5593
United States ' Region 5 September 1984
Environmental Protection 230 South Dearborn Street
Agency Chicago, Illinois 60604
Region 5 905R84113
AIR QUALITY
US. Envlronmtntal Protection Aftmcgj
«9gion V, fcit^ry Jf
230 Soqth^ Detarborn Street ;
Chicago. Winbjs 60604
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United States Region 5 September 1984
Environmental Protection 230 South Dearborn Street
Agency Chicago, Illinois 60604
Region 5 AIR QUALITY
CONTENTS
Region 5's Clean Air Program 2
The Clean Air Act 3
Building Owners, Contractors Targeted by EPA Asbestos Rules 4
Clean Air Act Mandates Standards 5
Thorium-Extraction Plant Leaves Radioactive Problem in West Chicago . 6
Special Section: Autos and Air Pollution
EPA Requires Vehicle Inspections in Some Cities 8
Clean Air Campaign Targets Fuel Switchers 10
Agency to Limit Lead in Gas 11
Summer is Ozone Season in Region 5 12
'85 Cars to Feature New Mileage Estimates 13
Retirees Get Chance at Clean Air Jobs 13
How Your Car Limits Air Pollution 14
Adamkus: Midwest Wants Fair Acid Rain Burden 16
New Method Promises Cheaper S02 Control 17
Wisconsin Expands S02 Controls 18
EPA Study Helps Save Ohio Mining Jobs 19
Region 5's Air Pollution Control Primer 20
EPA Plans New TSP Standards 21
Agency Studies Air Toxics 22
Air Experts Plan Battle Creek Solution 23
Bubbles Still Used in Midwest 24
Enforcement Summary 26
For Further Information 28
Region 5 AIR QUALITY is a special publication prepared by the Office of
Public Affairs, EPA Region 5, 230 S. Dearborn Street, Chicago, Illinois 60604.
Regional Administrator Valdas V. Adamkus
Acting Director, Office of Public Affairs Mary J. Canavan
Editor and Writer Kathleen Osborne Clute
Graphic Designer.^ _•_-,. -,.,.-. 7.>,. = ••••—-BiiH>te«A.§^Iota
Artist "-'••.* Robert Nagel
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Region 5's
Clean Air Program
EPA's clean air program 4>s entering its teens.
And, like most adolescents, it is undergoing a period of
rapid change.
These changes are occurring
for several reasons, but the most
significant is that we have been
successful in controlling smokestack
emissions of particulates and sulfur
dioxide in many parts of the country.
With that task largely accomplished,
three new control programs are
rapidly developing that will define air
pollution control efforts for the next
decade or more. These three programs
are aimed at controlling automobile
emissions, air toxicants, and acid rain.
The focus on controlling auto
emissions is being expanded from the
Agency's traditional approach of
requiring automakers to install
emission controls on new cars to
requiring inspection and maintenance
programs in many urban areas that
will ensure that motorists keep their
emission controls in good working
order.
Complementing the inspection and
maintenance efforts are inspections to
see that fuel switching does not occur
at gasoline stations and prosecution of
those who tamper with or remove
emission controls. The Agency is also
proposing a 91 percent reduction in the
amount of lead allowed in gasoline.
David Kee answers questions at a
recent EPA press conference on fuel
switching.
Programs such as these will direct!'
affect the car owner who might not
have been aware of pollution controls
in the past. The nature of the Federal-
State partnership, and the fact that
many of these measures have alread\
been authorized, means that Congres
will not need to make further changes
in the act in order to implement this
rather far-reaching change in progran
approach.
Air toxicants are also attracting
increased attention and concern at
EPA. The same concerns over toxic
dumps or contaminated water supplie
extend to the air we breathe. By
restricting our air pollution control
efforts in the 1 970's to a few well-
known pollutants, the Agency's effort
under the Clean Air Act have fallen
behind similar programs in water and
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hazardous waste management. Few
emissions to the air have been
adequately characterized for their
potential toxicity, and fewer yet have
been controlled. Defining and dealing
with this issue will be a major activity
in air pollution control in the next
decade. In many cases, States will
be controlling air toxicants with
technical assistance from the Federal
Government.
The third significant area of new
activity is acid rain control. Unlike the
other two areas already discussed,
reducing emissions which contribute
to this problem will require
Congressional action. Unlike the case
with air toxicants. States with the
largest sources of emissions also have
a tremendous economic incentive not
to act.
Completing the research needed to
forge a national consensus on this
problem, developing the necessary
legislation without destroying the
economies of the regions that produce
high-sulfur coal, and implementing an
acid rain control program will clearly
take until the end of the century.
The Clean Air Act has accomplished
much in its infancy and childhood. Its
teens will be years of great change
and even greater challenges. Every
American's health and quality of life
depends on successfully meeting
these new challenges.
Air Management Division Director
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Building Owners, Contractors
Targeted by EPA Asbestos Rules
Controlling asbestos emissions at renovation and
demolition sites is a high priority for EPA, which has
recently reissued rules that apply to building owners
and contractors.
Controlling asbestos emissions at
renovation and demolition sites is a
high priority for EPA, which has
recently reissued rules that apply to
building owners and contractors.
"This is one more example of
trying to reduce the burden of this
carcinogen on people," said David
Kee, director of Region 5's Air
Management Division. " We're going
to vigorously enforce this rule so that
people don't breathe asbestos into
their lungs."
Contractors planning to renovate or
demolish a building that contains
friable (easily crumbled) asbestos must
do several things: notify EPA of the
planned renovation or demolition;
remove the asbestos before any
wrecking or dismantling that would
break up the asbestos materials; limit
asbestos emissions from the site by
keeping the asbestos materials wet
from the moment they are disturbed
until they are disposed of; and limit
asbestos emissions by transporting
asbestos materials through dust-tight
chutes when lowered more than 50
feet. There must be no visible asbestos
emissions during all handling of
removed asbestos, and the waste
should be taken to a landfill that is
covered daily with at least 6 inches of
clean fill.
Asbestos emissions have been
regulated since 1973 under the Clear
Air Act's hazardous air pollutants
section. Along with standards for
renovation and demolition, there are
standards for asbestos mills,
manufacturers, and fabricators,
among others. More than 200
manufacturing and fabricating
facilities in Region 5 have been
inspected and almost all are complyin
with the regulations.
Asbestos is regulated as a
hazardous air pollutant because
asbestos fibers can endanger public
health if they are not completely
sealed in a product. Because the fiber
are smaller and more buoyant than
ordinary dust particles, they are easily
inhaled. Once inside the human body,
they can lead to lung cancer,
asbestosis and mesothelioma—a
cancer of the membranes that line the
chest and abdomen.
Although EPA first issued the
asbestos standard in 1973, some worl
practice and equipment portions were
not enforced between 1978 and 1983
because of controversy over the
Agency's authority to regulate work
practices.
The reissued regulations are
reorganized, rewritten, and "a lot
easier to understand," according to
Bruce Varner, Region 5 hazardous air
pollutant coordinator.
EPA is placing a high priority on
compliance with the demolition and
renovation standard because Agency
data show that the number of such
sources is greater than that of all
other asbestos sources combined,
with a compliance status that is much
worse.
Top: Asbestos fiber under microscope.
Bottom: Workers at an industrial
boilerhouse put asbestos insulation
into bags lor disposal.
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It is not clear exactly how many
companies in the six-State Region 5
area engage in work that would fall
under the demolition and renovation
standard. The provisions apply only to
jobs in buildings of a certain size—
private dwellings of four or less living
units are exempt from the rule.
In 1983, EPA received about 700
notices under the regulation. Timely
reporting of planned renovation and
demolition work is important because
it allows EPA or State inspectors to
visit the site and determine if the
regulations are being followed. The
owner or the contractor may take
responsibility for notifying EPA.
EPA is eager to achieve uniform
compliance with the regulations so
that firms who do not take the proper
precautions with asbestos are not able
to underbid those who do.
The Agency has several
administrative and judicial tools
available to enforce the law. It can
issue administrative orders that may
require immediate compliance'with
the regulations or, in more serious
cases, it can file civil or criminal
lawsuits seeking penalties. Civil suits
include fines of up to $25,000 a day,
while a conviction under the criminal
portion of the Clean Air Act can result
in imprisonment for up to 1 year and
fines as high as $25,000 a day.
Anyone seeking more information
about the asbestos rules should
contact Varner at (312) 353-2088. <>
Clean Air Act
Mandates Standards
By Ed Hansen
The Clean Air Act makes EPA
responsible for periodically reviewing
the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) and revising them
as necessary.
The act requires that NAAQS be set,
and eventually met, for any air
pollutant that may reasonably be
expected to pose a threat to public
health or welfare and that has many
or diverse sources. These standards,
representing a principal objective of
the act, have been set for the
following pollutants: ozone, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
paniculate matter, sulfur dioxide, and
lead.
An NAAQS defines the allowable
level at which a pollutant may be
present in the atmosphere without
causing damage to public health and
welfare. There are two types of
ambient air quality standards: (1)
primary standards to protect human
health, and (2) secondary standards to
protect public welfare, including
protection of vegetation, crops,
artifacts, animals, economic values,
and personal comfort and well-being.
