vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Health Effects Research
Laboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA 600 1 79-016c
April 1979
Research and Development
Health Effects
Associated with
Wastewater
Treatment and
Disposal Systems
State-of-the-Art
Review
600179016C
Volume II, Part 2
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS RE-
SEARCH series. This series describes projects and studies relating to the toler-
ances of man for unhealthful substances or conditions. This work is generally
assessed from a medical viewpoint, including physiological or psychological
studies. In addition to toxicology and other medical specialities, study areas in-
clude biomedical instrumentation and health research techniques utilizing ani-
mals — but always with intended application to human health measures.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/1-79-016c
April 1979
HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH WASTEWATER
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL SYSTEM
STATE-OF-THE-ART REVIEW
VOLUME II
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
PART II: M THROUGH Z
by
SCS Engineers
4014 Long Beach Boulevard
Long Beach, California 90807
(213) 426-9544
Contract No. 68-02-2257
Project Officer
Warren Galke
Health Effects Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH LABORATORY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, N.C. 27711
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Health Effects Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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FOREWORD
The many benefits of our modern, developing, industrial society are
accompanied by-certain hazards. Careful assessment of the relative risk of
existing and new man-made environmental hazards is necessary for the estab-
lishment of sound regulatory/ policy. These regulations serve to enhance the
quality of our environment in order to promote the public health and welfare
and the productive capljcity of our Nation's population.
The Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, conducts
a coordinated environmental health research program in toxicology, epidemio-
logy, and clinical studies using human volunteer subjects. These studies
address problems in air pollution, non-ionizing radiation, environmental
carcinogenesis and the toxicology of pesticides as well as other chemical
pollutants. The Laboratory participates in the development and revision
of air quality criteria documents on pollutants for which national ambient
air quality standards exist or are proposed, provides the data for registra-
tion of new pesticides or proposed suspension of those already in use,
conducts research on hazardous and toxic materials, and is primarily respon-
sible for providing the health basis for non-ionizing radiation standards.
Direct support to the regulatory function of the Agency is provided in the
form of expert testimony and preparation of affidavits as well as expert
advice to the Administrator to assure the adequacy of health care and
surveillance of persons having suffered imminent and substantial endanger-
ment of their health.
Pursuant to the overall mission of the laboratory to investigate the
human health effects of environmental pollution, this contract was let to
summarize the state of knowledge regarding the health effects associated
with various methods of handling wastewaters and sewage sludges. Subjects
of interest include biological as well as chemical pollutants. Pathways of
these agents from wastewater streams to man were delineated.
F. G. Hueter, Ph.D.
Director
Health Effects Research Laboratory
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ABSTRACT
This
annotated bibliography covers the source documents used in the m
individual articles a brief summary of the major topics of dis-
presented. For major reports a short description of their cont
text. For individual articles a brief summary of the major topics of dis-
cussion is presented. For major reports a short description of their content
is provided. A subject index to the bibliography is provided at the back of
Volume II, Part 2.
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Macek, K.J. and S. Korn.
Significance of the Food Chain in DDT Accumulation by Fish.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 27:1496-1499
August 1970.
Key Words: DDT, livestock, fish.
Abstract:
Brook trout accumulated approximately 10 times more of
the available DDT from the food than directly from the
water. Since, in aquatic environments, the concentra-
tion of DDT is usually much higher in the food chain
than in the water, we suggest that the food chain is
the major source of DDT for fish in natural waters.
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Mack, W.N.
Poliovirus in a Water Supply; Joint Discussion.
JAWWA. 65/5) :347-348. May 1973.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
There is no evidence that the virus found in the well
water was the cause of the gastroenteritis reported
by the patrons of a certain restaurant. It does show
that viruses are viable and can survive where the
bacteria do not. Except for the illness reported by
the patrons, there was little evidence that the well
water was contaminated and it required a great deal
of concentration of the samples before the coli or-
ganisms and the virus could be detected.
This is the first isolation of a virus from drinking
water in the U.S. Epidemiological evidence indicates
that viruses can contaminate water sources, resulting in
hepatitis. With increased population and inadequate
treatment of wastewaters, other episodes can occur.
The possibility of water supplies becoming biologically
contaminated is a real one. Chlorination alone is not
the answer, as the electron microscope pictures indicate,
Chlorinated s'ewage is not satisfactory - wastewater must
be properly cleaned before it is deposited upon the
earth's surface so that drinking water will not be con-
tami nated.
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Mackay, D. and P.J. Leinonen.
Rate of Evaporation of Low-Solubility Contaminants from Water
Bodies to Atmosphere.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_(13) : 1178-1180 .
December 1975.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, pesticides, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine), drinking
and recreational water, fish.
Abstract:
The equations presented in the report can be used to
predict the approximate rates of evaporative loss of
low-solubility contaminants in an air-water system;
however, it is very desirable to obtain specific
mass transfer rates for that system, particularly
the coefficient for the controlling phase.
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Mackay, D.W., W. Halcrow, and I. Thornton.
Sludge Dumping in the Firth of Clyde.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 3.0) :7 -10. January 1972.
Key Words: lead, copper, chromium, zinc, nickel, cadmium,
manganese, fish.
Abstract:
Sewage sludge contaminated with a variety of heavy metals
has been dumped into the Firth of Clyde for some years.
Since 1969 a survey of heavy metal contamination of
sediments and animals has been carried on. This report
summarizes the findings that have emerged so far.
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Mackenthun , K.M.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Water: An Annotated Selected
Bibliography of Their Biological Effects.
U.S. Public Health Service. Division of Water
Supply and Pollution Control, Washington, D.C., 1965. 139p.
Key Words: nitrates, ammonia, nitrites, phosphates, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This is an early write-up of literature concerning
N and P in water. The abstracts include data.
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Mackenthun, K.M. and L.E. Keup.
Biological Problems Encountered in Water Supplies.
JAWWA. 6£(8):520-526. August 1970.
Abstract:
Although none of the organisms found in surface waters
may be injurious to health, domestic water supplies must
be free of such organisms, since they, or their by-products,
may interfere with filtration and cause consumer complaints.
The authors compiled various reports and surveys.
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MacKenzie, R.D., R.U. Byerrum, C.F. Decker, C.A. Hoppert,
and R.F. Langham.
Chronic Toxicity Studies. II: Hexavalent and Trivalent
Chromium Administered in Drinking Water to Rats.
AMA Archives of Industrial Health. 18:232-234. 1958.
Key Words: chromium, drinking and recreational water
Abstract:
Five groups of rats were given water containing between
0.45 and 11 ppm of chromium as chromate ion for a year.
No differences were observed between these groups and
the controls as to water intake, food consumption, or
weight gain; nor did an analysis of blood at monthly
intervals or examination of tissues at six months or
a year show any significant differences between any of
the groups given chromium and the control group.
Kidney, liver, and femur were analyzed for chromium
at the end of six months, and these plus spleen were
analyzed at the end of one year. There was an abrupt
rise in tissue chromium concentration when rats ingested
water having concentrations above 5 ppm of chromate ion.
Two groups of rats were given water containing 25 ppm
of chromium as hexavalent and trivalent chromium, res-
pectively, for one year. No toxic symptoms were observed
in either group. However, tissue concentrations of chrom-
ium were approximately nine times higher in the group
given hexavalent chromium. This suggests that chromate
ion is absorbed to a much greater extent than trivalent
chromium at this level.
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Mahoney, I.E., C.T.E. Friedmann, R.A. Murray, E.L. Schulenburg,
and G.A. Heidbreder.
A Waterborne Gastroenteritis Epidemic in Pico Rivera, Ca.
Public Health. £4(10 ) :963-968 . 1974.
Key Words: drinking and recreational water epidemiology.
Abstract:
An outbreak of gastroenteritis in a trailer park in
Pico Rivera, California, led to investigation of the
water supply and an epidemiological survey of residents
of the community. The syndrome called "sewage poison-
ing" was believed to be responsible.
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Maier, W.J., H.L, McConnell, and I.E. Conroy.
A Survey of Organic Carbon Constituents in Natural Fresh Waters
University Of Minnesota, Minneapolis,Department of Civil and
Mineral Engineering, 1974. 12p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-236 794).
Key Words: total organic carbon, surface water (fresh).
Abs tract:
The paper describes the initial phase of a study of
organic and inorganic carbon measurements in some of
the major bodies of water in Minnesota. Concentration
levels are described and discussed in terms of flow
variation and seasonal changes. Information about
sources and composition of organic materials are re-
viewed and discussed.
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Mairs, K.H.
Development of Methods for Controlling the Cadmium and Zinc
Content of Water.
University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Department of Chemical
Engineering, 1974. 7p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-238 299).
Key Words: cadmium, zinc.
Abstract:
A study has been made to determine whether cadmium as
an impurity in zinc used in the manufacture of brass
or galvanized water pipe can contribute a hazardous
contamination to mildly aggressive water. .Only minor
quantities of cadmium have been found in such products
and no tendency has been observed for the selective
corrosion of cadmium. Observations suggest that cadmium
hazard from such a source is very unlikely.
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Majumdar, S.B., U.H. Ceckler, and O.J. Sproule.
Inactivation of Poliovirus in Water by Ozonation.
JWPCF. £5(12) .-2433-2443. December 1973.
Key Words: polio virus, ozonation.
Abstract:
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
1. A threshold concentration of ozone exists for
Inactivation of poliovirus. Based on the findings
of Inactivation studies in triple distilled water, the
threshold value may be taken as 1.0 mg/1.
2. The relationship of the ozone concentration and the
contact time with the survival of pollovlrus may be
expressed by the following:
Ct = 0.18 S"°'86 C< 1 .0 mg/1
Ct • 0.13 S'0-36 C >1 .0 mg/1
It is, therefore, concluded that two distinct rate
mechanisms exist, one above and another below the threshold
concentration, 1.0 mg/1.
3. The rate equations for inactivation of poliovirus
in triple distilled water and primary and secondary waste-
waters may be represented by the following general equa-
tion :
dCv
V M m
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Malaney, G.W., P-A- Lutin, J.J. Cibulka, and L.H. Hickerson.
Resistance of Carcinogenic Organic Compounds to Oxidation
by Activated Sludge.
JWPCF. 39.(12) :2020-2029. December 1967.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, activated sludge.
Abstract:
Since the activated sludges from treatment plants in
the Nashville area showed essentially the same oxida-
tive powers as those at Columbus, Ohio, it must be
concluded that the poor oxidation of the majority of
the carcinogenic compounds must reside in a refractory
chemical structure. This is not unexpected when the
architecture of these compounds is considered. The
condensed nuclear hydrocarbons are relatively strain-
free. This results from the fact all bond angles are
tetrahedral and the orientation about every carbon-carbon
bond is the staggered configuration found in the ethane
molecule. Such structures are relatively stable.
Of the four aliphatic compounds studied, butylene oxide
and propiolactone have been used as aerosol disinfec-
tants; hence, it was expected that they would prove
toxic or, at least, resistant to all sludges. However,
this did not prove to be true. Thiourea, although
structurally related to urea which is a common com-
ponent of domestic wastes, was not universally amenable
to oxidation. Ethyl carbamate, a member of the ure-
thane family, resisted oxidation completely.
Although aniline was oxidized to an appreciable extent
in 144 hr, the structurally related bicyclic hydrocarbon
benzidine was inhibitory or resistant to all sludges.
The stilbene derivative was another bicyclic compound
which proved refractory to all but Franklin sludge.
Data for the noncarcinogenic naphthalene were included
to show the oxidation pattern of the parent structure
of the bjcyclic condensed nuclear compounds. In con-
trast to the susceptibility of naphthalene, 2-naphthylamine
was resistant or toxic; thus, introduction of the amino
group rendered the molecule much more difficult to degrade.
Both of the azo compounds were toxic to all sludges at
some time during the 144-hr experiment, although the
experimental results are difficult to interpret. Another
researcher obtained similar results in a study of aniline-
acclimated activated sludge.
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The tricyclic condensed structure, dimethylanthracene,
was oxidized appreciably by Nashville sludge and slightly
by Franklin sludge, but was resistant to Ashland City
sludge. The parent hydrocarbon, anthracene, showed the
same pattern of oxidation.
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Malherbe, H.H. and M. Strickland-Cholmley.
Survival of Viruses in the Presence of Algae.
In: Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route. G. Berg, ed.
T7 Wiley, New York, 1965. pp. 449-458.
Key Words: polio virus, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Seeding a model system of four stabilization ponds,
covering one-half acre, with 39 litres of poliovirus 2
added over a period of 20 days produced measurable
amounts of virus at the outflow points of all the
ponds. The rate of passage of the virus exceeded that
indicated by theoretical retention times; although short-
circuiting probably occurred, rapid diffusion of virus
may have also occurred.
Monitoring of influents and effluents of maturation ponds
at two sewage disposal works showed reduction of reo-
virus and enterovirus levels during passage through the
ponds; but small amounts of both viruses were occassionally
detected inthe final effluents.
Laboratory experiments failed to produce evidence of
active removal of poliovirus and reovirus by algae.
The observed reduction of enteric virus levels in sewage
maturation ponds may result from inactivation by sun-
light at the surface; viruses may be destroyed more
readily in a shallow stream than in a pond.
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Malhotra, S.K., T.P. Parrillo, and A.G. Hartenstein.
Anaerobic Digestion of Sludges Containing Iron Phosphates.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE. 97(SA5):
629-646. October 1971.
Key Words: suspended solids, phosphates, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. The high phosphorus removals achieved at conventional
activated sludge treatment plants with the precipitation
of phosphorus with ferrous-iron, during the primary treat-
ment or in the aeration tanks, will not be drastically
reduced by the amount of total phosphorus recycled through
the supernatant from the anaerobic digesters used for
sludge stabilization.
2. The pH, alkalinity, volatile acids and the percentage
of reduction of VM in the test digesters were within
the range of their expected values and were not much
different from those observed in the control digesters.
The alkalinity levels in the test digesters were generally
higher than those in the control digester indicating
their improved stability.
3. The ferrous-iron in the feed sludge up to a maximum
level of 5.55% Fe on the dry solids basis did not upset
the gas mixed primary digester or the overall digestion
process.
4. The quantity and the quality of the gas produced dur-
ing digestion was not affected significantly, except
that the C02 content of the gas produced on the digestion
of iron precipitated primary sludge decreased because
of the lime used for obtaining good flocculation of
sewage with ferrous-iron.
5. A significant uptake of total soluble phosphorus
was observed on the digestion of primary sludges with
or without ferrous-iron precipitated phosphorus. The
TSP concentrations in the digested primary sludges with
and without ferrous-iron precipitation were 0.26 mg per
1-P and 44.7 mg per 1-P, respectively. The correspond-
ing TSP levels in the feed sludges were 2.80 mg per 1-P
and 80.0 mg per 1-P, respectively.
6. The TSP level slightly decreased on the digestion
of gravity thickened control waste activated sludge.
There was an insignificant decrease of TSP from 122 mg
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per 1-P in the feed sludge to 117 mg per 1-P in the di-
gested sludge at low VM loading rate, but the correspond-
ing decrease in TSP at a higher VM loading rate from
203 mg per 1-P in the feed sludge to 173.0 mg per 1-P in
digested sludge was with a 70% confidence level.
7. The thickened waste activated sludges containing
iron precipitated phosphorus resulted in significant
releases of phosphorus on digestion. The phosphorus
release increased and became more significant with sludges
containing more iron insolubi1ized phosphorus. The
digestion of waste activated sludge containing about
5% iron on dry solid basis resulted in an average TSP
increase from 20.2 mg per 1-P in the feed sludge to
33.0 mg per 1-P in the digested sludge with 99%
confidence level at low VM loading rate and from TSP
of 58.4 mg per 1-P to 104.5 mg per 1-P, respectively with
99% confidence limit at a higher VM loading rate. This
release of phosphorus on digestion was possibly due to
the conversion of ferric phosphate to ferrous phosphate
plus phosphate ions under the anaerobic conditions in
the digester.
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Malina, J.F., Jr., K.R. Ranganathan, B.E.D. Moore, and B.P. Sagik
Poliovirus Inactivation by Activated Sludge.
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
TTalina, Jr. and B.P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at
Austin, Center for Research in Water Resources, 1974.
pp. 95-106.
Key Words: polio virus, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. The performance of conventional activated sludge pro-
cess in inactivating poliovirus is independent of organic
loadings ranging from 0 to 0.51 Ib BOD/lb MLSS-day and
therefore of the physiological condition of the sludge.
2. The inactivation is independent of hydraulic detention
times within the range of 5 to 15 hours and mixed liquor
suspended solids concentrations of 1,900 to 2,700 mg/1 .
3. Any biochemical difference in the function of oxygen
and air in the activated sludge process does not result
in significant differences in poliovirus inactivation
c a p a c i ty .
4. The contact stabilization process with a contact
time of as low as 16 minutes removes virus at the same
efficiency as the conventional activated sludge systems
with hydraulic detention times in the range of 5 to 15
hours. These data indicate that the virus adsorption
to sludge is almost immediate.
5. No decrease in the inactivation capacity was observed
over the long period of continuous virus inoculation
of the processes studied. No increase with time of
recoverable infective units from the sludge was observed;
therefore, the sludges exhibit a permanently inactivating
capacity.
6. The results of batch experiments using tritium labeled
poliovirus conclusively showed that degradation of virus
particles takes place in the sludge virus complex.
7. Association of virus particles with sludge and the
recoverabi1ity of virus must be considered in evaluating
sludge disposal alternatives and in virus monitoring
techniques proposed for effluents from wastewater treat-
ment pi ants.
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Malina, J.F., Jr., K.R. Ranganathan, B.P. Sagik, and B.E. Moore,
Poliovirus Inactivation by Activated Sludge.
JWPCF. 47(8):2178-2183. August 1975.
Key Words: polio virus, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The results of batch activated sludge experiments
indicate the permanent inactivation of some poliovirus
in the sludge-virus complex.
The association of virus particles with sludge and the
ability to elute infectious virus particles from sludge
solids must be considered in evaluating sludge disposal
alternatives and in virus monitoring techniques proposed
for effluents of municipal wastewater treatment plants.
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Mallmann, W.L. and W.N. Mack.
Biological Contamination of Groundwater.
In: Groundwater Contamination; Proceedings of the 1961 Symposium
Technical Report 61-5. Robert A. Taft Engineering Center, 1961.
pp. 35-43.
Key Words: bacteria, viruses, direct contact, groundwater.
Abstract:
Field studies in which test wells surround a recharging
well that receives diluted sewage effluent have indicated
that:
1. Pollution spreads from the recharging well in the
direction of water flow in the aquifer.
2. Bacteria seldom migrate more than 100 feet from the
recharging well, and then only during the early phase
of aquifer recharge.
3. Particulate material in the recharge water deposits
at the point it enters the aquifer, forming a filtering
substratum that tends to retain bacteria. As a result,
bacteria migrate only a few feet from the filtering
substratum forms.
4. In porous soils with low water tables, bacteria
disappear from the aquifer soon after recharging ceases.
5. Soluble substances in the recharge water travel
farther than the bacteria.
6. Bacteria are removed from the recharge water in the
aquifer by adsorption on soil particles and by filtra-
tion (straining action) of the particle mass.
Surveys of sources of epidemics due to groundwater con-
tamination indicate that in many cases bacteria have
traveled much greater distances than those recorded in
experimental tests.
Pollution of groundwater that has caused epidemics has
been the result of sudden gross contamination, a situa-
tion comparable to the first rush of bacteria through an
aquifer before a filtering substratum has developed at
the point of entry.
Syndets in sewage lower the surface tension of the water,
causing it to wet the substrate so that passage may be
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more rapid. Syndets are good suspending agents with the
result that bacteria may be carried farther in the soil
without deposition. No studies in which syndets had
been tested to prove this statement were found in the
1iterature.
Virus diseases have been caused by contaminated ground-
water. No field tests have been made to determine the
travel of viruses in groundwater. Laboratory tests
demonstrate that viruses are generally more resistant
to chlorine treatment than bacteria. Field tests demon-
strate that viruses pass through complete sewage treat-
ment processes and survive sewage effluent chlorination,
as routinely practiced in sewage treatment plants.
The duration of survival in the soil of pathogens such
as salmonellae is dependent upon the nature of the soil,
the pH, the temperature, and the moisture and salt con-
tent. Most pathogens die out rapidly in groundwater.
There is no information available on the period of sur-
vival of viruses in groundwaters, although the writers
believe this time period is relatively short.
Endemic pollution of groundwater may occur in heavily
populated suburban areas where numerous septic tank.
fields are flooding the groundwater table.
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Malone, O.R. and T.L. Bailey.
Oxidation Ponds Remove Bacteria.
Water and Sewage Works. H6(4):136-140. April 1969.
Key Words: bacteria, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. Properly designed tertiary oxidation ponds following
adequate secondary treatment provide an excellent means
of bacteria removal.
2. Stream Standards may not be met by using chlorination
to reduce coliform bacteria; the oxidation ponds will do
this .
3. Oxidation ponds also offer solids removal, BOD
reductions, reductions in turbidity, plant breakdown
buffering capacity, and are less expensive than chlorin-
ati on.
4. Oxidation ponds provide reduction in radiation hazards
5. Additional research is needed to study algae removal
from oxidation pond effluent.
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Malone, T.C.
iO. Vitro Conversion of DDT to ODD by the Intestinal Micro-flora
of the Northern Anchovy, Engraulis mordax.
Nature. 2j?7_: 848-849. August 1970.
Key Words: DDT, fish.
Abstract:
This article discusses the mechanism of conversion
of DDT to ODD. It may be an aid in explaining some
of the DDT data.
22
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Manahan, S.E. and M.J. Smith.
The Importance of Chelating Agents in Natural Waters and
Wastewaters.
Water and Sewage Works. 1_20 (9) : 102-106 . September 1973.
Key Words: manganese, copper, iron, zinc, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This paper is a good overview of the role of metal
chelating agents in water pollution.
A practical example of the use of a chelating agent
is the determination of water hardness by the reaction
of disodium dihydrogen ethylenediamine tetraacetate
(EDTA or versene) with calcium and magnesium in water.
The EDTA ligand is an extraordinarily good chelating
agent and can bond to metal ions in up to six sites.
It forms extremely stable metal chelates.
The ability of chelating agents to drastically reduce
the concentration of "free" metal ions in water is one
of their most important effects. For example, if EDTA
is present in water, calcium in the water may be tied
up in the form of an EDTA chelate and therefore may not
be available for scale formation.
The possible effects of chelating agents
waters and wastewaters are numerous.
in natural
23
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Manka, J., M. Rebhun, A. Mandelbaum, and A. Bortinger.
Characterization of Organics in Secondary Effluents.
Environmental Science and Technology. J3( 12) : 101 7-1019 .
November 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The composition of soluble organics in secondary ef-
fluents from various treatment plants has been investi-
gated. On the whole, the results obtained were repeat-
able within a relatively low degree of deviation. Gel
permeation chromatography reveals that the majority
of the humic compounds isolated from the secondary
effluents are within a molecular weight range of
1000-5000. The acidic functional groups of those
compounds are mostly carboxylic with a small percentage
of phenyIhydroxyls. A number of specific compounds
have been identified within the fraction of ether
extractables, by using mass spectrometer coupled with
gas chromatograph.
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Manske, D.D. and P.E. Corneliussen.
Pesticide Residues In Total Diet Samples (VII).
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. £(2):110-124. September 1974.
Key Words: dieldrin, cadmium, DDT, ODD, chlorinated hydro-
carbons, organophosphorous pesticides, livestock.
Abstract:
Pesticide residue levels detected in ready-to-eat foods
remained at relatively low levels during the seventh
year of the Total Diet Study in tts present form.
Samples were collected from 30 markets in 27 different
cities. Populations of cities ranged from less than
50,000 to 1,000,000 or more. Averages and ranges of
pesticides commonly found are reported for the period
June 1970-April 1971 by region and food class. Pesti-
cides found infrequently are also reported for this
period by region and food class. Results of recovery
studies with various classes of pesticides are also
presented. After October 1970, analyses of bromides,
amitrole, and dithiocarbamates were discontinued; mer-
cury and orthophenylphenol were added. Residue levels
in three major fatty food groups are now reported on
a whole-product basis, rather than on a fat basis.
Data for June and August were adjusted accordingly.
25
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Manson, R.J. and C.A. Merritt.
Land Application of Liquid Municipal Wastewater Sludges.
JWPCF, 47(l):20-29. January 1975.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, zinc, agriculture
Abstract:
The advantages of a direct land application program may be
summarized as follows:
1. Money invested in land is never lost.
2. The return on the sale of the sludge-fertilized crops
helps pay for the entire operation.
3. It is a true disposal method as well as a method of
resource recovery.
4. It is a simple and straighforward method in comparison
with most methods presently in use.
5. Equipment and operating costs are low.
6. This method is highly flexible, both in application
techniques and in the types of crops that may be grown.
7. It has little environmental impact.
26
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Manwaring, J.F.
Removal of Viruses by Coagulation and Flocculation.
JAWWA. 6,3(5) :298-300. May 1971.
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment.
Abstract;
The laboratory studies on coagulation and flocculation,
using a bacterial virus and ferric chloride as the coagu-
lant reported herein, lead to the following conclusions:
1. Chemical coagulation and flocculation with ferric
chloride is as effective as that with aluminum sulfate
in removing viruses from water.
2. Calcium and magnesium, up to a concentration of
50 mg/1 each, were found not to interfere with the
efficiency of the process.
3. Chemical coagulation and flocculation cannot be
expected to operate with a high degree of efficiency
in terms of virus removal when the raw water contains
organic matter.
4. Virus particles remain "active" in the settled sludge
following their removal from water by coagulation and
flocculation, and can be recovered from the floe by
various eluants. Therefore, proper care should be taken
in the disposal of sludge from coagulation-flocculation
operations .
27
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Mara, D.D.
Fecal Bacterial Kinetics in Stabilization Ponds.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE .
100(EE5):1191-1192. October 1974.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, coliforms, ponding/land
appli cation.
Abstract:
There is a reduction of 72-80% of fecal bacteria in
anaerobic ponds with a retention time of two days as
reported in this article.
28
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Marais, G.v.R.
Faecal Bacterial Kinetics in Stabilization Ponds.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
100(EE1):119-139. February 1974.
Key Words: Escheri chia coli, fecal streptococci, coliforms,
ponding/1 and application .
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. Die-off of faecal organisms E_. col i . F. Strep., and
and total coliforms in a pond is according to Chick's
Law, i.e., dN/dt = -KN.
2. In a completely mixed pond the steady state con-
centration, N, is given by N = N0/(KR + 1), in which R =
the retention time based on influent flow.
3. In a series of ponds, the effluent quality from the
nth pond in the series is given by: Nn = Nn/[(KRi + 1)
(KR2 + l)...(KRn + 1)].
4. In plug flow conditions, the effluent quality is
given by: N = NQe"Kt.
5. Per unit of retention time the plug flow system is
the most efficient, the series pond system intermediate,
and a single pond the least efficient. The Efficiency
of the series increases as the number of ponds increase
for a fixed total retention time. From practical con-
siderations, up to 90% reduction a single pond is nor-
mally adequate, up to 99% - two ponds in series, up to
99.9% - three ponds in series, etc. Plug flow conditions
are difficult to achieve so that the series system is
the most practi cal .
6. Maximum efficiency in a series system is achieved
by making the retention times of all the ponds equal.
7. Recycling from a secondary pond to the first pond
in a series decreases the efficiency of the system.
8. The rate constant, K, is very sensitive to tempera-
ture, and approximately related as follows: KT =
2.6(1 .19)'-20; (T°C). This relationship presumes
the ponds are mixed and aerobic or facultative and is
valid between approximately 5°C-21°C.
9. Above approximately 21°C, with low wind velocities,
29
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periods of stratification occur and the lower liquid
depth of a pond turns anaerobic. Anaerobic conditions
cause a decline in the value of K so that the reduction
of faecal organisms is sharply reduced.
10. When winter temperatures are very low, so that K
is very small, series operation will yield relatively
minor improvement over single pond operation.
30
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Markin, G.P., J.C. Hawthorne, H.L. Collins, and J.H. Ford.
Levels of Mirex and Some Other Organochlorine Residues in
Seafood from Atlantic and Gulf Coastal States.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 7^:139-143. March 1974.
Key Words: DDT, DDE, chlorinated hydrocarbons, fish, shellfish
Abstract:
A seafood monitoring program for the insecticide mirex
was set up in 1971. Seventy-seven composite samples
of oysters, crabs, shrimp, fish, and fish products were
collected from seven locations within the area where
mirex is used and from two check locations outside the
treatment areas. The study showed that mirex occurred
in only nine of the 77 samples (0.005-0.024 ppm range),
all from near Savannah, Georgia. DDT or its metabolites
occurred in 74 samples (0.002-2.475 ppm range). The
polychlorinated byphenyl (PCB) Aroclor 1260 occurred in
46 samples; if extensive new methods of cleanup had not
been used, these PCB residues probably would have been
interpreted as mirex. Several early studies reporting
extensive residues of mirex in marine life were made
before the possibility of confusing Aroclor 1260 with
mirex had been realized; hence these earlier studies
may be in error.
31
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Martin, D.F. and B.B. Martin.
Implications of Metal-Organic Compounds in Red Tide Outbreaks.
In: Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions in Natural
Waters, P.C. Singer, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann
Arbor, Michigan, 1974. pp. 339-362.
Key Words: iron, direct contact, surface water (fresh),
groundwater.
Abstract:
The parameter intensity was low in late spring, increased
to a maximum in late summer, decreased to a minimum in
winter, then increased in spring. (A similar pattern for
humic acid was observed in subsequent years. A similar,
though less intense, pattern was observed for a group
of three west central streams (Anclote, Withlacoochee,
Suwannee) and for a group of six northwest streams
(Steinhatchee, Econfina, Aucilla, St. Marks, Ochlockonee,
and Apalachi cola).
The southwestern rivers were characterized by uniformly
high concentrations of humic acids, west central by
intermediate concentrations and northwestern rivers by
uniformly low concentrations. The data indicate that,
because of the effect of high flow rates, northwestern
streams deliver more humic acid to a potential outbreak.
This observation and the apparent colloidal nature of
humic acids would account for extensive humate beds
and humate-impregnated sands in northwestern Florida.
The observations might also suggest that concentration,
not total amount of humic acid and/or selected trace
elements, should be significant in accounting for red
ti de outbreaks .
In part, the answer emerged from a study of selected
metal-chelate inputs of 14 west coast Florida streams
during 1968-1969. Water samples were analyzed for humic
acid concentration, as well as concentration of particu-
late and soluble forms of iron, copper, manganese and
zinc. An association between humic, iron concentration
and rainfall emerged.
Details are given, and only the salient features are
reviewed here.
Temporal and spatial variations of three parameters --
iron and humic acid concentrations and rainfall -- followed
a common pattern for a group of five southwestern rivers
(Hi 11sborough , Manatee, Myakka, Peace, Caloosahatchee) .
32
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Martin, R.
Determination of Heavy Metals in Digested Sewage Sludge.
Personal communication, 1975.
Key Words: copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, zinc, crops.
Abstract:
The nitric acid-perchloric acid digestion appears to
be the best of the two techniques for recovery of the heavy
metals studied in this work. The concentration of the metals
studied are in the ranges reported in the literature surveyed
33
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Martin, R.
The Determination of Heavy Metals in Soil Treated with Digested
Sewage SIudges.
Personal communication, 1975.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, crops.
Abstract:
The author analyzed the soils in two geographically and
geologically similar fields to determine the effects of
heavy metals in the digested sludge which had been spread
on the soil and grasses of the pasture lands. He concluded
that such an analysis can provide useful data for
determining the uses to which soils so treated can be put.
34
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Maruyama, T., S.A. Hannah, and J.M. Cohen.
Metal Removal by Physical and Chemical Treatment Processes.
JWPCF. 47:962-975. May 1975.
Key Words: manganese, nickel, zinc, copper, cadmium, barium,
lead, chromium, arsenic, mercury, chemical treat-
ment, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This is an excellent publication on the operation of a
coagulation-flocculation-carbon column pilot plant
at the EPA Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory.
35
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Marx, J.L.
Drinking Water: Another Source of Carcinogens.
Science. 86^:809-811. November 1974.
Key Words: pesticides, synthetic/organics, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
This is a general discussion on the carcinogenity of a
water supply and the difficulties in cancer research.
36
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Mason, J.O. and W.R. McLean.
Infectious Hepatitis Traced to the Consumption of Raw Oysters.
American Journal of Hygiene. 7_5_: 90-1 11 . 1962.
Key Words: hepatitis virus, shellfish, epidemiology.
r
Abstract:
In this article the authors describe in detail an outbreak
of infectious hepatitis in the cities and surrounding
county areas of Pascagoula, Mississippi, and Mobile and
Troy, Alabama. This is the first report relating the
spread of the disease in the United States to the
consumption of raw oysters.
37
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Matches, J.R., J. Listen, and P. Curran.
C1 ostrich' urn perfringens In the Environment.
Applied Microbiology. 28,:655-660. October 1974.
Key Words: Clostri di urn wel chi, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Clostridiurn perfringens was isolated from samples collected
in Puget Sound in the state of Washington and areas con-
sidered as possible sources of these organisms to Puget
Sound. The distribution of C_. perfri ngens in the total
•clostHdium population was determined for fish gut con-
tents and sediments collected in highly polluted and less
polluted areas, sewage samples, freshwater sediments, and
soils. The greatest numbers of C.. perfringens were
obtained from marine sediments collected near the sewage
outfall at West Point. Fewer isolates were made from
fish collected from less polluted stations, although the
number of £. perfri ngens remained high in sediments
from other Puget Sound stations. The proportion of £.
perfringens in the total clostridium populations varied
between 56 and 71% for sewage samples and only 0.4 to 4.1%
for freshwater sediments and soil samples. Only 25
£• Perfri ngens isolates out of 137 from fish guts, or
18%, were identifiable serologically and these fell into
12 groups. C_. perfringens were fed to fish and the fish
were sacrificed after varying lengths of time. The num-
ber of £. perfringens increased slightly in the gut dur-
ing the first 24 hr and then the numbers decreased rapidly
for the next 120 hr.
38
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Mathis, B.J. and T.F. Cummings.
Selected Metals in Sediments, Water, and Biota in the Illinois
Ri ver.
JWPCF. j45(7):1573-1583. July 1973.
Key Words: copper, nickel, lead, chromium, zinc, cobalt,
cadmium, surface water (fresh), fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
The bottom-dwelling tubificids and clams closely reflected
the concentrations of metals found in bottom sediments.
A concentration gradient ranging from highest levels in
worms, intermediate levels in clams, and lowest levels
in fish fillets was observed for copper, nickel, lead,
chromium, lithium, cobalt, and cadmium. Zinc, however,
exhibited a partial reversal of this trend. It was
present in highest concentrations in clams, at inter-
mediate levels in worms, and at lowest levels in fish
fillets.
With the exception of copper in worms, metals were
more highly concentrated in bottom sediments. The
water component of the river exhibited the lowest
concentration of metals with the exception of lithium.
39
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Mathur, R.P and N.S. Grenwal.
Underground Travel of Pollutants.
In: Advances in Wastewater Research. Pergamoh Press, New York
B/15/30/1-8. 1972.
Key Words: bacteria, groundwater.
Abstract:
The present investigation is an attempt to study how
wastewater is likely to travel after its introduction
into the groundwater. A model study of dispersion
of organic matter in the form of synthetic sewage
has been made. The parameters selected were organic
matter (oxygen consumed by the KMnO^ test) and the
Enterococcus group of bacteria.
40
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Matsumura, F., Y. Gotoh , and G.M. Boush.
Factors Influencing Trans!ocation and Transformation of Mer-
cury in River Sediment.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
8(5):267-272. November 1972.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Three factors contribute to the release of mercury
into water: alkaline pH, the organic content of sedi-
ments, and microorganisms. Such processes are not
necessarily directly related to methylmercury formation
The significance of such release is not certain.
41
-------
Mattson, J.S. and F.W. Kennedy.
Evaluation Criteria for Granular Activated Carbons.
JWPCF. 4!(11):2210-2217. November 1971 .
Key Words: syntheti c/organi cs , adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The technical evaluation of activated carbons would
benefit from the addition of procedures for the deter-
mination of adsorption rate and capacity, as well as a
determination of the ability of each carbon to with-
stand a specified level of mechanical attrition. By
judicious selection of a material based on these criteria
as well as the price, of course, the operating costs of
physical-chemical and tertiary treatment may be reduced
by a significant amount.
42
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Maxwell, K.E.
Environment of Life.
Dickenson Publishing Company, Encino, Calif. , 1976. 418p.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is a book whose overall purpose and thrust are
primarily informative and authoritative; it will serve as
useful background for the environment and its biological
impact.
The contents include: the nature of the environment
(including their major components), environmental quality
(air pollution, water pollution, pesticides, etc.),
food quality, the internal and external environment (in-
cluding genetic injury, mutations, somatic injury,
radiation), and populations.
43
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Mayrose, D.F.
Heat Treatment and Incineration.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the National
Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, Juno 11-13, 1974.
pp. 87-91.
Key Words: BOD, heat treatment, activated sludge.
Abstract:
Heat treatment of sewage sludges does produce liquors
high in soluble BOD. This is due to the so-called
hydrolyzation that takes place and also to the leaching
of the cell water from the structure during heat treat-
ment. In those plants in which primary plus waste
activated sludges are heat treated, the recycled heat
treatment liquor contains a dissolved BOD load approxi-
mately equal to 25 percent of the primary settled sewage
44
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McAchran, G.E. and R.D. Hogue.
Phosphate Removal from Municipal Sewage.
Water and Sewage Works. 1_1_8(2 ): 36-39 . February 1971.
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
A detailed and extensive set of phosphorus concentration
and removal data has been determined on an operating
biological sewage treatment plant. The data show exten-
sive weekly, daily and hourly variations in the influent
phosphorus concentration. Such variations emphasize the
danger of conclusions based on grab samples or samples
taken over a brief time interval.
Based on the data, aluminum sulfate
are equally effective for phosphate
Al/P mole rati os.
and sodium
removal at
aluminate
equal
It is difficult to judge whether the 5 percent additional
phosphate removal obtained by programmed precipitant
addition is statistically significant or not. However,
it is felt that the technique merits additional study.
45
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McCann, J. and B.N. Ames.
Detection of Carcinogens as Mutagens in the Salmonella/
Microsome Test: Assay of 300 Chemicals: Discussion.
Proceedings National Academy of Sciences. 73(3):950-954.
March 1976.
Key Words: salmonella, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Of the 300 chemicals tested, there is a high correlation
between carcinogenicity and mutagenicity (90%).
46
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McCann, J., E. Choi, E. Yamasaki, and B.N. Ames.
Detection of Carcinogens as Mutagens in Salmonella/Microsome
Test: Assay of 300 Chemicals.
Proceedings National Academy of Sciences. 72(12):5135-5139.
December 1975.
Key Words: salmonella, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Salmonella was used for 300 chemicals as sensitive
indicators for DNA damage, and mammalian liver extracts
were studied for metabolic conversion of carcinogens
to their active mutagenic forms.
47
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McCarthy, J.J. and C.H. Smith.
A Review of Ozone and Its Application to Domestic Wastewater
Treatment.
JAWWA. 66.:718-725. December 1974.
Key Words: BOD, ozonation.
Abstract:
This paper discusses generalities concerning ozonation.
No relevant data appear.
48
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McCarty, P.L.
Biological Processes for Nitrogen Removal - Theory and
Appli cation.
Proceedings Twelfth Sanitary Engineering Conference; Nitrate
and Water Supply: Source and Control. University of Illinois,
February 1970. pp. 136-152.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, ni tri fi cati on/deni t-
ri fi cati on.
Abstract:
Nitrogen can be removed biologically from wastewater
by three different processes: bacterial assimilation,
algae harvesting, and nitrification/denitrification.
Through bacterial assimilation, nitrogen is converted
into bacterial protoplasm which is then removed in a
subsequent phase separation process. Nitrogen removal
through bacterial assimilation is a function of the
quantity of wastewater being treated and the growth
yield of the micro-organisms. In the biological treat-
ment of most wastewaters a certain degree of nitrogen
removal is attained; however, this result is dependent
on the amount of nitrogen available relative to the
organic matter present. The maximum efficiency of this
process is apparently feasible only when nitrogen is
not in excess (at a BOD|_ to nitrogen ratio of about 20/1).
Nitrogen removal by algal harvesting involves use of
solar radiation to convert inorganic nitrogen to cell
protein. The efficiency of this conversion is a function
of the production rate of algae and the nitrogen content
of the cells, while the rate of growth of the algal cells
is dependent on light availability, retention time, and
relative concentrations of essential nutrients.
Bacterial ni tri fi cati on-deni tri fi cati on is perhaps the
most promising of the processes. Ammonia nitrogen re-
moval is the result of two stages. In nitrification,
ammonia-nitrogen is converted to nitrate-nitrogen by
two different groups of autotrophic nitrifying bacteria.
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates and nitrites
to nitrogen gas by a wide variety of facultative bacteria
under anaerobic conditions. An additional organic source
is necessary for efficient conversion to nitrogen gas,
and methanol appears to be the least expensive. Studies
of the ni tri fi cati on-deni tri fi cati on process at Firebaugh,
California are discussed.
49
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In general for agricultural and domestic wastewater,
costs for nitrogen removal may range from 2 to 10 cents
per 1,000 gallons. Of the three processes considered,
nitrification-denitrification is perhaps the most
generally applicable because of good reliability,
suitability to a variety of conditions, low area re-
quirements and moderate cost.
50
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McDermott, D.J.
Characteristics of Municipal Wastewaters, 1971 to 1973.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1974. pp. 89-96.
Key rtords: suspended solids, BOD, COD, oil and grease,
nitrates, ammonia, cyanides, synthetic/organics,
phosphates, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper,
iron, mercury, manganese, zinc, lead, selenium,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
This is a comparison of municipal effluent data on a
yearly basis.
51
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McDermott, D.J. and T.C. Heesen.
DDT and PCB in Dover Sole around Outfalls.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca,, June 30, 1975. pp. 117-121.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, fish.
Abstract:
This paper compares levels of DDT and PCB's in two
separate studies (1971-72 & 1974-75).
52
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McDermott, D.J. and T.C. Heesen.
Inventory of DDT in Sediments.
Southern California Water Research Project. Annual Report
El Segundo, Ca. , June 30, 1974. pp. 123-127.
Key Words: DDT, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This paper compares levels of DDT in sediments off
five major municipal wastewater outfall systems in
southern California.
53
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McDermott, D.J. and L.R. Young.
Trace Metals in Flatfish around Outfalls.
Southern California Coastal Waters Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1975. pp. 117-121.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, fish.
Abstract:
This article discusses levels of metals in marine fish
off the coast of southern California.
54
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McDermott, D.J., T.C. Heesen, and D.R. Young.
DDT in Bottom Sediments around Five Southern California Outfall
Systems.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. El
Segundo, Ca., December 1974. 54p.
Key Words: DDT, surface water (fresh), surface water (marine),
shell fish. fish.
Abstract:
The pesticide DDT appears to be one 6f the most serious
contaminants yet described in the Southern California
Bight. Levels of this chlorinated hydrocarbon and its
metabolites in sandcrabs and intertidal mussels taken
off Palos Verdes Peninsula in the early 1970's were
50 to 100 times higher than concentrations found 200 km
to the north and south. In addition, approximately two-
thirds of the Dover sole trawled off the Peninsula dur-
ing 1971-72 were found to contain muscle concentrations
exceeding the 5-ppm limit for seafood intended for inter-
state commerce set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administra-
tion. Such DDT gradients are attributed to long-term
discharges of this pesticide via the submarine municipal
was tewater outfalls of the County Sanitation Districts
of Los Angeles County off Whites Point. Approximately
19,000 kg/yr total DDT were discharged through this
system in 1971, and although the amount had been reduced
to approximately 3,000 kg/yr in 1973, the outfall system
is still the dominant known source of DDT to the Bight.
Trace constituents such as heavy metals and chlorinated
hydrocarbons are found to be largely associated with
particulate matter in wastewaters. Therefore, the
sediments in the receiving environment may be an impor-
tant reservoir of these contaminants. To investigate
this possibility, the Coastal Water Research Project
conducted a survey of DDT compounds in ocean bottom
sediments collected around the major municipal wastewater
discharge systems in the Bight: The data obtained from
these studies are reported here, and the results are
briefly evaluated.
55
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McDermott, G.N., W.A. Moore, M.A. Post, and M.B. Ettinger.
Effects of Copper on Aerobic Biological Sewage Treatment.
JWPCF. 31(2):227-241. February 1963.
Key Words: copper, BOD, activated sludge.
Abs tract:
Copper continuously present in concentrations ranging
from 0.4 to 25 mg/1 in the raw sewage entering a complete
pilot activated sludge treatment plant reduced BOD re-
moval efficiency zero to seven percent, roughly in pro-
portion to metal concentration, after the plant became
acclimated to the metal. Two forms of copper, copper
sulphate and copper cyanide complex, had about the same
effects after the system had become acclimated. The
process was 50- to 79-percent efficient in removal of
copper. From about 25 to 75 percent of the copper in
the final effluent was in solution.
Four-hour slug doses of copper as copper sulphate in
concentrations greater than 50 mg/1 had severe effects
on the efficiency of an unacclimated system. The system
returned to normal in about 100 hr. Slugs of copper
cyanide complex had much more severe maximum effects,
but the system returned to normal in about 24 hr. Copper
in slug doses of copper sulphate is largely adsorbed by
the activated sludge and slowly released, whereas copper
cyanide slugs pass through the system in normal detention
times.
The maximum concentration of copper that does not have
a detectable effect on treatment efficiency is concluded
to be 1 mg/1. Slug doses of a few hours duration with
up to 50-mg/l copper as copper sulphate or 10-mg/l copper
as copper cyanide complex have but a slight effect on
treatment efficiency.
56
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McDermott, G.N., M.A. Post, B.N. Jackson, and M.B. Ettinger.
Nickel in Relation to Activated Sludge and Anaerobic Digestion
Process.
JWPCF. 3_7(2):163-177. February 1965.
Key Words: nickel, BOD, COD, activated sludge, anaerobic
digestion, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Nickel, present continuously in concentrations ranging
from 2.5 to 10 mg/1 in the sewage entering a complete
activated sludge pilot plant, reduced the BOD removal
efficiency a maximum of about 5 percent. Increased
turbidity in the final effluent is the most objectionable
feature. The maximum level of nickel which will not pro-
duce a detectable effect on treatment efficiency was indi-
cated as being greater than 1 mg/1 and less than 2.5 mg/1.
A 200-mg/l slug dose of nickel caused a serious reduction
in treatment efficiency for a few hours, but the plant
returned to normal performance within 40 hr.
Combined primary and excess activated sludge from a plant
receiving 10 mg of nickel per liter, continuously, digested
satisfactorily. Primary sludge, from sewage containing
10 mg/1 of nickel, digested satisfactorily.
A small percentage of nickel is removed in primary settling.
The complete activated sludge process is about 30-percent
efficient in removing nickel. The sulfide content of the
influent sewage has no correlation with efficiency of nickel
removal.
57
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McDermott, J.H.
Virus Problems in Water Supplies. Part II.
Water and Sewage Works. 122^(6) :76-77. September 1975.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh), surface water
(.marine), drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
This article discusses the virus problem in water
supplies and possible solutions to the problem.
58
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McGarry, M.G.
Algal Flocculation with Aluminum Sulfate and Polyelectrolytes.
JWPCF. 42.(5) :R191-R201 . May 1970.
Key Words: BOD, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The high-rate pond process is being developed to treat
wastewater and to provide a new source of edible protein
in the form of algae. Chemical flocculation was studied
as a means of harvesting the dispersed algae from heavily-
laden pond water. Aluminum sulfate was tested as a pri-
mary coagulant and in conjunction with a variety of poly-
electrolytes. The independent variables studied were alum
and polyelectrolyte concentrations, time of polyelectrolyte
addition, fast- and slow-mixing period, and degree of
turbulence. A detailed experiment was performed to compare
the four most promising polyelectrolytes in combination
with alum.
59
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McGinnes, P.R. and V.L. Snoeyink.
Determination of the Fate of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
in Natural Water Systems.
University of Illinois, Urbana,Water Resources Center, March
1974. 62p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-232 168).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, surface water (fresh), direct
contact, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAH, are of
current concern as water pollutants and potential
health hazards. The presence of PAH in natural water
systems was evaluated and an analytical technique for
specific PAH was developed. It was found that the PAH
are not soluble in water but they either are present
as participate material or as material absorbed on solid
surfaces in. natural water systems. The photodecomposi-
tion of two PAH, 1,2 benzanthracene, or BA, and 3,4
benzpyrene, or BP, was examined. This decomposition is
relatively unaffected by water chemistry and will occur
under solar radiation and in turbid waters.
60
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McGregor, W.C. and R.K. Finn.
Factors Affecting the Flocculation of Bacteria by Chemical
Addi ti ves .
Biotechnology and Bioengineering . 11(2):127-138. March 1969.
Key Words: Escherichia coli , chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Pure bacterial cultures can be flocculated by a variety
of chemical flocculants. Flocculation of bacteria will
assist in their recovery, especially where the cells
themselves are of interest, as in microbial protein
production. Studies with several genera of bacteria
indicate that the mechanism of flocculation is highly
complex. Such interacting variables as temperature,
ionic environment, physiological age, flocculant, bac-
terial genus, and surface shear have been observed. Jar
test experiments with washed cells indicate that many
of the variables are related to the release by the cell
of proteins, nucleic acids, or polysaccharides. When
released, these polymers may increase the required dosage
of flocculant for recovery as in the case of JE. coli,
or the dosage may decrease as it does for lactobacil1 us.
61
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McGuire, J.H., A.L. Alford, and M.H. Carter.
Organic Pollutant Identification Utilizing Mass Spectrometry.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Southeast Environmental
Research Laboratory, Athens, Ga., July 1973. 51p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-224 544).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
A system has been developed for the rapid Identification
of volatile organic water pollutants. It involves com-
puter controlled gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
with computerized matching of mass spectra. Application
of this system to the analysis of waste effluents re-
vealed a significant number of pollutants that were not
previously known to be present.
62
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McKee, G.D., L.P. Parn'sh, C.R. Hirth, K.M. Mackenthun, and
L.E. Keup.
Sediment-Water Nutrient Relationships. Part 1.
Water and Sewage Works. J_V7_(6) :20 3-206 . June 1970.
Key Words: phosphates, nitrates, surface water (marine),
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The bed of a water body must be considered an integral
part of the aquatic system. The role of sediments varies
with their composition, the amount of mixing with the
water, and biological transformations which occur between
the sediments and the water. Sediments may only serve
to support the water, or they may have a profound effect
on the quality of that water which comes into contact
with them.
In a lake which man has not polluted seriously, and
which has not received large amounts of land runoff,
the bed will resemble the soils of the surrounding
land. As man "civilized" an area by plowing fertilized
fields and discharging sewage and industrial wastes to
the water, the sediments assumed different characteris-
tics due to the materials that became a part of them.
Materials present in the sediments became more numerous,
the soil chemistry more complex, and biological popula-
tions became more numerous and complex. Sediments began
to reflect man's influence on the entire water system.
63
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McKee, G.D., L.P. Parrlsh, C.R. Hirth, K.M. Mackenthun, and
L.E. Ketip.
Sediment-Water Nutrient Relationships. Part 2.
Water and Sewage Works. H7(7):246-249. July 1970.
Key Words: phosphates, nitrates, surface water (marine),
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This is a good review on the role of sediments in
water quality.
64
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McKee, J.E., C.J. Brokaw, and R.T. Mclaughlin.
Chemical and Colicidal Effects of Halogens in Sewage.
JWPCF. 3^(8):795-819. August 1960.
Key Words: ch1orination, disinfection.
Abstract:
This article is a good general discussion on the
chemistry of chlorine, bromine, and iodine in
water, including a discussion of residuals.
65
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McKendrick, J., G.R. Bates, and E.R. Swart.
The Physico-Chemical Treatment of Crude Sewage.
Water Pollution Control . 74.(2) :155-159. 1975.
Key Words: chlorides, ammonia, BOD, COD, nitrates, phos-
phates, chemical treatment, filtration, nitrifica-
tion/dentrification, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Results of a physical-chemical treatment pilot plant
study are given in terms of removal efficiencies for
general parameters.
66
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McLaren, R.G. and D.V. Crawford.
The Fractionatlon of Copper in Soils.
Journal of Soil Science. 2£:172-181. February 1973.
Key Words: copper, direct contact, groundwater.
Abstract:
A method for fractionating soil copper was developed
and applied to 24 soils representing a range of British
soil types.
The scheme distinguishes five fractions:
(a
b
c
d
soil solution and exchangeable copper;
copper weakly bound to specific sites;
organically bound copper;
copper occluded by oxide material; and
residual copper mainly in clay lattice structures.
Correlation and regression analyses confirmed the
general validity of the scheme and indicated an associa-
tion between free manganese oxides and copper which con-
siderably influences the distribution of copper between
the main soil constituents. It is suggested that the
concentration of copper in the soil solution is controlled
by equilibria involving specifically adsorbed copper and
that the bulk of the available soil copper reserves re-
side in the organically bound fraction.
67
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McLean, D.
Sewage Irrigation Health Benefit or Hazard?
Annals of Internal Medicine. 82_( 1): 112-113 . January 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
The previous month's editorial by Stewart Udall and
Jeff Stansbury urged wider use of sewage irrigation
to reduce disposal costs and conserve plant nutrients
and water.
This editorial article looks at possible microbiologic
risks .
68
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McLean, D.M.
Transmission of Viral Infections by Recreational Water.
In: Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route. G. Berg, ed.
Wiley, New York, 1965. pp. 25-35.
Key Words: viruses, polio virus, drinking and recreational
water.
Abstract:
Prolonged persistence of a representative test virus,
the attenuated Sabin strain of poliovirus 2, in natural
waters in the absence of agitation, but its rapid dilu-
tion to non-infective levels in moving water, together
with an accelerated loss of infectivity in swimming
pool water which contained halogens, illustrate clearly
the significance both of dilution and virucidal agents
in minimizing the importance of recreational waters as
sources of viral infection for bathers.
Although no virus has yet been isolated from numerous
grab samples of water collected from lakes and creeks used
for recreational purposes in southern Ontario between
1962 and 1964, most collection points we.re remote from
sewer outfalls or other continuous sources of viral
when a prevailing westerly wind pro-
effluent towards a bathing beach along
a sewage treatment plant located 1 mile
of coliform indices, no
or
pollution. Even
moted the flow of
Lake Ontario from
distant, as shown by increase
virus was isolated from these water samples, possibly
on account of the vast dilution factor in lake water.
However, enteroviruses or reoviruses were isolated from
swabs immersed in terminal branches of the Upper Illinois
River near Chicago during the summer of 1962, on 6 of 37
occasions at points 1 mile upstream from sewage treatment
plants, and on 13 of 34 occasions at points 1 mile below
the sewer outfall. Sewage effluents from these three
activated sludge treatment plants yielded viruses on
23 of 44 occasions. The absence of continuous dilution
of sewage effluent in these stagnant river branches, as
shown by the isolation of viruses upstream and down-
stream of the sewer outfalls, permitted the accumulation
of enteric viruses throughout summer, in contradistinction
to Lake Ontario in the vicinity of a sewage treatment
plant. The prevalence of enteroviruses in activated
sludge effluent from a Santee, California, sewage treat-
ment plant between March and December 1962, declined from
100 to 22% following holding in an oxidation pond for
an average duration of 30 days. A further decline to a
10% rate of virus isolation was found after treatment of
effluent from the oxidation pond with 15 mg/liter of
69
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chlorine for 30 min, and no viruses were detected in
water which entered a lake used for recreational purposes
after the chlorinated effluent had percolated through
natural sand and gravel 10 to 12 ft thick. Although
97.7% of 43 activated sludge effluents and 100% of in-
fluents yielded virus, reduction of plaque counts by
76 to 90% in effluents suggest that a substantial
degree of viral inactivation has occurred during sludge
treatment. These results demonstrate the desirability
of treating sewage by a sequence of holding in an oxi-
dation pond, treatment with chlorine and percolation
through sand before the effluent is released into natural
bodies of water.
The association of swimming pools with human infections
by adenovirus 3 was first demonstrated in Washington, D.C
during summer 1954, and subsequently in Toronto during
1955. The outbreak of febrile vesicular exanthem among
27 families living in a Toronto suburb during the summer
1957 was probably facilitated by the extensive use of
backyard swimming pools by children. Maintenance of
adequate levels of chlorine or other halogens as dis-
infectants in both public and private swimming pools,
the rare occasions on which viruses have been isolated
from Toronto swimming pools and the absence of reports
of pharyngoconjunctival fever or other illnesses follow-
ing use of swimming pools within recent years, confirm
experimental findings reported above that halogens to-
gether with adequate water circulation are satisfactory
mechanisms for removal of viral infection hazards from
swimming pools.
70
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McLean, D.M. and J.R. Brown.
Marine and Freshwater Virus Dispersal.
Canadian Journal of Public Health. 5^(3):100-104. 1968.
Key Words: viruses, polio virus, drinking and recreational water
Abstract:
Sabin poliovirus 2 persisted at undiminished titre in
freshwater for 12 days at 4°C, but the infectivity
declined one hundred fold in seawater over this period
at 4°C, and was undetected after being held in seawater
for 5 days at 25°C.
Virus infectivity persisted at beaches and in open water
for 5 to 10 minutes both in seawater and freshwater.
Virus was recovered after 65 feet of lateral drift at a
freshwater beach, and after 25 feet of drift at a sea
beach. Virus dispersal was relatively unaffected by
wave actions.
Virus inactivation occurred in the presence of adequate
mixing following addition of high residuals of free
chlorine to creeks which were loaded with virus pulses.
71
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McLean, D.M., J.R. Brown, and R. Laak.
Virus Dispersal by Water.
JAWWA. 58.(7):920-928. July 1966.
Key Words: hepatitis virus, viruses, polio virus, coxsackie
virus, surface water (fresh), activated sludge,
chlorination.
Abstract:
The progressive decline of virus titer in creek water
at points downstream from the sites of addition of
attenuated poliovirus-2 to three creeks, and the length-
ened duration of detection of virus following its addi-
tion continuously in contrast to pulses, indicate that
the flow of water exerts a sustained dilution action,
thereby reducing the potentials of these creeks as hazards
of infection; however, continuous addition of virus over
a prolonged period, for-example infectious hepatitis
virus in unchlorlnated sewage effluent, into a slowly
moving river increased the hazard of infection to such
an extent that six of nineteen subjects at Bathurst,
Australia contracted infectious hepatitis after drinking
river water contaminated by sewage. Similarly, slowing
of water movement to stagnation point 1n the upper
Illinois River near Chicago, permitted the accumulation
of enterovlruses both upstream and downstream from sewer
outfalls.
The relatively prolonged persistence of attenuated
po!1ov1rus-3 1n an aeration tank up to 6 days following
addition of a virus pulse to a tank with continuous
flow operation, and the slow decline of Infective tlters
during this period 1n the current experiment contrast
with the virtually complete 1nactivat1on of Coxsackie
virus A9 some 6 hr after addition to activated sludge
1n a stationary aeration tank. When Coxsackie virus A9
and pollovlrus were added continuously during a period
of 48 hr to a bench model activated sludge unit the
1nfectiv1ty of the effluent was reduced by 96.1 to 99.4
percent and 79 to 94 percent for the two viruses, res-
pectively. Despite this reduction of Infective titer,
substantial concentrations of virus remained in the
effluent. Furthermore, Coxsackie virus A13 was recovered
repeatedly from effluent following aeration treatment.
Similarly at the Santee, California, sewage treatment
plant, activated sludge treatment failed to remove en-
teroviruses present in city sewage, although the infec-
tive titers of viruses in the effluent were 76-90 percent
lower than those in the influent.
72
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Filtration of activated sludge effluent through sand
effected a greater reduction of Coxsackie virus A13
infectivity than passage through a trickling filter,
but chlorination of filtrates with a residual of 0.5 ppm
for a contact time of 8 hr was required to inactivate
virus completely. The present results showed that
poliovirus-3 was not eliminated by filtration through
columns of sand or soil, but the slow diminution of virus
titers in successive daily samples of effluent appeared
to result mainly from dilution together with continuous
flowing of liquid through the columns.
73
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McLellon, M., T.M. Kunath, and C. Chao.
Coagulation of Colloidal- and Solution-Phase Impurities in
Trickling Filter Effluents.
JWPCF. 44(1):77-91. January 1972.
Key Words: COD, bacteria, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phos-
phates, trickling filter, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The results of this research investigation demonstrate
that chemical coagulation with salts of Fe^+ and A13+
can complement and substantially enhance the treatment
efficiencies of existing wastewater treatment facilities.
In this manner secondary wastewater treatment plants can
be upgraded to the extent that the water quality standards
applicable to the receiving waters can be maintained with
minimal expenditures of capital. Further, because coagu-
lation is a process of high operating and low capital
costs and because it can be placed on line instantaneously
and can be controlled easily, it is particularly suited
for application to certain wastewater treatment facilities
that require high levels of treatment during occasional
critical periods during which water quality standards can-
not generally be met.
74
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McMlchael, F.C. and J.E. McKee.
Wastewater Reclamation at Whittier Narrows, California.
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, September 1965, 116p,
Key Words: activated sludge, groundwater, effluent
character!sti cs.
Abstract:
The general objective of this study was to determine the
effects of intermittent percolation through soil of
highly treated activated sludge effluent on the quality
of groundwater in the Whittier Narrows area. The project
was designed to study the fate of significant mineral,
organic, and biological constituents of renovated waste-
water and the phenomena associated with their removal
or transformation.
75
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Mearns, A.J. and M. J. Sherwood.
Environmental Aspects of Fin Erosion and Tumors in Southern
California Dover Sole.
Transactions of American Fisheries Society. 103(4):799-810.
October 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, synthetic/organics, fish,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Between 1969 and 1972, a number of Dover sole (Mi cro-
s torn us pacific us Lockington) with eroded fins and skin
tumors were collected in a series of trawls off the
coast of southern California. Field and laboratory
observations suggest that the two diseases were distinct
syndromes operating at different growth stages in the
life cycle of the Dover sole.
Specimens with fin erosion were concentrated in the
vicinity of the major municipal wastewater discharge
site in the southern California area. Histological
observations showed the disease to be external in nature:
The distribution of the diseased fish and the patterns
of erosion of the various fins suggest that the disease
was brought on by contact with the sediments around the
wastewater outfal1.
Tumor-bearing specimens were more evenly distributed
throughout the southern California coastal waters, and
the presence of the anomaly appeared to be a function
of fish size (usually occurring in specimens of less
than 150 mm standard length). The spatial and temporal
distributions of tumor-bearing Dover sole suggest that
initiation of the disease was not related to wastewater
discharges.
76
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Mearns, A.O. and M.J. Sherwood.
Ocean Wastewater Discharge and Tumors in a Southern California
Flatfish.
Presented at the Conference of the International Union Against
Cancer, Cork, Ireland. October 15-17, 1974.
Key Words: copper, DDT, surface water (marine).
Abs tract:
Based on the data collected, it is believed that
the Dover sole skin tumor disease is not enhanced by
the discharge of municipal waste in southern California
and would not be reduced in overall incidence by pro-
jected improvements in waste treatment unless such changes
affected the survival or recruitment of juvenile Dover
sole. However, the disease may be associated with a
very specific yet widely distributed agent that may
or may not be related to wastes produced by industrial
development. It is believed that changes in waste
treatment will affect the distribution of Dover sole
with fin erosion, and that this disease, on a local
scale, may be a most important sign of environmental
damage.
A comprehensive field program is an important part of
any disease study, and sampling programs should be
designed with the population characteristics of the
affected species in mind: Sampling method, net mesh
size, season, and depth range are important considera-
tions in providing data for comparing different areas
and for discovering correlations with potential causative
agents.
77
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Melnlck, J.L., V. Renm'ck, B. Hampile, N.J. Schmidt, and H.H. Ho
Lyophilized Combination Pools of Enterovirus Equine
Antisera: Preparation and Test Procedures for the
Identification of Field Strains of 42 Enteroviruses.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization. ,48.:263-268. 1973.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This paper describes the preparation of 8 dried pools
(designated A to H) of sera. Each pool is composed
of 10 or 11 of 42 individual enterovirus equine sera
and contains 500 antibody units of each serum component
per 0.1 ml. Procedures for using the anti-serum pools
are given, and guidance is provided for interpreting
the results of serum neutralization tests in identifying
field isolates.
78
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Mennell, M., D.T. Merrill, and R.M. Jorden.
Treatment of Primary Effluent by Lime Precipitation and Dissolved
Air Flotation .
JWPCF. 46.(11) :2472-2485. November 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, COD, phosphates, coliforms,
chemical treatment, air flotation thickeners.
Abs tract:
This continuous flow, bench-scale, pilot-plant investigation
has shown the feasibility of treating primary wastewater
effluent by lime precipitation and dissolved air flotation.
Lime reaction, f 1 occulati on , and flotation operating
parameters have been studied.
79
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Mercado-Burgos, N., R.C.Hoehn, and R,B , Hoi 1iman.
Effect of Halogens and Ozone on Schistosoma Ova.
JWPCF. 47(10) :2411-2419. October 1975.
Key Words: parasitic worms, ozonation.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. Chlorine is approximately 4 to 7 times more
effective than bromine or iodine (on a concentration
basis) against Schistgsoma mans on i ova in wastewater.
Average residuals of 1.35 mg/1 after 30 min contact
were 100 percent effective. For 5 and 15 min, effective
average residuals were 3.29 and 1.78 mg/1.
2. While iodine is a less effective schistosome
ovicide than bromine on a residual milligram per liter
basis, it is more effective in terms of dose applied,
probably because free bromine is lost easily from solu-
tion.
3. Chloramines are effective against schistosome ova
in water at approximately the same concentrations ob-
served to be lethal to ova 1n secondary treated waste-
water effluents. Thus, chloramlnes, and not toxic or-
ganlcs, seem to be the lethal agents.
4. The ozone demand of wastewater makes disinfection
of schistosome ova by ozone difficult. Dosages to
25 mg/1 were ineffective. In one test at 40 mg/1,
100 percent kill was observed, but no replicates were
conducted to verify this dosage. In no test 1n waste-
water was there a residual 5 m1n after dosing; however,
the physical aspects of the ozonation apparatus were
partially responsible. Also, ozone does not form resid-
ual complexes with organics as the halogens do.
5. In dechlorinated tap water, ozone dosages of 15 mg/1
were ineffective against schistosome ova In two tests
1n which the residual concentrations 5 min after dosing
were 0.09 mg/1. In a third test at the same dosage,
100 percent kill was observed when the residual was
0.13 mg/1. More research is needed to determine whether
the breakpoint for ozone toxicity is between 0.09 and
0.13 mg/1.
80
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Mercer, B.W., L.L. Ames, C.J. Touhill, W.J. VanSlyke, and R.B. Dean
Ammonia Removal from Secondary Effluents by Selective Ion
Exchange.
JWPCF. _42(2):R95-R107. February 1970.
Key Words: ammonia, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The removal of ammonia from secondary effluent was demon-
strated successfully on a laboratory and pilot scale with
a selective ion exchange process. The significant results
of this program are:
1. Greater than 99-percent ammonia removal was demonstrated
in the laboratory with 2 zeolite columns in series and
clarified secondary effluent containing 10 to 19 mg/1
ammonia nitrogen. From 200 to 300 column volumes of
secondary effluent normally can be processed to full
column loading.
2, Laboratory elution studies show that regeneration can
be accomplished with about 20 column volumes of recycled
regenerant containing lime applied at the rate of 10
column volumes per hour. More than 95 percent of the
available ammonia capacity was restored with this treat-
ment. The presence of sodium ion in the recycled regener-
ant minimizes the volume of regenerant required for elution
of the ammonia.
3. No liquid regenerant waste is produced since the spent
regenerant is air-stripped to remove ammonia and reused
after the addition of more lime. The ammonia is exhausted
harmlessly to the atmosphere from the air stripper.
4. Residual alkalinity in a freshly regenerated elinopti-
lolite bed causes some ammonia leakage during the initial
part of the loading cycle. Backwashing with ammonia-free
water, i.e., product water from the elinoptilote beds in
service, is recommended for removing the residual alkalinity.
5. An average ammonia removal of 97 percent was attained
for two 500-gal (1,893-1) elinoptilolite columns in the
mobile demonstration plant with clarified secondary efflu-
ent containing 16 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen. The flow rate was
6.0 gpm/sq ft (244.2 1/min/sq m) for a total of 70,000 gpd
(265,000 I/day).
6. An average ammonia removal of 93 percent was attained
for two 330-gal (1,250-1) elinopti1olite columns with
81
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secondary effluent containing 15 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen.
Although the secondary effluent was simply filtered throuah
a multimedia filter without chemical coagulation, no
zeolite bed plugging problems were encountered with this
feed. The flow rate was 8.4 gpm/sq ft (341.9 1/min/sq m)
for a total of 100,000 gpd (379,000 I/day). Laboratory
studies indicated fouling of the zeolite with unclarified
secondary effluent.
7. Elution of ammonia from the mobile demonstration
ion-exchange columns with recycled regenerant was quite
effective; however, regeneration time was longer than
anticipated because of low stripping efficiency. Optimum
air-liquid contact apparently was not attained in the
air-stripping tower.
82
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Merrell, 0 .C . and .A. Katko.
Reclaimed Wastewater for Santee Recreational Lakes.
JWPCF. 3_8(8) .-1310-1318. August 1966.
Key Words: chlorides, boron, phosphates, BOD, COD, fecal
streptococci, coliforms, activated sludge,
drinking and recreational water, effluent
character is ti cs .
Abstract:
Treatment effectiveness of both the conventional
treatment plant and the additional processes has been
summarized. The treatment plant operates within the
80-90 percent range of efficiencies. The intermittent
sand filtration process that was required for obtaining
approval for recreation has proved to b.e the barrier
that has effectively increased removals of organics
and nutrients to the 98-99 percent range. This has
made possible a lake environment suitable for multiple
recreational uses. The 7 Ib/day (3.2 kg/day) of nitro-
gen that has entered Lake 4 amounts to a concentration
of from 2 to 3 mg/1. The lowest levels of all residual
materials have been obtained for waters moving the
greatest distance underground.
83
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Merrel1 , J.C. and P.C. Ward.
Virus Control at the Santee, California Project.
JAWWA. 61(2):145-153. February 1968.
Key Words: viruses, drinking and recreational water,
activated sludge, chlori nation.
Abstract:
Removal of virus contamination in the reclaimed waste-
water at Santee was accomplished because of a non-
bypassable complete system of treatment. Evaluation of
water safety required collection of numerous samples
for virus identification and an exceptional degree of
experience and training in virological laboratory procedures
It is likely that similar treatment effectiveness can be
obtained elsewhere under the same high degree of treatment.
Virus monitoring of this degree of effectiveness will
never be routine and it does appear that viruses are
neither a convenient nor a suitable indicator of sanitary
quality. Although the cost of laboratory equipment is
not excessive, the staff expertise and time-consuming work
involved for proving a negative result or typing a positive
isolation are prohibitive as routine practice. The total
laboratory cost per sample at the Santee Project was in
excess of $200. The science of virology is, however, a
reliable tool, and it is suggested that the next step in
the control of viruses in wastewater be quantisation
and the development of relations between the identifiable
viruses and their infectivity via the water route.
84
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Merten, U. and D.T. Bray.
Reverse Osmosis for Water Reclamation.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1966(3) :315-331.
Key Words: ammonia, total dissolved solids, chlorides,
phosphates, COD, iron, reverse osmosis.
