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ambient lead level in an AQCR, as given in Table 2-10. While it is
not expected that the location of the two maximum concentrations
would necessarily coincide, the analysis was designed to reduce
greatly the probability of underestimating ambient lead concentra-
tions in an AQCR.
Figure 2-7 shows the number of AQCR's which would have been
out of compliance relative to different proposed standards based on
estimated ambient air concentrations for 1975. Out of the 73 AQCR's
with estimated data, almost 48 percent had estimated ambient concen-
trations greater than 1.0 ng/m^ while only 11 percent would have
be«ffc out of compliance for a standard of 2.0 ^g/m^.
The estimated maximum lead concentrations from 73 AQCR's without
monitoring data are to be combined with the maximum observed concen-
trations from the 162 AQCR's with 1975 data (see Section 2.2.1) and
eight AQCRs with only 1974 data. These data are to be used in
determining required emissions rollbacks in order to meet possible
ambient lead standards. The four AQCR's not included in the analy-
sis (located in Guam, American Samoa and two in Alaska) were not
considered to have major sources of lead emissions.
2-72
-------
74 AQCR'S WITH ESTIMATED DATA
70
3 60 •
Z t/l
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19
13
1.0 1.5 2.0
MAXIMUM MONTHLY LEAD CONCENTRATION
FIGURE 2-7
NUMBER OF AQCR'S WITH MAXIMUM ESTIMATED
LEAD CONCENTRATIONS ABOVE INDICATED VALUES
2-73
-------
REFERENCES
AIRBORNE LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES AND AMBIENT LEVELS
Air Resources Board, California. November 1975. Reconstruction of
the California Ambient Air Quality Standard for Lead, Staff
Report 75-21-1.
American Petroleum Institute. September 1974. Waste Oil Roundup...
No. 3. Publication No. 1587. Washington, D.C.
American Petroleum Institute. October 1975. Energy from Used
Lubricating Oils. Publication No. 1588. Washington, D.C.
Bailie, J.D. March 1976. Economics of Manganese as an Antiknock
in Unleaded Gasoline. Ethyl Corporation, Houston, Texas.
Presented at the 1976 Annual Meeting, March 30, 1976, San
Antonio, Texas.
Bureau of the Census. 1976b. Statistical Abstract of the United
States: 1976. U.S. Department of Commerce.
Chansky, Steven, James Carroll, Benjamin Kincannon, James Sahagian,
and Norman Surprenant. September 1974. Waste Automotive
Lubricating Oil Reuse as a Fuel. Prepared for U.S. Environ-
mental Protecti on Agency, Washington, D.C.
Commercial Car Journal. July 1974. "Industry Trends and Statistics,"
Commercial Car Journal.
Consumers Union. April 1977a. "Emissions Control: The Impossible
Standards That Could Have Been Met," Consumer Reports.
Consumers Union.
Consumers Union. August 1977b. "MMT: A Gasoline Additive That
Should Be Subtracted," Consumer Reports.
Department of Environmental Resources, Pennsylvania. 1976a. Hi-Vol
Sampling Data. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Department of Environmental Resources, Pennsylvania. 1976b. Emissions
Inventory. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Edwards, H.W. December 31, 1973. "Colorado State University Research
Program," Impact on Man of Environmental Contamination Caused Dy
Lead, Interim Report prepared for the National Science Foundation.
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
2-74
-------
REFERENCES (Continued)
AIRBORNE LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES AND AMBIENT LEVELS
Faggan, J.E., J.D. Bailie, E.A. Desmond, and D.L. Lenane. October
1975. An Evaluation of Manganese as an Antiknock in Unleaded
Gasoline. Ethyl Corporation, Detroit, Michigan, and Houston,
Texas.For presentation at the SAE Automobile Engineering
Meeting, Detroit, Michigan, October 13-17, 1975.
Federal Energy Administration. November 16, 1976a. Preliminary
Findings and Views Concerning the Exemption of Motor Gasoline
from the Mandatory Allocation and Price Regulations.Washington,
_s_ , ,
Greenberg, Robert Russ. 1976. A Study of Trace Elements Emitted
on Particles from Municipal Incinerators.University of
Maryland.
Hum, R.W. 1968. "Mobile Combustion Sources," Air Pollution,
Vol. 3, edited by Arthur C. Stern. Academic Press, New York.
Lewis, Bernard and Guenther von Elbe. 1961. Combustion, Flames.
and Explosions of Gases. Combustion and Explosives Research,
Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Massoglia, Martin F. August 1976a. Summary of Particulate and
Sulfur Oxide Emission Reductions Achieved Nationwide for
Selected Industrial Source Categories, 1970-1975: Volume I.
Center for Technology Applications, Research Triangle
Institute. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency.
Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association of the United States, Inc.
1975a. 1975 Automobile Facts and Figures. Statistics
Department, Detroit, Michigan.
Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association of the United States, Inc.
1976. Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures 1976. Statistics
Department, Detroit, Michigan.
Murrell, J.D., R.G. Pace, G.R. Service, and D.M. Yaeger. October
18-22, 1976. "Light Duty Automotive Fuel Economy Trends
Through 1977," Paper No. 760795 presented at the Automotive
Engineering Meeting. Society of Automotive Engineers,
Dearborn, Michigan.
2-75
-------
REFERENCES (Continued)
AIRBORNE LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES AND AMBIENT LEVELS
National Petroleum News. Mid-May 1976. Factbook Issue, National
Petroleum News.
Natusch, D.F.S., J.R. Wallace, and C.A. Evans. January 18, 1974.
"Toxic Trace Elements: Preferential Concentrations in
Respirable Particles," Science, Vol. 183.
PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc. June 1976. Interim
Report on Control Techniques for Lead Ennssion~Factors and
1975 National Lead Emission Inventory.Cincinnati, Ohio.
Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Roberts, T.M., T.C. Hutchinson, J. Paciga, A. Chattopadhyay, R.E.
Jervis, and J. VanLoon. December 20, 1974. "Lead Contamination
around Secondary Smelters: Estimation of Dispersal and Accu-
mulation by Humans," Science, Vol. 186 (4169), pp. 1120-1123.
Sessa, Bill. September 1, 1977. Public Information Officer,
California Air Resources Board. Telephone conversation.
Shelton, Ella Mae. January 1972a» Motor Gasolines, Summer 1971.
Bart!esvilie Energy Research Center, Bureau of Mines, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. June 1972b. Motor Gasolines, Winter 1971-1972.
Bartlesvilie Energy Research Center.Bureau of Mines, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bartlesvilie, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. January 1973a. Motor Gasolines. Summer 1972.
Bartlesville Energy Research Center, Bureau of Mines, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. June 1973b. Motor Gasolines. Winter 1972-1973.
Bartlesville Energy Research Center, Bureau of Mines, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. January 1974a. Motor Gasolines, Summer 1973.
Bartlesville Energy Research Center, Bureau of Mines, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
2-76
-------
REFERENCES (Continued)
AIRBORNE LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES AND AMBIENT LEVELS
Shelton, Ella Mae. June 1974b. Motor Gasolines, Winter 1973-1974.
Bartlesville Energy Research Center, Bureau of Mines, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bartlesvilie, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. January 1975a. Motor Gasolines, Summer 1974.
Bartlesville Energy Research Center, Bureau of Mines, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. June 1975b. Motor Gasolines, Winter 1974-75.
Bart!esvilie Energy Research Center, Energy Research and
Development Administration, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. January 1976a. Motor Gasolines, Summer 1975.
Bartlesville Energy Research Center, Energy Research and
Development Administration, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. June 1976b. Motor Gasolines. Winter 1975-76.
Bartlesvilie Energy Research Center, Energy Research and
Development Administration, Bartlesvilie, Oklahoma.
Shelton, Ella Mae. January 1977. Motor Gasolines, Summer 1976.
Bartlesvilie Energy Research Center, Energy Research and
Development Administration, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
State Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Montana.
1972. Lead Concentration from High Volume Filters, Jan. 1972-
Dec. 197T.