For most pollutants, the primary and
secondary standards are identical, but
for paniculate matter and sulfur
dioxide, health standards are higher
than those designed to protect human
welfare.
The 1977 Clean Air Act requires
EPA to review each NAAQS at least
every 5 years and to develop for each
pollutant air quality criteria that reflect
the latest scientific knowledge about
the pollutant's effect upon man and
his environment. The Act also requires
EPA to review and revise, as necessary,
all NAAQS's established before 1977.
This process is still ongoing.
EPA is improving the standard-
setting process, partly by using risk
analysis techniques to deal with
uncertainties not resolved by scientific
analysis. Risk assessment allows the
Agency to evaluate the probabilities of
adverse health effects, their severity,
and the numbers of people affected.
The use of these new techniques can
help decision-makers set ambient air
standards that allow an adequate
margin of safety.
EPA regional offices do not set
standards for ambient air quality.
Rather, the regions approve or
disapprove State Implementation
Plans (SIP's) as required by the
Clean Air Act. SIP's do set emissions
standards for sources of pollution and
go through a rulemakmg process. The
main intent to the SIP, however, is to
demonstrate the means by which a
State will achieve and maintain air
quality at a level equivalent to the
NAAQS.
In addition to setting ambient air
quality standards, EPA also sets
emissions limitations and standards of
performance for new stationary
sources of air pollution under Section
111 of the Clean Air Act, and national
emissions standards for hazardous air
pollutants under Section 112. The
Agency also sets emissions standards
for moving sources, including motor
vehicles and aircraft. ^>
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Thorium-Extraction Plant Leaves
Radioactive Problem in West Chicago
Region 5's Air Management and Waste Management
Divisions are working together to address the problem
of radioactive contamination in the City of West Chicago
and surrounding DuPage County, where wastes from a
local thorium-extraction plant are stored and buried.
Located about an hour west of
Chicago in suburban DuPage County,
the City of West Chicago was the site
of a factory that extracted thorium and
rare-earth metals from ore between
1931 and 1973. Thorium compounds
produced at the plant were used in the
manufacture of gas lantern mantels
and were supplied to the Manhattan
Project during World War II for use in
the production of nuclear fuel.
The plant is owned by the Kerr-
McGee Chemical Co., which shut it
down in 1 973 and has been gradually
demolishing the radioactive buildings
there. The buildings were first
erected by the Lindsay Light Co. to
manufacture gas mantles.
While the focus of the radioactive
problem is on the plant site itself,
other parts of the city were
contaminated when tailings were
deposited (possibly as fill) at a city
park, the sewage treatment plant site
and certain residential areas. In
addition, runoff and discharges of
waste materials also led to the
contamination of about 2 miles of
nearby waterways.
t
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The Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) estimates that 15,000 yards of
radioactive material are located m the
Reed-Keppler Park and about 10,000
cubic yards are buried on the site of
the city's sewage treatment plant.
Additional materials may have been
deposited near the plant by air
emissions and have been found in 88
spots throughout the city.
Wastewater discharges from the
plant also contributed to radioactive
deposits now located along the
banks and in the sediment of 2 miles
of nearby Kress Creek and a small
stretch of the west branch of the
DuPage River. Thorium has been found
as deep as 5.5 feet along the banks of
Kress Creek, according to a study
performed for the NRC.
The NRC, which licensed the plant
after the 1954 Atomic Energy Act was
passed, has ordered the company to
prepare a plan to clean up the creek
and river and then to perform the
cleanup. The company is contesting
the terms of the order and has taken
the case before the NRC Licensing and
Appeals Board.
Kerr-McGee has already begun
tearing down the factory buildings and
cleaning up the part of the plant site
where the buildings were located. The
company plans to relocate and bury all
contaminated wastes at the south end
of the property. EPA has expressed
strong reservations about this course
of action.
Because the NRC licensed only the
plant and its discharges, it disclaims
jurisdiction over any wastes that were
deposited before the Atomic Energy Act
was passed.
Kerr-McGee and the City of West
Chicago are cooperating to remove
contaminated soil from residential
property in the city—a move acceptable
to EPA as long as proper waste handling
and disposal procedures are followed.
Due to the large amount of contami-
nated dirt involved, the NRC has
amended Kerr-McGee's permit to allow
storage of the dirt on the factory site.
The study and cleanup of other
contaminated areas—the wastewater
treatment plant, the park and residential
areas outside the city proper—are being
negotiated by attorneys for EPA and
Kerr-McGee. Failing an agreement by
the company to undertake the neces-
sary studies and cleanup, EPA can use
money from its Superfund hazardous
waste cleanup program to do the work.
One concern of local residents, said
Jensen, is the health risk that they
incur by living in the city. Residents
are interested in learning if a health
risk exists and if so, what it is.
Professionals at the Argonne
National Laboratory in Argonne, III.,
studied 3,039 men who worked at the
plant between 1 940 and 1 973 in an
attempt to document the long-term
health effects of thorium exposure.
In a paper presented in 1 981, the
researchers noted that the major
causes of death in these men were
nonoccupational motor vehicle
accidents, lung cancer, pancreatic
cancer, and diseases of the respiratory
system Some of the cancers and
respiratory diseases could have been
caused by cigarette smoking, the
researchers noted. ^
Workers from Kerr-McGee and the City
of West Chicago remove contaminated
soil from a residential neighborhood
in the city during September 1984.
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EPA Requires
Vehicle Inspections
In Major Cities
By Virginia Donohue
Cars. An American fantasy. Since the Model Trolled off
Henry Ford's assembly line in 1908, they have held the
attention of the American public. To some they are
objects of desire, precious possessions, and a source
of awe. To others they represent nothing but headaches
—insurance, gasoline, mechanical failures.
But regardless of how we feel about cars, they're our
prevailing mode of individual transportation.
They're also major polluters.
Car emissions are hazardous to
our health. In an attempt to reduce
the amount of air pollution contributed
by cars, EPA set emissions limits
beginning in 1968. Most cars after
1975 were equipped with emission
control systems that featured catalytic
converters.
Emission controls reduce the amount
of pollutants coming from automobiles.
But without proper care and mainte-
nance, the effectiveness of these
systems is decreased.
Cars emit three major polluting
gases: carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
and oxide nitrogen.
Carbon monoxide goes directly
to the bloodstream and reduces the
amount of oxygen in the blood. In large
quantities, it is deadly. In smaller
amounts, carbon monoxide can cause
dizziness, loss of appetite, nausea,
blurred vision, and headaches.
Hydrocarbons and oxides of
nitrogen react together in the
presence of sunlight to form smog,
which is made up of ozone and
other photo-chemical oxidants.
Ozone can cause breathing
difficulty, chest pain, chest and
nasal congestion, coughing, eye
irritation, nausea, and headaches.
Over 90 percent of the carbon
monoxide and one-third of the hydro-
carbons in the air comes from vehicles.
The primary cause of high emission
levels are maladjustments and inade-
quate vehicle maintenance Vehicle
inspection and maintenance (I/M)
programs are designed to reduce the
amount of pollution caused by
maladjustments, inadequate
maintenanace, and tampering.
Vehicle I/M programs are
required by the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1 977. The original
Clean Air Act gave the States until
1975 to meet National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS's).
Congress later changed that date to
1982, with some States saying that
they would not be able to meet the
deadline with reference to the
ozone and carbon monoxide
NAAQS's.
Congress decided to extend the
attainment date from 1982 to 1987
in areas with the most severe air
quality problems if those areas
would agree to implement I/M
programs. Congress recognized that
the emissions reduction benefits of
I/M were great and would help
move these areas toward a less
polluted environment.
I/M programs are operating in
parts of 23 States and the District of
Columbia. Three more are scheduled to
to come on line by summer of 1985.
Only four States, three of which are ir
Region 5, have yet to implement the
required programs. They are Illinois,
Michigan, New Mexico,and Ohio. Othe
States may also be required to begin
I/M programs in areas where existing
pollution control strategies have not
proven adequate to attain air quality
standards.
The details of the progam are
usually left up to the States. EPA's
concern is that the program achieve
the requisite emissions reductions
and be enforceable.
I/M programs improve air quality
by requiring periodic testing of
emissions from gasoline-powered
vehicles. In most I/M programs,
motorists take their vehicles to an
inspection station operated by the
State, or to a garage licensed by the
State, to conduct inspections.
While the vehicle is running, a
probe is placed in its tailpipe. The
exhaust is collected by an analyzer,
and the amount of carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbons in the exhaust is
measured.
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The amount of these pollutants in
the vehicle's exhaust is compared
to the State's standard, which can
differ by model year. Older cars are
not expected to meet the same
standards as newer cars with more
sophisticated emission control
systems. The pass/fail standards
for each model year are set to be
within the design capacity of the
car.
In addition, States may set cost
limits on repairs to avoid penalizing
people who drive older cars that
might require more expensive
repairs. The idea is not to make
each car emit the same quantity of
pollutants, but to have each car
emit as little as is reasonable for
that car.
On the average, only 15 to 30
percent of the cars fail, with the
average cost of required repairs
ranging from $18 to $35. Most of
the repairs are simple maintenance
procedures that should be
performed on a routine basis
anyway.
