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Although  organic  material  is the predominant pollutant in
these  wastewaters,  mercury,  barium,  boron,  silver,  and
various  solvents  may  also  be  present.   These should be
recovered by in-house techniques in order to eliminate  them
from  the  raw  waste  load.   Radioactive  waste  should be
contained  and  held  until  safe  to  be  released  to  the
environment.    The  permit  writers  should  address  these
parameters and other toxic or  hazardous  materials  in  the
permit  on  a  case by case basis depending on the amount of
each material in the discharge.

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                        SECTION III

                        INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Authority

The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments  of  1972
(the  Act)  made  a  number  of  fundamental  changes in the
approach  to  achieving  clean  water.   One  of  the   most
significant changes was to shift from a reliance on effluent
limitations  related to water quality to a direct control of
effluents  through  the  establishment  of  technology-based
effluent  limitations  to  form  an  additional  basis, as a
minimum, for issuance of discharge permits.

The Act requires EPA to establish guidelines for technology-
based effluent limitations which must be achieved  by  point
sources  of  discharges  into  the  navigable  waters of the
United States.  Section  301(b)  of  the  Act  requires  the
achievement  by  not  later  than  July  1, 1977 of effluent
limitations for point sources,  other  than  publicly  owned
treatment  works,  which are based on the application of the
BPT as defined by  the  Administrator  pursuant  to  Section
304 (b)  of  the  Act.   Section  301 (b)  also  requires  the
achievement by not later  than  July  1,  1983  of  effluent
limitations  for  point  sources,  other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application  of  the
BAT,  resulting  in  progress  toward  the  national goal of
eliminating the discharge of all pollutants,  as  determined
in  accordance  with regulations issued by the Administrator
pursuant to Section 304(b)  of the Act.  Section 306  of  the
Act  requires  the  achievement  by  new  sources of federal
standards of performance providing for the  control  of  the
discharge  of pollutants, which reflects the greatest degree
of effluent reduction which the Administrator determines  to
be  achievable  through the application of the NSPS process,
operating methods, or other alternatives,  including,  where
practicable,   a   standard   permitting   no  discharge  of
pollutants.

Section 304 (b) of the  Act  requires  the  Administrator  to
publish   regulations   based  on  the  degree  of  effluent
reduction attainable through the application of the BPT  and
the   best   control   measures  and  practices  achievable,
including  treatment  techniques,  process   and   procedure
innovations, operation methods, and other alternatives.  The
regulations  proposed  herein set forth effluent limitations
pursuant to Section 304 (b)  of the Act for the hospital point
source category.  Section 304 (c)  of  the  Act  requires  the
                             11

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Administrator   to   issue  information  on  the  processes,
procedures,  or  operating  methods  which  result  in   the
elimination  or  reduction in the discharge of pollutants to
implement standards of performance under Section 306 of  the
Act.   Such  information  is  to include technical and other
data, including  costs,  as  are  available  on  alternative
methods  of  elimination  or  reduction  of the discharge of
pollutants.

Section 306 of the Act requires  the  Administrator,  within
one  year  after a category of sources is included in a list
published pursuant to Section 306 (b)  (1) (A)  of the Act,  to
propose   regulations   establishing  federal  standards  of
performance for new sources  within  such  categories.   The
Administrator  published  in the Federal Register of January
16, 1973 (38 F.R. 1624) a  list  of  27  source  categories.
Publication  of  the  list  constituted  announcement of the
Administrator's intention  of  establishing,   under  Section
306, standards of performance applicable to new sources.

Furthermore, Section 307(b) provides that:

    1.   The Administrator shall, from time to time, publish
         proposed  regulations   establishing   pretreatment
         standards   for  introduction  of  pollutants  into
         treatment works  (as defined in Section 212 of  this
         Act) which are publicly owned, for those pollutants
         which  are  determined  not  to  be  susceptible to
         treatment by such treatment works  or  which  would
         interfere  with  the  operation  of  such treatment
         works.  Not  later  than  ninety  days  after  such
        - publication, and after opportunity for public hear-
         ing,   the   Administrator  shall  promulgate  such
         pretreatment  standards.   Pretreatment   standards
         under  this  subsection  shall  specify  a time for
         compliance not to exceed three years from the  date
         of promulgation and shall be established to prevent
         the  discharge  of  any pollutant through treatment
         works  (as defined in Section 212 of this Act) which
         are  publicly  owned,  which  pollutant  interferes
         with,  passes through, or otherwise is incompatible
         with such works.

    2.   The Administrator shall,  from  time  to  time,  as
         control  technology,  processes, operating methods,
         or   other   alternatives   change,    revise   such
         standards,  following  the procedure established by
         this subsection for promulgation of such standards.
                            12

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    3.   When proposing  or  promulgating  any  pretreatment
         standard  under  this  section,  the  Administrator
         shall  designate  the  category  or  categories  of
         sources to which such standard shall apply.

    4.    Nothing   in  this  subsection  shall  affect  any
         pretreatment requirement established by  any  State
         or  local law not in conflict with any pretreatment
         standard established under this subsection.

In order to insure that any  source  introducing  pollutants
into  a publicly owned treatment works, which would be a new
source subject to  Section  306  if  it  were  to  discharge
pollutants,  will  not  cause  a  violation  of the effluent
limitations established for any such  treatment  works,  the
Administrator   is   required   to  promulgate  pretreatment
standards for the category of  such  sources  simultaneously
with  the  promulgation  of  standards  of performance under
Section 306 for the  equivalent  category  of  new  sources.
Such pretreatment standards shall prevent the discharge into
such  treatment  works  of any pollutant which may interfere
with, pass through, or otherwise be incompatible  with  such
works.

The  Act  defines  a  new  source  to  mean  any  source the
construction of which is commenced after the publication  of
proposed  regulations prescribing a standard of performance.
Construction means any placement, assembly, or  installation
of  facilities  or  equipment (including contractual obliga-
tions to purchase  such  facilities  or  equipment)   at  the
premises  where  such  equipment  will  be  used,  including
preparation work at such premises.

Methods Used for Development of the Effluent Limitations and
Standards for Performance

The  effluent  limitations,  guidelines  and  standards   of
performance  proposed in this document were developed in the
following manner.  The miscellaneous point  source  category
was  first  divided into industrial categories, based on the
type of category and products  manufactured.   Determination
was  then made as to whether further subcategorization would
aid in description of  the  category.   Such  determinations
were  made  on the basis of raw materials required, products
manufactured, processes employed, and other factors.

The raw  waste  characteristics  for  each  category  and/or
subcategory were then identified.  This included an analysis
of:   1)   the source and volume of water used in the process
employed and the sources of wastes and  wastewaters  in  the
                           13

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plant;    and   2)    the  constituents  of  all  wastewaters
(including toxic constituents)  which result in taste,  odor,
and  color  in water or aquatic organisms.  The constituents
of  wastewaters  which  should  be   subject   to   effluent
limitations,  guidelines  and  standards of performance were
identified.

The  full  range  of  control  and  treatment   technologies
existing within each category was identified.  This included
an  identification  of  each  distinct control and treatment
technology,  including  both  in-plant  and   end-   of-pipe
technologies,   which  are  existent  or  capable  of  being
designed  for  each  subcategory.   It  also   included   an
identification  of  the  effluent  level  resulting from the
application  of  each   of   the   treatment   and   control
technologies,  in terms of the amount of constituents and of
the chemical, physical, and  biological  characteristics  of
pollutants.   The  problems, limitations, and reliability of
each treatment  and  control  technology  and  the  required
implementation  time were also identified.  In addition, the
non-water quality environmental impacts  (such as the effects
of the application of such technologies upon other pollution
problems, including air, solid waste, radiation, and  noise)
were  also  identified.   The energy requirements of each of
the control and treatment technologies were  identified,  as
well as the cost of the application of such technologies.

The  information,  as  outlined above, was then evaluated in
order to determine what levels of technology constituted the
BPT, BAT,  and  NSPS.   In  identifying  such  technologies,
factors considered included the total cost of application of
technology in relation to the effluent reduction benefits to
be  achieved from such application, the age of equipment and
facilities involved, the process employed,  the  engineering
aspects  of  the  application  of  various  types of control
techniques, process changes, non-water quality environmental
impact (including energy requirements), and other factors.

During the initial phases of the study,  an  assessment  was
made  of  the  availability, adequacy, and usefulness of all
existing data sources.  Data on the identity and performance
of wastewater treatment systems were known  to  be  included
in:

      1.  NPDES permit applications.

     2.  Self-reporting discharge data from various states.

      3.  Surveys conducted by trade associations or by
          agencies under research and development grants.
                             14

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A  preliminary  analysis  of these data indicated an obvious
need for additional information.

The  selection  of  treatment  plants  was  developed   from
identifying   information  available  in  the  NPDES  permit
applications,  state  self-reporting  discharge  data,   and
contacts within the point source category.  Every effort was
made  to  choose  facilities where meaningful information on
both treatment facilities and manufacturing processes  could
be obtained.

Additional  data  in  the  following areas were required; 1)
process raw waste  load  (RWL)  related  to  production;  2)
currently  practiced  or  potential in-process waste control
techniques; and 3) the identity and effectiveness of end-of-
pipe treatment systems.  The best source of information  was
the   hospitals   themselves.   Additional  information  was
obtained from  direct  interviews  and  sampling  visits  to
production facilities.

Collection  of the data necessary for development of RWL and
effluent treatment capabilities within dependable confidence
limits required analysis of  treatment  operations.   Survey
teams composed of project engineers and scientists conducted
the  actual  plant  visits.  Information on the identity and
performance of wastewater  treatment  systems  was  obtained
through:

    1.   Interviews  with  plant  water  pollution   control
         personnel or engineering personnel.

    2.   Examination   of   treatment   plant   design   and
         historical  operating data (flow rates and analyses
         of influent and effluent).

    3.   Treatment plant influent and effluent sampling.

Information on process plant operations and  the  associated
RWL was obtained through:

    1.   Interviews with plant operating personnel.

    2.   Examination of  plant  design  and  operating  data
         (original  design  specification, flow sheets, day-
         to-day material balances around individual  process
         modules or unit operations where possible).

    3.   Individual   process   wastewater   sampling    and
analysis.
                             15

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    4.   Historical operational and treatment data.

The data obtained  in  this  manner  was  then  utilized  to
develop  recommended  effluent  limitations,  guidelines and
standards of  performance  for  the  hospital  point  source
category.  References utilized are included in Section XV of
this  report.   The  data  obtained  during  the  field data
collection program  are  included  in  Supplement  E.   Cost
information is presented in Supplement A.  The documents are
available  for  examination by interested parties at the EPA
Public Information Reference Unit, Room 2922  (EPA  Library),
Waterside Mall, 401 M St. S.W., Washington, B.C. 20460.

The  following  text  describes  the  scope  of  the  study,
technical approach to the development of effluent limitation
and the scope of coverage for data  base  for  the  hospital
point source category.

Hospitals

    Scope of the Study

In  order  to  establish boundaries on the scope of work for
this study, the hospital category was defined to include all
establishments    listed    under    Standard     Industrial
Classification   (SIC) group number 806.  This group includes
all establishments primarily engaged in providing diagnostic
services, extensive medical  treatment,  surgical  services,
and  other  hospital services, as well as continuous nursing
services.  These establishments have  an  organized  medical
staff,  in-patients,  beds,  and equipment and facilities to
provide complete health care.

    Descriptions of the  specific  hospital  types  included
    under group no. 806 are:

    8062  General Medical and Surgical Hospitals

         Establishments   primarily   engaged  in  providing
         general medical and  surgical  services  and  other
         hospital services.

    8063  Psychiatric Hospitals

         Establishments   primarily   engaged  in  providing
         diagnostic   medical   services   and    in-patient
         treatment  for  the  mentally ill, including mental
         hospitals and psychiatric hospitals.

    8069  Specialty Hospitals, Except Psychiatric
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         Establishments  primarily  engaged   in   providing
         diagnostic  services, treatment, and other hospital
         services  for  patients  with  specified  types  of
         illnesses (except mental), including:
         Children's Hospitals

         Chronic Disease Hospitals
         Geriatric Hospitals

         Eye, Ear, Nose, and
         Throat Hospitals
Orthopedic Hospitals

Maternity Hospitals
Tuberculosis Hospitals
    Scope of Coverage for Data Base

There  are  over  7,000  hospitals  in the United States, of
which approximately ninety-two (92) percent send their waste
to publicly owned treatment  works  (POTW).   The  remaining
treat  their  own  waste.   These  regulations are primarily
geared for this group, but the remaining ninety-two  percent
will be required to meet the future pretreatment standards.

During  this study, data from hospitals in Pennsylvania, New
York, New Jersey, West Virginia,  California, Maine, Wyoming,
and Georgia were collected and  analyzed.   A  total  of  12
hospital   facilities  were  studied  in  depth  during  the
project, three of which  were  surveyed  by  field  sampling
teams.   Data for the remaining nine hospitals were obtained
from the  Veteran's  Administration.   These  data  included
extensive  historical data covering years of treatment plant
operation.  A substantial body  of  information  from  other
hospitals  was  used to confirm that a representative cross-
section was being studied.  The types of  hospitals  studied
included   general   medical   and   surgical,  psychiatric,
tuberculosis, cancer, orthopedic, and research facilities.
                              17

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                         SECTION IV

                 INDUSTRIAL CATEGORIZATION

General

The goal of  this  study  is  the  development  of  effluent
limitations, guidelines and standards of performance and new
source  performance  standards for the hospital point source
category that will be achieved with different levels of  in-
process  waste  reduction  and end-of-pipe pollution control
technology.  These effluent limitations, guidelines and  new
source  performance standards are to specify the quantity of
pollutants  which  will  ultimately  be  discharged  from  a
specific facility and will be related to a common yardstick,
the number of occupied beds.

Hospitals

         Discussion of the Rationale of Categorization

Prior  to  attempting  development  of effluent limitations,
guidelines and new  source  performance  standards  for  the
hospital   category,  the  possible  need  for  establishing
subcategories was investigated to  determine  whether  there
were  areas  of  the hospital point source category category
where separate effluent  limitations  and  standards  should
apply.  The following factors were considered in determining
whether subcategorization was justified.

              Hospital _S_ize

From  inspection  of  historical  and  survey  data,  it was
determined that the pounds of pollutant generated  within  a
hospital  remains relatively constant per occupied bed.  The
total volume of wastewater  from  different  size  hospitals
based  on  total  floor space or total occupied beds did not
support relationships which would require  subcategorization
into small, medium, and large hospitals.

On  a  unit  basis,  occupied beds produced a better fit for
data than unit floor area (per square foot  basis).   Hence,
raw  waste  loads  were  developed by counting the number of
occupied beds served and by dividing  this  bed  utilization
figure  into  the  amount  of  pollutant  measured  at  each
hospital  in  the  field   survey.    (For   more   detailed
information  refer  to  Table  V-2).   In summary, this unit
technique proved to  be  a  more  consistent  yardstick  for
hospitals  rather  than  absolute  size  of  the  hospitals.
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Therefore, categorization based  on  hospital  size  is  not
justified.

              Hospital Age

During  the survey, both old and new hospitals were studied.
Because hospitals continually  undate  their  equipment  and
services,  and  based  on  an  analysis  of  the  survey and
historical data, it was concluded that hospital age is not a
significant factor in determining the characteristics  of  a
hospital's wastewater.

              Hospital Location

The  states  surveyed during the study include Pennsylvania,
New York, West  Virginia,  California,  New  Jersey,  Maine,
Wyoming,  and  Georgia.   Analysis of data from hospitals in
these  various  geographical  areas  of  the  United  States
indicated  that location has little effect on the quality or
quantity  of  the  wastewaters  generated  by   a   hospital
facility.    Therefore,   location   is   not  a  basis  for
subcategorization.

              Hospital Type

Hospitals specializing in different types of  services  were
studied during the project.  These services included general
medical  and  surgical,  psychiatric,  tuberculosis, cancer,
orthopedic, and research.  Because the  majority  of  water-
borne  waste  generated from hospitals is excrement of human
origin, it was concluded that the type of  service  provided
by  a hospital did not form a basis for subcategorization or
have an effect on the quality or quantity of wastewater.

              Nature of Wastes Generated

Hospital wastewater  samples  were  collected  and  analyzed
during  the  project   and  additional  data compiled by the
Veterans Administration were  also  obtained.   Analysis  of
these  data  indicated  that  the wastewater characteristics
exhibited by the  hospitals  studied  were  fairly  uniform.
Therefore,   it   was  concluded  that  the  nature  of  the
wastewaters generated by  hospitals  is  similar,  and  this
factor does not form a basis for subcategorization.

              Treatability of Wastewaters

Although  approximately ninety-two  (92) percent of hospitals
discharge  their  wastewaters   to   POTW   sewer   systems,
biological  on-site  treatment  systems are employed in some
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cases.  The predominate type of on-site  treatment  utilized
by  hospitals is a trickling filter, although some activated
sludge and aerated lagoon systems were also  observed.   The
contaminant  concentrations  and pollutant loadings recorded
by  the  hospitals  studied  were  very  similar.   Hospital
wastewaters  are similar to municipal raw wastewaters except
for the increased loading contributed by both  patients  and
service  personnel  when  raw  waste  load is measured on an
occupied bed basis.  It was concluded that  hospital  waste-
waters  are  amenable  to biological treatment and therefore
wastewater  treatability  characteristics  did  not  warrant
subcategorization.

              Summary of Considerations

It  was concluded that the wastewater characteristics of the
hospitals studied were very similar and independent  of  all
of  the  above  factors.   Therefore,  for  the  purpose  of
establishing effluent limitations, guidelines and new source
performance    standards    for    hospitals,     additional
subcategorization of this category was not required.

         Category Description

The   three   major  areas  in  a  hospital  which  generate
wastewaters  are  patient  rooms   and   staff   facilities,
laundries,  and  cafeterias.  Sanitary flows are the primary
wastes from hospital patient rooms and, obviously, the  more
beds a hospital has, the more significant this flow will be.
Cafeterias  are another large contributor to the wastewaters
generated  by  hospitals.   The  cleaning   of   foodstuffs,
preparation  of  meals,  washing  of  dishes,  and floor and
equipment  cleaning  are  all  activities   which   generate
wastewaters  from a cafeteria.  These wastes usually contain
organic matter, in dissolved and colloidal states, and  oils
and  greases in varying degrees of concentration.  The third
major contributor of wastewaters in a hospital is laundries.
Laundry wastes originate from the use  of  soap,  soda,  and
detergents.   Following  the  washing  cycle, the dirty wash
water is discharged to the sewer.  Laundry wastes  generally
have a high turbidity, alkalinity, and BOD content.

Three  other  areas  in  a  hospital which discharge smaller
quantities of wastewaters are surgical rooms,  laboratories,
and   x-ray  departments.   Surgical  room  wastewaters  are
primarily washwaters from cleaning  activities.   Laboratory
wastes  generally  consist of solvents, glassware washwater,
and various  reagents  used  in  the  laboratory.   Research
hospitals  may  also  have  animal  cage  washings  in their
laboratory wastes.   X-ray  departments  are  an  additional
                              21

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source  of  wastewaters.   These  wastes  consist  of  spent
solutions of developer and  fixer,  containing  thiosulfates
and compounds of silver.  The solutions are usually alkaline
and contain various organic reducing agents.  Most hospitals
recover   the   silver  from  spent  x-ray  film  developing
solutions.  Most pathological wastes  from  surgical  suites
are  collected  and  disposed  of  in  hospital pathological
i nc inerator s.

Some hospitals generate radioactive wastes  from  diagnostic
and  therapeutic uses.  Iodine-131 and phosphorus-32 are the
radioisotopes  which  predominate  in  hospital  radioactive
wastes.   Fortunately,  these  possess short half-lives, and
simple  detention  tanks  can  render  them  inactive.   The
handling  of  radioactive waste is closely monitored by NRC,
and these wastes are not discharged to  the  hospital  sewer
system.
                            22

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                         SECTION V

                   WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
The  primary  sources  of  wastewater streams from hospitals
include  sanitary  wastewaters,  discharges  from   surgical
rooms,    laboratories,    laundries,   x-ray   departments,
cafeterias,  and  glassware   washing.    Wastewaters   from
hospitals  can be characterized as containing BODS, COD, and
TSS concentrations comparable to normal domestic sewage  and
readily amenable to biological treatment.

Specific   contaminants   which   may   appear  in  hospital
wastewater include mercury, silver,  barium,  beryllium  and
boron.   Mercury is used primarily in hospital laboratories,
but  also   appears   in   various   forms   in   medicines,
disinfectants,  and  mildew  inhibitors  and  may arise as a
result of poor handling from laundry  facilities  from  such
sources  as broken thermometers.  Silver contamination comes
from spent developer solutions discarded by  hospital  x-ray
departments.   These developers are used in processing x-ray
films.  Boron is another contaminant which may appear in  x-
ray  department  wastes.   This  element  is  found in fixer
solutions  used  in  automatic  film  processing  equipment.
Barium injections are used for diagnostic purposes, and this
metal may appear in a hospital's sanitary wastes.  Beryllium
is   used   in  dental  laboratories.   During  the  survey,
beryllium  was  not  found  to  be  present  in  significant
quantities in the waste loads generated from hospitals.

The   characteristics  of  the  wastewater  generated  by  a
hospital  can  be  affected  by  various  pollution  control
practices  inside  the  hospital.   Programs to eliminate or
reduce the  discharge  of  mercury,  solvents,  and  various
strong  reagents  have  been  initiated  by  some hospitals.
These  wastes  are  collected  in  special  containers   and
periodically disposed of by a private contractor.  Boron has
been  eliminated  from  some hospital wastes by switching to
boron-free film developing chemicals.  A common practice  at
many   hospitals   is  the  recovery  of  silver  from  film
developing wastes.  This can be accomplished by the  use  of
silver recovery equipment on site or by collecting the waste
and  having  a contractor periodically pick up the waste for
silver recovery.

Five  major  parameters  were  considered  while   analyzing
hospital wastewater characteristics:

    1.  BOD5 raw waste loading  (expressed as Ibs BOD5/1000
                            23

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         occupied beds)
    2.  COD raw waste loading (expressed as Ibs COD/1000
         occupied beds)
    3.  TSS raw waste loading (expressed as Ibs TSS/1000
         occupied beds)
    4.  TOC raw waste loading (expressed as Ibs TOC/1000
         occupied beds)
    5.  Wastewater flow loading (expressed as gals/1000
         occupied beds)

For explanation of parameters, refer to Section VI.  The raw
waste  load (RWL) figures computed for the hospitals studied
are presented in Table V-1.  The RWL  values  for  hospitals
were  developed  by  averaging  the  RWL values computed for
individual hospitals.  These RWL values are  also  shown  in
Table  V-1.   The RWL for all other parameters (except BOD5r
COD, TSS, and TOC) computed from the field survey  data  and
the historical data are presented in Table V-2.

The  RWL data are plotted as pollutant RWL versus wastewater
flow loading  in  Figure  V-1.   This  type  of  plot  is  a
convenient  device  for illustrating the quality or strength
of the wastewaters generated by hospitals.  Since  both  the
loading  (ordinate)  and  flow  (abscissa) are expressed on a
1,000-bed basis, dividing the loading by the  flow  gives  a
slope  which  is representative of waste concentration.  For
orientation, reference lines of constant concentration  have
been  drawn diagonally across each of the plots.  Relating a
specific data  point  to  one  of  these  lines  provides  a
convenient  estimate of raw waste concentrations.  This plot
indicates that no definite  relationships  appear  to  exist
between  pollutant  RWL and flow RWL.  However, the strength
of the pollutant waste load remains fairly  constant   (as  a
function  of  a  1000  bed  occupancy)  even though the base
fluctuates.  Pollutant data points generally fall  into  the
following concentation ranges:

                  BCD5  -  100 to 400 mg/1
                  COD   -  300 to 800 mg/1
                  TSS   -   60 to 200 mg/1
                  TOC   -  100 to 300 mg/1

These  narrow  ranges  of  concentration  indicate  that the
characteristics of the hospital wastes surveyed were  fairly
uniform.

