EPA-450/3-76-028c
November 1976
EP U50/
76-028c
OPEN SPACE
AS AN
AIR RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT MEASURE
VOLUME HI:
DEMONSTRATION PLAN
(ST. LOUIS, MO.)
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 2771 I
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EPA-450/3-76-028c
OPEN SPACE
AS AN
AIR RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT MEASURE
I
VOLUME III: DEMONSTRATION PLAN
(ST. LOUIS, MO.)
by
R.S. DeSanto, K.A. MacGregor, .
W.P. McMillen, and R.A. Glaser
COMSIS Corporation
972 New London Turnpike
Glastonbury, Connecticut 06033
Contract No. 68-02-2350
EPA Project Officer: Thomas McCurdy
Prepared for
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
November 1976
tfV, '
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This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report
technical data of interest to a limited number of readers. Copies are
available free of charge to Federal employees, current contractors and
grantees, and nonprofit organizations - in limited quantities - from the
Library Services Office (MD35) , Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
27711; or, for a fee, from the National Technical Information Service,
5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency by
COMSIS Corporation, Glastonbury, Connecticut 06033, in fulfillment
of Contract No. 68-02-2350. The contents of this report are reproduced
herein as received from COMSIS Corporation. The opinions, findings,
and conclusions expressed are those of the author and not necessarily
those of the Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of company or
product names is not to be considered as an endorsement by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency.
Publication No. EPA-450/3-76~028c
11
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank Mr. Thomas McCurdy, the EPA Project Officer for this study,
whose assistance and advice was most valuable and greatly appreciated.
STAFFING
Dr. Robert S. DeSanto was Project Manager and principal investigator of this
study at COMSIS CORPORATION - Environmental Services. Mr. William P. McMillen
and Mr. Kenneth A. MacGregor.of COMSIS CORPORATION, assisted in all aspects of
the study, providing engineering and planning overviews and writing much of
the text. They were assisted by Miss Dana Pumphrey and Mr. Timothy Wagner, at
all levels in preparation of the report. Their participation is greatly
acknowledged. Mr. Richard A. Glaser, of David A. Crane & Partners, provided
all of the landscape architectual imput including interpretations from the
literature, illustrative material, and associated participation in the preparation
of the final report. Mr. Mark Cooper, of David A. Crane & Partners assisted
In the preparation of materials and his valuable help is greatfully acknowledged.
Mrs. Joy Maxfield typed the manuscript entirely alone. Her accuracy and stamina
were very important to us and to our successful completion of this Volume.
We are greatful to her for her support.
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page
LIST OF FIGURES VI il
LIST OF TABLES *
I INTRODUCTION, APPROACH AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS . . 1-1
A. INTRODUCTION AND ORGANIZATION OF REPORT. ... 1-1
B. SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS 1-2
II ST. LOUIS CASE STUDY AREA II-l
A. SELECTION OF CASE STUDY AREA II-l
B. AIR QUALITY SYNOPSIS FOR ST. LOUIS II-2
C. AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE ANALYSIS II-6
1. Existing Air Quality (1972) II-6
2. Emissions Projections II-7
3. Air Quality Projections II-9
4. Summary and Conclusions of the AQMA
Analysis 11-18
III AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE PLAN AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
IN ST. LOUIS III-l
A. AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE PLAN III-l
1. Attainment Plans III-l
2. Recommended Attainment/Maintenance
Strategies III-4
B. DEVELOPMENTS IN ST. LOUIS SINCE THE
SUBMISSION OF THE AQMA PLAN III-9
1. Transportation Control Strategies III-9
2. Inspection/Maintenance 111-15
3. Vapor Recovery 111-16
4. SIP Regulations 111-16
C. SUMMARY OF AIR CONTROL STRATEGIES IN ST. LOUIS 111-18
IV. ANALYSIS OF OPEN SPACE AS A CONTROL STRATEGY
TO MEET THE AIR QUALITY STANDARDS IV-1
A. METHODOLOGY AND OBJECTIVES IV-1
B. DEVELOPMENT OF OPEN SPACE PLANS ' IV-2
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Chapter
Title
VI
VII
VIII
1. Land Availability IV-2
2. Determining the Pollution Reductions
Needed to Maintain Air Quality
Standards IV-7
3. The Hectare Vegetative Unit(Hypothetical). IV-9
4. Development of Open Space Plans IV-16
C. SCHEMATIC OPEN SPACE SYSTEM IV-37
COST EFFECTIVENESS V-l
A. OVERVIEW V-l
B. OPEN SPACE LAND REQUIREMENTS FOR
S02 REMOVAL V-3
C. OPEN SPACE COST ELEMENTS V-3
1. Acquisition Costs V-3
2. Capital Investment Costs V-4
3. Loss of Tax Revenues V-5
4. Annual Operating and Maintenance Costs . . V-5
D. AQMA PLAN COST ELEMENTS V-5
E. COMPARISON OF RATE OF EXPENDITURE FOR OPEN
SPACE AND AQMA PLANS V-6
F. PRESENT WORTH COST-EFFECTIVENESS COMPARISON. . V-7
G. INTANGIBLE COSTS AND BENEFITS V-10
H. CONCLUSION V-14
RECOMMENDATIONS VI-1
A. AREAS REQUIRING ADDITIONAL WORK VI-1
BIBLIOGRAPHY VII-1
APPENDIX - COST INFORMATION FOR COST EFFECTIVE
ANALYSIS VIII-1
A. OPEN SPACE COST INFORMATION VIII-1
B. AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE PLAN COST INFORMATION. VIII-2
1. Summary of Cost VIII-2
2. Overall Reductions VIII-4
3. Limestone Scrubbing VIII-6
4. Double Alkali Process VIII-8
5. Wellman-Lord Process VIII-10
6. Citrate Process VIII-11
7. Total Suspended Particulates VIII-13
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Chapter Title
IX APPENDIX B~REVIEW OF COMSIS CORPORATION'S
"SINK" FACTOR INFORMATION CONTAINED IN
VOLUME I OF Open Space as an Air Resource
Management Measure IX-1
A. PROJECT OFFICER'S INTRODUCTION IX-1
B. REVIEW OF "SINK" FACTORS BY DR. ERNEST
W. PETERSON IX-1
1. S02 Uptake (Flux) Rates IX-1
2. Review of COMSIS Data IX-3
3. Conclusion IX-8
4. References IX-11
C. RESPONSE TO THE REVIEW BY DR. ROBERT S.
DeSANTO AND DR. WILLIAM H. SMITH IX-13
X APPENDIX C—CORRECTIONS TO THE GAUSSIAN DIFFUSION
EQUATION MATERIAL IN VOLUME II OF Open Space as
an Air Resource Management Measure X-l
A. PROJECT OFFICER'S INTRODUCTION x-i
B. CORRECTIONS TO THE MATERIAL BY JAMES L.
DICKE X-l
VII
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
II-1 ST. LOUIS AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE AREA II-A
II-2 LOCATION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIAL SOURCES II-5
II-3 1975 TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES AIR QUALITY
CONCENTRATION 11-10
II-4 1980 TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES AIR QUALITY
CONCENTRATION 11-11
II-5 1985 TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES AIR QUALITY
CONCENTRATION 11-12
II-6 S02 POINT AND AREA LOCATIONS FOR AIR QUALITY
ANALYSIS 11-13
II-7 CO RECEPTOR LOCATIONS FOR AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS. . . 11-17
IV-1 SYNTHESIS 1: AVAILABLE LAND FOR PLANTING IV-4
IV-2 SYNTHESIS 2: AVAILABLE LAND FOR PLANTING IV-6
IV-3 ST. LOUIS AQMA EMISSIONS PROJECTION IV-8
IV-4 VEGETATIVE UNIT IV-11
IV-5 4 HECTARE GROUPING IV-12
IV-6 1985 TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IV-17
IV-7 TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES EMISSION DENSITY vs.
ANNUAL CONCENTRATIONS IV-19
IV-8 1985 OPEN SPACE IMPROVEMENTS PLAN FOR TSP IV-25
IV-9 LOCATION OF FUEL CONSUMERS IV-28
IV-10 HEDGEROW ILLUSTRATIONS IV-31
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TABLE OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Figure Title Page
IV-11 BUFFER ILLUSTRATIONS IV-32
IV-12 NITROGEN DIOXIDE CYCLE IV-34
IV-13 INTERACTION OF NITROGEN DIOXIDE WITH HYDROCARBONS . IV-35
IV-14 SCHEMATIC OPEN SPACE SYSTEM IV-38
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Title
Page
II-1 ST. LOUIS AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE AREA EMISSION -
PROJECTION SUMMARY II-8
II-2 SULFUR DIOXIDE AIR QUALITY PROJECTIONS 11-14
II-3 CARBON MONOXIDE AIR QUALITY PROJECTIONS 11-16
II-4 PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS AIR QUALITY PROJECTION .... 11-18
III-l PROPOSED ATTAINMENT/MAINTENANCE STRATEGY III-2
III-2 MOBIL SOURCE EMISSION REDUCTIONS 111-10
IV-1 TOTAL VEGETATIVE SURFACE AREA IN ONE
MODEL HECTARE IV-15
IV-2 THE AMOUNT OF POLLUTANTS ABSORBED BY THE MODEL
HECTARE IV-15
IV-3 CALCULATIONS TO DETERMINE TSP EMISSIONS TAKEN
UP USING OPEN SPACE DIRECTLY BENEATH 75yg/nf
AND ABOVE IV-20
IV-4 CALCULATIONS TO DETERMINE TSP EMISSIONS TAKEN UP
USING AVAILABLE OPEN SPACE DIRECTLY BENEATH
40 yg/m AND ABOVE IV-22
IV-5 DETERMINATION OF THE AMOUNT OF PARTICULATES
ABSORBED BY STREET TREES IV-26
V-l COST ANALYSIS - OPEN SPACE PLAN FOR
S02 REMOVAL V-6
V-2 RATES OF EXPENDITURE V-8
V-3 S02 - SUMMARY COMPARISON OF COST EFFECTIVENESS. ... V-ll
VIII-1 S02 - REMOVAL AT RATED PERFORMANCE(85+% recovery) . . VIII-2
VIII-2 S02 - REMOVAL AT RATED PERFORMANCE(51.3+% recovery) . VIII-3
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I. INTRODUCTION, APPROACH & SUMMARY OF RESULTS
A. INTRODUCTION & ORGANIZATION OF REPORT
The work undertaken in this project has resulted in the preparation of
three separate report Volumes and one Appendix Volume. Taken together, they
cite and attempt to interpret all of the pertinent and accessible literature
from the United States of America,and elsewhere, which we selected relating to
the potential use of open space as a practical means to mitigate air pollution.
Volume III, this volume,is entitled Demonstration Plan and it hypothetically
applies the findings and designs derived from Volumes I and II to a test city,
St. Louis, Missouri. This hypothetical application of the demonstration plan
includes a cost/effectiveness analysis of the combined open space/AQMA Plan.
That aspect of this report attempts to evaluate some of the merits or problems
of combining both natural and man-controlled management practices directed at
mitigating air pollution. That evaluation was based on the best available data
which we were able to secure and where limits must be placed on that data, those
limits are explained in the text.
Volume I is entitled Sink Factors and presents the data collected from a
number of manual and computerized literature searches. Most of the information
presented in the other volumes was derived from the information contained in
Volume I. Therefore, much cross referencing is made. Volume I contains tables
of sink and emission factors which were developed based on the collected data,
and it also contains tables of pollution sensitive and pollution resistant plant
species derived from the surveyed literature. The separate Appendix Volume for
Volume I presents complete abstracts of all the pertinent literature. It was
decided to include as many abstracts as possible in order that our work might
find as broad a utilization as possible by future researchers and, therefore,
approximately 2,000 abstracts were selected for inclusion. Several thousands were
discarded as not being especially pertinent after they had been reviewed.
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Volume II is entitled Design Criteria and presents the essence of this
study in the form of a workbook. It reviews the primary biological and design
features which are crucial to the effective utilization of open space to mitigate
air pollution. It presents generalized schemes for the design and location
of buffer strips and other forms of open space and also illustrates air pollution
mitigation by open space by identifying the mathematical procedures necessary
in order to permit the incorporation of the appropriate sink factors into four
generally used carbon monoxide diffusion models.
B. SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS
Volume III is a demonstration plan that has chosen St. Louis
as a case study area to perform a comprehensive analysis of using open
space measures as air quality maintenance tools. Volume III defines the
existing environment in the case study area before proceeding to analyze
the difference between addressing the air quality problem through traditional
administrative control strategies or through the newly devised open
space measures.
The area to transpose this hypothetical situation upon was
chosen to be the St. Louis Air Quality Control Region (AQCR). The main
reason for selecting St. Louis was that a trial Air Quality Maintenance
Plan (AQMA Plan) had been completed for the area and an extensive Regional
Air Pollution Study (RAPS) was being undertaken in the area which could
provide an extensive data base for ambient air pollution levels. In
addition to these reasons, the main planning agency in the area (the
East-West Gateway Coordinating Council) was undertaking a revision of
their plan of development for the region. It was felt that the proposed
open space plan developed under this contract could be an input into a
regional Open Space Plan developed as part of their plan of development.
The AQMA Plan developed in St. Louis performed three major
functions. First it defined the air quality problem in St. Louis through
utilization of an emissions inventory to determine present as well as
future levels of air pollution. Secondly it explained how St. Louis was
planning to attain the primary air quality standards. Finally it dealt
with how those standards would be maintained through the inevitable
growth pattern of the future.
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The AQMA Plan reviewed monitoring data from Missouri and Illinois
to determine trends in air quality. Monitoring data was available from
eleven monitoring stations in the area. Sulfur dioxide (S0_) air quality
in Missouri was currently at or better than the annual standards.
However, in Illinois several sites exceeded the primary standards for
24-hour measurements. Carbon monoxide (CO) values for 8-hour periods
were recorded in 1972 that were almost twice the 8-hour standard.
Oxidant concentrations also exceeded the standards and appeared to be
increasing.
In addition to the baseline inventory, the AQMA Plan contained
projections of emissions for Total Suspended Particulates (TSP), S0«,
CO, and Hydrocarbons for 1975, 1980, and 1985. The total emission
projections are as follows:
1975 1980 1985
Total Suspended Particulate 101,662 126,290 145,768
Sulfur Dioxide 797,080 1,119,844 1,149,053
Carbon Monoxide 585,403 358,507 278,162
Hydrocarbons 165,507 136,009 133,085
These emission projections were then used to derive air quality
projections of ambient concentrations for 1975, 1980, and 1985.
In order to reduce excessive 1975 levels to the primary standards
various strategies were proposed. For TSP and S0« since the problems
were localized and were caused by individual sources, the action proposed
was to continue to implement and enforce the State Implementation Plan
(SIP) regulations. Subsequent monitoring results would indicate whether
or not the standards were being achieved. If they were not, then hotspot
regulations for individual sources would have to be implemented to bring
isolated violations into compliance. From the monitoring data it was
clear that CO and oxidant standards would not be met unless additional
efforts were made. These efforts have materialized in the form of
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Transportation Control Strategies. The purpose of these strategies is
to reduce emission rates from individual vehicles through an inspection-
maintenance program and to reduce the number of vehicles on the road,
especially during rush hour through car pooling and transit incentives.
The final element of the AQMA Plan was the maintenance of
standards through 1985. In this study an alternature to the proposed
method of maintenance for particulate and sulfur dioxide is proposed and
analyzed. The method of control in the AQMA Plan consisted of centralizing
fuel burning sources. The degree of control needed was 44,000 tons/yr.
of TSP and 186,000 tons/yr. of S02. The alternative method proposed in
this study is to locate available open space acreage and plant that
acreage with coniferous and deciduous trees. These trees will act as a
sink to collect pollution out of the air as the air blows through the
trees.
For the levels of reductions required an analysis of the two
methods was conducted. The result of this analysis was used to perform
a cost effectiveness study.
The basis of the AQMA Plan control strategy was the installation
of control equipment on fuel burning sources to control 44,000 tons/yr.
of TSP and 186,000 tons/yr. of S02- To illustrate this control strategy,
it was determined that the 44,000 tons/yr. of TSP would be removed from
a hypothetical coal burning power plant by electrostatic precepitators.
The capital cost for the control equipment would be $2,519 million. The
annual operating cost would be $310,733/yr. To recover 186,000 tons/yr.
of sulfur dioxide, the Labodie Power Plant of Union Electric was theoretically
determined by fitting the power plant with four (4) sulfur dioxide
removal processes: limestone scrubbing, double alkali process, Wellman-
Lord process, and citrate process. The median cost of these four processes
is $20,875,000 with a corresponding operating cost of $9,482,000/yr.
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For the alternature strategy of open space plantings it was
determined that 122,517 hectares of land would be required to remove the
44,000 tons/yr. of particulates from the air. The total investment cost
to plant this area would be close to $4,000,000,000. To remove the
186,000 tons/yr. of sulfur dioxide, 249 hectares of land will be needed
for open space plantings. The capitol cost of this investment would be
$3,087,500 with an annual operating operating expense of $477,525/yr.
From this comparative cost analysis it was concluded that open
space plantings was a feasible method for removing sulfur dioxide;
however, it was determined to be economically infeasibile to use open
space plantings for the removal of particulates. It was made clear that
mechanical devices at the source were the better control technology in
terms of cost effectiveness for all control of particulates.
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II. ST. LOUIS CASE STUDY AREA
A. SELECTION OF CASE STUDY AREA
After developing sink factors and planning design criteria, a demonstra-
tion study of open space as an air resource management technique was undertaken.
The goal of this demonstration study was to maximize the use of open space in
reducing ambient concentrations of air pollutants, subject to the overall population
goals of the region under study. The first task of this demonstration study was
to select an urban region to perform this analysis. The criteria for selection
were: (1) that the area be an Air Quality Maintenance Area (AQMA) for at least
sulfur dioxide (802), photochemical oxidants, carbon monoxide (CO), and particulates
(TSP), (2) the area had least a preliminary AQMA Plan completed, or was one
of the sample case study areas. (Baltimore, Denver, St. Louis or San Diego), so
that a reduction of pollutants could be determined.
After discussions with the Project Officer, St. Louis was selected as
the study area for the demonstration plan. The main reason for selecting
St. Louis was that a trial AQMA Plan had been completed for the area and
an extensive Regional Air Pollution Study (RAPS) was being undertaken in the
area which could provide an extensive data base for ambient air pollution levels.
In addition to these reasons,the main planning agency in the area (the East-West
Gateway Coordinating Council) was undertaking a revision of their plan of
development for the region. It was felt that the proposed open space plan
developed under this contract could be an input into a regional open space
plan developed as part of their plan of development.
After selecting St. Louis as the study area, an extensive search was
undertaken of existing data sources that could serve as input into the
demonstration plan. Contact was made with various agencies in the region
including: (1) the East-West Gateway Coordinating Council; (2) the City of
St. Louis, Air Pollution Control Division; (3) the State of Missouri, Air
Conservation Commission; (4) the Environmental Protection Agency,Region VII,
(Missouri), Region V, (Illinois); and RAPS Administrators; and (5) the State
II-l
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of Illinois, Environmental Protection Agency. The data collection effort was a
three part process. The first part was the collection of relevant information
to serve as a data base for physical planning. The second part was to
determine the ambient concentration of air pollutants in the region for the
present period. The final part was to determine what efforts were being
made in the region to implement the trial AQMA Plan that had been previously
developed, and accordingly to determine air pollution levels for future years.
Based on our discussions with the above agencies, it was decided that
the trial AQMA Plan was to be used as the data base for ambient levels of air
pollutants in the region for both the present and future years. It was also
decided to use 1985 as the target year for the development of an open space
plan because the preliminary AQMA Plan only contained predictions for that year. Other
sources of data on ambient levels of pollutants were contained in documents
received from the above agencies. However, in some cases the data were
contradictory and/or outdated. RAPS had the potential of being an excellent
source of data, but the study was not scheduled for completion in time for us to
use its data for this project.
Physical planning data was collected from the East-West Gateway
Coordinating Council and is discussed in Section IV-B of this report.
Specific air quality maintenance measures as envisioned by local officials
are presented in ChapterIII-B.
B. AIR QUALITY SYNOPSIS FOR ST. LOUIS
The following discussion is a summary of the development of a trial
AQMA Plan for the St. Louis Air Quality Control Maintenance Area (AQMA). This
study was prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency by Alan M. Voorhees
& Associates in December, 1974. Primary objectives of this study were to:
(1) prepare a trial AQMA Plan for the St. Louis interstate AQMA, and (2) critic
EPA guidelines for preparing an AQMA Plan.
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St. Louis was selected for study as an example of an interstate AQMA.
The states of Missouri and Illinois designated seven (7) counties and St. Louis
City which compromised the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) as an
AQMA. The concentration of diverse industrial process sources, transportation,
and commercial activity along the river channels provides the potential for
particulates (TSP), sulfur dioxide (SCL), carbon monoxide (CO), and photochemical
oxidants (Ox), air quality attainment and maintenance problems. The study
area is shown in Figure II-l, and consists of the city of St. Louis and St. Louis,
Franklin, Jefferson, and St. Charles counties in Missouri, and Monroe, St. Glair,
and Madison counties in Illinois. St. Louis is a transportation center with
river traffic(largest inland waterway port) and rail traffic second only to
Chicago. St. Louis is also one of the most commercially active cities in the
United States. It boasts an extremely diverse industrial base of food processers,
metal processers and fabricators, oil refineries, boundaries, and chemical pro-
cessing plants. Among the main industrial sources are Chrysler, Ford, General
Motors, Monsanto-Queeny, Monsanto-Krummrich, Sacony Mobile, Granite City Steel,
Clark Oil, and Amoco Oil, Shell Oil, Union Electric Co.(Rush Island Plant,
Lobodie Plant, Portage Des Sioux Plant), River Cement Co., Pittsburgh Plate
and Glass Industry, and St. Loe Lead Co. These major sources are illustrated
in Figure II-2. As can be seen, most of them are located adjacent to the major
rivers in the area.