Abstract:
Experience to date indicates that the reverse osmosis
approach to wastewater reclamation can yield reclaimed
water of rather high quality and that highly selective
membranes operating in a thoroughly treated secondary
effluent have quite stable flow characteristics for
periods of at least 1,500 hr. There is also some evi-
dence that the problems of using less selective but
more permeable membranes and of operating with less
highly treated effluents, are solvable. Longer-term
experiments in pilot-plant-scale equipment now are
required to define the potentialities of the process.
85
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Metcalf, R.L., K.A. Reinbold, J.R. Sanborn, W.F. Childers,
and W.N. Bruce.
Comparative Biochemistry, Blodegradabll 1 ty and Toxldty of
DDT and Carbofuran Analogues.
University of Illinois, Urbana, Water Resources Center,
December 1974. 51p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-239 252).
Key Words: DDT, surface water (fresh), livestock.
Abstract:
The aquatic persistence, toxlclty, and blodegradablU ty
of DDT, methoxychlor, and 28 analogues were evaluated
using the green sunflsh Lepomls cyanellus. Study of DDT
analogues with degradophores located 1n aryl or alkyl
moieties of the DDT-type molecule showed that the toxiclty
to and persistence of these compounds 1n the green sun-
fish 1s correlated with the environmental temperature
of exposure and ability of multi-function oxidase enzymes
of the fish to attack specific chemical groupings on
various parts of the molecule. The green sunflsh can
readily oxidize alkyl and methylthio groups of the aryl
portion of the molecule to water partitioning moieties
but alkoxy groups are not as readily attacked. Per-
sistent and highly insecticide! DDT molecules can be
developed which have greatly reduced toxicity to fish.
The biochemical role of the multi-function oxidase en-
zymes 1n biodegradation of pesticides in the green sun-
fish was explored in detail.
86
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Metcalf, R.L.,G.M. Booth, C.K. Schuth, D.J. Hansen, and P. Lu.
Uptake and Fate of Di-2-ethylhexy1 Phthalate in Aquatic
Organisms and in a Model Ecosystem.
Environmental Health Perspectives. Jr27-33. June 1973.
Key Words: syntheti c/organics, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The experiments reported in this article demonstrate
that DEHP is a microchemical environmental pollutant
which is rapidly biomagnified by a variety of plants
and animals in an aquatic system. DEHP is biodegraded
very slowly in algae, daphnia mosquito larvae, snails,
and clams and more rapidly in fish by hydrolysis at
the ester bonds to form monoethylhexy1 phthalate,
phthalic acid, phthalic anhydride, and a variety of polar
metabolites and conjugates. However, DEHP closely re-
sembles DDT in rate of uptake and storage, and it ob-
viously partitions strongly in the lipids of plants and
animals and is concentrated through food chains. The
biomagnifi cation of DEHP together with its teratogenic
properties ana its enormous rate of production and
ubiquitous use indicate the need for much further study
of its environmental distribution and fate. Present
data suggest the need for restrictions on the use and
waste disposal of DEHP.
87
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Metcalf, T.G.
Evaluation of Shellfish Sanitary Quality by Indicators of
Sewage Pollution.
To be presented at International Symposium on Discharge of
Sewage from Sea Outfalls, London, August 1974.
Key Words: coliforms, shellfish, salmonella, viruses.
Abstract:
Microbiological evaluation of shellfish sanitary quality
has been regarded in some quarters as an imperfect art
executed in an imperfect way. The use of a fecal coli-
form index for detection of fecal pollution is central
to any discussion on microbiological aspects of shell-
fish sanitation. The studies described focused on exten-
sive field examinations of the usefulness of fecal coli-
form indices as a measure of the presence of salmonellae
and viruses in shellfish. The fecal coliform index was
found to provide useful information when the fecal pollu-
tion measured was moderate to excessive. Correlation
between coli form-indi cated sanitary status and the actual
status determined by direct examination was quite good.
Inadequacies of the index were detected increasingly
with declining levels of pollution. Correlation between
indicated and actual microbiological quality became erratic
in sea water at numbers less than 70 per 100 ml, or less
than 230 per 100 g in shellfish. An acceptable coliform
index of overlay water had little significance for the
actual microbiologic quality of oysters. The most pro-
nounced inadequacies occurred in the presence of enteric
vi ruses.
Study results offered a possible explanation for in-
accuracies of coliform indices at low incidences of
fecal pollution, and suggested remedial measures. Con-
tinual monitoring of water showed significant fluctua-
tions of coliform numbers to be possible at rapid inter-
vals. The probable irregular periodicity of pollutant
introduction into shellfish waters could only be detected
by continuous monitoring. Initiation of a continuous
monitoring policy would serve three important purposes.
It would permit recognition of fluctuating coliform num-
bers, provide a truer picture of microbiologic quality,
and might help to explain current inadequacies associated
with sanitary interpretations drawn from coliform indices.
88
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Metcalf, T.G. and W.C. Stiles.
Survival of Enteric Viruses in Estuary Waters and Shellfish.
In: Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route. G. Berg, ed.
Wiley, New York, 1965. pp. 439-447.
Key Words: coxsackie virus, polio virus, ECHO virus,
surface water (marine), shellfish, surface water
(fresh).
Abstract:
This study showed that survival of enteric viruses in
estuary waters is dependent on temperature, pollution
levels, and virus identity. The Coxsackie virus exhibited
the greatest survival capacity, the polioyirus exhibited
the least and the ECHO virus was intermediate. Comparisons,
of survival times with the results of others are not
feasible because of differences in technical details.
89
-------
Metcalf, T.G. and W.C. Stiles.
Viral Pollution of Shellfish in Estuary Waters.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE. 94(SA4):
595-609. August 1968.
Key Words: viruses, shellfish, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Transmission of human enteroviruses via water to shell-
fish was studied in a sewage-polluted estuary.
Municipal waste treatment plants including those chlor-
inating wastewater, regularly contributed enterovirus
to estuary waters. Data were obtained suggesting that
chlorination effectively lowered virus incidence, pro-
vided enough chlorine was used or adequate retention
time observed.
Widespread dissemination of enterovirus in estuary
waters was followed by widespread appearance of the same
virus types in shellfish. Examination of shellfish
and overlaying water was necessary to obtain a complete
picture of virus pollution. Enterovirus was removed
from oysters by depuration in estuary waters. Virus
retention was favored by high viral numbers and water
temperatures below 10°C.
Enterovirus was isolated from seawater and oysters
collected from seawater and meeting the recommended
standard of not over 70 coliform median MPN per 100 ml.
The finding of virus in seawater and shellfish, both
meeting recommended sanitary standards, was considered
evidence of the desirability of developing virologic
standards for the sanitary examination of shellfish.
90
-------
Metzler, D.F., R.L. Gulp, H.A. Stoltenberg, R.L. Woodword,
G. Walton, S.L. Chang, N.A. Clarke, C.M. Palmer, and P.M.
M iddleton.
Emergency Use of Reclaimed Water for Potable Supply at
Chanute, Kansas.
JAWWA. 50(8):1021-1057. August 1958.
Key Words: BOD, COD, chlorides, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites,
phosphates, Iron, manganese, trickling filters,
Influent characteristics, effluent characteristics
Abstract:
During the period of water reuse, the sewage treatment
plant removed, on the average, 86 percent of the BOD
and 76 percent of the chemical oxygen demand. It pro-
vided substantial reduction 1n both total and ammonia
nitrogen concentrations. Sewage treatment also reduced
alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) an average of 25 percent
and complex phosphates by 67 percent.
The Impounding reservoir served very effectively as a
waste stabilization pond. It reduced the applied BOD
and chemical oxygen demand loading by approximately
75 percent; the total and ammonia nitrogen concentra-
tions by more than 55 percent; and the ABS by more than
50 percent.
91
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Meyer, R.C., F.C. Hines, H.R. Isaacson, and T.D. Hinesly.
Porcine Enterovirus Survival and Anaerobic Sludge Digestion.
In: Livestock Waste Management and Abatement; Proceedings of
TFe International Symposium on Livestock Wastes. American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Michigan, 1971,
pp. 183-184.
Key Words: viruses, anaerobic-digestion.
Abstract:
This is a study of the fate of known enterovirus when
exposed to anaerobic digestion.
92
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Meyer, W.T.
Epidemic Giardiasis: A Continued Elusive Entity.
Rocky Mountain Medical Journal. _7p_:48-49. October 1973.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Giardiasis continues to be an elusive entity even in
endemic situations. Both acute and chronic forms
exist and controversy persists about the predilection
for certain age groups.
The problems that confront an epidemiologist in evalua-
tion of a possible giardiasis epidemic are multiple
and include (a) Variable incubation period from 1 week
to 4 weeks; (b) general lack of available valid endemic
prevalence rates; and (c) possibility of various modes
of transmission occurring simultaneously.
A common source, namely water, has generally been
implied but has rarely been validated. In this respect,
it seems reasonable to advocate routine monitoring of
water facilities in high-risk or endemic areas. A
method is advocated.
Compared to the vast amount of money expended on epi-
demic investigations which often turn out to be incon-
clusive, the additional expense of monitoring water
facilities is justified.
Colorado is recognized as already taking steps towards
proper surveillance of giardiasis and it is advised
that especially those states in the Rocky Mountain
regions of the United States take similar precaution-
ary steps.
93
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Meyers, J.D. and J.J. W1tte.
Outbreaks of Waterborne Disease 1n the United States, 1971-1972
Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1_29.(5) :614-61 6. May 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This article includes average annual number of waterborne
disease outbreaks in the U.S. for 1938-1972, waterborne
outbreaks by disease and type of water system in the
U.S. from 1971-1972, and waterborne outbreaks by type
of water system and cause in U.S. from 1971-1972.
94
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Meynell , G.G.
The Effect of Sudden Chilling on Escheri chia col i .
Journal of General Microbiology. lj9_:380-389. 1958.
Key Words: Escherichia coli, air.
Abstract:
As found by earlier workers, Escherichia coli, growing
in broth at 37° was rendered incapable of gross multipli-
cation either on nutrient agar or in nutrient broth
by sudden cooling in many diluents at 4°. Killing is
due to the joint action of a suitable diluent and of
sudden chilling, since survival was complete either
after sudden chilling in 0-8M-sucrose or after gradual
cooling in a potentially lethal diluent, such as Ringer's
solution. Organisms in the stationary phase of growth
were completely resistant. The susceptibility of grow-
ing organisms in sudden chilling changed rapidly during
the exponential phase. Comparison with the survival
after exposure to streptomycin, another bactericidal
agent which has no effect on stationary phase cultures,
showed that survival after chilling was not due to a
fraction of the population being in the stationary phase.
Sudden cooling of Escherichia coli, strain B, infected
with phage T2, had the same effect as ultrasonic dis-
ruption; namely, destruction of infective centres in
the first half of the latent period followed, in the
second half, by release of intracell ular mature phage.
95
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Michelsen, D.L.
The Removal of Soluble Mercury from Waste Water by Complexing
Techniques.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, 1973. 90p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-232 256).
Key Words: mercury, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Milk proteins, xanthates, modified rubber products,
and keratin in various forms can be used for the re-
moval of ionic mercury from water systems. In particu-
lar anionic and cationic ion exchange products made
from ground tire cord rubber compete very favorably
with classical ion exchange resins with regard to capa-
city, and rate of pick-up. Cow and pig hair selectively
remove ionic mercury and the performance with tannery
hair based on equilibrium capacity, rate of removal and
pressure drop was good. Regenerative studies of ionic
mercury from tannery hair with HC1 and NaCl were success-
ful, and a number of scale-up studies including economics
were completed to illustrate how tannery hair might be
used for the treatment of waste streams containing ionic
mercury.
96
-------
Microbiological Considerations in the Use of Sewage Sludge
for Agricultural Purposes.
East Bay Municipal Utility District Soil Enrichment Study,
Oakland, Calif., 1974. 68p.
Key Words: salmonella, shigella, protozoa, viruses, bacteria,
conforms, mycobacteriurn, parasitic worms,
Escherjchia coli, fecal streptococci, surface
water (marine), crops, livestock, agriculture.
Abstract:
This article gives a complete review of pathogenic
organisms associated with the use of wastewater and
sludge on agricultural crops, their numbers after
certain treatments, and pathways to man.
97
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Miller, 6.T.
Living in the Environment, Concepts, Problems, and Alternatives,
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, Ca. 1975. 578p.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is a textbook with contents Including man and
nature, concepts of ecology, population, resources
and population, and environment and society.
98
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Miller, R.H.
Microbiology of Sewage Sludge Disposal in Soil.
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster,
November 1974. 132p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-237 817).
Key Words: coliforms, fecal streptococci, nitrates, viruses,
land reclamation.
Abstract:
Laboratory studies were conducted to evaluate some of
the factors which influence the mtcroblal degradation
of anaerobically digested sewage sludge in soils and the
population of microorganisms involved in these processes.
Anaerobically digested sewage sludge was rather resistant
to decomposition with a maximum of about 20% of the sludge
carbon evolved as C02 In six months. The rate of decompo-
sition at the high loading rates of 90 and 224 metric tons/ha
of dry solids was found to be independent of differences
1n soil chemical properties. Differences in soil texture
influenced sludge decomposition indirectly by influencing
soil aeration under saturated moisture conditions. A
relationship was shown between the percent sludge carbon
evolved as CC>2 and monthly degree days which will provide
a method for predicting the amount of sludge decomposition
1n a given climatic area based on available temperature
data. Accumulation of soluble soil nitrogen and soluble
salts in sludge amended soils could limit the rate of
application sewage sludge to soils.
99
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Miller, R.H.
The Soil as a Biological Filter.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
tTfrough Forest and Cropland. E. Sopper and L. Kardos, eds.
EPA- 660/2-74-003. Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources,
March 1974. pp. 73-94. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-236 313).
Key Words: BOD, copper, zinc, synthetic/organics, DDT, aldrin,
dieldrin, herbicides, salmonella, shigella,
mycobacterium, Vibrio cholerae, hepatitis virus,
Adeno virus, coliforms, nitrates, phosphates,
iron, manganese, ponding/land application,
groundwater.
Abstract:
This paper reviews the various microbial reactions which
influence the success of soil as a filter for renovating
municipal wastewater and sludge. The majority of these
activities are beneficial, actually essential, for main-
taining the integrity and effectiveness of the soil fil-
ter. Only one reaction, nitrification, can be considered
detrimental to the success of the soil filter when the
disposal method maintains adequate soil aeration.
Prolonged periods of anaerobiosis must be avoided for the
proper functioning of the microbial component of the soil
filter. Proper management of land disposal systems for
liquid waste regardless of the mode of application must
provide for periods of adequate aeration. Failure to do
so will result in reduced decomposition of organic wastes,
odors, reduction and mobilization of Fe and Mn, changes in
the solubility of other inorganic ions, and inundation of
vegetative cover. In addition, anaerobic conditions in
the soil surface with microbial cells, polysaccharides ,
and ferrous and manganous sulfides which reduces water
i nfi1tration.
100
-------
Miller, R.H.
Soil Microbiological Aspects of Recycling Sewage Sludges and
Waste Effluents on Land.
In: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Lai
Proceedings of the Joint Conference, July 9-13, 1973
DD. 79-90.
Abstract:
The biological component of soil which includes bacteria,
actinomycetes, fungi, algae and soil micro- and macro-
animals makes significant contributions to waste recycling
by decomposing waste organic compounds; eliminating some
environmental toxins; eliminating pathogenic microorgan-
isms; involvement in the nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur
cycles; and by influencing the solubility and mobility
of inorganic ions in soil. Our present knowledge of
these microbial reactions is reviewed and used to em-
phasize significant areas of needed research.
101
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Miller, T.A. and S.A. Schaub.
Health Effects of Feeding Domestic Animals on Crops Harvested
from Land Wastewater Disposal Sites.
U.S. Army Medical Bioengineering Research and Development
Laboratory, Ft. Detrick, Md.4 1975.
Key Words: salmonella, parasitic worms, viruses, bacteria,
hepatitis virus, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
crops, livestock, agriculture.
Abstract:
There are a significant number of Environmental
Protection Agency, Department of Agriculture, and Food
and Drug Administration supported projects underway,
or about to be initiated, concerning health implications
of chemical and biological constituents in sludge/waste-
water applied to the land. Most of the current or plan-
ned studies involve investigations of raw or digested
sludge at sites where the sludge has been applied for
some time. Several studies involve feeding sludge
directly to animals, since foraging livestock, especially
cattle, may ingest considerable amounts of sludge and
soil along with the crops. Unfortunately, results and
conclusions from studies of sludges are not directly
comparable to results which might be obtained in studies
involving the use of wastewater.
The chemical constituents in digested sludges thought
to have the most impact upon animal and human health
are heavy metals (especially cadmium and lead) and pos-
sibly pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls and other
refractory organics. Digested sludge would have con-
siderably fewer pathogens/parasites than raw sludge, but
in both cases parasite eggs and cysts, and certain
resistant bacteria, such as mycobacterium or Bacillus
sp/Clostridi urn sp, could be a problem.
102
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Millette, E. D.
Adsorption of Phosphorus by Unsaturated Synthetic Soil.
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, Water Resources
Research Center, May 1974. 205p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 116).
Key Words: phosphates, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Various concentrations of potassium phosphate solution
were admitted to short soil columns in a reaction chamber
The phosphate solution contained a tracer which was
chemically the same as the main solute. After reaction,
the effluent was collected and the amounts of phosphate
removed determined. The removal was a function of the
soil water tension as well as the inlet concentration
of phosphorus and the relative presence of clay in the
soil. The higher the soil water tension, the higher
the inlet concentration and the greater the clay frac-
tion, the greater were the amounts of phosphate adsorbed
by the soil. Of the four adsorption equations examined,
the Langmuir and the Freundlich equilibrium adsorption
isotherms gave the best prediction of uptake. Portions
of the document are not fully legible.
103
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Miner, J.R., R.I. Lipper, L.R. Fina, and J.W. Funk.
Cattle Feedlot Runoff - Its Nature and Variation.
JWPCF. 38(10):1582-1591. October 1966.
Key Words: COD, ammonia, nitrites, suspended solids,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Runoff from cattle feedlots 1s a high-strength organic
waste produced during and Immediately after rainfall.
These studies Indicated that greatest pollutant concen-
trations are obtained during warm weather, during periods
of low rainfall Intensity, and when the manure has been
made soluble by soaking with water. Correlations were
developed to predict runoff oxygen demand and nitrogen
content based on these factors.
In addition, the following points were demonstrated:
(a) Feedlot runoff 1s a source of high concentrations
of bacteria normally considered as Indices of sanitary
quality, and (b) runoff from a concrete-surfaced lot
was more heavily polluted than that from a nonsurfaced
lot under similar conditions.
104
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Miner, J.R., L.R. F1na, and C. P1att.
Salmonella 1nfant1s 1n Cattle Feedlot Runoff.
Applied Microbiology, 15(3):627-628. May 1967.
Key Words: salmonella, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Ten isolates of Salmonella infantis (serologically typed)
were found in Utter and runoff collected from two experi-
mental feedlots near the Kansas State University campus.
Pathogenic Implications are discussed relative to recrea-
tion water sites. Agricultural runoff may be a source
of viable salmonellae.
105
-------
Mitchell, F.K.
Comparison of Primary and Secondary Treatment.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1974. pp. 163-165.
Key Words: arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel,
zinc, cyanides, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
This article gives good general data for comparison
of effluents from various municipal wastewater treatment
processes.
106
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Mitchell, F.K.
Properties of Ocean Sludge.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1974. pp. 159-162.
Key Words: cadmium, lead, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Dilution is an important factor in determining settling
velocity distributions in the ocean from an outfall.
Increased dilution results in suspensions with lower mean
settling velocities. Data shows a highly correlated
relationship between heavy metal concentrations and or-
ganic carbon concentrations.
107
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Mitchell, F.K. and D.J. McDermott.
Characteristics of Municipal Wastewater Discharges, 1974.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca.» June 1975. pp. 163-165.
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, COD, oil and grease, nitrates,
ammonia, phosphates, cyanide, synthetic/organics,
arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, mercury,
manganese, nickel, lead, selenium, zinc, DDT,
dieldrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons, effluent char-
acteristics .
Abstract:
This paper presents data from municipal wastewater
dischargers.
108
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Mitchell, F.K. and H.A. Schaffer.
Effects of Ocean Sludge Disposal.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 1975. pp. 153-162.
Key Words: suspended solids, COD, BOD, oil and grease,
ammonia, phosphates, c.admium, chromium, copper,
lead, nickel, zinc, mercury, chlorinated hydro-
carbons, DDT, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
More than 90 percent of the possible pollutants dis-
charged through the Hyperion 7-mile pipeline are associa-
ted with particulate matter, and the association of these
pollutants with the particulates is essentially un-
changed by mixing with seawater.
The transport of the discharged particulate matter is
predominantly downcanyon.
The current rate of discharge of particulate matter
represents 20 percent of the total (effluent plus
natural) particulate matter settling to the bottom in
the Santa Monica Submarine Canyon study area (69 sq km);
the effluent contribution of organic matter to the
bottom is twice the noneffluent organic input. Major
sediment quality alterations resulting from 15 years
of treatment plant sludge discharge are confined within
the canyon, are greatest nearest the discharge point,
and decrease very rapidly with distance.
The rate of decomposition of organic matter in the sedi-
ments is substantially greater than the rate of trace
metals mobilization.
A layer of (primarily) sludge particulates exists on
the canyon floor in the immediate vicinity of the out-
fall. This layer is approximately 25 cm deep and covers
an area of about 2 sq km. Comparison with 1971 data
indicates that this layer of sludge is not moving and
that surface sediment quality has not changed noticeably
between 1971 and 1974.
109
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Mitchell, R.
The Fate of Viruses in Relation to Deep Current Assimilation
of Sewage.
Report to the City of Miami Beach, Florida. 1975. 5p.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The City of Miami Beach is requesting permission from
EPA to inject its sewage into the Gulf Stream for deep
current assimilation. The author, an expert in the
area of virus inactivation in seawater, argues that this
is unlikely to present a health hazard.
110
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Mitchell, R. and C. Chamberlin.
Factors Influencing the Survival of Enteric Microorganisms
in the Sea: an Overview.
To be presented at International Symposium on Discharge of
Sewage from Sea Outfalls, London, August 30, 1974.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Based on the extensive laboratory and field studies
that have been carried out over the past several decades,
it has been possible to develop a mathematical and con-
ceptual framework for interpreting and comparing experi-
mental results on the die-off of bacteria in the sea.
The work presented in this Symposium and elsewhere
attests both to the scope and to the detail of the
multi-disciplinary effort in this field that ranges
from concern with viral inactivation to hydrodynamic
modelling. Drawing upon these diverse areas, it has
seemed possible to deduce the potential significance
of various factors that have been investigated. It is
proposed that solar radiation, sedimentation, and nut-
rient-related effects account for the bulk of the ob-
served die-off. It is further proposed that this or
similar models might prove useful in outfall site
evaluation and more refined consideration of enteric
pathogen die-off in the sea.
Ill
-------
Mitchell , R. and J .C. Morris.
The Fate of Intestinal "Bacteria in the Sea.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1969. 811-817.
Key Words: bacteria. Escherichia coli, coliforms, surface
water (marine)"
Abstract:
It is clear from these studies that the native marine
microflora is intimately involved in the death of
intestinal bacteria in the sea and that the rate of
kill increases with increase of the marine microbial
population.
At least two groups of bacteria have been found to be
associated with the death of E_. cjoli in sea water.
One group, pseudomonas, causes death by enzymatically
lysing the cell walls of the intestinal bacteria. A
second group, bellovibrio is parasitic and acts by
actively parasitizing the coliforms and using the whole
cell as a carbon source. Nematodes also prey on intes-
tinal bacteria. The effect of algae and protozoa has yet
to be Investigated. The relative importance of each
of these groups of organisms in particular situations
or under typical conditions has yet to be determined.
It appears likely that the absolute and relative sig-
nificance of each group will vary temporally and geo-
graphically, depending on the particular ecological
situation. The lethal effects of marine environments
on intermixed sewage bacteria must then be studied in
terms of prevalent local conditions rather than as a
universally uniform phenomenon.
The application of these biological parameters to the
death of intestinal microorganisms in non-marine aquatic
systems and in sewage treatment remains to be determined.
However, there is reason to believe that the ecological
principles which apply in the sea, equally apply in
other environments.
112
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Mitchell, R. and S. Yankofsky.
Implication of a Marine Ameba 1n the Decline of Escherichia
coll 1n Seawater.
Environmental Science and Technology. 3^:574-576. June 1969.
Key Words: Escherichla coli, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The decline of Es cheri chi a col i in seawater paralleled
an increase in a specific mi crobial population capable
of causing lysis of the intestinal bacteria. This popu-
lation Included a large number of marine amebae which
were incapable of growing on artificial media. Pure
cultures of the ameba were obtained and the organism was
identified as Vexillifera telmathalassa. Addition of
the ameba to sterile natural sea water together with
E. coll resulted in a rapid km of the intestinal
Facterf urn. The importance of the marine microflora 1n
the decline of intestinal bacteria in the sea is dis-
cussed.
A previous study has shown that the fate of Escherichia
coli in sea water is linked to the activities of the
marine microflora. That study showed that marine
bacteria capable of lysing £. coli cell walls and other
lytic microorganisms were involved in the decline of
intestinal bacteria in sea water.
In the current study, marine amebae are also shown to be
involved in the decline of this intestinal bacterium
in natural sea water. The ameba vexillifera apparently
is indigenous to the sea and is rapidly enriched in the
presence of high concentrations of £. coli. The fact
that this organism seems to feed exclusively on living
bacteria, and the small size of the native marine micro-
bial population, would explain the rapid response of the
ameba population to inoculation of E. coli.
113
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Mitchell, R., S. Yankofsky, and H.W. Jannasch.
Lysis of Escheri chi a coli by Marine Microorganisms.
Nature. 215_(5103) :891-893. August 19, 1967.
Key Words: Escherichia coli . surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The fact that the lethal effect of seawater on £. co1i
increases (a) with increasing population size, as
determined on a peptone-yeast extract agar, and (b)
with an increasing number of lytic bacteria on inocula-
tion with IE. col i supports the assumption that the in-
digenous microflora contributes significantly to this
effect. A more complex effect is suggested by the
results of studies on other qualities of seawater,
especially heavy concentration of metal and the presence
of algal toxins. It seems reasonable to assume that the
nature of the lethal effect of seawater on £. coli will
vary with seasonal and local changes of the environmental
condi tions.
114
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Miyazaki , S. and A.J. Thorsteinson.
Metabolism of DDT by Fresh Water Diatoms.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
8(2):81-83. August 1972.
Key Words: DDT, ODD, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Results of this article suggest that some species of
fresh water diatoms may be significant in the degrada-
tion of DDT to DDE.
115
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Mogilner, B.M., J.S. Freeman, Y. Blashar, and F.E. Pincus.
Reye's Syndrome in Three Israeli Children: Possible Relation-
ship to Warfarin Toxicity.
Israeli Journal of Medical Science. 10(9):1117-1125. 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Three cases of Reye's syndrome are reported in two
of which warfarin was considered to be of etiological
importance. The clinical and pathological features
of the syndrome are reviewed, and the etiology and path-
ogenesis discussed. An extreme acute stress response,
causing toxic levels of fatty acids, is the most plaus-
ible common denominator of the multiple factors prev-
iously implicated in the etiology of Reye's syndrome.
Warfarin is added to the list of factors predisposing
to or causing the extreme acute stress.
116
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Mohanrao, G.J., P.V.R. Subrahmanyam, S.B. Deshmukh, and S. Saroja.
Waste Treatment at a Synthetic Drug Factory in India.
JWPCF. £2(8):1530-1543. August 1970.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, combined municipal/industrial
systems.
Abstract:
1. Before the factory was put into operation, the work
on the treatment was started on simulated mixtures of
wastes prepared according to the composition given by the
factory authorities. Wastes from different blocks were
characterized from the sanitary engineering point of view.
2. Block 8, producing intermediates and discharging 307
cu m/day of waste, contributed about 50 percent of the
total waste. It contained appreciable quantities of
inorganic acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric, as
well as sulfanilic acid (the only organic constituent).
In view of the scope for recovering acids from Block 8 at
a future date, wastes from this block were segregated and
treated separately.
3. Wastes from Rest of Blocks (about 264 cu m/day) were
alkaline (pH = 9.3), exerted high BOD (15,250 mg/1) and
high COD (28,540 mg/1), and contained a large amount of
nitrogen (5,200 mg/1) but no phosphorus. Wastes from
All Blocks were very similar to that of Rest of Blocks
except for very low pH (9.8).
4. Treatment of Block 8 wastes consisted of neutraliza-
tion to pH 7.0 with 10 percent lime. As a result of this
treatment, 34 percent reduction in sulfanilic acid was
achieved. The filtration after lime neutralization is to
be discharged into sewers. Since sulfanilic acid is readily
biodegradable, the left-over sulfanilic acid will not have
an adverse effect on wastewater treatment when it is dis-
charged into sewers.
5. Chemical treatment for Rest of Blocks with coagulants
like alum, ferrous sulfate, and ferric chloride did not
show any material precipitation or clarification.
6. Biological treatment for Rest of Blocks was found to be
effective. Acclimatization studies carried out have shown
that the activated sludge process can efficiently treat 5
and 7 percent concentrations of the wastes from Rest of
Blocks on batch- and continuous-feeding bases, respectively.
117
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7. The amount of nitrogen 1n Rest of Blocks wastes was
more than that required for efficient aerobic biological
stabilization. On the other hand, phosphorus in any form
was absent. Phosphorus in the form of dipotassium hydro-
gen phosphate was supplemented to give BOD:P of 100:1.
The optimum phosphorus was calculated to be 0.84 kg P/100
kg BOD removed.
8. Studies on activated sludge acclimatized to waste from
Rest of Blocks were carried out.
a. BOD to MLVSS (F/MJ ratio of 0.29 was found to be
optimum and gave 90 percent BOD removal with an aeration
period of 8 hr.
b. Sludge-growth studies showed that, on the average,
0.56 kg of volatile solids was produced per kg of BOD
removed.
c. The average sludge volume index and sludge density
index were found to be 42 and 2.37, respectively. These
values are considered to be very good for activated sludge,
118
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M o j e , W .
Organic Soil Toxins,
I n: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas , 1973. pp. 533-569.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, ponding/land application, land
reclamation, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
It is now fairly well accepted that there are certain
substances in soils which, under certain conditions, can
be adverse to plant growth. The author discusses organic
compounds actually isolated and identified in soils, root
excretions, and crop residues which have been shown to
be toxic to plant growth, or which have been suggested
as causes of soil sickness or replant problems. These
compounds include acids, aldehydes, amino acids, coumarins,
and flucosides. The isolation and identification of
organic soil toxins is considered and the author concludes
that with the new techniques now available for identifying
trace amounts of organic substances in soils, it should
become increasingly feasible to assays soils with respect
to the presence or absence of detrimental (or beneficial)
organic components and to institute corrective measures.
119
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Molina, J.E., O.C. Braids, and T.D. Hinesly.
Observations on Bactericidal Properties of Digested Sewage Sludge.
Environmental Science and Technology. 6^(5) :448-450 . May 1972.
Key Words: bacteria, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
Liquid digested sewage sludge sampled directly from the
digester exhibited a thermostable bacteriotoxin. The
liquid phase of digested sludge rather than the solid
phase contained the toxic agent. Of a variety of pos-
sible sources of toxicity, proteins, parasitic relation-
ships, competition for nutrition, and antibiotics, were
ruled out. Escneri chi a coll. from stock culture had a
higher mortality rate after addition to sludge than E_.
coli isolated from sludge. Sludge-isolated _E. coli
lost their tolerance after several transfers in lactose
broth.
120
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Monk, G.W., P.A. McCaffrey, and M.S. Davis.
Studies on the Mechanism of Sorbed Water Killing of Bacteria.
Journal of Bacteriology. 7.3:661-665. 1957.
Key Words: bacteria, groimdwater.
Abstract:
The energy and entropy of activation for the killing of
Serratia rnarcescens by sorbed water compares more closely
to the values for endogenous respiration and growth than
to those for thermal killing. At the most lethal water
content of about 33 percent, the existence of measurable
endogenous respiration indicates that at least part of
the metabolic system is operative in the absence of only
small amounts of water. A simple explanation is offered
which assumes that a hygroscopic substance which is toxic
under these conditions is all in solution at 33 percent
water. In dryer cells less of this substance is in solu-
tion, and in wetter cells it is diluted and the cells can
resume a more normal metabolic balance.
121
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Monroe, D.W. and D.C. Phillips.
Chlorine Disinfection in Final Settling Basins.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
9_8(SA2) :287-297. April 1972.
Key Words: col i forms, chlori nation .
Abstract:
The findings of this study can be summarized as follows:
1. In general, the colicidal efficiency and residual
chlorine decreased as the suspended solids concentrations
of the samples increased.
2. The orthotolidine method for determining chlorine
residual was found to be an unreliable indicator when
used on trickling filter effluent, with chlorine re-
siduals of 5.0 mg/1 or less.
3. Chlorination of the settled filter effluent showed
better coliform disinfection than did chlorination of the
unsettled effluent. At a chlorine dosage of 1 mg/1,
coliform regrowth occurred in both the settled and the
unsettled samples after 2 hr of contact. The dosages
of 2, 4, 5, and 8 mg/1 all gave complete disinfection
(less than 0.001% coliforms remaining) in less than 3
hr contact. The difference in the coliform disinfection
rates of the settled and the unsettled samples decreased
as the chlorine dosage was increased. At dosages of
4 mg/1 and higher the difference in disinfection rates
became insignificant.
4. The colicidal efficiency obtained by chlorinating
settled effluent in a contact chamber was found to be
consistently higher than that obtained by chlorinating
unsettled effluent in a final settling tank. The dif-
ference was found to be small and ins.igni ficant at
chlorine dosages greater than 2 mg/1. At dosages of
2 mg/1 and lower, the concentration of coliforms in the
settling tank effluent was as much as 10 times higher
than the average concentration of coliforms in the con-
tact chamber effluent.
122
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Mood, E.W. and B. Moore.
Health Criteria for the Quality of Coastal Bathing Waters.
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1976. 39p.
Key Words: viruses, coliforms, bacteria, surface water (fresh).
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This article discusses health aspects of recreational
bathing and swimming and recommended guidelines for quality
of bathing waters.
123
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Moore, D.P.
Mechanisms of Micronutrlent Uptake by Plants.
I n; M1cronutrients 1n Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer, ed.
Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972.
pp. 171-198.
Key Words: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron,
ponding/land application, land reclamation,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Considerable controversy exists concerning the proposed
mechanisms of iron uptake by plants, and there is vol-
uminous literature supporting the various hypotheses.
The bulk of the data, however, support the idea that ion
transport in plants is an active metabolic process that
is highly selective. Recent evidence would seem to
favor the carrier theory of absorption over the Donnan
system or the electropotential gradient hypothesis, but
these three hypotheses are by no means mutually exclusive.
Various aspects of these hypotheses are experimentally
valid and any proposed mechanism of ion transport must
recognize these aspects.
The rather limited data available on micronutrient ab-
sorption suggest that the mechanism of their uptake is
similar to that for the macronutrients. There are im-
portant differences related to the quantity of the micro-
nutrients required by plants, but the relationship to
metabolism and the effect of concentration, pH, com-
peting ions, and inhibitors are basically similar. Al-
though the root is normally considered to be the absorb-
ing organ, absorption characteristics of other plant
tissues, including leaf tissue, suggest a common mechanism
for all cells.
124
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Moore, W.A., G.N. McDermott, M.A. Post, J.W. Mandia, and
M.B. Ettinger.
Effects of Chromium on the Activated Sludge Process.
JWPCF. 3_3(1) :54-72. January 1961.
Key Words: chromium, activated sludge.
Abs tract:
During the period when the biological chromate reduction
and removal system was operated the activated sludge
contained up to 18.4 percent chromium on a dry solids
basis. It is obvious that reduced chromium has little
or no toxicity to activated sludge. The digester operated
well with as much as 3.5 percent chromium in the solids.
Clearly, the total treatment system studied was resistant
to and tolerant of all but the most drastic stresses by
chromate.
125
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. .23(34). August 24, 1974,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
St. Louis Encephalitis in Tennessee and illness associated
with TCDD-contaminated soil in Missouri are discussed.
126
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2^(35). August 31, 1974
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
A follow-up discussion on cholera in Guam is presented.
127
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 23^(36). September 7, 1974
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Cholera in Portugal and Spain, and surveillance of
childhood lead poisoning are discussed.
128
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2^(12). March 22, 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This weekly report summarizes information received on
chloride and congenital malformations, an outbreak of
gastrointestinal illness at Crater Lake National Park,
a trichinosis outbreak in Illinois, and current trends
in primary and secondary syphilis.
vinyl
129
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. .24(29). July 19, 1915.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This weekly report discusses gastroenteritis on cruise
ships, nonhuman primate associated hepatitis in Pennsylvania
and quarantine measures.
130
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2^(46). November 15,
1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This issue discusses shigellosis in a church camp in
Montana.
131
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 24(51). December 20,
1975. ~
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Deaths due to asphyxiation at an animal waste products
rendering plant in Franklin County, Ohio, are discussed,
The drain pipe was clogged for 2-7 days. The deaths
were due to
H2S
CH», and CO.
132
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. £4(53). January 3, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This issue is an index of Volume 24, 1975.
133
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 25.0)- January 10, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
A follow-up article on increased lead absorption in Idaho
is presented.
134
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2Jj(8). February 28,
1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Salmonella typhimuriam in the Canary Islands, Finland,
and Germany, and ASL (Angios^orcoma of the Uver) in
Wisconsin due probably to occupational exposure are
discussed. (ASL is caused by the vinyl chloride monomer,
thorium dioxide, and arsenic).
135
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 25.(9). March 6, 1976
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Surveillance of childhood lead poisoning and botulism
in the U.S. in 1975 are discussed.
136
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2_5(10). March 19, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This issue presents a discussion of Leptospirosis in
Tennessee. Seven children swam in a local creek in the
month preceding the illness.
137
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 215(11). March 26, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Lead poisoning in Tennessee is discussed.
138
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2^(15). April 23, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Chlordane contamination of a municipal water system in
Tennessee is described.
139
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2^(11). May 7, 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Organic mercury exposure in Washington is discussed along
with cholera-like illness associated with an enterotoxigenic
strain of E. col i in Georgia.
140
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 25_(18). May 14, 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Surveillance of childhood lead poisoning in the U.S. and
recommendations for travelers to earthquake affected
areas in Italy are presented.
141
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. £5(23). June 18, 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
A report on an occupational lead poisoning at a Salt Lake
City (Utah) secondary lead smelter is presented, and
salmonella infections of United Kingdom in 1975 are
discussed.
142
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 25.(24). June 25, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This issue deals with the surveillance of childhood lead
poisoning.
143
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, NEW. 25_(25). July 2, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Clostridium perfringens in Wisconsin were isolated from
gravy which made a family of six ill.
144
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2^(27). July 16, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Cholera worldwide in 1975 is discussed.
145
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 215(29). July 30, 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
A discussion of diarrheal illness on a cruise ship caused
by exterotoxigenic £_._ col i is presented.
146
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. £5_(30). August 6, 1976
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Cigarette smoking in the U.S. in 1975 and St. Louis
Encephalitis are discussed.
147
-------
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 25.(31). August 13, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Diarrhea in bicyclers in Idaho and Montana was shown to
be due to fecal contaminated wells.
In 1974, 8 of 28 waterborne outbreaks occurred among
visitors to recreational areas.
148
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2_5.(32). August 20, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Follow-up on the American Legionaire disease is presented,
and salmonellosis caused by Cheddar cheese in Colorado
id discussed.
149
-------
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 2j[(33). August 27, 1976,
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Follow-up on the Legionaire disease is presented and
hazards of explosive azide are discussed.
Azide is used in automatic blood cell counters. After
the blood count procedure is completed, the waste
(containing azide) is commonly discharged into a drain,
thus bathing the drain pipeline with solutions of sodium
azide which eventually form copper, lead, or brass azides.
Lead azide is more explosive than nitroglycerine.
150
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 25(34). September 3,
1976. ~~
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Legionaire disease is followed up, and botulism in infants
is discussed.
151
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Morel, F.M.M..J.C. Westall, C.R. O'Mella, and J.J. Morgan.
Fate of Trace Metals in Los Angeles County Wastewater Discharge.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_(8) :756-761. August 1975.
Key Words: zinc, mercury, copper, cadmium, lead, chromium,
nickel, cobalt, manganese, surface Water (marine).
Abstract:
A chemical equilibrium model of the Los Angeles County
sewage 1s presented which accounts for the chemical
speciation of trace metals. Many metals are found in
very insoluble sulfide (Zn, Hg, Ag, Cu, Cd, Pb) or
oxide (Cr, Fe) forms, while some (Ni, Co, Mn) are rela-
tively soluble. A study of the oxidation and dilution
of the sewage by seawater demonstrates that most metals
tend to be solubilized upon disposal in the ocean and
that unmeasurable Increments in the natural metal con-
centrations should result 1n the farfield. It 1s argued
that the sewage particulate is not mobilized in the
vicinity of the outfall and that the nearby sediments are
a mixture of naturally occurring sediments and sewage
particulate. About 0.5% of the sewage particulate -
and Its metal content - can be accounted for in the re-
duced area.
152
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Morel, F., R.E. McDuff, and J.J. Morgan.
Interactions and Chemostasis in Aquatic Chemical Systems:
Role of pH, pE, Solubility, and Complexation.
In: Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interacti ons in Natural Waters.
P.C. Singer, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan , 1974. pp. 157-200.
Key Words: lead, copper, barium, cadmium, zinc, nickel,
mercury, lead, cobalt, aluminum, surface water
(fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
By systematic studies of chemical equilibrium models for
natural aqueous systems, we have found that the speciatlon
of the trace metal ions is usually simple: free ions,
solid carbonates, sulfides or hydroxides, chloride or
sulfate complexes, etc. Because the complexing or pre-
cipitating ligands are usually in large excess of the metals,
they mediate few important interactions (competition)
among those metals. A most notable exception to this
rule is observed under reducing conditions when a suf-
ficiently large iron concentration precipitates most of
the sulfide and keeps other trace metal ions from pre-
cipitating.
In ecological studies, general statements are often made
upon the relations between complexity and stability,
diversity and homeostasis, etc. In the far simpler chemi-
cal equilibrium systems we have dealt with, it is clear
that no such general statement can be made. To be mean-
ingful, the quantification of the concept of chemostasis,
for a given chemical system, has to be the complete matrix
of interaction intensities or equivalent quantities. To
say that a system is more or less chemostable than another
system is, thus, somewhat abusive. It is only in the case
where we are interested in the effect of a given change
on a given variable that the stability of two systems can
be simply compared.
153
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Morgan , J.J.
Physical-Chemical Forms of Chromium in Sewers, Treatment Works,
and Coastal Water Environments.
Personal Communication.
Key Words: chromium, influent characteristics, activated
sludge, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Discharge of sewage effluent into the coastal marine
environment, in addition to dilution, tends to: 1) solubilize
Cr(OH)3(s); 2) desorb adsorbed Cr(III) forms, and;
3) leave Cr(VI) largely unaffected.
154
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Morris, J.C.
Chlorination and Disinfection - State-of-the-Art.
JAWWA. 61(12):769-774. December 1971.
Key Words: viruses, ammonia, Chlorination, disinfection.
Abstract:
Any body of water regularly receiving input of municipal
or other human-waste waters should be regarded as sig-
nificantly contaminated with virus until it has had at
least 30 days of protected storage. The disinfecting
treatment for such raw waters therefore should be one
that will provide active viral inactivation.
Increasing problems with Chlorination, such as high
ammonia-N in the raw water and problems of viral inacti-
vation, together with recent engineering improvements
in ozonation, have suggested a growth of ozonation to
5 to 10 percent of water-supply undertakings within the
next decade or so.
The advantages of using ozone are its high germlddal
effectiveness, which is the greatest of all known sub-
stances, even against resistant organisms such as viruses
and cysts; its ability to ameliorate many problems of odor,
taste, and color in water supplies; and the fact that on
decomposition the only residual material 1s more DO. In
addition, its potency, like that of C102, is unaffected
by pH of ammonia content.
155
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Morris, J.C.
Formation of Halogenated Organics by Chlorination of Water
Supplies (A Review) .
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., Department of Sanitary
Chemistry, March 1975. 56p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-241 511).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination .
Abstract:
The finding of product haloforms as a result of the
chlorination of relatively unpolluted surface water
supplies poses a serious problem for agencies producing
domestic water supplies, for chlorination is the almost
universal procedure used to protect against the water-
borne transmission of infectious diseases. The problem
lies not so much in the production of the haloforms
themselves as it does in the possibility that other,
unknown, highly toxic or carcinogenic compounds may also
be produced simultaneously.
A careful review and assessment of available literature
relating to the formation of chlorinated organic com-
pounds under conditions prevailing in natural waters
leads to the conclusion that chlorination is not in-
discriminate, and so does not lead to the formation of
all sorts of chlorinated derivatives with any and all
organic pollutants. Rather it proceeds by a limited
number of well-defined reactions on a few specific types
of organic structures.
The identifiable initial reactions are electrophi1ic
aromatic substitution of positive chlorine and electro-
philic addition of positive chlorine to appropriately
activated double bonds. The former reaction, which pro-
duces malodorous ch 1 orophenol i c compounds in intermediate.
stages, leads ultimately to oxidative ring rupture. The
latter process leads to chloroform (and other haloforms
when bromide is present) as the end product.
Direct substitution reactions of aqueous chlorine leading
to the formation of exhaustively chlorinated hydrocarbons
are unknown and unlikely. The known mechanisms do not
lead to such exhaustively chlorinated products as carbon
tetrachloride or tetrachloroethylene.
Reduction in the concentration of chlorinated organic
compounds in finished municipal supplies can be achieved
either by pretreatment methods to remove organic pre-
cursors or by post-treatment with activated carbon.
156
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Morris, R.L., L.G. Johnson, and D.W. Ebert.
Pesticides and Heavy Metals in the Aquatic Environment.
Health Laboratory Science. 9_:145-151.' April 1972.
Key Words: DDT, DDE, dieldrin, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
Aldrin applied to row crops in Iowa is appearing as high
levels of dieldrin in edible tissue of catfish but not
in pan or predator fish. Research indicates that bottom
silts and associated food chain organisms aggregate these
pesticides carrying over from one year application period
to another. Correlation between high turbidity or soil
erosion and elevated muscle tissue dieldrin concentration
indicates the necessity of improved soil conservation
practi ces.
Methodology and concentrations of heavy metals in the
water, bottom silts and aquatic organisms are presented.
Selective fish species concentration of mercury con-
trasted to pesticide aggregation is discussed.
157
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Morris, R.L., A.J. Mearns, and J. K1m.
Viruses and Bacteria 1n Coastal Waters and Shellfish.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1976. pp. 97-104.
Key Words: viruses, coliforms, shellfish, surface water (marine)
Abstract:
Viruses can be detected 1n shellfish near outfalls and
appear to survive relatively longer In mussels than do
total coliforms. The majority of the mussel samples had
total-coliform-to-virus ratios, approximately 100 times
lower than the average ratio for primary effluent. The
relative time required for 90% of the viruses in seawater
to be inactivated was estimated to be 3 to 6 times as long
as that for total coliform.
158
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Morrison, S.M., K.L. Martin, and D.E. Humble.
Lime Disinfection of Sewage Bacteria at Low Temperature.
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, September 1973.
102p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-228 565).
Key Words: Escherichia coli, coliforms, bacteria, BOD,
phosphates .
Abstract:
This article discusses lime treatment of wastewater for
disinfection and nutrient removal.
159
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Mosey, F.E. and D.A. Hughes.
The Toxicity of Heavy Metal Ions to Anaerobic Digestion.
Water Pollution Control. 7±(l] : 18-39 . 1975.
Key Words: zinc, cadmium, iron, copper, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
The following results are discussed:
1. The silver/silver sulphide electrode has been shown
to be a reliable analytical tool for measuring pS values
2. A pS value greater than 14.0 in a digesting sludge
has been shown to indicate the presence of inhibitory
concentrations of the heavy metal ions Zn++, Cd++, Fe++,
Cu , or Cu++ provided that oxidizing agents are absent.
3. The neutralization of zinc toxicity by precipitation
of zinc as zinc carbonate requires a pH value of around
7.6.
4. The redox potential of healthy "balanced" digestion
has been confirmed to be -265 +_ 25 mV on Eh scale at pH
values between 7.0 and 7.2, becoming about 57 mV more
negative per unit increase in pH value.
5. Ferric ions have been shown to be reduced to ferrous
ions, and cupric ions to cuprous ions, during anaerobic
digesti on.
6. The toxicity of chromium added as a hexavalent salt
has been shown to be similar to that of the trivalent
salt.
160
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Mosley, J.W.
Transmission of Viral Diseases by Drinking Water.
In: Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route. G. Berg, ed.
Wiley, New York, 1965. pp. 5-»?3.
Key Words: hepatitis virus, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Infectious hepatitis is the only viral disease which is
known to be water-borne. Even though many water-borne
epidemics are undoubtedly unrecognized, transmission of
infectious hepatitis by drinking water appears to be a
relatively infrequent occurrence. To say this is not to
minimize its considerable importance from several stand-
points.
1. It can be a problem of substantial or even disastrous
magnitude. Good public health practices with regard to
water supplies must be maintained at all times. Changes
in natural conditions, faulty equipment, human negligence
or human error can all result in epidemics.
2. The potential threat of water-borne hepatitis makes it
necessary to consider the possible role of this route in
every cluster of cases. While many water-borne epidemics
end spontaneously, cases have sometimes continued until
the situation was recognized and remedial action taken.
3. Each water-borne epidemic provides the opportunity
to learn more about infectious hepatitis. Such epidemics
have already been helpful in gathering new information
about virus survival under natural conditions, variations
in incubation period, age-specific attack rates and sus-
ceptibility in various socio-economic groups.
Tbe available evidence does not permit us to assign any
more important role to transmission of viruses by drinking
water at the present time. There is a feeling, however,
that water does have a more important role, especially
in relation to municipal systems using surface water.
Why should such a feeling exist if the evidence is no more
adequate than we have found thus far? The author believes
several reasons may be assigned.
1. With recognition of the increasing contamination of
water sources by an expanding population increasingly
concentrated in urban areas, there is a feeling that this
much pollution must be producing a problem in terms of
human disease. Since no such problem can be demonstrated
161
-------
in relation to bacterial diseases, it is being sought for
viral diseases.
2. The Delhi epidemic suggested that bacteriological
standards may not be adequate with respect to safety
from viruses, and this produces a feeling of insecurity.
3. If transmission of viral disease by municipal systems
is occurring, the approach to the situation is simple.
More intensive application of known methods of water puri-
fication could prevent whatever the number of resulting
cases.
162
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Mosser, J.L., T.Z. Teng, W.G, Walther, and C.F. Wurster.
Interactions of PCB's, DDT, and DDE 1n a Marine Diatom.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
U.:665-668. June 1974.
Key Words: DDT, DDE, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
This paper begins to examine the Interactions and the
effect of these Interactions upon marine diatoms. It sug-
gests that when these contaminants are studied together
they may have greater environmental Impact than when
studied separately. No data were available on uptake,
but the article suggests it may be greater than believed.
163
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Moyer, B.R. and T.F. Budinger.
Cadmium Levels in the Shoreline Sediments of San Francisco Bay.
University of California, Berkeley, Donner Laboratory and
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, April 1974. 41p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
LBL-2642).
Key Words: cadmium, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Cadmium levels in the low-tide shoreline sediments of
San Francisco Bay were investigated at 68 locations.
Sample cores of 5.5 cm diameter and 10 cm depth were
separated into top and bottom fractions and analyzed for
cadmium by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The
mean values of cadmium content in the top and bottom frac-
tions (in dry soil) were 1.22 plus or minus 0.99 (0.06 to
4.69) microgram/g and 0.93 plus or minus 0.74 (0.14 to
3.91) respectively. The mean value for all the 10-cm
cores of San Francisco Bay peripheral muds was 1.07 plus
or minus microgram/g. Concentrations greater than 2 ppm
suggest recent pollution; 13% of the samples were above
this level.
164
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Muellenhoff, W.P.
Preliminary Summary of Sludge Degradation Studies in a Marine
Benthic Environment.
In: Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids.
A. Freiberger, ed. EPA-902/9-74-002, Environmental Protection
Agency, Region II, New York, 1974. pp. 349-390.
Key Words: total organic carbon, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Field and preliminary laboratory experiments have pro-
vided data on the decreases in sludge bed carbon con-
centrations and oxygen consumption rates. Further
experiments are being devoted to better definition of
initial carbon losses and documentation of carbon de-
creases in deeper beds. Measured significant losses
of organic carbon upon settling the sludge through a
sea water column are being better documented because
of possible ramifications regarding disposal procedures.
A conceptual mathematical model of sludge bed dissolved,
particulate and gaseous carbon fractions is being for-
mulated in an effort to better understand the mechanisms
and transfer rates for carbonaceous materials in stabili-
zing sea floor sludges.
Decreases in sludge bed total carbon content (grams of
carbon per gram solid) amounted to 71 to 68% respectively
for 81 and 68 days experiments at 1 atmosphere. Sludges
subjected to pressures of 6.8 and 34 atmospheres had a
carbon content loss of approximately 30% in 47 days. Re-
action velocity constants (K) of 0.006 and 0.007 for the
pressure experiments were lower than for experiments at
1 atmosphere where K ranged from 0.010 to 0.046.
The in-situ oxygen consumption rate of an aerobically
digested sludge ranged from 3.74 grams 02/rn /day to 2.0
g-0o/m2/day after 65 hours. For an anaerobically digested
sludge the initial rate of 2.51 g-02/m^/day in 70 hours.
Laboratory measurements with anaerobically digested
sludges revealed significantly different oxygen con-
sumption rates depending on the sludge source. Sludge
from a local treatment plant had an initial uptake rate
of 2.72 g-02/m2/day which decreased to 0.95 g-02/m2/day
after 53 days.
165
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Murphy, K.L.
Gamma Radiation as an Effective Disinfectant.
Water and Pollution Control. Hl:(4):24-28. April 1974.
Key Words: conforms, COD, total organic carbon, radiation
treatment.
Abstract:
Disinfecting with radiation is discussed in this paper.
Reduction effects on various microorganisms are presented
166
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Murtaugh, J.J. and R.L. Bunch.
Acidic Components of Sewage Effluents and River Waters.
JWPCF. 37.(3):410-415. March 1965.
Key Words: syntheti c/organics, COD, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The biological decomposition of complex organic matter can
be shown to proceed through various biochemical inter-
mediates. Significantly, the lower aliphatic acids appear
as intermediate products regardless of whether the original
substrate was carbohydrate, protein, or fat; however, the
amount of each is related to the environmental conditions
and the nature of the material undergoing decomposition.
The total volatile acid determination has long been used
in the control of anaerobic sludge digestion. The possible
interrelationship between organic acids and water quality
has been recognized but somewhat hampered by the lack of
sensitive quantitative analytical methods. With the
development of gas chromatography, separations and deter-
minations heretofore thought to be impossible now can be
made. By using this new tool augmented by other methods
adapted to waste samples, the lower aliphatic acids of
effluents and rivers were determined.
This paper describes a workable procedure for the deter-
mination of volatile acids in dilute waste samples and the
interrelationship of these acids in sewage effluents and
rivers.
167
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Mytelka, A.I..J.S. Czachor, W.B. Guggingo, and H. Golub.
Heavy Metals in Wastewater and Treatment Plant Effluents.
OWPCF. i5(9):1859-1864. September 1973.
Key Words: lead, nickel, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper,
zinc, iron, manganese, mercury, influent character-
istics, effluent characteristics, activated sludge
Abstract:
This paper has described the findings of the Commission's
routine heavy metals analyses of municipal wastewater
treatment plants. The results show that many plants
receive and discharge heavy metals above prudent limits.
In order to minimize the harmful effects of these heavy
metals (and of those not discussed in this paper), tech-
niques must be implemented to achieve as close to 100
percent removal as possible before these metals enter
the sewer system. This is especially important in the
New York/New Jersey/Connecticut area, where combined
sewer systems allow wastewater to by-pass treatment
plants and discharge, untreated, directly into the
receiving water ways.
168
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Napolitano, P.O. and D.R. Rowe.
Microbial Content of Air near 'Sewage Treatment Plants.
Water and Sewage Works. 1_1_3( 12)-.480-483. December 1966.
Key Words: coliforms, activated sludge, air,
trickling filters.
Abs tract:
The following conclusions are reached:
1. Activated sludge treatment plants yield approxi-
mately ten times as many coliform organisms as high
rate trickling filters.
2. In activated si udge plants, the aeration tanks
emit three times as many coliform organisms as other
units in the plant.
3. In high-rate trickling filter plants, the trickling
filters yield twice as many coliform organisms as other
units of th e plant.
4. The coliform count at increased distances from a
source is a function of the wind velocity and decreases
with distance.
5. Approximately 50 percent of the particulate
matter given off at both types of plants is above
five microns in diameter and, therefore, is non-
hazardous to the lung.
169
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National Emissions Inventory of Sources and Emissions of
Ch romium.
GCA Corp., Bedford, Mass., GCA Technology Division, May 1973.
41 p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
( NTIS) as PB-230 034).
Key Words: chromium, influent characteristics, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
A national inventory of the sources and emissions of the
element chromium was conducted. The study included the
preparation of an overall material flow chart depicting
the quantities of chromium moving from sources of mining
and importation through all processing and reprocessing
steps to ultimate use and final disposition. All major
sources of chromium-containing emissions were identified
and their chromium emissions into the atmosphere estimated
A regional breakdown of these sources and their emissions
was also provided. The physical and chemical nature of
the chromium-containing emissions was delineated to the
extent that information was available, and a methodology
was recommended for updating the results of the study
every 2 years.
170
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Nebel , C., R.Q. Gottschling, R.L. Hutchinson, T.J. McBride,
D. M. Taylor, J.L. Pavoni, M.E. Tittlebaum, H.E. Spencer, and
H. Fleischman.
Ozone Disinfection of Industri al-Muni ci pal Secondary Effluents
JWPCF. 4jj.(12):2493-2507. December 1973.
Key Words: BOD, COD, total organic carbon, nitrates,
phosphates, ozonation.
Abstract:
The pilot study has demonstrated that ozone can be
successfully used as an alternative to chlorination
for rapid disinfection and concurrent tertiary treat-
ment of combined municipal-industrial secondary ef-
fluent. In most instances, earlier laboratory results
have been equalled or surpassed.
Ozone brings about effluent quality improvement by a
combination of direct oxidation and an ozone-induced
flotation process. An ozone contact chamber of simple
design allows efficient ozone transfer and froth re-
moval without extensive pumping or mixing operations.
The ozonized effluent is non-toxic, high in dissolved
oxygen content, and indistinguishable in appearance
from potable water.
Ozone theoreti cal.ly can oxidize organic materials com-
pletely to carbon dioxide and water. This would be
reflected by a decrease in the total organic carbon
(TOC) level of the effluent. This objective is realized
at the Washington, D.C., Blue Plains ozone pilot plant
where high ozone dosage levels are utilized for tertiary
treatment. The limited data show the results of TOC
analyses of Louisville effluents performed by the EPA's
Taft Research Laboratory in Cincinnati. It is apparent
that the 15 mg/1 ozone dosage used in the pilot study
is not large enough to cause a significant reduction
of TOC by carbon dioxide evolution. The first products
of ozone oxidation of organic molecules are oxygenated
materials that are water soluble and not highly volatile.
171
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Nelson, D.W., L.B. Owens, and R.E. Terry.
Denitrificati on as a Pathway for Nitrate Removal in Aquatic
Systems.
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, Water Resources Research
Center, December 1973. 93p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-231 305).
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, nitrification/
denitrifi cation.
Abstract:
Denitrification was determined by decrease in total
nitrogen in a water media or by a decrease in N-15
labelled nitrate in sediment systems. It was estab-
lished that the numbers of denitrifying bacteria, pH,
and nitrate concentration of most surface waters will
support denitrification. The process is inhibited by
high dissolved oxygen and low dissolved organic carbon.
Low temperature also restricts denitrification. River
water samples exhibited denitrification when amended
with glucose and nitrate under anaerobic conditions,
whereas, pond waters did not. The findings indicated
that denitrification in the water phase is insignifi-
cant to the nitrogen status of most streams and lakes.
However, denitrification in sediments may result in a
large removal of nitrate from aquatic systems each year
172
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Nelson, J.D. and R.R. Colwell .
The Ecology of Mercury-Resistant Bacteria in Chesapeake Bay.
Microbial Ecology. 1:191-218. 1975.
Key Words: mercury, bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Total ambient mercury concentrations and numbers of
mercury resistant, aerobic heterotrophic bacteria at
six locations in Chesapeake Bay were monitored over a
17 month period. Mercury resistance expressed as the
proportion of the total, viable, aerobic, heterotrophic
bacterial population reached a reproducible maximum in
spring and was positively correlated with dissolved
oxygen concentration and sediment mercury concentration
and negatively correlated with water turbidity. A re-
lationship between mercury resistance and metabolic
capability for reduction of mercuric ion to the metallic
state was established by surveying a number of HgClg-
resistant cultures. The reaction was also observed in
microorganisms isolated by differential centri fugati on of
water and sediment samples. Mercuric ion exhibited
an average half-life of 12.5 days in the presence of ap-
proximately 10^ organisms/ml. Cultures resistant to 6
ppm of mercuric chloride and 3 ppm of phenyImercuric
acetate (PMA) were classified into eight generic cate-
gories. Pseudomonas spp. were the most numerous of
those bacteria capable of metabolizing both compounds;
however, PMA was more toxic and was more selective for
Pseudomonas. The mercury-resistant generic distribution
was distinct from that of the total bacterial generic
distribution and differed significantly between water
and sediment, positionally and seasonally. The pro-
portion of nongl ucose-uti 1 izing mercury-resistant Pseu-
d onion as spp. was found to be positively correlated with
total bacterial mercury resistance. It is concluded
from this study that numbers of mercury-resistant bac-
teria as established by plate count can serve as a valid
index of in situ Hg^+ metabolism.
173
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Nelson, J.D. and R.R. Colwell.
Metabolism of Mercury Compounds by Bacteria in Chesapeake Bay.
Department of Microbiology, University of Maryland, College
Park, 1973. lip.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh), surface water
(marine).
Abstract:
Biological transformations of mercury in the environment
have been identified, but neither the key agents nor the
exact processes are well understood. Mobilization of
mercury, as a part of the mercury "cycle" in nature,
has been given attention because of an increasing mer-
cury load in the environment with resultant hazards to
human health, derived in part from microbial activity.
Mercury resistant bacteria isolated from Chesapeake Bay
were capable of metabolizing phenylmercuric acetate (PMA)
wHh the production of elemental mercury. The Pseudomonas
spp. isolated were resistant to mercury compounds fn
general and were capable of adaptation to high levels of
resistance to specific mercury compounds. The process
of biomethylation of inorganic mercury and the observed
"reductive decomposition" of organo mercury by mercury
resistant marine bacteria may be responsible in part for
mercury mobilization and subsequent detoxification of
mercury polluted environments, as well as atmospheric
transport of mercury.
The decomposition of PMA by a Pseudomonas species was
found to be dependent upon adaptati on to PMA and was
magnesium ion dependent. From the pattern of PMA uptake
by cells and effects of inhibitors of oxidative phos-
phorylation on the PMA metabolic process, it was con-
cluded that degradation of PMA takes place on the cell
surface, with production of predominantly inorganic
volatile species of mercury.
174
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Nelson, J.D. ,
W.P. Iverson.
W. Blair, F.E. Brinckman, R.R. Colwell , and
Biodegradation of Phenyl-Mercuric Acetate by Mercury-Resistant
Bacteria
Key Words: bacteria, mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Selected cultures of mercury-resistant bacteria degrade
the fungicide-slimicide phenyImercuric acetate. By
means of a closed system incorporating a flameless atomic
absorption spectrophotometer and a vapor phase chroma-
tograph, it was demonstrated that elemental mercury vapor
and benzene were products of phenyImercuric acetate de-
gradation.
175
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Neri, L.C., D. Hewitt, G.B. Schreiber, T.W, Anderson, J.S.
Mandel , and A. Zdrojewsky.
Health Aspects of Hard and Soft Waters.
JAWWA. 61(8)-.403-409. August 1975.
Key Words: epidemiology, groundwater.
Abstract:
The relationship of waterborne minerals to the incidence
of mortality is pursued. The article includes 575 Canadian
Community Water Analysis data.
Mg++ appears to be the element that is most probably
responsible for associations between cardiovascular
mortality and water hardness.
176
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Neubauer, W.K.
Waste Alum Sludge Treatment.
JAWWA. jLP_(7):819-826. July 1968.
Key Words: lime treatment.
Abstract:
Although the problem of sludge disposal from water
treatment plants has existed for many years, very little
has been done to solve it. It has been estimated that
the solids resulting from municipal water treatment now
total about 1,000,000 tons/year or one-tenth of the total
quantity of waste from municipal wastewater treatment.
This figure is not going to decrease.
This study has evaluated certain processes. Engineers
of the Fylde Water Board of Lancashire, England, have
successfully concentrated sludge by freezing. Tampa
has operated a full seal eprocess for the recovery and
reuse of alum from sludge. Several water treatment plants
dispose of sludge by discharge to sewage treatment plants.
Other methods of disposal may have been investigated and
certainly other methods are available. Every effort must
be made to continue to attack this problem and develop
economical processes that can be utilized on a full scale
wherever needed.
177
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Neufeld, R.D. and E.R. Hermann.
Heavy Metal Removal by Acclimated Activated Sludge.
JWPCF. 47(2):310-329. February 1975.
Key Words: cadmium, zinc, mercury, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. It is possible to maintain a thriving culture of
activated biota in the presence of levels of mercury,
cadmium, or zinc that are much higher than those prev-
iously thought possible.
2. Kinetic parameters from Mi chael is-Menten types
of equations, which describe the metabolic rates of the
organisms, have been evaluated at several heavy metals
concentrations. For cadmium and zinc, these parameters
were found to be virtually constant until a threshold
concentration of metal in sludge was reached. It was
established that, beyond this threshold, the parameters
will vary in a linear fashion when values of the para-
meters are plotted relative to metal in floe concentra-
tions on log-log paper. No threshold effect was observed
in the case of mercury.
3. The mechanism of inhibition of respiration for mer-
cury seems different from that for cadmium and zinc,
the latter two differing only in magnitude. Mercury
affects the metabolic rate in a way that may be totally
counteracted by increasing the concentration of organic
substrate. As the cadmium or zinc concentration in-
creases beyond the observed threshold, however, the
maximum obtainable metabolic rate decreases and cannot
be further reinstated by increasing the substrate level.
4. The ratio of the weight of metal in the biological
floe phase to the weight of metal in the surrounding
aqueous phase for the metals mercury, cadmium, and zinc
at equilibrium conditions ranges from 4,000 to 10,000
times .
5. Mercury, cadmium, and zinc are rapidly removed from
aqueous solutions by biological floe. Although eventual
equilibrium was achieved after about 2 wk of contact,
3 hr of contact were sufficient to achieve an almost
complete approach to that equilibrium.
178
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New Process Detoxifies Cyanide Wastes.
Environmental Science and Technology. _5(6): 496-497. June 1971
Key Words: cyanides, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Recently, E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. has introduced
a novel process which should appeal primarily to small
plant operators using cyanide baths to plate zinc or
cadmium onto ferrous metals. Called the Kastone process,
it oxidizes cyanide from plating wastes to cyanates and
simultaneously precipitates zinc or cadmium complexes
which can be removed by simple filtration.
179
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Newton, C.D., W.W. Shephard, and M.S. Coleman.
Street Runoff as a Source of Lead Pollution.
JWPCF. 4.6(5) :999-1000. May 1974.
Key Words: lead, combined municipal and/or storm systems.
Abstract:
This paper predicts that the average concentration of lead
in street runoffs will be 0.23 mg/1 .
180
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Ng, Y.C., W.L. Robinson, and D.W. Wilson.
Modeling Radiation Exposure to Population from Radioactivity
Released to the Environment.
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Livermore, California, 1973. 24p
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, ger-
manium, lead, iron, manganese, mercury, molybdenum,
nickel, selenium, thorium, tin, uranium, zinc,
fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
This article discusses concentration mechanisms in
aquatic organisms.
181
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Nickerson, G.L., C.M. Robson, R.D. Morrison, and R.C. CUnger.
Chemical Addition to Trickling Filter Plants.
JWPCF. £6(1):133-147. January 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, trickling filters, chemical
treatment.
Abstract:
The following conclusions have been derived from the work
presented in this paper:
1. Chemical addition ahead of the primary clarifiers,
coupled with hydraulic modifications, has been shown to
increase overall BOD and SS removals at two Fairfax County
trickling filter wastewater treatment plants operated
at flows in excess of their nominal design capacity.
In these instances, the main objective was the removal
of oxygen demanding materials. A side benefit of using
ferric chloride as a coagulant was the removal of sig-
nificant quantities of phosphorus.
2. Enhancing treatment efficiency with chemical addition
is essentially an interim solution, because the continu-
ous application of chemicals to the liquid stream and in
the sludge handling system creates an extremely high
operating expense.
3. Increased sludge handling problems may be expected
when chemical addition to the liquid stream is practiced
for increased removal of oxygen demanding materials.
Existing sludge handling facilities should be carefully
reviewed for adequacy; any necessary improvements should
be made before liquid stream chemical addition. Further,
addition of chemicals to the sludge handling system may
be required to enhance thickening and dewatering operations.
4. Serious hydraulic problems of an overloaded plant
should be corrected or minimized at the same time, or
before, chemical coagulation is implemented.
5. In light of the results achieved, the magnitude of
flow through a particular plant is irrelevant if raw
wastewater is not bypassed and the treatment processes
remove sufficient pollutants to satisfy the permit
issued by the regulatory agencies.
6. Successful chemical treatment procedures or modes of
operation at one plant may or may not be successful when
applied to another. This is true even though both plants
182
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may be in the same locale, receive similar influent wastes,
and have almost identical flow configurations and basic
treatment processes.
7. Chemical coagulation treatment can only be optimized
at any particular plant with experience gained under
actual plant scale operational conditions. Jar testing
is not always predictive of plant scale operations.
8. Personnel at overloaded treatment plants undergo
extreme hardships during initial operation with chemical
addition, but, with time, adjust and overcome most
operational difficulties.
9. Successful operation of a chemical addition system
depends, to a large extent, on the competence and con-
scientiousness of the treatment plant operating per-
sonnel. In the final analysis, it was their diligence
that, in this case, determined the outcome of the Interim
Pollution Abatement Program.
10. The accomplishment of the portion of Fairfax
County's pollution abatement program presented in this
report was the result of a joint effort. The county
board of supervisors recognized the immediate nature
of the situation and authorized the Interim Pollution
Abatement Program. The consultant, Engineering-Science,
Inc., was able to meet the challenge and provide a
feasible treatment method that could be incorporated
quickly into the existing treatment plant flow scheme
with minimum capital expenditures. The operators of
each plant responded to the problems of overload facili-
ties as well as new processes and equipment and never
failed to overcome seemingly insurmountable operating
problems .
183
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Nimmo, D.R., J. Forester, P.T. Heitmuller, and G.H. Cook.
Accumulation of Aroclor 1254 in Grass Shrimp (Palaemonetes
p u g i o) in Laboratory and Field Exposures.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
1]_:303-308. November 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, shellfish.
Abstract:
The accumulation here is in the magnitude of 10 .
The author studied the accumulation of Aroclor 1254 by
grass shrimp and found it to be in the order of magnitude
of 103.
184
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Nisbet, I.C.T.
Criteria Document for PCB's.
Massachusetts Audobon Society, Lincoln, Massassachusetts,
July 1976. 624p. (Available from National Technical Infor-
mation Service (NTIS) as PB-255 397).