Svercl, Paul. March 8, 1977. Highway Engineer, Federal Highway
Administration. Telephone conversation.
Ter Haar, G.L., M.E. Griffing, M. Brandt, D.G. Oberding, and
M. Kapron. August 1975. "Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese
Tricarbonyl as an Antiknock: Composition and Fate of
Manganese Exhaust Products," Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association, Vol. 25(8):858-860.
Texas Air Control Board. April 1974a. A Report of Typical Element
Emissions from Texas Smelters. Austin, Texas.
Texas Air Control Board. April 1974b. A Report of Typical Element
Emissions from Texas Foundries. Austin, Texas.
-------
REFERENCES (Concluded)
AIRBORNE LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES AND AMBIENT LEVELS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. April 1974b. Report to
Congress. Waste Oil Study. Washington, O.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. October 1974f. Background
Information for New Source Performance Standards: Primary
Copper. Zinc, and Lead Smelters; Volume 1: Proposed Standards.
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. NTIS No. PB-237 832.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1974g. Smelter Study, 1973-
1974.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1974h. National Air Surveil-
lance Network—Ambient Air Quality Data, 1974. Computer
Printouts.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974i. National Aerometric
Data Bank—Quarterly Frequency Distributions, 1974. Computer
Printouts.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975g. Scientific and Technical
Assessment Report on Lead from Stationary~Sources.EPA-60016-
75-OOX.August 1975.~
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1975n. National Aerometic
Data Bank—Quarterly Frequency Distributions, 1975. Computer
Printouts.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1975i. National Air Surveil-
lance Network—Ambient Air Quality Data, 1975. Computer
Printouts.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. January 1977a. Draft Document:
Control Techniques for Lead Air Emissions. Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards, North Carolina.
Weinstein, J. August 1974a. Waste Oil Recycling and Disposal.
Recon Systems. Inc., Princeton, New Jersey. Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency. NTIS No. PB-236 148.
Wilson, James. July 14, 1976a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Personal communication.
2-78
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3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED STANDARDS
3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF CONTROL STRATEGIES
The environmental impacts of a lead NAAQS are contingent upon
the emission control philosophy and specific control strategies
adopted by the states with the ultimate authority over those AQCR's
whose ambient quality is projected to exceed the standard by the
attainment date. In this section, sample control strategies are
developed for the purpose of assessing the national impacts of the
three possible standards (1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 ug/m , with attainment
required by 1982. The probability of these sample control
strategies being sufficient to bring the nation into compliance
with the proposed standards is closely correlated with the
accuracy of the ambient concentrations (both measured and predicted)
on which the impact analysis is based. It is not to be inferred, how-
ever, that the control strategies developed are those which would
necessarily be used by any given state.
Figure 3-1 shows the number of AQCR's with ambient air lead con-
centrations in the baseline year, 1975, in excess of alternative
levels of the proposed standard. A large number of AQCR's (113 out
of 243) would require additional control of lead emissions to meet
an ambient lead standard of 1.0/ig/m (quarterly average). To meet the
•3 o
less stringent candidate standards (1.5/ug/m and 2.0^g/m ), 53 and
31 AQCR's respectively would require control. However, by 1982, the
year in which the AQCR's must be in compliance with the lead NAAQS,
3-1
-------
o
33
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3-2
-------
the niv.ber of AQCR's requiring control should be substantially reduced
due to existing EPA regulations which affect lead emissions to the
atmosphere (SIP and "ISPS control for participates and no-lead/phase-
down of lead in gasoline--see Sections 2.1.1.3 and 2.1.2.3).
To determine the amount of control which would be required in
198?. the rollback technique was used. When the 1975 ambient concen-
tration was greater than the proposed level of the standard, the per-
centage reduction of lead concentration in ambient air (rollback)
required to attain the standard was computed.* The rollback tech-
nicue is based on the assumption that the percentage reduction in
the emissions of a pollutant is equal to the percentage reduction in
the ambient concentration of that pollutant. Thus, a 1975 emissions
inventory is necessary to determine the initial emissions rollback
required and a 1982 emissions inventory is needed for comparison to
determine how much additional control may be necessary relative to
the 1975 requirements.
Using the latest available data, a 1975 lead emissions inventory
was prepared which includes lead emissions from mobile sources and
from the 11 types of major point sources identified in Section 2.1,
^Percentage rollback =
maximum 1 gad concentration - proposed level of NAAQS
maximum lead concentration - background lead concentration
r* natural background lead concentration is ^stvated at 0.005
wg/nv (National Academy of Sciences, '972).
3-3
-------
namely: ferroalloy production, lead acid battery production, primary
lead smelting, secondary lead smelting, primary copper smelting, lead
alkyl production, gray iron production, coal-fired power generation,
oil-fired power generation, solid waste incineration, and iron and
steel production. The resulting 1975 emission inventory and projected
mobile and stationary source growth rates (see Sections 2.1.1.3 and
2.1.2.3) were the bases for estimating 1982 and later lead emissions
inventories for each AQCR.
The percentage rollback of 1975 ambient lead concentrations
required to meet the proposed standard was applied to the estimated
tons of lead emitted in 1975. The resulting number of tons was com-
pared to the estimated 1982 lead emissions to determine whether
additional control of lead emissions would be required to meet the
proposed level of the standard by 1982. The same technique was used
to determine whether the standard would be maintained in 1982 and
1995, and was performed for the three different standards and 243
AQCR's involving approximately 2,900 plants in 11 industrial cate-
gories as well as mobile emissions for each AQCR (based on gasoline
sales and lead content).
3.1.1 Control Philosophy
There are three basic schemes for the control of lead emissions-
stationary source control, mobile source control, and combinations of
stationary and mobile source control. Several alternatives are avail-
able for achieving each control scheme. The way in which these schemes
3-4
-------
and options are applied depends on +** prevail ing levels o*: airborne
lead, the control philosophy roll owed, and *he control strategy devi:eu.
One possible philosophy is to require uniform control, i.e.,
that all sources of lead emissions in an AQCR apply the same degree
of control. By following such a philosophy, all sources would share
the burden of meeting the proposed standard. However, if ai AQCR
had one or two emitters of large quantities of lead to the atmosphere,
the reduction in lead emissions which small sources could achieve
(even if they ceased operating) would be insignificant in terms of
bringing the AQCR into compliance and in relation to the reductions
achievable by larger emitters. The lead emissions inventory (pre-
sented in Chapter 2) shows that there is, in fact, a wide range in
the quantities of lead emitted by various sources. This large vari-
ation may, therefore, render such a philosophy impractical.
Another alternative is to apply selective control, i.e., to
require only the larger emitters to control their operations, since
their emissions are rnqre likely to be the cause of the maximum lead
concentrations. Under this philosophy, the source of the largest
proportion of the total quantity would be controlled first, followed
*For purposes of analysis, control options refer to the many indivi-
dual measures available (e.g., baghouses, scrubbers, and electro-
static precipitators for point sources; car pools, mass transit,
bicycles, alternative engine designs, alcohol blends, alternative
octane boosters, and particulate traps for mobile sources). Con-
trol philosophy implies a broader outlook—whether to apply controls
uniformly on all emitters, large and small, or to select certain
emitters preferentially. If the latter course is foil owed, one
develoos control strategies consisting of selected options.
3-5
-------
by the next largest source and so on until the standard is achiev-
able. This latter philosophy has, generally, been followed in the
development of the control strategies presented in this section.
3.1.2 Overall Control Strategies
A sample control strategy has been developed for each AQCR
expected to be out of compliance under each of the three standards
under consideration. Each strategy was developed by applying the
best available control technology (BACT) to the type of source from
which the largest proportion of the total quantity of lead is emitted.
If the resulting rollback was not sufficient, then BACT was applied
to the next higher class of emitters, with one exception.* In this
instance, a smaller source of emissions was selected, as the residual
rollback required was relatively small.
As a result of applying the selective control philosophy, two
candidates for additional control are primary lead and primary cop-
per smelters and automotive vehicles. The specific control strategies
developed are summarized in Table 3-1. It should be noted that stack
and fugitive emissions from the smelters were treated as separate
items for control strategy development. It should also be noted that,
in one instance, pre-1975 automobiles and other automotive vehicles
(i.e., medium-size trucks) were treated as separate source types.