For example, a car that fails due
to high hydrocarbon emissions may
have improper ignition timing,
faulty ignition, misfiring problems,
vacuum leaks, an idle speed set too
low, worn piston rings or valves, or
its exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
system incorrectly operating at idle.
A car that fails for high levels of
carbon monoxide may have a dirty
air filter, a stuck choke, a plugged
positive crankage ventilation (PCV)
system, a broken air pump or
control valve, or an idle speed set
too low.
I/M programs are required m
certain metropolitan areas in five
Region 5 States—Illinois, Indiana,
Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
Wisconsin's Greater Milwaukee
I/M program was the first to begin
operation. In April, 1984, Milwaukee-
area motorists began taking their
vehicles to one of 10 testing facilities
operated by a contractor. Motorists do
not pay a fee; the contractor bills
Wisconsin Department of Transpor-
tation approximately $7 for every test
it does. The State expects one million
cars to be inspected annually.
The State of Indiana recently
began testing vehicles in Lake,
Porter, Clark, and Floyd counties;
the program is operated by the
Indiana Vocational Technical
College. Five testing facilities and
three mobile testing vans are used,
with funds coming from a $2.5
million legislative appropriation.
There is no motorist fee, and the
State will inspect about 500,000
vehicles biennially.
Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio are in
the process of developing programs
for various metropolitan areas
within those States.
A vehicle inspection program in action.
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Clean Air Campaign
Targets Fuel Switchers
V.
The theme of this year's Clean Air
Week, "Don't Exhaust Our Air Supply,"
was targeted at motorists who
contribute to air pollution by putting
leaded gasoline in cars designed for
unleaded.
Fuel switching, as this practice is
called, is illegal. It can affect public
health by disabling a vehicle's
emission control systems—particularly
the catalytic converter—and that, in
turn, significantly increases lead,
carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbon
emissions.
The use of leaded gasoline in
vehicles designed for unleaded can
increase tailpipe emissions 200 to 800
percent, EPA has determined. More
than one million tons of hydrocarbons
and 12 million tons of carbon
monoxide were spewed from the
tailpipes of cars with defective
emission control systems during Fiscal
Year 1983.
Studies show that most people who
engage in fuel switching do so to save
money—about 7 cents a gallon.
However, these people are victims of
faulty economics, according to Joe
Cannon, EPA's assistant administrator
for Air and Radiation. "In the long run,
the use of leaded gas in the car will
more quickly foul the spark plugs,
wear out the exhaust system, degrade
the oil, and foul the oxygen sensor in
new cars, in addition to ruining the
catalytic converter," he said.
Cannon estimates that people who
substitute leaded for unleaded
gasoline will end up paying 12 cents a
gallon in extra maintenance and
repairs.
EPA regulations prohibit fuel
switching by retailers and their
employees or by fleet operators and
their employees and agents. The
regulations also prohibit these people
from causing or allowing this to
happen. Violators are subject to a fine
of up to $10,000 per vehicle. In addition,
some States and cities have laws that
specifically prohibit fuel switching
by individuals.
Tampering with or removing
emission control systems on vehicles
is also illegal. The Clean Air Act
prohibits mechanics, car dealers, and
fleet operators from knowingly
removing or tampering with any
emission control device. EPA is
empowered to collect fines of up to
$2,500—and in some cases
$10,000—for each vehicle that is
tampered with.
The antitampering provision was
passed by Congress to ensure that
cars retain the emission controls that
were built into them by their
manufacturers. Because motor
vehicles emit nearly 75 percent of the
total man-made air pollutants in the
United States, emission controls are
needed to protect public health.
Many people believe that removing
emission control systems will improve
gas mileage and car performance, but
there is little evidence to support this.
The catalytic converter, the primary
means of pollution control on most
cars made after 1974, has in fact
allowed cars with emission controls to
achieve the same or better gas
mileage as cars built without
controls.
Emission controls are part of the
total design and function of many
components of a car's engine,
including the carburetor, distributor,
intake manifold and exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) valve. When the
emission control design of one of
these components is changed, other
functions will likely be harmed. This is
when fuel inefficiency and poor
performance occur. ^
10
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Agency to Limit
Lead in Gas
By Virginia Donohue
EPA Administrator William D. Ruckelshaus has made
reducing the lead in our environment a top priority.
Ruckelshaus called a July 30 press
conference to announce the Agency's
intent to reduce the amount of lead in
gasoline from 1.1 grams per gallon to
1 gram by Jan. 1, 1986. "That is a 91
percent reduction from current levels,"
he said. "Our goal, quite simply, is to
eliminate environmental lead as a
threat to human health, and today's
action moves us very close to that goal
We are not eliminating lead altogether
because it is still essential for the
operation of some vehicle engines."
"Just in the past 2 years we have
very firmly shown that it is the lead in
gasoline that is the very serious
problem, and not the lead from old
layers of paint two coats down, or lead
from soldering some cans," said Barry
Nussbaum, chief of the fuels branch at
EPA's Washington, D.C., headquarters.
Lead can cause severe health
effects, particularly in children.
Children who live in urban areas are
the most severely affected. "Lead
comes out of a tailpipe and just drops
6 inches," Nussbaum explained. "It is
on the street, in the dirt. A kid throws
a ball, maybe puts his hand in his
mouth, and he has eaten the lead."
When inhaled or ingested, lead
interferes with the processing of
messages in the brain. At low levels it
can produce subtle, internal changes,
causing children to react more slowly
to some stimuli. In higher doses, it
lowers children's I.Q. scores,
decreases cognitive ability, and
damages the kidneys, liver, and
reproductive system. It also interferes
with the creation of blood. Children
absorb lead faster than adults.
EPA has regulated the use of lead in
gasoline since 1973. The introduction
of catalytic converters in 1975 was
expected to gradually reduce the
amount of lead in air because cars
with the converters cannot use leaded
gasoline. EPA also lowered the level of
lead allowed in gasoline from more
than 2 grams per gallon to 1.1 grams
per gallon. The maximum amount of
lead allowed in unleaded gasoline is
.05 grams per gallon.
However, the levels of lead in the air
have not decreased as dramatically as
had been expected, largely because
many motorists are using leaded
gasoline in cars designed for
unleaded.
The Agency estimates
that leaded gasoline is
responsible for about 80
percent of all lead emissions
in the air.
Many people mistakenly believe that
they are saving money when they buy
leaded instead of unleaded gasoline.
Actually, lead forms corrosive
compounds that can damage
automobiles. Cars using leaded
gasoline need more frequent tune-
ups, exhaust system replacements,
and oil changes, according to EPA
officials.
However, some older cars and
trucks need leaded gasoline to prevent
severe valve damage. A low-lead fuel,
with no more than 0.1 grams of lead
per gallon, would protect these cars
while minimizing environmental
damage.
Reducing or eliminating lead from
gasoline requires extra energy and
equipment. EPA estimates that the
increased materials and production
costs of refining unleaded gasoline are
less than 1 percent more than the
costs of refining leaded gasoline. As a
result, gasoline might be slightly more
expensive.
"Prevention of illegal fuel switching
is one of Region 5's top priorities,"
said David Kee, director of the regional
Air Management Division. "We are
working with State and local agencies
to see that adequate resources and
sufficient legal authority exist to stop
people from using leaded gas in cars
that are designed for unleaded." &
11
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Summer is Ozone Season
In Region 5
"Ozone Season" in the Midwest encompasses the
months between April and October, when a
combination of bright sunshine, high temperatures
and existing pollution can react to produce unhealthy
levels of ozone in the atmosphere.
Ozone, a pungent, toxic gas, is the
principal constituent of smog. Formed
when hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides are exposed to sunlight, ozone
irritates mucous membranes,
impairing lung function and
aggravating asthma and other
respiratory disorders.
This pollutant is usually found in
large cities and their surrounding
areas. In Region 5, the air in the
following metropolitan areas has
exceeded EPA's ozone standard during
past summers: Cleveland and
Cincinnati, Ohio; Chicago; Detroit,
Mich,; and Milwaukee, Wise. The
Indiana suburbs of Louisville and
Chicago also have had excess ozone,
as has East St. Louis, III.
EPA has acted to protect public
health by establishing a level of .12
parts per million of ozone in the air.
When the ozone levels rise above this,
citizens should be aware that exercise
can aggravate the health effects of
ozone. During exercise, more air and
consequently more ozone is inhaled.
EPA requires "State implementation
plans" from States with ozone
problems. These plans must show
how a State intends to control
emissions of hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides so that less ozone will
form during the hot summer months.
These States are also required to
begin vehicle inspection and
maintenance (I/M) programs that will
ensure that cars and light trucks do
not emit more pollutants than they are
supposed to. Hydrocarbon emissions
from vehicles are a principal cause of
ozone pollution.
To date, only three metropolitan
areas in the Region—Milwaukee,
Wise, and Indiana counties near
Louisville, Ky. and Chicago—have
begun I/M programs.
Many cities have telephone
numbers that citizens can call for air
pollution information. To receive a
recorded message about air quality in
your area, call:
Chicago 312/644-9091
Chicago metro area 312/865-6321
Cleveland 216/771-331:
Milwaukee 414/799-155!