St. Louis was not among the original urban areas required to submit
a Transportation Control Plan (TCP) to provide for the attainment of CO and QX
standards. However, data from the expanded monitoring network for these pollutants
indicated a potential attainment problem. Therefore, the Missouri Air Conservation
Commission established an advisory committee to study the problem and prepare
a transportation control plan for the AQCR.* An initial study was prepared by
PEDCO, Environmental Specialist,Inc. for the attainment for CO and Ox standards.
In June, 1975 the East-West Gateway Coordinating Council agreed to assist the
Missouri Department of Natural Resources in the development of a TCP for
metropolitan St. Louis. A technical draft of these strategies was finalized
in April, 1976 and submitted to the Missouri Air Conservation Commission. The
strategies include programs for inspection maintenance, parking management,
*Air Quality Control Region
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FIGURE II-l
ST. LOUIS METROPOLITAN AREA
ST. LOUIS AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE AREA
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FIGURE II-2
LOCATION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIAL SOURCES
410 130 450 470 490 510 530 550 57t 410 430 450 470 490 510 530 550 570
Source: Interstate Air Pollution
Study, Phase II, Project
Report, HBW May 1966
II-5
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reserved bus lanes, improved transit, car-pooling, signal sychronization, and
rescheduled hours. These strategies are presently under review by the Missouri
Air Conservation Commission, as well as local agencies, as possible measures
to attain CO and Ox levels in the AQCR.
In March, 1974 Missouri designated the St. Louis SMSA as a maintenance
area for TSP and Ox. Soon thereafter, Illinois also designated the three Illinois
counties in the SMSA as an AQMA for TSP, SO , and Ox.
C. AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE ANALYSIS
A detailed analysis of TSP, S02, CO and oxidants was performed in the
AQMA Plan to confirm the conclusions of the initial designation and to provide
data to determine the most effective air quality maintenance strategy for each
pollutant. The analysis included a review of existing air quality, calculation
of baseline and projected emissions for 1975, 1980, and 1985, and calculation of
projected air quality for 1975, 1980 and 1985.
1. Existing Air Quality (1972).
The AQMA Plan reviewed existing monitoring data from Missouri and
Illinois to determine trends in air quality. Monitoring data were available
from eleven (11) stations in the AQMA. The significant findings of these data
are discussed below:
a. TSP air quality in 1971 and 1972 exceeded the standards at several
of the eleven monitoring stations in the AQMA. The majority of the sites in
Missouri recorded concentrations at or below the primary standard. However,
air quality levels at stations in St. Louis City, St. Louis County and the East
St. Louis area were 50 to 75% over the primary standards. These sites appeared
to be influenced by major point sources or clusters of sources in the immediate
vicinity.
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b. S0~ air quality in Missouri was currently at or better than the
annual standards. However, Illinois reported several site concentrations exceed-
ing the primary standards for 24-hour measurements. These sites appeared to be
influenced by major point sources.
c. CO values for 8-hour periods were recorded in 1972 that were almost
twice the 8-hour standard. Urban "hotspots" associated with mobile sources
were identified.
d. Oxidant concentrations also exceeded the standards and appeared to
be increasing.
2. Emissions Projections.
The general approach to projecting emissions for all four pollutants
applied the following procedure:
Estimate a 1975 baseline inventory for all sources, assuming the
sources are in compliance with existing regulations.
Develop growth factors for each source category from available
growth data.
Apply the growth factors to the 1975 baseline inventory to obtain
projected emissions from each source category.
Using the procedures discussed above, emissions were projected for 1975,
1980 and 1985 for each pollutant and source category. These data are presented in
Table II-1. Conclusions drawn from the projections are:
a. TSP areawide total emissions increase through 1975. Major
increases are attributable to point sources and are expected to occur in
the vicinity of existing "hotspots."
b. SCL emissions projections reflect significant increases in power
plant capacity projected to occur through 1985.
c. CO areawide totals decrease sharply and continuously through
1985 due to the impact of the Federal Motor Vehicle Control Program (FMVCP).
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TABLE ii_i
ST. LOUIS AIR .QUALITY MAINTENANCE AREA
EMISSION PROJECTION-SUMMARY
Source Category
Point Sources
Area Sources
Power Plants
Mobile Sources: Highway
Off-highway
TOTALS
Point Sources
Area Sources
Power Plants
Mobile Sources:
Point Sources
Area Sources
Power Plants
Mobile Sources: Highway
Off-highway
TOTALS
Point Sources
Area Sources
Power Plants
Mobile Sources: Highway
Off-highway
TOTALS
Emissions, Tons per year
1975 1980 1985.-
Total Suspended Particulate
50,329
18,955
20,348
8,383
3,647
57,972
20,404
34,064
9,622
4.228
71,617
23,563
34,863
10,823
4,902
101,662 126,290 145,768*
Sulfur Dioxide
Highway
Off -highway
TOTALS
194,046
40,155
577,190
2,065
3,624
797 ,080
204,013
44,510
864,748
2,371
4,202
1,119,844
218,452
50 ,063
873,000
2,666
4,872
1149,053
Carbon Monoxide
46,821
28,808
1,641
476,242
31,891
585 ,403
40,208
30,389
1,191
82,502
11,217
165,507
50,870
27,565
1,641
241 ,459
36,972
59,734
27,799
1,700
146,070
42,859
358,507 278,162
Hydrocarbons
50,330
32,153
1,395
39,217
13,004
136,009
55 ,009
35,370
1,666
25,956
15,076
133,085
II-8
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d. Total HC projected emissions decrease through 1985. Point and
area source emissions increase gradually, while mobile source emissions decrease
significantly.
3. Air Quality Projections.
A number of techniques were used for the projection of air quality
from emission data. For TSP, the projections were accomplished through
application of statistical relationships between TSP emissions density and
concentration. A curve was developed which displayed this relationship and was
used to estimate annual concentrations at the center of each selected subarea
in the AQMA. Isopleths were drawn based on concentrations at subarea centers.
These isopleths display the mean annual TSP concentration distribution in the
St. Louis AQMA. Figures II-3, II-4 and II-5 show distribution of TSP mean
annual concentrations for 1975, 1980 and 1985, respectively.
The projection of air quality concentrations for SO was accomplished
by applying two air quality diffusion models: Miller -Holzworth for the St.
Louis central urban area of the Wood River refinery complex, and the Pasquill-
Gifford plume dispersion for four significant point sources. These two projection
methods required calculations of concentrations from given equations. The
Miller-Holzworth equation calculates annual average areawide concentrations of
S0~ from emission density, mixing depth, urban size, and mean annual wind speed.
The Pasquill-Gifford plume dispersion calculates a maximum 24-hour average con-
centration of S0» from wind speed, plume rise, emissions rate, stack parameters,
meteorological stability, and assumes a Gaussian plume.
Table II-2 summarizes the results of SC^ air quality projections
for both point source concentrations and selected area source concentrations.
Maximum 24-hour and annual concentrations are given for 1975, 1980 and 1985.
Figure II-6 gives the location for point and selected area sources in the
St. Louis AQMA.
CO air quality projections were calculated for 1975 at nine selected
receptor sites using the APRAC 1A diffusion model. CO concentrations in 1980 and
II-9
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11-13
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TABLE II-2
SULFUR DIOXIDE AIR QUALITY PROJECTIONS
Point Source
Location
1
2
3
4
Area Source
1A 144 sq. mile
Maximum 24 hour
(standard
1975
38
322
221
308
Maximum annual
(standard
1975
101.6
concentration
- 365 ygm/m3)
1980
145
400
243
308
concentration,
- 80 ygm/m3)
1980
89.8
, ygm/m3
1985
145
400
262
308
ygm/m3
1985
98.5
central urban
area
IB 182.25 sq. mile 80.3
central urban
area
2 36 sq. mile 66.2
(Wood River)
71.0
82.4
77.8
105.0
ygm/m
micro grams per cubic meter
11-14
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1985 at these receptors were extrapolated from the 1975 estimates using the
following procedure:
Assume worst case meteorological conditions do not vary
Assume concentrations of CO are directly proportional
to emissions of CO under worst-case meteorological conditions
. Calculate 1975, 1980 and 1985 CO emissions in the vicinity
of the selected nine receptors using subcorridor analysis
technique developed in the AQM Plan
Apply the corresponding percent change in emissions to the
1975 concentration of each receptor to obtain 1980 and 1985
concentrations.
Table II-3 shows the maximum 8 hour CO concentrations for the
selected receptors for 1975, 1980 and 1985. The projections for 8-hour carbon
monoxide concentrations generally exceed the standard in 1975; by 1980 and
1985, concentrations are well below the standard. Figure II-7 shows the
location of the receptor sites listed in Table II-3 .
The projection of air quality concentration for photochemical
oxidants was accomplished by applying Appendix J of the Federal Register
40 CFR 21, Regulations on Preparation of Implementation Plans. This Appendix
presents the relationship between percent reduction in hydrocarbon emissions
and maximum one-hour photochemical oxidant concentrations.
Since EPA defined oxidants as an area wide problem, the AQMA Plan
used the areawide emissions from Table II-1 to determine percent emission reduc-
tions from the air quality baseline year of 1972 to 1975, and 1980 to 1985. The
1972 second highest 1-hour concentration of 300 micrograms per cubic meter was
used as the base line.
TableII-4 shows the projected 1-hour oxidant concentration for 1975,
1980, and 1985 that was projected in the AQM Plan. The oxidant concentrations
are approaching the standard by 1985, but do not attain it.
11-15
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TABLE II-3
CARBON MONOXIDE AIR QUALITY PROJECTIONS
Maximum Eight Hour Concentration, ppm
Receptor Location (Standard - 9 ppm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
CAMP
1-70 & 1-270
1-70 & Shreve
Lindbergh &
Linferry
Hunter Ave.
& Clayton
St. Ann
1-244 &
Manchester
S.L. airport
U.S. 40 &
Grand
1975 (a)
10.8
7.2
9.6
12.8
10.5
9.9
10.8
8.8
10.9
1980 (b)
5.44
3.75
4.90
6.95
5.46
5.25
5.88
4.60
4.52
1985 (b)
3.15
2.37
2.80
4.30
3.22
3.19
3.69
2.76
2.37
(a) 1975 concentrations were generated using APRAC-IA urban
diffusion model
(b) 1980 and 1985 are extrapolations of the APRAC-IA 1975
data using percent change in emissions from mobile
sources generated from the subcorridor emissions analysis
11-16
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TABLE II-4
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
AIR QUALITY PROJECTIONS*
Peak one hour Concentration
(Standard - 160 pgm/m3)
Location 1975 1980 1985
Area wide highest value 240 190 180
Application of Appendix J. Federal Register 40 CFR 51 to
percent total hydrocarbon emission reductions for the
St. Louis AQMA.
o
*ygm/m = micro-grams per cubic meter
4. Summary and Conclusions of the AQMA Analysis.
The AQMA Plan summarized the AQMA analysis and presented conclusions
on air quality, source contributions, attainment and maintenance of standards,
and actions required. These summaries are presented below so that the maintenance
strategies developed in the AQMA Plan can be compared to the open space measures
developed in this project
a. Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
(1) air quality - Ambient concentrations exceeded the
primary standards at several monitoring stations. The projected concentration
distribution pattern changes very little over the 10-year period. "Hotspot"
areas were identified which had the potential to exceed the standards during the
1975 to 1985 period.
(2) source contribution - Point sources and power plants were
the primary contributors to the existing problem. However, increases were
projected in all source categories. Growth in emissions were expected to be
concentrated at existing sources or in the vicinity of existing sources.
11-18
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Growth accounts for less than 20 percent of projected total emissions in
1985. The contribution of fugitive dust to ambient concentrations was not
known at the time.
(3) attainment and maintenance of standards - The primary
standards were projected to be attained by 1975 and maintained throughout the
following 10-year period in most of the AQMA. However, "hotspot" areas were
identified where the primary standards were projected to be exceeded beyond the
1975 compliance schedule. Because the growth in emissions were projected to
be concentrated in these "hotspot" areas, maintenance of the standards would
be a problem. Secondary standards were projected to be exceeded throughout the
10-year period in large portions of three counties and the city of St. Louis
surrounding the "hotspot" areas.
(4) actions required - An attainment and maintenance strategy was
required for the "hotspot" areas. A strategy was needed to maintain the
secondary standard for TSP in the area immediately surrounding the "hotspot."
b. sulfur dioxide (S02)
(1) air quality - ambient concentrations of S0~ on the Missouri
side of the AQMA were all below the standards. Concentrations at isolated sites
in the Illinois portion of the AQMA exceeded the primary standard. Air quality
projections were highly dependent on the sulfur oxide emissions from isolated
sources and indicated that a "potential" to exceed the standards existed only
in the vicinity of these sources. No regionwide maintenance problem is projected.
(2) source contribution - Power plants and several large
industrial point sources accounted for all significant contributions to existing
and projected emissions of sulfur oxides. Growth in emissions was projected
to be significant due to power plant expansions.
(3) attainment and maintenance of standards - SO- standards
were expected to be attained and maintained throughout the AQMA. Exceptions may
recur in the vicinity of major power plants or specific point sources.
11-19
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(4) actions required - A regionwide maintenance strategy was
not required. However, more extensive monitoring and surveillance of major sources
was required to ensure maintenance of the short-term standards in the vicinity
of sources. Interim measures may have been required to attain and maintain
in the "hotspots."
c. carbon monoxide (CO)
(1) air quality - Eight-hour standards were currently exceeded
at several monitoring stations throughout the AQMA. Projected concentrations
indicated several areas, would exceed the eight-hour standard in 1975.
All selected receptor sites were projected to be well below the standards by
1980. Maximum concentrations were associated with major highways and
intersections.
(2) source contribution - Mobile sources were the primary
contributor to CO emissions in the AQMA and would still account for more than
50% of total emissions by 1985.
(3) attainment and maintenance of standards - Once the eight-
hour CO standards were attained, the continued decline in mobile source emissions
would assure maintenance to at least 1985.
(4) actions required - A Transportation Control Plan (TCP) was
in the process of being developed to provide attainment of the CO standards.
The TCP was expected to be adopted by February 1975. A regional maintenance
strategy was not required at the time.
d. photochemical oxidants (0 )
X
(1) air quality - peak-hour oxidant concentrations exceeded the
standard and limited air quality trend data indicated increasing values. Oxidant
values were projected to decrease due to decreases in total hydrocarbon emissions.
However, the decreases were projected to be insufficient to attain the standard.
11-20
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(2) source contribution - Mobile sources were the most signifi-
cant contributor to total regional hydrocarbon emissions. However, stationary
point and area sources were suggested to be more significant by 1985 as mobile
source controls became more effective.
(3) attainment and maintenance of standards - The oxidant stan-
dard could not be attained or maintained with the SIP control measures. Uncon-
trolled (no TCP) projected oxidant concentrations exceeded the standard beyond
1985.
(4) actions required - A Transportation Control Plan (TCP) was
required for attainment and a maintenance strategy was required.
11-21
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III.AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE PLAN AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ST. LOUIS
The air quality analysis in Section II indicated that attainment of the
primary standards for TSP, S0_, CO and oxidants could not be achieved by 1975.
In addition, maintenance strategies were required for TSP, SO- and oxidants.
Therefore, the AQMA Plan reviewed existing and proposed attainment plans and
evaluated alternative strategies. Following the development of the AQMA Plan
certain maintenance strategies were officially adopted and/or were developed for
consideration by the appropriate personnel. The following section will review
the attainment and maintenance plans developed in the AQMA Plan and will document
the strategies that have been or will be adopted in the area according to local
officials.
A. AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE PLAN
The first step in the development of the AQMA Plan was to review the
existing air quality plans to determine if they were sufficient to attain and/or
maintain air quality standards in the region. After reviewing these plans, it was
then necessary to review possible maintenance strategies and evaluate their
application in the St. Louis AQMA. Finally, a proposed maintenance plan was
developed to provide sufficient emission reduction to account for the projected
growth or prevent that growth from occurring in areas where the ambient air quality
was at or near the standard. The attainment and maintenance strategies developed
for the St. Louis AQMA in the AQMA Plan are detailed below and summarized in
Table III-l.
1. Attainment Plans.
a. Particulates (TSP)
The original projections included in the Missouri and Illinois
State Implement Plans (SIP) predicted attainment of the TSP standards by 1975.
These projections were dependent upon data base, analysis, control technique,
and compliance schedule assumptions. In addition, it was assumed that the
relationship between emissions and air quality was adequately defined by the
analysis technique and the meteorological conditions given as representative of
the worse case.
III-l
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III-2
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Any one of these assumptions could have been too optimistic.
Because the analysis performed in the air quality maintenance plan was subject
to the same conditions it could not be assured that the 1975 air quality would
exceed the standards. Therefore, no TSP control measures were suggested at that
time. It was recommended that the monitoring and surveillance program be expanded
to determine if the air quality would exceed standards. It was, however, recom-
mended that a fugitive dust inventory be completed for the region as part of this
monitoring program.
b. Sulfur Dioxide (SO )
The SIP for Illinois and Missouri both projected attainment of
SO- standards by 1975. Current air quality at the time was below the primary
and secondary standard in Missouri; however, 1972 air quality exceeded the primary
standards at several sites in the Illinois portion of the AQMA. The Illinois EPA
felt these violations were related to individual sources.
The analysis performed in the AQMA Plan concluded that the
primary standards would not be achieved by 1975 at several points in the AQMA
due to source orientated problems. In addition, scheduled expansions at power
plants provided the potential for short term standards to be violated depending
upon individual source operational characteristics.
It was concluded that the attainment of S0_ standards was a
specific source oriented problem. Efforts were then underway to determine
source compliance with existing regulations. Therefore, no new attainment
measures were required at that time.
c. Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Photochemical Oxidants (Ox)
St. Louis was not among the original group of cities required to
submit transportation control plans to attain and maintain CO and oxidant
standards. Ambient data collected during the development of the AQMA Plan from
expanded monitoring networks suggested an attainment problem did exist for CO and
oxidants. Therefore, the Missouri Air Conservation Commission in cooperation with
the Illinois EPA and Area Transportation Planning Community representatives pre-
pared a Transportation Control plan (TCP).
III-3
-------
This TCP was developed after the submission of the AQMA Plan.
Suggested strategies from the TCP are included in this Section on Developments in
St. Louis Since Submission of the AQMA Plan.
2. Recommended Maintenance Strategies.
After reviewing the existing attainment plans, theACjMA Plan included
a program which was considered the best approach to the attainment and maintenance
of air quality in the St. Louis AQMA. This program included:
Full implementation and enforcement of all attainment plan measures
included in the state implementation plans
Expanded monitoring and surveillance through the RAPS/RAMS programs
Long-term comprehensive approach to air quality maintenance
Interim measures to ensure maintenance during the period required
for development and full implementation of the long-term approach
The following sections describe the interim maintenance measures
and administrative approach developed in the AQMA Plan.
a. Interim Measures
(1) municipal refuse (SO^ control at power plants)
In approximately 1971 the EPA, Union Electric, and the
city of St. Louis embarked on a pilot project to determine the feasibility
of using municipal solid waste as a fuel for power plant boilers. The results
of the experiment were made public in early 1974. They indicated that it was
feasible and, in fact, economically profitable for Union Electric. In 1970,
it was projected that Union Electric would have a system organized whereby all
III-4
-------
the public and refuse collectors would take their refuse to a sorting station
where the burnable refuse would be separated from the non-burnable. The non-
burnable, principally metals, would be sold as scrap, while the burnables would
be taken to the main power plants. This fuel would satisfy almost 10% of the
fuel requirements for the generators, with the remainder being coal. This use
of refuse as a fuel was projected to SO- emissions by a minimum of 5% and a
maximum of 10% at the power plants. At the same time, the data indicated that
TSP emissions at the plant would not be significantly increased.
(2) sulfur dioxide (SOg) emission reduction at three (3) major
power plants
The projected emission inventory data for the Labadie, Meramec,
and Sioux power plants of Union Electric did not contain a future reduction to
account for SO control of stack gases, even though the three plants would be in
violation of Missouri safe regulations for allowable SO- emission rates in the St.
Louis area (2.3 lbs/10 BTU input). EPA, therefore, issued a notice to Union Electric
Company which indicated that these three plants may prevent attainment of NAAQS.
The AQMA Plan surmised that if emission reductions were
required at the three plants they would probably occur prior to 1978, and
therefore should be considered as interim maintenance measures. These potential
reductions represented a large portion of total projected regional S0_ emissions.
It was stated that compliance with the existing regulations would bring about
the following percentage reductions (from the 1975 projected emissions):
Labadie - 56%, Meramec - 6%, Sioux - 53%.
The AQMA Plan stated that this was equivalent to approximately
383,000 tons/yr. of SO eliminated for all three plants, or 38% of projected 1975
S02 emission in the AQMA.
III-5
-------
(3) indirect source review (carbon monoxide control)
The AQMA Plan suggested that the Transportation Control
Plan,scheduled to be submitted in February 1975, would provide for attainment of
CO and oxidant standard by at least 1977. The emission analysis indicated that
the total emissions of CO for the AQMA, the individual counties and in the
individual subcorridors would decrease from the attainment date until 1985. This
continued reduction in emissions primarily reflect the greater impact of the
Federal Motor Vehicle Control Program (FMVCP).
Based on the projected decrease in emissions, and on
assumptions that a Transportation Control Plan would be approved, the only
remaining problem with maintenance of the CO air quality standard through the
year 1985, was suggested to be a microscale problem of individual indirect sources.
Therefore, it was suggested, that as a part of the AQMA Plan, an indirect source
program be implemented.
(4) exclusive/car pool lanes (carbon monoxide control)
This control measure was suggested to help reduce the number
of vehicle trips made in AQMA, especially in the morning and evening peak hours.
It was suggested that one freeway in St. Louis, 1-70, was well suited for such a
conversion to bus/car pool lanes. The freeway had two center reversible lanes that
were used as express lanes for vehicles during the peak hours. Traffic volumes
along 1-70 in St. Louis approached 100,000 vehicles/day and it was stated that
a 6% reduction, especially during the morning and evening peak hours, could be
achieved using these percentages. It was concluded that this would mean 4,320 less
automotive VMT on the freeway during the AM peak period.