The  average  quantity  of  wastewater  generated  per total
number of beds was  319  gpd/occupied  bed.   This  compares
favorably with the value of 242 gpd/occupied bed reported by
the American Hospital Association.
                             24

-------
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                                                Table V -2
                                                                                                     2/13/76
                                              Raw Waste Loads
Number of Occupied Beds

Flow - liters/1,000 beds1
      (gallons/1,000 beds1)

Raw Waste Loads

    IDS - kg/1,000 beds1
         (lbs/1,000 beds1)

    TKN
    NO^-Ni trogen


    Total Phosphorus


    Oil & Grease


    Cyanide


    Phenol


    1 ron


    Lead


    Mercury


    Copper


    Chromium  (Total)


    Arsenic


    Bar!urn


    "Silver


    Boron


    Manganese


    Sulfate
Hospi tal
No. 91
268
2,090,000
(552,000)
1,1(80
(3,260)
55.8
(123)
0.0
(0.0)
16.1
(35.5)
67-6
(149)
0.0
(0.0)
3.63
(8.00)
2.97
(6.55)
0.0
(0.0)
0.018
(o.o4o)
0.29
(0.6*1)
0.17
(0.37)
0.0
(0.0)
7.62
(16.8)
0.59
(1.3D
0.98
(2.17)
(-)
(-)
Hospital
No. 92
183
954,000
(252,000)
790
(1,740)
24.7
(54.5)
0.37
(0.82)
21.1
(46.6)
73.5
(162)
0.0
(0.0)
0.12
(0.26)
2.49
(5.48)
0.0
(o.o)
0.0018
(0.004)
0.60
(1-33)
0.0
(o.o)
(-)
0.0
(o.o)
0.22
(0.48)
0.48
(1.07)
.07
(.16)
(-)
Hospital
No. 93
835
1,310,000
(347,000)
540
(1,190)
60.4
(133)
1.45
(3.2)
6.86
(15-1)
(-)
0.0
(o.o)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
0.41
(0.90)
0.91
(2.0)
(-)
52.2
(115)
Average
m.

937
(2,060)
47.0
(103)
0.61
(1.34)
14.7
(32.3)
70.6
(155)
0.0
(o.o)
1.88
(4.13)
2.73
(6.01)
0.0
(o.o)
0.01
(0.022)
0.44
(0.98)
0.085
(0.19)
0.0
(0.0)
3.81
(8.39)
0.41
(0.90)
0.79
(1.74)
.07
(.16)
52.2
(115)
     Occupied Beds
                                                    26

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      27

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The correlation between BODS and COD, BODS and TOG, and BODS
and  TSS raw waste loads were checked to see if any apparent
relationships existed.  A  close  correlation  was  observed
between  BOD5  and  COD, and between BOC5 and TOC RWLs.  The
BODJ5/COD and BOE5/TOC ratios ranged between .37 and .42, and
1.3 and 1.5 respectively.  The correlation between BCD5  and
TSS  RWL's  were not as close.  The BOD5/TSS ratios observed
varied from 1.0 to 2.4.  See Figure V-1.
                            28

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                         SECTION VI

             SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
General

From  review  of  NPDES  permit  applications   for   direct
discharge   of   wastewaters   from  various  hospitals  and
examination of related published data, parameters (listed in
Table VI-1)  were selected and examined  for  all  industrial
wastewaters  during  the  field data collection program.  In
addition, several specific parameters  were  examined.   All
field   sampling   data  are  summarized  in  Supplement  B.
Supplement B includes laboratory  analytical  results,  data
from  plants  visited,  RWL  calculations,  historical data,
analysis of historical data,  computer  print-outs  (showing
flows,  production,  and  pollutants,  performance  data  on
treatment    technologies    and    effluent     limitations
calculations).    Supplement   A  has  design  calculations,
capital cost calculations,  and  annual  cost  calculations.
Supplements  A  and  B  are  available  at  the  EPA  Public
Information  Reference  Unit,  Room  2922   (EPA   Library),
Waterside Mall, Washington, D.C.  20160.

The  degree  of  impact  on the overall environment has been
used as a basis for dividing the pollutants into  groups  as
follows:

    1.  Pollutants of significance.
    2.  Pollutants of limited significance.
    3.  Pollutants of specific significance.

The rationale and justification for pollutant categorization
within  the  foregoing  groupings, as discussed herein, will
indicate the basis for  selection  of  the  parameters  upon
which   the  actual  effluent  limitations  guidelines  were
postulated.   In addition, particular  parameters  have  been
discussed   in  terms  of  their  validity  as  measures  of
environmental impact and as sources of analytical insight.

Pollutants observed from the field data that were present in
sufficient  concentrations  so  as  to  interfere  with,  be
incompatible with, or pass with inadequate treatment through
publicly  owned treatment works are discussed in Section XII
of this document.
                           29

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    Pollutants of Significance

Parameters of pollution significance for the hospital  point
source category are BOD5, COD, TCC, and TSS.

BOD5,  COD,  and  TOC  have  been  selected as pollutants of
significance because they are the  primary  measurements  of
organic   pollution.    In  the  survey  of  the  industrial
categories, almost all of the effluent data  collected  from
wastewater   treatment  facilities  were  based  upon  BODS,
because almost all the treatment facilities were  biological
processes.    If   ether  processes  (such  as  evaporation,
incineration, or activated carbon)  are utilized, either  COD
or TOC may be a more appropriate measure of pollution.
                             30

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        Table VI-1



List of Parameters to be Examined







Biochemical Oxygen Demand



Chemical Oxygen Demand



Total Organic Carbon



Total Suspended Solids



Ammonia



Dissolved Solids



Barium



Beryllium



Mercury



Silver



Oil and Grease



Acidity, Alkalinity - pH



Radioactivity



Fecal Coliform
           31

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Oxygen Demand (BOD, COD, TOC and DO

Organic  and  some  inorganic  compounds can cause an oxygen
demand  to  be  exerted  in  a  receiving  body  of   water.
Indigenous  microorganisms  utilize the organic wastes as an
energy source and oxidize the organic matter.  In  doing  so
their   natural   respiratory   activity  will  utilize  the
dissolved oxygen.

Dissolved oxygen   (DO)   in  water  is  a  quality  that,  in
appropriate  concentrations,  is  essential not only to keep
organisms living but also to sustain  species  reproduction,
vigor,   and  the  development  of  populations.   Organisms
undergo stress at reduced DO concentrations that  make  them
less  competitive  and  less  able  to sustain their species
within the aquatic environment.   For  example,  reduced  DO
concentrations  have  been  shown  to  interfere  with  fish
population through delayed hatching of  eggs,  reduced  size
and  vigor  of  embryos, production of deformities in young,
interference with  food  digestion,  acceleration  of  blood
clotting,  decreased tolerance to certain toxicants, reduced
food  utilization  efficiency,  growth  rate,  and   maximum
sustained  swimming  speed.   Other  organisms  are likewise
affected adversely in conditions with decreased  DO.   Since
all  aerobic  aquatic  organisms  need   a certain amount of
oxygen, the consequences of  total  depletion  of  dissolved
oxygen  due  to  a  high  oxygen  demand  can  kill  all the
inhabitants of the affected aquatic area.

It  has  been  shown  that  fish  may,  under  some  natural
conditions,    become    acclimatized    to    low    oxygen
concentrations.  Within  certain  limits,  fish  can  adjust
their  rate  of respiration to compensate for changes in the
concentration of dissolved oxygen.  It is generally  agreed,
moreover,  that those species which are sluggish in movement
(e.g.,carp,  pike,   eel)   can   withstand   lower   oxygen
concentrations than fish  (such as trout or salmon) which are
more lively in habit.

The  lethal affect of low concentrations of dissolved oxygen
in water appears to be increased by the  presence  of  toxic
substances,  such  as ammonia, cyanides, zinc, lead, copper,
or cresols.  With so many factors influencing the effect  of
oxygen  deficiency,  it is difficult to estimate the minimum
safe concentrations at which fish  will  be  unharmed  under
natural  conditions.   Many  investigations seem to indicate
that a DO level of 5.0 mg/1 is desirable for a good  aquatic
environment  and  higher DO levels are required for selected
types of aquatic environments.
                             32

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Biochemical oxygen demand (BOEl is the  quantity  of  oxygen
required  for  the  biological  and  chemical  oxidation  of
waterborn  substances  under  ambient  or  test  conditions.
Materials   which   may   contribute  to  the  BOD  include:
carbonaceous organic materials usable as a  food  source  by
aerobic   organisms;   oxidizable   nitrogen   derived  from
nitrites, ammonia and organic nitrogen compounds which serve
as  food  for  specific  bacteria;  and  certain  chemically
oxidizable   materials   such  as  ferrous  iron,  sulfides,
sulfite, etc.  which will react with dissolved oxygen or are
metabolized by bacteria.  In most industrial  and  municipal
waste  waters,  the  BOD  derives  principally  from organic
materials and from ammonia  (which  is  itself  derived  from
animal or vegetable matter).

The  BOD  of  a  waste  exerts  an  adverse  effect upon the
dissolved oxygen resources of a body of  water  by  reducing
the  oxygen available to fish, plant life, and other aquatic
species.   Conditions  can  be  reached  where  all  of  the
dissolved  oxygen  in  the  water  is  utilized resulting in
anaerobic conditions and the production of undesirable gases
such as hydrogen sulfide  and  methane.   The  reduction  of
dissolved  oxygen  can  be  detrimental to fish populations,
fish growth rate, and organisms used as fish food.  A  total
lack  of  oxygen due to the exertion of an excessive BOD can
result in the death of all aerobic  aquatic  inhabitants  in
the affected area.

Water  with a high BOD indicates the presence of decomposing
organic   matter   and   associated   increased    bacterial
concentrations  that degrade its quality and potential uses.
A by-product of high BOD  concentrations  can  be  increased
algal   concentrations   and   blooms   which   result  from
decomposition of the organic matter and which form the basis
of algal populations.

The BODJ3 (5-day BOD) test is used  widely  to  estimate  the
pollutional  strength  of  domestic and industrial wastes in
terms of the oxygen that they  will  require  if  discharged
into  receiving  streams.   The  test is an important one in
water  pollution  control  activities.   It  is   used   for
pollution  control  regulatory  activities,  to evaluate the
design and efficiencies of waste water treatment works,  and
to  indicate  the  state  of  purification  or  pollution of
receiving bodies of water.

Complete biochemical oxidation of a given waste may  require
a  period  of  incubation  too long for practical analytical
test purposes.  For this reason, the 5-day period  has  been
accepted  as  standard,  and  the  test  results  have  been
                             33

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designated as BOD5.  Specific chemical test methods are  not
readily   available  for  measuring  the  quantity  of  many
degradable substances and their reaction products.  Reliance
in such cases is placed on the collective  parameter,  BOD5,
which  measures  the  weight of dissolved oxygen utilized by
microorganisms  as  they  oxidize  or  transform  the  gross
mixture  of  chemical  compounds  in  the  waste water.  The
biochemical reactions involved in the oxidation   of  carbon
compounds  are  related  to  the  period of incubation.  The
five-day BOD  normally  measures  only  60  to  80%  of  the
carbonaceous  biochemical  oxygen  demand of the sample, and
for  many  purposes  this   is   a   reasonable   parameter.
Additionally,  it can be used to estimate the gross quantity
of oxidizable organic matter.

The BOD5 test is  essentially  a  bioassay  procedure  which
provides   an   estimate   of   the   oxygen   consumed   by
microorganisms utilizing the degradable matter present in  a
waste under conditions that are representative of those that
are likely to occur in nature.  Standard conditions of time,
temperature,  suggested  microbial  seed, and dilution water
for the wastes have been defined and are incorporated in the
standard analytical procedure.   Through  the  use  of  this
procedure,  the  oxygen  demand  of  diverse  wastes  can be
compared and evaluated for pollution potential and  to  some
extent for treatability by biological treatment processes.

Because  the  BOD  test  is  a  bioassay  procedure,  it  is
important that the environmental conditions of the  test  be
suitable   for   the   microorganisms   to  function  in  an
uninhibited manner at all  times.   This  means  that  toxic
substances  must be absent and that the necessary nutrients,
such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and trace elements,  must  be
present.

Chemical  Oxygen Demand (COD) is a purely chemical oxidation
test devised as an alternate method of estimating the  total
oxygen  demand of a waste water.  Since the method relies on
the oxidation-reduction system of chemical  analyses  rather
than on biological factors it is more precise, accurate, and
rapid  than  the  BOD  test.  The COD test is widely used to
estimate the total oxygen demand  (ultimate rather than 5-day
BOD) to oxidize the compounds in a waste water.  It is based
on the fact that organic compounds, with a  few  exceptions,
can  be  oxidized  by strong chemical oxidizing agents under
acid conditions with the  assistance  of  certain  inorganic
catalysts.

The  COD  test  measures the oxygen demand of compounds that
are biologically  degradable  and  of  many  that  are  not.
                            34

-------
Pollutants  which  are  measured  by  the  BOD5 test will be
measured by the COD test.  In addition, pollutants which are
more resistant to biological oxidation will also be measured
by COD.  COD is a more inclusive measure  of  oxygen  demand
than  is BOD5 and will result in higher oxygen demand values
than will the BODjj test.

The  compounds  which  are  more  resistant  to   biological
oxidation  are  becoming  of greater and greater concern not
only because of their slow but continuing oxygen  demand  on
the  resources  of  the receiving water, but also because of
their potential health effects on aquatic life  and  humans.
Many  of  these  compounds result from industrial discharges
and some have been found to have carcinogenic, mutagenic and
similar adverse effects, either singly  or  in  combination.
Concern  about  these compounds has increased as a result of
demonstrations that their long life in  receiving  waters  -
the  result  of  a  slow biochemical oxidation rate - allows
them to contaminate downstream water intakes.  The  commonly
used  systems  of  water  purification  are not effective in
removing these types of materials and disinfection  such  as
chlorination  may  convert  them  into  even  more hazardous
materials.

Thus the COD test measures organic matter  which  exerts  an
oxygen demand and which may affect the health of the people.
It  is  a  useful  analytical  tool  for  pollution  control
activities.  It provides a more  rapid  measurement  of  the
oxygen demand and an estimate of organic compounds which are
not measured in the BOD_5 test.

Total  organic  carbon   (TOC)   is  measured by the catalytic
conversion cf organic carbon in  a  waste  water  to  carbon
dioxide.   Most  organic  chemicals  have  been  found to be
measured quantitatively by the equipment now  in  use.   The
time  of analyses is short, from 5 to 10 minutes, permitting
a rapid and accurate estimate of the organic carbon  content
of  the  waste  waters  to  be  made by relatively unskilled
personnel.

A TOC value does not indicate the rate at which  the  carbon
compounds  are oxidized in the natural environment.  The TOC
test will measure compounds that are  readily  biodegradable
and measured by the BODji test as well as those that are not.
TOC  analyses  will  include  those  biologically  resistant
organic compounds that are of concern in the environment.

BOD  and  COD  methods  of  analyses  are  based  on  oxygen
utilization  of the waste water.  The TOC analyses estimates
the total carbon content of a waste water.  There is as  yet
                           35

-------
no  fundamental  correlation  of  TOC  to either BOD or COD.
However,  where  organic  laden  waste  waters  are   fairly
uniform,  there  will be a fairly constant correlation among
TOC, BOD and COD.  Once such a correlation  is  established,
TOC  can  be used as an inexpensive test for routine process
monitoring.

Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

Suspended  solids  include  both   organic   and   inorganic
materials.   The inorganic compounds include sand, silt, and
clay.  The  organic  fraction  includes  such  materials  as
grease,  oil,  tar, and animal and vegetable waste products.
These solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits  are
often  a  mixture  of  both  organic  and  inorganic solids.
Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake.  These  solids  discharged
with   man's  wastes  may  be  inert,  slowly  biodegradable
materials, or rapidly  decomposable  substances.   While  in
suspension, they increase the turbidity of the water, reduce
light  penetration and impair the photosynthetic activity of
aquatic plants.

Suspended solids in water  interfere  with  many  industrial
processes,  cause  foaming  in  boilers and incrustations on
equipment  exposed  to  such  water,   especially   as   the
temperature  rises.   They  are undesirable in process water
used in the manufacture of steel, in the  textile  industry,
in laundries, in dyeing and in cooling systems.

Solids  in  suspension  are aesthetically displeasing.  When
they settle to form sludge deposits on the  stream  or  lake
bed,  they are often damaging to the life in water.  Solids,
when transformed to sludge deposits, may  do  a  variety  of
damaging things, including blanketing the stream or lake bed
and  thereby  destroying the living spaces for those benthic
organisms that would otherwise occupy the habitat.  When  of
an  organic  nature,  solids  use  a  portion  or all of the
dissolved oxygen available in the area.   Organic  materials
also  serve  as a food source for sludgeworms and associated
organisms.

Disregarding any toxic  effect  attributable  to  substances
leached  out  by  water,  suspended solids may kill fish and
shellfish by causing abrasive injuries and by  clogging  the
gills  and  respiratory  passages  of various aquatic fauna.
Indirectly, suspended solids are inimical  to  aquatic  life
because they screen out light, and they promote and maintain
the   development   of  noxious  conditions  through  oxygen
depletion.  This results in the killing  of  fish  and  fish
                             36

-------
food   organisms.    Suspended   solids   also   reduce  the
recreational value of the water.

Turbidity: Turbidity of water is related to  the  amount  of
suspended  and  colloidal matter contained in the water.  It
affects the clearness and penetration of light.  The  degree
of  turbidity  is  only  an  expression  of  one  effect  of
suspended solids upon the character of the water.  Turbidity
can reduce the effectiveness of chlorination and can  result
in   difficulties   in  meeting  BOD  and  suspended  solids
limitations.  Turbidity is an indirect measure of  suspended
solids.

Pollutants of Limited Significance

The   following   parameters,  which  were  investigated  in
particular  cases,   have   significant   effects   on   the
applicability of end-of-pipe treatment technologies.

Ammonia (NH3)

Ammonia  occurs  in surface and ground waters as a result of
the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter.  It is  one
of  the  constituents of the complex nitrogen cycle.  It may
also result from the discharge  of  industrial  wastes  from
chemical  or  gas  plants,  from  refrigeration plants, from
scouring and cleaning operations where  "ammonia  water"  is
used  from the processing of meat and poultry products, from
rendering operations, from leather tanning plants, and  from
the  manufacture of certain organic and inorganic chemicals.
Because ammonia may be indicative of pollution  and  because
it  increases  the  chlorine  demand, it is recommended that
ammonia nitrogen in public water supply sources  not  exceed
0.5 mg/1.

Ammonia  exists  in  its  non-ionized form only at higher pH
levels and is most toxic in this state.  The lower  the  pH,
the  more  ionized  ammonia  is  formed,  and  its  toxicity
decreases.  Ammonia, in the presence of dissolved oxygen, is
converted to nitrate (NO3) by nitrifying bacteria.   Nitrite
(NO2),  which is an intermediate product between ammonia and
nitrate, sometimes occurs in quantity when depressed  oxygen
conditions  permit.   Ammonia  can  exist  in  several other
chemical combinations including ammonium chloride and  other
salts.

Nitrates  are  considered  to  be  among  the  objectionable
components of mineralized  waters.   Excess  nitrates  cause
irritation  to  the gastrointestinal tract, causing diarrhea
and diuresis.  Methemoglobinemia, a condition  characterized
                            37

-------
by  cyanosis  and  which  can  result  in  infant and animal
deaths, can be caused  by  high  nitrate  concentrations  in
waters used for feeding.  Ammonia can exist in several other
chemical combinations, including ammonium chloride and other
salts.   Evidence  exists that ammonia exerts a toxic effect
on all aquatic life depending upon the pHr dissolved  oxygen
level,  and the total ammonia concentration in the water.  A
significant oxygen demand  can  result  from  the  microbial
oxidation of ammonia.  Approximately 4.5 grams of oxygen are
required  for  every  gram  of  ammonia  that  is  oxidized.
Ammonia can add  to  eutrophication  problems  by  supplying
nitrogen  to  aquatic life.  Ammonia can be toxic, exerts an
oxygen demand, and contributes to eutrophication.

Dissolved Solids

In  natural  waters,  the  dissolved   solids   are   mainly
carbonates,  chlorides,  sulfates,  phosphates,  and,  to  a
lesser extent, nitrates of calcium, magnesium,  sodium,  and
potassium,   with   traces  of  iron,  manganese  and  other
substances.  The summation of all individual dissolved solid
is commonly referred to as total dissolved solids.

Many communities in the United States and in other countries
use  water  supplies  containing  2,000  to  4,000  mg/1  of
dissolved  salts,  when  no better water is available.  Such
waters are not palatable, may not  quench  thirst,  and  may
have a laxative action on new users.  Waters containing more
than  4,000  mg/1  of  total  salts are generally considered
unfit for human use, although in hot  climates  such  higher
salt  concentrations  can  be  tolerated.  Waters containing
5,000 mg/1 or more are reported to be bitter and  act  as  a
bladder  and  intestinal  irritant.   It is generally agreed
that the salt concentration of good, palatable water  should
not exceed 500 mg/1.

Limiting  concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water
fish may range from  5,000  to  10,000  mg/1,  depending  on
species and prior acclimatization.  Some fish are adapted to
living  in  more  saline waters, and a few species of fresh-
water forms have been found in natural waters  with  a  salt
concentration  of  15,000  to  20,000 mg/1.  Fish can slowly
become acclimatized to higher salinities, but fish in waters
of low salinity  cannot  survive  sudden  exposure  to  high
salinities,  such as those resulting from discharges of oil-
well brines.  Dissolved solids may influence the toxicity of
heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and other aquatic
life,  primarily  because  of  the  antagonistic  effect  of
hardness on metals.
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Waters  with  total  dissolved  solids  (TDS) concentrations
higher than 500 mg/1 have decreasing utility  as  irrigation
water.   At  5,000  mg/1,  water  has little or no value for
irrigation.

Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause  foaming  in
boilers  and can cause interference with cleanliness, color,
or taste of many finished products.  High concentrations  of
dissolved solids also tend to accelerate corrosion.

Specific  conductance  is a measure of the capacity of water
to convey an electric current.  This property is related  to
the  total  concentration of ionized substances in water and
to the water temperature.  This property is frequently  used
as  a  substitute method of quickly estimating the dissolved
solids concentration.

Barium (B_a)

Barium is an alkaline  earth  metal  rapidly  decomposed  by
water  to  form barium ions.  Many of its salts are soluble,
but  the  carbonate  and  sulfate  are   highly   insoluble.
Consequently, it is expected that any barium ions discharged
to natural waters are precipitated and removed by adsorption
or  sedimentation.   Barium  and its salts have many uses in
the metallurgical industry  (for  special  alloys),  in  the
paint  industry, in the ceramic and glass industries, and in
the medical technology industry (for x-ray diagnosis).

Barium has no proven accumulative effects on humans  and  is
eliminated  more rapidly than calcium.  However, a mandatory
limit of 1 mg/liter has been issued for the amount of barium
in domestic water supplies due to possible toxic effects  of
barium on the heart, blood vessels and nerves.  A fatal dose
is  somewhere  in  the  order of 550 to 600 mg.  Barium is a
pollutant parameter in certain  industries  and  limitations
may   be   necessary  only  on  the  discharges  from  those
industries.