Milwaukee metro area 800/242-472'
12
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'85 Cars to Feature
New Mileage Estimates
By Virginia Donohue
The EPA has recently changed the methods used to
calculate automobile miles-per-gallon estimates.
Mileage figures based on EPA laboratory testing
have been higher than actual miles per gallon
achieved by motorists, resulting in consumer
dissatisfaction.
"While the primary function of the
estimates will still be to compare
similar models by different
manufacturers, the revised
adjustments will more closely
approximate in-use mileage," said
Joseph A. Cannon, EPA assistant
administrator for Air and Radiation.
EPA will mathematically adjust the
mileage results obtained in the
laboratory beginning with the 1985
model year. City estimates will be
reduced 10 percent and the highway
estimates will be adjusted downward
by 22 percent. These adjustments
are based on the average difference
between the laboratory estimates and
the fuel economy data EPA has
collected on vehicles in use.
EPA averaged city and highway
laboratory estimates and published a
single miles-per-gallon estimate on
car-price stickers for model years
1 979 through 1 984. Price stickers on
new cars beginning in the 1985 model
year will feature both the city and the
highway estimates.
To make the transition to the new
procedure easier, price stickers for
1 985 and 1 986 model years will
indicate what the single EPA estimate
would have been under the old rating
procedure and the city and highway
estimates calculated under the new
procedure.
"Consumers should be
aware that their actual
mileage may still vary from
those revised estimates
based on road conditions,
driving habits, temperature,
and numerous other factors
that affect fuel economy,"
Cannon said.
These estimates will appear in the
EPA/Department of Energy Gas
Mileage Guide available in dealer
showrooms this fall. A
RETIREES GET
CHANCE AT
CLEAN AIR JOBS
Older people with technical knowledge
and good communication skills soon
will be working as Clean AirCounselors
in six Region 5 locations.
Using grants from EPA and the U.S.
Department of Labor, the American
Association of Retired Persons is
recruiting self-motivated people to
work in various clean air programs
in Chicago; Cook County, III.;
Wayne County, Mich.; Peoria, III.;
Columbus, Ohio; and Minneapolis.
The duties of these counselors
will vary according to the needs of
the local agency, but will be
oriented toward educating the
public about EPA's fuel switching
and antitampering regulations.
These regulations are designed to
ensure that cars retain the pollution
controls built into them by their
manufacturers. It is illegal, for
example, to put leaded gas in a
vehicle designed for unleaded fuel
only. In addition, Federal rules do
not allow tampering with or
removing a car's emission controls.
Clean Air counselors probably will
work with gasoline retailers,
mechanics, community groups, and
schools to educate them about
these prohibitions. In some
instances, the counselors will
investigate violations of the
regulations
Members of the American
Association of Retired Persons are
already working in EPA's asbestos-
in-schools and radiation programs.
13
-------
Thermostatic Air Filter Housing
Allows heated air to flow into
carburetor to aid warmup. Air is drawn
over the exhaust manifold then through
a heat pipe to the air filter housing
Heating is controlled by a flap in the
snorkel which allows heated air to
enter when the cold air inlet is closed.
Binding or improper control signals can
cause hot air to flow after warmup
Hot air has less oxygen per volume
than cold air. Result: rich mixture, high^
CO, poor combustion, poor fuel^
economy.
EGR Valve
Recirculates exhaust gases into the
intake manifold to reduce Nitrogen
Oxide emissons (NOX). Located near
the carburetor base on the intake
manifold. Deposits can cause EGR valve
to remain open at all times. Result:
lean misfire, high HC, poor combustion,
poor fuel economy.
PCV Valve
Prevents crankcase vapors from polluting the
air by drawing them into the intake manifold.
An incorrect PCV valve may lessen intake
manifold vacuum. A restricted PCV
system may cause improperly high intake
manifold vacuum. Result: lean mixture,
high HC; rich mixture, high CO, poor
combustion, poor fuel economy.
Air Filter
Filters air entering the carburetor. If
restricted, too little air mixes with the
fuel in the carburetor. Result: rich
mixture, high CO, poor combustion, poor^
fuel economy.
Choke
Provides a rich mixture for starting by
restricting airflow into the carburetor.
Binding of the choke plate or external
linkages can cause choke to remain
closed after warmup. Result: rich
mixture, high CO, poor combustion,
poor fuel economy.
c
Air/Fuel Mixture Screws
Controls air/fuel mixture at idle and low
speeds. Located at base of carburetor. One
screw on single barrel carburetor, two screws
on multiple barrel carburetors. Improper
adjustments can cause either a rich or lean
mixture. Result: rich mixture, high CO; lean
mixture: high HC, poor combustion, poor fuel
economy.
How Your Car Limits Air Pollution
-------
Engine Vacuum
Controls engine and accessory operation.
Includes vacuum lines, intake manifold,
carburetor, distributor advance unit, and
vacuum operated accessories. Air leaks in
those components may significantly
change the air/fuel ratio. Result lean
mixture, high HC; poor combustion, poor
fuel economy.
Ignition System **
Provides spark at the right time and of
the proper duration for good
combustion. Improper timing, poor spark
or faulty components can cause
emission and performance problems.
Result: faulty combustion, high HC,
poor fuel economy. „
..-31
Air Pump
Provides air to the exhaust manifold for
more complete oxidation of HC and CO.
Malfunctions of the pump, belt/pulley
connection or piping can cause
defective operation. Result: high HC.
Converter
Oxidizes HC and CO to water and
carbon dioxide. Located between
exhaust manifold and muffler. Use
of leaded fuel can reduce converter
efficiency. A rich mixture can cause
overheating, which may melt the
catalyst bed and cause exhaust
backpressure. Results: high HC and CO,
possible backpressure problem which
will reduce fuel economy.
Heat Riser
Circulates exhaust through special
passages of the intake manifold to
assist warmup. This valve is located
between exhaust manifold and exhaust
pipe. If stuck in the cold position,
heating will occur after warmup.
Result: poor combustion, poor fuel
economy. _ ^^
Engine Mechanical
Integrity
Assures proper engine operation.
Includes valves, rings, gaskets, etc.
Wear or failure may reduce engine
performance. Results: high HC, poor
fuel economy.
J
\
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Adamkus:
Midwest Wants Fair Acid Rain Burden
Acid rain, a controversial topic in
the United States and Canada, is a
particularly sensitive issue in the coal-
producing and heavily-industrialized
Midwest.
In a recent talk to the Illinois League
of Women Voters, EPA Region 5
Administrator Valdas V. Adamkus
articulated some of the Region's
concerns.
The Midwestern States, which
contain some of the largest coal-fired
electricity generating plants in the
country, are troubled by the economic
implications of acid rain control, he
said.
Many have argued that sulfur
dioxide from midwestern power
plants, carried east by the prevailing
winds, is the main source of the acid
rain that falls on the lakes and forests
of the Northeast.
The two acid rain control options
currently Available—scrubbers and
switching from high- to low-sulfur
coal—could have harsh consequences
for a regional economy fueled by high-
sulfur coal, Adamkus said.
Scrubbers are expensive, and the
substitution of low-sulfur coal for the
high-sulfur coal now used could throw
miners out of work from Illinois to
West Virginia, the regional
administrator noted.
Adamkus told the League that "so
long as the adverse economic
consequences of acid rain control are
as severe in the Midwest as they are,
there is simply no hope that this high
emission area will permit an
unbearable burden to be placed on it."
He stressed the need for research to
develop low-cost technology to clean
the high-sulfur coal mined in Region 5.
"One possible way to speed the
consensus building . . . would be to
make the development of low-cost
sulfur reduction techniques an
absolute prerequisite to instituting a
national control strategy," he said.
Acid deposition is formed when
nitrogen and sulfur oxides from fossil
fuel combustion react with oxygen and
water vapor in the air to form nitric
and sulfuric acids. These acids return
to Earth in rain and snow, or as dry
deposition.
Acid rain gradually lowers the pH
(acidity or alkalinity) of soil and water,
causing the soil to leach its valuable
nutrients and minerals into streams
and lakes, where they can poison fish
or affect their ability to reproduce.
With reference to the Midwest
dilemma, Adamkus told the League he
believes "the prospects are quite good
that research on lower-cost control
technologies can lead us out of this
morass." While we work to resolve the
tough technical issues concerning the
nature of acid ram, he said, we need
to protect high-sulfur coal markets by
developing sulfur dioxide control
methods that cost much less than
scrubbers.
EPA has recently launched an
ambitious research program on acid
rain to allow the Agency to formulate
on appropriate control strategy. EPA
Administrator William D. Ruckelshaus
has told Congress that the
administration will "craft and support
an appropriate set of measures to
solve the acid rain problem" once
some fundamental scientific
uncertainties have been reduced.
Federal acid rain research is
coordinated by the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program
(NAPAP), which was established by
Congress in 1980 to conduct a 10-
year investigation into the extent and
causes of acid deposition. EPA, the
Department of Agriculture, and the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) all have active
roles in that research and its
administration. NAPAP's research
budget has jumped from $13 million in
1981 to a proposed $55.5 million in
Fiscal Year 1985. EPA's contribution is
expected to be $34 million in Fiscal
1985.