Key Uords: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine), groundwater, crops,
livestock, fish.
Abstract:
This is a review of the chemical and physical properties,
toxic effects, and environmental fate of PCB's. Topics
discussed include effects on humans; transport; fate;
bio-accumulation in fish, shellfish, birds, mammals
(including cows and pigs), and humans; levels in fresh-
water lakes and rivers, marine environments, municipal
and industrial effluents, interactions of PCB's with soils;
occurrence in foodstuffs (including meat, grains, dairy
products, etc.).
185
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Nlsbet, I.C.T. and A.F. Sarofim.
Rates and Routes of Transport of PCB's in the Environment.
Environmental Health Perspectives. !_: 21-28. April 1972.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine), fish.
Abstract:
According to the estimates made in this paper, the PCB's
released into the North American environment in the
past are now concentrated in three major compartments
in the environment: (a) buried in landfill dumps (rough-
ly 3xl05 tons, without allowing for degradation); (b)
attached to sediments in rivers and the Great Lakes
(roughly 2x104 tons); (c) attached to sediments on the
continental shelf (roughly 104 tons). A further
substantial quantity (of the order of 2x104 tons) has
been widely distributed over the land and sea by aerial
fallout and by disposal from ships. All the numerical
estimates are expected to be valid to order of magnitude
only.
Transfer of PCB's within the environment is expected
to take place by the following main routes: (a) vola-
tilization, aerial transport on particulates, and fall-
out; (b) leaching from dumps; (c) sediment transport
in rivers and in the shallow sea; (d) sedimentation in
the ocean. Uptake and transport by the biota is probably
a quantitatively unimportant route of transfer of PCB's
but is of major biological significance. Virtually no
evidence is available on the rate of transport by any
of these routes, but it is expected that all are very
slow. In particular, PCB's in sediments in rivers and
lakes are likely to move downstream and augment those
in the shallow sea for a long period into the future.
186
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Nitrates, Nitrites, and Methomoglobinemia; Report Prepared by
Douglas H.K. Lee.
In: Environmental Review No. 2. National Institute of Environ-
mental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, N.C., May
1970. pp. 19-29.
Key Words: nitrates, surface water (fresh), groundwater.
Abstract:
The following actions are suggested:
1. Continued improvement in protection of wells from
contamination by surf-ace water containing nitrogenous
material,
2. Increased systematic sampling of rural well waters
and plain identification of those that exceed recommended
limi ts.
3. Continuing surveillance of wells in areas where the
water table 1s rising, seasonally or continuously, to
the point that deposited nitrates are likely to be
mobi1ized.
4. Periodic reminder to communities dependent on nitrate-
containing well waters about the dangers to infants.
5. Critical research into the possibility of formation
of carcinogenic nitrosamines and allied substances in
cured meats.
187
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Nitrification and Denitrification Facilities: Wastewater
Treatment.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
August 1973. 33p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites,
n i t r i f i c a t i o n / d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n .
Abstract:
In this paper a nitrification pilot plant is described
in detail and conclusions concerning nitrification
kinetics, design of nitrification systems and denitrifica^
tion by suspended growth systems are discussed. The aim
of the paper is to demonstrate how wastewater-treatment
plants can be designed to accomplish both nitrification
and denitrification.
188
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Nitrogenous Compounds in the Environment.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C.,
Hazardous Materials Advisory Committee, December 1973.
189p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-232 959).
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, direct contact, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
This report is a series of papers on the sources and
methods of control and the environmental and health
effects of nitrogenous compounds. Diverse aspects of
municipal and industri al sources are dis cussed — water-
borne, atmospheric, agricultural, and industrial pro-
cesses generating nitrogenous compounds. Attention
is given to nitrogenous materials in waste and surface
waters, efficiency of sewage treatment, effectiveness
of the conventional BOD test, and the contribution of
urban runoff and landfill leakage to the overall nitro-
gen load in the environment. Concentrations, sources,
sinks, the transformation of nitrogenous materials in
the lower atmosphere, control measures for stationary
and mobile sources, retrofit systems for used cars,
and new engine systems are reviewed. Plant nutrients,
including fertilizers, and animal wastes are considered.
The growing problems resulting from concentrated central-
ized livestock feedlots and methods of control are
pointed out.
Nitrogen is discussed as a nutrient essential to living
organisms and as a toxicant within the aquatic environ-
ment. The carcinogenicity of nitrosamines and their
precursors is described as a potential danger to health.
Individual nitrogenous compounds are appropriately
identified throughout the report. Analytical procedures
for the identification and quantification of nitrogenous
compounds are reviewed.
As presented to the Environmental Protection Agency in
this report, the statement of the Hazardous Materials
Advisory Committee presents the major concerns regarding
nitrogenous compounds in the environment as these relate
to the following Agency activities: research, monitoring,
and regulati on.
189
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Noland, R.F. and R. Birkbeck.
Two-Stage Biological Process Provides High Degree of Treatment
Presented at the 1973 Water Pollution Control Conference,
Cleveland, Ohio. 13p.
Key Words:- BOD, activated sludge.
Abstract:
This paper presents data and discusses the effectiveness
of a two-stage biological process in providing treatment
for concentrated organic waste. The results are very
close to achieving the effluent requirements currently
being imposed in Ohio's BOD and suspended solids of 7
and 7 mg/1, to maintain stream water quality at the
desirable level. Two-stage biological treatment fol-
lowed by tertiary lagoons can treat a strong organic
wastewater and achieve a high degree of removal.
190
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Nomura, M.M. and R.H.F. Young.
Fate of Heavy Metals In the Sewage Treatment Process.
Water Resources Research Center Technical Report No. 32.
University of Hawaii, Honolulu, September 1974. 31p.
Key Words: aluminum, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, mercury,
zinc, activated sludge.
Abstract:
Heavy metals have long been known to exert toxic effects
upon plants and animals at all trophic levels. Through
the use of water as a cleansing and transporting agent,
various types and forms of metals find their way into the
sewerage system.
The step-aeration activated sludge treatment process
removed most of the heavy metals, Al, Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg,
Pb, and Zn, that were detected in concentrations ranging
from a few parts per billion of mercury to a few parts
per million of iron. Hexavalent chromium was removed
somewhat less efficiently and nickel was reduced in con-
centration only slightly compared to the other metals moni-
tored.
Results of this investigation showed that most of these
metals were removed by precipitation with the sludges
in primary treatment and further removal occurred through
biological uptake in the secondary phase of treatment.
The residual concentration of metals in the final effluent
discharge were usually below toxic levels, with the excep-
tion of nickel, for freshwater aquatic organisms and plants,
Trace amounts of Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, and Pb were found in
the raw sewage. Al, Fe, and Zn were the most abundant
metals and from examination of discharge patterns, are
attributable to domestic sources.
Total concentrations of these nine metals in the influent
sewage did not exceed threshold toxicity levels to aerobic
and anaerobic systems as reported by others.
Most of the Hg, Fe, Al, and Cu in the raw sewage were re-
moved by the secondary treatment process. Pb and Zn
removals were slightly less than those for the above-
mentioned metals while Cd, Cr (VI), and Ni exhibited low
removals.
191
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Norman, C.
The Little Nipper Who Cost the South a Fortune.
Nature. £55(5504):94-95. May 8, 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
About 10,000 people a year are treated for fire-ant
stings in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. This
article discusses the use of mirex to control fire-ants.
192
-------
Norman, N.N. and P.W. Kabler.
Stream Pollution: Bacteriological Study of Irrigated Vegetables.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 2_5_: 605-609 . 1953.
Key Words: coliforms, salmonella, shigella, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
1. The coliform content of irrigated soils studied
reflects, in general, the coliform density of the water
they receive.
2. Vegetables irrigated with waters of high coliform
count exhibit a higher coliform flora than vegetables
irrigated with relatively pure water.
3. The coliform density of leafy vegetables Irrigated
with polluted water is higher than smooth vegetables
grown under similar conditions.
4. Under the condition of this study, the enterococcus
Indices of soils and vegetables showed no direct relation-
ship to the indices of 1rrigational waters.
5. Salmonella were present in the irrigation waters in
readily demonstrable numbers, were present in soils in
only low concentration, and were insufficiently numerous
on the vegetables to be demonstrated by the procedures
used.
193
-------
Norvell, W.A.
Equilibria of Metal Chelates in Soil Solution.
In: Mi cronutrients in Agriculture, R.C. Dinauer, ed.
Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin,
1972. pp. 115-138.
Key Words: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, ponding/
land application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
The calculations and stability diagrams presented in this
report summarize a portion of our knowledge concerning
metal chelate equilibria in soils. Hopefully, this
treatment will contribute to a rational basis for (1)
understanding the simultaneous equilibria of chelating
ligands and metal ions in soil solutions, (2) selecting
chelating agents for use as micronutrient metal sources,
and (3) estimating potential hazards from chelation of
heavy metals by chelating agents added to soils in fer-
tilizers or in effluents from waste treatment systems.
As our understanding of the equilibria of metal chelates
in soils increases, equilibrium calculations and stability
diagrams can help us to organize our knowledge and
quantify many important relationships. However, additional
knowledge will obviously require additional study of the
chemistry of metals and chelating ligands in soils. Re-
search to improve our quantitative understanding of the
solubility of micronutrient and heavy metals in soils is
urgently needed. Much of this information will undoubt-
edly come from careful studies of the equilibria of
selected chelating agents in soils.
Another important objective is accurate stability constant
information for both natural and synthetic chelating
agents. For example, better stability constants for
metal chelates formed by ?2®7 anc' P3^10' particularly
their Al3+ and Fe3+ chelates, would contribute signifi-
cantly to our understanding of the chelating properties
of these important fertilizer materials.
An especially important objective is identifying and
characterizing the raetal complexes formed by soluble
organic matter in soil solution.. These natural com-
plexes undoubtedly control the mobility and availability
of many metals in soils.
Agronomic interest in metal chelates as micronutrient
sources continues, and concern with the solubility and
mobility of heavy metals is increasing. Consequently,
studies of the equilibria between metals and chelating
ligands in soils should continue to merit our interest
and support.
194
-------
Novak, J.T. and J.H. O'Brien.
Polymer Conditioning of Chemical Sludges.
JWPCF. £7.(10):2397-2410. October 1975.
Key Words: suspended solids, gravity thickeners.
Abstract:
Based on the data collected 1n this study, the following
conclusions may be drawn:
1. High-molecular weight organic polymers Improve
sludge dewaterlng by decreasing the sludge specific
resistance.
2. High-molecular weight organic polymers Increase
the sludge compressibility but have little effect on
the filter cake solids concentration.
3. A linear relationship was found between the optimal
polymer dose and sludge solids concentration. Differences
1n sludge polymer dose requirments were caused by sludge
pH and filter cake solids concentration variations.
4. The polymer dose requirements decreased as polymer
molecular weights increased. At molecular weights
below 1 x 10^, polymers were ineffective for chemical
sludge conditioning.
5. Polymers respond to sludge pH variations. Nonionic
to moderate-activity anionic polymers function well
between pH 6 and 8.5. High-activity anionics function
well at pH levels above 8.5. Cationic polymers perform
best at neutral to slightly acidic pH's.
195
-------
Nupin, E.M.
Virus Studies on the Windhoek Wastewater Reclamation Plant
(South-West Africa).
Water Research. 4:661-672. 1970.
Key Words: viruses, gravity separators, ponding/land
application, chlorination, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The TC1D5Q (50 percent tissue culture infective dose) method
was found to be superior to the PFU (plaque forming unit)
method for the detection and evaluation of viruses in
sewage. Parallel statistical testing of the two-phase
polymer separation method and of the alginate ultra-
filtration method for the quantitative concentration
of viruses in water samples showed comparable concentra-
tion and recovery of virus.
These methods of concentration proved effective in the
testing of the virus removal by the advanced wastewater
treatment plant at Windhoek. Although enteroviruses and
reovirus entered the sewage purification plant at levels
as high as 20,000 TC1D5Q per litre, no virus could be
recovered from the finally treated water.
196
-------
Nupin, E.M., B.W. Bateman, and N.C. McKenny.
The Reduction of Virus by the Various Unit Processes Used
in the Reclamation of Sewage to Potable Waters.
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
Malina, Jr., and B.P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at
Austin, Center for Research in Water Resources, 1974.
pp. 107-114.
Key Words: viruses, activated sludge, chemical treatment,
adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
A unique multiple system plant in Windhoek, South West
Africa, which reclaims drinking water from a sewage
works effluent, has been regularly monitored for virus
removal since its commissioning in 1968. This informa-
tion, and that obtained in laboratory and pilot plant
investigations, contributed to the construction of the
experimental Stander Reclamation Plant in Pretoria. This
plant is designed to treat a million gallons a day and
is being used to study the efficiency of various unit
processes for the advanced purification of sewage.
This report deals with the removal and inactivation of
certain enteroviruses in conventional sewage purifica-
tion, maturation ponds, and each relevant individual
unit process of the above plants. In laboratory studies
on the mechanisms of the effects of treatment processes
on viruses, special attention has been given to powdered
activated carbon adsorption and chlorination.
197
-------
Nusbaum, I. and R.M. Garver.
Survival of Coliform Organisms in Pacific Ocean Coastal Waters.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 27_( 12): 1383-1 390 . December 1955.
Key Words: bacteria, coliforms, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
A high degree of uncertainly still prevails with respect
to the viability of enteric organisms in sea water. Even
less is known on the fate of pathogens in the sea than on
the tracer organisms commonly used.
Existing information must be re-evaluated with respect
to the environment in which the experiments were con-
ducted. These studies have shown that significant dif-
ferences exist with respect to the treatment given the
waters used, the source of the test organisms and the
container in which the experiments were conducted. Sea
water alone is not antagonistic to coliform organisms
because of its salinity.
Under the conditions of the experiments in this study,
coliform organisms have been found to persist in sea water
for relatively long periods. Additional data are required
comparing the effects of dispersal of bacteria containing
wastes into fresh as well as sea water. It has been
demonstrated in many instances, that the viability of
enteric organisms in fresh water is not appreciably
greater than sea water and may actually be less.
198
-------
Ockershausen, R.W.
Alum vs. Phosphates: It's No Contest ;
Water and Wastes Engineering. 1J.: 54-61. November 1974
Key Words: phosphates, BOD, suspended solids, chemical
trea tment.
Abstract:
This article discusses the removal of phosphate by
chemical treatment.
199
-------
Ockershausen, R.W.
In-plant Usage Works and Works.
Environmental Science and Technology. 865:420-423. May 1974.
Key Words: phosphates, BOD, suspended solids, chemical treat-
ment, trickling filters.
Abstract:
This article, general in nature, discusses the upgrading
of trickling filter plants by chemical addition and
gives examples of how this has been accomplished.
200
-------
O'Connor, G.A. and O.V. Anderson,
Soil Factors Affecting the Adsorption of 2, 4, 5-T.
Soil Science Proceedings. ,38^:433-436. May 1974.
Key Words: herbicides, groundwater.
Abstract:
Factors expected to affect the adsorption of 2, 4, 5-T
on four soils of the western U.S. were studied. Organic
matter was an important contributor to 2, 4, 5-T
adsorption and in some soils was the only adsorbent of
significance. Oxides of Fe and Al did not contribute
much to adsorption in the soils studied although the pH
of soils studied was only slightly acidic to alkaline.
201
-------
O'Donnell, C. and F. Keith, Jr.
Centrifugal Dewatering of Aerobic Waste Sludges.
JWPCF. £4(11 ) -.2162-2171 . November 1972.
Key Words: suspended solids, centrifugal thickeners.
Abstract:
This is a general discussion of the operational aspects
of centrifugal dewatering of sludges.
202
-------
O'Farrell, T.P,, P.P. Frauson, A.F. Cassel, and D.F. Bishop.
Nitrogen Removal by Ammonia Stripping.
JWPCF. 44(8):1527-1535 August 1972 .
Key Words: ammonia, nitrification/denitrification .
Abstract:
Air stripping of ammonia in crossflow cooling towers with
water temperatures of 80°F (26.6°C) removed 90 percent
of the ammonia from a non-nitrified, lime-clarified
secondary effluent at pH 11.5 with 500 cu ft air/gal
liquid (3,750 1/1). At pH 11.5, heavy calcium carbonate
scale was produced w i t h_ i n the tower from the COp in the
air and the excess Ca in the water at a rate of approx-
imately 125 mg/1 CaC02- The scale reduced air rates,
which lowered the efficiency of ammonia removal, removed
calcium carbonate needed for slurry pool stability in the
clarification system and caused severe maintenance
probl ems .
Operation of the air stripping system with effluent from
the second-stage clarifier (pH 10.5) reduced the calcium
carbonate scale rate to 16 mg/1 CaCO?. The decrease in
pH of the influent to the stripping tower from 11.5 to
10.5 reduced the efficiency for ammonia removal by
approximately 6 percent. Further reduction of the pH
of the influent to 9.7 reduced the efficiency, as
compared to pH 11.5, by approximately 34 percent.
The efficiency of the tower depended on air temperature,
with a decrease in air temperature from 80° to 43°F
(26.6° to 5.5°C) reducing the efficiency of ammonia
removal by approximately 30 percent for air to liquid
rates from 100 to 500 cu ft air/gal liquid (750 to 3,750
1/1). In addition, freezing occurred when the wet-bulb
temperature within the tower reached 32°F (0°C), which
resulted in the shutdown of the system.
203
-------
Olaxsey, R. A.
Thermal Degradation of Sludges.
In: Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids.
A. Freiberger, ed. EPA-902/9-74-001, Environmental Protection
Agency, Region II, New York, 1974. pp. 127-196.
Key Words: incineration, wet air oxidation, heat treatment!
Abstract:
For the disposalist who must deal daily with the output
of the sludge factory, thermal processing of sewage
sludge is a disposal option that should be approached
objectively. For smaller communities sludge combustion
will most probably be the most expensive disposal techni-
que. Large cities that are faced with the prospect of
transporting sludge long distances to land disposal sites
may find combustion to be a more attractive venture. The
aesthetic and convenience advantages of on-site disposal
must be weighed against the environmental, fuel-consump-
tive, cost aspects of incineration. Improvements in or
alternatives to the sludge incineration process may, in
the near future, solve all the problems associated with
current thermal processing techniques, but since each
new development also produces its own new problems, life
promises to remain interesting in the realm of sludge
disposal .
204
-------
Oliver, B.G. , J.B. Milne, and N. La Barre.
Chloride and Lead in Urban Snow.
JWPCF. 46.(4) :766-771 . April 1974.
Key Words: chlorides, lead, groundwater, surface water (fresh),
combined municipal and/or storm system, effluent
characteristics.
Abstract:
The snow dump particulates were found not only to absorb
lead with vigor but also to hold onto the lead tenaciously.
Two grams of three typical particulate samples, obtained
by filtering snow from dump sites, were shaken for 2 days
with 20 ml of several solutions. The results are shown
in Table IV. It is quite evident that over a pH range
wider than that found in the natural environment (1.88 -
10.6), only a small percentage of the lead in the parti-
culates was solubilized. Even at chloride levels as
high as those of seawater, little lead was desorbed from
the particulate. Strong N H, A c and C a C1 „ solution, used
primarily in cation exchange studies, had little effect.
Clearly, the lead is firmly bound to the particulates.
Analysis of the snow dump and storm sewer runoff and
wastewater effluent in Table II showed that most of the
lead in these samples is in the form of suspended solids.
The levels of lead in these samples indicate that a
significant portion of the lead generated in the city
finds its way into the rivers where it is present
primarily in the sediments.
205
-------
Oliver, J.D. and R.R. Colwell.
Computer Program Designed to Follow Fluctuations in Microbial
Populations and Its Application in a Study of Chesapeake Bay
Microflora.
Applied Microbiology. 28_(2): 185-1 92. August 1974.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
A computer program has been developed which performs
cluster analysis of microorganisms using methods of
numerical taxonomy. The program is designed to group
related strains, identify the groups by reference to
known strains, and calculate a hypothetical median
organism (HMO) to each group. The HMO serves to condense
taxonomic information and provides a tag for each strain
cluster. Every strain in a group is compared with the
HMO established for that group. A representative strain
for the group is obtained by selection of the strain
showing highest similarity to the HMO. New data sets can
be compared with data sets of previous analyses. Hence,
the occurrence of the same taxonomic groups within
separate data sets can be determined. Quantitative or
qualitative differences in distribution of taxonomic
groups within or between data sets can be measured.
The output from the computer is a graphical display, using
an on-line plotter; thus, the investigator is provided
with visual comparison of data sets. Results obtained
from a study applying the computer program in an analysis
of taxonomic data obtained for 43 bacterial strains
isolated from Chesapeake Bay indicate the usefulness of
this method of taxonomic analysis in microbial ecology.
206
-------
Oliver, J.D. and R.R. C o1w e11.
Extractable Lipids of Gram-Negative Marine Bacteria: Fatty-
Acid Composition.
International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 2j(4):442-458.
October 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, Vibrio cholerae, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Fatty-acid compositions were determined for 20 strains of
marine and estuarine bacteria and two strains represen-
tative of terrestrial species. Results showed that the
fatty acids of marine bacteria differed little from those
of nonmarine organisms, and a primary role for hexadece-
noic acid was indicated. Of the 20 strains examined,
with the exception of one, the major fatty-acid species
were C16, C16:l, and C18:l. Significant differences
were observed among the fatty-acid patterns of the various
bacterial genera included in the set of 20 strains
examined, and rapid differentiation of most of the genera
could thus be accomplished. A recently isolated marine
species demonstrated a unique fatty-acid pattern wherein
branched acids formed the major fatty-acid class.
Effects of culture age, growth temperature, and salt
concentration of the medium on the fatty-acid profiles
were also investigated.
207
-------
Oliver, J.D. and R.R. Colwell.
Extractable Lipids of Gram-Negative Marine Bacteria:
Phospholipid Composition.
Journal of Bacteriology. 114(3):897-908. June 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Phospholipid compositions of 20 strains of marine and
estuarine bacteria were determined. Results showed
that phospholipids of marine bacteria differed very
little from those of nonmarine organisms with
phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, and
diphosphatidylglycerol being the predominant phospholipids
in all strains examined. Lyso-phosphatidylethanolamine
occurred in significant quantities among a number of the
marine bacteria, and two of the isolates contained
significant quantities of poly-B-hydroxybutyrate. Effects
of age and growth temperature on the phospholipid composi-
tion were also investigated. It is suggested that
phylogenetic relationships among bacteria may be corre-
lated with phospholipid composition.
208
-------
Oloffs, P.C., L.J. Albright, S.Y. $zeto, and J. Lau.
Factors Affecting the Behavior of Five Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
in Two Natural Waters and Their Sediments.
Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 30:1619-1623.
November 1973.
Key Words: DDT, DDE, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water
(fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Water samples from the Fraser River and Georgia Strait,
British Columbia were treated with different chlorinated
hydrocarbons and incubated for up to 12 weeks at 13 C.
1. In the presence of bottom sediments from the same
locations as the waters, no residues were found to
escape into the atmosphere.
2. With the exception of lindane in ocean water, all
detectable residues had moved into the sediments after
6 weeks.
3. Most of the lindane was metabolized.
4. Sterilization of the waters and sediments prevented
the metabolism of lindane but had little effect on DDT
and ODD.
5. Agitation of water samples containing 7-chlordane,
incubated without sediment, had no effect on its dis-
appearance, but the presence of 0.01% of a nonionic sur-
factant retarded this almost completely.
209
-------
Oloffs, P.C., L.J. Albright, and S.Y. Szeto.
Fate and Behavior of Five Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Three
Natural Waters.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology. Jj3:l 393-1398. August 1972.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Water samples removed from two rivers and from the
subtidal zone of Georgia Strait in British Columbia
were treated with either 0.025 ppm of DDT, lindane,
a-chlordane, or 7-chlordane, or 0.1 ppm Aroclor 1260
(PCB). The samples were incubated in the laboratory
for up to 12 weeks at the temperatures of these natural
waters at the time of sampling. Lindane persisted in
all water samples throughout the experiment, but large
proportions of the other compounds were transported into
the atmosphere during incubation except when the con-
tainers were sealed. No metabolic breakdown could be
demonstrated. As demonstrated with '^C- 7-chlordane ,
uneven distribution of the pesticides occurred rapidly,
but was prevented, or reversed, by addition of a sur-
factant to the water. Total bacterial counts were
generally higher in treated than in untreated water
samples.
210
-------
Olsen, S.R.
Micronutrient Interactions.
In: Micronutrients in Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer, ed.
Soi1 Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972.
pp. 243-264.
Key Words:
iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, ponding/
land application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
This review of the literature emphasizes the complex
nature of the relations between plant growth, nutrient
concentration in solution, and nutrient concentration
within the plant. Growth depends on many interacting
factors such as nutrient supply, rate of nutrient
absorption, distribution of the nutrient to functional
sites, and nutrient mobility within the plant. Much
progress has been made, especially toward better descrip-
tions of the nature of the problems and the connections
between interacting factors.
Future trends probably will be directed toward eluci-
dating the mechanisms responsible for micronutrient
interactions at molecular and cellular levels. For
example, there is a need to identify those areas or
sites within the plant where Fe and Zn are metaboli-
cally active and where excessive P concentrations may
interfere with the maximum activity of these nutrients.
Gross analyses of leaves, stems, and roots for Fe and Zn
probably will not be sufficient to interpret the inter-
actions with P. Absorption processes at the root sur-
faces connected with the interactions between the root
and the soil offer fruitful approaches of investigation.
Probably there is much important knowledge to be gained
about the role of the HCOg" ion in nutrient absorption
processes.
are known to vary in their
deficiencies, to interactions
Zn with Fe and other micro-
of species and varietal
Plant species and varieties
susceptibility to Fe and Zn
of P with Fe and Zn, and of
nutrients. Careful studies
differences have not been made under uniform conditions
or in relation to environmental effects. Such studies
offer an exciting promise that plants can be changed
to fit the soil and that the soil environment can be
changed to provide a medium for better growth of the
plant.
211
-------
Olson, K.R.j H.L. Bergman, and P.O. Fromm.
Uptake of Methyl Mercuric Chloride and Mecuric Chloride by
Trout: A Study of Uptake Pathways into the Whole Animal and
Uptake by Erythrocytes in Vitro.
Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada, jj): 1 293-
1299. September 1973.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract: _«.,
Twenty-four hour uptake rate of either ^ HgCl2 or
CH^O^Hgd by rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) was not
affected by esophageal ligation. Uptake of these two
mercurials in non-feeding trout appears to be by way
of the gills. Methyl mercury enters the fish at a
faster rate than the inorganic form and anomalous tis-
sue distribution of these two mercurials suggests that
inorganic mercury does not require methylation prior
to entry into the fish.
In vitro experiments using radioactive mercurials
demonstrated high affinity of methyl mercury for red
cells (up to 90% was bound to red cells in 40 min.).
Only 9% of inorganic mercury was taken up by red cells,
but, this percentage was increased up to 65% if the
cells were washed and suspended in Ringer solution
prior to incubation with mercury.
212
-------
Olson, L.L. and C.D. Binning.
Interactions of Aqueous Chlorine with Activated Carbon.
In: Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution.
A.J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975. pp. 253-295.
Key Words: chlorides, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The removal of aqueous chlorine from solution using acti-
vated carbon is a two-part process, each having its charac-
teristic rate of removal. Chloride production occurs only
in Part I, while in Part II, the chlorine is "fixed" or
combined with the activated carbon. Proton production
occurred in both Parts I and II, but the largest portion
of protons was produced in Part I. Concurrent with the
production of chlorides and protons in Part I, surface
oxides are formed on the activated carbon surface. The
chlorine is "fixed" or combined with the activated carbon
in Part I, and the activated carbon is also broken down
and solubilized under certain conditions.
The rate of removal of aqueous chlorine using activated
carbon in Park II of the removal process is inversely
proportional to the amount of aqueous chlorine removed
in Part I. The reason for this has been concluded to be
due either to a "sealing" of the pores of the activated
carbon, or a "filling" of these pores. The removal of
aqueous chlorine in Part II was concluded to be reaction
rate controlled rather than diffusion rate controlled.
The trends and mechanisms enumerated by this study were
based primarily on observations for aqueous chlorine con-
centrations far in excess of those used in water treatment,
However, the data collected at concentrations usually
encountered in water treatment practices illustrate that
the trends and mechanisms are present at both high and low
concentrations. With further study, these trends should
allow the formulation of reliable predictive removal equa-
tions for aqueous chlorine using activated carbon.
213
-------
Olson, R.A.
Influence of Fertilizer Practices on Water and the Quality
of the Environment.
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Water Resources Research
Institute, June 1974. 88p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-23.8 624).
Key Words: nitrates, direct contact, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Comparison of deep soil cores taken under various
crop management systems with adjacent native pasture
indicates that generally fertilizer is contributing
only minimal amounts of nitrogen to the groundwater
(with non-irrigated agriculture) in Nebraska. Under
irrigated conditions, nitrogen is leaching to the water
table with the greatest amount occurring on sandy soils
with shallow water table. An additional threat to the
groundwater exists in southwestern Nebraska where the
deep loess soils on the table lands are being put under
irrigation and the loess beneath contains several tons
of N03-N per acre of natural or 'geologic1 origin.
Average nitrate-nitrogen in the groundwater of Nebraska
has increased 25% during the past decade. Rapid in-
creases with present high levels are found in several
areas with intensive irrigation of sandy soils. The
results indicate a need for improved fertilizer and
water efficiency under irrigated conditions and further
investigation into the environmental hazards.
214
-------
Olver, J.W., W.C. Krege, and R. H. King.
Heavy Metal Release by Chlorine Oxidation of Sludges.
JWPCF. 4_7_(10):2490-2497. October 1975.
Key Words: iron, zinc, chromium, lead, nickel, copper,
chlorination.
Abstract:
The optimum digestion procedure to determine the heavy
metal content of sludges was found to be a HNQoHCl
double digestion for 6 hr.
The release of heavy metals from wastewater treatment
sludges (primary plus activated or trickling filter
humus and anaerobic) is a function of the final pH of
the sludge after chlorine oxidation, the type of sludge
oxidized, and the species of metals present in the sludge.
Because of the higher alkalinity, the more likely presence
of sulfides, and the different metal species present in
anaerobic sludges, they release fewer heavy metals than
combined or primary sludges for the same chlorine dosage.
Heavy metal release follows the solubility products of
pure metal hydroxides and sulfides. Release is a complex
process depending not only on pH of the final sludge but
also on the metal content and species of the metal found
in the sludge. Hence, release will vary considerably
from sludge to sludge.
Laboratory chlorination experiments yield data that
approach metal release values found in full-scale
operation at one particular plant.
The effect of the filtrate from the chlorine oxidation
process on a wastewater treatment plant my be considerable
if the filtrate is returned to the influent of the plant.
Not only are heavy metals recirculated, but the COD, pH,
chlorides, TS, total phosphorus, and chloramines found
in this filtrate must be considered and evaluated. If
pH adjustment is practiced after chlorine oxidation and
before the final dewatering method, the filtrate returned
to the influent in the wastewater plant would be expected
to be less detrimental .
215
-------
Ongerth, H.J., D.P. Spaeth, J. Crook, and A.E. Greenberg.
Public Health Aspects of Organics in Water.
JAWWA. 65.(7):495-498. July 1973.
Key Words: surface water (fresh), surface water (marine)
Abstract:
This is a general discussion of organics in sewerage
and water supply.
216
-------
Orenstein, A.O.
A Note on Consumption of Vegetables Grown on Sewage Irrigated
Lands.
Sewage Works Journal. 2,0:954-955. 1948.
Key Words: crops, groundwater.
Abstract:
This is a report of vegetable consumption and
illnesses attributed to sewage irrigated land.
217
-------
Organic Contaminants in Water Supplies (Committee Report).
JAWWA. 6J7_(8):418-4Z5. August 1975.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, drinking and recreational water
Abstract:
Water supplies in use for the production of potable
water are becoming increasingly susceptible to organic
contamination from numerous sources, including agri-
cultural, industrial, municipal, and natural pollution.
Historical data obtained from STORE! tend to indicate1
that the extensive pollution abatement effort that has
been undertaken over the past fifteen years has not
resulted in a decrease in the concentration of organic
contaminants in the waters of the nation. Quite often
only trace quantities of organic compounds are required
to affect potable water quality seriously.
Community water-supply officials are facing increasing
awareness of water quality on the part of the consumer
and of the regulatory agencies. This requires that
water utilities have in use the best available monitor-
ing and analytical techniques for organic contaminants.
The methodology of trace-organic characterization is
currently undergoing intensive worldwide study, and
rapid development is anticipated in this area.
218
-------
Orlob, G.T.
Evaluating Bacterial Contamination in Sea Water Samples.
Public Health Reports. 7J.(2): 1246-1252. December 1956.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Direct field inoculation of sea water samples,
followed by incubation 5 to 6 hours later, is a
satisfactory technique for routine bacterial analysis.
219
-------
Orlob, G.T.
Viability of Sewage Bacteria in Sea Water.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 28X9):1147-1167. September 1956,
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Changes in populations of coliform bacteria in con-
taminated sea water during the early hours immediately
following collection of the sample may have a signifi-
cant bearing on the interpretation of the results of
bacteriological surveys. Refrigeration of samples,
although generally recommended when extended storage
of samples is necessary, is not always capable of
minimizing the bactericidal effect of sea water.
Direct inoculation of the sample into cold media at
the sampling site, with a 5- to 6-hour delay in in-
cubation, produces results which are generally com-
navahlo with rlivort -i nnru 1 a t i on -into tomnovorl morHfl
surveys of sea water.
220
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Osgood, J.Q.
Hydrocarbon Dispersion in Ground Water: Significance and
Characteristics.
Ground Water. 1^(6):427-438. November-December 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, direct contact, groundwater.
Abstract:
Groundwater contamination resulting from hydrocarbon
spills is a significant problem which has received
little attention. Over two hundred spills to the
ground have been investigated during the last two
and a half years by the Ground Water Section of the
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources.
Explosions, injuries, damaged water supplies and other
serious consequences have forced the recognition that
these cases are important. Since Federal regulations
are unsatisfactory in preventing spills to the ground,
it is clearly the responsibility of the State to develop
meaningful controls.
Hydrocarbon dispersion is essentially a shallow ground-
water problem. The hydrogeologic characteristics at
thespill site are critical in determining dispersion
once the hydrocarbon has reached the water table. The
hydrocarbon is largely contained on top of the water
table. In unconsolidated deposits or in fill material,
the shallow groundwater flow system and the direction
of hydrocarbon dispersion will coincide. In sedimentary
rocks the orientation of the rock becomes critical.
When the dip is shallow enough to contain the water
table, dispersion may either coincide with the major
flow direction or may diverge from it where facies
changes or significant changes in packing are encounter-
ed. Dispersion will parallel the strike of the rock
in more steeply dipping rocks rather than the major
groundwater flow direction. Lateral movement will be
controlled by jointing and fracturing. Solution channels
and fractures exert the major controlling influence on
heavily cemented soluble limestones. In tightly cemented
elastics, crystalline rocks and less soluble carbonates,
contaminant flows on top of the water table in fractures.
Hydrocarbons may be imprisoned where solution channels
and fractures do not intercept other openings within
the water table plane.
Recovery programs for most hydrocarbon spills are com-
plex. Larger cases receive the greatest attention;
however, smaller ones are actually more significant
since they are more common. Recovery costs are expen-
221
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sive and complete removal is extremely time-consuming.
Better maintenance and emergency response plans must
be developed, even by small users. Federal and State
governments must recognize the problem as being serious
and must develop revolving product recovery funds to
be used in groundwater cases. Lastly, groundwater
spills must be handled by groundwater specialists.
Experimentation by those who lack the proper qualifi-
cations can prove very costly.
222
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O'Shaughnessy, J.C., J.B. Nesbitt, D.A. Long, and R.R. Kountz.
Digestion and Dewatering of Phosphorous-Enriched Sludges.
JWPCF. 4£(8):1914-1926. August 1974.
Key Words: phosphates, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
The data indicate that a biological sludge containing
a complex aluminum phosphate precipitate can be pro-
cesses in an anaerobic digester without harm to the
digestion process and without the process causing
any phosphorous to be returned to the liquid waste
stream.
The measurement of several digestion parameters (al-
kalinity, volatile acids, pH, gas production, volatile
solids destruction) showed that a relatively stable
digestion period existed from the beginning of the
study until a digester upset occurred. This digester
upset was probably related to a drop in the pH of the
raw sludges beginning about the twelfth week of the
study. The reason for this pH reduction on both raw
sludges could not be established, but was corrected
by reducing the VSL and adding lime to the primary
digester.
Quantitative analyses of digester gas and sulfate ion
concentrations in the various sludges showed that
sulfate ion added during the removal of phosphorus
did not cause hydrogen sulfide to be produced during
anaerobic digestion. A high soluble aluminum ion
concentration did not occur in the sludges even during
the digester upset period.
It appears that removal of phosphorus from wastewater
by means of chemical precipitation with either alum
or sodium aluminate and the addition of these phosphorus'
rich sludges to an anaerobic digester will not have ad-
verse effects on the anaerobic digestion process.
Finally, a series of dewatering tests run on waste
activated sludge and combinations of waste activated
and University raw primary sludge showed that a sludge
that incorporates the precipitates of the chemical
additives dewaters more readily than a sludge that does
not include these precipitates.
During Phase I, phosphorus was removed from only half
of the total plant flow. The amount of precipitated
phosphorus that entered the digester during this period
223
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was only approximately half the amount that can be ex-
pected in a plant treating all of its wastewater for
phosphorus removal. During Phase II, phosphorus was
removed from only one-fourth of the wastewater flow, and
the resulting sludge had phosphorus concentrations which
were only one-fourth of those that could be expected
in a plant removing phosphorus from all of its flow.
Zenz and Pivnicka showed that in a plant treating all
of the wastewater flow for phosphorus removal, the
average difference in total phosphorus concentrations
between the sludge containing phosphorus and the control
sludge was 593 mg P/l. In this study, the difference
between the phosphorus level in the digested sludge
before chemical additions and those after phosphorus
removal began was calculated to be 353 mg P/l. However,
although a higher phosphorous level would be expected
in a waste treatment plant removing phosphorus from
its total flow, the effects of the phosphate precipi-
tate should be no different from those recorded in
this study.
224
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O'Shaughnessy, J.C., J.B. Nesbitt, D.A. Long, and R.R.
Kountz.
Soluble Phosphorus Removal in the Activated Sludge Process.
Part II: Sludge Digestion Study.
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Department
of Civil Engineering, October 1971. 59p.
Key Words: phosphates, aluminum, chemical treatment,
anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
Sludges containing aluminum phosphorus precipitates from
an activated sludge wastewater treatment plant were di-
gested in a high-rate digester. Sodium aluminate and
liquid alum were used to precipitate the phosphorus
from the wastewater. Analyses on both raw and digested
sludges showed that once precipitated from the waste-
water and incorporated into a sludge,the phosphorus
did not redissolve while undergoing anaerobic digestion.
Most of the soluble phosphorus in both the raw and
digested sludges was in the ortho-phosphate form, and
the addition of the inorganic aluminum phosphorus com-
plexes did not adversely effect the anaerobic digester.
High concentrations of soluble aluminum ion did not
appear in the anaerobic digester, and the use of alum
for phosphorus removal caused no additional hydrogen
sulfide production during sludge digestion. Analyses
also indicated the addition of aluminum compounds
enhanced the dewatering properties of the raw sludges.
225
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Ottoboni, A. and A.E. Greenberg.
lexicological Aspects of Wastewater Reclamation - A Preliminary
Report.
JWPCF. 42.(4): 493-499. April 1970.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
In a preliminary investigation of the possible adverse
effects of wastewater fed to rats, it was observed
that (a) male rats given wastewater ad libitum gained
more weight than control rats; (b) female rats given
wastewater had significantly smaller adrenal glands
than control females; and (c) two male test rats
developed massive tumors not previously seen in this
rat strain at such a young age. Possible causes for
these differences and their significance are discussed.
It is suggested that trace organics may be involved.
However, until additional studies, some of which are
now underway, are completed, definitive evaluation
is impossible.
226
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Overman, A.R.
Effluent Irrigation of Pearl Millet.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
1JK).(EE2): 193-199. April 1975.
Key Words: iron, zinc, copper, crops.
Abstract:
Pearl millet responded well to irrigation with secondary
municipal effluent. During 25 weeks of irrigation, two
cuttings of forage were obtained. The sandy soil showed
no evidence of surface clogging. While total dry weight
increased, dry matter content decreased with application
rate, reflecting increased availability of soil moisture.
Corresponding to this was an increase in crop concentra-
tions of N, K, Ca, Mg, and Na.
The crop appeared quite suitable for cattle feed. Yields
and forage quality were comparable to those obtained in
standard fertility studies. Properly designed and managed
effluent irrigation can be utilized for wastewater treat-
ment and crop production. It is imperative that local
conditions be taken into account, particularly soil pro-
perties, climate, and hydrological factors.
227
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Owens, L.B. and D.W. Nelson.
Relationship of Various Indices of Water Quality to
Denitrification in Surface Waters.
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, Water Resources Research
Center, 1972. 22p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-237 701).
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, nitrification/denitrification .
Abstract:
Water samples were collected monthly from three farm
p-onds and from three locations on the Wabash River near
Lafayette, IN to determine the actual and potential rates
of denitrification in such water systems. Denitrification
may serve as an important mechanism for nitrate removal
from surface waters. Water parameters which may affect
denitrification were estimated at the time of sampling
4nd then related to the denitrification rates observed.
Actual and potential denitrification rates were normally
small unless an energy source was added, indicating
that the low amount of dissolved carbon as well as a
high dissolved Q£ content may be the factors limiting
denitrification in surface waters. Water temperature,
pH level , nitrate level, and numbers of denitrifying
bacteria appeared suitable for denitrification during
most of the year. Higher levels of denitrifying
bacteria, nitrate, and phosphorus existed in the river
than i n the ponds.
228
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Page, A.L0
Fate and Effects of Trace Elements in Sewage Sludge When
Applied to Agricultural Lands -- A Literature Review Study,
University of California at Riverside, Department of Soil
Science and Agricultural Engineering, January 1975. 107p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-231 171).
Key Words: arsenic, boron, barium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium,
copper, mercury, manganese, molybdenum, nickel,
lead, selenium, zinc, crops, agricultural sludge
disposal.
Abstract:
Concentrations of trace elements in sewage sludges are
related to industrial and consumer uses; total concen-
trations of trace elements in sewage sludges vary widely,,
Uses of As, Ba, B, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, Mn, Hg, Mo, Ni, Se,
Ag, Sn, V, and Zn are briefly reviewed.
229
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Page, A.L. and P.P. Pratt.
Effects of Sewage Sludge or Effluent Application to Soil on
the Movement of Nitrogen, Phosphorus .Soluble Salts and Trace
Elements to Groundwaters.
Presented at the Second National Conference on Municipal
Sludge Management and Disposal, Anaheim, California, 1975. 30p,
Key Words: nitrites, total dissolved solids, chlorides,
phosphates, cadmium, copper, mercury, lead,
nickel, zinc, chromium, cobalt, arsenic, boron,
iron, aluminum, direct contact, groundwater.
Abstract:
An overview of the movement of N, P, soluble salts,
and trace elements in soils receiving sewage treatment
plant effluents and sludges is presented. Factors
which influence concentrations which leach to lower
depths in soil profiles are discussed. High rate-volume
systems designed for disposal or groundwater recharge
operations are contrasted to low rate-volume systems
designed for agriculture use.
230
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Page, A.L. and A.C. Chang.
Trace Element and Plant Nutrient Constraints of Recycling
Sewage Sludges on Agricultural Land.
In: Proceedings of the Second National Conference on
Complete WateReuse, Chicago, 1975. pp. 201-209.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, arsenic, barium, chromium,
cobalt, manganese, nickel, molybdenum, mercury,
selenium, agriculture, groundwater, crops,
geographic location, economic base.
Abstract:
A summary of minimum, maximum, and median concentrations
of trace elements of sewage sludges from more than 120
treatment plants in various communities throughout the
U.S. is given. The question of how to determine the
amount of sludge a soil may receive over a period of
time without creating any harmful effect is discussed.
The movement of trace elements in soils is also dis-
cussed .
231
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Pagenkopf, G.K. and D.R. Neuman.
Lead Concentrations in Native Trout.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
J_2:70-75. January 1974.
Key Words: lead, fish.
Abstract:
This paper discusses the uptake of lead by freshwater
trout.
232
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Pagenkopf, G.K. , R.C. Russo, and R.V. Thurston.
Effect of Complexation on Toxicity of Copper to Fishes.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada.
31:462-465. April 1974.
Key Words: copper, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Copper (Cu) is highly complexed by carbonate and hydroxide
ions in natural waters, and this complexation determines
the concentration of copper species in solution. Results
of detailed equilibrium calculations on data from bio-
assays where alkalinity, pH, hardness, and total copper
concentration are different indicate that copper (II)
is the chemical species that is toxic to fishes and that
alkalinity is the factor controlling copper (II) concen-
tration .
233
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Pakkala,
and D.J.
I.S.,
Lisk.
M.N. White, G.E. Burdick, E.J. Harris
A Survey of the Lead Content of Fish from 49 New York State
Waters.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 5^(4): 348-355. March 1972.
Key Words: fish, lead.
Abstract:
An analytical survey was made of the total lead content
of 419 fish of various species sampled in 1969 from 49
New York State waters and a group of lake trout sampled
in 1970 from Cayuga Lake only. Most often, lead concen-
trations ranged from 0.3 to 1.5 ppm, but a few samples
contained levels up to 3 ppm. Fish from certain waters
including Lakes Canadice, Canadaigua, Erie, Hemlock,
Pleasant, and Raquette and the Hudson River showed higher
lead levels more consistently than fish from other waters.
No correlation was noted between lead concentration and
the size, species, or sex of fish, and lead did not appear
to be cumulative in the lake trout of known age up to 12
years from Cayuga Lake.
234
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Palin, A.T.
Chemistry of Modern Chlorination.
Water Services. 7_8:7-12, 53-56. January, February 1974,
Key Words: BOD, cyanides, iron, mercury, Chlorination.
Abstract:
This article contains an excellent write-up on the
chemistry of chlorine and Chlorination.
235
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Papadalsis, J.A.
Bacteriological Examination of Seawater: Observations on
Factors Affecting the Performance Media.
Journal of Applied Bacteriology. 39_:295-300. 1975.
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The performance of MacConkey broth and minerals modified
glutamate lactose medium was examined in a series of
experiments. It was found that the addition of seawater
with or without antibacterial activity and the addition of
3-2% NaCl solution to double strength media all had
similar harmful effects on their performance. Also a
concentration of 3-2% NaCl in ordinary lactose broth
caused a great decrease (P=0.02) in the number of tubes
containing coliform organisms. It is concluded that the
high salt content of seawater interferes with lactose
fermentation by coliforms. This interference was found
to be so great that the number of tubes in which coliform
organisms and Escheri chia co1i were detected, dropped
from 2.5 to 3.5 times when an equal volume of seawater
was added to double strength MacConkey and glutamate
media. The results of the last experiment suggest that
for best performance of the media, the volume ratio of
seawater to medium should be equal or less than 1/10.
Also glutamate medium was superior to MacConkey broth
(P< 0.001), especially in the detection o f E. c o1i.
236
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Parhad, N.M. and N.U. Rao.
Effect of pH on Survival of Es_cher1 chia coli .
JWPCF. 41(5) :980-986. May 1974.
Key Words: Escherichia coli , ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The following results were obtained:
1. The growth of different algae in sterilized
wastewater results in an increase of pH from 7.5
to more than 10.
2- L±. C°T i could not grow in wastewater when the pH
was greater than 9.2.
3. Both £_._ col i and algae can grow together when
wastewater Is buffered at pH 7.5.
4« E« col T, when grown in association with algae,
is eTiminated because of the high pH produced as a
result of algal growth.
5. The decrease in E. coli observed in stabilization
ponds need not be attributed to the presence of anti-
bacterial substances, to the production of the toxic
extracellular products of algae, or to microbial
antagonism. It may be attributed to the high pH
levels that are found in stabilization ponds.
237
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Paris, D.F., D.L. Lewis, J.T. Barnett, Jr., and G.L.
Baugham.
Mlcrobial Degradation and Accumulation of Pesticides in Aquatic
Systems.
Environmental Protection Agency, Southeast Environmental
Research Laboratory, Athens, Georgia, January 1975. 54p.
Key Words: pesticides, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
1. Under conditions found in most aquatic environments
(pH'5.6-8.0) chemical hydrolysis of captan occurs too
rapidly for microbial degradation or accumulation of the
parent compound to be significant.
2. The butoxyethylester of 2,4-dich1orophenoxyacetic
acid is rapidly degraded to 2,4-D and butoxyethanol by
all bacteria and fungi tested in the laboratory. Degra-
dation of the resulting 2,4-D is a much slower process.
3. Under the conditions of our experiments methoxychlor
is not degraded rapidly by bacteria.
4. The major metabolite of malathion degradation by the
bacteria and fungi studied is the p-malathion monoacid.
5. In aqueous solution (pH 6.8-7.0, 27°C) containing
low concentrations of malathion and low concentrations
of malathion degrading bacteria, bacterial degradation
can compete with chemical degradation.
6. The growth of the bacteria used to study carbaryl
degradation is dependent on the rate of chemical hydroly-
sis of carbaryl to a-naphthol. In cultures containing
a-naphthol the bacteria used in the carbaryl studies
utilized a-naphthol as a sole carbon source.
7. The more water soluble pesticides -- atrazine,
carbaryl, diazinon, malathion, and parathion -- were not
sorbed by any of the bacteria or fungi tested; therefore,
microblal sorptlon of these compounds would not be
expected under natural conditions.
8. Sorptlon of methoxychlor and toxaphene by bacteria,
fungi, and algae can be described by a partition
coefficient and the process 1s rapidly reversible.
238
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Parizek, R.R., L.T. Kardos, W.E. Sopper, E.A. Myers, D.E.
Davis, M.A. Farrell, and J.B. Nesbitt.
Waste Water Renovation and Conservation„
Pennsylvania State University Studies No. 23.
University Park, 1967. pp. 36-64.
Key Words: nitrates, chlorides, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The application of treated effluent to croplands and
forested areas was initiated in 1962 to develop a means
of spraying effluent on land throughout the year, to
determine the degree of renovation of effluent, to
explore the possibility of conservation of water and
to measure the effect on soils, crops, trees and wild-
life. The results of the first two years of operation
of the effluent irrigation program provide information
about a number of aspects.
239
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Park, J.W.
An Evaluation of Three Combined Sewer Overflow Treatment
Alternatives,
Clark Dietz and Associates, Urbana, Illinois , December 1974.
123p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-239 115).
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, combined municipal and/or
storm system.
Abstract:
Three different systems (a single-cell overflow retention
lagoon, a single-cell facultative lagoon with controlled
discharge and a combined holding and sedimentation tank
with comminutor, sludge scraper, and influent chlorina-
tion) were found to be effective in reducing the measured
pollutional discharges during wet weather periods in
Shelbyville, Illinois. Partial separation of combined
sewers was also effective in maintaining organic loading
to the sewage treatment plant during periods of combined
sewer overflow.
240
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Parker, C.D.
Microbiological Aspects of Lagoon Treatment.
JWPCF. 34.(2):149-161. February 1962.
Key Words: coliforms, fecal streptococci, Esc herichi a coli ,
ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, BOD, aerated lagoons,
anaerobic lagoons, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
It is unwise to make broad generalization from the data
presented, but it would appear that with aerobic ponds
in series following anaerobic ponds something of the
order of 30 to 40 days' detention is required to reduce
the coliform counts to values comparable with drinking
water standards and about half that time with lagoons
following trickling filters. It would appear to be
difficult to obtain very low coliform counts using
single-cell aerobic ponds.
These studies have demonstrated that widely different
levels and types of algal population develop in ponds
designed and operated in different ways. While high
levels are uniformly present in unicell aerobic ponds,
algal levels in multicell ponds are much more variable
and at a lower level. By the use of multicell ponds
it is possible to obtain relatively clear effluents
free from objectionable algal turbidity. Such low
level algal count effluents can also be obtained in
lagoons after high-rate filters.
The reason for the difference in algal development is
difficult to find with present knowledge of algal physi-
ology. It is true that in multicell ponds the level of
BOD throughout any one pond is far more uniform than it
is in the unicell installations. However, even in the
ponds of the multicell installations where the BOD is
similar to the average value in the larger unicell pond,
algal populations are much lower. Certainly lack of
short-circuiting in the multicell ponds would promote
the segregation of successive biological developments
with progressive time in each pond but it appears that
such a horizontal stratification of processes does induce
different algal conditions.
The lower algal population in these multicell aerobic ponds
raises the question as to the function of algae in lagoon
treatment and the effect of such lower algal content on
efficiency of BOD removal. Experiments are at present
241
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being planned to determine this point.
It must be concluded that the algal population of the
final effluent can be influenced by lagoon layout and
operation and that low algal content effluents can be
obtained by appropriate means.
242
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Parker, D.G., C.W. Randall, and P.H. King.
Biological Conditioning for Improved Sludge FiIterability.
JWPCF. 4£(n):2066-2077. November 1972.
Key Words: coxsackie virus, drying beds, anaerobic
digestion.
Abstract:
This article is a general discussion on sludge processing,
with no reference to health contaminants.
243
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Parker, D.S., D.G. Miles, and F.J. Zadick.
Processing of Combined Physical-Chemical-Biological Sludge.
JWPCF. 46.(10) :2281-2300. October 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, centrifugal thickeners,
anaerobic digestion, incineration, gravity
thi ckeners.
Abstract:
The following conclusions may be drawn from this study:
1. Combined sludge generated in a chemical primary
sedimentation tank in which lime is the coagulant may
be accurately estimated from changes in quality con-
stituents across the process and knowledge of chemical
dosages.
2. Considerable sludge thickening takes place in the
primary sedimentation tank. Only the first half of the
rectangular tank, however, is effective for thickening.
Thicker sludge is obtained at pH 11.0 and 11.5 than at
pH 10.2.
3. Combined sludge may be effectively classified with
a solid bowl centrifuge. For flocculation pH's of 11.0
and 11.5, approximately 90 percent of the calcium car-
bonate fed to the machine was recovered in the cake.
At the same time, 50 to 75 percent of the other major
constituents, except acid-insoluble inerts, were re-
jected in the centrate. The calcium carbonate-rich
cake was simultaneously dewatered to a TS content of
greater than 50 percent. At pH 10.2, the calcium car-
bonate recovery was 75 percent, while the rejection of
the other materials was 60 percent. Cake dryness at
pH 10.2 was 42 to 49 percent TS.
4. Centrate from the first-stage classification centri-
fuge may be dewatered in a second-stage solid bowl centri-
fuge. An ionic polymer addition is required at a dosage
of at least 2 Ib/ton (1 kg/metric ton) dry solids.
The pH of flocculation affects the cake dryness obtained.
Below pH 11.0, TS in the cake of 17 to 18 percent was
obtained. Above pH 11.0, dewatering deteriorated and
a median cake TS of 12 percent was produced.
5. Anaerobic digestion can stabilize first-stage centrate,
but volatile matter reduction is less for centrate pro-
cessing for conventional raw sludge processing. Further-
more, virtually all of the magnesium hydroxide fed to the
digester is solubilized because of the pH of digester
244
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operation (pH 7.0 to 8.0) and is returned to the process
in the form of soluble magnesium and bicarbonate alkalinity
Calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate are not dissolved
in the digestion process to a significant degree.
6. Three feasible solids disposal alternatives have been
developed for lime sludge processing. One involves in-
cineration of the waste solids with separate recalcination
of the calcium carbonate. The second involves incinera-
tion of the whole sludge with integral recalcination and
subsequent ash beneficiation before lime reuse. The
third solids disposal alternative involves disposal of
the calcium carbonate in landfill with digestion of the
organic solids. The two incineration-recalcination alter-
natives are preferred, because chemical costs are signifi-
cantly less and far fewer solids are produced for ultimate
disposal. Of the two recalcination alternatives, the
ATTF solids processing system involves less cycling of
solids while maximizing lime recovery; it therefore is
the preferred alternative.
245
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Parker, D.S., F.J. Zadick, and K.E. Train.
Sludge Processing for Combined Physical-Chemical Biological
Sludges .
Central Contra Costa Sanitary District, Walnut Creek,
California, July 1973. 146p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-223 241).
Key Words: suspended solids, centrifugal thickeners,
anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
One of the most pressing needs of designers of advanced
waste treatment systems is for meaningful design informa-
tion on solids disposal systems. This report concludes
that (1) combined sludge generated in a chemical primary
sedimentation tank where lime is the coagulant can be
accurately estimated from changes in quality constituents
across the process and knowledge of chemical doses; (2)
considerable sludge thickening takes place in the primary
sedimentation tank; (3) combined sludge can be effectively
classified with a solid bowl centrifuge; (5) anaerobic
digestion can stabilize first stage centrate, but volatile
matter reduction is less for centrate processing than for
conventional raw sludge processing; (6) combined sludge
can be stabilized by chlorination treatment; (7) two
feasible solids disposal alternatives have been developed
for combined sludge processing.
Recommendations are made for future investigations.
246
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Parker, M. and A.D. Hasler.
Studies on the Distribution of Cobalt in Lakes.
Limnology and Oceanography. J_4:229-241. March 1969.
Key Words: cobalt, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Cobalt-57 was added to bottles of lake water to see
whether there were any seasonal changes in the apportion-
ment of cobalt between solution (filtrate) and seston
after 24-hr incubation or whether any differences in this
distribution could be found between lakes.
Several distinct patterns in the seasonal apportionment
of 57Qo between "solution" and seston were observed,
but no explanation of the basic mechanism causing these
changes is offered. In two of the lakes there was a
statistically significant relation between certain
detrital particles, rhizopods, and the percent of intro-
duced 57co associated with solids.
In general, direct biological uptake did not appear to
be significant in removing 5?co from solution in Lake
Mendota's epilimnion. Photosynthetic activity was of
little influence. Experiments with inhibitors and
heated water also indicated that nonbiological processes
were most important. Autoradiographs showed little
radioactivity associated with algae.
247
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Parkhurst, J.D.
Virus Study: Supplement to the Project Report for Facilities
Planning Study.
Los Angeles County Sanitation District. November 1974.
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
This is a proposal of virus work to be done. No data
is available at this time.
248
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Parkhurst, J.D., R.P. Miele, S.T. Hayashi, and R.P. Rodrigue.
Dewatering Digested Primary Sludge.
JWPCF. 4j>.(3):468-485. March 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, centrifugal thickeners, drying
beds .
Abstract:
A sludge dewatering research program was conducted to
find a system capable of recovering 95 percent of the
solids from an anaerobically digested sludge. Fourteen
months of pilot plant studies revealed five conditioning-
dewatering schemes that satisfied the requirement. Based
on economic and other factors, a two stage centrifugation
system using horizontal scroll centrifuges followed by
basket centrifuges was selected. Sludge conditioning
is accomplished by polymer addition to the basket centri-
fuge feed. Sludge cake from the centrifuges will be
hauled to a landfill for ultimate, disposal . The unit
cost for dewatering and disposal of 300 dry tons/day
(272,100 kg/day) was estimated to be $29/ton ($0.032/kg).
Present plans call for a fully operational two stage
centrifuge sludge dewatering system at the JWPCP by
October 1975.
249
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Patil, K.C., F. Matsumura, and G.M. Boush.
Metabolic Transformation of DDT, Dieldrin, Aldrin, and Endrin
by Marine Microorganisms,
Environmental Science and Technology. £(7) :629-632. July 1972.
Key Words: DDT, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The most significant observation in the entire study
appears to be that these insecticides are not metabolized
in plain seawater. The insecticides were not degraded even
in relatively polluted estuarine waters such as the ones
from Kaneohe Bay and Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The only water
sample which showed any degree of degradation was the one
from fish ponds which contained algal populations.
On the other hand, most of the strong degradation activity
was found to be associated with biological samples such as
algae, plankton, surface films, and microorganisms. The
patterns of degradation of insecticides, in general,
closely resemble those found in the terrestrial and aquatic
(freshwater) flora and fauna (Matsumura and Boush, 1971),
except that algal cultures appear to convert DDT exclu-
sively to a DDOH-like compound.
Apart from the pure cultures of microorganisms and algae,
there is a question of the closeness of the laboratory
incubation conditions to the actual field situations. This
is particularly true for the surface films which contain
delicate microscopic organisms. These organisms are expected
to die within 24 hr after collection. This is the reason
why the insecticides were given at the site within 1 hr
after collection. Nevertheless, change in microflora and
fauna during the incubation process is inevitable in all
field samples.
In the absence of truly adequate methods to simulate field
conditions, the approach of comparing the degradation pat-
terns in field-incubated samples vs. those in pure cultures
of organisms isolated from the corresponding field samples
at least should provide a general information.
250
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Patterson, C.C.
Contaminated and Natural Lead Environments of Man.
Archives of Environmental Health. 11(3) :344-360. September
1965. ~~
Key Words: lead, direct contact, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine), livestock, groundwater.
Abstract:
This is an excellent general review of lead and lead
pathways by a foremost expert on trace lead analysis.
251
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Patterson, J.W.
Mercury in Laundry Wastewaters.
Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality, ChicagV,
Illinois, March 1975. 45p.
Key Words: mercury, combined municipal and/or storm system.
Abstract:
The consistent occurrence of mercury in commercial
laundry wastewaters is attributable to two categories
of source. A major source, perhaps representing half
or more of the mercury discharged, is mercury removed
from soiled fabrics in the laundering process. The
limited data indicate consistent mercury levels except
for the one 1 inen laundering wastewater. This higher
mercury level may reflect hospital linen contamination
with mercurial-containing pharmaceutical ointments.
The second major source of mercury results from use of
mercury-contaminated laundering chemicals. Chemicals
for which significant mercury content is indicated
include caustic (70-250,000 p.g/1 Hg), hydrof 1 uos i 1 i ci c
acid (2,400 H-9/1 Hg), bacteri os tats and mildicides
such as phenyl mercuric acetate, and various soaps and
fabric softeners which frequently contain bacterio-
static agents .
There are many types of treatment technology available
for mercury control. Among the processes shown, iron
and calcium chloride coagulation, and activated carbon
adsorption have the capability to meet the Illinois
effluent standard of 0.5 ng/1 . However, for the
mercury levels found in commercial laundry wastewaters,
only activated carbon would consistently achieve an
effluent value below the Illinois standard. The acti-
vated carbon process has been proven successful,
achieving below 0.25u g/1 Hg on a commercial laundry
was te.
In addition to wastewater treatment, there are two other
mercury abatement processes available to commercial
laundries. One of these ts to substitute mercury-free
laundering chemicals for those containing mercury. The
second is to pretreat laundering chemicals before their
use, to remove mercury. As an example, caustic soda
mercury may be reduced to below 500 yg/1 by filtering
prior to use. For an average concentration of 3,267
v 3/1, filtration prior to caustic use would reduce
mercury in the caustic by about 85 percent, and possibly
in the wastewater by as much as 40 percent.
252
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Patterson, J.W.
Wastewater Treatment Technology.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Key Words;
1975. 265 p
arsenic, barium, boron, cadmium, chlorides,
chromium, copper, cyanides, fluorides, iron,
lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, oil and grease,
synthetic/organics, selenium, zinc, total dissolved
solids, activated sludge, filtration.
Abstract:
This article describes treatment technologies for
removal of certain elements and other parameters.
253
-------
Patterson, J.W., P. Shlmada, and C.N. Haas.
Heavy Metals Transport Through Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants
In: Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Complete
WateReuse, Chicago, 1975. pp. 210-213.
Key Words: cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, zinc, gravity
separators, activated sludge, filtration,
anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
This article describes original research on a model
waste disposal plant determining heavy metal, soluble
transportation in influent and effluent waters after:
1) primary (gravity settlement), 2) secondary (activated
sludge), 3) tertiary (sand filtration), and 4) anaerobic
digestion.
254
-------
Pavia , E.H. and C.J. Powel1 .
Stormwater Disinfection at New Orleans.
JWPCF. 4J_(4) :591-606. April 1969,
Key Words: coliforms, BOD, suspended solids, surface water
(fresh).
Abstract:
New Orleans, as many other cities, has the problem of
polluted runoff, even though it maintains two entirely
separate sewer systems -- a sanitary system, and a storm
system. Unstable soil conditions and a high water table
coupled with leaky joints on the older portions of the
system all contribute to the problem of interchange
between the sanitary and storm systems. This interchange
coupled with the normally polluted runoff results in a
storm water pumpage extremely high in coliform count.
Counts in the magnitude of 100,000,000 coliform/TOO ml
are not unusual.
The Pre-Construction Evaluation Program started in
February 1976 has confirmed the belief that the storm-
water is basically of good quality and does not cause
deleterious effects on the quality of water in Lake
Pontchartrain with the exception of coliform level. A plot
of the parameters measured during this "pre-construction"
program shows that the BOD ranged from practically 0 to a
maximum of 50 mg/1 , the suspended solids from 5 to 100 mg/1,
the dissolved oxygen from 0 to 13 mg/1. During this period,
however, the coliform count was above the acceptable limits.
255
-------
Pavlou, S.P., R.N. Dexter, and J.R. Clayton, Jr.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Coastal Marine Ecosystems.
Presented at the International Conference on Transport of
Persistent Chemicals in Aquatic Ecosystems, Ottawa, 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (marine),
fish, air.
Abstract:
Observed distributions of chlorinated hydrocarbons in
California coastal zones are discussed in terms of the
input mechanism, the circulation characteristics, and
the primary productivity of the area under investigation
Considerations of transport within the ecosystem include
spatial distribution and phase fractionation from
ambient water.
256
-------
Pavlou, S., K. A. Krogslund, R. N. Dexter, and J. R. Clayton.
SYOPS (Synthetic Organics in Puget Sound) Cruise Series 1, 2,
3, 4. Hydrographic, Chemical and Biological Measurements. R/V
Onar Cruises 435, 450, 469, 502.
University of Washington, Seattle, Department of Oceanography,
1973. 178 p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-227 060)
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, copper, zinc, lead,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Raw data are reported on the concentrations of chlorinated
hydrocarbons in zooplankton and sediments of Puget Sound,
and Cu, Pb, and Zn concentrations in water are given.
257
-------
Pavlou, S.P., T, E. Whittedge, J. C. Kelley, and J. J. Walsh
A Systems Approach to Marine Pollution Monitoring.
Personal Communication.
Key Words: surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This article gives a description of the objectives,
field program, and systems analysis approach which will
be used in a planned study of the physical, chemical,
and biological dynamics of a marine ecosystem. It has
limited application to health effects.
258
-------
Pavoni, J.L. and D.J. Hagerty.
Adsorption of Pesticides by Clay Minerals.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
97.(SA 2):243-244. April 1971.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (marine),
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article is a discussion of the effect of pH on
clay surface adsorption. Two types of adsorption onto
clay surfaces are possible: physical and chemical.
In the case of surfactant-oxide systems where the sur-
factant is adsorbed only by physical forces, pH exerts
a significant influence because of its control of
surface charge.
259
-------
Pavoni, J.L. and M.E. Tittlebaum.
Virus Inactivation in Secondary Wastewater Treatment Plant
Effluent Using Ozone.
In: Virus Survival
MTlina, Jr. and B
Austin, Center for
pp. 180-198.
In Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at
Research in Water Resources, 1974.
Key Words: viruses, ozonation.
Abstract:
The conclusions derived from
may be summarized as follows:
this research investigation
1. F£ virus was shown to be sustained in secondary
effluent wastewater for at least 5 hours. This phenom-
enon illustrates that disinfection procedures must be
practiced to insure viral removal in wastewater.
2. F2 virus concentrations were shown to be unaffected
by the flow or mixing of the ozone reactor.
3. ?2 virus was inactivated with virtually 100 percent
efficiency after a contact time of 5 minutes at a total
ozone dosage of approximately 15 ppm and a residual of
0.015 ppm.
4- E. co1i bacteria and f£ virus were inactivated with
virtually 100 percent efficiency after a contact time
of less than 15 seconds in the absence of ozone demand-
ing material.
5. An extremely small number of viral particles was
observed in effluent studies. These bacteriophages
seem to be either resistant or not completely removed
by ozonation at the dosage level or contact period
utilized during this investigation.
260
-------
Pavoni , J. L., M. E. Tittlebaum, H. T. Spencer, M. Fleischman,
C. Nebel , and R. Gottschling.
Virus Removal from Wastewater Using Ozone.
Water and Sewage Works. 119(12) :59-67. December 1972.
Key Words: viruses, ozonation.
Abstract:
The conclusions derived from this investigation may be
summarized as follows:
1. F2 virus was shown to be sustained in secondary
effluent wastewater for at least 5 hours.
2. F£ virus concentrations were shown to be unaffected
by flow or mixing in the ozone reactor.
3. Fg virus was inactivated with virtually 100 percent
efficiency after a contact time of 5 minutes at a total
ozone dosage of approximately 15 ppm and a residual
of 0.015 ppm.
4. A small amount of virus was observed in effluent
studies. These were either resistant or not completely
removed by ozonation at the dosage level or contact
period used.
5. Within the scope of this investigation, the rate
of inactivation was greater for F£ bacteri ophages than
either bacteria or carbonaceous material.
6. It appears that the mechanism of kill of bacterial
cells and viral particles was probably that of oxidation.
It was theorized that ozone acts as a general cytoplasmic
oxidant which causes cenlysis and the release of soluble
COD.
7. F£ bacteriophage is used as a test-phage with some
difficulties. Although it is easy to culture and assay,
difficulties were encountered when very low viral con-
centrations were plated. There was often growth of
non-specific bacteria on the specific bacterial lawn
which made accurate plaque counting difficult.
8. Standards of ozone use in wastewater are needed.
Current standards are concerned only with chlorine
as a disinfecting agent. The contact times and dosage
levels for chlorine are not applicable to ozone. The
E_. colj indicator, presently the only indicator of dis-
infection efficienc4es, cannot be used to evaluate the
presence of viral agents.
261
-------
Recommendations for future investigations:
1. The discovery of a good indicator bacteriophage
whose presence in water or wastewater could be definitely
correlated to the presence of animal viruses of impor-
tance to man.
2. The development of assay procedures for test bacterio-
phages which will allow, relevant comparisons of different
disinfection process data.
3. Further study results to determine the characteris-
tics of bacteriophages resistant to, or not completely
removed by ozonation, and to evaluate their importance
to man.
4. Studies concerning the possiblity of viral particle
regeneration after ozone inactivation.
5. The development of a separate viral index to be
used in conjunction with the coliform index, thereby
allowing proper evaluation of both bacterial and
viral content in treatment plant effluents.
6. Analysis of the actual kill mechanism of bacterial
and viral cells by ozone to allow optimization of dis-
infection procedures.
7. The determination of whether virus, bacteria or
carbonaceous material is inactivated or removed most
efficiently by ozone.
8. The development of appropriate dosage levels and
contact times for ozone treatment of wastewater to
insure adequate viral inactivation, bacterial kill and
carbonaceous material removal.
262
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Pearson, F. and T.G. Metcalf.
The Use of Magnetic Iron Oxide for Recovery of Virus from Water,
University of New Hampshire, Durham* Water Resources Research
Center, 1974. 44 p. (Available from National Technical In-
formation Service (NTIS) as PB-234 626)
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Demonstration of an enterovirus in surface waters pre-
sumes an ability to detect the presence of a few virus
particles in large volumes of water. The study describes
the development of equipment and methods which sought
to combine the virtues of flow-through procedures with
the virus-removal capabilities of magnetic iron oxide.
Factors influencing virus-iron oxide interaction and
the effectiveness of equipment and methods for recovery
of virus were examined. Special attention was directed
to theoretical aspects of virus-iron oxide interactions,
and an explanation of the basis of interaction sought.
263
-------
Pennypacker, S.P., W.E. Sopper, and L.F. Kardos.