III-6
-------
It was also suggested that some thought should be given
to providing preferential bus usage on curb lanes on major city streets. This
measure would increase the speed of buses, thereby making them attractive to
the public as a means of transportation, and would increase ridership and reduce
the overall number of vehicle trips made in the AQMA. In addition, it was reported
that approximately 160,000 VMT/day could be eliminated along major routes
through the increased use of mass transit.
(5) cost-effective stationary source hydrocarbon controls
(oxidant reduction)
The AQMA Plan referenced a previous study accomplished
in St. Louis wherein it described optimum control by major stationary sources
in the area for CO and oxidants. The major objection to these measures was the
seventy (70) million dollar cost estimate. These controls were described as,
"maximum, technically demonstrated, control technology." The AQMA stated that
if these controls were adopted as part of the proposed TCP, they would provide
sufficient control, together with new Federal source performance standards, for
these sources to attain and maintain the oxidant standard through at least 1985.
If, however, they were not adopted, the AQMA Plan suggested that some form of
stationary source HC control would be required as a maintenance measure to account
for the projected growth in this source category. In that case, it was recommended
that a cost/effective level of control be negotiated with each source.
b. Recommended Long-Term Comprehensive Approaches to Maintenance
The AQMA Plan concluded that a regional comprehensive approach
to air quality maintenance for the St. Louis AQMA was required if long-term land
use and environmental objectives were to be attained. It was suggested that the
first step in the implementation process require the development of a revised or
III-7
-------
updated regional comprehensive plan using air quality maintenance as a constraint.
This could be accomplished by an evaluation of alternatives for environmental and,
in particular, air quality impact. The then existing regional plan could be
quantified to provide a baseline for comparison of alternatives. Detailed quantifi-
cation of land use and transportation plans could be undertaken.
Concurrently, air quality maintenance policies were suggested to
be developed in an attempt to ensure that various alternative plans meet the
air quality constraints. These policies could be incorporated into the body of
policies and goals,which are a part of the comprehensive plan.
The next step in the implementation plan and enforcement process
was to follow and to enforce an administrative procedure developed to ensure
an adherence to the policies developed. It was suggested that the state air
pollution agencies, the regional planning agencies and local and public agency
representatives select the most appropriate method for achieving this procedure.
The selected approach was to be presented to the public together with a revised
comprehensive plan at public hearings.
It was suggested in the AQMA Plan that emissions allocation appeared
to be the best administrative approach for long-term air quality maintenance
relative to adequacy and inforceability. Since the administrative structure
and procedures required to implement this approach would take considerable time and
effort, it was concluded that regional development planning be implemented until
the optimal procedure and structure for implementing an emissions allocation approach
could be determined and implemented.
It was also suggested than a review of the impact of the then cur-
rent land use and transportation projects be used as the first step in implementing
this regional development planning. In addition, the air pollution agencies and the
EWGCC advisory board were told to cooperate to persuade new significant sources of
TSP and S0_ to avoid hotspot areas. If this persuasion failed to obtain the desired
results, hotspot regulation and new source review regulations were suggested with
strict enforcement to litipieflieftt recommendations in the plans.
III-8
-------
B. DEVELOPMENTS IN ST. LOUIS SINCE THE AQM PLAN
A number of activities have occurred in St. Louis since the AQM Plan
was completed in December, 1974. These include:
The Development of Alternative Transportation Control Strategies
Inspection/Maintenance (I/M)
Vapor Recovery
SIP Regulations
1. Transportation Control Strategies.
In June 1975, the East-West Gateway Coordinating Council agreed to
assist the Missouri Department of Natural Resources in the development of a
Transportation Control Plan (TCP) for metropolitan St. Louis. The goal of the
TCP was to reduce mobile source emissions 20% for carbon monoxide and 65% for
hydrocarbons. The main methods proposed to be used to reach these goals were
the reduction of areawide vehicle-miles-traveled (VMT), the improvement of traffic
flow, and the reduction of emissions from individual vehicles. This work
culminated in the development of a document entitled Alternative Transportation
Control strategies, that was published as a technical draft in April, 1976. A
summary of the strategies, the percent reduction in mobil source emissions and
the approximate cost to implement each strategy is contained in Table III-2.
Each of these strategies is discussed below:
a. Inspection/Maintenance
Inspection/maintenance is a control strategy that ensures on-the-road
vehicles minimize their emissions by keeping the vehicle property maintained.
The two types of tests are idle test (vehicle on idle) and the loaded test (vehicle
at simulated road speed using a dynameter). These tests can be conducted by a
state-licensed, or state-franchised system. Also, programs can be mandatory or
III-9
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voluntary. Expected hydrocarbon reduction estimates range from 4.2% to 7.9%
depending upon the implementation method.
In St. Louis, the final inspection/maintenance program has not
been resolved and two issues remain: the type of program to be implemented and
the geographical area of coverage. It is now believed that an inspection/
maintenance program will be implemented for the entire geographic area. However,
final plans may change this concept.
b. Parking Management
Parking management is a strategy that attempts to reduce
the number of people using the automobile diverting them to a
mass transportation system. Conflict arises in areas where parking regulations
require a certain minimum in parking areas. In St. Louis the strategy has been
suggested to provide a disincentive for the use of low occupancy private autos.
The East-West Gateway Coordinating Council is presently completing an inventory
of parking demand in critical areas and is evaluating alternative parking control
strategies. Final recommendations will be made in cooperation with local officials
and the private sector.
c. Reserved Bus Lanes
This strategy is closely related to improved transit and car pooling.
It provides for exclusive bus and car pool lanes on major arterials and free-
ways. Its effect is to speed up travel times thereby providing an incentive
for people to use buses or car pools.
In St. Louis it was recommended that four arterial systems be
further studied for use as exclusive bus lanes. These four facilities are U.S.
40, 1-70, Grand Avenue and Kingsway Boulevard.
111-12
-------
d. Improved Transit Service
Better transit service is considered one method of reducing travel.
Attracting commuters has been the object of many service improvements made around
the country. This is done primarily because these trips are made regularly and
are typically longer than other types of trips. Many commuters use transit to
get to work because it is convenient and economical. These transit users also
reduce congestion on highways and air pollution by using the bus instead of driving
themselves. Consequently, mass transit should be considered as having a potential
for reducing air pollution within the region.
In St. Louis,a number of improvements have been suggested as a
means to improve transit service. These suggestions are listed below along with
the potential VMT reduction for each:
Service
No. of Daily Users
Estimated
VMT Reduction
Improvements to Existing Service
Park & Ride Service
New Routes
Special Services
Off-peak shopper services
Demand-Resp ons ive
6,000
1,700
3,000
1,300
200
600
TOTAL
60,000
23,000
30,000
13,000
2,000
6,000
132,000
The overall projected impact of this transit development program
for the first year is about 0.8% reduction in total area wide VMT. Similar
improvements are being suggested for four subsequent years as part of a five
year transit development plan. It has been suggested that when implemented the
total program could reduce VMT by attracting 20% of the potential trips now being
made.
111-13
-------
e. Car Pooling
Car pooling is a strategy that attempts to reduce the VMT
by reducing the number of cars on the road. This strategy is currently being used
in St. Louis by a few employers. It is dependent upon some kind of incentive to
encourage people to form a car pool. High incentives can double or triple the
automobile occupancy for work trips.
It has been suggested that car pool programs could be implemented
in the St. Louis Region by employers who have a work force of 100 or more.
Car pool programs through these employers could eliminate 1.8 million .VMT/day.
In addition, car pool programs could be developed for educational institutions
with 250 or more staff, faculty and students.
f. Signal Synchronization
The St. Louis metropolitan area contains about 1,200 signalized
intersections within the urbanized boundaries. Of these, 768 intersections
(68% of total) are interconnected to provide about 140 miles of synchronized routes.
These signalized intersections are maintained and operated by individual traffic
agencies in both states. It is the intent of these agencies to provide uninterrupted
traffic flow, minimize congestion, and improve the level of service on the routes
under their jurisdiction. The specifications and standards that are to be used
in the design and operation of signalized intersections haves been established by
federal authorities and are contained in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices.
The majority of signalized intersections within the urbanized
boundaries are located on the arterials and CBD streets; some of these signals
are interconnected by either pretimed clocks, or some type of physical
interconnection. There are signalized intersections divided into about 105
separately controlled interconnected systems which include as few as two (2)
intersections or as many as about two hundred (200) intersections (St. Louis central
business district system).
111-14
-------
In St. Louis it was concluded that a well designed signal
synchronization system along the primary arteries offered the greatest opportunity
for reducing emissions. The amount of region-wide reduction that could be
expected to result from coordinating the traffic signals and thus increasing
the operating speeds from principal arteries would be about 2%, and from minor
arterials, the expected reduction would be 1%.
g. Rescheduled Hours
Rescheduled hours attempt to relieve congestion during peak
traffic times by having staggered work hours, a flex-time system, or a four-
day work week. Disadvantages can occur by reducing the number of car pools,
therefore, negating any benefit of the strategy.
In St. Louis, it was recommended that further study be given to
the four-day work week. It was concluded that the other alternatives did not
decrease VMT and that the four-day work week had the possibility of at least
decreasing the total number of work trips.
2. Inspection/Maintenance (I/M).
Since the East-West Gateway Coordinating Council published their
study "Transportation Control Strategies for the St. Louis Metropolitan Area"
which contains an analysis of several variations of an Inspection Maintenance (I/M)
program, a consultant, G.C.A. Corporation, Bedford, Massachusetts was retained
to perform an indepth cost-effectiveness study on the various alternatives of the
TCP for I/M. The consultant was commissioned to collect data and program results
from states who have Inspection Maintenance program in existance to determine
which combination of test method (loaded or idle) and test financing (vendor or
state operated)would be most cost effective. The consultant was further instructed
to review Missouri's state automotive safety inspection program to determine possible
methods of combining both inspection programs into one program.
111-15
-------
Missouri is presently preparing legislation for the creation of an
Inspection/Maintenance (I/M) program. The submittal of the legislation will
probably coincide with the issuance of a report from G.C.A. summarizing their
cost effectiveness analysis. Illinois is in Federal EPA Region #5, whereas
Missouri is in EPA Region #7, and subsequently Illinois is not being evaluated
for inclusion in the I/M program by the consultant who is being contracted by
EPA in Region #5.
3. Vapor Recovery.
On October 11, 1976, the Missouri Air Conservation Commission promulgated
a gasoline storage and transfer regulation through the Missouri legislative system.
This regulation dealt with gasoline emission limitations from bulk terminals,
bulk plants and service stations. From all bulk terminals and bulk plants handling
more than 600,000 gal./month, vapor recovery equipment must be installed to limit
emissions? of hydrocarbons to .5 grams/gal, pumped into the receiving vessel.
Facilities handling less than 600,000 gal./month are exempt from the vapor recovery
providing they use submerged loading facilities. In transfering gasoline from a
delivery vessel to a stationary tank over 2,000 gal., a recovery rate of 90%, must
be achieved. For tanks 250 to 2,000 gal. the only reduction procedures to be used
are submerged fill aparatus.
4. SIP Regulations.
The Missouri air pollution regulations which are a result of the air
pollution analysis performed in the Missouri State Implementation Plan are
being modified through recommendations from the engineering section. As was the
situation with Regulation XXI (a regulation to control hydrocarbon emissions
from gasoline storage facilities) the engineering section recommends new regulations
to combat excessive polluting sources which are the promulgated. Revisions to
the original SIP Regulations other than Regulation XXI have not been forth coming
because of two reasons. The first is a lack of staff in the engineering section.
The second is the soon to be issued ammendments to the Clean Air Act. These
ammendments should be issued within a few months.
111-16
-------
On January 14, 1977, Senator Muskie introduced three bills that would
amend the Clean Air Act. These three bills are similar to legislation submitted
during the previous year. The contents of the bills deal with such items as;
non-degradation, extension of automobile emission standards, cleaning up of deadlines,
extensions on a case-by-case basis for industry and for Transportation Control
Plans, providing penalties for major non-complying facilities, setting up controls
conditions for plant expansions in dirty-air areas and for those converting to coal.
The non-degradation provision would:
a. Apply in areas cleaner than required by federal ambient
air quality standards protecting health and welfare;
b. Mandate certain "pristine" or Class I areas;
c. Establish conditions for states to designate remaining clean-
air areas as Class I or Class II, permitting moderate growth;
d. Establish for Class I and Class II areas an allowance for increases
or increments of ambient levels of sulfur dioxide and total
suspended particulates;
e. Direct EPA to study increments for other pollutants and to
recommend within one year increments for nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons;
f. Apply the rules through the state permit process to specific new
major industrial sources and other new industrial sources
that potentially could emit 100 tons of pollutants per year;
g. Require new major sources to use best available control technology
defined on a case-by-case basis as a system of continuous emission
controls "taking into account energy, environmental, and economic
impacts and other costs";
h. Establish a mechanism enabling the federal land manager, the EPA
administrator, or an adjacent state governor to challenge
construction of a source that could adversely affect a Class I
area.
As Washington contemplates changes in Federal legislation, Missouri
is holding public hearings regarding changes in sulfur oxide emission regulations
from fuel burning as well as process equipment.Changes in the state regulations
will affect Union Electric as well as many other small sources.
111-17
-------
C. SUMMARY OF AIR CONTROL STRATEGIES IN ST. LOUIS
The AQMA Plan developed for St. Louis and completed in December, 1975,
contained recommended strategies for attainment and maintenance of air quality
standards. Unfortunately, most of the strategies contained in the plan were
quite general and no quantification of costs was associated with particular
elements of the plan. As a result of the plan, further efforts were needed to
develop some of the suggested strategies contained in the plan. These strategies
are in various phases of development and it cannot be assumed that all or any
of the strategies will be implemented. This section will attempt to summize what
elements of the AQMA Plan have been or will be implemented. These conclusions are
based on discussions with officials from the East-West Gateway Coordinating Council
and on documents obtained from various agencies in St. Louis. Although they may
not reflect what will actually occur in St. Louis they will be used as the basis
for comparison with the open space plan developed in the following Chapter.
The AQMA Plan concluded that the following reductions would be needed
by 1975 in order to meet air quality standards:
NECESSARY EMISSION
REDUCTIONS (tons/yr)
TSP 21,662
so2 o
CO 135,662
HC 48,507
Based on this analysis, it was concluded that attainment strategies would
be needed for TSP, CO and oxidents. In addition, since hotspot location may
violate S0_ standards, an attainment plan would be needed at certain locations.
The following recommendations were included in the AQMA Planas attainment
measures for particular pollutants:
TSP - expand the monitoring surveillance programs to accurately
trace efforts of the State Implementation Plan controls.
S0» - use no new control measures until all SIP regulations are in
effect.
111-18
-------
CO - induce the use of lighter weighted cars, reduce non-essential
travel, improve mass transit, and implement a car pool incentive
program. (These strategies plus the Federal Motor Vehicle
Emission Control Program should attain CO standard by 1977).
oxidants - apply best available technology for hydrocarbon stationary
sources, as well as implement the CO strategies for moble
sources.
Once standards are achieved by 1977, the AQMA Plan concluded that the
following additional reductions would be needed by 1985 to maintain air quality
standards as society continued to change and grow:
NECESSARY EMISSION
REDUCTIONS (tons/yr)
TSP 44,106
S02 186,053
CO 0
HC 0
The recommended maintenance strategy for each pollutant was divided
into interim and long-term solutions. Each strategy is itemized below:
TSP
Interim Measures Long-term Maintenance
Implement hotspot
regulations
Long-term comprehensive
approach
SO,
CO
0.
x
Implement hotspot
regulations, burn
refuse in power
plants, SO reduc-
duction at power
plants
Indirect source
review exclusive
bus/car pool lanes
HC stationary source
control
Long-term comprehensive
approach
Long-term comprehensive
approach
Long-term comprehensive
approach
111-19
-------
The AQMA Plandid not contain any data on specific estimates of pollutant
reduction by strategy. In fact, it can only be assumed that the combination
of strategies would maintain air quality standards as no estimate was made of
the total reduction expected from all strategies. No definitive time trble was
suggested for implementation of each strategy. Therefore.it was assumed that
the interim measures would produce results until approximately 1985 when a
long-term comprehensive plan could be implemented.
In regard to the suggested intermin measures, the following comments are
offered. For TSP, no hotspot regulations were enacted since current monitoring
data indicates that air quality standards are being maintained. However, pro-
jections indicate that future maintenance measures will be needed. For SO-, no
hotspot regulations were enacted. A system is being implemented at Union
Electric that will permit burning municipal refuse as a power source. In terms
of the SO- reduction at three major power plants, emissions are being reduced
by lower sulfur fuel. For CO, no indirect source review has been implemented
and exclusive bus/car pool lanes are being studied. For Ox, a stationary source
control program is being studied. Inspection maintenance has been suggested as
implementable by 1982;vapor recovery measures could be implemented by controlling
petroleum liquid storage, loading and transfer, degreasing and dry cleaning
operations by June 30, 1977, and by controlling automotive painting, metal
coating, and other surface coating operations in the early 1980's.
It is also impossible to predict whether any of the transportation control
strategies mentioned in Section B of this Chapter will be implemented. For the
purposes of this study, it is assumed that such strategies will be enacted to
reduce both the CO and 0 problems in St. Louis. The effect of the motor vehicle
emission reductions at the national level will have a major effect on the reduction
of these pollutants.
Based on the above discussion, it is assumed that air quality standards
will be attained in St. Louis by about 1978 using SIP enforcement regulations and
a Transportation Control Plan. After the standards are attained, the interim
maintenance measures contained in the AQM Plan will maintain the standards until
about 1985 when a long-term maintenance plan can be enacted.
111-20
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IV. ANALYSIS OF OPEN SPACE AS A CONTROL STRATEGY
TO MEET THE AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
A. METHODOLOGY AND OBJECTIVES
The main purpose of Volume III of this study is to examine the effectiveness
of using open space an an air resource measure and specifically to determine if
it can be used as an air control strategy as one part of an example air quality
maintenance plan. As discussed in earlier sections, St. Louis was chosen as the
site of a demonstration plan. Chapter II of this Volume reviewed the AQMA Plan
previously developed for St. Louis as well as developments in St. Louis since
the completion of the plan. In Volume I of this study, sink factors for various
pollutants by vegetative species were determined and Volume II contained various
design schemes for regional open space systems as well as particular buffer strips.
The remainder of this section will use the analytical information contained in
Volumes I & II and apply it to St. Louis in order to develop an open space
plan that could be used as a substitute or in conjunction with the AQMA Plan.
The methodology used in developing this open space plan was to first
determine what emission reductions would be needed to maintain air quality
standards in the AQMA after the standards are attained. The reductions were
calculated on a pollutant by pollutant basis. The second step was to determine
what amount of open space would be needed to absorb these same amounts of pollutants.
It was decided to develop a hypothetical vegetative unit consisting of one
hectare of typical plants that are indigenous to the area and that could maximize
pollutant reductions. The"sink capacity" of this hypothetical hectare was
calculated. The only remaining problem was then to determine the location and
the number of these plantings. The third step was to determine the availability
of land in the St. Louis area that could be used as open space. This involved
reviewing both the existing and proposed land use plans in order to determine
what areas could be used as open space. Finally, the hypothetical plantings were
super-imposed on the potential open space areas using the design concepts developed
in Volume II. Each of these steps are explained in more detail in the remainder of
this section.
IV-1
-------
B. DEVELOPMENT OF OPEN SPACE PLANS
1. Land Availability.
The existing uses of land in the St. Louis metropolitan area and its
surrounding environs generally determines the final configuration of the open
space plan proposed in this report. St. Louis has developed in a mannei similar
to that experienced by other cities. The confluence of the Mississippi and
Missouri Rivers provided a logical location for settlement of the region and later
attract additional people, commercial and industrial activities. The core city
grew outward along radial transportation corridors with the Mississippi forming
a natural barrier to the growth.
An examination was made of the existing land use of the study area
and also the planning objectives of the East-West Gateway Coordinating Council.
The Coordinating Council has performed a comprehensive inventory of its natural,
social and economic conditions in order to prepare a proposed regional land use
plan for 1995. These existing conditions, goals and objectives, determined how
we would select land to be used for open space.
As part of their process, the council inventoried undeveloped land
which included:
1. Forest Cover.
2. Flood Prone Areas.
3. Steep Slope Areas (16% or greater).
4. Agricultural and Vacant Lands.
It was felt that forested land should not be considered for the open
space plan. Those areas are already operating as sinks for pollutants,and although
they could be made to operate more efficiently (through the installation of thermal
chimneys, expansion and diversification of forest edge and establishing multi-
layered stratification - Section II-C, Volume II) the net benefit would be minimal
compared to planting vacant land.
IV-2
-------
The most obvious choice of land utilized in the open space plan
was that identified as agricultural and vacant lands. This is land which is
either in active agricultural use or is vacant and not being utilized as commercial,
industrial, utility or residential land. These are the lands which will
receive increased development pressures, but which also have environmental value.
Of the vacant land inventoried, a further survey was performed in
order to identify land which could be more advantageously used in the open
space plan.
This resulted in a differentiation between non-steep slopes (less
than 16% grade) and steep slopes (16% or greater grade). The steep slopes can
best be placed into a planted state for a variety of reasons. These areas are
difficult to build upon and are usually characterized by surface bedrock, and
they are subject to erosion if not planted. These lands are also less desirable
for development because of the site work required and other associated problems.
As such, these lands are identified in Figure IV-1 Synthesis I: Available
Land For Planting.
The other type of vacant land that required evaluation was the
flood prone areas. As pointed out in the 1995 Regional Land Use for metropolitan
St. Louis, few metropolitan regions in the world contain as much flood prone land
in such close proximity to the metropolitan core as the St. Louis area. Approx-
imately 20% of the region's surface area is flood plain, This figure would be
even higher if one limited consideration to the highly urbanized portion of the
region within about a 20 mile radius of the core. For a variety of reasons,
including environmental conservation cost to the taxpayer, and personal safety,
flood plain development has been slow. The Land Use Plan recognizes the fact
that flood plains can exhibit an unusually high level of environmental sensitivity,
and that development on them should be carefully considered. But the plan also
recognizes that use of the flood plain for development cannot be prohibited.