Beryllium  (Be)

Beryllium is found in some  30  mineral  species,  the  most
important  commercial source being beryl.   A relatively rare
element, it is  not  likely  to  occur  in  natural  waters.
Although  the chloride and nitrate forms are very soluble in
water and the  sulfate  moderately  so,  the  carbonate  and
hydroxide are almost insoluble in cold water.

Beryllium  is  employed  as  an  alloying agent in producing
beryllium copper which  is  used  extensively  for  springs.
                             39

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electrical  contacts,  spot  welding  electrodes,  and  non-
sparking tools.  It is also used to produce  special  alloys
in the manufacture of x-ray diffraction tubes and electrodes
for  neon  signs.  It is finding application as a structural
material for high speed aircraft, missiles,  and  spacecraft
and  is  now  used  in  nuclear  reactors  as a reflector or
moderator.  It also finds use in gyroscopes, computer parts,
and inertia1 guidance systems.

Beryllium  and  its   compounds,   when   present   in   the
environment,  are  of concern because of their effect on the
health of humans and animals since beryllium  is  among  the
most  toxic  and  hazardous of the nonradioactive substances
being used in industry.   Almost  all  the  presently  known
beryllium compounds are acknowledged to be toxic in both the
soluble  and  insoluble forms.  The toxicity of beryllium is
much less in water than in the atmosphere  since  absorption
of  beryllium  from  the  alimentary  tract is slight (about
0.006 percent of that ingested),  and  excretion  is  fairly
rapid.   Beryllium  is considerably more toxic in soft water
than in hard water.  At acid pH values, beryllium is  highly
toxic to plants.

Concentrations  of  beryllium  sulfate complexed with sodium
tartrate up to 28.5 mg/1 are not toxic to goldfish, minnows,
or snails.  The 96-hour minimum  toxic  level  of  beryllium
sulfate for fathead minnows has been found to be 0.2 mg/1 in
soft  water  and  11  mg/1 in hard water.  The corresponding
level for beryllium chloride is 0.15 mg/1 in soft water  and
15 mg/1 in hard water.

Although  toxic,  beryllium  normally  is  not selected as a
pollutant parameter requiring an effluent  limitation  since
it  is  found  in  relatively  low concentrations or is non-
existent in the raw waste streams of most industries.

Mercury  (Hg)

Mercury is an elemental metal that is rarely found in nature
as a free metal.  The most distinguishing feature is that it
is a liquid at ambient conditions.   Mercury  is  relatively
inert chemically and is insoluble in water.  Its salts occur
in nature chiefly as the sulfide  (HgS) known as cinebar.

Mercury  is used extensively in measuring instruments and in
mercury batteries.  It is also used  in  electroplating,  in
chemical manufacturing and in some pigments for paints.  The
electrical   equipment   industry   uses   mercury   in  the
manufacture of lamp switches and ether devices.
                            40

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Mercury can be introduced into the body through the skin and
the respiratory system.  Mercuric salts are highly toxic  to
humans   and   can   be   readily   absorbed   through   the
gastrointestinal tract.  Fatal doses can vary from 3  to  30
grams.  The total mercury in public water supply sources has
been recommended not to exceed 0.002 mg/1.

Mercuric salts are extremely toxic to fish and other aquatic
life.    Mercuric  chloride  is  more  lethal  than  copper,
hexavalent chromium, zinc, nickel, and lead towards fish and
aquatic life.  In the food cycle, algae  containing  mercury
up  to  100  times  the concentration of the surrounding sea
water are  eaten  by  fish  which  further  concentrate  the
mercury  and predators that eat the fish in turn concentrate
the mercury even further.

Silver (As)

Silver is a soft lustrous white metal that is  insoluble  in
water and alkali.  It is readily ionized by electrolysis and
has  a  particular affinity for sulfur and halogen elements.
In nature, silver  is  found  in  the  elemental  state  and
combined  in  ores  such  as  argentite   (Ag2S), horn silver
(AgCl) , proustite (Ag_3A S3_) , and pyrargyrite (Ag3SbSj) .

From these ores, silver ions  may  be  leached  into  ground
waters  and surface waters, but since many silver salts such
as  the  chloride,  sulfide,  phosphate,  and  arsenate  are
insoluble,  silver  ions do not usually occur in significant
concentration in natural waters.

Silver is used extensively in  electroplating,  photographic
processing,  electrical equipment manufacture, soldering and
brazing and battery manufacture.  Of these,  the  two  major
sources  of  soluble  silver wastes are the photographic and
electroplating industries with about 30% of U. S. industrial
consumption of silver going into the photographic  industry.
Silver  is also used in its basic metal state for such items
as jewelry and electrical contacts.

While  metallic  silver  itself  is  not  considered  to  be
poisonous for humans, most of its salts are poisonous due to
anions  present.   Silver  compounds  can be absorbed in the
circulatory system  and  reduced  silver  deposited  in  the
various  tissues of the body.  A condition known as argyria,
a permanent greyish pigmentation  of  the  skin  and  mucous
membranes, can result.  Concentrations in the range of 0.4-1
mg/liter  have  caused  pathologic  changes  in the kidneys,
liver and spleen of rats.
                             41

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Silver is recognized as a bactericide and doses  as  low  as
0.000001  to  0.5  mg/1  have been reported as sufficient to
sterilize water.

Oil and Grease

Because of widespread use, oil and  grease  occur  often  in
waste water streams.  These oily wastes may be classified as
follows:

    1.   Light Hydrocarbons - These include light fuels such
         as  gasoline,   kerosene,   and   jet   fuel,   and
         miscellaneous    solvents   used   for   industrial
         processing, degreasing, or cleaning purposes.   The
         presence  of  these light hydrocarbons may make the
         removal  of  other   heavier   oily   wastes   more
         difficult.

    2.   Heavy Hydrocarbons, Fuels, and Tars - These include
         the crude oils, diesel oilsr #6 fuel oil,  residual
         oils,  slop  oils,  and  in some cases, asphalt and
         road tar.

    3.   Lubricants and Cutting  Fluids  -  These  generally
         fall  into  two classes: non-emulsifiable oils such
         as lubricating oils and  greases  and  emulsifiable
         oils  such  as  water  soluble  oils, rolling oils,
         cutting oils, and drawing compounds.   Emulsifiable
         oils   may   contain  fat  soap  or  various  other
         additives.

    4.   Vegetable  and  animal  fats  and  Oils   -   These
         originate  primarily  from  processing of foods and
         natural products.
    These compounds can settle or float  and  may  exist  as
    solids  or liquids depending upon factors such as method
    of use, production process,  and  temperature  of  waste
    water.

Oils  and  grease even in small quantities cause troublesome
taste and odor problems.  Scum lines from these  agents  are
produced   on   water   treatment   basin  walls  and  other
containers.  Fish and water fowl are adversely  affected  by
oils  in  their  habitat.   Oil  emulsions may adhere to the
gills of fish causing suffocation, and the flesh of fish  is
tainted  when  they  eat microorganisms that were exposed to
waste oil.  Deposition of oil in  the  bottom  sediments  of
water  can  serve to inhibit normal benthic growth.  Oil and
grease exhibit an oxygen demand.
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Levels  of  oil  and  grease  which  are  toxic  to  aquatic
organisms  vary  greatly,  depending  on  the  type  and the
species susceptibility.  However, it has been reported  that
crude  oil in concentrations as low as 0.3 mg/1 is extremely
toxic to fresh-water fish.  It  has  been  recommended  that
public water supply sources be essentially free from oil and
grease.

Oil  and  grease  in  quantities of 100 1/sq km show up as a
sheen on the surface of a body of water.   The  presence  of
oil  slicks  prevent  the full aesthetic enjoyment of water.
The presence of oil in water can also increase the  toxicity
of  other  substances  being  discharged  into the receiving
bodies  of  water.   Municipalities  frequently  limit   the
quantity  of  oil and grease that can be discharged to their
waste water treatment systems by industry.

Acidity and Alkalinity - pH

Although not a specific pollutant,  pH  is  related  to  the
acidity  or alkalinity of a waste water stream.  It is not a
linear or direct measure of either, however, it may properly
be used as a surrogate to control both  excess  acidity  and
excess alkalinity in water.  The term pH is used to describe
the   hydrogen   ion   -  hydroxyl  ion  balance  in  water.
Technically,  pH  is  the  hydrogen  ion  concentration   or
activity  present  in  a given solution.  pH numbers are the
negative logarithim of the hydrogen ion concentration.  A pH
of 7 generally indicates neutrality  or  a  balance  between
free  hydrogen  and free hydroxyl ions.  Solutions with a pH
above 7 indicate that the solution is alkaline, while  a  pH
below 7 indicate that the solution is acid.

Knowledge  of  the  pH  of water or waste water is useful in
determining  necessary  measures  for   corrosion   control,
pollution control, and disinfection.  Waters with a pH below
6.0  are  corrosive  to water works structures, distribution
lines, and household plumbing fixtures  and  such  corrosion
can  add   constituents  to  drinking  water  such  as iron,
copper, zinc, cadmium, and lead.  Low  pH  waters  not  only
tend  to  dissolve  metals  from structures and fixtures but
also tend to redissolve or leach  metals  from  sludges  and
bottom sediments.  The hydrogen ion concentration can affect
the  "taste"  of  the  water  and  at a low pH, water tastes
11 sour".

Extremes  of  pH  or  rapid  pH  changes  can  exert  stress
conditions  or  kill  aquatic  life  outright. Even moderate
changes  from  "acceptable"  criteria  limits  of   pH   are
deleterious  to  some  species.   The  relative  toxicity to
                             43

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aquatic life of many materials is increased  by  changes  in
the  water  pH.   For  example,  metalocyanide complexes can
increase a thousand-fold in toxicity with a drop of  1.5  pH
units.   Similarly, the toxicity of ammonia is a function of
pH.  The bactericidal effect of chlorine in  most  cases  is
less   as   the   pH   increases,  and  it  is  economically
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.

Acidity is defined as the quantative ability of a  water  to
neutralize  hydroxyl  ions.   It is usually expressed as the
calcium  carbonate   equivalent   of   the   hydroxyl   ions
neutralized.   Acidity should not be confused with pH value.
Acidity is the  quantity  of  hydrogen  ions  which  may  be
released  to react with or neutralize hydroxyl ions while pH
is a measure of the free hydrogen ions in a solution at  the
instant  the  pH  measurement  is  made.  A property of many
chemicals, called buffing,  may  hold  hydrogen  ions  in  a
solution  from being in the free state and being measured as
pH.  The bond of most buffers is rather  weak  and  hydrogen
ions  tend  to  be  released  from  the  buffer as needed to
maintain a fixed pH value.

Highly acid waters are corrosive  to  metals,  concrete  and
living organisms, exhibiting the pollutional characteristics
outlined  above  for  low pH waters.  Depending on buffering
capacity, water may have a higher total acidity at pH values
of 6.0 than other waters with a pH value of U.O.

Alkalinity; Alkalinity is defined as the ability of a  water
to neutralize hydrogen ions.  It is usually expressed as the
calcium   carbonate   equivalent   of   the   hydrogen  ions
neutralized.

Alkalinity is commonly caused by the presence of carbonates,
bicarbonates, hydroxides and to a lesser extent by  borates,
silicates, phophates and organic substances.  Because of the
nature  of the chemicals causing alkalinity, and the buffing
capacity of carbon dioxide in water, very high pH values are
seldom found in natural waters.

Excess alkalinity as exhibited in a high pH value  may  make
water  corrosive  to certain metals, to most natural organic
materials and toxic to living organisms.

Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH.  The lacrimal fluid
of the human eye  has  a  pH  of  approximately  7.0  and  a
deviation  of  0.1  pH  unit from the norm may result in eye
irritation for the  swimmer.   Appreciable  irritation  will
cause severe pain.
                              44

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Radioactivity

Ionizing  radiation is recognized as injurious when absorbed
in living tissue in quantities substantially above  that  of
natural  background  levels.  It is necessary, therefore, to
prevent  any  living  organism   -   humans,   fishes,   and
invertebrates  -  from being exposed to excessive radiation.
Beyond  the  fact  that  radioactive  wastes  emit  ionizing
radiation,  they  are also similar in many respects to other
chemical wastes.  Man's senses cannot detect radiation until
it is present in massive amounts.

To be a significant factor in the cycling  of  radionuclides
in   the  aquatic  environments,  plants  and  animals  must
accumulate the radionuclide, retain it, be eaten by  another
organism,  and  be  digested.   However, even if an organism
with  radionuclide  is  not  eaten  before  it   dies,   its
radionuclide   can  enter  the  "biological  cycle"  through
organisms  decomposing  the  dead  organism  into  elemental
components.   Plants and animals which become radioactive in
this way do, thus, pose a health hazard when eaten by man.

Aquatic  life  may  receive  radiation  from   radionuclides
present  in the water substrate, and also from radionuclides
that may accumulate in their tissues.   Humans  can  acquire
radionuclides in many ways.  Among the most important are by
drinking  contaminated  water  and eating fish and shellfish
containing  concentrated  nuclides.   When  fish  or   other
aquatic   products   which   have   accumulated  radioactive
materials are used as food by humans, the concentrations  of
the  nuclides  in  the  water must be further restricted, in
order  to  provide  assurance  that  the  total  intake   of
radionuclides   from   all   sources  will  not  exceed  the
recommended levels.

In order to prevent dangerous radiation exposure to  humans,
fish,  and  other important organisms, the concentrations of
radionuclides in water,  both  fresh  and  marine,  must  be
restricted.

Fecal Coliform

Fecal  coliforms  are  used  as an indicator since they have
originated  from  the  intestinal  tract   of   warm-blooded
animals.   Their  presence  in water indicates the potential
presence of pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

The  presence  of   coliforms,   more   specifically   fecal
coliforms,  in  water  is indicative of fecal pollution.  In
general, the presence of fecal coliform organisms  indicates
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recent and possibly dangerous fecal contamination.  When the
fecal  coliform  count  exceeds  2,000 per 100 ml there is a
high correlation with increased numbers of  both  pathogenic
viruses and bacteria.

Many  microorganisms,  pathogenic to humans and animals, may
be carried in surface water, particularly that derived  from
effluent  sources  which  find  their way into surface water
from  municipal  and  industrial   wastes.    The   diseases
associated  with  bacteria  include  bacillary  and  amoebic
dysentery.   Salmonella   gastroenteritis,    typhoid    and
paratyphoid  fevers,  leptospirosis, cholera, vitriosis, and
infectious hepatitis.  Recent studies  have  emphasized  the
value  of fecal coliform density in assessing the occurrence
of Salmonella, a common bacterial pathogen in surface water.
Field studies involving irrigation water, field  crops,  and
soils  indicate  that  when  the  fecal  coliform density in
stream waters exceeded 1,000 per 100 ml, the probability  of
occurrence of Salmonella was 53.5 percent.
Pollutants of specific Significance

The  pollutant  raw  waste  loads computed for the hospitals
category are presented in Tables V-1 and V-2.

Pollutants of special concern in the hospital  category  are
silver   and   mercury;  these  compounds  in  large  enough
concentrations  will  have  significant   effects   on   the
applicability  of end-of-pipe treatment technologies.  Other
pollutants of concern are barium and toron.

The possibility of discharge of  significant  quantities  of
these  four  materials  from hospitals exists.  However, the
hospitals visited during the sampling period discharged very
small  quantities  of  these  materials.    Through   proper
handling, reduction of use, and proper disposal and recovery
techniques,   the   discharge  of  these  materials  to  the
wastewater stream can be greatly reduced.

    Silver

Silver discharge is associated with the  development  of  x-
rays.   If the silver level is above the minimum, the silver
recovery system should  be  carefully  reviewed.   The  most
efficient  method  is  to  collect  all  effluent  from  the
processors  and  physically  remove  the  liquid  from   the
hospital.   Several  service  companies  are  equipped to do
this.
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There are also in-line recovery units that basically work on
the principle of  an  electroplating  system.   Disposal  of
scrap x-ray film is also closely related to the scrap silver
recovery.    A  definite  economic  advantage  can  also  be
realized in hospitals developing large quantities of x-rays.

    Mercury

Hospitals  utilize  mercury  in  its   elemental   form   in
manometers,  thermometers, and some electronic switches; the
laboratories  are  the  biggest  users  of  these  items  in
hospitals.

Mercurous  and  mercuric  compounds  are  used for medicinal
purposes  in   diuretics,   cathartics,   and   antiseptics;
disinfectants  for cleaning; amalgams for dental procedures;
and  in  tissue  fixatives  in  laboratories.   Some  mildew
inhibitors containing mercury are used by laundries.

    Barium

Many  hospitals  have been following a procedure of draining
the barium with a catheter into a plastic bag, which  almost
eliminates  the barium from the hospital's sewage.  However,
the possibility exists for accidental  discharge  of  barium
into the waste stream.

    Boron

Boron  can  be  discharged  into  the  sewer  system via the
automatic processors in the x-ray department.  The fixer has
been found to yield the greatest quantity of boron, but  the
developer also contains significant quantities.  In order to
minimize  the boron discharged into the sewer system, boron-
free  fixers  and  developers  have   been   introduced   by
reformulation of the chemistry to eliminate boron.

    Radionuclides

The  fate  of  radionuclides  released to the environment by
medical   activities   can   be   of   concern.     Possible
radioisotopes  in  hospital  wastewaters include iodine-131,
mercury-203,    thorium-232,    cesium-137,     bismuth-214,
ruthenium-103,  ruthenium-106,  potassium-40, technetium-99r
and phosphorus-32.  Phosphorus-32 has a half-life  of  14.28
days  and  iodine-131 has a half-life of 8.05 days.  Iodine-
131 activities ranged to 670 pCi/kg of wet sludge  according
to  a recent (1973)  survey of ten sewage treatment plants in
a nine-city survey.   Due to time and  budgetary  constraints
on  the  project,  these  wastes were not determined for the
                          47

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hospital  point  source  category.     It   is   recommended,
therefore, that where radioactive material is used the waste
be held until it is safe to release to the environment.
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                        SECTION VII

             CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
General

The  entire  spectrum  of  wastewater  control and treatment
technology is at the disposal of the hospital  point  source
category.   The  selection  of technology options depends on
the economics of that technology and the  magnitude  of  the
final   effluent   concentration.    Control  and  treatment
technology may be divided into  two  major  groupings:   in-
plant pollution abatement and end-of-pipe treatment.

After  discussing  the  available  performance data for this
point source category, conclusions will be made relative  to
the  reduction  of  various pollutants commensurate with the
following distinct technology levels:

    I.  Best Practicable control Technology Currently
         Available (BPT)

   II.  Best Available Technology Economically
          Achievable  (BAT)

  III.  Best Available Demonstrated control Technology
          (NSPS)

To assess the economic impact  of  these  proposed  effluent
limitations  and  guidelines,  model  treatment systems have
been proposed which are considered capable of attaining  the
recommended   RWL   reduction.    It  should  be  noted  and
understood that the particular systems were chosen primarily
for use in the economic  analysis,  and  are  not  the  only
systems   capable   of  attaining  the  specified  pollutant
reductions.

There are many possible combinations of in-plant and end-of-
pipe systems capable of attaining the effluent  limitations,
guidelines  and new source performance standards recommended
in this  report.   However,  only  one  treatment  model  is
provided   in  this  text  for  the  hospital  point  source
category.

It is the responsiblity of each individual hospital to  make
the  final  decision  about  what  specific  combination  of
pollution control measures is best suited to  its  situation
                             49

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in complying with the limitations and standards presented in
this report.

Hospitals

In  general,  hospital  wastes  can  be  readily  treated by
biological treatment systems.  Although potential does exist
for discharge of  biologically  inhibiting  substances,  the
industrial  survey  indicates  that  the  discharge  of such
substances  (such as mercury or  silver)  is  not  a  general
practice.   Such  substances  are  usually  collected at the
source rather than discharged.

Relatively few hospitals  within  the  United  States  treat
their  own  wastewater effluent.  Most hospitals are located
in areas of high population density, and consequently, it is
more convenient  for  them  to  discharge  their  wastes  to
municipal  treatment  systems.   However,  a small number of
hospitals (approximately 500) located in  remote  areas  may
have  to  treat their own wastes.  Among these hospitals the
most prevalent end-of-pipe wastewater  treatment  system  is
the  trickling  filter plant; however, some activated sludge
systems do exist, as shown in Table VII-1.

    In-House Pollution Abatement

During the survey the two most exemplary  pollution  control
measures  observed  within  hospitals  were  elimination  of
mercury discharge and recovery of silver  from  spent  x-ray
developer.  One hospital in particular has gone sc far as to
institute  a  "no mercury discharge" policy.  Waste chemical
compounds or solutions containing mercury are  collected  in
special  containers rather than discarded in a sink.  When a
sufficient quantity has been collected, the mercury waste is
then disposed of by a private disposal contractor.

Recovery of silver from spent x-ray developer  is  practiced
by   all   hospitals  visited  during  the  survey.   Larger
hospitals (processing a large number  of  x-rays)  performed
the  silver  recovery  on  site,  whereas  smaller hospitals
drummed their spent developing solutions and  returned  them
to the manufacturer for resource recovery.

Although  many  hospitals  have  active  programs  aimed  at
preventing the discharge of volatile solvents  and/or  toxic
chemicals  to  sinks and drains, some are totally unaware of
the potential water pollution problems associated with  such
practices.   In fact, one hospital was not even aware of the
potential fire hazard associated  with  discarding  volatile
solvents  into sinks.  Restrictions on the discharge of such
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substances should be  an  integral  part  of  the  operating
procedure for every hospital.

    End-Qf-Fipe Control Technology

Table  VII-1  indicates  the  types  of wastewater treatment
technology observed during  the  survey  and  the  treatment
systems   identified   but   not   observed.   As  discussed
previously, approximately ninety-two  (92)   percent  of  all
hospitals  discharge  their  wastes  to  municipal treatment
systems.  Those hospitals that treat their wastes  generally
use  trickling filter systems.  Activated sludge systems are
in use at several hospitals and aerated lagoons are utilized
by another hospital.
                       Table VII-1

               Treatment Technology Survey

       Type of                Number         Number
       Treatment             Observed       Identified**

       Activated Sludge        1*                 1
       Trickling Filters       0                 11
       Aerated Lagoons         0                  1

    * Hospital No. 93
    **Not observed

During the survey program, historical  wastewater  treatment
plant  performance  data  were  obtained when possible.   The
historical  data  were  analyzed  statistically,   and   the
performance  of  individual plants was evaluated.  A summary
of  the  statistical  analyses  for  two  of  the   hospital
wastewater  treatment  plants  is  presented in Table VII-2.
The summary of the data presented in Table VII-2  represents
at  least  a  year's  operation  for  plant  operations, and
removal  efficiencies  and  effluent  concentrations   shown
correspond   to  90,  50,  and  10  percent  probability  of
occurrence.

