuary
and its fishery since legal controversy there has
helped to illuminate the practical operation of regu-
latory authority; the aim is not to deal directly with
environmental problems on the Hudson but to put
the operation of legal institutions into a concrete
context. The paper focuses on the distance between
the role theoretically and actually performed by the
regulatory agencies arid the clash of interests which
influences their operation. It suggests methods of
structuring the agency-private interest relationship
to assure more effective resolution of competing
demands on estuarine resources.
SCHEMES OF LEGAL REGULATION
There are at least four models for establishing
legal safeguards for the productive capacity of an
estuary. First, would be a single agency with regula-
tory authority to license and control the entire
array of human activity affecting the life support
system and capacity of the estuary. Logically, the
agency would have to have regulatory authority
over most use and development of the estuary, its
adjacent shoreline, its upstream freshwater sources
and the exploitation of its biota both inside and
outside the estuarine zone. Second, there is the
model of an advisory commission establishing a gen-
eral plan for protecting the biota. This plan would
be considered by each regulatory agency deciding
land or water uses, but which would not itself have
617
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618
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
direct jurisdiction over the estuarine zone. Third, a
requirement could be made of each agency that it
must consider and assess the impact of any proposed
action on the productive capacity of the estuary
and take necessary steps to protect or minimize the
damage to the resources. Fourth, a single agency
could be responsible for protecting the productive
capacity of the estuary. The authority of such an
agency could be either advisory or include the power
to reject the proposals of other agencies. Under each
model, of course, the objective can be altered to
assure the biological productivity of the estuary
either greater or less weight in the decisionmaking
process.
Examples of the first two models can be found in
the Delaware River Basin Commission2 and the
New England River Basin Commission,3 but they
have not been the primary force in recent years
affecting the regulation of the estuaries. For in-
stance, the proposal for a Chesapeake Bay Com-
mission in Maryland to control the use and de-
velopment of Maryland's side of the bay failed of
enactment.4
In recent years, legislation has moved in two dis-
tinctive directions. First, the mandates of federal
and, in some cases, state agencies have been widened
beyond their primary missions by requirements to
consider and weigh the environmental impacts of
the agency's activities. The National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA) is the most obvious example
of such a mandate-widening statute which requires
a fresh look and a new balance from agencies with
traditionally narrow mandates.5 Other examples may
be readily found. The courts have reasserted the
broad mandate of the Federal Power Commission,
so that that agency must look at a broad spectrum
of concerns in licensing hydroelectric projects.6 The
land use planning sections of the 1974 Housing and
Community Development Act have been expanded
to require recipients of planning grants from the
Department of Housing and Urban Development to
consider environmental issues.7
Second, a number of statutes have been enacted
which look at particular environmental media or
physical areas and require a new, environmentally-
protective analysis in the decision process which
governs their use and development. The Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972,8
state wetland protective statutes,9 and the Coastal
Zone Management Act10 are examples of this ap-
proach. These legal structures do not directly focus
on the estuarine zone, but they operate within it to
produce an overlay of review and analysis which
takes into account, to at least some extent, the pro-
ductivity of estuaries. Most of these statutes as well
as others already on the books require resource
planning or protection which, if followed through
in action, will have long-term impacts on the estu-
arine productivity.
These new statutory initiatives take their place
in a context where some agencies with focused re-
source responsibilities are also required to consult
with state or federal agencies which directly engage
in, or license private parties to engage in, the altera-
tion of environmental conditions. These referral and
consultation requirements are established to protect
the resource. In the context of protecting estuarine
biota, the most important of these statutes is the
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act11 which requires
consultation on wildlife preservation with the Fish
and Wildlife Service of the Department of the
Interior and National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration of the Department of Commerce.
Obviously. NEPA has the same type of consultation
requirement.
These legal regulations work as a composite of
the third and fourth models set out above. Many
state and federal agencies have been given expanded
mandates both in land and water resource planning,
and in controlling sources of pollution or other factors
affecting estuarine productivity. These agencies are
required to consult particular agencies assigned to
protect certain values in estuarine development.
This legal structure and management model are
likely to be the basic pattern for some time to come.
It is therefore worthwhile to identify the salient
aspects of the model which are essential for its
proper operation and analyze whether thay have
operated effectively and, if not, suggest how they
can be improved. This is done in the context of the
Hudson and its fishery in order to give the general
point concrete focus. The operating records of the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972 and the Coastal Zone Management Act are
too brief to allow review of their effectiveness in
addressing the issue in this context. NEPA and the
state wetlands statutes now have longer histories
which make them useful for analysis. The emphasis
here will be largely on NEPA for a number of re-
sons: it is a federal statute and thus more relevant
to Congress's concerns; it is central to an analysis
of both the expanded mandate and referral and con-
sultation mechanisms; the principal restraints on
state wetland legislation stem from the constitutional
requirements of the Fifth Amendment that private
property not be taken for public use without just
compensation—thus these restraints cannot be di-
rectly remedied by legislation.
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
619
THE CYCLE OF
THE HUDSON FISHERY
The Hudson is a tidal estuary from New York
City to Troy, north of Albany. The line of the salt
front varies with the freshwater discharge but is
generally 40-65 miles upstream from the Battery.
Gross pollution problems have been concentrated
at New York City and Albany and the central reach
of the estuary has historically supported a highly
productive fishery.
Henry Hudson reported the river teeming with
"the finest fish among which was the shad and many
kinds scarcely less delicious . . . there were plenty of
sturgeon which the Christians do not make use of,
but the Indians eat them greedily . . . herring were
in myriads."12 In the early 19th century, the sturgeon
were so abundant that they were known as "Albany
beef" and there was a flourishing caviar industry.13
Today, the striped bass and the shad are the most
important sport and commercial fish. There is a
wide diversity in the array of migratory and resident
fishes in the river, alewife, blueback herring, white
perch, bay anchovy, and tomcod, among others.14
The life cycle of the anadromous, estuarine-
dependent fish is significant to understanding the
variety of places at which uses and development
can affect the capacity of the river's productive
resources. The striped bass may be taken as an
example of the life cycle of the anadromous fish for
these purposes. In the spring, the adult stripers
corne upstream from the sea and the over-wintering
areas in the Hudson Estuary into the estuary's
freshwater section. The extent of the upstream mi-
gration depends on the water temperature and on
the location of the salt front. In most years, the
bulk of the eggs are spawned between 50 and 100
miles upstream from the Battery during May and
early June.
The striped bass eggs are released free into the
water and drift with the flow of the currents. During
the first six to eight weeks of life, the striped bass
pass through egg, yolk-sac larval, and larval stages
and enter the early juvenile stage. During this
period, the organisms p~ain mobility but their gross
movements are determined by the hydrology of the
tides, currents, and salt\vedge. Al the end of the
planktonic stage, the young bass begin to move
into sht'.lloA' water, Cither along the shore or on
shoain. These shallow ureas are the nursery habitat
of the fish during the first year of life.15
The young striped bass spend their first winter
in the Hudson and then start to move into the
sheltered coastal waters. With incre:s>ing age, the
fish make longer migrations into more open waters.
There is no question that the Hudson makes a major
contribution to the coastal stock of striped bass in
the waters of the New York Bight and Long Island
Sound and perhaps is a major source for the fish
along the entire south shore of Long Island and in
New England waters.16
It is obviously possible to affect the estuary's
production of striped bass or other biota, both in
the short and the long run, by altering the conditions
which foster continuing high production and control
survival during each phase of the fish's life cycle.
In the Hudson many such intrusions have taken
place. Historically, there has been intrusion on the
adult population through the fishery catch, so that
by the mid-1930's, when a 16-inch size limit was
imposed, the stock was at much lower levels than
it is presently.17 There has been intrusion on the
migratory, returning spawners through catching in
nets set in the Hudson for the taking of shad, which
also take striped bass.18 Recently, there has been
intrusion on the early life stages of eggs and larvae
by entrainment of the fish through the cooling sys-
tems of power plants on the Hudson, and there has
been intrusion on the juvenile stage through im-
pingement of those fish on the screens of power
plant intakes on the river.19
Obviously, other equally serious intrusions are
possible. For instance, the striped bass population
of the Delaware River has been virtually decimated
due to gross pollution, mainly oxygen reduction, in
the crucial reach around Philadelphia.20 The central
Hudson from the Tappan Zee to Coxsackie is the
crucial area for the spawning and nursery habitat
and has been relatively clean, but if industrial and
municipal pollution on the scale present at New
York City or in the Albany pool were to occur here,
the Hudson-supported striped bass population could
be severely reduced. On the Sacramento-San Joaquin
system, the population of striped bass has been
halved, apparently by the effect of water withdrawal
for irrigation purposes which also withdraws the
eggs and larvae from the river.21 Were the proposal
to withdraw freshwater for municipal use from the
Hudson at Hyde Park to come to fruition, a similar
effect would become a real possibility on the Hud-
son.22 If dams were to be constructed on the river,
as has happened on the Susquehanna, there would
be a major disruption of the spawning run and a
consequent effect on the juvenile and adult fish
population. Extensive filling of the remaining shal-
low areas of the Hudson, particularly in the Tappan
Zee and HaverRtraw Bay, would deprive the fish of
its juvenile habitat.
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620
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
This catalogue indicates the broad range of activi-
ties that have to come within legal control if the
basic productivity of an estuary is to be protected
and preserved and even if development and ex-
ploitation of the resource are to be properly analyzed
and managed.
THE EXPANDED MANDATE SCHEME
AND THE HUDSON EXPERIENCE
Over the last 10 years, there has been continuing
controversy in the Hudson estuary over the effects
of proposed developments, particularly power plants,
on the fishery of the river. This controversy illumi-
nates development under statutes providing for the
weighing of competing interests by administrative
agencies under expanded mandates which include
consideration of estuarine productivity. It also al-
lows analysis of the operation of the referral and
consultation mechanisms.
The fishery issue was first raised on the Hudson
in the early 1960's in connection with Consolidated
Edison Company's application to the Federal Power
Commission (FPC) for a license to build and operate
the Storm King pumped storage project at Cornwall
about 56 miles upstream from the Battery. Storm
King would pump water from the Hudson to a
reservoir from which it would be released to produce
hydroelectric power.23 The water withdrawals re-
quired to run the plant would be of great magni-
tude—averaging 15-18,000 cubic ft/sec over an
8-hour pumping period each day.24 After a cursory
review, the FPC granted Con Edison the license.
The license was challenged by a citizens' group
and in Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v.
FPC,25 the Second Circuit Court of Appeals ordered
the FPC to reconsider the issuance of the license.
The court decision required the FPC to allow citi-
zens' groups to present their evidence and arguments
to the Commission and laid on the Commission the
affirmative duty of building a full factuaj record on
which to base a reasc ed decision. The extent of
the record was determined by the broad mandate
of the Federal Power Act, which required the FPC
to determine that the project "will be best adapted
to a comprehensive plan for improving a waterway
. . . for the use or benefit of interstate or foreign
commerce, for the improvement and utilization of
waterpower development, and for other beneficial
public uses, including recreational purposes."26
The court's interpretation of the statute made it
the functional equivalent of NEPA's expanded man-
date requiring that the analysis by the FPC look
at the broad range of public interests a:Tected by
the project and also consider possible alternatives.
One of the issues singled out for consideration by
the FPC on remand was the entire fishery issue,
particularly the effect of Storm King's operation
on the striped bass and the shad. Thus, because of
the 1965 decision in Scenic Hudson, there began to
function in the Hudson estuary a NEPA type of
expanded review, five years before that statute was
passed.
The FPC delegated the fishery investigation re-
sponsibility to the Hudson River Policy Committee,
a group formed for the purpose and made up of
representatives of the U.S. Bureau of Sports Fish-
eries and Wildlife, the old Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries (now the National Marine Fisheries Serv-
ice), and the Fish and Game Departments of New
York and New Jersey, with an observer from Con-
necticut.27 Most members of the policy committee
were not professional experts on the Hudson fishery
and so they in turn oversaw the work of hired
consultants.28 The results of a 3-year research pro-
gram were published as the Hudson River Fisheries
Investigation 1965-1968 (HRFI).
The analysis undertaken in HRFI focused pri-
marily on the striped bass population of the Hudson.
The final report concluded that the project would
not have a, significant effect on the striped bass
fishery, since it would take at most 4 percent of the
striped bass eggs and larvae from the river.29 The
investigation was completed and the report pub-
lished after the remanded hearings before the FPC
were concluded, so that the Power Commission took
official notice of and relied upon the HRFI conclu-
sions but never exposed them to critical examination
in a hearing. The necessity of looking at the Storm
King withdrawals in the context of withdrawals by
other plants on the Hudson is mentioned in the
HRFI conclusions, but no analysis of total with-
drawals on the river was undertaken. This would,
of course, appropriately come within the ambit of
the FPC's responsibility to sec that the project was
in keeping with a comprehensive plan for develop-
ment of the waterway.
The HRFI report provided an essential data base
on the Hudson fishery, particularly the striped bass.
But it was not an exhaustive review of tlu entire
life cycle of the fish. HRFI provides a thorough
examination of the distribution and abundance of
the eggs, larvae1, and juvenile stripers in 1906 and
1967 throughout the Hudson with a more detailed
study around the; plant site in 19(i
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
621
of the fishery. Most importantly, while the collec-
tion and presentation of data in the report was
generally considered to be of high quality, later
analyses showed that the calculations which related
the plant's operation to the withdrawal of organisms
from the river were seriously flawed. The analysis
underlying these calculations was not consistent; a
dynamic analysis relating the rate of withdrawal to
the river flow past the plant compared the plant's
withdrawal rate to the tidal flow and not to the net
downstream flow; in the static analysis a daily with-
drawal rate of absolute numbers of organisms was
presented but the withdrawals were not cumulated
over the season.
It was some years before these facts became clearly
known to the interested public. They were not appar-
ent at the time when the court of appeals reviewed
the construction and operating license which the
FPC issued to the company in 1970. That license
was approved in the second Scenic Hudson case.30
The analysis of the failings of the HRFI report did
not come in an FPC proceeding but rather in a
NEPA proceeding before the Atomic Energy Com-
mission (AEC).
When NEPA became law in 1970, serious plans
or construction were going forward at four power
plants in the central reach of the Hudson which
would affect the estuary's fishery—the Indian Point
2 and 3 nuclear units were in construction, and the
Bowline and Roseton fossil fuel units were about to
begin construction. Starting in 1972, hearings were
held under the NEPA mandate before an Atomic
Energy Commission licensing board on the Indian
Point 2 plant, which is 13 miles downstream from
Storm King and designed to withdraw less water
from the estuary—800,000 gallons per minute. Here,
from the beginning, the major environmental issue
was the effect of plant operation on the biota and
the biological productivity of the estuary, particu-
larly through the entrainment of eggs and larvae
through the plant.
The analysis of the Indian Point plant, conducted
by AEC experts from the Oak Ridge National Lab-
oratory, built on the foundations of the HRFI re-
port, and thus essentially limited its analysis to the
striped bass. It included a hydrological computer
model to power the organisms through the estuary
under various freshwater flows and added an analysis
of the relation of the Hudson spawning grounds to
the coastal stock of striped bass and at least a basic
analysis relating the Hudson's productive capacity
to its actual production. On this basis, the Oak Ridge
staff concluded that the Indian Point 1 and 2 plants
would take between 30 and 50 percent of the annual
production of striped bass in the Hudson which
would be reflected in a similar decline in the size of
that year class when they became adults.31 The
Hudson River Fishermen's Association (HRFA), a
group of sport and commercial fishermen and con-
servationists, participated in the hearing as inter-
venors, providing a non-computer model analysis
which reached essentially the same conclusions as
the Oak Ridge staff.
Con Edison opposed this interpretation of the
data, putting forward its own analysis of the HRFI
material in a different analytical model. The pre-
dicted effect on the Hudson striped bass production
was small, in the 2-6 percent range. A sensitivity
analysis of the model's operation showed that the
major factor in the differing results was the inclusion
by Con Edison's experts of a compensating mecha-
nism in the model which was density dependent and
thus increased the survival of the remaining popula-
tion as the plants reduced the population. The com-
pany further denied the major contribution to the
coastal stock of New York and New England which
was put forward by the Oak Ridge staff. More im-
portantly, on the grounds that there was not enough
data to analyze the impact of the plant, the company
launched a major research program to determine,
by a study to be conducted before and after opera-
tion began, what the effect of the plant's operation
on the fishery would be.
At the close of the proceeding in 1974, the AEC,
while not accepting all the analysis of the Oak Ridge
staff and HRFA, agreed with their ultimate conclu-
sion and required Con Edison to install a closed-
cycle cooling system at the Indian Point plant but
also gave the company a chance to ask for an amend-
ment of the license terms if the research program
led it to believe that such a change was justified.32
During the same period, the Army Corps of Engi-
neers approved construction permits for the two
fossil fuel plants on the Hudson. In March 1970,
the Corps approved the construction permit for the
1200 megawatt Roseton plant owned jointly by
Central Hudson Gas and Electric, Con Edison, and
Niagara Mohawk. The plant would withdraw
650,000 gals/min from the river at approximately
river mile 65. The Corps did not undertake any
NEPA impact study on the plant. In 1971, the
Corps allowed work to go forward on the construc-
tion of the Bowline plant, another 1200 megawatt
plant withdrawing 750,000 gals/min from the Hud-
son and set back from the river on Bowline Pond at
approximately river mile 37, without the completion
of a NEPA impact statement. That plant is owned
jointly by Orange and Rockland Utilities and Con
Edison. Both plants are within the central reach of
the Hudson, and it is self-evident that they present
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622
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
the same fishery issues as does Storm King or
Indian Point. The Corps circulated a draft impact
statement on Bowline in 1971, but its analysis
of the impact on the fishery was so limited and
cursory that one was hard put to realize that the
plant was to operate on the same river with Indian
Point and Storm King. In December 1972, two
suits were filed against the Corps of Engineers by
HRFA over the Corps' failure to carry oat a NEPA
analysis on either of these plants before construction
began.33 Settlement agreements have been reached
in both cases; the Corps has agreed to undertake a
NEPA impact study at Bowline and to analyze the
Roseton plant in conjunction with the Bowline
statement.34 At the same time, the Corps has stated
in the consent decree that it does not hav e the man-
power and expertise to analyze the fishery issues at
stake and therefore the utilities, as part of the settle-
ment, have provided the Corps with $75,000 to hire
an outside consultant.35
Just as the analysis conducted for Storm King
laid the foundation for the expanded analysis at
Indian Point, so the work done at Indian Point indi-
cated the flaws of the Storm King analysis and led
to a request for further consideration of the fishery
issue in relation to Storm King. On the ba.sis of both
direct analysis of the HRFI calculations and an
estimate of the withdrawal of striped bass eggs and
larvae by Storm King made with the model devel-
oped to analyze Indian Point, estimates were made
by Oak Ridge and Brookhaven National Laboratory
personnel and HRFA's expert that 30-40 percent of
the eggs and larvae in the river would be withdrawn
annually by the Storm King plant. These analyses
were presented to the FPC in early 1973 with a
petition for further hearings on the impact of the
plant on the fishery. The FPC refused to hold hear-
ings on the data and analysis, and an appeal was
taken to the Second Circuit Court of Appeals which
in May 1974 remanded the fishery issue back to the
power commission for immediate hearings.36
The remanded hearings are now unde-way, but
have quickly passed beyond the analytical failings
of the HRFI report. The new research effort that
Con Edison launched in response to the Indian.
Point proceedings in 1972, and as a further pre-
operation study of Storm King, is now producing
data, and this material is now being reviewed before
the FPC in the Storm King proceeding. Thus, the
major issues addressed at Indian Point are being
worked over again, but with a major added round
of factual data as well as further refinements of the
computer models.
Further data collection is underway from the
utilities and further agency review of the material
is to be expected. It is likely that EPA will have to
work through the data in response to requests for
variances from the closed-cycle cooling require-
ments now imposed at Indian Point, Bowline, and
Roseton. Further hearings on Indian Point 2 and 3
before the AEC's successor agency, the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, are likely to be requested
by the company on the basis of new evidence.
THE OPERATION OF THE
EXPANDED MANDATE AND THE
CONSULTATION AND REFERRAL SCHEME
Agency Unwillingness
To Accept the Expanded Mandate
None of the three agencies involved in the ex-
panded mandate reviews under the Federal Power
Act or NEPA willingly undertook to effectively ful-
fill its expanded mandate on the issue of the estuarine
fishery. The Court of Appeals has twice sent the
Storm King case back to the FPC for full and
proper investigation of the fishery. The AEC under-
took the analysis of the fishery at Indian Point
only after it was ordered to do so by the Court of
Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in
Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee v. AEC.37
The Corps of Engineers undertook the review of
Roseton and Bowline only in settlement of suits
brought by HRFA.
It may be argued that this is only the difficulty
of initial compliance with broad mandates. I believe
the trouble lies deeper. The FPC had had its man-
date for many years before the 1965 decision. Even
EPA which should be most willing to take a broad
look at environmental issues has shown itself un-
willing to comply with the Act in areas such as
granting funds for waste treatment facility construc-
tion.38 Numerous federal agencies have attempted
to delegate their NEPA responsibilities to others,
frequently those in state government.39
The recipients of federal grants or licenses have
little interest in pressing the government to comply
fully with the terms of the expanded mandate. This
has meant that the only effective force for assuring
full compliance has been public groups who would
be protected by operation of the mandate and who
are willing to exert pressure on the agency. I see no
reason to think that this will not continue to be true.
The Lack of Agency Expertise
To Comply With Expanded Mandate
None of the three agencies reviewed here, the
FPC, the AEC, or the Corps of Engineers, had
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
623
within its line staff the expertise to analyze properly
the estuarine biological system. This may be less
frequently true for small projects, say the filling of
an acre of wetland for which a Corps permit is neces-
sary, but is likely to be the normal circumstance
for many large projects producing significant and
widespread effects across complex estuarine systems.
In each of the cases reviewed, the agency turned
to groups outside its own line staff to analyze
the problem presented to it. The FPC turned to the
Hudson River Policy Committee, which was drawn
from the federal and state agencies with responsi-
bility for fishery matters. The Corps of Engineers
turned to an outside private consultant to review
the impact of the two fossil fuel plants, and further
built consultation with the Interior Department
into the license terms for the two plants, stating
that the Secretary of the Army would rely on the
Secretary of the Interior to recommend measures
which should be taken to protect the fish and wild-
life of the Hudson River.40 The AEG turned to the
Oak Ridge National Laboratory for its analysis of
the plant's impact on the river. Oak Ridge was,
of course, part of the AEC, but not under the same
regime as the regulatory staff, so that the regulatory
branch of the Commission had to apply to the
research arm for this NEPA work.41
It is evident that there is no internal repository
of analytic strength or developed policy to which
most agencies with an expanded mandate can turn.
This is made clear by the fact that each agency
turned to different sources to obtain expertise. From
the product produced in each case, it is equally
evident that there an highly variable levels of
ability among the experts to whom the agencies
turned.
This situation makes the results of operation under
the expanded mandate very uneven. Another result
is that when opposing private groups such as Con
Edison and HRFA have litigated the same essential
issues more than once, they tend to be more in-
formed than the experts to whom the government
agency turns, so that the "experts" are being edu-
cated by the partisans. To a certain extent, such
education is good and proper, but the agency should
have within it.--! own organization or '--asily accessible
to it impartial sources of expertise to which it can
turn for aid.
Realistically, no agency is likely to have the full
range of expertise itihouse that is needed for full
and effective estuarine review. It i^. therefore essen-
tial that institutions modeled on the national lab-
oratories be established with a special estuarine
mandate to provide to relevant agencies the exper-
tise needed for these analvses. Such institutions
should be able to retain high quality personnel by
offering a mix of research opportunities with ana-
lytic and semi-regulatory responsibilities. Only this
mechanism will provide the agencies with exper-
tise necessary for the effective discharge of their
responsibilities.
Failure of the Consultation
and Referral Mechanism
In the licensing proceedings review ed, both XLPA
and the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act required
the agency granting the license to consult with other
agencies and groups with relevant expertise and
jurisdiction. NEPA requires consultation with a
wide spectrum of groups and interests. The Fish
and Wildlife Coordination Act requires consultation
with the Fish and Wildlife Service in the Depart-
ment of the Interior, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration in the Department of
Commerce, and state agencies concerned with wild-
life protection. The review here will focus on these
federal and state agencies with fish and wildlife
responsibilities.
Before the FPC's 1970 licensing of Storm King,
all these agencies played an important role through
their participation on the Hudson River Policy
Committee, but in the remanded hearings in 1974
that position has shifted. The Interior Department
is participating in the hearings and there is a task
group of Interior and Commerce experts working
on an analysis of the plant's possible impact. But
the successor to the Hudson River Policy Commit-
tee, the Hudson River lush and Wildlife Manage-
ment Cooperative, has publicly declined to take- a
significant part in the hearings.42 This is so despite
the fact that the cooperative is made up of repte-
sentatives of the Division of Fish and Wildlife and
the Division of Marine and Coastal Resource.-! in the
New York Department of Environmental Conserva-
tion, the New Jersey Division of Fish, Game and
Shellfisheries, the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife, and the National Alarine Fisheries
Service, and has as its stated objectives to:
1. Coordinate evaluation of environmental impacts on
fish and wildlife resources of the estuary and formulate
appropriate response.
2. Develop a comprehensive fish and wildlile inanage-
ment plan for species of interstaie significance.
3. Encourage implementation of Uie coippreSieusK-e
plan by the agencies with primary responsibility.4'1
Thus the group which on paper should provide
major guidance on fishery issues has chosen noi to
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624
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTKOL
do so in the context of proceedings whose outcome
may affect the fishery.
In the AEC and Corps of Engineers proceeding,
the Interior Department submitted letters com-
menting on both impact statements.44 The Corps'
initial draft impact statement on Bowline in 1971
gave no indication that the plant could have serious
impact on the fishery; Interior's letter did not dis-
agree w'th that position.45 The AEC's draft state-
ment on Indian Point indicated the possibility of
.sul'tft'uuicii damage to the fishery, though not the
level of impact predicted in the final statement.
Interior wrote the AEC a strenuous letter advocat-
ing the use of a closed-cycle cooling system.46 The
Department of Commerce did not subm t anything
substantial in response to either impact statement.47
Left to themselves, Interior and Commerce have
largely reacted to what the other agencies have put
before them. Where the work of the referring agency
has been thorough and competent, the response
under the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act has
been pointed and helpful. Where the referring
agency's work has been second rate, the Coordina-
tion Act response is little better except in those
cases which are the focus of public attention; then,
as in the 1974 Storm King hearings, a special effort
is made by the departments.
This is not an impressive record, but it is only fair
to point out that the agencies are now staffed and
funded to about one-half of what they and General
Accounting Office believe is necessary for the effec-
tive operation of the Coordination Act.4' This ap-
pears to be the fault of the executive branch in not
requesting sufficient funds from Congress 49 We will
not really know whether this system can work
properly unless it is adequately staffed and funded.
In addition to sufficient funding, Interior and
Commerce will need an organizational format with
an ongoing comprehensive view of estuarine sys-
tems and their wildlife. 1 can see no basic reason
why this obvious organizational method of dealing
with the Coordination Act responsibilit es should
not be achieved, but it has not yet been done.30
The State of New York has primary responsibility
for ihe Hudson fishery, but it lias not demonstrated
tbe ability to develop its own articulated position
on the fishery or to critique- fully the positions put
forward by others.50A The Department of Environ-
mental Conservation (DEC) has primary respon-
sibility ior fishery management, but, it has not
pioducvd a basic ushery management polhy for the
esi.ua TV. The state has the typical array of limitations
on caich sizes, nets, meshs, arid open seasons;51 but
these regulations are not drawn together into a
policy which reflects an].' clear opinion on the life
cycle or population dynamics of the striped bass
or most of the rest of the estuarine fishery. This
may be in part the product of history, since in New
York in the past, the emphasis has been on the cold
water fishery and the marine commercial fishery
with little attention focused on the estuarine zone.62
The net result is that the DEC has taken a back
seat in determining the course of development
which can affect the fishery. The department was
represented on the Hudson River Policy Committee
in the 1970 licensing of the Storm King plant, but
as part of the Hudson River Management Coopera-
tive, it has declined to take part in the analysis of
fishery issues in the present remand. Before the
AEC, the DEC was represented through the New
York State Atomic Energy Council, but neither
presented evidence nor took a position on the fishery
issues before the licensing board. Its role before the
Army Corps of Engineers has been equally passive.63
Unfortunately, New York's record of fishery man-
agement is reasonably typical of the performance of
other states54 and perhaps the fishery management
profession generally.55 It would not be a wise policy
for the Congress to rely on the states to develop
sound policies for the protection of estuarine pro-
ductivity. These circumstances underscore the im-
portance of full staffing and funding of Interior and
Commerce's fish and wildlife agencies and the pro-
vision of expert assistance to the agencies with the
expanded mandates.
Unequal Distribution
of Resources
At least in the case of large projects, the resources
brought to bear in licensing proceedings are very
unequally distributed. The industrial or develop-
mental interests are willing and able to devote
hundreds of thousands, even millions, of dollars to
procuring a license or permit to exploit estuarine
resources. Citizens' groups have budgets which at
best run in the tens of thousands and are dependent
on pro bono or reduced fee help from lawyers and
scientists. The governmental agencies expend sums
which lie somewhere between industry and the pri-
vate groups, but all too often closer to the private
groups.
Con Edison ts now spending approximately $3
million a year over a o-year period on biological
research alone on the Hudson.5" Other utilities are
contributing their shire, and these sums do not
include attorneys' fees or the other costs of applying
for and obtaining a license. Congressional docu-
ments show that utilities now budget $500,000 to
$1,000,000 for major nuclear licensirigs.57
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
Next to these massive sums, government expendi-
tures appear puny indeed. The present Fish and
Wildlife Service budget for all Coordination Act
programs for the entire country is $7.5 million.58
The Corps of Engineers was -willing to pay consul-
tants only $75,000 for a NEPA impact analysis to
cover two fossil fuel plants on the Hudson.59 Since
applicants for permits take on most of the primary
research, some greater expenditure on their part is
to be expected. But these liguies indicate utterly
disproport ionate spending.
The resources of citizens'' groups representing pub-
lic interests are even more scanty. The average inter-
vention in an AEC proceeding costs $50-60,000.60
Few groups can raise sums of this magnitude. On
the Hudson, groups like HRFA and Scenic Hudson
have existed on tiny annual budgets with the help
of pro bono legal and scientific assistance.
Congress has increasingly encouraged citizen par-
ticipation in environmental enforcement by, for in-
stance, providing citizen suit provisions and allowing
the payment of reasonable attorney and expert
witness fees in such suits under the Clean Air Act
and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972.61 To be effective, this policy
should extend more widely to proceedings before
administrative agencies as well. It is there that facts
on environmental issues are increasingly tried out
and thus where the major expenses of litigation
occur as well as where the terms of discretionary
decisions are hammered out. It, has generally been
conceded that if our system of justice is to operate
effectively, there must be a rough equality of re-
sources on both sides of an argument. WTe must move
closer to seeing that such equality is the fact as well
as the ideal.
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The legal regulation of estuaries operates pri-
marily through administrative agencies which have
direct jurisdiction over part but not all of the
estuarine system or its resources. The federal
agencies typically operate through an expanded man-
date requiring them to consider all the resources of
the estuary and the effects of their actions on the
entire system. Coupled to this expanded mandate is
a system of consultation and refer ml putting partic-
ular emphasis on expert advice and recommenda-
tions from agencies with expertise and responsibilities
which are focused on particular resources in the
estuarine system such as fish and wildlife.
The record of effective regulation under this
system has not br.jon fcood ''or four primarj in-
stitutional reasons: (1) the agencies are reluctant
to fulfill their expanded mandate and frequently
do so only under pressure from the public; (2} the
agencies frequently do not possess the expertise to
fulfill the mandate and rarely have an effective and
impartial government source to which to turn for
aid; (3) the federal referral agencies are under-
staffed and underfunded and thus are incapable of
effectively dispatching their responsibilities, and the
state agencies have a poor record of performance
which does not hold much promise for future im-
provement; and (4) the resources brought to the
decision making process are overwhelming favorable
to the private industrial and developmental interests
and thus they tend to dominate both the govern-
mental and public interest input to the process.
To make the system work effectively, there must be
an evening of resources, so that the major interests—
governmental, industrial, and public—are properly
balanced. This should be achieved by taking three
measures:
1. Within the discretion of the agency, groups
representing public interests should be able to obtain
reasonable attorney and expert witness fees in
agency proceedings where they have contributed
to the development and resolution of the issues
before the agency. A model for such a provision
exists in Title; V of the Senate version of the Energy
Research and Development Act of 1974M and
should be adopted for all federal acts dealing with
estuarine development and regulation. This will
answer, in part, problems i and 4 set out above.
2. Congress should establish tnree or four National
Estuarine Laboratories. Effective research and
analytical support must, be made available to the
regulatory agencies on a continuing basis from in-
stitutions which develop expertise on entire1 estuarine
systems and are; required to present positions on
proposed projects. The regulatory agencies cannot
be entirely dependent on the presentation and
analysis of facts by outside parties :im« v\hat they
need from within the government is much more than
ad hoc consultation on particular projects under
pressure for quick analysis. There must be a, form
of advocacy laboratory whie;h engages in b/oad
analysis and research so that it is readily familiar
with major estuarine systems and produces an
articulated program for protecting the estuary's
productive capacity. Such a program would be able
to put the individual and cumulative impacts ->f
development in context from the viewpoint of the-
entire estuarine system and thus overcome se>me of
the disadvantage of dispersed governmental au-
thority. This "vuiuld, in part, aris\\er pre>bii'm« L '.'
and 4 set out above.
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626
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
3. The federal referral agencies under the con-
sulation mechanism must be fully funded and
staffed, and organized so that they maintain ongoing
knowledge and expertise on entire estuarine systems.
The General Accounting Office has already reported
this need to Congress in the case of the Fish and
Wildlife Coordination Act, and it is recognized as
essential by the agencies affected. Action must be
taken to put it into effect. This is the only course
of action by which we \\ill be able to est whether
tins ^YisU'iP is or is pot effective i'i providing protec-
tion to otuarine resources and productivity. This
would, in part, answer problems 3 and 1 set out
above.
FOOTNOTES
i33 U B.C. §1251(aj.
- Delaware Fiver Basin Compact, N.Y. Environmental Conservation
Law §21-0701, eo. seq. rfbe Ackerman & Sawyer, ' Uncertain Search for
Environmental Policy: Scientific Faetmidi-ig and Deoifion making along
the Delaware River," 120 [J. Pa. L. P.cv. 419 (1972).
•M2 U.S.C, §1062(b), Executive Or-jer No. 1137, 32 Fed. Keg. 12903
(1967' js amended.
•" Powei, "Chesapeake Bay in Lepal Perspective," U.S. Department of
ths Interior, 1'ederal Water Pollution Control Adrninisi "ation, Estuariue
Pollution Study Series — 1 (1970); pfinonal communication with author.
5 42 U.S.C. §4321 el. seq. The leims of the N"atiomil Environmental
Poiicv Act aie so well known that e tensive description seems unnecessary,
but a bnef outline of the expanded mandate aspect may be useful. The Act
inquires that each federal agency in considering any project which would
&igmfu>y,;rir!y affect the quality of the human en VD oilmen t and wmch the
agency itself wouM undertake or whicli it can license or permit a private
partv to undertake must prepare a hi 11 statement, on t^e impact of the
pioject ou the arrvironn.ent, -42 L.c'.C. §4cH'2. The Act instructs federal
agencies, inter , It'i, tcr
pieserve important historic, cultural, and natural aspects of our
niuural heittage, and maintain, wherever possible, an environment
wh,eh supports diversity and variety of individual Choice; [and] . ..
achieve a balance between population and resoiac! use which will
permit hagh standards of living and a wide sharing of life's amenities.
12 U.S.C. §
This is to be achieved "coxiSistent with other essential considerations ol
national policy.'' Id.
\Vm!" making environmental protection a part of the mandate of each
agenej, the Act provides for a system of careful analysis rather than a
particularised policy of protection:
Thns trie general substantive policy of the Act is i- flexible one, It
leaves room ros a responsible exercise of discretion i'ul may not re-
quire particulai i adults in particular problematic mstmces,
. . . NEPA mandates a rather finely tuned and 'systematic' balancing
analysis in each instance. Calvcit Chffs' Coordinating CommtttfH1 t»,
AEC, 449 F.2d 1109, 1113 (D.C. Cir. 1971).
G Scenic Tlud&on Preservation Conference v. Federal Po*'er Commission,
354 F.2d t:08 (2d Ou. 1965), pert. denied, 384 U.S. 941 (1966).
7 40 U.S.C. §46J as amended by the Housing and Community Develop-
ment Ad of 1974, Sec- 401(b), (k), 88 Stat. 687-689.
§483-A (Supp. 1971), Masf. Gen. Stat. Ch. 130, §27a (Supp. 1971), R.I.
Gen. Laws Ann. §11-46-1.1 (Supp. 1971); Conn. Gen. Siat. §§22a-?8 to
22a-34; N.Y. ECL. §§25-0101 et seq. (McKmney 1973), N.,T. Stat. Ann.
§13:9A-1 to -10 (Supp. 1971;, 7 Del. Code Arm. Ch. 70, §§7001 et seq.;
Md. Ann. Code Art. GGC. §§718-31 (Supp. 1970); Va. Code Ann. §§62.1-
13.1 to 13.20 (Supp. 1972), N,C. Gen. Stat. §113.229 et .-.eq., (Supp.
1971); S.C. Code Ann. §§70-13 to -42 (Supp. 1973); Ga. Code Arm. §§45-
136-147 (Supp 1972), Flu. Stat. Ann. §§253.122-123 (Supp. 1972).
10 16 U.S.C. §3451 et seq.
11 16 U.S.C. §061 et seq.
>- Hunt, A I-listorka1 Sketch of the Town oi Clermom, Hudson (1928).
13 State of New York Conservation Department, ' A Biological Suivey
of the Lower Hudson Watershed," 15 (1937).
14 Id.; Hudson River Policy Committee, "Hudson River Fisheries In-
vestigation 1965-1968" (undated) (hereafter HKFIj.
15 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Directorate of Licensing, Final
Environmental Statement, Indian Point Nuclear Generating Plant Unit
No. 2, Sept. 1972 at V-40 Chereafter "IP2 FES"); Clark, "Effects of
Indian Point Units 1 and 2 on Hudson River Aquatic Life," October 30,
1972 m transcript of In re Consolidated Edison Company of New York,
Inc. (Indian Point 2) AKC Docket JO-247, following Tr. 6276, at 5-6
(hereafter "IPS Tr. at — ").
IB 1 IP2 FES XII-29 to XI1-35; Raney, "The Striped Bass, Morone
saxatiiis, of the Atlantic Coast of the United States with Particular Refer-
ence to the Population Found in the Hudson River," October 30, 1972,
IP2 Tr. following 6254.
" 1 IP2 FES V-36.
« Testimony of C. Phillip Goodyear, IP2 Tr, at 9068-907L
19 In re. Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Indian
Point 2^ RA1 73-9 751 (1973).
20 Cluttemler, "Status of the Striped Bass, Morone saxaiihs, in the
Delaware Rivei," 12 Ches Sci 131-36 (1971). Goodyear, "Origin of the
Stuped Bass Stock of the Middle Atlantic Coast," March 1, 1973, IP2 Tr.
following 9858.
-l Turner & Cha-lwick, "Distribution and Abundance of young-of-the-
year striped basa, Morone saratihs, in relation to river flow in the Sacra-
mento-San Joaqum Estuary," 101 Trans. Am, Fish. Soc. 442-452 (1972);
Clark, "Effects of Indian Point" at 54, IP2 Tr. following 6276.
w Temporary State Commission on the \\ ater Supply Needs of South-
eastern Ne\r *» oik, "Water for Tomoriow," (1973). See N.Y. Times, March
15, 1975 at 29, col. 8.
23 F-P.C. Opiiion No. 584 (August 19, 1970).
** HRFI «t 40; Affidavit of John P. Law'er, FPC Proj. No. 2338 (Jan.
16, 1974).
25 351 F.2d 60S (2d Cir. 1965), cert, denied, 384 U.S. 941 (1966).
« 16 U.S.C. J803(i).
* HRFI at 4.
& Id. at 4-5.
29 Id. at 45.
30 Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. FPC, 453 F.2d 463 (2d
Cir. 1971), cert, denied, 407 U.S. 926 (1972).
* 12 Me. Rt*v. Sfat. Ann. tit. 12 §^4701-4709 (Uev. 19'34, Supp.
3S Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§481-488 (Supp. 1972), N.H. Rev. Sta
1972);
, .
Rev. Stat. Ann.
i IP2 FES.
33 In re Congo, ida ted Edison Company of Xew York, Inc. (Indian
Point 2), RAI-74-4 323.
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LEGAL ASPECTS
627
3S Hudson River Fishermen's Association v. Orange & Rockland Utili-
ties, 72 Civ. 54GO (S.D.N.Y. 1972); Hudson River Fishermen's Associa-
tion v. Centra! Hudson Gas & Electnc Co., 7? Civ. 5459 (S.D.N.Y. 1972).
$ Id.
which clearly would encompass the estuarine dependent fishery (16 U.S.C.
§367a), but the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission established
under the compact has not provided the technical analysis which would
relate the production of estuaries to the coastal stock and thus the Commis-
sion has been unable to provide aid in determining the effect on the coastal
fishery of development in the estuaries. Nor has the Department of the
Interior used its statutory authoiity for Atlantic coast fishery studies to
meet this need in relation to the Hudson, 16 U.S.C. §700a.
v. FPC, 498 F.2d 827 (2d
36 Hudson River Fishermen's Association
Cir. 1974).
" 449 F.2d 1109 (D.C. Cir. 1971).
38 See Urban Systems Research and Engineering, Inc., "Interceptor
Sewers and Suburban Sprawl, The Impact of Construction Grants on
Residential Land Use" (prepared for Council on Environmental Quality,
1974).
39 E.g., Greene County Planning Board v. FPC, 455 F.2d 412 (2d Cir.
1972); Conservation Society of Southern Vermont v* Secretary, -F.2d-,
7 ERG 1236 (2d Cir. 1974).
40 E.g., Letter of James W. Barnett, District Engineer to Central Hudson
Gas & Electric Corp., 20 Dec. 1971, para. (W).
41 Under Congress's new division of the AEC, national labs and the
regulatory staff will be separated, the labs going into the Energy Research
and Development Administration and the Regulatory Staff into the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
42 Letter of Herbert E. Doig to Kenneth F. Plumb, August 16, 1974
(Ex. 83A in 1974 hearings on FPC Proj. No. 2338).
43 The Hudson River Fish and Wildlife Management Cooperative, Nov.
1973.
44 2 IP2 FES 45; Letter of Richard E. Griffith to Mark Abelson, April
28, 1971.
« Id.
e 2 IP2 FES 45.
^A McHugh, "Marine Fisheries of New York Stale," 70 Fishery B lUetin
585 (1972); Gmter, ' Marine Fisheries Conseivation in New Yoik State:
Policy and Practice of Marine Fisheries Management." NYS Pea Grant
Program, 1974 (NYSSGP-SS-74-012).
5i6 N.Y.C.R.R. Part 36, N.Y. Environmental Conservation Law
511-1311.
62 Persona! communication, James L. Biggane, formerly Comraigpioner,
N.Y. Department of Environmental Conservation.
53 In recent years, the New York Attorney General's office has mo^ed to
ftll the vacuum and develop A state fishery policy through presentations
before agencies and courts. Before the AEC, the attorney genera! took an
active role generally suppoiting the position of the Oak Ridge staff,
though no witnesses were presented. In the latest round of hearings before
the FPC, the attorney general has bepn active and apparently plans to
present witnesses as well as cross-examine those of other parties. The
office also commented on the impact statement circulated by the Corps
on the Bowline plant. In addition, the attorney general has brought
a public nuisance suit against Consolidated Edison for fish destruction
at the Indian Point plant. See Hudson River Fishermen's Association
v. Consolidated Edison, N.I'. Law. Jour., June 6, 1971 at 2. This route
for pursuing a fishery policy faces two important restraints. First,
there are limited technical resources directly available to the attorney
general, and it is unlikely that his office can develop che staff of fishery
biologists, hydrologists, and computer experts needed for continuing
analysis of the river. Second, the mandate of the attorney general does not
extend to operating a management program for the estuarme fishery, so
that a fully articulated program is unlikely to emerge from this effort.
M Remarks of J. L. McHugh at EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution
Control, Feb. 11-13, 1975,
56 Larkm, "A Confidential Memorandum on Fisheries Science," World
Fisheries Policy: A Multidisciplinary View (Rothschild ed. 1972) 189.
«2 IP2 FES 11.
48 "Improved Federal Efforts Needed to Equally Consider Wildlife
Conservation With Other Features of Water Resource Developments,"
GAO Report B-118370, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Fish and
Wildlife Conservation and the Environment of the Committee on Merchant
Marine and Fisheries (,93rd Cong., 2d Sees.) on GAO Report B-118370 and
H.R. 42, H.R. 2285, H.R. 2288, H. R. 2291, H.R. 2292, H.R. 10651, and
H.R. 14527 (Serial No. 93-33} ("Coordination Act Hearings") at 591,
600-605.
« Id. at 121-601.
66 Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc., "Summary of
Hudson River Research Progiams, Approximate Cost of Ecological
Studies" (Nov. 19, 1974).
« 120 Cong. Rec. S18724 (Oct. 10, 1974).
^ Coordination Act Hearings at 591,
59 Note 36, supra.
so 120 Cong. Rec. S18725 (Oct. 10, 1974).
50 Two other federally established programs which might give backup
support have also failed to provide technical assistance or a clear policy
guidance. Congress gave its consent in 1940 to an interstate compact of
the Atlantic coastal states tor the joint regulation of the coastal fishery
« 42 fl.S.C. §L857h-2; 33 U.S.C. §1305.
« 120 Cong. Rec. S1S724 et seq.
-------
ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT-
THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL DIMENSION
JOHNJ. BOSLEY
Attorney-at-law
Washington, D.C.
ABSTRACT
This paper provides a synoptic overview of the principal existing and pending federal laws and
policies affer-ting the management of the nation's estuaries and estuarine zones. Specific attention
is given to the influence these laws and policies have on the active management of such resources
at the state, regional, and local levels. Using this analysis, the adequacy of extant federal policies
to achieve established national goals and objectives on the preservation and conservation of
estuarine resources is assessed. Finally, from this analysis current issues are identified, and
proposed recommendations are made for federal policies to more adequately provide an in-
stitutional and management framework to protect these vital resources.
THE CURRENT SITUATION
The national government's concern and interest
in protecting estuarine resources is relatively new.
But the recognition that estuarine zones are pro-
ductive and indispensable natural resources evolved
only after many estuarine areas were lost to develop-
ment and others imperiled.
During the decade of the 1960's dramatic growth
and development experienced in the coastal states
resulted in significant reduction of wetlands and the
deterioration of some of our most valuable estuarine
resources. The threat to these productive natural
resources provoked legislative action in many coastal
states and in Congress.
The first successful attempt to exercise a state's
police power to protect estuarine resource systems
came in Massachusetts with the enactment of that
state's wetland legislation in 1963.1 This statute
requires a state permit as a condition to any signifi-
cant alteration of coastal wetlands. It recognizes
that these wetland areas are a natural resource held
in trust for the people of the state, and usually a
permit will not be issued if the proposed alteration
would significantly damage estuarine and marine
fisheries. The legitimacy of state regulation in these
privately held areas was upheld by the Massachu-
setts courts.2 The success of the Massachusetts law
fostered enactment of similar statutes in many other
coastal states. These state wetland laws were fol-
lowed in a few states with a more comprehensive
approach to coastal and estuarine management.
Delaware,8 Maine,4 and California5 are among the
states that passed coastal zone management or
conservation law.
Concurrent with many of these incipient state
actions there was a national focus on oceanography.
The Stratton Commission between 1967 and 196
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630
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
ethic within the federal establishment. The admin-
istration of the permit programs under the River
and Harbors Act of 1899 (33 U.S.C. 403) by the
Department of Army is a case study on this point.
Section 10 of this old statute prohibits the un-
authorized obstruction or alteration of any navigable
water of the United States. The Corps of Engineers
had traditionally issued permits under the Act unless
the proposal would interfere with navigation. How-
ever, the need to administer this legislation in ac-
cordance with contemporary environmental values
caused a departure from this myopic approach. The
vindication of this new federal environmental con-
cern came in 1970 in the case of Zabel v. Tabb.7
This litigation was brought after the District Engi-
neer denied a Section 10 permit to fill 11 acres of
tidelands in Boca Ciega Bay, F!a., on the grounds
that the fill would be harmful to fish and wildlife.
The ;>th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held that the
Corps of Engineers had properly taken conservation
and environmental factors into account as well as
navigational considerations. This holdrig was based
on the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 19.59
(FWCA) and the National Environmental Policy
Act of 1969 (NEPA). These statutes require con-
sideration by federal agencies of environmental
considerations other than missions assigned to them
by their respective laws. The Supreme Court de-
clined to review the case thereby letting the court of
appeals' decision stand.
However, the seneral environmental impact an-
alysis approach required under NEPA and FWCA
were not considered adequate substitutes for sub-
stantive environmental policy. Congress recognized
that impact assessments would not be adequate in
areas requiring active resource planning and manage-
ment.
Other Federal Legislation
Relevant to Estuarine Management
The Senate and House Interior Committees did
not follow up the "National Estuary Study" with
proposed new legislation on protecting estuarine
areas. But this was probably not associated with the
merits of the study. Rather, the more likely reason
for the absence of new estuarine legislation was the
nature of the complex and overlapping committee
structures in Congress. Several congressional com-
mittees exercise jurisdiction over legislation dealing
with coastal and marine affairs. Quite independent
of the activities in the Interior committees, these
other committees were developing other legislative
thrusts which happened to also directly affect the
nation's estuarine zones.
Two such efforts culminated in 1972. The Senate
and House Public Works Committees developed a
major new water quality program in the Federal
Water Pollution Central Amendment of 1972
(P.L. 92-500). This legislation protects estuarine
resources in several ways. It requires the states to
establish, under federal criteria, ambient water
quality standards and effluent limitations. Com-
pliance with these standards is obtained through a
permit program encompassing all discharges into
navigable waters. Areas having substantial water
quality problems are required to develop continuous
water quality management planning and program-
ming processes under Section 208 of the Act. Such
management planning must consider land use, cur-
tailment of non-point sources, and, where appro-
priate, methods to control saltwater intrusion caused
by curtailment of freshwater flow. Probably, the
most important aspect of the statute on estuarine
resources is the law's water quality goals for 1983.
By that date, the nation's waters should provide for
the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish and
wildlife, and recreation in and on the water. Con-
sequently, the Act establishes one absolute param-
eter for protecting and managing the estuarine zones.
On the other hand, the Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972 has a comprehensive rather than single
purpose environmental orientation. It originated in
the Senate Commerce and House Merchant Marine
and Fisheries Committees. This law authorized the
Secretary of Commerce to make grants to coastal
states in planning for and administering sound
management programs for the coastal zone. Its basic
approach is that decisionmakiiig on the use of the
coastal zone, which by definition encompasses the
estuarine zone, is basically a state prerogative sub-
ject to the overriding national interest in such areas
as water quality standards, navigation, deepwater
ports, and the production of energy. To achieve this
objective of state primacy, the legislation encouraged
the establishment of a management process including
an intergovernmental system to achieve wise use of
land and water resources of the coastal zone. One of
the principal inducements for the state to develop
an unified management program for the areas is that,
when approved, the state management process will
subject the federal government's actions to stringent
consistency checks against adopted state policies.
Under Section 307, application for a federal grant,
license or permit to conduct activities affecting land
water uses in the state's coastal zone must be con-
sistent with the state's approved coastal manage-
ment program. Normally, direct federal government
activities must also be consistent with the state
program.
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LEGAL ASPECTS
631
The Act also recognizes the particular value of
preserving estuarine resources. Under Section 312,
the Secretary is authorized to make grants up to 50
percent of the cost of acquiring and operating estu-
arine sanctuaries for the purpose of creating natural
field laboratories to study the natural and human
processes within estuaries.
In 1972, Congress also enacted the Marine Pro-
tection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972
(P.L. 92-532). The Act mainly affects ocean re-
sources. But it also will assist in the protection of
the waters within estuarine zones. This results from
two programs provided for in the legislation. Section
103 requires the Secretary of the Army to issue per-
mits for the transportation of dredged material for
the purpose of dumping it in ocean waters. No such
permit may be issued, however, if the Administrator
of EPA finds that the dumping of such material will
result in an unacceptable adverse impact on shellfish
beds, fisheries, wildlife, or recreational areas. More-
over, the protection of estuarine areas will be assisted
also under the authority in Section 302 of the Act.
This provision vests the power in the Secretary of
Commerce, after consultation with other federal
agencies and with approval of the President, to
designate as marine sanctuaries those areas of ocean
or coastal waters which he determines necessary to
preserve or restore such areas for their conservation,
recreational, ecological, or aesthetic values. Once
designated, the Secretary must issue regulations to
control any activities within such areas, and federal
activities can only be undertaken in these sanctuaries
if the Secretary certifies that they are consistent with
the management of the area as a marine sanctuary.
Finally, a summary of the existing environmental
policies affecting the protection of estuaries, or any
other important natural resource, would not be
complete without including the National Environ-
mental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190). This far-
reaching statute declares it the national policy to
encourage a productive and enjoyable harmony
between man and his environment. To assure that
this policy is incorporated into all the programs and
actions of the federal government, Section 102 of the
Act directs that to the greatest extent possible the
policies, regulations, and public laws of the LTnited
States shall be interpreted and administered to
reflect the purposes of the Act. This section also
mandates all federal agencies to prepare detailed
environmental impact statements on major federal
actions significantly affecting the quality of the hu-
man environment. Such statements are to insure
that environmental amentities and values will be
given appropriate consideration in federal decision-
making processes.
While NEPA does not establish absolute environ-
mental standards, it provides the integrative force
to focus all appropriate environmental policies and
values on major federal programs and regulatory
systems.
Proposed Federal Legislation
The national energy crisis is becoming an im-
portant new factor in protecting estuarine resources.
To become more self-sufficient, additional energy
sources are being sought. One of the prime' areas for
new oil exploration is in the Outer Continental Shelf.
But exploration for new energy sources is not the
only approach contemplated to meet the problem.
For example, coastal and estuarine areas are attrac-
tive locations for new power plants, especially nu-
clear facilities.
In response to those needs, the Department of
Interior has indicated that areas in the Baltimore
Canyon area of the Continental Shelf adjacent to the
states of New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, and
Virginia will be opened to oil exploration in 1975.
Existing production areas will be subject to more
intense exploration activities. As a result, the Ad-
ministration has requested and Congress has appro-
priated supplemental funds for F Y 1975 to accelerate
the coastal state planning efforts to prepare for the
impact of these energy-inspired activities in the
offshore areas. These monies will be available to the
coastal states under the Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972.
Congress has also evinced interest and concern
over the potential environmental consequences of
new energy development activities. For example,
the Senate has established the National Ocean Policy
Study Group in the Commerce Committee.8 In
April 1974, the Committee received testimony on
the potential impact of Outer Continental Shelf oil
and gas development along the Atlantic, Pacific,
and Gulf of Alaska. Much of the testimony rec-
ognized that the nearshore areas of the coastal zone
would absorb a major part of the environmental
impact. One federal official cited the impact of off-
shore drilling in the Gulf of Mexico as evidencing
that these activities would cause loss of wetlands and
affect circulation conditions of nearshore areas.9
These and other congressional hearings have gen-
erated a plethora of bills dealing with the environ-
mental consequences of development in the con-
tinental shelf area.10 One of these measures was
enacted in the last days of the 93rd Congress—-Deep-
water Port Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-627). In the main,
the Act authorized the Secretary of Transportation
upon application to issue, transfer, and renew 20-
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632
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
year licenses for the ownership, construction, and
operation of deepwater ports in waters beyond the
territorial limits of the United States. This legislation
is simply a recognition by the executive branch and
Congress that new domestic energy sources are not
the immediate answer to our problerr. Rather, oil
imports will continue and the United States must
have adequate facilities to accommodate the ever-
increasing fleet of supertankers. Again, as in the
case of new offshore exploration, any such legislation
will inevitably have significant impact on estuarine
areas, albeit of a more localized nature.
Impact of Federal Law and
Policy on Estuarine Management Act
State and Substate Level
Most of the federal legislation discussed above
affecting estuarine areas have a single thrust; they
encourage states to develop balanced management
processes for such areas. The Estuary Protection Act
and the Coastal Zone .Management Act represent
this policy. In the former case the legislation has had
little impact in generating state management policies
for wetland and estuarine areas. Its most important
contribution has been to perpetuate continuing
congressional interest in estuarine problems and, to
some extent, cause federal agencies to consider state
policies relative to the management of these re-
sources. A good example of the latter its the Corps of
Engineers' use of the Act as the basis for considering
state policy and the administration of its permit
programs concerning activities in navigable ocean
waters.11
On the other hand, the Coastal Zone Management
Act has had widespread impact on estuarine manage-
ment. It appears that all coastal and Great Lake
states will participate in the program. This will have
direct implications on estuarine management. The
Act and its implementing regulations require each
participating state to evolve over a period not to
exceed three years a unified coastal zone manage-
ment program, together with a coordinated admin-
istrative system for its implementation. Thus the
Act supports a substantial increase in state law and
authority in the estuarine zone.12 The program must
identify important coastal resource areas such as
estuarine zones. It must insure that such resources
are encompassed in the state's defined coastal zone.
Further, discreet policies must be adopted for their
protection, conservation, and development. The
defined coastal zone also must include upland areas
necessary to control uses of land which have a direct
and significant impact on coastal waters.
To insure adequate implementation of the man-
agement program, and to resolve conflicts of com-
peting uses, each participating state must have a
technique to control land and water uses in the
coastal zone. Although several options are available,
most states will probably establish standards and
criteria for implementation by local governments.
Many states also intend to use regional planning
agencies to assist in implementing the program.