*For one AQCR, the strategy included control of mobile sources rather
than the second highest class of emitters as residual reduction in
emissions required (after requiring control of the highest class of
emitters) was of a small magnitude.
3-6
-------
TABLE 3-1
NUMBER OF AQCR'S PROJECTED TO REQUIRE CONTROL
OF LEAD EMISSIONS TO COMPLY WITH PROPOSED LEAD NAAQS
SUGGESTED AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARD AND CONTROL STRATEGY
1 .0 ug/m3
Number of AQCR's Requiring Additional Control for
• Pre-1975 automobiles only
• Primary copper smelters - fugitive emissions only
• Primary lead smelters - fugitive emissions only
• Primary lead smelters - fugitive and stack emissions
plus mobile sources
Total AQCR's Requiring Control Measures
1.5 ug/m3
Number of AQCR's Requiring Additional Control for
• Primary copper smelters - fugitive emissions only
• Primary lead smelters - fugitive emissions only
• Primary lead smelters - fugitive emissions plus
mobile sources
• Primary lead smelters - fugitive and stack emissions
plus mobile sources
Total AQCR's Requiring Control Measures
_
2.0 ag/m3
Number of AQCR's Requiring Additional Control for
• Primary copper smelters - fugitive emissions only
• Primary lead smelters - fugitive emissions only
• Primary lead smelters - fugitive emissions only
plus mobile sources
• Primary lead smelters - fugitive and stack emissions
plus mobile sources
Total AQCR's Requiring Control Measures
1982
1
1
1
2
5
1
1
2
-
4
1
1
1
-
3
YEAR
1983 1
-
1
1
2
4
1
2
1
-
4
1
1
1
-
3
985
-
1
1
2
4
1
2
-
1
4
1
1
1
-
3
1995
-
1
1
2
4
1
1
-
2
4
1
1
- '
1 |
3
i
3-7
-------
Control of combinations of sources other than those shown would
not, generally, result in the AQCR's achieving compliance. This is
not the case in one AQCR; however, the application of the selective
control philosophy led to the control strategy developed.
The control strategies indicated in Table 3-1 for 1982 are those
which are suggested for attaining the standards. The strategies
specified for 1983, 1985 and 1995 are those which may serve to maintain
the proposed levels of the standard. For each AQCR requiring control
of lead emitters in 1982, the control strategy in subsequent years is
the same or pertains to a subset of the controlled sources.* This
implies that after the standards are attained in these AQCR's, the
maintenance of ambient standards would not require control of additional
source types or the introduction of new control strategies, although
a higher degree of control may be required within particular source
categories.
As noted in Table 3-1, five AQCR's would require additional
control in 1982 for the most stringent standard proposed, 1.0 ug/m2.
Four AQCR's would require additional control in 1983. For a standard
of 1.5 ug/m3, the number of AQCR's expected to be out of compliance
would be four by the years 1982 and 1983. For a standard of 2.0 ug/nr3,
AQCR's out of compliance would be three for the years 1982 and 1983.
It should also be noted that mobile-only controls would be needed in
one AQCR in 1982 only if the 1.5 ug/m3 standard were imposed; for
*With the exception of a primary copper smelter in one AQCR which
may present a small problem in 1995, but not earlier.
3-8
-------
any less stringent standard, mobile-only controls would be unnecas-
sary. In subsequent years, for a given standard, there is a shi^t
from more complex strategies to simpler ones (e.g., fugitive-plus
stack-plus-mobile to fugitive-plus-stack to fugitive emissions alone).
3.1.3 Stationary Source Control Strategies
Some AQCR's are expected to require control strategies only for
stationary sources. The types of stationary sources requiring control
are projected to be primary lead and primary copper smelters. These
smelters have already adopted measures or are in the process of adopt-
ing measures to control their stack emissions in order to comply with
total-particulate regulations. These control measures have resulted
in some control of lead. In most cases, further control of lead emis-
sions only from stacks could not provide the additional reduction in
lead emissions, according to the rollback technique, necessary to
bring the AQCR's into compliance with the proposed NAAQS for lead.
It should be noted that the analysis is sensitive to the amount of
total-particulate stack control in existence in 1975 (i.e., the com-
pliance control factor). Since this value is not known for many
individual smelters, a nationwide average was employed and the amount
of further stack control is not precisely tailored to site-specific
conditions.
The lead emissions inventory indicates that by 1982 an important
source of lead emissions is fugitive emissions from primary lead and
3-9
-------
primary copper smelters. In at least one case, the reduction of
these emissions would be sufficient to bring the AQCR into compliance.
To control fugitive emissions at primary smelters, it is neces-
sary to provide a building evacuation system to a fabric filter
(BEFF). Such a system consists of hoods, ducts, fans, and fabric
filters and is believed to be capable of achieving up to a 99 percent
collection efficiency. It is projected that 10 to 22 such systems,
depending on the standard adopted, will be required. For the purpose
of making this projection, it was assumed that each building requir-
ing control within the smelter would be provided with a separate con-
trol system. However, this assumption does not significantly affect
the projected environmental impacts.
For some AQCR's it would also be necessary to apply mobile source
controls, which are discussed later, or even stack emissions controls.
Typically, fabric filters and scrubbers are applied for control of
primary lead smelter stack emissions, while electrostatic precipita-
tors are employed for the control of primary copper smelter stack
emissions.
Further stack control implies techniques above and beyond the
best available control technology already (by 1982) on the stacks in
response to requirements for the tota1-particulate NAAQS. Such addi-
tional control would require the development of new technology (beyond
present 8ACT) and could prove to be highly unattractive economically
with the result that the smelter operators so affected may decide to
3-10
-------
terminate operations. Before such a drastic measure is taken, how-
ever, careful monitoring analyses near these smelters should be per-
formed. Although the present study was based on the best available
monitoring data, the information was limited in many cases. Further-
more, it is not the intent of this report to present detailed site-
specific information, rather a generalized nationwide overview.
Thus, for purposes of developing strategies and their environ-
mental consequences, it is assumed that BEFF control of fugitive
emissions from primary lead and/or primary copper smelters would
clean up sufficient amounts of the anticipated point source emis-
sions.
3.1.4 Combined Stationary and Mobile Source Control Strategies
In some instances, the rollback analysis showed that control of
both stationary and mobile sources may be necessary to meet the pro-
posed levels of the lead NAAQS. Review of the emission inventories
for these areas reveals that elimination of lead emissions from either
source category would not be sufficient to bring the AQCR into com-
liance. Primary lead and/or primary copper semlters are operated
in all of the AQCR's requiring a combined point and mobile source
control strategy. Quantities of lead emitted by other point sources
in these regions are estimated to be less than one ton per year or
three orders of magnitude less than the quantities of lead emitted
by the primary smelters. The control strategy suggested for these
cases is to apply the maximum amount of reasonably available control
3-11
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to the fugitive emissions at primary smelters, and to apply mobile
source controls (particulate traps) to achieve the remainder of the
reduction required. Thus, some AQCR's would require installation of
particulate traps as part of their control strategies. The total
numbers of vehicles requiring particulate traps in order for alter-
native levels of the standard to be met are shown in Table 3-2. Traps
on medium-size trucks and replacement traps have been accounted for
in these totals. It should be noted that the installation of particu-
late traps in model-year medium-size trucks would be required in years
between those shown in the table to maintain compliance with the NAAQS
proposed.