During the survey program, 24-hour composite samples over  a
two-day  period were collected in order to verify historical
performance data and to provide a more  complete  wastewater
analytical  profile.   The  major  purpose for the review of
historical treatment plant performance data was to  be  able
to  guantify  BPT  reduction  factors,  which  could then be
applied to BPT raw waste load values to develop  an  end-of-
                             51

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                                      Table VI I  -2
                        Summary  of  Historic Treatment  Performance



Hospital
93

102

94*

95*

96*

97*

98*

99*

100*

101*



Type of
Treatment
Activated
Sludge
Activated
Sludge
Tr i ckl i ng
Filter
Trickl ing
Filter
Trickl ing
Filter
Trickl ing
Filter
Trickl ing
Filter
Tr i ckl i ng
Fi Iter
Tri ckl ing
Fi Iter
Trickl ing
Filter
BODc
Removal Eff. (%)

P90 P50 P10
96 95 90

93 92 91

88

92

94

90

98

96

96

76

Effluent
BODt;
mg/L
P90 P50 P10
25 14 10

20 16 12

27

32

11

24

4

11

10

56

Effluent
TSS
mg/L
P90 P50 P10
16 12 8

15 10 6

12

24

8

19

3

12

2

33

*Values based on annual  average removal  efficiencies
                                  52

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pipe  treatment  model.   Based  on  the historical data for
activated  sludge  treatment  plants,   a   BOD5   treatment
efficiency  of  93  percent was established as practical for
the development of EFT treatment technology.

In addition to BOD5r the pollutant to be considered is total
suspended solids (TSS).  The model BPT treatment  system  is
an   activated   sludge   system.    Such  systems  generate
biological solids which must be removed before discharge  of
the  treated  effluent.   For  this  reason, recommendations
concerning TSS were determined from effluent concentrations.

The average discharge of TSS in the effluent of  the  plants
for which data is available (long term average) is less than
15  mg/1  and  easily  meets  the  recommended  limitations.
However,  a  flocculator/clarifier  system  with   coagulant
addition, as is used in other industries, is included in the
cost model to allow for upgrading of existing facilities, if
necessary.  This inclusion tends to make the cost model more
conservative since it will not be required by most plants as
indicated by the data.

To  assess  the  economic  impact  of  the proposed effluent
standards, a model activated  sludge  treatment  system  was
developed.   The  end-of-pipe  treatment  model was designed
based on raw waste load (RWL)  data for  the  hospital  point
source  category.  The primary design parameter in BPT, NSPS
and BAT treatment models is BOD5 removal.

The use of an activated sludge treatment model  is  done  to
facilitate  the  economic analysis and is not to be inferred
as the only  technology  capable  of  meeting  the  effluent
limitations  guidelines and new source performance standards
presented in this report.
                            53

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                        SECTION VIII

        COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
General

Quantitative cost information for the suggested  end-of-pipe
treatment  models  is  presented in the following discussion
for the purpose of assessing  the  economic  impact  of  the
proposed  effluent  limitations,  guidelines  and new source
performance standards.   A  separate  economic  analysis  of
treatment  cost  impact  on the industry will be prepared by
another contractor and the results will be  published  in  a
separate document.

In  the generation of a single product (hospital care)  there
is  a  wide  variety  of  process  plant  sizes   and   unit
operations.   Many  detailed  designs  might  be required to
develop a meaningful understanding of the economic impact of
process modifications.  Such a  development  is  really  not
necessary,  however,  because  the  end-of-pipe  models  are
capable of attaining the  recommended  effluent  limitations
for  the  RWL's  determined  for the category.  A design for
end-of-pipe treatment models has been provided  for  costing
purposes.   This  can  be  related  directly to the range of
influent  hydraulic  and  organic  loading,  and  the  costs
associated  with  these systems, to show the economic impact
of the system in dollars per 1,000 occupied beds  per  year.
The   combination   of  in-plant  controls  and  end-of-pipe
treatment  used  to   attain   the   effluent   limitations,
guidelines and new source performance standards presented in
this  document  should  be a decision made by the individual
hospital,  based  generally  upon  economic   considerations
within   the   constraints   of   the  requirements  of  the
limitations.

The major non-water quality  consideration  associated  with
in-process   control  measures  is  the  means  of  ultimate
disposal of wastes.  As the volume of  the  process  RWL  is
reduced,   alternative   disposal  techniques  such  as  in-
cineration, pyrolysis, and evaporation become more feasible.
Recent regulations tend to limit the use of ocean  discharge
and  deep-well  injection because of the potential long-term
detrimental   effects   associated   with   these   disposal
procedures.    Incineration   and   evaporation  are  viable
alternatives for concentrated waste streams.  Considerations
involving air pollution  and  auxiliary  fuel  requirements,
depending  on  the  heating  value  of  the  waste,  must be
evaluated individually for each situation.
                           55

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Other non-water quality aspects such as  noise  levels  will
not  be  perceptibly  affected  by  the  proposed wastewater
treatment systems.  Equipment associated with in-process and
end-of-pipe control systems would not add  significantly  to
these noise levels.

An  annual  and  capital cost estimate has been prepared for
the end-of-pipe treatment model to  help  EPA  evaluate  the
economic   impact  of  the  proposed  effluent  limitations,
guidelines  and  new  source  performance  standards.    The
capital  costs  were generated on a 1,000 occupied bed basis
(e.g., equalization, neutralization, etc.) and are  reported
in  the  form  of  cost  curves  in Supplement A for all the
proposed  treatment  systems.   The   following   percentage
figures  were  added  on  to the total unit process costs to
develop the total capital cost requirements:

                              Percent of Unit Process
            Item              	Capital Cost

     Electrical                                 14
     Piping                                     20
     Instrumentation                             8
     Site work                                   6
     Engineering Design and Construction
       Surveillance Fees                        15
     Construction Contingency                   15

Land costs were computed independently and added directly to
the total capital costs.

Annual costs were computed using the following cost basis:

         Item                    Cost Allocation

Capital Recovery
plus Return             10 yrs at 10 percent

Operations and          Includes labor and supervision.
    Maintenance         chemicals, sludge hauling and dis-
                        posal, insurance and taxes  (computed
                        at 2 percent of the capital cost),
                        and maintenance  (computed at 4 per-
                        cent of the capital cost).

Energy and Power        Based on $0.02/kw hr for electrical
                        power and 172/gal for grade 11
                        furnace oil.
                            56

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The 10-year period used for capital  recovery  is  presently
acceptable    under   current   Internal   Revenue   Service
regulations  pertaining  to  industrial  pollution   control
equipment.

The  following  is  a  qualitative as well as a quantitative
discussion  of  the  possible  effects  that  variations  in
treatment  technology  or  design criteria could have on the
total capital costs and annual costs.
    Technology or Design Criteria

    Use aerated lagoons and       1.
    sludge de-watering lagoons
    in place of the proposed
    treatment system.

    Use earthen basins with       2.
    compacted clay or clay-
    gravel mixes in place
    of reinforced concrete con-
    struction, and floating
    aerators with permanent-
    access walkways.

    Place all treatment tankage   3.
    above grade to minimize
    excavation, especially if
    a pumping station is re-
    quired in any case.  Use
    all-steel tankage to
    minimize capital cost.

    Minimize flows and maximize   4.
    concentrations through ex-
    tensive in-plant recovery and
    water conservation, so that
    other treatment technologies,
    e.g., incineration, may be
    economically competitive.
       Capital
  Cost Differential

The cost reduction
could be 20 to tO per-
cent of the proposed
figures.

Cost reduction could
be 20 to 30 percent
of the total cost.
Cost savings would
depend on the in-
dividual situation.
Cost differential would
depend on a number of
items, e.g., age of
plant, accessibility
to process piping,
local air pollution
standards, etc.
All cost data were computed in terms of August 1972 dollars,
which corresponds to an Engineering News Records index (ENR)
value of 1780.  Note that the ENR index value for  the  year
1975 is 2276.
Hospitals
                             57

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58

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In  order  to  evaluate  the  economic  impact  on a uniform
treatment basis, an end-of-pipe treatment model  which  will
provide the desired levels of treatment was proposed.

                                      End-of-Pipe
              Technology Level      Treatment Model

                   EPT          Activated Sludge

                   EAT          Activated Sludge and
                                Filtration

                   NSPS         Activated Sludge and
                                Filtration

    BPT cost Model

A flow diagram for the BPT wastewater treatment facility for
hospitals  is  shown  in  Figure  VIII-1.   A summary of the
general design basis is presented in Table VIII-1,  and  the
treatment system effluent requirements are as follows:

             Influent (PWL)                   Effluent
         Flow             BODS             BODS
       gal/1,000        lbs/1,000        lbs/1,000
     occupied bedsl   occupied bedsl   occupied bedsl   mg/1
        319,000            587             41.1          15
        (191,000)
1Occupied beds on average annual basis.

The  following  is  a  brief discussion of the rationale for
selection of  the  unit  processes  included  in  the  model
wastewater treatment system.
                        Table VIII-1

                BPT Treatment Systems Design
                          Summary
Hydraulic Loading

The model plant was designed for a flow of 191,000 gpd,
                             59

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Aeration Basin

The  size  of  the aeration basin is based on data collected
during the survey.  Mechanical surface aerators are provided
on the following basis:

Minimum Number of Aerators     2
Oxygen Utilization: Energy     0.8 Ibs 0^/lb BOD removed
Oxygen Utilization: Endogenous 6 lbs/hr/1,000 Ibs MLVSS
Alpha Factor                   0.75
Beta Factor                    0.90

Oxygen Transfer (Standard)     3.5 Ibs 0.2/hr/shaft HP at 20°C
                               and zero DO in tap water
Motor Efficiency               85 percent
Minimum Basin DO               2 mg/1

Secondary Flocculator/Clarifiers

Secondary flocculatcr/clarifiers are rectangular units  with
a  length to width ratio of t to 1 and a side water depth of
8 feet.  The overflow rate is approximately 450  gpd/sg  ft.
Polymer addition facilities are provided.

Chlorination Facilities

Chlorine  contact  basins  have  been designed to provide 30
minutes detention time, based on average flow.

Sludge Thickener

The thickener provided was designed on the basis of a solids
loading of 6 Ibs/sq ft/day.

Aerobic Digester

The  aerobic  digester  was  designed  on  the  basis  of  a
hydraulic  detention  time  of  20  days.   The  size of the
aeration mixers was based on an oxygen  requirement  of  1.6
Ibs  0.2/lb VSS destroyed and a mixing requirement of 165 HP
per million gallons of digester volume.

Vacuum Filtration

The size of the vacuum filters was based on a cake yield  of
2  Ibs/sq  ft/hr  and  a maximum running time of 8 hours per
day.  The polymer system was designed to deliver  up  to  20
Ibs of polymer per ton of dry solids.
                              60

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    BAT Cost Model

The  BAT model treatment system used for economic evaluation
of the proposed limitations includes the BPT treatment model
followed by dual-media filtration.  A typical  flow  diagram
for  the  selected  model  treatment  facilities is shown in
Figure VIII-2.  A summary of the  general  design  basis  is
presented in Table VIII-2.

Based  on  effluent  filtration  data  presented  in Process
Design Manual for Upgrading  Existing  Wastewater  Treatment
Plants,  U.S. EPA, 1974, BAT effluent limitations of 10 mg/1
 (22.6 lbs/1,000 occupied beds) for  both  BOD  and  TSS  are
recommended.

    NSPS Cost Model

The NSPS model treatment system is identical to the proposed
BAT treatment system.

An  activated  sludge  process  was  selected because of its
demonstrated ability to efficiently treat  hospital  wastes.
Because    of    the   relatively   low   suspended   solids
concentrations, primary clarifiers are not included  in  the
model  facilities.   The  activated  sludge  system produces
biological solids which must be removed from the system  and
returned  to  the  aeration  basin  or  wasted  in  order to
maintain the proper load to microorganism ratio.   To  serve
this  purpose,  secondary  flocculator/clarifiers  have been
provided.   Sludge   handling   facilities   consisting   of
thickening,  aerobic  digestion,  and vacuum filtration have
been provided to facilitate ultimate disposal of sludge to a
sanitary landfill.

    Cost

Capital and annual cost estimates were prepared for an  end-
of-pipe  treatment  model.   The prepared cost estimates are
presented in Table VIII-3.   The  costs  presented  in  this
table  are  incremental  costs for achieving each technology
level.  The total capital cost for biological  treatment  to
attain  BPT  effluent limitations is $830,000 for a hospital
with 600 beds.  The BPT effluent limitations were determined
using the reduction factors presented in  Section  IX.   The
incremental  capital  cost for achieving the recommended BAT
and NSPS effluent limitations for a hospital with 600  beds,
over  the  cost  for  BPT,  is  $169,000.  The detailed cost
breakdown by unit processes are included in Supplement A.
                           61

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                                                62

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                        Table VIII-2

                NSPS Treatment System Design
                          Summary
Dual-Media Filtration

The size of  the  filters  is  based  on  average  hydraulic
loading of 3 gpm/sq ft.  Backwash facilities are designed to
provide  rates  up  to 20 gpm/sq ft and for a total backwash
cycle of up to 10 minutes in duration.  The filter media are
24" of coal (1mm effective size) 12"  of  sand  (0.4-0.5  mm
effective size).

Backwash Holding Tank

Tankage is provided to hold the backwash water and decant it
back  to  the  treatment  plant over a 24-hour period.  This
will eliminate hydraulic surging of the treatment units.

The previous cost  estimates  were  prepared  based  on  the
recommended design basis.  Variations in the design basis or
selection   of  alternative  treatment  processes  can  have
appreciable  effects  on  the  reported  capital  costs,  as
discussed  in  the  "General"  part  of  Section  VIII under
"Capital Cost Differential."

    Energy

Due to the  characteristics  of  wastewater  generated  from
hospitals   and   the   high  degree  of  pollutant  removal
obtainable by use of  activated  sludge  treatment  systems,
application  of  high  energy-consuming  processes  was  not
considered.  Therefore, the overall  impact  on  energy  for
hospitals should be irinimal.  Table VIII-1 presents the cost
for  energy  and  power for the treatment model for BPT, BAT
and NSPS.  The details for energy and power requirements are
included in Supplement A.

    Non-Water Quality Aspects

The major non-water quality aspects of the proposed effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
are ultimate sludge disposal and noise and air pollution.

Ultimate sludge disposal by  landfilling  for  the  digested
biological   sludge   has   been   proposed.   If  practiced
correctly, landfilling of  the  digested  biological  sludge
does  not  create  health  hazards  or a nuisance condition.
                              63

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Sludge incineration is a  viable  alternative,  but  is  not
included  in  the  treatment model due to high cost and high
fuel requirements.

The sludge  quantities  generated  by  the  treatment  model
plants  are  estimated  to  be 33,000 Ibs/year on dry solids
weight basis.

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proposed treatment model need consideration; however, in the
installations  observed,  noise levels due to the wastewater
treatment plants were not a problem.

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air pollution is not of concern.
                             65
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                         SECTION IX

            BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
                 CUPRENLTY AVAILABLE (BPT)
Hospitals
Based  on  the information contained in Sections III through
VIII of this report,  effluent  limitations  and  guidelines
commensurate   with   the  BPT  have  been  established  for
hospitals.  The limitations which explicitly  set  numerical
values  for  allowable pollutant discharges are presented in
Table IX-1.  The effluent limitations and guidelines specify
allowable discharges of  BOD5  and  TSS  based  en  removals
attainable  through  application  of  BPT  pollution control
technology described in Section VII of this  report.   Model
BPT waste treatment technology includes biological treatment
with sludge handling facilities consisting of digestion, de-
watering, and ultimate disposal via a sanitary landfill.

As indicated in Section VII, a BOD5 removal efficiency of 93
percent,  based  on  historical  treatment  plant  data, was
selected as being applicable for the  determination  of  BPT
effluent  limitations and guidelines.  This technique yields
a BPT long-term average daily effluent of 41.1 Ibs per 1,000
occupied teds for BOD5.  The maximum day limitations and the
maximum thirty day limitations are  listed  in  Table  IX-1.
See the sample calculation in Section XIII.  Promulgation of
effluent  TSS  limitations  based  on historical TSS removal
efficiencies is calculated on  the  basis  of  a  long  term
average  of 20 mg/1 and the demonstrated levels of daily and
monthly averages based on the  same  plants  for  which  BOD
calculations  were  made.  The BPT model treatment plant has
teen  designed  to  include  a  flocculator/clarifier   with
polymer  addition.   Such  systems  have  been  shown  to be
capable of achieving extremely efficient TSS removal and are
available, if needed, to upgrade existing  operations.   The
data  do not indicate that these systems will be required in
all cases.  On this basis, a TSS effluent  limitation  based
on  20 mg/1 long-term daily average effluent is recommended.
A more severe restriction for total suspended solids can, of
course,  be  established  on  the  basis  of  water  quality
objectives.

The  objective  of these effluent limitations and guidelines
is to induce reduction of both flow and contaminant  loading
prior  to  end-of-pipe  treatment.   However,  it is not the
intent of  these  effluent  limitations  and  guidelines  to
specify  either  the  unit  wastewater  flow  which  must be
                             67
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achieved, or the wastewater treatment practices  which  must
be employed at individual hospitals.

The  performance  factors used to calculate the BPT effluent
limits presented in Table IX-1 are as follows:

              Performance Factors1       Performance Factors1
                  for Maximum                for Maximum
Parameters     Monthly Effluent          	Day Effluent

   BOD5            1.8                        2.2
   TSS             1.i»                        2.3

1  99/50 ration of probability

The actual caclulation in terms of pounds of EOD5 or TSS per
1000 occupied beds is demonstrated in Section XIII  for  BPT
maximum effluent limits.
                              68
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                         SECTION X

           BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
                      ACHIEVABLE (BAT)
Hospitals

Effluent  limitations  and  guidelines commensurate with the
BAT are presented in Table X-1.   BAT  effluent  limitations
guidelines  were  developed  by evaluating those end-of-pipe
modifications which indicated  applicability  for  achieving
better  effluent  quality.  The BAT effluent limitations and
guidelines are attainable  with  the  end-of-pipe  treatment
technology  outlined  in  other areas of this report,  which
consists of the addition of  dual-media  filtration  to  the
treatment system proposed as EFT technology.

The  performance  data  for  dual-media  filtration  on  the
biological treatment plant effluent for hospitals  is  based
upon  the  Process  Design  Manual  for  Upgrading  Existing
Wastewater Treatment Plants by EPA, 1974, and is  considered
applicable  to  the  hospital wastewaters.  The requirements
are verified by supplement B,  containing  performance  data
for  operating systems used by a hospital installation.  The
BAT effluent limitations and guidelines are  based  on  this
performance data.  A TSS effluent limitation guideline of 10
mg/1  long-term  daily  average  is  recommended.   The  BAT
long-term average daily effluent for BOD5 is  26.6  Ibs  per
1,000   occupied   beds.    After  application  of  the  BAT
performance factors  to  the  BAT  long-term  daily  average
value,  the  iraximum  day limitations and the maximum thirty
day limitations for  BAT  are  computed.   The  results  for
regulated parameters are listed in Table X-1.  As additional
hospital wastewater treatment plant performance data becomes
available, it may be used to verify the initial judgements.

The  following  BAT performance factors are proposed for the
following parameters and time intervals:

              Performance Factors*       Performance Factors1
                  for Maximum                for Maximum
Parameters     Monthly Effluent          	Cay Effluent

   BOD5            1.4                        1.6
   TSS             1.4                        1.5

1  95/50 ration of probability
                             71
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                         SECTION XI

          NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (NSPS)
General
The term "new source"  is  defined  in  the  "Federal  Water
Pollution  Control  Act  Amendments  of  1972"  to mean "any
source, the construction of which  is  commenced  after  the
publication  of  proposed regulations prescribing a standard
of performance".   Technology applicable to new sources shall
be  the  Best  Available  Demonstrated  Control   Technology
(NSPS),  defined by a determination of what higher levels of
pollution  control  can  be  attained  through  the  use  of
improved  production  process  and/or  wastewater  treatment
techniques.  Thus, in addition to considering the  best  in-
plant and end-of-pipe control technology, NSPS technology is
to  be  based  upon an analysis of how the level of effluent
may be reduced by changing the production process itself.
Hospitals

The performance standards commensurate with the BAT are also
recommended as new source performance standards.  That is  a
TSS effluent limitation guideline based on 10 mg/1 long term
daily average is utilized.  The NSPS long-term average daily
effluent  for  BOD5_ is 26.6 Ibs per 1,000 occupied beds.  To
arrive at the maximum day limitations and the maximum thirty
day  limitations  the  respective  performance  factors  are
applied.  These performance standards are presented in Table
X-l.

The  following NSPS performance factors are proposed for the
following parameters and time intervals:
Parameters

   BOD5_
   TSS
Performance Factors •*•
    for Maximum
 Monthly Effluent

     1.4
     1.4
Performance Factors
    for Maximum
    Day Effluent

     1.6
     1.5
   95/50 ration of probability
It  must  be  recognized  that,  in  most  cases,   in-house
modifications to existing hospitals are interchangeable with
those  which  can  be designed for new ones.  Investigations
should be conducted by all types of hospitals  to  determine
if   the   wastewaters  can  be  eliminated  or  reduced  in
quantities from their current raw waste loads.
                          73
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                        SECTION XII

                   PFETREATMENT STANDARDS
General

Pollutants from specific processes within this point  source
category  may  interfere with, pass through, or otherwise be
incompatible with publicly owned treatment works   (municipal
system).    The   following  section  examines  the  general
wastewater  characteristics  of   the   category   and   the
pretreatment  unit operations which may be applicable to the
hospital point source category.

Hospitals

Pollutants from hospitals may interfere with, pass  through,
or otherwise be incompatible with a publicly-owned treatment
works.  Biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, pH, and
fecal  coliform  bacteria  are  defined as compatible pollu-
tants, along  with  other  pollutants  which  publicly-owned
treatment works are designed to remove.

Current   regulations   governing  secondary  treatment  for
publicly  owned  treatment  works   impose   the   following
limitations for these parameters in 40 CFR Part 133:

     (a)  Biochemical oxygen demand (five-day) .
     (1) The arithmetic  mean  of  the  values  for  effluent
samples  collected  in a period of 30 consecutive days shall
not exceed 30 milligrams per liter.

     (2)  The arithmetic mean  of  the  values  for  effluent
samples  collected  in  a  period  of seven consecutive days
shall not exceed 45 milligrams per liter.

     (3)  The arithmetic mean  of  the  values  for  effluent
samples  collected  in a period of 30 consecutive days shall
not exceed 15 percent of the arithmetic mean of  the  values
for  influent  samples  collected  at approximately the same
times during the same period  (85 percent removal).

     (b)  Suspended solids.
     (1)  The arithmetic mean  of  the  values  for  effluent
samples  collected  in a period of 30 consecutive days shall
not exceed 30 milligrams per liter.
                              75
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    (2)   The arithmetic mean  of  the  values  for  effluent
samples  collected  in  a  period  of seven consecutive days
shall not exceed W5 milligrams per liter.

    (3)   The arithmetic mean  of  the  values  for  effluent
samples  collected  in a period of 30 consecutive days shall
not exceed 15 percent of the arithmetic mean of  the  values
for  influent  samples  collected  at approximately the same
times during the same period (85 percent removal).

    (c)   Fecal coliform bacteria.
    (1)   The  geometric  mean  of  the  value  for  effluent
samples  collected  in a period of 30 consecutive days shall
not exceed 2CO per 100 milliliters.

    (2)   The geometric  mean  of  the  values  for  effluent
samples  collected  in  a  period  of seven consecutive days
shall not exceed 400 per 100 milliliters.

    (d)   PH.
    The effluent values  for  pH  shall  remain  within  the
limits of 6.0 to 9.0.

In-process  measures  to reduce the quantity and strength of
incompatible  pollutants  in  the  wastewater  flow  can  be
beneficial  to  joint  treatment,  and should be encouraged.
Pretreatment for the removal of the compatible pollutants is
not  required  by  the   federal   pretreatment   standards.
Pretreatment  requirements  should be based on an individual
analysis of the permitted effluent limitations placed  on  a
publicly-owned  treatment  works  and  on  the potential for
adverse effects on such wastewater treatment works.