As pointed out above, the program is not manda-
tory. States are encouraged to participate and re-
ceive two-thirds of the cost of developing a coastal
management program. Such development grants can
be made annually for three years. After that period
a state may only receive annual grants toward the
cost of administering its program if the Secretary of
Commerce approves the program. A principal in-
ducement for securing program approval is that
subsequently the federal government must generally
conduct its programs and activities in accordance
with the approved state management program.
Already the coastal management program is hav-
ing significant impact on state, regional, and local
governments. If most coastal states remain in the
program, state and local government will be making
explicit planning and policy-based decisions on the
future use of estuarine resources. Most importantly,
however, such decisions will be made within the
framework of a coastal management process which
will weigh environmental as well as economic and
social values. It must be reiterated that the import-
ance given estuarine resources in this process is es-
sentially a state value judgment. Unless there is a
preemptive national policy, as in the case of the
Federal Water Pollution legislation, the state's per-
ception of estuarine management must prevail.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972
had the most immediate impact on the management
of estuarine resources at the state and local levels.
Prior to this Act, federal policies dealing with water
quality impacts on estuarine waters and coastal
wetlands were diffuse and ambiguous. But the Act
provided definitive standards and goals which en-
compassed all of the nation's navigable waters.
Currently, EPA and the Corps of Engineers' regula-
tions involving the various permit programs under
the Water Act and the Refuse Act extend federal
water quality standards into wetland areas. There-
fore, federal or state permits for any alteration in
wetland areas must now be evaluated in the terms of
their effect on water quality. The application of the
water quality standards in these areas by EPA has
been upheld by the United States District Court in
Florida.13
The NEPA has also fostered the consideration of
related federal environmental policies in these per-
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LEGAL ASPECTS
633
mit programs. As indicated above, for example, the
Corps of Engineers' regulations on permits for activ-
ities in navigable waters or ocean waters under the
Refuse Act and the Marine Protection Act require
consideration of the proposed activity on wetlands
and the estuarine zone.14 In the former case, the
federal policy on wetlands has been administratively
derived, and in the latter the implications on estu-
arine management reflect the general policies in the
Estuary Protection Act. But there is little doubt
that the integration of these related environmental
policies was brought about largely through the man-
date in NEPA.
ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT-
THE FEDERAL POLICY ISSUES
No single federal policy focuses on developing new
initiatives to protect the nation's estuarine areas.
This lack of central responsibility does not indicate
absence of congressional or federal executive con-
cern, however. Indeed, there is no paucity of federal
law and administrative regulations pertaining to
these resources. On this point some would suggest
the federal presence in these areas is already too
large. Congress apparently does not share this view.
If they did, the continuing requirement to study
these areas such as that contained in Section 104(n)
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act would
not be necessary. Rather, it can be argued that the
central national concern is the need to evaluate the
adequacy of existing estuarine policy, and to do so
as a part of a critical examination to determine the
appropriate federal role. The ancillary issues emanat-
ing from this proposition are discussed below.
For the purpose of analysis, current federal policy
affecting estuarine resources can be fitted into three
basic categories.
The first may be described in terms of actual fed-
eral acquisition of estuarine resources. Under congres-
sional authorization, the Department of Interior has
acquired areas of particular national interest. Typi-
cally, they are wilderness areas or areas suitable for
recreational use. Many estuarine areas are contained
in this national parks system. But the> represent a
small segment of our total estuarine resources.
The second category of this federal policy involves
regulatory and coordinative efforts. With the excep-
tion of the Estuary Protection Act and administra-
tively established policies on wetlands, these pro-
grams onl}7 have incidental application to estuarine
zones. Their main purpose is to protect some other
natural resource value, e.g., Fish and Wildlife Co-
ordination Act.
The last category involves encouraging states to
develop comprehensive resource management pro-
grams. Of course, the Coastal Zone Management
Act is the most relevant to estuarine management in
this regard.
As indicated above, these disparate policies reflect
the structure of Congress and the federal executive
branch. There is no single locus in the system which
has the exclusive responsibility for natural resource
management. Consequently, the various executive
agencies sharing responsibility coordinate their
efforts through informal or ad hoc interagency
mechanisms. This can be a positive exercise, but too
often agency mission and interest make it difficult
for such peer groups to arrive at balanced or com-
prehensive decisions. As a result, there is no central
or uniform federal executive policy on the protection
of the nation's estuarine resources. Moreover, the
National Environmental Policy Act does not ad-
equately fill this gap. It does cause federal grant
and regulatory decisionmakers to consider the
totality of federal environmental policy when arriv-
ing at decisions affecting estuarine resources. In this
process only congressionally-mandated environ-
mental standards, e.g., water and air quality stand-
ards, are absolute, however. All other environmental
factors are subjectively weighed by the federal
agency entrusted with the final decisionmaking
authority. In such a coordinative management proc-
ess policies of state and local government on estu-
arine management are often critical. Both the Estu-
ary Protection and the Coastal Zone Management
Act require federal agencies in making decisions
affecting estuarine resources to comply with state
policies if they are not in conflict with the national
interest.
Based on the above survey of current federal
policies on protecting estuarine resources, the follow-
ing major issues have been identified:
• Will the federal incentives to encourage stales to
develop coastal zone management programs result in
adequate state and local government programs for the
protection or prudent use of estuarine resources?
The initial response by the state is salutary. The
real test will come, however, when they propose
coastal management programs for approval by the
Secretary of Commerce. At that time a determina-
tion must be made from a national perspective on
whether the several states have identified estuarine
areas as areas of particular concern, with appropriate
managerial constraints placed on their use, including
related land uses.
• Are there adequate federal policies to insure that
development encroaching on estuarine areas ivill be
adequately managed by state and. local governments to
protect the estuarine resources?
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634
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
The Coastal Zone Management Act goes a long
way toward achieving this result. It has certain geo-
graphical constraints, however. A state's coastal zone
may only include inland areas necessary to control
uses which have a direct and significant impact on
coastal waters. This boundary may be adequate in
most cases to protect estuarine areas. However, in
densely populated metropolitan regions the pressures
of development in the areas immediately adjacent to
the coastal zone may exert pressures which ulti-
mately result in development in the zons itself. This
void could have been filled if national land use
legislation had been enacted. In its absence, other ap-
proaches must be sought. This will necessitate close
coordination among federal agencies having com-
plementary programs affecting state and local gov-
ernment land use policies. The comprehensive plan-
ning grant assistance program15 administered by the
Department of Housing and Urban Development
and EPA's area-wide water quality management
planning program16 will influence land use decisions
in the areas adjacent to the coastal zone.
• Is the administratively established policy on wetlands
adequate to protect estuarine resources?
Presently, federal policies on wetlands have been
derived without an explicit congressional mandate.
And they have become important considerations in
making federal regulatory and development de-
cisions within these areas, especially in those states
which do not presently have adequate wetland pro-
tection policies. However, as administrative policy
they do not have the same standing as legislation.
This makes the application of these policies particu-
larly vulnerable in cases where the only potential
constraint on a proposed activity is the federal wet-
land policy itself.
• Are current federal policies for the nrotection of
estuarine areas adequate to ameliorate impending de-
velopment, pressures caused by the impact of oil and gas
exploration in the Outer Continental shelf to meet the
energy crisis?
This is probably the most serious national chal-
lenge to the preservation of our estuarine areas.
Since the federal government has exclusive control
in the development of OCS resources, the states are
vulnerable to the impact of such activities. Advanced
and joint federal-slate planning for the onshore
impacts is vital. The proposed federal planning grant
funds for this purpose will assist in minimizing poten-
tial adverse effects on coastal and estuarine re-
sources. If adverse environmental impact from such
exploration and other energy development activities
is to be minimized, however, additional federal im-
pact assistance to coastal states will be required.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In responding to the aforementioned issues the
following recommendations are offered:
• A federal interdepartmental estuarine task force
should be established, probably as an adjunct to the
federal coordination responsibilities of the Depart-
ment of Commerce in the administration of the
Coastal Zone Management Act. This group would be
charged with: 1) identifying existing federal laws and
policies affecting estuarine management and syn-
thesizing them into unified federal policy for uniform
application throughout the federal establishment;
2) developing objective evaluation criteria to de-
termine the adequacy of state programs and regula-
tory policies on the protection and use of estuarine
resources, including related land uses; and 3) ex-
amining the current administratively established
federal wetland policies, and preparing and recom-
mending to Congress a legislative program for wet-
land protection to be applicable to all federal grant-
in-aids ami regulatory programs, as well as direct
federal management and development activities.
• Develop legislation to provide federal impact aid
funds to coastal states. These federal funds should be
aA^ailable to minimize adverse environmental effects
and control associated social impacts caused by the
development of energ.y resources in the coastal zone
and Outer Continental Shelf. Such grants should be
conditioned on advance planning and programming
for these impacts under the Coastal Zone Manage-
ment Act. The acquisition of lands, construction of
public facilities, and the provision of public services
within the impact coastal areas should be eligible
activities under this program.
FOOTNOTES
1 Chapter 130-Section 27A as amended, Massachusetts General Laws.
1 Commissioner of Natural Resources v. S. Volpe & Co., 349 Mass. 104,
200 N.E. 2d 606 (1965).
3 Delaware Coastal Zone Act of 1971, 7 Del. Code Ch. 70, 7001, et seq.
» Maine Site Location Act, 38 M.R.S.A. 481-488 (1970).
5 California Coastal Zone Conservation Act of 1972, Public Resources
Code, 27000 et seq.
G Julius A. Stratton, Chairman, Commission on Marine Science, Engi-
neering and Resources established by P.L. 89-454. The Commission pub-
lished as its final report Our Nation and the Sea, and three panel reports.
' Zabel v. Tabb, 430 F.2d 199 (5th Cir. 1970).
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
635
8 Senate Resolution 222 established in the Senate Commerce Committee
the National Ocean Policy Study Group.
Ad
the
April 23, 1974
10 e.g., S. 3221, Energy Supply Act of 1974; S. 2858 Outer Continental
Shelf Safety Act of 1974; S. 2672, Marine Resources and Conservation
Act of 1974; S. 5, Deepwater Port Act of 1974, all introduced in the 93rd
Congress.
11 Disposal of Dredged Material in Navigable and Ocean Waters, 33
C.F.R. 209, 145.
12 Specific indications of the growth in state law and authority can be
found in the Office of Coastal Zone Management's State Coastal Zone
Management Activities—1974, and Bradley and Armstrong, A Description
and Analysis of Coastal Zone and Shoreland Management Programs in the
United States, March 1972.
13 United States v. Holland, 4 ELR 20710 (M.D. Fla., Mar. 27, 1974).
14 Supra, Note II.
15 Section 701, Housing Act of 1954, as amended.
18 Section 208, Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendment of 1972
(P.L. 92-500).
-------
BASIC FACTORS OF
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
AFFECTING DEMAND
FOR WATER RESOURCES
JOHN C. BELCHER
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
ABSTRACT
The number of people is not the critical factor in water pollution, but the way the population
is distributed and the life patterns that are followed. This report describes the changing distribu-
tion of the population of the estuarine counties of the eastern seaboard including the development
of new urban structures such a_s the megalopolis and the creation of new lifestyles brought about
by increased leisure time, retirement, second homes, commuting, female participation in the
labor force, and changing residential arrangements.
INTRODUCTION
Evidence is accumulating that water will be the
focus of a great world environmental crisis of the
future. The pressures of very rapid population
growth, industrialization, and improvements in the
levels of living will be followed by a steadily increas-
ing consumption of water. A result will be pressures
for a more complete utilization of existing water
resources everywhere.
Widely publicized food shortages have resulted
from a serious drought in many countries since 1972.
Some climatic experts insist that the world may be
entering into a new cycle of drought that may last
for a number of years. The reaction to predicted
lack of precipitation will be development of wells
and dams that permit irrigation of large tracts of
land; such a step could have serious ramifications
for both the quantity and even more importantly,
the quality of water.
In the United States these pressures will most
likely result in an acceleration in the use of water
in the estuaries of the eastern seaboard; a subse-
quent deterioration of these water resources is quite
likely unless preventive action is taken in the im-
mediate future. The possible deterioration of water
resources is related to the changing life patterns of
the human population, patterns that can bring im-
mense changes in the environment.
Already the almost solid configuration of cities
and industry along most of the northern portion of
the eastern seaboard has resulted in widespread pol-
lution of the estuaries. The limited concentrations
of population and industrial developments have
spared much of the southern coastal areas from
these problems.
Acknowledging that problems of pollution are
manmade, it is appropriate to analyze the changing
distribution of the population along the eastern sea-
board and to ascertain some of the trends in Ameri-
can life that affect the water resources.
The basic theme of this report is that the mere
number of people is not the critical factor in the
water pollution of a given area, but rather, the way
in which the human population is distributed. Above
all, the life patterns of mankind determine the
impact he has upon his environment. Thus, there
are two major sections to this analysis: First, a
description of the changes that are taking place in
the distribution of the population, especially along
the east coast; and second, some of the changes in
the life patterns of the American population, espe-
cially demographic trends, which have relevance to
the relationship of the human population to the
natural environment.
The logic of this approach to understanding water
pollution is demonstrated by the following definition
agreed to at a Geneva conference in 1961, "a water
is considered polluted when its composition or state
is directly or indirectly modified by human activity
to the extent that it is less suited for purposes it
could have served in its natural state" (Furon,
1967:105).
Although technically the definition may be inade-
quate, one has but to glance at a few of the myriad
products of human behavior which do pollute the
water of the world—pesticides, fertilizers, industrial
effluents, raw sewage, synthetic detergents, and
637
-------
638
ESTUAKINE POLLUTION CONTROL
household refuse—to realize that the problem is
widespread and serious (Furon, 1967:106-108).
GENERAL TRENDS IN
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
At the time of the first census of the United States
in 1790, the population of the country was 3,929,214,
largely restricted to a, narrow band along the east
coast. The rate of growth per decade ran over 30
percent from 1790 until 1880 with the exception of
the 10-year period from 1860 to 1870. In this era
of the Civil War the growth rate remained high,
amounting to 22.6 percent. Although after 1880 the
decennial rate of growth started declining, it was
still 25.5 percent between 1880 and 1890.
The 100 years between 1790 and 1890 witnessed
the westward movement of the population until
settlement was virtually complete from Ihe east to
the west coast. The population of the nation in-
creased manyfold after 1790 and stood at 62,979,766
when the census was taken in 1890.
This westward movement, the Civil War, and
changing agriculture brought the abandonment of
many farms and plantations along the eastern sea-
board. Rice production completely disappeared from
Georgia and South Carolina. The chain of islands
along the coastal areas of the south at one time had
large cotton plantations when water was the prin-
cipal medium of transportation. The f elds were
permitted to become fallow and forests were soon
soon established as the population shifted to the
mainland.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the United
States was basically a nation of agriculturists. Only
5 percent of the country's population resided in
cities when the census was taken in 1790. Around a
decade later the growth of cities became an all
pervasive phenomenon, not only in the United
States, but the rest of the world as well. In 1850,
15.3 percent of the population of the nation lived
in cities, but by 1900, the figure had increased to
39.6 percent. Some theorists have associated the
growth of the cities with the development of the
railroad as a major means of transportation. By
1920, 51.2 percent of the inhabitants of the United
States lived in cities. These cities were largely con-
structed about the intersection of railroads or where
they terminated at ocean ports.
With the advent of the automobile, the stage was
set for a modification in the urbanization process. In-
creasingly, people could reside farther and farther
into the suburbs and still work in the central business
district. The growth of cities continues until in
1940, 56.5 percent of the nation's population re-
sided in urban areas, that is, population centers
with over 2,500 inhabitants.
Accelerating since the 1940's was a second urban
revolution—the rapid decentralization of cities. The
metropolitan region became the focus of human
existence. Practically all of the hundreds of modern
shopping centers that dot the American landscape
on the periphery of the major cities have been con-
structed since World War II. A concomitant of this
decentralization has been the loss of function by the
central business district; the decay of these inner
cities was widely publicized during the 1960's. Never-
theless, the urban population, including the suburbs
adjacent to the major urban centers, continued to
grow. In 1970, nearly three out of four American
citizens (73.5 percent) were classified as urban.
A third revolution in the growth of cities, an urban
sprawl, seems underway (Gottman and Harper,
1967). The largest urban areas of the United States
are now starting to lose population. Between 1960
and 1970, !"> of the 21 cities in the United States
with populations above 500,000 in 1960 actually lost
population. More recent estimates indicate that this
trend is accelerating and that a very large percentage
of the major cities of the nation will lose population
during the decade of the seventies, at the same time
the urbanized portion of metropolitan areas tends
to spread over the countryside.
At the same time, it needs to be emphasized that
the population of the nation continues to grow
rapidly, reaching 213,000,000 during the fall of 1975.
Ours remains essentially an urban population with
people living on the fringes of the larger cities in
an ever-widening radius. This fringe development
has been a major phenomenon of recent years and
is likely to continue. On the other hand, the prob-
ability that the central cities will experience rebirth
and renewed population growth is remote.
The cities of the United States have grown largely
through young people abandoning the farms for
life in the cities. This rural to urban migration was
a major factor in the redistribution of the population
over the last 150 years. This migration was enhanced
by the immigration of thousands upon thousands
of foreign born during the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. There were several years in which over a
million immigrants came to the United States,
settling generally in the central core of the larger
cities. Currently, the effect of immigration on the
growth of central cities has declined because immi-
gration proceeds at a slower rate than previously,
and because the modern immigrant tends to join
relatives who may be scattered throughout the
nation, rather than in the urban ghettos.
Even more important for the growth of cities is
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
639
that the rural-farm population base is so small.
Only 5.2 percent of the nation's inhabitants lived
on farms in 1970. The birth rates of the rural farm
residents are declining to a level comparable to those
of the rest of the nation's citizens. Cities simply
cannot depend upon a continuation of the in-
migration of a surplus rural population as a source
of growth. Urban growth must come from a natural
increase.
In spite of the fact that the population of the
nation is increasing rapidly, it is obvious that all
sections are not equally sharing this growth. Of
the 3,124 counties and county equivalents in the
United States, about one-half actually lost popula-
tion between 1960 and 1970, a decade in which the
total population increased by nearly 24,000,000.
Less than one-third of these counties grew through
immigration.
The greatly reduced birth rates of the seventies
means that rapid growth for an area must be sus-
tained by internal migration. The redistribution of
the population draws an increasing portion of the
population away from the vast midlands of the con-
tinent to the coastal areas (See Figure 1) (Ullman,
1954), although the coastal counties of the southern
United States have not experienced rapid growth
through internal migration in recent years.
"The only areas of the country in which more
than half the total population increase was due to
net immigration were Florida, the coastal portions
of the Pacific Northwest, and California. Collec-
tively, these three areas had a net inflow of more
than 4 million persons in the 1960's, whereas the
remainder of the country had a net migration loss
of nearly 1 million" (U.S. Bureau of the Census,
1974:129).
These trends in the redistribution of the popula-
tion are especially important for those concerned
with changes along the seaboard of this nation. The
population, for example, in the coastal counties of
the eastern seaboard contained 16.7 percent of the,
total population of the nation in 1950. This per-
centage has slowly but steadily increased to 17.1
percent in 1960, 17.4 percent in 1970, and the latest
population estimates as of July 1, 1973 show that
17.5 percent of the nation's population lives in these
counties. (See Table 1). The total population of
these coastal and estuarine counties has increased
from 25,283,811 in 1950, to 36,921,600 in 1973. An-
other way to look at the tendency of the population
to live in coastal areas is that this band of seaboard
counties experienced a 21.8 percent increase between
1950 and 1960. At the same time the population of
the nation as a whole was increasing 18.6 percent.
During the next decade these coastal counties in-
creased 15.6 percent compared with an increase of
1.3.5 percent in the total population of the United
States. The latest estimates show that between 1970
and 1973 these estuarine counties increased 3.8 per-
cent while the nation's population increased 3.0
percent.
Many people have become aware recently that
the nation's birth rates have fallen to the lowest
point in history. A real possibility exists that popu-
lation increase in the nation may fall below the
replacement level within the next very few years,
especially if economic conditions worsen. At the
present time the crude birth rate is about 14.8 per
thousand and the death rate is 9.2 per thousand.
As the average age of the population increases, it is
inevitable that the death rate will rise. If the birth
rate continues the decline that started in 1957 and
rapidly accelerated about 1965, there will be a
balance between births and deaths within, perhaps,
the next 15 years.
A reduction in the rate of growth or even a period
in which the population of the nation reaches sta-
bility does not mean that the number of residents
in the coastal counties will reach an equilibrium.
In fact, trends point to further rapid population
growth in the estuarine areas almost independent of
what occurs to the total population of the nation.
NEW URBAN STRUCTURES
The growth of cities covers a much wider range
of developments than is often recognized. Most
people in the United States have a stereotyped
image of the city based on the concentric zone model
in which the central business district is surrounded
by low income housing and industrial activities. As
one moves out from this center toward the suburbs
the quality and spaciousness of the homes improves.
Growth is thought of as occurring in concentric rings
as the population continues to move out from the
center in all directions.
Actually the city has taken many forms in human
history. What we tend to think of as a city in the
United States is basically a product of the 19th
century when the urban structure was based upon
aggregations of industry at a major railway center.
By contrast, the cities of antiquity did not have the
central business districts characteristic of this coun-
try. The nucleus of the city does not always have a
commercial function. The center of the city may be
either a religious shrine, a political center, or a
university.
We may anticipate that the American city of the
future will have a much different structure than is
common at present. One indicator of this change
-------
640
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
o
a>
3
o
I
I
oj
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
641
Table 1.—Total population of estuarine counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1950-1973.
MAINE
Cumberland
Hancock. _ _
Knox__
Lincoln
Sagadahoc.
Waldo
Washington-
York
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Rockingham
TOTAL
MASSACHUSETTS
Barnstable
Bristol
Dukes
Essex _
Nantucket
Norfolk
Plymouth _, -
Suffolk j
TOTAL-..
RHODE ISLAND
Bristol
Kent
Providence
Washington
TOTAL
CONNECTICUT
Fairfield
Middlesex
New Haven
TOTAL....
NEW YORK
Albany _ - _
Columbia..
Greene
New York
urange.. _
Richmond
Suffolk
TOTAL
1950
169,201
32,105
28,121
18,004
20,911
21,687
35,187
93,541
418,757
70,059
70.059
46,805
381,569
5,633
522,384
3,484
392,308
189,468
896,615
2,438,266
29,079
77,763
61,539
574,973
48,542
791,896
504,342
67,332
545,784
144,821
1,262,279
239,386
1,451,277
43,182
136,781
28,745
2 738,175
672,765
1 960 101
152 255
1 550 849
191 555
276,129
92 621
10.401.8??
1960
182,751
32,293
28,575
18,497
22,793
22,632
32,908
99,402
99,029
99,029
70,286
398,488
5,829
568,831
3,559
510,256
248,449
791,329
2,597,027
37,146
112,619
81,891
568,778
59,054
859,488
654,589
88,865
660,315
185 745
1,588,514
272,926
1 424,815
47,322
176,008
31,372
2 627 319
1 300 171
1 698 281
183 734
1 809 578
221 991
666,784
118 804
808 891
11.699,106
1970
192,528
34,590
29,013
20,537
23,452
23,328
29,859
111,576
138,951
138,951
96,656
444,301
6,117
637,887
3,774
604,854
333,314
735,190
2,862,093
45,937
142,382
94,228
581,470
85,706
949,723
792,814
115,018
744,948
230,654
1,883,434
286,742
1,471,701
51,519
222,295
33,136
2,602,012
1,428,080
1,539,233
221 657
1,987,174
295 443
1,127,030
141 241
12.740,778
1973
NEW JERSEY
197,200 Atlantic
37,000 Bergen
24. 9M Cape May
25,500 Cumberland
31,200 Essex
117,600 Gloucester
153,700 Sa|em
153,700
TOTAL
109,000 VIRGINIA
461,300 Accomack
647,400 Caroline
4,200 Charles City
614 , 300 Chesterfield
364,700 Dinwiddie
734,700 Essex
Fairfax
2,942,500 1. ,.
Hanover . -_-
46,100 js]e Of Wight
148,700 James City
586,300 King George
92,200 Kjng William
Lancaster
973,000 . .
Middlesex
787,800 New Kent
121,000 Norfolk
1905400 Prince George
i,3us,4uu Princess Anne
Prince William
Southampton
288,700 Spotsylvania
1,449,200 Stafford
55,900 Surry
229,700 Westmoreland
37,200 York
2,507,100
1,412,400 Independent Cities:
1 463,800
233 600 Alexandria
63 500 Chesapeake
1 984'600 Colonial Heights
icr 7nn Fairfax
312 000 ^a"s Church
tnn inn Franklin _
1 197 200 Fredencksburg
151 600 Hampton
891 'lOO Hopewell
Newport News
12,673,400 Norfolk
1950
132 399
539 139
135 910
300 743
37 131
88 597
905 949
91 727
647 437
264 872
225 327
56 622
49 508
398 138
4 103 280
33 832
135 449
12 471
4 676
40 400
18 839
6 530
98 557
in ifin
10 343
21 985
57 340
14 906
6 317
6 299
6 710
7 589
8 640
7 148
6 715
25 238
3 995
99 937
17 300
10 012
19,679
42 277
22 612
6 189
26 522
11 920
11 902
6 290
!10 148
11 750
61,787
6,077
' 7,535
12,158
5,966
10,219
42,358
1960
160 880
780 255
224 499
392 035
48 555
106 850
923 545
134 840
610,734
433 856
334 401
108 241
58 711
504,255
5,088,049
30 635
163 401
12 725
5 492
71 197
22 183
6 690
275,002
OC QOC
11 919
27,550
117 339
17 164
11 539
5 889
7 243
7 563
9,174
O J C JQ
7 121
6,319
31 366
4 504
51 612
16 966
10 185
20,270
76 124
50,164
6 375
27 195
13 819
16 876
6 220
11 042
21 583
91,023
9,587
10,192
13,639
89,258
17,895
113,662
1970
175 043
897 148
323 132
456 291
59 554
121 374
932 526
172 681
607,839
583,813
461,849
208,470
60 346
543,116
5,907,298
29 004
174 284
13 925
6 158
77 045
25 046
7 099
455,032
14 059
37,479
154,364
18 285
17 853
5 491
8 039
7 497
9,126
7,168
6,295
35,166
5 300
14 442
9 239
29,092
111,102
6,504
18,582
16 424
24 587
5 882
12 142
33 203
110,927
89,580
15,097
22,009
10,772
6,880
14,450
120,779
23,471
138,177
307,951
1973
185 100
897 900
323 500
474 200
65 900
130 900
936 900
181 300
617,700
597 100
477,600
250,000
62 300
546,300
6,062,800
29 200
163 800
14 400
6 600
90 400
22 800
7 100
514,000
?Q fino
115 600
43,300
165 300
18 700
19 100
5 400
8 500
7 500
9,200
ji 7f\n
7,800
6,500
6 300
15 300
9 100
19,800
129,100
6 300
18,200
19 200
27 900
6 200
12 900
36 800
105,000
93,900
16,900
21,600
10,300
6,700
15,400
127,300
23,800
137,500
283,100
-------
642
ESTUAHINE POLLUTION CONTKOL
Table 1.—Total population of estuarine counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1950-1973.—(Continued)
1950
VIRGINIA— (Cont.)
Petersburg
South Norfolk
Suffolk
TOTAL
MARYLAND
Baltimore
Baltimore City
Calvert
Cecil
Kent J
Saint Marys
Talbot . .
Wicomico
Worcester
TOTAL,
DELAWARE
Kent
Sussex
TOTAL . ....
NORTH CAROLINA
Beaufort
Bertie
Brunswick
Camden.
Carteret
Chowan ,
Craven. ...
Curntuck
Dare
Gates
Hertford
Hyde
35,054
80,039
230,310
10,434
12,339
6,735
1,397,165
117,392
270,273
949,708
12,100
33,356
23,415
27,815
51,782
13,677
194,182
14,579
29,111
20,745
19,428
39,641
23,148
1,840,352
37,870
218,879
61,336
318,085
37,134
26,439
19,238
5,223
23,059
12,540
48,823
6,201
5,405
9,555
21,453
6,479
" ~~T
I960
36,750
114,773
219,958
12,609
8,091
6,832
1,975,189
206,634
492,428
939,024
15,826
48,408
32,572
29,666
76,722
15,481
357,395
16,569
38,915
19,623
21,578
49,050
23,733
2,383,624
65,651
307,446
73,195
446,292
36,014
24,350
20,278
5,598
27,438
11,729
58,773
6,601
5,935
9,254
22,718
5,765
1970
36,103
110, !>63
249, < 31
45,024
172,506
9,C>69
2,942,565
298,042
620,109
905,789
20.E82
53,291
47, {78
29,405
115,378
16,146
661, C87
18,422
47,388
18,924
23,682
54,236
24,442
2,954,894
81,892
385,856
80,356
548,104
35,980
20,528
24,223
5,453
31,603
10,754
62,554
6,976
6,935
8,5>4
23,519
5,5'1
1973
NORTH CAROLINA—
(Cont.)
43,600
109 100 Martin
230 400 New Hanover
Onslow...
47 400 Pamhco
192 900 Pasquotank.
10 200 Pender..
Perquimans
3,008,700 pitf
Tyrrell . .. .
Washington
0,1 7nn TOTAL...
637,500
871,300 SOUTH CAROLINA
23,700
55 300 Beaufort
54 600 Berkeley
28 800 Charleston .
129 100 Colleton...
16 500 Georgetown .
695 000 Horry
19 000 Jasper
49,000
18 fiflO TOTAL
24,800
56,900 GEORGIA
25,500
Bryan
3,027,300 Camden
Charlton
Chatham
Glynn
89 900 Liberty
4on'nno Mclntosh
85,800 TQTA.
575,700
FLORIDA
Broward
36,10" Dade
20,300 Dliva|
29,800 Flagler
33,600 Martin
10,600 Nassau
8,500 st Jonns
22,500
5 600 TOTAL
1950
27,938
63,272
42,047
9,993
24,347
18,423
9,602
63,789
5,048
13,180
499,188
26,993
30,251
164,856
28,242
31,762
59,820
10,995
352,919
5,965
7,322
4,821
151,481
29,046
8,444
6,008
213,087
23,653
83,933
495,084
304,029
3,367
11,872
7,807
12,811
114,688
24,998
20,180
74,229
1,176,651
1960
27,139
71,742
86,208
9,850
25,630
18,508
9,178
69,942
4,520
13,488
570,658
44,187
38,196
216,382
27,816
34,798
68,247
12,237
441,863
6,226
9,975
5,313
188,299
41,954
14,487
6,364
272,618
111.435
333,946
935,047
455,411
4,566
25,309
16,932
17,189
228,106
30,034
39,294
125,319
2,322,588
1970
24,730
82,996
103,126
9,467
26,824
18,149
8,351
73,900
3,806
14,038
608,087
51,136
56,199
247,650
27,622
33,500
69,992
11,885
497,984
6,539
11,334
5,680
187,816
50,528
17,569
7,371
286,837
230,006
620,100
1,267,792
528,865
4,454
35,992
28,035
20,626
348,993
31,035
50,836
169,487
3,336,221
\
1973
24,000
92,100
94,200
9,400
27,100
18,800
8,300
73,500
3,700
13,600
620,300
54,900
58,200
256,200
28,300
35,400
79,000
12,000
524,000
7,300
12 000
6,200
179,700
50,900
17,700
8,200
282,000
228,400
738,600
1,367,100
547,800
5,400
40,800
36,800
24,400
403,000
34,700
57,700
191,200
3,675,900
is that the central business district is rapidly declin-
ing in importance. Population, commercial activities,
and industry have been decentralizing for several
decades. The modern shopping centers \vhich are so
prevalent today did not come into existence until
after the termination of World War II. Manufactur-
ing has largely moved from the central city to new
locations in the outskirts of metropolitan centers or
even in isolated rural areas.
Two types of urban structures are evolving: One
has as the main street the perimeter highway that
connects a series of the major shopping centers.
Over the last few years, large numbers of apartment
complexes have come into existence near these pe-
rimeter highways. The other new main street of
America is the interstate or other multi-lane express-
way that stretches for hundreds of miles with
attached nodes of residential development, manu-
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
643
facturing establishments, shopping centers, major
recreational facilities, medical complexes, transpor-
tation centers, and the like, forming a strip city.
The most spectacular of this latter type is the
megalopolis of the eastern seaboard that joins cities
from New Hampshire to Virginia into an amazing
urban complex. The scholar, Jean Gottmann, who
popularized the concept Megalopolis in his book by
this name stated that this new urban region brought
rural and urban together into an integrated whole,
"In this gradual symbiosis two seemingly conflicting
trends have worked together: urban people and ac-
tivities have taken on more rural aspects and tradi-
tionally rural pursuits have acquired urban charac-
teristics. Some sectors of an urbanized region have
come to look the way rural countryside used to
while districts specializing in agricultural production
have begun to resemble built-up suburbs. The whole
pattern of land use has changed rapidly" (Gott-
mann, 1961:217).
More recently, another major megalopolis has
come into existence along the east Florida coast that
promises to incorporate the entire Florida peninsula.
Today, a narrow band of urban development extends
the length of the state from Miami to Jacksonville.
As yet largely unaffected by this trend have been
the coastal areas of Georgia, South Carolina, and
North Carolina. Projections of past trends in popu-
lation growth do not indicate the urbanization of
this section of the Atlantic coast. (See Figure 2).
Yet, trends other than past population growth would
indicate that the megalopolis of the northeast and
that of Florida will eventually merge into a gigantic
urban complex extending nearly 2,000 miles.
The availability of land, water, and a mild climate
provide the basis for such a development. The final
1. Metropolitan Belt
1 a Atlantic Seaboard
1 b. Lower Great Lakes
2. California Region
3. Florida Peninsula
4. Gulf Coast
5. East Central Texas—Red River
6. Southern Piedmont
7. North Georgia—South East Tennessee
8 Puget Sound
9. Twin Cities Region
10. Colorado Piedmont
11 Saint Louis
12 Metropolitan Arizona
13 Willamette Valley
14. Central Oklahoma—
Arkansas Valley
15 Missouri—Kaw Val'ey
16. North Alabama
17 Blue Grass
18 Southern Coastal Plain
19. Salt Lake Valley
20 Central Illinois
21. Nashville Region
22. East Tennessee
23 Oahu Island
24. Memphis
25. El Paso—Ciudad Juarez
Based on V-chdd Ja
FIGURE 2.—Urban regions: year 2000. Source: Pickard, 1972: 143.
-------
644
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTEOL
catalyst may be the interstates and other express-
ways which fuse Florida and the northeast into a
major main street of the United States.
The emergence of this new entity cornes into
sharper focus when one reflects that early in the
present century before the appearance of the auto-
mobile, people fulfilled their needs for goods and
services within walking distance of their homes.
Homes were located near the place of employment
in order that the journey to work could be minimal.
Neighborhood schools, grocery stores, churches, plus
the local physician made it possible for a.l to live a
rather complete life without leaving the small com-
munity. The locality was a functioning social system
to which individuals had a strong identity.
The pattern today is much different. Most resi-
dential areas have few, at times none, of the services
demanded. People go to one locality fcr medical
services, another to schools, still another i'or grocer-
ies, and perhaps a more distant location to purchase
clothes, furniture, or an automobile. The automobile
has become a necessary ingredient of daily life in
the United States. An increasing percentage of the
population has two or more automobiles that are
continuously in use. The location of goods and serv-
ices brings patterns of life in which each person
tends to travel within an increasingly larger area.
Outlook and use of space tends to be more regional
than tied to a specific locality.
There are no strong loyalties to a given establish-
ment and a new shopping center can rapidly disrupt
existing patterns. Existing trade and service pat-
terns are altered with the construction of modern
highways. The interstate system is new and some
portions are not complete in the South Atlantic
coastal area. With the passage of time, factories,
new stores, and services will locate along' express-
ways. These establishments will inevitably provide
so much competition that some more isolated busi-
nesses will be abandoned. The trend is for more
people to spend more time on the highways in satis-
fying their daily needs.
CHANGING PROBLEMS OF
WASTE DISPOSAL IN MEGALOPOLIS
The emerging megalopolis has made dysfunctional
the political subdivisions that were largely created
during the 19th century. The central city was con-
sidered the center of a region with its business
nucleus as the "heart." A hierarchical web of rela-
tionships bound the metropolis, its suburbs, satellite
towns, and rural hinterland into a functioning whole.
Each parr tended to have its own political identity
(Gottmann, 1961:736). The division of responsibili-
ties among state, county, cities, and other minor
political subdivisions gave a system that rather
effectively provided needed functions.
The unplanned, urban sprawl that has accompa-
nied the development of megalopolis and other urban
regions has resulted in one problem with which
existing civil divisions were not prepared to cope:
maintenance of a pure water source. The water
supply depends upon cooperation across many polit-
ical boundaries. Public health demands services that
are increasingly difficult for political units based
upon an old urban hierarchical structure to furnish.
New collective solutions are needed in many areas
but in none more important than the protection
and utilization of water resources (Gottmann, 1961:
376-377).
An examination of the changing practices in the
disposal of solid and liquid wastes reflects the need
as urbanization progresses for political units that
can provide collective means of household sanitation
as a substitute for traditional, individualistic ones.
Even today along the more sparsely populated sec-
tions of the South Atlantic States, it is necessary for
individuals to fulfill sanitation needs on an individ-
ualistic basis. In the modern city a modern sewerage
system safely disposes of large quantities of liquid
and organic wastes. The periodic rounds of the gar-
bage collector gives an easy way for individuals to
discard waste papers, magazines, and a large variety
of containers.
Historically, the situation was much different for
the person living in isolation. Food wastes were fed
to chickens, hogs, and other animals. Papers and
other inflammable materials were burned. Tin cans.
bottles, and other such materials were thrown into
a family trash heap away from the house. Period-
ically, these latter materials were hauled away and
dumped into streams, gullies, or flatlands draining
into the estuaries. Human wastes were deposited in
the old-fashioned privy or pit toilet. This system of
sanitation was based on individual efforts. Even
today, sewage lines, garbage collection routes, and
the like an; not economically feasible in a sparsely
settled rural political subdivision with a small tax
base.
The expansion of existing metropolitan areas and
the growth of smaller population centers into cities
forces collective solutions to sanitation problems.
In the interim between individualistic and collec-
tive solutions, their is a period in which the risks
of water pollution are very great. Isolated vacation
homes along th<> beaches and estuaries create special
problems. These clusters of homes have no collective
solutions to sanitation problems. Often raw sewage
is dumped directly into streams. Household trash is
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
645
dumped into the edge of a stream to be carried off
by the next tide. These practices are often continued
in some sizeable towns and villages in spite of health
regulations prohibiting such practices. A lone county
sanitarian may not have sufficient political clout to
stop such practices. Those reared in a rural milieu
are accustomed to these traditional practices and do
not view them as a threat to health and the environ-
ment. Also, many communities are inhabited by
people with low incomes who do not have the finan-
cial resources to pay taxes .sufficiently large to de-
velop sanitary sewage or garbage collection systems.
Consequently, these people are often content to
continue with the present system.
Answers to questions about other solutions show
that a large portion of thest people living in isolation
believe it would be an infringement on their freedom
to have a collective system of waste disposal forced
upon them, especially if such a system meant an
increase in taxes or a charge for the service.
Collective solutions to many problems may be
essential and can only be furnished by new political
entities. Yet, individuals will resist the changes. For
them, traditional solutions are deemed preferable.
Others do not want to see civil subdivisions give up
present function and responsibilities. Especially re-
luctant to see changes are those with a vested interest
in the status quo.
The human value system does not necessarily
welcome changes that are both needed and inevita-
ble. The response applies to individuals, corpora-
tions, and industries.
NEW LIFE STYLES
AND WATER POLLUTION
The changing urban structure is accompanied by
many changes in lifestyles that can have a great
impact upon the estuaries of the nation. In our
affluent society there has been the widespread diffu-
sion of many of the material conveniences of human
life as the process of urbanization has developed.
This amuency has been made possible by the indus-
trialization of the United States and of many other
countries. Full employment and economic prosperity
have made it possible for ar omobiles, air condition-
ing, television, refrigerators, arid many other appli-
ances and manufactured products to be possessed
by a very large percentage of the United States'
population including those who are classed as living
in poverty. Most live in houses with modern plumb-
ing and fully-equipped kitchens that protect the
family from the rigors of the elements.
Much more important than the simple possession
of these material things is e way in which they
are used. New lifestyles are coming into existence
that affect man's relationship to the environment.
A high protein diet, for example, based upon the
consumption of beef results in much more land being
used to provide food than was true in the past. The
direct consumption of potatoes, wheat products, and
other starches has steadily declined. Through the
years automotive transportation has replaced pedes-
trian travel and public transportation.
Aftluency has become so much a characteristic of
American life that it has lost its status value. People
today with much more leisure time than existed
previously are adopting new lifestyles that have
many of the attributes of an old agrarian society.
These new lifestyles result in demands for beaches,
vacation' homes, extensive travel, backpacking, and
other forms of outdoor recreation. Dining out and
the search for other forms of recreation keeps large
numbers of people on the highways.
A focus for many of these activities is along the
estuaries of the eastern United States. Residents of
the large metropolises throng to the more popular
public recreational centers along the rivers, bays,
and beaches. Extensive camping and other outdoor
activities may destroy the ground cover. Campfires
and the haphazard disposal of the debris by the
participants of outdoor recreation litter the country-
sides. Roads and trails for the increasingly popular
four-wheeled vehicles, trail bikes, and dune buggies
scar the land.
American society today seems possessed by a de-
sire to escape from affluency and return increasingly
to nature. The call to nature has resulted, at times,
in the destruction of forests and protective dunes.
The channelization of streams, the construction of
roads and other recreational and vacation facilities
have drastically altered the environment in many
areas. Population growth is but one factor in the
utilization of these natural resources. New lifestyles
are placing new demands upon the natural resources.
Obviously, any change in the environment of the
drainage areas is going to have an impact upon the
water in the estuaries (See Ronald G. Ridker, 1972:
17-33).
DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
AND NEW LIFE STYLES
Not everybody in the United States follows the
same lifestyle. Great differences exist between iso-
lated rural areas, the ghettos of the large cities,
retirement villages in Florida, and the suburbs of
Connecticut. Even within a given community there
may be several principal lifestyles followed by vari-
ous segments of the population. Style of life may be
-------
646
EHTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
considered as the way in which material possessions
are used. These patterns of consumption vary among
status groups in a community. For example, an
automobile may be the source of livelihood for one
group of the population, a means of transportation
to work for another, and a vehicle for recreational
purposes only for still another. These patterns of
behavior tend to form configurations which are fol-
lowed by all within a given group of the population.
During the 1950's there was the stereotype of the
suburban family, a couple with four or five children,
with its station wagon, residing in a split-level house.
The lifestyle of this group would have been much
different from that of the factory worker with a
pleasure automobile, who took the bus to work while
his wife stayed home in a crowded tenement dwelling.
A number of trends can be discerned from demo-
graphic and other data that are having a great
impact upon the lifestyles in the United States.
Some of these trends are developing more rapidly
in the coastal areas than in other sections of the
nation.
Leisure Time
One of the more important of these developments
for the estuarine areas has been the shorter work-
week for those in the labor force, resulting in more
time for leisure. For more than a century man has
increasingly had more of his day freed from economic
pursuits which increases his opportunity to engage
in recreational and other activities. The classic work
describing this transition was published by Sebastian
de Grazia in 1962 under the title, "Of Time, Work,
and Leisure." De Grazia points out several changes
that have reduced the time; man spends in economic
pursuits.
The first of these is that people in the United
States enter the labor force at a later age than they
previously did. In the past, adolescents of 12 or 14
often were full-time workers. Various jabor laws
and increasing years of education have resulted in
people entering the labor force at an olde- age.
Second, changing customs and laws have resulted
in people retiring at the age of perhaps 60 or 65.
Retirement was almost unknown in the past. Today
almost all workers may expect voluntary or involun-
tary retirement in their (iO's. Further, increasing
life expectancy in the United States has resulted in
a much larger percentage of all people born even-
tually reaching the retirement age and having several
years of life outside the labor force.
In addition to the delayed entry into the labor
force and the withdrawal from it two other develop-
ments have occurred that give those in the active
productive ages much more leisure time. The first
of these is that most employers now make provision
for vacations. The paid vacation is a relatively recent
phenomenon. "As late as the 1920's only a small
number of wage earners had paid vacations. Among
salaried workers the paid vacation was more com-
mon" (De Grazia, 1964:59-60). Today, vacations,
holidays, aud sick leaves for the average worker are
a fringe benefit that reduces the number of hours the
average person works per year by at least 15 days.
Even more spectacular ha^ been the decline in the
number of hours that people work. De Grazia esti-
mates that in 1859 the average agricultural worker
put in 72 hours a week and those in non-agriculture
industries 65.7 hours every week. After this date
there have been steady declines in the number of
hours that people work. By 1940 it was estimated
that those in non-agriculture put in 54.6 hours. By
1960 these figures on the length of the average work
week had dropped to 38.0 hours in non-agriculture
and 44 in agriculture, an average of 38.5 for all
workers (1962:420). The declines since this date
have been more modest. It has been estimated that
the average workweek had dropped to 37 in 1970.
He projects it will further decline to 35 hours by
1980 (De Grazia, 1968:114).
These estimates are for the nation as a whole.
The actual number of hours worked might differ
somewhat in the eastern United States, but the
trend is unmistakeable. People today have a greater
percentage of their life outside the labor force and
while employed work on the average much less than
a generation or so ago. This shorter workweek pro-
vides a basis for new lifestyles that would not have
been possible in the past when the average employee
had little time for an3rthing other than meals and
sleeping in addition to his work. Free time for recrea-
tion was almost unknown. The activities of the
entire family are influenced by this new work sched-
ule which permits all members of the family to spend
time outside the home.
Retirement
The lifestyles of retired people are much different
from those of young adults. Generally, older people
are more sedentary and consume less than those in
the prime of life. Increasing life expectancy has re-
sulted in a tremendous increase in the number of
people above the age of 65 in the United States. In
1950 there were 12,397,000 people above the age of
65 representing 8.1 percent of the total population.
This number increased dramatically to 19,972,000
in 1970 and to 21,815,000 as of July 1, 1974. Today
10.3 percent of the nation's inhabitants are above
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
647
the age of 65 compared with 9.8 percent in 1970
and 9.2 percent in 1960.
Social security and other retirement plans provide
a constant source of income for an increasing per-
centage of the elderly. Many of these individuals
are migrating to coastal sections of the country
considered to have a pleasant climate. The vicinity
of St. Petersburg, Fla., is widely known as a retire-
ment haven. Approximately 30 percent of the popu-
lation of several counties in the vicinity of St.
Petersburg is above the age of 65 years. FVMI more
striking however, is that 48.8 percent of tlv> Miami
Beach population is above the age of 6.1. Other
coastal cities of Florida also are the homes of many
retired persons.
A special tabulation of the changing number of
people above the age of 65 years residing in the
estuarine counties, starting with Broward County,
immediately north of Dade in which Miami is lo-
cated, and extending to the Canadian border, shows
a great increase in the number of elderly in recent
years.
These coastal counties in 1950 had 2,082,463 resi-
dents above the age of 65, but, by 1970 this number
had increased to 3,569,388, a growth of 71.4 percent.
By contrast, the increase in the number of elderly
in the country as a whole was significantly less for
the period, 61.1 percent.
Table 2 presents statistics on the changes in the
number of old people in the eastern seaboard coun-
ties, by states. It may be noted that the rate of
increase in the population above the age of 65 was
below the national average in the coastal counties
of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, and Connecticut to the north, but only
North Carolina among the more southern group of
states. Most spectacular is the increase of over 400
percent in the selected Florida counties during this
20-year period.
The percentage of the total population of all (he
eastern seaboard counties above the age of 65 tends
to be less than the national average. This finding is
a consequence of a high influx of young people in a
growing population and will change as those in the
productive ages enter retirement, unless the total
population continues to increase rapidly through
the immigration of young workers.
The trend seems unmistakable for those with
financial means to move to warmer coastal areas
upon retirement. The small family pattern that has
emerged in recent decades coupled with mobility of
young people means that the family ties are not as
likely to hold a person to the community in which
he spent his productive years. Further, substantial
growth in the number of people retiring to the
Table 2.—Population 65 years old and over in the estuarine counties of the
Eastern Seaboard, 1950-1970
Maine
New Hampshire
Massachusetts „ „,
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
V.rgm-a __
Maryland- -- --
Delaware
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia.
Florida
TOTAL
1950
Number
47 163
7,931
279,477
70 418
112,775
823,932
323,957
101,397
140,950
26 320
29,002
16,745
12,353
90,043
2,082,463
%
11.2
11.3
11.5
8.9
8.9
7.9
7.9
7.3
7.6
8 3
5.8
4.7
5.8
7.7
8.2
1960
Number
53,695
9,676
299,850
89 540
154 045
1,162,666
461.088
143,663
171,746
35 745
37,151
22,297
17,278
234,382
2,892,824
k
12.2
9.8
11.5
10.4
9.7
9.9
9.0
7.3
7.?
8.0
6.5
5.0
6.3
S10.0
9.4
1970
Number
57 849
12,148
334,058
103,932
181,267
1,388,261
572,136
190,597
128,183
43,833
46,581
29,132
22,329
459,082
3,569,388
1
%
12 4
8.7
11.7
10.9
9.6
11.4
9.7
6.5
4.3
8.0
7.7
5.8
7.8
13.8
10.0
southern estuarine counties may be expected. This
migration will probably be more directed to larger
communities with relatively complete medical and
service facilities.
Second Homes
A preoccupation with the growth of population
has tended to detract attention from a number of
extremely important demographic trends. One of
these developments is the proclivity of Americans
over the last few years to acquire a second home.
These dwellings are generally in the more isolated
rural areas where one can enjoy the beauties of
nature. The construction c>f these houses often has
very serious ramifications not jxist for the environ-
ment but the economic stability of an area. Often
those constructing vacation homes are not restricted
by any construction codes or by regulations for dis-
posal of human wastes. Also, many are located in
the submarginal areas that should be zoned for
forestry or recreation with no residential construc-
tion permitted.
One of the most desirable locations for vacation
homes in the minds of many people is along the
beaches and the estuaries of the eastern seaboard.
Of course, other individuals express a preference for
the mountains. Regardless of the relative attraction
of the mountains or the beaches, a large percentage
of the population wants to escape at least period-
ically, from city life. Beach property has tended to
advance manyfold in price during recent years. The
increase in the cost of beach property is in itself an
indication of growing demands for such sites for a
second home.
A special report of the census reveals that 2.9
percent of families in the United States had a second
-------
648
ESITUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 3.—Second homes and seasonal housing units, estuarlne counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1970
Maine H
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Maryland.. _. _. _. . ... ...
Delaware.. .. _.
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia . ... .
Florida
TOTAL .
Total
Number
146,635
41,677
901,766
291,965
577,936
4,232,501
1 836,^89
864 C91
883,615
164,804
171,543
134,430
86,189
1,123,478
11,457,319
Jccupied Housing Units
Number with
Second Home
15,672
3,153
56,960
13 337
26,146
189,763
85 240
33 885
28,169
9,517
6 988
616,695
3,764
63,794
543,083
Percent with
Second Home
10.7
7.6
6.3
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.6
3 9
3.2
5.8
4.1
5.0
4.4
5.7
4.7
i
Total
Number
35,431
8,274
43,218
9,884
7,886
51,846
70,506
4 832
12,494
5,222
8 052
6,938
509
19,389
284,481
easonal Housing Units
Percent of all
Housing Units
17.6
15.6
4.3
3.1
1.3
i.2
3.6
0 5
1.3
2.9
5.0
3.4
0.5
1.5
6.2
State Total Units
Held Occasional Use
6,486
3,037
11,611
1,687
6,615
58,186
21,490
19 032
7,974
1,273
13,372
8,695
12,154
46,561
218,173
home in 1967. This number increased dramatically
during the next three years and the 1970 Census of
Population reported that 2,890,000 families, or 4.6
percent of the total, had a second home in 1970.
The construction of these second homes proceeded
at a very rapid pace until about 1973 when the rate
of construction declined. Many of these new second
homes are a part of large developments in mountain
and resort areas, but especially, in some of the more
attractive beach areas. No accurate statistics are
readily available on the extent of these recent
developments.
One indication of the location of these second
homes may be obtained from the Census of Housing.
These reports show the number of homes in each
county classed as seasonal. These figures under-
estimate the number of vacation homes inasmuch
as the census has a separate category for the dwell-
ings held of occasional use. The number in this latter
category is not presented by counties. The number
of seasonal homes in the estuarine counties (see
Table 3) is therefore, the best index available of the
location of second homes. Although admittedly in-
complete, these statistics reflect the areas in which
such dwellings are concentrated.
Two notable concentrations of such houses are in
two counties of New Jersey. Cape May had 24,817
such structures and Ocean County had 29,851. Most
of these dwellings are used by individuals residing
outside the counties because only 1,254 of the fami-
lies in Cape May reported owning a second home in
1970 and the figure for Ocean County was out 3,245.
Another concentration is in Barnstable County,
Mass., (Cape Cod) which reported 21,524 seasonal
homes. Relatively few were reported for the coastal
areas of Georgia, Virginia, North Carolina, and
South Carolina. Nevertheless, it is known that sev-
eral land developments have brought about such
increases the last few years.
The percentage of the population of the estuarine
counties with a second home is presented in Table 3.
The proportion of the population owning a second
home in these counties does not differ greatly from
the national average, and is most pronounced in the
most northern coastal states of Maine, New Hamp-
shire, and Vermont. Florida and Delaware are also
above the national average, but to a lesser extent.
Although the county statistics are not available
on the number of dwellings held for occasional use,
they are for the states as a whole. An unknown por-
tion of these housing units are along the estuaries.
It may be noted in Table 3 that, relative to the total
population of the states, these houses are more
characteristic of the southern states. It would appear
that the second homes in New England tend to be
held for use during the summer months but for
year-round use in the South.
Nationally, this upsurge in the number of vacation
homes indicates a trend that may be predicted to
continue if economic conditions permit. The develop-
ment of second homes will have a great impact upon
the areas in svliich thev are located.
Commuting
The vast majority of the population of the
United States lives in the metropolitan areas of the
nation. In these areas almost inevitably the home and
work are separated. This journey to work is certainly
a factor in daily existence of many people, but the
phenomenon of commuting is much more complex
than often is realized. For one thing, there are large
numbers of households in which both the husband
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
649
and wife are employed outside the home. As a con-
sequence, both arc engaged in this journey to work.
The pattern is not all that crucial at the present
time in estuariiie counties that are non-metropolitan,
hut indications are that it will become more im-
portant in the future.
Several studies have been made in recent years of
the residential preferences in the United States. A
Gallup poll in 1966 reported that 49 percent of
respondents would rather live in a small town or
rural area than a larger community. Two years later
this figure had increased to 56 percent (Zuiches and
Fuguitt, 1972: 622).
A survey in 1971 for the Commission on Popula-
tion Growth and the American Future indicated
that 64 percent of the U.S. population preferred to
live in small towns and rural areas (1972:34). In-
vestigations in Wisconsin add another dimension to
these findings. Wisconsin residents also prefer to
live in small towns and rural places, but most of
these individuals want to be within commuting
distance of major metropolitan centers (Zuiches and
Fuguitt, 1972:626). Apparently, the person living
within 30 miles of a large city can enjoy the quiet
and tranquility of the countryside, but for the
satisfaction of his needs, he is able to get to the large
city in a short period of time. In other words, the
individual residing within the commuting area of a
major metropolis sees the opportunity for enjoying
the advantages of both the rural and the urban
environments.
The survey by Zuiches and Fuguitt also presented
statistics that most people do prefer life in a residen-
tial area about the same size in which they were
reared. This finding is especially true for those reared
on the farm. As the size of a center in which a person
was reared increases, however, a definite tendency is
noted to be less satisfied with the urban areas and
for people to express a desire for a more rural setting
(1972:627).
Of course, a related question will be whether or
not people move in terms of these preferences. A
public opinion survey indicates that a relatively
large percentage of the population believes that they
will actually change their place of residence according
to these preferences or that they reside in a desired
location. Maize and Rawlings report that 80
percent of the respondents in a survey were either
living in the preferred location or expected to
eventually ii.ovc to such a place (1972:608). Such a
tendency is much more pronounced as the size of the
center increases. Rather interestingly, whites are
much more likely to move in terms of these aspira-
tions than are blacks. In fact, urban blacks tend to
be much more satisfied with their residential area
than whites. Maize and Rawlings suggest that a
reason for this is that many blacks were reared in
rural areas where life was not kind to them and only
in the cities have they found a more pleasant life
than the rural setting of their childhood. A move
back to the rural areas might be viewed as a step
backward. (1972:607).
If these generalizations are valid for the southern
coastal areas, they would explain why these areas
have not been experiencing as rapid population
growth as other coastal sections of the nation. Large
numbers of southern blacks have moved to the cities
of the nation, especially to northern ones during the
past half century. This out migration has brought a
sizeable decline in the population of some of the
more rural coastal counties. In the near future,
these counties will probably be able to experience
rapid growth only through the immigration of whites
who are searching a small rural milieu.
Certainly, the basic attitudinal dispositions exist
that can bring a shift of residence toward the smaller
towns and rural areas. Relatively few economic
opportunities exist in sparsely settled areas. Thus,
the incidence of commuting to work may be expected
to grow.
One index of the extent of commuting is the
proportion of workers whose place of employment is
outside the county of residence. The Census of
Population reports that in 1970, 17.8 percent of all
workers traveled outside the county where they lived
to work. This rate of commuting is lower in the
western than the eastern states, no doubt in part
because western counties tend to be larger. Never-
theless, it is significant that the highest commuting
rates were in the states along the eastern seaboard.
In Virginia, for example, 39.9 percent of all workers
leave the county of residence to work. Next highest
is Maryland with 36.7 percent, followed by New
Jersey and New York with 32.7 and 31.8 respectively.
Large metropolitan centers such as Washington,
D.C., and New York City are the places of employ-
ment, but not of residence, of large numbers of
people.