In testimony before a U.S. Senate
subcommittee last winter,
Ruckelshaus outlined the areas in
which knowledge of acid rain is
lacking:
Scope of the Problem
"We don't know the extent of
damage to our aquatic resources from
acid deposition," he said. "We need tc
get a more accurate picture of the scope
and extent of this damage.
Trends
"Our knowledge of the pace at which
the environment is changing is very
thin." Several more years of monitoring
are needed before we can reach con-
clusions about trends in the sulfate and
nitrate concentrations of precipitation.
We also need information on trends in
the pH of rainfall, sulfate and nitrate
concentratrions in water bodies, and
the rate at which water bodies are
becoming acidified.
Source/Receptor Relationship
"No discussion of acid rain would be
complete without a discussion of the
relation between the sources of emis-
sions and the sensitive receiving areas.
Our present knowledge is based., on
very simplified transport/transforma-
tion models."
Role of Dry Deposition
"To date, most of our data relate to
'wet' deposition. We do not know the
extent of 'dry' deposition because
reliable field monitoring techniques are
not available."
Acidification Process
We need to learn more about how the
acidification process actually takes
place in watersheds, and at what pace.
Effects on Forests
"Beyond knowing that there has been
an apparent decline in the condition of
some of our forests, we know little
about the scope of the problem or its
causes. Acid deposition may be a
primary cause, and then again it
may not." ^
16
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New Method Promises
Cheaper SO2 Control
Among the acid rain control options being researched
by EPA is one that may reduce sulfur and nitrogen
oxide emissions more cheaply than currently available
control technologies. This technology is called
limestone injection to a multistage burner, or LIMB.
LIMB technology evolved from
EPA-sponsored research into coal
burners that would release low
amounts of nitrogen oxides. In
testimony before the Northeast-
Midwest Congressional Coalition
earlier this year, EPA's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory
director Frank T. Princiotta
explained that LIMB costs may be
significantly less than scrubbers—
the traditional sulfur dioxide (SC-2)
smokestack control technology.
Princiotta told the group that
preliminary research shows that up
to 70 percent of flue gas sulfur can
be captured with the LIMB method.
"Application of this technique to
boilers would provide a relatively
simple method to reduce S02
emissions," he said.
EPA's LIMB-low nitrogen oxides
(NOx) research program goals are to
reduce S02 and NOx by 50 to 60
percent in retrofitted boilers, and, in
new systems, to reduce NOx by 70
to 80 percent and sulfur oxides
(SOx) by 70 to 90 percent of
uncontrolled levels.
A technology such as LIMB is
especially attractive in the Midwest,
a region where industries are faced
with the prospect of spending
hundreds of millions of dollars to
control acid-rain-forming emissions
from power plants and factories.
EPA Region 5 Administrator
Valdas V. Adamkus has urged the
development of low-cost control
technologies as a way of achieving
acid rain control in the Midwest
with a minimum of economic
disruption.
"LIMB holds out to us the strong
possibility of reducing both the
sulfur and nitrogen oxide emission
components of acid rain deposition,
and at a price we can afford,"
Adamkus said. "Preliminary
estimates indicate that LIMB capital
costs may be only one-fifth to one-
third as high as scrubbers, and total
annual costs, including operating
expenses, less than one-half as
much."
The use of LIMB technology involves
injecting fine lime particles into the
furnace section of a coal-fired boiler
so that the lime particles can mix with
the combustion gas from the coal
burners. The combustion, or flue, gas
contains oxides of sulfur and nitrogen,
which can be effectively neutralized by
the lime particles These particles later
fall into the ash pit, or are trapped
in subsequent control devices.
The Agency is helping finance a
full-scale demonstration of LIMB
technology at Ohio Edison's coal-fired
Edgewater Station in Lorain. By
demonstrating the technology at a
power plant, EPA hopes to encourage
its acceptance and commercialization
by industry &
Interior Multi-Stage
Burner Wall
Atr and fuel mixing optimized "for
reduction of NOx with the temperature
profile optimized for capture of SO2
with calcined limestone
LIMESTONE INJECTION MULTI-
BURNER FOR SIMULTANEOUS
AND SOa CONTROL
17
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Wisconsin Expands
SO2 Controls
A heightened awareness of acid rain
in Wisconsin has been accompanied
by a push to control sulfur dioxide
(S02)—the pollutant thought to be a
major contributor to the formation of
acid rain
The Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources is developing
statewide S02 regulations that will
protect public health and welfare
while reducing the State's
contribution to the acid rain problem.
Sulfur dioxide emissions in Wisconsin
come primarily from power plants and
paper mills and were previously
regulated only on a case-by-case basis
in two areas with unhealthy levels of
SCh in the air.
The Federal Clean Air Act of 1 970
required all States to develop
regulations for S02 and other
pollutants. Because many States did
not do so, the 1977 amendments to
the act specified that States were to
identify areas where air quality
standards were not being met and to
develop plans that would allow those
areas to comply with the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS's).
1980 EMISSIONS OF SO2 BY STATE
Illinois , Indiana Lf Michigan ,' Minnesota L_QiliP_¥ Wisconsin
•••IBB fiJHBHB••••••••• nmmmnm Jvi«W*"*"y*•«•••
Wisconsin originally identified
Madison and Brokaw as the two
locations in the State where the air
quality standards for S02 were not
being met. Cleanup plans were
implemented, and the State is asking
EPA to declare those areas as having
attained the air quality specified in the
NAAQS's.
The State also discovered that the
cities of Milwaukee and Green Bay
were not attaining the specified air
quality, and it developed cleanup plans
for those areas. The State recently
requested EPA to designate three
other areas—Rhinelander, Rothschild,
and Peshtigo—as being in need of
additional S02 controls in order to
achieve the NAAQS's. State natural
resources officials are now developing
S02 control plans for those areas.
The current development of
statewide S02 regulations is intended
to supplement the existing area-
specific cleanup plans and will, for the
first time, establish emission limits for
industries in the remainder of the
State.
In testimony before the Wisconsin
Natural Resources Board last winter,
EPA Region 5 representative Carl Nash
noted that "there is additional work to
be done throughout many parts of the
State to protect public health."
Nash praised the State of Wisconsin
for following the example of other
Region 5 States by developing a
statewide S02 emisssions limit. "We
feel this is an excellent first step for
the State to expeditiously respond to
Clean Air Act requirements," Nash
told the board. The State previously
regulated S02 emissions only in
Madison and Brokaw.
Wisconsin officials are expected to
present statewide SCh regulations to
the natural resources board for
approval later this year. They will then
be submitted to EPA for final
concurrence. •?>
18
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EPA Study Helps Save
Ohio Mining Jobs
By Virginia Donohue
Facing the potential loss of their jobs,
workers at the Sunnyhill Mine in New
Lexington, Ohio, asked the EPA to
investigate the link between Michigan
environmental regulations and the
possible closure of their mine
The Consumers Power Co. J. H
Campbell Plant in West Olive, Mich.,
recently said it would have to break its
longstanding contract with the mine
so it could buy the lower sulfur coal it
needed to comply with Michigan's
low-sulfur emission rules. Sunnyhill
coal has a high sulfur content.
The miners and other concerned
area residents petitioned their
Congressman, Rep Clarence Miller,
for help. As a result, Rep. John Dingell
of Michigan requested a study of the
situation pursuant to Sect. 321 of the
Clean Air Act.
The purpose of a Sect. 321
investigation is to determine what,
if any, effect the Clean Air Act
has on potential losses or shifts
in employment. However, the
investigation in no way requires or
authorizes the Agency or the States to
modify or withdraw any requirements
imposed under the Act. Michigan had
passed its low-sulfur rule, which is
stricter than comparable Federal rules,
as part of various pollution control
efforts made under the Clean Air Act.
In testimony before the Michigan Air
Pollution Control Commission
(MAPCC) on June 18, 1 984, Region 5
Air Management Division Director
David Kee outlined the findings and
recommendations of EPA's 321 study
on Sunnyhill.
Kee told the commission that the
Sunnyhill Mine is vital to the economy
of New Lexington, a small, one-
industry town located about 50 miles
southeast of Columbus. The mine,
owned by Peabody Coal Co., is the
largest employer in Perry County with
a workforce of 520.
After hearing testimony from Kee
and other parties, the MAPCC gave
Consumers an extension that will
allow the company to continue buying
Sunnyhill Coal for another 3 years.
In 1972 MAPCC established
regulations that require plants to
either burn fuel with a maximum of 1
percent sulfur or to achieve an
equivalent emission rate. Sunnyhill
coal has a sulfur content of 3 5
percent.
In 1979, MAPCC gave Consumers a
5-year extension to come into
compliance by Jan. 1, 1985 In
November 1983 Consumers asked
MAPCC for another 5-year extension.
It was denied.
Consumers then told Peabody that
they would not be able to purchase
anymore Sunnyhill coal. Peabody told
the miners that without a contract
with Consumers, the mine would
close.
During the course of EPA's
investigation, Sunnyhill lowered its
coal prices and Consumers returned to
MAPCC with a request for a 3-year
extension.
During his testimony before the
MAPCC in June, Kee outlined the draft
findings and recommendations of the
Agency's Sect 321 study. The draft
study concluded that.