IV-3
-------
Ill
-------
It was felt that use of the flood plain areas for the open space
plan was a valid and desirable option. As any development within the flood plain
requires justification, it was felt that its use as open space would serve the
basic interests of the region. As such, these vacant, unforested flood plain
areas are shown separately from the vacant, unforested non-flood plain areas
in Figure iv-2 Synthesis 2: Available Land For Planting.
IV-5
-------
Ill
o
UJ
IV-6
-------
2. Determining the Pollution Reductions Needed to Maintain
Air Quality Standards.
As stated in Chapter III, the AQMA Plan contained data on emission
projections for 1975, 1980 and 1985. This data is reproduced in Figure IV-3
In addition to the quantity of pollution being generated, the levels repre-
senting the National Primary Ambient Air Quality Standards are displayed by
the dashed line. It was not clear how these levels, representing the National
Primary Ambient Air Quality Standard, were determined. It can only be assumed :
that they were obtained through atmospheric modeling.
In order to determine the quantity of pollution reduction needed
to maintain air quality standards, the difference between the top of each
bar and the dashed line in Figure IV-3 was reviewed. The results of this
analysis ds-; summarized below:
TONS/YEAR
1975 1980 1985
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) 21,662 46,290 65,768
Sulfur Dioxide (S02) 0 156,884 186,053
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 135,403 0 0
Hydrocarbons (HC) 48,507 19,009 16,085
The AQMA Plan stated that the above data were obtained from various
governmental agencies whose task was to collect and organize such data. The
report mentioned several reservations about the data which dealt mainly with
the accuracy of the lack of proper updating procedures. Even with these reser-
vations, the data is fairly representative of expected development.
The above data indicates that 21,662 tons per year (TPY) of TSP,
135,043 TPY of CO and 48,507 TPY of HC emissions will need to be reduced to attain
air quality standards. Once air quality standards are attained, an additional
44,106 TPY of TSP and 186,053 TPY of S02 will be needed to be reduced to maintain
these standards.
IV-7
-------
FIGURE IV-3
ST. LOUIS AQMA
EMISSION PROJECTIONS (Tons/Year X 10 )
160-
140-
120-
1UU —
80-
60-
40-
20 —
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1975 1980 1985
Total Suspended Particulates
600-
500-
400-
300-
200-
100-
1975 1980 1985
Carbon Monoxide
1000-
800-
600-
400-
200-
180-
160-
140-
120-
100-
80-
60-
40-
20-
*£7,
1975 1980 1985
Sulfur Oxides
IP
p
isi
1975 1980 1985
Hydrocarbons
Emissions at Primary Standard
Source Type
Mobile
Point
Power Plant
Area(Non-Mobile)
IV-8
SOURCE: AQMSA St. Louis
EPA-450/3-74-052
December 1974
-------
The analysis performed in the AQMA Plan indicates that after
1975, CO will not be a problem. This reflects the reductions in
emissions from the Federal Motor Vehicle Emission Program and the implementing
of a TCP. The same conclusion can be drawn concerning hydrocarbons. If a TCP
is implemented, then both the CO and HC (oxidant) standards would be attained
and the emission reductions from the Federal Motor Vehicle Emission Program
would prohibit violations of these standards in the future.
It is not the purpose of this project to question the validity
of either these projections or whether the emission reductions projected in the
Federal Motor Vehicle Emission Program will actually occur. We have assumed
that a TCP will be implemented in St. Louis and that the emission reductions will
occur at the source (automobile) as projected.
3. The Hectare Vegetative Unit (Hypothetical).
A one hectare forested unit of open space was developed in order
to estimate the quanitiy of certain air pollutants removed by the natural
elements of such a standardized and unitized forest. Five tree species are
recommended for planting in this model forest including red oak (Quercus robur),
Norway maple (Acer platanoi.des), linden (Til-La cordata), poplar (Populus tremula) ,
birch (Betula verrucosa)and Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus). Even though
the St. Louis region is outside the main biogeographic range of Pinus strobus,
the tree was used in the model, as opposed to Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) which
thrives in St. Louis. The data relating to white pine was more readily available
and more comprehensive. It was assumed that the calculations involving white
pine would adequately define the conditions for Scotch pine.
This hypothetical hectare consists of two subsections in which the
deciduous trees are planted in one subsection and the coniferous trees are planted
IV -9
-------
in the other. The dimensions and arrangement of both subsections are shown
in Figures IV-4 and IV-5.
The deciduous subsection is comprised of two adjacent sides of
the hectare planted as a strip twenty meters wide. Ideally, at least one side
of this L-shaped area would be placed windward relative to the prevailing wind.
One reason for this is that a substantial amount of airborne contaminants
removal will be effected by the deciduous trees thus protecting the more sen-
sitive conifers. Conifers are apparently more sensitive to air pollutants
than are most deciduous trees perhaps because foliage of the conifers is replaced
more slowly than that of deciduous trees. This results in greater long-term
exposure of the conifers to concentrations of pollutants. Even though conifers
are more susceptible to the adverse effects of airborne contaminates than are
most deciduous tree species, conifers were nonetheless included in the
hypothetical forest hectare, accounting for the majority of the trees (700 out
of 1044). Conifers are used to provide continuous air filtering action. Since
the coniferous trees planted in the model hectare retain their needles throughout
the year, the quantities of pollutants absorbed or adsorbed by the coniferous
foliage does not vary according to seasonal changes. Also, conifers possess a high
surface area to volume ratio which seems to promote the filtration of air
pollutants. Further discussion concerning mixed plantings of deciduous and
coniferous species may be found in Volume II on page 11-47.
The determination of an appropriate width for the deciduous section
of the model forest was based on the data published by Warren (1973). He stated
that the initial 65 to 85 feet from the edge of a forest can reduce the concen-
tration of particulates by as much as 50%. Since the deciduous trees of the
hectare are planted in an area twenty meters (approximately 65 feet) from two
adjacent boundaries of the hectare, these trees compose more than half of the
edge of the hypothetical forest. The effectiveness of capturing particulates
by the deciduous trees may be comparable to that reported by Warren. In fact,
the removal rate of airborne particulates by the deciduous trees may be greater
since the deciduous area may be characterized by a relatively high diversity
and moderate to high density of the tree species.
IV-10
-------
80m
20m
Plan
Section
FIG. IV-4
VEGETATIVE UNIT 1 hectare
IV-11
-------
Plan
prevailing wind
thermal
SeCtfon FIG. IV-5
4 HECTARE GROUPING
IV-12
-------
As was mentioned previously, five deciduous tree species were chosen
to be used in the hypothetical hectare. It was then calculated how many
representatives from each tree species were needed to produce a continuous
canopy five years after planting.* It was found that 344 three year old
deciduous trees (2 to 2^ inch calipers) should be planted in the hypothetical
hectare. Each tree should be spaced three meters apart so that when the trees
are eight-years-old or five-years-old after planting, the diameter of the
individual canopies WOuld be approximately 3m apart. When the trees are
eight years old (five years after planting) the diameter of the
individual canopies will be approximately 3m and each tree canopy would touch the
adjacent canopies. The 344 deciduous tree would eventually form a dense
forest with individual tree canopies that would increasingly overlap as the
forest aged; thereby enhancing the amount of vegetative surface area. That
increase is directly related to an increased sink capacity of the area.
Some factors which influence the efficiency of the vegetation in
removing airborne pollutants include placement with respect to prevailing winds,
the width, density, and the diversity of the deciduous area of the hypothetical
hectare. If a high sink capacity is present in the deciduous section, it is
more likely that the more sensitive, continuously "filtering", conifers would
be relatively protected from the harmful effects of air pollutants.
Table VI-9 in Volume II shows the data concerning the height, diameter
of the canopy, canopy area, and estimated plant surface area,of each tree species
five years after being planted in the hypothetical hectare. Discussion on how
the estimated plant surface area of each tree species was obtained may be
found in Volume II, Section III-D and is further detailed in Appendix C of that
Volume.
The total estimated vegetative surface area in the model hectare is
3 2
15.0 x 10 m . Table iv-1 shows the number of trees of each species planted in
the hypothetical forest and the estimated surface area of those trees.
*Since 1985 was chosen as the year of reference and it was assumed that an open
space plan could not be implemented until 1980, five (5) years was selected.
IV-13
-------
The exposed soil area of the hypothetical hectare was determined by
subtracting the total ground area covered by 1044 tree trunks from the total
ground area of the hectare. The diameter of all six tree species were estimated
to be six inches (0.15m) five years after planting.
a. Calculation of ground area covered by one tree trunk:
Radius of trunk = 0.075m _
Ground area = irr = 0.02m /tree trunk
b. Calculation of total ground area covered by 1044 tree trunks:
2 2
Total ground area = (0.02m /tree trunk) (1044 tree trunks) = 20.9m
2
c. Total ground area of a hectare = 10,000m
d. Calculation of soil area not covered by tree trunks in the
model hectare:
Soil area = 10,000m2 - 20.9m2 = 9.98 x 103m2
Once both the total vegetative surface area and the total
exposed soil surface area of the hypothetical hectare were determined, the
weighted sink factors were used to estimate the amount of specific pollutants
removed from the air by the natural elements of that hectare. Details
of this procedure may be found in Chapter III-D of Volume II. In addition,
Table III-4 of Volume II displays the weighted sink factors utilized to determine
the amount of pollutants absorbed by the hypothetical hectare. Table IV-2
of this Volume shows the estimated amount, in tons/year, of sulfur dioxide,
particulates, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and PAN removed by the
vegetation and soil of the standardized forest.
IV-14
-------
TABLE iv-1
TOTAL VEGETATIVE SURFACE AREA IN ONE MODEL HECTARE
69 Maple 2.54 x 103m2
69 Oak 2.50 x 103m2
69 Poplar 3.63 x 103m2
68 Linden 1.56 x 103m
69 Birch 1.88 x 103m2
700 Pine 2.90 x 103m2
TOTAL 15.0 x 103m2
TABLE IV-2
THE AMOUNT OF POLLUTANTS ABSORBED BY THE MODEL HECTARE
S02 748 TPY
Particulates* 0.36 TPY*
CO 2.2 TPY
Nitrogen oxides 0.35 TPY
Ozone 9.64 x 104 TPY
PAN 0.17 TPY
*The weighted sink factor for particulate removal by average soil could not be
determined due to insufficient data, therefore, the above calculation represents
only the weighted sink factor attributed to vegetation. An extensive literature
search was conducted to extract data necessary for developing the Tables of
sink and emission factors presented in Volume I. A discussion of the limitations
in the information can be found in Section III of Volume I.
IV-15
-------
A. Development of Open Space Plans.
a. Optional Plans for TSP
Knowing how much pollution must be removed,the total avrliable
area for plantings, and the pollution sink factors of the vegetation, the remainin^
step is to determine the total amount of open space needed to maintain air
quality standards for each pollutant. This leads to a plan for the location of
open space in the region.
Examining the amount of pollutants absorbed by the model hectare,
Table IV-2 , and comparing it with the amount of pollutant reduction needed,
it was concluded that the greatest amount of open space will be needed to absorb
TSP. Therefore, it was initially decided to attempt to develop an open space
plan for this pollutant. The next decision was to determine how much open
space was needed and where it should be located.
The atmospheric loading of particulate air pollution contaminants
is shown in Figure IV-6 for 1985. This configuration projects the growth
of TSP after air quality standards are achieved. It is clear that there are two
o
hotspots that exceed the NAAQS of 75 yg/m . In the development of the open space
plan for TSP, three separate considerations were analyzed:
(1) How much open space is needed to regionally accomodate
the particulate emissions that cause the NAAQS to be
violated?
(2) Is there enough open space directly beneath the isopleths
above the NAAQS (75 yg/m^) to absorb enough pollutants to
achieve standards?
(3) Is there enough open space directly beneath the isopleths
for the entire hotspot area (40yg/m ) to absorb all the
pollution emitted within those areas?
IV-16
-------
IV-17
-------
Consideration No. 1 - How much open space is needed to regionally accomodate
the particulate emissions that cause the NAAQS to be violated?
The sink factor for the model hectare for TSP was calculated to be
0.36 TPY. If 44,106 TPY of emissions are needed to be reduced to maintain standards,
then 122,517 hectares of new open space would be needed. The 122,517 hectares
is_equivalent to 473 sq. miles of open space. The total area of the St. Louis
AQMA is 6,472 sq. miles. Therefore, approximately 7.3% of the AQMA must be planted
with vegetation to accomodate the particulates needed to be reduced. By reviewing
Figures IV-1, IV-2 , it can be seen that well over 7.3% of the AQMA is available
for open space development; therefore, there is more than sufficient land available
to be developed into an open space plan to maintain TSP standards.
Although this consideration concludes that there is sufficient land
in the St. Louis AQCR that could be developed as open space to maintain air quality
standards; the TSP problem is related to hotspots and therefore, a better evaluation
would be to determine if there was sufficient land at or near the source to absorb
the given quantity of pollutant.
Consideration No. 2 - Is there enough open space directly beneath the isopleths
above the NAAQS (75 yg/m ) to abosrb enough pollutants
to achieve standards?
In order to determine whether or not open space could be developed
in specific polluted areas, the emission loadings of these areas had to be
determined. This was accumplished using the 1985 isopleth of TSP concentrations
(Figure IV-6), and a plot showing TSP Emission Density vs. Annual Concentrations
(Figure IV-7 ). For a specific concentration from the isopleth a corresponding
3
emission density can be determined. From the plot it can be seen that 100 yg/m
corresponds to an emission density of 350/tons/mi^/yr.
The amount of TSP that could be removed was determined by quantifying
the available land that could be developed into open space, determining its sink
capacity, and then calculating the resultant ambient concentrations of TSP.
IV-18
-------
FIGURE IV-7
TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
EMISSION DENSITY VS. ANNUAL CONCENTRATIONS*
200
-I I I I II I I I | I I I I I I I l | i I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I | I I I I I | | |~C
150 —
<-> UJ
CJ
100 —
i i.t 111.1 i 11111111 (11111111111111111111111 LI 11 i 11
250 500 ?50 1,000 17
PARTICULATE EMISSION DENSITY, tons'mi2'yr
U.S. Department H.E.W., Interstate Air Pollution Study Pollution
Phase II Project Report, December 1966.
IV-19
-------
The amount of TSP absorbed by a given area of vegetation (Aveg) and the resultant
ambient concentration was calculated using the following formulas:
Pollution Collected by Vegetation (Pv) = Aveg. x Sink Factor (Sf) (1)
Resultant Emission Density (Ep ) = Existing Emission Density (Epo) x Area (2)
pn
EPC
- SfAv
Aispl
(3)
Table IV-3 contains a summary of the calculations performed to
determine the resultant ambient concentration by using open space in the available
land directly beneath the isopleth of 75 yg/m3 and above. It is clear from the
calculations that only two (2) areas of the isopleth will be reduced below the
NAAQS of 75 yg/m3. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is not enough open
space land to absorb all the TSP being emitted in the hotspot if one uses only
the available land directly beneath the isopleth of 75 yg/m3 and above.
TABLE IV-3
CALCULATIONS TO DETERMINE TSP EMISSIONS
TAKEN UP USING AVAILABLE OPEN SPACE DIRECTLY
BENEATH 75 yg/m3 AND ABOVE
Ambient Emission Area
Concentra- Density „ Isopleth
tions (tons /yr /mi ) (mi2)
(yg/m3)
120
120
115
100
80
575
575
525
355
200
12.1
8.02
35.26
42.24
86.84
Sink Aveg.
Factors (mi)
(tons/yr/mi2)
93.3
93.3
93.3
93.3
93.3
7.04
4.0
17.64
20.4
42.44
StAv
Aispl
54.3
46.5
46.6
45.1
45.6
Epn
520.7
528.5
478.4
309.9
154.4
Resultant „
Ambient(yg/m )
Concentrations
115
117
112
92
72
80
200
8.56
93.3
3.84
41.8
158.2
72
*AREA 1 is the major hotspot area on Figure IV-6. It includes the area from
40yg/m3 to 120vg/m3.
**AREA 2 is the minor hotspot area on Figure IV-6 which is located south of the
major area. It includes the area from 40yg/m3 to 80 yg/m .
IV-20
-------
Consideration No. 3 - Is there enough open space directly beneath the isopleths
for the entire hotspot areas(40yg/m^) to absorb all the
pollution emitted within these areas.
The final consideration is the most realistic assumption to develop
an open space plan for TSP. The first consideration concluded that within the
entire regional area there is more than sufficient land that could be developed
into an open space plan to absorb TSP. However, it is unrealistic to assume
that by simply developing open space throughout the AQMA it will produce an ambient
concentration of TSP below standards. The second consideration concluded that
there was not enough land that could be developed into open space directly adjacent
to the hotspot locations to reduce the ambient TSP concentrations below standards.
This consideration is also unrealistic because it does not take into account
the distribution of TSP pollutants by meteorlogical conditions in the area's
immediately surrounding environs. The final consideration will then examine
the feasibility of using open space to absorb TSP pollutants in the normally
polluted area near the hotspots. The assumption in this final analysis is that
some of the pollutants generated by the sources in the hotspot will drift downwind
and be taken up by open space within a short distance.
A similar analysis was performed for this consideration as was done
for the second case. In this consideration the area used included all the available
•5
open space corresponding to the 1985 isopleths of 40 g/m and above. This area
was assumed to be influenced by the point sources. Again, the first step was to
overlay the isopleth map (Figure IV-6) on the land availability maps (Figure IV-1 and
IV-2 ) and then calculate the amount of land available for open space development
within these areas. The plot of ambient concentration vs. emission density
(Figure IV-7 ) was then used to determine the emissions in the area of the particular
isopleth. Using sink factors and the area of the vegetation the emissions absorbed
in each isopleth were then calculated. These procedures are illustrated in
Table IV-4 . This analysis concludes that there is sufficient land available for
open space development to absorb 38,764 tons/year of TSP in the two areas used in
the analysis. Using the predictions of the AQMA Plan, 44,162 tons/year of TSP
was needed to be reduced by 1985 in order to maintain standards. The sink factor
developed for TSP only considered the vegetative unit as a potential for absorbing TSP
IV-21
-------
TABLE IV-4
CALCULATIONS TO DETEEMINE TSP EMISSIONS
TAKEN UP USING AVAILABLE OPEN SPACE DIRECTLY
BENEATH 40 yg/m3 AND ABOVE
Ambient
Concentra-
tions
yg/m3
120
120
115
Cioo
w 80
^ 60
45
55
60
80
S 60
S 40
-------
b. Final Open Space Plan For TSP
Based on the three considerations in Section III,4.a., it
was decided that the most realistic and effective open space plan for TSP would
be to use all the available land in the area directly beneath the isopleth
of AOyg/m^ and above. The total emissions adsorbed/absorbed in the two areas
analyzed in Table IV-4was equal to 38764.2 tons/yr. (37644.5 tons/yr. + 1119.7
tons/yr.) including flood plain. This represents approximately 86% of the
total emissions needed to be reduced to maintain the air quality standard for
TSP. It should also be pointed out that the sink factor for the hypothetical
vegetative unit only considered the vegetative unit as a potential sink for TSP
pollutants. The ground also acts as a sink for TSP and therefore it can be
assumed that additional TSP pollutants will be absorbed by the hypothetical
vegetative unit. Therefore, it can be concluded that if all the available
land were developed into an open space plan in the areas of analysis, then
TSP standards would be maintained.
In order to verify this conclusion, a calculation was made
to determine the ambient concentration of TSP within the two areas of analysis.
To determine concentration levels, it was first necessary to calculate the
emission density (Epo) in each area. After finding Epo, the curve in Figure IV-7
was used to calculate ambient concentrations of TSP. These calculations are
presented below:
Epo (Area 1)
(Total Emissions in Area-Emissions Taken Up) Total Area
(94,967 tons/yr - 37644.5 tons/yr ) /751.4 mi2
76.3 tons/mi2/yr
5S ug/m annual geometric mean TSP
Epo (Area 2)
(5364 tons/yr - 1119.7 tons/yr) /46.24 mi2
91.8 tons/mi2/yr
60 yg/m annual geometric mean TSP
IV-23
-------
The previous calculations demonstrate that if all the available
land were developed into an open space plan in the areas of analysis, then the
ambient concentration of TSP would be below the standard for TSP. Thus, using
an open space plan, it would be possible to maintain the standard for TSP.
Based on this conclusion, an open space plan was developed for
the land area in the AQMA that was physically beneath the TSP isopleth of 40 yg/m3
and above and that was available for open space development. The final open
space plan for these areas is illustrated in Figure IV-8 •
c. Street Tree Plan for TSP
In addition to the open space plan in Figure iy-8, an examination
was made of street tree plantings to determine their effectiveness of removing TSP.
It is hypothetically proposed to plant trees on both sides of the streets within
the city boundaries of St. Louis and then to determine how effective street trees
may be in removing particulates from the atmosphere. The trees would be thirty (30)
feet, (8.5m) apart. The total length of streets in St. Louis is approximately
2,316.25 linear kilometers or 6,600,000 linear feet. Therefore, 440,000 trees
would be needed to complete the project (i.e. 6,600,000 ft./30 ft. x 2 = 440,000 trees)
The three tree species proposed to be used for street plantings
include red oak (Quercus robur), Norway maple (Acer platanoides), and linden
(Tilia Cordata). Table IV-5 presents the dimensions of the tree species and the
calculations for determining the amount of particulates absorbed by the 440,000
street trees. Therefore, if the specifications for planting street trees in St.