The data in Table 4 show that the percent of the
population working outside the county of residence
in the estuarine counties of the eastern seaboard
was 50 percent in 1970, a substantial increase from
the 37.8 percent in 1960. No tabulations were made
on the extent of inward commuting, which is sub-
stantial in some areas.
Further, it may be noted that there has been a
great increase in the number of people working out-
side the home county, from 29.7 in 1960 to 36.4 in
1970 (see Table 4). The general pattern has been
for in-county employment to increase much less
-------
650
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 4.—Commuting in the estuarine counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1960-1970
Maine
New Hampshire _
Massachusetts .. _- _. .
Rhode Island
New York
New Jersey. -- . _
Virginia „. _ ,. . ._ ..
Maryland ..
Delaware
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia _ . __ ,_ _ __ „. __
Florida
TOTAL
Workers Residing in Area 1960
Number
144,321
36,366
954,803
314,117
591,889
'.,360,154
1,838,624
725,562
833,353
156,030
189,133
140,030
93,243
802,332
11,179,957
Percent Working
Outside County
11.8
34.4
23.8
21.1
11.3
39.3
30.0
42.8
31.6
7.9
10.6
J:J
5.0
29.7
Workers Residing in Area 1970
Number
164,286
49,753
1,051,978
362,305
700,545
4,461,025
2,129,583
1,129,096
1,588,326
194,922
223,783
171,931
95,531
1,150,296
13,473,360
Percent Working
Outside County
13.7
43.9
29.5
23.6
14.7
44.5
34.7
46.8
59.1
11.7
18.3
11.6
5.6
6.6
36.4
Percent Change in Number of Workers
1960-1970
In-County
11.5
16.9
2.0
11.6
13.8
6.4
8.0
44.6
14.1
19.7
8.1
16.8
0.5
40.9
12.8
Out-of-County
31.6
74.8
36.6
29.3
54.1
15.7
34.1
70.3
256.1
85.9
105.1
100.8
53.1
90.8
47.7
rapidly than out-of-county employment. If present
trends continue, commuting will involve a greater
number of people than employment within the
county of residence.
Women in Labor Force
One factor in the increase in commuting has been
a trend for more and more women to enter the labor
force. Large numbers of married women are now
working outside the home. When both husband and
wife are employed, it is unlikely that they will
share the same journey to work. At times their
hours differ, but more often, they go in different
directions. If they are employed in locations miles
apart, then one, if not both, must resort to com-
muting. The home cannot be near both places of
employment.
Furthermore, if both husband and wife \vork, their
income will be more adequate to maintain a suburban
lifestyle. With increases in income, people tend to
move out from the central city.
Patterns of life for a married couple change when
both are employed. The increased participation of
married women in work outside the home may be
demonstrated by a few statistics. In 1950, only
23.8 percent of married \\omen with husbands
present were in the labor force. This figure reached
30.5 percent in 1960, but accelerated after that date
to 40.8 percent in 1970 and 41.5 percent in 1972.
The figures for the total adult female population
show the same trend. In 1950, 31.4 percent of
females above the age of 14 were in the labor force.
This figure was reported as 43.6 percent in 1972.
Rates of participation in the labor force were riot
tabulated for the eastern seaboard counties. The
same patterns are developing in this area as else-
where. The total number of females in the labor
force for these estuarine counties increased from
4,298,003 in 1960 to 5,546,198 in 1970, an increase
of 29 percent. During the same 10-year period, the
number of males in the labor force grew from
8,367,066 to 8,951,665, an increase of but 9 percent.
Undoubtedly, the employment of women outside
the home is a major factor in the changing lifestyles
of the coastal areas. Inasmuch as birth rates are
declining, it may be anticipated that an increasing
percentage of women would continue to look outside
the home for fulfillment. This trend will, of course,
be determined by the availability of employment.
Land Use Changes
Nationally, the number of acres in farms has
steadily declined since the soil bank program of the
1950's. At the same time, the number of farms
continued to decline from the peaks reached early
in the century. Meanwhile, the average size of farms
has increased. The family farm is giving way to the
commercialized enterprise.
The number of farms in the estuarine counties of
the eastern seaboard has dropped from 194,448 in
1950 to 72,049 in 1970, a decline of 62.9 percent in
only 20 years. (Table 5).
The widely publicized world food crisis will
probably result in the expansion of large scale
agricultural enterprises along the eastern seaboard.
Much of this area, especially along the South Atlantic
coast, was at one time abandoned for agricultural
purposes with the westward movement of settle-
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
651
Table 5.—Number of farms in estuarine counties on the Eastern Seaboard,
1950-1970
~~
Maine . _.
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut-,
New York ... ._
Virginia ... . _ _ _
Delaware
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
TOTAL . .. .
1950
12,075
2,206
7,899
2,598
6,981
17,346
17,274
36,134
21,426
7,448
34,899
18,900
2,301
6,961
194,448
' 1
1960
6,778
1,076
3,947
1,395
3,464
19,503
10,790
19,781
14.746
5,208
24,731
11,645
1,158
6,097
130,319
1970
2,664
427
2,132
700
1,801
6,030
5,481
12,255
10,229
3,710
15,218
6,072
582
4,768
72,049
Percent Change
1950
-56.1
-48.7
-50.0
-53.7
-49.6
-12.4
-62.5
-54.8
-58.8
-70.0
-70.8
-61.6
-50.3
-87.6
-67.0
1960
-39.0
-39.7
-54.0
-50.1
-52.0
-30.9
-50.8
-62.0
-69.4
-71.2
-61.5
-52.1
-50.3
-78.2
-55.3
1970
-21.9
-19.4
-27.0
-27.0
-25.8
-35.0
-32.0
-34.0
-48.0
-49.8
43.6
-32.1
-25.3
-68.5
-37.0
ment. Rice plantations in the lowlands of the
Carolinas and Georgia were abandoned long ago.
Timber companies presently own very large tracts
of land. Other areas such as the Golden Isles off the
coast of Georgia became hunting preserves and
vacation retreats for wealthy citizens.
Under the demands for increased agricultural
production, it is very probable that pressures will
be exerted to convert present timberlands back to
food production. Large capital investment require-
ments often result in large scale operations, some-
times referred to as "factories in the field." Indicative
of this type of operation is the development by the
McLean Corporation of most of Tyrrell County,
N.C., into a tremendously large corporation farm of
375,000 acres. With heavy equipment, it is possible
to convert this tremendously large acreage into huge
agricultural enterprises over a very short period of
time. Named First Colony Farms, this operation
will have 225,000 acres under cultivation. Most of
this land was in timber in 1972. Now it is becoming
a factory that will produce corn arid soybeans to be
fed to cattle and 50,000 hogs.
The concentration of land ownership simplifies the
creation of this kind of enterprise. The plea that
poupjc ihrougliout the wnrld are starving to death
ami that the citizens of the United States are
threaiened with imminent starvation makes it
extremely difficult to halt or control these develop-
ments. Low agricultural yield in 1974 for the Mid-
west has been interpreted as a harbinger of world--
wide shortages m the future. Continued pressure to
open ne'.v areas of the United States to agricultural
production is a likely oonscquer'Ce.
The Southern Atlantic States provide one of (ho
best opportunities for large corporations to develop
factories in the field in the shortest possible time.
The availability of wrater and the natural fertility
of soil that has remained fallow for many years
provide the potential for tremendous agricultural
yields.
Obviously, the draining of swamps and the de-
struction of ground cover would drastically alter the
ecology of the area within a short time. The impact of
the runoff on the estuaries would be quite dramatic.
Only part of the land taken out of agriculture
has been converted to highways, urban residential
areas, industrial development, and the like. Such
diverse uses receive much attention in the press.
But a significant portion of the lands that were in
cropland are not used for forestry and grazing.
Forest lands in the United States have increased
substantially over recent decades. No tabulations
were made of the acreage in the estuarine counties
that has returned to forests during recent years.
Woodland not in farms increased from 127,358
thousand acres in 1959 to 146,733 thousand acres in
1969 for the states along the eastern seaboard. Of
these coastal states, only Florida failed to register
an increase in its forested area during the period.
At the other extreme, there are developments
which significantly change the use of the land. New
highways, shopping centers, and the like are known
to all. However, one change has been largely ignored,
and accurate statistics of the phenomenon do not
exist. The average residential lot has steadily in-
creased in size with suburban growth. The single
family urban dwelling of two generations ago
occupied a relatively small space. Lot size was
adapted to the pedestrian. Today, a new single
family dwelling in the suburbs requires a much larger
space. One reason for this change is that zoning
regulations often specify that the new residential lot
be much larger than was true in the past (Gottman
and Harper, 1967:87).
Along the eastern seaboard the future will prob-
ably bring an increase in the amount of land under
cultivation, a decline in the forested area, and an
increase in the urban type usages of the land that
result in great ecological changes. Such changes will
undoubtedly have a significant impact on the water
in the estuaries.
New Living Arrangements
The number of dwelling units in the United States
has been increasing much more rapidly than the
population. The number of residential units in the
counties of the eastern seaboard, for example, grew
-------
652
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
from 6.193,753 in 1950 to 12,078,450 in 1970, an
increase of 98.8 percent. The residential unit tends to
be a more important entity than the individual in
terms of utilization of resources. Each house requires
plumbing, roads, utilities, lot space, and a variety
of services. Obviously, there has been a decline in
the average number of people per dwelling unit.
Several factors are involved in this change:
1. During the depression years and earlier, families
tended to often share the same residence. Married
children were, especially, inclined to live with
parents until financial security was reached. Full
employment and prosperity have permitted most
couples to have separate dwellings.
2. Another important factor is the increase m
one-person households. In the past, the individual
living alone was generally an elderly widow. A shift
has taken place in recent years. Young employed
adults, both male and female, seek a separate
dwelling unit until marriage. Even among the college
students, there has been a rapid transition to the
apartment and away from the dormitory. The de-
mand is for housing for individuals, not families.
3. Much residential construction during the last
decade has been of apartment complexes. These
units cater to the individual desiring to establish a
one-person household. In 1960, 2,37,000 structures
were built with three or more housing units. By 1970,
this figure had increased to 606,000. Onl> two years
later in 1972, 646,000 housing structures with three
units or more were started. Apartment construction
has multiplied rapidly, but each unit tends to have
a small number of occupants on the average. Some
apartment-style construction has been cutside the
cities in former open country areas, and has created
environmental problems.
4. Yet another dramatic change in living arrange-
ments has been the growing popularity of the mobile
home. The shipment of mobile homes increased from
216,000 in 1965 to 576,000 in 1972. The mobile
home has become especially popular in rural areas
of the South. Financing has been easy to secure for
those owning land. Few consider them as a per-
manent solution to housing needs. Howjver, in a
short time a person can have one installed and move
into it, often without satisfactory provision for
disposing of household effluent. Many mobile home
parks have been established along the estuaries of
the southern United States with raw sewage draining
directly into the streams
In addition to the mobile homes that ;;erve as a
regular residence, there are smaller units used by
vacationers to camp in great numbers in trailer
parks throughout the nation.
THE QUEST FOR
QUALITY OF LIFE
For the last four or five years, everyone seems to
have been seeking some elusive goal now designated
as quality of life. The phrase was not a part of the
vernacular a very few years ago. Now suddenly it is
very widely used. Many scholars are now writing
on the topic. Most of these essays are non-scientific
and describe the kind of situation that the individual
feels is ideal without any attempt to really specify
the content of the quality of life. At one time,
quality of life represented the goal of attaining
trappings of affluence: automobiles, refrigerators,
television sets, and other material things.
There is considerable evidence today that people
are no longer as oriented toward material things.
New lifestyles are evolving, that is, the manner in
which material things are utilized. For example, an
automobile may be used simply as a means of
transportation to and from work, or it can be a
source of livelihood, a status symbol, or even a
major item of recreation. Today in our affluent
society all tend to possess a vast array of material
goods. The non-material life patterns, consequently,
are becoming increasingly important.
The quality of life that is being sought has great
ramifications for water pollution. The desire to visit
the Avide-open spaces, to go fishing, backpacking,
camping, and the like are bringing great numbers of
people into the areas that were uninhabited just
a few years ago. As a consequence, there is really
very little land in the United States that is not used
for some purposes, whereas in the past, even around
urban concentrations, there were still large tracts of
lands that no one visited.
Indicative of the attempt to find a new style of
life is the number of people who fish and hunt. The
total number of fishing licenses issued nationally in
1950 was 15,338,000. By 1971, this figure had' in-
creased to 32,384,000. The number of hunting
licenses sold jumped from 12,638,000 to 22,912,000
during the same 11-year period.
The number of outboard motors in use increased
from 2,811,000 in 1950 to 7,400,000 in 1972. Outdoor
recreation is a part of tin- desired quality of !ifc of
growing percentages of the population. It is a part
of the general desire to live closer to nature.
Not to be ignored in this process of Si-ekirjr a, :;ew
qualitv of life are the aineilif ie> provided r
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
653
voniences of life. These were undoubtedly one of
the features of urban life that brought many to the
city who could have staved in the rural areas
practicing a subsistence agriculture or living during
the retirement years. Through the spread of elec-
tricity into even the remote sections of the United
States, the rural resident can have all of these ad-
vantages of urban life. As a consequence, migration
to a rural area does not involve a loss of these modern
conveniences. In the affluent society, they provide a
base of material comfort that is universally available
in the United States. Increase in the quality of life
is almost always followed by an even greater in-
crease in the use of water and volume of waste
materials.
Other amenities in the new style of living are
coming into existence. One of the most important
of these is climate. Ullman noted almost a generation
ago that "for the first time in the world's history,
pleasant living conditions—amenities—instead of
more narrowly defined economic advantages are
becoming the sparks that generate significant
population increase, particularly in the United
States" (1954:119). Ullman insists that the suburban
movement reflects this search for a more pleasant
life. Between 1940 and 1950, the suburban popula-
tion of the nation increased 35 percent as compared
with 13 percent inside the city limits and only 6
percent elsewhere. At the same time, other areas,
largely coastal, with pleasant climate experienced a
tremendous upsurge in their population. In the
decade of the 40's the population of California in-
creased 53 percent, Arizona 50 percent, and Florida
46 percent. Two other coastal states that also
experienced this rather rapid rate of growth were
Oregon and Washington, whose populations in-
creased 39 arid 37 percent respectively. Ullrnan con-
sidered climate a major factor and believed that most
people would prefer to live in an area where the
temperature averaged 70 degrees the year round.
This "Mediterranean'' type climate exists in Florida
and California.
Even industry that is freed by modern transporta-
tion and communications from the inner city has
viewed the climate as a major element in building
new industrial establishments. Climate ^hows no
signs of declining in importance. We may anticipate
a continued movement, of the population t( ward the,
coastal areas. The only large, undeveloped coastal
area remaining in the United States is that of the
southeast states.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In contrast to the situation in western portions oi
the United States, the eastern seaboard has a
relatively ample supply of water. Evidence is ac-
cumulating that water will be the natural resource
that limits human development more than any other
throughout the world. Adequate water supply does
not mean there will be no problems in regards to
this valuable resource. Just as important in many
ways as the quantity of water available is its
quality.
Industrialization, urbanization, and rapid growth
of the population have often been associated with
increased water pollution. The theme of this report
has been that the changing life patterns of mankind
have more influence upon the quality of the water
in the estuaries than the mere numbers of people.
Several trends have been enumerated which re-
flect changing lifestyles in the United States and
which must inevitably have some impact upon the
estuaries:
1. The population of the United States is rapidly
shifting to the coastal areas of the nation, while
other sections are being depopulated; especially are
people leaving the interior sections of the nation.
Approximately one-half of the over 3,000 counties
in the United States lose population each decade.
At the same time, a new urban structure is evolving.
The megalopolis of the northeast, extending from
Massachusetts to Virginia, represents an attempt
by man to combine elements of rural and urban
living. Another megalopolis has been established
along the east coast of Florida that promises to
eventually encompass the entire peninsula of Florida.
Population growth has been slower in the coastal
areas of the south Atlantic coast. Indications are
that a megalopolis is developing that will extend
along the entire eastern seaboard. In the absence of
careful planning, the v-ater pollution problems of
the northern coastal area may be expected to be
duplicated in the South.
2. The trends toward a shorter workweek, paid
vacations, late entry, and early exit from the labor
force result in people today having much more time
for leisure pursuits than was true for past genera-
tions. Much of this additional time is devoted to
outdoor recreation, travel, and a demand for services
on the part of the entire spectrum of social groups in
the United States rather than a small leisure class.
3. A thi^d trend in modern society has been the
withdrawal of people from the labor force upon
retirement in the OO's. Increased life expectancy has
resulted in a much larger percentage of the popula-
tion achieving advanced ages and enjoying several
years outside the labor force. These retirees in-
creasingly have a stable income from social security
and various pension plans. Large numbers of retirees
-------
654
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
are moving from the location where they spent their
economically productive years to complete their
lives in the coastal areas of the nation, especially
those sections where the climate is mild.
4. Before the advent of automotive transportation,
workers lived at a location where the journey to
work could be minimized Today, an ever-increasing
percentage of the population is commuting daily
from homes in the suburbs to employment a con-
siderable distance away. As the journey to work
becomes ever greater, dependence on public trans-
portation has declined, and the automobile has be-
come the focus of new lifestyles.
5. The small family pattern, modern household
appliances, plus smaller homes have eliminated
much of the drudgery of housework. Women, as a
consequence, have increasingly sought employment
outside the home. Their additional incomes make it
possible for families to enjoy a higher level of living
than before, which is often manifest in establishing
residences away from the central city. Because
husband and wife work in different locations, com-
muting must become a part of their lifestyles.
6. Land use has dramatically shifted along the
eastern seaboard over the last 100 years. The number
of farms has declined rapidly for decades. Initially.
this decline resulted in lands being abandoned for
agricultural purposes arid becoming reforested. The
growth of cities and the construction ( f highways
and other facilities will probably bring a decline in
forest acreage. Pressures to produce food for a hungry
world may result in much land in the Sou th Atlantic
area being converted to large "factories in the field."
Huge corporation farms would drastically alter the
ecology of an area. Demands also exist to transform
lands into public recreational facilities or to retain
them as unchanged natural areas.
7. One of the most striking trends in the United
States has been the increase in number of dwelling
units. One-person households and the disappearance
of the doubling-up of families have resulted in a
steady decline in the number of people; per residential
unit. The housing unit tends to be the entity that
disrupts the ecology of an area, rather than the
number of people per se.
8. A dominant theme in American society today
is the quest for a new quality of life. The term has
riot been adequately defined, but there is an un-
mistakable desire on the part of many people to
follow some of the life patterns that existed when
life was much simpler in the rural areas. These new
lifestyles an associated with a desire for more con-
tact with nature, not only as a place of residence,
but also as a place to spend leisure time.
One of the reports for the Commission on Popula-
tion Growth and the American Future summarized
the trends in the redistribution of the population as
follows:
1. People are vacating extensive portions of the nation's
territory—particularly the middle of the continent—
and concentrating along the coasts.
2. The United States becomes more and more urban with
each passing year; most Americans now reside in metro-
politan centers of at least 100,000 inhabitants.
3. The structure of these urban settlements is under-
going a gradual metamorphosis; metropolitan areas and
their hinterlands are merging into larger constellation,'!
to form urban regions.
4. Important internal differentiations are taking place
within the jurisdictions of metropolises; inside, their
population is leveling off or shrinking and changing to
nonwhite; in the suburban rings, it is expanding and
remaining largely white.
These changes have given rise to national problems con-
cerning the environment, the aesthetic quality of urban
and rural life, and racial separation—issues of coping
individually and collectively with the process of urbani-
zation. Curtailing national population growth, while
helpful in the long run, cannot resolve these problems in
the near term (Morrison, 1972:23-24).
The Commission on Population Growth and the
American Future strongly recommended that the
policies of this nation be built about the concept of
population stability rather than growth. The Com-
mission insisted in the long run there must be a
population stability because even an infinitesimal
rate of population growth cannot continue indef-
initely (1972:75-79). It is recognized that popula-
tion growth may very well continue for some decades,
but the Commission insisted that thinking and
planning must be based on population stability.
Many people find it difficult to adjust to this
concept of stability. Our economy has been based
on some inflation as well as population and city
growth. Bigger has long been considered better.
Rapid population growth accompanied with in-
flation and industrial expansion has been sufficient
to compensate for poor planning. Population
stability will result in new homes which are needed
only for replacement of those being abandoned.
Inflation which assures a profit on manufactured
products cannot be continued indefinitely. The
pessimistic volume, "The Limits to Growth," written
by a group of experts from Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (Meadows, et al.. 1972) projects
global collapse coming as a result of population
growth. If equilibrium is not reached in population
growth, perhaps through increased pollution, in-
dustralization, urbanization, and the destruction of
nonrenewabJe resources, the calamity these authors
forecast would come about.
Still, not all present trends will continue. One way
to assure a reversal in the direction of change will
be the adoption of policies that enforce population
-------
LEGAL ASPECTS
655
stability plus restrict other forms of development. A
situation of population equilibrium will almost un-
doubtedly result in more .careful planning of the
location of schools, highways, residential areas,
industrial plants, and even agricultural operations.
This planning almost certainly will result in more
consideration being given to the natural environ-
ment, especially in those areas where unhampered
development can lead to greater water pollution.
With this background, three recommendations of
the Commission of Population Growth need to be
adopted if the estuaries of the nation are to be
protected:
1. Recognizing that our population cannot grow in-
definitely, and appreciating the advantages of moving
toward the stabilization of population, the Commission
recommends that the nation welcome and plan for a
stabilized population (1972:143).
2. The Commission recommends that: The federal
government develop a set of national population dis-
tribution guidelines to serve as a framework for regional,
state, and local plans and development;
Regional, state, and metropolitan-wide governmental
authorities take the initiative, in cooperation with local
governments, to conduct needed comprehensive plan-
ning and action programs to achieve a higher quality
of urban development;
The process of population movement be eased and guided
in order to improve access or opportunities now restricted
by physical remoteness, immobility, and inadequate
skills, information and experience;
Action be taken to increase freedom in choice of resi-
dential location through the elimination of current
patterns of racial and economic segregation and their
attendant injustices (1972:144).
3. To anticipate and guide future urban growth, the
Commission recommends comprehensive land-use and
public-facility planning on an overall metropolitan and
regional scale.
The Commission recommends that governments exercise
greater control over land-use planning and development
(1972:144).
Although relevant to the process of water pollu-
tion in the estuaries of the eastern seaboard, these
recommendations of the population commission are
general and apply to the nation as a whole. There
are other recommendations that need to be made
which are more unique to problems existing in
counties along the estuaries of the Atlantic coast.
These specific recommendations are as follows:
1. That new legal entities be created \vhos func-
tion of the system of transportation.
6. That special studies be made of the South
Atlantic coastal area and contrasted with develop-
ments along the North Atlantic coast. Such studies
are essential if problems that had been generated in
the Northeast are not to be duplicated in the South,
7. That regional plans be made for the provision
of utilities and, especially, public health facilities
for the entire coastal area. Regional building and
sanitary codes are needed that cannot be ignored by
smaller political divisions.
8. As this is being written, problems of energy,
inflation, and unemployment add to the urgency for
planning. However, these plans must be based on a
sound understanding of the relationship of the im-
mediate situation to both past and long range future
developments.
REFERENCES
De Grazia, S. 1964. Of Time, Work, and Leisure. Doublcday
and Company, Anchor Books Edition, Garden City, N". Y.
De Grazia, S. 1968. The problems and promise of leisure. In:
W. Ewald, Jr., Environment and Policy. Indiana Uni-
versity Press, Bloomington, Ind.
Environmental Protection Agency. The Quality of Lift Con-
cept: A Potential New Tool for Decision Makers. Office of
Research and Monitoring, Environmental Studies Division,
Washington, D.C.
Furon, R. 1967. The Problem of Water. American KlsPvier
Publishing Company, Inc., New York.
Gottman, J. 1961. Megalopolis: The Urbanization r-f the
Northeastern Seaboard of the United States. The Twentieth
Century Fund, New York.
Gottman, J. and R. A. Harper. 1967. Metropolis on the
Move: Geographers Look at Urban Sprawl. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York.
Hunt, C. \., and R, M. Garrelg. 1972. Water: The Web of
Life. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York,
Morrison, P. A. 1972. Dimensions of the population problem
in the United States. In: S. M, Maxie (ed). Population
Distribution and Policy, The Commission of Population.
Growth and the American Future. Vol. V of Commission
Research Reports. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C.: 3-30.
-------
656
ESTUABINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Meadows, I). II. et al. 1972. The Limits to Growth. New
American Library, New York.
Pickard, J. P. 1972. U.S. metropolitan growth and expan-
sion, 1970-2000, with population projections. In: S. M.
Mazie (ed), Population Distribution and Policy. The Com-
mission on Population Growth and the American Future.
Vol. V of Commission Research Reports Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.: 127-182.
Ridker, R. G. (ed). 1972. Population, Resources and the En-
vironmpnl. Tbe Commission on Population Growth and
American Future. Vol III of Commission Research
-'eporf < 'ovorrmeot Printing (Wire, Washington, D.C.
The Commission on Population Growth and the American
Future.' 1972. Population and the American Future. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Ullman, E. L. 1954. Amenities as a factor in regional growth.
The Geographical Review XLIV: 119-132.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. Current Population Reports,
Series P-23, N. 49. 1974. Population of the United States,
Trends and Prospects: 1950-1990. U.S. Government Print-
ing Office, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1973. Statistical Abstract of the
United States: 1973. (94th Edition). Washington, D.C.
Zuiches, J. J. and G. V. Fuguitl. 1972. Residential preferences:
Implications for population reciistribul ion in nonmetropoli-
tan areas. In: S. M. Mazie icd), Population Distribution
and Policy. The Commission on Population Growth and
the American Future. Vol. V of Commission Research
Reports. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.:
617-630.
-------
ESTUARINE
ECONOMICS
-------
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
IN THE EVALUATION
AND MANAGEMENT
OF ESTUARIES
JOHN H. CUMBERLAND
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
ABSTRACT
This paper describes an economic-environmental systems model for analyzing estuaries which
has been used in Maryland to forecast the quantities and types of waste and residuals which will
be generated through the year 1985 for the Chesapeake Bay and each of its major tributaries.
The model indicates that the amount of residuals will be a function of the rate and composition
of economic development. Consequently, economic development and growth in the region can
be expected to generate water quality problems of increasing magnitude for all estuaries in the
U.S. Various corrective policy measures are evaluated for dealing with the environmental threat
to the quality of estuarine waters. One of the most serious environmental impacts is aesthetic
damage and methods are suggested for applying charges for various levels of aesthetic damage
in order to encourage improved qualities of economic development.
A national policy on estuarine management would recognize both the economic realities of com-
mon property resources and the federal structure which has evolved in U.S. political history.
Consequently, a national policy on estuarine management would establish minimum national
standards for quality, leaving local authorities to establish higher standards if so desired. How-
ever, no economic or political justification can be discovered for permitting local areas to relax
environmental standards below those set by federal government. The establishment of higher
local standards than those stipulated by federal policy would provide financial and other in-
centives to improve technology and encourage generators of pollution to internalize external costs.
Finally, specific recommendations are made for establishing a national policy for better manage-
ment of estuaries, which are among our most important natural and environmental resources.
INTRODUCTION
Estuaries are the vital interface between land and
water, between oceans and rivers, between ecology
and technology, and between the conflicting demands
for environmental quality and economic develop-
ment. Estuaries are the bodies of water over which
will be fought the emerging battles for energy pro-
duction versus conservation and economic growth
versus the reduced growth movement. The problem
of analyzing and resolving these conflicts will require
a more complete understanding of the relationships
between man and his environment and the relation-
ships between the social, physical, biological, and
earth sciences than has been available in the past.
The accumulation of economic and other rein-
forcing institutional factors which encourage overuse
and mismanagement of estuaries is a growing threat
to water quality and biological, ecological balance in
the nation's waterways. Environmental economists
are attempting to measure, forecast, and analyze
these phenomena by developing new types of models
based upon tested economic tools combined with
materials balance and entropy concepts derived from
the physical sciences. Some of these large-scale com-
puter models are now capable of estimating the
generation of many individual wastes, residuals, and
pollutants over time throughout different parts of the
estuary. For example, Table 1, taken from one such
study, estimates the gross generation of residual
nitrogen generated in each of the 16 major river ba-
sins of the Chesapeake Bay by 5-year intervals from
1970 through 1985 (Cumberland and Herzog, forth-
coming) . This study estimates an average annual
growth rate for nitrogen releases of 5.7 percent, but
with significant variance between the individual
political subdivisions and river basins involved. This
annual growth rate, if continued, implies a doubling
of the pollution load approximately every 14 years.1
These projected pollution growth rates underline the
urgent need to develop more effective control mea-
sures if society is to enjoy benefits of these resources
in future generations.
1 Similar estimates are available in the study for growth of other pol-
lutants, as well as for the accompanying economic development in each of
the major river basins which make up the Chesapeake Bay Regional
System.
659
-------
660
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTBOL
It is the major point of this paper that current
mismanagement of our estuaries results from omis-
sions and inadequacies in the conceptual models and
management theories which have been s,pplied to the
governance (or more generally, the non-governance)
of estuaries. Among the more serious gaps in our
models for managing estuaries are: failure to include
the lessons of environmental economics; failure to
include new interdisciplinary knowledge and con-
cepts such as materials balance and enorgy-entropy
models; failure to use models based upon a total
systems approach; and failure to use models which
reveal comprehensive sets of alternative manage-
ment policies and their consequences. This paper
will attempt to address these problems by sketching
a comprehensive systems analysis wiich can be
applied to estuaries, by indicating some of the im-
plications of the systems approach, and by examin-
ing briefly some of the management policies and
possible improvements in management techniques
which are suggested by the analysis.
SOME SOURCES OF
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE
TO ESTUARIES
The major threat facing our estuaries is cumula-
tive and potentially irreversible environmental
damage resulting from excessively rapid economic
development and intervention in natuial processes.
Although numerous factors have contributed to this
problem, a major set of components has emerged
from economic forces.
The principal economic problem in the manage-
ment of estuaries is the fact that they are generally
treated as common property resources v ith no single
ownership or management. Consequently, property
rights are not vested and the result is that estuaries
and their resources tend to be overused and abused
since users do not normally bear the full costs of
their use. Under these circumstances, market failures
result since the private costs of using the resources
of the estuary do not equal the social costs and the
individual users attempt to appropriate as much of
the resources as possible before they can be appro-
priated bj- others who also have free rights to them.
With no single entity holding property rights or full
management responsibilities, there are no incentives
to invest, in increasing or protecting the productivity
of the estuary, and its resources tend to be overused
and depleted.
Another problem which is related to the common
property phenomenon in estuarine management is
the imposition of detrimental externalities on others.
The apparently free availability of water, air, and
Table 1.—Gross Residual Projection for Nitrogen for the
Chesapeake Bay Region (tons)
1
District of Columbia
Potomac
Maryland
Blackwater
Chester
Choptank
Gunpowder
Nanticoke.
Patapsco
Patuxent
Pocomoke
Potomac
Wicomico
Elk .
Ches. Bay and ocean.
Total
Virginia
James .- _
Potomac __
Rappahannock
York
Ches. Bay and ocean
Total
Chesapeake Bay Re-
gion total
Years
1970
4,032.7
487.2
4,696.4
10,721.2
4,462.4
3,088.9
6,309.8
12,641.5
6,802.5
47,979.5
8,067.9
3,898.1
30,092.2
139,247.4
29,956.5
15,088 8
12,799.8
10,840.1
12,592.4
81,277.6
224,557.7
1975
4,252.4
525.0
5,526.3
11,868.7
5,029,4
3,340.6
6,309.8
13,802.7
7,291.6
50,891.9
8,624.9
4,460.8
32,602.6
150,504.0
48,850.0
23,024.4
22,386.9
17,875.6
16,292.5
128,429.4
283,185.8
1S80
4,746.8
542.5
6,336.1
12.816.9
5,400.6
3,495.8
7,139.6
14,078.7
7,521.9
52,343.6
8,875.6
5,069.7
34,425.1
158,045.9
79,234.1
35,782.5
38,444.0
29,481.1
21,398.4
204,340.0
367,132.7
1985
5,214.8
551.6
6,876.6
13,440.2
5,560.9
3,617.2
7,212.5
14,421.6
7,772.2
52,482.8
9,145.6
5,575.7
35,634.6
162,291.4
122,084.0
53,028.2
62,038.6
46,196.8
27,888.4
311,235.8
478,742.0
Average
Annual
Growth
Rate
1970-1985
1.7
.8
2.6
1.5
1.5
1.1
.9
.9
.9
.6
.8
2.4
1.1
1.0
9.8
8.7
11.1
10.1
5.4
9.4
5.7
Source' Cumberland and Herzog, forthcoming.
biological resources in estuaries makes it possible
and profitable (at least in the short run) to overuse
these resources and to shift costs from particular
individuals, groups, and communities, to others.
This phenomenon is most clearly observed in the
release of wastes into the air and water of estuaries.
Firms attempting to maximize profits, individuals
attempting to maximize personal utility, and com-
munities attempting to minimize costs and shift
their environmental loads elsewhere, face positive
incentives to discharge their wastes into estuaries,
thus imposing damages, costs, and injuries upon
other groups, other reaches of the estuary, and upon
the biological resources of the estuary itself without
paying compensation.
Other types of market failure also combine to
encourage mismanagement of estuaries. For example,
many of the recreational, aesthetic, and environ-
mental values of estuaries can be regarded as public
goods which are normally provided in the public sec-
tor. Although the benefits resulting from the pro-
vision of these public goods usually exceed their
costs, up to a certain level, the public sector normally
provides insufficient investment in the management
and protection of estuarine services, for a number of
reasons. Taxpayers may be reluctant to reveal their
-------
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
661
preference for added expenditures in the public sector
fearing that their taxes will be raised and hoping
that other groups and other regions will pay for the
improved management. The joint difficulty of either
collecting fees for cleaner waters or of excluding
anyone from enjoying the free benefits therefrom is
a serious deterrent to public programs needed to
protect estuarine quality. Also, organized pressure
groups with well-defined financial objectives are
usually more successful in influencing public ex-
penditures in their direction than is the general
public which benefits from the diffuse, long-term
services of a well-managed estuary.
Another problem in the management of estuaries
is the failure to utilize models which permit experi-
mentation with a wide range of alternative develop-
ment plans. Too often in the past, preoccupation
with growth and quantitative increase of gross
product has tended to distract attention from other
alternatives such as non-development, low-density
development, recreational development, and pro-
tection of common property resources for the future.
Flexible models arc needed which can trace the
economic and environmental implications of all of
these policy alternatives.
Two major sets of problems in estuarine manage-
ment are caused by the inability of current economic
management models to allow full consideration of
interregional, interspatial, and intertemporal phe-
nomena. With respect to intertemporal phenomena,
decisionmaking for estuaries is typically based upon
market rates of discount and profit considerations
which attach low values to the rights of future gen-
erations. The result is often to encourage irreversible
actions which may generate current benefits at the
cost of foreclosing future alternatives. More adequate
consideration of the values of future generations is
required.
The failure to consider future generations and the
use of high discount rates also tend to ignore im-
portant time changes in economic variables. For ex-
ample, there appears to be growing evidence that
with affluence, there is a high income elasticity of
demand for outdoor recreation; yet, adequate pro-
tection of estuaries for recreational purposes has
been systematically undervalued as compared to
industrial and commercial development. A second
and related phenomenon results from changing
technology. For example, the rush to use the .cooling
capacity of estuaries for installing fossil fuel and
nuclear electric steam power stations overlooks
probable future technological developments which
will make more use of solar, geothermal, and other
forms of energy less damaging to the environment
than present steam electric 'stations (Krutilla and
Cicchetti, 1972). Another phenomenon connected
with technology is the growing tendency towards
introduction of high-technology, high-pollution de-
vices in recreation. For example, the growing use of
high-powered engines for water skiing, boating,
helicopters, and other aircraft is converting many
recreational activities into high-noise, high-pollution
activities.
Other problems related to time in the theoretical
analysis of estuarine management deal with the
neglect in most rescnirce management theories of the
irreversible nature of some activities. For example,
some types of estuarine abuse such as excessive
sedimentation and filling in of the estuary, or mas-
sive oil spills, or the releases of radioactive isotopes
with very long half-lives may have an effect on the
estuary that is irreversible. Reversibility can be
defined in terms of the amount of cost involved in
correcting an adverse effect. Under this definition,
certain types of management decisions may be ir-
versible, or they may be reversible only at extremely
high costs. Among these would be the decision to
construct a highly capital intensive activity such as
an industrial plant, a power plant, an industrial
port, or even a high density recreational or residential
area. The phenomenon of irreversibility as it affects
estuaries therefore requires that sequential life-cycle
analysis be included in models of estuarine manage-
ment under which the economic and environmental
effects of the project should be evaluated over all
phases of its life. This would include exploration,
planning, construction, operation, and the eventual
removal of the project and rehabilitation of the site.2
The inclusion of intertemporal, sequential phenomena
is urgently needed if models of environmental estu-
arine management are to be improved (Fisher,
Krutilla, and Cicchetti, 1972; Fisher and Krutilla,
1974; Arrow and Fisher, 1974).
Besides including intertemporal phenomena, im-
proved models should explicitly contain interregional,
interspatial variables. A major tendency in regional
waste management problems is to shift emissions
of wastes to other regions, using common property
resources such as air or water to transport waste
burdens from one region to another. Much tradi-
tional analysis of urban problems fails to take into
account the total environmental space of an urban
region, which properly includes its entire watershed
and its entire waste disposal space, covering perhaps
hundreds or thousands of square miles. Consequently,
estuarine models should explicitly contain the full
environmental space of the region as well as an
2 The closer the costs of removal and rehabilitation approach infinity,
the more nearly the project would be truly irreversible.
-------
662
EsruARiNE POLLUTION CONTROL
explicit interspatial network of all of the separate
governments involved.
Closoly linked to the regional economic factor is
the regional political management problem and the
need for appropriate management units for estuaries
which include the relevant physical and environ-
mental units. Related to this is the fact that responsi-
bility for estuarine environmental decisionmaking is
often entrusted to transient personnel who may have
at best a short-term or bureaucratic interest only,
rather than a long-term commitment to the health
and protection of the estuary. Another institutional
management problem is the failure of environmental
planning units to include representatives of all of the
necessary disciplines involved. Too often these
regulatory commissions have a commitment to
economic development rather than environmental
protection. Political factors obviously reinforce this
issue.
The net result of all of these economic and related
problems in estuarine management is usually to
encourage excessively rapid development, overuse,
and abuse of common property environmental re-
sources so that private costs are lower than the
social costs. The private gains resulting from damage
to the public interest offer incentives to individual
developers to overuse the resources of the estuary.
The resource management problem then turns out
to be in large part one of avoiding the rrajor abuses
of market failure through simulation of optimal
decisionmaking which in theory results from single
management and ownership of an environmental
resource.3 The estuarine management task then is to
maximize public welfare and utility by balancing
the gains of economic development against the
claims of responsible environmental management in
order to maximize total net social benefits to the
society. It is the hypothesis of this paper that
failures to do this in the past have resulted from 1)
inadequate theoretical understanding of estuaries;
2) failure to include interdisciplinary knowledge that
is emerging from ecological analysis of estuaries; 3)
failure to base estuarine management models on
knowledge of environmental economics; 4) failure
to design models which show all of the full range
management options; 5) failure to include long-run
phenomena; 6) and failure to design adequate in-
stitutions which can implement the knowledge re-
sulting from better management models.
In the next section, an effort will be made to
sketch some of the details of a comprehensive estu-
arine environmental systems management model.
3 Optimal ilecisionmaking ais-o requires the free availabil ty of knowledge,
low transactions costs, and other conditions usually associated with pure
competition.
APPLICATION OF SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS TO ESTUARIES
Estuaries are complex systems of natural phe-
nomena, of human activities and of the interrelation-
ships between society and nature. The realities of
these large systems are too complex to be repre-
sented by simple models. However, as in the case of
any management problem, an effort can be made to
identify the most critical subcomponents of the
estuarine system and the interrelationships between
them. Figure 1 represents an effort to model the
major components of an estuarine system and its
interrelationships.4 It contains eight components
which, being separate and distinct, can be solved
individually, but which can also be linked together
with measurable interrelationships in a way which
provides feedback from one system to another,
generating a closed general equilibrium system.
Part A is a regional, or more generally an inter-
regional interindustry or input-output model which
has been widely used by economists (Cumberland,
1966). There are several important characteristics
of these interindustry models. One distinctive feature
is the emphasis on disaggregation of economic sys-
tems by type of economic activities. For example,
Figure 1 specifically identifies energy sales across the
energy row and energy purchases down the energy
column, because of the importance of energy policy
problems at the present time and because of their
significance for estuarine management. However,
because energy activities purchase inputs from many
different activities as shown in the energy column
and because energy producers sell outputs to almost
all other economic activities, as demonstrated across
the energy row, it is impossible to measure and
evaluate energy activities in isolation from the rest
of the economy. Therefore, separate analysis of
energy isolated from the rest of the economy can
lead to erroneous, misleading, and inefficient de-
cision processes. Energy factors should be incor-
porated explicitly in a general equilibrium model of
the region.
A second major advantage of the interindustry
module is that separate identification of each eco-
nomic activity in the model permits the comprehen-
sive measurement of indirect, as well as direct, effects
of each of the economic activities. This is important
because indirect effects if comprehensively accounted
for can add up to significant magnitudes. Another
advantage of the disaggregation of the interindustry
4 Although the economic environmental systems model displayed in
Figure 1 IB used for application in this study to estuaries, it has been de-
veloped by the author and his colleagues for general application to economic
environmental management problems of regions, urban areas, and other
systems. See for example (Cumberland and Stram, 1974; Cumberland and
Korbach, 1973).
-------
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
663
L Production
1
V
E N
E
N
E
R
G
R G Y
Personal Income
A 1 Tax Revenue
Fi
C
pal Omd.
yr
G
z
—>
Gross Generation
of Residuals
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Technical Treatment
Processes
Marginal Treatment
Cost Function
(MTCF)
Public Administration,
Policies, Taxes, Standards,
Institutions, Education,
Values , Li fe Styles
Environmental Treatment
Processes
Environmental
Transformation
Function^--f^tF)
PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT
Benefit Cost Analysis
Impacts, Damages, Effects
Marginal Damage
Function (MDF)
jConcen-
itration
Environmental Quality
Concentration
JOHN H. CUMBERLAND
NOVEMBER 15, 1974
FIGUKK 1.—An economic environmental systems model.
model by economic activity according to function is
that it records the important distinction between
the final demand sectors and intermediate processing
sectors. This distinction permits recognition of the
fact that economic growth is not mechanical or
inevitable, but is a function of the goals and priori-
ties of the region. The decisionmaking sectors are
separately identified as consumers or investors or
government for whose total final demand satisfac-
tion the intermediate processing sectors are acti-
vated. This formulation has the important additional
advantage of making it possible to enter alternative
growth strategies or policy programs into the model
(so long as they can be specified in terms of purchases
from the sectors in the model) in order to measure
the impact of these alternatives on income, employ-
ment, output, and environmental quality. In an
alternative linear programming formulation, the
model can also be used for indicating, given the
goals and objectives of the estuarine region and
its environmental structure, the optimal set of ec-
onomic policies and activities needed to achieve
these regional objectives. Trade-offs between en-
vironmental quality and economic objectives such
as income, employment, and tax revenue can also be
measured.
While economists have achieved considerable
proficiency in developing the economic models of the
type shown in Part A, they have learned recently
from the growing magnitude of environmental
problems that economic models have omitted some
of the most important interrelationships from their
market-oriented models. Since interindustry models
normally measure only those goods priced and ex-
changed in markets, they have omitted the flows of
wastes and residuals which are a counterpart of all
production and consumption activities. Although
the materials and energy balance concepts have
been dealt v ith by physicists for many years, they
have only recently been introduced into the analysis
of economists (Ayres and Kneese, 1969; Georgescu-
Roegen, 1971). Profit-maximizing firms have ec-
-------
664
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
onomic incentives for discharging their wastes at low
or zero costs into the common property resources of
the estuary, causing overuse of the limited as-
similative capacity of estuaries and reductions in
total welfare. The abuse of the common property
estuariiie resources is not limited to profit-max-
imizing firms, but is also a factor in the economic
incentives of consumers and re-creationists to dis-
charge their wastes into estuarine waters, and to
overuse the common property amenities provided by
estuaries.
Thus, difficulties associated with allocating and
enforcing property rights to estuarine resources, and
the historical common property status of the estuary
which provides positive financial incentives to both
producers and consumers to overuse thzsc resources
and discharge wastes into them, account largely for
the environmental problem and the growing pollu-
tion of estuaries. An attempt is now being made to
measure the flow of these wastes and residuals
through the environment in new types of develop-
ment models which measure and forecast both the
types and the amounts of wastes that accompany
each type of production and consumption activity
(Cumberland and Korbach, 1973). This type of
model measures the flow of wastes and residuals
coming from each type of economic activity in the
Gross Residuals Component B of Figure ]. The
model is disaggregated not only with respect to
every production and consumption Eictivity, but
with respect to each major type of pollutant dis-
charged into water, air, and onto the land. The
importance of disaggregating waste by type, source
and destination can be suggested by co isidering the
different environmental qualities and characteristics
of different estuaries. Estuaries having cold water
and great depths, such as Puget Sound, may be
less damaged by some types of residuals ( .e., thermal)
than would other estuaries, such as the Chesapeake
Bay, which is characterized by shallow depth and
warm waters. This type of model measuring the
gross generation of residuals is a logical extension
of economic interindustry models and now is being
implemented by numerous research groups.
The growing importance and necessity of treating
wastes and residuals makes it important to develop
models of the alternative procedures and the costs
involved in treating wastes and making them less
harmful. This type of information is included in The
Technical Waste Treatment Component, C, of the
systems model, which includes the many technologi-
cal options for treating each type of waste in each
location. A critical point to be noted about tech-
nological treatment of wastes is that while residuals
can be treated in many ways—through dilution,
transportation, recycling, changing the timing and
place of the emissions, improving efficiency, choosing
cleaner inputs, and so on—these treatment processes
cannot eliminate or reduce residuals once they have
been generated, because of the principles of con-
servation of mass and energy. Most treatment proc-
esses can only change the form or timing or location
of the wastes discharged, and indeed add to the total
mass of wastes released because of the necessity of
adding energy and materials to the treatment
process. The general exceptions to this principle are
processes which use cleaner inputs, and processes
which through technological efficiency use less ma-
terials and energy for the production process.
The other important factor to be noted about
Component C dealing with technical waste treatment
processes is the nature of marginal treatment cost
functions which should be conceived of as being de-
rived for each type of residual at each location over
time. In general, these treatment cost functions rise
asymptotically from the lower right-hand part of the
diagram to the upper left-hand part of the diagram
as increasing levels of treatment are invoked in order
to achieve higher levels of treatment. The general
shape arid location of this curve suggests that large
amounts of waste can be treated inexpensively6,, but
that as higher levels of treatment are attempted,
efforts to extract the last few percentage points of
the residual and to achieve further increments of
environmental quality, raise the costs of treatment
per unit sharply.
The materials balance concept behind Component
C for Technical Waste Treatment Processes is based
upon the principal that wastes and residuals once
created, cannot entirely be eliminated, and that the
amount of residuals generated is a function of the
level of economic activity, even if treatment proc-
esses are widely employed. Society is already en-
countering the problem of wastes which come out of
waste treatment processes. Problems of dealing with
the sludge from advanced waste treatment processes,
and problems of the potential emissions from auto-
mobile pollution control devices are examples. The
growing evidence of heavy metals and viruses to
be found in residuals from sewage treatment proc-
esses provides another potentially significant example
of this problem. Thus, the problem of contamination
of the output of waste treatment processes by wastes
from other processes may impair the capability of
society for recycling wastes back into the economic
system.
As shown in the Environmental Treatment Process
6 For some 1 reatment processes, economies of scale may cause high initial
treatment costs, which then decline before ultimately rising. More empirical
investigation of this problem is required (Grigalunas, 1972).
-------
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
Component, D, of Figure 1, one of the major reasons
for mismanagement and overuse of estuaries is the
limit to the absorptive capacity and waste treatment
capability provided by natural systems in estuaries.
This phenomenon accounts in part for the power-
fully attractive force which estuaries exert upon the
location of industrial development, urban growth,
power plants, and industrial harbor complexes.
Water and other environmental resources of estuaries
can receive, transport, transform, and treat large
amounts of wastes which arc discharged from natural
processes and indeed from other waste treatment
processes. However, as shown in Component D, as
discharges become large with respect to the absorp-
tive capacity of the environment, waste concentra-
tions begin to build up and quality of the environ-
ment is changed. The increasing concentration of
wastes in the water, air, and other environmental
resources results in lowering the ambient environ-
mental quality of the estuary. The relationship
between discharges, concentration, and ambient
environmental quality can be shown by an environ-
mental transformation function (ETF) as demon-
strated in Component D of Figure 1. The next im-
portant analytic step is to translate changes in
environmental quality into some estimate of the
quantitative impact of reduced environmental qual-
ity on human beings and other species which de-
pend upon or utilize estuarine resources. This anal-
ysis is shown in Component E.
Component E attempts to relate the concentration
of pollutants or the ambient environmental quality
shown in Part D into costs to and effects upon the
species dependent upon the estuary. An example is
the effect of the reductions in dissolved oxygen upon
the survival of the species in the estuary. Another
example is the impact of increased water temperature
during the spawning season on the survival of vari-
ous species in the estuary. Relationships of this
kind are measured in Part E of Figure 1, as damage
functions.
If all the information as discussed up to this point
is available, then this information can be utilized
in a benefit-cost analysis which generates manage-
ment-relevant information indicating how manage-
ment of estuaries can be improved in the general
public interest. In Component G of the model, infor-
mation from all of the other modules is combined
in order to derive standards for socially efficient
(cost-minimizing) management of the estuary.6
This diagram also suggests other management strat-
egies. The purpose of combining all of this informa-
tion is to provide management authorities with
information on how to anticipate the amount of
discharges and how the amount of discharges will
affect pollutant concentration and environmental
quality. This information on ambient environmental
quality and concentration can then be translated
into marginal damage functions and marginal treat-
ment cost functions which indicate in the upper
right-hand quadrant of Part G, the optimal level of
concentration, or, from the lower left-hand quadrant,
the optimal amount of discharge into the estuary.
On the other hand, it may be possible to use even
limited information about the benefits and costs to
improve management efficiency (Fisher, Krutilla,
and Chicchetti, op. cit.) Alternatively, these optimal
amounts of discharges or concentrations can be
translated in the upper left-hand component into
an optimal emissions charge, or pollution penalty
which would have the effect of providing emitters
with financial incentives to limit their discharges to
an optimal level. As shown in Part G, for any emitter
emitting more than an optimal amount of emissions
into the estuary, this policy would require his paying
an emissions charge that was higher than the cost
that he would incur by treating the waste. Con-
versely, the emitter would not be required to cut
back his emissions below the optimal point because
the cost of treatment would be greater to society
than the amount of damages that would be
prevented.7
In summary, benefit-cost analysis lies at the heart
of the environmental systems model since it pulls
together all of the relevant information in order to
provide managers with (1) specific information on
setting of standards for environmental quality; and
(2) information on potential policy instruments for
achieving optimal environmental quality. Since the
logic of benefit-cost analysis simply asserts that
efforts to improve environmental quality should be
pursued up to the point at which benefits equal costs,
it should be acceptable to both environmentalists
and economic developers. These two groups, how-
ever, typically disagree strongly on the scope and
position of the benefit and cost functions, thus dif-
fering upon the optimal level of environmental
quality and upon appropriate levels for emission
charges.
Even if all the vast amount of information and
analysis required for the benefit-cost analysis and for
6 For additional detail on Component G, see Freeman, Haveman, and
Kneese, 1973, who use a similar formulation.
' An important technical point to be emphasized is that the optimal
amount of discharge and hence the optimal emissions charge will vary
between estuaries and indeed, over different tributaries and reaches of
the estuary, depending upon varying assimilative capacity as measured
by the transformation function in Component A. Therefore, full inter-
spatial and inter-temporal implementation of the model would require
time series forecasting of each type of economic activity and its associated
residuals for each location (Cumberland and Herzog, forthcoming).
-------
666
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
the rest of the economic environmental systems
model were available and known, there is no as-
surance that this information and analysis would be
used to improve management of the estuary unless
certain other institutions and conditions existed. It
is first of all essential that appropriate information
and educational channels are available for trans-
mitting and clearly communicating the information
from the model to the general public a,nd to the de-
cisionmakers. Secondly, there must be institutions
capable of utilizing the scientific management in-
formation. It is also necessary that people under-
stand the effects of their personal lifestyles and
values as expressed by their consumption patterns,
on the quality and future status of the estuary. It
is also essential that management institutions have
available not only the legal authority, but also ade-
quate financing and the range of management pro-
cedures needed to implement management aims.
Any total systems management model must there-
fore reflect the important role that the public,
institutions, and management agencies play in
decisions on investment, consumption, government
programs, laws, and policies. As indicated in Com-
ponent H of Figure 1, these private and public man-
agement institutions then feed back changes in
information and priorities into the economic sectors
of the model which again affect changes in output,
altering its composition and size, and therefore, the
generation of wastes and residuals.8 Thus the cycle
is completed and the model is closed in a total general
equilibrium system.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVED
MANAGEMENT OF ESTUARIES
The interrelationships between the various com-
ponents of the economic environmental estuary
system proposed here suggest a number of directions
in which improved environmental management may
be pursued. Some obvious points are that the man-
agement institution and its geography should be
coterminous with the total environmental space of
the estuary, embracing all of its tributaries and
inputs, as well as its areas of discharge, the total at-
mospheric environment, and all of the land mass
from which waste and discharges are emitted into the
estuary. This is a very large order which must be
interpreted reasonably, but in general, effective
estuarine management will depend upon close control
over the environmental emissions into the total
system, and successful estuarine management will
8 The major conclusion of this paper is that the appropriate institutional
component for estuarine management is an interregional commission
partially supported by emissions charges.
depend upon the creation of the management in-
stitutions appropriate to the task.
The second major conclusion concerning improved
estuarine management is that the principal manage-
ment priority is to offset the market failures which
result from the common property aspects of the
estuary by establishing an appropriate set of controls
which bring the private costs of using the estuary's
resources into line with the social costs, thus pre-
venting the abuse and overstress of the estuary.
The third major implication of the model is that a
large amount of data, research, and analysis will be
necessary to achieve these objectives. However, if
appropriate environmental quality standards can be
established, there are fortunately a number of differ-
ent management policies and techniques alone or in
combination, which can be used to achieve them.
One of the most important sets of management
techniques is simply the establishment of environ-
mental standards by law, by zoning, or by other
regulations and ordinances. Another potentially very
attractive set of management policies is the use of
emissions charges. It can be demonstrated in Part G
of the model that establishing an appropriate level
of emissions charge is a potentially efficient device for
limiting the discharge of residuals into the estuary to
the level representing an effective social balance be-
tween the demands of economic development and
environmental responsibility.
One of the most important potential attractions of
using an emissions charge is that the proceeds from
such a charge could be used to achieve some other
objectives of environmental management. Often it
will be necessary to establish new commissions for
estuarine management, particularly when the prob-
lem is interstate, inter-county, or interregional.
Management institutions need to be financed, and
to have an adequate research and information base.
The proceeds of a properly designed set of emissions
charges in an estuary could be used to finance a
management commission and to support the research
needed, particularly the interdisciplinary research
required to determine transformation functions,
damage functions, and optimal environmental stand-
ards. These funds could also be used for monitoring
the release of emissions and enforcing the standards
(Cumberland, 1972). Some possible regulations and
policies that an estuarine management commission
might apply to improve management and to increase
public welfare will be examined below. However,
there are some potential dangers which should be
considered in the use of emissions charges to support
an estuarine management commission.
One is the hazard of becoming financially depend-
ent upon these funds, and thus developing a vested
-------
ESTXIARINE ECONOMICS
667
interest in perpetuating pollution. Another problem
pointed out by public finance theorists is that to the
extent that the charges were successful in reducing
pollution, they w ould earn very little revenue, and to
the extent that they were successful in generating
revenue, their effectiveness in pollution abatement
could be debated. The example of accumulation of
economic and political power associated with the
Highway Trust Fund provides a warning against the
potential abuses of automatically setting aside
revenues for a specific purpose. However, it must be
recognized that economic factors associated with the
public goods problem systematically encourage
underinvestment in environmental protection, unless
special programs are developed. These problems
suggest that emission charges might be combined
with other environmental control measures as an
important but not sole instrument for pollution
control.
We have seen that the major task of managing
estuaries is to achieve an appropriate balance be-
tween economic growth and development and the
environmental quality of the estuary. Because of the
common property nature of the estuary and the
economic incentives of industry to discharge its waste
at lowest costs, the primary management task for
estuarine management will be to reduce the amount
of residuals and externalities imposed upon one set
of users by others, and to take a long-run view of the
estuary as an ecological unit which must serve the
needs of future generations, as well as those of the
present.
The achievement of these objectives will call for
judicious use of a wide range of management policies
ar;d techniques. These could probably best be
achieved by management commissions set up as
described and given responsibility over the total
environmental space of the estuary with appropriate
powers of planning, establishing standards, taxing,
monitoring, and enforcement. There are many
policies and sets of procedures that such an institu-
tion might use. Among the most promising would be
a comprehensive set of emissions charges on all types
of emissions arid externalities. These charges, ot
course, should be related to both the assimilative
capacity of the estuary and the damages that would
be created by the discharges. It is important to note
that these emissions and discharges are not limited
to liquid, solid, and gas alone, but that they also in-
clude releases of energy in the form of heat, noise,
and radioactivity. Some of the most urgent needs for
effective improved management of estuaries are
sharp reductions in the amount of thermal waste,
radionuclides, and noise emission. Stiff charges
could be applied to all of these pollutants. The bene-
fits from applying charges to them all would be both
to reduce the emissions and to provide financial in-
centives to the emitter to find improved technologies
for reducing future emissions, thus sharing between
both polluters and the society the benefits of reduced
pollution. Establishing the principal of full responsi-
bility of the emitter to pay for any accidental or
other damage created by his activities such as oil
spills, chemical spills, explosions, sedimentation
damage to water tables, damage to aquifers, and so
on, provides a strong incentive to prevention of
damage (Cumberland and Fisher, 1974).