Renovation of Wastewater Effluent by Irrigation of Forest Land.
JWPCF. 39_(2):285-296. February 1967.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, chlorides, crops.
Abstract:
The reported investigation indicates the following con-
clusions with regard to the renovation of wastewater
effluent through the irrigation of forest land:
1. ABS, the only constituent in 'the effluent which
exceeded the levels acceptable under the U.S. Public
Health Service Standards for potable water, was de-
creased below this level after passing through as little
as 6 in (15.2 cm) of mineral soil when up to 2 in
(5.1 cm) of effluent were applied per week and through
as little as 3 ft (0.9 cm) of mineral soil when the
effluent application was at a level of 4 in /wk (10.2
cm/wk) .
2. Phosphorus, which is principally responsible for
the eutrophication of lakes and streams, was removed
to such a degree that water percolating to the ground-
water contained an average of less than 0.04 to 0.07 mg/1.
3. The higher level of application, 4 in/wk (10.2 cm/wk),
required 2 to 4 times as great a soil depth to remove
equal amounts of the nitrate, nitrogen, potassium, cal-
cium, magnesium, and sodium.
Results of this study appear to indicate that application
of wastewater effluent to forest land areas may offer
a solution to both water pollution and water supply prob-
lems which plague many areas. At a disposal level of
2 in/wfc (5.1 cm/wk) only 129 acres (52 ha) would be re-
quired for the continuous disposal of 1 mgd (3.785 cu m/
day) of wastewater, equivalent to the average wastewater
treatment plant output of a community of 10,000 persons.
264
-------
Pereira, M.R. and M.A. Benjaminson.
Broadcast of Microbial Aerosols by Stacks of Sewage Treatment
Plants and Effect of Ozonation on Bacteria in Gaseous Effluent.
Public Health Reports. 9_0(3):208-212. May-June 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
The purpose of the investigation was to demonstrate that
microbial pollution of the air by sewage treatment plants
is an environmental factor which deserves more intensive
study. The data derived from this study should be taken
into account in planning and locating sewage treatment
plants, since these facilities are often constructed in
or near residential areas. The sewage treatment plant
under study is one of the few in New York City where odor
control is being attempted by mixing ozone with the
gaseous effluent. This process is applied only at the
building housing the thickening tanks. In the future,
this system of odor control is slated for application
to all sewage treatment plants in New York City.
Sampling the open air in the vicinity of the plant from
December 1970 to January 1971 was done equidistantly
(about 300 meters from the aeration building) upwind
at a neighborhood school and downwind at dockside on Shell
Bank Creek. These stations were probably not the best
locations from a maximum aerosol coverage standpoint,
but they were the most accessible. The air inside the
aeration building was sampled during December 1970 and
January and March 1971. The internal atmosphere of one
exhaust stack was sampled during March 1971. From this
study it was concluded that the bubbling of air into
aeration tanks causes some of the bacteria concentrated
at the liquid-air interface to become airborne. Thus,
these bacteria are found in great numbers in the atmosphere
of aeration buildings. The air currents created by fans
in the wall of the buildings and in the exhaust stacks
carry numbers of bacteria into these stacks and from
there into the outside air. Among these bacteria are
viable potential respiratory pathogens. Ozonation does
not appreciably attenuate these aerosols. The results
point to the existence of a possible health hazard, such
as mycobacterial disease, especially for sewage treat-
ment plant workers and for highly susceptible population
groups such as young children, the elderly, and the in-
firm who reside in areas where the atmosphere is contam-
inated by the gaseous effluent of sewage treatment plants.
265
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Perhac, R.M.
Distribution of Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn in
Dissolved and Participate Solids from Two Streams in
Tennessee.
Journal of Hydrology. J_5:177-186. 1972.
Key Words: cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, nickel,
lead, zinc, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In order to study metal distribution in streams, four
water samples were taken from two streams in northeast
Tennessee. One drains an area of exposed minor zinc
mineralization. Three classes of solids were0extracted
from the water: coarse particulates (> 1500 A), colloid-
al particulates ( <1500 A, >100 A) and dissolved solids.
Each particulate fraction was extracted by continuous
flow ultracentrifugation. The dissolved solids in the
remaining effluent were recovered by evaporation. Of
the total solid, the dissolved fraction accounts for
over 95%; colloids make up less than 1%. The three
solid fractions were totally dissolved and analyzed
for Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn. The dissolved
solids always contain the lowest concentrations of metal
(ppm metal in solid); the colloids have the highest,
typically more than 10 times that of the dissolved mater-
ial. The coarse particulates occupy an intermediate
position. Despite its low concentration, generally over
90% of each metal occurs in the dissolved state. Less
than 10% occurs with the coarse particulates, less than
1% as colloids.
266
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Perhac, R.M.
Water Transport of Heavy Metals 1n Solution and by Different
Sizes of Participate Solids.
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Water Resources Research
Center, March 1974. 45 p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-232 427).
Key Words: cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese,
lead, zinc, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The transport of heavy metals by water and bottom
sediments was studied in three streams in east
Tennessee. One stream is in an industrialized, urban
area; a second flows over exposed carbonate rocks
which contain zinc minerals; the third is in a rural,
nonmineralized area. Dissolved solids, particulates ,
and bottom sediment were analyzed for a suite of heavy
metals, principally, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and
Zn. Most of the heavy metal is transported in solution.
The concentration of metals in the particulates (especi-
ally colloids) is very high but the amount of particulate
matter is exceedingly low. The amount of heavy metals
in the bottom sediment differs considerably from sample
to sample.
267
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Perkins, M.A., C. R. Goldman, and R. L. Leonard.
Residual Nutrient Discharge in Streamwaters Influenced by
Sewage Effluent Spraying.
Ecology. 56^:453-460. Spring 1975.
Key Words: nitrates, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The combined results of the chemical analyses and bio-
assay experiments indicate that the unique nutrient and
algal growth characteristics of the lower reaches of
Heavenly Valley Creek are related to the history of
sewage effluent spraying in Area I. It is demonstrated
that exceptionally high concentrations of NO^"^-N were
released into the stream in a 15-mos, period in 1970-71.
One researcher has commented on the nutrient regulating
effect of forest vegetation by uptake and storage as
well as by influencing the flow of water through the
soil profile. Others have demonstrated the increased
nutrient output due to removal of forest vegetation and
the importance of vegetation in maintaining nutrient
cycling within the ecosystem. The results presented
in this report indicate a similar type of nutrient
release which, when coupled with the accumulation of
nutrients contained 1n sewage effluent, can create a long-
term potential for eutrophication of the receiving body
of water.
Phytoplankton growth in Lake Tahoe has been shown to
be most limited by nitrate. Researchers have also
shown close correlation between primary productivity and
UV absorbance in lake waters off the south shore. They
suggested that this UV absorbance may be due to N03~1-N,
or dissolved organic matter, or both, present in the
water. Although the data did not reveal a consistently
strong, positive correlation between N03~'-N concentra-
tion and UV absorbance in the present study, there was
no doubt that the high UV readings were traceable to
drainage from the effluent sprayed area. It was con-
cluded that the UV absorbance noted and its correlation
with primary productivity were in fact indicators of the
enrichment of southern Lake Tahoe by drainage from the
two sprayed areas within the Trout Creek-Upper Truckee
Ri ver watersheds.
Because of the sensitivity of the coniferous soil-vege-
tation system to unseasonal flooding and possibly to
toxic substances in the effluent, and because of the
sensitivity of the aquatic systems to nutrient additions,
large-scale land disposal of secondary sewage effluent
is inappropriate in the Tahoe basin.
268
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Perry, R.
Mercury Recovery from Contaminated Waste Water and Sludges.
EPA-660/2-74-086, Georgia-Pacific Corporation, Bellingham,
Washington, Bellingham Division, December 1974. 130p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as PB-238 600).
Key Words: mercury, chemical treatment, heat treatment.
Abstract:
Sulfide precipitation offers several advantages over other
methods of Hg removal from water; fewer process steps, pH
range compatible with total plant effluent, concentrated
Hg products, inexpensive chemicals used, and minimal
environmental stress.
269
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Perspectives on the Control of Viral Hepatitis, Type B.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Supplement. U.S. Center
for Disease Control, HEW. 25.(17). May 7, 1976.
Key Words: hepatitis virus, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is a joint statement by the Committee on Viral
Hepatitis, Division of Medical Sciences, National
Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, and the
Public Health Service Advisory Committee on immunization
practices.
270
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Peterson, F.L. and D.R. Hargis.
Subsurface Disposal of Storm Runoff.
JWPCF. £5(8):1663-1670. August 1973.
Key Words: chlorides, nitrates, COD, coliforms, combined
municipal and/or storm system.
Abstract:
Injection of storm runoff into the basal groundwater
body from Kahului Development Company facility will
occur in zones below the freshwater lens. The quality
of the storm runoff generally is good, with low DS
and low chloride concentrations. The general effect
of injection will be a decrease in DS of the ground-
water near the wells. Some fecal coliform will un-
doubtedly be introduced into the aquifer through the
disposal wells; however, dilution of the injected
runoff by the groundwater and the hostile environment
presented by the saline water in the disposal zone
should greatly reduce any contamination hazard repre-
sented by the fecal coliform.
Data collected indicate that the SS concentration may
be as high as 55,600 Ib (25,700 kg) of sediment for
the maximum design storm of 2.5 mil cu ft (70.8 mil 1)
of runoff. This amount of sediment, if it all entered
the well, could significantly reduce the efficiency
of the disposal operation.
Pumping and injection tests of the completed injection
wells indicate that the disposal wells should be able
to inject at rates in excess of 5,500 gpm (20,800 1/m)
if significant clogging from sediment does not occur
and if hydraulic interference among the four wells
operating simultaneously is not significant.
271
-------
Peterson, J.R., C. Lue-Hing, and D.R. Lenz.
Chemical and Biological Quality of Municipal Sludge.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
tTTrough Forest and Cropland. W. E. Sopper and L. Kardos, eds.
EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources,
March 1974. pp. 28-39.
Key Words: ammonia, phosphates, zinc, boron, germanium,
manganese, aluminum, cadmium, chlorides, chromium,
copper, nickel, lead, protozoa, salmonella,
Escherichia coli , anaerobic digestion, vacuum
fi 1 ters .
Abstract:
This data gives a comparison of the chemical content
of various sludge types.
272
-------
Petrocelli, S.R., A.R. Hanks, and J. Anderson.
Uptake and Accumulation of an Organochlorine Insecticide
(Dieldrin) by an Estuarine Mollusc, Rangia cuneata.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
1^:315-320. November 1973.
Key Words: dieldrin, shellfish.
Abstract:
The results of this study indicate that Rangia is cap-
able of taking up and concentrating dieldrin in its
tissues to levels far above ambient. The smallest
dieldrin residue in the experimental clams was 38.2
yg/bg (water dieldrin level at 0.50 yg/L) after 12
hours of exposure. The largest residue was 1226 yg/kg
(water at 0.63 yg/L) after 60 hours of exposure. The
means for the 12 and 24 hour groups (67 yg/kg and 118
y9/kg, respectively)showed about a 200 fold increase
above ambient, while the 36 hour groups (385 yg/kg) had
an increase of almost 800 times. Maximum increase was
over 2000 times ambient.
273
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Pettyjohn, W.A., L.R. Hayes, and T.R. Schultz.
Concentration and Distribution of Selected Trace Elements in
the Maumee River Basin, Ohio, Indiana and Michigan.
Ohio State University, Columbus, Water Resources Center,
March 1974. 206 p. (Available from National Technical In-
formation Service (NTIS) as PB-234 013)
• •
Key Words: aluminum, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
lead, mercury, tin, zinc, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
During the period 1971-73, water and stream-bottom
sediment samples were collected from 225 sites distributed
throughout the Maumee River Basin, which lies largely
in Ohio. The samples were examined by atomic absorption
methods in order to determine concentrations of Ag, Al,
Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg,-Ni, Pb, Sn, Sr, and Zn. The con-
centration of these elements in both water and sediment
included a wide range, but in most cases the concentra-
tions in water are very small while in sediment they
may be very large. Seven municipalities in the basin
are characterized by large concentrations of one or more
elements in water or sediment, probably resulting from
industrial and municipal waste disposal.
274
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Pfeiffer, K.R.
The Homestead Typhoid Outbreak.
JAWWA. 6j>.(12):803-805. December 1973.
Key Words: salmonella, viruses, groundwater, chlorinati on .
Abstract:
Two samples collected from the trench dug to expose the
abandoned sewer were positive for salmonella, but not
Salmonella ty phi. However, the presence of a pathogen
in the immediate vicinity of the wells (20 ft from the
main supply) is apparently a good indication of severe
well contamination. It is also proof, the author be-
lieves, that the outbreak originated with the water
supply.
Substantiating proof of this hypothesis is based on the
presence of an as yet undetermined virus collected from
the 6-in well. The virus isolate could not be confirmed.
Both the salmonella and the virus are being typed at
the present time.
One can only speculate about the cause of the outbreak.
However, several sources of well contamination were
possible:
1. The drainage ditch continuously showed contamination.
It was not connected to any moving body of water and circum-
scribed the entire camp. The sewage-treatment facility
discharged into the ditch, thus creating a possible in-
fection source. Groundwater motion to the southeast or
east-southeast was indicated. The ground is probably
underlain with considerable solution channels thereby
eliminating any rock-filtration effect. Evidence of
two small solution channels was shown in the north and
west pits.
2. A dry well located in the immediate vicinity of the
well field was indirectly connected, possibly by solution
channels, to a supply well - an "excellent" means of
contaminating the supply well. Furthermore, there was
evidence of human fecal contamination in the area around
the well and the dry well was constructed in such a way
as to provide an outside commode.
3. The abandoned sewer, which ran 15-20 ft from the well,
showed what appeared to be a surface-water-intrusion flow,
although a dye test on the building located over this
sewer line showed no connection. However, the sewer line
cannot be eliminated as a possible source due to the fact
275
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that two positive salmonella organisms were isolated
from it.
4. Another possible source of contamination was the
ground surrounding the well house. Dye stueh'es showed
the ease with which contamination on the surface could
reach the supply wells, possibly because of the presence
of solution channels in the area.
The author believes that the contamination of the water
supply occurred at a time when chlorine was not being
fed into the system and that the contamination itself
was in an instantaneous dose. The author's records
show that the chlorine cylinder was expended on or about
the date of the probable contamination.
As to the issuing source of the disease, it should be
noted that a 7-yr-old girl was hospitalized in Jan. 1973
with typhoid fever. It was shown that this child fre-
quented the residence of a 40-yr-old female neighbor
who, although she did not prove to have typhoid, accord-
ing to serologic tests, probably was a typhoid carrier.
276
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Phillips, W.J. II.
The Direct Reuse of Reclaimed Wastewater: Pros, Cons, and
Alternati ves.
JAWWA. 66(4) :231-237. April 1974.
Key Words:
suspended solids, COD, total organic carbon,
nitrates, BOD, fecal streptococci, coliforms,
phosphates, chlorides, ammonia, nitrites, arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, copper, zinc,
influent characteristics, effluent characteristics
activated sludge, ch 1 ori nati on .
Abstract:
One of the best known of the
reuse is the Santee project
nia. Santee utilizes a modi
followed by retention in oxi
prior to percolation. The w
underground path prior to di
waters and emergence into a
lakes. Excellent removal of
resulted in the use of the 1
U.S. programs in wastewater
in San Diego County, Califor-
fied activated-sludge process
dation ponds and chlorination
ater then follows a limited
lution with natural ground
set of man-made recreational
viruses and bacteria has
akes for boating and fishing.
277
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Physical-Chemical Nitrogen Removal: Wastewater Treatment.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C, July 1974,
25 p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, filtration,
adsorption/ion exchange, chlorinati on .
Abstract:
Each of the processes discussed has its advantages and
disadvantages. Unfortunately, no single process for
nitrogen removal is superior to others both in terms
of performance and economics.
The ammonia-stripping process has the advantage of low
cost, removal of ammonia with a minimal addition of
dissolved solids, simplicity, and reliability. However,
it has the disadvantages of poor efficiency in cold
weather and the potential for scaling problems that may
reduce its efficiency, and it raises concerns, whether
valid or not, over ammonia gas discharge. The new
stripping-recovery system overcomes many of these prob-
lems, but at the sacrifice of low process costs.
The selective ion exchange process has the advantages
of high efficiency, insensitivity to temperature fluctua-
tions, removal of ammonia with a minimal addition of
dissolved solids, and the ability to eliminate any dis-
charges of nitrogen to the atmosphere other than nitrogen
gas. This process has the disadvantage of relatively
high cost, and process control and operation are rela-
tively complex.
The breakpoint chlorination process has the advantages
of low capital cost, a high degree of efficiency and
reliability, insensi ti vi ty to cold weather, and the
release of nitrogen as nitrogen gas. It has the disad-
vantage of adding a substantial quantity of dissolved
solids to the effluent in the process of removing the
ammonia, it will raise public concerns over handling
of chlorine gas, the process controls required are rela-
tively complex, and it requires a downstream dechlorina-
tion process .
The relative costs of the physi cal-chemi cal nitrogen
processes for a 10-mgd plant are:
Ammonia stripping, 5 cents per 1,000 gallons
Selective ion exchange, 10-13 cents per 1,000 gallons
278
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Breakpoint ch1orination, 11 cents per 1,000 gallons
These costs all are based on the removal of 25 mg/1 ammonia
nitrogen. The cost of biological nitrogen removal by
the three-stage activated-sludge process has been esti-
mated at about 13 cents per 1,000 gallons. Preliminary
estimates on the costs of the new ammonia-stripping/
ammonia-recovery process discussed earlier, which mini-
mizes the seasonal restrictions on the ammonia-stripping
process, indicate that the cost will be 8-10 cents per
1,000 gallons. It can be seen from the above costs that
there is little economic incentive to select one process
over another if faced with a requirement for cold weather
removal of ammonia. The choice must be made by weighing
the advantages and disadvantages of each approach in light
of the circumstances applicable to a specific project.
279
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Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment Plant Design.
Environmental Protection Aaency, Washington, D.C., August
1973. 41 p.
Key Words: total organic carbon, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This publication gives a good discussion of coagulants
used in tertial treatment (polymers, iron salt,
aluminum salt, and lime) and gives excellent data
on sludge composition.
280
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Pickar, J.H.,M» R. Sochard, J. A. Bellanti, and R. R. Colwell.
Pathogenic Properties of Some Strains of Vibrio parahaemoly ti cus,
Developments in Industrial Microbiology. _14_:337-345, 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Vibrio parahaemolyticus. a food-poisoning agent trans-
mitted via ingestion of contaminated seafood, has been
isolated from estuaries in the United States, including
Chesapeake Bay. Because of its association with mor-
talities of shellfish and crabs, as well as its impli-
cation in food poisoning in humans, V. parahaemolyticus
poses a threat to mari cul turis ts raisTng crabs, snrimp,
and shellfish for market. Since little is known about
pathogenesis of this organism, several properties associ-
ated with pathogenesis in V. parahaemolyticus were investi-
gated, Determinations of 0^59 were carried out on mice
with three V. parahaemolyti cus strains, using whole
cell suspensions prepared from 6-hr cultures injected
intravenously. Washed cell suspensions and broth fil-
trates were also tested by intravenous injection. Pre-
liminary physiological evidence suggests the presence
of a toxic substance in 36-60 hrs Filtrates. The toxicity
was less demonstrable when V_^ parah3emq1 ytic us was admini-
stered via the oral route. Pat hoTo gT c a T 'c h an g e s were
observed in selected organs and tissues, they included
hepatic plate disruption and liver necrosis. Symptoms
observed shortly prior to death from intravenous injec-
tion included diarrhea, convulsions, and gasping respira-
tion followed by respiratory failure.
281
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Pietz, R.I., J.R. Peterson, and C. Lue-Hing.
Groundwater Quality at a Strip-Mine Reclamation Area in West
Central Illinois.
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, July 1974. 20 p
Key Words: cadmium, zinc, chromium, manganese, iron, nitrates,
phosphates, chlorides, copper, aluminum,*nickel,
mercury, groundwater.
Abstract:
The Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago
(MSDGC) has initiated a program to reclaim an extensive
strip-mined area in west central Illinois by recycling
digested sewage sludge to rebuild soil and sustain
growth of agricultural crops. Part of the environmental
protection system established at the Fulton County land
reclamation site in 1971 is 24 groundwater monitoring
wells situated on both nondisturbed and strip-mined areas.
These wells were used to determine base line levels of
23 chemical characteristics before extensive applications
of digested sewage sludge in 1973. Groundwater data from
six placed land and six mine-spoil monitoring wells, res-
pectively, were selected for statistical analysis of water
quali ty.
Monthly groundwater samples from December 1971 to December
1973 revealed that former strip-mining operations for
coal up to 1960 in Pennsylvanian geologic formations had
significantly affected the groundwater quality in mine-
spoil areas. Electrical conductivity (E.C.), alkalinity,
and concentrations of Cl", SO^, Kjeldahl-N, NH3-N, K, Na,
Ca, Mg, In, Cd, Cr, Ni, Mn, Pb, and Fe were significantly
higher, at 0.01 level, in mine-spoil groundwaters. In
groundwaters from both nondisturbed and mined areas the
mean concentrations of NH3-N, Fe, Pb, Mn, and Zn exceeded
public water supply recommendations. Concentrations of
Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn in mine-spoil waters were approxi-
mately two to five times those detected in placed land
groundwaters. The frequency of trace metal detection
in mine spoil waters was higher than for nondisturbed
areas.
282
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PHlay, K.K.S., C. C. Thomas, Jr., J. A. Sondel , and C. M. Hyde,
Mercury Pollution of Lake Erie Ecosphere.
Environmental Research. £:172-181. May 1972.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The distribution of mercury In the ecosphere of Lake
Erie was monitored using a highly sensitive and reliable
neutron activation analysis procedure. A variety of
samples from the fauna and flora of the lake as well as
those from its immediate environment were analyzed for
their mercury content. The results of this survey in-
dicate a widespread distribution of mercury in air
particulates; coal samples of the region; sediments,
plankton/algae, and fish samples from the lake; and in
the brain tissues of long-time residents of the Lake
Erie Basin.
283
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Pionke, H.B. and G. Chesters.
Pesti cide-Sediment-Water Interact!ons.
Journal of Environmental Quality. 2^:29-45. January 1973.
Key Words: pesticides, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Pesticide-sediment-water interactions occurring within a
water-shed and the associated aquatic system are reviewed
regarding their impact on the distribution and persis-
tence of pesticides in recipient lakes. Pesticidal per-
sistence on the watershed is discussed initially because
the aquatic residue hazard depends largely on the per-
sistence of soil-applied pesticides. Mechanisms of
transport from field to aquatic system are reviewed for
those compounds not degraded rapidly to nontoxic deriva-
tives. Pesticide transport through the atmosphere,
groundwater, and surface runoff is traced with particular
emphasis on application-associated losses and transport
effect on initial pesticide distribution and concentration
in the aquatic system. Field and plot studies evaluating
pesticide losses in runoff are summarized.
Within the aquatic system, 1imnological, sediment and
water characteristics potentially alter the distribution
of adsorbed pesticide between water and associated sedi-
ment within the lake. Specifically, the effects of pH,
lake stratification, characteristics and content of
sediment organic matter and clay, and salinity are
evaluated. This review concludes with a discussion of
literature on pesticide persistence determined in
simulated or natural aquatic systems and the interactions
between aquatic vegetation, sediment, and water which
affect pesticide distribution.
284
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Pitt, W.W., R.L. Jolley, and S. Katz.
Automated Analysis of Individual Refractory Organics in
Polluted Water.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, August
1974. llOp. Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-239 774).
Key Words: COD, ch1orination .
Abstract:
Residual organic compounds present in municipal sewage
treatment plant effluents at microgram-per-1iter levels
were analyzed using high-resolution anion-exchange
chromatography. Effluents were concentrated 50- to 3000-
fold by vacuum evaporation and freeze-drying and then
analyzed by liquid chromatographs capable of detecting
uv-absorbing, oxidizable (with sulfatoceric acid), or
carbohydrate constituents. Using techniques such as uv
spectroscopy, gas chromatography, and mass spectrometry,
56 organic compounds were identified in primary effluent
and 13 organic compounds in secondary effluent. Some
of these constituents were quantified. Chromatograph i c
procedures, coupled with radioactive tracer chlorination,
were applied to the analysis of chlorinated primary and
secondary effluents. A detector system for liquid chrom-
atography based on cerate oxidimetry was adapted as a
rapid, sensitive continuous monitor for measuring the COD
of waters. The effects of column geometry and operating
parameters on chromatographic resolution were studied.
Two high-resolution, ion exchange chromatographs (UV-
Analyzers) were constructed.
285
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Pitt, W.W, R.L. Jolley, and C.D. Scott.
Determination of Trace Organics in Municipal Sewage Effluents
and Natural Waters by High-Resolution Ion-Exchange Chromatography
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_(12): 1068-1073.
November 1975.
Key Words: COD, chlorination.
Abstract:
Automated, high-resolution ion-exchange chromatographs,
previously developed for the analysis of the molecular
biochemical constituents in human body fluids, have been
applied to the analysis of various polluted waters.
Samples of polluted waters have been collected from
selected sources, concentrated up to 10,000-fold, and
chromatographed on high-pressure ion-exchange columns.
Monitoring of the column eluates for ultraviolet ab-
sorbance and cerate oxidizability has revealed the
presence of numerous organic contaminants, many of
which have been subsequently identified by auxiliary
techniques such as mass spectrometry. In the primary
and secondary effluents from a domestic sewage treatment
plant, 56 and 13 organics, respectively, have been
identified and quantified. A total of 16 different
organics have beeen identified in samples from five
different natural waters.
286
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Pittwell, L.R.
Metals Coordinated by Ligands Normally Found in Natural Waters
Journal of Hydrology. 2J_:301-304
Key Words:
1974
aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, german-
ium, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum,
nickel, selenium, throium, tin, uranium, zinc,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Water, carbonate, chloride, and fluoride are the main
ligands responsible for keeping metals in solution in
natural waters. Metals are listed by ligands and the
conditions under which they are likely to be kept in
solution are presented in this paper.
287
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Pluntze, J.C.
Health Aspects of Uncovered Reservoirs.
JAWWA. 67_(8): 432-437. August 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
There are undeniable health reasons for covering water-
supply distribution reservoirs, but it should not be
necessary to defend such a project entirely on health
grounds. Looping the water-distribution system to
eliminate dead ends, hydrant flushing, softening, and
iron removal are not designed primarily for health
protection. They are intended to improve the quality
of the product. A community water supply may meet all
health (disease) standards and be entirely unacceptable.
It is as if an airline's only mission were to prevent
accidents, no matter whether it met schedules or how it
treated its passengers. In 1930 that goal may have
been foremost, but not today. Of course, water utilities
must protect the health of their consumers, but their
mission begins, not ends, at that point.
The consumers of community water supplies in the U.S.
and Canada readily accept the quality of their water
without question. They put great trust in their water
utilities and in health agencies, to assure the quality
of the product served to them. Sometimes this trust
is misplaced. The author has observed previously, as
have others^the deficiencies of public water supplies.
These deficiencies are not there because water-uti1ity
people want them. For the most part, they are not
there because utilities are ignorant of current stan-
dards and good practice. They are there because con-
sumers have not been shown the problems clearly enough
to want changes made. They have not been educated to
present-day needs, which must be reflected in present-
day rates. On the contrary, they have too often come to
believe that water should be free of charge, and that
any rate at all is excessive. In the Pacific Northwest,
and perhaps elsewhere, they have been taught that the
best water is that with the least degree of treatment
instead of having the posi ti ve results of filtration
explained to them.
Water consumers in at least some utilities in 37 states
need to be told that covered reservoirs are better than
open reservoirs; that the benefits in quality protection
and in safeguarding the integrity of the water supply more
288
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than merit the cost. There is no better place to start
than with AWWA. A strong statement of policy regarding
covered distribution reservoirs is needed so that 750
open reservoirs can be covered or phased out - not
merely that it is a good idea, but that it is requisite
for a truly adequate water utility.
289
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Poduska, R.A. and D.Hershey.
Model for Virus Inacti vation by Ch Tori nation.
JWPCF. 44(5):738-745. May 1972.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination.
Abstract:
A mathematical model to explain the process of virus
inactivation by chlorination has been developed in this
study. The inactivation model is based on the principles
of first-order, irreversible chemical reaction kinetics
for the reaction between chlorine and virus particles
in solution.
The process of inactivation has been found to be depen-
dent on the time of contact between organisms and the
chlorine solution, the concentration of chlorine, and the
pH of the system. In addition, the process of inactiva-
tion is complicated by the fact that viruses may form
clumps of various sizes, thereby producing a heterogen-
eous inactivation system. Each of these factors was
included in the model in order to quantify the kinetics
of inactivation.
The inactivation data analyzed in this study were that
of Poliovirus I and that of Bacteriophages F£ and MSp.
In the mathematical analysis, all of the clump sizes
were numbered from 1 to N, beginning with clump size 1.
The model consists of N independent exponential terms
that describe the inactivation of each of the clump
sizes in a system. An inactivation rate constant is
associated with each term and characterizes the rate
of inactivation of each clump size.
290
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Pokornts, Y. and K. Kulikova.
Effects of Pesticides on Reservoir Water.
Pesticide Abstracts. 74-1874. 1974.
Key Words: pesticides, bacteria, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
Studies on the effects of pesticides on the organo-
leptic and biological properties of reservoir water
and on general analytical methods are reviewed. Pesti-
cides may contaminate reservoirs by infiltration or wash-
out from treated farm lands, or by being discharged by
pesticide manufacturing plants. Pesticides in water can
be determined by colorimetry, gas chromatography, and
thin-layer chromatography following extraction and con-
centration by means of activated carbon or by biological
methods using algae, phytoplanktons, and fish as indicators.
The odor threshold of most of the pesticides in water
lies below 1 mg/liter; that of the major organo-chlorine
pesticides varies from 0.13 yg/liter to 22 mg/liter; that
of the major organophosphorus pesticides from 0.2 yg/liter
to 1 mg/liter. Phenoxyacetic acid derivatives have odor
thresholds ranging from 3 yg/liter to 3 mg/liter. The
maximum allowable concentration of most of the pesticides,
as determined by biological tests, lies below 1 mg/liter,
but is as low as about 0.01 mg/liter for such preparations
as atrazine, thiometon, and malathion. Bacteria are
much more resistent to pesticides than plankton and fish.
Agrobacterium spp. decomposed dalapon and Pseudomonas
fiuorescens decomposed atrazine.
291
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Pollio, F.X. and R. Kum'n.
Tertiary Treatment of Municipal Sewage Effluents.
Environmental Science and Technology. 2_(1):54-60. January 1968
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, chlorides.
Abstract:
The modified Desal process for the renovation of second-
ary sewage effluents appears to offer a significant
advance in processing sewage effluent waters to render
them useful for industrial, agricultural, or domestic
use. The modified process for sewage water renovation
appears to go a step beyond the proposed activated
carbon-type tertiary treatment processes, since it brings
about simultaneous reduction in both the organic and in-
organic mineral contents of the sewage water. During
prolonged exposure tests (3 months), processed sewage
effl uents , wi th or without additional treatment with
the cation exchange resin for ammonium removal, have
shown no visual evidence of algae growth. Turbidity
was absent, no odor was detectable, and no significant
compositional changes have been noted. The problem of
pathogens was not investigated. However, there is
evidence that chlorination and lime softening do elim-
inate certain bacterial virus from water during process-
ing.
The process offers much flexibility, since it may be
engineered to produce a water for a variety of uses.
Where partially processed water is the goal, such that
its dissolved ionic and organic contents have been
lowered to acceptable levels for direct discharge into
streams or waterways, the process possibly could be
operated without the flocculation and lime-softening
steps; for industrial use, the waters may be sufficiently
processed without the added deal kali zation step,
especially if the secondary treatment (biological) is
producing a nitrified effluent. If the sewage plant
has not been operated in such a manner, the dealkali-
zation step is required to remove ammonium ions which
might prove objectionable.
Presupposing that a cheap source of C02 were not avail-
able, the economics of operating this modified process
would be considerably higher, since recovery of C02 is
not practical. Fortunately, however, availability of
C0£ should not be a problem, especially in sewage plants
which practice secondary treatment. Since the flue gases
from the digesters are rich in CC , they may be used
292
-------
directly, after being pressurized, to convert the anion
exchange resin (al kalization step) to the bicarbonate
form.
In instances where the renovated water will be recycled
and renovated more than once, there will be a gradual
buildup in ionic solids. During each renovation, if the
dealkalization step is not incorporated into the process
sodium ions tend to accumulate if not removed. This
situation can be avoided by dealkalizing the waters
totally or partially every other cycle or two, depending
on the extent of the sodium ion buildup and the required
end use for the renovated water.
Disposal of waste regenerant from the ion exchange units
and sludge from the flocculation and lime-softening
treatments should present no problem. These could be
readily combined with the solid waste from secondary
treatment and disposed of using the normal practice of
the sewage treatment plant.
293
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Pol son , R .L .
Refractory Metals Processing Waste Utilization on Dayton
Silty Clay Loamy Soil.
Oregon State University, Corvallis, 1976. 159p.
Key Words: aluminum, iron, manganese, copper, nickel, zinc,
lead, cobalt, molybdenum, ammonia, fluorides,
nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, agriculture,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Refractory metal-processing wastes were applied to
soil and perennial rye-grass was grown. The waste
additions did not affect the yield of rye-grass.
Trace metal uptakes by the plants were not signifi-
cantly affected by waste application. It was felt
that fluoride pollution of groundwaters could be a
significant threat.
294
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Poon, C.P.C.
Studies on the Instantaneous Death of Airborne Escheri chia
coli.
American Journal of Epidemiology. j84_(l):l-9. July 1966.
Key Words: Escherichia coli, air.
Abstract:
The postulated mechanism of instantaneous killing
of airborne bacteria was once again demonstrated
in this experiment. The rate of death of airborne
JL. £°JJL was found directly proportional to the rate
of water evaporation. A modified Fuch's equation
for water evaporation can be applied directly to the
rate of death of bacterial aerosols.
Foreign material associated with bacterial aerosols
affects the rate of death of airborne bacteria by
changing the rate of water evaporation from within
eel Is .
295
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Poon , C.P.C.
Viability of Long-Storaged Airplane Bacterial Aerosols.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
94.(SA6):1137-1146. December 1968.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
For bacterial aerosols suspended in the air for a long
storage time, the following conclusions can be made:
1. Increase of air temperature will increase the death
rate of ai rborne cells.
2. Decrease of relative humidity will increase the
death rate.
3. The rate of water evaporation still plays an
important role in the viability of airborne cells as
is found in the case of instantaneous death of bacterial
aerosols.
4. The viability of airborne bacteria is affected by
the presence of chemcial additives due to their effects
upon water evaporation.
5. Bacterial aerosols from sewage treatment plants can
survive a long time due to the presence of chemical
additives. This should be considered as a potential
hazard to public health.
296
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Porcella, D.B., J,S. Kumagai, and E.J. Middlebrooks,
Biological Effects on Sediment-Water Nutrient Interchange.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
96.(SA4) : 911-926. August 1970.
Key Words: phosphates, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The microcosm experiments were designed to show that
the productivity of low phosphorus waters would be
affected by the presence of sediments which could act
as a source of phosphorus for the growth of algae.
It was found that the different types of sediments
varied in their ability to support algal growth and
that this was related to the amount of available
phosphorus measured in the sediments. Although the
amount of phosphorus released from the sediments varied
with the type of sediment, it seemed apparent that all
of the available phosphorus eventually would be extracted
in the 15 cm layer of sediment studied in these micro-
cosms. The total depth of sediment in a natural lake
which could serve as a source of phosphorus is yet un-
known .
The microcosms had a 10 day residence time and a ratio
of four volumes of water to one of sediment and hence
represent natural situations only in a rough way. How-
ever, one would conclude that the effects on productivity
in a natural lake by the removal of phosphate from waste
waters would not be observed until the reservoir of
available phosphorus in the sediment of the lake was
exhausted.
The development of a thick mat of Oscillatoria causes
an increase in productivity due to the increased transfer
of phosphorus from the sediment. The mat of algae ap-
parently has the following effects: the development
of anaerobic conditions in the sediments serves as the
growing point of the blue-green algae which produces the
blooms observed in the overlying waters, causes dis-
ruption and therefore better mixing of the sediments
and pore water with the overTying water, and is a source
of organic materials secreted by the algal cells which
may in turn serve as substrates for other microorganisms.
Most probably transfer of phosphorus from the sediments
is enhanced not only by the increased solubilization of
phosphorus in the sediments caused by the algal mat and
the conditions the mat produces, but also by the effects
on equilibrium between water and sediment by the continual
accumulation of phosphorus from solution by the growing
algae.
297
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The role of an Oscillatoria mat in nature would be great-
est in shallow lakes where light penetrated to the bottom,
allowing development of the population of algae on the sedi
ment surface. Because blue-green algae are inhibited
by strong light, it would be expected that most of the
growth would occur under conditions where dim light
existed. The development of algal mats has been observed
to occur in nature and it may be that a considerable
amount of algal growth occurs on the surface of sediments
in natural lakes and that the effects of phosphorus
in the sediments on algal growth as observed in the
microcosms would also occur in nature.
In general, the more productive systems had sediments
containing greater amounts of phosphorus. Also, the
equilibration of 32p with stable phosphate occurred
more rapidly in the more productive systems, and this
rate of equilibration appeared to be associated with
the sediments themselves. Therefore 32P exchange with
stable P was related to the concentration of available
phosphorus in the system. One might speculate that
the rate of 32p removal from solution after the initial
rapid decrease indicates that transfer (by diffusion
or other mechanisms) through the sediment column occurs
at a relatively rapid rate (on the order of days).
The effect of organic matter on the rate of phosphorus
solubi1ization and transfer from sediments to the over-
lying water also should be evaluated. The results de-
scribed previously were not definitive but it is pos-
sible that the effect of organic materials would be to
increase the phosphorus release from sediments by serving
as a substrate for anaerobic bacteria which in turn
would cause a lowering of sediment pH and increased
solubi1ization of phosphates. Because of the develop-
ment of anaerobic conditions in the sediments of both
aerobic and anaerobic reactors, it was not possible to
compare differences in solubi1ization or transfer of
phosphorus as a function of the oxygen status of the
microcosms. It was expected that anaerobic conditions .'
would lower the redox potential and lower the pH and
that both of these reactions could lead to the release
of phosphorus. However, under these experimental con-
ditions the aerobic solubi1ization of phosphorus cannot
be evaluated because even in the aerobic microcosms the
sediments were anaerobic.
298
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Portmann, J.E.
Disposal of Sewage Sludge to Sea: United Kingdom Experience
and Practice.
In: Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids.
A. Freiberger, ed. EPA-902/9-74-002, Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Region II, New York, 1974. pp. 331-348.
Key Words: general, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The disposal of sewage sludge by dumping at sea has
been conducted from the United Kingdom for well over
seventy years. The quantities of sludge disposed of
in this way are steadily increasing, both in volume and
with regard to the number of sources. Although in some
areas limited accumulation of both organic matter and
persistent substances has occurred, the extent to which
this has taken place is small. The main reason for this
limited effect is probably to be found in the adequate
dispersion characteristics in relation to the quantities
disposed of in the areas in question.
Disposal by dumping at sea of sewage sludges, and indeed
wastes of industrial origin, from the United Kingdom
will undoubtedly continue for the foreseeable future.
However, the quantities which can be approved will con-
tinue to be related to the capacity of the area to re-
ceive wastes. The quantity can be estimated from a
knowledge of current movements and the polluting char-
acteristics of the waste, e.g. its oxygen demand, and
its nutrient, metal, and PCB content. Careful monitoring
must of course be conducted to ensure that these pre-
dictions are accurate and that the capacity of the area
to receive a waste is not pushed beyond its limit.
From this it should not be assumed that the sea may be
used for the disposal of any waste which proves difficult
or expensive to dispose of on land. Nor should the total
capacity of an area to receive wastes be fully utilized.
There must be some reserve of capacity to ensure that
other uses of the area can continue. It is clear, how-
ever, that with care the sea can be used for the disposal
of many waste materials and that in some respects it may
offer advantages over land disposal, as currently con-
ducted, although as new methods of treatment recovery or
disposal (e.g. by incineration) are developed these may
in turn be adopted in preference to sea disposal. At the
present time, however, sewage sludge is a bulky waste
with a high water content which proves difficult to
dispose of on land but which with care can often be safely
disposed of to sea.
299
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Posselt, H.S. and W.J. Weber, Jr.
Removal of Cadmium from Waters and Wastes by Sorption on
Hydrous Metal Oxides for Water Treatment.
In: Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution.
A.J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975. pp. 89-108.
Key Words: cadmium, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Removal of trace amounts of cadmium ( < 10~^M) from drink-
ing water supplies is highly desirable in view of the
low levels at which toxic effects are manifested by this
metal. Sorptive uptake of cadmium on suitable solid mat-
erials would constitute a method easily adaptable to
present water treatment technology. Accordingly, the
sorption behavior of hydrous oxides of Al(III), Fe(III),
and Mn(IV) towards cadmium was examined over a wide
range of variable conditions.
The equilibrium uptake of cadmium on the sorbents studied
can be described well by the Langmuir equation for
sorption. Sorption rates observed with highly dispersed
hydrous oxides are extremely rapid, with equilibrium
usually being attained in less than 10 minutes.
Both the limiting sorption capacity (Xm) and adsorption
affinity (b) for cadmium tend to increase over the pH
range beyond the pH of ZPC for all three oxides studied.
Hydrous manganese dioxide, prepared by careful reduction
of permanganate, was found superior on the basis of
Langmuir parameters and by virtue of its low ZPC value.
The practical range for Al(III) salts is rather limited
due to the formation of aluminate ion and a relatively
high ZPC for insoluble Al(III) hydrolysis products.
The sorption of cadmium exhibits a small dependence on
ionic strength. Competitive effects from uptake of cal-
cium or from chloride complexation are similarly weak
in magnitude. These results suggest that sorption on
hydrous oxides of Mn(IV) and Fe(III) is a feasible ap-
proach for removal of cadmium in water and wastewater
treatment.
This work and related studies indicate that the sorptive
behavior of hydrous oxides is greatly influenced by the
age and mode of preparation of these materials. In-
vestigation of these aspects may prove very fruitful
from the standpoint of optimizing the efficiency of
300
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sorptive processes on a separate basis or in combination
with coagulation processes.
Furthermore, the chemical and structural resemblance
between hydrous manganese dioxide and "silica" suggests
similar sorptive properties for the latter material.
Since the use of silica as coagulant aid in water treat-
ment has already been established, an examination of
its role as a potential sorbent for heavy metal ions
appears worthwhile.
301
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Pound, C.E. and R.W. Crites.
Characteristics of Municipal Effluents.
In: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land;
"proceedings of the Joint Conference, July 9-13, 1973. pp. 49-61.
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, COD, oil and grease,
coliforms, influent characteristics, combined
municipal and/or industrial systems.
Abstract:
Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of
municipal wastewaters are presented and discussed with
respect to land application. Both constituents of raw
wastewater as well as effluents from four types of plants
are included. These constituents are compared to those
of acceptable irrigation waters and to the relative amounts
of each that would normally be applied to the land. The
objective of this comparison is to put irrigation with
municipal effluents into perspective. On the basis of the
data presented and the corresponding literature review,
several areas of research are outlined.
302
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Pound, C.;E. and R. Crites.
Wastewater Treatment and Reuse by Land Application. 2 vols.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Palo Alto, California, August 1973.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, nitrates, phosphates,
nitrites, cadmium, iron, manganese, zinc, copper,
protozoa, parasiteic worms, viruses, coliforms,
polio virus, salmonella, shigella, ponding/land
application, crops.
Abstract:
A nationwide study was conducted of the current knowledge
and techniques of land application of municipal treatment
plant effluents and industrial wastewaters. Selected
sites were visited and extensive literature reviews were
made (annotated bibliography will be published separately),
Information and data were gathered on the many factors in-
volved in system design and operation for the three major
land application approaches: irrigation, overland flow,
and infiltration-percolation. In addition, evaluations
were made of environmental effects, public health consi-
deration, and costs — areas in which limited data are
available.
Irrigation is the most reliable land application technique
with respect to long term use and removal of pollutants
from the wastewater. It is sufficiently developed so that
general design and operational guidelines can be prepared
from current technology.
Overland flow was found to be an effective technique for
industrial wastewater treatment. Further development is
required to utilize its considerable potential for muni-
cipal wastewater treatment.
Infiltration-percolation is also a feasible method of land
application. Criteria for site selection, groundwater
control, and management techniques for high rate systems
need further development.
303
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Prakasam, T.B.S. and R.C. Loehr.
Microbial Nitrification and Deni tri fi cati on in Concentrated
Wastes.
Water Research. 6.:859-869. July 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, ni trif icati on/deni tri fi cati on .
Abstract:
The feasibility of removing nitrogen from a concentrated
nitrogenous waste by microbial nitrification and de-
nitrification is investigated. Continuous flow and
batch studies have been conducted to investigate the
effect of the various parameters that affect the process
of nitrification. A solids retention time of greater
than two days and a range of loading factors between
0.15-0.84 #COD day'1 #MLVSS-1 resulted in 45-60 percent
nitrification of the total Kjeldahl nitrogen contained
initially in the waste. The level of inhibition of
nitrification due to free NH3 and undissociated HN02
is discussed. The control of pH was found to be un-
necessary either in nitrification or denitrif i cati on of
the waste. Denitri fi cati on of the nitrified waste
resulted in complete elimination of the oxidized nitro-
gen formed in the nitrification stage; nevertheless,
residual ammonia contained initially in the mixed liquor
persisted. A second nitrification of this denitrified
mixed liquor resulted in complete oxidation of the re-
sidual ammonia.
304
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Prasad, D. and P.M. Jones.
Degradation of Organic Nitrogenous Compounds by Psychrophllie
Bacteria.
JWPCF. £6( 7) .-1686-1691. July 1974.
Key Words: bacteria, activated sludge.
Abstract:
1. Temperature exerts an important regulating influence
on the rate of metabolism.
2. Amino acids, urea, and creatinine are degraded by
phychrophilie bacteria at low temperature.
3. Psychrophiles are not able to metabolize egg albumin
at low temperature.
4. Low temperatures seem to induce certain changes
in some aspect of cellular organization in psychro-
phili c bacteri a .
5. Conventional biological waste treatment processes
can operate at low temperatures provided a long de-
tention time is allowed.
6. Psychrophi les play an important role in the
stabilization of organic wastes in the biological
waste treatment processes.
305
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Pratt, P.P.
Alumi num.
I n: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 3-12.
Key Words: aluminum, ponding/land application,
land reclamation, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Plant and soil criteria useful in diagnosing aluminum
status, including visual symptoms and leaf analysis
are described; the toxicity of aluminum in nutrient
solutions is discussed and corrective measures, as well
as suggested analytical methods are proposed.
306
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Pratt, P.P.
Chromium.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 136-141.
Key words: chromium, ponding/land application, land
reclamation, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
The author discusses visual symptoms of chromium excess and
tissue analysis values, as well as soil criteria useful in
diagnosing chromium status.
307
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Pratt, P.P.
Vanadium.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed,
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 480-483.
Key Words: vanadium, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
There are no problems associated with vanadium deficiency
or toxicity under field conditions.
308
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Preliminary Assessment of Suspected Carcinogens in
Drinking Water: Appendices to Interim Report to Congress.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
Office of Toxic Substances, June 1975. 214p. (Available
from National Technical Information Services (NTIS) as
PB-244 416).
Key Words: pesticides, synthetic/organics, arsenic, beryllium,
chromium, nickel, selenium, nitrates, drinking
and recreational water.
Abstract:
This is an assessment of suspected carcinogens in potable
water; sources, treatment techniques, and health effects
are discussed.
309
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Preliminary Assessment of Suspected Carcinogens in Drinking
Water. Interim Report to Congress.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
Office of Toxic Substances, June, 1975. 39p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-244 415).
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, syntheti c/organics , organo-
nitrogen pesticides, organo-phosphorous pesticides,
chlorides, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
This is an assessment of suspected carcinogens in
potable water sources, treatment techniques, and
health e'ffects are discussed.
310
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Preliminary Inves'tigation of Effects on the Environment
of Boron, Indium Nickel, Selenium, Tin, Vanadium, and Their
Compounds, Vol. I: Boron.
Versar, Inc., Springfield, Virginia, August 1975. 120p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-245 984).
Key Words: boron, groundwater, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine), crops, livestock, food processing,
ftsh, direct contact, shellfish, drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
This article gives/ a complete review of the environ-
mental effects of boron and its compounds (sources,
pathways, toxicity, etc.).
311
-------
Preliminary Investigation of Effects on the Environment of
Boron, Indium Nickel, Selenium, Tin, Vanadium, and Their
Compounds. Vol. IV: Selenium.
Versar, Inc., Springfield, Virginia, August 1975. 102p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-245 987).
Key Words: selenium, gravity separators, groundwater, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine), crops,
1 livestock, food processing, fish, direct contact,
drinking and recreational water, shellfish.
Abstract:
This is a complete review of the environmental effects
of selenium and its compounds (sources, pathways, toxicity,
etc.).
312
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Premi, P.R. and A.H. Cornfield.
Incubation Study of Nitrogen Mineralization in Soil Treated
with Dried Sewage Sludge.
Environmental Pollution. 2_(l):1-5. July 1971.
Key Words: ammonia, activated sludge, agricultural sludge
disposal.
Abstract:
The delay in nitrification, particularly where 2% sludge
had been added, indicates that a factor (possibly organic)
which was inhibitory to nitrification and contained in
the added sludge, was operative early in incubation, but
the inhibitory factor decreased with time. Alternatively,
delayed nitrification may have been due to the relatively
high content of ammonium-nitrogen in the soil-sludge
mixture (particularly where 2% sludge was applied) com-
bined with high pH resulting in temporary inhibition
of the activity of nitrifying organisms. Delayed nitri-
fication in this soil at pH 7.5 when treated with 100 ppm
ammonium-nitrogen was observed. The increased levels of
copper, zinc, and chromium due to sludge treatment were
not likely to have delayed nitrification. Researchers
have found that the addition of sulphates of these
three elements in amounts twice as high as those intro-
duced here had no significant effects on nitrification.
EDTA-extractable values in this experiment showed that
less than 58% of the zinc, 25% of the copper and about
1% of the chromium was present in active form. The last
element is probably retained in an inactive anionic form.
The relatively low recovery of added organic nitrogen
in mineral form even after six weeks of incubation at
30°C is typical of bulky organic manures of low nitrogen
content. It was found under these incubation conditions
that the extent of mineralization of organic nitrogen in
soils is similar to that which occurs during an average
growing season in field soils in southern England. The
ammonium-nitrogen in the sludge contributed about as
much to the nitrogen status of the soil as did that
which mineralized in time from the organic nitrogen com-
pounds present.
Another researcher found that the organic nitrogen in
heat-dried sludges (probably similar to the material
used in this study) mineralized slowly in soils, and
sometimes caused nitrogen deficiency to crops. The subject
study showed no evidence of even a temporary immobilization
of mineral nitrogen due to sludge treatment at any level.
313
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Pressley, T.A., D.F. Bishop, and S.G. Roan.
Ammonia-Nitrogen Removal by Breakpoint Chlorination.
Environmental Science and Technology. £(7) -.622-626. July 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorination.
Abstract:
Breakpoint chlorination in buffered aqueous solutions
of 20 mg/1 of NHo-N in the pH range of 5.0-8.0 oxidized
the ammonia chiefly to Ng with only small amounts of
NOo- and NCK, also formea. During chlorination, mono-
chloramine concentrations increased with chlorine dose
through about a 5:1 wt ratio of Cl :NH3-N and then de-
creased to zero at the breakpoint. Only traces of
NHC12 occurred in the 5-8.0 pH range with less than
0.1 mg/1 above pH 7. Potential products of NoO, 02
(from the decomposition of N20) , NO, and N02 aid not
occur. The minimum chlorine dosage for the breakpoint
of less than 8:1 wt ratio of C1:NH3-N occurred in the
range of pH 6-7.
The amount of N03- produced at the breakpoint increased
from about 1.5% of the NH3-N at pH 5 to about 10% at
pH 8.0 in the aqueous systems. In contrast, the NCls
production at the breakpoint decreased from approximately
1.5% of the NH^-N at pH 5 to 0.25% at pH 8.0. In the
2-hr contact time of the study, breakpointing at temp-
eratures of 5-40°C did not change the amounts of the
products or the required chlorine dose.
In the pH range of 6.5-7.5, breakpoint chlorination
of ammonia in wastewaters oxidized 95-99% of the ammonia
to nitrogen gas. When chlorine demands other than
ammonia were minimized by pretreatment (lime-clarified
secondary effluent), the chlorine dosages (8:1 wt ratio
of C1:NH3-N) required for the breakpoint approached
the stoichiometric (7.6:1 wt ratio) dosage to oxidize
ammonia to N£. Residuals of NO^- and NC13 were also
formed in the wastewaters but with initial NH3-N concen-
trations of 8-15 mg/1, the NOo-N residual never exceeded
0.5 mg/1 at the breakpoint; and the NC13-N residual never
exceeded 0.5 mg/1.
314
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Preston, A.
Heavy Metals in British Waters
Nature. 2£2:95-97. March 1973.
Key Words: zinc, iron, manganese, cobalt, nickel, lead,
cadmium, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
In this article, the author establishes levels of
heavy metals in seawater for iron, zinc, manganese,
cobalt, nickel, lead, and cadmium.
315
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Preul, H.C.
Underground Movement of Nitrogen.
Munich Abstracts - Section I. 3£(3):335-336. March 1966.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, iodides, groundwater.
Abstract:
In the vicinities of the 11 waste stabilization ponds
investigated, concentrations of ammonia were found
to be less than about 3 mg/1 NH4-N within 20- ft (6.1 m)
from the edge of the pond. However, concentrations
of nitrate in the groundwater surrounding the ponds
were found to be less than 1.0 mg/1 NOs-N as far out
as 150 ft (46 m) from the ponds. Consequently, the
ponds are not seen as a serious threat in the nitrate
contamination of groundwater.
316
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Preul , H.C.
Underground Movement of Nitrogen.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1966(1):309-328.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, groundwater.
Abstract:
Several pertinent observations may be made from the
information presented relative to the movement of nitro-
gen in a shallow soil adsorption system.
1. Biological oxidation is the dominant mechanism
affecting ammonia nitrogen as it passes through the
soil. This action occurs at a high rate initially
and to a large extent within several feet of the point
of release of the septic tank effluent where soil
conditions are well aerated.
2. Nitrate contamination of groundwaters is a serious
threat from shallow soil absorption systems. High
concentrations of ammonia nitrogen in septic tank ef-
fluents are quickly nitrified to high concentrations
of nitrate which pollute the groundwater. Dilution
from groundwater or soil moisture and possibly denitri-
fication aid in the deterrence of nitrate.
3. The effectiveness of adsorption in deterring the
travel of nitrogen is limited because of the rapidity
of conversion from NH4 to NOg. Laboratory experiments
have shown than NH* can be removed readily in soil by
adsorption but, under aerated soil circumstances,
nitrification of these ions occurs before the flow can
contact a sufficiently effective volume of soil.
317
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Pringle, B.H.
Water Reuse in the United States.
Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB,
Ohio, December 1974. 17p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as AD-A011 856).
Key Words: drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
This article is a general discussion of water reuse
with goals that must be met to ensure public health
wel1-being,
318
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Pringle, B.H., D.E. Hissong, E.L. Katz, and S.T. Mulawka.
Trace Metal Accumulation by Estuarine Mollusks.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
94(SA3):455-475. June 1968.
Key Words: cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron,
manganese, lead, nickel, zinc, aluminum,
antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, germanium, mercury, molybdenum,
selenium, uranium, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine), fish.
Abstract:
Mollusks in the natural estuarine environment appear to
accumulate trace metals at different rates and attain
tissue levels according to the environmental concentration
of the particular metal, the temperature, the species
concerned, as well as the physiological activity of the
animal itself.
When the environmental concentration of a particular toxic
trace metal persists over a sufficient period of time, the
animal may become affected physiologically by the metal
accumulation to such an extent that it becomes nonfunctional
or dies.
The apparent selectivity for trace metals among various
molluscan species appears to depend to a considerable extent
upon the metals available in the environment; their chemical
and physical properties; the kind and number of ligands
available for chelation, transport, and storage; and the
stability of the complex formed. The relative toxicities
of the various metals also play a prominent role.
In a simulated natural environmental system the accumulation
rates, as well as the tissue levels of the trace metals, are
dependent upon the environmental metal concentration, the
temperature, the time of exposure, and the particular species
used.
The relative toxicity of a particular metal varies from
species to species for any given concentration, all other
factors remaining constant.
The studies reported herein generally show that for any
given metal and set of experimental conditions, the uptake
rate and tissue concentration level decreased for the
following species in the order given: Soft-shell Clam,
My a arenari a ; American Eastern Oyster, Crass ostrea virgim'ca ;
and the Northern Quahaug, Me re en a r ia mercenaria.
319
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The four environmental levels of lead used in the
anatomical accumulation studies gave identical results
as to the concentration order for all the anatomical
areas studied. The following anatomical areas are given
in the order of their increasing lead accumulation
(concentration): muscle, mantle edge, mantle, remainder,
gill, gonad, and digestive gland. The accumulation rates
doubled as the environmental level of lead used throughout
the duration of the experiment was doubled.
Considerable toxicity was exhibited towards the animals
exposed to the higher environmental levels of lead (0.1
ppm and 0.2 ppm). This was particularly evident regarding
the gonadal area of the oyster.
Depletion of trace metals follow biochemical turnover
within the animal, and must be expected to be a slower
process than is the release of cellular material. From
the data presented herein, it appears that metals are
depleted (at least lead) at a faster rate by the American
Eastern Oyster than they are by the Northern Quahaug, but
slower than is the case for the soft-shell clam. In
addition, there appears to be a direct relationship between
the uptake rate for a given metal and its depletion for
any molluscan species. The initial tissue level of any
given metal appears to be directly related to the depletion
rate for any given species.
320
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Process Design Manual for Nitrogen Control.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
October 1975. 464p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrification/denitrificat ion.
Abstract:
This manual discusses the various design alternatives
for control of nitrogen in wastewater.
321
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Process Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and Disposal.
EPA-625/1-74-006, Black, Crow and Eidsness, Inc., Gainesville,
Florida, October 1974. 418p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-259 151).
Key Words: zinc, copper, nickel, cadmium, viruses, bacteria,
Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhosa , heavy metals,
BOD, COD, anaerobic digestion, aerobic
digestion, heat treatment, composting, incineration,
landfill.
Abstract:
This is a document that has been developed by EPA to. aid
in the design of wastewater sludge treatment and disposal
facilities. Topics discussed include thickening, stabilization,
conditioning, reduction, and final disposal practices.
322
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Prothero, G.L.
Nitrogen and Heavy Metal Distribution in Soils Utilized as
Sludge Disposal Sites.
Oregon State University, Corvallis, 1976. 145p.
Jey Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, nickel,
zinc, nitrates, nitrites, groundwater, crops,
sanitary landfill.
Abstract:
Metropolitan areas today must dispose large volumes
of sewage sludge produced during the wastewater treat-
ment process. This research was conducted to study
the effect of large applications of municipal sewage
sludge on (a) the distribution of N and trace elements
(Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni , Zn) in the soil profile, (b) the
uptake of these elements by plants growing on the
sludge-treated soil, and (c) the potential for ground-
water contamination.
323
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Quality of Coastal Waters: Second Annual Progress Report.
Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii,
Honolulu, 1973. 275p.
Key Words;
cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese,
nickel, mercury, aluminum, zinc, ammonia, chlorides,
nitrates, nitrites, suspended solids, total dis-
solved solids, total organic carbon, DDT, DDD,
DDE, dieldrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons, herbi-
cides, pesticides, surface water (marine),
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
An investigative and evaluative work to identify,
develop, and evaluate the critical physical, biological,
and rational parameters needed in formulating effective
policies, institutions, and systems for protecting the
quality of coastal waters, this is a study of heavy
metals, pesticides, herbicides, and nutrients in the bay
sediments, stream sediments and watershed soils.
324
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Radding, S.B., B.R. Holt, J.L. Jones, -D.H. Liu, and T. Mill.
Review of the Environmental Fate of Selected Chemicals.
Stanford Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, January
1975. 44p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-238 908).
Key Words: synthetic /organics, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
Any attempt to quantify losses of a specific product
during manufacture or use as an intermediate will re-
quire a major effort because of such factors as the
wide variations in: (1) production processes, (2)
product purification, and (3) product intermediate
and end uses. The minimum information required for
such an undertaking would be detailed process flow
sheets and material balances, together with reaction
kinetics data and mixture component vapor pressures
and solubilities as a function of temperature and
solution composition. The effectiveness of air, water,
and solid waste pollution control measures at plant
sites should also be examined with some field verifi-
cation of theoretical losses.
Very few references were found that were of much value
in providing rate data for evaluation, and the need
for such reliable data has been noted for each com-
pound. The general fate of these compounds in the en-
vironment and their toxic effects other than the car-
cinogenic properties have received little attention
in the literature. Basic physical data are frequently
unavailable and environmental measurements wholly so.
Inferences concerning environmental movement are con-
sequently fragmentary. At best, we can eliminate
several of the compounds as probable hazards in fresh-
waters, but can say little with confidence regarding
their decomposition products or their behavior in
saltwaters. Nor can we fully appraise their potential
biotic impacts, although several compounds are clearly
mutagenic as well as carcinogenic. Table 1 summarizes
the findings of this report:
To efficiently utilize available resources, it is
recommended that the following sequence of steps be
taken :
Quantify the losses to the environment of the
more biologically significant compounds
325
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Determine the basic physical and chemical prop-
erties as related to environmental processes
(i.,e., oxidation, hydrolysis)
Reappraise the potential environmental mobility
of each compound
Determine the toxicity, mutagenicity, and
teratogenicity of those which appear most
hazardous on the basis of mobility and mag-
nitude of release.
326
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Radiation for a Clean Environment.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1975. pp. 139-149
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, radiation treatment.
Abstract:
The experiments presented here represent preliminary
results on the biological effectiveness of high-energy
electron treatment of municipal sludge. Positive con-
clusions include the requirement for blending of raw
sludge for maximum effectiveness of the electron beam.
Introduction of oxygen in raw sludge leads to increased
microbial inactivation. The use of intermittent oxy-
genation permits a lowering of the treatment dose.
Future experiments will expand these findings, and in
addition, studies on the inactivat ion of animal viruses
in raw sludge will be initiated. The current status
of viruses and ionizing radiation in respect to waste-
water treatment has been reviewed by Lemke and Sinskey,
and the removal of viruses from sewage, effluents and
waters has been recently reviewed by Berg.
Preliminary experiments conducted in cooperation with
T. Metcalf, University of New Hampshire, United States
of America, have shown that animal viruses (poliovirus
type II, reovirus type I, Coxsackievirus B3 and adeno-
virus type 5) have similar radiation sensitivities, and
in addition are more resistant than the bacterial virus
P22 reported here.
Changes in physical properties of raw sludge as well
as the chemical oxygen demand due to electron irradia-
tion are also being investigated.
327
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Radioactivity in the Marine Environment.
Panel on Radioactivity in the Marine Environment of the
Committee on Oceanography National Research Council/
National Academy of Sciences, 1971. 2Bp.
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, ger-
manium, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, molyb-
denum, nickel, selenium, thorium, tin, uranium,
zinc, surface water (marine), fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
This is a textbook on marine chemistry and the uptake
of radionucleides by fish and shellfish.
328
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Ragone, S.E., J. Vecchioli, and H.F.H. Ku .
Short-term Effect of Injection of Tertiary Treated Sewage on
Iron Concentration of Water in Magothy Aquifer, Bay Park,
New York.
I_n_: Preprints of Papers Presented at the International Sympo-
sium on Underground Waste Management and Artificial Recharge.
J. Braustein, ed. G. Banta, Menasha, Wisconsin, 1973. 1_:273-290.
Key Woros: iron, surface water (fresh), chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Tertiary-treated sewage (reclaimed water) has been recharged
by a deep well into the Magothy aquifer, the primary water-
supply source for Nassau County, Long Island, New York. As
of September 1972, 12 recharge tests have been run since the
inception of the recharge program in September 1968.
Although the iron concentrations of reclaimed and native
water averaged 0.44 mg/1 and 0.24 mg/1 , respectively, the
iron concentration of the mixed (native and reclaimed) water
at times exceeded 3 mg/1. Several sources can account for
the increase in iron concentration, but the most probable
source is the pyrite that is native to the Magothy aquifer.
During recharge, the natural reducing condition in the
aquifer is replaced by a progressively more oxidizing
environment. The initial response to this change is
the oxidation of pyrite, which released Fe+2, $04"^, and H
into solution. Eventually, ferric hydroxide precipitates,
and the F e + ^ concentration decrease.s. The exact oxidation
mechanism apparently involves inorganic and (or) organic
constituents in the reclaimed water, because water from the
public potable water-supply system that is injected into
the acquifer does not cause an increase in iron concentration
329
-------
Rains, B.A., .M.J. DePrimo and T.L. Groseclose.
Odors Emitted from Raw and Digested Sewage Sludge.
Saint Louis Metropolitan Sewer District, December 1973.
76p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-232 369).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, adsorption/ion exchange, gravity
thickeners- air.
Abstract:
This study was undertaken to identify typical odor
causing substances and evaluate selected conventional
methods for controlling er eliminating these substances.
A styrofoam dome covering a sludge thickener was used
to control atmospheric conditions and conceatrate
odors. Field collected vapor samples were analyzed
using gas chromatography techniques. Analyses using
both polar and nonpolar column material indicated that
the major odor causing compounds were mercaptans and
amines. Other compounds which were minor contributors
to odor were aldehydes, alcohols, and organic acids.
Odor control methods selected for study included air
dilution, activated carbon adsorption, and chlorine
oxidation. Air dilution using cyclic operation of an
exhaust fan was an effective means of odor control when
outside atmospheric conditions were conducive to odor
dissipation. Passing vapors through activated carbon
filters was not completely effective in odor control
since a detectable residual odor remained.
330
-------
Raj, H.D. and F.E. Swatek.
Ecological Study of Bacteria and Fungi from Deep Well Waters,
California State University at Long Beach, 1964. 41p.
Key Words: Vibrio cholerae, fecal streptococci,
Staphylo'co'ccus aureus. Clostridium welchi ,
coliforms, bacteria, groundwater, surface water
(fresh), direct contact (air), shellfish, drink-
ing and recreational water.
Abstract:
This paper describes original research on bacteria
and fungi endemic to potable water storage sites.
331
-------
Rail , D..P,
PCB's - Environmental Impact.
Environmental Research. 5^:253-352. September 1972.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This is an excellent review on the movement of PCB's
in the environment.
332
-------
Ramchandran, M., M.I.D. Sharma, S.C. Sharma, P.S. Mathur,
A. Aravindakshan, and M.G.J. Edward.
DDT and Its Metabolites in Human Body Fat in India.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization. £9(6) :637-638. 1973,
Key Words: DDT, DDE, epidemiology.
Abstract:
DDE and the o,p- and p,p'-isomers of DDT were assayed in
94 human biopsy fat samples from hospitals in Delhi
by gas chromatography. DDT was present in all except
2 samples at concentrations from OJ7 to 176.5 mg per kg
of body fat. The average total DDT content was 21 .8 -
2.9 mg/kg, of which 45.9% was DDE. The average value
reported in a similar study in 1965 (24.3 mg/kg, of
which DDE constituted 39.7%) was not significantly
different from the present value, indicating that the
DDT storage status has not since undergone any signifi-
cant change.
333
-------
Randall, A.D.
Movement of Bacteria from a River to a Municipal Well - A Case
H1stony.
JAWW;A. 62.(11 ):716-720. November 1970.
Key Words: bacteria, drinking and recreational water, ground-
water.
Abstract:
This paper makes a strong case for coliform bacteria
reaching the Endicolt Stable Well from the Susquehanna
River and advances an explanation consistent with avail-
able data. Several general inferences can be drawn
from this stud;y.
1. Although bacteria in river water are normally
removed by filtration through riverbed and aquifer
materials, they can move at least 180 ft to a munici-
pal well under some conditions.
2. Waterworks managers who wish to maintain bacteria-
free well water should avoid riverbed excavations in the
immediate vicinity of the wells, or If unavoidable,
should insure that the backfill is relatively imperme-
able. Of course, the quality of the river water must be
considered 1n evaluating the risk.
;3. Rlverbank wells already deriving a large part of their
water from nearby induced infiltration, as shown by
large seasonal temperature fluctuations, are the most
susceptible to bacterial pollution in the event of river-
bed excavation or increased withdrawal rates.
4. Many municipalities in northeastern United States
are, or could be, supplied by water pumped from sand
and gravel aquifers along major streams and derived in
large part from induced infiltration. As river-to-well
gradients become steeper and stream channels are re-
located, dredged, and perforated for various purposes,
all wells can hardly be expected to continue to produce
raw water of perfect sanitary quality. Most municipal
well-water distribution systems provide chlorination
adequate to protect the water from sporadic or incidental
pollution, but the design of many systems does not permit
the detention time necessary for excess chlorination and
removal, which should be used if water persistently con-
tains numerous bacteria. New installations should allow
for eventual addition of such treatment if needed.
334
-------
Ratkowsky, D.A.
A Numerical Study of the Concentration of Some Heavy Metals
in Tasmanian Oysters.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 31:1165-1171
July 1974.
Key Words: zinc, cadmium, copper, shellfish.
Abstract:
Inferential techniques of numerical classification
and principal coordinate analysis have been used to
interpret data obtained on the Zn, Cd, and Cu concen-
tration of 48 samples of oysters, comprising 473 indi-
viduals, grown at a variety of places around the Tas-
manian coastline. A close association was obtained be-
tween proximity to heavily urbanized areas and concentra*
tion of metals found, oysters growing nearest urban
areas having the highest concentrations of one or more
of the metals. It appears that areas for commercial
oyster growing should be sought in regions far from
centers of urbanization and industrialization. Examin-
ation of samples of native oysters could be useful in
providing an index or measure of environmental pollution.
335
-------
Ratzan, K.R., J.A. Bryan, J. Krackow, G, Meyer, and C.D. Larson
An Outbreak of Gastroenteritis Associated with the Ingestion
of Raw Clams.
Journal of Infectious Diseases. 120(2):265-268. 1969.
Key Words: viruses, hepatitis virus, shellfish.
Abstract:
The report describes an outbreak of acute gastroenteritis
associated with the ingestion of raw clams and the results
of surveillance to detect subsequent cases of infectious
hepatitis.
The epidemic case occurred in New Haven, Connecticut,
November 16, 1968.
336
-------
Raymont, J.E. and J. Shields.
Toxicity of Copper and Chromium in the Marine Environment.
Advances in Mater Pollution Research. 1962 (3):275-
290.
Key Words: chromium, copper, surface water (marine), shellfish.
Abstract:
These investigations suggest that with Nereis a toxic
threshold exists for copper at a level of about 0.1 ppm
but that chromium is less poisonous, the threshold ap-
proaching ten times this value. The few experiments
conducted with the crab Carcinus, indicate that copper
is at least ten times, and possibly nearer twenty times
more toxic than chromium; with Leander copper appears
to be also more poisonous.
Cu
337
-------
Reay, P.P.
The Accumulation of Arsenic from Arsenic-Rich Natural Waters
by Aquatic Plants.
Journal of Applied Ecology. £:557-565. August 1972.
Key Words: arsenic, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The paper discusses accumulation of arsenic by aquatic
plants in a freshwater system.
338
-------
Rebhun, M. and J. Manka.
Classification of Organics in Secondary Effluents.