Louis were followed, approximately 340 tons of particulates/year may be removed
from the air by trees with similar dimensions to those that appear in Table IV-5.
d. Open Space Plan for SOo
Emissions of sulfur oxides are the result of the combustion of
fossil fuels which contain sulfur. The majority of the fossil fuel burning is
done by utility and industrial bailers for the production at steam which is used
IV-24
-------
r
IV-2 5
-------
TABLE IV-5
DETERMINATION OF THE AMOUNT OF
PARTICULATES ABSORBED BY STREET TREES
1. Number of trees planted
Maple 146,666
Oak 146,667
Linden 146,667
Total 440,000
2. Dimensions of themaple
Height = 6m
Diameter of canopy = 3m
2
*Total surface area/tree = 36.8m
£ O
Total surface area of 146,666 trees = 5.40 x 10 m
3. Dimensions of the oak
Height = 6m
Diameter of canopy = 3m
2
*Total surface area/tree = 36.1m
f- r\
Total surface area of 146,667 trees = 5.30 x 10 m
4. Dimension of the linden
Height = 5m
Diameter of canopy = 2.4
2
*Total surface area/tree (including undergrowth) = 23.0m
ft 9
Total surface area for 146,667 trees = 3.40 x 10 m
7 2
5. Total surface area for the 440,000 trees = 1.4 x 10 m
3 -2-1
6. Weighted sink factor of particulates by vegetation = 2.5 x 10 ygm hr
7. Calculation to determine the amount of particulates absorbed by
street trees
1.4 x 107m2 x 2.5 x 103ygm~2hr~1 x gm/106yg x lb/453.59gm x T/2000 Ibs
x 24 hrs/day x 365 days/yr = 3.40 x 102TPY
*Discussion on how the total surface area of the maple, oak, and linden may
be found in Appendix C of Volume II.
IV-26
-------
either to produce electricity or to provide process steam. Figure IV-9
illustrates the location of major fossil fuel users in the metropolitan
St. Louis area. Because these users are also the major sources for TSP
pollutants, the hotspot areas idenitified in Figure IV-6 for TSP, can also
be considered the major problem areas for SO,,. According to the previous discus-
sion, there will be 186,053 tons/yr. of sulfur oxides in 1985, being emitted into
the atmosphere that will cause the National Ambient Air Quality Standard
to be exceeded. To maintain the standard , open space considerations may be
useful. The sink capacity for S(>2 for the hypothetical vegetative unit, was
calculated to be 748 tons/unit/yr. Therefore, approximately 249 units or 249
hectares of open space will be needed to maintain air quality standards. If
an open space plan is developed for TSP pollutants as suggested in Figure IV-8
then 107,655 hectares of land will be available to serve as a sink for SC>2.
Because this system will be developed in the hotspot areas for both TSP and
502, it can be concluded that, the open space plan developed for TSP will
also absorb/adsorb enough SO^ pollutants. In fact, if the open space plan is
developed for TSP as illustrated in Figure IV-8 , it has the capacity of
absorb/adsorbing BO,525,940 tons/yr of S02.
Examination of SO^ isopleths in the St. Louis region indicates
that the majority of the problem will be experienced in the Central River Region.
The probable difference between 1965 readings and 1985 readings would be
the concentration of the maximum readings. Increased capacity and new
sources will not only increase existing hotspots, but new hotspots will be
created. The location of these new hotspots will be in the vicinity of the
particulate hotspot because large particulate sources are also usually large
sulfur oxide sources. Planting that will be used to reduce total suspended
particulates will be instrumental in reducing SCL levels. Even though there
is an adequate quantity of vegetation to collect the area wide emissions,
the issue is whether or not the specific location is in direct downwind line
from the sources. It is basically a question of meterology, whether the
wind will blow the pollution through the open space plantings. From the isopleths
examined it is clear that the wind shifts enough to say that planting in one
specific place would be the most adventageous.
IV-2 7
-------
FIGURE IV-9
LOCATIONS OF FUEL CONSUMERS THAT USE
565 x 109 OR MORE BTU PER YEAR
410 430 450
COAL
GAS
OIL
COAL & GAS O
COAL. GAS & OIL *
C,.y
BOUNDARIES: County —
Slot* ——
SOURCE: Interstate Air Pollution Study, Phase II
Project Report, U.S. Dept. HEW, May/1966
IV-2 8
-------
e. Carbon Monoxides
A large portion of the carbon monoxide is contributed by
mobile sources, especially the automobile. From the previous discussion, it was
concluded that no reduction in carbon monoxide will be required. The National Ambient
Air Quality Standard for carbon monoxide will be achieved sometime between 1975
and 1980.
There are two governmental programs that are responsible for
the expected reduction. These programs are the Federal Motor Vehicle Pollution
Control Program and the St. Louis Transportation Control Plan. The Federal
program reduces ambient levels of carbon monoxide, by making sure that new cars
emit less pollutants by inducing the manufactures to incorporate control devices
and design changes into the new model cars to achieve legislatively determined
emission standards. The major elements of the TCP are an Inspection Maintenance
Program to ensure proper operation of the control devices, and Mass Transit
inducement and improvement to entice the commuters to leave their automobiles for
less polluting form of transportation.
If carbon monoxide had been a problem, the specially designed
hectare could accomodate 2.2 tons/year of carbon monoxide. Even though a
region plan for attainment of the standards is not needed, plantings of
open space in the vicinity of intersections may be helpful in reducing localized
hotspots.
Carbon monoxide hotspots usually occur in localized areas
of idling traffic, primarily at intersections. Buffer strips planted in the
vicinity of the hotspots may reduce a substantial amount of the carbon monoxide
emissions. In Volume II, there are potential designs for developing buffers and
also, for improving the sink capacity of these vegetative groupings. The
following are some guidelines for developing effective buffers for removing
pollutants. Additional recommendations may be found in Volume II.
IV-29
-------
First, a thirty-foot setback of the planting areas from the
road should be maintained otherwise the vegetation may interfere with the
drivers' safety. The vegetation which is planted outside this critical area
may be either organized into hedgerows composed of shrubs and small trees
or forests.
The most effective arrangement of hedgerows depends on the
direction of the prevailing wind, location of the polluting source, variations
in topography, and other factors. Correct placement of the hedgerows allows
maximum exposure of the plant surfaces to the air pollutants. Figure IV-10
shows the arrangement of hedgerows in a chevron pattern which is a very
effective design for removing air pollutants. Another design presented in
Volume II is arranging the buffers in such a way that they are parallel to
the road and relatively perpendicular to the prevailing winds. The arrangement
causes wind disruption which allows a greater opportunity for the vegetation
and soil to absorb the carbon monoxide in addition to other airborne pollutants.
Figure IV-10 shows this parallel hedgerow arrangement also.
Dense buffers can hinder the dispersion of carbon monoxide.
By cutting through the vegetation, ventilation will be enhanced and localized
concentrations of carbon monoxide will be minimized. Another advantage for
forming corridors through dense buffers is that the vegetative edge will be
increased which aids in removing pollutants. Figure IV-11 illustrates the
technique of increasing buffer ventilation and the edge effect of a dense
buffer. Other recommendations for improving the sink capacity of both
hedgerows and forests are in Volume II.
f. Hydrocarbons
From the literature search completed in Volume I of this
study, very little evidence of hydrocarbon uptake by vegetation was discovered,
on the contrary, the available literature indicates that vegetation acts as a
source of hydrocarbon emission.
IV-30
-------
FIGURE IV-10
Chevron
Hedgerow
The alignment of discontinuous
hedgerows in a chevron pattern
will provide a large area of
leaf surface contact for adsorp-
tion of particulates and absorp-
tion of soluble gases. The gaps
between the plantings provide
adequate ventiliation for CO
dispersion. The belts should be
oriented at a 45 degree angle
to the road; in the direction
of the prevailing winds. A 30"
safety setback should be main-
tained.
Parallel
Hedgerow
In situations where existing
woodlots or buffers are para-
llel to the road and relatively
perpendicular to the prevailing
winds, the placement of a dis-
continuous hedgerow windward
of the edge of vegetation, as
shown, will increase wind tur-
bulence and decrease wind speed
thereby causing particulates to
drop out. The polluted air is
forced closer to the soil sur-
face where CO can be metabo-
lised by soil organisms. The
increased exposure of leaf
surfaces further reduces par-
ticulates and allows for the
absorption of soluble gases.
Openings in the hedgerows are
located at intervals to limit
the buildup of CO. A 30' safety
setback should be maintained.
Wind
Plan
Section
Plan
IV-31
-------
Increasing
Buffer
Edges
In cases where buffers or road-
side forest cover exist, the
sink potential of the vegeta-
tion can be increased by
clearing to create additional
edges. As the first 65 to 85
feet of forest is the most
valuable as a receptor for
pollutants, this technique will
greatly increase the efficiency
of the existing buffer,
especially for the removal of
particulates.
FIGURE iv-n
Increasing
Buffer
Ventilation
Dense buffers along high volume
arterials can create high con-
centrations of CO (as shown in
Figure 11-15. To reduce CO con-
centration, cuts through the
vegetation will allow ventila-
tion of the roadway and dis-
persion of CO. This technique
also provides increased forest
edge thus aiding in the removal
of particulates as well as
soluble gases.
Section
Plan
Section
Plan
IV-3 2
-------
Hydrocarbon emissions from cars in the St. Louis area cannot
be reduced through an open space plan. The reductions must be accomplished
through administrative control strategies sucl| as transportation control planning,
AQMA Planning, and the Federal Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Program.
To determine whether or not vegetation will be beneficial
in reducing oxidants, it is important to understand the process by which oxidants
are formed. According to the U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare,
there exists an ongoing cycle involving nitrogen dioxide, sunlight energy,
oxygen atom, ozone, and nitric oxide. This cycle called the photolytic cycle
is illustrated in Figure IV-12. If the cycle is allowed to proceed without
interference it will maintain the proper balance of chemicals in the atmosphere.
The key element in the cycle is that nitric oxide and ozone cannot co-exist.
They will react quickly to produce nitrogen dioxide and oxygen molecules.
As specific pollutants are released into the atmosphere such
as hydrocarbons, they will interfere with the cycle such that an overload in
oxidants will occur. Reactive hydrocarbons such as 1.3 Butadiene, 2 Alkenes,
and 1,3 £ 5 Trimethylbenyene interfere with the normal phololytic cycle as
shown in Figure IV-13. What happens is that the oxygen atom combines with the
hydrocarbon atom to form a hydrocarbon free radical which then reacts with the
nitric oxide. This reaction leaves the ozone fewer nitric oxide atoms to react
with which causes a build-up in ozone concentration.
In understanding whether or not open space plantings will reduce
oxidants it must be determined what effect the planting will have on hydrocarbons,
nitrogen dioxide,and ozone. From Volume I : Sink Factors, white oak will absorb
32 2
63.5 x 10 ug/m/m , white birch will absorb 53.6 g/m/m and alfalfa will absorb
169.20 x 10^ pg/m^/m of nitrogen oxides. In general the plantings generate
hydrocarbons. Globally, vegetation generates 100 million tons/year of hydrocarbons.
The exact effect of plantings on the oxidant problem is uncertain. To determine
whether the net effect is positive or negative, these generation rates should
be entered into an analytical model of the photolytic cycle. Doing this is beyond
the scope of the current contract, so the issue must be deterred for the present.
Much more research has to be done in this area before definite conclusions can be
drawn concerning the net effect of vegetation on oxidant concentrations.
IV-3 3
-------
FIGURE IV-12
ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN DIOXIDE PHOTOLYTIC CYCLE
NITROGEN
DIOXIDE
(NO,)
IV-34
-------
FIGURE IV-13
INTERACTION OF HYDROCARBONS WITH ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN DIOXIDE PHOTOLYTIC CYCLE
NITROGEN
DIOXIDE
(NO,)
HYDROCARBON
FREE RADICAL
(RO,)
IV-3 5
-------
4. Conclusions.
In order to maintain air quality standards in the St. Louis AQMA
by 1985, 44,106 tons/yr. of TSP and 186,053 tons/yr. of S02 need to be eliminated
after air standards are obtained. By using the available land in the IsP hotspot
area, it is possible to develop an open space plan that will absorb or adsorb
all of the TSP pollutants. This same system can be used to eliminate 80,525,940 tons/y]
of SO™ and therefore, maintain the standards for this pollutant. Such an
open space plan could be developed using land within the hotspot areas that
is presently, either in steep slopes, or flood plain areas. A hypothetical
vegetative unit was developed that could serve as a design standard for the open
space plan. Consideration should be given to developing the open space plan within
existing plans of development for the St. Louis region using measures that could
reduce air pollution levels.
An open space plan should not be considered as a maintenance strategy
for carbon monoxide in the St. Louis AQMA because projections indicate that
by 1985 no carbon monoxide will need to be eliminated to maintain standard.
However, the open space plan previously developed could reduce an additional
tons/yr. of CO. Considerations should be given to using buffer strips at
hotspot locations within the AQCR.
Because no hydrocarbons will need to be eliminated by 1985 to
maintain standards, an open space plan does not need to be considered as a
maintenance strategy. Based on the limited amount of information available
to us, it is felt that the open space plan would be beneficial to maintaining
photochemical oxidant standards within the region, even though vegetation
itself emits hydrocarbons.
IV-3 6
-------
C. SCHEMATIC OPEN SPACE SYSTEM
A schematic open space system was developed for St. Louis metropolitan
area consisting of the combining of existing and proposed parks as envisioned by
the East-Wast Gateway Coordinating Council and proposed regional open space
designed in concert with the existing and proposed products. This system is
shown in Figure IV-14, entitled "Schematic Open Space System". Three primary
criteria were utilized in order to develop the schematic open space system.
The first was utilizing the open space plan as designed in Section B and C, to
control the particular loading criteria as established by the national air
quality primary standard for 1985. This utilized mass planting of vegetative
units within the localized areas which we are experiencing or which were projected
to experience higher and acceptable particular loadings. The graphical repre-
sentation of the plan as designed was presented as Figure IV-8 in Section 4C.
The second design criteria for presenting an overall open space system
on a regional scale was the consideration of the localized pollution sources
existing from automotive emissions. In order to implement the recommendations
outlined in Volume II of the report, it was felt necessary to use open space
along the highway, or at an intersection, and maintain a vegetative buffer system.
Very easily an open space system can be developed within the legal right-of-ways
of the highway network. An examination of the schematic open space system figure
reveals that the major arterials and collectors going into and through the major
metropolitan St. Louis area, has been buffered along their entirety. The benefits
are many; not only will the vegetative open space break up the movements causing
fall-out particulates, but will also contribute increased sink capabilities to
capture other air borne pollutants. By providing increased vegetative sink capability
within the immediate area of influence of the automotive generated pollutants
the transport of these pollutants can be significantly curtailed. Within major
intersection areas, the queuing of motor vehicles at stop signs or signalized
intersections causes a significant generation of carbon monoxide. The increase
planting within the areas of influence will positively improve ambient air
quality. The development of increased planting on highway right-of-ways also has
a significant esthetic appeal. Although some noise attenuation would be experienced
IV-37
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o ooiu
XDC OCUJCL
liJQ. CLDCO
IV-38
-------
by any planting, the right-of-ways are not deep enough to provide sufficient
depth of dense plantings to significantly cause noise reduction from the
motor vehicle traffic. The separation of noise generations sources such as
the highway from nearby receptors (schools, housing complexes, etc.) can have
definite positive psychological effects, however.
The third major criteria for creating the schematic open space system
was predicated on the most important design constraint, this being the proposed
land use planning policies by the East-West Gateway Coordinating Council for
use of their land for conservation and leisure. The Council established far
reaching goals, objectives, and policies for their use of recreational and
open space land. Their overall goal was to provide for adequate open space and
recreation areas in harmony with the natural environment for the use and
enjoyment of all citizens of the St. Louis region. The achievement of this
major goal will be realized through several provisions of the plan. The two
major provisions include providing recreational facilities and preserving and
enhancing the natural environment. It is with in this need to preserve and
enhance the natural environment, which directly influenced our proposed open space
system. The East-West Gateway Coordinating Council had five major objectives
which they were attempting to achieve. By planning for conservation and leisure
lands in the future. These objectives included:
The creation of a permanent regional space system which will
guide the expanding urbanized area into a pattern of radial corridors
The providing for esthetically pleasing areas such as; landscaped
waterways, parkways, parks, greenbelts and other dedicated open spaces
to afford a visual contrast to city buildings and streets.
The utilization of land considered unsuitable for urban development
as recreation or open space areas to include derelict land, land
having steep slopes, flood prone land, and those lands which have
unstable soils.
The preservation of significant vegetation and wildlife areas, shore-
lines, and those areas having unique geological or physiographic forma-
tions.
IV-3 9
-------
The coordination of the location and scheduling of recommendations
with other functional planning elements
The Council adopted several significant policies with which to implement
and to attain the objectives the outlined above. All policies described within
their conservation plan supports and provided the controls for our designing
the schematic open space system to act as an overall air quality improvement
measure.
The East-West Gateway Coordinating Council established park and
recreational standards based upon recommendations of the National Recreation
and Park Association. These standards vary from totlot type of facilities to
regional park facility. The types of parks that fit within the proposed schematic
open space plan include the regional park which is designed to serve entire
populations in small communities and may be 600 or more acres are usually located
within one hour of driving time of the user. The next category is the metropolitan
parks which are of 100 - 250 acres and are situated within one half hour driving
time of a community of approximately 50,000 people. The last category are the
district parks which range in size from 20 to 100 acres and are within one half
to three miles of the population being served. The plan as envisioned by the
East-West Gateway Coordinating Council identified needs in all of these categories.
The projected needs through 1985 included for the study area some 22,000 acres
additional for regional parks, 8,000 acres for metropolitan parks, and 4,000 acres
for district parks. In order to satisfy the projected needs for regional recreation
resources the plan has identified what natural resources can best serve these needs.
Those areas which were deemed desirable from a regional park plan concept fit in
very well with the open space schematic plan that has been proposed in this report.
The major environmental feature criteria included not only those areas with
unique recreational potential, but also those areas of natural landscape seems to
discourage or cause difficulties for urban development. Such areas include those
land subject to flooding or areas of steep slope and those which have less than
desirable development soils.
IV-40
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The plan points out the desirability of designating flood prone lands
as permanent open space. These lands are defined as experiencing flooding
once every one hundred years and have been included in the schematic plan.
In order to establish a regional park and conservation system the plan has made
significant proposals for conservation areas, forest preserves, agricultural protec-
tion areas, and regional parks or recreational areas. The conservation areas
have been defined as approximately 103,000 acres of predominantly natural land.
The forest preserves which though not needed for the air quality improvement
part of the study have been defined as encompassing some 265,000 acres which have
significant recreation potential for hunting, camping, hiking, nature study, and
wildlife preservation.
The other major areas to be conserved include the agricultural protection
area or the lands which experience the possibility of floods. These are usually
the agricultural or other low intensity land uses and the development of such
lands into a greenbelt system assures a continued protection of the flood prone
land.
The schematic open space system presented as Figure IV-14 is composed of
several wedge type land areas which encompass the previously described lands having
recreational and open space capability. The primary wedge closely follows the
Mississippi River and encompasses approximately 339 square miles of land area
which should be planted to serve as an efficient receptor of air borne particulates.
In addition to improving the air quality of the region the land use proposed would
represent an outstanding recreational and environmental management resource. By
designating and/or preserving these lands as public open space the many miles of
Mississippi River and its tributaries would be preserved. Another very significant
open space wedge lines the Missouri and the Merimec flood plain and reaches
out to the western half of the region. At the present time, the Meramec River
corridor is currently being considered for a proposed regional park and land
aquisition is in progress. The schematic open space plan has been designed not
only to fit within the proposed park plan, but also to create links between parcels
of existing and proposed parks.
IV-41
-------
A major element of this schematic open space plan is that now open
space per se has values in addition to being "nice" land suitable for
recreational and esthetic purposes. By supporting the air quality maintenance
plan objectives, open space can make a tangible contribution to the "cost" of
providing clean air to the region. Open space no longer needs to stand alone
without "economic" benefits. Those intangible esthetics and quality of life
values are historically assigned to such lands but need to conserve and maintain
open land receives additional support from the concept that vegetative units
act as air pollution sinks.
IV-42
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V. COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS
A. OVERVIEW
Cost-effectiveness analysis is used to make a rational choice among alter-
native methods to achieve a given objective. It provides a methodology to determine
which of a given number of alternative strategies all designed to produce a given
level of output is the most efficient or least expensive. For this type of analysis
the criterion must be specifiable. Measurement of the costs involved in producing
this output is then analogous to estimating the cost component of a benefit-cost
analysis.
There are two basic approaches to cost-effectiveness analysis. In a
constant-cost study, the objective is to determine the outputs that can be produced
under alternative strategies, with these strategies requiring the same cost commit-
ment. In a least-cost study, a fixed objective is stated and then the cost of
realizing the objective under alternative strategies is measured.
The objective in this study was to compare the effectiveness of the Open
Space Plan in achieving the same reduction of pollution levels in the St. Louis
region as the proposed Air Quality Maintenance Area Plan (AQMA Plan). Thus, given
the reduction of pollutants expected from implementation of the AQMA Plan as our
fixed objective criterion, our methodology was to determine which alternative repre-
sents the least-cost method of achieving this objective.
The AQMA Plan was designed to maintain the following primary ambient
air quality standards.
3
Particulate matter - 75 g/m - annual geometric mean
3
260 g/m - maximum 24 hour concentration
(not to be exceeded more than 1 time/yr.)
Sulfur dioxide - 80 g/m - annual arithmetic mean
365 g/m - maximum 24 hour concentration
(not to be exceeded more than 1 time/yr.)
3
Carbon monoxide - 10 g/m - maximum 8 hour concentration
(not to be exceeded more than 1 time/yr.)
3
160 g/m - maximum 1 hour concentration
oxidants (not to be exceeded more than 1 time/yr.)
3
Photochemical - 160 g/m - maximum 1 hour concentration
-------
It was established in the early stages of the study that the Open
Space Plan would be more effective in reducing certain individual pollutants
and less effective in reducing others. For example, open space can be used to
reduce concentrations of sulfur dioxide and particulates, but would cause an
increase in levels of hydrocarbons. The AQMA Plan has been developed to
produce lowered levels of all four pollutants, but carbon monoxide levels will,
in the future, be lowered because of other federal control strategies. These
strategies, such as emission regulations in motor vehicles, will produce improved
Co levels independent of what the AQMA Plan proposes. It was therefore
decided that a comparison of the AQMA Plan and the Open Space Plan, in terms
of cost-effectiveness, would be made for the reduction* of total suspended
particulates and sulfur dioxide to the level set forth in the primary
ambient air quality standards.
Once the ambient air quality standards for sulfur dioxide (SO™) and
particulates have been attained in the St. Louis region, an additional 186,000
tons annually of S02 and 44,000 tons of particulates will have to be removed
from the atmosphere by 1985 to maintain these standards.