However, in addition to emissions charges and
penalties, estuarine managers will also need other
instruments such as the powers of planning and
zoning to protect the wetlands upon which the health
of the estuaries depends and to manage inland de-
velopment which ultimately determines the amount
of waste that is discharged into the estuary. In fact,
the power of zoning should be extended from land to
water resources. For example, increasing numbers of
recreationists appear to be adopting high-technology,
noise-intensive types of recreation such as water
skiing and the use of high-speed water craft, dune
buggies, trail bikes, aircraft and helicopters. Because
they impose very great dangers, damages, disameni-
ties, and discomfort on other users of the estuary,
these activities should be heavily taxed, limited to
restricted areas, and permitted in other areas only as
contributors to public welfare (emergency vehicles).
An appropriate balance between these competing
demands can be achieved not only by establishing
charges upon speed, noise, and horsepower, but also
by zoning certain limited portions of the estuary for
industrial, commercial, high-noise, high-speed activi-
ties, provided appropriate emissions charges were
paid and by excluding these activities altogether
from other parts of the estuary, regardless of emis-
sions charges. In effect, the charges could be varied
by zone, with an infinite charge for the use of some
zones.
One of the most important sources of environ-
mental externalities and estuarine damages is the
military sector, and one of the most important
opportunities for improving welfare through alterna-
tive uses of estuaries is to return some of the vast
military holdings of tidewater areas to civilian use.
The contribution of military security to society is
widely recognized as is the need for certain amounts
of secrecy and security in this area, but it should be
equally recognized that the environmental costs of
military activities are often excessive and unneces-
sary. For example, currently, military activities have
the power to override the planning and zoning au-
thority of local governments, as well as potential
-------
668
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
estuarine management commissions. The magnitude
and intensity of military activities result in their
being a major source of congestion, accidents, noise,
explosions, thermal release, radiation, and sonic
booms, from the operation both of very large t ypes of
conventional vehicles and advanced weapon systems.
Judging by the dollar value alone of military activity,
and not allowing for any increased environmental
intensity of military operations and experimental
weapons systems, it is unquestionably one of the
major generators of environmental externalities in
estuarine regions.9
In view of the difficulty of local governments and
management commissions in regulating military
activities, a national policy is necessary in order to
minimize their environmental impact and to achieve
national efficiencies in geographically locating them
in those regions where environmental impact can be
minima]. In the long-run it would be desirable to
return to civilian use all military properties located
in estuaries where civilian activities are widespread.
A national policy of returning estuadne based
military activities to civilian use and removing
military operations to unsettled regions could im-
prove total national welfare through increasing the
supply of public goods for recreation. Hywever, an
essential element of such a policy should be to offset
local economic adjustment problems through com-
pensatory policies, and through careful regulation of
the public use of released military bases to exclude
pollution-intensive forms of recreation. For example,
very little justification in economic theory can be
found for providing military recreation centers which
favor privileged classes of individuals such as
military people to the exclusion of the general public.
Subsidies and program assistance cai also en-
courage creation of public goods which are not
sufficiently generated by market processes. Among
the activities which are particularly in need of
subsidy are recreation, especially for wilderness
areas, hiking and biking paths, ecological research
areas, protection of critical marshlands, and preven-
tion of shore erosion. Other types of activities for
which subsidies might be provided are actual re-
moval of offensive activities, such as pollution-
intensive power plants arid military bases, as dis-
cussed above. Another type of public good worthy
of subsidies is historic restoration, such as Williams-
burg in the tidewater area of Virginia and St. Mary's
City in the tidewater area of Maryland Subsidies
should also be considered for those types of activities
which are environmentally beneficial cr neutral,
such as windmills and solar energy devices.
9 In the Chesapeake Bay region, military activities dominate major
segments of prime air, land, and water resources, creating extonsive planned,
and often accidental explosions under water, on land, and in the air.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This paper has also emphasized improvement in
estuarine management through the creation of
estuarine management commissions which are geo-
graphically coextensive with the estuary and its
total environmental space. This problem is not only
economic, but also political in nature and the com-
position of such management commissions is critical.
Once again, recognizing that bias in estuarine
management tends to be heavily in favor of exces-
sively rapid economic development and short-run
revenue producing activities, the usual economic and
political representation of such commissions should
also be balanced with participation of citizens' and
conservation groups whose long-run views merit at
least a hearing. Providing clear channels for citizen
participation in environmental management is an
essential corrective to the usual problem of con-
centrated economic and political power used to
distribute heavy pollution burdens widely over large
populations which then face heavy costs in organiz-
ing to protect their welfare.
The national policy on estuarine management
should recognize the principle that the federal gov-
ernment establish minimum environmental stand-
ards, but that local areas, including estuarine
management commissions be permitted to veto
local developments and to establish higher environ-
mental quality standards than the federal minimum.
The justification for this point of view is not only
recognizing local preferences and seeking improve-
ments through permitting local choice, but also
encouraging improved technology by establishing
very high performance standards at the local level so
that would-be polluters have positive incentives to
seek cleaner technologies. Such local citizen activity
has already resulted in the refinement of nuclear
technology and other energy systems. Siriee market
processes usually combine with economic and
political power to generate excessively rapid de-
velopment and intensive overuse of estuarine re-
sources, recent proposals to permit the federal
government to override local preferences for non-
development, or to require states to set aside energy
development areas regardless of local wishes seem
inefficient economically, and politically indefensible
in s federal system.
A most important part of life cycle planning is
recognition of the fact that all residuals should be
specified which would be generated by any proposed
development through every phase, including ex-
ploration, construction, operation, and eventually
rehabilitation of the site. Complete life cycle planning
based on materials balance concepts would require
that the producer specify exactly what inputs would
-------
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
669
enter into the process, and exactly what ultimate
disposition would be made of all of these inputs.
Component C of the systems analysis should warn
that even treatment is not enough, for treatment
processes involve wastes whose ultimate disposition
has to be specified and paid for, preferably by the
emitter.
Another reason for restraining market-oriented ir-
reversible development is the need for keeping open
options for the future. As Krutilla and Cicchetti
have emphasized, changing technology plus changing
income elasticity of demand for recreation will
probably increase the future value of unspoiled rec-
reational resources and reduce the present value of
technology-intensive activities (Krutilla and Cic-
chetti, 1972).
Aesthetic damage to shorelines, skylines, and other
estuarine resources is a costly type of environmental
pollution. Although the cost may be spread out over
a large number of people over a very long period,
realistic measurement would indicate a serious de-
crease in social welfare. For this reason, all of the
policy measures discussed above such as charges,
controls, and subsidies should be used to discourage
large physical intrusions of any kind and to subsidize
protection of natural landscapes. Examples of visual
pollution are bridges and power lines which appear to
diminish the magnitude and majesty of a body of
water or a distant skyline. Where such facilities are
regarded as essential, the alternative of using tunnels
rather than bridges and of undergrounding power-
lines and pipelines rather than permitting them
aboveground should be encouraged by economic and
other incentives.
Finally, an important feature of estuarine manage-
ment commissions would be their research capability.
These institutions could advance the art of environ-
mental management through continual research on
damage functions as indicated in the systems model
and by giving the regional commissions the
capability of forming independent estimates of the
impact from proposed activities. One promising
format for the research arm of such estuarine
management commissions is the Chesapeake Re-
search Consortium in the Chesapeake Bay region
(1971-1972). Another opportunity to finance and
encourage environmental research and public goods
activities is through the sea grant program, under
which local institutions can be encouraged to develop
the multidisciplinary research capabilities called for
in Figure 1 for estuarine management, research, and
policy formation.
Because of the vulnerability of our estuaries, de-
veloping the knowledge, skills, and institutions
needed to reverse the damage now being done to
them will not be an easy task. However, the lesson
to be learned in improving our management of these
vital resources will be a crucial step in mankind's
belated efforts to recognize his responsibilities for
long-run protection of his total environment on
earth. The systems analysis presented in this paper
suggests that establishment of interregional, inter-
disciplinary management commissions, financed
partially through emissions charges, and with broad
powers to levy these charges, conduct research,
monitor environmental quality, and control land
and water use is a promising institutional approach
to the protection and management of estuaries.
REFERENCES
Arrow, Kenneth J. and A. C. Fisher, "Environmental Preser-
vation, Uncertainty, and Irreversibility, Quarterly Journal
of Economics, Volume LXXXVIII, May, 1974, pp~ 312-319.
Ayres, Robert U. and A. V. Kneese, "Production, Consump-
tion, and Externalities," American Economic Review,
Volume 59, Number 3, June, 1969, pp. 282-297.
Chesapeake Research Consortium Annual Report, June 1,
1971-May 31, 1972, Johns Hopkins University, University
of Maryland, Smithsonian Institution, Virginia Institute
of Marine Science, Baltimore, Md.
Cumberland, John H,, "A Regional Interindustry Model
for the Analysis of Development Objectives," Regional
Science Association Papers, Volume XVI, 1966, pp. 65-94.
Cumberland, John H., "Establishment of International
Environmental Standards—Some Economic and Related
Aspects," Problems in Transfrontier Pollution, Organiza-
tion for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris,
1972, pp. 213-299.
Cumberland, John H. and R. J. Korbach, "A Regional
Interindustry Environmental Model," Regional Science
Association Papers, Volume XXX, 1973, pp. 61-75.
Cumberland, John H. and B. N. Stram, ''Effects of Economic
Development Upon Water Resources," Water Resources
Research Center, Technical Bulletin Number 18, 1974,
University of Maryland, College Park.
Cumberland, John H. and H. W. Herzog, Jr., "Economic-
Environmental Planning for Water Quality Control in
the Chesapeake Bay Region," forthcoming.
Fisher, Anthony C., J. V. Krutilla and C. J. Cicchetti, "The
Economics of Environmental Preservation—A Theoretical
and Empirical Analysis," The American Economic Review,
Volume LXII, Number 4, September, 1972, pp. 605-619.
Fisher, Anthony C. and J. V. Krutilla, "Valuing Long-Run
Ecological Consequences and Irreversibilities," Journal of
Environmental Economics and Management, Volume 1,
1974, pp. 96-108.
Freeman, A. Myrick, III, R. H. Haveman and A. V. Kneese,
The Economics of Environmental Policy, New York, John
Wiley and Sons, 1973.
-------
670 EfSTUARiNE POLLUTION CONTROL
Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas, The Entropy Law and The Herzog, Henry W., Jr., "The Economics of Regional Water
Economic Process, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, Quality Management—A Case Study of Water Quality
1971. In the Chesapeake Bay Region," Unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, May
1974.
Grigalunas, Thomas Allen, "Waste Generation, Waste
Management and Natural Resource Use: An Economic Krutilla, John V. and C. J. Cicchetti, "Evaluating Benefits
Analysis of the Primary Copper Industry," Unpublished of Environmental Resources With Special Applications to
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, the Hell's Canyon," Natural Resources Journal, Volume
1972. 12, Number 1, January 1972, pp. 1-24.
-------
ESTABLISHING THE ECONOMIC
VALUE OF ESTUARIES TO
U.S. COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
DENNIS P. TIHANSKY
NORMAN F. MEADE
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
ABSTRACT
The economic importance of estuaries is assessed in their supportive role of the U.S. commercial
fishing industry. Economic welfare concepts are related to major phases of the fishing industry,
and empirical estimates of these values are surveyed in the literature. The exvessel price of
landed species is cited to be a conservative estimate of net benefits realized by all phases. The
literature survey reveals that most economic studies of fishery benefits are conducted without
any apparent knowledge of valid welfare concepts. This gap between empirical and theoretical
constructs must be eliminated if economic values are to be plausible and meaningful.
INTRODUCTION
The estuaries of the United States have tradi-
tionally nurtured a significant portion of the total
commercial fish catch. Records dating back to the
early colonization of America reveal a close link
between economic development and estuarine re-
sources. For New England pilgrims facing cold win-
ters, clams and mussels were the major diet during
the periods of food storage. Some communities along
the Atlantic coast depended almost entirety on the
fishing industry and related activities, such as
shipbuilding and the construction of marinas. Identi-
fied as the most naturally fertile environment in the
world (Oduni, 1961), estuaries provide a haven for
fish and shellfish at various stages of their life cycle.
It is estimated (Stroud, 1971) that, depending upon
the geographic region, 65 to 90 percent of domestic
fish landings are comprised of estuariiie-dependent
species. Furthermore, there is the enormous potential
of increasing usable catches from estuaries by rnari-
culture, improvement of fishing efficiency, and
increased harvest of underutilized species.
Despite the recognized importance of estuaries to
the economy and welfare of society, these areas are
often exploited for dredging and landfill operations
that permanently imperil fishery resources. These
damaging activities are usually justified in monetary
terms for industrial, residential, or commercial
development purposes.
The conservation of fish habitat, on the other
hand, is more difficult to evaluate in economic values.
Yet without such an evaluation, competing water
uses will continue to be the primary factors consid-
ered in estuarine development cost/benefit analyses.
It is therefore to the net benefit of society that guide-
lines be established to achieve a full consideration of
the values of fisheries. Without the development and
wide application of such guidelines to coastal zone
decisionmaking, the Nation will continue to lose
segments of its estuaries to residential and industrial
development, with corresponding declines in fisheries
stocks (Roberts, 1974).
This paper surveys methods to quantify the ec-
onomic benefits of commercial fishing and then
relates them to empirical studies of specific estuaries.
The following section reviews current statistics of
U.S. commercial landings and the relative importance
of estuaries. The next section outlines the theoretical
basis of welfare economics, and then applies these
concepts to benefit estimation at the fish catching,
processing, and marketing phases. Distinctions are
recognized between direct benefits of the fishing in-
dustry and indirect benefits to the regional economy.
Following this is a summary of published values of
estuaries throughout the nation and an economic
assessment of fishery losses from marine pollution.
In the next section the various problems of benefit
assessment are discussed as they affect the accuracy
or credibility of empirical values. To conclude the
paper, specific recommendations are made for a
comprehensive benefit evaluation of estuarine-
dependent fisheries and for management policies
that fully recognize these values in coastal zoning
decisions.
671
-------
672
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
ESTUARINE-DEPENDENCE
OF FISHERIES
In 1973 the total value of Reported commercial
fish landings in the United States was more than
$900 million (National Marine Fisheries Service,
1974). At least two-thirds of that amount is derived
from estuarine-dependent species (McHugh, 1966).l
While much essential biological information re-
mains to be acquired on habitat dependencies, there
is a general consensus among fisheries experts
(Stroud, 1971) that the following commercially
important species spend at least part cf their life
in the estuarine zone: black sea bass, bluefish, clams,
(all soft clams and some hard clam species), crabs
(except king and tanner crab), croaker, black drum,
red drum, American eel, flounder, lobster, menhaden,
mullet, oysters, porgie, puffer, salmon (chinook,
coho), seatrout, shrimp, spot, steelhead, striped
bass, sturgeon, tarpon, tautog, and weakfish.
Published statistics on the exvessel value of par-
ticular species give strong testimony on the signifi-
cance of estuaries to the commercial fishing industry
and the American economy as a whole (National
Marine Fisheries Services, 1974). Of the 10 most
valuable species landed in 1973, eight are directly
dependent on the estuary and represent over $660
million in dockside revenue. This figure does not
include the value added (i.e., revenue less raw ma-
terial costs) from the processing, wholesale, and
retail sectors.
While the literature on most commercially im-
portant estuarine-dependent species has identified
the unique life-supporting role of estuaries, there is
little quantitative information on total standing
crops of particular species (Clark, 1974". As a re-
sult, fisheries scientists are unable to predict with
confidence just how much estuarine acreage is
necessary to maintain existing fisheries at any level
of catch effort. This situation greatly complicates
cost accounting of commercial fishery stocks which
are threatened by estuarine degradation.
Mariculture
The farming of marine animals in the U.S. estu-
arine zone is not as yet practiced to any appreciable
extent (other than perhaps the Atlantic coast oyster
industry). After more than a decade of intensive
public and private research on this topic, there still
are major economic, legal, and technological barriers
in this country to establishing a viable aquaculture
1 While a two-thirds ratio is the most commonly quoted figure, several
estimates range as high as 75-90 percent, with the upper figure cited for
catches along the gulf coast (Newsletter, 1974; Atlantic States Marine
Fisheries Commission, 1966; Stroud, 1971).
industry (Gates, 1971). (In certain Asian and Euro-
pean countries, on the other hand, the rearing of
finfish and certain types of shellfish is well estab-
lished.) Efforts to raise salmon in estuaries of the
Pacific Northwest are hampered by high costs, while
research attempts to raise shrimp along the gulf
coast are in the preliminary stage but do look promis-
ing for the future. Should these efforts meet with
success, however marginal, they will add yet another
dimension to the value of the estuary. In cases where
conflicts arise between mariculturists and natural
fish harvesters, detailed management strategies will
be needed to accommodate both interests at some
socially optimum combination.
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The economic benefit of a resource is the gain in
real income or consumer satisfaction realized by the
use or consumption of that resource. However, many
benefit estimates are made without a valid economic
rationale. The assumptions and techniques used in
estimating benefits need to be checked against
sound, economic theory to determine their validity.
The concept of benefits, as proposed in this study,
conforms to basic ideas of welfare economics. By
definition, the gross benefit of estuaries in terms of
commercial fish is the maximum amount that society
would pay for the actual or potential yield of fish.
In a socially optimum allocation of resources, this
amount will at least equal the value of all goods that
society has foregone in order to obtain the output
from the fishing sector. According to economic ter-
minology, this foregone value is called the opportun-
ity cost of fishing and should be subtracted from
gross benefits to estimate the net benefits. Net bene-
fit is the wil lingness-to-pay value after total produc-
tion costs aie subtracted.
The fishing industry is comprised of vertically
integrated phases that include the catching of fish,
the processing and distribution of fishery products,
and retail marketing to the final consumers (Bureau
of Governmental Research and Service, 1969).
Each of these activities contributes to the net bene-
fits of commercial fishing. The net benefit of each
sector, i.e., the value of the output of the sector after
subtracting total production costs, is also known as
the value added by that sector. The following re-
marks pertain to the most valid guidelines of assess-
ing the net benefits at each phase.
The Catch Phase
Fishermen constitute the most fundamental link
in the chain. Most benefit estimates in the literature
-------
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
673
narrowly focus on fishing revenues. It is commonly
assumed that net benefits are calculated as the dif-
ference between dockside catch value and fishing
costs of capital, labor, and other input factors.
Unlimited entry into the fishery grounds entices too
much capital and labor input in the industry. As a
result, net benefit calculations, the difference be-
tween value of catch and fishing costs, are often zero
or negative in the long run. The invalid implication
of this logic is that commercial estuarine fishing
does not enhance social welfare.
An alternate approach has been suggested
(Crutchfield, 1962) to overcome this dilemma. The
rent or value of the resource should be calculated
under the ideal situation wherein only the most effi-
cient fishermen have access to fishing grounds. Net
benefit is then determined at the economic optimum
level of output given the least cost strategy of pro-
duction. This implies a reduction in the size of the
fishing fleet and manpower requirements, which in
turn would allow the "excess investment" to be
utilized in more beneficial sectors of the economy.
While this approach can provide a reasonable
empirical value, it neglects certain welfare impacts
by not quantifying all of the benefits and should be
modified accordingly. For example, the excess in-
vestments due to free entry may be indicative of
society's preference for a larger fishing fleet and its
protection of one of America's oldest labor markets.
Any attempt to dislodge these excess investments
could induce drastic changes in the prosperity of
fishing ports, the displacement of fishermen and
their families, and a reduction of scenic amenities
provided by picturesque fleets and colorful old
fishermen tending to their daily chores.
On the other hand, it could be contended that
excess investments in fishing are not preferred; rather
they are forced upon society as a result of an histori-
cal misallocatiori of resources. This resource immobil-
ity accounts for a portion of the potential rent, and,
if at all possible, should be deducted in the estimate
of net benefits.
Some resource analysts (Gosselink, 1973; Hite,
1973) claim that the entire landing value of fish
should be imputed to the net rent of estuarine areas,
as an indication of "the dependency of jobs and
commercial fisheries on the existence of these free
resources." This assumes that capital and labor
commitments to the fishery cannot be shifted to
other uses. In the short run, this assumption seems
valid for some fisheries where the commercial
fishermen are quite old and entrenched in their jobs
despite relatively low incomes, and where the con-
version of boats and fishery equipment into other
uses is technologically impractical. Yet over the long
run, these resources will eventually flow into more
profitable uses. As old vessels are retired, the mater-
ials and labor necessary to replace them will be
used in other industries. Fishermen are less likely to
find new employment, although this is not a univer-
sally accepted opinion.2
In a meeting (McQuigg, 1971) of Canadian
scientists, it was concluded that landing price may
significantly underestimate net benefits aggregated
over all phases of the fishing sector. Direct benefits
include current net rent to fishing, processing, and
marketing profits. Indirect benefits include the addi-
tional income and employment generated, if any,
in coastal communities in other industry and service
sectors as a result of the commercial industry and
fishing. Another analysis (Bell, 1974), of interna-
tional fishery values, claims that the exvessel price
is an adequate proxy for net benefits to the consumer.
Unlike the Canadians' emphasis on producer benefits,
this conclusion pertains exclusively to welfare im-
pacts from the retail market as discussed later.
The Processing and
Distribution Phase
Intermediate activities of the fishing sector begin
with the wholesalers who purchase the catch at
dockside and then extend to include processor, dis-
tributors, and the retail markets. Net benefits
attributable to this phase are usually ignored in the
literature because of the lack of readily accessible
data. To date, few estimates of such values have
been attempted. It assumes that the total value
added by processing and wholesaling sectors reflects
net welfare (Carley, 1968). Whether value added
represents a good approximation to net benefits
remains to be proven. According to economic
theory, monetary benefits are determined by the
excess profits or producer surplus earned by this
phase of the industry. The magnitude of this benefit
depends upon the profit-making potential of the
industry.
The number of processor-wholesaler firms has
declined in recent years and those remaining have
broadened their sphere of influence and increased
their profit-making potential by handling more
fishery products and adding restaurants or retailing
facilities to their investments. Profit-making po-
tential is also obtained by controlling a large enough
share of the market to influence prices. Interferences
2 For example, a recent study (Strang, 1974) on charter boat fishing in
the Great Lakes found the age distribution of fishermen to be bimodal,
with a significant portion over 50 years old and another concentration in
their twenties. The latter group is particularly mobile, and could thus find
employment elsewhere, in view of current opportunities in this country
for non-professionals in skilled and unskilled jobs.
-------
674
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
with the price mechanism have been cited (Hite,
1973) for the tuna canning sector, where unit landing
prices are set prior to the catch by a cooperative of
vessel owners and fishermen. Such activities could
introduce excess profits, which nevertheless, should
be included as a component of net benefits.
Retail Sales Phase
The value of fishery resources depends on two sets
of complex market forces. The above discussion
broadly recognizes the supply side including the
cost of harvesting, processing, and distribution of
fish products. There is also the demand side which
takes into account the consumers' preference for fish
and shellfish. The intensity of this preference is
reflected in the prices that individuals arc willing to
pay for various commodities, given current or fore-
seen consumption alternatives in the market. Con-
ceptually, net benefit to consumers is the difference
between what they pay for fish and fish products
arid its value to them. This concept is referred to as
consumers' surplus.
The demand for any fishery product depends upon
individual tastes, level of income, and prices of that
product as well as the price of related goods. The
U.S. per capita consumption of fish and shellfish
has remained virtually constant in this century
indicating that tastes have remained relatively con-
stant. In the past, the quantity of fishery products
purchases responded greatly to price changes. How-
ever, recently the change in amount purchased in
response to a change in price has been relatively
small. On the other hand, the quantity of fishery
products purchased has responded more to changes in
income than it ever has before. Of course, these
observations vary according to the species (Wong,
1970).
Consumer benefits from the demand for industrial
fish are more difficult to quantify, since there are
essentially two levels of retail purchases. In the in-
dustrial market, such rawfish as menhaden and
anchovies—both marketed almost exclusively as
inedible—are sold directly to feed-fish processors.
Fish meal, which then becomes part of the feed for
poultry and livestock, is eventually conv?rted into
final consumer products ranging from pet food to
glues. How to apportion these final product benefits
among such constituent inputs as fish meal is an
unresolved issue.
A related problem involves apportioning total
consumer benefits from all fishery products among
specific species or specific estuaries. If economic
values are to be assigned to individual estuaries,
the fraction of the total supply must be determined.
Besides consumers' surplus which pertains to
current demands, there is also "option value" asso-
ciated with the desire for consumption at some time
in the future. This benefit is the price an individual
is willing to pay now to preserve his option of con-
suming a product in the future.
Because option value is not included in current
market prices, its contribution to fishery values is
either dismissed or neglected by many decision-
makers. While it may indeed be difficult to derive the
values, some attempt should be made to include them
in a benefit assessment. The omission of option value
results in an underestimate of the value of a fishery
or estuary, which could seriously imperil attempts to
preserve fish habitat for future use.
In recent economic literature (Abel, 1974), other
types of benefits have also been identified, although
their empirical valuation remains to be investigated.
One such measure is "existence value," which is an
individual's willingness to pay for society's use or
conservation of a resource, even if he does not intend
to use it.
A related type of benefit follows from an indi-
vidual's desire to make the resource available to
future generations rather than to himself. This
"bequest value," as it is appropriately called, is
similar to the willing of estates and large fortunes by
parents to their children. These benefit concepts
should affect future income streams from estuariiie
resources, but just how much they add to current
values has been neither demonstrated nor even con-
jectured.
Local and Regional Impacts
There are several approaches to assessing the
economic impacts of commercial fisheries. The above
discussion of measured and non-measured benefits
pertains to the direct gains of personal welfare at-
tributable to the production and (aetual or optional)
consumption of fish resources. Another economic
impact is the indirect or secondary effect on the
economy of a local area or region. These impacts
result when additional income and employment are
generated by the fishing industry in other economic
sectors such as service industries and retail stores.
Policymakers are rightly concerned about second-
ary benefits, since one of their common goals is to
protect and encourage economic growth within their
political jurisdiction. Employment can potentially
be stimulated and tax revenues increased within
regions that have an expanding fishing industry.
The magnitude of the secondary benefits depends
upon the size of the region as well as the structure of
the economy and whether underemployed resources
-------
ESTTARINE ECONOMICS
675
are available there. In general, the smaller the
geographic area, the less likely it is for a region to be
self-sufficient in many products. Hence, expenditures
will take place outside the region and the benefits
will be correspondingly reduced. From the regional
perspective, it follows that sales or purchases provid-
ing additional income to one area may represent a
loss to another. For the nation as a whole, however,
the local and regional impacts should be excluded
from net benefit calculations as they will, by defini-
tion, cancel each other. To local and regional de~
cisionmakers, however, this information is essential
in weighing alternative plans to determine priorities
for economic development.
Some economists (Prest, 1965) argue that second-
ary benefits should not be counted as a gain to
society. They contend that in a competitive econ-
omy, these benefits are reflected by the price of
the original good. That is, as the secondary effect of
the good increases, its price should rise in correspond-
ing fashion. This assumes perfect factor mobility,
wherein gross expenditures for fish resources can
be easily shifted to other resource demands. In a
full-employment economy there are many opportuni-
ties for long-term resource shifting. For the fishing-
industry, this assumption may not be completely
valid in cases where fishermen are immobile or cannot
find jobs elsewhere.
EMPIRICAL RESULTS
Published estimates of the economic value of
estuaries date back into the 1950's, although most
values have appeared within the past several years.
Recently the work of Odum and fellow researchers
(Gossclink, 1973; Odum, 1968; Odum, 1960) received
widespread attention because of the large magnitude
of estimates3 for estuaries along the south Atlantic
and gulf coasts. But the most extensive evaluations
have been conducted by Massachusetts' Division of
Marine Fisheries (Chesmore. 1972; Chesmore, 1972;
Chesmore, 1973; Jerome, 1969; Jerome, 1973; Je-
rome, 1968; Jerome, 1966; Jerome, 1965), one of
whos-f' charters is ":o establish more precisely the
values and relative importance to the fisheries of
particular areas.''
In Table 1 the economic values of various estuarine
areas are compared, and are adjusted to base year
1973 by an exvessel fish and shellfish price index
(National Marine Fisheries Service, 1974). Values
3 According to the^fc authors, natural tidal marshes along the gulf
GoaM typically ha1/? Annual returns of S3,000 or more per acre. But only
t!0\* oi this amour,* ;•< rf!nte
-------
676
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 1.—economic values of estuaries to commercial fishing
Estuary
Annual Per Acre
Value
Essex Bay MA (Chesmore, 1973) _
Entire GA Estuary System (Gosselmk, 1973).
DE Bay Estuary (Shuster, 1971)
DE Bay Estuary (Shuster, 1971)
San Francisco Bay Estuary (Howard, 1973) j
San Francisco Bay Estuary (Howard, 1973)
San Francisco Bay (Skinner, 1962)
Entire LA Estuarme System (Gosselmk, 1973)
|
Entire FL Estuarme System (Gosselink, 1973)
Beverly-Salem Harbor Estuary, MA (Jerome, 1973)..
Mobile Delta, AL (Beshears, 1959)
Mobile Bay AL (Beshears, 1959)
Corpus Christi Bays, TX (Anderson, 1960)
Mernmack River Estuary, MA (Jerome, 1965),...
Dorchester Bay Estuary, MA (Chesmore, 1972)
Galveston-Trmity-East Bay Estuary, TX (Slroud,
1970)
Parker River-Plum Island Estuary, MA (Jerome,
1968)
Annesquam River-Gloucester Harbor Estuary
(Jerome, 1969)
Hmgham Bay Estuary (Iwanowicz, 1973)
Entire VA Estuarme System (Wass, 1969).
Coastal Estuaries Hampton-Seabrook, NH (Fogg
1964)
Quincy Bay Estuary, MA (Jerome, 1966)
Waquoit Bay-Eel Pond Estuary, MA (Curley, 1971),
Lyrtn-Saugus Harbor Estuary, MA (Chesmore, !972).
Tampa Bay Estuary, FL (Taylor, 1968)
Apalachicola Bay Estuary, FL (Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Administration, 1969)
Great South Bay Estuary, NY (Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Administration, 1969) _.
Atlantic Coast Estuaries (Stroud, 1970)
Narraganselt Bay Estuary, Rl (Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Administration, 1969)
Penobscot Bay Estuary, ME (Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Administration, 1969).
U.S. Estuaries (1973)
$256.00
9.00
l.'O.OO
1.18
5f.3.00
12.00
15.00
J7.00
41.00
37.00
2.00
13.00
li.OO
4'i.OO
5.1.00
Year
116.00
26.00
77.00
33.00
9.95
106.00
28 00
64 00
33 50
50.00
71 00
31.00
113.00
21.00'
Description of Catch
Per Acre Capitalized
Value in 1973 Prices
1969
1965
1956
1956 I
1971
1971
1956
1970
1970
1965
1959
1958
1958
1964
1967
1967
1965
1965
1970
1968 i
1963
1968
1968
1968
1965
1967
1965
1965
1965
1965
1967
Lobsters and Soft-Shell Clams
All Commercially Valuable Species Landed
in Georgia
Oysters
Oysters
Oysters
Oysters
Mixed Fmfish
All Commercially Valuable Species Landed
in Louisiana
All Commercially Valuable Species Landed
in Florida
Clams, Lobsters, Bait Worms, Fmfish
Mixed Finfish, Bait Worms, Shellfish
Shrimp and Oysters
Mixed Finfish and Shellfish
Mixed Finfish and Shellfish
Lobsters and Soft-Shell Clams
Mixed Fmfish and Shellfish
Crabs, Clam Worms, Clams, Lobsters
Mixed Fmfish and Shellfish
Lobsters and Clams
Mixed Finfish and Shellfish
Clams, Crabs, Lobsters, and Sea Worms
Clams, Lobsters and Crabs
Quahogs, Bay Scallops and Soft-Shell Clams
Lobsters, Soft-Shell Clams, Sea Worms
Mixed Finfish and Shellfish
Mixed Finfish and Shellfish
Clams
Mixed Fmfish and Shellfish
Mixed Fmfish and Shellfish
Soft-Shell Clams
Mixed Fmfish and Shellfish
Estuary Area in
Acres
$4,104.00
218.00
3,990.00
11 80
5,630.00
80.00
396.00
473.00
718.00
894.00
51.00
286.00
370.00
977.00
1,240.00
1,317.00 i
2,158.00 j
i
i
2.817.00
455.00
1,545.00
816.00
100.00
100.00
562.00
1,547.00
810.00
1,113.00 i
2.7IP.OO I
749.00
2,512.00
477.00
1,261
393,000
8,000"
(actually fished)
2,560,000s
4,000b
(actually fished)
300,000b
300,000
2,200,000
1,050,000
8,541
50,000
275,000
228,541
3,050
5,293
333,000
3,581
2.237
7,272
177,073
3,200
7,313
7,313
6,317
3,500
4,500
2.32M23
108,800
6.64!)
28,300,000
a The per acre value of $3,990 represents the capitalized worth of only the oyster-producing grounds of the estuary, which in 1956 totaled only 8,000 acres. Taking the entire
2,560,000 acre area of the estuary into account and averaging the total oyster catch value across the entire acreage results in the smaller per acje value of $U.80.
b The per acre value of $6,630 represents the1 capitalized worth of only the oyster-producing grounds of the estuary, which in 19?i totaled 4,000 acres. Taking the entire 300,000
acre area of the estuary into account and averaging the total oyster catch value across the entire acreage results in the smaller per acre value of $80.
c The unit value is derived by the authors as tne ratio of total U.S. docliside revenue (National Marine Fisheries SPI /'re, 1974) adjured for estiiarine-depenciercy, to the total atea
of U.S. estuaries (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1969).
Note All values reflect dependency factor of 2/3 of total catch.
-------
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
677
given market interest rate in order to return a
perpetual dividend equal to a fixed annual net profit,
For example, if a particular estuary provides $100 in
net social benefits per year from its fishery resources,
then its capitalized value at a market interest rate of
10 percent is $1,000.4 Capitalized values in Table 1
assume an interest rate of 10 percent as the fair
market value of current capital investments. The
authors believe this accurately reflects the opportu-
nity cost of capital investment with respect to cur-
rent market conditions in the private sector. It is not
our intention to debate which interest rate may be
the more accurate but rather to present the concepts
of benefit estimation and some examples of empirical
studies of the worth of an estuary as a natural
resource.
Once the capitalized landed revenue of the fisher-
ies resource has been calculated, one further step is
necessary to derive the net economic rent of the
resource. Net economic rent is defined as the differ-
ence between the costs of the factors of production
(capital equipment, labor, and the returns to man-
agement) and the landing revenue. Since the (capi-
talized) values in Table 1 reflect not only the net
economic rent of the resource but also the returns to
the factors of production, they overestimate the
actual value Therefore, the share of the landed
revenue accruing to the cost factors should be sub-
tracted from the total landed value to arrive at the
net worth of the actual fisheries resources. From
previously cited remarks, however, some economists
prefer to use the total capitalized value as a con-
servative estimate of consumer surplus, which they
consider as the most valid indicator of social benefits.
Statistics on the costs incurred by commercial
fisheries are rarely published, and therefore must be
estimated in an appropriate manner. A discussion
of the methodology and of the difficulty of cost
calculations is included in the text whereby given the
necessary data and cost factors a more accurate
estimate of the net resovirce value could be under-
taken. It is hoped that the issues raised in this paper
will eventually result in just such au investigation
in the future.
DAMAGES FROM POLLUTION
The biological degradation of estuaries by man-
made waste discharges is well documented and is
reviewed elsewhere in this report. Economic losses,
Table 2.—Estuarine fish losses from water pollution, 1970
Area
Chesapeake Bay _,
Columbia River Mouth
Galveston Bav
Long Island Sound .
Maine Coast
Narragansett Bay. _- _ . . .
Portsmouth N.H.
Puget Sound . - _.
Raritan Bay N.J.
San Francisco Bay
Tampa Bay
Damage
($1,000)
$5 000
8,000
1,860
1,090
865
1,930
"
1,000
225
5 000
1,000
2 600
125
1,200
8,500
2,600
2.Z50
170
6,750
2 650
Species
Affected
Menhaden
Other Finfish
Shellfish
Salmon
Finfish i
Oyster
Oyster
Clam
Clam
Oyster
Clam
Oyster
Oyster
Shellfish
Shrimp
Oyster
Clam
Bass, Shad, Salmon '
* This calculation can be easily derived from the capitali/ed "value
formula, C — V/i, where C i1; equal to the capitalized value, V, annual
profit, and i, the interest rate. Thus by holding V constant, C will vary
inversely with the SIZP of tne interest rate. An unreahstically low interest
rate, that is, one not reflecting the real rate of return on capital in the
market place, would produce a relatively higher capitalized value and
overestimate the real worth of the resource.
1 Potential loss from oil spills.
;: Potential loss from inland drainage.
on the other hand, are seldom published. The in-
herent difnculty of assigning welfare values to these
losses, aside from the more basic problem of esti-
mating natural productivity declines, accounts for
large uncertainty in the estimates.
Most values of commercial fishery losses from
pollution focus on localized problems, although there
are at least three national estimates. Practically all
values pertain to foregone landing revenues rather
than net welfare impacts. Table 2 depicts the dollar
value and geographic area of these losses (Tihansky,
1973). Fish kills are evaluated by assuming that
each counted fish is worth $0.10, which is generally
a very conservative value for mature commercial
fish. Retail losses in Puget Sound are converted into
landing price equivalents by assuming a 3:1 ratio
of their relative magnitudes. The "Red Tide" scare
in New England not only reduced lobster and fish
sales by several million dollars but also caused un-
employment of fishermen, who would have earned
$91,000 in 1972. Other estimates in the Table
illustrate the wide variation of effects of waste dis-
charges on a number of estuarine-dependent species,
ranging from clams to salmon. In Galveston Bay,
Tex., the loss of oyster sales translates into $60 per
acre (in 1971).
-------
678
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
An estimate not included in the table was the loss
of oysters from shellfish area closures in New Haven
Harbor, Conn. The foregone cost of small, seed
oysters amounted to $578,000 in 1967, but upon
maturity they would yield a large potential income
of $6,688,000. Annual revenue losses provide an in-
complete perspective of total damages. Over the
past 65 years, environmental changes along the
Connecticut coast have caused declines in shellfish
production totalling more than $1 billion (Wong,
1970).5 Furthermore, the initial effects 01 decreased
fishermen's wages are multiplied throughout the
state economy by factors typically between 5 and 10.
National estimates are based on the proportion of
shellfishing areas closed by pollution. One study
(Bale, 1971) estimates total annual losses of $12
million. This assumes that only clams aid oysters
are affected since they are immobile and harvested
primarily within bays and estuaries. Another
analysis (Council on Environmental Qual.ty, 1970),
however, assumes that all shellfish including lobsters,
shrimp, and crabs are affected by contamination.
Its estimate is $63 million based on current closures
of one-fifth of the nation's shellfish beds and a cor-
responding loss of potential revenue. Th:>se values
assume, contrary to economic theory, that prices
remain constant despite large shifts in resource
availability. A more recent approach (Tihansky,
1973) measures damages as the consumer surplus
foregone by the above shellfish supply losses due to
contaminated waters. The national estimate ranges
from $24 million for clams aud oysters to $38 million
if finfish are added to this list of affected species.
FACTORS AFFECTING
THE ESTIMATES
Any monetary estimate of estuarine (o~ fishery)
values should be explained with respect to its
empirical assumptions. The magnitude of values is a
function of a number of determinants, ranging from
the extent of fishing grounds to the time span over
which the economic impact is calculated. The follow-
ing factors contribute significantly to these estimates.
Definition of Estuary
The geographic extent of an estuary determines
the expected magnitude of catch within its bound-
aries. While most definitions of an estuary are
easily interpreted, there is a lack of unanimity on
the most logical choice. Classical opinion holds that
6 This estimate is derived as the sum of lost revenues ovtsr a 00-year
period beginning in 1900. On an annual ba&is, therefore, the average loss
is approximately $15 million.
estuaries are restricted to the outflow of rivers in a
tidal sea, but more recent definitions include non-
tidal areas so long as the river water noticeably
dilutes sea water (Idyll 1967; McHugh, 1967). The
extreme description extends beyond these concepts
to include all waters immediately bordering the ocean
coastline. But most studies reject the extreme notion
in favor of one of the other viewpoints.
Location of Catch
Relatively few fish or shellfish species appear to
remain in estuaries during their entire life span.
But at least two-thirds of the total catch near the
U.S. shoreline spend at least part of their lives here.
In some cases, the estuarine habitat serves as a
spawning ground, but more frequently it is a nursery
ground, densely populated with juveniles and young
adults. Estuaries can also provide nutritional value
and food sustenance for temporary residents, and
they act as the intermediate area through which
anadromous (and catadromous) species journey
between ocean and freshwater spawning grounds.
Estuaries also have an indirect value of supporting
species in offshore water. Rich nutrient loads from
the marshes are transported out to sea by tidal flow
and ocean current. In addition, estuarine-nursed
shrimp and other life forms low in the food chain
are an important source of protein and food for a
great many predators, including fish. Unfortunately,
this valuable function of translating the richness of
estuaries into directly consumable resources cannot
be quantified without an almost prohibitively
expensive research program tracing the flow of
energy in a huge ecosystem. In the literature there
is a general consensus that all estuarine-dependent
species should be included in the value of estuaries,
but at least one reference (McHugh, 1967) suggests
a downward adjustment of this total to reflect only
the biomass added by the inshore region. In no
instance is the indirect food-supportive role of
estuaries evaluated in any benefit study.
Temporal Aspects of Catch
To obtain ;i reliable estimate of the abundance of
estuarine-dependent fish is most challenging. Species
composition and population densities vary by degrees
of salinity, temperature, and other physical aspects
of the estuary as well as by season or even by a
multi-year period. Catch volumes are likely to be
higher when species are relatively abundant, but
this is not always true. The type of fishing gear
used, the ability of fishermen to locate potential
catches, the degree of fishing effect from the sport
-------
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
679
fisheries, and political restrictions on the avail-
ability of fishing grounds are important parameters
in the production function. Occasionally, mass
mortalities and dramatic fish kills unpredictably
alter catch statistics as well.
The problem therefore is to ascertain the "typical"
catch rate or other suitable measure of the abundance
of commercial species. Most yield estimates in the
literature are based on current conditions. But this
time frame could lead to biased answers, if the
catch was abnormally low during this period or, at
the other end of the spectrum, was higher than the
mean. In regions where wide variations in catch
have been recorded, benefits should be estimated
for low and high volumes in addition to the mean
or most likely level. The assumptions underlying
this range of estimates should be clearly stated.
Unreported Landings
Catch statistics by themselves may not indicate
the total volume of fish caught for commercial
purposes. Frequently, unwanted fish are discarded
back into the fishing ground, while other species or
aquatic specimens unfit for direct human consump-
tion may be sold as bait or as a protein supplement
processed in various food products. Reported land-
ings represent a minimum for still another reason.
Private fishermen fail to report an unknown quantity
of catch, which serves as food in their homes or
possibly is sold by them locally. In some estuaries
this contribution could be very significant. Further,
the contribution of U.S. estuaries to foreign catches is
uncertain. Assessing the net worth of these landings
poses an additional problem because of the different
markets and varying conditions under which they
are sold. It is conjectured in Louisiana, for instance,
that at least 50 percent of the annual shellfish is so
destined (Murray, 1974). The relative share of un-
reported landings is believed to be large in other
states as well, although fisheries experts are generally
unwilling to estimate this magnitude.
In view of the likely importance of private catch,
a confidence interval of benefits should be evaluated
for any estuary. The lower bound estimate should
reflect reported statistics, while the upper one shoulc
include a "guestimate" of catch aggregated over all
unreported but commercially-related sources. Of
course, the market price of reported landings may
be quite different from the economic value of private
catch (which need not be processed and distributed,
if the fish are consumed directly at the fishermen's
residence). Unit benefit values (per fish caught)
should thus be sensitive to these market alter-
natives.
Price-Income Effects
Economic benefits of fishery resources exist only
if there is a demand for their consumption or preser-
vation. Because fisheries must deal with a relatively
fixed (but renewable) resource, it is especially urgent
in light of population growth that the economic
impact of demand pressures be predicted. Practically
all demand analyses reveal the basic importance of
price and income. Since consumer surplus is derived
from demand curves, these determinants have a
major effect on benefit values over time.
Historically, the consumer has been sensitive to
the price of fish products, but with rising incomes
this reaction has become far less pronounced. Luxury
foods, such as shrimp and salmon, now appear fre-
quently in many households. These responses imply
a generally low price elasticity but a, high income
effect on demand. In benefit calculations over future
time streams, therefore, it is important that these
responses be considered. If there is reason to suspect,
for example, that projected inflation rates will lower
real income, demand curves should be adjusted
accordingly so that consumer benefits (surplus)
can be predicted more accurately.
Level of Optimal Catch
The biological role of estuaries in perpetuating
fishery resources is as important to benefit calcula-
tions as the impact of consumer preferences. For
some finfish and shellfish species, supply shortages
are curtailing potentially larger demands for these
products by continually pushing up their market
prices. On the other hand, there are many under-
utilized species that could provide additional sources
of nutrition to consumer diets.
There are several measures of the supply variable,
each of which uniquely affects the magnitude of
net benefits. Biologists usually seek to estimate the
level of fishing associated with the maximum sustain-
able yield (MSY), such that the annual gain in
species population from recruitment and growth is
just offset by natural mortality and fishing catches
at a population level that maximizes catch. But
economists (Fry, 1962) usually argue that since
commercial fishing is motivated by profits rather
than physical catch, the more appropriate objective
is the maximum economic return to the fisheries
and the regional economy. In actual situations,
neither of these goals is pursued. Instead, the free
entry nature of fishing encourages inefficient use of
input factors and through overcapitalization and
overfishing, has frequently reduced profits (resource
rent) to zero.
-------
680
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
All of these yields are likely to fall short of
maximizing overall welfare impacts of fishery re-
sources. The MSY and free entry solutions obviously
are not oriented toward such an objective. But even
the economic rent-motivated approach may be mis-
leading, as it ignores various social values of the
fishing sector (since they elude simple quantifica-
tion). More importantly, it represents a partial
equilibrium solution by neglecting optimal benefits
in the processing and distribution sectors. Some
analysts (McHugh, 1970) conjecture that maximal
catch rates might confer advantages on the latter
sectors by increasing economies of scale in produc-
tion. Whether this hypothesis is valid remains to be
tested empirically. Until then, net benefits should
be calculated twice, bounded above by the MSY
solution and below by the optimal net social return.
Several case studies can be cited on the economic
returns expected at various levels of fishing effort.
A detailed analysis (Gates, 1973) of the New Eng-
land yellowtail flounder fisheries concluded that the
current free entry situation nullifies the total net
rent to domestic industry (although net earnings
differ by vessel class). However, limited entry and
more efficient operations (e.g., fewer vessels) at
the MSY point would yield an 18 percent profit
rate. Prom the economically efficient viewpoint, this
rate is even higher at 70 percent of total earnings
while total catch falls almost 13 percent from the
MSY level.
Augmented Production
Complicating the supply level is the likelihood of
future aquaculture enterprises and the uncertainty
of future markets for underutilized species. With
the former alternative, high yields—perhaps several
hundred times natural levels—of estuarine species
can result by concentrating organic matter as a
food source into a small water area. However, such
yields depend not only on the quantity of organic
matter, but also on the ability of the fish or shellfish
to strain food from the water. Some methods of
aquaculture are known to have an adverse impact
on the estuarine environment, however, and may
reduce the natural productivity there. Tliis factor
must carefully be weighed when calculating the net
benefits from such activity.
In addition, the cost of fertilization or artificial
feeding may be prohibitive, as a result of the need
for large quantities of nitrogen and other essential
nutrients. The inclusion of mariculture yields as a
benefit of estuarine resources overlooks the issue
of mamnade versus natural impacts. Since these
benefits could be potentially large, they should be
distinguished from natural values unless they evolve
from a more intensive use of the current nutritional
content of estuaries. In Galveston Bay, Tex., for
example, it is believed (Stroud, 1970) that additional
shellfishing effort could increase current landings by
50 percent, without exceeding the MSY constraint
on natural productivity. From an economic view-
point, however, this increase is justifiable only if
marginal costs of fishing are less than added revenues.
Potential returns from aquaculture are partic-
ularly striking and can increase fourfold as the
intensiveness of the operation increases. Despite
these favorable projections, marine aquaculture in
this country is oriented mainly toward develop-
mental and pilot studies, whereas inland freshwater
"fish farms" are more popular and in many cases
are highly productive. It is projected (Commission
on Marine Science, 1969) that such fisheries will
control a significant share of the consumer market
in 20 to 30 years.
Some notable examples of successful mariculture
efforts using scientific management schemes have
been conducted in the State of Maine (Dow, 1966).
Yields approaching $150,000 capitalized value per
acre (in 1973 prices) have been recorded for clam
beds. While this value is extraordinarily high, it does
indicate that certain highly productive subareas of
the estuary can yield several times their normal out-
put of fishery products.
Another means of augmenting current supplies is
to market underutilized species or byproducts
thereof. The potential harvest adjacent to the U.S.
coastal zone is enormous and could easily exceed
present production by a factor of 10 (Commission
on Marine Science, 1969). Whether these can be
economically harvested and processed will depend
on individual species. The natural supply of these
species should be valued as an optional resource
benefit for future consumption.
Unfortunately, supply predictions in the future
are beset by a number of uncertain economic and
political factors. To include the above supply aug-
mentation schemes in the analysis could thus involve
so many ill-founded assumptions as to erase any
credibility in the estimates. But certainly these
options need to be recognized in the analysis, and
their likely impacts on potential value should be
compared.
Competing Activities
Another factor influencing the supply function
for commercial fisheries is interference from other
activities that depend either directly or indirectly
on estuarine resources. The above survey of pollution
-------
ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
681
damages, for example, shows how industries and
municipalities have reduced natural stocks of fish or
shellfish. Throughout the United States, commercial
and residential land developments have been re-
sponsible for an acute loss of estuarine habitat for
fish and wildlife. Further, it can be expected that
future aquaculture activities in the estuary will have
some detrimental effects on the populations of sur-
rounding wild species of fish and wildlife.
A more visible challenge to commercial fishing
arises from sport fishing interests. In many regions,
the high level of expenditures for recreation, and
particularly fishing, indicate social benefits derived
from these activities. As a result, commercial fisher-
men in some cases may be faced with dwindling
catches and restricted fishing grounds. The corre-
sponding rise in marginal costs could force commer-
cial fleets to move to more productive areas, to
change the species mix of catches, or to curtail
production and perhaps eventually go out of busi-
ness. Fishery benefits thus cannot be calculated in
isolation of other estuarine values. Implicit in each
estimate, therefore, is an assumption on the extent
of competing land and water uses.
Distribution of Catch
In many estuaries the annual harvested value of
commercial fish is recorded on a unit acreage basis.
Averaging total catch in this manner fails to disclose
subareas of greater productivity. Because the harvest
is unequally distributed, average values thus give
insufficient data on setting priorities for the most
valuable portions of the estuary.
Variations of landing revenue by estuarine area
can be very significant. In Gloucester Harbor, Mass.,
(Jerome, ] 969), for example, the annual income from
shellfish is almost $100 per acre averaged over tl o
entire estuary. Yet if this record were restricted to
soft-shell clam habitats, the unit value would in-
crease to $240. An even more striking example is
provided by the intensiveness of shellfishing in the
mouth of the Delaware River (Sinister, 1971).
While the harvest value over the entire •water sur-
face area was $13 per acre, production \\as actually
restricted to about one-fourth of this area, yielding
a unit revenue of $51. But even this estimate of
habitat area may be overstated as commercial har-
vesting take- place on a small portion of this region.
Adjusting 101 actual fishing grounds raises the unit
value to $170. It is further argued that harvest
rates may he less than 10 percent of the actual
production in this estuary. Hence, catch and popu-
lation may differ considerably, which further com-
plicates the projection of fishery values in future years.
Regional Impacts
Arising from direct benefits and costs in the com-
mercial fishing industry are secondary income flows
throughout the economy—both on a local and a
national basis. Tracing these flows requires a de-
tailed and generally complex input-output analysis
of household expenditures and economic sector
dependencies within local boundaries, and an ac-
count of interregional trade volume and government
transactions.
Several references from the literature provide in-
sights on these impacts. In the southern New
England region (Rorholm, 1967), the commercial
fishing industry was partitioned into these compo-
nents : fish catching, fresh and frozen fish processing,
and fish wholesaling and jobbing. Sales and local
value added were estimated for each component, as
were general income multipliers ranging from 2.96
for catching to 3.74 for frozen fish processing. In
Clatsop County, Ore., (Collin, 1973), the local in-
come multiplier for fish catching equals 1.23, whereas
it is 1.81 for fish processing. These values are rela-
tively small because of the county's strong depend-
ence on non-local business. For the Texas marine
area (Milroy, 1970), the multiplier for the fishery
sector is assumed to be 1.75. It is obvious from
these few studies that local impacts vary consider-
ably and depend on the size and industrial composi-
tion of the economy, and the extent of marine
activities in the region.
CONCLUSION
Some of the most valuable fish resources are
dependent on estuarine habitats, with approximately
two-thirds of the total dockside revenue of U.S.
commercial fisheries identified in one way or another
with these marine waters. Yet despite this impor-
tant life-support function, estuaries have lost more
than 7 percent of their fish and wildlife habitat to
commercial and housing development over the past
two decades (Commission on Marine Science, 1969).
In many coastal areas these developments proceeded
without any comparison of the socio-economic wel-
fare impacts realized by competing uses of the
estuarine area. To preserve remaining habitats from
land use encroachments, it is thus important that
comprehensive values of natural resources be re-
organized and assessed to the fullest extent possible.
The object of this paper was to summarize the
state-of-the-art on the estimation of commercial
fishirg benefits associated with U.S. estuaries. Until
now, there has been no attempt to critique or even
compile empirical studies on a regional basis. This
-------
682
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
survey reveals that a large number of estimates
have been published (see Table 1), contrary to the
widely held opinion that few exist. Most of these
estimates pertain to recorded landings along the
New England and the gulf shorelines although sev-
eral, primarily off the south Atlantic coast, evaluate
the potential impacts of increased yield through
mariculture techniques.
Despite their large number, practically all of these
estimates are conceptually invalid since they meas-
ure private rather than social welfare gains. In at
least one instance (Tuttle, 1974), however, private
revenue (based on the exvessel price of fish) was
used as a conservative estimate of the net benefits
realized at major phases of the fishing industry. But
using this surrogate value, to avoid inherent diffi-
culties of estimating welfare impacts, not only leaves
the degree of underestimation unanswered, but also
could be an incorrect assumption for other regions.
It is therefore misleading and, furthermore, unjusti-
fied from the perspective of economic theory, to
value estuarine resources solely in terms of market
prices.
An additional area of economic evaluation is the
contribution that estuaries make to U.S. sport fish-
eries. It is generally agreed that the benefits derived
from this important recreational activity, if quanti-
fied, would exceed those of the commercial fisheries.
The obvious implication is that the exclusion of
sport fisheries values further underestimates the true
worth of the estuary.
To close the gap between the concept aal frame-
work and the validity of estimates, more research
should be devoted to economic aspects of fisheries.
The following recommendations pertain more spe-
cifically to this goal:
• Determine economically optimal net rents at
the fish catching phase for a wide variety of estuarine-
dependent species.
• For various species of fish and shellfish, assess
net profits at the processing and distribution phases.
• Derive consumer demand functions at the re-
tail phase, and estimate consumer surplus given
current market prices for a selection of fish products.
• Investigate regional differences of the welfare
impacts described above.
• Estimate the total biological productivity
within an estuary. This value gives a broader per-
spective than catch statistics on commercial fisher-
ies, since the harvest of natural products from the
end of the food chain represents less than 5 percent
of total productivity (Oduro, 1975).
• Determine the value of sport fisheries benefits
derived from the estuary.
• Derive all benefits in a capitalized value con-
text, in addition to their magnitude over the cur-
rent year.
• Obtain regional estimates and supportive data
on the potential of increasing natural productivity
in estuaries whether by improved fishing efficiency
or other means.
• In each estuary, perform a zone-oriented analy-
sis whereby the most productive areas are identified.
Economic values of these areas versus the mean value
over the entire estuary should also be compared.
Information associated with these recommenda-
tions could assist coastal zone managers in planning
economically optimal uses of estuaries. Without such
information, the rationale underlying their decisions
will remain inadequate. By considering benefits in
as comprehensive a manner as possible, the policy-
maker would proceed with a more balanced per-
spective of the impacts of estuarine uses on societal
welfare. Only in this manner can there be a reason-
able assurance of optimizing the benefits of resource
allocation.
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Gofselink, J. G., E. P. Odum, and R. M. Pope. 1973. "The
Value of the Tidal Marsh." Institute of Ecology. Uni-
versity of Georgia, Athens.
Hitc, J. (!., and J. M. Stepp. 1973. "Economic Analysis of
the Development Potential of the Commercial Fisheries
Industry of the Coastal Plains Region," Economics of
Marine Resources Publication No. 1. Department of
Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology. Clemson
University, South Carolina.
Howard, G. 1973. "San Francisco Bay Shellfish Potentials."
National Marine Fisheries Service. U.S. Department of
Commerce. Terminal Island, California. Personal com-
munication.
Idyll, C. P., D. C. Tabb, and B. Yokel. 1967. "The Value of
Estuaries to Shrimp," in Proceedings of the Marsh and
Estuary Management Symposium. Louisiana State Uni-
versity. Baton Rouge: 83-90p.
Iwanowicz, H. R., R. D. Anderson, and B. A. Ketschke.
1973. "A Study of the Marine Resources of Hingham Bay."
Monograph Series No. 14. Division of Marine Fisheries.
Department of Natural Resources. Massachusetts
Jerome, W. C., Jr., A. P. Chesmore, and C. O. Anderson, Jr.