3.1.5 Mobile Source Control Strategies
In addition to the control of primary copper and lead smelters
alone or in combination with mobile source control, it is expected
that one AQCR would require some control of mobile sources in 1982
to achieve compliance with a standard of 1.0 ug/m . It should be
noted, though, that these controls would not be needed by 1985 due
to the no-lead/phasedown of lead in gasoline already required under
current EPA regulations. Nevertheless, the AQCR would be required
to undertake some form of action to reduce mobile emissions, and,
since the elimination of the small quantities of lead emitted by point
sources would not bring the region into compliance with the standard,
a strategy of controlling only mobile sources is proposed for this
AQCR. Naturally, states may elect to propose a combination point
3-12
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TABLE 3-2
NUMBER OF VEHICLES WHICH MAY REQUIRE LEAD PARTICULATE TRAPS
AS A FUNCTION OF ALTERNATIVE STANDARD AND TIME
PROPOSED
STANDARD
(quarterly average, ug/nT)
1.0
1.5
2.0
YEAR
1982
1,265,300
106,500
58,000
1985 Q
49,100
26,900
26,900
1995 ©
8,800
4,900
0
1. Pre-1975 autos and medium-size trucks obtaining their second
participate trap plus model-year medium-size trucks.
2. Medium-size trucks of various ages obtaining another particu-
late trap plus model-year medium-size trucks.
3-13
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and mobile source strategy as they are in no way bound to apply the
mobile-only strategy used here.
Only one option, the use of particulate lead traps on pre-1975
automobiles, appears capable of providing the necessary 25 to 30
percent reduction in emissions. Although these traps are not expected
to be generally available until 1982, the inclusion of this option in
State Implementation Plans may provide an incentive to hasten the
development and marketing of traps, at least on a limited geographi-
cal basis. For this reason, the installation of particulate lead
traps is considered a feasible control strategy, and is used in the
impact analysis for the AQCR discussed here.
3.2 PRIMARY IMPACTS
3.2.1 Air Quality
Primary impacts are those which can be attributed directly to
the action being assessed— setting and enforcing the NAAQS for lead.
The two primary impacts which are expected to result from this action
are: (a) a decrease in the quantity of lead emitted to the atmo-
sphere, and (b) a decrease in ambient air lead concentrations. Of
the three levels of the standard considered (1.0, 1.5, and 2.0
monthly average), the most stringent level (l.Q^g/m ) applied in
1982 would result in these two primary impacts occurring most often —
in 5 out of 243* AQCR's. Thus, the primary impacts (i.e., changes
*Four AQCR's (Guam, American Samoa, and two in Alaska) have been
excluded from the analysis.
3-14
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in lead emissions and air concentrations) resulting from the setting
of the NAAQS for lead are seen to be limited to a few locations and
are discussed in the following sections.
3.2.1.1 Lead Emissions
A direct impact of setting and enforcing the NAAQS for lead is
a reduction in the numoer of tons of lead emitted annually to the
atmosphere. Calculation of the reduction was based on the measured
and estimated ambient air quality concentrations presented in Section
2.2 and the rollback philosophy used in developing control strategies
in Section 3.1. The reductions required in individual AQCR's were
summed to determine the total national reduction which would be re-
quired to attain and maintain the proposed lead NAAQS in future years.
Table 3-3 summarizes the nationwide reductions of lead emissions
which may result from the various proposed levels of the standard.
For the most stringent standard analyzed, 1.0 yg/rn^ quarterly average,
a 30 percent rollback of nationwide tonnage, relative to 1975 condi-
tions would be implied. As the level of the standard becomes less
stringent, the percentage rollback required decreases. For a stan-
dard of 1.5 ug/rn^, a 15 percent reduction would be implied, and for
a standard of 2.0 ug/rn^, a 10 percent reduction is indicated. The
reduction required changes from year to year since the total number
of tons emitted varies due to (1) industry growth (or decline), (2)
elimination of lead in gasoline, and (3) additional compliance with
total particulate regulations.
3-15
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TABLE 3-3
NATIONWIDE ESTIMATE OF REDUCTION IN TONS OF LEAD
EMITTED TO THE ATMOSPHERE TO MEET PROPOSED STANDARDS
STANDARD
(ug/m3)
1.0
1.5
2.0
PERCENTAGE
ROLLBACK,
RELATIVE TO
1975
30
15
10
ADDITIONAL REDUCTIONS BY YEAR,
STATIONARY AND MOBILE SOURCES
(tons of lead)
1982
2,562
1,736
1,233
i
1983
2,274
1,658
1,170
1985
2,275
1,659
1,174
1995
2,901
2,286
1,710
Standards based on quarterly averaging time.
3-16
-------
The trend in the reduction for any standard between 1982 and
1995 is a function of these factors and is independent or the level
of the standard. In 1985, the rollback reouired is less than in
1982, primarily because the reduction in mobile emissions (due to
gasoline additive and fuel economy regulations) is greater than any
increases resulting from more vehicle miles traveled and/or growth
in the industrial point source category. But by 1995, the diminish-
ing effect of gasoline additive and fuel economy regulations is not
great enough to offset the increases in point source emissions. More
specifically, anticipated increases in primary lead production would
yield increased lead emissions to the atmosphere, thereby resulting
in the need for additional reduction in lead emissions in 1995 rela-
tive to 1985.
The reductions in Table 3-3 represent nationwide values for both
mobile and stationary sources. The control of fugitive lead emis-
sions from primary lead and copper smelters as well as the control
of mobile sources is estimated to account for most of the required
reductions. For example, for the most stringent standard, 1.0 ug/m
in 1982, the fugitive and mobile control strategies are designed to
effect approximately 98 percent of the total emissions reduction
required.* The remainder is attributable to the stack emissions from
*In this case, fugitive control should eliminate 2,349 tons of lead
emissions while mobile control measures should reduce 387 tons com-
pared to a required reduction of 2,754 tons (see Table 3-3).
3-T
-------
primary lead or primary copper smelters. It should be noted, however,
that these stacks already have (by 1982) BACT* systems. Thus, for
purposes of a nationwide assessment, it appears that the indicated
strategies—fugitive dust and mobile emissions control—represent a
reasonable and comprehensive approach. Of course, the states have
the option and the responsibility to develop strategies to suit their
individual needs.
3.2.1.2 Ambient Concentrations
As presented earlier, Figure 3-1 shows how many AQCR's had
either reported or estimated 1975 ambient air lead concentrations
that would exceed the proposed levels of the standard. The cumula-
tive influence of regulations (other than the lead NAAQS) which
directly control lead emissions to the atmosphere (SIP and NSPS con-
trol of parti dilates as well as no-lead in gasoline—see Sections
2.1.1.3 and 2.1.2.3) are themselves expected to reduce (1) lead emis-
sions by 1982, (2) ambient air lead concentrations, and (3) the num-
bers of AQCR's (relative to 1975) expected to exceed the proposed
levels or the standards. For a standard of 1.0 ug/m , quarterly aver-
rage, 113 AQCR's would have exceeded the standard in 1975, while in
1982 only five AQCR's are expected to exceed the same level. It is
these five AQCR's whose ambient air lead concentrations would have
to be reduced further and thereby be affected by a lead NAAQS of 1.0
*8est available control technology.
3-18
-------
ug/m^. Other AQCR's may also experience reduced lead concentrations
because of other regulatory actions, but not as a direct result of
the lead NAAQS. Any new facilities, constructed in areas where the
lead NAAQS is not exceeded, would have to be designed so their lead
emissions during operation would not result in ambient lead levels
exceeding the standard.
For a standard of 1.5 ug/m , quarterly average, ambient lead con-
centrations would need to be reduced in four AQCR's in 1982, while
three AQCR's would require reductions in the same year if the 2.0
ug/m standard were adopted. It should also be noted, though, that
four AQCR's would need lead controls in 1995 using the 2.0 yg/m
standard, because of growth in the primary lead smelting industry.
3.2.2 Human Health and Welfare
The protection of human health and welfare is the purpose of a
national ambient air quality standard for lead. The effects of
lead on human health and welfare are addressed in the Air Quality
Criteria for Lead issued by EPA at proposal. The level of the
standard is based solely on health and welfare considerations.
The proposed rulemaking preamble contains a statement of basis
and purpose which explains the Agency's standard rationale.
3.3 OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Using the control strategies specified in the previous section,
the cumulative, nationwide secondary impacts likely to result from
promulgating a lead NAAQS can be determined. The major secondary
impacts which may occur include changes in energy consumption, noise
levels, land acreage, other pollutant emissions, ecological implica-
tions and costs to industries and state governments.