• Switching to a lower sulfur coal is
the most economical option for
Consumers to comply with
Michigan's sulfur rule.
• Termination of Sunnyhill's contract
with Consumers is likely to result
in the shutdown of the mine for an
undetermined period of time.
• The economic consequences of
the shutdown of Sunnyhill would
be potentially catastrophic for New
Lexington and severe for
surrounding Perry County.
• Michigan's sulfur regulation is
more stringent than is required by
Federal law. But because
Michigan's requirement is part of
the Michigan State
Implementation Plan, it is
enforceable under the Clean Air
Act.
• Alternative lower cost sulfur
control techniques that are under
development may eventually
provide a means for high sulfur
coal like Sunnyhill's to be used
and comply with Michigan's
regulation yet be cost effective for
Consumers.
• Granting another extension for
Consumers without developing a
plan for installing emission
controls may merely defer a
solution to the problem and ensure
a recurrence of the economic
crisis currently threatening Perry
County.
The draft study recommended that
MAPCC grant Consumers a 1 -year
extension, provided that the governors
of Ohio and Michigan form a task
force charged with developing an
acceptable program which minimizes
adverse economic impacts in both
States Among the strategies that the
study recommended considering are a
variety of technical options and cost-
sharing between the two States.
After considerable testimony, the
MAPCC agreed in a 5-4 vote to grant
Consumers a 3-year extension.
Consumers assured MAPCC it would
not seek another extension and
Peabody said it would find another
market for Sunnyhill coal during this
period.
"EPA recommended a middle course
of action which we thought might lead
to a permanent solution that satisfies
both environmental and economic
concerns," said Kee. "Only time will
tell if Sunnyhill will find a new market
for its coal after the extension expires
in 1987." A
19
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Region 5's
Pollution Control
Air pollutants are traditionally divided, for control
purposes, into three categories: particulates, gases, and
vapors (volatile organic compounds—VOC's). Various
control technologies described in EPA's Air Pollution
Engineering Manual (Second Editon) are summarized
below:
Particulates
A participate is any material that
exists as a solid or liquid at standard
conditions. Dust, smoke, fumes, mists
and sprays are examples of particulate
matter. Many kinds of devices for
controlling particulates are available.
Broadly divided into classes, they are.
mertial separators, wet collection
devices, fabric filters, single-stage
electrical precipitators, two-stage
electric precipitators, and other
particulate collecting devices.
INERTIAL SEPARATORS are the
most widely used devices for
collecting medium- and coarse-sized
particulates. This equipment operates
on the principle of imparting
centrifugal force to the particle to be
removed from the carrier gas stream.
This force is produced by directing the
gas in a circular path or affecting an
abrupt change in gas direction.
WET COLLECTION DEVICES use a
variety of methods to wet the
contaminant particles in order to
remove them from the gas stream.
There is a wide range in their cost,
collection efficiency and the amount of
power they expend. The advantage of
wet collectors is that they present no
secondary dust problems in disposing
of the collected dust, and they can
handle high-temperature or moisture-
laden gases. Space requirements are
relatively small, but disposal or
clarification of the wastewater may be
difficult or expensive.
The principal means by which liquids
may be used to remove aerosols from
gas streams are: wetting of the particles
by contact with a liquid droplet and
impinging wetted or unwetted particles
on collecting surfaces, followed by their
removal from the surfaces by flushing
with a liquid.
Types of wet collection devices
include spray chambers, cyclone-type
scrubbers, orifice-type scrubbers,
mechanical scrubbers, high-pressure
sprays, packed towers, and wet filters.
BAGHOUSES (fabric filters) are
devices that remove suspended dust
and fumes by trapping them on a
fabric filter. When high collection
efficiency on small particle size is
required, they are the most efficient,
widely used method of separating dust
from air. The fabric is usually made
into bags of tubular or envelope shape
and the entire structure housing the
bags is called a baghouse.
SINGLE-STAGE ELECTRICAL
PRECIPITATORS. Electrical precipi-
tation is the use of an electrostatic field
for precipitating or removing solid or
liquid particles from a gas in which the
particles are carried in suspension.
Some of the advantages of precipitators
include their high efficiency, ability to
remove very small particles, ability to
operate continuously with little
maintenance over long periods, ability
to collect acid and tar mists that are
difficult, if not impossible to remove by
other methods, and low power
requirements.
However, the initial cost of
precipitators is high—more than that
required for any other form of air
pollution control—and they may
require more space than a baghouse.
TWO-STAGE ELECTRICAL
PRECIPITATORS involve passing
contaminated air through a variable-
strength ionizing field before
subjecting it to a separate uniform
field where the charged particles are
collected. Two-stage precipitators are
widely used for removing oil mist
created during operation of high-spee
cutting or grinding tools. Hotels,
restaurants, food-processing
companies, and pharmaceutical
manufacturers often use this method
to clean circulating air.
Gases (NOx and SOx) and
Vapors (VOC's)
They are controlled by such
methods as incineration, adsorption,
absorption, and condensation.
INCINERATORS, also called
afterburners, are air pollution control
devices which convert the combustible
materials in gaseous effluents to
carbon dioxide and water. The
combustible materials may be gases,
vapors, or trapped particulate matter
and may contribute opacity, odor,
irritants, "fallout" materials,
photochemical reactivity, and toxicity
to the effluents. In many cases, an
afterburner can be designed and
operated so that many of these
problems are eliminated or reduced.
ADSORPTION is the name for the
phenomenon in which molecules of a
fluid contact and adhere to the surface
of a solid. By this process, gases,
liquids, or solids—even at very small
concentrations—can be selectively
captured or removed from airstreams
with specific materials known as
adsorbents. The material thus
captured is called the adsorbate. A
change in the composition of the fluid
contacting the adsorbent results when
one or more of the components are
captured by the adsorbent.
20
-------
Solids with adsorptive properties
exist in great variety. They include
activated carbon for solvent recovery,
elimination of odors and gas
purification; alumina for the drying of
gases, air and liquids; bauxite for the
treatment of petroleum fractions and
the drying of gases and liquids; bone
char for decolorizing sugar solutions;
decolorizing carbons used to
decolorize oils, fats, and waxes and to
deodorize domestic water; Fuller's
earth used in refining of lube oils and
vegetable and animal oils, fats, and
waxes; magnesia for treatment of
gasoline and solvents and removal of
metallic impurities from caustic
solutions; and silica gel for drying and
purification of gases.
ABSORBTION is the method by which
one or more constituents are removed
from a gas stream by dissolving them
in a selective liquid solvent. This is
one of the major chemical engineering
unit operations that is treated
extensively in all basic chemic'al
engineering textbooks. From an air
pollution standpoint, absorption is
useful as a method of reducing or
eliminating the discharge of air
contaminants to the atmosphere
CONDENSATION is the most appro-
priate control technique for certain
/aporous discharges. Vapors can be
:ondensed either by increasing pres-
sure or extracting heat. In practice, air
jollution control condensers operate
hrough removal of heat from the vapor.
Condensers differ principally in the
means of cooling.
REFORMULATION is used primarily
in the surface coating and solvent
degreasing industries. This method
involves substituting VOC's with water
or nonregulated solvents in the
manufacturing process. This method is
especially attractive because it
involves a process change rather than
expensive control technologies, yy
EPA Plans New
Participate Standard
By Virginia Donohue
Among the pollutants EPA
regulates are total suspen-
ded particulates (TSP) —
soot, dust, fly ash, and any
other particles in the air.
The Agency is now proposing to
change both the standards and the
way it measures particulates. There
are now primary and secondary
standards for TSP. The primary
standards of 75 micrograms per cubic
meter of air on an annual average, and
260 micrograms per cubic meter of air
over a 24-hour period, are health-
based. The secondary standard of 1 50
micrograms per cubic meter of air is
set to protect public welfare—property,
visibility, etc.
Instead of measuring all particulates
for the primary standard, the Agency
is proposing to measure only those
with an aerodynamic diameter of 10
micrometers or less. This has
been proposed because research
shows that while particulates are
bothersome, not all have a health
impact.
When people breathe, large
particles in the air are trapped in the
nose and mouth, or oral or nasal
cavities. These are usually expelled
within minutes. Slightly smaller
particles (15 micrometers or less) may
work their way down to the trachea
and bronchial tubes. These particles
will be expelled within hours. Trapped
in any of these areas, particles are
unlikely to do any serious harm.
However, particles 10 micrometers
or smaller can enter lungs and the
surrounding tissues and blood vessels
and may remain there for years.
EPA is therefore proposing to
monitor only those particles that are
10 micrometers or less, forming a
new primary standard called PM10.
In addition to changing monitors to
take in only particles 10 micrometers
or smaller, this calls for determining
new primary and secondary standards.
To encourage public participation
and debate, EPA has not proposed one
standard. Instead, it is proposing a
range of standards and is encouraging
the public to comment on what should
be selected from within that range.
It is suggested that the 24-hour
primary standard be set somewhere
between 150 to 250 micrometers per
cubic meter of air, and that the annual
primary standard be between 50 to 65
micrometers per cubic meter of air.