The  most  practicable  and   economical   pretreatment   of
incompatible  pollutants  in  hospitals  involves in-process
modifications  or  changes  in  operating  and   maintenance
procedures  to  completely eliminate the pollutants from the
wastewater, rather than end-of-pipe treatment for removal of
these pollutants.  Economic advantages can be realized  from
in-process  removals   (i.e., silver recovery), especially in
large hospitals.

The following in-house controls  have  been  reccmmended  as
methods of dealing with the pollution problems of hospitals:

    1,   All  x-ray  processing  units  should  utilize  the
         boron-free  fixer  which is now available from most
         manufacturers.
                            76
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    2.   Wherever possible, stand-by control units should be
         installed on all x-ray processing units to decrease
         the usage of water by the processor.  In the  event
         that  stand-by  controls  are  not adaptable to the
         processing unit, it is recommended that  the  water
         flow  be  reduced  to  the  minimum  input possible
         without distracting from the final radiograph.

    3.   The discharge of silver from x-ray processing units
         should be controlled by  utilization  of  a  silver
         recovery   system   or   by  containing  the  spent
         developer and returning it to the manufacturer  for
         silver  recovery.   If  an in-house silver recovery
         system is utilized, it is recommended that recovery
         units for heavily-used x-ray  processing  equipment
         be placed in tandem.

    4.   Because the sources of potential mercury  pollution
         are  varied  and complex, the administration should
         become familiar with the total mercury problem  and
         establish  staff  responsibilities with appropriate
         duties.

    5.   All radioactive waste should be contained and  held
         until safe to be released to the environment.

Since   most   hospitals  discharge  directly  to  municipal
treatment facilities, pretreatment  requirements  for  their
wastewater  discharges  are  very  important.  If in-process
modifications and operating procedures are not  incorporated
to  reduce silver, mercury, and boron from the waste stream,
end-of-pipe pretreatment methods will have to be implemented
to remove or reduce these incompatible pollutants  from  the
hospital  discharge  before  going  to  municipal  treatment
plants.  The  pretreatment  unit  operations  which  may  be
necessary for various types of joint treatment processes are
shown in Table XII-1.
                              77
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Suspended
Biological
  System
                    Table XII-1

            Pretreatment Unit Operations
  Fixed
Biological
  System
Chemical
Precipitation
(Metals)
+ solids
Separation
Chemical
Precipitation
(Metals)
+ Solids
Separation
 Independent
  Physical
  Chemical
   System

Chemical
Precipitation
(Metals)
+ Solids
Separation
Oil and Grease
Skimming
                          78
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                        SECTION XIII

             PERFORMANCE FACTORS FOR TREATMENT
                      PLANT OPERATIONS
General

As  referenced  in  the  discussion of end-of-pipe treatment
systems in Section VII, the historical treatment plant  data
were  analyzed  on the basis of 50 percent occurrence values
based upon long-term data

All of the factors that bring about variations in  treatment
plant performance can be minimized through proper design and
operations.   Variations  in  the  performance of wastewater
treatment plants are usually attributable to one or more  of
the following:

    1.   Variations in sampling techniques.

    2.   Variations in analytical methods.

    3.   Variations in one or more  operational  parameters,
         e.g.,  the  organic  removal rate by the biological
         mass, settling rate changes of biological sludge.

    4.   Controllable   changes    in    the    treatability
         characteristics  of  the  process  wastewaters even
         after adequate equalization.

Variability in Biological Waste Treatment Systems

In the past, effluent requirements for wastewater  treatment
plants  have  been  related  to the achievement of a desired
treatment efficiency based on long term performance.   There
are, however, factors that affect the performance and hence,
the  effluent quality or treatment efficiency over the short
term is different than the long term performance.  Knowledge
of these factors must be incorporated in the development  of
effluent limitations to allow for the predictable short term
variations.

The effluent limitations promulgated by EPA and developed in
this  document  include values that limit both long term and
short  term  waste  discharges.   These   restrictions   are
necessary  to  assure  that  deterioration  of  the nation1s
waters does not occur on a short term  basis  due  to  heavy
intermittent  discharges,  even though an annual average may
be attained.
                            79
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Some  of  the  controllable  causes   of   variability   and
techniques  that  can  be  used  to  minimize  their  effect
include:

    A.   Storm Runoff

Storm  water  holding  or  diversion  facilities  should  be
designed  on  the  basis  of rainfall history and area being
drained.  The collected storm runoff can be drawn off  at  a
constant  rate  to the treatment system.  The volume of this
contaminated  storm  runoff  should  be  minimized   through
segregation  and  the  prevention  of  contamination.  Storm
runoff  from  outside   the   plant   area,   as   well   as
uncontaminated  runoff,  should be diverted around the plant
or contaminated area.

    B.   Flow Variations

Raw waste load variations can be reduced by  properly  sized
equalization  units.   Equalization  is  a  retention of the
wastes in a suitably designed and operated holding system to
average  out  the  influent  before  allowing  it  into  the
treatment system.

    C.   Spills

Spills of certain materials in the plant can cause  a  heavy
loading  on the treatment system for a short period of time.
A spill may not only cause higher effluent levels as it goes
through the system, but may inhibit a  biological  treatment
system and therefore have longer term effects.  Equalization
helps  to  lessen the effects of spills.  However, long term
reliable control can only be attained by an aggressive spill
prevention and maintenance  program  including  training  of
operating  personnel.   Industrial  associations such as the
Manufacturing Chemists Association have developed guidelines
for prevention, control and reporting of spills.  These note
how to assess the potential of spill occurrence and  how  to
prevent  spills.  If every plant were to use such guidelines
as part of plant waste management control programs, its  raw
waste load and effluent variations would be decreased.

    D.   Climatic Effects

The design and choice of type of a treatment  system  should
be  based  on the climate at the plant location so that this
effect can be minimized.  Where there  are  severe  seasonal
climatic conditions, the treatment system should be designed
and  sufficient  operational flexibility should be available
so that the system can function effectively.
                             80
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    E.   Treatment Process Inhibition

Chemicals likely to inhibit the treatment  processes  should
be identified and prudent measures taken to see that they do
not  enter  the wastewater in concentrations that may result
in treatment process inhibition.  The  common  indicator  of
the  pollution characteristics of the discharge from a plant
historically has been the long-term average of the  effluent
load.   However,  the  long-term (yearly) average is not the
only parameter on which  to  have  an  effluent  limitation.
Shorter term averages also are needed, both as an indication
of performance and for enforcement purposes.

Wherever  possible,  the best approach to develop the annual
and shorter term limitations is to use historical data  from
the  industry in question.  If enough data is available, the
shorter term limitations can be developed  from  a  detailed
analysis  of  the  hourly,  daily,  weekly  or monthly data.
Rarely, however, is there an adequate amount of  short  term
data.  However, using data which show the variability in the
effluent  load,  statistical analyses can be used to compute
short term limits  (30 day average or daily)  which should  be
attained, provided that the plant is designed and run in the
proper  way  to  achieve the desired long term average load.
These analyses can be used to establish variability  factors
for effluent limitations or to check those factors that have
been developed.

Hospitals

Historic effluent data from activated sludge plants treating
hospital  wastes  were  statistically  analyzed to determine
variability.  The results of the analyses are shown in Table
XIII-1.  Ratios of the 99 percent probability of  occurrence
to  the  50  percent  probability,  the 95 percent to the 50
percent value, and the 90 percent to the  50  percent  value
were  computed for each hospital.  The average ratios are as
follows:

    Ratio of              BODS                 TSS
   Probability      Daily     Monthly     Daily     Monthly

      99/50          2.2         1.8       2.3        1.4
      95/50          1.6         1.4       1.5        1.4
      90/50          1.5         1.2       1.4        1.3

The 50 percent probability  of  occurrence  values  and  the
maximum  daily  values  shown  in  Table XIII-1 are based on
analysis of weekly grab sample data over a long period.  The
99  percent,  95  percent  and  90  percent  probability  of
                            81
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occurrence  values  for  the  monthly  average were based on
"normalized data", that is,  data  values  were  assumed  to
follow   a  normal  distribution.   However,  it  should  be
emphasized that no data points were discarded.  The  maximum
daily values were not normalized, as adequate long-term data
were  available to form definite distribution patterns.  The
occurrence of these  abnormally  high  values,  causing  the
skewing in the data distribution, is indicative of unusually
poor  treatment performance, probably caused by some sort of
process upset.  Use of 99 percent probability of  occurrence
values for BPT results in 99/50 ratios of probability within
a  range  considered  reasonable  in statistical analysis of
other treatment plant data for maximum day values.   Use  of
99 percent probability of occurrence values for establishing
BPT  monthly  variability is also recommended because use of
99 percent probability suggests that all  hospitals  in  the
point  source  category  could  stay  within  the  operating
envelope with minimum or no improvement  to  its  wastewater
treatment.

The  values upon which the analysis is based were determined
in the  absence  of  regulations  requiring  limits  on  the
effluent  and  are  calculated  from an average of many, not
just the more exemplary.

The following  performance  factors  are  proposed  for  the
following parameters and time intervals for BPT:

              Performance Factors*   Performance Factorsi
                  for Maximum            for Maximum
  Parameter     Monthly Effluent       Day Effluent

    BODj>           1.8                    2.2
    TSS            1.U                    2.3

i 99/50 ratio of probability

Although  these  performance  factors  are  somewhat  low in
comparison to values found in other industries, they  appear
responsible  in  view of the fact that waste discharges from
hospitals are relatively  continuous  and  activated  sludge
systems  treating  such wastes are rarely subjected to shock
loadings; hence, their performance tends to be consistent.
                             83
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The following is an illustration of  how  the  EPA  regional
offices would employ the performance factors:
                                          BOB 5
                                      lbs./1000
                                       occupied
                                         beds

  Average BPT Effluent Limitations     41.1

  Max. Day Effluent Adjustment Factor      2.2

  Max. Monthly Effluent Adjustment Factor  1.8

  Acceptable Maximum for Any One Day      90.4
  Acceptable Average of Daily Values
    for Any 30 Consecutive Days Shall
    Not Exceed
74.0
     TSS
 lbs./1000
  occupied
    beds

53.2

    2.3

    1.4

  122.4



   74.5
Performance   data   available  from  dual-media  filtration
treatment systems at this time indicates  an  extremely  low
variability  for  BAT and NSPS effluent limitations, and the
ratios established for BPT have been used.  These ratios may
be reevaluated, if future data indicate  a  better  base  is
available.

The  adjustment  factors in this section were applied to the
long-term average daily effluent limitations to develop  the
effluent  limitations, guidelines and new source performance
standards as presented in Sections II, IX, X and XI.
                            84
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                        SECTION XIV

                      ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared  by  the  Environmental  Protection
Agency  on  the  basis  of  a  comprehensive  study  of this
industry performed by Roy F. Weston,  Inc.,  under  contract
No.  68-01-2932.   The  original  study  was  conducted  and
prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency  under  the
direction  of Project Director James H. Dougherty, P.E., and
Technical  Project  Manager  Jitendra  R.  Ghia,  P.E.   The
following  individual members of the staff of Roy F. Weston,
Inc., made significant contributions to the overall effort:

    W.D. Sitman                    P.J. Marks
    D.R. Junkins                   D.A. Baker
    D.W. Grogan                    Y.A. Lin
    T.E. Taylor                    R.R. Wright
    M. Ramathan                    K.M. Peil

The original RFW study and this EPA revision were  conducted
under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Joseph S. Vitalis,
Project  Officer,  assisted by Mr. George M. Jett, Assistant
Project Officer.

Overall guidance and excellent assistance was  provided  the
Project Officer by his associates in the Effluent Guidelines
Division,  particularly Messrs. Allen Cywin, Director, Ernst
P. Hall, Deputy Director, Walter J. Hunt, Branch Chief,  and
Dr.  W.  Lairsar  Miller,  Senior  Technical Advisor.  Special
acknowledgement is also  made  of  others  in  the  Effluent
Guidelines  Division:  Messrs. John Nardella, Martin Halper,
David Becker, Bruno Maier and Dr. Chester Rhines  for  their
helpful  suggestions  and  timely  comments.   EGDB  project
personnel also wishes to acknowledge the assistance  of  the
personnel  at the Environmental Protection Agency's regional
centers,  who  helped  identify   those   plants   achieving
effective  waste  treatment, and whose efforts provided much
of the  research  necessary  for  the  treatment  technology
review.

The   following   individuals   supplied   input   into  the
development of this document while serving as members of the
EPA working group/steering committee which provided detailed
review, advice and assistance.  Their input is appreciated.

    W. Hunt, Chairman, Effluent Guidelines Division
    L. Miller, Technical Advisor, Effluent Guidelines Div.
    J. Vitalis, Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines Div.
                            85
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    G. Jettr Asst. Project Officer,  Effluent Guidelines Civ.
    J. Ciancia, National Environmental Research Center,
         Edison
    H, skovrenek, National Environmental Research Center,
         Edison
    M. Strier, Office of Enforcement
    D. Davis, Office of Planning and Evaluation
    C. Little, Office of General Counsel
    P. Desrosiers, Office of Research and Development
    R. Swank, Southeast Environmental Research Laboratory
         Athens
    E. Krabbe, Region II
    L. Reading, Region VII
    E. Struzeski, NFIC, Denver

Appreciation is extended  to  Mr.  Chris  Little  and  James
Rodgers  of  the  EPA  Office  of  General Counsel for their
invaluable contributions and advice.

The American Hospital Association,  National  Institutes  of
Health,  and the Veteran's Administration are recognized for
their  assistance  in  the   selection   of   representative
hospitals  who  provided  data relating to RWL and treatment
plant performance.

The cooperation of  the  individual  hospitals  who  offered
their facilties for survey and contributed pertinent data is
gratefully   appreciated.    Facilities   visited  were  the
property of the following:

    Northport V.A. Hospital  (Northport, N.Y.)
    Chester Country Hospital  (West Chester, Pa.)
    National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, Md.)

Furthermore,  the  project   personnel   wish   to   express
appreciation  to the following organizations and individuals
for the valuable assistance which they  provided  throughout
the study:

    Joel Zakin, Northport Operations Engineer
    Norman W. Skillman, President and Director of Chester
                        County Hospital
    Louis Fragel, Chester county Hospital Engineer
    Vinson Oviatt, Chief, NIH Environmental Services Branch
    Donald Dunsmore, NIH Environmental Services Branch
    Charles Betke, Veterans Administration  (Wash., D.C.)
    Edward Bertz, Director, Division of Plant Operations,
                            American Hospital Association
    Goodrich  Stokes, Assistant Director, Division of Federal
                     Liaison, American Hospital Association
                             86
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    Edwin Hoeltke, American Society of Hospital Engineers
    Clyde Sell, Office of Architecture and Engineering, HEW

Acknowledgement  and  appreciation  is also given to Dr. Ray
Loehr for technical assistance, to Ms.  Kay  Starr  and  Ms.
Nancy  Zrubek  for  invaluable  support  in coordinating the
preparation and reproduction of this report,  to  Ms.  Alice
Thompson,  Mr.  Eric  Yunker,  Ms.  Ernestine Christian, Ms.
Laura  Cammarota  and  Ms.  Carol  Swann,  of  the  Effluent
Guidelines  Division  secretarial staff for their efforts in
the  typing  of  drafts,  necessary  revision,   and   final
preparation  of  the  revised  Effluent  Guidelines Division
development document.
                              87
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                         SECTION XV

                        BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hospitals

H-1.     "A  Survey  of  a  Sewage  Treatment  Plant  at   a
         Tuberculosis  Hospital," U.S. Army Medical Research
         and Development Command, June 1959.

H-2.     American Hospital Association; Hospital Statistics;
         197U.

H-3.     "An  Evaluation  of  Persistency  for  Water  Borne
         Organics", Hart, F.L., et.al.; A Paper Presented at
         the 30th Annual Purdue Industrial Waste Conference,
         May  6-8,  1975; Purdue University, West Lafayette,
         Indiana,

H-4.     "Control of Mercury Pollution,"  American  Hospital
         Association, July, 1971.

H-5.     DeRoos, R.L., et.  al.,  Water  Use  in  Biomedical
         Research   and  Health  Care  Facilities,  National
         Institutes of Health, September 197U.

H-6.     "Disposal of Hospital Infectious Solid waste to the
         Sewage System" by Jay G. Kremer, et. al.; James  M.
         Montgomery,  Consulting  Engineers,  Walnut  Creek,
         California;  presented  at  the  Purdue  Industrial
         Waste Water Conference, May 6-8, 1975.

H-7.     "Environmental Health and  Safety  in  Health  Care
         Facilities",  by R. G. Bond, et. al.; University of
         Minnesota, MacMillian Publishing Company, Inc.

H-8.     Gesell,    T.F.,    et.al.,    "Nuclear    Medicine
         Environmental  Discharge  Measurement", draft Final
         Report, University of Texas Health Science  Center,
         Office    of    Radiation   Programs,   U.S.E.P.A.,
         Washington, D.C., June, 1975.

H-9.     Guide to the Health Care Field,  American  Hospital
         Association, 1974.

H-10.    Iglar, A.F. and Bond, R.G.,  Hospital  Solid  Waste
         Disposal in Community Facilities, a synopsis of 310
         articles   by  Division  of  Environmental  Health,
                             89
-------
         School of Public Health, University  of  Minnesota,
         EPA Grant No. EC-00261-04, May 1971.

H-11     Me tabolism of Mercury Compounds in  Microorganisms,
         U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency, Ecological
         Research Series, EPA-600/3-75-007, October 1975.

H-12.    "Physical-Chemical  Treatment  of  Hospital   Waste
         Waters  for  Potential Reuse", by E.S.K. Chian, et.
         al.; Department of Civil Engineering, University of
         Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801; May 6-8, 1975.

H-13.    "Results  of  Survey  on  Utility  Consumption  and
         Mechanical   Space   Requirements,   Water",   U.S.
         Department  of  Health,  Education   and   Welfare,
         Division of Hospital and Medical Facilities, April,
         1964.

H-14.    Singer, R.D., et. al,,  "Hospital  Solid  Waste  an
         Annotated  Bibliography",  EP-00458-02S1,  National
         Environmental Research  Center,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,
         October 1973.

H-15.    "Survey  of  Water  Charge   Practices,"   American
         Hospital Association, 1952.

H-16.    Taber* s   Cyclopedic   Medical   Dictionary,   10th
         Edition;   Taber,   C.W.;   F.A.   Davis   company,
         Philadelphia, Pa., 1965.

H-17.    The Washington Star-News; "The  Hospital  Business:
         An  Industry View"; Friday, August 22, 1975; pp. A-
         1, B-4.

References

GR-1     AICHE Environmental Division;  "Industrial  Process
         Design  for  Pollution Control," Volume 4; October,
         1971.

GR-2     Allen, E.E.; "How to Combat Control  Valve  Noise,"
         Chemical  Engineering  Progress,  Vol.  71,  No. 8;
         August, 1975; pp. 43-55.

GR-3     American  Public   Health   Association;   Standard
         Methods  for  Examination of Water and Waste Water,
         13th Edition; APHA, Washington, D.C.  20036; 1971.
                             90
-------
GR-4     Barnard, J.L.; "Treatment  Cost  Relationships  for
         Industrial  Waste  Treatment,"  Ph.D. Dissertation,
         Vanderbilt University; 1971.

GR-5     Bennett, H., editor; Concise Chemical and Technical
         Dictionary; F.A.I.C. Chemical  Publishing  Company,
         Inc., New York, New York; 1962.

GR-6     Blecker,  H.G.,  and  Cadman,  T.W.;   Capital   and
         Operating  Costs  of  Pollution  Control  Equipment
         Modules, Volume I - User Guide; EPA-R5-73-023a; EPA
         Office of  Research  and  Development,  Washington,
         D.C.  20460; July 1973.

GR-7     Blecker,  H.G.,  and  Nichols,  T.M.;  Capital  and
         Operating  Costs  of  Pollution  Control  Equipment
         Modules, Volume II - Data  Manual;  EPA-R5-73-023b;
         EPA Cffice of Research and Development, Washington,
         D.C.  20460; July, 1973.

GR-8     Bruce, R.D., and Werchan, R.E.; "Noise  Control  in
         the  Petroleum  and  Chemical Industries," Chemical
         Engineering Progress, Vol. 71, No. 8; August, 1975;
         pp. 56-59.

GR-9     Chaffin, C.M.; "Wastewater Stabilization  Ponds  at
         Texas Eastman Company."

GR-10    Chemical Engineering, August  6,  1973;  "Pollution
         Control at the Source."

GR-11    Chemical Engineering,  68   (2),  1961;  "Activated-
         Sludge Process Solvents Waste Problem."

GR-12    Chemical Week, May 9, 1973;  "Making  Hard-to-treat
         Chemical Wastes Evaporate."

GR-13    Cheremisincff, P.N., and Feller, S.M.;  "Wastewater
         Solids Separation," Pollution Engineering.

GR-14    control of Hazardous Material  Spills,  Proceedings
         of  the  1972  National  Conference  on  Control of
         Hazardous Material Spills, Sponsored  by  the  U.S.
         Environmental  Protection  Agency at the University
         of Texas, March 1972.

GR-15    Cook, C.; "Variability in  BOD  Concentration  from
         Biological    Treatment   Plants,"   EPA   internal
         memorandum; March, 1974.
                               91
-------
GR-16    Davis, K.E., and Funk, R.J.;  "Deep Well Disposal of
         Industrial  Waste,"  Industrial   Waste;    January-
         February, 1975.

GR-17    Dean, J.A., editor; Lange' s Handbook of  Chemistry,
         11th  Edition;  McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
         New York; 1973.

GR-18    Eckenfelder, W.W., Jr.; Water  Quality  Engineering
         for  Practicing  Engineers;  Barnes and Noble, Inc.,
         New York, New York; 1970.

GP-19    Eckenfelder, W.W., Jr.;  "Development  of  Operator
         Training Materials," Environmental Science Services
         Corp., Stamford, Conn.; August, 1968.

GP-20    Environmenta1 Science and Technology, Vol.  8,  No.
         10, October, 1971; "Currents-Technology."

GR-21    Fassell, W.M.; Sludge  Disposal  at  a  Profit?,  a
         report  presented  at  the  National  Conference on
         Municipal    Sludge     Management,     Pittsburgh,
         Pennsylvania; June, 1974.

GR-22    Hauser, E.A.,  Colloidal  Phenomena,  1st  Edition,
         McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York; 1939.

GR-23    Iowa  State  University  Department  of  Industrial
         Engineering  and  Engineering  Research  Institute,
         "Estimating  Staff  and  Cost  Factors  for   Small
         Wastewater Treatment Plants Less Than 1 MGD," Parts
         I  and  II;  EPA  Grant  No.  5P2-WP-195-0452; June,
         1973.

GR-24    Iowa  State  University  Department  of  Industrial
         Engineering  and  Engineering  Research  Institute,
         "Staffing Guidelines  for  Conventional  Wastewater
         Treatment  Plants  Less  Than 1 MGD," EPA Grant No.
         5P2-WP-195-0452; June, 1973.

GR-25    Judd,   S.H.;   "Noise   Abatement   in    Existing
         Refineries,"  Chemical  Engineering  Progress, Vol.
         71, No. 8; August, 1975; pp.  31-42.

GR-26    Kent, J.A., editor; Reigel*s Industrial  Chemistry,
         7th  Edition;  Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
         York; 1974.
                               92
-------
GR-27    Kirk-Othmer; Encyclopedia of  Chemical  Technology,
         2nd Edition; Interscience Publishers Division, John
         Wiley and Sons, Inc.