Environmental Science and Technology. 5_(7) :606-6Q9. July 1971.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The composition of soluble organics in secondary
effluents was investigated. A fractionation procedure
was applied enabling recovery and quantitative deter-
mination of humic substances as well as other chemical
groupings present in secondary effluents. This pro-
cedure made possible the classification of the total
organic content of secondary effluents. Forty to
50% of the organics was classified as humic substances
(humic, fulvic, and hymathomelanic acids), the fulvic
acid being the major fraction of this class. The re-
mainder of the organic matter consisted of (in percent):
ether extractables,.^ 8.3; anionic detergents,^ 13.9;
carbohydrates,^ 11.5; proteins,^ 2;2.4; and tannins,^ 1.7.
339
-------
Recycling Sludge and Sewage Effluent by Land Disposal.
Environmental Science and Technology. £(10):871-873. October
1972.
Key Words: phosphates, boron, suspended solids, BOD,
coliforms, iron, aluminum, crops, adsorption/
ion exchange, groundwater, influent character-
istics.
Abstract:
This is a very general article that discusses the potential
of applying both sludge and effluent to land.
340
-------
Reed, S.
Wastewater Management by Disposal on the Land.
Special Report 171. Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army.
Hanover, New Hampshire, May 1972. 183p.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, COD, phosphates, cadmium, chromium,
copper, lead, manganese, nickel, zinc, chlorides,
suspended solids, effluent characteristics,
ponding/land application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
This article is an excellent write-up and overview of land
disposal. Discussions include land disposal operating
parameters as well as associated health effects.
341
-------
Reeves, T.:G.
Nitrogen Removal: A Literature Review.
JWPCF. 4£(10):1895-19Q8. October 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, adsorption/ion exchange,
nitrification/denitrification.
Abstract:
Review of the physical, chemical, and biological
processes available for nitrogen removal shows
that current technology is at a stage where in most
instances a biological process must be selected if
nitrogen removal is necessary or a nitrified effluent
must be produced. Air stripping of the ammonia cannot
yet be considered practical because of its cost and
the two problems encountered: precipitation of car-
bonates and the biological oxidation of ammonia to
nitrates in the towers. Also, in some locations,
the ammonia released may present an air pollution
problem or the ammonia will be reabsorbed in the
water.
Ion exchange may be feasible in smaller plants, but
it is difficult to envision this method of nitrogen
removal's becoming popular. Many operational diffi-
culties have been encountered, including fouling
of the resins, plugging, and disposal of the backwash
brine. The most practical method available is bio-
logical nitrification-denitrification. A three-stage
system will be needed in most locations, including
a carbonaceous BOD removal unit (high-rate trickling
filter or high-rate activated sludge), nitrification
(aerobic) unit, and a denitrification (anaerobic) unit,
Also, a small air stripping unit would be helpful to
remove the nitrogen gas. There are three available
denitrification units which could be used: anaerobic
activated sludge, anaerobic filter system, and an
anaerobic lagoon. The lagoon method would probably
be best except for the problem of re-aeration of the
effluent.
342
-------
Reid, 6.W., R.Y. Nelson, C. Hall, U. Bonilla, and B. Reid.
Effects of Metallic Ions on Biological Waste Treatment Processes
Water and Sewage Works. 1]_5( 7) : 320-325 . July 1968.
Key Words: chromium, copper, nickel, zinc, BOD, trickling
fi1ters.
Abstract:
1. Laboratory studies on the effect of metallic ions
on attached slimes on drums showed that no adverse
effect was noted for the concentrations of Cr+6, Cd,
and Cu studied. The biological treatment of domestic
sewage will not be adversely effected if the Cr+6 con-
centration is not allowed to exceed 2 mg/1.
2. The effect of metallic ions on the Tinker AFB
pilot plant showed that domestic sewage containing
2 mg/1 or less of Cr+6 does not significantly effect
the BOD removal efficiency.
3. Trace amounts of metallic ions will be removed by
trickling filters. The more effective the filter's
removal of domestic BOD, the more effective its removal
of the metal lie i on.
4. Cr+6 in concentrations to be expected at Tinker AFB
will not significantly reduce the digester operational
efficiency. The introduction of floe in trace amounts
will also not greatly effect operations.
343
-------
Reid, S.C., et aj_.
Pretreatment Requirements for Land Application of Wastewater
Extended Abstract for ASCE Second National Conference on
Environmental Engineering Research, Development, and Design.
University of Florida, July 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, total organic carbon, BOD,
coliforms, chlorides, cadmium, copper, nickel,
lead, zinc, ponding/land application, ground-
water.
Abstract:
This is a general discussion on the land application
of wastewater.
344
-------
Reimers, R.S. and P.A. Krenke!,
Kinetics of Mercury Adsorption and Desorption in Sediments.
JWPCF. 46(2):352-365. February 1974.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
1. At a constant pH value, the adsorption of inorganic
mercury is definitely affected by the chloride concen-
tration with a 20 to 100 percent loss in capacity, de-
pending on the constituents of the sediment (sands,
clays, or organics). The only exceptions to this con-
clusion are the organics containing amines or mercaptans
2. For the materials used, the uptake rate and capacity
of inorganic mercuric chloride is given in the following
order:
R - SH » Illite >Montmori 1 lonite
0
il
>R - NH2 >Kaolinite > R- C - OH
>Fine Sand >Medium Sand
> Coarse Sand
3. Four materials found in natural sediments were
observed to absorb methyl mercury, and they absorbed
in the following order;
R - SH » Illite >Montmori 1 lonite
>Fine Sand
4. The fact that the amine and carboxyl groups are in-
effective in binding with methyl mercury raises some
questions about recent EPA reports indicating the use
of an organic film or fiber not containing sulfhydryl
groups for the inhibition of mercury pollution in the
field. The amines and carboxyl groups also have a lower
capacity for binding inorganic mercury than do the
natural clays, i11ite , and montmori11onite.
5. Because inorganic mercury binds with sands, clays,
and various organics, the contention that mercury pol-
lution is transported in our water systems by sediments
is supported. For example, the appearance of mercury
contamination in Kentucky Lake, which is over 100 river
miles from mercury contaminated Pickwick Lake, the only
known source of mercury in the system, can be explained
on this bas is .
345
-------
Reimold, R.J. and C.J. Durant.
Toxaphene Content of Estuarine Fauna and Flora Before, During,
and After Dredging Toxaphene-Cohtaminated Sediments.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 8_(l):44-49. June 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (marine),
shellfish.
Abstract:
This paper evaluates toxaphene concentrations in selected
estuarine fauna, flora, sediment, and dredge spoil before,
during, and after the dredging of Terry Creek, Brunswick,
Ga., in autumn 1972. This is the second effort to
widen the channel of the creek, which receives the ef-
fluent from a nearby toxaphene-manufacturing plant; a
1971 dredging effort was aborted by the State of Georgia.
The current study employed safeguards inspired by the
1971 State action: enclosure of dredge spoil in diked
areas of unproductive marshland to prevent.runoff, and
weekly monitoring of Terry Creek biota and sediment to
detect the possible role of toxaphene in any resulting
disturbance to the balance of nature. Monitoring of
dredge spoil, fauna, and flora showed toxaphene con-
centrations to be higher during dredging than before or
after. Eastern oysters (Crassgstrea virginica), reported
to be among the best biological monitors, did not demon-
strate large changes in toxaphene content resulting from
the dredging. The high toxaphene concentration in oysters
ranged between 2.0 and 5.0 ppm. The best indicators eval-
uated were salt marsh cordgrass (Spartina al term' flora)
and mummichog (Endul us heterocli tus')".Th~e highest con-
tent found in $_._ a 1 term' flora was 7.5 ppm; the highest
concentration in £_._ heterocl i tus was over 200 ppm.
346
-------
Reinert, R.E., L.J. Stone, and W.A. Willford.
Effect of Temperature on Accumulation of Methylmercuric
Chloride and p, p1 DDT by Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri).
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 31:1649-1652.
October 1974.
Key Words: mercury, DDT, fish.
Abstract:
Amounts of mercury and DDT residues accumulated from water
by yearling rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in the
laboratory increased as water temperature increased.
Fish exposed to methylmercuric chloride at concentrations
of 234-263 parts per trillion for 12 weeks at 5, 10, and
15 C accumulated 1.19, 1.71, and 1.96 ppm; fish exposed
to £-«.P' DDT at concentrations of 133-176 parts per
trillion accumulated 3.76, 5.93, and 6.82 ppm. Concen-
trations of mercury accumulated by the fish were sig-
nificantly different (P< 0.01) at each of the three
temperatures, and the concentrations of DDT were sig-
nificantly different at 5 and 10 and 5 and 15C. Through-
out the period of exposure, the concentration factors
(concentration of contaminant in the fish/concentration
in water) at each of the three temperatures were far
higher for p,p' DDT than for methylmercuric chloride.
347
-------
Reinhardt, A.W., D.P. Spath, and W.F. Jopling.
Organics, Water, and Health: A Reuse Problem.
JAWWA. 67.(9):477-480. September 1975.
Key Words: COD, groundwater.
Abstract:
Groundwater recharge through surface spreading 1s also
employed by the Orange County Water District, on the
lower reach of the Santa Ana River. In 1972-73, more
than 70,000 acre-ft of river water was recharged. The
river contains an average of approximately 35 mg/1 of
COD, a large percentage of which is believed to be of
sewage origin. This operation introduces more than
8 million pounds of organic material to the groundwater
basin.
348
-------
Remsen, C.C., E.J. Carpenter, and B.W. Schroeder.
Competition for Urea among Estuarine Microorganisms.
Ecology. 51(5):921-926. Late Summer 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Phytoplankton were responsible for the major part of
the urea decomposi ti'on in the Savannah-Wi Imington-
Ogeechee estuaries and adjacent coastal waters in
Georgia. This is an exception to the general rule
that bacteria are favored over algae in the competition
for dissolved organic compounds. Filtration of estuary
water through a 20-y mesh filter did not significantly
change the concentration of urea-decomposing bacteria;
there was, however, a significant change in phytoplankton
cell concentrations, chlorophyll a , and urea decomposi-
tion rates. Thus, any differences in the decomposition
of urea in filtered and unfiltered aliquots could be
attributed to the phytoplankters removed by filtration.
Average cell concentrations and chlorophyll a removed
by filtration was 15% and 39% of the totals, respectively.
However, the removal of urea-decomposing activity aver-
aged 53% of the total. This indicates that the phyto-
plankters removed by filtration, mainly diatoms with
large cross-sectional areas such as rhizosolenia,
chaetoceros, asterionel1 a, thaiassiosira, etc., were
responsible for proportionally higher amounts of urea
decomposition than would be indicated on a purely cell-
numbers basis .
Urea concentrations ranged from 0.6 to 8.9 yM, with the
highest values (average 3.41 yM) being found in the more
polluted Savannah estuary. Lower values, generally
1-2 yM, were observed in the Wilmington and Ogeechee
estuaries. Fresh water generally had slower urea decomp-
osition rates (average 6.2 mymoles liter'1 hr-1) than
brackish waters (average 19.6 mymoles liter"' hr-1). Turn-
over times for urea, calculated from these average values,
was 25 days for fresh water and 4 days for brackish water.
349
-------
Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and Their
Relationship to Environmental Health.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C.,
December 1969. 694p.
Key Words: DDT, DDE, other (general) pesticides, dieldrin,
aldrin, endrin, direct contact (air), surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
This document presents an extensive evaluation of all
available evidence on the benefits and risks of using
pesticides. The report examined pesticide uses and benefits,
contamination potential, effects on nonhuman target organisms,
effects on man, carcinogenicity, interactions, mutagenicity ,
and teratogenicity. Of particular importance were
Chapter 4: Effects of Pesticides on Man, and Chapter 5:
Carcinogenicity of Pesticides. The report indicated that
pesticide effects varied widely; DDT is not an acute poison,
while dieldrin and lindone have caused serious poisoning.
Lindane may be responsible for hematological disorders.
Organophosphates and carbamates are acute toxins, although
neither accumulate in the body as do the organochlorines
(DDT, dieldrin, etc.).
There is no evidence to indicate that pesticides are
carcinogenic to man, although some do cause tumors in
experimental mammals. The pesticides may enhance the
effects of other carcinogens.
The report concludes that our knowledge of the effects
of pesticides on man is at best fragmentary and for the
most part, indirect and inferential.
350
-------
Report on Hepatitis of the Safety Committee of the California
Water Pollution Control Association.
JWPCF. 11(12):1629-1634. December 1965.
Key Words: hepatitis virus, groundwater.
Abstract:
On the basis of reviewed literature and case studies,
it is not possible to show any significant relation-
ship between the incidence of infectious hepatitis
and employment at a wastewater treatment plant.
Disease transmission by the more usual means is con-
siderably more likely as a cause of infection of even
wastewater treatment plant employees.
If the plant operator remains conscious of the fact
that he is working with potentially hazardous material,
develops good personal hygiene habits, maintains a
clean plant, and uses good common sense, he will pro-
tect himself and others from accidental infection.
351
-------
Reported Morbidity and Mortality in the United States.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Annual Supplement
Summary 1975. U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW,
24(54). August 1976.
Key word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This annual summary of reported morbidity and mortality
in the U.S. in 1975 reported cases of disease covered
by international quarantine agreement and cases of
specified notifiable diseases from 1966-1975.
352
-------
Research Foundation to Undertake Study on Organlcs Removal.
Watercare. San Jose, California, September 1975. 7p.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Ten water utilities will be selected to actively
participate in a survey of trace organic chemicals
present in their water. A monthly sampling program
of water from these systems will be carried on during
a one year period. Organic matter will be collected
using both the carbon adsorption method (CAM) samplers
recommended in the 14th edition of Standard Methods
and the resin extraction (RE) samplers developed by
Svec and his co-workers. The CAM samplers employ ac-
tivated carbon whereas the RE samplers employ poly-
meric adsorbents.
Both samplers will be used in collecting organic matter
from the raw water and treated water from each supply.
Water samples from the distribution system will be ob-
tained using the RE samplers only. Organic matter ex-
tracted from the adsorbent will be analyzed at a central
analytical laboratory to identify the trace organic
chemicals present in the highest concentration, humic
and fulvic acids being excluded.
One of the ten water utilities will be selected for a
demonstration project in which a side-by-side comparison
of treatment using granular activated carbon, powdered
activated carbon and polymeric adsorbents will be made.
The demonstration project will be carried on for one
year so that effects related to seasonal variations
in water quality can be investigated. No attempt to
reactivate either the granular or the powdered carbon
will be made, although it is recognized that the per-
formance of a full scale treatment process employing
granular activated carbon in particular will depend
in part upon whether virgin materials are used exclu-
sively or only as replacement material for carbon lost
in reactivation.
A short-term bench scale comparison of granular activated
carbon, powdered activated carbon and polymeric adsorbents
will precede the demonstration project. The bench scale
tests will aid in the selection of specific materials
to use in the pilot plant and in providing a basis for
determining which of several available regenerants should
be selected for use in regenerating the polymeric ad-
sorbents .
353
-------
Reuther, W. and C.K. Labanauskas.
Copper.
In; Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas4 1973. pp. 157-179.
Key Words: copper, ponding/land application, land reclamation,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
The role of copper in agriculture has been the subject of
much careful study. The authors give some historical
background and then describe plant criteria useful in
diagnosing copper status detailing visual symptoms of
copper deficiency and excess, soil criteria useful in
diagnosing copper status with soil analysis values of
significance as well as specific values for copper in
soils. They also discuss copper excess and its control
and the control of copper deficiency. They conclude
with a discussion of the relation of copper deficiency
in plants and animals, its symptoms and control.
354
-------
R1ce, C.P. and H .C. Si kka.
Fate of Dieldrin in Selected Species of Marine Algae.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
9.(2):116-123. February 1973.
Key Words: dieldrin, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This article describes the uptake of dieldrin by algae
355
-------
Richardson, C.J., J.A. Kadlec, W.A. Wentz, J.P.M. Chamie,
and R.H. Kadlec.
Background Ecology and the Effects of Nutrient Additions on
a Central Michigan Wetland.
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1975. 52p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This is a study to test the feasibility of wetlands
to remove nutrients from secondarily treated sewage
wastewater, and to determine the magnitude of any changes
in the structure and function of the wetland ecosystem.
356
-------
Richardson, E.W., E.D. Stobbe, and B. Bernstein.
Ion Exchange Traps Chromates for Reuse.
Environmental Science and Technology. 2j 11): 1006-1016.
November 1968.
Key Words: chromium, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The pilot plant tests showed that an ion exchange
system could be used to recover the chromates dis-
charged from a recirculating cooling water system
and, thus, to help maintain the chromate concentra-
tion at an acceptable level for discharge into sur-
face streams. The chromate concentration was reduced
from 20 ppm to an average of less than 1 ppm as
0^04=, while the concentration of the other dissolved
salts remained essentially unchanged.
357
-------
Rickert, D.A. and J.V. Hunter.
Effects of Aeration Time on Soluble Organics during Activated
Sludge Treatment.
JWPCF. 43(9):134-138. January 1971.
Key Words: COD, total organic carbon, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The effects of aeration time on soluble organic para-
meters were studied during conventional activated sludge
treatment. On three occasions a plug flow of primary
effluent was sampled over a 6-hr aeration period. The
following observations were made:
1. Soluble TOC was reduced to a relatively stable level
after 30 min of aeration. The reduction of initial
concentration averaged 70 percent.
2. Soluble COD was reduced to a relatively stabel level
after 1 hr of aeration. The reduction of initial con-
centration averaged 77 percent.
3. COD:TOC ratios decreased steadily over the first
hour of aeration and fluctuated irregularly thereafter.
4. Over the aeration interval from 30 min to 1 hr, the
COD:TOC ratio decreased while the TOC concentration
remained constant. This combination of events suggested
the transfer of soluble organics between the aqueous
phase and bacteria.
5. The estimated net increase in the mean oxidation
state of soluble carbon averaged 1.61 units after 1 hr
and 1.67 units after 6 hr of aeration. Thus, over 96
percent of the apparent oxidation occurred within the
first hour of treatment.
358
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Rlemer, D.N. and S.J. Toth.
Adsorption of Copper by Clay Minerals, Humic Acid and Bottom
Muds.
JAWWA. 62(3) -.195-197. March 1970.
Key Words: copper, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The adsorption of Cu from CuSC^- Sh^O solutions by
H-A1 forms of leaolinite, illite, montmori11onite and
humic acid was studied in the laboratory. The adsorp-
tion and release of Cu from three pond sediments were
also examined. The rrtost important findings were:
1. All of the clay minerals and humic acid used com-
pletely adsorbed the small amounts of CuSC^'SI^O that
are normally used to contrtil algae.
2. Based on the absolute amounts of Cu adsorbed, the
clay minerals and humic acid could be arranged in the
following descending order:
humic acid> montmori 11 oni te> illite> kaolinite
3. Copper sulfate applications to ponds are fixed by
the bottom, and the factors controlling the fixation
are: nature of clay minerals, clay content, organic
matter content and, in cases of calcareous bottoms, the
percentage of limestone present.
4. The amount of water soluble Cu present in pond
bottoms can be reduced to very low values by air-drying
the bottom sediment.
5. The fixation percentages of Cu ranged from 17.5
to 28.7 percent in the three pond sediments used in
this study.
359
-------
Riley, J.P. and G. Sklrrow.
Chemical Oceanography. Vol. 1.
Academic Press, New York, 1965, 626p.
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
germanium, iron, lead, manganese, mercury,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, thorium, tin,
uranium, zinc, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This is a reference book on marine chemistry.
360
-------
Riley, J.P. and G. Skirrow.
Chemical Oceanography, Vol. 2.
Academic Press, New York, 1965. 667p.
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
germanium, iron, lead, manganese, mercury,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, thorium, tin,
uranium, zinc, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This is a reference book on marine chemistry.
361
-------
Risebrough , R.W.
PCB Residues in Atlantic Zooplankton.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
8(6):345-355. December 1972.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (marine)
Abstract:
This article discusses the accumulation of PCB in
zooplankton.
362
-------
The Rising Clamor about PCB's.
Environmental Science and Technology. ]0.(2) :122-123. February
1976.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, food processing, fish,
livestock, shellfish, drinking and recreational
water.
Abstract:
This is a basic review of PCB problems (ecological),
and alternatives to PCB use.
363
-------
Rivers, J.B., J.E. Pearson, and C.D. Shultz.
Total and Organic Mercury in Marine Fish.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
j8:257-265. August 1972.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
This article determines the total and organic mercury
levels in the fish muscle tissue of certain pelagic
and inshore fish of Hawaii which are used for human
consumption.
364
-------
Rizzo, J.L. and R.E. Schade.
Secondary Treatment with Granular Activated Carbon.
Water and Sewage Works. 1_16(8) :307-312. August 1969.
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, COD, total organic carbon,
adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Experimental work completed at Rocky River indicates
that a granular activated carbon process can treat the
plant's waste beyond that possible with conventional
bacteriological processes commonly referred to as
secondary treatment. In addition, it indicates that
granular activated carbon can be utilized for treat-
ment of clarified raw sewage, in place of conventional
biological secondary treatment.
365
-------
Roan, S.G., D.F. Bishop, and T.A. Pressley.
Laboratory Ozonation of Municipal Wastewaters.
District of Columbia Department of Environmental Services,
Washington, D.C., September 1973. 47p. (Available from
National Technical Services (NTIS) as PB-231 380).
Key Words: COD, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, ozonation.
Abstract:
Raw wastewater, secondary effluent, lime clarified and
filtered raw and secondary wastewaters, carbon treated
wastewaters, and breakpoint chlorinated plus carbon
treated wastewaters were ozonated at pH 7.0 over a range
of 5-90 minutes contact time. Ozonation of the raw
wastewater, with high solids and COD content required
impractical ozone dosages for appreciable COD removal.
In all effluents, except raw wastewater, 100 mg/1 of
ozone produced at least a 70% COD removal. Organic oxi-
dation efficiencies in the raw and secondary wastewaters
based upon one atom of available oxygen per molecule of
ozone, exceeded!100% indicating that one or more atoms
of the ozone molecule or molecular oxygen participated
in the organic oxidation mechanism. Variable amounts
of organic nitrogen and ammonia were oxidized at pH 7.0
by ozone to nitrate. The ozone distribution ratio
between oxidation of the NOD and COD, and the COD re-
movals as a function of ozone dose suggested that the
relative order of oxidation was easily oxidizable or-
ganic material, NH3, TKN, and slowly oxidizable (nearly
refractory) organic material.
366
-------
Robbins, J.W.D., D.H. Howells, and G.J. Kritz.
Stream Pollution from Animal Production Units.
JWPCF. 4£(8):1537-1544. August 1972.
Key Words: nitrates, total organic carbon, groundwater,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The state of the art of animal waste management is primi-
tive. The extent of water pollution caused by farm animal
production units is almost entirely dependent on the pro-
duction and waste management practices utilized by farmers
rather than on the volume of wastes involved.
The use of anaerobic lagoons as the sole means for treat-
ment of animal wastes is an unsatisfactory practice in
areas where rainfall exceeds evaporation. The practice of
dumping fresh animal wastes directly into streams causes
excessive pollution and should be prohibited. The natural
pollutional load on streams draining agricultural basins
devoid of farm animals can be appreciable under certain
conditions of rainfall and runoff, and should be taken
into consideration in water quality management. Because
the soil provides natural treatment of animal wastes, land
spreading is a very effective means to minimize water
pol1ution.
Groundwater problems associated with properly located and
managed animal production sites appear to be minimal.
367
-------
Robeck, G.G., N.A. Clarke, and K.A. Dostal.
Effectiveness of Water Treatment Processes in Virus Removal.
JAWWA. 5_4(10):1275-1292. October 1962.
Key Words: polio virus, filtration, chemical treatment,
ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Small-scale pilot plants were used to study the removal
of poliovlrus Type I from water as it passed through
unsaturated or water-saturated sand at groundwater move-
ment rates and through a f locculati on-fi 1 tration process
at rapid rates. Some erratic results with rapid rates
indicate that more testing is necessary to resolve de-
sign and operating problems with any modified treatment
processes.
The principal findings on both phases of work over a
20-month period were:
1. Two feet of clean, well-packed sand removed polio-
virus from water that was flowing at less than 4 ft
per day, and the percentage removed gradually decreased
until most of the organisms went through at rapid fil-
tration rates.
2. If a low but well-mixed dose of alum was fed just
ahead of the filters operated at 6 or 2 gpm/sq ft,
more than 98 percent of the viruses were removed by
16 in of coarse coal on top of 8 in of sand. Sand alone
did as well, but filter runs were shorter than they were
with the mixed media.
3. If the alum dose was increased and conventional
flocculators and settling were used, the removal was
increased to over 99 percent.
4. With alum fed just ahead of the filters, the length
of time for a run or floe breakthrough varied with
raw-water turbidity, floe .strength, temperature, and rate
of filtration. Successful 1-day runs, however, were
experienced at 6 gpm/sq ft when the raw-water turbidity
was about 10 Jackson units or less.
5. When a turbid water was treated, a floe breakthrough
was usually accompanied by an increase in virus pene-
tration even though the finished water turbidity remained
below 0.5 Jackson unit. Polyelectrolyte doses as low
as 0.05 ppm increased the floe strength and helped to
prevent such breakthroughs.
368
-------
6. When relatively clear water was treated, the virus
penetration increased without a corresponding increase
in filter effluent turbidity. This was especially true
when 5 instead of 10 ppm of alum was used.
369
-------
Roersma, R.E., G.J. Alsema, and I.H. Anthonissen.
Removal of Hexavalent Chromium by Activated Carbon.
Chemical Abstracts. 8jk65112w. 1975.
Key Words: chromium, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The treatment of Cr^+ containing effluents by reduction
to Cr3+ with activated carbon is described. The Cr&+ is
adsorbed in the pores of the activated carbon which is
slowly oxidized to CC^. The evolved gas expels the
Cr°+ from the pores, and the reaction ceases. The
reaction rate increases with temperature, Cr°+ con-
centration, and the amount of activated carbon present.
At a Cr6+ concentration of 40 g/1, 9% of the theoretically
possible reduction is obtained.
370
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Rogers, C.J. and R.L. Landreth.
Degradation Mechanisms: Controlling the Bio-accumulation of
Hazardous Materials.
National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio,
January 1975 Zip. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 748).
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The mechanisms for degradation of hazardous materials
in nature are chemical, biological, and photodegradation
processes. Many hazardous materials are destroyed by
these naturally occurring processes but at rates too
slow to prevent significant and unwanted accumulation
in living systems. Because natural transformation of
certain hazardous materials often leads to the synthesis
of a compound more toxic than the parent chemical com-
pound, nonbiodegradable structures can result in detect-
able and potentially harmful bioaccumulation in living
systems. Therefore, safe technologies for resource
recovery and waste disposal should be developed and im-
plemented to minimize the undesirable release of hazard-
ous materials into the environment.
371
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Rohatgi, N.K. and K.Y. Chen.
Fate of Metals in Wastewater Discharge to Ocean.
Journal of Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE. 102(EE3)
675-685. June 1976.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
nickel, zinc, location.
Abstract:
Trace metals with sewage and sludge particulates from
the City of Los Angeles Hyperion Treatment Plant are
found to mobilize to a great extent from solids to
seawater in the ocean environment. The fate of these
metals and the amount of annual transport to the ocean
are evaluated, based on: (1) concentrations of trace
metals in the wastewater particulates; (2) sediment
metal concentrations in the proximity of sewer outfalls;
(3) the degree of metal release from wastewater particu-
lates upon mixing and dilution with seawater under labor-
atory conditions; and (4) the settling velocity of sew-
age and sludge particulates. More than 90% of trace
metals, such as cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc
In the sludge particulates are solubilized through
biochemical reactions. A higher degree of solubiliza-
ti on from the mixture of primary and secondary effluents
is observed.
372
-------
Rohatgi, N. and K.Y. Chen.
Transport of Trace Metals by Suspended Participates on
Mixing with Seawater.
JWPCF. £7(9):2298-2316. September 1975.
Key Words: manganese, cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, zinc,
suspended solids, chromium, iron, surface water
(fresh), surface water (marine), effluent
characteristi cs .
Abstract:
Under aerobic conditions with seawater salinity, trace
metals were observed to be released from suspended
particulates, especially in the cases of Cd, Cu, Ni ,
Pb, and Zn. The release of trace metals was observed
to occur in two stages: an initial rapid release,
followed by a slower, long-term release. Release of
trace metals may be attributed to (a) the oxidation
of organic matter or metal sulfides; (b) desorption
from SS, which depend mostly on the dilution ratio
and pH of seawater; and (c) the formation of metal
chloride as well as organo-metallic complexes.
Results on the release of trace metals from the
suspended particulates of wastewater effluents, sludge,
and dry weather flow from the Los Angeles River are
listed in this study. In most cases, Cd, Cu, Ni , Pb,
and Zn were found to be released to a greater extent
than the rest. Chromium, Fe, and Mn were not found
to be released except in the case of digested sludge,
in which 2 percent of the chromium and 35 percent of
manganese were found to be released from solid phases.
373
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The Role of Soils and Sediments in Reducing the Concentration
of Heavy Metals, Fluorides, and Pesticides in Percolating Waste
Discharges (Memorandum Report).
State of California Resources Agency, Department of Water
Resources, Sacramento, June 1972. 30p.
Key Words: pesticides, ponding/land application, groundwater,
fluorides.
Abstract:
The persistence and movement of pesticides within soils
is related directly to the extent of adsorption, which,
in turn, is dependent on the solubility of pesticides,
the exchange capacity of the soil, and the grain size
and distribution of the soils. Other factors include:
(1) the microbial degradation of pesticides; and (2)
chemical degradation that may be due to hydrolysis or
precipitation reactions within the soil system. Factors
that affect reactions of pesticides within the soil medium
are pH value within the soil medium and the temperature
of the soil medium. Some of the pesticides persist within
the soil medium; they can be desorbed from the clays
and colloidal soil fractions under the right pH and
temperature conditions. Other factors that affect the
movement of pesticides within the soil are volatiliza-
tion of the pesticide and its movement in the vapor
phase and plant uptake. Much more information is needed
about particular types of pesticides and on the fate
of these pesti ci des.
374
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Rolfe, G.L., A. Chakar, J. Melin, and B.B. Ewing.
Modeling Lead Pollution in a Watershed-Ecosystem.
Journal of Environmental Systems. 2^:339-349. December 1972
Key Words: lead, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
An interdisciplinary study is currently in progress
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
under a grant from the National Science Foundation
RANN Program. Objectives of the study include under-
standing and modeling the movements and effects of
heavy metals (initially lead) in the environment.
A model has been constructed wfiich simulates the
movements and predicts the accumulation points of
lead in a 76-square mile watershed-ecosystem in Cham-
paign County, Illinois. The model includes components
of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and repre-
sents the ecosystem by a network of nodes and branches
where the nodes represent the components of the eco-
system in a general sense and the branches indicate
possible transport mechanisms between nodes. Results
of a two year simulation using a network of 36 nodes
and 121 branches is presented.
The model provides a method for the study of pollutant
transport and accumulation in ecosystems.
375
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Romero, J.C.
The Movement of Bacteria and Viruses Through Porous Media.
Ground Water. 8(2):34-48. March-Aoril lQ7n.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, groundwater, ponding/land
application.
Abstract:
This report is the result of a request by the State
Board of Examiners of Water Well and Pump Installation
Contractors. The Board is in the process of formulating
a more reasonable set of guidelines which control the
location of wells designed to produce water for human
consumption and/or food processing with respect to
potential or existing sources of groundwater pollution.
The pollution of groundwater supplies is artfully
treacherous. It appears belatedly and often is not
recognized until a relatively large area has been
contaminated and perhaps one or more individual water
supplies have been rendered unfit for human consumption.
It is known that soils and aquifer materials have capa-
city to remove or "filter" some types of contaminants,
and something is also known of the limitations in this
regard. It is with these thoughts upon which this report
is based. The report is designed to briefly describe
the results of several pertinent groundwater pollution
investigations and present current and potential standards
for governing "safe distances" between domestic-food
processing wells and sources of potential or existing
pollution. The recommendations are meant to emphasize
the fact that no one set of distances is adequate and
reasonable for ALL conditions. Whenever possible, the
"safe distance" between a subject well and a source of
potential or existing pollution should be based on local
condi tions.
It is important that we develop knowledge that will
permit continued use of the soil mantle as a wastewater
treatment system and at the same time permit continued
use of groundwater for human consumption and for food
processing. Functional legal, administrative and engineer-
ing mechanisms must be developed to maintain this combined
usage.
376
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Rook, J.J.
Formation of Haloforms during Ch lorinati on of Natural Waters
Water Treatment and Examination. 23:234. 1974.
Key Words: surface water (fresh), chl orinati on .
Abs tract:
There is strong evidence that haloforms are produced
by chlorination of humic substances in natural waters.
Whether these have any physiological effects requires
further study.
If it can be established that haloforms are harmful,
then it may be necessary to restrict the chlorination
of coloured waters or to remove haloforms by, for
example, volatilization by intensive aeration of the
treated water.
377
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Rook, J.J. and G. Oskam.
Biological and Chemical Aspects of Rhine Water in the
Berenplaat Reservoir.
JAWWA. 62.(4):249-259. April 1970.
Key Words: chlorides, total dissolved solids, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
Since 1966 the Rotterdam Waterworks has operated a stor-
age reservoir, in which the heavily polluted Rhine water
is stored during a relatively short period.
Primary aim, when constructing this reservoir, was
covering of periods in which the river water was of
poor quality, with additional quality improvement by
selfpurifi cation processes.
Because of its fertility the stored Rhine water supports
a heavy growth of algae during most of the growing sea-
son (March to November). The seasonal pattern of algal
pulses was approximately identical in all three years.
Except for the month of June, the algal population is
dominated by diatoms, with Asterionella formosa reaching
highest numbers .
The restricted detention period does not allow the
plankton to complete a full life-cycle. The algae are
withdrawn from the reservoir with the abstracted water,
while still in the logarithmic growth phase. No deter-
ioration of water quality due to dying algal blooms
occurs. As a consequence of the shorter detention period,
algae growth was less intensive in 1968.
A second observation, which appears to be associated
with the short detention time, is the virtually complete
absence of blue-green algae, which are most troublesome
in many water supply reservoirs.
Storage had a very favorable effect on different water
quality characteristics. First the restoration of the
dissolved oxygen content must be mentioned. Reaeration
contributed to the oxygenation, as did photosynthesis.
The incidentally occurring increase in dissolved organic
matter can be considered as the only less favorable
consequence of phytoplankton growth in the Berenplaat
reservoir, although the overall effect of storage on
KMn04 consumption was definitely favorable.
378
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Secondary effects of the algal growth were the utilization
of large amounts of silica and phosphate. From quantita-
tive considerations the conclusion can be drawn, that
as time permits, silica rather than phosphate will act
as a limiting factor.
Nitrification caused a reduction in ammonia content,
although part of the removal may be due to algal uptake
or to pH-infl uenced losses to the atmosphere. Nitrate
presumably contributed to the dissimilation of settled
organic material in the reservoir, as sometimes consid-
erable losses in nitrate-N were recorded.
The striking reduction in threshold taste value is con-
sidered as the most important aspect of the storage of
Rhine water. To meet future demands in the Netherlands,
many new reservoirs storing Rhine water must be built.
The conclusion seems justified that extensive baffling of
these reservoirs, in order to achieve efficient taste
improvement, is not necessary.
379
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Rosen, H.M.
Use of Ozone and Oxygen in Advanced Wastewater Treatment.
JWPCF. 45(12):2521-2536. December 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, ozonation.
Abstract:
Designing an ozonation treatment plant even when con-
sidering only tertiary municipal treatment requires
a thorough knowledge of the individual situation to
develop a least cost system. In many future plants,
oxygen will be used for enriched oxygen aeration in
the activated sludge process, for aerobic sludge di-
gestion, and for enriched oxygen incineration. A
system design to minimize oxygen-ozone applications
cost will be even more complex.
Tbe many advantages of ozone in the treatment of
difficult industrial wastes, such as phenols and cyanides,
have not been mentioned. The problems in the treatment
of industrial wastewater produce a new set of design
criteria often related to water recycle. Ozone and
oxygen are excellent in this respect because oxygen
is the only residual left by both gases.
Advanced technology for economical oxygen and ozone
generation is now available. Some systems for its
application have been developed and demonstrated.
However, only the surface has been scratched in the
development of applications technology, not only in
the municipal area but in industrial water pollution
control.
380
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Rossie, W .L., Jr.
Control of Water Quality in Transmission and Distribution
Systems .
JAWWA. 67. (8):425-427. August 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
A system is a living functional unit subject to stresses.
An understanding of these stresses and their inter-
relationships will provide a better understanding of
their effects so as to resist or neutralize such stresses
Internal adjustments are necessary for a healthy dis-
tribution system.
Quality in design and construction and protective
measures depend on quality materials and personnel.
Adequate protective measures in the distribution system
are of utmost importance for stabilized operation and
quality water. Problems can be expected to increase
as a result of growing population and industry, fixed
water supply, and the reuse factor, which is due for
greater and greater consideration.
In today's world, water can be a great benefit to man
and his environment, or it can be a vehicle by which
disease organisms or toxic chemicals can be widely
distributed. Health and water-utility professionals must
work together to ensure proper distribution, use, and
protective reaction capability.
Stresses will always exist in varying degrees. Water-
utilities must train dedicated, competent men to react
to stress situations. Utility personnel must be aware
of existing problems and must be able to recognize poten-
tial problems. Quality water provides family health pro-
tection and good consumer relations. The challenge of
the future will be to continue to provide high-quality
water.
381
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Routh, J.D.
DDT Residues in Salinas River Sediments.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
7_(2/3):168-176. February/March 1972.
Key Words: DDT, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The chlorinated hydrocarbon, p,p' DDT is the most
common DDT derivative in bottom sediment samples taken
at sites in the Salinas River from the Soledad to the
Highway No. 1 river crossing. Its concentration as well
as the concentration of total derivatives varies from
site to site along the river as well as over time. This
is probably due to certain areas acting as natural de-
positories for water translocated suspended fine particu-
late matter containing high concentrations of DDT.
If the rate of water flow is sufficiently low and if
other unspecified natural factors are right, the particles
settle and collect at sites along the river yielding
a high concentration of DDT residues. Evidence which
supports this hypothesis is that the areas with the
finest sediment are the areas which also have the
highest concentration of DDT derivatives. The portion
of the Salinas River south of the Davis river crossing
shows the highest concentration of the areas studied.
382
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Rozelle, R.B. and H.A. Swain, Jr.
Removal of Manganese from Mine Drainage by Ozone and Chlorine
WiHes College, Wi1kes-Barre, Pennsylvania, March 1975. 57p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as PB-241 143).
Key Words: manganese, chl orinati on , ozonation.
Abstract:
This research was directed toward an examination of
methods by which coal mine water could be treated for
removal of manganese. In order to remove manganese
from mine water, strong oxidizers must be employed
to oxidize it to the ( + 4) oxidation state in which it
is relatively insoluble and will precipitate as Mn02>
Both ozone and hypochlorite ion were effective in this
oxidation and reduced manganese concentrations to less
than 2 mg/1 and in some cases to less than 0.05 mg/1.
Reaction orders based on initial reaction rates are
reported for the manganese (II) at pH values of 2,4,
6 and 7.9 in the time intervals studied. Solubilities
of both manganese (II) hydroxide and manganese (IV)
oxide were measured. Cost data were developed for both
the ozone and sodium hypochlorite treatment.
383
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Rubenstein, S.H., J. Fenters, H. Orbach, N. Shuber, J. Reed,
and E. Molloy.
Viruses in Metropolitan Waters: Concentration by Polyelectro-
lytes, Freeze Concentration, and Ultrafi 1 tration.
JAWWA. 6J.(3) :200-202. March 1973.
Key Words: viruses, ECHO virus, polio virus, coliforms,
fecal streptococci, surface water (fresh),
influent characteristics, effluent characteristics,
filtration .
Abstract:
The recovery and concentration of viruses by either
insoluble IMA or freeze concentration-ultrafi1tration
has been shown to be both practical, simple,.and efficient.
In both cases large volumes of water can be processed with
a minimum of laboratory manipulation and with a high degree
of certainty of viral recovery.
The inability to recover enterovirus from Lake Michigan
samples is taken as indicative of the absence of these
agents at detectable levels during the survey period.
This finding is consistent with the fact that the city
of Chicago does not discharge either raw or treated wastes
into Lake Michigan.
The Chicago River yielded one viral isolate during the
study period. Although the water quality of this source
is known to be degraded, it appears that viral inputs
are minimal at this time. Other investigators have
obtained a considerable number of viral isolates using
IMA concentration. However, the viruses were isolated
from either sewage or from streams receiving effluents of
sewage-treatment plants.
384
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Rubin, A.J. and G.P. Hanna,
Coagulation of Bacterium Escherichi a Coli by Aluminum Nitrate.
Environmental Science and Technology. £(5) :358-362. May 1968.
Key Words: Escherichia coli, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
As with other sols, the coagulation of Escherichi a coli
is strongly dependent upon the pH and applied concen-
tration of hydrolyzing coagulant. These organisms
obey the Schulze-Hardy rule for coagulation by uni-
valent and divalent neutral salts, and presumably a
polymeric species such as Alo(OH)20 • They are slowly
coagulated by hydrogen ion at concentrations considerably
Below that of other univalent cations. The entire log
aluminum nitrate concentration pH domain of stability
for the coagulation of this strain of E. coli at a
single concentration of the organisms was determined
as indicated by settling rates.
The stability domain is very similar to those described
for silver halide sols except for the boundary at pH
5.65 and the region of restabilization at low pH. Three
regions of different settling rates were observed. The
rate of settling in the rapid coagulation zone was
greater than in the slow zone but considerably lower
than in the sweep zone. Coagulation in the rapid zone
is best explained by assuming the predominate aluminum
species to have an octameric or similar structure and
to be four-plus charged.
The sweep zone of aluminum hydroxide precipitation and
rapid settling for E. coli was completely defined and
occurs in similar concentration and pH ranges previously
described for clays. The data support the contention
that the dispersed particles are being enmeshed and car-
ried down by precipitating gelatinous aluminum hydroxide
(aluminum "floe"). Of course, physicochemical forces
of attraction between the sol and the precipate may be
important. Algae were also observed to attract floe
particles to themselves.
Some workers have found that the nature of the dispersed
phase has little if any effect on coagulation. Because
of the similarity of the results for E. col i with silver
halide sols in the rapid coagulation zone and clays in
the sweep zone, it appears that this view is essentially
correct with certain limitation. Certainly, restabili-
zation will depend both upon the nature and concentration
385
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of the dispersed phase. Coagulation by hydrogen ion
also appears to be dependent upon the nature of the
sol, and may be dependent upon its concentration.
386
-------
Rudolfs, W., L.L. Folk, and R.A. Rogotzkie.
Contamination of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil. Part I:
Bacterial Contamination.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 23^:253-268. 1951.
Key Words: coliforms, salmonella, shigella, protozoa,
Escherichia c o 1 i, crops, groundwater, direct
contact.
Abstract:
Field experiments during two growing seasons were
designed to evaluate and compare the extent of coli-
form contamination of tomatoes in a similar but un-
contaminated environment. The pollution consisted
of either furrow irrigation with settled sewage normally
used for the purpose, or direct application of feces
suspensions to the fruit and leaves, which may represent
spray types of irrigation or direct applications of
nightsoil as frequently practiced. In addition, the
survival of pathogenic types, such as salmonella and
shigella species, was investigated to supplement with
direct evidence the findings with coliform organisms.
The results show that if sewage irrigation or nightsoil
application is stopped one month before harvest, the
fruit, if eaten raw, would not be likely vectors for
the transmission of human bacterial enteric diseases.
387
-------
Rudolfs, W., L.L. Folk, and R.A. Rogotzkie.
Contamination of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil, Part II:
Field and Laboratory Studies on Endamoeba Cysts .
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 23_:478-485. 1951.
Key Words: protozoa, crops, groundwater.
Abstract:
Laboratory and field experiments on the survival of
Endamoeba histolyti ca cysts applied either in suspension
or in conjunction with feces to tomatoes and leaf
lettuce direct, or to soil in which the plants were
growing, show that the cysts are extremely sensitive
to desiccation. Addition of organic matter in the
form of fecal suspensions does not enhance survival
of the cysts. Crops growing in the field may become
contaminated directly during the course of irrigation
with sewage polluted water or night soil, or indirectly
through contact with polluted soil. Contaminated
tomatoes and lettuce are free from viable cysts within
3 days after contamination occurs, the time of decon-
tamination decreasing with a decrease in the degree of
wetness of the soil. Field-grown crops consumed raw
and subject to contaminiti on with cysts of E. histolyti ca
are considered safe in the temperate zone one week
after contamination has stopped and after two weeks in
wetter tropical regions.
388
-------
Rudolfs, W., L.L. Folk, and R.A. Rogotzkie.
Contamination of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil. Part III:
Field Studies on Ascaris Eggs.
*
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. £3:656-660. 1951.
Key Words: crops, groundwater.
Abstract:
Field experiments on the survival of Ascaris suum eggs
were conducted by spraying suspensions of Ascaris eggs
and feces on growing tomatoes and lettuce. Plants and
fruit were harvested at intervals. Results show that
a reduction of the number of eggs took place with time,
but some eggs remained on the plants and fruits for more
than a month. Development of eggs was greatly retarded
and completely developed eggs containing motile embryos
required for infection were not recovered. The exposure
of undeveloped eggs to field conditions reduced greatly
the viability of the eggs. It appears that resistance
of Ascaris eggs on vegetable surfaces is less than might
be expected from considerations of their resistance in
soil, feces, or night soil. All eggs degenerated after
27 to 35 days and were incapable of development for in-
fect i on .
389
-------
Rudolfs, W., L.L. Folk, and R.A. Rogotzkle.
Contamination of Vegetables Grown 1n Polluted Soil. Part IV:
Bacterial Decontamination.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 2,3:739-751. 1951.
Key Words: coliform, biological contaminants, disinfection.
Abstract:
Studies on coliform decontamination of raw tomatoes
grown on sewage polluted soils, or sprayed with E^ coli
or feces, show that the natural death rate of these
bacteria under ordinary storage conditions is slow and
does not Insure adequate decontamination. Vigorous
washing for 15 min. with plain water removes most of
the sprayed-on contaminants, but does not remove coli-
forms from tomatoes grown on polluted soil. In general,
vigorous washing with anionic, nonionic, and cationic
detergents 1s not materially better than washing with
plain water. Chlorine and its compounds in high con-
centration in solution do not remove organisms protected
by dirt, or in cracks, crevices, or bruises. Chlorine
gas Is a good decontaminating agent, but causes bleach-
Ing in the concentrations required. Nitrogen trichloride
and t-butyl hypochlorite are not effective in the con-
centrations normally used for fruit spoilage control.
The most effective method for consistently obtaining a
low coliform residual, without affecting the appearance
and condition of the vegetables, is soaking them in
water at a temperature of 6QOC. for 5 min.
390
-------
Rudolfs, W., L.L. Folk, and R.A. Rogotzkie.
Contamination of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil. Part V:
Helminthic Decontamination.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 2^3:853-860. 1951.
Key Words: parasitic worms, ch 1 orinati on , disinfection,
crops , groundwater.
Abstract:
Physical and chemical means of decontaminating vegetable
surfaces contaminated by As cari s s u u m eggs included
vigorous washing and soaking in plain water, detergent
solutions, germicidal rinses, and use of warm water.
The results show that the eggs adhere tenaciously to
solid surfaces. Various detergents and germicidal rinses
were not effective killing agents, but cationic deter-
gents will cause more than 90 percent removal of eggs
from smooth surfaces, such as tomatoes. The removal
is less effective when cracks, crevices, or bruises
protect the eggs. The only effective method to in-
sure vegetable decontamination with respect to hel-
minth eggs is immersion of the vegetable in warm water
(55° to 60°C.) for 10 min. Such immersion does not
alter the appearance or character of the vegetables
tested.
391
-------
Rudolfs, W., L.L. Folk, and R.A. Rogotzkie.
Contamination of Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil. Part VI:
Application of Results.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 23.:992-1000. 1951.
Key Words: Escherichia coli, salmonella, shigella,
protozoa, paras iti c worms, crops, groundwater.
Abstract:
This article describes original work in determining the
time of viability of pathogen organisms on food crops
and methods of their removal for safe human consumption.
392
-------
Ryan, J.A. and D.R. Keeney.
Ammonia Volatilization from Surface-Applied Wastewater Sludge.
JWPCF. 47(2):386-393. February 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, anaerobic digestion, land reclamation.
Abstract:
When the wastewater sludge is surface-applied to soil,
anywhere from 11 to 60 percent of the applied NH^-N can
be lost by NH3 volatilization, depending on the soil
used and the rate of sludge addition. Losses decreased
as the clay content of the soil increased, while higher
rates of addition resulted in greater losses. Larger
losses were also observed by repeated application of
wastewater sludge.
393
-------
Ryther, J.H.
Preliminary Results with a Pilot-Plant Waste Recycling-Marine
Aquaculture System.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Woods Hole,
Massachusetts, July 1975. 40p.
Key Word: nitrates, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Complete nitrogen removal may be accomplished by growing
unicellular marine algae in continuous, flow-through
cultures in effluent-seawater mixtures. Shallow (1 meter),
2,500 ft2, PVC-lined ponds, gently circulated to maintain
the algae in suspension, have been used for this purpose.
Optimal and maximum possible size of ponds to achieve
the same or an improved performance have not been deter-
mined.
394
-------
Salmonella Surveillance.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. Report No. 122. February
1975.
Key Words: salmonella, epidemiology.
Abstract:
In the second quarter of 1974, 5,110 isolations of
salmonellae were reported from humans, an average of
393 isolations per week; this article is a summary of
salmonella surveillance.
-------
Salmonella Surveillance Annual Summary 1974.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. Report No. 125. August
1975.
Key Words, salmonella, epidemiology.
Abstract:
In 1974, 23,838 isolations of salmonella were reported
to CDC, a decrease of 2,855 cases (10.7%) from the
previous year. As in 1973, Salmonel1 a typhimurium
(including $_._ typhimurium var. Copenhagen), S. newport,
and S. enteritidis were the first, second, and third
most commonly isolated serotypes, respectively.
396
-------
Salmonella Surveillance Annual Summary 1974.
U.S. Center for
September 1976.
Disease Control, HEW. Report No. 126.
Key Words: salmonel1a^epidemiology.
Abstract:
This report summarizes information received from state
and city health departments, university and hospital
laboratories, U.S.F.D.A., and other sources, domestic
and foreign about isolations of salmonella in 1975.
397
-------
Salotto, B,, V.E. Grossman III, and J.B. Parrel! .
Elemental Analysis of Wastewater Sludges from 33 Wastewater
Treatment Plants 1n the United States.
ln_ Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids.
A. Frelberger, ed. EPA-902/9-74-002, Environmental Protection
Agency, Region II, New York, 1974. pp. 23-72.
Key Words: chromium, phosphates, nitrates, copper, nickel,
zinc, boron, cadmium, cobalt, mercury, manganese,
lead, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
Sludges, principally of the digested type, from 33
municipal wastewater treatment plants in the United
States have been analyzed for 21 metals., nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulphur. The BTU value of some sludges
was also determined. Atomic absorption method was used
for the determination of metals in sludge. No detectable
amount of beryllium was found 1n any sludge sample
analyzed and although very toxic, it evidently does not
present a commonly encountered hazard in the disposal
of sludge.
Mathematical analysis of the data indicated that the
distribution of heavy metals in sludge is approximately
log-normal. This behavior 1s characteristic of all
sludge types analyzed thus far. Levels of metals in
essentially domestic sludges were found to correspond
closely to the 25th percentlle distribution of metals
1n all sludges reported. Comparison of the levels of
metals in the United States sludges with corresponding
levels in Scandinavian sludges show higher levels in
the U.S. sludges. Variation of any particular metal in
sludges of a particular wastewater treatment plant was
much less than in sludge samples taken from different
pi ants.
398
-------
Saltzman, S., L. Kliger, and B. Yaron.
Adsorption-Desorption of Parathion as Affected by Soil Organic
Matter.
Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 20:1224-1226.
June 1972.
Key Words: organophosphorous pesticides, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Influence of soil organic matter on the adsorption-
desorption of parathion was studied by using tagged
insecticide. It was found that the parathion adsorption
by soils is dependent on the type of association between
the organic and mineral colloids. In aqueous solutions
the parathion has a greater affinity for organic than for
mineral adsorptive surfaces. Parathion bonding is
stronger on organic than on mineral surfaces.
399
-------
Sanborn, O.R.
The Fate of Select Pesticides in the Aquatic Environment.
University of Illinois, Urbana, December 1974. 93p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-239 749)
Key Words: pesticides, dieldrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
herbicides, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
This article gives concentration data of different
pesticides throughout the aquatic environment.
400
-------
Sanders, H.O. and J.H. Chandler.
Biological Magnification of a Polychlorinated Biphenyl
(Aroclor 1254; from Water by Aquatic Invertebrates.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
Z(5):257-263. May 1972.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, fish.
Abstract:
Biological accumulation of Aroclor 1254 is very rapid
(reaching 25 x 103 in 4 days) in aquatic Invertebrates
401
-------
Sartor, J.D., G.B. Boyd, and F.J. Agardy.
Water Pollution Aspects of Street Surface Contaminants.
JWPCF. 46(3):458-467. March 1974.
Key Words: BOD, COD, phosphates, nitrates, ammonia, zinc,
copper, lead, mercury, chromium, DDT, ODD,
aldrin, coliforms, combined municipal and/or
storm systems.
Abstract:
The major constituent of street surface contaminants was
consistently found to be inorganic, mineral-like matter,
similar to common sand and silt. Significant amounts of
heavy metals were detected in the contaminant materials
collected from street surfaces. Zinc and lead were the
most prevelant.
402
-------
Savage, H.P. and N.B. Hanes.
Toxidty of Seawater to Conform Bacteria.
JWPCF. £3(5):854-861. May 1971.
Key Words: conforms, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Under the conditions studied, it was concluded that:
1. With somewhere between 1 and 10 mg/1 initial BOD,
fresh seawater temporarily loses its'toxicity to total
and fecal coliform bacteria.
2. In fresh seawater with BOD levels of 10 to 120 mg/1,
the relationship between the log of the maximum bacterial
densities and the initial BOD seemed to be linear.
3. The percentage of both fecal and total coliform
bacteria contributing to the total population increased
as maximum density was approached and decreased as the
populations declined.
4. By themselves, total and fecal coliform bacteria
are not reliable indicators of the degree of recent
fecal pollution in seawater because, given sufficient
nutrient levels, the bacterial density will increase.
403
-------
Sawyer, C.N. and P.A. Hahn.
Temperature Requirements for Odor Destruction in Sludge Incin-
erati on.
JWPCF. 32_(12):1274-1278. December 1960.
Key Words: bacteria, air, incineration.
Abstract:
The temperature required for odor destruction varies
somewhat with the character of the sludge processed
and the method of concentration or conditioning. Sludges
concentrated by anaerobic flotation did not have unusual
temperature requirements. The vapors from only a few
sludges were adequately deodorized at 1,250°F. Most
required a temperature of 1,300 or 1,350°F and a few
requi red 1 ,400°F.
The intensity of odors was appreciable at 50°F below
the threshold level and severe at 100°F below.
Temperatures required for destruction of odors from
volatile fatty acids varied from 1,370 to 1,425°F.
Odor-free incinerator operation requires that strict
attention be given to control of temperatures in the
deodorizing zone and that a factor of safety be employed
commensurate with atmospheric conditions and other local
factors .
404
-------
Sayler, G.S., O.D. Nelson, Jr., A.Justice, and R.R. Colwell.
Distribution and Significance of Fecal Indicator Organisms in
the Upper Chesapeake Bay.
Applied Microbiology. 30.(4) :625-638. October 1975.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, bacteria, coliforms, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Total viable aerobic heterotrophic bacteria, total
coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci were
enumerated in samples collected at five stations located
in the Upper Chesapeake Bay, December 1973 through Decem-
ber 1974. Significant levels of pollution indicator
organisms were detected at all of the stations sampled.
Highest counts were observed in samples collected at .the
confluence of the Susquehanna River and the Chesapeake
Bay. The indicator organisms examined were observed to
be quantitatively distributed independently of temperature
and salinity. Counts were not found to be correlated with
concentration of suspended sediment. However, significant
proportions of both the total viable bacteria (53%) and
fecal indicator organisms (>80%) were directly associated
with suspended sediments. Correlation coefficients (r)
for the indicator organisms examined in this study ranged
from r = 0.80 to r = 0.99 for bottom water and suspended
sediment, respectively. Prolonged survival of fecal
streptococci in most of the sediment samples was observed,
with concomitant reduction of the correlation coefficient
from r = 0.99, fecal streptococci to total coliforms in
water, to r = 0.01, fecal streptococci to fecal coliforms
in sediments. The results of this study compared favor-
ably with fecal coliforms:fecal streptococci ratios
for the various sample types. Characterization of organ-
isms beyond the confirmed most-probable-number procedure
provided good correlation between bacterial indicator
groups.
405
-------
Saz, A.K., S. Watson, S.R. Brown, and D.L. Lowery.
Antimicrobial Activity of Marine Waters, I: Macromolecular
Nature of Antistaphylococcal Factor.
Limnology and Oceanography. £5(l):63-67. January 1963.
Key Words: Staphylococcus aureus. surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Water from Vineyard Sound, Mass., has a rapid bacteri-
cidal activity against both penicillin-sensitive and
-resistant strains of Staphylococcus a u re us but under
the conditions of these experiments, exhibits no anti-
coliform effect. It has been demonstrated that the
active factor is a large, non-dialyzable, autoclave-
labile molecule. The preponderance of gram-negative
bacteria in the sea is discussed in light of the above
findings.
406
-------
Scarpino, P.V.
Human Enteric Viruses and Bacteriophages as Indicators of
Sewage Pollution.
To be presented at International Symposium on Discharge of
Sewage from Sea Outfalls, London, August 28, 1974. Up.
Key Words: viruses, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is a general article on microbial indicators as well
as human enteric viruses and bacteriophages as indicators
of sewage pollution.
407
-------
Scarpino, P.V. and D. Pramer.
Evaluation of Factors Affecting the Survival of Escherichia coli
in Sea Water.
Applied Microbiology. JjO(5) :436-440. September 1962.
Key Words: Escherichia coli. surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The relationship between death of cells of E scherienia
coli in artificial sea water and time was established
as 1inear, and statistical tests demonstrated that the
most suitable measure of survival was log percent after
24 hr. Survival of E. coli in water supplemented with
cysteine at levels of" 07Z"8T x 10'6 to 284 x 10-6 M was in-
creased greatly over that in untreated water. To pro-
vide an insight into the mode of action of cysteine,
the effect of concentration of various sulfhydryl and
disulfide compounds was measured, and the influence of
several compounds that lack a functional sulfur group
but which are capable of affecting oxidation-reduction
potential was determined. Moreover, a number of sub-
stances related structurally to cysteine were tested
to ascertain their influence on the survival of cells
of £_• co^ 1 in artificial sea water. It appeared that
the beneficial effect of cysteine was not due to the sulf-
hydryl group of the amino acid or to the ability of the
compound to influence oxidation-reduction potential.
Some sulfhydryl compounds had no favorable effect and,
in general, disulfides were more active than the corres-
ponding sulfhydryl compounds. Substances that lack a
functional sulfur group but influence oxidation-reduction
potential had no significant activity. The beneficial
effect of a number of compounds related structurally to
cysteine indicates that both an amino and carboxyl group
are required for activity. It as suggested that cysteine
and other amino acids act to increase survival of cells
of E. coli in sea water by a chelation mechanism.
408
-------
Scarplno, P.V., M. Lucas, D.R. Dahling, G. Berg, and S.L.Chang,
Effectiveness of Hypochlorous Acid and Hypoch lorite Ion in
Destruction of Viruses and Bacteria,
In: Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment and Distribution.
ATJ. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975, pp. 359-368.
Key Words: Escherichia coli. polio virus, coxsackie virus,
chlorination.
Abstract:
There are still many questions in disinfection of water
yet unanswered. Good comparative disinfection data
are required from which guidelines can be drawn for pro-
viding safe waters free from pathogens. Present micro-
biological standards for water quality need to be reas-
sessed to include standards for animal viruses of enteric
origin, since animal viruses can be more resistant to
chlorination than the coliforms that form the backbone
of the present safety standards for water. Additional
research is required comparing the relative survival
times, number, and seasonal presence of coliphages in
the water environment with those of animal viruses of
pathogenic significance to man. The data, however, does
cast doubt upon the ultimate merit of coliphage indicator
models of enteric virus presence, in regard to survival
characteristics, since the coliphages studied were not
as resistant as the viruses of man to comparable environ-
mental circumstances.
409
-------
Schafer, H.A.
Characteristics of Municipal Wastewater Discharges,1975.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual Report,
El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1976. pp. 57-60.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, cyanides, oil and grease,
phosphates, arsenic, cadmium, chromium,
copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, zinc,
elemental contaminants, DDT, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This paper includes tabular listings of 1) concentrations
of general constituents, metal, and chlorinated hydro-
carbons in five southern California municipal effluents
in 1975; 2} mass emissions of and from the same, 1975;
and 3) combined annual mass emission rates» 1971-1975.
Several trends were noted: 1) 1971-74, in general,
constituents decreased slightly; 2) 1971-74, DDT de-
creased by a factor of 10; 3) 1971-74, PCB's and metals
stayed constant; 4) 1974-75, suspended solids increased
by 10%; 5) 1974-75, all metals except silver declined;
and 6) 1974-75, PCB declined.
410
-------
Schafer, H.A. and W. Bascom.
Sludge in Santa Monica Bay.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1976. pp. 77-82.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, cooper, lead, mercury, nickel,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This is a discussion of the results of marine sediment
analyses around the City of Los Angeles (Hyperion plant)
sludge outfall. No attempts are made to draw conclusions;
the report is simply a series of observations and analyti-
cal results.
411
-------
Schaub, S.A., C.A. Sorber, and G.W. Taylor.
The Association of Enteric Viruses with Natural Turbidity In
the Aquatic Environment.
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
Malina, Jr. and B.P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at Austin,
Center for Research in Water Resources, 1974. pp. 71-83.
Key Words: polio virus, viruses, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
It is very possible that in nature, viruses in water
and wastewater will adsorb virus only to a degree dic-
tated by the physical-chemical make-up of the water.
Adsorbed virus will remain in the water phase only until
the solids reach a point where they settle to the bottom
as deposits are removed during flocculation or filtration.
As a natural water runs its course to the sea, greater
adsorption may occur as additional solids, increased cat-
ion, lower pH, or other alterations occur. Alternatively,
dilution, organics, or higher pH may provide less adsorp-
tion. Virus associated with bottom sediments may be re-
suspended by increased stream velocity or by the seasonal
turnover of a lake or reservoir.
Viruses in water, whether existing as free entities or
adsorbed to solids, must be considered together as in-
fectious entities. The results of this infectivity study
demonstrate that soli ds-ass ociated virus lose little
infectivity in lab animals when compared to similar sus-
pending media without solids. Therefore, caution is
necessary when equating virus removal in treatment
systems with inactivation. New methods of virus detection
and concentration should be capable of assaying solids
adsorbed virus.
412
-------
Schaub, S.A., E.P. Meier, J.P. Kolmer, and C.A. Sorber.
Land Application of Wastewater: The Fate of Viruses, Bacteria,
and Heavy Metals at a Rapid Infiltration Site.
United States Army Medical Research and Development Command,
Washington D.C., May 1975. 57p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as AD-A011 263).
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, fecal streptococci, total organic
carbon, lead, iron, copper, chromium, ponding/land
application, groundwater.
Abstract:
1. Laboratory studies indicate that enterovirus and f2
tracer virus are not readily adsorbed to the upper portions
of the soil profiles studied when saturated with wastewater.
2. The f2 bacteriophage is not significantly impeded in
the soil strata and can readily penetrate to the groundwater.
3. Fecal indicator bacteria are concentrated on the rapid
infiltration cell soil surface but significant numbers are
capable of migration into the groundwater.
4, Vertical movement of f2 bacteriophage and fecal
Streptococcus paralleled the movement of percolating waste-
water into the building groundwater mound beneath the RI cells
5. Horizontal movement of the groundwater is toward the
Nashua River. Enterovirus, f2 bacteriophage tracer and fecal
Streptococcus move with the groundwater and were detected
'sporadically but in substantial numbers at monitoring
points up to 600 feet away.
6. The subsurface "black layer" observed in unrenovated
cells has a high total organic carbon and heavy metal con-
tent.
7. The "black layer" disappears from the subsurface soils
several months after sewage application is discontinued.
8. Renovated beds have high total organic carbon and heavy
metal accumulation on the soil surface only.
9. A renovated cell with a declining infiltration rate was
observed to be accumulating total organic carbon and heavy
metals in subsurface layers in excess of that observed in
other similarly renovated cells,.
10. To accurately assess the movement of microorganisms
and other pollutants from a land wastewater disposal site,
it is important to realize that frequent samples or composites
413
-------
may be necessary to observe "spike" concentrations.
11. Because the groundwater intercepts the polluted Nashua
River, there is little direct health hazard from study site
414
-------
Scheier, A. and P . Ki ry.
The Delaware Estuary System, Environmental Impacts and
Socio-Economic Effects. A Discussion of the Effects of Cer-
tain Potential Toxicants on Fish and Shellfish in the Upper
Delaware Estuary.
Rutgers-The State University, New Brunswick, New Jersey,
Water Resources Research Institute, December 1973. 59p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-231 423).
Key Words: surface water (fresh), shellfish.
Abstract:
The purpose of this paper is to set forth the potential
toxicants in the Upper Delaware Estuary and whether their
concentrations are sufficient to contribute to the reduc-
tion of fish and shellfish species in the Upper Estuary.
A list of species historically found in the Upper Delaware
Estuary serves as a baseline for comparison with species
lists recently compiled during surveys of the upper estu-
ary. A summary of the maximum concentrations of metals
found in the Upper Estuary is presented, along with their
recommended safe concentrations.
415
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Schistosomiasis Control: Report of a WHO Expert Committee.
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. July 3-7,
1972. 47p.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
The Committee .concl tided that there is now clear evidence
that transmission of schistosomes in human populations
can be markedly reduced by the use of currently available
methods, and that in countries where rapid economic pro-
gress-has been accompanied by antischistosomal programs
the disease has steadily decreased. More long-term reports
on control projects must be awaited and there is still
room for improvement in the quality of evaluation of pro-
jects .
The Committee also observed that sch i s tosomi asis continues
to increase where new irrigation schemes and man-made lakes
are being developed. Such increases can be partly avoided
if suitable action is taken at the planning stage, and
steps are also taken to allocate a regular budget for
preven ti ve acti on.
The Committee considered that the desirable plan of a
schistosomiasis control program is now fairly clear. After
collecting and analysing baseline data for both planning
and evaluation, a clear objective should be formulated
and funds obtained on a long-term basis. In the case of
a pilot project, unmodified comparison areas should also
be studied and data collected in order to determine
changes in incidence, prevalence, and intensity of in-
fection that may result from control activity. Costs of
pilot projects should be analysed and economic and medical
benefits assessed where possible.
Schistosomiasis programs have sometimes been avoided
because they have been considered too costly. However,
the costs and availability of labour and epidemiological
circumstances that may occur in endemic foci vary so much
that it is not possible to state the probable costs of a
control program. Existing control programs have been es-
timated to have annual recurrent costs with a range of
U.S. $0.40-12.00 per caput. This means that very poor
countries with widespread endemic schistosomiasis may be
unable to attempt generalized control of transmission.
However, the Committee considered that schistosomiasis
control is within the capability of some countries that
do not have such programs and it believed that some degree
of effective schistosomiasis control is financially
feasible in all commercial irrigation developments.
416
-------
Schmid, L.A. and R.E. McKinney.
Phosphate Removal by a Lime-Biological Treatment Scheme.
OWPCF. 41(7) :1259-1276. July 1969.
Key Words: phosphates, activated sludge, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
1. Both the orthophosphates and the polyphosphates
normally present in wastewater can be precipitated readily
with lime.
2. The phosphates present in wastewater, in particular
the complex phosphates, seriously inhibit the precipita-
tion of calcium carbonate, even when the soluble phosphate
concentration is reduced to less than one mg/1.
3. Since very little calcium carbonate will be precipi-
tated at the normal operating pH, lime regeneration from
the sludge mixture will not be practical.
4. The addition of 150 mg/1 of calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)3) resulted generally in a pH of 9.5, total
phosphorus removals of 80 percent, BOD removals of 60
percent, and SS removals of 90 percent. Lower alkalinity
wastewaters will require lower lime dosages for equal
removals .
5. The sludge produced from the primary unit with lime
treatment can be expected to be about twice that obtained
by conventional settling. When the sludge quantities
are compared for the overall system, including the waste
activated sludge, the lime system results in a total
sludge production less than 1.5 times the conventional
producti on.
6. Satisfactory control of the process can be obtained
by operating at a constant pH after jar tests and experi-
ence have determined the desired pH.
7. Operation of a complete mixing activated sludge system
following lime treatment is not hindered providing proper
control is exercised.
8. Microbial production of carbon dioxide in the activated
sludge unit is sufficient to maintain a pH near neutral
in the aeration compartment.
9. The mixture of lime precipitated primary sludge and
waste activated sludge will dewater and filter well with
relatively small additions of anionic polymers.
417
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10. This chemical-biological system of phosphate removal
is capable of removing 90 to 95 percent of the total
phosphorus from a domestic wastewater containing 40 to 50
mg/1 as total phosphate with lime dosages generally less
than 150 mg/1 as calcium hydroxide.
11. The total net cost of removing 90 percent or more
of the phosphates from a domestic wastewater, including
both capital and operating costs, is estimated to be
approximately $2.50/mil gal (3,785 cu m) for a 10-mgd
(37,850-cu m/day) plant.
418
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Schmidt, C.J. and E.V. Clements, III.
Reuse of Municipal Wastewater for Groundwater Recharge.
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati,
Ohio, September 1977. 154p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-272 620).
Key Words: pesticides, activated sludge, trickling
filters, BOD, COD, adsorption/ion
exchange, phosphates, heavy metals.
Abstract:
This report provides a comprehensive summary and
evaluation of current efforts throughout the U.S. to
recharge groundwater systems with treated municipal
wastewater. Through these recharge programs, ground-
water supplies are being replenished, saltwater
endangered aquifers are being protected, and water is
being reclaimed for future reuse.
419
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Schmidt, C.J., I. Kugelman, and E.V. Clements III.
Municipal Wastewater Reuse in the U.S.
JWPCF. 47(9) :2229-2245. September 1975.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, total dissolved solids,
aluminum, arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium,
chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
nickel, selenium, phosphates, coliforms, ammonia,
nitrates, crops, effluent characteristics, drinking
and recreational water, chemical treatment,
chlori nati on .
Abstract:
The primary purpose of this study was to make a state-of-
the-art survey that would summarize information about
existing reuse of wastewater from municipal plants with
emphasis on direct reuse of the water as it leaves the
treatment plant. The basic approach involved a compre-
hensive literature search and a questionnaire which was sent
to 153 domestic and 55 foreign wastewater reuse sites.
The data was tabulated, organized and analyzed. This paper
is a summary of the study's major findings. '
420
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Schmidt, N.J., J.L. Melnick, H.A. Wenner, H.H. Ho, and M.A.
Burkhardt.
Evaluation of Enterovirus Immune Horse Serum Pools for Identi-
fication of Virus Field Strains.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 4_5:317-330. 1971.
Key Words: viruses, polio virus, coxsackie virus,
epidemiology.