It is also proposed that the
secondary standard be measured on
an annual, not an hourly basis, and
that it use TSP and not PM10 as the
pollutant. The suggested range is
between 70 to 90 micrometers per
cubic meter of air £*
21
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Agency Studies
Air Toxics
EPA is required by the Clean Air Act to control toxic air
pollutants, but Agency is still struggling to find the
best way to do so.
Based on the preliminary findings of
an EPA study on the magnitude and
nature of the air toxicant problem, a
group of high-level Agency officials
has been formed to review currenttoxic
air pollutant control strategies and to
recommend needed changes. Region 5
Air Management Division Director
David Kee is a member of the group.
The Clean Air Act required EPA to
identify and set national emissions
standards for hazardous air pollutants
(NESHAP's) which cause or contribute
to air pollution which may result in "an
increase in mortality or an increase in
serious irreversible, or incapacitating
reversible, illness." So far, the Agency
has listed seven such chemicals and is
regulating five: mercury, beryllium
asbestos, vinyl chloride, and benzene.
A 6-month study by EPA's Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards exa-
mined several factors related to the air
toxicant problem: the magnitude and
nature of the problem, geographic
variations in risk, and the quality of
existing data.
"We're trying to determine the
quantitative risk of cancer due to air
pollution,"remarked Bern Steigerwald,
director of the air toxic study.
Steigerwald said the Agency has
solicited data from State and local
agencies throughout the country, along
with information from Canada and
Europe. Scientists and researchers are
trying to determine the cancer risk
posed by air emissions from factories
(point sources), vehicles (mobile
sources), hazardous waste dumps and
other sources.
This effort, said Steigerwald, will help
policy makers within the Agency
separate real health risks those which
aren not significant And while the data
may show that certain chemicals
should be regulated under NESHAP's,
it may be appropriate to control others
on a more limited geographic basis.
"A truly effective air toxics program
needs different dimensions," he said,
noting that the NESHAP's program
primarily covers point sources such as
chemical plants and is very expensive
to develop.
As a consequence, the Agency is
exploring new ways to regulate certain
air toxicants. In the case of one of these,
a suspected animal carcinogen called
acrylonitrile, EPA estimated that the
chemical is responsible for one case of
cancer in the entire country every two
years. While this risk does not make
NESHAP's the optimum way to regulate
acrylonitrile, data indicate that some
acrylonitrile plants could contribute
to an elevated cancer risk in the
immediate vicinity of the plants
Region 5 is beginning discussions
with States that contain acrylonitrile
sources in order to determine how
best to approach the problem. This
Federal-State partnership approach is
one alternative to NESHAP's
Acrylonitrile isn't the only chemical
of concern to Region 5's Air Toxics staff
At the request of State agencies and
other EPA Region 5 divisions, the air
toxics group conducts risk assessments
to determine the carcinogenic value o
certain chemicals and to quantify the
risk those chemicals pose to people.
The professionals in the airtoxics group
include a PhD chemist, who helps
prepare and coordinate health data anc
risk assessments; an environmental
engineer, who coordinates and tracks
State programs; and an environmenta
scientist, who quantifies the impact of
a pollutant on nearby populations A
University of Illinois toxicologist is
also available on a consulting basis.
Risk assessment and toxicology
studies are becoming increasingly
important to the Agency, as policy
makers in the regions and headquarters
continually strive to learn more about
the impact of hazardous compounds or
human health A
22
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Experts Plan
Battle Creek Solution
By Ed Hansen
An example of the Air Management Division's
cooperation with other Region 5 divisions to solve an
environmental problem is afforded by a recent case near
Battle Creek, Mich.
A number of wells supplying
drinking water to people in the Verona
Wells area were found by EPA
investigators to be contaminated by
various pollutants, including six
suspected cancer-causing compounds.
It was decided that money from the
Agency's Superfund toxic waste
cleanup program would be used to
rectify the situation, either by cleaning
up the existing wells or digging new
ones.
Since purifying the wells
would mean stripping the
pollutants from the well
water and emitting them
into the atmosphere, the
need to involve the Air
Management Division
became evident.
Superfund staffers in the regional
Waste Management Division approach-
ed Steve Rothblatt, the Air Manage-
ment Division's deputy director, and
asked for information on the health
effects of the Battle Creek well
contaminants as air pollutants. The
Waste Management Division wanted a
worst-case assessment of the health
risks that could be incurred by indivi-
duals exposed to the chemicals.
A study of the problem by the Air
and Managment Division's Air Toxicant
Group revealed evidence that four of
the six Battle Creek pollutants were
carcinogenic.
Research documents and material
gathered by Environmental Scientist
Harriet Croke were sent to Region 5's
consulting toxicologist, Dr. William
Hallenbeck of the University of Illinois
Medical Center. Hallenbeck, using
information from animal studies and a
number of simplifying assumptions,
calculated the health risks that would
be involved if the Battle Creek
pollutants were emitted into the air.
In conjunction with Hallenbeck's
efforts, Region 5 Environmental
Scientist John Summerhays modeled
the emissions that would be expected
to result from stripping the chemicals
out of Battle Creek water. For modeling
purposes, Summerhays assumed the
constant presence of the largest
quantities of pollutants ever detected
in the contaminated Battle Creek
aquifer, thus giving the Superfund
staff the worst-case numbers they
requested.
In addition, Region 5's Office of the
Regional Counsel examined the legal
ramifications of stripping pollutants
out of water and into air. Since
Michigan law required the use of best
available technology (BAT) in the Battle
Creek case, this provision became the
controlling factor in EPA's handling of
the situation.
The Agency determined that the
best available technology was a
carbon absorption unit that would trap
the pollutants as they were removed
from the water. EPA ultimately decided
to drill new wells to meet summer
demand and to clean up the existing
wells by use of an air stripper and
carbon absorption units purchased
with Superfund money,
23
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".•***£"• *;o^*st
jf*,- >•**
a
Bubbles" Still Used in Midwest
The "bubble" approach to air pollution
control is still being used in Region 5
areas with acceptable air quality,
reports Joseph W. Paisie, chief of the
regional Air Management Division's
technical analysis section.
The bubble, or emissions trading,
concept was first developed in 1 979
as a means of helping industries
comply with the Clean Air Act faster.
The idea, Paisie noted, is fairly simple.
"If you have two identical sources and
an emissions limit that applies to
both," he said, "you can overcontrol
one source and undercontrol another
so that the emissions still add up to
the total amount allowed from both
sources."
Ideally, bubbles "encourage
companies to come up with innovative
ways to reduce pollutants," said Ivan
Tether of EPA's Washington-based
Regulatory Reform staff. Bubbles also
allow companies to save substantial
amounts of money since plant
managers and other officials can
determine, within applicable
guidelines, which emissions to
control.
The bubble approach assumes that a
plant is covered by an imaginary
bubble, or dome, with only one
smokestack emitting airborne
pollutants. As long as the area of the
bubble meets overall air quality
standards, plant managers can have
discretion over which individual stacks
to control.
Emissions trades must involve
pollution sources that are
geographically close enough to
produce the same or better air quality
in the bubble area. Pollutants eligible
for trading are total suspended
particulates (TSP), volatile organic
compounds (VOC), sulfur dioxide
(S02), nitrogen dioxide(N02), and
carbon monoxide (CO).
Bubbles can apply to multiple
pollution sources within one plant or
to several plants in an area. In any
case, trades must involve the same
pollutant.
For example: Two plants in an area
have to reduce their pollution from a
source by 80 percent, but Company A
24
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finds it cost-effective to reduce it by 90
percent, thereby gaining a 10 percent
surplus reduction. Company B,
however, can only afford to reduce its
pollution by 70 percent and needs a
credit. Company A could then sell its
credit to Company B, with the air
quality in the area remaining the
same.
One of the first bubbles to be
approved in the Nation was in 1981 at
Armco Steel, in Middletown, Ohio.
That plan, involving total suspended
particulates (or dust), allowed the
company to clean up dust and airborne
dirt from the plant grounds instead of
installing sophisticated secondary
control systems on various hot-metal
handling processes, Paisie said.
The company invested S6 million in
dust control by paving roads and
spraying water on coal and ore piles,
among other things. Implementing
these controls showed that
"significant improvements in ambient
air quality are possible with a
comprehensive fugitive-dust control
program," according to an Armco
report. The report also noted that
these improvements cost less than
controls on fugitive emissions from
process areas of the plant.
Although the bubble approach is a
good pollution control tool in some
areas, its use in Region 5 is restricted
to areas that have met the Clean Air
Act standards for healthy air, or have
defined how and when they are going
to meet the standards.