GR-28    Kozlorowski,  B.,  and  Kucharski,  J.;  Industrial
         Waste Disposal; Pergamon Press, New York; 1972.

GR-29    Lindner,   G.   and   K.   Nyberg;    Environmental
         Engineering,  A Chemical Engineering Discipline; D.
         Reidel Publishing  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts
         02116, 1973.

GR-30    Liptak,  E.G.,  editor;  Environmental   Engineers*
         Handbook,  Volume  I, Water Pollution; ChiIton Book
         Company, Radnor, Pa.; 1971.

GR-31    Marshall, G.R. and E.J.  Middlebrook;  Intermittent
         Sand  Filtration  to  Upgrade  Existing  Wastewater
         Treatment Facilities,  PR  JEW  115-2;  Utah  Water
         Research  Laboratory,  College of Engineering, Utah
         State  University,  Logan,  Utah  8U322;  February,
         197U.

GR-32    Martin, J.D., Dutcher, V.D.,  Frieze,  T.R.,  Tapp,
         M.,   and   Davis,   E.M.;   "Waste   Stabilization
         Experiences  at  Union  Carbide,  Seadrift,   Texas
         Plant. "

GR-33    McDermott,  G.N.;  Industrial  Spill  Control   and
         Pollution  Incident  Prevention, J. Water Pollution
         Control Federation, H3  (8) 1629 (1971).

GR-34    Minear,  R.A.,  and  Patterson,  J.W.;   Wastewater
         Treatment   Technology,   2nd   Edition;  State  of
         Illinois  institute  for   Environmental   Quality;
         January, 1973.

GR-35    National Environmental Research Center; "Evaluation
         of Hazardous waste Emplacement in Mined  Openings;"
         NERC Contract No. 68-03-0170; September, 1971.

GR-36    Nemerow, N.L.; Liquid Waste of Industry - Theories,
         Practices and Treatment; Addision-Wesley Pulbishing
         Company, Reading, Massachusetts; 1971.

GR-37    Novak, S.M.; "Biological Waste Stabilization  Ponds
         at Exxon Company, U.S.A. Baytown Refinery and Exxon
         Chemical  Company, U.S.A. Chemical Plant (Divisions
         of Exxon Corporation) Baytown, Texas."
                              93
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GR-38    Oswald, W.J., and Ramani, R.;  "The Fate of Algae in
         Receiving  Waters,"  a  paper  submitted   to   the
         Conference  on  Ponds  as  a  Wastewater  Treatment
         Alternative, University  of  Texas,  Austin;  July,
         1975.

GR-39    Otakie, G.F.; A Guide to  the  Selection  of  Cost-
         effective  Wastewater Treatment Systems; EPA-430/9-
         75-002, Technical Report, U.S. EPA, Office of Water
         Program Operations, Washington, D.C.  20460.

GR-40    Parker, C.L.; Estimating  the  Cost  of  Wastewater
         Treatment  Ponds;  Pollution Engineering, November,
         1975.

GR-41    Parker,  W.P.;  Wastewater   Systems   Engineering,
         Prentice-Hall,  Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
         1975.

GR-42    Parker, D.S.;  "Performance  of  Alternative  Algae
         Removal   Systems,"   a  report  submitted  to  the
         Conference  on  Ponds  as  a  Wastewater  Treatment
         Alternative,  University  of  Texas,  Austin; July,
         1975.

GR-43    Perry, J.H., et. al.; Chemical Engineers' Handbook,
         5th Edition; McGraw-Hill Book  Company,  New  York,
         New York; 1973.

GR-U4    Public Law 92-500, 92nd Congress,  S.2770;  October
         18, 1972.

GR-45    Quirk, T.P.; "Application of Computerized  Analysis
         to Comparative Costs of Sludge Dewatering by Vacuum
         Filtration   and   Centrifugation,"   Proc.,   23rd
         Industrial  Waste  Conference,  Purdue  University;
         1968; pp. 69-709.

GR-46    Riley,  B.T.,   Jr.;   The   Relationship   Between
         Temperature   ajrid   the  Design  and  Operation  of
         Biological Waste Treatment Plants, submitted to the
         Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA; April, 1975.

GR-47    Rose, A., and  Rose,  E.;  The  Condensed  Chemical
         Dictionary,   6th   Edition;   Reinhold  Publishing
         Corporation, New York; 1961.

GR-U8    Rudolfs, W.; Industrial Wastes, Their Disposal  and
         Treatment;  Reinhold  Publishing  Corporation,  New
         York;  1953.
                              94
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GR-49    Sax,  N.I.;  Dangerous  Properties  of   Industrial
         Material,   4th   Edition;  Van  Nostrand  Reinhold
         Company, New York; 1975.

GR-50    Seabrook, B.L.; Cost  of  Wastewater  Treatment  by
         Land   Application;   EPA-430/9-75-003,   Technical
         Report;  U.S.  EPA,   Office   of   Water   Program
         Operations, Washington, E.C.  20460.

GR-51    Shreve, R.N.; Chemical  Process  Industries,  Third
         Edition; McGraw-Hill, New York; 1967.

GR-52    Spill Prevention Techniques for Hazardous Polluting
         Substances,   OHM   7102001;   U.S.   Environmental
         Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460; February
         1971.

GR-53    Stecher,  P.G.,  editor;  The   Merck   Index,   An
         Encyclopedia  of  Chemicals and Drugs, 8th Edition;
         Merck and Company, Inc., Rahway, New Jersey; 1968.

GR-54    Swanson,  C.L.;   "Unit   Process   Operating   and
         Maintenance  Costs for Conventional Waste Treatment
         Plants;11 FWQA, Cincinnati, Ohio; June, 1968.

GR-55    U.S. Department of Health, Education, and  Welfare;
         "Interaction  of Heavy Metals and Biological Sewage
         Treatment Processes," Environmental Health  Series;
         HEW  Office  of Water Supply and Pollution Control,
         Washington, D.C.; May, 1965.

GR-56    U.S. Department of the  Interior;  "Cost  of  Clean
         Water,"  Industrial  Waste  Profile No. _3; Dept. of
         Int. GWQA, Washington, D.C.; November, 1967.

GR-57    U.S.  EPA;  Process  Design  Manual  for  Upgrading
         Existing  Waste  Water  Treatment  Plants, U.S. EPA
         Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.   20460;
         October, 1974.

GR-58    U.S. EPA; Monitoring Industrial Waste  Water,  U.S.
         EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA,  Washington,  D.C.
         20460; August, 1973.

GR-59    U.S. EPA; Methods for Chemical  Analysis  of  Water
         and  Wastes,  U.S.  EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA
         625/6-74-003; Washington, D.C.  20460; 1974.

GR-60    U.S. EPA; Handbook for Analytical  Quality  Control
         in  Water  and  Waste  Water Laboratories, U.S. EPA
                              95
-------
         Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.   20460;
         June, 1972.

GR-61    U.S. EPA;  Process  Design  Manual  for  Phosphorus
         Removal,   U.S.   EPA   Technology  Transfer;  EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20160; October, 1971.

GR-62    U.S.  EPA;  Process  Design  Manual  for  Suspended
         Solids  Removal,  U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA
         625/1-75-003a, Washington,  D.C.   20460;  January,
         1975.

GR-63    U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Sulfide Control
         in Sanitary Sewerage Systems, U.S.  EPA  Technology
         Transfer;  EPA,  Washington,  D.C.  20460; October,
         1974.

GR-64    U.S.  EPA;  Process  Design   Manual   for   Carbon
         Adsorption,  U.S.  EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; October, 1973.

GR-65    U.S.  EPA;  Process  Design   Manual   for   Sludge
         Treatment   and   Disposal,   U.S.  EPA  Technology
         Transfer;  EPA   625/1-74-006,   Washington,   D.C.
         20460; October, 1974.

GR-66    U.S.  EPA;  Effluent  Limitations  Guidelines   and
         Standards of Performance, Metal Finishing Industry,
         Draft  Development  Document;  EPA 440/1-75/040 and
         EPA 440/1-75/040a; EPA  Office  of  Air  and  Water
         Programs, Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington,
         D.C.  20460; April, 1975.

GR-67    U.S.  EPA;  Development   Document   for   Effluent
         Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
         -  Organic  Chemicals  Industry; EPA 440/1-74/009a;
         EPA Office of  Air  and  Water  Programs,  Effluent
         Guidelines   Division,   Washington,  D.C.   20460;
         April, 1974.

GR-68    U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document  for  Effluent
         Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
             Steam   Supply  and  Noncontact  Cooling  Water
         Industries; EPA Office of Air and  Water  Programs,
         Effluent   Guidelines  Division,  Washington,  D.C.
         20460; October, 1974.

GR-69    U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document  for  Effluent
         Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
         -  Organic Chemicals Industry, Phase II Prepared by
                              96
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         Roy F. Western, Inc. under EPA Contract  No.  68-01-
         1509;   EPA  Office  of  Air  and  Water  Programs,
         Effluent  Guidelines  Division,  Washington,   D.C.
         20460; February, 1974.

GR-70    U.S. EPA; Evaluation of Land  Application  Systems,
         Technical    Bulletin;   EPA   430/9-75-001;   EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20160; March, 1975.

GR-71    U.S. EPA; "Projects  in  the  Industrial  Pollution
         Control    Division,"    Environmental   Protection
         Technology   Series;   EPA    600/2-75-001;    EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; December, 1974.

GR-72    U.S. EPA;  Wastewater  Sampling  Methodologies  and
         Flow  Measurement Technigues; EPA 907/9-74-005; EPA
         Surveillance and Analysis,  Region  VII,  Technical
         Support Branch; June, 1974.

GR-73    U.S. EFA; A Primer on Waste  Water  Treatment;  EPA
         Water Quality Office; 1971.

GR-74    U.S. EPA; Compilation of Municipal  and  Industrial
         In-jection Wells in the United States; EPA 520/9-74-
         020;  Vol.  I and II; EPA, Washington, D.C.  20460;
         1974.

GR-75    U.S. EPA; "Upgrading Lagoons," U.S. EPA  Technology
         Transfer;  EPA,  Washington,  E.G.   20460; August,
         1973.

GR-76    U.S.  EPA;   "Nitrification   and   Denitrification
         Facilities,"  U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; August,
         1973.

GR-77    U.S.  EPA;  "Physical-Chemical  Nitrogen  Removal,"
         U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.
         20460; July, 1974.

GR-78    U.S. EPA; "Physical-Chemical  Wastewater  Treatment
         Plant  Design,"  U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; August, 1973.

GR-79    U.S.  EPA;  "Oxygen  Activated  Sludge   Wastewater
         Treatment  Systems,  Design  Criteria and Operating
         Experience," U.S.  EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; August, 1973.
                              97
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GR-80    U.S.    EPA;    Wastewater    Filtration     Design
         Considerations;  U.S. EPA Technology Transfer;  EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460;  July, 1974.

GR-81    U.S. EPA; "Flow Equalization," U.S.  EPA  Technology
         Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460;  May, 1974.

GR-82    U.S. EPA; "Procedural  Manual  for  Evaluating  the
         Performance  of  Wastewater Treatment Plants,"  U.S.
         EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA,  Washington,  D.C.
         20460.

GR-83    U.S. EPA;  Pretreatment  of_  Pollutants  Introduced
         Into  Publicly Owned Treatment Works; EPA Office of
         Water Program Operations, Washington, D.C.   20460;
         October, 1973.

GR-84    U.S.   Government   Printing    Office;    Standard
         Industrial    Classification   Manual;    Government
         Printing Office, Washington, D.C.  20492; 1972.

GR-85    U.S. EPA; Tertiary Treatment of  Combined  Domestic
         and    Industrial   Wastes,   EPA-R2-73-236,   EPA,
         Washington, D.C. 20460; May, 1973.

GR-86    Wang,  Lawrence   K.;   Environmental   Engineering
         Glossary (Draft) Calspan Corporation, Environmental
         Systems Division, Buffalo, New York 14221, 1974.

GR-87    Water Quality Criteria 1972, EPA-R-73-033, National
         Academy  of  Sciences  and  National   Academy   of
         Engineering;  U.S.  Government Printing Office, No.
         5501-00520, March, 1973.

GR-88    Weast, R., editor; CRC Handbook  of  Chemistry  and
         Physics,  54th  Edition; CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio
         44128; 1973-1974.

GR-89    Weber,   C.I.,   editor;   Biological   Field   and
         Laboratory  Methods  for  Measuring  the Quality of
         Surface  Waters   and   Effluents,"   Environmental
         Monitoring    Series;    EPA   670/4-73-001;   EPA,
         Cincinnati, Ohio  45268; July, 1973.

GR-90    APHA, ASCE, AWWA, and WPCF, Glossary of_  Water  and
         Wastewater Control Engineering, American Society of
         Civil Engineers, New York, 1969.

GR-91    Bailey, W. Robert and Scott,  Elvyn  G;  Diagnostic
         Microbiology,   4th Edition; The C.V. Mosby Company,
         St. Louis; 1974.
                           98
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                        SECTION XVI

                          GLOSSARY

Hospitals

Amalgam.   Any  alloy of mercury with another metal or other
metals.  Silver amalgam is used as a dental filling.

Autoclave.  A heavy vessel with thick walls  for  conducting
chemical  reactions  under high pressure.  Also an apparatus
using steam under pressure for sterilization.

Cathartic.  A medicine for  stimulating  evacuation  of  the
bowels.

Catheter.   A  slender  tube inserted into the body passage,
vessel or cavity for passing  fluids,  making  examinations,
etc.

Culture.  A mass of microorganisms growing in a media.

Developer.   A  chemical  used  to produce a picture from an
exposed film, plate or printing paper.

Diagnostic Services.  The processing or deciding the  nature
of a diseased condition by examination of the symptoms.

Diuretic.  A drug used to increase the secretion and flow of
urine.

Fixer  Solution.   A  chemical  used  to render photographic
emulsions insensitive to light.

Geriatric Hospital.  A  facility  that  specializes  in  the
treatment of diseases of old age.

"Hypo".  A synonym for fixer solution.

Orthopedic  Hospital.   A  facility  that specializes in the
treatment of deformities,  diseases,  and  injuries  of  the
bones, joints, muscles, etc.

Pathological  Wastes.   Waste  material  that is potentially
infected.

Radiograph.  A picture produced  on  a  sensitized  film  or
plate by x-rays.
                              99
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Sterilization.    The  complete  destuction  of  all  living
organisms in or on a medium; heat to 121°C at 15 psig for  15
minutes.

Tablet.  A small, disc-like mass of medicinal powder used as
a dosage form for administering medicine.

Tissue   Fixative.   A  chemical  used  to  preserve  tissue
material for subsequent examination.

Viruses.    (1)    An   obligate   intracellular    parasitic
microorganism  smaller than bacteria.  Most can pass through
filters that retain bacteria.   (2) The smallest  (10-300  urn
in   diameter)  form  capable  of  producing  infection  and
diseases in man or other  large  species.   Occurring  in  a
variety  of  shapes,  viruses consist of a nucleic acid core
surrounded by an outer  shell   (capsid)   which  consists  of
numerous  protein subunits  (capsomeres).  Some of the larger
viruses contain additional chemical  substances.    The  true
viruses  are insensitive to antibiotics.  They multiply only
in  living  cells  where  they  are  assembled  as   complex
macromolecules  utilizing  the  cells*  biochemical systems.
They  do  not  multiply  by  division  as  do  intracellular
bacteria.
General Definitions

Abatement.   The  measures  taken  to  reduce  or  eliminate
pollution.

Absorption.  A process in which one material (the absorbent)
takes up  and  retains  another  (the  absorbate)  with  the
formation  of a homogeneous mixture having the attributes of
a solution.   Chemical  reaction  may  accompany  or  follow
absorption.

Acclimation«  The ability of an organism to adapt to changes
in its immediate environment.

Acid.   A  substance  which  dissolves  in  water  with  the
formation of hydrogen ions.

Acid Solution.  A solution with a pH of less  than  7.00  in
which  the  activity of the hydrogen ion is greater than the
activity of the hydrcxyl ion.

Acidity.  The capacity of a wastewater  for  neutralizing  a
base.  It is normally associated with the presence of carton
dioxide, mineral and organic acids and salts of strong acids
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or  weak  bases.   It  is  reported  as  equivalent of
because many times it is  not  known  just  what  acids  are
present.

Acidulate*  To make somewhat acidic.

Act.   The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972, Public Law 92-500.

Activated  Carbon.   Carbon  which  is  treated   by   high-
temperature  heating  with steam or carbon dioxide producing
an internal porous particle structure.

Activated Sludge  Process.   A  process  which  removes  the
organic  matter  from  sewage  by saturating it with air and
biologically  active  sludge.    The   recycle   "activated"
microoganisms  are  able  to  remove  both  the  soluble and
colloidal organic material from the wastewater.

Adsorption.  An advanced method of treating wastes in  which
a material removes organic matter not necessarily responsive
to clarification or biological treatment by adherence on the
surface of solid bodies.

Adsorption   Isotherm.    A  plot  used  in  evaluating  the
effectiveness of activated carbon treatment by  showing  the
amount  of  impurity  adsorbed  versus the amount remaining.
They are determined at a constant temperature by varying the
amount of carbon used or the concentration of  the  impurity
in contact with the carbon.

Advance  Waste  Treatment.   Any treatment method or process
employed following  biological  treatment  to  increase  the
removal  of pollution load, to remove substances that may be
deleterious to receiving waters or  the  environment  or  to
produce  a  high-quality  effluent suitable for reuse in any
specific manner or for discharge under critical  conditions.
The  term  tertiary  treatment  is  commonly  used to denote
advanced waste treatment methods.

Aeration.   (1)  The  bringing  about  of  intimate  contact
between  air  and  a liquid by one of the following methods:
spraying the liquid in the air,  bubbling  air  through  the
liquid,  or  agitation  of  the  liquid  to  promote surface
absorption of air.   (2)  The  process  or  state  of  being
supplied  or  impregnated  with  air;  in waste treatment, a
process in which liquid from the primary clarifier is  mixed
with compressed air and with biologically active sludge.
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Aeration   Period.    (1)    The  theoretical  time,  usually
expressed in hours, that the mixed liquor  is  subjected  to
aeration  in  an  aeration  tank undergoing activated-sludge
treatment.  It is equal to the volume of the tank divided by
the volumetric rate of flow of  wastes  and  return  sludge.
(2)  The  theoretical  time  that  liquids  are subjected to
aeration.

Aeration Tank.  A vessel for injecting air into the water.

Aerobic.  Ability to live, grow, or take  place  only  where
free oxygen is present.

Aerobic   Biological  Oxidation.   Any  waste  treatment  or
process utilizing aerobic organisms, in the presence of  air
or  oxygen,  as  agents  for  reducing the pollution load or
oxygen demand of organic substances in waste.

Aerobic Digestion.  A process in which microorganisms obtain
energy by endogenous or  auto-oxidation  of  their  cellular
protoplasm.   The  biologically  degradable  constituents of
cellular material are slowly  oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide,
water  and ammonia, with the ammonia being further converted
into nitrates during the process.

Algae.  One-celled  or  many-celled  plants  which  grow  in
sunlit waters and which are capable of photosynthesis.  They
are  a food for fish and small aquatic animals and, like all
plants, put oxygen in the water.

Algicide.  Chemical agent used to destroy or control algae.

Alkali.  A water-soluble  metallic  hydroxide  that  ionizes
strongly.

Alkalinity.   The  presence  of salts of alkali metals.  The
hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates of  calcium,  sodium
and  magnesium  are common impurities that cause alkalinity.
A  quantitative  measure  of  the  capacity  of  liquids  or
suspensions  to  neutralize  strong  acids  or to resist the
establishment of acidic conditions.  Alkalinity results from
the  presence   of  bicarbonates,  carbonates,   hydroxides,
volatile  acids,  salts  and  occasionally  borates  and  is
usually expressed in terms of the concentration  of  calcium
carbonate   that   would  have  an  equivalent  capacity  to
neutralize strong acids.

Alum.  A hydrated aluminum  sulfate  or  potassium  aluminum
sulfate  or  ammonium  aluminum  sulfate  which is used as a
settling agent.  A coagulant.
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Ammonia Nitrogen.  A gas  released  by  the  microbiological
decay  of  plant and animal proteins.  When ammonia nitrogen
is  found  in  waters,  it  is  indicative   of   incomplete
treatment.

Ammonia  Stripping.   A modification of the aeration process
for removing gases in water.  Ammonium  ions  in  wastewater
exist  in equilibrium with ammonia and hydrogen ions.  As pH
increases, the equilibrium shifts to the right, and above pH
9 ammonia may  be  liberated  as  a  gas  by  agitating  the
wastewater  in the presence of air.  This is usually done in
a packed tower with an air blower.

Ammonification.  The process in which ammonium is  liberated
from organic compounds by microoganisms.

Anaerobic.  Ability to live, grow, or take place where there
is no air or free oxygen present.

Anaerobic  Biological  Treatment.   Any  treatment method or
process utilizing anaerobic or facultative organisms, in the
absence of air, for the  purpose  of  reducing  the  organic
matter in wastes or organic solids settled out from wastes.

Anaerobic Digestion.  Biodegradable materials in primary and
excess  activated sludge are stabilized by being oxidized to
carbon dioxide,  methane  and  other  inert  products.   The
primary  digester  serves  mainly  to  reduce VSS, while the
secondary digester is mainly for  solids-liquid  separation,
sludge thickening and storage.

Anion.  Ion with a negative charge.

Antagonistic  Effect.    The  simultaneous action of separate
agents mutually opposing each other.

Antibiotic.  A substance produced by a living organism which
has power to inhibit the multiplication of, or  to  destroy,
other organisms, especially bacteria.

Aqueous Solution.  One containing water or watery in nature.

Aquifer.   A  geologic  formation  or  stratum that contains
water  and  transmits  it  from  one  point  to  another  in
quantities   sufficient   to   permit  economic  development
(capable of yielding an appreciable supply of water).

Aqueous Solution.  One containing water or watery in nature.
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Arithmetic Mean.  The arithmetic mean of a number  of  items
is  obtained  by  adding all the items together and dividing
the total by the number of items.  It is  frequently  called
the average.  It is greatly affected by extreme values.

Azeotrope.   A  liquid  mixture  that  is characterized by a
constant minimum or maximum boiling point which is lower  or
higher  than that of any of the components and that distills
without change in composition.

Backwashinq.  The  process  of  cleaning  a  rapid  sand  or
mechanical filter by reversing the flow of water.

Bacteria.   Unicellular,  plant-like microorganisms, lacking
chlorophyll.  Any water supply  contaminated  by  sewage  is
certain to contain a bacterial group called "coliform",

B at eria, Coliform Group.  A group of bacteria, predominantly
inhabitants  of  the  intestine  of  man  but  also found on
vegetation, including all aerobic and facultative  anaerobic
gram-negative, non-sporeforming bacilli that ferment lactose
with  gas  formation.   This  group  includes five tribes of
which  the  very  great  majority  are  Eschericheae.    The
Eschericheae  tribe  comprises three genera and ten species,
of which  Escherichia  Coli  and  Aerobacter  Aerogenes  are
dominant.   The  Escherichia  Coli are normal inhabitants of
the intestine of man and all vertbrates  whereas  Aerobacter
Aerogenes  normally  are found on grain and plants, and only
to a varying degree in the intestine  of  man  and  animals.
Formerly  referred  to  as B. Coli, B. Coli group, and Coli-
Aerogenes Group.

