EPA/530/SW-136
PACKAGING SOURCE REDUCTION:
CAN INDUSTRY AND GOVERNMENT COOPERATE?
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
-------
Packaging Source Reduction:
Can Industry and Government Cooperate?
by
Eileen L. Claussen*
The past several years have witnessed increasingly heated discussions
between the environmental community and the business community on the issues
of resource use and its effect on the ecosphere. The topics debated have
been numerous, and the questions raised too complex to answer in the course
of an hour, a day, or perhaps even a lifetime. But the dialogue has
clearly established the opposing points of view. On the one hand are
those who rest their case on the premise that the consumption of goods
is highly desirable and that the success of a society can be measured
by quantities of throughput. And on the other hand are those who view
each item of throughput in terms of the pressure it creates on the environ-
ment and who therefore believe that limiting the quantities of materials
and energy consumed is to be applauded.
But despite the divergence of these points of view, there are many
specific areas where the two communities can cooperatively work toward
constructive change. Because the packaging industry has been in the
*Ms. Claussen is Program Manager for Source Reduction in the Office
of Solid Waste Management, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This
paper was presented at the Annual National Forum of the Packaging Institute,
USA, October 9, 1974.
188*1*
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- 2 -
forefront of public debate concerning resource and environmental impact,
the avenues for cooperative effort in this industry may usefully be
explored.
For background purposes, it is important to review some packaging
trend data. Packaging activity in the United States has been growing at
a rapid rate over the past decade. Shipments of containers and packaging
were valued at $19.7 billion in 1971, an increase of 5 percent since 1970,
i.p.44
and an increase of 82 percent since 1960. In 1958 packaging material
consumption equaled 412 pounds per capita. By 1971 per capita consumption
had risen to 591 pounds, a growth rate of 43 percent per capita (Table 1).
The growth of packaging consumption has led to increased consumption
of raw materials and energy (with attendant adverse environmental effects)
and an increased rate of generation of solid waste. In 1971, packaging
accounted for approximately 47 percent of all paper production, 14 percent
of aluminum production, 75 percent of glass production, more than 8 percent
of steel production, and approximately 29 percent of plastic production
(Table 2). At that time, total packaging material energy consumption
represented an estimated 5 percent of U.S. industrial energy consumption
in 1971 (Table 3).2
Post-consumer solid waste resulting from the discard of packaging
material was estimated at between 40 and 50 million tons in 1971. Packaging
was thus estimated to be between 30 and 40 percent of municipal solid
waste, based on the EPA estimate of 125 million tons of municipal solid
waste in 1971.
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- 3 -
Reviewing recent growth trends in consumer packaging by material
type and end use, it is apparent that various categories of consumer
products have experienced far greater packaging growth than packaging as
a whole. All glass packaging, for example, increased by 57 percent per
capita between 1958 and 1971, while beer packaging in glass increased
by 290 percent per capita between 1958 and 1970 (Table 4). Aluminum
packaging grew 573 percent per capita between 1958 and 1971, while aluminum
consumer packaging grew 950 percent per capita between 1958 and 1970
(Table 5). These data are particularly meaningful in light of current
trends toward the use of lighter packaging materials (i.e., the substitution
of aluminum and plastic for steel and glass, as well as usage of thinner
gauges of steel, glass, and aluminum).
Another factor of interest is the growth in product consumption
relative to the growth in packaging consumption for that particular product.
Overall, the consumption of food in the United States increased by 2.3 per-
3,P.15
cent by weight on a per capita basis between 1963 and 1971. During the
same period, however, the tonnage of food packaging increased by an esti-
mated 33.3 percent per capita, while the number of food packages increased
by an estimated 38.8 percent per capita. ' Several specific examples may
be of value here. Between 1958 and 1970, milk consumption decreased by
3,p.18
23.1 percent by weight on a per capita basis. Milk container consumption,
on the other hand, increased by 26.1 percent on a unit per capita basis
6,p.38
for the same period. Other cases may also be cited. The consumption
of vegetables in cans increased by 17.8 percent by weight between 1958
and 1970, while the consumption of cans for vegetables increased by
31.5 percent on a tonnage basis for the same period (Table 6).
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- 4 -
This movement toward greater packaging consumption has been accompanied
by two other pertinent trends. The first of these is the trend toward
greater concentrations of economic activity, where relatively small firms
serving local markets have been supplanted by larger firms serving national
markets. The general rationale for the concentration of industry is the
economies of scale conferred upon large producers. These economies include
advantages in diverse areas such as production costs, advertising costs,
brand acceptance, input prices, and access to capital. The ability of
large firms to employ greater division of labor and specilization within
a particular plant or production process results in a general pattern of
the larger corporations paying higher wages and salaries to smaller numbers
of people, employing more capital intensive technologies, and realizing
8,p.32
higher profit margins than their smaller competitors.