-------
Assessment of these impacts with respect to stationary sources
has been based on the following assumptions:
(a) Control of fugitive emissions from primary lead and
primary copper smelters would be achieved through the
construction and operation of building evacuation sys-
tem to fabric filter (BEFF) facilities;*
(b) Such facilities would be located adjacent to the smelt-
ing facilities on property already owned and developed
by the smelting companies;
(c) Lead emitted from fugitive sources and captured by the
BEFF facilities would not be recovered, i.e., the
worst case, and therefore landfill operations would
be needed to dispose of the material collected; and
(d) Landfills would be located a few miles from the smelt-
ers in areas which are presently undeveloped.
When the exact locations of all facilities being constructed as
a result of the lead NAAQS can be positively identified, site specific
impacts can be evaluated.
The secondary impacts related to the mobile source strategy (the
application of lead particulate traps) are based on the assumption
that the particulate traps can be manufactured in existing muffler-
producing facilities.
It is assumed that the operation of BEFF facilities at station-
ary sources would be ongoing actions for many years. On the other
hand, with regard to the particulate traps, there would be a large
initial demand under conditions of the 1.0 yg/m standard—approxi -
mately 1.3 million units, by 1982—with a sharp fall off in production
*!ncludes hoods, ducts, fans, and baghouses,
3-20
-------
in subsequent years (see Table 3-2). For years later than 1982 and/
or for standards greater than 1.0 ag/m , the demand for participate
traps would be relatively small.
3.3.1 Energy Consumption
Considerations of energy consumption involve the construction
and operation of the BEFF's at each of the primary lead and primary
copper smelters required to control fugitive emissions as well as
the fabrication and operation of particulate traps for reducing auto-
motive emissions. Energy consumption is typically characterized by
capital and operating energy demands. Capital energy is defined as
the energy required to produce various materials (e.g., structural
steel, sheet metal, raw chemicals) and assemble the materials into
finished products. Operating energy consists of the energy to run
the BEFF fans, to dispose of the collected particulate matter, and
to operate automobiles with particulate traps.
3.3.1.1 Capital Energy
Based on (1) the amount of structural steel and other materials
used at the ASARCO smelter in El Paso, (2) the ratio of total parti-
culate to lead particulate, (3) the capacity of the BEFF at El Paso,
and (4) the tons of lead to be collected at the affected primary cop-
per and lead smelters, the nationwide capital energy costs in 1982
— IP
for a standard of 1.5 yg/m are expected to be 3.12 x 10' and 1.74
3-21
-------
•j 2
x 10 BTU(th)* for primary copper and primary lead smelters, respec-
tively. The capital energy costs in 1982 associated with the alter-
native standards are shown in Table 3-4. The table also lists equi-
valent barrels of oil. A comparison with either the nationwide
domestic demand of oil at 17.7 x 10 barrels per day in 1976 (Federal
Energy Administration, 1977) or the 1975 operating energy for the
primary lead and copper industries of 30 x 10 barrels of oil (based
on 1975 production rates and energy factors derived from Bureau of
the Census, 1967) indicates that the capital energy costs for retro-
fitting all the primary copper and lead smelters are relatively small.
The capital energy for the automotive control strategy is con-
sidered to be the energy to manufacture the particulate traps. Since
the particulate traps would likely be manufactured by muffler manu-
facturers at existing plants, no new major facilities would have to
be constructed and the capital energy is considered to be that which
would be expended to provide and fabricate the necessary sheet metal.
Under the most widespread application of the most stringent standard,
1.3 million particulate traps** would be required. The capital energy
required to produce this number of mufflers is estimated to be the
equivalen* of 477,000 barrels of oil. The corresponding energy to
produce the same number of particulate traps, containing slightly
*BTU(th) = British thermal unit (thermal)
**Required for the mobile source strategy relating to a standard of
1.0 ug/m3 in 1982.
3-22
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3-23
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more steel and/or aluminum, would be 542,000 barrels of oil. In some
cases the parti oil ate traps would be Installed on vehicles requiring
new mufflers, so the capital energy would be expected to lie some-
where between the two energy values mentioned above. It is important
to note that these capital energy requirements for the two devices,
mufflers and particulate traps, are fairly similar with the exception
of possible retooling, required for particulate trap production, which
is unknown but considered to be of a low order of magnitude.
The need for particulate traps for less stringent alternative
standards or for later years is generally two orders of magnitude
less than for the 1982 case involving the 1.0 ug/m standard presented
above.
3.3.1.2 Operating Energy
The operating energy for point source control is associatad with
the power to drive the fans in the BEFF and with, the fuel to trans-
port and bury the collected particulate matter. Based on a study of
the BEFF facility for the ASARCO smelter at El Paso, Texas (Nelson,
1977), it is estimated that the nationwide energy consumption rates
•j i? 12
for 1982 at a standard of 1.5 ug/m are 0.63 x 10 and 0.43 x 10
BTU(th) for the primary copper and lead smelter BEFF's, respectively.
If it is assumed that the collected material is transported to
landfills several miles away, the fuel energy requirements for 1982
3 9
at a standard of 1.5 yg/m are computed to be less than 1 x 10
3-24
-------
BTU(th). Even If the energy to operate the bulldozers at the land-
fill sites were of the same magnitude, the energy for hauling and
burial is negligible compared to that for the BEFF fans and is not
considered further in the analysis. Thus, the operating energies
reported in Table 3-4 represent, for the different standards, the
energy to power the BEFF fans. The energy values (for fans at the
required BEFF's) are small (less than one percent) in comparison to
the annual energy input to the primary copper and primary lead smelt-
ing industries. Based on 1975 production values (see Appendices C
and E) and energy-per-ton factors for both industries (Bureau of the
Census, 1967), the total energy input to both industries is estimated
to be 172 x 1012 BTU(th) for 1975.
The operating energy associated with the use of particulate
traps refers to the power which is needed to force the spent gases
through the exhaust system. With the present design of particulate
traps there is no appreciable difference in the pressure drop across
a standard acoustical muffler and a particulate trap and, therefore,
in operating energy required.
3.3.2 Noise Levels
Most of the noise generated by the operation of BEFF's occurs
within the structure housing the system where Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) standards specify that noise expo-
sure levels are not to exceed 90 dBA for an eight-hour workday.
Individual pieces of equipment, such as fans which typically generate
3-25
-------
noise levels ranging from 76 to 102 dBA at five feet (Goodfriend
and Kessler, 1973), may not meet these specifications. Therefore,
the entire control system including fans, ductwork, and piping should
be designed using those acoustical measures necessary to insure that
the OSHA noise standards are met. It should be noted that the expo-
sure levels can be increased by 5 dBA for each halving of the expo-
sure time. The U.S. Environmental Pr^*°'-tion Agency (EPA) has pro-
posed to OSHA that a maximum eight-hc-ir occupational exposure level
of 85 dBA be established within three years of the OSHA regulation
and ultimately an eight-hour exposure level of 80 dBA (U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1974). Furthermore, EPA proposed that the
exposure level can be increased by only 3 dBA for each halving of the
exposure time.
Assuming that the OSHA permissible noise exposure levels are
met, the exterior sound pressure levels would be less than 90 dBA
due to noise attenuation caused by the building walls, ambient air,
and nearby structures. Maximum noise levels computed based only on
attenuation related to distance, are 70 dBA at 50 feet and 58 dBA at
200 feet. Assuming that the SEFF's are to be at least 200 feet from
the property line, noise levels are not expected to exceed typical
local noise ordinances (e.g., New Jersey, 1974).
The particulate traps are expected to have acoustical properties
similar to those of a standard muffler and any changes in noise lev-
els in the vicinity of roads and highways are not anticipated to be
perceivable.
3-26
-------
3.3.3 Land Use Parameters
The use of a BEFF system to control fugitive emissions requires
space not only to house the system but for the disposal of the parti-
culate matter collected in a landfill area. It should be noted that
the space requirements for the BEFF housing represent a one-time allo-
cation, while the requirements for landfill are on an annual basis.