1969. "A Study of the Marine Resources of the Annisquem
River—Gloucester Harbor Coastal System," Monograph
Series No. 8. Division of Marine Fisheries. Department of
Natural Resources. Massachusetts.
Jerome, W. C., Jr., A. P. Chesmore, and C. O. Anderson, Jr.
1973. "A Study of the Marine Resources of Beverly-Salem
Harbor, Monograph Series No. 4. Division of Marine
Fisheries. Department of Natural Resources. Massachu-
setts.
Jerome, W. C., Jr., A. P. Chesmore, and C. O. Anderson, Jr.
1968. "A Study of the Marine Resources of the Parker
River—Phem Island Sound Estuary," Monograph Series
No. 6. Division of Marine Fisheries. Department of
Natural Resources. Massachusetts.
Jerome, W. C., Jr., A. P. Chesmore, and C. O. Anderson, Jr.
1966. "A Study of the Marine Resources of Quincv Bav,"
Monograph Series No. 2. Division of Marine Fisheries.
Department of Natural Resources. Massachusetts.
Jerome, W. C., Jr., A. P. Chesmore, C. O. Anderson, Jr., and
F. Grice. 1965. "A Study of the Marine Resources of the
Merrimack River Estuary," Monograph Series No. 1.
Division of Marine Fisheries. Department of Natural
Resources. Massachusetts.
McHugh, J. L. 1970. "Economists on Resource Management,"
Science, Vol. 168: 737-739p.
McHugh, J. L. 1967. "Estuarine Nekton," in Estuaries,
by G. H. Lauff (ed.). American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. Washington, D.C.: 581-638p.
McHugh, J. L. 1966. "Management of Estuarine Fisheries,"
in A Symposium on Estuarine Fisheries. American Fisheries
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McQuigg, J. L. 1971. "The Economic Value of Florida's
Estuarine Estuaries." Pine Jog Environmental Sciences
Center. W
-------
684
ESTUABINB POLLUTION CONTROL
National Marine Fisheries Service. 1974. "Fisheries of the
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Odum, E. P. 1968. "Description and Productivity of Georgia
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Net Economic Values for Salmon and Steeihead for the
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Wass, M. L., and T. D. Wright. 1969. "Coastal Wetlands
of Virginia—Interim Report," Virginia Institute of Marine
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the following individuals for
their guidance and detailed comments of earlier drafts of this
study: Fred Abel, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA); Fred Bell, Florida State University; Ralph D'Arge,
University of California at Riverside; Joel Fisher, EPA;
John Gates, University of Rhode Island; Jack Greenfield,
National Marine Fisheries Service; Michael Hay, EPA;
Laurie McHugh, State University of New York at Stony
Brook; Philip Meyer, Canadian Department of the Environ-
ment; Eugene Odum, University of Georgia; Ken Roberts,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; and
George Tonona-ka, National Marine Fisheries Service.
Andrew McErlean of EPA provided financial support for
part of the literature search. Patricia Kelley of the National
Geographic Society provided estimates of the total acreage
of several estuaries. Susan Penn patiently typed the final
manuscript.
-------
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
-------
ORGANIZATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
FOR MANAGEMENT OF
ATLANTIC COAST
ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS
MAURICE P. LYNCH
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Gloucester Point, Virginia
ABSTRACT
Since 1969, the general trend in management of Atlantic coast estuarine environments has been
to strengthen state and regional capabilities principally through new federal funding programs.
Interstate management entities, with limited exceptions, are not playing an extensive or significant
role.
Many approaches are vised for estuarine management by the various states. Critical manage-
ment decisions typically involve specific site-related permit decisions. In many states, these
individual decisions are made within a framework of overall state guidelines, policy, or legislative
mandate. All states have adopted water quality standards and all but one have wetlands manage-
ment programs. A few states have adopted strict Coastal Zone Management programs. No
states have separate estuarine management agencies, relying instead, on several related agencies
or centralized environmental "super agencies."
Coordination is the most necessary element of effective estuarine management. The Coastal
Zone Management Act has provided states with the initiative (and funds) to effect a better co-
ordination within their own agencies and with other states on a regional basis.
Estuarine management has improved in the period 1969—1974 as a direct result of increased
federal funding supported by a growing awareness of the importance of a quality environment
among the general population. The principal factor in estuarine management in the next five
to 10 years will probably be local acceptance and support of developing Coastal Zone Manage-
ment programs.
INTRODUCTION
Status of Arrangements in 1969
In 1969, the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, Department of Interior, in its "Na-
tional Estuarine Pollution Study" summarized the
status of estuarine management in the nation's
estuaries. In respect to federal activities, seven
Departments (Interior; Commerce; Transportation;
Agriculture; Health, Education and Welfare; Hous-
ing and Urban Development; and Defense (U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers)) were identified as having
The prime impact on management of the nation's
estuaries. Table I briefly summarizes the major
activities of these departments pertinent to most
of the nation's estuaries. Activities of other agencies
in these departments and other departments, of
course, had at that time (and still do) impacts on
the nation's estuaries, but these impacts were usually
of a more indirect nature or related to site-specific
activities, such as the Atomic Energy Commission
or the Federal Power Commission licensing of spe-
cific power plants.
The 1969 role of federal activity in estuarine man-
agement was described as one of support and tech-
nical assistance to the states, regulatory activities
within current law at that time, and direct provi-
sion of normal federal services, such as navigation
aids, channel and harbor maintenance, protective
works, and environmental prediction of tides, cur-
rents, and weather. "The National Estuarine Pollu-
tion Study" urged augmentation of existing federal
programs including technical, research, and en-
forcement programs. In addition, development of
a national policy, a stronger means of coordinating
federal programs, and a system of planning grants
to the states were encouraged.
As with federal management efforts, the, tone of
"The National Estuarine Pollution Study" was gen-
erally critical of states' role in estuarine manage-
ment. Although a few states were considered to
have made significant progress in the area of estu-
arine management (Massachusetts was singled out
as the most advanced state), most were considered
to have made little or no progress. The major
criticisms leveled at the states in this report wore
lack of a central organizational/coordinational
-------
688
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 1.—Summarization of Federal activities In estuarine areas In 1969.
Department
Interior.
Major Agencies
Transportation-
Defense.
Agriculture.
Health, Education & Welfare.
Housing and Urban Development—
Buieau of Commercial Fisheriesi
Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife*
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration >
Geological Survey
National Park Service
Office of Water Resources Rssearch
Office of Saline Waters
Maritime Administration
Environmental Science Services Administration
Coast Guard
Corps of Engineers
Soil and Conservation Service
Forest Service
Water Resources Council
Food and Drug Admmistraticn
Bureau of Water Hygiene
Bureau of Radiological Health
Bureau of Solid Waste Management
Routine Activities
Permit review in conjunction with Corps of Engineers permit activities; Land and
Water Conservation Fund Program; Sewage and Construction Grants; Recreation;
various planning and management and resource preservation and development
granting programs; water flow data and resource compilation and research activity;
participation in River Basin Commission studies.
Port development; mapping and charting, environmental prediction (tides and
currents); research.
Law enforcement; aids to navigation; rescue; boating safety; port security; control
of shipping.
Maintenance of navigable waters; permit control of dredge and fill operations; permit
control of effluent discharge in navigable waters; harbor construction; shoreline
protection.
Soil and water conservation projects; sewer and water planning and construction
grants; watershed protection,'flood control.
Marine health; pesticide monitoring; radionuclide monitoring; public water supply;
food and drug purity from marine sources; solid waste disposal; shellfish sanita-
tion program; dumping.
Planning and assistance in water use; area wide and local planning; water and
sewer facilities grants; open space land grants; National Flood Insurance Programs.
Source: "National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969, pp. V-5 through V-39.
1 Transferred to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce by Reorganization Plan 4 of 1970.
"- Now U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of Interior
> Transferred to Environmental Protection Agency by Reorganization Plan 3 of 1970.
focal point and lack of statewide comprehensive
estuarine management plans.
The study expressed the viewpoints of states with
regard to estuarine management as falling into three
categories:
1. State ownership/management of estuarine re-
sources with federal assistance;
2. Federal-state-local partnership for estuarine
management; and
3. Autonomous state management.
The great majority (91 percent) of the states' view-
points fell into the first category. The preferred role
of the federal government in estuarine management
was in the areas of financial, technical, and research
assistance. Recommendations of the study with
regard to the state role called for increased state
authority in this area with development of proper
organizational arrangements within the states to
exercise this authority.
Strong criticism was also expressed of the local
government level of estuarine management. Lack of
adequate staff and funding capabilities to plan,
decide, and implement regulations was highlighted.
The presence of underutilized management tools
such as legislation, public ownership, public educa-
tion, permits, zoning, planning, and financial in-
ducements (tax incentives), was noted. Although
critical of the local role at that time, the study
stressed the crucial role that local governments will
have to play in effective estuarine management.
The overall assessment of the effectiveness of
estuarine management at all levels of government—
federal, state, and local—was disappointing. Several
recommendations were made of ways of improving
estuarine management at all levels. Coordination,
planning, and cooperation were stressed as necessary
parts of a successful estuarine management program.
Legislative Federal Developments
The major thrust of federal initiatives in the
period since the completion of "The National Estu-
arine Pollution Study" (1909-1973) has been to
strengthen state and regional capabilities in the area
of estuarine management, and to make the federal
bureaucracy responsive to environmental issues. The
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of
1969 (Public Law 91-90) which established the
Council on Environmental Quality required for the
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
689
Table 2.—Components and functions transferred to the Environmental Protection Agency by Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970.
Component/Function
Federal Water Quality Administration
Pesticide studies
National Air Pollution Control Administration-
Bureau of Solid Waste Management -_
Bureau oi Water Hygiene ._
Portions of Bureau of Radiological Health
Source
Department of Interior
Department of Interior
Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Depart nedt of Health, Education and Welfare
Environmental Control Administration of Department of Health, education and Welfare
Pest cieie functions carried out by Food and Drug Administration. j Department of Health, Education atid Welfare
Authority to perform studies related to ecological systems _ _ J Council on Environmental Quality
Certain radiation criteria and standards functions Atomic Energy Commission and Federal Radiation Council
Pesticide registration and related activities Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture
first time in the nation's history the inclusion of
environmental considerations in federal decision-
making, and the issuing of a detailed statement on
the environmental impact of the decision.
Reorganization Plans 3 and 4 of 1970 which estab-
lished, respectively, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and the National Oceanic and At-
mospheric Administration (NO A A") within the De-
partment of Commerce, provided focal points for
much of the federal estuarine management efforts.
In this reorganization, EPA received the compo-
nents and functions listed in Table 2, and NOAA
received the components and functions listed in
Table 3. These reorganization plans resulted in pri-
marily three federal agencies or department« having
preeminent responsibilities \i i estuarine management:
1. EPA became primarily responsible for pollution
monitoring and control;
2. XOAA became primarily responsible for pro-
viding technical and scientific assistance in the area
of living resources and environmental prediction; arid
3. The Corps of Engineers retained their permit
authority in navigable waters.
The Department of Interior re.nined a strong
advisory role in estuarine management through its
authority to comment on Corps of Engineer permit
applications, spelled out in a memorandum of tinder-
standing, dated July 13, 1907, between the Secretary
of Interior and the Secretary of the Army. The
Department of Transportation retained its strong
enforcement role and a major roie in oil pollution
control (primarily in the area of contingency tn-tior)")
through the Coast Guard.
Major federal legislalion relating to estuarine pol-
lution control and manageni( tit during this period
included the Federal Wt'ter Pollution Control \ct
Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-.',00), The Act pre-
sents national goals and guidelines to which the
states' programs must adhere, and is considered by
many commentators (McMahan. ]»T2; K;\smussen,
1973; Kucheribcokcr and. Long, 1973^ to be the
most effective anti-pollution legislation regarding
Table 3.—Components and functions transferred to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration by Reorganization Plai No. 4 of 19/0.
Component/Function Source
.___ |
tnvironrcerta! Science Sew.es Administration _ | Department ot Commi-.c-
Elements o" Bureau of Commercial Fisheries i Department ot 'ittinor
I
Marine sport fun program of the Bureau or Spert Fisheries and Wildlife ._ J bepsnment of Interior
Manre Minerals Technology Center _. -. _. „. i Jurpau of IVmss, Department of Interior
Office of l>ea Grar-t Programs , _„ _..„ , __, Hatioiia! Science Foundation
I
Elements of'j.j. Lake Suuey j Department of Army
National Oceanography Dala Center ... ._ j Department of Navy
Nj'ii n! Qcea io»'apv: '^^^"ntaUon Cento - ! Departme'il of Navy
National Data PLOV Project _ J Department of Transportation
-------
690
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
waterways. Also included is the Coastal Zone Man-
agement" Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-583), which for the
first time in the nation's history stimulates compre-
hensive estuarine planning and management by the
stales, providing federal support.
Other acts such as the Ports ant Waterways
Safety Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-430), the Federal En-
vironmental Pesticide Control Act ol 1972 (P.L.
92-MO). and the Alarine Protection, Research, and
Sanctuary Act 01 1972 (P.L. 92-532} provide vehi-
cl"3 for protection of the nation's estuaries against
pollution by maritime traffic, pesticide-,, and ocean
dumping, respectively, and serve to complement the
provisions of P.L. 92-500 and 92-583.
The funding or contemplation of funding provided
by federal sources has assisted the states in strength-
ening their estuarine management programs par-
ticularly with regard to planning f>r pollution
abatement. Unfortunately, state advances in the
area of pollution control have been hampered by
the executive branch withholding (impounding) $3
billion of the $7 billion authorized in the 1972 water
pollution control law. The effect of this impound-
ment i.s difficult to ascertain precisely. Eiforts to
have the money released appear to have been suc-
cessful, so other than loss of purchasing power due
to galloping inflation, the eventual effect may be
only a delay in attaining desired levels of control.
PRESENT (1974) ARRANGEMENTS
OF ATLANTIC COASTAL STATES
Fifteen staTs contain estuarine waters that open
to ihe Atlantic Ocean. These are grouped into four
federal regional districts (Table 4).
Regional nlunning and coordination is conducted
among several groups of states along the Atlantic
coast. The most widely acclaimed reg:onal group
is the N'".v England River Basin Commission
(NERBC^ The NERBC' hag taken nr aggressive
role in ivsearc!' for zegjonal planning, oarticularly
with iv^pert ti estuarine and coastal pollution prob-
lems. Tuis group coordinates activities, supports
rwmh and education. Financial support for the
NERBC coin's from two primary sources. Tue
operating budget is provided on a 50-."iO basis by
the federal govermrent and the seven member
state?. The stales' share is apportioned by a state
dev>. lop^d and approved formula. Fede'-iJ funds are
provided through an -ippropriation to the Water
Resources Council. Participation in major studies
is supported entirely by 'ederal aporopriations.
Opera tins; r >;davts lor FY 19"'! -1974 hove been
$o(M},OOa ;..,;-ii fKX'., w37'5.GPC, an-. ,-417,000 respec-
tively. Mtnur study funds lor FT 1971-1973
Table 4.—Atlantic estuarine states (grouped into Federal Regional Districts).
Estuarine States
Federal Regional Headquarters
Maine
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delawdre
Maryland
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
I. Boston, Mass.1
II. New York,
! III. Fh.ladelpnia, Pa.f
IV. Atlanta, Ga.<
1 Also includes Vermont.
* Also includes Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
1 Also includes West Virginia.
4 Also includes Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia.
amounted to $1.4 million (NERBC Annual Re-
ports 1971, 1972, 1973). NERBC has completed
several studies of estuarine areas, the most notice-
able being the Long Island Sound Regional Study
(NERBC, 1971), which has produced a study plan
and interim reports on water qualitv, ecological
factors, and erosion and sedimentation; and a series
of reports on Boston Harbor's progress towards
achieving water quality goals (NERBC, 1970': and
its combined sewer overflows (NERBC, 1971).
Another group, the Coastal Plains Regional Coun-
cil (CPRC) in the southeastern states has contrib-
uted to estuarine management through .support of
member state research activities and a technical
assistance program carried out through the Coastal
Plains Center for Marine Development Services.
Neither the NERBC nor CPRC has management
responsibilities.
Interstate management groups impacting on estu-
aries include the Interstate Sanitation Commission,
the Delaware River Basin Commission, the Potomac
River Fisheries Comminsiou, and the Delaware-
New Jer,-:ov Fisheries Commission. The Interstate
Sanitation Commission and the uvu fisheries com-
missions, a.s their n.-irnes imply, are primarily con-
cerned M-ith pollution and fisheries, respectively,
and their regulatory powers are limited to these
areas. The DeJavvar River Basin Commission has
broad powt rs on matters related to water conserva-
tion, control, use, and management in the Delaware
watershed. The commission has authority to plan,
allocate \v,"!<•'• rosoi'rr-ep, ,si t starul-irds. and approve
all pr.'\;-'f,ts whic'i aiket v-aH"- resources,. .\"o project
which will have a substantial effect on water re-
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
691
source? of the Delaware Basin may be undertaken
without commission approval. The commission is
made up of the governors of Delaware, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, and New York, and the U.S. Secre-
tary of the Interior.
The impact of interstate management entities on
estuarine management has not changed significantly
since the assessment made in "The National Estu-
arine Pollution Study" (U.S. Department of In-
terior, 19G9) that these entities had not played an
extensive or significant role in overall management
of the nation's estuaries. The fisheries commissions,
for example, deal with only a portion of the estuarine
resources although attempts are made to influence
management in other areas such as water pollution
control to improve fisheries. The Governor's Task
Force on Marine and Coastal Affairs (Delaware,
1972) in fact recommended that the Delaware-New
Jersey Fisheries Commission be nullified because
of its inability to cope with changing conditions of
the resource because of cumbersome provisions for
changing regulations. This same task force also
pointed out that major problems in the Delaware
estuary such as the extreme water pollution between
Wilmington and Philadelphia and adverse effects of
alterations to the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal
were still unsolved despite the regional approach
taken by the Delaware River Basin Commission
(Delaware, 1972).
Other interstate groupings among the Atlantic
states (Table 5) are of an advisory, coordinative,
and/or educational nature and influence manage-
ment of estuaries only through persuasion.
Traditionally, it has been difficult to obtain con-
sent from state legislatures to yield their authority
to another body less under their influence such as
an interstate compact. Ii is less difficult for a state
legislature to agree to support an interstate plan-
ning, advisory, or educational group. The question
of a compact for the Chesapeake Bay region is
raised periodically. The latest proposal along these
lines was made by Senator Me. C. Mathias of Mary-
land who suggested the states of Maryland and
Virginia consider a Title II Commission for the area
(U.S. Congress, ,1974). One of the difficulties facing
acceptance of this proposal is the degree to which
such a commission will appreciably assist in solving
the problems in the region. Title II Commissions arc
only advisory and do interject a third party, the
federal government, into the picture. Consideration
of the problem of interstate planning and manage-
ment has become part of overall coastal zone man-
agement planning efforts of Maryland and Virginia.
The Chesapeake Bay does present an interesting
case study on this matter. The Potomac River Fish-
Table 5.—Interstate groupings of Atlantic Coastal States related to estuarine
management
Group
interstate Sanitation Commission
Interstate Commission on the
Potomac River Basin
New England Interstate Water
Pollution Control Commission
Delaware River Basin Commission
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries
Commission
Potomac River Fisheries Commission
Susquehanna River Basin Compact
Interstate Environment Compact
Members
Connecticut
New Jersey
New York
Maryland
Pennsylvania
Virginia
District of Columbia
West Virginia *
Six New England states
and New York
Delaware
New Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
All 15 Atlantic states
| Regulatory;
I coordination
i
j Research;
! coordination;
I planning,
! educational
Planning,
advisory
Coordination,
planning;
regulatory
Coordination;
advisory
Pegulatory
Maryland
Virginia
New York j Planning;
Maryland coordination
Pennsylvania
50 states and 2 territories i Coordination
I
* Not an estuarine state.
eries Commission is a two-state management agency
that functions as smoothly as single state fishery
management agencies. It would appear that, since
the two states are the same as would be involved
in a joint Chesapeake Bay management agency that
little impediment to such an arrangement would
exist. Actually, although both states bound Chesa-
peake Bay and the Potomac estuary, th<-re is a
distinct difference. The sharing of the main stem
of the bay is sequential rather than contemporanr ous
as in the case of the Potomac estuary. Each slate
can relatively easily patrol and control access to
the bay waters while this is extremely difficult to do
in the Potomac estuary.
With the few exceptions noted above, however,
estuarine management is a single state function.
Within the different states, many different ap-
proaches are used for estuarine management. The
various components that make up estuarine man-
agement are generally not formally coordinated
within a state. Coastal Zone Management Aci plan-
ning and implementation will continue 1o play a
crucial role in effecting formal •-•oorriinatio*' of
estuarine management as part of overall civxstal
zone management due to the requirement,:
Section 306 . . . (c) Prior to granting approval of a
management program submitted by a coastal state, the
secretary (of Commerce) shall fird that: . . .'2.) The
-------
692
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
state has . . . CB) established an effective mechanism for
continuing consultation and coordination between the
management agency designated pursuant to paragraph
(5) of this subsection and with local governments,
interstate agencies, regional agencies, and area wide agen-
cies within the coastal zone to assure the full participa-
tion of such local governments and agencies in carrying
out the purposes of this title. P.L. 92-583
During the period of May through November
1974, all of the Atlantic lo'astal states received initial
planning (Section 305) grants under the Coastal
Zone Management Act of 1972 (Table 6). It is too
parly to expect concrete results in estuaiine manage-
ment as a direct result of these funds. Stveral states,
however, anticipated support under the Coastal
Zone Management Act and began coastal zone plan-
ning with state funds. Florida, for exiinple, pub-
lished a state coastal zone atlas (Florida, 1972) in
December 1972, which provides in map form a de-
lineation of all coastal areas into preservation (no
further modification), conservation (controlled mod-
ification), and development (few, if any, state con-
trols) areas.
It must be remembered, however, that some ele-
ments of what has come to be considered coastal
zone management have1 been functioning in most
states for varying periods. A major task of coastal
zone planning and management efforts is the identi-
fication and coordination of these elements in sup-
port of a recognized, stated goal.
Atlantic Coastal States
Organizational Arrangements 1
CONNECTICUT
Estuarine management in Connecticut is primarily
the responsibility of the Department of Environ-
mental Protection. Within the department, parks
and recreation, fish and wildlife, forestry, and water
and related resources are the responsibility of the
Division of Preservation and Conservation; while
air ami Mater compliance, solid waste management,
arid pesticides and radiatirm control are the responsi-
bility of the Division of Environmental Quality. As
in most states, many other departments have direct
or indirect inputs into estuarine management. Table
7 indicates some of the various agency responsibili-
ties for esUiarine management in Connecticut. Estu-
arine management is not separated organizationally
from the management of other areas in Connecticut.
Connecticut has wetlands protective legislation.
Table 6.—Initial Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 Planning (Section 305)
Grants to Atlantic Coastal States
Total
$324,624
277,619
686,000
303,400
345,000
465,765
315,000
117,000
412,000
825,000
500,000
225,000
231,623
298,500
376,566
State
Florida
Georgia J
Maine
Maryland - .
Massachusetts.
New Hampshire _
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island .
South Carolina
Virginia __ .
Federal Funding
$194,285
194 285
450,000
188,000
230,000
280,000
210,000
78,000
275,000
550,000
300.000
150,000
154,415
198,485
251,044
State Funding
$130 339
83,334
236,000
115,400
115,000
185,765
105,000
39,000
137,000
275,000
200,000
75,000
77,208
100,015
125,522
1 Information for ttu? state-by-state summary was obtained primarily
from Ponder, 197*, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1973, 1974; Lynch,
Pat'oa and Smolen, 1974; and the individual Atlantic state applications
for Ooiistal Zone Mandfrement planning (Section 305) grnnts.
DELAWARE
Estuarine management in Delaware is primarily
focused in the Department of Natural Resources
and Environmental Control. Four divisions within
the department: Environmental Control; Fish and
Wildlife; Parks, Recreation and Forestry; and Soil
and Water Conservation, are the primary estuarine
management agencies.
Delaware is unique among the Atlantic states in
that it has passed a Coastal Zone Act (58 Del. Laws,
C. 175) which bans all heavy industry and port or
dock facilities within two r, iles of the shoreline not
in existence at the time of the Act's passage in 1971.
A permit system administered by Coastal Zone
Industrial Control Board operating within the State
Planning Office of the executive department regu-
lates all other manufacturing uses or expansion of
existing heavy industrial uses.
FLO BID A
Florida's administrative structure is unique among
the 50 states in that administrative powers are
shared by the Governor arid a six member inde-
pendently elected cabinet. Agencies dealing with
estuarine management report to the Governor and
the cabinet, sitting as a body. Coastal zone planning
is the responsibility of the Coastal Coordinating
Council within the Department of Natural Re-
sources. The council consists of the executive di-
rectors of the Department of Natural Resources,
trustees of the Internal Improvement Trust Fund,
the Department of Pollution Control, and the Secre-
tary of Administration. The Coastal Coordinating
Council functions as an advisory body to the
Governor and cabinet in the area of coastal zone
management.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
693
Table 7.—Some organizational responsibilities for estuarine management in Connecticut.
Industrial Development .
Water Quality
Erosion _ _ __
Coastal Recreation
Wetlands & Critical Area Preservation
Subaqueous Mineral Extraction
Environmental
Protection
*R
* R, F, Rev P
* R, F, Rev, P
*F, P
* R, P
* R, P
R F Rev
Health
R
* R, Rev
*P
*R
*R
Rev
Department
Transportation
R
p
Rev, P
P
F Rev, P
Community
Affairs
R, F
P
Commerce
*F, P
*P
* p
P
P
* Agency directly addresses issue.
R, Regulatory authority.
F, Funding authority.
Rev, Review authority.
P, Planning and promotional authority.
Florida maintains permit and/or base control
over most estuarine water or margin uses admin-
istered by the Department of Natural Resources
or the board of trustees of the Internal Develop-
ment Trust Fund.
GEORGIA
Estuarine management in Georgia is primarily
the responsibility of the Department of Natural
Resources. Within this department, the Game and
Fish Division is responsible for coastal marshland
protection and coastal fisheries management while
the Environmental Protection Division is responsible
for the water quality standards, water use classifica-
tion, and the shellfish sanitation programs.
Estuarine planning is the responsibility of a
Coastal Zone Management Policy Development
Committee which reports to the Governor. The
organization for coastal zone management planning
in Georgia is shown in Figure 1.
MAINE
Five departments share significant responsibility
for estuarine management in Maine. Pollution con-
trol is primarily focused in the Department of En-
vironmental Protection which is responsible for
licensing of waste discharges and structures in tidal
waters or subtidal lands; administration of Maine's
Coastal Conveyance of Petroleum Act (including
licensing of oil terminals); and enforcement of laws
relating to water discharge licenses, air emissions,
waste dumping, and water quality laws. The De-
partment of Marine Resources is responsible for
fishery law, regulation, and research; maintaining
grant, lease, license, and permit records; and moni-
toring shellfish waters. The Department of Conserva-
tion maintains navigational marking and clearances;
administers the <:Keep Maine Scenic" Law; manages
submerged lands; maintains the Coastal Island Reg-
istry; and is responsible for watercraft registration
and safety. The Department of Transportation
houses the Main Port Authority. Monitoring safety
of coastal waters for water contact sports and licens-
ing of individual home sewage disposal facilities are
the responsibility of the Department of Health and
Welfare.
Coastal Zone Management Policy
Development Committee
CZM Coordination
Research j
Reference
Councl1
j Coastal Zone Management
i Community Forum
The CZM Technical Committee consists of:
Department of Community Development
Forestry Commission
Department of Human Resources
Office of Planning and Budget
Georgia Ports Authority
Board of Regents, University System of Georgia
Soil and Water Conservation Commission
Department of Transportation
Coastal Area Planning and Development Comnssion
FIGURE 1.—Coastal Zone Management (CZM)
Organization in Georgia.
Planning
-------
694
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
MARYLAND
Esiuarine management in Maryland is focused in
the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and
the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene
(H&MH). Other departments such as Transporta-
tion (port administration), State Planning (land use
planning and state development plan), Agriculture
(soil conservation and pesticide control), and Eco-
nomic and Community Development (waterfront
renewal) also contribute to estuarine management.
Estuarine pollution management is exercised by
three agencies: the Maryland Environmental Service
and the Water Resources Administration in DNR
and the Environmental Health Administration in
H&MH. The Environmental Health Administration
is responsible for water quality and shellfish stand-
ards, sewage treatment plant operations, and the
statewide health policy. The Water Resources Ad-
ministration administers the discharge permit system
for point sources and is responsible for water quality
standards for ground and surface waters. The Mary-
land Environmental Service is responsible for pro-
viding regional and river basin plans for waste
water, solid waste, and water supply management.
Most other major estuarine management facets
,-jUch as wetlands management, shore erosion con-
trol, oil terminal licensing, power plant siting, water-
way improvement programs, marine policy, fish and
wildlife administration, recreation, and coastal zone
management are the responsibility of DNR.
A major feature of Maryland's estuarine manage-
ment program is the Power Plant Siting Act (Anno.
Code of Mel. Article 96A, Section 23-25) admin-
istered by DNR which levees a surtax on electric
energy generation in the state to be used for pur-
poses related to power plant operations, particularly
ecological baseline studies, monitoring existing op-
erations, long range planning, and acquisition of
sites for future power plants.
MASSACHUSETTS
Massachusetts, which was cited by the 1969
"National Estuarine Pollution Study" as having the
most advanced estuarine management program, has
had a major reorganization of state government.
An Grace of Environmental Affairs has brought to-
gether a number of related agencies. Of particular
concern to estuarine management is the Department
of Natural Resources (DNR) which has the major
responsibility for estuarine management. The re-
sponsibilities of Massachusetts agencies with regard
to several estuarine management activities are shown
in Figure 2.
Overall responsibility for coastal zone manage-
ment in Massachusetts is housed in the Executive
Office of Environmental Affairs.
NEW HAMPSHIRE
New Hampshire's estuarine management programs
are not focused in any particular agency or depart-
ment. Major water supply and water quality pro-
grams arc; administered by the Water Supply and
Pollution Control Commission. Coastal zone plan-
ning has been assigned to the office of Comprehen-
sive Planning.
NEW JERSEY
All environmental protection in New Jersey is ad-
ministered by the Department of Environmental
Protection (DEP). The Division of Marine Services
within the DEP is responsible for coastal zone
management, wetlands and shore protection. New
Jersey has a Coastal Area Facility Review Act
passed in 1973 which divides the coastal areas into
various sections, with each section designated for
particular purposes. Management divisions affecting
estuaries within these designated areas must be
compatible with these purposes.
NEW YORK
New York has recently consolidated its environ-
mentally related legislation into one act, the environ-
mental Conservation Law. A marine coastal district
has been established which includes all tidal estu-
arine waters as far up the Hudson as the Tappan
Zee Bridge.
The Department of Environmental Conservation
is responsible for environmentally oriented estuarine
management programs, including coordination of
regional and local plans.
NORTH CAROLINA
North Carolina estuarine management and plan-
ning agencies are primarily within the Department
of Administration and the Department of Natural
and Economic Resources.
An Office of Marine Affairs in the Department of
Administration established in 1973 has the responsi-
bility of coordination and serving as a communica-
tion link with various marine-related programs in
North Carolina. A Coastal Resources Commission
was legislatively created in 1974 to establish policy,
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
695
Planning
Setting Standards
Developing
Regulations
Enforcement
Monitoring
Field Studies
Research
Technical
Assistance
Information
Dissemination
Data Management
Manpower Training
Project Management
Intergovernmental
Coordination
Project Review
NAVIGATION
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PISH & WILDLIFE PROTECTION
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POLLUTION CONTROL
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FIGUKE 2.—Estuarine management responsibilities of Massachusetts state agencies (adapted from the Commonwealth of Massa-
chusetts' Coastal Zone Management Planning grant to the U.S. Department of Commerce).
develop regulations, and adjudicate coastal area
permit applications.
The Division of Health Services in the Depart-
ment of Human Resources administers the state
shellfish sanitation program.
PENNSYLVANIA
Pennsylvania's only estuarine area connected to
the Atlantic Ocean is a short section of the Schuylkill
River below Philadelphia. The Department of En-
vironmental Resources is responsible for the develop-
ment of the state water plan, management of the
state's land and water programs, and all aspects of
environmental control.
RHODE ISLAND
In Rhode Island, management of estuaries is cen-
tered in a Coastal Resources Management Council
which reports directly to the Governor. This council
is composed of the directors of the Department of
Health along with representatives of the state legis-
lature and the general public. The Division of
Coastal Resources of the Department of Natural
Resources provides administrative support to the
council. The State Department of Health estab-
lishes water quality standards.
SOUTH CAROLINA
The Wildlife and Marine Resources Department
and the Department of Health and Environmental
Control share the major management role with
regard to South Carolina's estuaries. The Depart-
ment of Health and Environmental Control is re-
sponsible for management of water pollution, sewage
disposal, shellfish sanitation, water supply, and solid
waste disposal. The Wildlife and Marine Resources
Department is responsible for fisheries resources,
dredge and fill operations, and coastal wetlands.
As with many other states, many other agencies
-------
696
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Division of
Administration
State Development
Board
State Highway
Department
Land Resources
Conservation Comm.
Wildlife & Marine
Resources Jept.
Water Resources
Commission
Parks , Recreation ,
and Tourism
Commission of
Forestry
Dept. of Health &
Environmental Control
State Ports Authority
Public Service
Commission
Economic
Development
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R
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FIGURE 3.—South Carolina: state involvement in estuarine management. P, planning; T, technical assistance; M, management;
D, direct development; R, regulation.
contribute to estuarine management. Figure 3 indi-
cates the contribution of South Carolina agencies
to estuarine management.
VIRGINIA
Thirty-seven entities have been identified which
play a role in state or regional level estuarine man-
agement (Laird, 1974). Some have only minor roles,
and some occur within the same department under
a unified administrative head. These entities have
been broken down into six categories as shown in
Table 8.
Principal management responsibility rests at pres-
ent with the Virginia Marine Resources Commission
which manages the state's marine and estuarine
fisheries. The commission has review authority over
wetlands permits, and initial authority over sub-
aqueous permits or leasing for activities affecting
estuarine bottoms, including oyster leases, dredging,
and subaqueous mining. The State Water Control
Board is responsible for water quality and water
quality management. The Department of Health
also has permit authority in the field of marina
sanitation and through its Bureau of Shellfish Sani-
tation administers the state shellfish sanitation
program.
Virginia's wetland management laws (Title 62.1,
Ch. 13, Code of Va.) are strongly oriented towards
local management. If localities choose (and most
have so chosen), initial permit approval of permitted
activities is the responsibility of a local wetlands
board. The Marine Resources Commission serves as
an administrative board of appeals for challenges to
local decisions.
The Marine Resources Commission and the State
Water Control Board are bodies made up primarily
of informed, knowledgeable citizens not otherwise
connected to state government. A commissioner of
marine resources is appointed to serve at the pleasure
of the Governor and serves as chairman of the Marine
Resources Commission and its chief executive officer.
The other members of the Marine Resources Com-
mission are appointed by the Governor for fixed
terms. The State Water Control Board is admin-
istered by an executive director. Permit disposition
authority rests in these boards, and all decisions
related to permit activities must be made in meetings
open to the public.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
697
Table 8.—Entities of state government with planning, management, or scientific and engineering responsibilities in estuarine management in Virginia (after Laird
1974)
!. Departments with Overview Responsibility
Office of the Governor
Council on the Environment
Office of the Attorney General
II. State Agencies Concerned Primarily with Estuarine and Coastal Areas and Adjacent
Marine Areas
Marine Resources Commission
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Department of Health
Bureau of Shellfish Sanitation
Virginia Port Authority
III. State Agencies Which Have Responsibilities in the Coastal Zone Which Directly Affect
Estuarine Management
State Water Control Board
Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries
Department of Conservation and Economic Development
Division of Parks
Commission of Outdoor Recreation
Division of Industrial Development
Virginia Soil and Water Conservation Commission
Division of State Planning and Community Affairs
Virginia Department of Highways
Department of Agriculture and Commerce
Department of Health
Division of Engineering
Bureau of Sanitary Engineering
Bureau of Solid Waste and Vector Control
Bureau of Industrial Hygiene
Division of Local Health Services
State Corporation Commission
IV. State Agencies Which Have Responsibilities in the Coastal Zone Which Indirectly
Affect Estuarine Management
Department of Conservation and Economic Development
Division of Forestry
Division of Mineral Resources
Division of Mined Land Reclamation
Virginia State Travel Service
Historic Landmarks Commission
Virginia Outdoors Foundation
State Air Pollution Control Board
V. Intrastate Agencies Authorized by the Code of Virginia but Which Are Supported by
Local Funds and Have an Impact on Estuarine Management
Hampton Roads Sanitation District Commission
Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority
Virginia Beach Erosion Commission
VI. Interstate Agencies Relevant to Estuarine Management to Which Virginia is a Party
Potomac River Fisheries Commission
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission
Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin
Virginia is unique among the Atlantic coastal
states for having an estuarine and marine state re-
search laboratory, the Virginia Institute of Marine
Science, which is a separate state agency coequal
with the management agencies within the state
apparatus. In most states, the estuarine research
programs are usually subordinate arms of the man-
agement agencies or conducted through formal or
informal arrangements with the state university
system. The Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
however, is independently chartered by the Code of
Virginia (Title 28.1, Chapter 9). With an independ-
ent charter and separate legislative mandate, the
Virginia Institute of Marine Science is able to influ-
ence estuarine management practices independent
of direct pressures from management agencies.
Coastal zone coordination in the Commonwealth
of Virginia is the responsibility of the Coastal Zone
Advisory Committee, co-chaired by the Department
of State Planning and Community Affairs and the
Institute of Marine Science. Other agencies making
up the advisory committee are the Division of In-
dustrial Development, the Commission of Outdoor
Recreation, the Marine Resources Commission, the
State Water Control Board, the Commission of
Game and Inland Fisheries, and the Department of
Conservation and Economic Development. State
level coordination between state agencies is being
focused in a developing secretariat which reports
directly to the Governor. At present, each state
agency reports to a secretary. The majority of agen-
cies which have a major role in estuarine manage-
ment report to the Secretary of Commerce and
Resources.
SUMMARY
As can be seen by this brief review of state pro-
grams, many approaches are used for estuarine
management among the various states. The critical
management decisions which impact the estuarine
areas usually involve specific site-related permit de-
cisions. In many states, these individual decisions
are made within the framework of overall state
guidelines, policy, or legislative mandate.
All but one of the Atlantic states (South Carolina)
have adopted specific wetland management pro-
grams; all have adopted water quality standards;
and some (Delaware and New Jersey, in particular)
have adopted strict coastal area zoning programs.
-------
698
EE.TUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 9.—Summary of estuarine related State Land Acquisition Authority
State
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia _
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New jersey
New York
North Carolina
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Virginia
Agency
Dept. of Environmental Protection
Dept. of Natural Resources & Environmental Control
Water Management Districts
State Forestry Commission
Commission of Sea and Shore Fisheries
Dept. of Natural Resources
Dept. of Natural Resources
Dept of Fish & Game
Hackensack Meadowland Development Commission
Dept. of Natural Resources
No Programs
Cities, Counties, Towns
Various State Agencies
Virginia Outdoors Foundation
Commission of Outdoor Recreation
Purpose
Wetland Acquisition
General Purposes
Parks
Wetland & Water Management
Forests
Wetlands Acquisition
Flats & Waters for Scientific Purposes
General Purposes
Coastal Wetlands
Wildlife Sanctuaries
State Parks & Forests
Coastal Wetlands
Wetland Acquisition
Wildlife Habitats
Wetland Development
Fish & Wildlife Management
Wetlands Acquisition
Federal Water Resource Development Projects
Open Space Lands
Open Space Lands
Scenic Rivers Areas
Authority
C.G.S.A. 26-17a
C.G.S.A. 22a-25
D.C. 7-5802
F.S. 373-139
G.S. 43-207
M.R.S.A. 12-4701
M.R.S.A. 12-3701
M.C.A. 66C-186
M.G.L.A. 130-105
M.G.L/A. 131-7
M.G.L.A. 132A-2A
N.H.R.S. 483-A:l
N.J.S. 13:8A:4 &
N.J.S. 13-.8A-24
N.J.S. 13:18-15-5
N.J.S. 13:17-6
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
699
grants during 1974. Because of the recency of these
planning grants, there has been insufficient time to
produce specific accomplishments.
State preparations anticipating funding of the
CZMA have, however, resulted in formation of
either legislatively or executively mandated inter-
agency committees, commissions, councils, or task
forces in most states. The CZMA guidelines strongly
encourage management at the lowest possible level
of management, primarily localities, within, how-
ever, state and federally agreed upon principles. The
great advantage to the states in developing arid
adopting an approved CZM program is that once
approved by the Secretary of Commerce, the state
plan also becomes the guideline for and is binding
upon federal programs operating in state coastal
areas.
The success of estuarine management programs
in future years probably depends upon the success
of developing the stale-local coordination and co-
operation necessary to implement developing coastal
zone management plans.
Experience in various states differs as to the effec-
tiveness of local control over environmental matters.
In Virginia, local management of wetlands is con-
sidered to be successful to date (the Virginia Wet-
lands Law became effective July 1, 1972), and is
being studied as a possible' model for coastal zone
management within the state.
Estuarine management, particularly as exercised
through permit programs, receives much criticism
from both environmentalists and developers. The
major criticism of both sides is the multiplicity of
permits required for a single authorization to proceed
\',ith a proposed project. Frequently advocated by
both groups an- "one stop" permit systems, each
side of course assuming "one stop" systems will
favor its position. Until a different system is devised
which will adequately assess an activity's impact
on the various facets of estuarine management,
however, a "one stop" system will probably not
serve the best interest of the citizens of a state taken
as a whole and divorced from particular advocacy
roles in a given controversy,
It is unlikely that agencies will be created within
the states' organizational frameworks which will
function solely or primarily as the manager of a
state's estuarine areas. What can be expected is an
increasing awareness of the need for closer coordina-
tion and cooperation between agencies serving plan-
ning, management, and advisory roles in estuarine
areas. This need has already been recognized by
most states and several have begun to effect this
coordination. The next several years will see marked
improvement in this area, although there will be
difficulties in reconciling federal, state, and local
goals, responsibility, and authority. These difficul-
ties, with application of the emery powder of federal
funding, will be smoothed sufficiently so that more
effective management of estuarine systems will be
developed.
Estuarine management has improved in the period
1969—1974. Much of this improvement is the direct
result of increased federal funding supported by the
general awareness of the importance of a quality
environment in the average citizen. Care must be
exercised, however, that "ecological fervor," un-
accompanied by a sound educational program, does
not create an environmental backlash. The reverse
is also true, however, that care must be exercised
to ensure that temporary crises (of long or short
duration) such as the energy squeeze of the early
and mid-1970's, are not used as an excuse to dis-
mantle the sorely needed apparatus for environ-
mental concern that has been and is being con-
structed. It has become apparent to taxpayers that
a quality environment is expensive. Without well-
documented, understandable evidence that sug-
gested pollution control methods are necessary,
public support will not be available and environ-
mental quality will not be maintained or improved.
The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 recog-
nizes many of these problems and the regulations
implementing the program emphasize the need for
developing citizen awareness, participation, and
support.
A critical factor in future estuarine management
will be the roles of federal, state, and local manage-
ment agencies. Unfortunately, there is little data
available from which to deduce the, exact mix of
responsibilities which will ensure success. The gen-
eral approach of the Coastal Zone Management
Act—that of a state program developed under
federal guidelines which, when federally approved,
provides the criteria for federal actions in the
region—is readily acceptable at the state level.
Still to be determined is the acceptance of possible
state constraints on certain federal agencies and
even more important, the acceptance by localities
of the state plan.
The principal factor in estuarine management
improvement in the next five to 10 years will be local
acceptance and support of coastal zone management.
REFERENCES
Commerce Clearing House, Inc. 1974. Topical Law Reports.
Washington, D.C.
Delaware Governor's Task Force on Marine and Coastal
Affairs. 1972. The Coastal Zone of Delaware. Final Report of
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700
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
the Governor's Task Force on Marine and Coastal Affairs,
College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Newark.
Florida Coastal Coordinating Council. 1972. Florida Coastal
Zone Management Atlas. Coastal Coordinating Council,
Tallahassee.
Kuckenbecker, D. J. and E. L. Long. 1973. Will municipal
sewage continue to threaten primary watercontact recrea-
tion: an appraisal of the 1972 Water Pollution Control
Act. Rutgers Camden Law J. 4:260.
Laird, Beverly L. 1974. Virginia State Agencies Concerned
with Coastal Zone Planning, Management, or Scientific
and Engineering Activities, 1974-1975 Edition. SRAMSOE
No. 67, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester
Point.
Lynch, Maurice P., Martha A. Patton, and Theodore F.
Smolen. 1974. A policy study of marine and etituarine sanc-
tuaries: background information. Pages 3-56 in M. P.
Lynch, B. L. Laird, and T. F. Smolen, eds. Marine and
Estuarine Sanctuaries, Proceedings of the National Work-
shop on Sanctuaries. SSR No. 70, Virginia Institute of
Marine Science, Gloucester Point.
McMahon, M. J., Jr. 1973. The Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972. Boston College Ind. &
Commercial Law Rev. 14:672.
New England River Basin Commission. 1970. Fiscal Year
1970 Annual Report of the New England River Basin
Commission. Boston, Mass.
New England River Basin Commission. 1971. Annual Report,
Fiscal Year 1971. Boston, Mass.
New England River Basin Commission. 1972. New England
River Basin Commission 1972 Annual Report. Boston,
Mass.
Ponder, Hal. 1974. Survey of State Coastal Management
Laws. School of Law University of Maryland, Chesapeake
Research Consortium Publication.
Rasmussen, F. 1973. The Federal Water Pollution Control
Act Amendments of 1972. Wis. L. Rev. 1973: 893.
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1973. Status of State Coastal
Zone Management Efforts. Coastal Zone Management
Task Force, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1974. State Coastal Zone
Management Activities 1974. Office of Coastal Zone
Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Department of Interior. 1969. National Estuarine
Pollution Study. Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration, Washington, D.C. 3 vol.
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EVALUATION OF
WATER QUALITY
IN ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
WILLIAM J. HARGIS, JR.
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Gloucester Point, Virginia
ABSTRACT
Estuaries and coastal waters, comprising less than 5 percent of earth's surface, are under ever-
increasing pressures from growing populations and demands. Yet these complex and dynamic
waters are the key to preserving the viability and productivity of the oceans. Maintenance of
their quality is vital to man and his future, causing much concern, especially in the United States.
Consequently, considerable research, legislation, and other efforts oriented at improving manage-
ment of estuarine and coastal waters have gone forward in the last 10 to 15 years. These are
discussed in this chapter.
Despite all these efforts, the condition of estuarine environments and resources continues to
decline. Several factors appear to be causal. The "state of the art" for control of quality in
estuarine and coastal waters must be rapidly improved to reverse the downward trend. Recom-
mendations are made.
As these improvements are accomplished, we will slow and eventually stop, even reverse, the
degradation of these vital waters. While making control procedures more accurate and precise,
we must also reduce the economic and social costs of controls without lessening their effectiveness.
INTRODUCTION
Historical
Humans and human activities have long been
concentrated on the shores of the seas, or along the
tributaries which empty into those seas. Given this
shoreward distribution of a rapidly multiplying
people and their burgeoning societal activities, it
is small wonder that we are now greatly disturbed
over the worsening condition of the coastal waters
and tidal tributaries fringing the oceans of earth.
Concern with quality of the environment focused
early on its decline in natural waters. Recognition of
atmospheric problems such as contamination of air
by heat or chemicals and the possibility of uninten-
tional weather modification, developed later. Prob-
ably because they are more easily damaged and more
readily observed, upland brooks, small rivers (run-
ning waters), and ponds and confined lakes (still
waters) called for and received attention first. Later,
the larger upland rivers and the Great Lakes began
to show regular fish kills and other signs of degrada-
tion. Thus, much of the early effort at pollution
abatement by science and technology, government
and industry was devoted to these essentially upland
waters. Only in recent decades have the great tidal
tributaries, with their massive fresh and saline
reaches, and the coastal waters of the world's seas
and the vast oceans, themselves, been attended. The
sights and smells of pollution, long apparent in
natural inland waters, appeared in most estuarine
and oceanic waters very late. Awareness that the
oceans and seas of earth are not as remote or in-
violate as formerly believed has been slow in coming
compared with man's ability to use, to exploit, and to
pollute.
It is now clear that control of the condition of
oceanic waters will depend primarily upon achieving
reasonable control over estuaries and other coastal
waters. Additionally, control of coastal waters is
necessary in and of itself because it is these waters
which most affect man and it is important to main-
tain an adequate environment for human society.
Belated though awareness of estuarine and coastal
waters may have been, much attention has been
given them since the 1960's when the strong concern
manifesting itself today surfaced and the Water
Quality Act of 1965 (PL 89-234), the Clean Water
Restoration Act of 1965 (PL 89-753), and the Na-
tional Environmental Protection Act of 1969 (PL
91-190) came into being.
Legislation aside, concern has also been apparent
in the growing number of publications relating to
environment, its relation to man, and to the worsen-
ing status of many environments and resources.
Many governmental groups have been commissioned
to consider these problems at all levels—local, re-
701
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702
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
gional, state, interstate, federal, and even interna-
tional. Reports have been written, new legislation
passed, and organizations established arid modified.
Unfortunately, reorganization has occurred so many
times as to make some agencies unstable and render
it difficult for them to accomplish their objectives.
For example, because of its changing and confusing
organizational milieu, progress and improvement of
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
been slowed.
A large number of major studies of the nation's
estuarine systems and of individual estuaries have
been conducted since 1960 along with a host of
lesser, but useful smaller works. See, for example,
(Lauff, 1967), (USDI, 1969), (USDI, 1970),
(Stroud, 1971), (Chabreck, 1973), (Clark, 1974),
(Odum et al., 1974) and many others.
Manifestation of Interest
by Legislative Action
Among the landmark federal enactments which
have resulted from this growing awareness and con-
cern for tidal waters have been:
1. The Water Quality Act of 1965 (PL 89-234)
which among other things, initiated the National
Water Quality Standards Program [Sec. 10 (c)].
2. The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 (PL
89-753), which focused on problems of maintaining
and restoring quality and uses of the Nation's sur-
face waters. Additionally, in that act the Secretary
of the Interior was directed [Section 5 (g) ] to study
nationwide problems of estuarine pollution. The
resultant 3-year effort yielded a very interesting
report submitted to Congress in November 1969.
This three volume report was entitled, "The
National Estuarine Pollution Study" (USDI, 1969).
Noteworthy among its recommendations was de-
velopment of a comprehensive national coastal zone
management system. (This recommendation, sec-
onded by many other study groups, has been acted
upon partially by enactment of PL 92-583, The
National Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972).
3. The Marine Resources, Engineering and Devel-
opment Act of 1966 (PL 89-454), which focused
attention on marine waters and their resources,
environments, and uses by society. It also directed:
a) evaluation of and improvement in the federal
efforts in ocean affairs, arid b) a comprehensive
review of all ocean-oriented matters. This review
was designed to lead to development of a compre-
hensive national effort to better control, utilize,
and preserve the resources and environments of ma-
rine waters.
The first responsibility was given to the National
Council on Marine Resource and Engineering Devel-
opment (NCMRED—also known as The Marine
Science Council), a federal body consisting of the
several departmental Secretaries, the Director of the
National Science Foundation, the Chairman of the
Atomic Energy Commission and chaired by the
Vice President. Dr. Edward Wenk, Jr. was its first
executive secretary. A series of annual reports was
issued by the Council under the general title, "Ma-
rine Science Affairs," with appropriate dates and
subtitles (cf. References). One of its four interagency
committees, the Committee on Multiple Use of the
Coastal Zone, helped focus attention on the fragile
area called the coastal zone in various publications
and reports and in doing so, joined others in con-
tributing to that developing national program.
The task of conducting a comprehensive nation-
wide review of all ocean-oriented matters (the last
charge mentioned above) fell to the civilian-com-
posed Commission on Marine Science and Engineer-
ing Resources (COMSER—sometimes called the
Stratton Commission after Dr. Julius A. Stratton,
its chairman). This commission expired at the end of
a fruitful 3-year life that resulted in a series of com-
prehensive reports. The summary volume of the
four volume set entitled, "Our Nation and the Sea,"
is an effective distillation of the entire national
marine effort to that point.
The commission found great need for considerable
attention to the pressured and deteriorating coastal
zone and its recommendations for correction form
one of the strongest foundations for the current
i-Tiphasis on the margins of the sea. With those
groups mentioned above, the commission contrib-
ated significantly to the Coastal Zone Management
Act,
4. The Estuary Protection Act (PL90-954) reiter-
ated Congress' awareness of the critical nature of
coastal waters and directed the Secretary of the
Interior "to conduct an inventory and study of the
Nation's estuaries and their natural resources" in
cooperation with the states.
This study, authorized in August 1968, and funded
initially in July 1969 was completed and resulted in
a report entitled, "National Estuary Study," Its
seven volumes were transmitted to Congress in
January 1970 (USDI, 1970). They, too, concluded
that the estuarine zone of the United States is a
critical environmental and resource area and recom-
mended stronger efforts to manage it wisely, focusing
the management responsibility and capability in the
states.
5. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments of 1972 provided for establishment, publica-
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CONCLUDING REMARKS
703
tion, and, where necessary, revision of comprehensive
water quality criteria, among other provisions.
Accomplishments and offshoots of this legislation
are discussed in greater detail below.
Special Studies and Reports
While these legislative efforts came into being and
the activities they called for were pursued to fruition,
the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
(FWPCA-now EPA) of the Department of the
Interior has established the National Technical
Advisory Committee on Water Quality Criteria
(NTAC). The body, which was advisory to the
Secretary of the Interior, was developed in response
to Paragraph 3, Section 10 of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act as amended by the Water
Quality Act of 1965. The Committee, named in
early 1967, worked vigorously throughout the year
and submitted its report to the Secretary in April
1968.
The work dealt extensively with problems of
maintaining the maximum utility and quality of
estuarine and coastal waters and presented a large
number of water quality criteria recommended for
use in the management of those waters. These cri-
teria were supposed to form the basis for new water
quality control standards, and they did! Both the
criteria and standards have been in widespread use
since.
In 1971 the Environmental Protection Agency,
anticipating the Amendments of 1972 to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act, commissioned another
examination of the status of knowledge of surface
and ground waters and the elements related to qual-
ity. Under a contract to the National Academy of
Sciences-National Academy of Engineering (NAS-
NAE), several subcommittees comprising the overall
Committee on Water Quality Criteria of the En-
vironmental Studies Board of the National Research
Council (NRC) were established to review and, if
necessary, revise the water quality criteria previously
developed. Its report entitled "Water Quality Cri-
teria 1972" was completed in 1972 but not made
widely available until recently, (NAS-NAE, 1973)1.
As indicated above, the NAS-NAE effort was
undertaken as a contractual obligation to EPA.
Whether the different status of the NAS-NAE
appointment group, as contrasted with the old
NTAC, which was an official advisory committee
reporting to the Secretary of Interior, will have an
effect on the ultimate development of revised stand-
1 Though the title indicates that the report was completed m 1972
internal evidence in the "Blue Book" indicates that it was not actually
printed for circulation until early 1973. It was not widely available until
then.
ards from these criteria, will be interesting to see.
It is too early to tell. As will be shown below, EPA
has responded by utilizing a large number of these
criteria directly in developing their own proposed
criteria (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1973).
Other Activities
There have been a number of other significant
activities relating to problems of coastal and estu-
arine environments which impinge upon assessment
of the status of those waters and of the seas and
oceans into which they empty. Among them have
been the various pollution-related research efforts of
the National Science Foundation through its pro-
jects administered by the International Decade of
Ocean Exploration Program. Several useful publica-
tions have resulted. See, for example, Goldberg
(1972b), and Duce, Parker, and Giam (1974). Too,
NSF's Research Applied to National Needs Program
(RANN) has contributed significantly by supporting
water quality-related activities in various estuarine
and coastal areas. RANN has also sponsored several
review activities such as workshops and symposiums
devoted to problems of coastal waters and lands. As
examples see: "The Water's Edge: Critical Problems
of the Coastal Zone," (B. H. Ketchum, ed., 1972)
and "The Chesapeake Bay: Report of a Research
Planning Study," (Beers, et al, 1971).
The massive report in four volumes prepared for
FWPCA as part of the National Estuarine Pollution
Study of 1968 and 1969 and published by the Con-
servation Foundation under the general title,
"Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States"
(Odum, Copeland and McMahan, eds., 1974), is
worthy of special note here as are the 1971 reports of
the NAS-NRC Ocean Affairs Board, "Marine En-
vironmental Quality," and NAS-NAE Committees
on Oceanography and Ocean Engineering (NASCO
and NAECOE) "Waste Management Concepts for
the Coastal Zone," (NAS-NRC, 1970).
All of these activities have served to focus attention
on the nation's coastal and estuarine waters and on
the need to understand and manage these waters
effectively so that they will be of maximum utility to
society and will be available in undiminished quality
and quantity to posterity. They have also served to
establish a stronger basis for developing management
efforts and to indicate where current knowledge and
managerial ability are weak.
Purposes
Some aspects of the legislative and technical
history of the effort to manage the quality of cstu-
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704
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
aries and coastal waters have been presented above.
Important as it is to understand these historical
aspects, the overall purpose of this chapter is a
general evaluation of water quality in r,he nation's
estuaries as a whole. In doing so, we seek to examine
the current status of the national estuarine system.
This will be done in relation to modifications in
quality, quantity, and utility of the resources and
environments of those coastal waters resulting from
the activities of man. In this effort the intention is to
consider existing quality, trends in quality, existing
water quality criteria, and the state of the art in
establishing and evaluating the same. Ability to
monitor will be examined also.
THE WATERS IN QUESTION
To accomplish the purposes projected above, we
must first define the various components of the
waters under consideration and examine them in
some detail. It is only in the light of adequate factual
knowledge about these waters that effective manage-
ment can be cast!