Evaluation of study findings described earlier indicated that the amount
of open space needed to achieve the needed reductions in particulates were beyond
the realm of feasibility. Removal of 44,000 tons of particulates/year would
necessitate the creation of dense plantings on more than 100,000 hectares
(250,000 acres) of open space. This would represent a significant .portion of the
undeveloped acreage in the St. Louis region and capital expenditures approaching
4 billion dollars.* The magnitude of this amount is such that no detailed comparison
of open space vs. the AQMA Plan was undertaken.
The following cost-effectiveness analysis is thus limited to a comparison
of the net costs for each of the two alternatives to remove 186,000 tons of S0~
from the atmosphere by 1985.
*See Appendix A for cost information
V-2
-------
B. OPEN SPACE LAND REQUIREMENTS FOR S02 REMOVAL
On the basis of our analysis it was established that a total of some
250 hectares (617.5 acres) of properly planted open space would be sufficient
to meet the criterion objective of removing 186,000/year of S0£ by 1985. Examination
of various St. Louis regional land use and conservation maps (see Figures IV-1 & IV-2)
indicated that the area contained a sufficient quantity of scattered parcels
which are presently undeveloped because of marginal physical, economic and/or
market characteristics. These parcels are well suited to open space plantings
for air quality maintenance purposes and could be used without significant ( or
even measureable) impact on regional development patterns or land uses and values.*
The number of trees needed to develop a hectare in which the individual
tree canopies will be touching by 1985 if these trees are planted in 1977 was
calculated as being 1044 trees (one-third deciduous and two-thirds coniferous).
The canopy coverage will become more extensive as the years pass, and the more
aggressive trees will compete more successfully for the available light. Trees
that are shade intolerant will eventually die and natural thinning of the forest
will occur. The debris of the dead and fallen trees should not be removed from
the forest since the litter as it deteriorates will provide shelter for wildlife
and enrich the soil. Any expenditures for thinning or removing debris would be
unnecessary.
C. OPEN SPACE COST ELEMENTS
The direct cost elements associated with the Open Space Plan are
described below and summarized in Table V-l. They include:
1. Acquisition Costs.
This element includes the direct costs of land purchase by the
municipality or regional agency and the attendant costs of legal and administrative
staff to negotiate a purchase agreement or initiate a public taking. Since it
*A detailed parcel-by-parcel analysis to determine such factors suitability of soils
and drainage, ownership, availability or optimum components of parcels was clearly
outside the scope of this study.
V-3
-------
is assumed that the required acreage can be assembled from parcels in the
metropolitan area but which are presently undeveloped and have limited development
potential, an average cost (in 1977 of dollars) $5,000/acre ($12,350./hectare) is
used for this element. It is further assumed that two-thirds of the acreage will
be acquired in the first year of the Plan (1977) and the remainder in tr •> following
year (1978).
It is recognized that land resources, especially in this case,
where no major changes in topography or structures or excavations are planned,
have a continuing re-sale potential. However, the present analysis treats
this "salvage value" as a non-quantified benefit rather than as a direct off-set
against the acquisition cost.
2. Capital Investment Costs.
This element includes the direct costs of: preparing landscaping and
engineering specifications and plans; site clearance and minor modifications;
purchase, delivery and installation of the trees and installation supervision.
Each of those components are shown in Table V-l.
The cost for planting the trees of the vegetative unit was determined
by applying a 7% inflation to the 1976 average wholesale prices. In addition,
a 50% increase is added to the cost of the trees which is assumed to cover the
landscape contractor's installation costs, overhead and profit. The relatively
low overhead multiplier assumes that the efficiency of planting large numbers
of trees will be reflected in the cost. Approximately $l,600/hectare is the estimated
cost of clearing and grubbing the land.
It is assumed that purchased services and materials will be in
sufficiently large quantities to permit economies of scale and that about one-third
of the actual plantings would occur in 1977 with the remainder in 1978.
j-4
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3. Loss of Tax Revenues.
If all of the acreage to be acquired and planted is currently in pri-
vate ownership, conversion of the land to public ownership would entail a loss of
tax revenues to local municipalities. Assuming that an average hectare has a
current market of $11,115 (in 1977 dollars)($4,500/acre) and using the prevailing
regional tax structure, the dollar cost of this element can be established. The
prevailing assessment ratio in the area is 30% of market value and the 1976 average
mill rate is approximately $62.70/thousand dollars of assessed value. Adding
a 1% inflation factor to this rate to translate it into 1977 dollars,yields an
effective tax rate of $20.13/thousand dollars of market value. Application of
this figure provides a tax loss averaging $223.74/hectare annually. This cost
is incurred at the time at which the land is acquired and title transferred
and every year thereafter.
4. Annual Operating and Maintenance Costs.
The individual planted parcels will be designed for natural growth and
self-regulation thus requiring a minimum of maintenance. However, a certain amount
of effort and manpower will be required on a regular basis for inspection, public
security control, remedial action in the event of severe climatic conditions,
plant disease, etc. The annual cost of this effort is assumed to be 5% of the
capital cost.
D. AQMA PLAN COST ELEMENTS
An analysis of four (4) possible S0_ removal processes was undertaken
to establish cost estimates for the 1985 criterion level of 186,000 tons/year.
The specific processes and estimating procedures are described in Appendix A.
The range of costs was developed from 1974 data and has been brought to 1977 dollars
by incorporation of a 7% year average inflation rate.
The four processes exhibited a wide range of costs; both in initial
capital investment required and in annual operating costs. For purposes of
this analysis the median value of the four (4) processes is used for both of
these cost elements; these values are $20,875,000 for the capital cost and
$9,482,000 in annual operating costs.
V-5
-------
TABLE V-I
COST ANALYSIS
OPEN SPACE PLAN FOR S0? REMOVAL
(EN 1977 DOLLARS)
1. Acquisition Cost - 250 Hectares @ $12,350 each = $3,087,500
2. Capital Investment Cost -
Estimated cost of planting one hectare -
Deciduous trees 344 - 2"- 2%' caliber trees/hectare @ $20,152
$39.05 + 50%
Coniferous trees 700 - 5'-6' caliber trees/hectare @ 15,730
$15.00 + 50%
Clearing/hectare 1,600
Total cost/hectare $ 37,482
250 hectares @ $37,482. = $9,370,000
Landscape planning &
engineering - * —
9,550,500
3. Loss of Tax Revenue - Market value /hectare = $11 115
assessed value @ 30% = 3 335
mill rate 67.09/thousand = 224 /hectare
250 hectare @ $224.00 ea. = $56,000 /year
4. Annual Operating and Maintenance Cost -
5% of $9,550,500.00 = $477,525 /year
E. COMPARISON OF RATE OF EXPENDITURE FOR OPEN SPACE AND AQMA PLANS
Before the two alternatives can be compared in direct and equivalent terms,
it is necessary to identify not only the total expenditures and costs incurred, but
also the time frame within which these take place. This step is a necessary
prelude to the subsequent calculation of the present worth value of each plan.
The annual cost elements required to meet the 1985 target criterion is presented
in Table V-II. This cost schedule is determined by the feasible installation rate
of the open space program and the anticipated growth and filtering capacity of the
planted vegetation. For ease of comparison, the AQMA Plan implementation schedule
is matched to this growth rate to yield comparable levels of S02 reduction in each
year via both approaches.
V-6
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F. PRESENT WORTH COST-EFFECTIVENESS COMPARISON
In any cost-effectiveness study where costs will occur over a number
of years into the future, a time horizon, reference date and rate of discount
must be selected. The time horizon must be sufficiently long to capture all
relevant costs; however, costs occurring far into the future (e.g. 50 years or more)
are not likely to be very significant when discounted back to the reference date.
Determination of a time horizon does not appear to be crucial for this
study. Direct, or primary costs of the alternative strategies are concentrated
in the early years of the time period. Implementation of the Open Space Plan is
assumed to have the same length of time (10 years) as the AQMA Plan. Since
the interim maintenance strategies of the AQMA Plan are to be implemented over the
1977 - 85 decade, 1977 is a logical choice for the reference date to which all
costs for both strategies will be discounted to net present value.
Each of the cost elements, together with the distribution of its incurrence,
as shown in Table V-II,thus must be translated into its 1977 present worth equivalent
to permit direct comparison of the two plan alternatives. The present worth of
a future expenditure is equivalent to the amount of money that would have to be
invested in the present year, at a specified rate of interest, to provide sufficient
funds for the future disbursement. The interest (discount) rate selected is an
indicator of the time value of money and is chosen to reflect.
Choice of a discount rate poses a greater problem. Many alternatives
are often mentioned: the government borrowing rate, the rate of return on
private investment and the social rate of time preference. There appears
to be some agreement that the rate of return on private investment serves
best as a basis for a relevant public discount rate. The opportunity cost
of any government's expenditure on resources is their use in the private
sector for investment and consumption. Allocation of resources to the
former use is determined by the rate of return on private investment, to
the latter by the social rate of time preference. In equilibrium, assuming
a perfect capital market, these two rates would converge. However, influences
such as externalities in investment, taxes, and other constraints on investment
tend to keep the rate of return on private investment above the social rate of
time preference.
V-7
-------
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Although far more information is available for estimating rates of return
on private investment than social time preference rates, existing data on the
former need several adjustments before they can be used to approximate a discount
rate on public investment. This process must include an adjustment for taxes,
which are a deduction from private, but not public returns from investment. The
private rate of return on investment must be further adjusted for differential
risk. Because government risks are spread over a greater diversity of projects
than risks of firms, the typical marginal risk associated with a public project
tends to be less than for a privately funded project. Thus the private rate may
require an upward adjustment for risk, the extent of the adjustment depending on
the nature of the public project.
Third, if a cost-effectiveness analysis is carried out in constant prices,
an estimate of the anticipated inflation rate must be subtracted from the
private rate of return on investment. The private rate of return is of course
a money rate, and the inflation premium must be subtracted to arrive at the
real rate.
The existence of capital rationing in the public sector, particularly the
local public sector, should not cause any additional adjustments in arriving at
the discount rate. Because the basis for the discount rate is a private rate,
rationing in the public sector will affect private rates only indirectly by
diverting funds to the private sector, driving private rates down. Existing
rationing in the public sector will already be reflected in the private rate
of return on investment. Only changes in the extent of capital rationing would
require an adjustment.
The rate of return on private investment can be determined on the basis
of a wide variety of rates; on loans, stocks, bonds, and earnings-price ratios, etc.
The most readily obtainable, easiest to adjust, and in our opinion the most justi-
fiable, is 6%-the average of rates paid on new long-term bond issues.
V-9
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The Open Space Plan consists of various forms of public investment. However,
the AQMA Plan includes private as well as public investment, raising the question
of the appropriate discount rate to use in this case. However, since the private
sector costs for S0» reduction are to be incurred primarily by public utilities,
which operate in controlled fiscal climates and portions of the investment are
most likely to be offset by tax credits, the public sector rate seems appropriate.
No estimate of a single rate is perfect, so often a range of rates is used.
Such a 'sensitivity analysis' is probably more appropriate to benefit-cost studies,
where benefits may be uncertain and often occur in years after costs have been
incurred. In the two pollution reduction plans under comparison, the majority of
all direct costs occur over the same ten-year period and the differences in cost
effectiveness are substantial. Thus the choice criterion is not likely to be sen-
sitive to modest variations in the discount rate. However, if the comparison were
less obvious, a sensitivity analysis would have to be undertaken.
The cost-effectiveness comparison of the two alternate SC>2 maintenance
plans is presented in Table V-3 in terms of the present worth of quantifiable direct
costs attributable to each. (Intangible costs and offsetting benefits are discussed
below). The most significant point of comparison is in terms of the 1977 present
worth of achieving the 1985 criterion of removal of 186,000 tons of S02/year.
On this basis, the Open Space Plan can attain the objective at less than one-third
the cost of the AQMA Plan with equivalent effectiveness.
The advantages of the Open Space Plan are even more apparent if the time
frame is extended to 1995 because, once the criterion level is achieved, the Open
Space Plan has a far lower annual cost. The difference would be still more pro-
nounced if even longer time periods of life cycles were considered because the
Open Space Plan is essentially self-perpetuating; the AQMA Plan on the other hand
would require periodic replacement of captial equipment upon wearout.
G. INTANGIBLE COSTS AND BENEFITS
Since both alternatives will serve to eliminate equal amounts of SO,,, the
comparison of direct costs can be supplemented by consideration of differing identi-
fiable, but non-quantifiable comparative advantages and disadvantages of each option.
V-10
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TABLE V-3
S02 - SUMMARY COMPARISON OF COST EFFECTIVENESS:
OPEN SPACE PLAN vs. AQMA PLAN
CRITERION OF EFFECTIVENESS: Removal of 186,000 tons of S02/yr. from the
region's atmosphere by 1985.
DIRECT COSTS (IN MILLIONS OF 1977 DOLLARS)
OPEN SPACE PLAN
AQMA PLAN
Acquistion
Capital Investment
Loss of Annual Tax Revenue
(to 1985)
Annual Maintenance
(to 1985)
$ 3.0875
9.5505
0.0560
0.4775
$ -
20.875
9.482
1977 Present Worth of Above
(discount rate at 6%/yr.)
15.6716
54.4471
1977 Present Worth of 1986-1995
direct costs
2.4305
43.1954
COST EFFECTIVENESS:
1977 Present Worth Cost/ton SO,
removed in 1985
84.26
292.73
1985 Effectiveness Advantage
Open Space/AQMA Plan
3.47:1
Effectiveness Advantage to 1995
5.39:1
V-ll
-------
AQMA Plan - Advantages
The AQMA Plan is more labor intensive and requires higher skill levels-
this is helpful from an employment opportunity standpoint.
The AQMA Plan eliminates SO- concentrations at their source rather
than after it has dissipated into the environment.
It permits a greater degree of control as to the location, intensity
and time frame of S02 reduction. The AQMA Plan is more amenable to
"crash-programs" in the event of major problems.
AQMA Plan - Disadvantages
The need for long term equipment replacement and repetitive capital
inves tment.
Potential for maintenance problems and downtime which can reduce
effectiveness or interfere with plant operations.
The risks of technological development or revised standards which may
make equipment outmoded, waste fiscal resource committments, or require
additional investment.
Failure to generate improvements on pollutants other than S0?.
Open Space Plan - Advantages
Low risk of obsolescence due to changing technology or standards.
Cheaper expansion of pollutant filtering capacity.
Oxygen production
Creation of green spaces which replace parcels often in litered
conditions; thereby generating esthetic and secondary health benefits
(elimination of rodents, mosquitoes, etc.)
V-12
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Qpen Space Plan - Advantages (Continued)
Increases in the value, marketability and/or rehabilitation potential
of properties adjacent to the open space parcels.
Generation of potential value capture if land is resold or developed
at some future data.
Low annual maintenance costs and elimination of need for
re-capitalization.
Foliage buffer absorbs noise and reduces ambient levels.
Improved and more controlled storm water retention.
High potential availability of Federal, State and Regional
matching funds.
Minimal post-construction monitoring, administrative and control
costs and requirements.
Minimal (less than 1%) concomittant reduction in suspended particulate
concentrations.
Open Space Plan - Disadvantages
Acquisition problems - legal barriers, proceedings, possible need
public takings.
Potential for local, regional or state jurisdictional problems.
Possible inadequacies in supplies of trees.
Risks of disease, storms, climatic extremes which can damage tree
canopy.
V-13
-------
Variations in effectiveness across seasons.
Minor construction impacts - noise, dust, traffic.
Potential increases in vehicle miles of travel, user costs, trip
durations and utility costs of open space parcels contribute to
increased decentralization. In the present case, the relatively
small number of acres required, the scattering within the region and
the use of marginal undeveloped parcels all serve to minimize these
potential disadvantages.
Potential for problems in matching open space parcels with local
"hot spots" or most efficient locations.
Time delays to reach full filtering and SO™ extraction capacity.
The only manner in which effectiveness can be accelerated is via
planting of excess acreage in the short term with subsequent creation
of over-capacity or refurbishing of parcels for other uses.
H. CONCLUSION
After performing the cost effective analysis, two conclusions can be
drawn. First, open space is not a cost effective strategy for combating
total suspended particulates (TSP), but is cost effective for the control of
sulfur oxides. Open space is not cost effective for control of TSP because
the amount of land required for plantings is greater than 100,000 hectares and would
cost approximately $4,000,000,000 (four billion) for the land and plantings.
Similar reductions in air pollution could be achieved through electrostatic
precipitators for a fraction of the cost.*
As the cost data is reviewed, it is clear that open space is a
cost effective method for controling S02 in the ambient air. The size of
the open space required to control 186,000 tons/yr. of SO,, is 250 hectares
and each hectare would be planted with 344 deciduous and 700 coniferous trees.
To clear and plant 250 hectares would require an investment of $9,550,500
* See Appendix A for cost information
V-14
-------
with an annual operating and maintenance cost of $477,525/yr.
The cost to control an equivalent amount of SO- through mechanical
means would be $20,875,000 for capital investment and $9,482,000 in annual
operating costs. In comparing the two strategies it is clear that just
the operating expenses of the mechanical devices are enough to justify the
Open Space Plan.
V-15
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VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
A. AREAS REQUIRING ADDITIONAL WORK
Based on the perspective which we have gained during the completion
of this three volume project, we can identify five areas which clearly should be
considered for further research and development. The further evaluation of
open space as an air resource management measure would benefit should any of
these areas be explored but it would obviously be best were a corrdinated effort
made to investigate all the five areas simultaneously. There are apparently
only slight differences in the priorities which these areas should be given.
Although they are defined here in a decreasing order of importance, the
relative importance of the first may be thought of as 10 on a scale of 10 while
the fifth may be thought of as 8. The first area concerns the need for a more
inclusive and detailed scrutinizing of the relevant foreign literature. Partic-
ular attention should be paid the relevant work areas in the literature of Germany,
Japan, the Soviet Union, Poland, and Scandinavia. Perhaps the most efficient
and interesting way of achieving this coordination would be to provide a means
of establishing a newsletter which would be sent to as many of the authors
cited in this project as possible. They would be invited to simply provide
titles and abstracts of their pertinent work subsequent to 1975, for example.
Response to such a request, and the further dissemination of such a newsletter
through the initial respondants to their collegues would provide an excellent
means of keeping an open space library updated and active. The field is obviously
too interdisciplinary to be effectively served by any one professional journal
and a simple "newsletter" could be of great value in encouraging good communications
within this multifaceted profession.
The second area of concern relates to the sparce hard data one finds
relative to emission rates of pollutants from natural components of the environment
such as vegetation and soil. Since virtually every natural community consists
of several different elements, the more information we can gain about each element,
the more accurate will be our associated understanding and prediction.
VI-1
-------
The third area of concern, and along somewhat the same line of logic,
was that we uncovered precious few useful references pertaining to water bodies
as sinks and sources for pollutants. However, it is very clear that for such
parameters as sulfur dioxide and methane, water bodies may be of great signifi-
cance. Furthermore, it seems that our potential ability to model aquatic systems
may be greater than our ability to model the corresponding aspects of the
atmospheric system.
A fourth area which appears weak in the literature concerns the
emperical testing of sink and emission factors as they appear in a real-world
setting. Experimental laboratory results dominate the procedures used ...there
are very useful and more such field oriented research badly needed.
The encouragement of applied research is also needed in the fifth and
final area which we feel should receive support. With respect to woody vege-
tation especially, it is important to know the total leaf surface area in
order to calculate total emission or absorptive capacities. However, work
providing leaf indexes for different species and different ecological conditions
is extremely limited. This is clearly very fundamental research and the accuracy
of any calculations related to the physiological activity of vegetation can be
no more correct than the information know about the active surface area of the
subject vegetation. This must include knowing the surface area involved for
different species at different ages in different seasons.
VI-2
-------
Comsis Corporation. 1976. "Open space as an air resource management
measure - vol. I: sink factors" Contract No. 68-02-2350, 200pp.
Comsis Corporation. 1976. "Open space as an air resource management
measure - vol. II: design criteria" Contract No. 68-02-2350, 400pp.
Bellegia, F.L., Mathews, J.C., Poddock, R.E., and Wisler, M.M. 1975.
"Update and improvement of the control cost segment of implementation
planning program"
East-West Gateway Coordinating Council. 1974. "Sand for conservation and
leisure: the 1995 park and recreation areas plan for the St. Louis
region" 90pp.
Environmental Protection Agency, RTI Project 41U-762-13, Contract No. 68-02-0607,
Task No. 13, 141pp.
Monteith, J.L.,editor. 1976. Vegetation and the atmosphere - case studies
volume II. Academic Press, New York, 440pp.
Perry, John H. 1963. "Perry's chemical engineers' handbook." 4th Ed. McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, 800pp.
State of Missouri. "Missouri state implementation plan - St. Louis portion"
Dept. of Environmental Protection, St. Louis, Mo. (Date unknown).
Voorhees, Alan M. 1974. "Development of a trial air quality maintenance
plan for the St. Louis AQMSA" Contract No. 68-02-1388, Task Order 5,
approx. 150pp.
VII-1
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COST INFORMATION FOR COST EFFECTIVE ANALYSIS
A. OPEN SPACE COST INFORMATION
The cost for planting the trees of the cost effective unit was determined
by using the 1976 average wholesale prices. In addition, a 50% increase is
added to the cost of the trees which is assumed to cover the landscape contractor's
overhead and provide a profit. The relatively low overhead multiplier assumes
that the efficiency of planting large numbers of trees will be reflected into
cost. Approximately $l,500/hectare is the estimated cost of clearing and
grubbing the land.
1. Estimated cost of planting one hectare
Deciduous trees
344 - 2" - 2% caliber trees/hectare @
$36.50 + 50% $18,834
Coniferous trees
700 - 5' - 6' caliber trees/hectare @
$14,00 + 50% $14,700
Clearing/hectare $ 1,500
Total cost/hectare $35,034
2. Estimated cost of planting the hectares used in
the Open Space Plan for TSP:
(107655 hectares) ($35,034 cost/hectare)
Total cost = $3,771,585,200
The number of trees needed to develop a hectare in which the individual
tree canopies will be touching by 1985 was calculated as being 1044 trees. The
canopy coverage will become more extensive as the years pass and the more aggressive
trees will compete more successfully for the available light. The trees that are
shade intolerantwiii eventually die and natural thinning of the forest will occur.