The manufacture of particulate traps is expected to occur at existing
facilities.
3.3.3.1 Space Requirements for BEFF Facilities
The area* occupied by the baghouse facility consists of the bag-
house proper, a transformer substation, ducting, a loading area, and
an approach road. The baghouse itself is assumed to vary in size
according to the amount of lead particulate to be collected, but the
area for the other items is assumed to remain constant regardless of
output. Based on the BEFF at the ASARCO smelter in El Paso, Texas
(Nelson, 1977), the BEFF area (for additional structures) for the
affected smelters (primary copper and primary lead) is estimated to
be 4.2 acres for a standard of 1.5 ug/mj. This acreage and the acre-
ages according to the other levels of a lead standard are presented
in Table 3-5. Relative to the area occupied by a single smelter
(e.g., the ASARCO smelter at El Paso itself occupies over 700 acres
of land), the space requirements for BEFF's are quite small.
"'External to the existing smelter.
3-27
-------
TABLE 3-5
NATIONWIDE LAND USE PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED WITH FUGITIVE
LEAD EMISSIONS CONTROL AT PRIMARY COPPER AND LEAD SMELTERS, 1982
LEVEL OF STANDARD
(//g/m3)
1.0
1.5
2.0
AREA FOR
ADDITIONAL STRUCTURES
(acres)
6.7
4.2
3.3
VOLUME FOR DISPOSAL
(acre-feet)
21.6
16.0
10.1
3-28
-------
3.3.3.2 Landfill Considerations
For a standard of 1.5 ug/m , the nationwide amounts of total
participate fugitive dust to be disposed of would be 9.5 acre-feet
and 6.5 acre-feet for primary copper and primary lead smelters, re-
spectively in 1982. Landfill factors resulting from the promulgating
of the alternative standards are presented in Table 3-5. Volumes (in
acre-feet) are listed instead of acreages since the number of acres
would vary from site to site according to the thickness of the land-
filling operations. Even with a conservative estimate of two feet
for the proposed thickness of the landfill layer of disposed dust,
the nationwide annual acreage requirements under the most stringent
of the standards proposed (1.0 ug/m ) would be very small—on the
order of ten acres.
3.3.3.3 Mobile Strategy Considerations
Not all of the 1.3 million particulate traps which would have
to be installed by 1982 represent new production capacity. In 1972
the annual muffler production in the United States was over 54 mil-
lion units of which 32.5 million units were replacement mufflers, up
from 26.5 million units in 1967 (Bureau of the Census, 1977). Thus,
the annual production rate by 1982 may be extrapolated to at least
40 million units. Since approximately one-third of the 1.3 million
pre-1975 cars would need a replacement muffler in the 1981 to 1982
time period, by virtue of normal wear, the production of 0.4 million
particulate traps would merely take the place of a similar number of
3-29
-------
mufflers. Production of the other 0.9 million traps would be for
cars not needing replacement mufflers at the time and thus represents
an additional production capacity of one to two percent if all the
traps were produced in one year. The percentage increase would be
even smaller if the particulate traps were also manufactured in years
prior to 1982 in an effort to build up a stockpile. Any plant expan-
sion of this magnitude could occur on property already owned by muf-
fler manufacturers.
3.3.4 Other Air Pollutants
Control devices installed to reduce fugitive lead emissions
from primary lead and copper smelters are also expected to control
emissions of other trace contaminants. In order to estimate the
magnitude of this impact, the uncontrolled emissions were computed
for several pollutants. Fugitive emission factors for trace metals
from primary lead and primary copper smelters have not yet been devel-
oped. Estimates for the magnitude of trace element emissions were
derived from concentrations of the elements found in stack particu-
lates from one smelter (Statnick, 1974) and from ^articulate fugitive
emission factors (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974a). The
remaining estimates (except mercury) were derived from typical con-
centrations of trace elements in the ores (U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, 1974f), particulate fugitive emission factors, and
the assumption that 50 percent of the concentration of the elements
3-30
-------
in the ores is found in the fugitive participates. Mercury emissions
were computed from a materials balance (Van Horn, 1975).
Table 3-6 represents the estimated fugitive emissions for seven
pollutants from both primary lead and primary copper smelters. While
the estimates for some pollutants in the table may appear small when
considered on a nationwide basis, it must be remembered that there
were only a few primary copper and primary lead smelters operating
in the United States in 1975. If, on the other hand, for a given
AQCR, the primary smelters constitute the major source of the trace
elements in question, particulate control at the smelters (fugitive
emissions control to provide compliance with the lead NAAQS) would
reduce the emissions of the trace elements as much as 99 percent in
the vicinity of the smelters. The predicted reduction in arsenic
would be significant when compared to the estimated nationwide arse-
nic emissions of 4,890 tons/year from all types of sources.
The use of lead particulate traps is not expected to alter the
exhaust emission characteristics except, of course, for lead (Summers,
1977).
3.3.5 Hydrology
The impact on hydrology likely to result from the lead NAAQS is
a change in the lead concentrations of both ground waters and surface
waters. The reduction of airborne lead concentrations expected from
the enforcement of the lead NAAQS would result in lower lead concen-
trations for bodies of water by limiting the amount of lead entering
3-31
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the surface water by direct deposition and/or runoff. Lead concen-
trations of surface water as well as ground water may increase unless
the solid waste collected at the BEFF's is disposed of at carefully
sited and well designed landfills. Leachate is a highly mineralized
fluid containing such constituents as chloride, iron, lead, copper,
sodium, nitrate, and a variety of organic chemicals (U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1977c). In confined, slow moving, or rela-
tively low-volume surface waters, leachate has killed vegetation and
fish, eliminated spawning areas, and precluded the use of existing
and planned recreational areas (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1977c).
Solid waste land disposal sites can be sources of groundwater
contamination because of the generation of leachate caused by water
percolating through the bodies of refuse and waste materials. Dis-
posal sites located in areas where the water table is close to land
surface can produce leachate and subsequent groundwater contamination.
In some places, such as low lying coastal areas, the water table is
so high that all disposal sites constructed without sufficient natural
or artificial barriers would contaminate ground water. Leachate
contamination of supply wells can result in adverse health effects
as a result of chronic exposure, and can cause severe economic hard-
ships, distresses, inconveniences, and inequities to owners of dam-
aged lands.
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Because primary lead and primary copper smelters are located in
western states, their disposal sites would probably not be located
in areas highly susceptible to groundwater contamination (e.g., low
lying coastal areas, wetlands). Under Section 1424(e) of the Safe
Drinking Water Act of 1974, only one aquifer, the Edwards Underground
Reservoir, San Antonio, Texas has been designated for special protec-
tion and there are no smelters in that area whose solid waste disposal
would have an impact on that aquifer.
Although small quantities of water would be required for the
construction (e.g., in concrete) of the new control facilities, no
increase in water consumption is anticipated during the operation of
the BEFF's. Moreover, there are no liquid effluents directly asso-
ciated with the operation of BEFF's.
The use of particulate traps is not expected to have any adverse
impact on water use or water quality. Fewer lead emissions onto and
near roads imply less lead in any runoff to streams. The disposal
of the traps would be either as units removed from the auto or as
part of the auto when junked. Some of this metal would be recycled
while the rest would be disposed of at landfill sites and junk yards.
It is not possible to quantify the impacts due to potential leaching
at these unspecified sites.
3.3.6 Topographic, Geologic, and Soil Characteristics
Decreased quantities of lead in the air would cause less lead
to settle out onto all types of surfaces including soils. Thus, the
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lead NAAQS would result in lead accumulation in the soil at a slower
rate than if the standard were not established.
Slight changes in topographic, geologic, and soil characteris-
tics of the immediate construction areas may result from grading,
trenching, filling, and compacting operations occurring while build-
ing the BEFF's. A nationwide total of less than seven acres was
estimated for construction of the BEFF's needed to meet the most
stringent of the proposed standards (see Section 3.3.3). Because
the BEFF's would probably be located adjacent to the smelting facil-
ities on property already developed and owned by the smelting com-
panies and the construction would not involve major excavation for
these issentially above-ground facilities, occupying relatively small
acreages, no significant impacts on topographic, geologic, and soil
characteristics are anticipated.