New packaging developments both encourage this trend and are induced
by it. Perhaps the best example of this may be found in the brewing
industry. The number of breweries has declined substantially since 1940
when there were over 12 breweries on the average for each State until
today when the average is less than two per State. Over the same period,
the average output per brewery has increased. The desire to achieve
economies of scale is frequently cited as a major reason for the reduction
in the number of breweries. However, the introduction of both non-
refillable bottles and cans as economical, one-way containers for
beer which do not incur the transportation costs that refillable bottles
must, has provided brewers with the opportunity to ship beer longer
distances at less cost than would otherwise be possible.
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- 5 -
The second trend of significance is the rising cost of the package
as a portion of the total price of the product. Thus since 1958, the
share of consumer product costs represented by packaging has more than
doubled for items as diverse as dairy products, produce, beverages, and
8,P.42-43
candy. These trends seem to reflect the greater use of packaging
and the incorporation of package design features that offer consumers
convenience.
Based on the foregoing, we can conclude the following: (1) that
packaging consumption has grown considerably since 1958, (2) that, in
many cases, it has far outstripped the consumption of the product being
packaged, (3) that its growth has resulted in increased uses of materials
and energy, (4) that its growth has been concurrent with greater concen-
trations of industry and (5) that its cost has increased relative to the
costs of the product being packaged.
Review of these conclusions by both the business and environmental
communities has, however, led to vastly different action plans. The
environmental community, for example, has suggested that increases in
packaging consumption have resulted in the depletion of our natural
resource supplies and in the pollution of our environment. As a conse-
quence, there have been calls for the source reduction of packaging -
decreasing the consumption of packaging materials through increased
utilization of reusable containers and decreased uses of materials and
energy in the manufacture of each package.
The business community, on the other hand, has pointed to resource
recovery as the only environmentally sound option for conserving resources
and decreasing the pollution caused by solid wastes. They have also
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- 6 -
suggested that increases in packaging consumption are necessary if we are
to maintain our standard of living and increase our national productivity.
Some of these issues and responses, however, require more scrutiny.
It is important to point out, for example, that packaging resource recovery
and source reduction are not alternative but complementary approaches
and that both should be pursued. Decreases in the growth of packaging
consumption or in the absolute quantity of packaging in the waste stream
do not obviate the need for the recovery of the packaging wastes that
cannot reasonably be reduced. It is for this reason that the Environmental
Protection Agency has urged the consideration and implementation of both
source reduction and resource recovery. For example, a refillable bottle
(which is superior to a one-trip container) can be recycled after it has
made twenty or more trips; in fact it is more easily recycled since
refillable bottles are typically culled from the bottle stream at the
filling point, hence the glass is concentrated and automatically color
sorted.
The issue of the correlation between our nation's standard of living
and packaging consumption is also important to analyze in some detail. It
is quite clear, for example, that a relationship exists between standards
of living, the Gross National Product and energy consumption when one
compares the developed nations with those that are less developed. But
it is important to point out that there is little correlation between
energy consumption, Gross National Products and standards of living if
9,P.4
one restricts the comparison to the developed countries. Thus the
-------
- 7 -
United Kingdom and New Zealand have similar standards of living, but
9,p.6
vastly different levels of energy consumption. The same kind of
comparisons can be used to look at the relationships with packaging
9,P.7
consumption (an energy-intensive process) with similar results.
Finally, we need to assess the issue of increases in productivity
made possible by increased use of automated equipment and packaging.
If we look at food and beverages, for example, we note that between 1967
and 1972, the number of containers shipped rose 32 percent, from 78 billion
10,p.199-243
units to 103 billion units. At the same time, the value of food and
11,p.175-177
beverage shipments rose 30 percent, from $84 billion to $110 billion.
Yet this period also witnessed an employment decline in the food and beverage
11, p. 175-177
industries, from 1.7 million employees to 1.6 million employees. Here
then, is a case of increased productivity where output increased with a move
toward increased use of energy intensive modes of production and packaging
at the expense of labor (Table 7).
The value of this increase in productivity is, however, not quite so
clear, particularly as resources become scarcer and more costly and the
means of extraction become more environmentally undesirable. As has
been recently pointed out, we may soon see a necessary shift in the opposite
direction as resource prices lower productivity gains throughout the
12,P.196
economy.