Estuarine and Coastal Waters
While most of the legislation previously mentioned
especially referred to and used the terms estuary,
estuarine and estuarine zone it soon became clear
that the coastal waters, those on the coast of the
open ocean, also were involved. They, TOO, are in-
termediary between land and land drainage and the
seas and oceans. Both estuaries and coastal waters
must, therefore, be considered, if our management
system is to be complete in its coverage.
ESTUARINE WATERS
The word estuary usually denotes a semi-enclosed
body of water opening into or debouching from the
ocean, receiving ocean waters and tides and, gen-
erally, contributing freshwater to the seas. This
definition is rather broad. Some, fcr example
Pritchard (1967), construe it more narrowly, re-
stricting the term to those areas or reaches of tidal
tributaries within which ocean waters are measurably
affected by or mixed with freshwater from upstream.
Much discussion has been devoted in the literature
to the various categories into which ths estuaries
and coastal waters of the world may be divided. A
number of classification schemes for estuarine waters
have been devised and published in various scholarly
and technical papers, such as Williams (1962),
Pritchard (1967), Clark (1974), and Odum, Cope-
land, and McMahan (1974). Many of the systems
presented in those works are quite significant scien-
tifically. While all of them are interesting and
some are useful to management, a complete review
of classifications is beyond the scope of this report.
For our pu rposes it is sufficient to note the existence
of the different ones, adopt one with utility, and
move on.
Along with others who have considered the prob-
lems of managing the quality of waters of the coasts,
I have found it expedient to simplify terminology.
Consequently, in this essay the word estuary is
construed broadly, covering all semi-enclosed basins
and tributaries which interact with the world's seas
and oceans (including the tidal bodies frequently
classified separately, such as fiords, tidal rivers to
the upper limits of tide, lagoons, brackish and saline
bays and sounds, and others).
COASTAL WATERS
For all open coastal situations the term coastal
waters suffices. Both estuarine and coastal waters
interact with the land, with surface runoff and sub-
terranean aquifers, and with man and his activities
and properties. Both receive his effluents directly
and indirectly. Both retain or transmit them to the
sea or to the bottom. To protect the oceans, husband
their qualities and uses, and properly serve present
and future societies both must be effectively under-
stood and managed. Adequate understanding is
absolutely necessary for management! See especially
the background materials commenting on these
points presented in the NAS-NRC paper "Waste
Management in the Coastal Zone," (NAS-NRC,
1970, p. 2).
Characteristics of Estuarine
and Coastal Waters
The oceans, themselves, and the highlands (or
fastlands) comprise about 95 percent of the surface
of the earth. The waters and adjacent lowlands
which interface between these two major geographi-
cal realms make up less than 5 percent of the total
area of the globe. This is the "coastal zone." Com-
paratively minor in area, this small portion of inter-
acting land, water, and air is highly critical. It is all-
important to the condition and welfare of land and
sea and of society. Like all such transition zones it
is a dynamic and changing fraction—a zone of high
energy flux.
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CONCLUDING REMARKS
705
FEATL'HFiS OF KSTT1 VRIKS
As indicated, many attempts at definition have
been made and several classifications published. The
simple definition utilized here, i.e. estuaries are bodies
of water regularly connected with the ocean, within
which measurable quantities of ocean water occur
and/or which experience ocean tides, encompasses
all known types occurring around the United States,
from the several hypersaline lagoons (which receive
only limited amounts of freshwater, have weak
flushing action and contribute salty water to adja-
cent coastal areas) to the mighty estuary of the
lower Mississippi River (which injects massive
amounts of freshwater, sediments, and other ma-
terials into the northern Gulf of Mexico).
The fringing coastal bays, sounds and lagoons
protected behind the barrier islands of the Atlantic
and gulf coasts and the fresher, more elongate and
frequently larger tidal bays and tributaries of all
coasts also fall within the definition. The Laguna
Madre of Texas, the Carolina sounds, the seaside
bays of Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey,
and Long Island are examples of the former (fringing
coastal bays and sounds). Cook Inlet, the various
fiords and river mouths of Alaska and the Great
Northwest, Mobile Bay, Tampa Bay, Wyiiyah Bay,
Charleston Harbor plus its entering tidal tributaries,
the Ashley and the Cooper Rivers, Chesapeake Bay,
Delaware Bay, the lower Hudson, the lower Charles
plus Boston Harbor, and the Passamaquoddy—all
fall within the latter grouping.
These estuarine bodies occur at many latitudes
(and longitudes on east-west oriented coast) in
every coastal reach from the northern border of
Maine to Brownsville, Tex., and from southern
California to the North Slope of Alaska. Hawaii
and the far-flung commonwealths and territories con-
tain them also, though island estuaries are usually
very small. This extremely wide geographical range
has a profound effect on their diversity.
Obviously, with such a range of type, location, and
size, estuaries are difficult to generalize about. There
are considerable differences in the sizes and slopes of
the land areas they drain and in the geometry,
hydrography, arid biology of their watercourses.
Too, estuaries are subject to varying prevailing
atmospheric climates and weather in accordance
with their locations, being subjected to widely differ-
ing patterns and amounts of rainfall, sunlight, and
temperature. See, for example, the maps, zonal
concepts and classifications presented in USDI
(1969 and 19701, Odum, Copeland, and McMahan
(1974). and Clark (1974).
Geophysical features.—Even within themselves
estuaries contain different zones or reaches, as for
example, a) the upriver, fresh, but tidal reaches
occurring immediately below the fall line; b) the
intermediate brackish transition reach which con-
nects both oceanic and land-originating waters; and
c) the near-oceanic zones at their mouths. Figures
1, 2 and 3 depict various features of a partially-mixed
estuary which features partial stratification and two-
way surface and bottom non-tidal currents. (To the
latter two reaches occurring at the lower ends of tidal
tributaries the term estuary is restricted by
Pritchard, 1969). Another classification applied to
these reaches or zones is oligohaline, or low sea salts
(0.5%o-8.0%o), mesohaline, or intermediate sea
salts (8.0%o-18.0%o), and polyhaline or high sea
salts (18.0%o-30.0%o). Thirty-five parts per thousand
is standard full seawater salinity.
Not only are these reaches, extending up and
downriver, different but there are marked variations
from side to side and from top to bottom involving
such characteristics as currents, temperature, oxygen
content, transparency, and other aspects. Too, these
zones may move horizontally landward or seaward,
or vertically toward the surface or the bottom,
depending upon regular (seasonal, monthly, or
daily) changes in tides or freshwater influx or ab-
normal winds, coastal surges or land runoff.
Just as morphological and physical aspects of
estuaries and coastal waters are immensely com-
plicated and ever-changing so also are their other
features. In terms of structural and functional
complexity—biologically, chemically and geologi-
cally—these waters have no natural peers. They are
extremely dynamic and productive.
Biological aspects.—In these chemically rich and
fertile estuarine waters and the shallow oceanic
areas into which they drain grow most of the marine
biological organisms—the plants, marine fish, and
shellfish that help nourish many peoples of the world.
A large number of authors including Stroud (1971)
have concluded likewise.
According to Teal, Jameson and Baden (1972)
there were harvested from estuarine and shelf areas
10 billion pounds of commercial finfish and shellfish
in 1970. Most of these fish are species which live in
(at one time or another in their life stages) or are
dependent upon these productive waters. Were the
figures utilized by Teal, Jameson and Baden (1972)
expanded to include the amounts and kinds of ani-
mals and plants taken by recreational fishermen as
well as those which are harvested for sale but un-
reported (undoubtedly a significant number!), the
poundage taken would be even more impressive.
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706
ESTTJABINE POLLUTION CONTROL
ESTUARINE COUNTER
CURRENT
ESTUARINE COUNTER
CURRENT
FIGURE 1 (top).—Tidal tributary—profile of mixed type. FIGURE 2 (center).—Tidal tributary—partially mixed bottom circu-
lation. FIGURE 3 (bottom).—Tidal tributary—partially mixed surface circulation.
Of course, these figures do not incorporate the mil-
lions of tons of nonharvested animals and plants
which grow in the waters of the coastal i;one or feed
upon their products and which nourish those that
are harvested.
Bacteria, countless millions of phytoplankton and
zooplankton plants, wetlands grasses,, attached and
sessile organisms all contribute to this tremendous
productivity. In any one estuary thousands of species
may occur. Rome have extremely complex patterns of
-------
707
migration and several life stages. For example, the
blue cral> (CaLlinectes sapidus) has separately identi-
fiable stages and molts several times before reaching
its final size. The young stages are planktonic while
the adult, an active swimmer as well as walker, lives
on or in the bottom most of the time. Their numbers
and species composition change from year to year,
season to season, day to day, between day and night,
and even from him: !.o hour.
Tin Ir physiological activities and dependent
environmental requirements sue diveise. Some, like
the hardv adult Fund-ulu > can survix e \\~ide ranges of
temperature, oxygen, and pollutants. Others are
extremely fragile, like the larvae of the Atlantic
oyster, Crassostrea nrr>cn, which have been found
ncently by scientists at the Virginia Institute of
Marine Science to lie verv sensitive to rhlorine, with
an LCao of O.OO'i ppni. in IS-hour bioassays. (LC
means lethal concentration, referring to that con-
centration at \vlnch /iO percent of the individuals
subjected to the substance being tested die vithin
the time specified). Levels well above- these (0.02-
0.015 ppm) have been observed in the lower James
estuary over a mile from the nearest sewage treat-
ment plant outfall. In «ome specie the- adults are
considerably different in habit, appearance, and
resistance. For exampl", adult Atlmiic oysters can
tolerate much higher hn els and appear to do quite
well on beds in the same waters of the James, which
contain chlorine concentrations two orders of magni-
tude r.bove the IA'so established for larvae, (Huggett.
11. J., personal communication).
Chiwical aspects.—Natural chemical constituents
of coastal /one waters a'v derived from land runoff,
snbsiirl'fce terrestrial drainage, interchange with the
bottom and \\ith oceanic waters, atmospheric fallout
and precipitation, and from biological processes. The
actual numbers of inorganic and organic molecules
in estuarinc (and coastal • \vnters are great Fven af-
ter decades of annhsis many molecules remain to b<
identified; more must, \et be properly and fully
characterized. As with the biota, the kinds and
amounts of chemical constituents vnr\ considerably
over time and with \arious weathei1 conditions. Ad rurther con.-
p'ucaleu.
indeed, their natural complex and dynamic,
che>\uf al systems 'ire t!ir t'esture^ iMiich render
st n;t ••iii(iT!, - •: ilei •••_( .en, aed '.pnli';^ rf fSe v;>r:o'),s
chemical component e.f ih.se wiitws no difficult.
This bears directly, of course, on difficulties of
establishing meaningful baselines, criteria, and
standards for nianv chemical constituents.
(Geological aspects.—-The geological processes of
inshore waters are variable and varied. The amount
of suspended matter (hence transparency and color),
which includes particles of geological origin as well
as microscopic plants and animals (the plankton),
varies with, a) fluvial or riverine and lateral runoff,
In \\inds and currents, and c) biological processes
and other hydrographic factors. It also depends
upon the condition of the soils of nearby land masses.
High water flows cavised by spring rains and thaws
and by storms scour the upland river bottoms and
adjacent lands. Downstream, estuaries run turbid
with the reds or browns of dislodged soil particles.
These particles are quite active in picking up and
transferring chemicals, bacteria, and viruses from
land to water, from water mass to water mass, and
from water to bottom sediments and back again. In
this way beneficial chemicals, i.e. necessary nutrients
and trace elements, are brought into the system.
Unfortunately, toxic molecules and microbes are
also,
\\ hile dancing about in estuarine waters, sus-
pended silt acts to "scrub" the water and to enrich
it by releasing nutrient^. Pollutants carried to the
bottom by falling silt and stored in the sediments
later may be recycled during periods of high tur-
bulence induced by winds or currents. They can also
be recycled and relocated bv dredging and spoil dis-
posal operations. Too, processes of erosion transport,
and deposition move geological materials up and
down the estuary and from shallower to deeper
waters (and vice versa \\here conditions are right).
Kstuarinc sediments are cairied on outgoing tides
and currents into the waters of the open coast and
the reverse may be true.
Eolian earth particles, generally with attached (or
accompanied by) chemicals and plant and animal
matter arc; deposited in estuaries. Fallout, and pre-
cipitation also inject natural and unnatural atmos-
pheric travelers. Some, like lead and its derivatives
and radioactive particles, can be troublesome.
The biology and chemistry of shallow waters of the
r?ea are closely dependent upon the geological activi-
ties mentioned above. Since these waters and their
processes ,uv a1! complex and varying, the resultant
"brotlv"' is likewise, contributing further to difficul-
ties of understanding, definition, and control. Thus.
they present gr^at and growing problems to scientists,
papiiLcrs. pud management people alike, ("beat,
because of the natural complexity and their dynamic
-------
708
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
nature. Growing because of the added contributions
and pressures of burgeoning coastal populations.
FEATURES OF COASTAL WATERS
Outside of the mouths of the great bays and tidal
tributaries and of the passes and inlets of tie fringing
bays, lagoons, and sounds lie the coastal waters.
Shallow and turbulent, yet bordering on iJie depths
of the oceans, these coastal waters are ?ubject to
effects of wind and of water injected into •.hern from
upland drainage and from the wetlands, estuaries,
bays, and sounds they drain.
In the deeper passes and rivers and through the
bay mouths a two-way flow exists with saltier shelf
water flowing inward at the bottom while fresher and
lighter estuarine water flows outward at the top.
In some this flow pattern is reversed. In yet others
the lighter, fresher water flows out at one side and the
saltier, heavier water in at the other. Thus, coastal
waters receive fresher estuarine and surface runoff
waters (or saltier water from hypersaline embay-
ments) as well as contribute directly to estuarine
flows. Additionally, inshore coastal waters may be
augmented by upwelling from deeper oceanic basins,
by water masses moving alongshore, arid by injec-
tions and meanders from powerful ocean currents
like the Gulf Stream. As shown schematically in
Figures 1, 2, and 3, all receive surface dra riage and
lateral flowage into their surface waters, to say noth-
ing of injections from the atmosphere via precipita-
tion.
In these coastal waters mixing is usually vigorous
and large volumes of water are available; hence,
quality as determined by dissolved oxygen is gen-
erally good. However, domestic and industrial out-
falls dominate in some places. Where they do, quality
is often poor. There are some locations, too, where
circulation patterns may concentrate pollutants or
flotsam and jetsam, which remain either offshore or
move toward and onto shore. These pjaces are
usually unsightly or foul, or both. There ars reaches
of beaches where wave energy is focused into such
strongly erosive forces that surface and subsurface
structures are endangered by buffeting and erosion.
(Goldsmith, V. G., personal communication). Ob-
viously, such features would have to be considered
when placing, building, and operating ocea~i sewage
outfalls or in disposal of dredge spoils, sludge, trash,
or other materials.
Semi-estuarine situations.—At places along the
coast peninsulas and promontories may so restrict
circulation as to produce semi-la goonal or semi-
estuarine situations. In such cases, assimilative and
dispersive capacity may be restricted or reduced
and the system may behave like an estuary or lagoon.
Sewage outfalls and sludge deposits should not be
placed in such coastal reaches unless slow dispersion
or containment is desired.
People—Another
Estuarine Concept
Coastal waters and/'oi estuaries have been estab-
lished above as complex and dynamic natural sys-
tems in their own right. Neglected has been mention
of people, people in concert—of society and its im-
pacts on these difficult and fragile ecosystems.
THE EFFECTS OF MAN
As we have seen, even without society and its
varying needs and wants arid its changing demands
and pressures, estuaries and coastal systems are
sufficiently complex and dynamic to confuse com-
prehension arid confound management. Add man
and his works and the difficulties of understanding,
working with, or managing them are magnified and
compounded.
Society's demands.- —Society has been living on the
shores of the seas since before written history and
long before the problem of waste management
became a major concern. Society's demands on the
environments and resources of the estuaries have
grown and changed over the millennia as they are
doing even today. Beginning with simple wants and
needb, the demands of the small populations com-
prising early families and tribes and tribal confedera-
tions probably worked no significant hardship on
estuaries. However, as engineering capabilities have
developed and human populations and maritime
industries have grown and changed, man's impact on
the estuaries has magnified also. It is sufficient to
point out here that the impacts of society on estuaries
and coastal waters have increased markedly in «ize,
number, and complexity and that, the}' are dynamic,
changing as society's needs, demands, and technolog-
ical abilities do.
Man's activities, t^o, can only be roughly categor-
ized and understood, ai Jeast partially, but Ihrar
dynamic effects introduce a whole new dimension
of difficulty into our attempts to understand the
ecosystems involved. With man in the picture, ostu-.
arirn: and coastal ecrsydtem.« become increasingly
difficult to understand.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
709
Growth—one factor.—That most of the people
in the United States live on the shores of the oceans
and their tidal tributaries or of the Great Lakes has
been stated and demonstrated many times. Further
repetition is unnecessary. Sometimes neglected,
however, is the fact that each year the populations of
the coastal counties of the nation change in numbers,
generally increasing ("The National Estuarine
Pollution Study," USDI, 1969). Too, the specific
demands placed on estuarino ecological systems vary
from region to region, from estuary to estuary, or
even within estuaries.
Time—the other factor.—One other natural factor
plays a role in both coastal waters and society, that
of long-term, one-way and normally irreversible
change—evolutionary change. As do natural, un-
disturbed estuaries, societies undergo evolutionary
changes as well as short-term modifications. Those
alterations wrought by nature usually require longer
periods of time, while those of man often require
only a short time. Man-caused modifications are
taking place at an increasing rate and are of growing
magnitude as technological skills permit.
management, use, and preservation developed.
But prescription of uses or the most economical
and reasonable basis to meet the needs of nature and
society can only be accomplished by a detailed local
knowledge of each estuary or inshore zone and of
each of its affected operational segments.
The Receiving Streams
Having established that coastal waters and estu-
aries are complex, dynamic, variable in location,
extent, depth, and in other critical dimensions and
that they are subjected to varying conditions of tides
and climate and other features, it remains to estab-
lish clearly why these features are important to our
purposes. It is because these are the receiving
streams, the waters for the effluvia and rejecta of
coastal societies (and even those far inland). And it
is their absorbing, diluting, and modifying powers
which, coupled with the contaminants and altera-
tions of man, will determine the ultimate questions
of quality within coastal zone waters or even far at
sea—of whether or not pollution exists and its extent.
Long and short-term changes.—Superposition of the
short-term, dynamic characteristics of estuaries and
coastal waters with their daily, seasonal, and other
cyclical changes upon the slower, largely unidirec-
tional alterations of nature makes understanding and
control difficult. Adding the alterations of man and
his changing numbers, needs, and uses compounds
this dynamism. In truth, estuarine and coastal
ecosystems with their added burden of society are
not only complex and sometimes fragile but they are
variable and varying. Thus, even without man they
are difficult to study, to learn, and to know. Add
society and these difficulties are worsened. Man can
make substantial changes even while conducting
studies designed to learn how things were! These
changes can so alter the nature of the system as to
make new studies necessary, even before the old
one is completed!
can estuaries and coastal waters be under-
stood?—There are certain basic similarities among
the myriad and unique estuaries and coastal waters,
to be sure. Similarities of structure and function,
which can be used to develop understanding, princi-
ples, and models can be detected and described. By
doing so, common factors of the classes, systems,
and phenomena of estuaries and coastal waters
can be ascertained and generalized frameworks for
UNDERSTANDING FOR MANAGEMENT
These waters, therefore, must be understood and
that understanding must be utilized in any sound
program of water quality (or wastewater) manage-
ment. Obviously, all of the factors mentioned above,
natural and social, must be known and considered
when water quality criteria are being developed,
when standards are established, when control and
monitoring schemes are projected, and when projects
for industrial development, recreational develop-
ment, utilities, housing, and other activities are
being planned, sited, constructed, and operated.
The biological, chemical, geological, and physical
characteristics of estuaries and coastal waters and
the realities of social activity on the coasts will
ultimately determine not only the nature of the uses
to which these environments can be put without
severe damage to them and to society but also de-
termine the costs.
Economics also must be considered. Under current
conditions of world wide economic stress it is appar-
ent that every effort must be made to maximize the
productive uses to which marine resources and en-
vironments can be put while retaining their utility,
viability, and potential. The food, minerals, recrea-
tional, and aesthetic aspects and the cooling and
absorptive properties of estuarine and coastal waters
are of great economic value!
-------
710
ESTUAIUNE POLLUTION CONTIIOL
Variation and environmental management.—Thus,
estuaries, which in reality are complexes of natural
ecosystems and ecotones (smaller zones of transi-
tion between ecosystems), are extrerrely varied
and variable. Because of their variety and changea-
bility and their wide variation in size ard location,
estuaries are hard to generalize about, to know, or
to deal with as a group or in classes. They are almost
as variable and difficult as human individuals and
present similar difficulties to students and managers
alike. Groupings can be made, but in the last analy-
sis they must be understood and managed as in-
dividuals. Doing so poses massive problems and
great strain, and requires considerable knowledge,
care, and skill. Careful environmental arid resource
engineering is required. Management must be
sophisticated and well-equipped with technological
capability. It must also be well-staffed arid provided
"with scientific knowledge of the environ ments and
resources involved and of society's needs and de-
mands. A close interaction between management
and science and engineering is required. Unfortun-
ately, at present there are many shortcomings in the
ability of each to respond to the problems. Not the
least of these is a lack of understanding of the com-
plex and dynamic environments and resources which
we seek to utilize wisely or of the "real" present and
future needs of society.
WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
It is not within the province of this essay to com-
ment in detail upon possible organizational arrange-
ments for management or for all of the myriad
scientific and engineering activities required to de-
termine how much of man and his various demands
the environments can tolerate and support. Instead,
it is our task to evaluate trends in the quality of
estuarine and coastal waters, to examine existing
water quality criteria, and to evaluate the slate of the
art in establishing and evaluating water quality and
water quality criteria.
Quality of Estuaries
and Coastal Waters
Many authors and groups have examined and
commented on quality of marine waters in the last
two decades. Their pronouncements range from
doomsday statements (such as the public pronounce-
ments made by irresponsible, unfettered environ-
mentalists) to euphoric, optimistic ones (such as
those propounded by some industry spokesmen or
development-oriented propagandists). As fiequently
happens, the truth seems to lie somewhere between
the two extremes. However, there can be little ques-
tion that man and his demands are pressing the
resources and environments of the coastal margins
of the World Ocean—and heavily.
CLASSIFICATION AND QUALITY
Findings of "The National Estuarine Pollution
Study."-'-This work (USDI, 1969) divided coast-
lines, the United States, and its commonwealths and
territories into the 10 biophysical regions depicted
in Figure 4. It then proceeded to typify the classes of
estuarine and coastal waters within each region and
to discuss their condition.
It would be profitable to examine anew and in
detail the conditions of uses, modification, and the
quality in each of these 10 zones and to conduct a
thorough review of all estuaries and coastal waters
included; however, restrictions of time and space do
not allow it. Fortunately, we can utilize previous
work.
"The National Estuarine Pollution Study" did
find that 25 estuarine systems (page II60), including
Penobscot Bay, Boston Harbor, New York Harbor,
Raritan Bay, the Delaware Estuary, Baltimore
Harbor, the upper Potomac, the James, Charleston
Harbor, Sari Juan Harbor (P.R.), Tampa Bay, the
lower Mississippi Laguna Madre, San Diego Bay,
Puget Sound, Silver Bay (Alaska), and Hilo Harbor
(Hawaii) "show definite documented water quality
degradation as a result of human activities." It
further stated that for "38 percent of the systems of
the United States there is a lack of information to
allow judgment of whether there is ecological
damage, or whether there are just no easily identi-
fiable problems present"—yet.
The report proceeds to point out that, "Wherever
people live, work and play in the estuarine zone the
demands of their social and economic activities
place stresses on the biophysical environments.
These stresses frequently result in degradation of
that environment, perhaps not immediately or even
in a few years, but nonetheless certain in its devast-
ing final impact.''
The study continued (Page II 61) "The complex
nature of pollution in the estuarine zone (Author's
note—used broadly in that study to include all tidal
coastal waters as is done herein) prevents the separa-
tion of sources of pollution, kinds of pollution and
types of environmental damage into neat compart-
ments of cause and effect. All of human activities in
the estuarine zone can damage the environment and
most of them do." The report imparts a decidedly
negative impression of the condition of the Nation's
estuaries.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
711
PACIFIC
NORTHWEST
PACIFIC
SOUTHWEST
NORTH
ATLANTIC
MIDDLE
ATLANTIC
SOUTH
ATLANTIC
ALASKA PACIFIC ISLANDS CARIBBEAN
FIGURE 4.—Biophysical regions of the United States (from The National Estuarhie Pollution Study, U.S.D.I., 1969).
Whether one subscribes to this somewhat dismal
and dismaying conclusion, there is no question that
for each use to which man puts these waters there is
a cost in quality or quantity or both. The objective
of good management is to arrange it so that our uses
and demands absorb only what nature can spare—
that we use only the overage or excess, the interest
and not the principle. We must be "good" parasites
and not kill the host.
Findings oj "The National Estuary Study".—
After developing a series of interesting color-coded
maps depicting the condition of estuaries and coastal
waters according to whether they were: 1) relatively
unmodified, 2) moderately modified, or 3) severely
modified, this effort (USDI, 1970) presented a table
illustrating the degree of modification of estuaries.
Like the chart previously mentioned (Figure 4)
this table (adapted for use herein as Table 1), uti-
lized biogeographic zones. Of all of the American
estuaries and subestuaries reviewed, 23 percent were
severely modified and 50 percent were moderately
modified while only 27 percent were slightly changed.
Thus, in the opinion of the preparers of that study,
a large majority (73 percent) of the estuaries and
subestuaries in the United States had been moder-
ately or severely modified by man. Even though
some of the modification described is in the form of
summer-home encroachment on scenic areas (an
activity whose damaging impacts are often difficult
to establish or qualify), this is a staggering per-
centage considering the fragility of estuaries and
their importance to the adjacent seas and to the
economic and social welfare of man. Much of the
modification recorded by this study, directly relates
to the problem at hand—degradation of water qual-
ity by pollution and modification.
Good is not good enough]—It is possible to find
weaknesses in both studies and in all other such
nationwide, general evaluations. It is easy to point
out that some of these systems are naturally "dirty;"
that they were on the evolutionary road to oblivion
long before the industrial and technological revolu-
tions began and the population pressures of today
developed. We can even point with pride at the
efforts being made to eliminate or reduce toxicants,
nutrients, and harmful changes—and we should!
-------
712
EsruARiNE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 1.—Modifications of the Nation's estuaries.1 Most estuarine areas of the
United States have been modified more or less severely by man's activities.
The degree of modification is indicated by regional zones In th<; following table:
Biogeographic Zone
North Atlantic
Middle Atlantic
Chesapeake Bay. „ _
South Atlantic . ..
Biscayneand Florida Bay
Gulf of Mexico
S.W. Pacific .
N.W. Pacific..
Alaska
Hawaii
Great Lakes . ...
United States
Degiee of Modification of Estuaiies^
Slight
Moderate
Severe
Percent
44
5
44
36
50
15
19
13
80
54
35
27
48
68
50
60
50
51
19
50
20
15
46
50
8
27
6
4
0
34
62
37
0
31
19
23
Source- Field evaluation carried out by Fish and Wildlife Service's personnel during
course of Estuary Protection Act study.
i From the "National Estuary Study" (U.S.D.I., 1970)
s All estuaries and subestuaries were individually rated for each zone. The per-
centage refers to the proportion of these individual areas that were r.ited as indicated.
The condition of some estuarine areas has been im-
proved or the rate of degradation altered, as for
example the upper tidal Potomac, New York Harbor,
and San Francisco Bay. There must remain, nonethe-
less, the conclusion that the best that we have done
or can do under present conditions of knowledge,
technology, and commitment is not enough. All of
the signs available today indicate that the quality of
estuaries and coastal waters continues to decline.
We are making 3 knots against a 4 knot current.
Our water quality management effort is making
"sternway"—more slowly than without the effort,
but sternway nevertheless. We are still losing!
It is to be expected that the current economic
downturn and the lowering trend in population
growth will slow the rate of degradation or modifica-
tion of estuarine and coastal environments and
resources but it is doubtful that progressive deg-
radation will be stopped until knowledge and con-
trol techniques and arrangements improve mark-
edly. Pressures of the coastal zone continue to grow
as the population of the United States rises (by
births, decreasing mortalities, and immigration)
and especially as the populations of the counties,
cities, and towns in the coastal zone grow c.ue to the
continuing coastward movement of people. We have
not yet learned how to establish carrying capacity
of specific land areas or river basins or how to control
population levels in specific regions. We must! In-
deed, there is as yet no general agreement that in
some places or at certain rates and levels, growth
becomes a problem, one which must be directly at-
tacked and solved. We talk of food and resource
shortages and environmental problems, but never
seem willing to face its root causes—too many people,
too many demands. We seem to have a blind side
when it comes to population and to growth. We still
generally seem to believe the more the better, even
if not the merrier. This abysmal attitude is discourag-
ing.
It is not possible to agree, however, with the doom-
sayers that the oceans must die in a decade or three
or even five decades. Nor is it possible to agree with
those who apparently believe that man has no right
to occupy the coastal zone or to use or modify its
resources and environments. Both conclusions seem
overdrawn. The last is foolish! Man, too, is a product
of nature, of the evolutionary process, and belongs
naturally on planet earth. It is necessary to conclude,
however, that the quality of the coastal zone is
being degraded and that we have neither learned to
appreciate and apply the well established concepts of
carrying-capacity, nor how to match ourselves with
nature—nor to understand and manage either well.
Much must yet be learned!
Existing Water
Quality Criteria
The conclusion that the United States continues
to lose ground in its fight to reverse the trend of
degradation of estuaries and of coastal water does
not detract from the positive efforts that have been
made at the federal level, by Congress and the
Executive, by state legislative and executive authori-
ties, and even by many regional and local bodies.
Fruitful efforts to improve management capabilities
have gone forward under the several acts mentioned
above. Most states, counties, and cities have in-
creased their efforts at controlling pollution and
engineering and there has been general improve-
ment. As pointed out above, some estuarine areas
have been partially cleaned up. In others, the prog-
ress of degradation continues with little abatement.
Among the efforts that have contributed positively
to our increasing control over the factors affecting
water quality have been the Water Quality Criteria
developed by the National Technical Advisory
Committee (NTAC, 1968) and the several panels of
the Water Quality Committee of the Environmental
Studies Board of the National Academy of Sciences-
National Academy of Engineering (NAS-NAE,
1973).
The Environmental Protection Agency has also
recently developed suggested criteria (EPA, 1974).
These will be considered in order.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
713
THE NATIONAL TECHNICAL
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Based upon a review of published data and con-
clusions, and including even unpublished data, a
group of scientists and engineers familiar with the
various problem areas was gathered, to accumulate,
evaluate, and summarize a wide range of the existing
knowledge related to water quality with the purpose
of establishing water quality criteria and recom-
mendations for management. The results of their
considerable effort were published in 1968 and the
report quickly became known as "The Green Book"
(NTAC, 1968a). Of course, the NTAC owed much
to earlier encyclopedic efforts such as those by
Vinogradov (1953), McKee and Wolf (1963), and to
many technical papers produced by previous
workers.
The Results.—In addition to addressing the water
quality requirements for the various broad categories
of uses to which natural waters are put, or for the
aquatic resources on which the various uses may be
based, the Advisory Committee considered certain
details of the many pertinent sampling and analytical
procedures.
Within these categories of uses and the resources
on which those uses depend, many species of chemi-
cals and groups of manmade contaminants were con-
sidered. These included toxic or damaging chemicals,
oils, and heavy metals, as well as other factors, for
example, nutrients, turbidity producers, and color
modifiers.
Summaries of the demands and requirements for
water by various major industrial activities con-
sidered were also provided in "The Green Book."
Specific criteria and standards.—Specific criteria
or recommendations for management of quality were
developed where possible. Unfortunately, the water
quality criteria established by NTAC were too
quickly converted by the authorities responsible into
"Standards." The word "unfortunate" is used be-
cause in the rush to develop those standards the
caveats so clearly specified by the committee in pre-
paring the report, were ignored. They were restated
by ,]. G. Moore, commissioner of FWI'CA, in his let-
ter of transmittal to then Secretary Stewart L. Udall;
Moore, pointed out that "Regional variations in
climate, typography, hydrology, geology, and other
factors must be considered in applying the criteria
offered by the Committee to the establishment of
water quality standards in specific localities"
(NTAC, 1968a). However, the criteria were trans-
mitted quickly into standards of control for wide geo-
graphic application. Several other cautionary notes
or warnings included in the report were apparently
unheeded. As a result, many of the standards pre-
scribed are impossible of attainment.
Mixing zones and zones of passage.—Too, the
Committee addressed itself to other problems re-
lated to management of water quality in estuaries
and coastal waters such as "mixing zones" and
"zones of passage." These two subjects are quite
important since as long as there are effluents to be
released there will be mixing zones and the problem
will be to keep them limited in extent and number to
the bare minimum required.
Limitation of mixing zones is necessary to allow
multiple use of the waterways in question and sur-
vival of the fish, wildlife, and other species of the
normal biota so vital to the economic and aesthetic
activities of man. Additionally, effluent mixing zones
must be so arranged within an estuary (or along the
coast) as to allow adequate zones of passage for
species which must travel (or be transported) up
and down stream or along shore, such as herring and
shad, striped bass, and most other coastal and/or
estuarine-dependent fishes. Pelagic larvae of oysters
and clams and a host of other ecologically or econom-
ically important shellfish are also involved.
Research Needs for Water Quality.—In addition to
the water quality effort, the National Technical
Advisory Committee also reviewed the research
needs related to establishing and improving water
quality criteria and standards and for monitoring
natural and modified aquatic systems. Its report,
"Research Needs" (NTAC, 1968b) was published
after "The Green Book" appeared. Unfortunately,
its recommendations have not been well-heeded and
much of the important research and development
activities urged in that report has not yet been
accomplished.
THE NAS-NAE ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES BOARD
The efforts of the various panels of the Environ-
mental Studies Board of the National Academy of
Sciences-National Academy of Engineering seem to
have been patterned after the work of the NTAC.
This activity, conducted under a contract from the
Environmental Protection Agency, resulted in
a voluminous report which is, not surprisingly,
coming to be called "The Blue Book" because of its
-------
714
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
striking blue cover. The report utilizer the same
broad categories of water uses and water-dependent
resources (aquatic life and mldlife) as did the NTAC
effort. Too, the NAS-NAE report makes recom-
mendations for management guidelines a.nd criteria
for the various classes of contaminants and the im-
portant chemical molecules known or bel eved to be
of importance in water quality.
Improvements over earlier efforts.—"The Blue
Book" effort of NAS-NAK included far more data
in its presentation, than did that of the NTAC. Of
course, the NAS-NAE panels had the benefit of
several more years of research but they also seem
to have been able to encompass more of the avail-
able data than the 1968 study did. Review of the
report in preparation of this article, confirms the
statements of Drs. Handler and Linde, presidents of
the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering respectively, which said,
"The 1972 report drew significantly or its 1968
predecessor; nevertheless the current study repre-
sents a complete reexamination of the problems, and
a critical review of all the data included here."
current change induced by the deepening of an
estuarine channel or by diversion of freshwater
inflow can have as far-reaching effects on water
quality, on fishery and wildlife resources, and on
users as any chronic contaminant.
A basis for revised criteria and standards.—Despite
these criticisms (and there likely could be others)
"The Blue Book" should provide a broader and
firmer basis for specific improvements upon the cri-
teria and standards developed in earlier efforts. It
will be necessary for the standards-setting agencies
such as EPA and state governments to consider well
the qualification stated in the general introduction,
to wit: "The Committee wishes to emphasize the
caveat so clearly stated in the introduction to "The
Green Book." The Committee does not want to be
dogmatic in making its recommendations. They are
meant as guidelines only, to be used in conjunction
with a thorough knowledge of local conditions." In
other words, the Committee can be interpreted
as saying that these recommendations and criteria
should not, indeed cannot be, automatically adopted
as nationwide, regional, or even statewide standards.
Shortcomings.—While generally a significant im-
provement upon the earlier NTAC work, the 1972
report has some shortcomings. For example, "The
Blue Book" fails to address the possible water de-
grading effects of modifications of the various geo-
physical parameters, such a&: a) bottom topography,
depth, and shoreline contours by dredging and spoil
disposal; b) shoreline contours and basin cross-
section by shoreline filling or cutting; c) current
modifications as by training wiers; and dj inflow
changes as by impoundments and diversions of up-
stream waters. As the NTAC study pointed out
in "The Green Book," these modifications may have
profound effects on such important factors as circu-
lation patterns, tidal patterns, and salinity levels,
among others. The significance of modifications in
the natural order of things caused by these activities,
both by themselves and in concert with irtroduced
contaminants, has been treated by a number of
authors. ('See for example the works of Hargis, 1966
and 1972; Chapman, 1971, and others, as well as
the appropriate sections of the NTAC repcrt).
These aspects have also been ignored in the de-
velopment of many of the various water quality
standards by the states and EPA. Perhaps this is
because many state water quality management or-
ganizations do not have primary jurisdiction over
channel dredging or water diversions or similar
engineering-type projects. Nonetheless, a snlinity or
EPA's PROPOSED CRITERIA
FOR WATER QUALITY
Following the work of the NAS-NAE Committee
on Water Quality, EPA prepared its own report
("Proposed Criteria for Water Qualit,y," Volume I
and "Water Quality Information," Volume 11,
1973) in partial fulfillment of the provisions of
Section 304(a) of the Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Act Amendments of 1972. According to Vol-
ume 1, page 12:
Water quality criteria as compiled in this document are
defined as the acceptable limits of constituents in receiv-
ing waters based upon an evaluation of the latest scien-
tific information by the Environmental Protection
Agency. They are to form the datum for the Agency's
1983 interim goal of improving the Nation's waters to a
quality that provides for the protection and propagation
of fish and wildlife, and for the health of humans in their
pursuit of recreation in and on these waters.
AN EPA COMPARISON
OF CRITERIA
The EPA Document, "Comparison NTAC, NAS
and Proposed EPA Numerical Criteria for Water
Quality" (EPA No. 449, no date, probably 19741
comprises a comprehensive tabular comparison of
those criteria which can be presented in numerical
form or as brief narratives. It is based upon all
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
715
three document* mentioned above, i.e. the NTAC
"Green Book," the NAS-NAE "Blue Book" and
EPA's "Proposed Criteria for Water Quality" and
is useful in drawing a great deal of data together,
allowing a quick comparison.
In general, a review of these new EPA documents
indicates that the current proposed EPA criteria
are based closely upon those presented in "The
Blue Book." This seems an acceptable procedure
since the NAS-NAE effort is the most recent and
complete compendium currently available, as far as
this author is aware.
Missing parameters.—Unfortunately, several of
the significant chemical parameters such as nitrates,
nitrites, phosphorous, salinity, and others, are not
indicated in the EPA Criteria even though one or
the other (or both) of the two basic compendia of
criteria (NTAC, 1968a and NAS-NAE, 1972) did
think them sufficiently important to examine and
mention. This lack should not deter states, or EPA
for that matter, from addressing these ecologically
and economically important features.
Development of Standards
The purpose of criteria is to provide a basis for
development of standards and management proce-
dures. However, the cautions expressed above re-
garding the universal applicability of any of the
previously developed criteria for adoption or modi-
fication as standards must be considered. Standards
developed directly from criteria without due care
of their limitations for use in specific locations or
situations cannot, indeed will not, be adequate. The
ills of estuaries and coastal waters, like human
health, must be managed on an individual basis.
Too, as will be seen, many of the data currently
available and used in developing criteria and stand-
ards are not especially well-verified nor is their
significance known. In many instances sufficient
data are lacking. All of these factors present very
real limitations upon criteria and upon standards
developed from tlvm and future revisions in both
will lie necessar\. Like many current medical data
and practices, however, the} are the best we have
tc work with, and tlv patients (the marine waters
in "iris case*) have problems and must be ideated now!
The State of the Art:
An Examination
Having corn-hided that the water quality criteria
de1, eioped by the three groups mentioned above are
probably the best that could have been achieved by
any reasonable national effort, examination of the
foundations on which they are based is necessary.
To develop the most effective and least costly man-
agement effort possible requires, among other things,
standards that reflect reality as accurately as pos-
sible. Poorly founded standards place unnecessary
burdens on the user and his customers, if any, (if
too high) and on the public's environments and
resources (if too low). Like other types of engineer-
ing, environmental engineering must be based on
reliable or "real" data and it must be done to as
close tolerances as possible!
All three of the groups involved with developing
national criteria had to deal with certain difficulties,
though NAS-NAE and El'A had fewer to handle
than did the NTAC—the pioneer group. Each was
faced with formidable tasks of attempting to accu-
mulate and evaluate; data from many sources within
restrictive periods of time. The NTAC effort prob-
ably suffered most in this last respect; its working
life was limited to a few months.
ADEQUACY OF BASIC DATA
The data that are available are variable in statis-
tical and analytical reliability. Frequently, it is
difficult to validate them, even with adequate time.
Under pressing time constraints a great deal must
be taken on the reputation of the author or institu-
tion performing the work--or on pure faith!
Status of scientific knowledge.—Actually, the cover-
age by science of the various chemical, physical, and
biological parameters involved in water quality is
variable. Some have been well investigated—some
only superficially. Fortunately, the coverage and the
competence of that coverage has increased rapidly
in the last decade, but serious gaps remain.
Analytical weaknesses.—It is extremely difficult to
detect many of the possible harmful chemical consti-
tuents in estuarine and coastal waters because these
waters contain so many natural chemical substances.
As the analytical chemists aver so colorfully, these
waters are extremely "dirty." Often, the contami-
nants involved are effective or toxic in extremeh
minute quantities, (i.e. tenths or hundredths of
parts per million or even tenths or hundredths
of parts per billion). Too, they are frequentlj so
similar to natnn-1 constituents of tidal liters thai
they are difficult l'> -epajtHe analytically. Al^o. the\
may appear, do their damage, and be removed by
-------
716
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
natural processes of sedimentation, flocculation, cir-
culation, or dilution. Because of these problems
effective analyses are difficult.
For some chemicals, techniques of detection are
still poor. In other words, analytical methods are
weak or they are cumbersome—requiring specialized
equipment or skills. For many chemical constituents,
only especially well-staffed and equipped laborato-
ries are competent. All too frequently, enforcement
laboratories are neither. The same may be said of
some institutions engaged in basic research involved
in generating the data which are later incorporated
into reports such as those under discussion.
Standardization weaknesses. — Standardization of
sampling, analysis, and reporting is weak. It is,
therefore, difficult to compare results or evaluate
them. In addition to all of these negative factors,
instrumentation and other facilities for sampling in
the field and laboratory, are in many instances, poor
or nonexistent. An excellent example is the lack of
readily available reliable and rapid analytical tech-
niques for detection of chlorine and chlorine by-
products in estuarine waters. Standard chemical
techniques are poor and instrumentation weak. Only
in the last year has there been a promising break-
through in this area due to joint efforts of the
National Bureau of Standards and the Virginia
Institute of Marine Science (R. J. Huggett, personal
communication) .
To the all-too-frequent incompetence of specific
sampling and analytical groups must be added the
extreme variability and dynamic nature of the estu-
arine and coastal waters, themselves. These aspects
were discussed in detail above.
Sampling and experimental difficulties.— -
and marine animals and plants are difficult to sample
effectively in nature. Statistically significant sam-
ples are hard to secure. Laboratory experimentation
is even more difficult since the organisms involved
often have complex life cycles with several stages,
some of completely different habits. It was pointed
out earlier that adult oysters are sedentary but the
spawn of many species are discharged into the water.
Many of the larvae are free .swimming. The larval,
free-swimming stages are more susceptible o adverse
water conditions than are their sessile parents.
Few marine species have been effectively held iu
the laboratory even for one life stage, much less for
a complete life cycle. Far fev.t-r have been reared or
cultured under controlled condition.*-. Laboratory
lines of known genetic makeup and environmental
history (as for example in the mice or rai p< pulations
so dear to the hearts of medical experiment ITS) are
almost unknown. Unfortunately, little effective sus-
tained effort to overcome these weaknesses is in
progress.
Weaknesses in bioassay data.—Many of the estu-
arine and marine criteria adopted by NAC and
NAS-NAE are based upon bioassays conducted on
freshwater species alone. Often those done with
actual marine and estuarine species have utilized
only the most hardy, the most difficult to damage
or kill. It is desirable, as EPA workers have said
(EPA, 197.'!), to base criteria and standards on the
most important (importance is defined in several
ways, i.e. in numbers, economic importance, position
in food chains and others) species in the estuarine
or coastal system for which they are being developed.
This is an objective rarely attained! As a conse-
quence, criteria and standards are often based upon
extrapolations from less important and tougher
species.
The uncertainties devolving from these short-
comings render certain of the current criteria and
standards of dubious validity or significance. Too,
the safety factors involved in extrapolation to ac-
count for and cover the basic weaknesses in the
data are extremely high, often placing severe eco-
nomic burdens upon the users who must engineer
to meet the standards.
Criteria for certain biological contaminants.—The
above described difficulties occur in many of the
chemical analyses (organic and inorganic), envi-
ronmental observations, and bioassays utilized in
management of estuarine and coastal waters. But
nowhere is the data base as weak as those on which
the criteria and standards for pathogens, fungi,
bacteria, and viruses, must be founded. There are
many basic unknowns concerning the viability of
viruses in natural waters. This is especially true of
viruses in estuarine and coastal waters (Vaughn,
1974). The same applies, but to a lesser extent for
bacteria \\here the significance of the basic examina-
tion,-;, measurements, and '••tanr'ard" have been in
question for almost 20 years. Despite its human
health -significance and importance to quality con-
trol, this aspect uf w;iter quality has been badly
neglected. Th" criteria and standards suffer accord-
ingly. .Much additional work is required. Unfortu-
nately, few research laboratories are equipped or
stuffed for (or concerned over) observations and
e\perin?er\=> in this area. Appaiently, many local,
.':'.af( and frderal water Duality inborn; :>rics are vveak
also. The number of competent nn'crobiologistf; and
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
717
microbiological technicians with experience working
with estuarine and coastal waters is believed to
be small.
This lack of interest and broad capability with
such important health-related factors is especially
troublesome. Unfortunately, no good techniques for
sterilization or removal of viable viruses from efflu-
ent waters now exist (Vaughn, 1974).
There are many other areas of weakness in basic
understanding of the factors important to effective
water quality management.
BASELINES
Given the complex and dynamic nature of the
waters under consideration and the vast volumes
and areas involved, it is little wonder that baseline
knowledge, or understanding of the natural ambient
conditions, is not strong. Until recent years effort in
the field and laboratory has been spare and weak.
To be sure, conditions have improved in the last
decade-and-a-half, but holes in the data remain. A
number of the estuaries and coastal waters of the
United States have been investigated, but many
have not. As an example of the magnitude of the
task involved, the Chesapeake Bay has been the
home and arena of activity for what has been prob-
ably the largest aggregation of estuarine scientists
in the world since before 1950, yet much remains
to be done. As an example, among the several insti-
tutions involved have been the Chesapeake Biologi-
cal Laboratory at Solomons, Aid., and a part of the
University of Maryland; the Chesapeake Bay Insti-
tute of The Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore,
Aid., the Virginia Institute of Marine Science at
Gloucester Point, Va.; the National Alarine Fisheries
Service Laboratory at Oxford, Aid.; the Environ-
mental Protection Laboratory at Annapolis, Aid.,
Old Dominion University in Norfolk, Va.; the West-
inghouse group at Annapolis; and the several state
investigative units in both Alaryland and Virginia.
Other institutions and individuals have been active.
CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING
PRESENT CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
Clearly there must be shortcomings in existing
criteria and standards since they are based, in part,
upon the current, somewhat inadequate baseline
knowledge of a) the environments involved and
b) the requirements and tolerances of those environ-
ments and of the animals and plants living therein
or dependent thereupon. For some parameters, these
shortcomings such as uncertainties over the fate
and significance of petroleum hydrocarbons, halides,
heavy metals, viruses, and bacteria are serious!
Others are understood better.
Standards and local knowledge.—Standards should
be based on competent local knowledge using the
nationally developed criteria as a guide. In most
instances, the level of knowledge required is very
high and quite detailed for a specific localized envi-
ronment. Frequently, information does not exist or
is weak. Alost often, data have been hastily gathered,
covering only a short span of time. Given the nature
of biological cycles and the seasonal and annual
variability of precipitation over estuarine and coastal
systems (and the extreme perturbations (i.e. wet
or dry) and other extreme weather phenomena)
many of the observations now available for use in
design and operation of industrial plants and sewage
outfalls are weak. Inasmuch as this ignorance intro-
duces uncertainties into the criteria, standards, and
permit systems that obtain, and since engineering
to cover those uncertainties requires much effort
and cost, if one must overdesign and overconstruct,
adequate baseline knowledge is important! Exami-
nation of the current situation indicates that much
additional effort directed toward improving our
baseline knowledge is required.
Monitoring
Even after water quality criteria and standards
have been developed and programs for construction
and operation of treatment plants are under con-
sideration—or actually in being—more remains to
be done. Public and private managers must track
and learn the amounts and characteristics of dis-
charges and they must determine the condition of
the environment and biota on a frequent, even con-
tinuous basis. Alonitoring capability is required!
Without it it is impossible to evaluate success or
failure of the management program, to establish
blame, or to rectify problems.
Monitoring requirements.—For monitoring to be
effective, it must be timely, accurate, precise, and
complete in coverage. For many parameters it must
also be frequent and regular. Its reliability should
be assured.
Alonitoring limitations.—Unfortunately for man-
agement, the same factors which made baseline
development and bioassay difficult also plague moni-
toring efforts. In situ monitoring instruments of
-------
718
POLLUTION CONTROL
reliable quality are not readily availabb at reason-
able cost oven now. Analytical techniques are in-
adequate and adequately trained technicians are
sparse. The salaries of water-treatment technicians
are frequently too low to attract peopb of the re-
quired level of training and reliability. A tanagement
of treatment facilities is often weak.
All too frequently public water quality control
agencies are forced to rely on effluent data gathered
and supplied by the discharger. Properly controlled,
this obvious shortcoming need not be too damaging
but often there is no adequate followup or check.
Without adequate checking such self-monitoring by
dischargers must always be suspect. Many treat-
ment plants are plagued by chronic overloads, poor
management, and inept personnel. Breakdowns in
equipment and procedures are frequent and the
"midnight valve" appears to be the ready resort of
operators with troubles.
It is not unusual that the public agency whose
task it is to provide management-level surveillance
or monitoring of effluents in estuarine EJid coastal
waters, is poorly prepared to do so. These weaknesses
are unfortunate because:
The effectiveness of water management programs depends
in major part on the scope, accuracy, and precision of
the characterization of both the waste sources and the
receiving waters. Rational waste control systems and
facilities cannot be developed and operated without
accurate information on the significant sources of waste,
and on their relation to the receiving water characteris-
tics established for protecting the beneficial uses. Only
in the light of this t3rpe of information car, the limited
financial resources available for waste control measures
be effectively allocated.
The preceeding quotation is the paragraph that
introduced the excellent chapter dealing with moni-
toring included in the NAS-NKC (1970) study
entitled "Waste Management Concepts for the
Coastal Zone." The reader is referred to ohat docu-
ment for a more comprehensive treatment of the
problem.
The NAS-NRC Committee examined the needs
of monitoring carefully arid in detail. Others have
recently addressed the problems of monitoring ma-
rine pollution at a workshop sponsored by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
in southern California (Goldberg, ed., 197'2a). Their
results confirm the opinions expressed above.
A Summary of Shortcomings
Weaknesses.—There are, then, weaknesses in our
basic understanding of the estuarine and economic
environments arid of the resources with which we
are concerned. Not only are there weaknesses of
fact and of extent (detail, comprehensiveness, range)
of basic understanding but also of technique. Our
ability to conduct meaningful bioassays, using those
marine organisms that are really critical (as opposed
to being hardy and amenable to handling), to detect
and analyze many natural and manmade substances,
to provide effective instrumentation, and to mount
adequate monitoring capability must be strength-
ened! Otherwise, baseline knowledge, criteria and
standards, planning, operating, monitoring and en-
forcement will continue inadequate.
Improvements.—Sufficient improvements in these
areas have been made in the last decade and a half
to allow greater confidence in present criteria, stand-
ards, and management capability. WTe are doing
better and carl improve.
Research needs.—Unfortunately, we lag badly in
support of meaningful background research, in de-
velopment of better treatment techniques, and in
training personnel and staffing waste treatment
facilities. Improvements in these aspects are possible
also—even now!
New forces.—New forces are upon us such as:
a) the increased apparent need to develop new
sources of energy by bringing Outer Continental
Shelf oil and gas supplies into use; and b) the need
to develop more nuclear generating plants, and other
water-affecting energy facilities In the meantime,
with inflation and a declining economic situation,
pressures to reduce or eliminate controls and man-
agement efforts, which undoubtedly add to costs of
development and use, are growing! It is a great
temptation today to forget environmental safety in
order to reduce costs to meet an emergency of money,
energy, and time—especially when many other coun-
tries have done so. To do so would be extremely
foolish and short-sighted! We must resist the pres-
sures! This can be done in part by increasing knowl-
edge, tightening quality control specifications, and
managing to closer quality tolerances.
Zero discharge—a nmaiiable concept.—It must be
noted at this juncture, however, that the zero-
discharge concept of waste disposal and the urge
and effort to release 1o the environment effluents
which are "purer" than the natural waters of the
receiving stream are not reasonable or viable con-
cepts. Both ideas have contributed to: a) the antip-
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
719
athy that the clean-water movement receives; b) a
lessening of legitimate efforts to acquire much needed
knowledge; c) a weakening of the development of
improved effective management; and d) a certain
false sense of security and accomplishment in legisla-
tion and regulation. This is not to say that it may
not be technically possible to accomplish such objec-
tives but it will be extremely costly for society to
do so—even unnecessary.
A point of urgency!—Hopefully, the current eco-
nomic downturn, the urge for economy in govern-
ment, and the strong thrust for development of new
energy sources will not result in reversal of the
recent trend toward improving the ability to prevent
pollution, or rather to contain it within reasonable
bounds. We cannot afford unnecessary expenditures
of money to achieve levels of environmental control
beyond those actually required. Neither can we allow
degradation of environment or unfettered use of
resources!
CONCLUSIONS
The Current State of
Estuaries and Coastal Waters
Headway in development of standards and con-
trols and greater public awareness and concern
has led to considerable improvement in ability to
slow, even prevent, contamination of estuaries and
coastal waters. Older cities, located on estuaries
or coastal waters, such as Richmond, Va., and
Washington, D.C., have stopped spewing raw sew-
age into the upper James and upper Potomac, or
are supposed to have. The volume of untreated
sewage and the level of treatment have both changed
for the better in most places. However, in certain,
even most, estuaries the trends of degradation con-
tinue and at a much faster rate than in other waters.
As a result it must be concluded that, however
effective the effort has been, we still lose more than
we win. Tbu=:, despite bright spots and the growth
of understanding and the ability to control, the
general quality of the waters of our estuaries and
coastal waters taken as a whole is worsening—at a
slower rate in comparison with the growth of popu-
lations and industry than 20 years ago—but still
worsening.
The agencies, institutions, and persons who have
been involved in the evolution of water quality
criteria and standards deserve credit. American estu-
aries and coastal waters are in better shape than
they otherwise would be. But all concerned must
realize that additional efforts are necessary before
we can prevent or reverse the processes of degrada-
tion as effectivelv as we must.
What Must Be Done?
Several shortcomings in ability to understand and
to devise and bring about effective hyplw-v ;'or con-
trolling the quality of estuaries and coastal v,ateu
have been identified and described above. What
must be done to reduce or eliminate them?
IMPROVEMENT OF
RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT
The need for additional knowledge of the estuarine
environments and organisms in question and the
forces that act upon, and especially against them,
is clear. So is the necessity for improved manage-
ment technology and organization. Additional finan-
cial support for research and development and for
management applied in the right place is clearly
required. It is beyond the scope of this essay to
indicate in greater detail or more specifically where
the needs for research and management are. It can
be said, however, that water quality criteria for
estuaries and coastal waters and for dependent biota
and uses must be improved! To do so, additional
effort at research and engineering development is
necessary. As noted above, noteworthy effort was
devoted by the National Technical Advisory Com-
mittee (USDI, 1968b), the NAS-NAE group (NAS-
NAE, 1973) in "The Blue Book," and by the EPA
Water Quality Group (EPA, 1973) in reviewing
research and engineering needs and those publica-
tions should be consulted for details. Most of the
needs identified in the excellent document, "Waste
Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone: Re-
quirements for Research and Investigation" (NAS-
NRC, 1970) remain unmet. It, too, provides a
well-developed guide to scientific and engineering
requirements for all phases of waste-management
related water quality work, establishment of criteria
and standards, treatment, monitoring, and other
aspects of management, technology, and operations.
If the research and engineering needs described in
these and other recent papers are carried out rapidly,
management will improve soon. If they are not—it,
will be later! The same applies to improvements on
a) organization for management, b) criteria and
standards, c) waste treatment techniques, d) system
design engineering, and operation, and e) monitoring!
-------
720
ESTTJARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
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Biological Significance of Estuaries. Sport Fishing Institute,
Washington, D.C.
Teal, J. M., D. L. Jameson and R, G. Baden. 1972. Living
Resources, in the Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the
Coastal Zone. E. W. Ketchum, ed. MIT Press, Cambridge
and Londoi : 37—62.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration. 1969. The National Estuarine
Pollution Study, Washington, D.C. 3 volumes. Also
available at Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Senate Document 91-58.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, National Technical Advisory
Committee. 1968a. Water Quality Criteria: Report of the
National Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the
Interior. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, National Technical Advisory
Committee. 1968b. Rencwroh Needs. Government Printing
Office-, Washington, D.C. 0-311-1 ».
U.S. Department of (he Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries. 1070 National Estuary Study.