Even though the landfill operations would result in alterations
of topographic and soil characteristics during the excavation and
backfilling stages—some topsoil would be lost and/or replaced by
subsoil and the local topography would be slightly changed—the ex-
tent is anticipated to be small, nn the basis of approximately 20
acre-feet of material to be buried (see Table 3-5), and assuming a
conservative layer thickness of two feet, the nationwide area involved
would be no more than ten acres annually for the affected primary cop-
per and lead smelters. The depth of the landfills is not expected to
be great enough to affect geologic considerations.
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The manufacture and installation of lead particulate traps should
not appreciably affect topographic, geologic, or soil characteristics
since existing facilities, with possible minor expansion, would be
used.
3.3.7 Historical and Archaeological Sites
Those baghouses which are birlt as a result of the proposed lead
standard will probably be located adjacent to the smelting facilities
on property already developed and owned by the companies. Therefore,
it is unlikely that any historical or archaeological sites would be
affected by the construction of additional baghouses. On the other
hand, land used for landfill operations may be located at a distance
from the facilities and may be presently undeveloped. When the spe-
cific locations of the new landfill sites are identified, it can be
determined whether they would involve historical and archaeological
sites by contacting local historical societies and references includ-
ing the National Register of Historic Places and the National Regis-
try of Natural Landmarks.
Any plant expansions to produce lead particulate traps at exist-
ing muffler facilities are likely to occur adjacent to -the main com-
plex and no historical or archaeological site disturbances are anti-
cipated.
3.3.8 Aesthetics
The addition of a 3EFF to an existing smelter would alter the
appearance of the complex but the magnitude of this change in an
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already industrial area is expected to be small since the BEFF would
occupy only a small fraction of the area of the complex, would be
immediately adjacent to the smelter, and would have a lower profile
than the smelter itself. Moreover, the design of a BEFF (general
industrial) would be in keeping with the rest of the complex. How-
ever, locations designated for new landfills may be located in pres-
ently undeveloped areas and the changes in appearance, although tem-
porary and involving only small acreages, may be more obtrusive as
vegetation and topsoil are removed.
For the manufacture of lead particulate traps, any plant expan-
sions, if necessary, would likely have the same general appearance
as the original building and no adverse impacts regarding aesthetics
are anticipated.
3.3.9 Ecological Impacts
Ambient lead concentrations in natural environments should be
reduced in the future by the promulgation of the MAAQS for lead.
The major overall effect of this action, in conjunction with other
lead control programs would be ^o reverse the present trend of accumu-
lation of lead in natural ecosystems, principally in soils and sedi-
ments. Other heavy metals would be controlled to some extent by
these programs, particularly at smelters, so that the overall effect
of an NAAQS for lead would be a reduction in the environmental burden
of several heavy metals.
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3.3.9.1 Terrestrial Environments
The establishment of an NAAQS for lead is only one of several
factors that would be responsible for reducing -he input of lead to
terrestrial ecosystems. Roadside areas would be affected primarily
by the gradual elimination of lead in gasoline. By 1985 lead emis-
sions from vehicles to roadside environments should be about 11 per-
cent of 1975 levels (see Section 3.1). Because medium-duty trucks
may continue to utilize leaded gasoline, lead emissions along high-
ways may never be completely eliminated but would be small in quantity.
Reductions of lead inputs to terrestrial environments due to the
control of particulate emissions from stationary sources is expected
to be site specific. Under the proposed strategy, fugitive sources
within some AQCR's may not be controlled (specifically for lead) if
the proposed ambient air standards for lead can be achieved by the
phasedown of lead in gasoline and/or ambient and emissions standards
for total particulate matter. Since some fugitive emissions may not
be controlled, local areas affected primarily by a point source may
not experience a reduction in lead input.
Where the lead input to a terrestrial system would be reduced,
the presently observed increase in lead concentrations in soils is
expected to be retarded. However, the fate of lead already stored in
soils is not as straightforward. Because of its relative immobility
in soils, existing lead would probably be slowly (over geological
time) covered by new soil or carried to streams through normal erosion
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processes. Lead still would be available to vegetation and the food
web as long as the present storage remained in the biologically active
surface layers.
Surface deposition of lead on leaves would decline rapidly.
This deposition is not believed to be a major source of lead to veg-
etation itself, rather to those organisms feeding directly on the
leaves. Thus, this route would be considerably reduced as a means
of transmitting lead to higher species in the food web.
3.3.9.2 Aquatic Environments
Most of the actions that would reduce the input of lead to ter-
restrial environments would also reduce lead inputs both directly and
indirectly to aquatic environments. In addition, effluent limitation
guidelines established under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 (PL 92-500) would be important in reducing lead
in various liquid point source discharges.
As with terrestrial sites, actual reductions in lead in particu-
lar aquatic environments are expected to be site specific, depending
on the mix of lead sources. For example, coastal ocean water would
experience a reduction in lead input from the phasedown of lead in
gasoline and the control of point source emissions to the air because
these are the dominant lead sources for that environment (see Appen-
dix X). An aquatic environment dominated by the inflow of domestic
sewage wastes may experience no change in lead inputs because present
legislation sets no lead standards for this type of source.
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Despite expected overall decreases in air and waterborne lead
concentrations, aquatic ecosystems would continue to receive some
lead from terrestrial ecosystems in normal erosion and runoff because
of the present large storage of lead that has accumulated in surficial
terrestrial soils. Because of this, aquatic environments would not
exhibit as rapid a decline in overall lead concentrations as would
terrestrial environments. Lead stored in sediments in eroding streams
would be transported slowly downstream. High concentrations of lead
in sediments in depositional areas such as lakes would be covered by
sediments containing less lead as lead control measures become insti-
tuted and the storage of lead presently in terrestrial soils slowly
depletes by erosion. Lead concentrations throughout the aquatic food
web would decline as lead in the water decreases and lead in sediments
becomes slowly buried beneath the biologically active surface layers.
3.3.10 Demography
The total labor force required for construction of a BEFF is ex-
pected to be met by using local construction workers. The operation
of a BEFF would probably require a smelter company to hire two addi-
tional people, one for operation and one for maintenance (Nelson,
1977). Even under the most stringent of the standards proposed, only
20 to 22 BEFF's would be required. Consequently no widespread popu-
lation shifts are anticipated—and none of the related imoacts are
likely to occur. These would include such community services as
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housing, medical facilities, educational institutions, public utili-
ties, and public safety organizations (fire and police).
Since the exact nature of the particulate trap production pro-
cess has not yet been specified, the size and qualifications of the
labor force required to operate the facilities cannot be precisely
evaluated. If the traps were simply to serve as replacements for
the usual attrition of mufflers, it might be possible for those work-
ers presently manufacturing mufflers to be reassigned the tasks nec-
essary for trap production. A majority of the traps, however, would
likely be placed on cars not needing new mufflers at the time and an
additional work force would have to be hired for a one or two-year
period. It does not appear that particularly skilled operators would
be needed and most industrial areas have enough unemployment so that
unskilled workers could be found locally.
3.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOCAL SHORT-TERM USES OF MAN'S ENVIRONMENT
AND THE MAINTENANCE AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY
The promulgation of an NAAQS for lead involves having to accept
some short-term environmental concessions for anticipated long-term
benefits. The latter are most importantly reflected in the expected
reduction of airborne lead and the subsequent improvement in public
health and welfare, while the former involve several short-term com-
mitments of and undesirable effects upon man's environment.
Many of the short-term adverse impacts are expected to occur dur-
ing the construction stages of such projects as (1) the installation
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of BEFF systems to control fugitive emissions at smelters, and (2)
the creation of landfill areas to accommodate solid wastes. Other
short-term adverse impacts would occur if the additive effect of OSHA
standards and the lead emission control strategy should dictate the
extreme measure of plant closure of all or part of its operations.
In this case a notable short-term adverse impact would be the loss of
jobs.