The debris of the dead and fallen trees should not be removed from the forest since
the litter as it deteriorates will provide shelter for wildlife and enrich the soil.
Any expenditures for thinning or removing debris would be unnecessary. The forest
may be considered maintenance-free.
VIII-1
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The landscape architect's fee was estimated for an area in which the
municipality has developed adequate base-line data such as topographic and soils
maps. In addition, it is assumed that a federal agency, for instance the
Forest Service, will provide site supervision. This supervision may be the respon-
sibility of a federal construction manager. With these two considerations, a
contract may be submitted by a landscape architect in which the 107,655 hectares
are analysed and a plant mix may then be developed as well as planting specifications.
This particular contract is estimated to be $125,000 and will require 2% man-years.
The cost of the design-engineering plan is insignificant when the total cost for
implementing the Open Space Plan is considered (3.7 billion dollars).
B. AIR QUALITY MAINTENANCE PLAN COST INFORMATION
1. Summary of Cost To Remove 186,000 TPY of SO^ and 44,000
of Particulates.
To account for the 186,000 TPY of SO,, to be removed from the air in
1985 to maintain the air quality standard as an interim measure, 4 SO- removal
processes were applied to the Lab^die Power Plant. Each of the four processes
were rated at a higher rate of removal than was necessary. The necessary rate
of removal was 51.3%. The four processes are the limestone scrubbing (SO™ recovery
rate 85%), the double alkali process (SO- recovery 90%), the Wellman-Lord process
(SO- recovery 90%), and the citrate process (SO- recovery 95%). The following
chart summarizing the total of capital cost and the annual operating cost.
TABLE VIII-1
S02 REMOVAL AT RATED PERFORMANCE (85+% recovery)
FROM LABODIE PLANT
COSTS IN MILLIONS (M) OF DOLLARS
CAPITOL COST
Limestone
scrubbing
$68.56
Double alkali
process
$26.03
Wellman-
Lord
process
$33.498
Citrate
process
$25.06
ANNUAL OPERATING $13.12 $17.402 $13.296 $10.56
COST
These figures must be pro-rated to reflect the lower efficiency need to collect
the 186,000 TPY of S0.
VIII-2
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One possible way is to do a linear interpolation using the efficiency of the process
and the desired recovery rate of 51.3%. For example, the limestone scrubbing has
an efficiency of 85%, to obtain cost data for a 51.3% recovery rate, the capital
cost could be multiplied by 51.3%/85%. This process could also be used for the
annual operating cost. By using this technique the following costs are determined:
TABLE VTII-2
S02 REMOVAL AT RATED PERFORMANCE (51.3+% recovery)
FROM LABODIE PLANT
COSTS IN MILLIONS (M) OF DOLLARS
Limestone scrubbing Double alkali Wellman- Lord Citrate proces;
process process
CAPITOL COST
$41.37
$14.99
$19.09
$13.53
ANNUAL OPERATING $7.9
$9.92
$7.58
$5.70
To recover 44.000 TPY of particulates, the emission load was recovered from a
fictitious coal burning power plant. The reductions were accomplished through
the installation of electrostatic precipitators.
The capitol and annual operating costs for these units are:
Capitol cost $2.519
Annual operating $310^733
cost
All costs are in mid 1974 dollars.
VIII-3
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2. Overall Reductions.
Once the TSP and SO ambient air quality standards have been achieved,
X
there will be an additional 44,000 tons/yr. of TSP and 186,000 tons/yr. of S02 to
be removed to maintain the standards throughout 1985. To achieve these reductions
the AQMA Plan proposed interim maintenance measures. These measures would be
implemented after the standards were attained through the implementation of the
attainment strategies. The attainment strategies consist of enforcing SIP regulations.
For TSP and SO-, the interim measures consist of burning municipal refuse in power
plants as fuel and instituting SO- emission reductions at three major power plants.
By burning trash at the power plant the north incinerator would be shut down,
and the south incinerator's load would be reduced. The reduction in emissions
would be 1.78 tons/day from both .incinerators. There are no indications as to how
this project is being carried out, therefore, there is no way to compute the cost
differential between the two projects.
The three power plants involved in reductions are the Labodie, Meramec
and Sioux Power Plants of Union Electric. According to the Missouri Implementation
Plan, the Labodie Plant has four (4) units whose sizes are 5387 mmBTU/hr input.
The present emissions from each unit are 90,630 tons/yr of S0~ and 1106 tons/yr.
of TSP. Anticipated removal for 1980 will be 90% S02 and 99.5% for TSP. The
Portage des Sioux Plant has two (2) units each rated at 4371 mmBTU/hr input. The
emissions from each unit are 79,000 tons/yr. of S0« and 380 tons/yr. of particulates.
The anticipated control for 1980 is 90% removal of S0?, and 99.5% removal of TSP.
The Meramec Plant is not covered in the inventory section of the SIP.
If the SIP anticipated reductions were accomplished, the total reductions of
S02 would be 468,468 tons/yr. and the total reductions of TSP would be 5158 tons/yr.
of TSP. By comparing these reductions to those required to maintain the standards,
VIII-4
-------
it is clear that S09 reductions far exceed necessary measures, however TSP
reductions are not quite sufficient. In contrast, if a 56% reduction were applied
to the Lobadie Plant and a 53% reduction were applied to the Sioux Plant to
achieve Missouri's emission limitation standards rather than an arbitrary 90%
reduction, the total S0~ reduction is 286,751 tons/yr. - 203,011 tons/yr. from
the Labodie Plant and 83,740 tons/yr. from the Sioux Plant. The combined reduction
still exceeds the necessary reduction of 186,000 tons/yr.
To simplify the costing analysis it will be hypothesized that 186,000
tons/yr. will be removed from the Labodie Plant. This means 46,500 tons/yr. per
unit or a 51.3% reduction.
In February 1975, Bellegia, Mathews, Poddock and Wisler reported on methods
to estimate the capital as well as the operating costs for various methods of
controlling particulates and sulfur oxides. It was noted that total installed costs
for a given process may run 3-4 times the total equipment costs for the usual
materials of consturction. Furthermore, it was determined that operating costs for
particulate control devices are determined from:
1. the amount of power necessary to maintain the effluent gas
flow through the control device,
2. the amount of power necessary to drive the pumps and auxiliary
equipment associated with the control device,
3. the cost of water, chemicals, and additional fuel required
by the system,
4. the labor required to operate the system,
5. the necessary maintenance and supplies to keep the equipment
functioning at the design or operating level,
6. the cost or credit resulting from the disposal of the collected
pollutants,
7. the cost of taxes and insurance and the appropriate unit costs for
each of these elements.
VIII-5
-------
In developing equations for annual operating costs for S0« removal
processes simplifications have been adopted and these are listed below:
1. Utilities and raw materials have been determined on the basis of
fixed relationships to the process input parameters for each
SOj control process which are constant over the entire range
of application.
2. Operating hourly labor has been specified and fixed for each
process with coverage for the full year (365 days) irrespective
of the actual days of operation. An additional 20% has been
included for supervision and benefits. No allowance for plant
overhead has been provided since these plants do not contribute
normally to plant output. The hourly rate is a user input variable.
3. Maintenance charges have been taken as a specified percentage of
the process capital investment.
4. Taxes and insurance have been taken at 2 J$% of the total capital
investment.
5. Conditions for marketing the output from those S02 control processes
which produce sulfuric acid, elemental sulfur or SO,, are uncertain.
The processes that are applicable to utilites are the Wellman-Lord Process
(S02 recovery 90%), the Limestone Scrubbing (SO- recovery 85%), the Double Alkali
(S0? recovery 90%), and the Citrate Process (SO,, recovery 95%). All these processes
are more efficient than the 51.3% efficiency required. To accomplish the comparison
the cost equations for these four (4) processes will be evaluated and pro-rated for
a 51.3% efficiency.
3. Limestone Scrubbing.(S02 recovery 85% - includes particulate scrubbing)
Maximum sized system - 350,000 ACFM
Capital Cost (C.I.) = 1170(ACFM)'65 + 125,000(E)'75
(ACFM) = effluent gas flow rate = 596,855 ACFM
(E) = SO- emission rate tons/day = 993.2 tons/day
VIII-6
-------
Since the maximum size unit is 350,000 ACFM, 2 units will be necessary
298,427 ACFM each. The emission rate for each will be 496.6 tons/day. The
capital cost equation then becomes:
CI = 1170 (298,427)'65 + 125,000 (496.6)'75
= $4.25 million + $12.89 million
= $17.14 million each of 2 units
Total CI = $34.28 million
300($/KWH) +1.5 ($/romBTU)
annual operating cost (AOC) = (ACFM) (Days) |300($/KWH) +1.5 ($/mmBTU)|
"1000
+ (E)(Days) (l53($/KWH) + 1.9 ($/mmBTU) + 2.34 ($/ton
+ 21,024 ($/hr.) + .06 (C.I.) + .025 (C.I.)
($/KWH) = $0.0150/KWH*
($/mmBTU) = $1.25/mmBTU
($/ton CaC03) = $8/ton
assume: ($/hr) = $8./hr.
Days = 365
therefore :
1
annual operating cost = (298,427) (365) f300(.0150) +1.5 (1.25)1
1000 L J
+ (496.6)(365) I153(.0150) + 1.9 (1.25) + 2.34 (8N
+21,024 (8) + .06 (
= 6.56 million/unit
+21,024 (8) + .06 (17.14 x 106) + .025 (17.14 x 106)
*From Appendix II, Bellegia, et al. , 1975.
VIII-7
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OPERATING DATA INPUT
Power:
Water:
Reheat:
Limestone:
Labor:
Maintenance:
Capital Charges:
USER INPUTS
(ACFM)
(E)
(Days) =
*($/KWH)
*($/mm gal) =
*($/ton)
*($/mmBTU) =
($/hr)
(i)
Scrubbing 0.30 KWH/ACFM-day
Alkali handling 360 KWH/ton sulfur
4.5m gal/ton sulfur
0.0015mmBTU/ACFM-day (utility applications only)
5.5 tons/ton sulfur
Fixed at 2 men/shift
(with 20% allowance for fringes and benefits)
0.06 C.I.
15-year life
Taxes, insurance, etc. 2.5% C.I.
Effluent gas flow rate
SO,, emission rate-tons/day
Annual days of operation
Electric power
Raw water
Limestone
Reheat (for utility applications)
Labor rate
Interest rate
4. Double Alkali Process. (S02 recovery 90%)
The maximum size unit for this process is also 350,000 ACFM. Subsequently,
two (2) units each having the following characteristics will be needed to handle
the exhaust gasses: (ACFM) = 298,427 and (E) = 496.6 tons/day.
VIII-8
-------
Capital Cost (CI) = 1000 (298.427)'6 + 200,000 (496.6)'65
= $1.93 million + $11.22 million = $13.15 million/unit
Total CI = $26.30 million
annual operating cost (AOC) = (ACFM) (Days) J240($/KWH) +1.5 ($/mmBTU)
+ (E) (Days) [190 ($/KWH) +1.9 ($/mgal H20) + 1.14($/ton CaD)
+ .19 ($/ton NAC03)j + 21,024 ($/hr) +.06 (C.I.) + 3.33 + ($/ton sludge)
+ .025 (C.I.)
($/KWH) = $.0150/KWrf:
($/mmBTU) = $1.25/mmBTU
($/m gal H20) = $.10/mgal
($/ton CaO) = $22/ton
($/ton/NaC03) = %50/ton
assume: ($/hr) = $8/hr
($/sludge ton) = $2.5/ton
annual operating cost =(298.427) (365) (~240(0.0150) + (1.25)1
1000 L J
+ (496.6) (365)fl90 (0.015) + 1.9 (.10) + 1.14 (22) + .19
+21,024 (8) + .06 (13.15 x 106) + 3.33 x (2.5) + .025 (13.15 x 106)
= $8,701,211/unit
OPERATING DATA INPUT
Power; Scrubbing 0.24KWH /ACFM-day
Reheat: • O.OOlSmfiiBTU /ACFM-day(utility applications only)
Water: 4 M gal/ton sulfur
Lime(CaO): 2.4 tons/ton sulfur
Soda ash (Na2C03): 0.4 tons/ton sulfur
Labor: Fixed at 2 men/shift
(with 20% allowance for fringes and benefits)
Maintenance: 0.06 C.I.
Capital Charges: 15 year life
Taxes, insurance, etc. 2.5% C.I.
Appendix II, Bellagia, et al. , 1975.
VIII-9
-------
USER INPUTS
(ACFM) = Effluent gas flow rate
(E) = 862 emission rate tons/day
(Days) = Annual days of operation
*($/KWH) = Electric power
*($/m gal) = Raw water
*($/mmBTU) = Reheat (for utility applications)
*($/ton) = Lime (CaO)
*($/ton) = Soda ash (Na2C03)
($/hr) = Labor rate
($/ton) = Cost of disposal of sludge solids
(i) = Interest rate
5. Wellman-Lord Process. (SO- recovery 90%)
Since the maximum sized unit is 350,000 ACFM, two (2) units will be used,
each having the following characteristics (ACFM) = 298,427 and (E) = 496.6 tons/day.
Capital Cost (C.I.) = 1800(ACFM)'6° + 250,000(E)>65
= $3.474 million + $13.275 million
= $16.749 million/unit
Total CI = $33,498 million
annual operating cost =/(ACFM)\(Days) BOO ($/KWH) + 1.5 ($/mmBTU)
* 1000' L J
+ (E)(Days) [166.3 ($/KWH) + 9.22 ($/m Ib steam) + 0.8($/m gal H20)
+ 6.37 ($/m CF methane) + 71.25($/lb Na2C03)|
+ 26,280 ($/hr) + 0.06(C.I.) + 0.025(C.I.)
($/KWH)= $.015/KWH ($/MCFCH4) = $1.25/MCF*
($/mmBTU) = $1.25/mmBTU ($/lb NaC03) = $.025/#NaC03
($/m#steam) = $1.25/m#steam
($/m gal H20) = $.10/m gal
*From Appendix II, Bellagia, et al., 1975.
VIII-10
-------
assume: ($/hr) = $8/m
(Days) = 365
annual operating cost = (298.427) (365) f~300(0.015) + 1.5 (1.25)1
innn L J
1000
+ 496.6 (365) [l66.3 (0.015) + 9.22 (1.25)
+ .8 (.10) + 6.37 (1.25) + 71.25 (.025)]
+ 26,280 (8) + .06 (16.749 x 106) + .025 (16.749 x 106)
= $6.648 million/yr-unit
6. Citrate Process. (SO- recovery 95%)
For this process the maximum sized system is 350,000 ACFM. Subsequently
two (2) units will be needed. Each unit will have an (ACFM) = 298.427 and (E)=
496.6tons/day.
Capital Cost (C.I.) = ISOO(ACFM)'60 + 220,000(E)'6°
= $3.474 Million + $9.064 million
= $12.538 million/unit
Total CI = $25.076 million
annual operating costs = (ACFM) (Days) [~300($/KWH) + 1.5 ($/mmBTU)l
1000 J
+ (E) (Days) [l90($/KWH) + 1.71($/m gal H20)
+3.8 ($/m Ib steam)
+ 6.37($/m CF methane) + 4.28($/lb citric acid)
+ 29.2 ($/lb Na2C03)j
+ 26,280 ($/hr) + 0.06(C.I.) + 0.025(C.I.)
($/KWH) = $0.015/KWH*
($/mmBTU) = $1.25/mmBTU
($/m gal H20) = $.10/m gal H20
($/m# steam) = $1.25/m#
($/MCFCH4) = $1.25/MCRCH4
($/#citric acid) = $.425/#
($/#NA2C03) = $.025///NAC03
*From Appendix II, Bellagia, et al., 1975.
VIII-11
-------
assume: ($/hr) = $8/hr
(Days) = 365
annual operating costs = (298,427) (365) [300 (0.015) + 1.5 (1.25)1
1000
+ 496.6 (365) [l90 (0.015) + 1.71 + 3.8(1.25
+ 6.37(1.25) + 4.28 (.425) + 29.12 (.025)]
4- 26,280(8) +.06 (12.538 x
= $5.28387 million/yr-unit
4- 26,280(8) +.06 (12.538 x 106) + 0.25 (12.538 x 106)
OPERATING DATA INPUT
Power:
Reheat:
Process Water:
Steam:
Methane:
Citric Acid:
Soda Ash:
Labor:
Maintenance:
Capital Charges:
Scrubbing 0.30 KWH/ACFM-day
Sulfur Handling 400 KWH/ton sulfur
0.0015mm BTU/ACFM-day (utility applications only)
3.6m gal/ton sulfur
8m Ib/ton sulfur
13.4m CF/ton sulfur
9 Ib/ton sulfur
61.5 Ib/ton sulfuf
Fixed at 2% men/shift
(with 20% allowance for fringes and benefits
0.06 C.I.
15-year life
Taxes, insurance, etc. 2.5% C.I.
USER INPUTS
(ACFM)
(E)
(Days)
($/KWH)
($/mm BTU)
($/m gal)
($/m Ib)
($/hr)
($/ton)
(i)
Effluent gas flow rate
862 emission rate-tons/day
Annual days of operation
Electric power
Reheat (for utility applications)
Process water
Steam
Citric acid
Soda ash (Na-CO-)
Labor rate
Credit or debit for elemental sulfur disposal
Interest rate.
VIII-12
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7. Total Suspended Particulates.
The total amount of TSP to be removed from the St. Louis Area is 44,000
tons/year during 1985 above and beyond emission reductions needed to attain the Air
Quality Standard. To carry out the cost effectiveness analysis,a hypothetical
uncontrolled coal burning power plant will be fitted with electro-static
precipitations whose control efficiency is 90% to remove 44,000 tons/yr of TSP.
The total emission rate from the furnaces would be 48,888 tons/year. If
bituminous coal with 7% ash is used, the annual coal consumption will be 873,000
tons/year or 1.66 tons/min. Stoichemetric calculations utilizing 10% excess air
and an ultimate analysis of the coal of 68.4% carbon, 5.6% hydrogen, 16.4% oxygen,
1.2% sulfur and 1.4% nitrogen with an exit exhaust temperature of 400 F yields an
exhaust flow rate of 723,029 ACFM.
Capital Cost equation for an electro static precipitator is:
Capital Cost ($1000) = 170 + 3.250 (ACFM-103)
Since (ACFM) = 723,029, the capital cost can be computed to be:
Capital Cost ($1000) = 170 + 3.25 (723.029)
= $2,519.840 or $2.519 million
annual operating cost for the electrostatic precipitator can be calculated by:
annual operating = (ACFM) ($/KWH) (Hrs) [(0.1955 x 10~3)(0.5) + KJ
cost (AOC)
+ (E) (n) (Days) ($2/ton) + (M) (C.I) + (L) (Days)
($/hr) + (0.025) (C.I)
USER INPUT
(ACFM) = Effluent gas flow rate to ESP
(Hrs) = Annual hours of operation
($/KWH) = Electric power
($/hr) = Labor rate
(K) = Constant. Dependent on level of ESP efficiency
selected (Hi. = 0.0004; Med. = 0.0003; Lo = 0.0002)
VIII-13
-------
(E)
(n)
(M)
(Days)
(L)
Particulate emission rate (tons/day)
Efficiency
Maintenance constant 0.04 high efficiency
0.02 standard
Annual days of operation
Operating labor factor (hours/day)< 100,000 ACFM
> 100,000 ACFM
2
4
($/KWH) = $0.015/KWH*
assume:
(HRS) = 365 x 24
($/hr) = $8/m
(Days) = 365
(n) = 90%
8,760 hrs
annual operating cost = 723,029 (0.015)(8.760) [(.1955 x 10 3)(.5) + 4 x 10 4)J
+ 134 (.90)(365)($2) + (.04)(2.519 x 106) + 4(365) (8)
+ 0.25(2.519 x 106)
= $310,733/yr.
*From Appendix II, Bellagia, et al. , 1975.
VIII-14
-------
REVIEW OF COMSIS CORPORATION'S "SINK" FACTOR INFORMATION CONTAINED IN VOLUME
I OF OPEN SPACE AS AN AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT MEASURE
A. PROJECT OFFICER'S INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Protection Agency's Environmental Research Laboratory
at Corvallis, Oregon was asked to review Volume I of the Open Space series of
reports by the Land Use Planning Office of the Strategies and Air Standards
Division. Dr. Lawrence C. Raniere of Corvallis's Terrestrial Ecology Branch
asked Dr. Ernest W. Peterson, Research Meteorologist on assignment to the Branch
from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, to review the Volume.
Dr. Peterson's comments follow in Section B of this Appendix. He only addresses
sulfur dioxide sink factors in Volume I, and not those presented for the other
nine pollutants investigated (ammonia, carbon monoxide, chlorine, fluorine,
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, ozone, peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN), and particulates)
The authors of the Volume II material under discussion, Dr. Robert S.
DeSanto of De Leuw, Gather & Company (formerly with COMSIS Corporation) and
Dr. William H. Smith of Yale University's School of Forestry and Environmental
Studies, were asked to respond to Dr. Peterson's comments. Their response,
authored by Dr. DeSanto and concurred with by Dr. Smith, appears as Section C
of this Appendix.
B. REVIEW OF "SINK" FACTORS BY DR. ERNEST W. PETERSON*
1. SQ2 Uptake (Flux) Rates
In order to determine the rate of uptake of pollutants by plant, soil,
and water surfaces it is necessary to know the atmospheric conditions, such as
wind, turbulence, temperature, humidity and pollutant concentration; in addition
the state of the surface must be known, as well as its geometry, including the
*This material was originally entitled: "Estimates of Deposition Velocities for
Sulfur Dioxide and an Analysis of the COMSIS Data Collection (1976) in Terms of
Its Value for the Estimation of the Uptake of Sulfur Dioxide by Plant, Soil and
Water Surfaces."
IX-1
-------
amount of surface area relative to ground area. Very little of the above in-
formation is known for any given situation, since there are usually severe
technical and economic constraints on what can be known; thus one must be
satisfied to make estimates with insufficient information if estimates are
to be made at all.