Abstract:
Immune horse sera to 42 enterovirus immunotypes were
pooled according to the Lim Benyesh-Melnick and the "inter-
secting serum" schemes. Each serum was diluted in the
pools to contain 50 antibody units. After it was estab-
lished that the pools correctly neutralized prototype
virus strains, they were evaluated in tests against 273
enterovirus field strains representing most of the viral
types included in the pools. With test virus doses of
10-100 TCDcjQ, most of the poliovirus and coxsackie virus
field strains were correctly identified in both schemes,
but a number of the echoviruses were neutralized by
heterotypic pools, particularly in the Lim Benyesh-
Melnick scheme. However, at higher test virus doses of
320-3200 TCDcQ, little heterotypic neutralization occurred
in either scheme, and 93-94% of the virus field strains
were correctly identified in each scheme. With these
larger virus doses, breakthrough tended to occur in
homologous pools by the 7th day, but rarely by the 5th
day. Since the Lim Benyesh-Melnick pool scheme employs
8 pools as compared with 13 for the intersecting serum
scheme, and since the two schemes were equally satis-
factory for identifying virus field strains at test
virus doses of 320-3200 TCDgQ, immune horse sera will
be pooled by the former scheme, thus utilizing fewer
pools, for distribution to qualified viral diagnostic
1aboratories .
421
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Schnare, D.W.
EPA Standards: Health or Headache?
JAWWA. £7(9) :507-509. September 1975.
Key Words: drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Solutions to problems must be considered on all levels.
EPA may be unwilling, or indeed unable, to compromise
with its set plans. If state governments intend to main-
tain a dominant role in water-pollution control, and if
local governments do not want to be stampeded into giant
new appropriations for drinking-water-treatment facilities,
each must exert itself in productive ways. One opportunity
the EPA strategy suggests is regipnalization.
Although regionalization of water supplies would be in
many cases too expensive and too time consuming, region-
alization of laboratory services could be essential to
compliance with the standards. Funding could be provided
under the federal program, and one facility serving three
to six states could draw upon much larger resources. Be-
sides meeting (the presently unanswered needs, diminution
of overhead and a more standardized analysis would be the
primary results.
With or without a satisfactory solution to the fiscal
externalities, the public education activity cannot be
ignored. When the consumer wants to know what is in
the water, the local supplier must have an answer. When
the public wants to know the health significance of
contaminants that might be in the water, the local sup-
plier should be ready to provide the relevant literature.
If the supplier does not have such materials, the state
and the EPA should provide it upon demand. Through the
program objectives, EPA intends "To provide technical
assistance on a continuing basis to state agencies, (and)
local utilities." This assistance can be interpreted
to include relations with the consumer. This resource
should be r-apidly exploited by both the states and the
local suppliers before the public goes on the offense.
The goal is safe drinking water, but this must be a goal
realized through activities that actually succeed in im-
proving the quality of the U.S.'s drinking water. An
addition of public education to the EPA's high-priority
activities and a review of their funding policy and mon-
itoring requirements could provide the useful tools that
will ensure safe drinking water to all.
422
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Schroeder, H.A. and J.J. Balassa.
Abnormal Trace Metals in Man: Arsenic.
Journal of Chronic Diseases. 1_9_:85-106. 1965.
Key Words: arsenic, epidemiology.
Abstract:
A survey of arsenic in the biosphere, involving analyses
of substances by which man is exposed, has been made, using
ashing at low temperatures and chemical methods. Arsenic
was found in soils, most foods, many waters, almost all
plants and plant products tested and in most animal tissues.
Arsenic is ubiquitous in the biosphere, with a few special
exceptions .
Two forms of arsenic exist in the environment of man, penta-
valent and trivalent. The biological activities of arsenic
in these valence states differ markedly. Pentavalent
arsenic as arsenate is nontoxic in normal concentrations,
is excreted rapidly, largely through the kidneys, probably
does not accumulate in human tissues, is a normal constit-
uent of food and may perform some unknown physiological
function. It is not inhibitory to most enzymes and can
substitute for phosphate in some phosphorylases. The
daily intake of human beings is in the range of 400-lOOOyg.
The requirement of rats and mice for arsenic, if any, is
less than 0.26yg 100 g body weight per day.
Trivalent arsenic as arsenite is the principal form pro-
duced commercially. It is toxic, chelating with dithiol
groups and inhibiting those enzymes dependent thereon.
It accumulates in the mammalian body, especially in the
integument where it combines with keratin disulfides, is
excreted largely from intestine, is a contaminant of
soils and foods through its use in herbicides and pesti-
cides and performs no known physiological function.
Trivalent inorganic arsenic is slowly oxidized to the
pentavalent form in the upper layers of the earth's crust
and in the mammalian body.
The biological activities of the two valence states of
arsenic must not be confused. The extensive literature
on arsenic is replete with confusion.
Sea foods and a few other foods and waters consumed by
man often exceed the allowable limit of arsenic concen-
tration imposed by government agencies of the United
States and Great Britain, attempting to limit residues
of arsenites.
423
-------
There is no evidence that natural arsenate causes any
diseases of man. Furthermore, definitive evidence that
inorganic arsenites are a cause of experimental or human
cancer is lacking, although both acute and chronic toxi-
city is well known. The bad reputation of arsenic as a
poison is due to the toxicity of the commercial trivalent
form and is undeserved in the case of the natural penta-
valent form. A simple method for distinguishing these
two forms of arsenic is needed.
424
-------
Schuetzle, D., D. Cronn, and A.L. Crittenden.
Molecular Composition of Secondary Aerosol and Its Possible
Origin .
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_(9) :838-845.
September 1975.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, air.
Abstract:
Several aerosol samples were collected during a diurnal
period of inversion and aerosol production in Pasadena,
California. Particles were collected in two size ranges:
particles of diameters less than l-2v m and particles of
diameters greater than l-2ym. Computer-controlled mass
spectrometric thermal analysis was used for molecular
organic and inorganic analysis. The results described
in this paper are semiquantitative with a precision of
+_30% on a relative comparison basis, but accuracies may
range up to two times for some of the organic secondary
aerosols with estimated response factors. X-ray fluores-
cence and atomic absorption were used to obtain inorganic
elemental composition. The diurnal variation in aerosol
composition was studied for the two size ranges and used
to postulate the primary and/or secondary origin of the
aerosol. The most probable precursors for the measured
secondary aerosol products are presented in this paper
and postulated from the results of smog chamber studies
and the gaseous composition of gasoline, auto exhaust,
and ambient air samples. The primary pollutants included
alkanes, polycyclic aromatics, substituted phenols, and
several elements. Organic secondary pollutants included
acids, aldehydes, alcohols, chlorides, and nitrates. In-
organic secondary pollutants identified included sulfates,
nitrates, and chlorides. The results are discussed with
respect to meteorological conditions.
425
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Schulze, J.A., D.B. Manigold, and F.L. Andrews.
Pesticides in Selected Western Streams - 1968-71.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. _7_:73-84. June 1973.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, herbicides,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Compounds determined include the common chlorinated
insecticides and herbicides. Heptachlor and its epoxide
were not detected during the 3-year period, and aldrin
was found only once. DDT was the most frequently occurr-
ing insecticide, and 2,4,5-T the most common herbicide.
The amounts observed were small; the maximum concentration
of an insecticide was 0.46 vg/liter for DDT, and of an
herbicide 0.99 yg/liter for 2,4-D. Concentrations were
highest in water samples, containing appreciable amounts
of suspended sediments. Graphs are included in this
article to show insecticide and herbicide occurrences
for the 4-year period (October 1967-September 1971) during
which all 20 monitoring stations have been in operation.
Beginning in July 1970, the phosphorothioate insecticides •
parathion, methyl parathion, malathion, and diazinon -
were determined monthly on all samples. Malathion was
not found during this period. Polychlorinated biphenyl
(PCB's) compounds which were monitored for beginning
in October 1969 were also detected at two stations.
426
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Schwartz, H.G., Jr.
Adsorption of Selected Pesticides on Activated Carbon and
Mineral Surfaces.
Environmental Science and Technology. 1(4):332-337. April 1967.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, herbicides, adsorption/
ion exchange.
Abstract:
Powdered activated carbon readily adsorbs CIPC from
aqueous solutions. In the well stirred experimental
systems, approximately 24 hours were required to reach
equilibrium. Of the total equilibrium adsorption achieved
in 24 hours, about 90% was attained in 4 hours. The ad-
sorption equilibrium of the activated carbon-CIPC aqueous
system can be represented closely by a Freundlich Iso-
therm. For the Freundlich expression, x/m = kC''n, con-
stants n and k were calculated to be 9.1 and 0.20,
respectively. The ultimate capacity of the activated
carbon for CIPC 1s estimated to be 'about 0.34 mg of
CIPC per mg of carbon.
The adsorption of CIPC on activated carbon is independent
of the hydrogen ion concentration over the pH range from
4.8 to 9.3. With an estimated acidity constant of about
10-5, CIPC would exist predominantly 1n the molecular
form over most of the experimental pH range.
The adsorption of CIPC on activated carbon appears to
involve physical or weak chemical bonding. The heat of
adsorption is estimated to be = 7.0 kcal per mole. Ad-
sorption processes Involving electrostatic or weak chemi-
cal bonds typically have heats of adsorption of the same
order of magnitude. Furthermore, the adsorption of CIPC
is reversible. Such reversibility is an additional indi-
cation of physical or weak chemical bonding. The structure
of CIPC would seem to be well suited for hydrogen bonding
between the ami no group and carbonyl oxygen atoms on the
activated carbon surface.
Initial rates of adsorption for the ClPC-activated carbon
system vary directly with the square root of time. This
relationship is characteristic of many diffusion-controlled
sorption processes. The nominal activation energy is
estimated to be about 3.4 kcal per mole, a value indica-
tive of diffusion-controlled processes.
427
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Schwarz, J.R. and R.R. Colwell.
Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure on Growth and Viability of
Vibrio parahaemolyti cus.
Applied Microbiology. 28.(6) :977-981 . December 1974.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Six strains of marine bacteria, including three strains
of Vibrio parahaemo1 y t i c u s , two Vibrio species isolated
from coastal regions, and the deep ocean isolate Pseudo-
monas bathycetes. were examined for ability to survive
and grow at deep ocean hydrostatic pressures. V_. parahae-
molyticus and the coastal Vibrio species were unable to
survive or grow at 200, 400, 600, 800, or 1,000 atm of
pressure. In contrast, the deep ocean isolate P_. bathycetes
was capable of survival and growth at these pressures. The
evidence strongly supports the neritic or estuarine origin
and habitat for V_. parahaemoly ti cus .
428
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Schwarz, J.R. and R.R. Colwell.
Heterotrophic Activity of Deep-Sea Sediment Bacteria.
Applied Microbiology. 3_0(4) :639-649. October 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Sediment samples, containing mixed microbial populations
that were decompressed during retrieval from 7,750 and
8,130 m in the Puerto Rican Trench, were recompressed and
incubated at the approximate in situ temperature (3 C)
and pressure (775 or 815 atm) in the presence of '^C-
labeled amino acids. Heterotrophic activity (total up-
take, C0£ respiration, and cellular assimilation) and
cellular-associated "pool" concentrations were measured.
Compared with atmospheric controls held at 3C, the total
uptake at elevated pressure at 3 C was reduced, on an
average, 55 times, C02 respiration was reduced 45 times,
and cellular assimilation was reduced 69 times. Rate of
total uptake at elevated pressure was found to range from
4.0 x 10-1! yg/cell per h for leucine to 2.61 x lO'TO yg/cell
per h for an amino acid mixture. Also, the percentage of
total uptake at elevated pressures, respired as C02, in-
creased at the expense of cellular assimilation (ca. 22%
increase). Two cellular-associated amino acid pools were
detectedj a large, loosely bound, outer pool and a small,
tightly bound internal pool. The loosely bound outer pool
was removed by a change in the pH of the incubation med-
ium. Even though heterotrophic uptake and the outer,
cellular-associated pool were markedly reduced at an
elevated pressure, the percentage of total uptake calcu-
lated for the unincorporated, tightly bound, intracel1ular
pool was 2 to 19 times that obtained for cultures held at
1 atm. The results were interpreted as indicating that
bacterial metabolism and biosynthesis in the deep sea are
marfeedly reduced, with a greater proportion of metabolic
activity devoted to cellular maintenance.
429
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Schwarz, J.R., J.D. Walker, and R.R. Colwell .
Deep-Sea Bacteria: Growth and Utilization of Hydrocarbons at
Ambient and in situ Pressure.
Applied Microbiology. 28>(6) :982-986 . December 1974.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Microorganisms present in Atlantic Ocean sediment samples
collected at a depth of 4,940 m were found to be capable
of utilizing hydrocarbons under both ambient and in situ
pressures. The rate of utilization under in situ pressure
(500 atm) and ambient temperature (20°C) was found to be
significantly less compared with hydrocarbon utilization
examined under conditions of ambient temperature (20°C)
and pressure (1 atm).
430
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Schwarz, J.R., J.D. Walker, and R.R. Colwell .
Deep-Sea Bacteria: Growth and Utilization of N-hexadecane at
in situ Temperature and Pressure.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 2J_(5) :682-687. 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This article discusses microbial activity at deep sea
level as well as growth and utilization of N-hexadecane
at in situ temperature and pressure.
431
-------
Schwarz, J.R., J.D. Walker, and R.R. Colwell.
Growth of Deep-Sea Bacteria on Hydrocarbons at Ambient and
t'n situ Pressure.
Developments in Industrial Microbiology. 15:239-249. 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Thirty four strains of bacteria were isolated from the mud-
water interface of core samples collected 150 miles east
of Cape Kennedy, Florida, at a depth of 4940 meters. The
strains were isolated using a medium containing n-tetrade-
cane as the sole carbon source. A mixed culture of seven
of the original isolates was transferred three times in
n-tetradecane medium. The mixed culture was found to util-
ize n-tetradecane, with virtually all the available hydro-
carbon being degraded after 7 days' growth at 1 atmosphere.
Disappearance of the hydrocarbon in the medium was monitor-
ed by gas-liquid chromatography. At 495 atmospheres and 25
C, the mixed culture degraded 96% of the n-tetradecane
initially present after 28 days at the elevated hydrostatic
pressure. The individual isolates form the mixed culture
did not utilize n-tetradecane as pure cultures, indicating
a potential synergistic relationship. Characterization
of the strains using selected taxonomic procedures yielded
tentative identification and classification of the strains
as Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio species.
432
-------
Schwinn, D.E. and B.H. Dickson, Jr.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Variations in Domestic Wastewater.
JWPCF. £4(11):2054-2065. November 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, suspended solids, nitrates, nitrites.
Abstract:
The concentrations of ammonia, total nitrogen, and phos-
phorus in several raw domestic wastewaters have been
measured. The means and the standard deviations of the
concentrations, the linear regression coefficients between
them, the seasonal and daily variations, and the magnitudes
of peak occurrences of various durations have been studied.
The data obtained lead to the following conclusions:
1. For purposes of design, the ammonia, total nitrogen,
and phosphorus concentrations can be assumed to be inde-
pendent of the flow and of BOD and SS concentrations.
2. The BOD and SS concentrations are inversely related
to flow and positively correlated to each other, but the
most extreme BOD and SS concentrations generally do not
occur simultaneously.
3. There were no pronounced seasonal variations or dif-
ferences between the days of the week in the data from
the plants studied.
433
-------
Scott, D.S. and H. Horlings.
Removal of Phosphates and Metals from Sewage Sludges.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9(9):849-855. September
1975.
Key Words: phosphates, aluminum, iron, zinc, anaerobic diges-
tion.
Abstract:
When phosphate removal is practiced in a treatment plant,
nearly all the metals and phosphate regardless of source
appear in the final sludge. Concentrations may be high
enough to affect the use or disposal of the sludge.
Metals and phosphates can be easily removed from anaerobi-
cally produced sludges by extraction with dilute acid.
Either thickener underflow or dewatered filter cake is a
satisfactory sludge source. Some variations in degree
of extraction will occur in metals - e.g., iron or copper,
that can be in more than one valence state, and depending
on the acid used for extraction.
The extract solution after filtering can be fractionated
by selective precipitation over the pH range of 2.5-7.5
into solids, each containing a majority of some of the
metallic cations. These products are mixed phosphates
and hydroxides of the metals. The residual liquor contains
most of the water-soluble organics and is free of most
heavy metal cations and of phosphates.
The crude metal-phosphate solid products can be further
treated by conventional means to recover phosphate or
specific metallic components. Based on amounts in the
influent streams or added as treating chemicals, these
crude solids will contain 80-90% of the iron, aluminum,
zinc, and phosphate. The fractional recovery of other
heavy metals depends on the nature of the original sludge.
434
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Scott, M.L.
Trace Elements in Animal Nutrition.
In: Micronutrients in Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer, ed. Soil
Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972.
pp. 555-591.
Key Words: manganese, zinc, iron, copper, molybdenum, iodides,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Of the entire periodic table only eight inorganic trace
elements have been unequivocably proven to be essential
1n0animal nutrition. These are Mg2"1", Mn2+, Zn2+. Fe^ ,
Cuz+, I", Mo6+1 , and Sc4+. All except I- and Sc4+ have
been shown to be required as activators of enzymes. Iodine
is essential for formation of the hormone thyroxine.
Iron 1s important in the vital, metabol1cally-active
chelates, 1n hemoglobin, in myoglobin, and in the cyto-
chromes. Some of the polyvalent cations are important in
amlno acid transport. Selenium is involved in one or
more unknown roles essential to normal health and life.
In most instances a deficiency of even one of these trace
elements results in severe deficiency symptoms and death.
One exception is Mo, which has been shown to be an Integral
part of the enzyme, xanthine oxidase, but thus far it has
not been demonstrated to produce deficiency symptoms or
death in an animal, without resorting to the use of tung-
state as an antagonist of Mo metabolism in the animal.
In the category of trace elements that have been shown to
have various influences upon growth, upon metabolism, or
upon development of some particular tissue, there are five
other elements that may prove to be of considerable im-
portance in nutrition. These are F, Cr, Ni , Sn, and V.
Fluoride has been shown to improve the texture of bone,
and particularly, of teeth. It appears possible that the
compound fluoroapatite may be essential for maximum quality
of bone and tooth structure.
One researcher has written an excellent review of the pre-
sent situation regarding Cr in nutrition. Chromium has
been shown to be the glucose tolerance factor. Thus, Cr3 +
enhances the effects of insulin in converting excess blood
glucose into fat in rats. He has presented results of
several workers indicating the possibility that Cr3"1" may be
of importance in helping to control blood sugar levels in
humans, especially in some old people and in some diabetics
Another researcher has shown that chicks reared in plastic
cages and given highly purified diets required Ni for
435
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maximum growth and prevention of an unusual leg deformity.
Sn was reported to be an essential element for growth in
rats, and the growth-promoting effects of V in rats in a
trace element-controlled environment was also reported.
V deficiency may affect plasma cholesterol levels of chicks,
Many other elements (i.e., Al , Si, etc.) are known to be
present in rather constant amounts in animal tissues. Some
of these elements have been shown to be activators of
several different enzymes in vitro. However, thus far none
of these elements has been demonstrated to be nutritionally
essential.
Much of the work on activation of enzyme systems by trace
elements has been conducted with isolated, in vitro bio-
chemical systems. Studies are needed to determine the
specificity of many of these elements in specific enzyme
reactions, and to determine the extent to which other ele-
ments may spare the nutritionally essential ones, and the
degree to which certain elements may competitively inhibit
the activating effects of the essential inorganic elements.
Much further work is needed to determine the extent to
which in vitro findings apply in intact, living animals.
The role of polyvalent cations in amino acid transport
is a fertile field for further investigation. The role of
amino acids and other ligands in the formation of chelates,
both for absorption and for the transport of essential
nutrients, should lead to improved diets for better health
of animals, including man.
436
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Sekikawa, Y..S. Nishikawa, M. Akazaki, and K. Kato.
Release of Soluble Ortho-Phosphate in the Activated Sludge.
Process .
Advances in Water Research. 1966(2):261-284 .
Key Words: phosphates, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The experiments show that activated sludge releases ortho-
phosphate under the unfavorable conditions as (a) deficiency
of nutrients, (b) lack of dissolved oxygen, and (c) admix-
ture of poisonous substances.
Release of phosphates is dependent on the operating condi-
tions and biological character of the sludge used in the
experiment. The results obtained seem to suggest that
phosphate variation might serve as an appropriate index
to a change of sludge character. Subsequently, measure-
ment of phosphate variation will play an important role
for the purpose of checking practical performance of an
activated sludge plant.
However, to make it more positive, a series of successive
studies should be performed under more compl i cated opera-
tional conditi ons .
437
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Selleck, R.E., L.W. Bracewell, and R. Carter.
The Significance and Control of Wastewater Floatables in Coastal
Waters.
University of California at Berkeley, Sanitary Engineering
Research Laboratory, January 1974. 128p.
Key Words: oil and grease, coliforms, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Significance of flotage derived from submerged primary
effluent plumes in the Southern California Bight is eval-
uated in terms of three components: Parti culates> or = 0.5
mm in size, particulates< or = 0.1 mm in size, and surface
film materials. The sampling methods utilized to collect
the flotage from the surface are described in detail. The
surface film and micro-particulates were captured by fabric
screen samplers developed during the course of the study.
It was found that the large particulates penetrated the
ocean thermocline and gathered on the surface in profusion.
The grease and wax portions of the particulates could be
measured reliably with hexane extraction, with the mass of
HEM of sewage origin being in the order of a metric ton
on the water surface within the study area. Such particu-
lates contained considerable numbers of coliform bacteria
but little PCB compounds or pesticides.
438
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Sepp, E.
Disposal of Domestic Wastewater by Hillside Sprays.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
_99j(EE2) : 109-121. April 1973.
Key Words: ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Spray irrigation of hillsides is a reliable method of
land disposal of domestic wastewater in areas where the
soils are not suitable for subsurface disposal and the
terrain does not permit the construction of large ponds.
Hillside spray systems are most suitable for the disposal
of seasonal flows and on soils with good infiltration
capacity. Success depends largely on proper design and
operation of the system, including provisions for adequate
reliability features for the prevention of runoff and
measures to protect the public from the spray. The use
of alternate disposal facilities may be necessary during
wet weather, freezing, and snow-melt periods.
Renovation of the effluent by the soil mantle is possible
if designed for this purpose. If nutrient removal is an
objective of the system, the land must be cropped to
prevent recycling of the nutrients.
439
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Sepp, E.
Nitrogen Cycle in Ground Water.
Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, State of California, Sacramento,
1970. 23 p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, air, groundwater.
Abstract:
1. The sources of nitrogen compounds in soil and ground-
water are numerous and diverse. The compounds undergo
complex transformations caused by environmental factors.
2. Atmospheric precipitation adds from 0.7 to 14 pounds
of nitrogen per acre to the soil annually. Nitrogen
fixing organisms in the soil may add from a few pounds
to 200 pounds per acre of nitrogen per year.
3. Depending on circumstances, either agricultural prac-
tice or land disposal of sewage may be the major contri-
butor of nitrogen to groundwater. Normal irrigation prac-
tice can supply sufficient water to establish a continuous
film water contact between the soil surface and groundwater
table, whereby the nitrates from the topsoil may be leached
into the groundwater.
4. Ammonia and ammonium ion are held close to soil sur-
face by adsorption and cation-exchange reactions. Nitrate
and nitrite ions, however, move freely with the percolating
water.
5. In the presence of sufficient amounts of free oxygen,
nitrogen compounds present in sewage or most organic matter
become rapidly oxidized to nitrate by bacteria. The forma-
tion of nitrate is also dependent on temperature, pH, mois-
ture, number of bacteria, and a favorable carbon to nitrogen
ratio. Some aspects of nitrification are not clearly under-
stood .
6. Under anaerobic conditions, nitrate may be reduced to
nitrogen gas by the action of facultative denitrifying
bacteria which can use nitrate and nitrite as sources of
oxygen.
7. Nitrogen may be removed from soil by cropping, leach-
ing, erosion or volatilization. Gaseous losses may occur
as ammonia at high pH and high temperature, and as nitrogen
gas in acid or flooded soils.
8. Nitrogen compounds can be removed from domestic water
by the ion exchange process; however, it is at present too
expensive for large-scale use.
440
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9. The use of high-nitrate water can be avoided by the
following procedures:
(a) blending high-nitrate water with low-nitrate waters
(b) using selected aquifers, and
(c) exclusion of high-nitrate water by proper well
construction and sealing.
10. Nitrogen may be removed from wastewater at varying
efficiencies by algae ponds, ion exchange, ammonia strip-
ping, microbial denitri fi cation , and electrodialysis .
11. In recharge of domestic water aquifers with sewage
effluent the total oxygen demand, which measures the oxygen
utilized both by carbonaceous and nitrogenous materials,
is an important factor to be considered. In surface
spreading of effluent almost all the nitrogen is rapidly
oxidized to nitrate in the spreading bed and percolates
downward. In direct injection of effluent, microbial de-
nitrification in the anaerobic zone around the recharge
well may remove some of the nitrate, and ammonia may also
be partly removed by adsorption.
12. At present, not enough is known to establish design
criteria for controlling nitrate reduction in the aquifer.
Therefore, proponents of groundwater recharge with sewage
effluent should include considerations for reducing the
nitrogen content of sewage by treatment.
441
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Sepp, E.
The Use of Sewage for Irrigation: A Literature Review.
Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, State of California,
Sacramento, 1971. 41p.
Key Words: coliforms, mycobacteriurn, salmonella, shigella,
protozoa, bacteria, parasitic worms, crops,
groundwater.
Abstract:
There is an increasing interest in the reuse of treated
sewage for landscape irrigation and other higher uses,
and sewage itself is called reclaimed water. However,
crop irrigation still accounts for the greatest portion
of reuse and the health hazards still remain the same
regardless of the name.
This revision of a report first published in 1963 was
prompted by exhaustion of the previous edition, availability
of new information, increasing demand for the information, and
the growing interest in water reclamation.
442
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Seppalainen, A.M. and I. Ha'kkinen.
Electrophysiological Findings in Diphenyl Poisoning.
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery , and Psychiatry. 38(3): 248-252.
1975.
Key Word: epidemiology, synthetic/organics.
Abstract:
The fungistatic agent diphenyl (biphenyl) caused fatal
poisoning with signs of neurotoxi ci ty in a worker in a
Finnish paper mill. This initiated a neurophysiological
study of 24 workers (1 woman and 23 men) occupationally
exposed to diphenyl. Ten men showed EEG abnormalities
which, while non-specific, were compatible with generalized
cerebral disturbance. The abnormalities persisted on re-
examination 1 and 2 yr later. Nine subjects had EMG
abnormalities; 7 also exhibited fibrillations in some
muscles. One subject showed a long rhythmic series of
fasciculations similar to the spontaneous activity de-
scribed in infantile spinal muscular atrophy. Nerve con-
duction velocity, especially that of slower motor fibers,
was reduced in several cases. Electroneuromyographic ab-
normalities also persisted on re-examination. Although
diphenyl is considered a comparatively safe chemical,
it showed evidence of neurotoxicity when workers were
exposed to concentrations in excess of the presently ac-
cepted threshold limit of 1 mg/m3. The average concentra-
tion measured in the air at various work places varied
from 0.6 to 123.0 mg/m3. Electrophysiological methods
should be applied for the early detection of occupational
hazards.
443
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Sewage Sludge Burned Without Smoke or Odor.
Public Works. lP_2_:72-74. October 1971.
Key Word: incineration.
Abstract:
Sludge incineration will input S to the atmosphere
in the form of S0« along with hydrocarbons.
444
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Sguros, P.L.
Microbial Degradation of Cyclodiene Pesticides.
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Department of
Biological Sciences, January 1974. 106p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
AD-778 763).
Key Words: dieldrin, aldrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
arsenated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Decomposition of the pesticides aldrin and dieldrin by
aquatic micro-organisms may result in more harmful products
affecting the ecosystem. Isolates from fresh, brackish,
and littoral water were cultured using, variously, selec-
tive media, enriched laboratory ecosystems, and impreg-
nated wood strips and assessed qualitatively and quanti-
tatively for action on pesticides by thin-layer chromato-
graphy, gas-liquid chromatography, and 14C-labeled pesti-
cide autoradiography. Growth was measured in terms of
dry wt and cell nitrogen. Small amounts of possible meta-
bolites were indicated in most isolate preparations.
Cellulolytic I_ xylestrix grew well in media containing
10-500 ug/ml pesticide. Growth was stimulated by small
quantities of the chemical and the fungus accumulated
pesticides to levels 2000 times higher than the original
medium concentration. Uptake increased linearly with
increasing pesticide concentration. A significant portion
of the pesticides appeared to be chemically altered, but
the products were not specifically identified.
445
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Shane, M.S., W.S. Vincent, R.E. Cannon, and H.A. Glass.
Effect of Pollution on Distribution of LPP Phycovlruses 1n
Relation to Pollution of the Christina River.
University of Delaware, Newark, Department of Biological
Sciences, August 1974. 22p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-238 034).
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The primary objective of the study was to screen the en-
vironment for the presence of LPP cyanophages, and evalu-
ate their presence with respect to the level of pollution.
Field studies demonstrated that pollution Increases the
hosts susceptibility to viral Infection. Several Isolates
were found to be temperate phages, and the existence of
lysogeny was demonstrated 1n the laboratory. Further
studies Indicated that a soil amoeba, Hartmanel1 a glebae.
played a role 1n the ecology of LPP-1. From this work,
a probable model was postulated for control of Plectonema
boryanum populations 1n the environment.
446
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Shane, M.S., R.E. Cannon, and E. DeMichele.
Pollution Effects on Phycovirus and Host Algae Ecology.
JWPCF. 44(12):2294-2302. December 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, viruses, surface
water (marine) .
Abstract:
The chemical and physical parameters defining the lower
reaches of the Christina River describe a river that is
unable to cope with the existing organic loading. Declin-
ing DO values were the most prominent symptom. Although
organic concentrations were low, ammonia, nitrate, and
nitrite levels generally increased markedly at Stations
6 through 11 to levels that indicate the presence of un-
treated wastewater. High zinc concentrations might have
caused some inhibiting effects on the bacterial population
at Stations 8 through 11. However, the varying MPN and the
unknown frequency and range of heavy metal loadings pre-
clude drawing conclusions without additional data.
Whi le the upper reaches of the Christina River seemed to
be free of detectable viruses, lysed cultures of the alga
Plectonema boryanum were noted for Stations 5 through 11,
thus indi eating the presence of LPP virus. This shows
that the LPP viruses are definitely associated with an
increase in cultural pollution and may be one more impor-
tant pollution parameter.
During this study every sample was investigated microscopi-
cally to find and identify the host algae. Attempts to
cultivate the host algae were fruitless. Other investi-
gators have experienced this same difficulty, and one
speculates that other organisms also may serve as reservoirs
of the vi rus.
447
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Shane, M.S., S.B. Wilson, and C.R. Fries.
Virus-Host System for Use 1n the Study of Virus Removal.
JAWWA. 75.(9):1184-1186. September 1967.
Key Words: viruses, filtration, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Much Information concerning virus removal 1n water and
sewage treatment processes can be gained by using this
virus-host system as a tool.
No definite conclusions can be drawn concerning virus
removal based on the limited number of runs at this time,
but the information gained confirms other reported infor-
mation concerning virus removal. Coagulation and settling
did not remove as many virus particles as previously
reported. This system may have value for making comparison
studies using coagulant aids, such as long-chain polymers,
and to gain other information concerning virus studies in
water and sewage treatment. The technique is simple and
inexpensive. High bacterial counts do not interfere with
plaque enumeration, and bacteria which are heterotrophic
will not grow on the synthetic inorganic medium used to
cultivate the algae for assay of the virus. This would
not be true if animal cell tissue culture was used.
448
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Shellfish Study of San Francisco Bay, April-June 1972.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, San Francisco, California,
Surveillance and Analysis Division, June 1974. 57p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 394)
Key Words: salmonella, lead, cadmium, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
shellfish.
Abstract:
From April to June 1972, a study was undertaken by the
Environmental Protection Agency, Region IX, to determine
whether or not selected San Francisco Bay shellfish beds
were contaminated and to determine whether or not signifi-
cant changes had occurred in the density and size of
shellfish populations from 1967 to 1972. The beds sur-
veyed were those with commercial potential (as assessed
by Wooster, 1968) and with dimensions greater than 10,000
square feet.
Laboratory analyses were conducted to determine the exist-
ing health hazards as well as aesthetic quality of the
shellfish beds. Determinations were made to test the pres-
ence of selected heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium,
copper, chromium, zinc); pesticides, polychlorinated bi-
phenyls (PCB's); and bacteria of sanitary significance
(total and fecal coliforms, salmonella). Results from
San Francisco Bay sampling stations were compared with
data obtained from analyses of commercial oysters grown
at Drake's Estero.
449
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Shelton, R.G.J.
Sludge DumpingMn the Thames Estuary.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2_(2):24-27. February 1971.
Key Words: zinc, copper, lead, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Until more of the fauna samples have been examined
and further analyses of the sediments made, it is not
possible to do more than discuss the ecological state
of the outer Thames Estuary in very general terms.
Nevertheless, it is quite apparent that there is a great
contrast between the condition of the outer Thames dump-
ing grounds and those off New York. The large areas of
completely anaerobic sediments with an overlying layer
of water of low oxygen content which have been reported
to occur off New York have not, so far* been found dur-
ing the present survey.
The benthos of the Barrow and Black Deeps, while showing
some effects of sludge disposal, is nevertheless sur-
prisingly normal for an estuary with strong tidal currents.
It appears that the relatively high concentration of
organic matter in the sediments is associated with an
increase in the numbers and diversity of the polychaete
fauna, and it is interesting that this effect is most
marked in the Black Deep, where dumping has occurred
over a long period but where it has not been done for the
last three years. The large numbers of tomato seeds
found in this Deep also suggest that sludge, if it be-
haves in a similar way, may persist in the sediments
long after dumping has stopped. To what extent sludge
dumping causes death of marine animals due to local de-
oxygenation immediately after dumping is as yet unclear.
The finding of dead material in the Black Deep suggests
that such an effect might be significant, but many more
observations would be required to confirm, and if
possible quantify, this effect, if indeed it is present.
More work is also required to assess the effects on the
benthos of the industrial components of the sludge,
which may tend to reduce the fertilizing effects of the fine
organic solids. Preliminary analyses of the sediments
show that zinc, lead and copper, which are present in
the solids of the sludge, are also present, at peak wet-
weight concentrations of 85, 125 and 100 mg/kg respectively,
in the organic mud of the Black and Barrow Deeps and Sea
Reach. In general, the levels are a little higher in Sea
Reach, where the organic content of the sediments is also
high, than in either of the two Deeps. Further work is
450
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necessary both to confirm these values on a dry-weight
basis and to estimate the chlorinated hydrocarbon levels
present 1n the sediments and benthos. Another question,
as yet unanswered, 1s that of the fate of the fine
organic matter which 1s the principal solid component
of the sludge. It 1s possible that the main settlement
of this material 1s some way from the dumping areas where
the heavier particles such as tomato seeds and other large
debris settle out. Possibly the large accumulation of
organic matter In the sediments of Sea Reach 1s due, at
least 1n part, to sludge dumping 1n the Barrow and Black
Deeps. Further study Is necessary, however, using tracer
techniques, to establish this point.
451
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Shelton, S.P. and W.A. Drewry.
Tests of Coagulants for the Reduction of Viruses, Turbidity, and
Chemical Oxygen Demand.
JAWWA. £5.(10):627-635. October 1973.
Key Words: biological contaminants, COD, chemical
treatment, chlorination.
Abstract:
This study attempts to ascertain (1) how effective different
chemical coagulants and polyelectrolytes are in virus
removal; and (2) how well results using the same primary
coagulants, correlate for relatively unpolluted raw surface
water, a moderately polluted surface water, and a secondary
wastewater treatment-plant effluent with respect to
virus removals.
452
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Shen, Y.S.
Study of Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water.
JAWWA. 6_5(8) :543-548. August 1973.
Key Words: arsenic, adsorption/ion exchange, filtration.
Abstract:
Three methods for the removal of arsenic compounds were
compared in this article: adsorption, ion exchange, and
fi11rat ion.
453
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Sherman, J.C., T.A. Nevin, and J.A. Lasater.
Hydrogen Sulflde Production from Ethion by Bacteria in Lagoonal
Sediments .
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
12:359-365. March 1974.
Key Words: organophosphorus pesticides, surface water (fresh)
Abs tract:
Ethion is readily degraded in the aquatic environment.
In this study, only 50% of the original Ethion was still
present after a three week period. One of the by-products
is toxic H2S.
454
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Sherwood, M.J. and A.J. Mearns .
Disease Responses in Southern California Coastal Fishes.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.
El Segundo, Ca. December 1974.
Key Word: fish , surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The nearshore demersal fish communities of southern
California have been extensively monitored by public
and private agencies since 1969. The Southern Cali-
fornia Coastal Water Research Project has assembled
and analyzed much of the data in order to evaluate
the health of local populations. One approach has been
to investigate the frequency of diseased or anomalous
specimens. Diseases with external symptoms may be
easily observed and quantified in the field, and the
presence of diseased individuals in a given habitat
may be indicative not only of the health of the popu-
lation but also of an imbalance in the community.
A number of disease conditions were recorded during
the trawl surveys. Of these, only fin erosion in the
Dover sole (Mi c_r ost o m u s p a c i f i c u s ) appeared to be di-
rectly related to wastewater discharge sites. At
present, there are no direct links between the identi-
fiable field effect and the suspected causes. A labora-
tory program has been designed to determine the role of
microorganisms and physical/chemical factors in the
disease response.
,455
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Shigella Surveillance.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. Report No. 37, March 1976
Key Words: shigella, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Shigella isolations from 10,193 humans were reported for
the period July through December 1974.
456
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Shigella Surveillance Annual Summary.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEN. Report No. 38.
September 1976.
Key Words: shigella, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This report summarizes data voluntarily reported from
participating states, territorial, and city health
depa* uments about shigella isolations from humans.
457
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Shimizu , Y.
Further Studies of the Interaction of Chlorine and Organic
Molecul es in Water.
Office of Water Research and Technology, Department of the
Interior, Washington, D.C., 1975. 13p.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination .
Abstract:
Some of the possible chemical reactions between chlorine
and organic molecules such as amino acids, phenolic com-
pounds, nucleic acids, and lignin in aqueous solution were
determined. The project also studied possible reactions
of certain organic compounds such as caffeine and vanillin
which are present in some foods and beverages with residual
chlorine in drinking water.
458
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Shin, E. and P,A. Krenkel.
Mercury Uptake by Fish and B1omethylation Mechanisms.
JWPCF. 48(3):473-501. March 1976.
Key Words: mercury, food poisoning, fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
The objectives of these studies were (a) to examine
the dynamic properties of inorganic mercury and methyl-
mercury, (b) to determine the uptake rates of methyl-
mercury biosynthesized in sediment by fish and the effects
on the uptake rates of varying environmental conditions,
and (c) to observe the effects of varying environmental
parameters on the overall methylation activities of
microorganisms. In addition, an estimate of the retention
time of mercury in contaminated sediments was to be as-
certained .
459
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Shipp, R.F. and D.E. Baker.
Pennsylvania's Sewage Sludge Research and Extension Program.
Compost Science: l_^(2):6-8. March-April 1975.
Key Words: aluminum, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, nickel,
cadmium, chromium, lead, cobalt, ammonia, nitrates,
nitrites, phosphates, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Some sewage sludges contain such high concentrations
of heavy metals that they should not be used continuously
and without restriction as a fertilizer supplement for
crop production, because of the potential buildup of plant
toxicity levels in the soil and the potential long-term
threat to human and animal health, represented by
food-chain incorporated contaminants. Pennsylvania had a
testing and interpretive service which analyzed sewage
sludge to determine suitability and appropriate application
rates .
460
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Showen, C.R. and 0.0. Williams.
Index to Water-Quality Data Available from the U.S. Geological
Survey in Machine-Readable Form to December 31, 1972. Central
Region.
U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., June 1973. 959p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as PB-232 922).
Key Words: groundwater, direct contact, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
The report lists water quality stations operated by the
Geological Survey for which data are available in machine-
readable form. The data are the results of analyses of
water samples and indicate the chemical and physical char-
acteristics of surface and ground water. The stations are
listed according to station number within each State.
The water quality data are identified by five-digit para-
meter codes and are grouped into twenty-one parameter cate-
gories. The analytical results for all samples in any one
year are then grouped within the parameter categories. The
report lists the available retrieval options, the machine-
readable output options, user charges, and how to obtain
the data.
461
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Shuckrow, A.J., G.W. Dawson, and D.E. Olesen.
Treatment of Raw and Combined Sewage.
Water and Sewage Works. 1J8.(4): 1 04-111 . April 1971.
Key Words: COD, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
suspended solids, influent characteristics,
chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The work reported in this article represents the results
of an extensive laboratory investigation of a new waste-
water treatment process which was conducted with raw
municipal wastewater from Richland, Washington.
The physical-chemica1 process developed utilized powdered
activated carbon, inorganic coagulants, and polyelectrolytes
and achieved highly efficient solids and organic removal
while minimizing detention time and space requirements.
All the results pointed to the feasibility of meeting the
desired goals of short detention time, compatibility with
intermittent use and widely fluctuating flows and waste-
water composition, small space requirements, high quality
effluent and economical operation.
462
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Shuval, H.I.
Detection and Control of Enteroviruses in the Water Environment.
In: Developments in Water Quality Research. Ann Arbor-Humphrey
Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1969. pp. 47-71.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh), drinking and
recreational water, chlorination.
Abstract:
This is a general article with some specific data including
the enterovirus concentrations in raw sewage, drinking
water, and surface water sources.
Also included are discussions on concentration and detection
methods, chlorination on viruses, and standard methods of
wastewater purification.
463
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Shuva! , H.I.
Health Factors in the Re-Use of Waste Water for Agricultural,
Industrial, and Municipal Purposes.
In: Problems in Community Wastes Management. World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1969. pp. 76-89.
Key Words: coliforms, viruses, synthetic/organics, herbicides,
nitrates, total dissolved solids, gravity separators,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Waste water, after adequate treatment, can be recycled for
use in agriculture and industry and, in certain circum-
stances, may in time become available for municipal and
domestic use if a particularly high degree of treatment
with adequate safeguards is provided.
In planning programs for the utilization of waste water,
the public health implications must be given careful con-
sideration, since physical, microbiological or chemical
pollution may place limits on the use of reclaimed water.
464
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Shuval, H.I. and E. Katzenelson.
The Detection of Enteric Viruses in the Water Environment.
In: Water Pollution Microbiology. R. Mitchell, ed.
WTley, New York, 1972. pp. 347-361.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article includes discussion of the types of viruses
in water, isolation and identification of enteric viruses,
and detection methods (or concentration methods), and is
a general article on enteric viruses in water.
465
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Shuval, H.I. and N. Gruener.
Health Considerations in Renovating Wastewater for Domestic Use
Environmental Science and Technology. 7^(7) .-600-604. July 1973
Key Words: surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This is a review paper that will provide a firm basis
for discussions concerning reuse of water.
466
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Shuval, H.I.tS. Cymbalista, Y. Zohar, N. Goldblum, and
A.M. Wachs.
Chlorination of Wastewater for Virus Control.
Munich Abstracts - Section II. 3jK3):343.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination.
Abstract:
Infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis have been accepted
as virus diseases which can be waterborne. There is strong
evidence that the accepted practices of chlorination of
wastewater and drinking water do not provide adequate control
of enteroviruses.
A study of controlled chlorfnation of treated wastewater
at the Haifa trickling filter plant was undertaken to
determine chlorination and contact periods for effective
virus control.
467
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Shuval , H.I., S. Cymbalista, A. Wachs, Y. Zohar, and
N. Goldblum.
The Inactivation of Enteroviruses in Sewage by Chiorination.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1966(2):37-51.
Key Words: viruses, ECHO virus, polio virus, chlorination.
Abstract:
A study of the inactivation by chlorine of echovirus
and poliovirus strains seeded in effluent from the Haifa
municipal sewage treatment plant was carried out using
applied chlorine doses of 3.6 to 11 mg/1 with contact
periods up to 6 hr. The pH ranged from 7.7 to 7.8 and the
experiments were carried out at 20° + 2°C. The results
obtained were compared with the inactivation of coliform
organisms under identical conditions. The following con-
clusions were drawn:
1. The chlorine present in the sewage was probably in the
form of combined chlorine because of the high concentration
of ammonia and nitrogenous organic compounds in the sewage.
These complexes are known to be low in their disinfection
ability compared to forms of free available chlorine. The
chlorine residuals remaining after 6 hr of contact varied,
but in all cases a concentration above 0.3 mg/1 was present,
2. The strain of echovirus used was sensitive to the
combined chlorine in the sewage with reductions of 99
percent in 30 min and 99.93 percent in 6 hr using 3.6
mg/1 of chlorine. No virus was recovered in the sample
tested after 4 hr with 7 mg/1 of applied chlorine or after
2.5 hr with 11 mg/1 of applied chlorine. The echovirus
followed known inactivation patterns which were shown to
be a function of time and chlorine concentration.
3. The strain of poliovirus type 1 used was much less
sensitive to the combined chlorine with only 50- and 90-
percent reductions in 6 hr with 5 and 11 mg/1, respectively
4. Coliform reductions obtained followed known patterns,
with a standard of less than 100 coliforms/100 ml being
obtained in 80 percent of the samples after 2 hr of con-
tact with a chlorine dose of about 8 mg/1.
5. Although the inactivation of the echovirus strain
was comparable to that obtained with coliform organisms,
this study indicates that the coliform index in chlorinated
sewage may not give a true picture of the degree of inacti-
vation obtained with the more resistant strains of entero-
virus such as poliovirus type 1.
468
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6. Inactivation of viruses seeded in sewage in concen-
trations many times greater than those normally present
in sewage may not be representative of actual field situ-
ations. To carry out studies with normal wild virus
concentrations, methods for detecting minimal virus con-
centrations as low as 1-10 P.F.U./l are required.
Virus concentration techniques such as those being develop-
ed by the authors may be of value in such future studies.
469
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Shuval, H.I,, E. Katzenelson, and I. Butum.
Risk of Communicable Disease Infection Associated with Wasteuater
Irrigation in Agricultural Settlements.
Science. 194:944-946. November 26, 1976.
Key Words: hepatftls virus, salmonella, shigella, bacteria,
gravity separators.
Abstract:
The incidence of enteric communicable diseases in 77
kibbutzim (agricultural communal settlements) practicing
wastewater spray irrigation with partially treated nondis-
Infected oxidation pond effluent 1s compared with that in
130 kibbutzim practicing no form of wastewater irrigation.
The incidence of shigellosis, salmonellosis, typhoid fever,
and Infectious hepatitis is two to four times higher in
communities practicing wastewater Irrigation. No signifi-
cant differences are found for the Incidence of strepto-
coccal infections, tuberculosis, and laboratory-confirmed
cases of influenza. Nor are differences found for enteric
disease rates during the winter nonlrrigatlon season.
Strong wastewater treatment measures, including effective
bacterial and viral Inactivation through disinfection are
recommended for all cases of sewage irrigation or land
disposal near residential areas in light of the potential
public health risks involved.
470
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Sierka, R.A.
Activated Carbon Treatment and Ozonation of MUST Hospital
Composite and Individual Component Wastewaters and MUST
Laundry Composite Wastewaters.
Army Medical Bioengineering Research and Development Laboratory,
Fort Detrick, Maryland, March 1975. 58p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as AD-A008 347).
Key Words: total organic carbon, adsorption/ion exchange,
ozonation, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The report summarizes the laboratory studies performed
to evaluate the unit operations of adsorption by activated
carbon and oxidation by ozone (0) for posttreatment of
MUST hospital wastewaters which have been treated by
ultrafi1tration (UF) alone or by UF and reverse osmosis (RO)
An objective of less than 5 mg/1 of total organic carbon
(TOG) in the final treated wastewater was considered an
appropriate goal. Individual hospital waste streams and
composite hospital and laundry waste streams were studied.
The tests indicated that only about 33% of the residual
TOG in RO-treated hospital composite wastes could be ad-
sorbed by powdered activated carbon. The effect of pH
on TOC removal by carbon was not significant in the range
tested, pH 2.5 to 10.8. In contrast, about 60% of the
TOC in UF-treated hospital composite wastes was adsorbable
w i th carbon.
471
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Silvey, J.K.G., R.L. Abshire, and W.J. Nunez III.
Bacteriology of Chlorinated and Unchlorinated Wastewater Effluents
JWPCF. 46.(9) :2152-2162. September 1974.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, coliforms, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
An extensive bacteriological and chemical study was made
on a particular segment of the Trinity River in Texas.
Waste effluents were shown to contribute high numbers
of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci. Chlorination
was effective in reducing the quantities of microorganisms
only at the station where chlorine was directly applied.
Hence, no station below the entrance of the chlorinated
effluent was affected. Furthermore, bacterial populations
were shown to recover immediately when chlorinatlon was
terminated. Beneficial heterotrophic organisms were ob-
served to be most susceptible to chlorine, with fecal
conforms, nonfecal conforms, and fecal streptococci
being less susceptible 1n this order. Chlorinatlon was
not totally effective in destroying pathogenic Salmonellae;
these organisms were isolated as frequently during chlor-
inatlon as during periods of nonchlorlnatlon. Effluent
BOD was slightly Improved as a result of chlorinatlon,
as was DO. Self-purification became somewhat evident
as the river proceeded downstream because the BOD was
progressively decreasing. Chlorinated hydrocarbons were
detected in the river as a result of chlorinatlon; how-
ever, their effects on the microblota and the ecology
of the river have not been determined. Chlor1nat1on, ac-
cording to data obtained from this investigation, did not
effectively Improve pre-existing conditions of the river.
472
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Simpson, R.E., W. Horwitz, and C.A. Roy.
Surveys of Mercury Levels in Fish and Other Foods.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. _7:127-133. March 1974.
Key Words: mercury, livestock, fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) conducted a
series of surveys of the mercury content of food in
1970, 1971, and 1972. The surveys included a wide
variety of fish samples from selected freshwater regions,
commercial fish from wholesale distributors, and sword-
fish and canned tuna fish; 10 commodities representing
a high proportion of total food consumption; and 12
total diet fractions collected in the FDA continuing
market basket study to determine pesticide residues in
the basic 2-week diet of a 19-year-old male.
For most samples analyzed, atomic absorption was used
as the determinative step; the more sensitive neutron
activation technique was used to confirm low levels of
mercury found by the atomic absorption method.
Swordfish samples showed the highest incidence of
mercury and the average mercury content, with levels
in excess of 1 ppm in more than 50% of the samples
examined. Approximately 4% of the canned tuna fish
contained mercury in excess of the FDA guideline of
0.5 ppm for mercury in fish. Some freshwater species
contained elevated levels of mercury traceable to known
sources of mercury pollution. Of other commercial fish
sampled, halibut, bonita, mackerel, c o d „ and snapper
contained some elevated mercury levels, but averaged
below the 0.5 ppm guideline.
In the survey of mercury in foods in which 10 food
commodities were analyzed, mercury was detected only
in shrimp at levels approximating 0.05 ppm. In the
total diet fractions only meat, fish, and poultry
contained mercury as high as 0.04 ppm. All other
fractions contained mercury levels lower than the sensi-
tivity of the method, i.e., 0.002 ppm on a dry-weight
basi s .
473
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Singer, P.C.
Anaerobic Control of Phosphate by Ferrous Iron.
JWPCF. 4_l(4):663-669. April 1972.
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Stoichiometric additions of ferrous iron can achieve
efficient removal of orthophosphate from wastewater
as ferrous phosphate. The solubility product of ferrous
phosphate at 25°C and an ionic strength of 0.1 has been
measured as 10-29.9 or 1.3x10-30. Accordingly, no
appreciable release of orthophosphate occurs under
the reducing conditions encountered in anaerobic sludge
digesters, even at treatment plants where ferric iron
has been employed as a phosphate precipitant. Ferrous
phosphate may also be of significance in influencing
phosphate transport during seasonal transformations
in limnological systems.
474
-------
Singer, P.C.
Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions 1n Natural Waters.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1974. 374p.
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
germanium, Iron, lead, manganese, mercury,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, thorium, tin,
uranium, zinc, surface water (marine), surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
This book developed from a symposium sponsored by the Division
of A1r, Water, and Waste Chemistry of the American Chemical
Society. The papers herein represent a cross section
of the current areas of research related to trace metals and
metal-organic Interactions, Including analytical, thermo-
dynamlc, biochemical, and kinetic considerations presented
as review papers, reports of experimental research, and
theoretical models summarizing available Information from
the literature.
475
-------
Singer, P.C. and T.L. Theis.
Anaerobic Digestion of Sludges Containing Iron Phosphates.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
98.(5): 784-786. October 1972.
Key Words: phosphates, iron, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
Primary sludges containing iron phosphate exhibited
a significant uptake of phosphorus during anaerobic
digestion, while digestion of thickened waste activated
sludge resulted in a release of phosphorus.
476
-------
Singley, J.E., C.J. Kirchmer, and R.Miura.
Analysis of Coprostanol, an Indicator of Fecal Contamination.
University of Florida at Gainesville, Department of Environmental
Engineering Sciences, March 1974. 1 2 7 p.
Key Words: coliforms, BOD, COD, total organic carbon,
surface water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Total coliform and fecal coliform has been used as
measures of water quality for uses ranging from shell-
fish waters to public water supplies. Because of the
weaknesses of the coliform tests, research has con-
tinued in the search for indicators of fecal pollution.
Coprostanol, or 5 beta-cholestan-3 betaol , has shown
promise as an indicator of fecal pollution. This
sterol is a characteristic fecal organic compound which
is found in the feces of higher animals, including man.
The gas chromatographic analysis of Coprostanol was
improved and a method of sample preservation was developed
using ^804. Field surveys compared coprostanol analyses
with total and fecal coliform and confirmed the pre-
dicted advantages of a chemical method over a biological
method. The gas chromatographic method was used in
extensive field surveys, in degradation studies, in
treatment plant efficiency studies and as the standard
for evaluation of a colorimetric method. The method was
capable of determining twenty nanograms per liter, which
was estimated to be equivalent to approximately two
coliforms per 100 ml. An attempt was made to correlate
coprostanol concentration with treatment plant efficiency.
There was a reasonably good correlation between copro-
stanol and BOD, COD and TOC. A colorimetric method has
been developed that can be used to determine coprostanol
at levels of one microgram g/1 in polluted water. The
color developer used is dinitrophenylhydrazine.
477
-------
Slnskey, A.J.,0. Shah, K.A. Wright, E.W. Merrill, S. Sommer,
and J.G. Trump.
Biological Effects of High Energy Electron Irradiation of
Municipal Sludge.
Contribution No. 2631. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, Department of Nutrition and Food
Science, 1975. 19p.
Key Words: collforms, bacteria, radiation treatment.
Abstract:
Since May 1, 1974 studies at M.I.T. on electron
irradiation of municipal wastewater and sludge have
been advanced by NSF support under RANN project 61-
43112. All irradiations have been performed at the
High Voltage Research Laboratory using a compressed
gas-insulated 4 MeV Van de Graaff electron accelerator.
This source was operated on simulated or actual sewage
materials at 3 MV for most of the studies. The
irradiated quantities per assay ranged from 20 to
1000 ml and the dosages from 104 rads to 3 x 106 rads.
The selection of doses depended on the sensitivity
of the organisms and effects under study. Treatment
times were mostly close to 1 second, the electron
beam current being controlled to deliver the desired
dosages in this time.
Radiobiological measurements were first carried out
on three typical water-borne bacteria and one
bacteriophage. Conditions of irradiation were varied
from the anoxic state to atmospheric air, atmospheric
oxygen, and oxygen up to 15 atmospheres pressure.
Later studies were made on coliform and total count
reduction in municipal sludge. The studies showed that
inactivation of bacteria and viruses in phosphate
buffer and in sewage sludge can be obtained by electron
i rradiati on.
A dosage of 300,000 rads was sufficient to produce a
99.99% kill in the total population present in sewage
sludge. The coliforms and other gram negative
organisms in sludge proved to be the most suceptible
to radiation. One hundred percent inactivation of
these bacteria was obtained with total dosages of
less than 150,000 rads.
478
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Sivak, A.
The Ames Assay.
Science. 1_93.: 272-273 . July 23, 1976.
Key Words: epidemiology.
Abstract:
The article suggests that the Ames Assay is useful
as one of a battery of first-step prescreens for
chemical agents that may have the potential for inter-
acting with cellular genomes. However, the implication
that positive results in this microbial mutagenesis sys'
tern will correspond to carcinogenicity in experimental
animals or in humans does not appear, at present, to
be substantiated.
479
-------
Skerfving, S., K. Hansson, and J. Lindsten.
Chromosome Breakage in Humans Exposed to Methyl mercury
through Fish Consumption: Preliminary Communication.
Archives of Environmental Health. 21/.133-139. August 1970.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
Chromosome analysis was performed on cells from
lymohocycle cultures from nine subjects with increased
levels of mercury in their red blood cells and in four
healthy controls. The elevated mercury levels were
likely to have originated from dietary fish with high
levels of methyl mercury. A statistically significant
rank correlation was found between the frequency of cells
with chromosome breaks and mercury concentration. The
biological significance of these findings is at pre-
sent unknown.
480
-------
Skinner, Q.D.
Bacteriology of Streams and the Associated Vegetation of a
High Mountain Watershed.
University of Wyoming, Laramie, Water Resources Research
Center, December 1974. 9p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-241 140).
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The major objective of the research was to relate
variations of bacteria count with vegetative types;
range conditions; and various uses of watershed.
Results show that the range conditions of the Nash
Fork study area can be classified as being in good
condition. There exists a seasonal variation in the
various bacteriological groups monitored. Total
coliforms, fecal coliforms and enterococci reach peak
concentrations i-n late summer. The main source of
pollution appears to be animals rather than humans.
There existed little difference in variations of
bacteria counts between vegetation types, with the
exception of nitrate reducing bacteria which had
higher counts below wet meadows. The ski area had
an effect on bacteria counts during the operating
season.
481
-------
Sklarow, S.S., R.R. Colwell, G.B. Chapman, and S.F. Zane.
Characteristics of a Vibrio parahaemolyticus Bacteriophage
Isolated from Atlantic Coast Sediment.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology. ]_9( 1 2) : 1 51 9-1 520. 1973.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Although bacteriophages active against marine bacteria
have been isolated, there are no extensive studies of
bacteriophages from seawater and sediment. There are,
however, some reports of isolation of marine bacterio-
phages. Because Vibrio parahaemolyticus has been shown
to be involved in food poisoning (via ingestion of con-
taminated seafood) and because bacteriophages active
against this organism have been isolated by Japanese
workers, it was decided to seek bacteriophages for
the organism from the offshore sediments for phage-
typing purposes. We have succeeded in isolating
bacteriophages for V. parahaemolyticus. This report
characterizes a V. parahaemolyticus bacteriophage
derived from one such sediment sample.
482
-------
Skrlpach, T., V. Kagan, M. Romanov, L. Kamen.and A. Semina.
Removal of Fluorine and Arsenic from the Wastewater of the
Rare-Earth Industry.
Advances 1n Water Pollution Research. 1970(2):III-34/1-7.
K-ey Words: arsenic, fluorides, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
1. Cleaning industrial wastewaters for fluorine must
be effected with calcium oxide. The reagent consump-
tion is 200% of the amount stoichiometrically required
Agitation time (without heating) is 45 minutes. The
residual fluorine content in the purified water is
some 15-20 mg/1.
It is recommended to make a final cleaning for small
amounts of fluorine (from 20 mg/1 down to the sanitary
level of 1.5 mg/1) with superphosphate and calcium
oxide or with aluminium sulphide. Superphosphate
consumption (on P0$~ basis) is 300% of the amount
stoichiometrically required. Agitation time (without
heating) was 2 hours. Aluminium sulphide consumption
was 4 g/1, agitation time -- 1.5 hours, pH value --
7, sedimentation time -- 2 hours.
2. The feasibility was shown of using ion-exchange
resins and membranes for cleaning wastewater for
fluorine and other ions (N03~, SO^-, Cl~).
3. Cleaning industrial wastewaters for arsenic must
be effected with calcium oxide (pH value of about 8
and process time of about an hour). Iron must be pre-
sent in an amount which assures total removal of
arsenic compounds (5 times the arsenic for five-valent
and 10 times for three-valent arsenic compounds).
4. Cleaning industrial wastewaters not containing
iron salts must be conducted in the following way:
4.1. Oxidizing the three-valent aresenic compounds
into the five-valent ones with 30% H202 and then
treating with calcium oxide (pH value of about 8,
agitation time some 15-20 minutes). Observing these
conditions guarantees attaining the sanitary level of
arsenic content in the wastewater purified.
4.2. Oxidizing the three-valent arsenic compounds
into the five-valent ones with pyrolusite and then
483
-------
treating with calcium oxide (pH value about 9-10,
and agitation time - 1 hour). When these conditions
are observed, arsenic content in the purified water
is 0.2 mg/1 and requires a 4-fold dilution of the
wastewater purified before letting it go back into
a water pool.
484
-------
Slanetz, L.W.
Additional Recommendations for Future Research Regarding
Indicator Bacteria and Pathogens Associated with Waste-
water Treatment and Disposal Systems.
University of New Hampshire, Durham, 1975.
Key Words:
2p.
Escherichia coli, fecal streptococci,
coliforms, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
This article summarizes the need for research for
isolation of pathogenic organisms other than standard
filtration methods because of possible inaccuracies
in the latter.
485
-------
Slanetz, L.W. and C.H. Bartley.
Survival of Fecal Streptococci 1n Sea Water.
Health Laboratory Science. 2(3 ): 141-148 . July 1965.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Fecal streptococci did not increase in numbers to any
appreciable extent when suspended in sea water or
sewage effluent in cellophane bags and suspended in
New Hampshire Bay waters at the mouth of a river
estuary. There was generally a decrease of 50-85
percent in the original numbers of these organisms
within the first 1-2 days with practically complete
die-off within 7-11 days.
Coliforms and fecal coliforms in sewage effluent were
found to increase in number during the first 1-4
day period of immersion in this bay water. A marked
die-off of the bacteria then occurred during the
next 4-6 days of exposure. Cells from pure cultures
of E. cpli suspended in cellophane bags in the sea
water showed similar survival curves except that
growth occurred during the first 24 hr period of
immersion and a rapid die-off developed during the
next 3 day period. The survival curves of suspensions
of cells from pure cultures of Salmonella resembled
those obtained for E. coli, although the die-off rate
was somewhat slower.
If appreciable organic or nutrient material is present
in sewage contaminated sea water, the numbers of
fecal streptococci in such water may give a more
accurate estimate of the degree of pollution than
coliforms or fecal coliforms since they do not multiply
1n such water and they show appreciable die-off
rates within a 2-3 day period.
486
-------
Slanetz, L.W., C.H. Bartley, and K.W. Stanley.
Coliforms, Fecal Streptococci and Salmonella in Seawater
Shellfish.
Health Laboratory Science. 5_(2):66-78. April 1968.
Key Words: coliforms, fecal streptococci, salmonella,
surface water (marine), shellfish.
Abstract:
The numbers or presence of coliforms, fecal coliforms,
fecal streptococci and salmonellae were determined
for samples of seawater and oysters collected during
sampling periods from April to November, 1964, 1965
and 1966. Membrane filter procedures proved highly
useful and efficient for the enumeration of both
coliforms and fecal coliforms in the seawater samples,
although the numbers of coliforms were in general
somewhat lower than the counts obtained by the
multiple-tube fermentation (MPN) tests. The fecal
streptococci were also efficiently enumerated in the
seawater samples by the membrane filter procedure
and in the oyster samples by a plating technic, (sic)
using m-enterococcus agar. Tests for fecal coliforms
and fecal streptococci were found to be highly
useful for assessing the degree of fecal contamination
of seawater and shellfish. Effective procedures
were developed for the isolation of salmonellae from
seawater and oysters. A number of different
salmonella aerotypes were isolated from such samples,
including samples of seawater and oysters collected
from shellfish-growing areas which met the current
recommended coliform standard for approved shell-
fish-growing waters.
487
-------
Slanetz, L.W., C.H. Bartley, T.6. Metcalf, and R. Nesman.
Survival of Enteric Bacteria and Viruses in Oxidation Pond
Systems.
University of New Hampshire, Durham, 1972. 35p.
Key Words: coliforms, fecal streptococci, salmonella,
trickling filter, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
This is a report on the survival of enteric bacteria
and viruses in an oxidation pond system during
certain times of the year.
488
-------
Smith, E.C., F. Berkes, and J.A. Spence.
Mercury Levels in Fish in the La Grande River Area,
Northern Quebec.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
13(6):673-677. June 1975.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
This paper deals with mercurial content of freshwater
fish. The region under study does not have any industry
so this paper may provide some basis for comparison.
In addition, because this is a cold weather region,
possible comparisons may be drawn concerning the effect
of temperature and mercurial uptake with data from
temperate regions.
489
-------
Smith, F.A..R.P. Sharma, R.L. Lynn, and J.B. Low.
Mercury and Selected Pesticide Levels in Fish and Wildlife
of Utah. I. Levels of Mercury, DDT, DDE, Dieldrin and
PCB in Fish.
Bulletin of Environmental Contaminants and Toxicology.
12:218-223. February 1974.
Key Words: mercury, DDT, DDE, dieldrin, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, fish.
Abstract:
This is an excellent paper on uptake levels in fish
of mercury and various pesticides.
490
-------
Smith, J.E., K.W. Young, and R.B. Dean.
Biological Oxidation and Disinfection of Sludge.
Water Research. 9_:17-24. 1975.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, nitrates, aerobic digestion,
heat treatment.
Abstract:
Aerobic thermophillc digestion of sludge destroys
human pathogens. No nitrates were measured in the
digested sludge because nitrifying organisms do
not grow at the higher temperatures 1n the digester.
491
-------
Smith, J.M., A.M. Masse, W.A. Feige, and L.J. Kamphake.
Nitrogen Removal from Municipal Waste Water by Columnar
Denitrification.
Environmental Science and Technology. £(3):260-267.
March 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrification/denitrification
Abstract:
Among the available methods to remove nitrogen from
waste water, the biological method of denitrification
appears most promising. The work reported herein
describes the results of a pilot plant investigation
of columnar denitrification on three sizes of inert
media, utilizing methanol as a substrate for the
biochemical reduction of the nitrate ion. These
studies were conducted on the nitrified effluent of a
municipal waste treatment plant receiving sewage of
domestic origin. The work was directed toward ex-
tending the state of the art of columnar denitri-
fication and to specifically define the optimum
conditions for this process. The effects of media
size, gradation, column porosity, and contact time,
and the effect of influent dissolved oxygen on
nitrate reduction efficiency were determined.
Hydraulic characteristics and solids removal effi-
ciencies were examined for each column. Results in-
dicated that greater than 90% denitrification was
achieved at methanol/nitrate ratios of 2.50/1.0
and 2.75/1.0 at contact times of 5 min for coarse
sand and 15 min for 3/4-in. stone.
492
-------
Smith, R.J., R.M. Twedt, and L.K. Flanigan.
Relationships of Indicator and Pathogenic Bacteria in
Stream Waters.
JWPCF. 4_5(8):1736-1745. August 1973.
Key Words: salmonella, fecal streptococci, coliforms,
surface water (fresh), effluent characteristics
Abstract:
In profile studies, the pattern of average salmonella
concentrations in the Saline River followed that of
all three indicator groups although exhibiting an
apparent 3-mile (4.8-km) lag. The similarity of the
average salmonella concentration in the Huron River
to any one indicator group was not clear, although
the resemblance to total coliforms was closest.
The fecal coliforms constituted less than a third
of the total coliform concentration for both rivers
and was generally about 20 percent.
In samples from which salmonellae were isolated,
the geometric mean ratios relating indicators to
pathogens were 1 salmonella to 1,472 coliforms, 227
fecal coliforms, and 367 fecal streptococci in the
Saline River and 1 salmonella to 274 coliforms, 24
fecal coliforms, and 109 fecal streptococci in the
Huron River. These ratios were lower, by a factor
of roughly 10, than those previously presented.
This may be the result of the improved effectiveness
of the salmonellae isolation technique used in the
present work over that used previously. The combina-
tion of DSE and XLD media used here was recently
shown by Kenner to yield more salmonella isolations
from wastewater and polluted ana unpolluted stream
waters than any other conventional media. Neverthe-
less, these data revealed that the probability
for salmonella isolation decreased as the fecal
coliform concentration increased, suggesting that the
media were not able to overcome the larger concen-
trations of competitive microflora and chemical
wastes which accompanied increasing levels of pollu-
tion.
The present quantitative analysis confirms what re-
searchers had found with regard to the difficulty
of establishing the natural relationships of
indicators and pathogens in stream waters. Apparently
the relationship is tempered by such important fac-
tors as the nature of seasonal pollution and the
numbers of salmonella excreters among the human and
493
-------
animal populations 1n the drainage basin. High fecal
collform levels can occur 1n conjunction with low
salmonella densities and conversely. Nevertheless,
the usefulness of the fecal conform concentration for
making a qualified judgment of water quality has been
reconfirmed.
494
-------
Smith, S.J. and R.J. Davis.
Relative Movement of Bromide and Nitrate through Soils.
Journal of Environmental Quality. 3_:152-155. April 1974.
Key Words: nitrites, bromide, groundwater.
Abstract:
Miscible displacement experiments were conducted with
eight different surface soils (0-15 cm depth) and their
associated subsoils (61-76 cm depth). Results
indicate that the movement of bromide relative to that
of nitrate (0.005 N salts) is identical in subsoils
but variable in surface soils. Differences in rela-
tive movement of the two anions may be attributed
to microbial activity involving nitrate.
With the exception of 5% an ion sorption in a Green-
ville subsoil, an ion exclusion values ranged from
5 to 30% indicating the anions were moving 1.05 to
1.64 times as fast as they would if they had been
uniformly associated with all the soil water. The
results support the view that bromide has utility
for following the potential path of nitrate movement
through soils.
495
-------
Smith, S.O.
Iron Occurrence in Ground Water Correlated With Dissolved
Oxygen.
Public Works. Kn_:60-62. February 1970.
Key Words: iron, groundwater.
Abstract:
The quality of water derived from the major public water
supply aquifers in Nassau County, N.Y. can be characterized
as naturally corrosive, being soft and acidic, and frequently
containing a high concentration of dissolved oxygen.
Approximately 66 percent of the water supplies provide
treatment for corrosion control and plans are being
implemented for corrosion control in some of the
remaining water supplies.
There are areal differences in natural iron and dissolved
oxygen content in the county; lines of equally dissolved
oxygen content roughly follow the contour lines of the
groundwater table. This appears to Indicate that the
dissolved oxygen in the underground formations depletes
following the general flow of groundwater. The presence
of dissolved iron is related to the deficiency of dissolved
oxygen.
496
-------
Snodgrass, W.J. and C.R. O'Melia.
Predictive Model for Phosphorus in Lakes.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9^(1 0) :937-944 .
October 1975.
Key Words: surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
A predictive model for phosphorus in lakes has been
developed and verified. The model shows excellent
agreement between observed and predicted average
phosphorus concentrations for lakes with a wide range
of hydraulic detention times (1-700 years) and mean
depths (14-313 meters). At present the model should
be applied only to lakes with oxic hypo!imnetic waters.
The model has been verified for conditions of constant
nutrient loadings. The model provides an explanation
for the effects of mean lake depth on water quality
noted by several 1imnologists. Vertical exchange of
phosphorus forms across the thermocline and natural
aggregation within the lake are important processes
for the transport and deposition of phosphorus in lakes
The significance of these processes increases with
lake depth.
497
-------
Snoeyink, V.L. and F.I. Markus.
Chlorine Residuals in Treated Effluents.
Illinois Institute of Environmental Quality,
August 1973. 65p. (Available from National
Information Service (NTIS). as PB-227 268).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination
Chicago,
Technical
Abstract:
This study was concerned with the occurrence and effect
of residual chlorine in treated wastewater effluents.