The taking of land for construction involves some long-term
loss of habitat but in the case of the land used for BEFF operations,
this area would be generally adjacent to the smelter within the prop-
erty lines and relatively uninhabitable. Moreover, the acreage requir-
ments are small (on the order of a few acres total for all smelters).
The total acreage needed annually for landfill (to bury dust collected
during the 3EFF operations) is less than 25 acres and the land is
expected to undergo only short-term disruption since the sites can be
rehabilitated through revegetation. It should be noted that this
short-term disruption will reoccur periodically as new waste is col-
lected for disposal.
A major irony of the mobile portion of the control strategy is
that the need for particulate traps is short-lived. Only for the
case of the most stringent standard (1.0 ug/m3) are these control
options needed to any large extent, and even then only for a
limited time period. Due to the effectiveness of the Federal phase-
down program, the need for this control option is expected to drop
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dramatically within a few years.
The short-term implications of such a situation could involve
the drastic choice of decommissioning these facilities once phase-
down becomes effective enough. Alternative actions include a gradual
production and stockpiling of traps before 1982 to minimize the size
of the additional production facilities needed.
The use of energy represents both a short-term and a long-term
commitment of resources. The former relates primarily to the capital
energy expended to construct the necessary BEFF systems, while the
latter derives from the operational stages, i.e., collecting fugitive
dust at smelters. While the manufacturing of traps represents the
use of operating energy, whether this use would become long-term
depends upon how soon these facilities may be.decommissioned. It is
not clear how useful the further production of parti oil ate traps would
be. Based on the reduction of lead in air, it would appear that the
parti oil ate trap program is a temporary option.
While it is difficult to make direct comparisons between the
adverse impacts of the proposed action and the benefits which would
result, the improvement of human health constitutes the overriding
factor behind the promulgation of an NAAQS for lead. The benefit
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to be achieved is a Deduction of adverse health effects which might
otherwise occur as a result of prolonged community exposure to lead.
3.5 MITIGATING MEASURES AND UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS
Among the environmental impacts identified in this analysis are
several which can be classified as adverse impacts. These include
the consumption of more energy, changes in land use patterns, water
pollution, and the production of a large number of particulate traps
in a short time. In addition, certain economic impacts discussed in a
separate statement can be expected, such as increased costs to car
owners, to state and local governments, and to consumers of copper and
lead and their products. Measures can be taken to reduce or eliminate
some of these impacts. Those impacts which cannot be mitigated are con-
sidered to be unavoidable adverse impacts.
3.5.1 Mitigating Measures
Careful siting and design of the landfill sites which would be
used for disposal of lead from BEFF's can eliminate or reduce the
potential for these sites to pollute surface and/or ground waters.
To minimize the aesthetic impact of new landfill sites on surround-
ing areas, topsoil could be used to cover the disposal site and veg-
etation reestablished. It may also be possible to dispose of the
solid waste from the SEFF's in abandoned mines which may be owned by
the primary lead and primary copper smelting companies. "To reduce
ihe possibility of lead leaching from the disposal sites, new land-
fills can be designed such that they would be lined with impermeable
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membranes. In addition, a monitoring system should be a part of a
design to identify failures or accidents at the landfill which result
in leaching. Designing the BEFF's such that the lead dust collected
could be recycled in the smelting process or buried in the lead mines
would minimize the need for additional solid waste disposal sites and
their related impacts. Acoustical devices can be incorporated in the
design of the BEFF's to minimize their operating noise levels.
With stockpiling, the particulate traps could be manufactured
over several years to reduce the impacts of trying to quickly produce
large numbers of these essentially one-time-use devices. Particulate
trap production facilities are expected to be located at existing
muffler plants and, therefore, should blend with the surroundings,
having no impact on aesthetics.
3.5.2 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts
Of the impacts identified in Sections 3.2 and 3.3, measures are
not available to mitigate some of the adverse impacts. The expense
of adding control devices to automobiles and primary lead and primary
copper smelters cannot be avoided. The additional energy consumed
to manufacture and operate these devices is another unavoidable
adverse impact which may be attributed to the setting and enforcing
of the NAAQS for lead. Either the state, local, or Federal govern-
ment would have to pay for the implementation plan development, ambi-
ent air monitoring, and standard enforcement, as these are unavoid-
able costs. Measures to mitigate the increased costs of producing
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lead and copper and their end products are not available. The magni-
tude of these impacts varies for alternative levels of the proposed
standard, but at none of the levels analyzed are these impacts-ex-
pected to be of major consequence.
3.6 IRREVERSIBLE IMPACTS
This section identifies the resources which are irreversibly or
irretrievably committed as a result of the proposed action, i.e., the
establishment of an NAAQS for lead.
Resources are considered irreversibly committed if, as a result
of the proposed action, they
(a) Are consumed,
(b) Cannot be recovered and reused, or
(c) Are permanently damaged.
The proposed strategy for the implementation of the lead stan-
dard is the control of both stationary and mobile sources of lead
emissions. The control strategy (described in Section 3.1) involves
(a) The use of labor and materials in the manufacturing of
control systems (BEFF's and lead traps);
(b) The use of labor, materials, and land for plant modi-
fication (primary lead and copper smelters);
(c) The use of labor for the installation of control equip-
ment;
(d) The use of labor, equipment, and land for the disposal
of dust collected by the BEFF's; and
(e) The use of energy in connection with all the above
activities.
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From among the above resources, labor and energy should be
regarded as irreversibly committed. On the other hand, materials
used in the above activities would be largely recoverable for reuse,
with the exception of reinforced concrete used in plant construction.
Similarly, any equipment would be reusable either as is or through
recovery in the form of scrap materials.
It is not anticipated that there would be permanent impacts on
the land used; however, depending on use, as a result of the proposed
action, land would be temporarily unavailable, e.g., land used for
disposal sites. No permanent hydrological or ecological impacts are
anticipated nor is there any anticipation of permanent effects on
topographical, geological, or soil characteristics.
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REFERENCES
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED STANDARD
Bureau of the Census. 1967. Census of Manufacturers, 1967: Summary
and Subject Statistics, Vol. 1, pp. 5-235 through 239. U.S.
Department of Commerce.
Bureau of the Census. 1977. Information Officer, Industry Division,
Department of Commerce. Telephone conversation.
Federal Energy Administration. April 1977. Monthly Energy Review.
National Energy Information Center, Federal Energy Administration.
Goodfriend, L.S. and F.M. Kessler. 1973. "Industrial Noise Pollution,"
Pollution Engineering and Scientific Solution. Proceedings of
the First International Meeting of the Society of Engineering
Science Held in Tel Aviv, Israel June 12-17, 1972. Plenum Press,
New York-London, 1973.
Nelson, K.W. January 11, 1972. American Smelter and Refinery Company,
Incorporated. Written correspondence to John M. Pratapas, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Statnick, Robert M. October 1974. Measurement of Sulfur Dioxide,
Particulate, and Trace Elements in Copper Smelter Converter and
Roaster/Reverberatory Gas Streams. National Environmental Research
Center. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Summers, Joseph. March 16, 1977. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Michigan. Telephone conversation.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. January 1974. Lead and Air
Pollution: A Bibliography With Abstracts. Air Pollution Technical
Information Center, Office of Air and Water Programs, Office of
Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. December 18, 1974j. "Occupa-
tional Noise Exposure Regulation," Federal Register, Vol. 39,
No. 244.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. October 1974f. Background
Information for New Source Performance Standards: Primary
Copper, Zinc, and Lead Smelters; Volume 1: Proposed Standards.
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. NTIS No. PB-237 832.
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REFERENCES (Concluded)
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED STANDARD
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Assessment Report on Arsenic.
July 19761. Air Pollutant
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. January 1977c. The Report
to Congress on Waste Disposal Practices and Their Effects on
Ground Water: Report January 197TIOffice of Water Supply.
Van Horn, William. October 1975. Materials Balance and Technology
Assessment of Mercury and Its Compounds on National and
Regional Bases. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency by URS Research Company. NTIS P8-247 000.
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