Government Printing ' /(lice, Washington, D. C. 7 volumes.
U.S. Environmental Proteciion Agency. 197? (likely 1974).
Comparison of NTAC, NAS, and Proposed EPA Numerical
Criteria, for Water Quality. Environmental Protection
4«ency, Raleigh, N C. EPA'449.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
721
U.8. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Proposed
Criteria for Water Quality, Washington, D.C. 2 volumes.
"Vinogradov, A. P. 1953. The Elementary Chemical Composi-
tion of Marine Organisms. Sears Foundation, New Haven,
Conn.
Vaughn, J. M. 1974. Human Viruses as Marine Pollutants
in Marine Pollution. Oceanus, Volume 18, No. 1. Woods
Hole Oeeanographic Institution, Massachusetts: 24—28.
Williams, J. 1962. Oceanography: An Introduction to the
Marine Sciences. Little, Brown and Company, Boston,
Toronto.
-------
SEVEN WAYS TO
OBLITERATION: FACTORS OF
ESTUARINE DEGRADATION
JOEL W. HEDGPETH
Pacific Marine Station
Dillon Beach, California
ABSTRACT
The most significant factor contributing to the degradation of our estuaries is our failure to
treat an estuary as a natural system, rather than as a convenience serving man's many and
conflicting purposes. This attitude is exacerbated by lack of competence on the part of con-
sultants called upon to predict the results of interfering with natural processes they do not under-
stand in the first place. When this is combined with notions of cost-benefit analysis and trade-offs
that justify to ourselves the addition of deleterious substances and chemicals, alteration of tem-
perature and sediment regimes, and spillage of oil, the synergistic action may accelerate the
demise of an estuary.
INTRODUCTION
Estuaries have been a major factor in the develop-
ment of civilization and man's institutions. As
sheltered environments for the establishment of com-
merce and, for the most part, pleasing sites for
settlement, estuaries provide the environment for
most of the great cities of the world. Yet, they are
also valuable resources for food gathering, and are
the site of man's lirst attempts to farm the sea. They
aie often thought of as fragile environments but, if
they were. the\ would have been destroyed long
ago. It is the daily fluctuation and Ihe regime of
environmental changes, both tidal and seasonal.
that protect the life of estuaries from excessive
damage, at least from moderate amounts of pollu-
tion, for the life of estuaries is adapted to, and de-
pends on the environmental fluctuations. The same
mechanisms that make estuaries excellent nutrient-
traps and enhance their value to life also make them
pollution traps, as emphasized by \V. E. Odum
(1970). There can easily be too much pollution and,
most dangerously, combinations of various kinds of
pollution that together may have much more effect
than several factors acting singly. This synergistic
effect is difficult to estimate and predict.
One of the most .-Aguificant sources of eiu iron-
mental degradation in estuaries is not usually thought
of as "pollution." This is man's habit of digging
up estuaries lor harbors and filling their borders
and sometimes middle parts, for land on which to
build docks, factories, and even residences. At least
10 classes of polluting materials are discharged into
estuaries and coastal waters, some of these are
sewage, heavy metals, organochlorine compounds,
industrial effluents of all kinds, cooling water, oil,
radioactive material, and inert dumped material
from estuaries. Many of these can be treated to-
gether, e.g., chemical wastes of various kinds, al-
though we do not understand the effects of many
of them. There is also the danger that we may
synthesize some extremely deleterious substance
whose action will become apparent before we realize
that we should never have produced it in the first
plnce.
In this context, it is useful to consider some state-
ments from a British report on estuarino pollution:
In considering pollution in estuaries and coastal waters,
we frequently met the assumption thai pollution is nol,
a. hazard unless it directly endangers human health.
We therefore emphasize that dangers to other forms of
life may be no less serious. For example, if it were ever
to become the case that a pollutant which inhibited the
capacity of microorganisms in the sea to convert carbon
dioxide to oxygen, or to break down organic matter,
became widespread, this could be a menace. Concern
for the eventual impact on man of the- ecological cycle
which ultimately sustains life is scmetirnes misinformed,
but this concern is not meie sentimentality.
A gre:
-------
724
ESTUAHINE POLLUTION CONTROL-
attitudes to the problems of pollution in estuaries
now confront the public. Contamination is without any
doubt taking place and some estuaries me, by genera,!
consent, highly objectionable. Impressivs quantities of
offensive and, in some cases, potentially dangerous sub-
stances, are being put into them and out into the sea.
Evidence is available to show that these discharges may
damage or destroy shellfish, birds, and fish. The im-
mediate emotional reaction is to urge that this contami-
nation should be stopped and stopped at once, before
it is too late to reverse the process of destruction.
The opposing attitude is to play down the harm that
is being caused and to point out, with every justification,
that the discharge of sewage and industrial effluent
into the estuaries reduce the costs of industry by a
considerable amount. Those who hold this attitude
point out correctly that to eliminate ent rely these dis-
charges would throw a heavy burden on certain of the
industries concerned and generally on the local com-
munity, sufficient in some cases to cause some enterprises
to be abandoned and people to be thrown out of work.
Simultaneously, they argue that the tangible benefits
to be gained, which can actually be costed, are minimal,
amounting to little more than what wou'd be saved bv
reducing damage to inshore fisheries. They claim that
no damage to human health has resulted from these
discharges nor has any long-term danger been proved to
exist. Granted that many people are offended by the
squalid condition of some estuaries; that coes not justify
putting local government and industry to vast cost to
remove the offence.
The Commission's conclusion is that the truth lies
somewhere between these two sets of vews. However
desirable il, wotdd be to remove conta nination from
estuaries, there is a practical limit to the burden which
should be placed on the community to achieve this aim.
This limit can be denned as the point bejond which the
marginal cost of abating pollution exceed-? the marginal
cost of the damage being done by pollution. But the
inputs for this sort of calculation are rarely at hand; so
in practice, arbitrary constraints have to be put on the
amount of pollution Thi- does not only mean thf> tangi-
ble measurable damage such as the loss 3f fishery pro-
duction, but includes any loss of welfare that i,he
community may suffer as a result, of the pollution. In
addition, it, may be some time, cv.'n years, before the
damage caused by certain forms of poll ition becomes
apparent.
(Koyal Commission on -Environmental Pollution
H.M.S.O., 1972.)
This rational view of the situation, as the com-
mission concedes, constitutes an attitude of trade-
off, of potential sacrifice of life or environment
that can be averted only by "arbitrary constraints."
Too often, from the environmentalist point of view,
constraints are relaxed in favor of the short-term
advantage to man. Without clearly realizing the
implication of this attitude, \ve are treating our
fellow passengers on this planet, and the environ-
ment that supports v« all, as secondary in im-
portance to out own desires and ss potential
nuisances that get in our way.
ECOLOGICAL INEPTITUDE
One of the greatest endangering factors which
contributes less to direct degradation of estuaries
than to inadequate protection measures and im-
proper restoration recommendations is a peculiar
form of half-ignorance or lack of competence on the
part of the consultants and administrating officials.
This deficiency usually takes 1he form of oversimpli-
fied statement of ecological theory and a resulting
doctrinaire approach to such matters as food chains
or webs, viewing diversity index as a magic number
for administrative purposes. The uninformed espouse
the mistaken notion that because sea and estuarine
organisms produce so many eggs arid larvae that a
loss of 99 percent, is part of the course of nature,
another small percent of loss of survivors can do
no harm. Inadequate understanding of ecology is
not peculiar to those involved with estuaries, but
the estuarne situation is beset with many more pit-
falls for unwary and inadequate ecologists than
terrestrial and freshwater environments.
One would hope that such a statement as the fol-
lowing, made in behalf of releasing pollution in a
bay instead of into the ocean, is exceptional, but
similar gems from the soft paper literature suggest
otherwise:
More important than the argument of plant reliability
because it deals with a false concept, is the argument of
fragile ecosystem populations. Biologists recognize that
a population that has a high diversity is more shock-
resistant than one that has low species diversity. No
matter what the shock that occurs to a highly diverse
population, there is some species within that population
thai is capable of dealing with that shock. There is a
great deal of give and take in a highly complex environ-
ment sjch as that found in the bay. The bay is, in com-
parison, a more diverse ecosystem than that of the open
ocean, particularly in the- case of such a limited aspect
of the ocean as the near shore environment off the
Samoa Peninsula. Indeed, environmentally, we must
consider that the bay is more amenable to transient
p'.ajif operation disruption,; than is the open ocean.
it i« on this particular error that the whole policy
failure df the State Water Quality Control Board rests,
as iiave some of the mistakes of other public agencies in
the past. It is true that many estuarine systems have
suffered from hypereutrophication and toxicity due to
various waste discharges, including municipal effluents.
None of those estuarine situations are similar to that of
Humboldt Bay. Humboldt Bay does not contain the
freshwater-saltwater wedge that is present in most
rivermouth estuarine systems. The populations of Hum-
boldt Ray are not, subject to a daily or twice-daily shock
of fresh water and salt water which limits the number
of spec ics They are composed of hardy forms that have
evolved in a system of fairly uniform temperature,
salinity and density gradients subject to minor shocks
of freshwater and of heavy organic loads fiorn fresh-
water streams; in short, situations very much like
municipal sewage treatment, facility effluents. These
populations have evolved to handle such minor shocks
and to utilize the nutrients provided to attain high
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
725
levels of productivity. Great diversity at the lower
trophic levels of a system will be reflected in the high
diversity at the upper levels of the system. It is very
difficult to imagine, a system with its high productivity
and high diversity at the upper levels of a system without
a great deal of diversity and productivity in the lower
levels of the system. One of the higher levels of a system
such as that of the bay is the bird life. Birds eat the
small marine animals that live on even smaller marine
animals that live on the phytoplankton and the organic
debris in the bay. Hurnboldt Bay is noted for its wildlife
and especially for its waterfowl population which are
highly diverse and very abundant. Birders come from
all over the country to watch birds on Humboldt Bay.
One of the favorite spots for watching waterfowl on
Hurnboldt Bay is the sewage oxidation ponds of Arcata
where the oonreuiration is great and the diversity of
species to be found is truly amazing. It can be easily
inferred that the steps of the food web below the bird
population are equally diverse, equally productive.
(Challenge of Water Quality Control Plan, North
Coastal Basin IB, 1974.)
The reasoning behind this kind of inept ecology
provoked Michael T. Ghiselin (1974) to remark:
"Undergraduate instruction and public policy, at
least, are seriously threatened by ecological ortho-
genesis. It is as if we were teaching medicine out of
Science and Health."
This may seem harsh, but much of modern ecology
is a sort of glass-bead game of rarefied abstractions
manipulated with algebraic dexterity into pretty
designs of many colors by young men eager to im-
press their masters. The Glass Bead Game of
Hermann Hesse's novel was an ironic parody of
scholasticism withdrawn from reality; its greatest
practitioner, the Magister Ludi, died in the icy
waters of an alpine lake while trying to keep up with
his last student. True, he had left the sanctuary of
the Glass Bead players, but too late.
The problem is not so much ignorance as it is
the great demand for ecological interpretation and
administration, prompted by the concern for en-
vironmental protection. Proper or adequate deter-
mination of environmental conditions and estima-
tion of the effects of man's intervention call for more
informed talent than is currently available. Mere
possession of a PhD does riot of itself guarantee
competence or even knowledge of the subject area,
and some of the suggestions made in California by
W. F. Libby and Chauncey Starr at UCLA to
require certification of environmental specialists or
to license consulting ecologists, as engineers are
licensed, could blanket in unsuitable people.
Nevertheless, we do have too many self-styled
environmental consultants whose qualifications are
little more than a small sum of money to pay a
printer's bill for letterheads and calling cards.
Significant sums of money are paid to these people
for inadequate environmental impact reports. They
have committed themselves to predicting the effects
of a process when they do not understand the process
involved. Many of the people concerned are unaware
of their inadequacies, serene in the delusion that
since we all live in the same environment we are
all qualified to study it. The complexities of en-
vironmental studies make it difficult to set standards
and qualifications for consultants and experts, how-
ever. Perhaps many of the less endowed would
retire from the field if they were required to reduce
their fee at least 50 percent if their environmental
impact reports were disqualified as inadequate by
courts or hearing bodies.
Education in the basic concepts of ecology is
needed urgently. There has been too much haphazard
and inadequate teaching by persons whose o\\n
grasp of ecological problems is inadequate and in-
complete to begin with. Perhaps we need a concise
text book for administrators and hearing officers,, a
guide to the interpretation of environmental impact
reports. Yet, it would seem that there has been
enough bad ecology in environmental assessment
and impact reports to inspire the judicious skepticism
necessary for interpreting inadequate work. Ob-
viously, our greatest scarcity in this, as in so many
other problems, is that rare commodity, horse-sense.
Nowhere is ecological ineptitude more clearly
demonstrated than in the notions of cost-benefit
and tradeoffs. An economist who suggests that we
set a money value to the fish or amenity that
may be destroyed by a power plant, and submit the
cost-benefit ratio to a public vote, is proposing an
evil and senseless procedure. This notion that we
can assign money values to such diverse matters
as clean water, fisheries, pleasing scenery, kilowatts,
and parking lots is a recent contribution of man's
hubris, especially when we make a decision on the
basis of this arithmetic of apples and oranges that,
may extirpate other species from the scene and ^et
irreversible ecological decay in motion; this notion
is reprehensible. The idea of assigning a dollars and
cents value to life—any life—can lead to the end of
life on earth as it now docs to the exhaustion of
non-renewable resources, a mining-out of life as if
it were some raw material. This approach to the
problem of environmental insult assumes that the
processes of nature are simple and can be safely
tampered with in terms of our idiotic anthro-
pocentricism.1 Not only may we destroy one or
several species, we may destroy gene pools by
obliterating "worthless" wild relatives of cultivated
1 Vide the graded scales of "one-ness ^vith nature," "sense of awe,"
etc., in Dee, 1972.
-------
726
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
or exploited stocks. We are—or should be—aware
of the danger of this in agriculture whore we have
produced plant varieties incapable of adjusting
themselves to change in an artificial ecological
system. In fisheries also, we need reservoirs of wild
genetic stocks against inevitable ecological change.
Another danger of this cost-benefit approach is
that we do not know, in many cases, the key species
in an ecological system and we could vote or recom-
mend a significant species out of existence without
being aware of what we have done until an ir-
retrievable loss has occurred. To think of economics
in this sense as hard and objective is a mistake, for
in the field of cost-benefit analysis, economics is the
squishiest and most subjective of human thought
processes. It leads us to the position that in times
of economic crisis we cannot afford to preserve the
environment or our fellow species as we must
maintain our standard of living, even if it is our
standard of living that has brought us to this crisis
with national resources.
In 1864, George Perkins Marsh, formerly a mem-
ber of Congress from Vermont and for 20 years
ambassador to Italy, published his famous book,
"Man and Nature." In this book, he predicted that
if mankind continued his misuse of the earth at a
like rate as he had done since civilization began,
the earth would become unfit for human habitation
in about the same period of time. In Marsh's day,
they thought that civilization was perhaps 5,000
years old. But our abuse of the earth has increased
exponentially in these last 100 years so that our
time has been reduced, at least an order of
magnitude, from thousands to hundreds of years.
At the rate we are going, our children may be the
last human generation on this earth.
It is too precious a refuge from time' to be sub-
jected to the irrelevancies of ill-informed economists
and incompetent ecologists; if we are to survive at
all, we must drive these miserable moneychangers
of cost-benefit analyses, trade-offs, and externalities
out of our temple.
We talk of the "needs of man." What are they?
If we put the survival of a species to a vote—and
in such an election, all must vote who lead lives of
quiet desperation—it is the inevitable step to the
destruction of the quality of environment that man
needs to continue his "standard of living." In the
end, man will drink water from his sewage plants,
breathe the; exhaust of his factories, and reside on
his own garbage heaps. Henry Thoreau, writing in
his journal on April 11, 1857, foresaw it all:
The very fishes in countless schools are driven out of a
river by the improvements of the civilized man, as the
pigeon and other fowls out of the air. I can hardly
imagine a greater change than this produced by the
influence of man in nature. Our Concord River is a dead
stream in more senses than we had supposed. In what
sense now does the spring ever come to the river, when
the sun is not reflected from the scales of a single salmon,
shad or alewife? No doubt there is some compensation
for this loss, but I do not at this moment see clearly
what it is. That river which the aboriginal fishes have
not deserted is a more primitive and interesting river to
me. It is as if some vital quality were to be lost out of a
man's blood and it were to circulate more lifelessly
through his veins. We are reduced to a few migrating
suckers, perchance.
FILLING AND DREDGING
No factor affecting the degradation of estuaries
is more permanent than filling. Once filled, for what-
ever purpose, an estuary is no more, and even partial
filling can have serious consequences. The other side
of this coin is dredging; sediments dredged to main-
tain channels and turning basins or to provide
access to docks must be put somewhere, and often
they constitute a valuable addition to waterfront
real estate from the viewpoint of commerce, navi-
gation, and industry. Indeed, it is the chief interest
of harbor commissions that undesirable tidal flats
be converted to useful real estate as rapidly as pos-
sible. In recent years, however, we have become
aware that filling is a kind of pollution and that a
tacit national policy of filling all available tidelands
is in the long run not in the national interest. We
have only so many estuaries, and their prime im-
portance, both to commercial fisheries as nursing
grounds for the young of various stocks and to the
recreational fisherman, dictates a much more strin-
gent policy on dredging and filling than we have
had in the past. Yet, it was not quite 70 years ago
that Nathaniel Southgate Shaler (1906), otherwise
a man before his time in many of his environmental
concerns, could write:
There are in all the great lands vast areas of lakes,
swamps, and marshes awaiting the skillful labor which
has won Holland from the sea. The largest opportunity
of profits is in such brave combats with the incomplete
work of nature.
Shaler was not a biologist, although he was one
of the moving spirits behind Agassiz's first seaside
laboratory experiment at Penikese, so he perhaps
could not have been expected to realize that the
margins of the sea, the marshlands, and the tidal
flats constitute essential parts of nature's natural
system, and are not her incomplete work to be
polished off for man's economic benefit.2
s Agassiz's concept for the future of Penikese as a center of practical
application of studies of "fish . . . oysters, lobsters . . . ." is a startling
anticipation by a 100 years of the present sea grant program. See Edward
Lurie, "Nature and the American Mind" (Science History Publications,
New York, 1974), pp. 59-60.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
727
It is this aspect of dredging and filling, the de-
struction of the margins, or separation of them from
the waters of the estuaries, that is most serious.
Much of the nutrient source for the maintenance of
estuarine life comes from the runoff across the
marshlands and upland borders, yet often such wet-
lands are not protected by restrictions on dredging
and filling. Referring to these areas as "wetlands,"
as if they were separate from the estuaries, is a
mistaken classification. It is the reduction of the
wetlands and of tidal access to marshes, as much
as the filling itself, that has resulted in the $1.4
million estimated loss to fisheries in Boca Ciega Bay
since 20 percent of its surface area has been filled,
primarily for the development of small boat facili-
ties (Taylor and Salomon, 1968). The combined
factors related to the loss of fisheries value are the
reduced bay volume, disturbance of bottom by
dredging and bulkheading (which also separates the
borders from tidal action), and consequent impaired
tidal action.
There are many examples of piecemeal, bit-by-bit
filling in our estuaries; it was considered the best
thing to do with the shallower parts of bays, and
subsequent efforts to unfill illegally filled or obliter-
ated tidelands have not been successful. Such an
area as Pony Village in Xorth Bend, Ore., was built
by filling the upper end of Pony Slough, without so
much as by your leave. A large shopping mall, a
motel, and several acres of paved parking space are
difficult to retract.
Concern for preventing further encroachment of
this kind in San Francisco Bay led to the establish-
ment of the San Francisco Bay Conservation and
Development Commission in 1965. At that time, it
was realized that more than 250 square miles of the
original open water surface of San Francisco Bay
had been filled, and more was in prospect. One
project would have cut down a large part of San
Bruno Mountain to fill in areas near the San Fran-
cisco Airport. Among the possible effects of such a
continued haphazard filling of San Francisco Bay
could be a loss of the climatic amelioration related
to the surface of San Francisco Bay itself; in short,
if there were to be no bay, there would be no bay
area. A public action movement led to the establish-
ment of the commission, although the legislature
was at first reluctant. The commission, consisting
of representatives from state and local agencies as
well as public members, has jurisdiction over filling.
Unfortunately, its jurisdiction includes only the bay
and harbor development, not the entire estuary sys-
tem. It has undoubtedly prevented some excesses,
but as the interests of the membership become more
vested, it shows signs of losing some of its original
missionary zeal and fire. So it is often with public
bodies, no matter how high-minded.
Unless, of course, they are harbor commissions.
These bodies are always concerned with developing
ports and harbors. Quite often, the development is
related to the personal interests of some of the
members, but it would be impossible to form such
a body otherwise. In some parts of the country, it
would appear that there is not enough disinterested
and knowledgeable talent to staff the commissions,
yet these commissions often have powers that are
greater than those of any other local bodies, since
they are responsible for state lands. Some years ago,
the Harbor Commission for Bolinas Lagoon, a small
marine embayment just north of San Francisco,
planned extensive marina development which would
have completely changed the character of the lagoon.
As a result of public outcry, the Harbor Commission
itself was abolished in 1969. This ought to happen
to more small harbor commissions which forget that
they are in charge of a living environment, not
potential marina property.
DIVERSION
Since an estuary is a region mixing fresh waters
of terrestrial origin and saline water from the sea,
it follows that diversion of fresh water in significant
quantities will change the character of the estuary
system involved. Diversion of all the fresh water
would turn an estuary into a marine laeoon; in
such an event, the productivity base of the system
would depend entirely upon the neighboring sea and
the vagaries of tidal exchange. Such systems, as
exemplified by the saline lagoons of south Texas,
may fluctuate and be less dependable in their fisher-
ies resources than a well-balanced estuarine system.
Yet, major diversions have been proposed for the
Texas bays and, while these may be pipe dreams of
engineers, one cannot forget that such ideas have
been proposed and that, in one case, are well on
the way to fulfillment unless there is a drastic
change in water policy.
This is, of course, the diversion of water from
northern California to putative agricultural lands of
the San Joaquin Valley and the megalopolis of Los
Angeles. The diversion is to be accomplished by an
elaborate bypass system, called the Peripheral Canal,
around the delta (confluence) of the Sacramento-
San Joaquin Rivers. The diversion scheme has
proceeded in the absence of sound environmental
or hydrological information; it is considered impos-
sible, for example, to compute the volume of wrater
that flows out of the delta into San Francisco Bay,
because of the complex nature of channels, sloughs,
-------
728
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
and streams. Estimates of diversion of water to
Los Angeles that would leave perhaps about .50 per-
cent of the net outflow required to maintain water
quality and protect fishlife aroused alarm and stimu-
lated lengthy hearings before the California Water
Resources Control Board in 1969-1970. The upshot
of these hearings was Decision 1379 (1971), which
recommended substantial increases in flow from the
delta in low water periods, which would reduce the
diversion to the southlands desired by the California
Department of Water Resources by perhaps 0.9
million acre feet. Decision 1379, wh:ch in effect
recognized ecological water rights, has been con-
sidered a landmark decision, but it has been bitterly
opposed by the diversion interests and is under
appeal. In the meanwhile, the Department of Water
Resources has issued its environmental impact re-
port on the Peripheral Canal, contending that all
will be well if water is released in a sort of bleeding
action at various places along the canal into the
delta system.
In all, the EIR for the Peripheral Canal has not
satisfied everyone and, most conspicuously, there is
not an adequate assessment of the iripact of the
vast quantities of electrical energy needed to operate
the pumping system upon the economics of the
diversion and other energy needs.
There are other ways to accomplish diversion of
water from an estuary besides turnirg the water
into a ditch to be carried away. Our concern for
protecting estuaries from temperature increases from
cooling waters may result in practices vhat could in
the long run achieve the same effect by reducing
the volume of river flow. Proposals for power genera-
tion in the Susquehanna Valley, for example, could
lose large volumes of water by evaporation in closed
circuit cooling systems and towers, pert aps amount-
ing to a third of the low-water flow of the Susque-
hanna, one of the major tributaries of the Chesa-
peake Bay (Olson, 1974).
Such a possibility suggests that more serious con-
sideration be given to reducing evaporation loss in
cooling systems; certainly, the great battery of cool-
ing fountains at the Pacific Gas and Electric cool-
ing ponds at Pittsburgh function admirably as
evaporators. Large numbers of such cooling systems,
combined with the flow reduction for the California
waterworks, might increase the loss of water to the
system by unacceptable amounts.
Not long ago, it was suggested in Oregon that,
because of the scarcity of fresh water in many coastal
regions during dry years, entire stream!! be diverted
from above tidewater during the summer months.
It was thought by whoever made this suggestion
that the estuaries were not being used by fish and
other life during the summer months, so that there
would be no serious effect on the estuaries!
One of the serious aspects of diversion of water is
the reduction of the natural sediment load of streams
flowing into bays and estuaries. As brought out in
the hearings about the diversion of water from the
delta in San Francisco Bay, this reduction could
have a serious effect on primary productivity and
the ability of the estuary to handle pollutants, since
fine sediment particles protect the waters from ex-
cessive sunlight and function as scavengers by bring-
ing down heavy metals when they flocculate on
reaching the saltwater part of the estuary.
In this context, it is not encouraging to find that
detailed consideration of altered sedimentation proc-
esses has been omitted from the environmental
impact report on the Peripheral Canal prepared by
the California Department of Water Resources. One
is reminded that the excessive sediment loads in
San Francisco Bay from hydraulic mining were not
stopped because they were shoaling the bay and
altering the tidal prism as a consequence (Gilbert,
1917), but because the mining debris was destroying
farmlands.
A point often forgotten about natural sediment
loads in our estuaries is that the heaviest occur
during the runoff season, when river temperatures
are lowest. A similar heavy sediment discharge or
accelerated erosion in summer, from construction
activities or farming is deleterious to the life of an
estuary.
CALEFACTION
Calefaction, the process of making things a bit
warmer, was dredged from the dictionary by Daniel
Merriman a few years ago (1970a). The idea implicit
in Merriman's usage was that a little calefaction
did no serious harm; the increases in temperatures
associated with the power plant on the Connecticut
River that was his principal concern were not caus-
ing any significant change in the sequence of events,
except that some catfish were not doing well. But
the Connecticut River in the region of the power
plant in question is subject to tidal action and the
thermal plume did not really calefy the river. So,
in the sense of increasing the temperature of the
environment, there was not any real calefaction at
all, and the observed effects could be just as reason-
ably attributed to entrainment, the drawing in of
water through the plant, and to scour from the
steady effluent current from the discharge outfall of
the plant.
Nevertheless, calefaction is a real concern and we
are aware of situations where temperature increases
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
729
from the use of environmental water as a coolant
may reach significant values. Furthermore, while
the present scale of operations may not have serious
effects on open coasts, our increasing reliance upon
coastal water to cool down the exponentially expand-
ing power-generating installations suggests that the
time is not far off when we may anticipate significant
changes in nearshore temperatures. A few massive
power plants here and there, releasing warmer water
into a small region near the outfall may have no
real effect except upon the organisms ground to bits
within the plumbing, but arrays of ever larger
generating plants pumping significant percentages
of the nearshore currents of an open coast or of an
estuary into their condensers and release of the warm
water into the environment may cause a serious
alteration of the environment.
It was suggested, for example, that our engineering
capacity might make it possible for us to construct
perhaps 4,000 nuclear parks along the shore to
utilize coastal water for cooling purposes (Weinberg
and Hammond, 1970). A series of power plants on
that scale, designed to meet all our exaggerated
demands for energy by supplying power to 20 billion
people at our present rate of consumption, would
undoubtedly change the character of coastal waters.
It would also seem that such a bulk of people would
of itself increase the temperature of the earth. One
would like to think that the authors had a satirical
intent and did not real)}' believe their own estimates,
since they gave no serious thought to possible effects
on nearshore circulation patterns or plankton popu-
lations. Some lip service is given to ecological con-
siderations in a brochure titled "Siting Considera-
tions for Offshore Xuclear Power Plants" (Dames
and Moore Engineering Bulletin 42, 1973); it is
stated on p. 31 that "part of the overall objective
is to see whether the site is sufficiently decoupled
ecologically from . . . associated estuarine systems."
Temperature is a relative measure of the amount
of heat, and heat is the energy of molecules in
motion. The lowest possible temperature would be
that of the situation in winch there is no molecular
motion, or --27;{.lf>°C (0°K ) : at the other extreme,
the temperature of the sun is several thousand
degrees. Temperatures in the sea range from —2.0
or —1.8° in the deepest trenches and near surface
Antarctic waters to over 40° at the surface in semi-
enclosed tropic waters such as the Red Sea. The
average temperature of all water masses of the world
ocean is about 3.9°C.
No form of life that we know can withstand the
extremes of absolute zero or the heat of the sun,
and the range of temperature encountered in the
sea and estuaries is but a small fraction of the range
of conditions that occur on land. Very few organisms
are adapted to survive even a small part of the total
range of temperatures occurring in the sea. Many
of the organisms of the Antarctic and abyssal seas
experience temperatures within the narrow range of
about —2.0 to +1.5°C or so, whereas species of
shallow tropical waters may live within the range
between 20 and 30°C. Most organisms appear to
be able to withstand short period extremes of tem-
perature; such tolerance depends upon other factors
in combination with the temperature rise or fall,
such as oxygenation, or reduction of internal tem-
perature by evaporation in intertidal species. Many
organisms can adjust themselves to long-term altered
temperatures, within certain limits; such adjustment
is called acclimation. Many others are adapted to
regular variations or seasonal temperatuie cycles.
Others, we suspect, meet the temperature variations
in nature, especially those associated with changes
in strength or position of currents, turbulence, and
internal waves by producing an excess of reproduc-
tive stages, most of which are sacrificed to environ-
mental vicissitudes. Therefore, we must consider the
temperature regimes of each situation somewhat
differently.
With respect to the attrition of reproductive
stages, it cannot be assumed that because 99 per-
cent of the young produced by a species are lost,
we may safely levy upon the remaining 1 percent.
For many organisms, the cleavage stages may be
most sensitive to temperature, and later stages pro -
gressively less so, but the vulnerability of all stages
suggests that exposure to artificially high tempera-
tures should be as short as possible. And, while the
adult may be the least sensitive, it must produce
this vast excess of young to ensure at least one adult
survivor for the next generation. A single reproduc-
ing adult (or a pair) may not be enough, conversely,
to establish a new population, as demonstrated by
the many failures to establish exotic species.
Some critical mass of reproducing adults seems
necessary to establish populations in new waters.
Thus, at both ends of the logarithmic curve of popu-
lation, matters are difficult for survival in nature;
whatever the optimum may be, the sea is not a
benign and undemanding environment, but quite
the reverse.
It would be impossible to summarize the exten-
sive literature on studies of the effects of temperature
upon organisms in anything less than a large book,
yet this work taken together leaves something to bo
desired when we try to understand the actual rela-
tions of temperature to organisms in the environ-
ment. Environmental events usually have not been
synchronized with laboratory tests and seldom have
-------
730
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
experiments taken into consideration the fluctuating
regimes of the actual environment. As with many
other factors, laboratory tests are simplifications or
abstractions which may give us clues to how or why
things happen in nature, but fail to explain what
may really be happening.
Now, to the sometimes irrelevant data of experi-
mental physiology, we have added the even less
relevant data of environmental impact studies. Too
often, such studies are beside the point and leave
the basic problem untouched. For example, an in-
Arestigation of the possible effects of a warm water
effluent on shallow water organisms presents tem-
perature measurements of the uppermost surface
layer taken by a distant infrared senso r, and lists of
species, numbers, and size classes of invertebrates
living from several centimeters to perhaps two or
three meters below this measured layer, or within
the sediment still further removed from the surface
layer. Values are correlated and regression lines
drawn, indicating as might be expected that there
is no relationship between surface effluent tempera-
tures and the biota beneath. Unfortunately, the
conclusion is then offered that the altered tempera-
tures have no effect on the biota, a conclusion that
cannot be substantiated by the data offered (Adams,
Price and Clogston, 1974).
Such misleading interpretations o;' inadequate
data are far too common and there is Ibtle to choose
between this quasi-scientific approach, often invested
with the trappings of quantitative ecology, and the
public relations interpretation that the warm water
effluent outfall of a power plant enhances fish life.
The latter approach is based on the observation
that more fish may be caught there than in other
parts of the nearby environment. However, this
rationale fails to make it clear that perhaps the
power plant site mav be the only place at which
fishing is possible along that part of th? waterfront;
nor does it point out that nowadays such fishing is
welcomed, to promote the idea that fish are thriving
there or that a parking lot for company employees
is open to visitors who desire; to fish during off hours.
Much of the literature of physiological responses
to temperature by fishes and invertebrates is diffi-
cult to interpret without adding this kind of logic
to the confusion. Too often, experimental data is
based on restrictive conditions not typical of what
is actually happening in the environment. A lethal
temperature for sea urchins may be demonstrated
in the laboratory that is below the actual conditions
under which the species may survive at low tide in
nature, because the cooling of the animal by evapo-
ration and its access to abundant oxygen are factors
eliminated from the experimental protocol. Even
more significantly, the range of variation, the re-
bound from very warm conditions at low tide to the
daily immersion in water many degrees cooler, is
not taken into consideration. The situation is ex-
treme in estuarine and intertidal organisms; many
of these, however, are the organisms most likely
to be within range of a warm water plume from a
power plant.
It must be remembered that while there may be
no direct relation between a warm surface tempera-
ture and the organisms only a few centimeters below,
the surface layer is one of the most biologically
active regions of the sea, and that what happens in
this interface between sea and air ultimately affects
all life in the sea (Maclntyre, 1974). Thus, while
some fish or clam or other invertebrate may well
withstand the increased temperature of a power
plant and perhaps survive a trip through the con-
denser tubes, the real impact on the environment
may be of a different order entirely, subtle, not
easily measured, and not perceptible for perhaps
several years. Here in the active surface layer is the
mare incognitum of calefaction. Tentative evidence
suggests that there may be danger of interfering
with the basic productivity of the system, which
would be far more serious than Merriman's "maras-
mus of catfish."
The literature on thermal relationships of orga-
nixsms is a tide that shows no sign of ebbing. Coutant
and Goodyear (1972) listed 394 references, most of
them published during 1971. The application of
much of the experimental work to practical problems
of thermal alteration is debatable, as the authors
emphasize:
Determining the tolerance of aquatic organisms to tem-
perature extremes, both upper and lower, is a common
experimental goal which has been given new relevance
by thermal discharges from the electric power generating
industry. In principle, the data obtained should have
predictive utility for managing thermal discharges for
minimum ecological impact. . . . Critical study of the
reports published largely in 1971, however, indicated
that any predictive utility is severely hampered by the
plethora of experimental methods employed in the
laboratory and the wide divergence of the quality of
field observations. . . . Anyone wishing to use tolerance
data from most of these reports must certainly read in
its entirety the experimenter's paper in hopes of finding
a rationale for that particular methodology and the
particular limitations of results.
(Coutant and Goodyear, 1972, p. 1263.)
The barrage of impact studies, pre-operational
surveys of plant sites, and luncheon speeches circu-
lated in mimeographed form that comprise such a
large part of the soft paper literature suffer similar
defects without even the purgative of editorial
review.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
731
Natural temperature regimes, the seasonal varia-
tion from cold in winter to warm in summer, are not
consistent and undeviating from year to year, al-
though much of the discussion of thermal alteration
of the environment by human activity would imply
that the only change in the environment is that
possibly induced by human agency. As with the
terrestrial climate, however, temperature changes in
the sea vary in their onset throughout the seasons,
and often in unexpected ways which may be related
to the global climatic fluctuations. Variations in
temperature of tlr, seas are often in the order of
two or three degrees above or below the yearly aver-
age. There appears to be some relation between such
small magnitude temperature changes and the suc-
cess of major fisheries stocks; the catastrophic decline
in the abundance of the California sardine may have
been related to changing temperatures in the 1940's
along the Pacific coast of North America. We do
know, for example, that the eggs of the California
sardine hatch most rapidly at 17°C. and that a de-
crease of 1° adds six hours to the hatching time, so
that at 15° the hatching period is increased from
54 to 77 hours. It was estimated that a 3° decrease
in temperature (and since the sardine egg floats at
the surface, these are surface conditions) during the
period of hatching and development of the larvae
could decrease survival of the eggs by as much as
10 times.
The world's climate may be in a warming phase,
according to some meteorologists, whereas others
with equal reasonableness have announced that the
present warm interglacial period has about run its
course and within a few hundred years (or millenia)
tJ.e glaciers will be back. The prospect of climatic
change induced by man's industrial activities is
also seriously considered by such authorities. A num-
ber of proposals for tampering with the earth's
thermostatic system, the ocean—including the re-
arrangement of the freshwater supply of North
America, Africa, and Siberia by massive impound-
ments and canals—could have unanticipated effects
on coastal and estuarine environments of the regions
concerned, since the freshwater contribution would
be severely reduced.
Proposals for tampering with the regime of the
sea itself include the Bering Strait Dam, which
would, it is hoped, result in warming waters of the
Arctic Ocean, although some oceanographic opinion
suggests that such an effect would be masked or
negated by the natural variations of the Atlantic
water flowing into the Arctic Basin.
In view of the natural fluctuations in the sea and
possible major interrelations between events in the
northern and southern Pacific Ocean masses in par-
ticular and the climatic variations within historic
times in many parts of the ocean, one may well ask
why we should be concerned at all over a little
calefaction. The problem is that our meddling with
the climate, inadvertent or deliberate, may result
in temperature anomalies that are out of phase with
environmental events. This is essentially what hap-
pened in England where an attempt was made to
domesticate the eastern American hard shell clam
(quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria) in the warm efflu-
ent of a power plant adjacent to a sewage treatment
works. Here was a situation where everything seemed
right: a source of warm water, a source, of carbon
dioxide, and nutrients for plant growth. But the
larvae of the clams could not be held in place, and
were produced out of phase with the natural cycle
of the adjacent sea.
It should be emphasized also that maintenance
of stable temperatures in such situations may depend
on the operating conditions in the power plant, that
such conditions depend on the demands of industries
and municipalities, and that these demands may at
times conflict with the seasonal requirements. During
the summer, for example, power demand may be
reduced and the schedule of plant operation reduced,
with a resultant drop in delta T at the outfall; on a
cold upwelling coast such as Oregon, where up-
welling is most intense in midsummer, it might
prove uneconomical to operate in accord with the
temperature demands of the local shrimp or mussel
farm.
Or, for that matter, to maintain artificially altered
local environmental conditions for the benefit of the
acclimated fauna. This is illustrated by an episode
in the Chesapeake Bay where fish, attracted to a
warm water effluent, were killed by cold water
during a shutdown of the power plant in winter.
Our present knowledge of the subtle and intricate
relations of life within the environmental ranges of
temperatures in which they have evolved and be-
come adapted is inadequate to reassure us that even
a little calefaction can do no harm. In his effort to
reassure us that the warm water effluent of the
Haddam's Neck power plant is doing no real harm
to the environment or its biota, Merriman (1970b)
nevertheless suggested that the present limits were,
about as far as we should go. Certainly we can exceed
biological limits with very little increase in temper-
ature in the tropics where the marine biota is already
living near its upper limits of tolerance. Who knows
what the effects of warming the Arctic might be
upon slow-growing organisms adapted to low tem-
peratures? Inevitably, artificial calefaction will be
subject to fluctuations because of the added pertur-
bations and off-and-on phases associated with opera-
-------
732
ESTTJARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
tion of the associated machinery. The limits of
calefaction may be much lower than we think.
From the viewpoint of a naturalist, it may not be
only the amount of temperature change we may
bring about, but the rate of such changes which
may have unforeseen consequences on the biota of
our coastal seas and estuaries. So much of our data
is tentative or applicable only to individual speci-
mens or species that we must be conservative about
the effects of potential calefaction upon communities
or the interactions of animals in nature. We are
told that '"'we do not have the time to wait" for
such understanding, which is the same as saying
"we do not have the time to consider the conse-
quences of our action." Such anthropocentric arro-
gance! Do we really have the authority to tell the
rest of organic life that their future is contingent
upon our immediate understanding of what our
needs may be?
It must be reemphasized that, with respect to
tampering with the phenomena of nature, the view-
point of the naturalist is profoundly different from
that of the engineer. The engineer approaches such
problems with an attitude of complacence, or with
the assumption that if what we do is bad, we can
change or stop what we are doing. The naturalist
knows that life is not a reversible process—an envi-
ronment to some extent, and a species absolutely,
once destroyed, cannot be restored. A "try it and
see" attitude about any pollutant inimical to life
processes is profoundly dangerous. Calefaction can-
not be considered an exception, even where it might
seem most permissible, in our coastal waters. The
naturalist can only view changes in temperature as
he does all pollutants, as potentially damaging unless
proven otherwise.
SEWAGE: ORGANIC POLLUTION
Pollution of rivers and estuaries by man's effluvia
has been with us since the establishment of cities,
but wholesale release of wastes in liquid form as
domestic sewage is a comparatively new environ-
mental factor. To the extent that sewage consists of
readily biodegradable or natural substances, its ef-
fects may not be irreversible and, in time, estuary
systems heavily polluted by sewage may recover.
Recovery is apparently now happening in the
Thames River, which, a century ago, was a foul-
smelling distressing mess, but to which fish are now
returning. This is not to say that we can continue
to pollute estuaries indefinitely with sev/age, under
the notion that, once we stop, all will be well.
Excess production of blooms and large biomasses
of not-altogether, desirable species may result in the
Primary Organic Pollution
PO P
Nondecomposed organic matter of
organic effluents
Environmental modifications
(pH, CO2, O2, turbidity, certain
I toxic ity, sedimentation etc
Nutrients P, N, Micro-
elements, Vitamins, other
biologically active com-
pounds
Community modifications
"I
Diversity decrease
Reduction of I Reduction of
consumption .J. competition
Climax development of few
specialist-species
Secondary Organic Pollution
SOP
Increase in total productivity
Surplus in total organic matter
;
Decomposition processes aerobic
I
Oxygen depletion
I
Decomposition processes anaerobic
I
Secondary toxicity of pollution
I
Mass mortalities and temporary or
permanently azooic conditions
FIGURE 1.—Schematic presentation of processes of organic
pollution arid its consequences in marine environment
(Stirn, 1973).
extirpation or elimination of more valuable species
to such an extent that their return to a revitalized
estuary may be long delayed or impossible (Figure
1). Bascom (1974) has suggested that the ocean is
the best place for our effluents, but it is still too
early to be certain that massive releases of excess
material will be processed for us by the ocean with-
out some damage or alteration of the natural system.
In any event, we have come to the position that
estuaries are not the best place for untreated sewage
outfalls. There seems to be no deleterious effect of
disposing unprocessed human sewage in the cold
waters of Cook Inlet, Alaska; at least, the major
factor in the inlet is tidal exchange, rather than
biological processes within the system. However,
the capacity of the inlet is said to be finite, and not
adequately understood (Murphy, 1972).
It is often pointed out that we may be wasting
valuable material by open ocean disposal and that
excess discharges into bays must be prevented. A
recent statement of the case for use of our wastes in
mariculture is that of Joze Stirn (1973):
In my opinion, a theoretically ideal solution for sewage
disposal would follow these requirements: effluents
should not have a destructive influence upon marine
ecosystems, which happens as a rule in quite large
territories encircling underwater outfalls, and they
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
733
should not accelerate uncontrolled and useless eutrophi-
cation, which is also the case whether the effluents have
been previously treated or not. This leads to undesirable
changes, including aesthetical and sanitary ones, par-
ticularly and in a drastic way, in shallow coastal waters,
i.e., in these parts to which the recreational activities
and with them the important growth of the national
economies as well are focused.
Sewage-born nutrients, including biologically active
organic compounds, should be saved and returned to
bioproductive processes in a way which could enable
their utilization as food for the growing human popula-
tion .... an optimal solution might be found within a
potential possibility of developing a combined treatment-
mariculture technology. There is of course no ambition
of using this idea as a universal suggestion, which it
cannot be, among others, because of a particular reason:
for every coastal mariculture, an adequate geomorpho-
logical formation (bay, fjord, estuary, abolished salinas,
lagoon) has to exist, available for this purpose, and out
of competition of space with more rentable industries.
Considering the Mediterranean or similar areas (where
the mariculture has to be promoted anyway), we are
dealing from this point of view with an enormous num-
ber of adequate geomorphological formations, located
as a rule just in the economically passive (excluding
tourism) territories, many of them desert, whether real
ones in the south or karstic barelands in the north and
in the east.
Such direct use of organic wastes in maricultural
projects will not of course take care of all the organic
wastes generated by man and processed in sewage
plants, and use of solid wastes on land has been and
should continue to be a significant application of
this valuable resource. Nevertheless, we have not
progressed far since the extravagant waste of this
valuable resource in France was so eloquently de-
nounced by Victor Hugo in "Les Miserables :"3
Paris throws five millions a year into the sea. And this
without metaphor. How, and in what manner? day and
night. With what object? without any object. With
what thought? without thinking of it. For what return?
for nothing. By means of what organ? by means of its
intestine. What is its intestine? its sewer.
We fit out convoys of ships, at great expense, to gather
up at the south pole the droppings of petrels and pen-
guins, and the incalculable element of wealth which we
have under our own hand, we send to the sea. All the
human and animal manure which the world loses, re-
stored to the land instead of being thrown into the
water, would suffice to nourish the world.
Sea disposal of recyclable organic wastes is not
the extravagance that Hugo supposed, however, for
we do owe the sea some of its substance and the
steady drain of protein from the sea in our great
fisheries should be repaid. But it is not economical
to take it back to Peru, so we dump it into the sea
at New York, Los Angeles, and other great maritime
centers of population. A far greater waste would be
1 "Les Miserables" was published in 1862. The two paragraphs quoted
are a small part of the panegyric to the sewers of Paris, from Jean Valjean,
the last book of the novel.
to discharge purified fresh water into the sea, yet
some water quality requirements have approached
this extravagant ultimate.
ALL OTHER CHEMICALS
We throw everything soluble (and often the in-
soluble substances as well) into our streams and
estuaries; our rivers may "wind somewhere safe to
sea," but with a burden of substances alien to the
environment as man knew it barely 200 years ago.
The era of affluence and effluence is still in its
beginning and, while it may not last much longer
even in the terms of human history, the potential
damage from the complex of chemical wastes we
are producing is incalculable. Even in the terms of
a human Hfespan, the effects of a particular sub-
stance are difficult to assess, because it may take
25 or 30 years for a cancerous condition related to
some substance to develop, or at least to be noticed.
We do not know what we are doing, yet if every-
thing does not turn up dead because of some chem-
ical we discard into the estuary, we seem to think
we can continue to dump it.
There seems little point in discussing all the pos-
sible kinds of chemicals individually (as opposed to
natural or quasi-natural organic substances that re-
sult from the excretion or dearth of organisms); they
include the unusable or economically unretrievable
wastes of our advanced and complicated chemical
industry as it operates along our watercourses—
from pulp mills to petrochemicals from the growing
plastics industry. This last industry, it might be
noted, is based on the wastage of resources in all
sorts of plastic accessories and containers, and evi-
dently assumes free disposal of all this junk to the
environment. It may not be long before the most
common object dredged from our estuaries will be
the plastic ballpoint and felt-tip pen cases that are
produced by the millions. It is now impossible to
walk along an ocean shore without finding a few on
any given day. I have picked up disposable syringes
and discarded ballpoints at Punta Espinosa in the
Galapagos; discarded, I am sorry to say, by visiting
scientists.
Toward the closing years of World War II, we
released four categories of pollutants into the envi-
ronment which we now realize as deleterious to life:
radioactive isotopes from military and industrial
uses, antibiotics (sulfa drugs and others), insecti-
cides (such as DDT), and detergents. To these Four
Horsemen of the Ecological Apocalypse, we have
since added a Fifth, the effluvia of our plastics
industry, the polychlorinated biphenols, chlorides,
and all the solid bits and pieces that are now turning
-------
734
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
up in the surface layers of the ocean, far from land.
It is difficult to decide which substance may produce
new and greater dangers to aquatic life. Many of
them persist for years, and may surface in un-
expected places with unanticipated effects. It is not
easy to estimate the significance of potential pol-
lutants in the sea and estuaries, as indicated 03^ a
recent study conducted by the National Academy
of Science (Goldberg, et al., 1974).
Always remember that we develop pesticides and
herbicides to kill things. We apply tons of them to
farmlands, gardens, and marshlands every year; by
1972, 390 or more kinds of chemicals were used to
kill or control unwanted organisms. It says some-
thing for the ecological viability of many of these
pests that we must continue to use noxious sub-
stances to get them out of our way; at the same
time, we risk destruction of other forms of life which
we may not be able to afford to lose from our envi-
ronment in the long run. As for the pests, their
ecological viability depends primarily on the ideal
conditions we have set up for them, especially in our
vast areas of single crop agriculture. Conversely,
we must also add fertilizers to keep the crops grow-
ing, and if we do not continue this double jeopardy
of fertilizers and biocides, the whole artificial system
collapses into the diversified but less immediately
productive system of undeveloped or preindustrial-
ized agriculture.
As we continue to keep our chemists busy develop-
ing new and more deadly substances, the danger
that we may develop some universal biocide in-
creases. Insecticides developed specifically to kill
arthropods may in time kill off many arthropods
in estuaries and seas; some herbicides may sterilize
a stream of all arthropod life. Yet, too often we
find out about the effects of these substances after
they have been tried out, not before. It i? admittedly
difficult to decide what effect, if any, new sub-
stances being synthesized and put to use may have;
for one thing, many industries keep their processes
private and it is difficult to determine what some
proprietary substance is, or what processes may
produce dangerous chemicals. The long generation
time of some diseases in man and of the induction
of ecological imbalances also make estimation of the
effect of a newly-synthesized chemical difficult.
In a general way, the chemical pollution of estu-
aries consists of the following kinds of substances:
1. Heavy metals, e.g., mercury, zinc, copper, cad-
mium, primarily from industry, but in some cases,
as probably in San Francisco Bay, much of the
mercury detected in sediments may come from drain-
ages through cinnabar-rich deposits in the region.
An increasing source of heavy metals is from mal-
functioning heat exchangers; in one recent incident,
enough copper was released from the tubing of the
condenser of the nuclear power plant being con-
structed at Diablo Canyon on the California coast
to kill large numbers of abalone (San Francisco
Chronicle, January 24, 197")).
2. Mill wastes. The effluents of pulp mills consist
of sulfate or sulfite liquors, indigestible wood parti-
cles (lignin) and other substances; often, the exact
composition of the wastes is considered a proprietary
secret, as it would betray the nature of the proc-
ess. Steel mills may release cyanides, phenols and
ammonia.
3. Refinery effluent usually consists of volatile
hydrocarbons; crude oil is in a special category and
may produce a catastrophic environmental mess in
confined waters, although direct long-term damage
is not easily measured. Some fractions such as diesel
or heating oil act differently from the rest, moving
into the bottom sediment and persisting in a condi-
tion hazardous to benthic life for many years.
4. Pesticides, herbicides, and, other agricultural run-
off. In some regions, as predicted for San Francisco
Bay, there may be added the salinized agricultural
runoff water from irrigated fields. A new addition
to synthetic organics are artificial pheromones, sub-
stances that act like hormones and upset the natural
sexual cycles of insects. Some of these may be
dangerous to marine anthropods in very low concen-
trations, but they are only now being investigated.
5. Chemical processing plant wastes. Ours is an era
of chemistry and the kinds of pollutants from our
vast and complex industry are legion. They include
acids, alcohols, all sorts of inorganic salts, and chem-
ically inert materials that may interfere with filter
feeding organisms. (The effect of taconite processing
wastes could be very different from that in Lake
Superior, for example.) Many chemicals are neu-
tralized or rendered inert by interaction with sea-
water in more saline estuary conditions; others may
become dangerous to life.
6. Litter. Bits of flotsam and jetsam have always
been with us, but a new feature of our culture is the
vast amount of material that is for the most part
chemically inert, and reducible, if at all, by mechan-
ical action. The surface of the oceans almost every-
where is littered with small pieces of plastic and
the shores of estuaries are an unsightly mess of
plastic receptacles, parts of toy., ballpoint pens, and
sheets of plastic. Cans, bottles, and boxes degrade
in time, but such things as the bridles for six packs
of beverage may persist for years. None of this is
pleasing to the eye and its effect on organisms, other
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
735
than physical entrapment or clogging the alimentary
tract, is yet to be determined.
Obviously, it is impractical to monitor all the
substances being released into the environment, es-
pecially when the presence or nature of some of
them are unknown. One would like to have everyone
assume, as good biologists should, that until proved
harmless, a new substance should not be released
in the environment for any purpose, and perhaps
this is done on some other planet in some other
galaxy, but not on the only planet we have.
OIL
So far, there have been few oil spills in estuaries;
the spectacular Santa Barbara incident of 1969 oc-
curred on the open coast. Fortunately, most of the
spillage from the tanker collision at the mouth of
San Francisco Bay on January 8, 1971, passed out
of the bay, but major spill, and leakage from in-
creased loading and unloading operations in busy
ports is inevitable. Small leakages, in the order of
perhaps several barrels a day, are considered a nor-
mal part of operations in an oil port, and such
leakages are predicted for Port Valdez in Alaska
when tankers will be loaded from the end of the
Alaska pipeline. The example of what is happening
in Bantry Bay on the west coast of Ireland is not
reassuring. There have as yet been no adequate
studies of the effects of such chronic pollution; most
of our major ports have been subjected to this sort
of thing for so long that no baseline is available
from which to judge such effects. Port Valdez would
be an ideal site for a baseline study, before the oil-
loading facilities become operational.
Few harbors in North America are adequate for
the massive new supertankers which may draw
more than 60 feet when loaded; recently, a medium-
sized (100,000 tons, dead weight) tanker was un-
loaded in San Francisco Bay at Richmond, but it
was necessary to transfer three 15,000 tanker-loads
from the large tanker before the ship could be moved
to the dock. This sort of thing means more dangers
from spillage with increased handling and, eventu-
ally, from an expensive fire along a commercial
waterfront.
Unloading oil at refineries or pipelines is not the
only source of potential pollution; many large power
plants have their own oil docks, or plan to increase
their facilities. For example, the Pacific Gas and
Electric Company has applied for a permit from the
Corps of Engineers to dredge 56,000 cubic yards
from San Francisco Bay, to increase the capacity
of its dock at Pittsburgh, some miles up the bay
beyond Carquinez Strait. At the present time, tank-
ers of 30,000 tons dead weight can be accommo-
dated; the increased depth would make it possible
for tankers of 70,000 tons dead weight to unload.
One cannot of course afford to spill oil these days,
and doubtless every precaution would be taken to
prevent loss, but the public was riot reassured to
have the company attorney state that no expansion
of dock facilities was planned for the Pittsburgh
dock, at the same time the permit was being applied
for. Such lack of communication within the company
suggests operational difficulties could develop at the
peril of the environment.
Puget Sound will be especially vulnerable to tanker
accidents, because of the narrow passages to the
proposed facilities near Bellingharn and the density
of maritime traffic. In anticipation of the potential
difficulties in the region, a group of students and
instructors at the University of Washington at-
tempted to assess the problem and recommend pro-
cedures in the event of a major oil spill. The resulting
document, "Oil on Puget Sound: an Interdisciplinary
Study in Systems Engineering" (University of Wash-
ington Press, 1972), is a most instructive analysis
of the problems, first of all of getting any accurate
idea of the present magnitude of oil loss in Puget
Sound and, most significantly, in revealing the lack
of any coordinated plan or procedure to cope with
the situation. These problems are concisely stated
in the preface to this bulky contribution, and the
statement can serve for other ports and estuaries
in the United States as well:
The objectives set forth at the beginning of the study
were to define the oil spill problem in Puget Sound and
to formulate a model for the solution of the problem.
The study group discovered, as the study progressed,
that identifying the sources and consequences of oil
spills was a most time-consuming task. If solving a
problem warrants a ten dollar reward, then definition
of that problem should be worth at least one hundred
dollars. At least, this was the sentiment of the group
upon completion of their study. Thus, the primary
efforts of the students were in collecting, analyzing, and
evaluating data on Puget Sound and its related oil
industry. It was only after completion of this tedious
task that a meaningful solution could emerge.
*****
For the results of this study to evolve into an effective
solution to the oil spill problem, the organizations in-
volved, and the people within them, must consent
willingly to change. Nothing could be worse than blindly
instituting some legislation, technique, or procedure
without fully understanding or accepting the overall
impact of its activation. Too often, such fragmented
actions are taken to obtain short run, narrow solutions
to problems without evaluating the bigger picture.
Historically, plans to cope with oil spills have emerged
as the aftermath of disasters, or have been formulated
in a vacuum, without considering the implication or
consequence of such plans. Therefore, the most impor-
tant message of this report is: The environmental preser-
-------
736
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
vation of the Puget Sound region requires ike coordinated
effort of all responsible and capable parties, whether they
represent society or industry.
(Vagners et al., 1972.)
It is to be hoped, as oil becomes more expensive
and scarce, that economics will force more concern
and less wastage if environmental concerns remain
ineffective. Public concern was increased in the
Puget Sound region by a scries of articles in the
Seattle Post Intelligencer during the tast week of
October 1974, which concluded with the question
of the value of Puget Sound itself—is K worth the
risk of a catastrophic oil spill, or do the "benefits"
of massive oil commerce offset such a loss? Senator
Magnuson, running for reelection, evidently sensed
the public sentiment by taking the public position
that the big tankers must be kept out or the inland
waters of Puget Sound.
Attention was called during this controversy to
the large oil spill from the tanker Metula in the
Straits of Magellan; a more recent account suggests
that the results of this spill, which occurred on
August 9, 1974, may persist for years (Washington
Post, Feb. 19, 1975). Because of the remoteness of
the area and the expense, the government of Chile
has been unable to make any attempt to clean up
the 18 million gallons of oil. Obviously, these vast
tankers should be kept to the open sea and broad,
easily navigated harbors. Our estuaries do not meet
these criteria.