A field study which involved analysis of effluents from
20 wastewater treatment plants in Central Illinois showed
total chlorine residuals ranging from 1 to 5 mg/1. Most
of these plants discharged to streams which have 7-day
10-year low flows of zero. A study was made of the rate
of decay of residuals in receiving waters, and this rate
proved to be an important function of the type of residual
(i.e., free or combined) and the amount of sunlight. Free
chlorine in secondary effluent exposed to bright sunlight
Chlorine residual can be eliminated
of the residual either by sulfur
or activated carbon.
decayed most rapidly.
by chemical reduction
compounds
so3= )
498
-------
Snoeylnk, V.L. and F.I. Markus.
Chlorine Residuals in Treated Effluents.
Water and Sewage Works. 111(4) :35-38. April 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorination, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Chlorine residuals in the concentration range of 1
to 5 mg/1 as Cl£ are being discharged to receiving
waters in central Illinois as a result of chlorina-
tion of effluents for disinfection. The residual
is predominantly monochloramine and in most instances
it is being discharged to streams which provide little
dilution. Other research has shown that chlorine
residual imparts a definite toxicity to the discharge;
stream criteria of 0.002 to 0.2 mg/1 total chlorine
residual have been recommended, depending on the
type of fish to be protected in the receiving water
and on whether the residual is continuously or inter-
mittently present. If these criteria are in effect,
dechlorination is necessary in many instances.
Dechlorination can readily be achieved by use of
sulfur compounds, such as SO?, or by the use of
activated carbon. A major advantage in the use of
activated carbon is that it can also be used to achieve
ammonia removal. If reduction in ammonia concentra-
tion in a particular discharge is required in addi-
tion to dechlorination, this advantage is highly
significant.
499
-------
Snoeyink, V.L., H.T. Lai, O.H. Johnson, and J.F. Young.
Active Carbon: Dechlorination and the Adsorption of
Organic Compounds.
In: Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution
0. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975. pp. 233-252.
Key Words: chlorides, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
A definite relationship exists between the buildup
of acidic surface oxides and the degree of treatment
with free chlorine. The surface has a maximum level
of oxides that it can accommodate, but many of the
oxides or oxygen-containing reaction products formed
via reaction with free chlorine are volatile. This
volatility undoubtedly results in a much longer life
for the dechlorination capability of active carbon
beds. The brown colloidal matter that appears as a
product after extensive reaction with chlorine is
not of major concern because the useful life of field
dechlorination units is exceeded before this product
appears.
The reaction products which were readily washed from
the carbon surface, or volatilized during drying of
the carbon, apparently had no major affect on the
adsorption capacity of the carbon for the aromatics
studied. The presence of fixed oxides, however,
reduced adsorption capacity. This fact should be
taken into account if carbon beds are to be used
for both dechlorination and removal of dissolved
organi cs.
Several topics related to this study require further
investigation. The effect of acidic surface oxides
on adsorption of more polar compounds should be in-
vestigated because it is possible that adsorption
of these types of compounds will be increased with
oxide buildup owing to dipole-dipole interactions
between the molecule and the surface. The rate of
oxide buildup under low but prolonged levels of
free chlorine application should be studied. Also,
the effect of organic molecules on the carbon surface
on the rate of dechlorination and the life of the
dechlorination bed needs to be evaluated if conjunc-
tive use for dechlorination and adsorption is contem-
plated. The character of the reaction products, such
as the acidic reaction products that are removed
from the carbon when it is heated, should also be
500
-------
studied. It would also be desirable that more
in-depth studies be undertaken relating to changes
in surface area and pore size distribution to the
effect of acidic surface area and pore size distribu'
tion to the effect of acidic surface oxides on
adsorption of organic compounds.
501
-------
Snoeylnk, V.L., W.J. Weber, and H.B. Mark.
Sorpfion of Phenol and Nltrophenol by Activated Carbon.
Environmental Science and Technology. 8..-918-926.
October 1969.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Equilibrium measurements of the sorption of phenol
and p-nltrophenol from aqueous solution by active
carbon suggest a heterogeneity of active surface
sites with respect to energy of adsorption. Desorp-
tion studies show the presence of significant hysteresis
effects when long equilibration periods are involved,
although these effects are much smaller when adsorption-
desorption equilibria are attained more rapidly.
Differences in surface properties for different car-
bons is suggested by more extensive sorption of phenol
at lower surface coverages on a coconut carbon than
on a coal carbon of similar surface area. Further,
again for low surface coverages and the same coconut
carbon, p-nitrophenol is sorbed more extensively than
phenol. At higher surface coverages the sorption is
apparently less specific, andthe sorption isotherms
tend to converge. Studies at various pH levels indi-
cate that the capacity of active carbon for adsorption
of the anionic forms of both phenol and p-nitrophenol
is less than for the corresponding neutral species.
There is no marked effect of pH on the sorption of the
neutral form of p-nitrophenol in the pH range from
2.0 to 6.5. The capacity for the neutral phenol
molecule decreases significantly with decreasing pH
in this same range, however, suggesting that the
hydrated proton competes effectively with phenol for
active surface sites.
502
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Sobsey, M.D.
Enteric Viruses and Drinking-Water Supplies.
JAWWA. £7(8) :414-418. August 1975.
Key Words: viruses, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Although waterborne virus detection methodology
should be further developed and improved, reasonably
sensitive and reliable methods are now available to
quantitiate small amounts of enteric viruses in up
to 100-gal volumes of drinking water. The two most
promising methods for this type of water are flow-
through, filter adsorption-elution systems, and
certain types of ultrafi1tration systems.
It should be recognized that it is impossible to
eliminate all fecal contamination from drinking-
water supplies. Surveillance studies to determine
enteric virus levels in drinking waters meeting current
microbial standards should be a major priority for
research on viruses in water. It is only by knowing
the extent of enteric virus contamination of currently
acceptable drinking-water supplies that scientists
can begin to determine if current microbial drinking-
water standards are adequate with respect to enteric
viruses.
503
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Sobsey, M.D., C. Wallis, and J.L. Melnick.
Studies on the Survival and Fate of Enteroviruses in an
Experimental Model of a Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
and Leachate.
Applied Microbiology. 30.(4): 565-574 . October 1975.
Key Words: viruses, epidemiology.
Abstract:
In laboratory scale municipal solid waste lysimeters
containing simulated refuse, and seeded with either
laboratory or field strains of poliovirus type 1 and
echovirus type 71 viruses were not detected in the
lysimeter leachate produced over a 4-month period.
In addition, viruses were not detected in the lysimter
refuse contents after termination of lysimeter oper-
ation. These results appeared to be due to virus
retention in the lysimeter caused by virus
adsorption and virus inactivation. Evidence for
virus inactivation was provided by the results of
experiments on virus inactivation in composite leachate
samples. Evidence for virus adsorption was supported
by the rapid adsorption of viruses to various municipal
solid waste components in the presence of a salt
solution similar in composition to the major inorganic
salts of leachates.
504
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Sobsey, M.D..C. Wallis, M.F. Hobbs, A.C. Green, and J.L. Melnick,
Virus Removal and Inactivation by Physical-Chemical
Waste Treatment.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division,
ASCE. 9_9(EE3):245-252. June 1973.
Key Words: polio virus, adsorption/ion exchange, chemical
treatment, chlorination, filtration.
Abstract:
From the results of this study it is concluded that the
physical chemical wastewater treatment system studied
is capable of reducing the enteric virus content
of wastewater by more than 99.95%. This degree of
virus removal is superior to that obtained with con-
ventional primary and secondary wastewater treatment,
since field studies have shown that virus removal is
generally no more than 90% to 99% in these treatment
systems.
Studies are now being conducted on this wastewater
treatment system to improve virus removal from the
effluent and to inactivate the virus in the filter
cake.
505
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Sodergren, A. and B. Svensson.
Uptake and Accumulation of DDT and PCB by Ephemera danica
(Ephemeroptera) in Continuous-Flow Systems.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
9(6):354-350. June 1973.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT, fish.
Abstract:
The authors found that the accumulation of DDT and PCB
followed a kinetic equation of the first order in the
test organisms.
506
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Soldano, B.A., P. B1en, and P. Kwan.
Air-Borne Organo-Mercury and Elemental Mercury Emissions
with Emphasis on Central Sewage Facilities, and Discussion.
Atmospheric Environment. 2:941-944. April 10, 1975.
Key Words: mercury, groundwater, surface water (marine),
surface water (fresh), crops, livestock, fish,
shellfish, drinking and recreational water, air.
Abstract:
Field studies strongly suggest that central sewage facili-
ties consitutute a widespread source of organic mercury
as well as elemental mercury emissions. The authors have found
evidence for organic and elemental mercury emissions
covering a concentration range greater than 107. These
findings are based on air samples obtained in cities with
populations ranging from 20,000 to 700,000. Particular
emphasis was given to meterological and spatial factors
relative to central sewage facilities. The concentra-
tion of elemental mercury in the atmosphere falls off
sharply with increasing distance from the central sewage
plant. That of the more volatile organic forms of
mercury increases (for at least several miles) with
distance. The concentration maxima of the organic mercury
emissions appear to be related to population size.
507
-------
Sopper, W.E.
Crop Selection and Management Alternatives -- Perennials.
In; Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land, Pro-
ceedings of the Joint Conference, July 9-13, 1973. pp. 143-153
Key Words: ponding/land application, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
It appears that there is sufficient evidence to indicate
that perennial vegetation can be utilized as part of the
land management system of a municipal wastewater disposal
site. There is still, however, a need for much definitive
research data on almost all aspects concerning the long-
term environmnetal impacts on the entire biosystem.
508
-------
Sopper, W.E.
Disposal of Municipal Waste Water through Forest Irrigation.
Environmental Pollution. 1(4):263-284. April 1971.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, ponding/land application,
direct contact.
Abstract:
Serious pollution problems are often created by the dis-
posal of municipal waste water into surface waters. An
obvious alternative method is diversion of these waste
waters to the land. Such non-aqueous methods of disposal
might eliminate or alleviate many water pollution
problems and, in some cases, could even provide secondary
benefits such as recharge of groundwater reservoirs, and
increased production of crops and wood fibre. Research
results indicate that, with properly programmed appli-
cation rates, large volumes of waste water can be
satisfactorily renovated through irrigation of forest-
land, and considerable amounts of high-quality water
recharged to the groundwater reservoir. In addition,
secondary benefits such as increased tree growth,
increased site productivity, and site amelioration have
also been obtained. The deliberate reclamation of
waste water for potential reuse is one of the keys to
optimum utilization of our water resources. Such
reclamation for reuse will receive increased attention
in the future as we struggle to improve our environment
and maintain an equilibrium with nature.
509
-------
Sopper, W.E. and L.T. Kardos.
Vegetation Responses to Irrigation with Treated Municipal
Wastewater.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
through Forest and Cropland. EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, Institute for Research on
Land and Water Resources, March 1974. pp. 242-269.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, chlorides,
agri culture.
Abstract:
Sewage effluent irrigation during the past 10 years
on cropland and in forestland has, for the most part,
produced beneficial vegetation responses. Crop yields
and tree growth were significantly increased. In
addition the value of the vegetation as a renovating agent
has been demonstrated to be a vital part of the system.
For year-around operations a combination of cropland
and forestland will provide the greatest flexibility in
operating a system using the "living filter" concept.
510
-------
Sopper, W.E., L.T. Kardos, and B.R. Edgerton.
Using Sewage Effluent and Liquid Digested Sludge to Establish
Grasses and Legumes on Bituminous Strip-Mine Spoils.
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Institute
for Research on Land and Water Resources, March 1974.
165p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-232 069).
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, crops.
Abstract:
Six large lysimeters were filled with strip-mine spoil
material. The spoil was then seeded with eight grass
and eight legume species and then treated with sewage
effluent and liquid digested sludge at the following
treatment rates: control (no treatment), one-inch
effluent plus one-inch sludge combination (IE + IS),
and two-inch effluent plus two-inch sludge combination
(2E + 2S). The spoil was irrigated weekly during the
period May 24 to September 21, 1972. The results in-
dicated that treatment ameliorated the harsh site con-
ditions and greatly facilitated establishment of the
grasses and legumes. The grasses did much better than
the legumes in both dry matter production and percent
areal cover of the spoil. Highest concentrations of
metals and lowest concentrations of nitrogen were
found in leachate from the control spoil. Leachate from
spoil receiving the 2E + 2S treatment had the lowest
concentrations of metals and acidity, and the highest
concentrations of nitrogen, more favorable for grass
and legume establishment.
511
-------
Somber, C.A.
Protection of the Public Health.
In; Proceedings of the Conference on Land Disposal of Municipal
Effluents and Sludges. EPA-902/9-73-001, Rutgers - the State
University of New Jersey, March 1973. pp. 201-209.
Key Words: epidemiology, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
There are very few, if any, public health problems that
have been demonstrated as a result of spray irrigation
or land disposal of wastewater. However, a significant
number of questions have been raised, and it appears
to be judicious to conduct well planned investigations
which will demonstrate beyond a shadow of doubt whether
these potential problems do or do not exist.
512
-------
Sorber, C.A. and K.J. Guter.
Health and Hygiene Aspects of Spray Irrigation.
Public Health. 6j>_(l) :47-52. January 1975.
Key Words: total dissolved solids, suspended solids, nitrates,
nitrites, zinc, chromium, copper, lead, manganese,
V ibrio chp.lerae, shigella, mycobacterium, coxsackie
virus , poiio virus, ECHO virus, parasitic worms,
agriculture.
Abstract:
The following conclusions relative to the health and
hygiene effects of spray irrigation land disposal of
wastewater can be drawn:
1. Many of the detrimental health and hygiene aspects of
land disposal should be significantly reduced by proper
wastewater pretreatment including secondary treatment,
filtration, and complete disinfection.
2. By choosing a land disposal site that has from 5 to 10
feet of continuous fine soil, biological contamination
of groundwater can be avoided.
3. The probability of inhaling pathogenic aerosols near
a spray irrigation site may be significant.
4. If ponding results in spray irrigation areas, mosquito
breeding is enhanced.
5. In areas where land disposal is the first step in a
water recycle program, total dissolved solids, sodium,
and nitrate-nitrogen buildup in the groundwater supply
can be a problem.
513
-------
Sorber, C.A., S.A. Schaub, and H.T. Bausum.
An Assessment of a Potential Virus Hazard Associated with
Spray Irrigation of Domestic Wastewaters.
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
Malina, Jr. and B.P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at
Austin, Center for Research in Water Resources, 1974.
pp. 241-252.
Key Words: viruses, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Based on the factors described and the assumptions made
in modeling field conditions, the following conclusions
can be drawn:
1. Secondary treatment, especially trickling filtration,
and common disinfection practices cannot be relied upon
to provide appreciable virus reduction in wastewaters.
2. Under many spray irrigation site conditions, the use
of distance is undesirable as the sole design criterion
for reduction of virus aerosols.
3. A positive design approach to minimize the virus
aerosol risk is to remove or destroy viruses in the
pretreatment process prior to spraying.
514
-------
Sorber, C.A., H.T. Bausum, and S.A. Schaub.
Bacterial Aerosols Created by Spray Irrigation of Wastewater.
Presented at the 1975 Sprinkler Irrigation Association Technical
Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, February 1975. 16p.
Key Words: bacteria, ponding/land application, air.
Abstract:
Although this paper deals with preliminary analysis of
recent field studies on bacterial aerosols generated at a
spray irrigation site, the following conclusions can be
drawn with reasonable assurance:
1. Relatively high concentrations of bacterial aerosols
can be transmitted for considerable distances under the
conditions of spray irrigation studied.
2. Most of the bacteria are contained in aerosols which
are in the respirable range.
3. After initial aerosol shock and desiccation, sunlight
had little effect on bacterial decay for the aerosol ages
studied.
4. The most important factors having a bearing on the
downwind aerosol concentrations observed are the concen-
tration of organisms at the source and atmospheric stabil-
ity.
5. The highest concentrations of bacterial aerosols at a
downwind point occurred under stable atmospheric conditions
which are characterized by low wind velocities and darkness
6. Effective disinfection can reduce these aerosols to
background levels in reasonable distances.
515
-------
Sorber, C.A., S.A. Schaub, and K.J. Guter.
Problem Definition Study: Evaluation of Health and Hygiene Aspects
of Land Disposal of Wastewater at Military Installations.
U.S. Army Medical Environmental Engineering Research Unit,
Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland, 1972. 32p.
Key Words: nitrites, viruses, coliforms, bacteria, ponding/land
application, groundwater, air, direct contact,
agriculture, chlorination , ozonation, composting.
Abstract:
The following conclusions relative to the health and
hygiene effects of land disposal of wastewater can be
drawn:
1. Many of the detrimental health and hygiene aspects of
land disposal would be significantly reduced by proper
wastewater pretreatment, including secondary treatment,
filtration and complete disinfection.
2. By choosing a land disposal site that has from five
to ten feet of continuous fine soil, biological contamin-
ation of groundwater should be avoided.
3. The probability of inhaling pathogenic aerosols near
a spray irrigation site is significant.
4. Chemical components of sewage may enhance the viability
of bacteria, virus and protozoans in aerosols.
5. Pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria and viruses) may
survive longer in sewage aerosols and in soil than common
indicator organisms such as coliform organisms.
6. As a result of ponding in land disposal areas, mosquito
breeding is enhanced.
7. In areas where land disposal is the first step in a
water recycle program, total dissolved solids, sodium and
nitrate ion build-up in the groundwater supply can be a
problem.
516
-------
Sorber, C.A., J.F. Malina, Jr., and B.P. Sagik.
Quantitative Procedure for Evaluating the Performance of
Water and Waste Water Treatment Processes at Naturally Occurring
Levels.
Environmental Science and Technology. 6^(5) :438-441 . May 1972.
Key Words: viruses, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The data presented indicatethe effectiveness of insoluble*
polyelectrolytes for concentrating extremely low levels
of viruses from artificial and natural waters. T2 coli-
phage recoveries are reliable and reproducible at about
25% of added virus at optimal pH. The ability of the PE 60
to adsorb essentially 100% of the virus in the suspension
at the dose and mixing time employed was also demonstrated.
Control of the pH is critical for reproducible results
using the coliphage.
The major purpose of this study was the standardization
of a method for quantitating the effectiveness of water
and waste water treatment methods for the removal of
viruses at naturally occurring concentrations. The tech-
nique described satisfies that need and provides a rela-
tively simple method of virus concentration which is highly
reproducible over a broad range of virus levels. However,
standardization of the polyelectrolyte for the virus used
in a study is essential.
The largest sample of water handled in this investigation
was 18 liters. Experimental data indicate that the results
can be applied to any manageable volume of water. Addi-
tional investigations are in progress at this time with
the purpose of simplifying the mechanical problems associ-
ated with handling several hundred liters of water, although
volumes of 5 and 10 liters would seem to be large enough
for most bench and pilot scale studies.
517
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Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Annual Report
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. El Segundo,
California, June 30, 1974. 197p.
Key Words: chromium, viruses, cpliforms, bacteria, Vibrio
£ho1erae. Escherichia coli, salmonella, shigella,
mycobacterium, Staphyfococcus aureus, ammonia, BOD,
COD, cyanides, nitrates, oil and grease, phosphates,
suspended solids, total dissolved solids, total
organic carbon, arsenic, cadmium, copper,
iron, manganese, mercury, nickel, lead, selenium,
zinc, antibiotics, DDT, dieldrin, orqanophosphorous
pesticides, antimony, surface water (marine),
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This is a precise study of the relationship between plant
and animal life and the condition of the coastal water of
Southern California, the chemistry and biology of coastal
water and the problems related to it and possible solutions
518
-------
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Annual Report.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. El Segundo,
California, June 30, 1975. 211p.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, chromium, viruses,
coliforms, fecal streptococci, Staphylococcus
aureus, bacteria, surface water (marine), fish,
shellfish, air.
Abstract:
This report includes studies on pathogenic and indicator
bacteria, viruses in seawater, DDT and PCB in diseased fish,
metals in polycheates, shellfish, and diseased fish, trace
metals in seawater, the effects of ocean sludge disposal,
and the characteristics of municipal wastewater discharges.
519
-------
Sparr, A.E. and V. Gruppi.
Gravity Thickeners for Activated Sludge.
JWPCF. 41(11):1886-1904. November 1969.
Key Words: suspended solids, gravity thickeners.
Abstract:
Several of the mechanical thickening aids discussed in
the paper have been incorporated in the current design of
the gravity thickeners for the 17-mgd (64,300 cu m/day)
Linden-Rose!le Sewerage Authority (New Jersey) secondary
treatment facilities. Included were mechanical deflector
(compactors) plates and four rake arms equipped with pipe
pickets.
In addition to recycled digested sludge these two thick-
eners will receive thin primary sludge and waste activated
sludge in the ratio of one-to-three on a dry solids basis.
It is anticipated that the additional rake arms and the
compactor plates will give the settled solids added knead-
ing with compaction and move these solids more rapidly to
the sump. The net result should be a more concentrated
sludge removed and a lower sludge detention time (sludge
volume ratio). The short pipe pickets should provide
adequate passage for the escape of any gases that may
develop.
Existing circular thickeners could be modified to a
limited degree for the utilization of compaction plates
for improved thickening. The limiting factor would be
torque capacity of the mechanical scraping mechanism -
rake arms, cage, and drive. It is believed that addition
of one, two, or three plates per arm could produce signifi
cant additional concentrations.
520
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Spear, R.C., D.L. Jenkins, and T.H. Milby.
Pesticide Residues and Field Workers.
Environmental Science and Technology. £(4):308-313.
April 1975.
Key Words: organophosphorus pesticides, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This article includes summaries of the incidence of
systematic illness from exposure to organophosphorous
pesticides (OP) for agricultural workers in California,
1949-1974.
Factors affecting residue intoxication and regulatory
aspects are discussed.
521
-------
Spody, B. and S.D. Adams.
Improved Activated Sludge Treatment with Carbon.
Deeds and Data. January 1976. 8p.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, suspended solids, activated sludge,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The effect of powdered carbon on the vacuum filtration
of mixed primary and waste activated sludges is discussed
522
-------
Spohr, G. and A. Talts.
Phosphate Removal by pH Controlled Lime Dosage.
Public Works. 10^:63-66. July 1970.
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
1) Lime addition to wastewater prior to primary sedi-
mentation can be effectively accomplished by a con-
tinuous lime slurry feed based on closed loop pH control.
2) Total phosphate removal is affirmed as being possible
and practicable in such a process, the efficiency of
removal being based on raw sewage characteristics and
1ime dosages.
3) Suspended Solids, BOD and COD reduction can be signi-
ficantly enhanced by such treatment, the incremental
additional removals correlating with lime dosages (efflu-
ent turbidity negates increased suspended solids removals
at high pH values).
523
-------
Sproul , O.J.
Virus Inactivation by Water Treatment.
JAWWA. 6£(l):31-35. January 1972.
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment, chlorination,
adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The recent research literature shows that nearly all of
the water-treatment processes in present use are under
research investigation in order to define better their
virus-removal capacity. Some of the recent efforts have
defined the basic mechanisms of virus removal. A better
understanding and more positive operation of treatment
plants would result if greater research efforts were
made in this direction.
If the virus problem in water supplies is actually as
large as the recent scientific and popular literature
indicates, then research needs and research efforts
stand in the same relationship as a mountain to a
molehill. No research effort at all in the past 10 yr
has been given to virus removal by filtration. Yet
over the same period this process, in some plants, has
become the only treatment unit — performing the roles of
flocculation chamber, sedimentation tank, and filter.
Answers through research could be obtained if some
reorientation of priorities within the water-utility
industry, among researchers and among funding agencies,
were to take place so as to encourage a bigger effort.
524
-------
Sproul, O.J., M. Warner, L.R. La Rochelle, and D.R. Brunner.
Virus Removal by Adsorption in Waste Water Treatment Process.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1969:541-554.
Key Words: viruses, polio virus, adsorption/ion exchange,
chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The following statements and conclusions can be made on
the data presented here:
1. Activated carbon adsorption of the Type 1 polio virus
from a secondary effluent showed a competition for the
adsorption sites with the organic matter. Desorption of
the polio virus from the carbon was obtained as the
adsorption of organic material continued.
2. Removals of up to 99% of the polio virus were
obtained by the precipitation of 81 mg/1 . of phosphate
with calcium. Removals of up to 99.9% of the T2 virus
were obtained by the precipitation of 66 mg/1. of alu-
minum phosphate.
3. Virus removal by activated carbon adsorption from
a treated waste water is not a dependable process.
Removals by phosphate precipitation would appear reliable
and a valuable additional benefit in the removal of
phosphate.
525
-------
Sridharan, N. and G.F. Lee
Phosphorus Studies in Lower Green Bay, Lake Michigan.
JWPCF. 4_6.(4):684-696. April 1974.
Key Words: phosphates, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The water and sediment analyses indicated that the Fox
River is the major source of phosphorus in the lower
Green Bay area. An association of phosphorus with
iron was indicated in the dredge and core analyses.
The phosphorus release experiments under laboratory
conditions suggested an iron-associated release. A
mechanism is proposed to explain the phosphorus
release under oxic and anoxic conditions. The ortho-
phosphate concentrations in water of lower Green Bay
should have dropped to about 0.02 to 0.03 mg P/l when
the EPA-State of Wisconsin agreement went into effect.
Because these concentrations are two to three times
higher than the critical concentrations for excessive
algal growth, the algae are not likely to become phos-
phorus limited despite the reduction of phosphorus
input from wastewater sources by 80 percent. Because
the water quality problems in lower Green Bay Include
not only high phosphorus but also high BOD and turbi-
dity, the removal of 80 percent of phosphorus from the
wastewater discharged into the tributaries of southern
Green Bay will produce little improvement of water
quality in the southern part of the Bay. On the other
hand, the removal of 80 percent of phosphorus from
waste water sources is justified in order to protect
Lake Michigan from further water quality deterioration
526
-------
Srinath, E.G. and R.C. Loehr.
Ammonia Disorption by Diffused Aeration.
JWPCF. 46(8):1939-1957. August 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, diffused aeration.
Abstract:
The mathematical relationships described in this paper
are useful for determining the rates of ammonia desorp-
tion under a variety of conditions. Such information
is useful in assessing performance of systems in which
ammonia is removed either intentionally or uninten-
tionally. In many natural systems, ammonia is lost
as a result of other processes. Examples would be
losses from aerated biological treatment systems, swift
streams, impoundments, aerated odor control systems,
and waste storage units.
The rate of diffusion of ammonia from its aqueous
solution into a steady flow of air is influenced by
pH, temperature, and viscosity, as well as other
variables. Implicit in the relationships that have
been presented is the assumption that the change in
ammonia concentration of a wastewater is caused only
by ammonia desorption. A direct application of these
relationships to predict ammonia concentrations in the
effluents would not be possible in treatment systems
in which the organic nitrogen is undergoing rapid
transformations, resulting in a steady increase in
ammonia concentration of the liquid, while ammonia
desorption is also occurring simultaneously. It also
would not be possible in systems where simultaneous
ammonia desorption and ammonia oxidation are occurring.
In such cases, modifications of the relationships should
be explored.
Nitrogen balances can now be better evaluated because
the equations in this paper permit better estimates of
the ammonia lost from artificial and natural aerated
systems. With the amount of ammonia volatilized known,
one can better estimate its effect on the local environ-
ment.
Detailed equations have been developed to determine the
ammonia desorption coefficient, KQ, under quiescent and
aerated conditions. Other equations were developed to
determine the quantity of ammonia lost under a variety
527
-------
of environmental conditions. All equations were verified
in both laboratory and pilot-plant scale experiments.
The KQ values determined in these studies ranged from
0.004 to 0.8/hr. depending on process conditions.
528
-------
Staley, I.E. and R.R. Colwell.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Reassociation among Members of the
Genus Vibrio.
International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 23(4):
316-332. October 1973.
Key Words: viruses, Vibro cholerae, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Although application of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
reassociation techniques to the classification of
vibrios has only recently been employed and, hence,
complete data are unavailable, several generalizations
regarding the results of such studies can be made.
(i) Vibrio cholerae, V_. anguil la rum, and V_. parahaemoly-
ticus show intraspecies polynucl eotide sequence varia-
tion from 80 to 100% and interspecies relatedness of
approximately 20 to 30%. V_. paranaemolyticus shows
similar intraspecies variation and interspecies related-
ness with \L_ cholerae and V_. anguillarum, but consider-
ably higher (60 to 70%) levels of relatedness to
V_. a! ginolyticus. It is not possible, at the present
time, to place great reliance on other strain or species
relatedness for the vibrios, (ii) Very little or no
polynucleotide sequence relationship has been demon-
strated between members of the genus Vibrio and the
genera Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Z.ymomonas, Cytophaga,
and Escherichia. (iii) Based on the results of the
majority of the reciprocal reactions presented, there
appears to be no significant influence of genome size
on DNA reassociation determinations within the genus
Vibrio. Nonpathogenic marine vibrios constitute a
particularly heterogeneous group with, as yet, no
well-defined species.
529
-------
Staley, I.E. and R.R. Colwell .
Polynucleotide Sequence Relationships among Japanese and
American Strains of Vibrio parahaemolyticus.
Journal of Bacteriology. 114(3):916-927 . June 1973.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Polynucleotide sequence relationships between two
reference Vibrio parahaemolyticus strains isolated
from Japanese and American gastroenterities patients
were investigated by use of P-DNA/DNA reassociation
in free solution. In addition, these strains were
similarly compared with 22 other strains of estuarine
and marine vibrios, including 11 strains previously
identified as V_. parahaemolyticus (2 Japanese,
1 of unknown location, and 8 American strains obtained
from diverse geographical locations and sources in
North America), 3 strains of V^ a! ginolyticus, and 8
of Vibrio spp. Deoxyri bonucleic acid (DMA) from the
Japanese and American gastroenteritis isolates
showed high relative levels of intraspecific duplex
formation (92 to 93%) when reassociated, recipro-
cally, at 60 C. Heterologous DNA duplexes exhibited
thermal elution midpoint Tm(e) values comparable to
those obtained from homologous duplexes (88.0) when
thermally eluted from hydroxyapatite, thus indicating
high base-pair complementarity. Other V. parahae-
molyticus strains showed DNA homologies of 85% or
greater, with correspondingly high Tm(e) values (86.0
to 88.0) for the heteroduplexes formed. DNA of two
of three V_. alginolyticus strains (ATCC 17749 and
166-70) was 55 to 60% homologous to reference
V_. parahaemolyticus DNA preparations; Vibrio sp. strain
5144 (ori ginally classified as V^. parahaemolyticus
biotype 2 and subsequently as \L alginolyticus strain
5144) showed only 24 to 26% DNA homology to the same
reference DNA. These data provide evidence that
Vibrio sp. strain 5144 is genetically distinct from
the other V_. al ginolyticus strains used in this study,
Three bioluminescent strains thought to be closely
related to V_. parahaemolyticus demonstrated only 24 to
31% DNA homology to the reference V_. parahaemolyticus
DNA. These data firmly establish the existence in
some Atlantic and Gulf Coast estuaried of organisms
genetically very similar to V_. parahaemolyticus, the
causative agent of "shirasu" food poisoning in Japan.
530
-------
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater,
13th Edition.
American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., 1971. 874p,
Abstract:
This reference discusses detailed scientific procedures
for virtually every analytical test that is utilized in
examining both water and wastewater.
531
-------
Stander, F.J. and L.R.J. Van Vuuren.
The Reclamation of Potable Water from Wastewater.
JWPCF. 4j_(3):355-365. March 1969.
Key Words: lead, manganese, copper, zinc, chlorides,
nitrates, BOD, COD, effluent characteristics,
fi1tration.
Abstract:
The most recent results of research by the National
Institute for Water Research, South African Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research with respect to potable
water reclamation from humus tank effluent and primarily
clarified wastewater are presented.
Experimental results showed that the advanced physical-
chemical treatment process described can produce a
water of potable quality from the final settling tank
(humus tank effluent) and primary clarified wastewater at
costs of marginally the same order. The two routes of
treatment differ in that the nitrate nitrogen is totally
absent when primary clarified wastewater is treated, and
when it is clarified to the recarbonation/stabi1ization
stage, treatment of primary clarified wastewater offers the
possibility of eliminating double biological filtrated results
532
-------
Stanford, G.B. and R. Tuburan.
Morbidity Risk Factors from Spray Irrigation with Treated
Wastewaters.
In: Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber -
Proceedings. EPA-660/2-74-041, Robert S.Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory, Ada, Oklahoma, June 1974. pp. 56-64.
Key Words: biological contaminants, ponding/land
application, agriculture.
Abstract:
This review of the literature has not yet provided an
instance in which satisfactory evidence is given that
a disease incident has arisen from using treated sewage
products. By treated. it is meant that the evidence
provided shows that during the days preceding the
incident: the treatment plant was operating within
design capacity; that the unit processes in that treat-
ment plant were being operated properly and were func-
tioning properly; and that the effluent quality was
within the criteria required. In other words, it is
suggested that before an incident can justifiably be
attributed to the use of treated waste waters, it must
be shown that those wastewaters were being fully and
properly treated during the period of time which could
have been implicated. Until that has been demonstrated
one would be calling in question not the health risks
of using these materials, but the effectiveness of the
design and the operation of that plant. And that
demonstration should not be difficult in the future,
even though it may, on occasion, have been so in the
past.
533
-------
Starkey, R.O., Jr., M.E. Kuh, A.E. Binks, and K.K. Jain.
An Investigation of Ion Removal from Water and Wastewater.
General Electric Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
August 1973. 129p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 158).
Key Words: phosphates, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, total
dissolved solids, fluorides, chemical treatment,
adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
An attempt was made to compare the effectiveness of
chlorination and ozonation on the removal of a variety
of organic compounds from solutions. Both ozone and
chlorine concentrations were measured using the ortho-
tolidine-manganese sulfate (OTM) method; concentrations
were measured spectrophotometrically, and thin-layer
and gas-liquid chromatography were used to evaluate
oxidation products and concentrations. Both chlorine
and ozone are effective but vary greatly in their
activity and specific reactions. C'hlorine at 3 times
cone, was not effective against amino acid proline,"
p. dioxane, diphenylamine, guanidine, n-hexane, phenol,
and pyridine. Ozone was very destructive to the fatty
acids levulinic, linoleic and oleic acids. This
explains a part of ozone germicide! activity.
534
-------
Stasiuk, W.N., Or., L.J. Hitling, and W.W. Shuster.
Nitrogen Removal by Catalyst-aided Breakpoint Chiorination.
JWPCF. £6(8):1974-1983. August 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, chlorination .
Abstract:
1. Ammonia nitrogen removals of 100 percent can be
achieved by chlorination followed by activated carbon,
although some residual nitrate nitrogen is formed.
2. Detention time before carbon contact need only be
seconds after mixing.
3. Carbon contact times of 10 min are sufficient to
remove chlorine residuals to less than 1 mg/1 for
pH 7.9 or 1 ess.
4. Partial removals are possible, the amount varying
with pH and C1 : N ratio.
5. Chlorine requirements for ammonia removal may be
accounted for by multiplying tne ammonia nitrogen not
converted to nitrate by 7.6, the nitrate nitrogen
formed by 20.3, and the trichloramine nitrogen by 15.2.
6. Nitrogen was identified as the only gaseous end
product of the reaction.
7. The significant breakpoint reaction itself requires
a C1:N ratio of 7.6:1. Higher ratios are caused by the
formation of nitrate and trichloramine.
8. It is suggested that the breakpoint chlorination
reaction is catalyzed by activated carbon.
535
-------
"State of the Art" Review of Health Aspects of Wastewater
Reclamation for Groundwater Recharge.
State of
November
California Water
1975. 240p.
Resources Control Board , Sacramento
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Wastewater contaminants and their effect on public
health are extensively reviewed. The contaminants
include biological contaminants (bacteria, parasites,
viruses, indicator organisms, dose-response considera-
tions) and chemical contaminants (organic, inorganic,
low-level effects, antagonism and synergism).
536
-------
Steer, A.G., J.H. Nell, and S.G. Wiechers.
A Modification of the Allen and Ridley Technique for the
Recovery of Ascar.is lumbricoides Ova from Municipal Compost.
Water Research. 8.:851-853. 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
The Allen and Ridley method for the isolation of parasitic
ova from sewage sludge was modified by the addition on
an anionic detergent to an increased test sample. This
method was equally efficient for counting Ascaris lumbri-
coides ova in raw sludge and in various mixtures of
sludge and compost. The modified method yielded consi-
derably higher counts for all samples studied than the
original method.
537
-------
Stern, G.
Pasteurization of Liquid Digested Sludge.
Proceedings of the National Conference on Municipal Sludge
Management, pp. 163-169. June 11-13, 1974.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, parasitic worms, protozoa,
salmonella, jEscherichia col i, coliTorms, myco-
bacterium, heat treatment, effluent characteristics,
Abstract:
1. Pasteurizing at 70°C (158°F) for 30 to 60 minutes
destroys pathogens in digested liquid sludge.
2. Sufficient methane gas is produced by anaerobic
digestion for the fuel needed to pasteurize digested
liquid sludge.
3. Direct steam injection is more efficient than indirect
heat transfer for pasteurizing liquid sludge.
4. Thick, unstirred sludge pockets must be avoided for
effective pasteurization.
5. Small treatment plants can pasteurize liquid digested
sludge at reasonable costs.
6. After pasteurization, liquid sludge needs to be
cooled to only 60 C (140 F) before it is sprayed on
grass.
538
-------
Stevenson, A.M.
Bathing Water Quality and Health. Ill: Coastal Water.
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 1976. 145p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-215 332).
Key Words: epidemiology, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This article discusses the correlation between illness
incidence and bathing in waters of a particular bacterial
quality. There was 100 percent higher illness incidence
in the group under 10 years of age than for those over
10 years of age. Eye, ear, nose, and throat ailments
represent more than half of the overall illness incidence
539
-------
Stevenson, F.J. and M.S. Ardakani.
Organic Matter Reactions Involving Micronutrients in Soils.
I_n_: Micronutrients in Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer, ed.
Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972.
pp. 79-114.
Key Words: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, ponding/
land application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
The relationship between micronutrients and organic
constituents in soil is essentially an unexplored
area of soil science. Organic substances play a signi-
ficant role in the solution and transport of metal
ions to plant roots but practically nothing is known
of the compounds involved or of the factors affecting
their synthesis and destruction under natural soil
conditions. It is well known that organic colloids
function as a "sink" for metal ions, but very little
information is available regarding the proportion of
the micronutrients in soil that occurs in insoluble
combinations with organic matter or of the factors
affecting the availability of the bound nutrients to
plants and microorganisms. The need for accurate and
reliable methods for determining stability constants
of metal complexes with humic and fulvic acids requires
little elaboration.
There can be little doubt but that the reactions of
micronutrients in soil will never be fully understood
until more is known concerning the structures of humic
and fulvic acids. Other deserving areas of research
include the competitive reaction between organic matter
and clay for metal ions, as well as between soluble and
insoluble organic ligands. Finally, the biodynamic
nature of micronutrient transformations requires more
diligent attention.
540
-------
Stewart, B.A., F.G. Viets, Jr., G.I. Hutchinson, and W.D. Kemper,
Nitrate and Other Water Pollutants under Fields and Feedlots.
Environmental Science and Technology. 1(9):736-739.
September 1967.
Key Words: nitrates, ammonia, groundwater.
Abstract:
Data presented show that nitrate is moving through the
soil and into the ground water supply under both feed-
lots and irrigated fields in crops, excluding alfalfa.
Although much larger amounts of nitrate are present
under feedlots per unit area, indications are that
irrigated lands are contributing more total nitrate
to the ground water. The ratio of irrigated land to
that in feedlots for the study area is approximately
200 to 1. Feedlots, however, are usually located near
the homestead and may have a pronounced effect on the
water quality from domestic wells. The findings that
water under feedlots frequently contained ammonium (or
a compound releasing ammonium) and organic carbon,
and had a very offensive odor cause further concern
about the effect of feedlots on underground water
supplies.
541
-------
Stobbe, H. and R. Stieglitz.
Fundamental Remarks on the Problem of Occupatlonally Caused
Leukemias.
Pesticide Abstracts. 75-0812. 1975.
Key Words: viruses, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Etiological factors involved in the genesis of pre-
leukemic states and occupational leukemia, and outlines
of the mechanism of action of leukemogenic agents are
reviewed. Drugs and chemicals causing aplastic anemia
(pamyelophthisis) include such preparations as chloram-
phenicol, acetolamides, methylphenylhydantoln, phenyl-
butazone, gold preparations, thyrostatic drugs, and
benzene as well as pesticides such as organochlorine
compounds (DDT, lindane), and organophosphorus com-
pounds in inhalatory or cutaneous exposure. Exogenous
leukemogenic agents such as pesticides are considered
to be contributory etiological factors which activate
a latent leukemia virus in the corresponding cells.
542
-------
Stone, R.
Sewage Treatment System Odors and Air Pollutants.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE. 96
(SA4):905-909. August 1970.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
Odors and air pollutants can no longer be accepted as
satisfactory parts of normal sewerage collection and
treatment systems. Odor can be controlled by:
(1) Waste pre-treatment at the point of generation;
(2) good sewer and plant design;
(3) good sewer and plant maintenance;
(4) enclosure of facilities;
(5) positive methods for removal of odors
by ventilation systems;
(6) odor treatment by activated carbon adsorption; and
(7) other chemical treatment by biochemical, chemical
or combustion methodologies. Different air
pollutants such as particulate matter can be
reduced by appropriate absorption or mechnical
equipment.
543
-------
Stone, R. and H. Smallwood.
Intermedia Aspects of A1r and Water Pollution Control.
Ralph Stone and Company, Los Angeles, California, 1973.
368p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-224 812).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, phosphates, nitrates,
heavy metals, viruses, bacteria, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
This publication gives the basic information for inter-
media transfer from municipal treatment plant systems.
544
-------
Stoveken, J. and T. Sproston.
Ozone and Chlorine Degradation of Wastewater Pollutants.
University of Vermont, Burlington, Water Resources Research
Center, June 1974. 8p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-238 365).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination, ozonation.
Abstract:
Three standardized techniques (capillary membrane dialysis,
alumina adsorption, alum/polyelectrolyte•coagulation) have
been compared under laboratory conditions to determine
their relative effectiveness in removing a broad spectrum
of nutrients, cations, and anions from freshly collected
samples of stream water and wastewater effluent (secondary
and tertiary). Of these alumina adsorption was highly
effective in removal of phosphorus, inorganic carbon, as
well as most cations with concomitant reduction of specific
conductance and hardness. High Kjeldahl and ammonia nitro-
gen removal efficiencies of alumina were only observed in
samples of wastewater in which pre-treatment concentrations
were relatively high. Dialysis occupied an intermediate
position in respect to cation removal but produced results
equivalent to alumina adsorption in respect to inorganic
carbon. .Superiority of dialysis in removal of sodium,
potassium, chloride, nitrate-nitrite, boron, and dissolved
solids is reported. Alum/polyelectrolyte (Betz no, 1150)
proved to be effective in removing phosphorus from all
waters tested, but was highly ineffective in respect to all
other parameters tested.
545
-------
Stover, E,L. and D.F. Klncannon.
One- Versus Two-Stage Nitrification in the Activated Sludge
Proces.s.
JWPCF. 48.(4):645-651. April 1976.
Key Words: ammonia, COD, total organic carbon, nitrates,
nitrites, activated sludge, filtration.
Abstract:
Acceptable nitrification may be achieved by both the one-
and two-stage processes. Each process has its own advan-
tages and disadvantages, and these must be considered when
one is making a final decision on which process to select.
546
-------
Stover, R.C., I.E. Sommers, and D.J. S1lv1era.
Evaluation of Metals in Wastewater Sludge.
JWPCF. £8(9):2165-2175. September 1976.
Key Words: lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, nickel.
Abstract:
The results obtained from the fractlonatlon of Pb, Cu,
Zn, Cd, and N1 in wastewater sludge Indicate that sludges
contain a wide variety of sites capable of metal retention.
Retention mechanisms include ion exchange, sorption, che-
lation, and precipitation. Metal retention was found to
be highly variable, depending on the chemical properties
of sludge and on the nature of the metal in question.
Based on the authors' data obtained from the proposed
procedure for fractionating metals by sequential extrac-
tions, the ranking of different forms of Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd,
and N1 in wastewater sludge is as follows:
Cu: sulfides > carbonates > organic
bound = adsorbed> exchangeable
Zn: organic bound> carbonates> sul-
fides > adsorbed > exchangeable
Pb: carbonates > organic bound > sul-
fides > adsorbed exchangeable
Ni: carbonates >organic bound > ex-
changeable > adsorbed > sulfides
Cd: carbonates >sulfides >organic
bound >adsorbed = exchangeable.
547
-------
Stringer, R. and C.W. Kruse'.
Amoebic Cysticidal Properties of Halogens in Water.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
97.(SA6):801-811. December 1971.
Key Words: protozoa, chlorination , iodine treatment.
Abstract:
A new bioassay was developed for the purpose of measuring
the amoebic cysticidal properties of concentrations of
iodine and free and combined chlorine. The bioassay system
was based on a direct enumeration of surviving cysts, as
determined by the ability of the amoeba to excyst, leaving
behind an easily recognized empty cyst wall. The technique
reports survival in percent of total cysts exposed, which,
when corrected for control gives valid data for studying
the dynamics of disinfection.
The results of these experiments have practical applications
in two areas: 1) in public water treatment facilities,
the evidence shows that cysts are not likely to survive
where prechlorination to a free residual is practiced;
2) disinfection alone should not be relied upon for
amoebic cyst kill in small volumes of drinking water for
temporary or emergency situations. Iodide would be the
cysticide of choice; the globaline tablet which is
buffered to lower the pH of iodine-water solution, is the
best emergency disinfectant for small canteen volume supplies
548
-------
Stringer, R. and C. W. Kruse.
Amoebic Cysticidal Properties of Halogens in Water.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
19_(EE2):156-159. April 1977.
Key Words: viruses, protozoa, iodine treatment.
Abstract:
This article is a discussion of the effect on pH of
cyst and virus inactivation in iodine systems.
549
-------
Stukenberg, J.R.
Biological-Chemical Wastewater Treatment.
OWPCF. 43.(9):1791-1806. September 1971.
Key Words: BOD, phosphates, activated sludge, chemical treat-
ment.
Abstract:
A combination HRAS-lime coagulation process was tested
in the laboratory and in the field for approximately 1 yr.
Success of the system depended principally on success of the
biological system, as competence in much of the overall
process has already been developed. When operating on an
average raw wastewater BOD of approximately 140 mg/1, with
2.5 hr aeration, HRAS followed by lime coagulation produced
an average effluent BOD of 4.3 mg/1. Should the HRAS-lime
coagulation system follow primary treatment, an effluent
quality of 4 mg/1 BOD may be expected to result from in-
fluent BOD as great as 230 mg/1.
The basic need for the HRAS-chemical coagulation of waste-
water is threefold: (a) to provide an effluent quality
superior to conventional secondary effluent in terms of
organic and nutrient removal, (b) to insure consistent
effluent quality, and (c) to provide treatment at a cost
less than that of conventional tertiary treatment. Pilot
data and preliminary cost estimates confirm the ability
of HRAS-lime coagulation to fill these needs. Study of
the HRAS system on a field pilot scale demonstrated the
ability of HRAS to produce a low soluble BOD effluent with
aeration detention as low as 1.5 hr. In addition, the
HRAS system proved to be unaffected by hydraulic or organic
surges, and successful operation was not dependent on the
settleabi1ity of the mixed liquor. Moreover, the total
oxygen demand of the system was similar to that of conven-
tional activated sludge systems.
Wasting of excess biological sludge in the effluent of the
HRAS was found to be compatible with the chemical coagula-
tion step, thus reducing the number of waste sludge streams
to be handled later. Chemical coagulation with lime was
demonstrated to be relatively independent of HRAS effluent
SS, phosphate, and color content of the effluent. Moreover,
recalcining and recycling of the lime sludge seemed to be
advantageous to the settling and thickening properties
of the sludge.
The merits of the HRAS-lime coagulation include: (a) rela-
tively high effluent quality with moderate cost; Cb) sta-
bility of operation with a minimum BOD reduction of 70 per-
550
-------
cent guaranteed by the chemical coagulation step alone;
(c) comparatively simple operation; (d) flexibility in
that straight chemical treatment or biological-chemical
treatment may be selected with a further option of adding
activated carbon adsorption, and (e) HRAS chemical coagu-
lation, when applied to «n existing activated sludge
plant, makes maximum and economical use of existing facili
ties. ' ••
551
-------
Stukenberg, J.R.
Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment Using a Coagulation-
Adsorption Process.
JWPCF. 47.(2):338-353. February 1975.
Key Words: BOD, COD, suspended solids, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
A physical-chemical treatment process was developed for
the treatment of wastes unsuited for biological treatment.
The process consists of the simultaneous chemical coagu-
lation of wastewater and the contacting of the wastewater
with powdered activated carbon. In the development of
the process, the effect of pH and the possible interference
of SS with activated carbon adsorption efficiency were
investi gated.
The powdered activated carbon adsorption efficiency was
found to be essentially the same at the pH values estab-
lished by alum and lime coagulation.(6.0 to 6.5 for alum
and 10.5 to 11.0 for lime). The maximum carbon adsorption
efficiency was observed at a pH value of 4.0. The SS
present in domestic wastewater and those resulting from
the coagulation process did not seem to affect the carbon
adsorption efficiency.
The efficiency of the physical-chemical treatment process
when it was applied to domestic wastewater was determined
from a series of jar test studies followed by pilot plant
studies. The jar tests indicated that as much as 96 percent
BOD removal and 98 percent COD removal could be accomplish-
ed by the treatment process. The results from the opera-
tion of a 10-gpm (0.631-1/sec) pilot unit indicated that
the combined coagulation-adsorption process could accom-
plish a 78 percent reduction of raw wastewater COD, whereas
coagulation alone could accomplish only 60 percent COD re-
moval. Operation of a 60-gpm (3.786-1/sec) unit with lime
and carbon reduced the BOD and COD concentrations of raw
wastewater by 86 and 88 percent, respectively. The SS
reduction averaged 95 percent. The results from operating
the unit with alum and carbon were 91,5 and 92 percent re-
ductions of BOD and COD, respectively. The SS removal
averaged 98 percent.
The 60-gpm (3.786-1/sec) pilot plant design was adopted
for the production of packaged physical-chemical treatment
plants ranging in size from 12,000 gpd (45.4 cu m/day) to
75,000 gpd (283.9 cu m/day). Jar tests conducted during
the operation of the pilot plant indicated that the perform-
ance of the treatment process could be predicted by jar test
552
-------
analysis of the wastewater. The coagulant dosage may be
determined by a procedure similar to the determination of
a carbon adsorption isotherm.
Although the treatment plant design was proven capable
of operating with a carbon dosage of 600 mg/1 , a practical
upper limit of carbon dosage is closer to 300 mg/1. The
adsorption efficiency of the powdered carbon was found to
approach a maximum value of 0.13 mg COD removed/mg carbon.
Carbon dosages in excess of 300 mg/1 accomplished little
additional BOD and COD removal. In addition, the cost of
powdered carbon does not favor its excessive use. The
cost of carbon alone at a 300 mg/1 dosage rate is $0.09
to $0.21/1,000 gal ($0.02 to $0.06/cu m) treated.
Waste sludge resulting from the process, whether operated
with alum and carbon or lime and carbon, was found to
thicken to 3 to 6 percent solids concentration within 6 hr
of gravity settling. Operation of the treatment plant
with lime and carbon resulted in approximately 12-hr
filter runs and a backwash wastewater volume equal to 5 per-
cent of the influent flow. Operation with alum and carbon
resulted in 8-hr filter runs and a backwash wastewater
volume equal to 7.5 percent of the influent flow.
553
-------
Stumm, W. and J.J. Morgan.
Aquatic Chemistry: an Introduction Emphasizing Chemical
Equilibria in Natural Waters.
Wiley-Interscience, New York. 1970. 583p.
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, germanium,
iron, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel,
selenium, thorium, tin, uranium, zinc, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This is a reference book on aquatic chemistry.
554
-------
Stumm-Zollinger, E. and G.M. Fair.
Biodegradation of Steroid Hormones.
JWPCF. 37.(11):1506-1510. November 1965.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, direct contact, surface water
(fresh).
Abstract:
Steroid hormones generally find their way into wastewaters
and with them into natural surface and underground waters
through urine. Under North American conditions, their
normal concentration in municipal wastewaters is expected
to be small; under periurban and advanced rural conditions,
concentrations well may be doubled and in more primitive
rural situations (pit privies and shallow wells) concentra-
tions may become relatively high.
Neverthless, it is our responsibility to learn in what
amounts steroid hormones may occur in our drinking waters
under the most unfavorable conditions. To this purpose,
we must find out to what extent, if any, the steroid hor-
mones are biodegradable in the normal history of waste-
waters and receiving bodies of water that may eventually
supply drinking water to households.
The preliminary tests described in this paper suggest that
estrogens appear to be biodegraded completely but at a slow
rate at microbial densities similar to those in activated
sludge, and in the presence of additional sources of carbon
(nutrient broth, for example).
555
-------
Sturm, M. and N.N. Hatch.
The Sarasota Phosphate Removal Project.
Water and Sewage Works. JJ1(3):39-40, 42-43, 59. March 1974.
Key Words: phosphates, activated sludge, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
A phosphate removal system was developed for the City of
Sarasota, Florida to treat an average wastewater flow
of 7 mgd at an average phosphate concentration of 10 mg/1
(PO^-P). The system consisted of chemical-biological
treatment using copperas to precipitate the phosphate,
and a polyelectrolyte as a coagulation aid and sludge
conditioner. Good phosphate removal was achieved using a
proportional iron feed and keeping the MLSS in the aera-
tion tanks around 2500 mg/1.
556
-------
Sullivan, D.L.
Wastewater for Golf Course Irrigation.
Water and Sewage Works. U_7 (5) : 153-158 . May 1970.
Key Words: BOD, nitrates, phosphates, viruses, drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
This paper is a general discussion on the transmission
of pathogens by secondary reuse of wastewater.
557
-------
Sullivan, R.H.
Problems of Combined Sewer Facilities and Overflows.
JWPCF. 41_(1):113-121. January 1969.
Key Words: combined municipal and/or storm system.
Abstract:
The survey defined the extent of the combined sewer
problem in terms of population and area served, and
documented local conditions which bear on the pollution
from combined sewer overflows. Research also has been
conducted to determine sources of pollution of storm
water discharges.
The problems of untreated or inadequately treated
sanitary wastewater and industrial wastes still exist
and should be given prompt attention. However, if the
total problem is considered, controlling and/or treating
secondary sources of pollution such as combined sewer over-
flows and storm water discharges also must be planned.
Sewer separation cannot be recommended as the only method
of handling the combined sewer overflow problem. Solution
of the pollution problem will come only as each juris-
diction evaluates its local situation and determines the
combination of methods which will result in the desired
level of pollution reduction at the lowest possible cost,
the least disruption to the economy, and convenience
of urban existence. No easy, inexpensive answers are
available.
558
-------
Summers, W.K. and Z. Spiegel.
Ground Water Pollution: A Bibliography.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Key Words:
1975. 94p
nitrates, viruses, pesticides, herbicides,
groundwater, direct contact (air).
Abstract:
This partially annotated bibliography is the product
of a concentrated literature search particularly in the
areas of ground water contamination by nitrates, heavy
metals, pesticides and herbicides. The impact of urbani-
zation and the effects of solid waste disposal, animal
wastes and petroleum products on ground water quality are
covered in the more than 400 entries.
559
-------
Suner, J. and J. Pino! .
Coliform Bacteriophages and Marine Water Contamination.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1966(3) : 105-120 .
Key Words: bacteria, Escherichia coli, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The seawater surrounding the beaches and port of Barcelona
is highly contaminated by bacteria of fecal origin because
the sewage outfalls of the city discharge directly into
the sea at those points. The discharges provoke and con-
stantly maintain the pollution.
The contamination is noteworthy all along the beaches. It
appears not only close to the shore but also well into the
sea over an extensive area. It extends so far that in
order to obtain a sample of relatively clean seawater one
must go at least 6 km from the shore.
The contamination is indicated as a result of the counts
made of the total bacteria capable of growing in con-
ventional culture medium placed in an oven at 37°C and a
reading taken at 24 hr, and of using the more significant
method of counting the _E. col i , which is a species of un-
doubted fecal origin. These were the direct methods used
to make a quantitative determination of the bacteria as
mentioned in this paper.
On the other hand, it was decided to examine the presence
of bacteriophages of the coliform group in the contaminated
seawater as otherinvestigators have done. This has given
positive and possibly important results^ The sensitive
bacterium used for the detection of the bacteriophages
was a strain of E_0 co 1 i called C-5 obtained from the con-
taminated seawater. This strain of £_. coj i is found
constantly in samples of water taken in the sewage outfalls
as well as in the seawater surrounding the beaches and in
the Port.
The strain C-5 is not the most plentiful in the sewage
water discharges but it always is found there. On the
other hand, it does seem to be the predominant strain
to be found in the contaminated seawater, and this pre-
dominance increases as examination is made at points
farther from the mouths of the outfalls. It is not patho-
genic and it may be manipulated quite easily and simply
for this reason. Besides this, the C-5 strain is highly
560
-------
sensitive to the action of the group bacteriophages, giving
zones of complete lysis or confluent lysis and easy to read
on nutritive agar plates.
From the qualitative point of view these experiments seem
to show that the discovery of bacterial contamination of
water by the indirect method of determining the specific
bacteriophages might be in itself of great utility in
giving an index. However, the tests carried out thus far
seem to indicate that, while this indirect method would
not be very useful in the search for such an easily de-
tected species as JE. col i, it would be sufficiently effec-
tive in the case of a study of pathogenic species that
are difficult to isolate, such as salmonella.
On the other hand, the quantitative determinations obtained
from parallel examination of _E. col i and group bacterio-
phages have provided results that the authors accept as
satisfactory and even, in some cases, as unforeseen. First,
in all samples of water containing E. coli, the presence
of bacteriophages of its group has Keen detected. Second,
the absence of _E_. col i in other samples has coincided with
an absence of bacteriophages.
This fact could be explained if the sensitive species
used for the detection of the bacteriophages were lysogenic,
but several tests made with strain C-5 gave a negative
result. It has not been possible for the authors to show
the existence of lysogenia and prophages in this strain.
Accordingly, there must be some other explanation which re-
mains unknown at present.
Finally, there is one other point which should be noted and
which was unexpected, namely, the numerical relationship
between the E.. co 1 i and the bacteriophages in the contamin-
ated seawater. In nearly all the samples, the E_. col i
count and that of the bacteriophages gave almost the same
figures or, at least, very similar figures. This fact
does not seem to fit in with the theory, and yet the num-
ber of samples of water examined is so great that the
authors feel that it is not a mere coincidence.
561
-------
Susag, R.H.
BOD Reduction by Chlorination.
JWPCF. 40.(11) :R434-R444. November 1968.
Key Words: BOD, COD, chlorination.
Abstract:
This article discusses BOD removal by Chlorination
562
-------
Sutherland, J.C., J.H. Cooley, D.G. Neary, and D.H. Yuri.
Irrigation of Trees and Crops with Sewage Stabilization Pond
Effluent in Southern Michigan.
In: Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber - Pro-
ceedings. EPA-660/2-74-041j Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory, Ada, Oklahoma, June 1974. pp. 295-313.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, crops, ponding/land
application.
Abstract:
Corn in droughty, infertile soil showed excellent response
to irrigation with stabilized sewage wastewater.
The use of pond stabilized sewage wastewater for irriga-
tion of hardwood and conifer plantings in southern Michi-
gan produced several distinct results after two years of
treatment.
The use of wastewater for the irrigation of hardwood cut-
tings and seedlings produced considerable increases in
survival and height growth.
563
-------
Button, P.M.
Efficacy of Biological Nitrification.
JWPCF. 47(11 ):2665-2673. November 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, nitrification/denitrification.
Abstract:
From the results obtained in this investigation, it may
be inferred that:
1. Under pseudo steady-state condition, separate and
combined sludge systems operated for carbon removal and
nitrification of a municipal wastewater will remove equal
amounts of filterable total Kjeldahl nitrogen at equal
system SRT's;
2. Nitrification in combined sludge systems,
flow conditions, is independent of the mixing
reactor configuration;
under steady
regime or
3. The nitrification rate is more temperature sensitive
than the rates for organic removal. In both combined and
separate sludge systems, the temperature sensitivity de-
creases with increasing SRT. In a separate sludge system,
in order to achieve complete nitrification at temperatures
approaching 5oc, a minimum system SRT of 10 days is neces-
sary; and
4. The addition of inorganic chemicals to a nitrifying
activated sludge plant at dosages that achieved 1 mg/1
effluent total phosphorus concentrations seems to have no
detrimental effect on the nitrification rate.
564
-------
Sutton, P.M., K.L. Murphy, B.E. Jank, and B.A. Monoghan.
Efficacy of Biological Nitrification.
Presented at the 47th Annual Conference of the Water Pollution
Control Federation, Denver, Colorado, October 1974. 25p.
Key Words: ammonia, phosphates, nitrification/denitrification ,
chemical treatment, activated sludge.
Abstract:
One phase of an intensive biological nitrification/denitri-
fication pilot plant program being conducted at the
Wastewater Technology Centre, Burlington, Ontario, included
the evaluation of combined sludge and separate sludge,
carbon removal-nitrification systems for treatment of muni-
cipal waste water. The specific alternative systems com-
pared were:
1. single-stage combined,
2. two-stage combined, and
3. two-stage separate sludge systems.
Parallel reactor systems provided a sensitive assessment
of any two alternatives during each experimental run.
Variable speed feed pumps and a temperature controller
allowed the reactors to be operated over a range of
loading conditions and temperatures.
In each alternative, the degree of nitrification achieved
was found to be dependent on the sludge age or solids
retention time (SRT) of the system. At equal system sludge
ages, little difference in ammonium removal was evident
when the separate sludge alternative was compared with the
combined sludge alternatives. In each system, the nitri-
fication rate was found to be more temperature sensitive
than the rates for organic carbon removal particularly at
lower temperatures. In order to achieve complete nitri-
fication at temperatures approaching 5°C, a minimum system
SRT of 10 days appears necessary regardless of the alterna-
tive selected.
In addition to the combined and separate sludge comparative
study, the effects on nitrification of chemical addition
for phosphorus removal were determined through operation
of a 20 Igpm extended aeration pilot plant. Chemical
addition included alum and ferric chloride. No detrimental
effect on nitrification was evident at chemical addition
rates successful at achieving over 90%, total phosphorous
removal.
565
-------
Button, P.M., K.L. Murphy, and R.N. Dawson.
Low-Temperature Biological DenltrlfIcation of Wastewater.
OWPCF. 41(1}:122-134. January 1975.
Key Words: suspended solids, nitrates, nitrites,
n1tr1ficat1on/den1tr1f1cat1on.
Abstract:
The principal purpose of the study was to determine
the rate of denltr1f1cat1on under various conditions
of loading and temperature 1n order to ascertain the
practicality of the biological denltrlf1cat1on process.
This was accomplished by using an experimental design
at five levels of temperature and two levels of sludge
age 1n the stirred tank reactor. With the packed columns
five detention times were used. This design meant that
continuous operating data could not be obtained over
extended periods at any given set of operating conditions
The results of the pilot plant study Indicate the feasi-
bility of biological denitr1fication even at temperatures
as low as 5°C with either a packed column or a stirred
tank system. Previous studies by Dawson and Murphy
indicated that denltrification effectively ceased at 3°C.
566
-------
Sutton, P.M., K.L. Murphy, and B.E. Jank.
Nitrogen Control: A Basis for Design with Activated Sludge
Systems.
Presented at the Conference on Natrogen as a Water Pollutant,
Copenhagen, Denmark, August 1975. 16p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, activated sludge,
nitrification/denitrification.
Abstract:
With both nitrification and denitrification processes,
nitrogen incorporated in the suspended solids decreased
the overall nitrogen removal capability.
567
-------
Suzuki, T., T. Mirjama, and C. Toyama.
The Chemical Form and Bodily Distribution of Mercury in
Marine Fish.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
10:347-35:5. October 1973.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
This paper discusses various forms of mercury (organic
and Inorganic) and the bodily distribution thereof and
provides criticism of existing data. Findings Include the
fact that the biological concentration of mercury by the
muscle is related to organic mercury and the extent of
concentration 1s not large, Biological concentration in
liver and kidneys (both Inorganic and organic mercury)
is remarkably dominant.
568
-------
Swanson, C.4.. , R.E. Wing, W.M. Doane, and C.R. Russell.
Mercury Removal from Waste Water with Starch Zanthate-Catloni c
Polymer Complex.
Environmental Science and Technology. 7_:614-619. July 1973.
Key Words: mercury, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Sequential addition of starch xanthate and a catlonlc
polymer [e.g., poly(v1nylbenzyltr1methylammon1um chloride)
or polyethylen1m1ne]to a mercury (II) solution precipi-
tates both polymers and the mercury as a cohesive floe
that 1s easily removed by filtration. Some xanthate groups
on the starch backbone may form mercury (II) salts while
others react with the polycation to form a polyelectrolyte
complex. The amount of xanthate required to precipitate
the cationic polymer and mercury 1s determined by streaming
current measurement. Effectiveness of mercury removal
depends on the ratios of mercury, catlonlc polymer, and
xanthate. Residual mercury concentrations were as low as
3.8 yg/1 after single treatment of solutions that had
initial mercury (II) concentrations of 1.0 x 10^ pg/1.
Removal of mercury(II) ion from waste water by treatment
with xanthates of simple alcohols has, been proposed.
Researchers found that (ROCS2)? - Hgc + precipitates when
the mercury(II) concentration is less than that of the
xanthate, but if the mercury(II) concentration is greater,
the soluble [(RQCS2) - Hg2+]4 species is formed. Starch
xanthate is known to precipitate zinc(II) and other heavy
metals.
569
-------
Swets, D.H., L. Pratt, and C.C. Metcalf.
Thermal Sludge Conditioning in Kalamazoo, Michigan.
JWPCF. 4^(3):575-581. March 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, phosphates, heat treatment.
Abstract:
The City of Kalamazoo is well pleased with its new sludge
treatment facility and is confident that it will continue
to do an efficient and effective job of handling the sludge
production. Thermal conditioning of sludge, particularly
with partial oxidation as a part of the process, producing
a sterile end product, has significant advantages that
will dictate its broader utilization. The historic,
readily upset anaerobic sludge digestion process will
no doubt be replaced by thermal conditioning, particularly
in communities that have diverse industrial wastes.
The economic advantages of thermal sludge conditioning
over chemical conditioning were proven using sludge from
a rather complex and unique waste treatment system.
570
-------
Swlsher, R.D., T.A. TauTM , and E.J.Malec.
B1odegradat1on of NTA Metal Chelates 1n River Water.
In; Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions 1n Natural Waters
P.C. Singer, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan , 1974. pp. 237-263.
Key Words: cadmium, copper, Iron, mercury, manganese, nickel,
lead, zinc, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The present experiments show that a variety of NTA metal
chelates are biodegradable 1n river water at environ-
mentally realistic concentrations, confirming and supple-
menting the results of other workers. Thus, there 1s no
reason to expect that NTA chelates would accumulate 1n the
environment even 1f extensive amounts of NTA were used 1n
detergent formulations.
571
-------
Switzer, R.W. and J.B. Evans.
Evaluation of Selective Media for Enumeration of Group 70
Streptococci in Bovine Feces.
Applied Microbiology. 28.(6) : 1086-1087. 1975.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, bacteria, crops,1ivestock.
Abstract:
Streptococci may be the most numerous fecal bacteria
capable of aerobic growth, substantially outnumbering
the coliform bacteria (in feces). The relative sizes
of the populations of '3 species of Streptococcus may
have diagnostic value in identifying sources of fecal
pollution, but studies of the occurrence and distribution
of these species in the feces of the different animals
and in habitats or products that are subject to fecal
contamination are hampered by poor recovery values on the
media commonly used. Several types of selecting media were
evaluated by the membrane filter technique. Enterococcosel
broth seemed to be the most suitable media tested for
enumerating streptococci from bovine feces. This con-
clusion may be applicable as well to mammalian feces,
but not necessarily to food and sewage.
572
-------
Talbot, P. and R.H. Harris.
The Implications of Cancer-Causing Substances in Mississippi
River Water.
Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, D.C., November 1974. 49p.
Key Words: surface water (fresh), drinking and recreational
water, chlorination.
Abstract:
The Mississippi River rises in Minnesota and flows
southward 2350 miles to the Gulf of Mexico, draining
over 40% of the United States and part of Canada. Including
its numerous tributaries, such as the Ohio River, it is
the receptacle for a wide variety of municipal and industrial
wastes. Many of the industries, including the petroleum,
organic chemical, and coal-products industries, are known
to discharge persistent carcinogens into the Mississippi
River. In addition, chlorination of water during treatment
increases the carcinogenic burden. Consequently, these
carcinogens are imbibed by millions of Americans, as has
been documented recently by the Environmental Protection
Agency during studies on eight cities that receive drinking
water from the Mississippi River system. In Louisiana
alone, over one million people are served water from the
lower Mississippi River or its distributaries. Presumptive
epidemic!ogical evidence accumulated by the Environmental
Defense Fund with the aid of a computer-assisted statistical
model suggests a significant relationship between cancer
mortality among white males and drinking water obtained from
the Mississippi River. Neither the Environmental Protection
Agency nor state and local regulatory agencies have to date
developed adequate programs of pollution abatement or
drinking water treatment to address these problems, despite
the availability of inexpensive and effective remedial measures
573
-------
Tamura, 0. and S. Mitsui.
Relationship Between Consumption of Pesticides and Chronological
Changes in Myopia in School Children in Tokushima Prefecture.
Pesticides Abstracts. 75-1893. 1975.
Key Words: organophosphorus pesticides, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The result of a statistical and epidemiologic investi-
gation on the relationship between the chronological
change in use of organophosphorus insecticides and the
recent increase in incidence of myopia in school
children in Tokushima Prefecture was described. The
incidence of myopia was studied based on the data from
1957 to 1973, excluding 1970, on about 40,000 children
from primary and middle schools. Even for children of
the same age there was a great difference in the degree
of increase in the morbidity, especially high in 1958,
1963, 1969, and 1972, and thereafter the morbidity
was low in several consecutive years. In the year
following any year when larger amounts of organophos-
phorus insecticides were consumed the morbidity from
myopia in school children showed a rapid increase and
vice versa. Based on these findings and a report that
organophosphorus pesticide intoxication could possibly
cause myopia, it is considered that the recent increase
in myopia in school children was due, at least to a
certain extent, to chronic intoxication of organophos-
phorus insecticides.
574
-------
Tanaka, Y., H. Frank, and H.F. DeLuca.
Methylmercury as Percentage of Total Mercury in Flesh and
Viscera of Salmon and Sea Trout of Various Ages.
Science. Jj31_:567-568. August 1973.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
The proportion of methylmercury to total mercury in the
flesh of salmon (S_almo salar) 1 to 7 years old and sea
trout (Salmo o c 1 aT~land 2 years old was found to average
93 percent with a range of 81 to 98 percent, and to be
independent of the age of the fish. In salmon and sea
trout 1 and 2 years old, methylmercury constituted 26
to 67 percent of the total visceral mercury, without
age dependence.
575
-------
Tang, N.H.
Relationship Between BOD Removal and LAS Detergent Removal.
University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Water Resources
Research Institute, May 1974. 68 p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-
232 997).
Key Words: BOD, activated sludge, trickling filter.