Bacterial Growth.   All  bacteria  require  food  for  their
continued  life  and  growth  and  all  are  affected by the
conditions of their environment.  Like  human  beings,  they
consume food, they respire, they need moisture, they require
heat,   and  they  give  off  waste  products.   Their  food
requirements are very definite and have  been,  in  general,
already  outlined.   Without  an adequate food supply of the
type the specific organism requires, bacteria will not  grow
and  multiply at their maximum rate and they will therefore,
not perform their full and complete functions.

(BADCT) NSPS  Effluent  Limitations.   Limitations  for  new
sources  which  are  based  on  the  application of the Best
Available Demonstrated Control Technology.  See NSPS.

Base.  A substance that in aqueous solution turns red litmus
blue, furnishes hydroxyl ions and reacts  with  an  acid  to
form a salt and water only.
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Batch  Process.  A process which has an intermittent flow of
raw materials into the process and a resultant  intermittent
flow of product from the process.

(BATEA)  BAT  Effluent  Limitations.   Limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned  treatment  works,  which
are   based   on  the  application  of  the  Best  Available
Technology Economically Achievable.  These limitations  must
be achieved by July 1, 1983.

Benthic.  Attached to the bottom of a body of water.

Benthos.   Organisms  (fauna  and  flora)   that  live on the
bottoms of bodies of water.

B_io_assay_.  An assessment  which  is  made  by  using  living
organisms as the sensors.

Biochemical  Oxygen  Demand  (BOD).  A measure of the oxygen
required to oxidize the organic  material  in  a  sample  of
wastewater  by  natural  biological  process  under standard
conditions.  This test is presently universally accepted  as
the  yardstick  of  pollution  and is utilized as a means to
determine the degree  of  treatment  in  a  waste  treatment
process.   Usually  given  in  mg/1  (or ppm units), meaning
milligrams of oxygen required per liter  of  wastewater,  it
can also be expressed in pounds of total oxygen required per
wastewater  or  sludge batch.  The standard BOD is five days
at 20 degrees C.

Biota.  The flora and fauna  (plant and  animal  life)  of  a
stream or other water body.

Biological   Treatment   System.    A   system   that   uses
microorganisms to remove organic pollutant material  from  a
wastewater.

Slowdown.   Water intentionally discharged from a cooling or
heating   system   to   maintain   the   dissolved    solids
concentration  of  the  circulating  water  below a specific
critical level.  The removal of a  portion  of  any  process
flow to maintain the constituents of the flow within desired
levels.   Process may be intermittent or continuous.  2) The
water discharged from a boiler or cooling tower  to  dispose
of accumulated salts.

BOD5.   Biochemical  Oxygen  Demand  (BOD)  is the amount of
oxygen required by bacteria while  stabilizing  decomposable
organic  matter  under aerobic conditions.  The BOD test has
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been developed on the basis of  a  5-day  incubation  period
(i.e. BOD5) .

Boiler Slowdown.  Wastewater resulting from purging of solid
and  waste materials from the boiler system.  A solids build
up in concentration as a result of water evaporation  (steam
generation)  in the boiler.

(BPCTCA)  BPT  Effluent  Limitations.  Limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned  treatment  works,  which
are based on the application of the Best Practicable Control
Technology  Currently  Available.  These limitations must be
achieved by July 1, 1977.

Break Point.  The point at which impurities first appear  in
the effluent of a granular carbon adsorption bed.

Break   Point  Chlorination.   The  addition  of  sufficient
chlorine to destroy or oxidize all substances that creates a
chlorine demand with an excess amount remaining in the  free
residual state.

Brine.  Water saturated with a salt.

Buffer.   A  solution  containing either a weak acid and its
salt or a weak base  and  its  salt  which  thereby  resists
changes in acidity or basicity, resists cha.nges in pH.

Carbohydrate.   A  compound  of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
usually having hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of  two
to one.

Carbonaceous.  Containing or composed of carbon.

Catalyst.   A substance which changes the rate of a chemical
reaction but undergoes no permanent chemical change itself.

Cation.   The  ion  in  an  electrolyte  which  carries  the
positive  charge and which migrates toward the cathode under
the influence of a potential difference.

Caustic Soda.  In its hydrated  form  it  is  called  sodium
hydroxide.  Soda ash is sodium carbonate.

Cellulose.   The  fibrous  constituent of trees which is the
principal raw material of paper  and  paperboard.   Commonly
thought of as a fibrous material of vegetable origin.

Centrate.   The  liquid  fraction that is separated from the
solids fraction of a slurry through centrifugation.
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Centrifugation.  The process of separating heavier materials
from lighter ones  through  the  employment  of  centrifugal
force.

Centrifuge.   An apparatus that rotates at high speed and by
centrifugal  force   separates   substances   of   different
densities.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COC).  A measure of oxygen-consuming
capacity of organic and inorganic matter present in water or
wastewater.   It  is  expressed  as  the  amount  of  oxygen
consumed from a chemical oxidant in  a  specific  test.   It
does  not  differentiate between stable and unstable organic
matter and thus does not correlate with  biochemical  oxygen
demand.

Chemical  Synthesis.   The processes of chemically combining
two or more constituent substances into a single substance.

Chlorination.  The application of chlorine to water,  sewage
or   industrial   wastes,   generally  for  the  purpose  of
disinfection  but   frequently   for   accomplishing   other
biological or chemical results.

Clarification.   Process of removing turbidity and suspended
solids by settling.  Chemicals can be added to  improve  and
speed up the settling process through coagulation.

Clarifier.   A  basin  or  tank  in  which  a portion of the
material suspended in a wastewater is settled.

Clays.  Aluminum silicates less than  0.002mm  (2.0  urn)  in
size.   Therefore,  most  clay  types  can go into colloidal
suspension.

Coagulation.  The clumping together of solids to  make  them
settle  out  of the sewage faster.  Coagulation of solids is
brought about with the use of  certain  chemicals,  such  as
lime, alum or polyelectrolytes.

Coagulation   and   Flocculation.   Processes  which  follow
sequentially.

Coagulation Chemicals.  Hydrolyzable divalent and  trivalent
metallic  ions of aluminum, magnesium, and iron salts.  They
include alum  (aluminum sulfate) , quicklime (calcium  oxide),
hydrated  lime (calcium hydroxide), sulfuric acid, anhydrous
ferric chloride.  Lime and acid affect only the solution  pH
which  in  turn causes coagulant precipitation, such as that
of magnesium.
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Coliform.  Those bacteria which are most abundant in  sewage
and  in  streams  containing  feces  and  other bodily waste
discharges.  See bacteria, coliform group.

Ccliform Organisms.   A  group  of  bacteria  recognized  as
indicators of fecal pollution.

Colloid.  A finely divided dispersion of one material (0.01-
10  micron-sized  particles),  called  the "dispersed phase"
(solid), in another material, called the "dispersion medium"
(liquid).

Color Bodies.  Those complex molecules which impart color to
a solution.

Color Units.  A solution with the color of unity contains  a
mg/1    of    metallic    platinum   (added   as   potassium
chloroplatinate  to  distilled  water).   Color  units   are
defined against a platinum-cobalt standard and are based, as
are  all  the  other  water  quality  criteria,  upon  those
analytical methods described in  Standard  Methods  for  the
Examination  of  Water  and Wastewater, 12 ed., Amer. Public
Health Assoc., N.Y., 1967.

Combined Sewer.  One which carries  both  sewage  and  storm
water run-off.

Composite  Sample.   A  combination of individual samples of
wastes taken at selected intervals, generally hourly for  21
hours,   to   minimize  the  effect  of  the  variations  in
individual  samples.   Individual  samples  making  up   the
composite  may  be of equal volume or be roughly apportioned
to the volume of flow of liquid at the time of sampling.

Composting.  The biochemical stabilization of  solid  wastes
into  a humus-like substance by producing and controlling an
optimum environment for the process.

Concentration.  The total mass of the suspended or dissolved
particles contained in a unit volume at a given  temperature
and pressure.

Con duct ivit y.    A   reliable   measurement  of  electrolyte
concentration  in  a   water   sample.    The   conductivity
measurement can be related to the concentration of dissolved
solids  and  is  almost  directly  proportional to the ionic
concentration of the total electrolytes.
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Contact Stabilization.  Aerobic digestion.

Contact Process Wastewaters.   These  are  process-generated
wastewaters  which  have  come in direct or indirect contact
with the reactants used in the process.  These include  such
streams as contact cooling water, filtrates, centrates, wash
waters, etc.

Continuous  Process.  A process which has a constant flow of
raw materials into the process and resultant  constant  flow
of product from the process.

Contract  Disposal.   Disposal  of waste products through an
outside party for a fee.

Cryogenic.  Having to do with extremely low temperatures.

Crystallization.  The formation of solid particles within  a
homogeneous phase.  Formation of crystals separates a solute
from  a  solution  and generally leaves impurities behind in
the mother liquid.

Curie.  3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second within a given
guantity of material.

Degreasing.  The process of removing greases and  oils  from
sewage, waste and sludge.

Demineralization.  The total removal of all ions.

Denitrification.  Bacterial mediated reduction of nitrate to
nitrite.   Other bacteria may act on the nitrite reducing it
to ammonia and finally N2 gas.  This  reduction  of  nitrate
occurs  under  anaerobic  conditions.   The nitrate replaces
oxygen as an electron  acceptor  during  the  metabolism  of
carbon  compounds  under anaerobic conditions.  A biological
process in which gaseous nitrogen is produced  from  nitrite
and   nitrate.    The   heterotrophic   microoganisms  which
participate   in   this   process   include   pseudomonades,
achromobacters and bacilli.

Derivative.   A  substance  extracted  from  another body or
substance.

Desorption.  The opposite of adsorption.   A phenomenon where
an adsorbed molecule leaves the surface of the adsorbent.

Diluent.  A diluting agent.
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Disinfection.  The process of  killing  the  larger  portion
(but  not  necessarily all) of the harmful and objectionable
microorganisms in or on a medium.

Dissolved Air Flotation.   The  term  "flotation"  indicates
something  floated  on  or  at  the  surface  of  a  liquid.
Dissolved air flotation thickening is a  process  that  adds
energy  in the form of air bubbles, which become attached to
suspended sludge particles, increasing the buoyancy  of  the
particles and producing more positive flotation.

Dissolved  Oxygen  (DO) .   The  oxygen  dissolved in sewage,
water  or  other  liquids,  usually  expressed   either   in
milligrams  per  liter  or percent of saturation.  It is the
test used in EOD determination.

Distillation.  The separation, by vaporization, of a  liquid
mixture  of  miscible and volatile substance into individual
components, or, in some cases, into a group  of  components.
The  process  of  raising the temperature of a liquid to the
boiling point and condensing the resultant vapor  to  liquid
form  by  cooling.   It  is used to remove substances from a
liquid or to obtain a pure liquid from  one  which  contains
impurities  or  which is a mixture of several liquids having
different boiling temperatures.  Used in  the  treatment  of
fermentation  products,  yeast,  etc.,  and  other wastes to
remove recoverable products.

DC Units.  The units of measurement used are milligrams  per
liter  (mg/1)  and  parts  per  million  (ppm), where mg/1 is
defined as the actual weight of oxygen per  liter  of  water
and  ppm  is  defined  as  the parts actual weight of oxygen
dissolved in a million parts weight of water, i.e., a  pound
of  oxygen  in  a  million  pounds  of  water is 1 ppm.  For
practical purposes in pollution control work, these two  are
used  interchangeably; the density of water is so close to 1
g/cm3 that the error is negligible.  Similarly, the  changes
in   volume  of  oxygen  with  changes  in  temperature  are
insignificant.  This, however, is not true  if  sensors  are
calibrated in percent saturation rather than in mg/1 or ppm.
In  that case, both temperature and barometric pressure must
be taken into consideration.

Dual Media.  A  deep-bed  filtration  system  utilizing  two
separate  and  discrete  layers  of  dissimilar media  (e.g.,
anthracite and sand) placed one  on  top  of  the  other  to
perform the filtration function.

Ecology.   The  science of the interrelations between living
organisms and their environment.
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Effluent.   A  liquid  which  leaves  a  unit  operation  or
process.   Sewage,  water  or  other  liquids,  partially or
completely treated or in their natural states,  flowing  out
of  a  reservoir  basin,  treatment  plant or any other unit
operation.  An influent is the incoming stream.

Elution.  (1) The process of washing out, or  removing  with
the  use of a solvent.  (2) In an ion exchange process it is
defined as the  stripping  of  adsorbed  ions  from  an  ion
exchange  resin  by  passing  through  the  resin  solutions
containing other ions in relatively high concentrations.

Elutriation.  A process of sludge conditioning  whereby  the
sludge is washed, either with fresh water or plant effluent,
to  reduce  the  sludge  alkalinity and fine particles, thus
decreasing the  amount  of  required  coagulant  in  further
treatment steps, or in sludge dewatering.

Emulsion.   Emulsion is a suspension of fine droplets of one
liquid in another.

Entrainment Separator.  A device  to  remove  liquid  and/or
solids  from a gas stream.  Energy source is usually derived
from pressure drop to create centrifugal force.

Environment.   The  sum  of  all  external  influences   and
conditions  affecting  the  life  and  the development of an
organism.

Equalization Basin.  A holding basin in which variations  in
flow  and composition of a liquid are averaged.  Such basins
are used to provide a flow of reasonably uniform volume  and
composition to a treatment unit.

Eutrophication.   The  process  in which the life-sustaining
quality of a body of water  is  lost  or  diminished  (e.g.,
aging or filling in of lakes) .  A eutrophic condition is one
in  which  the water is rich in nutrients but has a seasonal
oxygen deficiency.

Evapotranspiration.  The loss of water from the soil both by
evaporation and by transpiration  from  the  plants  growing
thereon.

Facultative.   Having  the  power  to  live  under different
conditons (either with or without oxygen).

Facultative  Lagoon.   A  combination  of  the  aerobic  and
anaerobic  lagoons.   It  is  divided by loading and thermal
stratifications into an aerobic  surface  and  an  anaerobic
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bottom,  therefore  the  principles  of both the aerobic and
anaerobic processes apply.

Fatty Acids.  An organic acid  obtained  by  the  hydrolysis
(saponification) of natural fats and oils, e.g., stearic and
palmitic  acids.   These  acids are monobasic and may or may
not contain some double bonds.  They usually contain sixteen
or more carbon atoms.

Fauna.  The animal life adapted for living  in  a  specified
environment.

Fermentation.  Oxidative decomposition of complex substances
through  the  action  of  enzymes  or  ferments  produced by
microorganisms.

F i11 e r, T ri ck1inq.  A filter consisting of an artificial bed
of coarse material, such as broken stone,  clinkers,  slate,
slats or brush, over which sewage is distributed and applied
in  drops,  films  for spray, from troughs, drippers, moving
distributors or fixed nozzles.  The sewage trickles  through
to  the underdrains and has the opportunity to form zoogleal
slimes which clarify and oxidize the sewage.

Filter, Vacuum.  A filter consisting of a  cylindrical  drum
mounted  on  a  horizontal  axis  and  covered with a filter
cloth.  The filter revolves with a  partial  submergence  in
the  liquid,  and a vacuum is maintained under the cloth for
the larger part of each revolution to extract moisture.  The
cake is scraped off continuously.

Filtrate.  The liquid fraction that is  separated  from  the
solids fraction of a slurry through filtration.

Filtration,  Biological.   The  process  of passing a liquid
through a biological filter containing media on the surfaces
of which zoogleal films develop that absorb and adsorb  fine
suspended,  colloidal  and dissolved solids and that release
various biochemical end products.

Flocculants.  Those water-soluble  organic  polyelectrolytes
that  are  used  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  inorganic
coagulants  such  as  lime,  alum  or  ferric  chloride   or
coagulant  aids  to  agglomerate solids suspended in aqueous
systems or both. The large dense floes resulting  front  this
process  permit  more rapid and more efficient solids-liquid
separations.
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Flocculation.  The formation of  floes.   The  process  step
following   the  coagulation-precipitation  reactions  which
consists of bringing together the colloidal  particles.   It
is  the  agglomeration  by  organic  polyelectroytes  of the
small, slowly settling floes formed during coagulation  into
large floes which settle rapidly.

Flora.  The plant life characteristic of a region.

Flotation.   A  method  of  raising  suspended matter to the
surface of the liquid in a tank as scum-by aeration, vacuum,
evolution of gas, chemicals, electrolysis, heat or bacterial
decomposition and the subsequent  removal  of  the  scum  by
skimming.

Fractionation  (or Fractional Distillation).  The separation
of constituents,  or  group  of  constituents,  of  a  liquid
mixture  of miscible and volatile substances by vaporization
and recondensing at specific boiling point ranges.

Fungus.  A vegetable  cellular  organism  that  subsists  on
organic material, such as bacteria.

Gland.   A  device  utilizing a soft wear-resistant material
used to minimize leakage between a rotating  shaft  and  the
stationary portion of a vessel such as a pump.

Gland  Water.   Water  used to lubricate a gland.  Sometimes
called "packing water."

Grab Sample.  (1)  Instantaneous  sampling.   (2)  A  sample
taken at a random place in space and time.

Grease.   In sewage, grease includes fats, waxes, free fatty
acids, calcium and magnesium soaps, mineral oils  and  other
nonfatty  materials.  The type of solvent to be used for its
extraction should be stated.

Grit Chamber.  A small detention chamber or  an  enlargement
of  a  sewer  designed to reduce the velocity of flow of the
liquid and permit the separation  of  mineral  from  organic
solids by differential sedimentation.

Groundwater.   The  body  of  water  that is retained in the
saturated zone which tends to move by hydraulic gradient  to
lower levels.

Hardness.    A   measure   of  the  capacity  of  water  for
precipitating soap.   It is reported  as  the  hardness  that
would  be  produced  if  a  certain  amount  of  CaC03  were
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dissolved in water.  More than one ion contributes to  water
hardness.   The  "Glossary  of  Water and Wastewater Control
Engineering" defines hardness as: A characteristic of water,
imparted by salts of calcium, magnesium, and  ion,  such  as
bicarbonates, carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates,
that  causes  curdling  of  soap,  deposition  of  scale  in
boilers, damage in some industrial processes, and  sometimes
objectionable  taste.   Calcium  and  magnesium are the most
significant constituents.

Heavy Metals.  A general name given for the ions of metallic
elements,  such  as  copper,  zinc,  iron,   chromium,   and
aluminum.   They  are  normally removed from a wastewater by
the  formation  of  an  insoluble  precipitate  (usually   a
metallic hydroxide).

Hydrocarbon.    A   compound   containing  only  carbon  and
hydrogen.

Hydrolysis.  A chemical reaction in which water reacts  with
another, substance to form one or more new substances.

Incineration.  The combustion (by burning) of organic matter
in wastewater sludge.

Incubate.    To   maintain   cultures,  bacteria,  or  other
microorganisms  at  the  most  favorable   temperature   for
development.

Influent.   Any sewage, water or other liquid, either raw or
partly treated, flowing into a reservoir,  basin,  treatment
plant,  or  any  part  thereof.    The influent is the stream
entering a  unit  operation;  the  effluent  is  the  stream
leaving it.

In-Piant    Measures.    Technology   applied   within   the
manufacturing process to reduce or eliminate  pollutants  in
the  raw  waste water.  Sometimes called "internal measures"
or "internal controls".

Ion.  An atom or group of  atoms  possessing  an  electrical
charge.

Ion  Exchange.   A  reversible interchange of ions between a
liquid and a  solid  involving  no  radical  change  in  the
structure  of the solid.  The solid can be a natural zeolite
or a synthetic resin, also called  polyelectrolyte.   Cation
exchange  resins  exchange  their  hydrogen  ions  for metal
cations in the liguid.  Anion exchange resins exchange their
hydroxyl ions for anions such as  nitrates  in  the  liquid.
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When  the  ion-retaining capacity of the resin is exhausted,
it must be regenerated.  Cation resins are regenerated  with
acids and anion resins with bases.

Lagoons.   An  oxidation  pond that received sewage which is
not settled or biologically treated.

LC 50.  A lethal concentration  for  50%  of  test  animals.
Numerically  the same as TLm.  A statistical estimate of the
toxicant,  such  as  pesticide   concentration,   in   water
necessary  to  kill  50%  of  the  test  organisms  within a
specified time under standardized conditions (usually  24,48
or 96 hr).

Leach.   To  dissolve  out  by  the  action of a percolating
liquid, such as water, seeping through a sanitary landfill.

Lime.  Limestone  is  an  accumulation  of  organic  remains
consisting  mostly  of  calcium  carbonate.  When burned, it
yields lime which is  a  solid.   The  hydrated  form  of  a
chemical lime is calcium hydroxide.

Maximum Day Limitation.  The effluent limitation value equal
to  the maximum for one day and is the value to be published
by the EPA in the Federal Register.

Maximum Thirty  Day  Limitation.   The  effluent  limitation
value  for  which  the  average  of  daily values for thirty
consecutive days shall not exceed and is  the  value  to  be
published by the EPA in the Federal Register.

Mean.   The  arithmetic  average  of  the  individual sample
values.

Median.  In a statistical array, the value  having  as  many
cases larger in value as cases smaller in value.

Median Lethal Dose (LD50).  The dose lethal to 50 percent of
a  group of test organisms for a specified period.  The dose
material may be ingested or injected.

Median Tolerance Limit {TLm).  In toxicological studies, the
concentration of pollutants at which 50 percent of the  test
animals can survive for a specified period of exposure.

Microbial.  Of or pertaining to a bacterium.

Molecular   Weight.   The  relative  weight  of  a  irolecule
compared to the weight of an atom of carbon taken as exactly
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12.00; the sum of the atomic  weights  of  the  atoms  in  a
irolecule.

Navigable  Waters.   Includes  all  navigable  waters of the
United States; tributaries of navigable  waters;  interstate
waters;  intrastate  lakes,  rivers  and  streams  which are
utilized by interstate travellers for recreational or  other
purposes;  intrastate  lakes,  rivers and streams from which
fish or shellfish are taken and sold in interstate commerce;
and intrastate lakes, rivers and streams which are  utilized
for   industrial   purposes   by  industries  in  interstate
commerce.

Neutralization.    The  restoration  of  the   hydrogen   or
hydroxyl  ion  balance  in  a  solution  so  that  the ionic
concentration  of  each  are  equal.   Conventionally,   the
notation "pH"  (puissance d'hydrogen) is used to describe the
hydrogen  ion  concentration  or activity present in a given
solution.  For dilute solutions of strong acids, i.e., acids
which are considered to be completely dissociate (ionized in
solution), activity equals concentration.

New Source.  Any facility from which there is or  may  be  a
discharge  of  pollutants,  the  construction  of  which  is
commenced after  the  publication  of  proposed  regulations
prescribing  a  standard of performance under section 306 of
the Act.

Nitrate Nitrogen.  The final decomposition  product  of  the
organic nitrogen compounds.  Determination of this parameter
indicates the degree of waste treatment.

Nit rification.   Bacterial  mediated oxidation of ammonia to
nitrite.  Nitrite can be further oxidized to nitrate.  These
reactions are  brought  about  by  only  a  few  specialized
bacterial  species.   Nitrosomonias  sp. and Nitrococcus sp.
oxidize ammonia to nitrite which is oxidized to  nitrate  by
Nitrobacter sp.

Nitrifiers.   Bacteria which causes the oxidation of ammonia
to nitrites and nitrates.

Nitrite Nitrogen.  An intermediate  stage  in  the  decompo-
sition  of  organic nitrogen to the nitrate form.  Tests for
nitrite nitrogen can determine whether the applied treatment
is sufficient.