The simple relationship between the uptake rate and the ambient pollutant
concentration can be given by the following equation:
F = v X,
where F is the flux or uptake rate of pollutant into and retained by the surface,
X is the concentration of pollutant in the surrounding air, and v, which has
the dimensions of velocity, is the proportionality constant between concentration
and flux, v is frequently called the deposition veolcity and is presumed to be
a parameter which is a function usually only of the surface and whether or not
it is wet or dry. This equation is only a crude model of the actual process but
may prove useful if a catalog of values for v for various surfaces can be obtained.
A perusal of some of the information* available on sulfur dioxide deposition
yields the following bounds:
IU2
Maximum concentration of SC>2 in the atmosphere is <8 ^ (3 ppm)
cm
Maximum deposition velocity is ^30 -g^c (This is independent of
pollutant gas, based on elementary atmospheric boundary layer
theory.)
cm
Deposition velocity for S02 is
-------
2. Review of COMSIS Data
The COMSIS (1976), data collection of "sink factors" (actually fluxes)
was obtained from a large variety of sources. The data were presented, largely
without comment, in terms of the type of surface and removal of uptake rate by
that surface. A summary presenting characteristic removal rates was presented
at the end of the data collection. Since the flux or removal rate is proportional
to concentration, knowledge of the flux alone on some given occasion does not
allow one to estimate the flux for a different situation when the concentration
would most likely be different. Only if the deposition velocity is known can
one estimate the flux for any situation given the concentration. The COMSIS
data contain very little information on deposition velocities and are, therefore,
of little use for estimating fluxes under conditions differing from those under
which the data were taken. Nevertheless it is useful to know whether the data
presented is consistent with what is known and expected about S02 uptake.
Table 1 contains a list of the COMSIS S02 data which were presented
in terms of mass per unit time per unit ground area (flux). Also included
are some data which are given in flux per unit concentration. The data are
grouped in order of their quality as assessed by COMSIS. Where possible de-
position velocities were taken or calculated from the given data; otherwise
deposition velocities were calculated from the given fluxes and assumed (but
possible) concentrations, and concentrations were calculated from assumed
deposition velocities which were estimated for the particular surface. In
this way it was determined whether or not the COMSIS fluxes were consistent
with the bounds stated above. The flux data are all from the COMSIS report.
Those others marked "given" are also from the report while those marked "derived"
are derived directly from the COMSIS data. The comments in the column marked
"COMSIS reference" refer to the COMSIS report.
Table 2 gives the conclusions from the analysis of each of the COMSIS
data. Based on these conclusions a new data collection was compiled (Table 3).
These data are consistent with the range of fluxes, deposition velocities, and
concentrations found in the atmosphere. The concentrations at which the fluxes
were measured were estimated to be high or low values of the concentrations found
IX-3
-------
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IX-4
-------
TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF COMSIS DATA COLLECTION
IDENT.
NO.
1. For reasonable settling velocity (2.8 cm/sec, Hill, 1971), calculated
concentration too high to be believed; therefore given flux higher
than expected for atmosphere.
2. With given data calculated concentration just above background; flux
lower than would be expected in polluted area.
3. Data corroborates Hill. See (1).
4. Deposition velocities seem low but not unbelievably so.
5. Ditto.
6. Appears to be flux in non-polluted area.
7. Ditto.
8. Deposition velocity from data appears to be more than an order of
magnitude too high.
9. Appears reasonable—units error in Comsis report.
10. Flux is ridiculously high (H2S flux).
11. Sol~ flux.
12. Flux too high.
13. Seems to be nonpolluted area.
14. Reasonable flux.
15. Seems to be nonpolluted area.
16. Deposition velocity calculated from data a bit high but not unbelievably
so.
17. Appears reasonable-
-------
TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF COMSIS DATA COLLECTION CONTINUED
ANALYSIS OF COMSIS SUMMARY FOR S02.
Vegetation - flux seems about right for background levels of S02-
Soil - this flux is based on one report of observations of H2S flux
over acid soil. It is several orders of magnitude too high,
2-
Water - this flux of S0i+ is taken from some observations over a lake.
It is about right for background levels of S02.
IXr-6
-------
TABLE 3
SCREENED COM3IS DATA
Ident.
No.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
9.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Surface
Mustard
Alfalfa
Loblolly Pine
Loblolly Pine
Rhododendron
Firethorn
Various soils
Alfalfa
Alfalfa
Forest
Vegetation
Soil
(ug m hr )
0.67 x 103
8.1 x 103
13 x 103
3.6 x 103
140 x 103
3.3 x 103
150 x 103
4.5 x 103
Deposition
Velocity Concentration
(cm sec ) (yg m )
0,74(1) 25
3.1 (2)
0.74(2>
1.0 (2)
Probably Low
Probably Low
0.4-0.6
Probably Low
Probably High
Probably Low
1.5
Probably Moderately
Low
Footnotes: (l)Given.
(2)Derived.
IX-7
-------
in the atmosphere consistent with a reasonable deposition velocity. The COMSIS
summary of the flux of SC>2 to the soil presents a quantity which gives a completely
unrealistic value of both the deposition velocity and concentration which would
have to prevail for the reported flux to have occurred. One must conclude that
either the datum is wrong or that it was measured in conditions not found in
the atmosphere. The average fluxes to water and vegetation are appropriate for
fluxes at low but above background levels of concentration.
Table 4 allows a comparison to be made between the global average emission
rate of pollutants as estimated by Rasmussen, Taheri, and Kabel (1974) and pro-
jected global average removal rates based on the COMSIS (1976) summary of "sink
factors". The emission and removal rates would agree if the Rasmussen and COMSIS
data were representative of global emission and removal rates. Except in the
case of hydrocarbons the COMSIS values are an order of magnitude higher than the
Rasmussen values (for hydrocarbons they are two orders of magnitude smaller).
At reasonable deposition velocities, at least for S02, these represent concentra-
tions an order of magnitude higher than background but much lower than those
that can be found in urban areas. Thus the COMSIS values are neither representa-
tive of global uptake rates nor maximum removal rates. Since COMSIS does not
give deposition velocities or concentrations for which the reported fluxes are
representative, these fluxes are not useful in estimating the uptake of pollu-
tants by the earth's surface.
3. Conclusion
In conclusion, if one is to be able to make estimates of uptake of
pollutants by plant, soil, and water surfaces, it is necessary at least to have
knowledge of deposition velocities for various types of surfaces. Figure 1
is the result of an attempt at estimating these velocities. This figure is
based on what information can be gleaned from the attached references and is
only a first guess. However it is consistent with available data and probably
yields estimates of deposition velocities to within an order of magnitude of
their true values. For instance, the deposition velocity for a forest is probably
around 10 cm/sec, for crops about 1 cm/sec, for water surfaces, about 0.5 cm/sec
and for soil, about 0.2 cm/sec.
IX-8
-------
TABLE 4
COMPARISON OF GLOBALLY AVERAGED EMISSION AND
ABSORPTION RATES FOR SULFUR DIOXIDE
Pollutant
SO 2
H2S
NO
x
NH3
CO
03
HC
Estimated
Emissions by
Rasmussen'1'
(ug m~2 sec
8 x 10
-3
6 x 10
-3
9 x 10
-2
1 x 10
-2
2 x 10
-1
A x 10
-2
Estimated
Absorption from
COMSIS Summary (2)
m
sec
100 x 10
60 x 10
20 x 10
-2
20 x 10
-1
0.04 x 10
_2
Footnotes:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Estimated global average.
Global average computed assuming:
15% vegetation
15% soil
or 30% vegetation and soil
70% water
Soil estimate for S02 disregarded as being unrealistic
IX-9
-------
FIGURE 1
SULFUR DIOXIDE UPTAKE AT SURFACE OF EARTH
(Estimate)
10,0'
FOREST
o
OJ
CO
4-1
•H
O
O
.H
0)
> 1.0 -
o CROPS
•H
•H
CO
o
(X
0)
o
SEA
SOIL
0.1 -
Note: Deposition is Higher
if Vegetation is Wet
IX-10
-------
4, References
Bennett, J. H. and A. C. Hill (1973): Absorption of gaseous air pollutants
by a standardized plant canopy. J^. Air Poll. Contr. Assoc., 23, 203.
Bennett, J. H. and A. C. Hill (1975): Interactions of air pollutants with
canopies of vegetation. In Responses of:Plants to Air Pollution, J. B.
Mudd, editor, Academic Press, p. 273.
Bromfield, A. R. (1972): Absorption of atmospheric sulfur by mustard
(Sinapsis alia) grown in a glass house. J_. Agric. Sci. , 78, 343.
COMSIS (1976): Open Space as an Air Resource Management Measure, Vol. II
Sink Factors. Report to USEPA under Contract No. 68-02-2350; Robert
S. DeSanto, Project Manager, COMSIS Corporation, Glastonbury, Connecticut.
(Report contains an extensive bibliography, including abstracts of publi-
cations on deposition of air pollutants on soil, land and vegetation).
Dannevik, W. P., S. Frisella, L. Granat, and R. B. Husar (1976): In Third
Symposium on Atmospheric Turbulence, Diffusion, and Air Quality, Amer.
Meteor. Soc., p. 506.
Droppo, J. G., D. W. Glover, 0. B. Abbey, C. W. Spicer, and J. Cooper (1976):
Measurement of Dry Deposition of Fossil Fuel Plant Pollutants. Report
to USEPA under Contract No. 68-02-1747. EPA-600/4-076-056.
Fowler, D. and M. H. Unsworth (1974): Dry deposition of sulfur dioxide
on wheat. Nature, 249, 389.
Garland, J. A. (1974): Dry deposition of S02 and other gases. In Atmosphere-
Surface Exchange of Particulate and Gaseous Pollutants, NTIS No. CONF-740921,
p. 212,
Garland, J. A., D. H. F. Atkins, C. J. Readings, and S. J. Caughey (1974):
Deposition of gaseous sulfur dioxide to the ground. Atmos, Environ, 8^, 75.
Hicks, B. B. (1974): Some micrometeorological aspects of pollutant deposition
rates near the surface. In Atmosphere-Surface Exchange of Particulate and
Gaseous Pollutants, NTIS No. CONF-740921, p. 434.
Hill, C. H. (1971): Vegetation: a sink for atmospheric pollutants. J_. Air
Poll. Cont. Assoc., 21, 341.
Kabel, R. J., R. A. O'Dell, M. Taheri, and D. D. Davis (1976): A Preliminary
Model of Gaseous Pollutant Uptake by Vegetation. CAES Pub. No. 455-76, Center
for Air Environment Studies, University Park, Pennsylvania.
Liss, P. S. and P. G. Slater (1974): Flux of gases across the air-sea interface.
Nature, 247, 181.
Liss P. S. and P. G. Slater (1974): Mechanism and rate of gas transfer across
the air-sea interface. In Atmospheric-Surface Exchange of Particulate and
Gaseous Pollutants, NTIS No. CONF-740921, p. 354.
IX-11
-------
Martin, A. and F. R. Barber (1971): Some measurements of loss of atmospheric
sulfur dioxide near foliage. Atmos. Environ., _5, 345.
Murphy» B. D. (1976): Description of S02 on ground cover. In Third Symposium
on Atmospheric Turbulence, Diffusion, and Air Quality, Amer. Meteor, Soc.
p. 500.
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1969): Air Quality Criteria
for Sulfur Oxides. NAPCA Pub. NO. AP-50.
Owers, M. J. and A, Q. Powell (1974): Deposition velocity of sulfur dioxide on
land and water surfaces using a 3^S tracer method. Atmos. Environ., J5, 63.
Rasmussen, K. H., M. Taheri, and R, L. Kabel (1975): Global emissions and
natural processes for removal of gaseous pollutants. Water, Air, and
Soil Pollution, 4-, 33.
Saito, T. (1974): Absorption of sulfur dioxide in leaves as affected by
light and wind. J_. Japan, Soc. Air Poll. , j), 1.
Shepard, J. G. (1974): Measurements of the direct deposition of sulfur
dioxide onto grass and water by the profile method. Atmos. Environ.,
.8, 69.
Spedding, D. J. (1972): Sulfur dioxide absorption by sea water. Atmos.
Environ., 6., 583.
Terraglio, F. P. and R. M. Mangelli (1966): The influence of moisture on
the adsorption of atmospheric sulfur dioxide by soil. Int. J^. Air and
Water Poll., 10, 783.
Terraglio, F. P. and R. M. Manganelli (1967): The absorption of atmospheric
sulfur dioxide by water solutions. ^J. Air Poll. Cont. Assoc., 19, 403.
Unsworth, M. H. and D. Fowler (1974): Field measurements of sulfur dioxide
fluxes to wheat. In Atmosphere-Surface Exchange of Particulate and
Gaseous Pollutants, NTIS No. CONF-740921, p. 342.
IXr12
-------
C. !®SPONSE TO THE REVIEW BY DR. ROBERT S. DeSANTO AND DR. WILLIAM H. SMITH*
1. In his review of the COMSIS data (starting on p. IX-3 ), Dr. Peterson
observes that the Comsis data is "of little use for estimating fluxes under con-
ditions differing from those under which the data were taken." This was a con-
s$£a(Lnt on the study, is so identified, and ie a result of the empirical data
selected and weighted in order to represent what we felt was a representation
of conditions likely to be approached in the design principles outlined in
Volume II of the open space study.
2. In his discussion of Table 1 of his review (p. IX-3 ), Dr. Peterson
indicates that either deposition velocities were calculated from the Comsis data,
or from given fluxes and "...assumed (but possible) concentrations..." The Comsis
data is an emperical report based entirely upon the literature with no extrapola-
tion whatsoever associated with the data.
3. In Table 1, Dr. Peterson notes that there is a "units error" for the
Various Soils category (Identification #9; see p. IX-4 .) The error referred to
involves our Reference #1254, listed on p. V-126 of Volume I. The reference is:
M. Payrissat and S. Beilke, "Laboratory Measurement of the Uptake of Sulfur Dioxide
by Different Soils," Atmospheric Environ, 9: 211-217 (February 1975). We have
double-checked this reference and the units are not in error. Perhaps Dr. Peterson
may be concerned with the "order" of units. He has a point there. Some of the
units ghould be altered; e.g., for Rendsina soil the units should be changed from
-2 -1 -l -?
.60 S02 cm 3200 cm sec to .60 SO- cm sec 3200 cm .
o
4. In Dr. Peterson's discussion of his Table 2 (p. IX- ), he states that
the SQ~ flux to soil is "...completely unrealistic...". As in all other instances,
the reported data is taken from the published, reputable, and professional litera-
ture. To the best of our knowledge and belief, that data is completely real and
reliable. From that literature, it is clear that soil is an excellent sink for
SOj. The design guidelines in Volume II are largely aimed at bringing the turbulent
atmosphere into contact with the soil.
*The responsewas originally contained in a letter to the Project Officer, Thomas
McCurdy, from Dr. Robert S. DeSanto, dated April 6, 1977. Attached to it was a
letter from Dr. William H. Smith to Dr. DeSanto, dated March 31, 1977.
IX-13
-------
5. Table 2 lists notes associated with the calculated or assumed fluxes
which, therefore, are apparently Dr. Peterson's comments on the literature. In
some instances (surface identification numbers 1, 2, 8, 10, and 12), Dr. Peterson
disputes the validity of the literature. We believe the literature is correct.
In general, this table seems to contradict Dr. Peterson's own review
comments relative to the alledged unreality of the literature.
6. Of particular interest, Table 4 compares the literature presented by
Cornsis (which considered the Rasmussen data cited by Dr. Peterson) with emissions
derived ^rom Rasmussen. We see no illogic or contradiction between the literature
which the Comsis report compiled and the Rasmussen estimates. For example, Comsis
reported from the literature that SO™ could be absorbed by the earth at a rate of
100 units. Rassmussen reports an estimate of emissions rate of 8 units. If both
estimates are correct, we should be able to conclude that S0_ is not a worldwide
problem even though it may be a regional problem. In the same way, CO is estimated
by the Comsis literature to be absorbed at a rate of 20 units while the Rasmussen
estimate of emissions is 2 units. Therefore, we should conclude that CO is not
a worldwide problem, nor does it threaten to become one. In an opposite direction,
the Comsis literature is presented which indicates that HC is absorbed by the earth
at the rate of 0.04 units while Rasmussen reports an estimated emission rate of 4
units. This would suggest that HC emissions are a worldwide problem of some as of
yet undetermined magnitude.
The same types of conclusions apply to the other values in Table 4. Our
conclusion is that the Comsis literature is in agreement with the use of the
Rasmussen data reported by Dr. Peterson.
7. In summary, Comsis's report of the literature in Volume I did not
involve new experimentation or extrapolation of pre-existing data. It reported
the literature in an order and format which Comsis felt most responsive to the
contract charge of reviewing the material. Dr. Peterson's technical note raises
questions which seems to be directed at the accuracy of data reported in the
literature, rather than the organization and presentation of that literature by
Comsis itself.
XXrU
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CORRECTIONS ^ imi uAuo^,,,,, ^j. i KvuA'xiO.n luATEKJAL IN VOLUME II OF
OPEN SPACE AS...JJ _Al R_ K£, ,- ;OURCE _MANAf^lENT _ M^AJ ' ORE
A. PROJECT OFF! ""I? ' "- r ^ v n.-->-r,-v
The Land Use Planning Off "ire of the Strategies and Air Standards Division
jsked a number GJ. !-.?/• •-•• <> •'•"• r.^vitv V-; j i>i:,<-.. '! .ind II of the final report for
the Open Space project. Mr .' - , • I Ucke,, Supervisory Meteorologist on assign-
ment to the Source-Receptor Analysts Branch, Monitoring Data and Analysis Division,
from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, returned a number of
comments that clarify mater-«cj] .. ppofiring in Volume II of Open Space as an Air
Resource Management Measure . The material involves the Gaussian diffusion model
presented in Section II A ^ "A."mospheric Diffusion (p. II-10ff). Mr. Dicke's
comments are keyed to &[;,->< (Mr- pnri-«j of the material.
B. CORRECTIONS TO THE MATERIAL TjY JAMES L. DICKE
1. On page TI-31, Figure II-i and F.quation (1) apply only to continuous
point sources. The ast n^r- v "cxp" j« n<>t defined; the equation means that
e, the natural lug, is raised to the exponent indicated by the brackets.
On page 11-12, the assumptions should include the fact that "emissions
are from a continuously emitting point source."
2. Comsis uses the symbol M or u for mean wind speed. This may cause
confusion with "mi<,r<-.*" rj" in p"r!lr]o size, usually depicted by that symbol.
Normally, u is ur>f,"' (''« « . : vin-1 •<••><>. 1
On p. 11-12 Comsis deiiaes mean wind speed in units of g sec , but it
should be m sec . TM •: >. nr^i-hiy =_ypogr,;phica1 error, as the correct units
appear on p. II-ll. A'r.r' <• tl , di^f inLi'ion of units, x (g m ) should be x» the
Greek chi.
3. Equation (2) applies to elevated point sources and ground-level con-
centrations calculated <>t any rrc-o^-wirid distance y.
\ !
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4. Equation (3) applies to elevated point sources and ground-level
concentrations along the center line of the plume.
5. Comsis references Turner (1972) in a number of places on p. 11-13.
This citation is to D. B. Turner and J. L. Dicke, "Atmospheric Diffusion Computa-
tions," p. 3.19 - 3.46 in EPA, Air Pollution Meteorology (Research Triangle Park,
N. C. , 1972), This publication is a training manual and it is EPA policy not to
officially approve training manuals for quotation or citation. The COMSIS reference
should be to the original source, which is: D. Bruce Turner, Workbook of Atmospherii
Dispersion Estimates (Research Triangle Park, N.C., 1970; AP-26) .
6. Equation (6) on p. 11-16 has a number of typographical errors in it.
Q is defined correctly in the lead-in paragraph, but incorrectly in the list of
variables below the equation. Q is the estimate of source emissions in g m sec ,
_3
not an estimate of pollutant , concentration in g m . Equation (6) has another typo
in the 10.7 term inside the doubled parentheses. It should be: 10 (power). The
constant term, then, in more conventional notation is 1.73 x 10 (actually 1.7264
7. The refernece for equation (6) on p. 11-16 is incorrect, although it
is cited correctly in the bibliography. The correct title for the citation is
Supplement No. 5 for Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors.
8. Equation (8) on p. 11-16 again presents scientific notation in an
-k
unusual way. The constant term in the equation is 1.51 x 10
9. The Holland plume rise equation on p. VI-53 contains a number of errors.
For one, there is a symbol "H=" but nothing follows; it should be removed. On the
next line, parentheses should be used to set off the term: 1.5 + 2.68 x 10
AT • d . p~l • Tg'1.
In the definition of units, AT should be defined as: stack gas temperature
ambient air temperature (°K) . The constant term beneath AT stands alone, and is
correct.
X-2
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
1 REPORT NO.
EPA-450/X-76-XXXc
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Open Space as an Air Resource Management Measure -
Demonstration Plan (St. Louis, Mo.) - Volume III
5. REPORT DATE
January 1977
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
7. AUTHOR(S)
Robert S. DeSanto, Kenneth A. MacGregor, William P.
McMillen, Richard A. Glaser
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
H800-III
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
COMSIS CORPORATION - Environmental Services
972 New London Turnpike
Glastonbury, Connecticut 06033
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2350
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Strategies and Air Standards Division Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards Environmental Protection
Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This report is a demonstration plan for St. Louis, Mo. based on the collection and
interpretation of data presented in the preceding two Volumes; Volume I - Sink Factors,
and Volume II - Design Criteria. Based on the potential use of a hypothetical plant-
ing of street trees and idealized forest, an open space program is evaluated for
St. Louis within the constraints of real world economics and the environment as it is
presently exists in that urbanizing area.
References are made to data and interpretation in the preceding two Volumes, as
appropriate, in support of the potential application of these guidelines to a major
United States city confronted with various alternatives for air quality maintenance
and environmental enhancement and/or stability.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Highways
Torests
lecreation Areas
lesidential Areas
]osts Air Resource Management
Open Space Sinks
Open Space Plan
Recreation Plan
Costs/Effectiveness
Analysis
Land Use, St. Louis, Mo.
Greenbelts
A-i-r Pr.1 lui-anf
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
148
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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