SUMMARY
Since this review is essentially a summary of vari-
ous factors degrading estuaries, a summary seems
hardly necessary. If there is any conclusion to draw
from this recital of estuarine ills, it is that much of
what has happened to our estuaries is the result of
our obsession with managing this most valuable of
interface environments from the viewpoint of some
specific use desired by man, or that planning pana-
cea, "multiple purpose." Our recognition of en-
vironmental quality, of the need for maintaining
"environmental integrity," suggests that our pri-
mary concern should be to manage estuaries on
their own terms, as natural environments. Such
management is inhibited by ecological ignorance or
misunderstanding and, especially in most large estu-
aries, by conflicting jurisdictions and interests, by
refusal of various local governmental sigencies, as
well as state and federal jurisdictions, to surrender
sovereignty for the good of the natural system as a
whole. All the mechanical (filling, dredging, diver-
sion) and chemical pollution of our estuaries is
exacerbated by our incomplete understanding of
ecological processes and the confused idea that cost-
benefit ratios and trade-offs are intelligent manage-
ment policies. Such concepts have no real meaning
in the maintenance of natural conditions in the
environment. It follows that most of our problems
with estuaries (and of course with everything else)
rise out of our own inadequacies and shortcomings,
prompted by our anthropocentric concerns.
It is symptomatic of our present state of knowl-
edge of estuarine management that Perkins (1974)
in his text on the biology of estuaries, should devote
more than 90 pages (including a list of 402 refer-
ences) to biological effects of waste disposal, and
six pages (with 10 references) to management.
One should not, however, stand too long at the
wailing wall, but hope that we can learn to manage
our estuaries without altering them for the worst.
We have abundant information to help us in under-
standing many of our estuaries. What we need is
respect for them as unique and significant environ-
ments; as I have stated in another context, we
should develop an "estuarine conscience," a concern
for estuaries on their own terms, not on ours, and
get on with the task:
The continued reliance upon consultants and other ad-
visers to produce development plans, management
studies, and proposals for monitoring programs are di-
verting funds from needed activities. The broad national
policy is that estuaries must be preserved and main-
tained, and it is time that we began to do just that.
(Hedgpeth, 1973.)
To put it more concisely, we have recognized that
estuaries are places for life, not death, the places
where the rivers should come safely to the sea.
REFERENCES
Adams, J. R., D. G. Price, and F. L. Clogston. 1974. An evalu-
ation of the effect of Morro Bay power plant cooling water
discharge on the intertidal macroinvertebrate community.
Pacific Gas & Electric Company, Dept. of Engineering
Research, San Ramon, Calif. April 1947 mimeo.
Bascom, W. 1974. Disposal of Waste in the Ocean. Sci. Amer.
231(2): 16-25. Aug. 24, 1974.
California Department of Water Resources. 1947. Draft
Environmental Impact Report. Peripheral Canal Project.
Sections separately paged. Aug. 1974.
Coutant. C. C. and C. P. Goodyear. 1972. Thermal Effects.
Jour. Water Poll. Control. Fed. 44(6): 1250-1294.
Dee, N. et al. 1972. Environmental evaluation system for
water resource planning. Batelle Columbus Laboratories.
NTIS, PB-208 822.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
737
Ghiselin, M. T. 1974. The Economy of Nature and the
Evolution of Sex. Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkeley.
Gilbert, G. K. 1917. Hydraulic mining debris in the Sierra
Nevada. U.S. Geolog. Survey Professional Paper: 105-154.
Goldberg, E. A. et al. 1974. Assessing potential ocean pol-
lutants. Nt. Acad.. of Sciences, Ocean Affairs Bd.
Hedgpeth, J. W. 1973. Protection of environmental quality
in estuaries. Chap. 13 in Environmental Quality and Water
Development. Ed. by C. R. Goldman, J. McEvoy III, and
P. J. Eicherson. W. II. Freeman, San Francisco: 233-249.
Hesse, H. 1927. Steppenwolf, Eng. transl. 1929.
Maclntyre, F. 1974. The top millimeter of the ocean. Sci.
Amer. 230(5): 62.
Marsh, G. P. 1964. Man and Nature. Belknap Library, Har-
vard University Press, 1965 reprint. Ed. by D. Lowenthal.
Merriman, D. 1970a. The Caiefaction of a River. Sci. Amer.
222(5): 42-52.
Merriman, D. 1970b. Does industrial calefaction jeopardize
the ecosystem of a long tidal river? Preprint IAEA/SM-
146/31, Symposium on environmental aspects of nuclear
power stations. International Atomic Energy Agency, U.A.,
New York, 10-14 Aug. 1970.
Murphy, S. R. (ed.) 1972. Effect of Waste Discharges into a
Silt-laden Elstuary. A Case-study of Cook Inlet, Alaska.
Univ. of Alaska Institute of Water Resources.
Odum, W. E. 1970. Insidious alteration of the estuarine en-
vironment. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 1970(4): 836-847.
Olson, M. C. '1974. The Hot River Valley. The Nation, Aug.
3, 1974.
Perkins, E. J. 1974. The Biology of Estuaries and Coastal
Waters. London, New York. Academic Press.
Shaler, N. S. 1906. Man and the Earth. Fox, Duffield & Co.
New York.
Stirn, J. 1973. Organic pollution as the main factor causing
biological disequilibria in coastal waters. Archo. Ocenogr.
Limnol. 18 (suppl.): 111-119.
Taylor, J. L. and C. H. Saloman. 1968. Some effects of hy-
draulic dredging and coastal development in Boca Ciega
Bay, Fla. Fish. Bull. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. 67(2):
213-124, 13 figs.
Vagners, J. (supervised by) and P. Mar (coordinated by).
1972. Oil on Puget Sound. An Interdisciplinary Study in
Systems Engineering. Washington Sea Grant Publication.
Univ. of Wash. Press.
Weinberg, A. M. and R. P. Hammond. 1970. Limits to the
use of energy. Amer. Scientist, 58: 412—118, 3 figs.
-------
INTERACTIONS OF POLLUTANTS
WITH THE USES
OF ESTUARIES
L EUGENE CRONIN
University of Maryland
Cambridge, Maryland
ABSTRACT
Twelve principal uses are made of estuaries, providing exceptional value to human interests.
In the United States every one of these uses is expected to increase in the next 20 years above
its present high level. At present, at least 16 major classes of pollutants are placed in estuaries,
with effects that range from minor inconvenience to serious reduction in the usefulness of the
system for other purposes. Some present pollutants have high potential for beneficial introduction
if the quantity, site, and characteristics of the material are appropriate.
In this overview, the uses and pollutants are identified, the trend for each is noted, the principal
deleterious effects of pollutants in coastal waters are summarized, and visual summaries are
presented to suggest which of the uses may be affected by each class of pollutant.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this report is to identify the princi-
pal uses of estuaries and the significant pollutants
entering estuaries in the United States, and to indi-
cate which of the uses are likely to be affected by
each pollutant. It is intended that this information
be presented with both technical accuracy and ease
of comprehension. Such a summary is necessarily
limited to the broad national situation, and must be
applied with care and local information to any
estuary. The method for such loeal use will be sug-
gested.
The International Oceanographic Commission
(IOC) for the United Nations' Educational and
Scientific Commission (UNESCO) defines pollution
as: Introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of
substances into the marine environment (including
estuaries) resulting in such deleterious effects as harm,
to living resources, hazards to human health, or hin-
drance to marine activities (including fishing], im-
pairing the quality for use of seawater and reduction
of amenities. (Ketchum. 1972)
This definition will be used in subsequent dis-
cussion, with the interpretations that "substance"
includes heat and that the term "oxygen demand" is
employed as a short substitute for "substances which
increase chemical or biological demand for oxygen."
This definition requires that one of the diverse
uses that man makes of the aquatic area is or is
likely to be deletoriously affected. Therefore, it
seems reasonable and constructive to summarize
the uses of the estuary and illustrate which of them
might be damaged by each important class of pollut-
ing substances.
This presentation draws upon many of the other
reports presented at this conference to help identify
the principal present uses of estuaries, distinguish
the most important pollutants at this time, and
discuss some of the significant trends in both uses
and pollution.
THE PRINCIPAL USES OF ESTUARIES
The values which estuaries serve in relation to
human activities have been summarized rather
frequently in recent years, and it ia helpful to review
the listings developed. They are presented m Ap-
pendix A. It is apparent that these lists were pre-
pared for various purposes and from diverse points
of view. They have been employed to assist the
preparation of a fresh listing which attempts to
include all significant uses in the simplest set which
is adequate and accurate.
Table 1 presents my listing of principal general
uses of estuaries in the United States. Each of these
is important to the people of the nation. However,
subclasses of some of these uses merit specific at-
tention, even in this national overview, since the
effects of pollutants can be substantially different
between the subclasses. For instance, recreational
use for boating is not likely to be harmed directly
by some of the chemical pollutants which may de-
stroy fishing or hunting. Therefore, a limited number
of subordinate categories has been chosen and in-
cluded in Table 2, Principal Specific Uses.
739
-------
740
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Table 1.—Principal general uses of estuaries
Commercial Shipping
Shoreline Development
Recreation and Aesthetics
Mining
Electricity Generation
Water Extraction
Military Purposes
Research and Education
Climate Contro
Biological Harvest
Preservation
Waste Placement
Commercial shipping, involving many kinds of ves-
sels, increased substantially in recent decades to a
level of 1.6 billion tons in 1972, and is projected to
continue that trend in the foreseeable future
(Langlois, 1975). The NES forecasts predict in-
creased commercial shipping in all eight case study
estuaries (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970).
Table 2.—Principal specific uses of estuaries
Commercial Shipping
Shoreline Development
A. For Residences
B. For Industry
C. For Recreation
Recreation and Aesthetics
A. Boating
B. Swimming, Surfing, Sunning
C. Hunting
D. Fishing
E. Aesthetic Enjoyment
Mining
A. Aggregates
B. Oil and Gas
Electricity Generation
Water Extractioi
Military Purposss
Research and Education
Climate Control
Biological Harvest
A. Food
B. Industrial Materials
Preservation
A. Species
B. Ecosystems
C. Productive y
D. Other Features
Waste Placement
A. Human Westes
B. Industrial Wastes
The intensity and value of each use varies widely
for the 850 estuaries of the nation, and each system
merits analysis and management on a specific and
individual basis. For such analysis, these tables
provide checklists to be culled and applied appropri-
ately.
Each of the principal and specific uses is briefly
discussed in the following pages, with notes on
magnitude and trends if information is available.
Extensive additional information is available in
"The National Estuarine Pollution Study" (Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, 1969) and
especially in other papers presented at tHs confer-
ence. "The National Estuary Study" of the Fish
and Wildlife Service (1970), in its Appendix G,
provided predictions (which will be called NES
forecasts) of uses for selected estuaries including
Penobscot Bay, Delaware Bay, Charleston Harbor,
Tampa Bay, Galveston Bay, Newport Bay (Gal.),
San Francisco Bay, Yaquina Bay. Puget S.iund, and
Cook Inlet. These and other projections are noted
below.
Commercial Shipping
The estuaries include every port in the nation,
since offshore ports have not yet been developed.
Therefore, all surface import and export, as well as
all coastal and local traffic by ships, tankers, and
barges, involve estuaries. The great poastal cities
were sited as they are because of estuarine shipping,
and continue to be dependent on such transport.
Shoreline Development
Construction and other engineering of the shallow
floor, shoreline, and adjacent land mass have been
intensive around ever.y coastal city, and extensive as
thousands of miles of estuarine edge have been modi-
fied for residential and recreational use. The popula-
tion of the United States is rapidly shifting to the
coastal area with resultant intensification of such
development (Belcher, 1975). Exceptional growth
in populations is expected to continue in coastal
regions (Belcher, 1975), so that such alterations are
likely to increase.
Conservation has been apparent recently in
managing wetland conversion and, indeed, all modi-
fications of estuarine edges. This backlash to the
almost ungoverned development of such areas is
presently slowing the changes. The uncertainties of
economic probabilities and legislative predilection
preclude useful forecasting of specific trends.
FOR RESIDENCES
These include permanent homes, part-time cot-
tages, and campsites. They frequently involve altera-
tions from grading and construction and the use of
bulkheads and piers for land protection and recrea-
tion. The quality of sites for use for residences usually
depends on the aesthetic quality of the estuary and
surrounding lands, and secondarily on potentials for
such activities as fishing and boating. Belcher's
summary of recent trends for the eastern seaboard
suggests that residential use of estuarine edges is
likely to be increased by the shift of population, by
more leisure, by early retirement, by the growth of
commuting, by the trend toward more dwelling
units per family group, and by the quest for a new
quality of life with more contact with nature. In all
of eight specific estuaries, increased residential
development is expected (Fish arid Wildlife Service,
1970).
FOR INDUSTRY
This development covers waterfront facilities
(deepwater, piers, intake and effluent structures,
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
741
bulkheads, fills and specialized structures) and on-
land buildings, transportation systems, utilities,
and other appurtenances. No statistical summary of
recent and prospective trends is available to me, but
future use for these purposes seems likely to be
substantially affected by nationwide efforts to zone
coastal activities. NES forecasts project greater
industrial development in all of the eight example
estuaries studied (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970).
FOR RECREATION
Public and private parks and beaches are included
here, as well as camping areas, facilities to support
boating, and other installations. The use of estuarine
shores and waters for recreation is very large and
expected to grow (Kalter, 1975), and the develop-
ment of associated facilities is expected to follow
parallel trends. Kalter summarizes from Adams
et al., 1973, relevant data on recreational activity
and expected demand in all of the BEA areas ad-
jacent to estuarine zones. This totaled over 500 mil-
lion activity days in 1972, not all on estuaries. Every
activity (boating, swimming, nature walks, fishing,
water skiing) is expected to increase from 1972 to
1975 for each of the 37 estuarine areas documented
in the 1972 survey. Kalter notes that the demand for
facilities is unlikely to vary much from the demand
forecast based on population and that facility supply
is the balance wTheel to the demand. Significant varia-
tion is apparent by region and by types of recreation,
and change in preference is expected. The national
trend of development for this use is strongly pre-
dicted. Recreation also is expected to increase in each
of the eight case study estuaries in NES forecasts.
Recreation and Aesthetics
Use of estuaries for personal pleasure and refresh-
ment takes many forms in the almost infinite variety
of specific situations which exist in, on, and around
such bays and waterways. Predictions for continued
increases in population movement to, and personal
use of, estuarine areas provide similar prediction of
greater recreational and aesthetic use. Brief addi-
tional comment on each selected subclass of use is
appropriate.
BOATING
This category is widely diversified, from dinghys
and paddleboats through canoes, rowboats, kayaks,
pirogues, small to large outboards, sailing vessels,
houseboats, and barges, to yachts from modest to
palatial. Kalter reports that 49,045,000 days in-
volved boating in the U.S. BEA areas adjacent to
estuarine zones in 1972, and that every area is ex-
pected to increase by 1978, with an average of 17
percent. All eight case estuaries are predicted to
undergo increased boating (Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice, 1970).
SWIMMING, SURFING, SUNNING
The variety of pleasant activities along the beach
and in or on water needs no definition. This combina-
tion of activities is, according to Kalter, the largest
recreational activity in the BEA areas adjacent to
estuarine zones, involving at least 250,000,000 person
days in 1972. By 1978, increases of 12 percent
for swimming and 14 percent for skiing are forecast
by Adams (1973).
HUNTING
Waterfowl, shorebirds, game mammals, and
reptiles are all hunted for recreation. Irby (1972)
notes the dependence of many of these on the estu-
ary and their presence in many different estuarine
habitats. Bird hunting can involve use of several
estuaries at once since many species are highly mi-
gratory and may reproduce, feed and rest on different
bodies of water—all of which are necessary. No data
are at hand on the extent of use of estuaries for
hunting, on recent trends, or on future probabilities.
FISHING
Angling, with gear ranging from the simplest hook
and line to the complex rigs used for giant carnivores,
is popular on all coasts. Clark (1975) summarizes
data from a 1970 survey by the National Marine
Fisheries Service to note that 10,000,000 coastal
anglers caught 350,000,000 fish along the coasts and
468,000,000 in estuaries—which provide essential
support for many or most of the coastal catch. From
1960-1970, participants increased by 50 percent. Ad-
ditional data provided by Kalter describe 110,000,000
fishing days in 1972 in BEA zbnes adjacent to estu-
aries and project a 9 percent increase by 1978. NES
forecasts predict greater fishing in all eight sample
estuaries (Fish and Wildlife, 1970). Bollman (1975)
expects increase in value of the fish caught, of the
social activity, and of related goods and services.
As with cominercial harvests discussed below, it is
important to note that estuaries are essential breed-
ing and nursery grounds for most of the coastal
-------
742
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
species and provide necessary migratory pathways
for a wide variety of fish.
AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT
Visual pleasure from water and shores; lazing in
the environs of estuary; observing birds, olants and
animals; and a great variety of other uses engaging
the senses and emotions are widely enjoyed. Counts
and measurements of such use are difficult to
obtain—and not easily separated from other recrea-
tional uses. Kalter provides one index, reporting
that nature walks involved over 62,000,0(10 activity
days in 1972 and may increase 14 percent by 1978.
As for other uses, fuel expense or shortage may en-
hance such usage for those nearby, and reduce it for
those who must travel.
Mining
Sand, gravel, oil, gas, shell, and commercially
useful quantities of various chemicals occur under
estuaries as under many other surfaces on the earth.
Except for such biogenic deposits as shells of estu-
arine molluscs or of coral, their presence has no
relationship to the existence of the estuaries, with
which they are in accidental coincidence. The uses
of such materials have varied, and probably will
vary, as different materials become useful, as tech-
niques for locating and extracting minable substances
are improved and as more easily accessible sources on
land become partially or completely exhausted.
Estuarine mining is now relatively limited, and Riggs
(1975) points out that our knowledge of the po-
tentials of both estuaries and the continental shelves
is presently only superficial.
AGGREGATES
For the purpose of this summary, and at some
variance with geological terminology, this includes
surface and near-surface sediments, gravels, sands,
clays, shells, and chemicals. Biggs describes the
huge American demand for some of the materials
and the difficulties of making reliable estimates of
estuarine production, and notes that increased
populations near estuaries are highly likely to in-
crease demand for the exploitation of useful deposits.
Shell deposits by oysters, brackish-water clams, and
other species have many uses (including that of
cultch to assist the production of more shellfish),
but some of the massive deposits are apparently
showing depletion (Biggs, 1975; Espey, 1975).
Special purpose clay mining and extraction of min-
erals, including precious metals, are known to exist
and mining is likely to increase. Salt, sulfur, and
potash minerals are primarily associated with evapo-
rite deposits, and Biggs considers the increased ex-
traction of these to be highly probable. Mining is
expected to grow in six of eight case study estuaries,
and to remain at about the same level in Charleston
Harbor and Yaquina Bay (NES forecasts).
OIL AND GAS
Extraction of these materials within estuarine
areas has been occurring in Louisiana, Texas, and
Alaska, at least. No data are available on present
and future trends.
Electricity Generation
Direct use of estuarine water for condenser cooling
water, the rnost-discussed use of estuaries in the
generation of electricity, was generally avoided as
long as utilities could obtain fresh water and elim-
inate the problems associated with use of saline or
brackish water.
Production of electricity may utilize estuaries in
several different ways. The most direct use is for
condenser cooling in steam electric stations. Water
may constantly flow through the system or be with-
drawn to make up evaporative losses in cooling
towers. The dependence of large nuclear plants on
estuaries as the only feasible means of transporting
massive containment vessels and other large com-
ponents sometimes controls the siting of such plants.
Such uses are relatively recent in coastal bays, and
no summary of present estuarine use has been seen.
Because populations and industrial activities are
growing in coastal areas, demand is expected to
increase and there have; been predictions of as many
as 10 large nuclear plants in upper Chesapeake Bay
and its tributaries, for instance. Mihursky (1975)
notes the recent regulations which may substantially
affect the direct usage that such systems will make of
estuaries. No simple prediction appears feasible at
this time.
Water Extraction
The salt content of most estuarine waters seriously
hampers use for drinking water, agricultural irriga-
tion, industrial processing, and other purposes com-
mon for fresh water, although all of these occur at
some sites, especially in fresh or nearly fresh tidal
waters. Such use as that of a heat transfer medium
in generating electricity or some other industrial
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
743
processes is not an extraction but a borrow, since the
total quantity is usually returned near the intake.
The principal extractive use of water is from the
total watershed of estuaries. Withdrawal may occur
for inter-basin transfer (Delaware to the Hudson,
Sacramento Valley to Los Angeles, and so on), for
irrigation, or for other uses which permanently re-
move water and may drastically affect the estuary.
Uses which involve substantial alteration of the
pattern of flow releases into the estuary (damming
for hydroelectric generation, water supply, recrea-
tion, flood control) are not extractive but may also
have important estuarine consequences. These differ
from the extensive borrow-and-return pattern of
most domestic and industrial use, which has little
estuarine effect.
No data are available for estimating present
extractions of estuarine water nor for predicting
trends.
Military Purposes
These include transportation, firing and ordnance
ranges, research on vessels and equipment, filling for
air strips and other land use, storage of vessels,
vessel construction and maintenance, coastal patrol
and its support, and education in naval operations,
flying, and related fields. No summary has been seen
of the present extent of these uses, although they are
obviously large in some bays and estuaries. Prediction
is impossible, since extended periods of peace may
bring reduction in some of these activities as being
unnecessary or inappropriate for estuaries—and
escalation toward war would make other considera-
tions relatively trivial.
Research and Education
Research is conducted in estuaries to solve the
problems which occur arid to broaden understanding.
Since estuaries have many problems which are in-
creasingly recognized to be important, there has
been rapid increase in the number of projects related
to fisheries, waste management, water quality, and
the social, economic and legal aspects of estuarine
use. In addition, the diversity and dynamicism of
the geological, physical, chemical, and biological
components of estuarine systems have: also attracted
growing use as wild laboratories.
Similarly, estuaries are highly used in training
students, both in livelihood (fishing, recreational
boating, maritime skills, and so forth) and funda-
mental sciences and arts. Marine and estuarine bi-
ology has been the most popular field, and a survey
of scientific personnel involved with the eastern
estuarine environment indicates that research inter-
ests among 644 respondents to 1,200 queries were
overwhelmingly biological in 1972 (Kerby and
McErlean, 1972). All of the many other fields listed
lagged far behind, confirming impressions at con-
ferences on coastal topics.
Recent trends have been for increased research
and teaching. Large estuarine research societies now
exist, with the umbrella Estuarine Research Federa-
tion having about 1,200 members in constituent
societies in New England, Middle Atlantic, South
Atlantic, and gulf coast regions. Several similar
groups have been formed on the west coast. Estuaries
will be used extensively for these purposes, but
future trends are difficult to predict because most
financial support is from state and federal funding,
which in itself is presently unpredictable. "The
National Estuary Study" predicted increased use for
research and education of seven of eight selected
estuaries, with continuation at the same level in
Galveston Bay (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970).
Climate Control
Modification of climate is perhaps the most exten-
sive, least measurable, and least priceable use of
estuaries. As compared with land masses, they
moderate summer and winter temperatures, lag
spring and fall temperature transitions, and increase
humidity. These substantially affect uses for resi-
dential, recreational, industrial, and aesthetic pur-
poses, but the value of such effects is obviously
complex and elusive. The trend of this use, if indeed
that word is appropriate, is proportionate to the
activities listed above. Since they are expected to
grow, so too will the importance of climate modifica-
tion by estuaries.
Biological Harvest
Since estuaries have higher natural rates of produc-
tion of organic materials than almost any other
biological system (Teal and Teal, 1969), large bio-
logical populations exist and have been harvested
throughout the world. Most of the harvest is achieved
by hunting techniques, capturing the yield with
little or no investment in cultivation, although
management through public agencies and by private
efforts exists and may increase. Harvest for food and
harvest for industrial materials are not significantly
different, despite the different distribution of the
products—and consequent difference in the ultimate
users. These two subclasses of the biological harvest
will be treated together in this brief discussion.
-------
744
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
The catch of estuary-dependent specien was worth
about $660 million at dockside in 1973, about 73
percent of the total commercial fish landings value of
$900 million for the United States (Tihansky and
Meade, 1975). All of the principal species are useful
for food except menhaden, although some of the food
species also yield industrial products (bait, meal,
shell, and so on). Menhaden, the great industrial
species which provides meal, oil, and many chemical
products, had a 1973 landing of 1.9 billion pounds,
valued at $73 million at dockside (Broadhead, 1975).
Both food and industrial species increase at least
severalfold in value as they move through processing,
distribution, and sales to reach the consumer. Even
at dockside values, Bollman (1975) notes that the
capital required to produce $660 million would, at
5 percent yield, be about $13.2 billion dollars, an
approximation of the value of estuarine fisheries—
and of this use of estuaries.
Prediction of use trends for estuarine biological
resources is exceptionally difficult. In the "National
Estuary Study," increased fisheries were predicted
for all of the eight case study estuaries, but this may
have mixed estimates of demand with estimates of
yield. Broadhead (1975) has stressed the instability
of marine populations and the complexity of the
factors which may affect abundance. It is not pos-
sible to forecast the supply, although demand for
both food and industrial harvest will increase.
Preservation
Estuaries contain many biological forms, assem-
blages, environments, and other features which
merit preservation. These have been noted and
extensively considered in the volume "Marine and
Estuarine Sanctuaries, the Proceedings of the Na-
tional Workshop on Sanctuaries" (Virginia Institute
of Marine Science, 1975). Preservation may be
needed to assure the continued existence of a species
or system, to protect such a component for future
availability, to guarantee the productivity of all or
part of an estuarine system or to preserve a unique
physical, geological, chemical, or biological feature.
Partial preservation now occurs in various wildlife
refuges, sanctuaries, parks, and preserves, but there
is no national summary of the quality or quantity of
such protection. Those participating in EPA's Con-
ference on Estuary Pollution Control vigorously pro-
posed substantial increase in this use of some parts
of the national estuarine complex, and provided
detailed guidance for such preservation. Both the
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-583)
and the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctu-
aries Act of 1971 (P.L. 92-532) contain authorization
and encouragement for increased preservation in
estuaries, so that such use may be expected to grow.
Waste Placement
Waste placement is used with intentional avoid-
ance of the comforting term "waste disposal" since
even slight critical thought proves that most of our
placement of waste materials has not disposed of
them—merely transferred them from one site to
another. Estuaries have always received substantial
quantities of the materials humans wish to dispose
of because (1) estuaries lie in the basin-catching
position for all land drainage; (2) population clusters
along the coast; (3) the chemistry, geochemistry,
and dynamics of estuaries provide large capacities
for some wastes without harm, or at least visible
harm, to other users; and (4) the magnitude and
extent of possible damage from wastes was not even
partially known until recent decades. The cheapness,
convenience, and capacity of estuaries for receiving
wastes favor their use within appropriate limits—the
extraordinary values, dispersive nature, and relative
fragility of the biological systems require conserva-
tive use for such purpose.
Human Wastes
At source, human wastes are already complex.
Undigested foods and liquid products of metabolism,
neither of which is chemically simple, are quickly
mixed with shower and bath water, kitchen wastes,
washings, arid anything else put in the toilet or sink.
In systems for sewage collection and treatment, these
are frequently combined with industrial wastes and,
intermittently, with surface runoff from storms.
Even after some degree of treatment, such wastes are
usually composed of many materials. For instance,
the discharge from the Hyperion and White Point
outfalls on the west coast contains more than 20
components to a level of a ton or more discharged per
day to the receiving waters. The specific composition
of the discharge varies principally with the sources of
waste and the kind of treatment, generally but im-
precisely described as none, primary, secondary, or
tertiary (advanced). No operating plant completely
removes all potential pollutants from domestic
wastewater except on an experimental or pilot scale.
The magnitude of such wastes is difficult to
estimate. As an example, a recent inventory of sew-
age treatment plants for Chesapeake Bay (Brush,
1974) identified 243 such plants, of which 35 pro-
vided primary treatment and 208 were secondary.
The total effluent was estimated to be 2.8 percent of
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
745
Table 3.—Generated municipal wastes
Wastewater billion gallons
Standard BOD, millions of pounds..
Settleable and suspended solids,
millions of pounds
1960
1,612
2,230
2,686
1970
1 902
2,632
3,171
1980
2,131
2,974
3,551
Increase
1970-1980
229 or 12%
342 or 13%
380 or 12%
the average freshwater flow into the bay. Without
similar data from other estuaries, national summa-
tion is impossible, but the use is obviously a very
large one.
Trends will be affected by the developing pressures
from population increase and the changing con-
straints through regulation. The first of these has
been briefly described above, and the very great
changes in national regulations have been summar-
ized by Hargis (1975). "The National Estuarine
Pollution Study" (1969) quoted (P IV-334) from
a FWPCA publication "The Cost of Clean Water"
that the national estuarine population would gener-
ate the following quantities of several components
in the areas served by sewers.
No certain prediction is possible, because economic,
political and environmental efforts are all likely to
be intense. The outcome cannot be foreseen.
Industrial Wastes
The composition of unwanted materials from
commercial activity is as variable as the industry.
(See "The National Estuarine Pollution Study,"
1969, pp. IV-386 to IV-389, Volume IT, for a catalog
of such wastes, their characteristics, and the dis-
tribution among the states.) Through most of the
industrial period in this country, industries were
permitted to take full advantage of the economy of
placing wastes in nearby waterways as long as they
did not endanger human health or cause quite
obvious damage. Change in public knowledge and
concern in recent decades has brought all new in-
dustry, and much old, under considerable control in
this regard. As a result of this transition, waste
placement has been drastically reduced, although
there are residual uses in the forms of (a) contam-
inated deposits from previous activities, (b) uncor-
rected violations of regulations, and (c) transport of
wastes short distances to the oceanic water as a
means of disposal.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500) direct use of "best
available" control technology by July of 1977,
"best achievable" by July of 1983, and states a
national goal of eliminating all pollutant discharge.
THE REAL WORLD OF USES
Rarely, if ever, is an estuary utilized significantly
for only one of the uses noted above. Even primitive
populations of low technological capability are
likely to fish, use boats, place wastes, and recreate in
such waters. This, then, is the simplest form of
multiple use, and the most complex form occxirs in
the harbors of industrialized cultures with large
populations, where every listed use may be occurring
at once. The problem lies in the fact that almost
every use can become so large that it impinges upon
other uses and users.
Several interesting and potentially useful concepts
for managing uses of estuaries have received recent
attention and may become incorporated in coastal
zone management. One may be called an exclusion
concept, which dictates that the exceptionally valu-
able shoreline will be reserved for those uses which
are genuinely dependent on such siting—and
excludes those which are not. For instance, docks,
swimming beaches, and large marine railways can
only exist at the edge of water. Processing plants
(even for seafood), power generating stations, and
oil refineries can frequently be sited as well, or better,
away from the estuary. Such siting may become
mandatory. Another concept receiving present
currency is that of clustering of uses, an intense
form of zoning. If industrial activities are concen-
trated, the argument runs, efficiencies are possible in
providing utilities, handling wastes, and arranging
transportation, as well as in surveillance and en-
forcement. With clusters, more of the total estuarine
shoreline is left without problems of such use. These
concepts, and many additional ideas, seem likely to
receive increased attention as the task of balancing
uses, the focal thrust of the Coastal Zone Manage-
ment Act of 1972 (P.I,. 92-583), is implemented.
It is appropriate to note, in this discussion of the
interactions of pollutants with the uses of estuaries,
the obvious but very important fact that use is usu-
ally the source of pollution. Most, but not all, of the
listed uses have this potential. Change in usage or
change in the regulation of pollution can have major
effects on each other.
The large task is that of achieving, through suffi-
cient knowledge and wise government, the optimal
balancing of multiple uses of estuaries so that they
serve the public interest most effectively. To achieve
this, all human activities must be constrained so as
to remain within the inherent capacities of the estu-
-------
746
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTHOL
Table 4.—Principal pollutants of estuaries
Pathogens
Sediments
Solid Wastes
Color Sources
Odor/Taste Sources
Floatables
Heat
Freshwater
Brine
Toxic Inorganics
Toxic Organics
Petroleum
Nutrients
Radioactivity
Oxygen Demand
Acids and Bases
arine system—lest they destroy the system and its
uses.
THE PRINCIPAL POLLUTANTS
OF ESTUARIES
Introductions by human activities which can be
damaging in estuaries have been cataloged several
times, and some recent lists are provided in Appendix
B. Taking advantage of these summaries, a new list-
ing of 16 pollutants has been prepared, again
attempting to include all significant introductions in
the simplest set which is both accurate and adequate
(Table 4). Each of these is defined or described, and
references are provided to selected papers which
contain information on the quantity and probable
future trend of each.
Pathogens
Living organisms which can cause pathology or
sickness in either the animals and plants within the
estuary or in humans who eat or contact materials
taken from the water include a wide variety of bac-
teria, protozoa, viruses, and fungi. Human pathogens
are frequently abundant in sewage, but may enter
the water from other waste disposal or from
accidental spills. The pathogens of aquatic species
are often introduced with transplanted organisms,
and are often indirectly affected by environmental
alterations such as salinity increase or decrease.
See: Colwell, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1972; McEwen,
1972; "National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969;
Sindermann, 1972.
Sediments
Inorganic particulate materials ranging in size
from clays and silts up to at least sands may occur
in many forms, from essentially single-size loads to
extremely complex mixtures of particles with loose
and firm aggregates containing many materials.
Estuaries are inherently sediment traps, but the
effects of man's activities through practices in
forest clearing and agriculture, surface alterations
in urbanization, mining activites, channelization,
poor sediment control during construction of roads
and other facilities, excessive enrichment, solid waste
placement, and dredging and spoil placement have
massively increased the rate and quantity of sedi-
ment input, deposit, resuspension, and redistribution
in many of the nation's estuaries. Storage reservoirs
and improved land management practices have
sometimes effectively reduced sediment input. See:
Boyd et al, 1972; Carpenter, 1975; Committee on
Water Quality Criteria, 1969; Hedgpeth, 1975;
Hood, 1975; Lee, 1975; "National Estuarine Pollu-
tion Study," 1969; Schubel, 1975.
Solid Wastes
Accumulated unused solid wastes are presenting
one of the serious problems of all urban, and many
suburban, areas. Domestic materials, agricultural
wastes, and, especially, industrial unused products
are involved. Estuarine placement has been widely
used as one of the alternatives, with placement
ranging from dumps in the marsh and edge of the
river to ship transport to deeper water. The composi-
tion of such materials defies single description, and
the effects include those of sediments, toxicants and
many other pollutants. See: Committee on Water
Quality Criteria, 1972; Feibusch, 1975; Gross, 1969;
Hood, 1975; Smith, 1975.
Color Sources
Natural sources of color in estuarine waters include
leachates from marshes, swamps, and other vegeta-
tive areas, suspended particles, and blooms of plank-
ton. Human effects on color are most likely from
industrial effluents or accidental spills. Color is not
toxic, but affects the quality and quantity of light
penetration and availability, and the material
causing color may have additional effects.
Odor/Taste Sources
Many materials can affect the odor or flavor of
edible (to humans) estuarine products or the aesthetic
quality of the estuarine environment. They are
primarily organic, and the most common are oils and
petroleum products. Little is known about the effects
of various materials on the edibility of estuarine
species by other species, although it is reasonable to
suspect that it occurs and may be important. The
effect on human seafoods is economic, since the
presence of offensive odor or taste usually prevents
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
747
eating sufficient quantity to cause illness. See: "The
National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969.
Floatables
Low-density materials on the surface may be in the
form of slicks, globs, wood and fibrous organic mater-
ial, undigested plastics of many types, rubber goods,
sealed bottles or cans and many other substances
which are either inherently light or capable of holding
gases. They occur on the surface and usually move to
,he shoreline. See: Pearson, 1975.
Heat
Heat is introduced into the estuary from conden-
ser cooling in power plants, cooling by other industry,
and in relatively small amounts incidentally with
other waste discharges. After initial warming, the
receiving waters act essentially as a transfer medium,
conveying virtually all introduced heat to the at-
mosphere. This release may involve extremely large
estuarine areas, because of dispersion by tidal flow
and mixing processes. See: Blake, 1975; Committee
on Water Quality Criteria, 1972; Clark and Brownell,
1973; Cronin, 1975; Hedgpeth, 1975; Jensen 1975;
Mihursky, 1975; Smith, 1975; Water Resources
Criteria, 1972.
Fresh Water
Damaging introductions of fresh water resulting
from man's activities can result from opening of
spillways and diversion channels, release of large
volumes of low salinity effluent in water of higher
salinity, and land use practices which permit flashier
runoff than would have occurred under natural
regimes. See: Cronin, 1967;Smith, 1975.
Brine
Salt in detrimental concentration may be intro-
duced as true brines from industrial activity or from
blowdown residues in cooling towers. It may also be
added in more dilute form observable as salinity
increase above that which would have occurred
without human causes. This can be caused by diver-
sion of freshwater from the watershed for consump-
tive uses like inter-basin transfer, irrigation, or
evaporative cooling towers; by deepening of channels;
by up-stream release of condenser cooling water; and
by other mechanisms. See: Hedgpeth, 1975; Schubel
and Meade, 1975; Smith, 1975.
Toxic Inorganics
Although every inorganic element or compound
can be toxic at some level of concentration and
exposure, attention is usually most appropriate for
those of exceptionally high toxicity or probability of
release. Thirty-five to 40 elements and a much larger
number of compounds are known to be potential
serious pollutants. These exist in industrial effluents,
domestic waste treatment effluents, biocides (espe-
cially as the result of chlorination), drainage from
mines or quarries, and many other sources. Especially
thorough summary has been presented by the Com-
mittee on Water Quality Criteria, 1972. See: Blus
et al. 1975; Committee on Water Quality Criteria,
1972; Hedgpeth, 1975; Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed.,
1972; Middaugh and Davis, 1975; "National Estu-
arine Pollution Survey," 1969; Smith, 1975.
Toxic Organics
Most of the especially toxic organic compounds
turned loose in estuaries are synthetic compounds,
and the most serious are those which are highly
persistent. They arise primarily from the wide range
and large quantities of biocides employed on land
(fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides)
but also from additional halogenated hydrocarbons,
petroleum, and industrial chemicals. The nature
and experimental toxicity of these creations of man
have been detailed by the Committee on Water
Quality Criteria, 1969. See: Blus et al. 1975; Butler,
1975; Committee on Water Quality Criteria, 1969;
Hedgpeth, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1972; Lincer, 1975;
Smith, 1975; Walsh, 1972.
Petroleum
Petroleum and its complex components are prin-
cipally organic but the extraction, transportation,
handling, refining, and distribution of these fossil
energy sources have created a distinctive set of
problems in pollution. Since estuaries are the waters
of entry, and petroleum pollution is highly associated
with transporting, handling, and refining, consider-
able concern exists and will continue. See: Blus et al.
1975; Brown, 1975; Committee on Water Quality
Criteria, 1972; Farrington, 1975; Hedgpeth, 1975;
Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1975.
Nutrients
Nutrients are the chemical raw materials which are
essential for biological processes. These enhance
-------
748
ESTUABINE POLLUTION CONTROL
productivity in appropriate quantities but can
seriously disrupt the estuarine ecosystem through
excessive enrichment. Nitrogen, phosphorous, and
carbon are the most noted specific elements, but less
abundant elements and compounds can be signifi-
cant. Polluting quantities can be introduced from
sewage effluent, runoff from cleared or agricultural
land, detergents, street runoff, and industrial wastes.
As eutrophication occurs with increasing frequency
and at additional locations, many consider these
additions to present one of the most serious threats
to best use of estuaries. See: Champ, 1975; Commit-
tee on Water Quality Criteria, 1972; Bobbie and
Copeland, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1972; Pearson, 1975;
Smith, 1975.
Radioactivity
Radioactive elements and compounds can enter
the estuary from fallout from atmospheric burden,
from testing of weapons and other uses, release of
wastes from nuclear power plants and other users of
such fuels, drainage of mines, accidental spillage in
hospitals, and with wastes from reprocessing plants
and some industries. Because of increased introduc-
tion, longevity of emission, and the knowledge that
it can cause somatic and genetic damage in estuarine
biota and possibly in humans, this relatively new
pollutant is of national significance. See: Committee
on Water Quality Criteria, 1972; Ketchum, Ed.,
1972; National Academy of Sciences-National Re-
search Council, 1971.
Oxygen Demand
Some additions can create additional demand for
the finite quantity of oxygen in estuarine water.
Sewage sludge, wood wastes (pulp, bark, chips),
sediments stirred during dredging operations, and
the secondary effects of excessive enrichment can
all contribute to this demand. Freshwater manage-
ment practices which increase vertical stratification
during periods of high temperature will enlarge the
area and volume of oxygen depletion in some estu-
aries. See: Committee on Water Quality Criteria,
1972; Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1975; Pearson,
1975.
Acids and Bases
A complex carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate
system buffers estuarine waters to help stabilize them
against change from the addition of acidic or basic
chemicals. The buffering capacity can, however, be
exceeded by large additions, and thus would dan-
gerously alter the environment of the biota, which
cannot survive much change of this kind. In addi-
tion, the toxicity of most other pollutants increases
under such circumstances. Acids or bases might
reach the estuary from mine drainage, accidental
spills, or industrial wastes. See: Committee on
Water Quality Critieria, 1972.
THE EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS*
The introduction of a chemical compound or a
change in the physical environment may affect a
natural marine ecosystem in many ways. In coastal
waters undisturbed for long periods of time, the
ecosystem has adjusted to the existing conditions.
The system is productive, species are diverse, the
biomass is high, and the flow of energy is compara-
tively efficient. The addition of pollutants to such a
system might:
• reduce the input of solar energy into the
ecosystem;
• increase the input of organic matter and nu-
trients which might stimulate the growth of unde-
sirable species;
• reduce the availability of nutrients by increased
sorption and sedimentation;
• create intolerable physical extremes for some
organisms, as by the addition of heat;
• kill or reduce the success of individual organ-
isms, as by lethal toxicity or crippling with oil;
• eliminate species by adding a toxic material or
making an essential element unavailable;
• interfere with the flow of energy from species to
species, as by a chemical that interferes with feeding
behavior;
• reduce species diversity in the system ;
• interfere with regenerative cycling by decom-
posers ;
• decrease biomass by reduction of abundant
species or disruption of the processes of ecosystems;
• increase biomass by removing important con-
sumers, allowing runaway production of other
species.
All of these may involve changes in production and
lowered human usefulness of the system. These are
examples; additional effects can occur. The specific
impacts of pollution at a site can be determined only
through long-term study of that portion of the ocean
and the changes that occur.
* Verbatim from Committee on V>ratei Quality Criteria, 1972, pp.
219-220.
-------
CONCLUDING REMARKS
749
VISUAL SUMMARY OF
THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN
POLLUTANTS AND USES
Matrix charts have been prepared to suggest
which of the uses are likely to be significantly
affected by each pollutant (Figures 1 and 2). A
simple set of symbols was selected, so that:
Black: Danger, this pollutant can have se-
rious effects on that use.
Hatched: Caution, this pollutant may in some
circumstances reduce that use.
Grey: This pollutant can be beneficial to
that use in favorable circumstances.
Blank: No substantial effect is known to
occur.
As with all efforts to reduce massive complexity to
an unqualified simple summary, the viewer shares
some of the responsibility for preventing mis- or
over-interpretation. The following qualifying com-
ments may help:
1. The selection of signals is subjective, not quantita-
tive. It is based on about 35 years of scientific ex-
perience with estuarine pollution, participation in
several of the panels cited, and the advantage of
excellent reports prepared by many expert specialists.
2. The time scale is difficult to handle. As regulations
are changed, or enforcement is modified, or new
knowledge emerges, the real threat from a pollutant
is altered. So, too, may the importance of a use vary
with timr ^hese estimates apply to 1975.
3. Eacn estuary is unique. This matrix intention-
ally stresses the most likely interaction among the
850 or more such systems in the nation, but each
case can be effectively understood only on its own
terms. Perhaps the matrix can best be posed as a
series of questions for each estuary—''Is this pollu-
tant reasonably likely to have the suggested effect
on that use? If not, what is the real local relation-
ship?" At least, a useful set of questions may be
summarized in the matrices.
In most cases, it is probably easy to comprehend
the opinion of the author, but one set of symbols
requires explanation—those under the use of Re-
search and Education. While the presence of a pol-
lutant offers opportunity for study and for teaching,
that interaction was not chosen for emphasis. Rather,
the symbol indicates how the pollutant is expected
to affect research and education on the basic nature,
components, processes, and systems of estuaries—
and many of the pollutants might either interfere
with or substantially enhance such research and the
effective education of students.
These matrices may have several uses. They
suggest which pollutants are potential threats to the
fewest and to the most uses, and which face the
largest and smallest number of probable sources of
damage—and all of the intermediate probabilities.
Thus, they may help in identifying the pollutants of
highest priority for control in national, regional,
state, or local programs. In any one estuarine system,
selection of the uses most valuable to, or preferred
by, the people of the region can be followed by pre-
liminary identification of the most probable sources
of destruction for those uses. Such a preliminary
identification from these matrices would, of course,
be but the first step in constructive local efforts to
assure good balance. One of their most stimulating
aspects is the display of many potentials for con-
structive use of possible pollutants—of conversion
of problem materials into positive resources. If
preparation of these summaries facilitates that
necessary process, value will have been achieved.
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Belcher, J. C. 1975. Report on population redistribution and
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Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary
Pollution Control.
Blake, J. 1975. Impact of waste heat discharged into estuaries
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Control.
Blus, L. J., R. C. Stendell, S. H. Wiemeyer, H. M. Ohlendorf,
J. A. Kerwin and L. F. Stickel. 1975. Impact of estuarine
pollution on birds. Background paper for the EPA Con-
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Bollman, F. H. 1975. The values of estuarine fisheries habitats:
some basic considerations in their preservation. Background
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Boyd, M. B., R. T. Saucier, J. W. Keeley, R. L. Montgomery,
R. D. Brown, D. B. Mathis and C. J. Guice. 1972. Disposal
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U.S. Army Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss.
-------
750
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Damage
Caution
No Effect
Benefit
FIGURE 1.—Probable effects of pollutants.
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CONCLUDING REMARKS
751
tu g
o °
I K
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752
ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL
Broadhead, G. C. 1975. Our estuaries and future commercial
fishing trends. Background paper for the EPA Conference
on Estuary Pollution Control.
Brush, L. M., Jr. 1974. Inventory of sewage treatment plants
for Chesapeake Bay. Publ. No. 28, Chesapeake Research
Consortium.
Butler, P. A. 1975. National Estuarine Monitoring Program.
Background paper for The EPA Conference on Estuary
Pollution Control.
Carpenter, J. H. 1975. Limiting Factors that Control Dredging
Activities in the Estuarine Zone. Background paper for
The EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
Champ, M. A. 1975. Nutrient Loading in the Nation's
Estuaries. Background paper for The EPA Conference on
Estuary Pollution Control.
Clark, J. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems. Ecological C3nsiderations
for Management of the Coastal Zone. The Conservation
Foundation, Washington, D.C.
Clark, J. 1975. Status of Estuarine Sport&ih Research.
Background paper for The EPA Conference on Estuary
Pollution Control.
Clark, J. and W. Brownell. 1973. Electric Power Plants in the
Coastal Zone: Environmental Issues. Am. Litt. Soc.,
Highlands, N.J., Spec. Publ. No. 7.
Committee on Oceanography (NAS-NCR) and Committee
on Ocean Engineering (NAE). 1970. Wastes Management
Concepts for the Coastal Zone—Requirements for Research
and Investigation. National Academy of Sciences and
National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C.
Committee on Power Plant Siting, National Academy of
Engineering. 1972. Engineering for Resolution of the
Energy—Environment Dilemma. Washington, D.C.
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Academy of Sciences—National Academy of Engineering,
Washington, D.C.
Cronin, L. E. 1967. The role of man in estuarine processes.
In: G. Lauff (ed), Estuaries. A.A.A.S. Publ No. 83, pp.
667-689.
Cronin, L. E. 1975. Ecological implications. In: Water
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Espey, W. H., Jr. 1975. Environmental aspects of dredging
in the Gulf Coast zone with some attention paid to shell
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Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 1969. The
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3 volumes.
Feibusch, H. A. 1975. Solid waste disposal and its relationship
to estuarine pollution. Background paper for the EPA Con-
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Fish and Wildlife Service (Bur. Spt. Fish Wildlife, Bur.
Comm. Fish.). 1970. National Estuary Study. U.S. Dept.
Interior. 7 volumes.
Gross, M. G. 1969. New York City-—a major source of
marine sediment. Background paper for the NASCO-
NAECO Study Section on Coastal Wastes Management.
Hargis, W. J., Jr. 1975. Evaluation of water quality in
estuarine and coastal waters. Background paper for the
EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
Hedgpetn, J. W. 1975. Seven ways to obliteration: factors of
estuarine degradation. Background paper for the EPA
Conference on Estuary Pollution.
Hobbie, J. E. and B. J. Copeland. 1975. Effects and control
of nutrients in estuarine ecosystems. Background paper
for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
Hood, D. W. and J. J. Goering. 1975, Pollution problems in
the estuaries of Alaska. Background paper for the EPA
Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
Irby, H. D. 1975. Problems encountered in wildlife manage-
ment and factors controlling wildlife management programs
in the nation's estuaries. Background paper for the EPA
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Jensen, L. 1975. Effects of thermal discharges on estuarine
ecosystems. Background paper for the EPA Conference
on Estuary Pollution Control.
Kalter, R. J. 1975. Recreation activities in the nation's
estuarine zone. Background paper for the EPA Conference
on Estuary Pollution Control.
Kerby, Catherine and A. J. McErlean. 1972. Scientific per-
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the Inst. of Ecology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Inst. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Langlois, E. 1975. Factors limiting and controlling the
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on estuarine ecosystems. Background paper for the EPA
Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
McEwen, T. D. 1972. Human wastes and the Chesapeake
Bay. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 62(2) :157~160.
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CONCLUDING REMARKS
753
Middaugh, D. P. and W. P. Davis. 1975. Impaet of chlorina-
tion processes in marine ecosystems. Background paper for
the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
Mihursky, J. A. 1975. Thermal discharges and estuarine
systems. Background paper for the EPA Conference on
Estuary Pollution Control.
National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council.
1971. Radioactivity in the marine environment. Nat. Acad.
Sci., Washington, D.C.
Pearson, E. A. 1975. Estuarine wastewater management.
Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary
Pollution Control.
Riggs, S. R. 1975. The extractive industries in the coastal
zone of continental United States. Background paper for
the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
Schubel, J. R. arid R. H, Meade. 1975. Man's impact on
estuarine sedimentation. Background paper for the EPA
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Sindermann, C. J. 1972. Some biological indicators of marine
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184-189.
Smith, S. V. 1975. Environmental status of Hawaiian estua-
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Marsh. Little, Brown and Company, Boston and Toronto.
Teeters, Robert D., Jr. 1968. Present and future demands
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Tihansky, D. P. and N. F. Meade. 1975. Estimating the
economic value of estuaries to U.S. commercial fisheries.
Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary
Pollution Control.
Virginia Institute of Marine Science. 1974. Marine and
estuarine sanctuaries November 28-30, 1973. S. Sci. Kept.
No. 70.
Walsh, G. E. 1972. Insecticides, herbicides, and polyehlori-
nated biphenyls in estuaries. J Wash. Acad. Sci., 62(2):
122-139.
Center for Environmental and Estuarint Studies, University
of Maryland. Contribution No. 653.
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APPENDIX A
Previous Lists of Uses
of Estuaries and Coastal Waters
(Chronological order)
Batelle, 1966. In Development Potential of U.S. Continental
Shelves. ESSA, Dept. Commerce (Cited from Teeters 1968)
Mining and Petroleum
Marine Engineering
Recreation
Health and Welfare
Transportation
Food and Agriculture
Defense and Space
Research and Development
Other Industry
The original report noted 51 specific uses under these
categories.
Resources for the Future, 1967. In National Interests in the
Marine Environment (Cited from, and as modified by,
Teeters 1968)
Economic Development
Resource Development
Transportation and Communication Facilities
Recreation
Disposal of Wastes
National Security
Defense of U.S. Territories
Support of U.S. Forces
Promotion of Cultural and Social Values
Research and Development
Preservation of Natural Beauty
Enjoyment of the Environment
Cosrel, 1968. ''Coordinating Governmental Coastal Activities"
(Cited from Teers 1968)
Resources
Animal
Non-living
Vegetable
Energy (tidal)
Repository for Wastes
Enjoyment
Recreation
Aesthetic
Transportation
Sea-oriented
Land-oriented
National Defense
Land and Sea Use
Private
Commercial
Industrial
Militarv
Other "
Ipon, 1968. "Identification of Problems and Opportunities
and Needs, Existing and Potential" (Cited from Teeters
1968)
Urbanization
Industry
Transportation
Mining
Waste Disposal
Pest Control (predominantly insects)
Defense
Agriculture
Power Production
Water Supply
Recreation
Commercial Fishing
Research and Education
The National Estuarine Pollution Study, 1969. Volume I, Part
2, pp. 30-44.
Fishing
Recreation
Transportation and National Defense
Municipal and Industrial Water Supply
Waste Disposal
Exploitation of Mineral Resources
Aquaculture
Shoreline Development
Ketchum, B. H., 1969
Swimming
Boating
Sportfishing
Commercial Fishing
Boat Yards and Marinas
Housing
Land Fill and Development
Marine Transportation
Dredging and Filling
Industry
Mining and Petroleum
National Esi-'iarif Study, 1970. Appendix F, pp. 6-7
Water Transportation
Commercial Fisheries
Extractive Industries
Water Utilization and Estuarine Discharge
Urbanization
Recreation
Research and Education
National Esluary Study, 1970. Appendix G
Commercial
Decp-draf* Transportation
Boating
Mining and Minerals
Fisheries
Wildlife
Waste Disposal
Recreation
Aquaculture
Residential
Industrial
Education -Research
Water Supply
Agriculture
Defense
Power Production
Log Storage
754
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CONCLUDING REMARKS
755
l.ill, Gordon, 1970(?). For California Advisory Committee
on Marine Resources (These are apparently more accu-
rately called activities than uses)
Policing, Control, Inspection, Regulation
Breakwaters, Dredging, Coastal Maintenance
Right of Way, Easements, Access Roads
Commercial Harbors and Terminals
Shipping
Commercial Fishing
Kelp Harvesting
Shellfish Farming
Sand and Gravel Production
Petroleum Production
Nuclear Power and Desalination Plants
Non-petroleum Offshore Platforms and Other Construction
Federal Government Reservations
Public Coastal Parks
Public Underwater Parks
Underwater Research Parks Assigned Use
Resorts
Housing and Other Real Estate Development
Swimming, Surfing, Water Skiing, Sunbathing
Surf fishing
Boat Sport Fishing
Marinas and Recreational Boating
Waste Disposal
Coastal Zone Workshop on Critical Problems of the Coastal
Zone, 1972. Discussion topics
Food
Waste Disposal
Mining and Extraction
Recreation and Aesthetics
Commerce (Transportation)
Habitation (Human)
Scientific Preserve
Industrial Land Use
Power Production
Water and Chemical Extraction
Military Uses
Species Preservation
The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone,
1972. p. 13 of Summary of Results and Conclusions
Living space and Recreation
Industrial and Commercial Activities
Waste Disposal
Food Production
Natural Preserves
Special Governmental Uses
The, Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone,
1972. Uses discussed in various chapters.
Living Resources
Commercial Fisheries
Sport Fisheries
Aquaculture
Non-renewable Resources
Petroleum and Natural Gas
Sand, gravel and shell
Minerals
Recreation and Aesthetics
Swimming
Surfing
Skin Diving
Pleasure Boating
Sport Fishing
Tourism and Recreation
Coastal Preserves
Urbanization and Industrial Development
Housing
Industrial Development
Energy Needs
Government Uses
Transportation and Coastline Modification
Shipping and Commerce
Waste Disposal
Ellis, Robert N., 1973. Uses of Chesapeake Bay
Waste Disposal
Wetlands (Natural Production)
Commercial Fishing
Water Supply
Commercial Marine Transportation
Recreation
Shoreland Residential Development
Shoreland, Commercial/Industrial Development
Preservation
Mineral Resources
Clark, John, 1974. Coastal ecosystem uses
Aesthetics
Commercial Fishing
Mining
Mariculture
Transportation
Utilities
Recreation
Residential Construction
Preservation of Fish and Wildlife
EPA, 1975. Conference on Estuary Pollution Control—Uses
listed for discussion
Waste Disposal
Sport Pushing
Commercial Fishing
Mining
Transportation
Electric Generation
Wildlife
Recreation
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APPENDIX B
Previous Lists of
Pollutants of Estuaries
(Chronological Order)
The National Estuarine Pollution Study, 1969. Volume I,
Part 2, pp. 52
Decomposable Organic Material
Flesh-tainting Substances
Heavy Metals
Mineral Salts
Pathogenic Organisms
Toxic Materials
Thermal Pollution
Sediment
Oil
Wastes Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone, 1970.
Provides discussion on the following:
Pesticides
Sludges and Solid Wastes
Heat
Oil
Toxic Substances
Nutrients
Dissolved Organics
Oxygen Demand
Brine
Fresh Water
The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone,
1972. Considered to be of special concern:
Trace Metals
Plant Nutrients
Organic Additions
Solid Wastes
Radioactivity
Pathogens
Heat
Dredging, Filling, Marine Mining
Water Quality Criteria, 1972. Principal categories considered
by the Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Temperature
Inorganics (including Heavy Metals and factors affecting
pH)
Oil
Toxic Organics
Oxygen Demand
Radioactive Materials
Sewage and Nutrients
Solid Wastes
Clark, John, 1974. Environmental Events
Biological Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen
Nutrients
Pathogens
Floatables
Odors and Tastes
Color
Toxicity
Dissolved Salts
Radiological
Temperature
pH Buffering
Ground Water
EPA, 1975. Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Pollu-
tants listed for discusssion
Oil
Solid Wastes
Sediments
Nutrients
Sewage
Heat
Synthetic Organics
Metals
Chlorination
Bacteria and Viruses
Agricultural Wastes
«VM. eovinmmiiT patxTiMC or net-. 1977 zoo-3<>9 1-3
756
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