Ni t r o ba ct er ia.  Those bacteria (an autotrophic  genus)  that
oxidize nitrite nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen.
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Nitrogen  Cycle.   Organic  nitrogen in waste is oxidized by
bacteria into ammonia.  If oxygen  is  present,  ammonia  is
bacterially  oxidized  first  into  nitrite  and  then  into
nitrate.  If oxygen is not present, nitrite and nitrate  are
bacterially  reduced  to  nitrogen  gas.  The second step is
called "denitrification."

Nitrogen Fixation.  Biological nitrogen fixation is  carried
on by a selected group of bacteria which take up atmospheric
nitrogen  and  convert  it to amine groups or for amino acid
synthesis.

Nitrosomonas.  Bacteria which oxidize ammonia nitrogen  into
nitrite nitrogen; an aerobic autotrophic life form.

Non-contact Cooling Water.  Water used for cooling that does
not   come  into  direct  contact  with  any  raw  material,
intermediate product, waste product or finished product.

Non-contact Process Wastewaters.  Wastewaters generated by a
manufacturing process which have not come in direct  contact
with  the reactants used in the process.  These include such
streams  as  non-contact  cooling   water,   cooling   tower
blowdown, boiler blowdown, etc.

Nonputrescible.    Incapable  of  organic  decomposition  or
decay.

Norma1 Solution.  A solution that contains  1  gm  molecular
weight  of  the  dissolved substance divided by the hydrogen
equivalent of the substance (that is, one  gram  equivalent)
per  liter  of  solution.   Thus,  a  one normal solution of
sulfuric acid  (H2SOjft, mol. wt. 98) contains (98/2) U9gms  of
H2S01 per liter.

NJrDES.   National Pollution Discharge Elimination System.  A
federal program requiring  industry  to  obtain  permits  to
discharge plant effluents to the nation's water courses.

NSPS.  New source performance standards.  See BADCT effluent
limitations.

Nutrient.   Any  substance  assimilated by an organism which
promotes growth and replacement of cellular constituents.

Operations and Maintenance.  Costs required to  operate  and
maintain  pollution  abatement  equipment  including  labor,
material, insurance, taxes, solid waste disposal, etc.
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Organic Loading.  In the activated sludge process, the  food
to  micoorganisms   (F/M)  ratio  defined  as  the  amount of
biodegradable  material  available  to  a  given  amount  of
microorganisms per unit of time.

Osmosis.  The diffusion of a solvent through a semipermeable
membrane into a more concentrated solution.

Oxidation.   A  process  in  which an atom or group of atoms
loses electrons; the combination of a substance with oxygen,
accompanied with the release of energy.  The  oxidized  atom
usually  becomes  a  positive  ion while the oxidizing agent
becomes a negative ion in (chlorination for example) .

Oxidation Pond.  A man-made lake or body of water  in  which
wastes  are  consumed  by bacteria.  It receives an influent
which has gone through  primary  treatment  while  a  lagoon
receives raw untreated sewage.

Oxidation  Reduction (OR).  A class of chemical reactions in
which  one  of  the  reacting  species  gives  up  electrons
(oxidation)  while  another  species in the reaction accepts
electrons  (reduction).  At one time, the term oxidation  was
restricted   to   reactions   involving  hydrogen.   Current
chemical technology has broadened the scope of  these  terms
to  include  all  reactions where electrons are given up and
taken on by reacting species;  in  fact,  the  donating  and
accepting of electrons must take place simultaneously.

Oxidation  Reduction  Potential  (ORP).   A measurement that
indicates the activity ratio of the oxidizing  and  reducing
species present.

Oxygen,  Available.   The  quantity  of  atmospheric  oxygen
dissolved  in  the  water  of  a  stream;  the  quantity  of
dissolved  oxygen  available  for  the  oxidation of organic
matter in sewage.

Oxygen, Dissolved.  The oxygen  (usually  designated  as  DO)
dissolved  in  sewage,  water  or another liquid and usually
expressed in parts per million or percent of saturation.

Ozonation.   A  water  or   wastewater   treatment   process
involving the use of ozone as an oxidation agent.

Ozone.   That  molecular  oxygen  with three atoms of oxygen
forming each molecule.  The third atom  of  oxygen  in  each
molecule  of  ozone  is  loosely  bound and easily released.
Ozone is used sometimes for the disinfection  of  water  but
more   frequently   for  the  oxidation  of  taste-producing
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substances,  such  as  phenol,  in   water   and   for   the
neutralization of odors in gases or air.

Parts   Per  Million  (ppm).   Parts  by  weight  in  sewage
analysis; ppm by weight is equal  to  milligrams  per  liter
divided by the specific gravity.  It should be noted that in
water   analysis   ppm  is  always  understood  to  imply  a
weight/weight ratio, even though in practice a volume may be
measured instead of a weight.

Pathogenic.  Disease producing.

Percolation.  The  movement  of  water  beneath  the  ground
surface  both  vertically  and  horizontally,  but above the
groundwater table.

Permeabili ty.  The ability of a substance  (soil)  to  allow
appreciable  movement of water through it when saturated and
actuated by a hydrostatic pressure.

pH.   The   negative   logarithm   of   the   hydrogen   ion
concentration  or  activity  in  a  solution.   The number 7
indicates  neutrality,  numbers   less   than   7   indicate
increasing  acidity,  and  numbers  greater  than 7 indicate
increasing alkalinity.

Phenol.  Class of cyclic organic derivatives with the  basic
chemical formula C6H5OH.

Phosphate.   Phosphate  ions  exist  as  an ester or salt of
phosphoric  acid,  such  as  calcium  phosphate  rock.    In
municipal  wastewater,  it  is  most  frequently  present as
orthophosphate.

Phosphorus Precipitation.  The addition of  the  irultivalent
metallic ions of calcium, iron and aluminum to wastewater to
form insoluble precipitates with phosphorus.

Photosynthesis.   The mechanism by which chlorophyll-bearing
plant utilize  light  energy  to  produce  carbohydrate  and
oxygen  from  carbon  dioxide  and  water  (the  reverse  of
respiration).

Physical/Chemical Treatment System.  A system that  utilizes
physical   (i.e.,  sedimentation, filtration,  centrifugation,
activated carbon, reverse  osmosis,  etc.)  and/or  chemical
means  (i.e., coagulation, oxidation, precipitation, etc.) to
treat wastewaters.
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Point.   Source.   Any  discernible,  confined  and  discrete
conveyance, including but not limited to  any  pipe,  ditch,
channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container,
rolling  stock,  concentrated  animal  feeding operation, or
vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or
may be discharged.

Pollutional Load.  A measure of the strength of a wastewater
in terms of its solids or  oxygen-demanding  characteristics
or other objectionable physical and chemical characteristics
or  both  or in terms of harm done to receiving waters.  The
pollutional  load  imposed  on  sewage  treatment  works  is
expressed as equivalent population.

Polyelectrolytes.   Synthetic  chemicals  (polymers) used to
speed up the removal of solids from sewage.   These chemicals
cause solids to coagulate or  clump  together  more  rapidly
than do chemicals such as alum or lime.  They can be anionic
(-charge) ,  nonionic  (+ and -charge) or cationic (^charge—
the most popular).  They  are  linear  or  branched  organic
polymers.   They  have high molecular weights and are water-
soluble.    Compounds   similar   to   the   polyelectrolyte
flocculants  include  surface-active agents and ion exchange
resins.  The former are low molecular weight, water  soluble
compounds  used  to disperse solids in aqueous systems.  The
latter are high molecular weight, water-insoluble  compounds
used  to selectively replace certain ions already present in
water with more desirable or less noxious ions.

Population Equivalent (PE).  An expression of  the  relative
strength  of  a  waste   (usually industrial) in terms of its
equivalent in domestic waste, expressed  as  the  population
that   would  produce  the  equivalent  domestic  waste.   A
population equivalent  of  160  million  persons  means  the
pollutional effect equivalent to raw sewage from 160 million
persons;  0.17  pounds  BOD  (the oxygen demand of untreated
wastes from one person)  = 1 PE.

Potable Water.  Drinking water sufficiently pure  for  human
use.

Potash.    Potassium   compounds  used  in  agriculture  and
industry.  Potassium carbonate Can  be  obtained  from  wood
ashes.   The  mineral  potash is usually a muriate.  Caustic
potash is its hydrated form*

Freaeration .  A preparatory treatment of sewage  consisting
of aeration to remove gases and add oxygen or to promote the
flotation of grease and aid coagulation.
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Precipitation.  The phenomenon which occurs when a substance
held  in  solution  passes  out  of that solution into solid
form.  The adjustment of pH can reduce solubility and  cause
precipitation.   Alum and lime are frequently used chemicals
in  such  operations  as  water  softening   or   alkalinity
reduction.

Pretreatment.   Any  wastewater  treatment  process  used to
partially reduce the pollution load before the wastewater is
introduced into a  train  sewer  system  or  delivered  to  a
treatment  plant  for substantial reduction of the pollution
load.

Primary  Clarifier.   The  settling  tank  into  which   the
wastewater   (sewage)  first enters and from which the solids
are removed as raw sludge.

Primary Sludge.  Sludge from primary clarifiers.

Primary Treatment.  The removal of material that  floats  or
will settle in sewage by using screens to catch the floating
objects  and  tanks  for the heavy matter to settle in.  The
first major treatment and sometimes the only treatment in  a
waste-treatment    works,   usually   sedimentation   and/or
flocculation and  digestion.   The  removal  cf  a  moderate
percentage of suspended matter but little or no colloidal or
dissolved  matter.   May  effect  the  removal  of  30 to 35
percent or more BOD.

Process Waste Water.  Any water which, during  manufacturing
or  processing,  comes  into  direct contact with or results
from the production or use of any raw material, intermediate
product, finished product, by-product, or waste product.

Process Water.  Any water (solid, liquid  or  vapor)   which,
during  the manufacturing process, comes into direct contact
with any raw  material,  intermediate  product,  by-product,
waste product, or finished product.

Putrefaction.   Biological  decomposition  of organic matter
accompanied by  the  production  of  foul-smelling  products
associated with anaerobic conditions.

Pvrolysis.   The  high  temperature decomposition of complex
molecules that occurs in the presence of an inert atmosphere
(no oxygen present to support combustion).

Quench.  A liquid used for cooling purposes.
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Raw Waste Load (RWL).  The quantity (kg)  of pollutant  being
discharged  in  a  plant's wastewater.  measured in terms of
some common denominator (i.e., kkg of production  or  m2  of
floor area) .

Receiving  Waters.   Rivers,  lakes, oceans or other courses
that receive treated or untreated wastewaters.

Recirculatipn.  The refiltration of either all or a  portion
of  the  effluent  in  a  high-rate trickling filter for the
purpose of maintaining  a  uniform  high  rate  through  the
filter.  (2)  The return of effluent to the incoming flow to
reduce its strength.

Reduction.   A process in which an atom (or group  of  atoms)
gain electrons.  Such a process always requires the input of
energy.

Refractory   Organics.   Organic  materials  that  are  only
partially   degraded   or   entirely   nonbiodegradable   in
biological  waste  treatment processes.  Refractory organics
include  detergents,   pesticides,  color-  and  odor-causing
agents, tannins, lignins, ethers, olefins, alcohols, amines,
aldehydes,  ketones, etc.

Residual  Chlorine.   The  amount  of  chlorine  left in the
treated water that is available to oxidize  contaminants  if
they  enter  the  stream.   It  is  usually  in  the form of
hypochlorous acid of hypochlorite  ion  or  of  one  of  the
chloramines.   Hypochlorite  concentration  alone  is called
"free chlorine residual" while together with the  chloramine
concentration   their   sum  is  called  "combined  chlorine
residual."

Respiration.  Biological oxidation within a life  form;  the
most  likely  energy  source  for  animals   (the  reverse of
photosynthesis).

Retention Time.  Volume of the vessel divided  by  the  flow
rate through the vessel.

Retort.   A  vessel,  commonly a glass bulb with a long neck
bent downward, used for distilling or decomposing substances
by heat.

Reverse  Osmosis.   The  process  in  which  a  solution  is
pressurized to a degree greater than the osmotic pressure of
the solvent, causing it to pass through a membrane.
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Salt.   A compound made up of the positive ion of a base and
the negative ion of an acid.

Sanitary Landfill.  A sanitary landfill is a  land  disposal
site  employing  an  engineered method of disposing of solid
wastes on land in  a  manner  that  minimizes  environmental
hazards  by  spreading the wastes in thin layers, compacting
the solid wastes  to  the  smallest  practical  volume,  and
applying  cover  material  at the end of each operating day.
There are two basic sanitary landfill methods;  trench  fill
and  area  or  ramp fill.  The method chosen is dependent on
many factors such as  drainage  and  type  of  soil  at  the
proposed landfill site.

Sanitary Sewers.  In a separate system, pipes in a city that
carry  only  domestic wastewater.  The storm water runoff is
handled by a separate system of pipes.

Screening.  The removal of relatively coarse,  floating  and
suspended solids by straining through racks or screens.

Secondary   Treatment.    The  second  step  in  most  waste
treatment systems in which bacteria consume the organic part
of the wastes.  This is accomplished by bringing the  sewage
and  bacteria together either in trickling filters or in the
activated sludge process.

Sedimentation,  Final.   The  settling  of  partly  settled,
flocculated  or  oxidized sewage in a final tank.  (The term
settling is preferred).

Sedimentation, Plain.  The sedimentation of suspended matter
in a liquid unaided by chemicals or other special means  and
without any provision for the decomposition of the deposited
solids in contact with the sewage.  (The term plain settling
is preferred) .

Seed.  To introduce microorganisms into a culture medium.

Settleable  Solids.   Suspended solids which will settle out
of a liguid waste in a given period of time.

Settling Velocity.  The terminal rate of fall of a  particle
through  a  fluid  as  induced  by gravity or other external
forces.

Sewage, Raw.  Untreated sewage.
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Sewage, Storm.  The  liquid  flowing  in  sewers  during  or
following   a   period   of  heavy  rainfall  and  resulting
therefrom.

Sewerage.  A comprehensive term  which  includes  facilities
for  collecting, pumping, treating, and disposing of sewage;
the sewerage system and the sewage treatment works.

Silt.  Particles with a size distribution of  0.05mm-0.002mm
(2.0mm).  Silt is high in quartz and feldspar.

Skimming.  Removing floating solids (scum).

Sludge*  Activated.   Sludge floe produced in raw or settled
sewage  by  the  growth  of  zoogleal  bacteria  and   other
organisms   in   the   presence   of  dissolved  oxygen  and
accumulated in sufficient  concentration  by  returning  the
floe previously formed.

Sludge,  Age.  The ratio of the weight of volatile solids in
the digester to the weight of volatile solids added per day.
There is a maximum sludge age beyond  which  no  significant
reduction  in  the  concentration  of  volatile  solids will
occur.

Sludge,   Digested.    Sludge   digested   under   anaerobic
conditions  until  the  volatile  content  has been reduced,
usually by approximately 50 percent or more.

Solution.  A homogeneous mixture of two or  more  substances
of  dissimilar molecular structure.  In a solution, there is
a  dissolving  medium-solvent  and  a  dissolved  substance-
solute.

Solvent.  A liquid which reacts with a material, bringing it
into solution.

Solvent  Extraction.  A mixture of two components is treated
by a solvent that preferentially dissolves one  or  more  of
the  components  in the mixture.  The solvent in the extract
leaving the extractor is usually recovered and reused.

Sparger.  An air diffuser designed to  give  large  bubbles,
used  singly  or  in  combination  with  mechanical aeration
devices.

Sparging.  Heating a liquid by means of live steam  entering
through  a perforated or nozzled pipe (used, for example, to
coagulate blood solids in meat processing).
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Standard Deviation.  The square root of the  variance  which
describes  the  variability  within the sampling data on the
basis of the deviation of individual sample values from  the
mean.

Standard  Raw  Waste  Load (SRWL).  The raw waste load which
characterizes a specific  sutcategory.   This  is  generally
computed  by  averaging  the  plant raw waste loads within a
subcategory.

Stillwell.    A   pipe,   chamber,   or   compartment   with
comparatively  small  inlet  or  inlets communicating with a
main body of water.  Its  purpose  is  to  dampen  waves  or
surges  while  permitting the water level within the well to
rise and fall with the major fluctuations of the  main  body
of  water.   It  is  used  with  water-measuring  devices to
improve accuracy of measurement.

Stoichiometric.  Characterized  by  being  a  proportion  of
substances  exactly  right  for a specific chemical reaction
with no excess of any reactant or product.

Stripper.  A device in which relatively volatile  components
are  removed from a mixture by distillation or by passage of
steam through the mixture.

Substrate.   (1)    Beactant  portion  of   any   biochemical
reaction,  material  transformed  into  a  product.  (2)  Any
substance used as a nutrient by a  microorganism.   (3)   The
liquor  in  which activated sludge or other material is kept
in suspension.

Sulfate.  The final decomposition product of organic  sulfur
compounds.

Supernatant.  Floating above or on the surface.

Surge tank.  A tank for absorbing and dampening the wavelike
motion  of  a  volume  of liquid;  an in-process storage tank
that acts as a flow buffer between process tanks.

Suspended Solids.  The wastes that will not sink  or  settle
in  sewage.   The quantity of material deposited on a filter
when a liquid is drawn through a Gooch crucible.

Svnergistic.  An effect which is more than the  sum  of  the
individual contributors.
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Synergistic  Effect.   The  simultaneous  action of separate
agents which, together, have greater total effect  than  the
sum of their individual effects.

Tertiary  Treatment.   A  process  to remove practically all
solids  and  organic  matter  from   wastewater.    Granular
activated carbon filtration is a tertiary treatment process.
Phosphate  removal  by chemical coagulation is also regarded
as a step in tertiary treatment.

Thermal Oxidation.  The wet combustion of organic  materials
through the application of heat in the presence of oxygen.

TKN (Total K-jeldahl Nitrogen) .  Includes ammonia and organic
nitrogen  but does not include nitrite and nitrate nitrogen.
The sum of free nitrogen and organic nitrogen in a sample.

Tim.  The concentration that kills 50* of the test organisms
within a specified time span, usually in 96 hours  or  less.
Most  of  the  available  toxicity  data are reported as the
median tolerance limit (TLm).  This system of reporting  has
been misapplied by some who have erroneously inferred that a
TLm value is a safe value, whereas it is merely the level at
which half of the test organisms are killed.  In many cases,
the  differences  are  great  between TLm concentrations and
concentrations that are low enough  to  permit  reproduction
and growth.  LC50 has the same numerical value as TLm.

Total  Organic  Carbon  (TOC).   A  measure of the amount of
carbon in a sample originating  from  organic  matter  only.
The  test  is  run  by  burning the sample and measuring the
carbon dioxide produced.

Total Solids.  The total amount of solids  in  a  wastewater
both in solution and suspension.

Total  Volatile  Solids (TVS).  The quantity of residue lost
after the ignition of total solids.

Transport Water.  Water used to carry insoluble solids.

Trickling Filter.  A bed of rocks or stones.  The sewage  is
trickled  over  the  bed so that bacteria can break down the
organic wastes.  The bacteria collect on the stones  through
repeated use of the filter.

Turbidity.  A measure of the amount of solids in suspension.
The  units  of  measurement  are  parts per million (ppm) of
suspended solids  or  Jackson  Candle  Units.   The  Jackson
Candle Unit  (JCU) is defined as the turbidity resulting from
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1  ppm  of  fullerfs  earth (and inert mineral) suspended in
water.  The relationship between  ppm  and  JCU  depends  on
particle  size,  color, index of refraction; the correlation
between  the  two  is  generally  not  possible.   Turbidity
instruments  utilize  a light beam projected into the sample
fluid to effect a measurement.  The light beam is  scattered
by solids in suspension, and the degree of light attenuation
or   the  amount  of  scattered  light  can  be  related  to
turbidity.  The light scattered is called the Tyndall effect
and the scattered light the Tyndall light.  An expression of
the optical property of a sample which causes  light  to  be
scattered  and  absorbed rather than transmitted in straight
lines through the sample.

Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS).  The quantity of  suspended
solids lost after the ignition of total suspended solids.

Waste Treatment Plant.  A series of tanks, screens, filters,
pumps  and  other  equipment by which pollutants are removed
from water.

Water Quality Criteria.   Those  specific  values  of  water
quality  associated with an identified beneficial use of the
water under consideration.

Weir.  A flow  measuring  device  consisting  of  a  barrier
across  an open channel, causing the liquid to flow over its
crest.  The height of the liquid above the crest varies with
the volume of liquid flow.

Wet Air Pollution Control.  The technique of  air  pollution
abatement utilizing water as an absorptive media.

Wet  Oxidation.   The  direct oxidation of organic matter in
wastewater liquids in the presence of  air  under  heat  and
pressure;  generally  applied to organic matter oxidation in
sludge.

Zeolite.  Various natural or synthesized silicates  used  in
water softening and as absorbents.
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                        SECTION XVII

                 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
A.C.     activated carbon
ac ft    acre-foot
Ag.      silver
atin      atmosphere
ave      average
B.       boron
Ba.      barium
bbl      barrel
BOD5     biochemical oxygen demand, five day
Btu      British thermal unit
C        centigrade degrees
C.A.     carbon adsorption
cal      calorie
cc       cubic centimeter
cfm      cubic foot per minute
cfs      cubic foot per second
Cl.      chloride
cm       centimeter
CN       cyanide
CCD      chemical oxygen demand
cone.    concentration
cu       cubic
db       decibels
deg      degree
DC       dissolved oxygen
E. Coli  Escherichia coliform bacteria
Eq.      equation
F        Fahrenheit degrees
Fig.     figure
F/M      BOD5  (Wastewater flow)/ MLSS (contractor volume)
fpm      foot per minute
fps      foot per second
ft       foot
g        gram
gal      gallon
gpd      gallon per day
gpm      gallon per minute
Hg       mercury
hp       horsepower
hp-hr    horsepower-hour
hr       hour
in.      inch
kg       kilogram
kw       kilowatt
kwhr     kilowatt-hour
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L(l)     liter
L/kkg    liters per 1000 kilograms
Ib       pound
m        meter
M        thousand
me       milliequivalent
mg       milligram
mgd      million gallons daily
min      minute
ml       milliliter
MLSS     mixed-liquor suspended solids
MLVSS    mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids
MM       million
mm       millimeter
mole     gram-molecular weight
mph      mile per hour
MPN      most probable number
mu       millimicron
NRC      Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NO3>      nitrate
NH3-N    ammonium nitrogen
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                                  TABLE XVIII

                                 METRIC TABLE

                               CONVERSION TABLE
TIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)                   by                   TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)

  ENGLISH UNIT      ABBREVIATION    CONVERSION    ABBREVIATION      METRIC UNIT
•e                     ac
•e-feet                ac ft
.tish Thermal
nit                   BTU
.tish Thermal
nit/Pound             BTU/lb
do feet/minute        cfm
>ic feet/second        c£s
)ic feet               cu ft
)ic feet               cu ft
)ic inches             cu in
pree Fahrenheit        °F
it                     ft
.Ion                   gal
.Ion/minute            gpm
rsepower               hp
;hes                   in
:hes of mercury        in Hg
mds                   Ib
.lion gallons/day      mgd
.e                     mi
jnd/square
Inch (gauge)            psig
aare feet              sq ft
oare inches            sq in
i  (short)              ton
•d                     yd
      0.405
   1233.5

      0.252
ha
cu m

kg cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555 (°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu in/day
km
(0.06805 psig +1)*  atm
      0.0929
      6.452
      0.907
      0.9144
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
hectares
cubic meters

kilogram-calories

kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer

atmospheres  (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric ton  (1000 kilograms)
meter
               * Actual conversion, not a multiplier
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