There are 12 approved bubbles in
the Region, with many more in vaying
stages of review at State environmental
agencies or EPA. As a rule, EPA's regie-
regional Air Management Division staff
must review any bubble proposal in
the Region. Two States, Illinois and
Indiana, have applied for permission to
create a generic-rule approach to
BUBBLES IN REGION 5
State
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Type of Bubble
TSP— Averaging
controls of gram-
handling process
fugitives
TSP — Trade between
coal-fired boilers
S02 — Trade sulfur
recovery for oil-fired
boiler
VOC — Trade between
paper coating lines
TSP — Trade between
electric furnace for
process controls
TSP — Trade between
furnaces and fiberglass
wool-forming lines
TSP — Trade sintering
for fugitive process
controls
TSP — Trade among four
coal-fired boilers
VOC — Extend compliance
schedule for eight
vinyl coated lines
Company and Location
Farm Bureau Coop
Beach Grove
Dow Chemical
Midland
Koch Refining
Pine Bend
Fasson-Avery Corp
Pamesville
ARMCO Steel
Middletown
Owens-Corning
Newark
Republic Steel
Youngstown
Toledo Edison
Oregon
B.F. Goodrich
Marietta
reviewing bubbles. If EPA allows use
of the rule in those States, then the
Agency would not have to review each
individual bubble application. Use of
the generic rule can speed approvals,
increase certainty, and expand trading
opportunities by authorizing States to
approve individual transactions
without a Federal case-by-case review.
To clarify and streamline EPA bubble
policy, the Agency is about to come out
with an emissions trading policy that
will specify the conditions under
which emissions trading can be done.
The policy will specifically address the
circumstances under which bubbles
can be used in areas that have not met
Clean Air Act standards.
25
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Enforcement Summary
The Region 5 air enforcement effort accounts for about
half of all air-related litigation referrals from EPA's
10 regional offices. A brief summary of some of the
34 lawsuits filed on behalf of Region 5 follows:
PRINTPAK. INC., Elgin, III. EPA sued
Printpak, a flexible packaging
manufacturer and printer, in March
1984 for violating the Clean Air Act.
The suit alleges that the company
emits approximately 250 tons of
uncontrolled volatile organic
compounds (VOC's) into the air of
Kane County, III., each year. Printpak
was required by the State of Illinois to
reduce these emissions to 133 tons
per year or less by Dec. 31, 1982.
EPA wants the company to comply
with a schedule for adding pollution
control equipment or to reformulate its
coatings to comply with Illinois air
pollution regulations, which are
enforceable under the Clean Air Act.
The Agency is also seeking monetary
penalties. VOC's contribute to the
formation of ozone, a pervasive air
pollutant that can cause health
problems in humans. Kane County is
one of six counties in northeastern
Illinois that do not meet the ozone
standards necessary to protect health.
DIETZGEN CORP., Des Plaines,
III. The Dietzgen Corp. was sued in
January 1984 for violating the Clean
Air Act. The company is a paper coater
which uses VOC's to manufacture
drafting paper, film, vellum, and
transparencies. It emits more than 81
tons of VOC's each year, despite an
Illinois requirement that it reduce
those emissions to less than 23.6 tons
per year by Dec. 31,1982. To do that,
the company must install control
equipment or reformulate their
coatings to emit less VOC's.
Des Plaines is in the northeastern
Illinois nonattainment area for ozone.
EPA is asking the court to require the
company to reduce their emissions to
acceptable levels and to pay a
monetary penalty.
REPUBLIC STEEL CORP.,
Chicago. EPA is suing the company
for violating a 1980 consent order
requiring the company to install
pollution control devices at the blast
furnace cast house of its Chicago
plant. Republic installed technology to
minimize the emissions from the cast
house, but the equipment did not
effectively reduce emissions or meet
the requirements of the order. EPA is
therefore seeking almost $3 million in
penalties from the company, along
with any other penalties as they
accrue.
THE STATE OF OHIO. EPA has filed ;
contempt action against the State and
its departments of Rehabilitation and
Corrections, Mental Health, Mental
Retardation, and Youth Services for
violating provisions of a consent
judgment signed in 1981. The consent
judgment required the State of Ohio tc
bring 23 facilities into compliance wit!
the Ohio State Implementation Plan
(SIP) for paniculate matter emissions
and opacity. Nine of the 23 facilities
are still violating the SIP, and EPA
seeks an amended court order
requiring immediate compliance with
the SIP and the payment of fines for
past and future violations.
BETHLEHEM STEEL CORP., Burns
Harbor, Ind. EPA filed suit in 1 982 to
prevent the company from operating
several of its facilities in violation of
the Clean Air Act. The company was
cited for violating particulate and
opacity standards.
REPUBLIC STEEL CORP., Cleveland,
Ohio. EPA has sued the company for
operating four blast furnaces in
violation of the Clean Air Act and Ohio
environmental regulations EPA
contends that the company has been
emitting excess particulates since
1978 and is asking that Republic be
prevented from operating the furnaces
in violation of clean air standards. EPA
also seeks the expeditious installation
of necessary air pollution control
equipment, along with fines for the
time during which the furnaces did not
comply with environmental
regulations.
26
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REPUBLIC STEEL CORP., Warren,
Ohio. EPA is suing Republic for
violating a 1979 consent order. The
company agreed in 1 979 to reduce the
sulfur content of its coke oven gas and
installed desulfurization equipment to
do so. However, that equipment has
not enabled the company to reduce
the sulfur content to the level
specified in the consent agreement.
EPA is seeking an injunction to
prevent further violations, along with
an order requiring expeditious
compliance with the consent decree
and civil penalties of $7,500 per day
that Republic failed to comply with the
decree.
In another action concerning the
Warren mill, EPA has filed a contempt
action against Republic for failing to
construct and operate a wastewater
treatment plant by Dec. 31,1 981, to
handle all process water from the new
coke battery and the excess crude
ammonia liquor from the Youngstown
coke batteries.
The company agreed in 1 979 to
reduce air emissions from the Warren
coke quenching station by building the
wastewater treatment plant. The plant
was never built.
MID-STATES TERMINALS, INC.,
Toledo, Ohio. EPA is suing the
company for excess fugitive dust
emissions from its Toledo grain
shiploading facility. EPA contends that
the company violates Ohio
environmental regulations and the
Clean Air Act. The suit was filed in
1 980, and both parties are now
preparing for trial.
YOUNGSTOWN THERMAL CORP.,
Youngstown, Ohio. EPA filed a civil
suit against the company in February,
1 983, to remedy longstanding
violations of the Clean Air Act.
Youngstown Thermal and the previous
owner of its North Avenue steam-
heating plant were operating the plant
so that four coal-fired boilers exceeded
allowable particulate emission
limitations by hundreds of tons each
year.
Youngstown Thermal agreed several
years ago to install particulate controls
on three of the boilers by June 1982.
The company subsequently notified
EPA that it could not install the
equipment on time due to financial
difficulties. EPA is seeking an
injunction to prevent operation of the
boilers without the proper pollution
controls and is asking for civil
penalties, yy
27
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For Further Information
If you would like additional information about specific EPA programs, please visit the
Office of Public Affairs, U.S Environmental Protection Agency Region 5, 230 South
Dearborn Street, Chicago, Illinois 60604, or call (312)353-2072.
This office maintains a supply of EPA publications, operates an informal speakers'
bureau and coordinates regional distribution of environmental films. There is no
charge to the public for these services
If you encounter an environmental problem, report it first to your local, and then
your state, pollution control agency Those numbers are listed below For specific
information about EPA programs call-
U.S.EPA Region 5 (312) 353-2000
Air Pollution (312) 353-221 2
Automobile Problems
Catalytic Converters (202) 382-2640
Certifying a Car for Sale (313)668-4277
Fuel Economy (313) 668-4329
Fuel Switching (312)886-4577
Imports (312) 886-6082
Tampering with
Emission Controls (202) 383-2640
Warranty &
After-Market Parts (202) 382-2940
Great Lakes National
Program Office (312)353-2117
Hazardous Waste,
Super Fund (312) 353-9733
Oil & Chemical Spills
National Emergency
Response Center (800) 424-8802
Region 5 Emergency
Response Center (312)353-2318
Pesticides (312)353-2192
Radiation (312) 886-6175
Toxic Substances (312) 886-6006
Water Qaulity
Wastewater Treatment . (312)353-2121
Drinking Water (312) 353-2650
Wetlands (312) 886-6678
Region 5 ENVIRONMENTAL HOTLINE:
Illinois residents call: 800-572-2515
U.S. Environmental ProtectlcW fl||BHUjfes: soo-621-8431
Region V. Library
230 South Dearborn Street
.Chicago, Illinois 60604
ILLINOIS
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency
2200 Churchill Road
Springfield, IL 62706
(217)782-5562
24-hour number (217)782-3637
INDIANA
Indiana State Board of Health
1330 W. Michigan Street
Indianapolis, IN 46206
(317)633-0100
24-hour number: (317)633-0144
MICHIGAN
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Stevens T. Mason Building
Lansing, Ml 48909
(517)373-1220
24-hour numbers (517)373-7660
(800) 292-4706
MINNESOTA
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 W. County Rd. B-2
Roseville, MN 55113
(612)296-7373
24-hour number (612)296-7373
OHIO
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
361 E. Broad St.
Columbus, OH 43215
(615)466-8508
24-hour number, (within Ohio only)
(800)282-9378
WISCONSIN
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
PO Box 7921
Madison, Wl 53707
(608)266-2621
Now Available:
Report on the Environment 1983,
Region V.
Contact the Office of Public Affairs for a
free copy.
28
US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1984-554-25
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United States
Environmental Protecion
Agency
Region 5
230 S Dearborn St
Chicago, IL 60604
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use
$300 00
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BULK RATE
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EPA
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