Some major technological breakthroughs could, of course, decrease the
impact of high resource prices on productivity. But unless they also
include shifts in manufacturing processes and in product designs away
from resource intensivity it is questionable as to whether they will be
sufficient to neutralize otherwise adverse impacts on the economy.
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- 8 -
These factors, of course, suggest an area in which the environmental
and business communities can meet on common ground - namely in the develop-
ment and introduction of product designs that utilize less material and
energy to manufacture and use and hence are sounder from both an economic
and an environmental point of view.
Some progress in these areas has already been made. Shifts to larger
package sizes, the two-piece drawn and iron steel can and the more efficient
use of paperboard in paper packaging applications have all signalled
increased interest in packaging economy and resource conservation. Yet
many new package designs still continue to utilize increasing quantities
of materials and energy to manufacture as they advertise and display a
particular product.
It is certainly clear that much still needs to be done, both in
terms of product redesign and also in terms of urging greater use of
environmentally and economically proven designs. Because of the nature
of these issues, and the very strong interests and constraints of those
seeking constructive design changes, a cooperative effort between industry,
government, and both consumer and environmental groups would likely serve
the public interest best. Voluntary guidelines, drafted together by
representatives of both the public and private sectors, may be the ideal
means of achieving the desired environmental and resource conservation
ends. Certainly, acknowledgment of both the possibility and the desir-
ability of working together in a voluntary framework would be a welcome
shift away from the seemingly endless confrontations that have only served
to polarize the differences between the business and environmental
communities rather than accentuate their common interests.
-------
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TABLE 2
PACKAGING MATERIAL CONSUMPTION
IN RELATION TO TOTAL MATERIAL CONSUMPTION (197V
Material
Paper
Glass
Steel
Aluminum
Plastic
Packaging '
(103 tons)1
27,700
11,100
7,255
757
2,900
Total Packaging and
Nonpackaging
(103 tons)
58,652
14,900
87,038
5,074
10,000
Packaging
Percentage
47.2
74.5
8.3
14.1
29.0
Source: The statistics of paper, American Paper Institute,
1972 .
Shipments of steel products by market classifications,
American Iron and Steel Institute, 1972.
Milgrom, J. Incentives for recycling and reuse of
plastics. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1972. 316 p. (Distributed by National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, Va., as
PB-214 045 . )
Minerals yearbook, aluminum chapter reprint, L971.
Washington, U.S. Department of Interior, 1973.
Aluminum statistical review-1971. New York, The
Aluminum Association, 1972.
-------
- 11 -
TABLE
ENERGY CONSUMPTION ASSOCIATED WITH
FOR PACKAGING,
3
PRODUCTION OF
19711
RAW MATERIALS
Packaging Material 1971 Consumption
(103 tons)
Paper 27,700
Glass 11,100
Steel 7,255
Aluminum 757
Plastic 2,900
TOTAL 49,712
Energy Per Ton
(BTU X 103)
40,800
15,256
29,590
196,632
37,088
319,366
Total Energy Consumed
(BTU X 109)
1,130,000
169,342
214,675
148,850
107,557
1,770,424
Source: Gordian Associates, Energy consumption for six basic materials
industries.
Energy consumption figures include total electrical energy fuel
input as well as final material production energy.
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TABLE 6
PRODUCT CONSUMPTION IN RELATION TO PACKAGING CONSUMPTION
(Pounds per capita)
Product/Package "1958 1970 Percent Change
Dai ry
Product Consumption 398.0 354.0 - 11.1
Package Consumption 10.6 13.3 + 25.5
Cereals, Flour and Related Products
Product Consumption 150.0 140.0 - 6.0
Package Consumption 0.8 0.9 +12.5
Produce
Product Consumption 90.2 80.0 - 11.3
Package Consumption 5.3 7.3 + 37.7
Source: Packaging data from:
An evaluation of the effectiveness and costs of
regulatory and fiscal policy instruments on
product packaging, Research Triangle Institute.
Product consumption data derived from:
Food, consumption, prices, expenditures, U.S. Department
of Agriculture.
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REFERENCES
1. Value of packaging materials: 1960-1972. In Modern
packaging encyclopedia and planning guide, 1972-1973.
v.45, no.!2A. New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc., Dec. 1972.
p.44-46.
2. Gordian Associates, Inc. Energy consumption for six basic
materials industries. Washington, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1974. (In press.)
3. Food, consumption, prices, expenditures; supplement for
1971. Supplement to Agricultural Economic Report No. 138.
Washington, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic
Research Service, Aug. 1972.
4. Darnay, A., and W. E. Franklin. The role of packaging in
solid waste management, 1966 to 1976. Public Health
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