Abstract:
Traditionally, biological process efficiency is measured
by its BOD removal. However, a period of 5 days is re-
quired to determine the BOD in wastewater. In detergent,
LAS (Linear Alkylate Sulfonate) is a basic organic ele-
ment which is readily degraded in municipal biological
processes. The fact that LAS can be rapidly determined
within 30 minutes makes its use advantageous for process
control. The results of the study indicate that BOD
removal and LAS removal in both, activated sludge and
trickling filter processes are significantly correlated.
It is very likely that the % LAS removal of a biological
process can be used to predict the % BOD removal of the
same process.
576
-------
Tanner, F.W.
Public Health Significance of Sewage Sludge When Used as a
Ferti1i zer.
Sewage Works Journal. 7^:611-617. 1935.
Key Words: my cobacteri urn, crops.
Abstract:
Longevity of pathogenic bacteria in soil is influenced
by different factors. Among the important ones are
character of the strain used, hydrogen-ion concentration
of the soil, nature of competing bacteria, amount of
moisture, penetration of light and air and others. Suf-
ficient data have been recorded in the literature to
justify the conclusion that polluted soil may infect
vegetables grown on it. Whether the problem is serious,
however, depends on many factors. Any material, there-
fore, which may contribute pathogenic bacteria to soil
becomes of considerable sanitary significance. Sewage
sludge is in this category, because sewage from which
it comes is known to contain pathogenic bacteria.
That sewage sludge should be applied with considerable
caution to land on which crops to be eaten raw are to
be grown has been recognized for many years. One
researcher, however, stated that if it is held in a sludge
digestion tank for a period of not less than 10 days,
its application to soil may be practiced without detri-
ment to public health through the possible dissemination
of vegetable-borne diseases. He suggested regulations
that would prevent delivery to farmers of sludge which
has been digested for less than 10 days. He further
suggested that the sludge should be used on ground
only before crops are planted and not sprinkled over or
brought into direct contact with growing vegetables.
The origin of and the type of the sludge undoubtedly has
considerable bearing on the results which may be secured.
Whether the conclusions would apply to all types of
sludge could be determined only by comprehensive in-
vestigations. New methods for isolating bacteria have
been developed in the past few years. Use of these
methods might reveal the presence of bacteria where
the older methods gave negative results. A recent paper
would suggest that it is now time for more work on the
subject.
Isolation of Bacterium typhosum from activated sludge
has been reported. Tnvesti gati ons of artificially
inoculated aeration mixtures were then made. Five and
one-half hours aeration caused a decrease in viable
577
-------
Bacterium typhosum cells from 750,000 to 103,000 per ce.
Four strains of Bacterium typhosum were used in experi-
ments on longevity in activated sludge. At 68° to 72°F,
one of the strains died rapidly; two others survived for
from 8 to 10 days; the fourth, the Rawling's strain, was
isolated after 14 and 13 days. It was concluded that
wet activated sludge cannot be considered innocuous.
At times it may be quite infectious. Caution should
be observed when it is used as a fertilizer for truck
gardens.
The application of sewage sludge to soil on which vege-
tables which may be eaten raw are grown, should be
practiced with caution. While results of longevity
studies on pathogenic bacteria in sludge would probably
be greatly influenced by the nature of the sludge and
the conditions under which it is stored and handled,
sufficient data have been recorded to indicate the
presence of viable Bacteri urn typhosum cells in sludge.
At best, the sludge should be added to the soil in the
late fall, winter or early spring. Advice is probably
sound that it should not be added to growing crops.
Sanitary districts and others concerned with the sale
of sewage sludge to farmers might well consider the
possible health hazards involved.
578
-------
Tardiff, R.G. and M. Deinzer.
Toxicity of Organic Compounds in Drinking Water.
In: Proceedings of 15th Water Quality Conference, Champaign
Illinois, February 1973. pp. 23-32.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Organic compounds which have been identified from
finished drinking water are classified as to their
degree of toxicity, and the organs affected by them
are listed. The article discusses the reasons for
and means for identifying and studying organics in
drinking water.
579
-------
Tatsumoto, M. and C.C. Patterson.
Concentrations of Common Lead in Some Atlantic and
Mediterranean Waters and in Snow.
Nature. J_99.( 4891 ): 350-352 . July 27, 1963.
Key Words: lead, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The concentration profiles of lead in the Atlantic were
found to be different from those in the Mediterranean and
the Pacific. At the Mediterranean and Pacific stations,
lead concentrations are high in surface waters and
uniformly low in deeper waters. At the Atlantic stations
the concentrations do not follow such a uniform trend with
depth, and, in addition, the scatter is confined to
considerably smalle? values. However, in general, lead
concentrations at the Atlantic stations appear to increase
from surface to intermediate or deep waters, and then
decrease again in very deep or bottom waters.
580
-------
Taylor, D.G. and J.D. Johnson.
Kinetics of Viral Inactivation by Bromine.
In: Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution.
A.J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975. pp. 369-408.
Key Words: viruses, bromide disinfection.
Abstract:
The aqueous bromine system offers a unique opportunity to
study five chemical species as biocides at one pH. The
study of individual species is not possible with the
chlorine or iodine systems at a constant pH. The chemical
species hypobromous acid, molecular bromine and nitrogen
tribromide were tested at pH 4.5 for their virucidal acti-
vity and compared to the activity of -hypochlorous acid
against the bacterial virus 0X174.
Bromine was studied as an alternative to chlorine because
bromine does not ionize at neutral pH, has more desirable
characteristics as a swimming pool disinfectant, and is
active even in the form of bromamine. Chloramines, on the
other hand, possess little virucidal activity.
Although the economics of bromine was not a part of this
study, bromine cost limitations on its use cannot be
ignored. Bromine is presently twice the cost of chlorine.
The use of bromine chloride to generate free bromine in
water is feasible at a lower cost. Bromine chloride may
be fed and metered as a gas at low pressure rather than as
a liquid and, therefore, promises to be easier to dose than
liquid bromine. Moreover, since hypobromous acid is only
ionized 6 percent at pH 7.6, as compared to the 50 percent
ionization of hypochlorous acid, only about one-half of the
amount of bromine is required to achieve the same effective
molar concentration of active halogen at that pH.
581
-------
Taylor, D.H. and G.D. Hutchinson.
Evaluation of State Drinking Water Quality Surveillance
Programs.
JAWWA. 6j[.(8):428-431. August 1975.
Key Word: drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Water-supply practice was found deficient in all four
states as were the state programs, designed to ensure
adequate quantities of safe drinking water to the pub-
lic. This conclusion is not reassuring.
State legislatures, the administrative levels of state
government, and the water-supply field need to make
more vigorous commitments to restore and broaden the
margins of safety that water supplies provide in the
southeast U.S. Provision of safe, adequate water sup-
plies will depend upon universal application of higher
water-utility service standards-.and vigorous regulations
surveillance, and enforcement by public environmental
control Agencies.
582
-------
Taylor, F.B.
Viruses - What Is Their Significance in Water Supplies?
JAWWA. 66.( 5) : 306-311 . May 1974.
Key Words: viruses, coliforms, hepatitis virus, ECHO virus,
coxsackie virus, polio virus, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
The largest waterborne outbreak of modern times was
in Delhi, India, in 1955 when over 30,000 cases of
infectious hepatitis were recorded. Transmission
was through a municipal water-supply system. It must
be recognized that the source of water at the time was
nearly undiluted sewage from an upstream source. How-
ever, in more recent times (1969), there was the Holy
Cross episode in which 94 cases of infectious hepatitis
were incurred by a population segment in excellent
health who drank water from a community supply that had
been contaminated through a cross connection.
At President Johnson's Water-for-Peace Conference
in 1967, a paper was presented by Dr. L. Coin of the
Laboratoire D'Hygiene de la Ville de Paris, France,
on his work in examining samples of water from the rivers
upstream and downstream of Paris and from the Paris
distribution networks and the sewage effluents from
hospitals. It summarized an earlier paper wherein he
reported finding 9 percent of the distribution system
samples (553) positive for such viruses as polio,
virus Types I, II, and III, Coxsackie and ECHO, 1n
contrast to 17 percent 1n the upstream rivers, 24 per-
cent 1n the downstream rivers, and 37 percent 1n the
sewage discharged from a hospital. The Seine River
1s a source of PaHs's water supply. He concluded
that poliomyelitis virus had hurdled the technical
barriers consisting of coagulation, filtration, and
disinfection, which 1s by the use of ozone, but he
doubted that 1t had an ep1demlologlcal role.
583
-------
Tchobanoglous, G.
Filtration Techniques in Tertiary Treatment.
JWPCF. £2(4):604-623. April 1970.
Key Words: chlorides, nitrates, phosphates, filtration.
Abstract:
Conclusions derived from studies designed to evaluate
filter bed performance include:
1. The removal efficiency for the filtration of
settled secondary effluent without the addition
of chemicals is primarily a function of grain size.
Typical removal efficiencies using conventional
single medium sand or anthracite filter beds with
depths of 18 to 30 in. (45.7 to 76.2 cm) will vary,
depending on grain size,from 10 to 60 percent.
2. In the filtration of a settled effluent with and
without the additional chemicals, turbidity break-
throughs were not observed within the headloss range
studied {8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.0 m)} .
3. As presently designed, the sand layer in most
dual medium (anthracite and sand) filter beds is not
utilized effectively. In multi-media filter beds,
if the anthracite layer is greater than 16 to 20 in.
(41 to 51 cm), media placed below the anthracite con-
tributes little to the overall suspended solids removal
4. Polyelectrolytes can be used as an additive to
achieve varying degrees of suspended solids removal
from secondary effluents using single-, dual-, and
multi-media filter beds. The distribution of the sus-
pended solids removed within a filter bed can be
controlled by varying the amount and point of addition
of polyelectrolytes.
584
-------
Tchobanoglous , G. and R, Eliassen.
Filtration of Treated Sewage Effluent.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE. 96JSA2):
264. April 1970.
Key Words: suspended solids, pressure filtration.
Abstract:
Effluent used in this investigation was obtained from
a pilot scale activated sludge treatment plant. Par-
ticulate matter in the effluent was characterized by
measurement of suspended solids, particle size and
distribution, and particle charge and charge distri-
bution. The suspended solids concentration in the
effluent varied between 7 mg per 1 and 14 mg per 1.
Particles in the effluent were bimodally distributed.
The smaller range of particles varied in aerial size
from 1 vto 15 ywhile the larger range of particles
varied in size from 50 vto 180 u . The average electro-
phoretic mobi1ity of the particles was -l.Syper sec
per v per cm.
Although a number of removal mechanisms are operative,
straining was found to be the principal mechanism
responsiblefor the removal of particulate matter.
Removal by straining can be detected by noting the shape
and variation of the suspended solids removal curves
and from a plot of headless versus time.
The size and distribution of the influent particles,
their floe strength, the size of the medium, the fil-
tration rate, and the amount of material arrested
within the filter must be considered in the develop-
ment of equations which can be used to describe the
time-space removal of particulate matter within a
granular filter. Derived from rational considerations,
equations were developed to predict filter performance,
as a function of these variables for the conditions
studied. The equations can also be generalized for
cases where straining is not the principal removal
mechanism.
585
-------
Tenney, M.W., W.F. Echelberger, Jr., J.J. Coffey, and
T.J. McAloon.
Chemical Conditioning of Biological Sludges for Vacuum Fil-
tration.
JWPCF. 42.(2):R1-R21 . February 1970.
Key Words: suspended solids, vacuum filters.
Abstract:
Although properly operating activated sludge processes
develop well-flocculated sludge through the biological
production of polymeric flocculants, these naturally
produced materials are not at all effective as condi-
tioners of waste sludge for dewatering by vacuum fil-
tration. It is, therefore, necessary to add chemical
conditioners such as the polyvalent metal ions Al(III)
and Fe(III) or synthetic organic polyelectrolytes
(cationic, nonionic, or anionic) in order to structure
properly the waste activated sludge for successful
dewatering. The action of polyvalent metal ions and
synthetic organic polyelectrolytes as sludge condi-
tioners is interpreted as being similar to the action
of the microbially produced polymers which serve bio-
logically to flocculate activated sludge. In order to
be effective a chemical conditioner must be capable
of forming polymeric species which are capable of
attaching themselves to the otherwise discrete sludge
particles and subsequently bridging to other individual
particles, thereby conditioning the sludge so that,
1n the presence of a vacuum, it has sufficient struc-
ture or porosity to allow for the effectual escape of
water, From this laboratory study, 1t 1s concluded
that the carriage wastewater quality parameters of
pH, alkalinity, and phosphate concentration, and the
sludge parameters of solids concentration, storage
time, and primary sludge mix ratio all significantly
affect the conditioner dosage required to enhance the
dewatering of waste activated sludge.
It 1s also quite apparent that Individual applications
of the Investigative areas described 1n this study
are necessary for the development of an optimal chemi-
cal conditioning process to Insure effective dewater-
ing of waste activated sludge by vacuum filtration at
specific wastewater treatment locations.
586
-------
Tew, R.W., S.S. Egdorf, and J.E. Deacon.
Distribution of Stream Pollution in Lake Water.
JWPCF. 48_(5):867-871 . May 1976.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Wastewater effluent-laden waters from Las Vegas Wash
(LVW) form a density current that may be detected in
Boulder Basin of Lake Mead at considerable distances
from the wash estuary. This led to the suspicion .that
water from the inflowing stream (40 mgd (1.5 x 105 cu
m/day)} might not be rapidly diluted in the enormous
volume of the lake (19 mil acre-ft (2.3 x lO'O cu m)> ,
but might persist as a recognizable entity to the
vicinity of the intake of a major water source for
populous Clark County, Nev.
The data indicate that bacteria appearing sporadically
in an inflowing stream (already there) may be used to
trace the distribution of the waters of the stream in
those of a lake and that the use of a factorial sampling
and assay experimental plan allows compliance with Pre-
cepts 1 and 2 given above.
587
-------
Theis, T.L. and P.C. Singer.
The Stabilization of Ferrous Iron by Organic Compounds in
Natural Waters.
In: Trace
Waters. P
Ann Arbor,
Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions in Natural
,C. Singer, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Michigan, 1974. pp. 303-320.
Key Words: iron, surface water (fresh), surface water (marine)
Abstract:
This study
capable of
of ferrous
inhibited.
has demonstrated that organic matter is
creating conditions whereby the oxidation
iron in well-oxygenated environments is
Humic substances, as represented by the
model compounds used in this investigation, can stabi-
lize ferrous iron through the formation of Fe(II)-
organic complexes which resist oxidation or through
reduction of the resultant ferric iron by the organic
species. The stability of iron in many natural aquatic
systems can create specific problems in water supply
and wastewater treatment, and may be nutritionally
significant with respect to aquatic growth.
588
-------
Thimann, K.V.
Herbicides in Vietnam.
Science. 1_85.(4147) :207. July 19, 1974.
Key Words: herbicides, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The findings of the National Academy of Sciences
Committee in their report on the Effects of Herbi-
cides in Vietnam are defended in a Letter-to-the-
Editor. There was no evidence that birth defects
could be attributed to the spraying in the records
of the Vietnamese hospitals examined. There was no
evidence of the persistence of herbicide residues in
the soil of any of the sprayed areas. There was no
medical evidence to support claims that any Montagnard
children had died from the spraying. The claim that
the mangroves in the coastal areas will not regenerate
for 100 yr because of herbicides is without foundation
Mangrove swamps have never before been killed by herbi-
cides over large areas.
589
-------
Thomas, R.E.
Land Disposal II: An Overview of Treatment Methods.
JWPCF. 45(7}:1476-1484. July 1973.
Key Words: ponding/land application.
Abstract:
This overview has touched on several aspects of a
topic that has been debated for centuries. Case
histories and the results of research studies have
been used to show that (a) land treatment of waste-
water is not new, (b) land treatment is a significant
tool in past and current management of wastewaters ,
(c) use of land treatment is evolving from a disposal
concept to a concept of treatment and/or reuse, and
(d) land treatment methods can play a significant
role in future wastewater management plans. Land
treatment has been proffered as a method of protect-
ing the quality of surface waters since mankind
started collecting waste for disposal. The case is
still undecided, and it seems that the debate will be
continued into the 21st century.
590
-------
Thomas, R. E.
The Soil as a Physical Filter.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
through Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and L.T. Kardos,
eds. EPA-660/2-74-003. Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute of Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp. 40-46.
Key Words: BOD, ponding/land application, agricultural
sludge disposal.
Abstract:
In summary, the research efforts directed to identifying
the causes of soil clogging elucidated three important
factors to consider in selecting management practices
for applying w-astewater to the land. These three fac-
tors are (1) the zone of clogging which reduces the
water intake rate is at or near the soil surface;
(2) the most severe clogging develops in an anaerobic
environment; and (3) the severe clogging developed
under anaerobic conditions can be removed by drying
the clogged surface layer of soil. Further studies
of these three factors under practical operating con-
ditions have verified the results of the small scale
research studies.
Looking at crop irrigation systems, we find that good
operating practices preclude the development of
anaerobic conditions leading to formation of the trouble-
some clogging mat. Physical clogging of the filter
for the Irrigation approach should be limited to de-
position of small amounts of suspended mineral particles
and slowly degradable organic particles. The effects
of these additions appear to go unnoticed at locations
where wastewater Irrigation has been practiced for up
to 80 years. Quantitative Information on differences
in soil properties after 14 years of wastewater Irri-
gation versus a fresh water Irrigation source led to
the conclusion that wastewater irrigation did not re-
sult 1n adverse effects that could not be corrected
with minor changes 1n cultural practices. The adverse
differences 1n soil properties observed 1n this study
were associated with chemical Interactions rather than
physical clogging by deposition,
The situation 1s entirely different when one considers
spray disposal and groundwater recharge approaches
where the desire for high rates of hydraulic loading
frequently lead to moisture conditions which promote
development of anaerobic conditions and the consequent
severe clogging of the soil filter. This situation
591
-------
has been counteracted by developing a routine manage-
ment practice of alternating wetting periods and drying
periods to take advantage of the fact that drying of
the clogged surface results in recovery of the capacity
to move water. The periodicity of the wetting and dry-
ing cycle can vary from a few days to a few weeks de-
pending on local conditions and the overall objectives
of a given project. Much remains to be learned in this
area for improvement of techniques but we can make
practical use of current knowledge, and some recharge
operations have been in operation for several decades.
This brief discussion of the soil as a physical filter
has been directed to factors which lead to clogging
of the filter and management practices which can be used
to extend the life of the filter. These aspects of the
behavior of the filter are closely related to the chemi-
cal, biological, and hydrogeological interactions which
are covered in companion papers presented during the
symposium. Reference to these companion papers will
strengthen and broaden one's understanding of the
function of the soil as a filter for receiving munici-
pal effluents or industrial wastewaters.
592
-------
Thomas, R.E. and T.W. Bendixen.
Degradation of Wastewater Organics in Soil.
JWPCF. 11(5):808-813. May 1969.
Key Words: ammonia, COD, BOD, chlorides, suspended solids,
direct contact.
Abstract:
The results of these lysimeter studies show that soil
microorganisms can digest much of the organic carbon
contained in primary and secondary wastewater effluents.
About 80 percent of the organic carbon from septic
tank effluent was digested under a variety of conditions.
Large variations in temperature, the loading rate, and
the duration of dosing had no effect on the percentage
of the organic carbon which was degraded. Organic
carbon application rates up to 31 tons/yr/acre (157
metric tons/yr/ha) resulted in soil residues of less
than 3 tons/yr/acre (6.7 metric tons/yr/ha). A load-
ing rate of 3.7 tons/yr/acre (8.3 metric tons/yr/ha)
resulted in a net reduction in the organic carbon
content of a silt-loam soil. CO^ equivalent to about
60 percent of the degraded organic carbon was released
at the soil surface in one experiment.
Sludge loadings equivalent to 30 tons/yr/acre (67 metric
tons/yr/ha) of organic carbon can be applied to sandy
soils for extended periods without resulting in a
detrimental accumulation of organic residues in the
soil. Based on typical values for the composition
of sludge, this would be equal to 100 tons/yr/acre
(224 metric tons/yr/ha) of dried digested sludge solids.
Proper management of liquid and organic carbon loads
can result in long-term continuous operation with only
minor changes in the organic carbon content of the soil.
Future studies are planned to evaluate the interaction
between loading factors and the alteration of the physical
and chemical properties of the soil.
593
-------
Thomas, R.E. and J.P. Law, Or.
Soil Response to Sewage Effluent Irrigation.
In; Municipal Sewage Effluent for Irrigation. C.W. Wilson
and F.E. Beckett, eds. Agricultural Engineering Department
Symposium. Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, Louisiana,
July 30, 1968. pp. 5-19.
Key Word: groundwater.
Abstract:
Recent emphasis on water pollution control has stimulated
research on the application of wastewaters to the land.
About two-thirds of the more than 1,300 systems in
operation were designed for treatment of a wastewater
rather than irrigation of economic crops. A variety of
needs and empirical solutions have resulted in the
evolution of several system designs. Each of these
designs have advantages for particular operating condi-
tions and needs. Some wastewaters are unsuitable for
irrigation use because of the addition of toxic or
excessive concentrations of pollutants during the use
cycle. Many industrial and most domestic wastewaters
are suitable for irrigation use under good management
practices. Wastewater can cause beneficial or detri-
mental changes in physical and chemical properties of
soil. Good management practices and system design
features can make the beneficial effects greater than
the detrimental effects. Wastewaters receive
treatment as they percolate through soil. Systems can
be designed and operated to accentuate this treatment.
The resulting soil percolate is immediately suitable for
many reuse purposes.
594
-------
Thomas, R.E., K. Jackson, and L. Penrod.
Feasibility of Overland Flow for Treatment of Raw Domestic
Wastewater.
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Ada,
Oklahoma, December 1974. 39p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-.238 926).
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, COD, ammonia, nitrates,
ponding/land application, groundwater.
Abstract:
A pilot-scale'field study was conducted to evaluate
the capability of overland flow to provide complete
treatment of raw comminuted wastewater on a year-round
basis in a mild climatic zone. Raw comminuted waste-
water was applied through a specially designed distri-
bution system which operated at low pressure and pre-
vented the formation of aerosols. This specially de-
signed applicator operated at a pressure of 1.0 kg/sq cm
(15 psi) and was used to apply wastewater to three
experimental plots at 7.4, 8.6, and 9.8 cm/week rates
of loading. Wastewater and plot runoff samples were
collected periodically to compare treatment efficiencies
for the three loading rates and to determine seasonal
influences on treatment efficiency. Fifteen parameters
including suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand,
nitrogen, and phosphorus were used to evaluate treat-
.ment efficiencies. The results of this 18-month
field study showed overland flow to be an effective
process for achieving advanced waste treatment of raw
comminuted wastewater via a simple system with no
sludge production.
595
-------
Thomas, R.L.
The Distribution of Mercury in the Sediments of Lake Ontario.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 9_(6) :636-651 . June 1972.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Total mercury°has been analysed in the surface 3 cm of
sediment taken from 287 sample stations on an 8 km grid
on Lake Ontario during 1968. The mercury distribution
shows well-defined trends which can be related to sedi-
ment type: the concentration of mercury increasing
from the shallow nearshore coarse sediments outwards,
into the central , deep-water basin sediments composed
of fine silty clays and clays. The average concentra-
tion of mercury in the nearshore sediments is 355 ppb,
in the basin sediments 997 ppb and the average for the
whole lake is 651 ppb. Regions of high mercury concen-
tration (in the order of 2000 ppb) occur along the
southern margin of the main lake basin and in the west-
ern (Niagara) basin of the lake. The dispersion path-
ways of these two regions point to the Niagara River
as the prime source of mercury input to Lake Ontario.
Most of this mercury is believed to be of industrial
origin. An additional area of high mercury concentra-
tion with values up to 20,000 ppb, occurs at the east-
ern end of Lake Ontario (Kingston Basin) in the region
of the lake close to the outlet to the St. Lawrence
River. These high values in organic-rich, fine sedi-
ments are likely related to processes of biological
concentration. The concentrations of mercury observed
in the recent sediments of Lake Ontario can be accounted
for by an average minimum daily input of 125 Ib (56.7 kg)
of mercury of which an estimated 42 Ib (19.0 kg) is of
natural origin and the remaining 83 Ib (37.6 kg) is from
industrial sources. The vertical distribution of
mercury in a selected sediment core suggests that in-
dustrial mercury input commenced about the turn of the
century, rose rapidly to circa 1943 and, since then,
has shown a slow but continued rise to the time of
core retrieval in 1970.
596
-------
Thomas, R.L.
The Distribution of Mercury in the Surficial Sediments of
Lake Huron.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 1_0(2) :194-204. February
1973.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Total mercury has been determined in 163 samples of
the topmost 3 cm of sediment taken from Lake Huron
during 1969. Total mercury values range from 54 to
805 ppb with a mean of 222 ppb and a standard deviation
of 162 ppb. The mercury distribution in the lake sedi-
ments shows a trend for increasing concentration from
nearshore and mid-lake shallow water, coarse sediment
deposits outwards into the fine-grained sediments in
the deeper water basins. The application of a quartz
correction to compensate for the dilution by an inert
constituent reveals two major anomalies of higher
mercury concentration. The Saginaw anomaly occurs in
the southern basins of the lake and is believed to be
due to the input of industrial mercury from Saginaw
Bay; the Bruce anomaly in the northeastern part of
Manitoulin basin is believed to be due to the weather-
ing of sulfide deposits with subsequent concentration
in the lake sediments being related to major water cir-
culation patterns in the lake. From statistical
analysis the mercury is believed to be bound in the
sediments predominantly adsorbed or complexed by organic
matter with subsidiary adsorption by the surfaces of iron
sulfides and hydrated iron oxide - inorganic phosphorus
complexes.
597
-------
Thompson, S.E., C.A. Burton, D.J. Quinn, and Y.C. Ng.
Concentration Factors of Chemical Elements in Edible Aquatic
Organisms.
University of California, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory,
October 1972. 77p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as UCRL-50564).
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
germanium, iron, lead, manganese, mercury,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, thorium, tin,
uranium, zinc, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine), fish, shellfish.
Abstract: .
This revision of the identically titled document
presents tables of concentration factors derived
for edible plants, invertebrates, and fish from
both freshwater and marine environments. The values
are based on an extensive literature review of ele-
mental concentrations in aquatic organisms and water
and on experimentally determined concentration factors.
The document also summarizes concentration factors for
edible plants, molluscs, crustaceans, and fish derived
from studies on radioactivity in the environment.
The Appendix gives the basic data used to derive the
concentration factors and the special procedures
employed to estimate concentrations or concentration
factors where the required data were inadequate or
nonexistent.
598
-------
Thome, M.D., T.D. Hinesly, and R.L. Jones.
Utilization of Sewage Sludge on Agricultural Land.
University of Illinois, Champaign, April 1975. 8p.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, shigella, fecal strepto-
cocci, clostridium botulinium, leptospirosis ,
listeria monocytogens , agriculture.
Abstract:
This paper discusses crop response to sewage sludge,
but does not attack the problem of uptake by plants.
599
-------
Thorup, R.T., P.P. Nixon, D.F. Wentworth, and O.J. Sproul,
Virus Removal by Coagulation with Polyelectrolytes.
JAWWA. 62.(2) :97-101. February 1970.
Key Words: Escheri chi a coli , polio virus, chemical treat-
ment.
Abstract:
1. Under the experimental conditions, the cationic
polyelectrolyte performed more acceptably than the
anionic and nonionic types.
2. The action of polyelectrolytes as primary coagu-
lants was salt dependent with both high (0.1 M) , and
low (0.0001 M) ionic concentrations producing less
virus removal than the 36 percent found with 0.01 M
CaCl2.
3. In instances of poor coagulation, cationic poly-
electrolytes exerted a beneficial effect on the forma-
tion of floes and the removal of virus. However,
the 80-94 percent virus removal obtained was well below
the 99+ percent usually considered acceptable.
4. In instances of adequate coagulation, cationic
polyelectrolytes did not increase virus removal beyond
the levels obtained with unaided A^tSO/^ or
Fe2(S0) coagulation.
600
-------
Three Summary Tables Relating to Metals Removal.
Dallas Water Utilities Water Reclamation Research
Center, Dallas, Texas, September 1975.
Key Words: aluminum, arsenic, boron, barium, cadmium,
cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, mercury,
manganese, nickel, lead, selenium, zinc,
chemical treatment, adsorption/ion
exchange.
Abstract:
This is a personnel communication giving data
on metals removal .
601
-------
Tiedje, J.M. and B,B, Mason,
Blodegration of N1trilotrlacetate (NTA) in Soils,
Soil Science Proceedings. .3*3:278-283. March 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organic?, groundwater.
Abstract:
Nitrilotriacetate (NTA) was biodegraded in a variety of
soils as measured by total C02 and 14CO? production from
14C-carboxyl-NTA. Production of CO? and 14CO?, followed
similar patterns and suggested complete degradation of NTA;
C02 production was used routinely to assay NTA dissimila-
tion. At 40 ppm of NTA in soils receiving sewage effluent
and in muck soils, maximum rates of degradation were 8 to
10 ppm/day while in mineral surface soils, they ranged from
0,5 to 6 ppm/day; the rates in subsoils were always less
than for the surface soils from the same site. Degradation
rates did not correlate with pH, drainage, texture, or plant
cover. Rates of degradation increased from 2 to 64 ppm/day
as MTA concentration was increased from 10 to 600 ppm.
14C02 production from NTA did not occur anaerobically and
was severely limited under microaerophi1ic conditions. NTA
was degraded at 24 and 12.5 C; it was also degraded at 2 C
if previously acclimatized at 12.5 C. Iminodiacetate was a
possible intermediate in NTA degradation, while N-methylimi-
nodiacetate was not.
602
-------
Tiffin, L.O.
Translocation of Micronutrients in Plants.
Ln: Micronutrients in Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer, ed. Soil
Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972.
pp. 199-209.
Key Words: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron,
ponding/land application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
Micronutrients in the living plant pass through
many phases. Some of them appear transiently;
others are relatively permanent. Phases involved
in the passage of a micronutrient to the xylem
are not well defined, but they are easily separated
from long-distance movements. The trans!ocation
of micronutrients necessarily represents an inter-
phase; it follows and depends on uptake and pre-
cedes assimilation and function or, perhaps,
storage in distant tissues. Much more information
is needed concerning the quantity as well as the
form and and direction of micronutrients moving
between tissues.
Similar aspects of micronutrient translocation
appear in animal studies, and the available know-
ledge is impressive. Examples relate to Fe and
Cr in transferrin, Cu in ceruloplasmin, and Mn in
transmanganin, as well as the small molecules
that apparently shuttle metals between large
circulating molecules and the tissues. Less is
known about specific mechanisms of micronutrient
translocation in plants, but the pattern now
emerging indicates that they do not use large
protein molecules to transport metals over long
distances. Apparently the small ubiquitous
molecules such as organic and amino acids per-
form this function. An effort should be made to
identify Cu, Zn, and Ni carriers in xylem fluids.
Despite many studies of metal-phosphate inter-
actions in plants, current knowledge in this field
is unsatisfactory in terms of explicit information
and relevance for agriculture. There is a need
for further knowledge relating to (i) the external
solution chemistry and, if obtainable, the
internal chemistry associated with metal phos-
phate precipitation; (ii) the chemical composition
603
-------
of metal phosphate precipitates i n vi vo; and (iii)
the physiological effects of metal phosphate pre-
cipitation in terms of reduced yields and result-
ing economic loss.
Experiments should be designed in terms of con-
trolled concentrations of P, Fe, Zn, Ca, H+,
OH', and other ions that affect or are affected
by P both in uptake and translocation phases.
The organic and amino acids also should be con-
sidered because of their expected effects on
equilibria between mobile and immobile phases of
metals i n vi vo. In the vascular system, these
acids probably constitute a major defense against
Fe3+ inactivation by OH" and P.
Progress in metal detection and analysis and
nutrient ion control should help in making
increasingly refined determinations of metals both
on external surfaces and in vascular tissues. A
large-volume, circulating system in which concen-
trations of nutrient ions and H+ are controlled
has been described. This system should be especially
useful in defining external conditions that
immobilize metals internally.
The nutrient ions should be kept agriculturally
relevant. A comparison, for example, of 1,000
MM P, often used in standard nutrient compositions,
with lu M P continuously available to roots in
flowing culture provides an important contrast
in method and perspective. The use of extremely
nonphysiological treatments, e.g., very high P
or other ions, should obligate an investigator to
establish that such usage has relevance to
situations occurring naturally or likely to occur
under some conditions of fertilizer practice.
Incisive tests for relevance could obviate some
of the phosphate-poisoning experiments.
Instruments that permit direct microsampling of
vascular fluids should make it possible to
intercept metals flowing in xylem vessels. In
addition to solution sampling, the X-ray micro-
analyzer offers promise as a means of detecting
quantities of phosphate on walls in the lumen
of the xylem. One researcher describes the use
of this instrument in studies of metal distribution
in plant cells, and others have described the
localization of Al, N, Ca, and P in cortex cells
of barley and bean roots by X-ray microanalysis .
604
-------
The ability to detect A1 within the cell proto-
plast (apparently soluble, chelated) and not
precipitated in cell walls with Ca or P suggests
possibilities for studies of other elements.
The time a micronutrient stays in a leaf may be
relatively long compared to its translocation time.
But at certain stages of growth a fraction of a
micronutrient may again be mobilized and trans-
located to other organs. Micronutrients also are
released from senescing tissues and are translocated
to more permanent structures such as roots and
stalks of perennials. The physiological importance
of redistribution calls for continued study. Much
more work will be needed to establish quantitative
patterns of micronutrient redistribution comparable
to those available for macronutrients. Beyond this,
investigations are needed to identify causes and
the various internal and external factors that
modify redistribution.
605
-------
Tilstra, J.R., K.N. Malveg, and W.C. Larson.
Removal of Phosphorus and Nitrogen from Wastewater
Effluents by Induced Soil Percolation.
JWPCF. 44(5):796-805. May 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, ponding/
land application.
Abstract:
Municipal wastewater treatment effluents were
applied to a field of nearly waterlogged peat soil
to determine the effect of a saturated soil en-
vironment on the removal of phosphorus and nitrogen
from the effluents. Immediately after the applica-
tion of effluents, phosphorus fixation by the soil
declined, whereas nitrogen removal increased. An
undetermined amount of organic nitrogen was ini-
tially leached from the soil, thus masking the
quantitative effects of nitrogen fixation
processes.
Drainage was provided to this particular soil in
a laboratory experiment to determine the possible
effect of an aerobic soil environment (tile drain-
ing the field), on the phosphorus and nitrogen
removal efficiency of the soil. Phosphorus
fixation largely improved, resulting in removal
efficiencies ranging from 95 to 99 percent,
although severe nitrification and subsequent
leaching persisted during the entire experiment.
Amendments for controlling the nitrogen problem
are suggested.
When saturated (presumably anaerobic) and aerobic
soil systems were compared with regard to waste-
water effluent phosphorus and nitrogen removal
efficiency, the aerobic system seemed to be con-
siderably more advantageous, provided that proper
management practices were employed.
606
-------
Tinsley, T. and J.L. Melnick.
Potential Ecological Hazards of Pesticide Viruses.
Intervirology. 2(3):206-208. 1973/74.
Key Words: viruses, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The use of viruses to control insect pests is
being considered as an alternative to chemical
pesticides. However, the plan is not without
flaws: insects other than the target may be
attacked. Reports of a high degree of species-
specificity for insect viruses should be viewed
with reserve since antibodies reacting with
insect viruses have been found in domestic and
wild animals, pigs, cattle, sheep, horses, dogs,
deer, and in sera of laboratory workers handling
insect viruses. Changes in the pathogenicity and
specificity of pesticidal insect viruses could
occur and cause a wider spectrum of host involve-
ment. Unequivocal systems of virus identification
are necessary. However, because of inadequate
descriptions of viruses often found in the
literature, it is very difficult to determine if
a new virus has been isolated or if the virus is
merely an extension of the host range of a pre-
viously recorded virus. Collaborative research
programs on the in vitro specificity of insect
viruses are recommended. When it is found that a
candidate virus can infect vertebrate cells in
vitro, results must be confirmed where possible
in vi vo.
607
-------
Tofflemire, T.J. and G.P. Brizner.
Deep-Well Injection of Wastewater.
OWPCF. 43.(7) :1468-4179. July 1971.
Key Words: suspended solids, bacteria, groundwater.
Abstract:
Deep-well injection is a method of long-term
storage or ultimate disposal that should be used
only for certain hard-to-treat wastewaters in
areas geologically suited for injection. Before
deep-well injection is used, it should be
determined that this disposal method will have the
least adverse effect on the environment of all
feasible treatment methods. Three classes of
deep wells -- saltwater, industrial waste, and
radioactive waste -- were listed.
The most suitable strata for injection are sand,
sandstone, or limestone. The disposal stratum
must be covered by an impermeable cap rock such as
shale, salt, or clay and isolated from any usable
water or natural resources. Abandoned wells and
faults must be avoided. Several figures showing
the possible injection areas in the U.S. and in
New York State are indicated.
Liquid hydraulic fracturing should be avoided
because it is difficult to know if fractures will
travel horizontally or vertically. Vertical frac-
tures could allow wastewater to pass into higher
strata and contaminate natural resources. However,
grout injection represents a special case.
The waste to be injected should be high in con-
centration, low in volume, noncorrosive, and free
of SS and microorganisms. Tests should be made
to insure that the wastewater will not react
adversely with the formation water or strata.
Equalization and filtration of the wastewater
commonly are practiced before injection. Addi-
tional treatment may be needed to make the waste-
water compatible with the formation.
Either rotary or cable tool methods are used in
drilling the well. Bottom hole completion methods
include open hole, gravel pack, and perforated
casing. Adequate casing, tubing, and cementing
are important in well construction. The well
608
-------
should be monitored carefully for pressure, flow,
and other parameters. Disposal zone pressures
should generally be limited to 0.8 psi/ft (0.185
km/sq cm/m) of depth and to 75 percent of the
critical input pressure. Back-up treatment or
storage systems are needed to handle a well shut-
down .
609
-------
Tofflemire, T.J., L.J. Hetling, and W.W. Shuster.
Activated Carbon Adsorption and Polishing of Strong
Wastewater.
JWPCF. 45.(10):2166-2179. October 1973.
Key Words: COD, suspended solids, BOD, total organic
carbon, ammonia, phosphates, total
dissolved solids, nitrates, nitrites,
coliforms,chemical treatment, influent
characteristics, effluent characteristics,
chlorination.
Abstract:
Disinfection with chlorine or D3TH, The carbon
column effluent had an average coliform count of
3,600,000/100 ml. The addition of 5 to 15 mg/1
of chlorine to a 10- to 15-min contact tank follow-
ing the nitrification reduced the count to 120,OOO/
100 ml. The occasional use of 20 mg/1 chlorine
did not reduce the count significantly. However,
when 1 mg/1 of liquid D3TH was fed over a 30-day
period the average count was only 11/100 ml.
Chlorine reacts readily with H2$ and wastewater
organics before it greatly affects the bacteria,
while D3TH does not seem to be readily consumed
by wastewater organics.
610
-------
long, S.S.C., W.D. Youngs, W.H. Gutenmann, and D.J. Lisk.
Trace Metals In Lake Cayuga Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
in Relation to Age.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 311 : 233-239.
February 1974.
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, boron,
cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, germanium,
iron, lead, molybdenum, nickel, tin, zinc, fish.
Abstract:
Chromium concentration increased and molybdenum and tin
concentrations decreased in Lake Cayuga lake trout from
age 1 to 12 yr. The concentration of the rare element
rhodium ranged from about 100 to 200 ppb. The concentrations
of 33 other trace elements in the fish are reported.
611
-------
Tornabene, T.G. and H.W. Edwards.
Microbial Uptake of Lead.
Science. 1_76.: 1 334-1 335 . June 1972.
Key Words: lead, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Micrococcus luteus and Azotobacter sp. cells grown in
broth in contact with a dialysis membrane containing
lead bromide were found to immobilize 4.9 and 3.1/1Q2
milligrams of lead per gram of whole cells, on a dry
weight basis, respectively. Culture turbidity and cell
count measurements on these and other cell cultures show
that lead bromide, lead iodide, and lead bromochloride
in concentrations approaching solubility limits have no
detectable effect on overall growth rate and cell viabil-
ity. Analyses of cellular subfractions reveal that frac-
tions of cell wall plus membrane contain 99.3 and 99.1
percent of the lead found associated with Micrococcus
luteus and Azotobacter sp., respectively. The remainder
is found associated with the cytoplasmic fractions.
612
-------
Torpey, W.N., H. Heukelekian, A.J. Kaplovsky, and R. Epstein.
Rotating Discs with Biological Growth Prepare Wastewater for
Disposal or Reuse.
JWPCF. 11(11 ) :2181-2188. November 1971.
Key Words: BOD, rotating biological disks.
Abstract:
A method of treatment of primary effluent by a series of
rotating disks with attached growths has been developed
capable of producing removals of carbonaceous BOD up to
95 percent and the oxidation of ammonia to nitrates. The
removal of N and P from the effluent of these units is
being attempted by promoting the growth of attached fila-
mentous algae on illuminated rotating disks that are
readily harvestable in contrast with the removal of plank-
tonic algae grown in oxidation ponds. The effluent thus
prepared is highly amenable to adsorption on activated
carbon such that the leakage was held between the limits
of 1 to 2 mg/1 .
613
-------
Tossey, D., P.J. Fleming, and R.F. Scott.
Tertiary Treatment by Flocculation and Filtration.,
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division* ASCE.
9_6.(SA 1):75-90. February 1970.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, phosphates, coliforms,
chemical treatment, filtration, chlorination.
Abstract:
The number of variables in the wastewater treatment system
and the short period of operation covered in this paper
make the task of isolating meaningful relationships and
drawing final conclusions very difficult. However, for
the purpose of reporting progress during the period of
time that the project was financed in part by an FWPCA
Demonstration Project Grant the following conclusions are
offered:
1. Conventional water treatment procedures using coagula-
tion, flocculation, and rapid-sand filtration as a method
of tertiary treatment offer the City of Dayton a sound
means of achieving a high quality effluent from a trick-
ling filter wastewater treatment plant.
2. A high degree of phosphate removal is achieved with
chemical coagulation and settling (without the final
polish of rapid-sand filtration).
3. While removal efficiencies for both pilot plant
filters are approximately the same, the dual media filter
has achieved better overall performance than the single
media sand filter.
4. Chemical coagulation and flocculation before final
settling offer a flexible means of improving effluent
quality significantly when compared to plain settling.
Facilities to achieve this improvement are relatively
modest in cost. The chemical additions, although costly,
.may be tailored to fit seasonal needs, flow variations,
and unusual demands .
5. A one-step chemical treatment process was not shown
to be a substitute for properly operating secondary
treatment.
6. The cost of chemical treatment before final settling
may approach or even exceed the costs of primary and
secondary wastewater treatment.
7. Any scheme for enhancement of the secondary plant
614
-------
effluent appears to require chemical treatment as a part
of the process. Rapid-sand filtration without prior
chemical treatment does not appear to offer a sound
investment return on capital expenditures.
8. Any scheme of tertiary treatment using chemicals and
rapid-sand filtration must be evaluated by considering
the total scope (including the problems of sludge handling
and backwash water overload). The period of operation of
this project has not provided data for comparative evalua-
tion of these factors.
9. Demonstration of any given technique must be program-
med over at least a 12-month period in order to verify
the methodology over the full range of plant influent and
treatment variations.
615
-------
Trichinosis Survei11ance Annual Summary 1975.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. August 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
In 1975, 284 cases of trichinosis were reported in the
U.S. The article discusses epimethiologic characteristics,
clinical characteristics, and reported outbreaks.
616
-------
Trump, J.G., K.S. Wright, E.W. Merrill, A.J. Sinskey, D. Shah,
and S. Sommer.
Prospects for High Energy Electron Irradiation of Wastewater
Liquid Residuals.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1975. 18p.
Key Words- COD, viruses, bacteria, protozoa, radiation treat-
ment .
Abstract:
Powered by a 50 kilowatt electron source, this system
will permit the in-line irradiation of selected
materials including raw sludge and wastewater over
the dosage range 105 to 2x10° rads. At 4xl05 rads, the
anticipated dosage for adequate disinfection of sludge,
the treatment capacity would be 100,000 gal (400 m3)
per day. The two-year program will determine the
methods and efficacy of disinfection and oxidation by
electrons at these higher flow rates. The influence
on biochemical effectiveness and cost of several treat-
ment conditions as irradiation at elevated air and
oxygen pressure, homogenization, increased solids
content, and controlled ph will be explored. Inacti-
vation of human enteric and other viruses in sludge
wi11 be emphasized.
Injected into water the maximum penetration of such
electrons is about one centimeter for each 2 million
electron-volts of energy. By appropriately irrad-
iating a wide thin band of moving sludge or water with
a rapidly scanning electron beam, a nearly uniform
ionization dosage can be delivered throughout the
material. The electron energy, redistributed among
the atoms and molecules of contaminated water, pro-
duces the highly reactive free radicals H and OH.
These in turn attack entrained molecules to promote
their oxidation, reduction, dissociation and degrada-
tion. The free radicals may combine to form some
active molecules which are themselves useful for
water treatment—hydrogen peroxide and ozone. Simul-
taneously, the ionization exerts a direct lethal
effect on microorganisms--on bacteria, viruses,
spores, molds, and on larger organisms including
algae, protozoa and parasites. These complex reac-
tions are initiated in the small fraction of a second
as the material flows through the zone of intense
ionization produced by the electron beam. Adequately
and properly applied, the resultant chemical and
biological effects can convert sludge and wastewater
into safely disposable and reusable materials. COD
617
-------
reduction (-ACOD) varies nearly linearly with radia-
tion dose at least up to 1 megarad, even with no
dissolved oxygen (i.e. with nitrogen atmosphere
equilibration). Data so far accumulated confirms
that COD reduction in sludge by electron irradiation
is dependent on oxygen availability. It emphasizes
the desirability of providing oxygen prior to
irradiation to maximize the oxidative reactions in-
itiated by electrons. Other methods, such as foaming,
of increasing the oxygen availability during irradia-
tion are being investigated.
618
-------
Trust, T.J. and K.H. Bartlett.
Occurrence of Potential Pathogens in Water Containing
Ornamental Fishes.
Applied Microbiology. 2^8(1) :35-40 . July 1974.
Key Words: bacteria, coliforms, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The bacterial population of the water supplied with
ornamental fish purchased from retail outlets was
examined qualitatively and quantitatively. As many
as 109 viable aerobic organisms per 100 ml were present,
with fecal coliform counts as high as 105 per 100 ml.
Citrobacter, escherichia, pseudomonas, and vibrio were
isolated from 75% or more of the samples, whereas
aeromonas, alcaligenes, enterobacter, flavobacterium,
and streptococcus were isolated from 45 to 65% of the
samples. Pseudomonas aerugi nosa , Edwardsiel1 a tarda ,
and K1ebsie11 a pneumoniae were also isolated.
619
-------
Tsai, C.
Effects of Sewage Treatment Plant Effluents on Fish:
a Review of Literature.
University of Maryland, College Park, 1975. 236p.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorides, BOD, salmonella, shigella,
fecal streptococci, syntheti c/organics, food
processing, fish.
Abstract:
This article provides a review of literature con-
cerning different parameters of sewage effluents
effects upon fish, marine, and estuarine fish.
620
-------
Tsai, C. and J.A. Tompkins
Survival Time and Lethal Exposure Time for the Blacknose Dace
Exposed to Free Chlorine and Chloramine Solutions
University of Maryland, College Park, Water Resources
Research Center, 1974. 26p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-239 958).
Key Words: chlorides, synthetic/organics, fish.
Abstract:
The survival time and lethal exposure time were determined
by continuous flow bioassay for the blacknose dace,
Rhinichthys atratulus, exposed to four concentrations each
of free chlorine solutions, 0.15, 0.74, 1.38 and 6.60
mg/liter and of chloramine solutions, 0.19, 0.51, 1,31 and
5.25 mg/liter as total chlorine. The lethal exposure
time is shorter than the survival time for the concentra-
tions tested. The difference between the median lethal
exposure time and median survival time decreases with a
decrease in total chlorine concentrations and becomes
similar at the concentration 0.09 mg/liter for the free
chlorine solutions and 0.21 mg/liter for the chloramine
solutions. Using either the median survival time or
median lethal exposure time as the toxicity index, free
chlorine is more toxic than chloramines to the blacknose
dace at high concentrations, but less so in low concentra-
tions.
621
-------
Tsernoglou, D. and E.H. Anthony.
Particle Size, Water-Stable Aggregates, and Bacterial
Populations in Lake Sediments.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology. V7 (2):21 7-227. February 1 971 .
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
Sediments from 10 lakes for which bacterial counts were
available were submitted to particle size analysis
(Coulter Counter), both before and after removal of
organic material. While these sediments were not so
highly aggregated as soils, they contained water-stable
aggregates and differed from one another in this
characteristic. The counter failed to detect some
apparently unstable aggregations visible in the sediment
of one lake. The median sizes of the untreated sediment
were observed to be inversely proportional to the median
sizes of the sediment from which the organic component
had been removed. There was good correlation between
logarithms of the heterotrophic bacterial population
(culture counts) and the median sizes of the particles
in untreated samples of the sediment. Estimations of
bacterial density, assuming a specific gravity of 1.6
for these sediments indicated that, for the four lakes
for which direct counts of bacteria were available, there
were from 3000 to 15000 bacteria per square millimeter
of sediment particle surface, or about 1 bacterium for
every 70 to 300 sq a..
622
-------
Julianair, V.
Final Disposal of Municipal Sludge in Sweden.
JWPCF. 47^(4) :688-695. April 1975.
Key Words: zinc, copper, manganese, lead, chromium, nickel,
cobalt, cadmium, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
Sludge handling in Sweden is regulated by a number of
laws and edicts, such as the Public Health Act and the
Environment Protection Act. This paper is a summary
of the most recent instructions from the National
Swedish Environment Protection Board.
623
-------
Turney, W.G.
Mercury Pollution: Michigan's Action Program.
JWPCF. 4_3(7) :1427-1437 . July 1971.
Key Words: mercury, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is a compilation of data on mercury pollution
gathered to 1970 and a preliminary assessment of the
problem in Michigan. The article also includes the
history and clinical symptoms of mercury pollution
and poi soni ng .
624
-------
Ulmgren, L.
Swedish Experiences in Chemical Treatment of Wastewater.
JWPCF. 47_(4):696-703. April 1975.
Key Words: BOD, phosphates, COD, suspended solids, ammonia,
nitrates, nitrites, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The Swedish law governing environmental protection, dated
July 1, 1969, directs that all municipal wastewater must
be treated at least biologically. A radical reduction of
the phosphorus content in wastewater has, however, been
given high priority in Sweden. At least a 90 percent
reduction is required for inland lakes and smaller rivers;
this means that the phosphorus content in the discharged
wastewater will be 0.3 to 0.6 g/ cu m as P. The required
degree of reduction of organic matter expressed as bio-
chemical oxygen demand (BOD) is decided in each particular
case. As a rule, 90 percent reduction will be required,
although a 60 percent reduction has been permitted when
the receiving water flow is great enough to produce satis-
factory dilution.
Generally, it may be said that the cities located on inland
waters and in those coastal areas situated on archipelagos
must have chemical precipitation. In most cases, this must
be combined with biological treatment. Chemical treatment
is not only a question of reducing phosphorus and BOD. It
also provides for a good reduction in heavy metals (depend-
ing on pH), worm eggs, and, in some cases, better nitrogen
reduction. Chemical treatment is normally easier and
quicker to operate after process disturbances, in compa-
rison with biological treatment. It has also been shown
that it is not possible to use biological treatment methods
to obtain satisfactory reductions in the northern part of
Sweden because of the long winters, which result in
extremely low water temperatures. In these cases, chemical
treatment for reduction of organic materials (BOD) is used.
625
-------
Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants: Case-Histories
EPA Technology Transfer, U.S. Environnentel Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., August 1973- 49p.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, oil and grease, ammonia,
nitrates, coliforrns, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics, trickling filters.
Abstract:
This article discusses case study situations in which
existing municioal treatment was upgraded, using a
variety of methods.
626
-------
Upgrading Lagoons.
EPA Technology Transfer, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, O.C., August 1973. 43p.
Key Words: BOD, activated sludge, trickling filters.
Abstract:
This article is a general discussion on the use of
lagoons for treatment of municipal wastewater.
627
-------
Urban Runoff Adds to Water Pollution.
Environmental Science and Technology. 3_(6):527. June 1969.
Key Words: BOD, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In general, APWA finds that urban runoff amounts to 1% of
the raw sewage for the particular area. Another way of
looking at the magnitude of the pollution potential is
that this water pollution potential amounts to 5% of the
BOD discharged from the area's secondary waste treatment
faci1i ti es .
But the water pollution from this urban source occurs only
during rainfall or snow thaw. Assuming that a 14-day
accumulation of street litter and that all of the soluble
BOD in the dust and dirt fraction would be discharged into
the street inlets during a 2-hr, storm, APWA estimated
that the shock pollution load on receiving waters would be
160% of the raw sewage BOD and 800% of the secondary
treatment effluent during the 2-hr, period.
628
-------
Urie, D.H.
Phosphorus and Nitrate Levels in Groundwater as Related to
Irrigation of Jack Pine with Sewage Effluent.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
through Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and L.T. Kardos,
eds. EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp. 157-164.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, land reclamation.
Abstract:
The single plot test described here illustrated that the
nitrates added in sewage effluent irrigation may reach
shallow water tables under sand-soil, forest conditions,
Phosphorus renovation was complete during the initial year,
Public health considerations may limit the permissible
dosage levels in such highly permeable soils. Further
tests will be needed to determine whether hardwood forest
types or shrub-herb cover conditions may be more satis-
factory for sewage renovation purposes on sandy/soils.
Alternative methods of cropping or volatilization of
nitrogen may be a necessary pretreatment before economic
volumes of sewage effluents can be renovated satisfacto-
rily. Dilution of nitrate levels during groundwater flow
may be a satisfactory solution in remote areas, with small
sewage irrigation loads, and where domestic water supplies
are protected.
Experience with this single plot test has resulted in the
adoption of a different type of field test in locations
where sewage effluent must be trucked to the test site.
Tests now in progress utilize plots about 0.001 hectare
in area using gravity methods of application.. Tension
lysimeters (soil-water samplers) are being used instead
of wells to test the degree of renovation under various
treatments. These micro plots do not permit tests of
response of large trees to sewage treatments. Replicated
tests of renovation are possible with small volumes of
effluent on a variety of soils and understory vegetation
types.
629
-------
USEPA Notice of Intent to Issue a Policy Statement on
Acceptable Methods for the Utilization or Disposal of Sludge
from Publicly-Owned Wastewater Treatment Plants.
Chicago Metropolitan Sanitary District. February 20, 1974.
Key Words: aluminum, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron,
manganese, nickel, mercury, zinc, phosphates,
chlorides, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, DDT,
aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlorinated hydro-
carbons, soil sterilants, BOD, suspended solids,
total dissolved solids, biological contaminants,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This publication is a prelude to specific policy on the
methods of wastewater sludge management. Included are
potential policies on sludge utilization and disposal,
partially based on the sludge contaminant content.
630
-------
Uthe, J.F. and E.G. Bligh.
Preliminary Survey of Heavy Metal Contamination of Canadian
Freshwater Fish.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada.
28:786-788. May 1971.
Key Words:
lead, nickel, arsenic,
zinc, uranium, mercury,
chromium, tin, fish.
copper, antimony, cadmium,
manganese, selenium,
Abstract:
The concentration of 13 toxic elements in dressed fish
from a nonindustrialized and heavily industrialized
freshwater area have been measured. With the exception
of mercury, in no instance did levels exceed limits set
by regulatory agents for lead, arsenic, copper, and zinc
Indeed in the majority of instances the levels from the
industrialized area did not differ significantly from
those of the nonindustrialized area.
631
-------
Utilization of Sewage Wastes on Land.
Soil and Water Management Research Unit, U.S. Department of
Agriculture. April 1974.
Key Words:
phosphates, iron, manganese, zinc, copper,
cadmium, lead, boron, crops.
Abstract:
This study was carried out to determine the effect of
various types of sewage sludge on decomposition and
availability of organic components as indicated by
growth and composition of corn plants in a field
experiment, and to determine the effect of various
types of sewage sludge on measurable soil physical
properties.
632
-------
Vaccaro, R.F., M.P. Briggs, C.L. Carey, and B,H. Ketchum.
Viability of Escherichia col 1 in Sea Water.
American Journal of Public Health. 40.(10):1257-1266 . October 1950.
Key Words: Escherichia coli, coliforms, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Escherichia coli populations are unable to survive
when placed in raw sea water. This bactericidal
action of sea water may contribute in an important
way to the disappearance of coliform bacteria in tidal
waters.
There is a marked seasonal variation in the length of
time E^ coli can survive in sea water. They are less
viable in the summer months than in the winter.
Aging of raw sea water results in an increase in the
bactericidal activity of the water. Aging of boiled
and autoclaved waters produces little or no change in
their bactericidal properties.
Sea water sterilized by boiling, autoclaving, pasteur-
izing, and chlorinating has less bactericidal activity
than raw sea water.
The addition of organic matter decreases the bacteri-
cidal activity of sea water, but has less effect than
various methods of sterilization.
It is concluded that the most probable cause of the
death of E. coli populations in sea water is an anti-
biotic action which requires the presence of the normal
marine flora.
633
-------
Vacker, R., C. H. Connell , and W. N. Walls.
Phosphate Removal through Municipal Wastewater Treatment at
San Antonio, Texas.
JWPCF. 3j)(5):750-771. May 1967.
Key Words: germanium, ammonia, BOD, nitrates, nitrites,
activated sludge, trickling filters, effluent
characteristics.
Abstract:
Up to 96 percent removal of total phosphate has been
attained in an activated sludge plant where digester
liquors are not returned to the system.
Activated sludge has "absorbed" as
percent phosphate, equivalent P04,
much as 20 to 22
dry weight basis.
For maximum phosphate removal a high degree of treat-
ment is desired, but "overtreatment," i.e., excessive
nitrification and aerobic digestion of solids; is
detrimental.
When phosphate uptake by aeration solids is highly
effective, there is no significant amount of leaching
of phosphate from the solids passing through final
clari fiers.
Maximum phosphate removal was obtained at an average
daily BOD loading rate of about 50 Ib BOD/100 Ib
aeration solids, at a sludge volume index of about
150, and when a DO level of about 2.0 mg/1 was attained
in the aeration tanks at about midpoint, and about 5
mg/1 at the effluent end.
634
-------
Vadas, R. L.
The Effects of PCB's and Selected Herbicides on the Biology and
Growth of 'Platymonas subcordiformis' and Other Algae.
University of Maine, Orono, Land and Water Resources
Institute, June 1973. 38p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-241 056).
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, herbicides, surface water
(marine).
Abstract:
Growth rates and carrying capacities for Platymonas
subcordiformis were determined using various concentra-
tions of the PCB, Aroclor 1254, and the organophosphate,
Malathion. Growth was slightly and completely
inhibited by 100 and 1000 ppb respectively of Aroclor
1254. With Malathion growth inhibition was temporary
or complete at 50 ppm or greater. At alkaline pH's
the recovery of growth, especially at 50 ppm, ,took
3 to 5 days. At higher concentrations of Malathion
recovery took longer if occurring at all. The inhibitory
effects of Malathion, Aroclor, and chlorinated hydro-
carbons are modified by inoculum densities, phase of
algal growth at which the substance is added and in
the case of the former possibly by the pH of the media.
635
-------
Vaituzis, A., J.D. Nelson, Jr., L.W. Wan, and R.R. Colwell.
Effects of Mercuric Chloride on Growth and Morphology of
Selected Strains of Mercury-Resistant Bacteria.
Applied Microbiology. 2£(2): 275-286. February 1975.
Key Words: mercury, bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
A survey of the comparative cytological effects of
growth in the presence of mercury by a group of mercury-
resistant bacterial cultures and a characterization
of the process of bacterial adaptation to Hg2~ ion
was accomplished. Mercury resistance was found to be
dependent upon the ability to volatilize mercury from
the medium and upon the amount of mercury accumulated
by the cells. The results indicate that most cultures
which adapt to growth in the presence of HgCl2
exhibit extensive morphological abnormalities.
Significant effects are delay in the onset of growth
and cell division and numerous structural irregulari-
ties associated with cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane
synthesis and function. A detailed analysis of the
adaptation process and the resulting effects on
morphology was performed on an Enterobacter sp. During
the period preceding active multiplication, a selection
for mercury-resistant mutants occurred. It was also
demonstrated that growth commenced only at a specific
threshold concentration of H'+.
636
-------
Vajdic, A. H.
Gamma Rays vs the E_._ col i Monster.
Water and Wastes Engineering. J_2:29-32. July 1975.
Key Words: Escherichia col i, fecal streptococci, salmonella.,,
radiation treatment.
Abstract:
This paper discusses a pilot plant experimentation on
the removal of virus by gamma irradiation.
637
-------
Vale, J. A. and G. W. Scott.
Organophosphorus Poisoning.
Guy's Hospital Reports. 123.03): 13-25. 1974.
Key Words: Organophosphorus pesticides, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Organophosphorus poisoning in Great Britain is
discussed. The article Includes a discussion of
incidence, absorption, action, clinical features,
cholinesterase activity, diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention.
638
-------
Vanadium: Medical and Biologic Effects of Environmental
Pollutants.
Committee on Biologic Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1974. 117p,
Key Words: vanadium, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is an excellent reference book on vanadium,
including discussions of industrial processes involving
vanadium and its components, industrial uses of vana-
dium and its components, vanadium in the environment,
and the biological effects of vanadium.
639
-------
Van Bladel, R. and A. Moreale.
Adsorption of Fenuron and Monuron (Substantial Ureas) by
Two Montmorillcmite Clays.
Soil Science Proceedings. 38^244-249. March 1974.
Key Words: herbicides, groundwater, agricultural sludge
disposal.
Abstract:
The effect of the type of clay mineral, exchangeable cation,
temperature, and electrolyte concentration on the absorp-
tion of two substituted ureas was investigated.
The adsorption was greater on a Bentonite than on a Camp
Berteau montmori11onite, possibly because the lattice
charge in the former originates from tetrahedral and octa-
hedral layers, whereas in the latter only from octahedral
layers. The adsorption increased with the polarizing power
of the exchangeable cation. Normal adsorption isotherms
were exothermic but when the temperature effect on solu-
bility was accounted for, the adsorption reaction tended
to be more and more temperature independent as the electro-
negativity of the exchangeable cation increased. Relative
thermodynamic data suggest that the favorable contribution
to the adsorption energy arises mainly from enthalpy
changes.
The effect of salt concentration was almost negligible up
to l.ON and for a given electrolyte good agreement was
obtained between the heat of solution of the herbicide
and its adsorption.
640
-------
Vance, B. D. and W. Drummond.
Biological Concentration of Pesticides by Algae.
JAWWA. £T1_(7): 360-362. July 1969.
Key Words: aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, DDT, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The data show that algae, the basic members of the
aquatic food chain, are extremely efficient potentia-
tors of pesticide residues. It is assumed that,
since concentration of many pesticides by certain
algae occurs quite rapidly, and since there is
apparently very little, if any, degradation of the
pesticides by the algae, these highly concentrated
residues can be biologically transferred to higher
members of the food chain such as rotifers and small
algal-feeding fish. The importance of this is that
most higher members of the- food chain do not appear
to be nearly as resistant to these chlorinated
compounds as do the algae, and, consequently, fish
fills and similar catastrophies may be brought about
in waters containing as little as 1 ppb of a pesticide.
Such potentiation and biological transfer has been
amply demonstrated, beginning with fish and continuing
up the food chain to man. Algae, being the primary
products in this chain, serve as an excellent tool
for the study of pathways through which accumulated
and magnified pesticide residues can find their way
into the bodies of fish in streams containing little
or no pesticide.
641
-------
van der Leeden, F., L. A. Cerrillo, and D. W. Miller.
Ground-Water Pollution Problems in the Northwestern United
States.
?Q™gh%tnd Mi!le^ J?c" Port Washington, New York, May
^ce3(S?is)(arPB!2Jl8f6S).Nati0nal T6Chni'Cal Info™ati°n
Key Words: chromium, arsenic, phosphates, bacteria,
chlorides, nitrates, groundwater, direct
contact.
Abstract:
The most significant source of ground-water contamina-
tion is the discharge of sewage from septic tank
systems. Three million people, equivalent to one-
third of the area's total population, are served by
individual septic systems. Mountain home sites in
crystalline rock areas with thin soil cover and on-
site water wells are particularly subject to pollution
of drinking water supplies from septic effluent.
High septic tank density in some urban and suburban
sections has led to regional problems.
Discharge of treated or partially treated effluent
from sewage treatment plants to rivers and streams
is a potential hazard to ground-water quality,
particularly in semi-arid regions. Shallow aquifers
in the Plains states are especially vulnerable where
unconsolidated valley aquifers are in hydraulic
connection with a river, and pumpage from wells
induces surface water to enter the aquifer.
Irrigation return flow is another pressing pollution
problem. A total of 6.3 million ha (15.5 million
acres), representing 4 percent of the project area, is
under irrigation. As of 1960, about 840,000 ha (2
million acres) were affected by alinity. Nearly 50
percent of this area was in Colorado.
642
-------
Van der Velden, W. and A. W. Schwartz.
Purines and Pyrimidines in Sediments from Lake Erie.
Science. V85.: 691-693. August 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Quantitative analysis of purines and pyrimidines in
sequential sections of cores from the central and
eastern basins of Lake Erie show steeply increasing
concentrations in the youngest sediments. This is
related to the increased loading of nutrients and
recent cultural eutrophication of the lake.
643
-------
Vanselow, A.P.
Barium.
In; Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 24-32.
Key Words: barium, ponding/land application, land reclamation,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
The author describes plant and soil criteria useful in
diagnosing barium status, the toxicity of barium to plants,
including tissue analysis values and the control of barium
excess.
644
-------
Vanselow, A.P.
Cobalt.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 142-156.
Key Words: cobalt, ponding/land application, land reclamation,
groundwater , crops .
Abstract:
Cobalt received little attention from the agricultural
standpoint until 1935. The author discusses plant and
livestock criteria in diagnosing cobalt status mentioning
syiTiptoms of cobalt deficiency, indicator plants and tissue
analysis values. He also lists kinds of soils in which
cobalt deficiency most commonly occurs and gives soil
management and other practices which aggravate or reduce
cobalt deficiency and soil analysis values of significance,
including cobalt deficiency and its control.
645
-------
Vanselow, A.P.
Nickel .
In; Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.
D. Chapman, ed. Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas,
1973. pp. 302-309.
Key Words: nickel, ponding/land application,
land reclamation, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Among the many chemical elements found in most plants,
but of unproven essentiality, is nickel. The author
discusses visual symptoms of and indicator plants
for nickel excess, tissue analysis values, soil criteria
useful in diagnosing nickel status and briefly, the
control of nickel toxicity.
646
-------
Varanka, M.W., Z.M. Zablocki, and T.D. Hinesly.
The Effect of Digested Sludge on Soil Biological Activity.
JWPCF. 4JU7) -.1728-1740. July 1976.
Key Words: zinc, nickel, chromium, lead, cadmium, copper,
total organic carbon, phosphates, nitrates,
agricultural sludge disposal, crops.
Abstract:
Studies were conducted by using soil samples collected at
three different times during the 1974 growing season from
the control and sludge-amended Blount silt loam soil.
Anaerobically digested sludge was applied each year for
a period of 6 yr, resulting in accumulative loading rates
of 0, 92, 184, and 369 metric tons/ha and an increase in
soil concentrations of Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, and P.
While concentration levels of all the heavy metals in the
maximum sludge-treated plots were above typical soil
levels, only Cd and Zn concentration levels exceeded those
that might be expected in the upper range of values reported
for normal soils.
Almost three and one-half-fold increases in P and two-fold
increases in C and N contents were found in soil samples
from maximum sludge-treated plots as compared with
concentrations in samples from control plots.
No clear-cut evidence of restrictions in microbial popula-
tions and their activities was observed. Although total
bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes populations were
never less in maximum sludge-treated plots, a significant
increase in the populations for each of the major groups
as a result of sludge applications was recorded only once
during three sampling dates. Percentage of denitrifiers,
protease, and amylase activities were increased as a result
of sludge applications, while invertase and urease activities
were unaffected by sludge treatments. An increase in
dehydrogenase activity was exhibited only in soil samples
collected from sludge-amended plots during the last sampling
period. The increase in dehydrogenase activity was probably
in response to sludge applied by furrow irrigation during
the growing season. Only the percentage of A2otobacter
and cellulase activity were each decreased by sludge treatments
at one sampling period. These two latter measurements of
microbiological changes in sludge-amended soils were Included
1n a much expanded program of studies to be conducted during
the 1975 growi ng season .
647
-------
Varma, M. W., B. A. Christian, and D. W. McKinstry.
Inactivation of Sabin Oral Poliomyelitis Type I Virus.
JWPCF. 4J5( 5):987-992. May 1974.
Key Words: polio virus, chlorination.
Abstract:
The minimum concentration of chlorine required for
complete Inactivation of the Sabin oral poliovaccine
Type I virus (L-Sc) strain, with various exposure
periods at pH 5.2 at 20°C was found to be 22 mg/1
for 5 min, 19 mg/1 for 15 min, 19 mg/1 for 30 min,
17 mg/1 for 45 min, and 14 mg/1 for 60 min.
648
-------
Vaughn, J. M. and 0. H. Ryther.
Bacteriophage Survival Patterns in a Tertiary Sewage Treatment-
Aquaculture Model System.
Aquaculture. 4_:399-406. 1974.
Key Words: viruses, aquaculture.
Abstract:
A system has been developed at the Woods Hole Oceano-
graphic Institution that combines tertiary treatment
of sewage with marine aquaculture. In this system,
unchlorinated secondary sewage effluent is initially
diluted with sea water and used as a culture medium
for the growth of unicellular marine algae. The
algae utilize and thereby remove the sewage nutrients,
and are in turn used as a food source for bivalve
mollusks (i.e., oysters, clams, mussels and scallops).
Solid wastes regenerated by the shellfish, in the form
of feces and pseudofeces, are then fed to a secondary
crop of detrital-feeding fishes (e.g., mullet) crus-
tacea (e.g., lobsters, crabs and shrimp) or other
invertebrates (e.g., polychaete worms such as Capi tel1 a
cap etata or Nereis vi yens). Dissolved wastes produced
by the shell f is~h" are u t iT i z e d by crops of macroscopic
algae such as Chondrus cri s.pus. The net products
from the system are an effluent containing lower
concentrations of nutrients than natural sea water
and valuable crops of marine animals and plants.
Initial laboratory scale experiments have been expanded
to the construction of a pilot plant facility, the
Environmental Systems Laboratory (ESL) in Woods Hole,
Mass., having a maximum capability of processing 100,000
gallons of sewage effluent per day (1 US gal = 3.785 1).
Of utmost concern is the presence of pathogenic
human viruses in the sewage effluent and their
potential threat to the social and legal acceptability
of the products of the aquaculture system. Previous
studies have shown that viruses are readily accumulated
by filter-feeding mollusks, and that ingestion of these
contaminated shellfish by humans may result in disease.
The ability of viruses to withstand the rigors of a
sewage-sea water environment and rapidly growing
algal cultures, and their resultant contamination of
shellfish species would present a serious impediment
to any commercial development of a sewage-aquaculture
system. To investigate these problems on a preliminary
basis the authors examined certain bacteriophage
survival parameters in laboratory-scale algal cultures
grown on sewage effluent.
649
-------
Vaughn, J. M. and T. G. Metcalf.
Coliphages as Indicators of Enteric Viruses in Shellfish and
Shellfish Raising, Estuarine Waters.
Water Research. £:613-616. 1975.
Key Words: viruses, Escheri.ch.ia col i , shellfish, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The practicality of a coliphage indicator system for
human enterovirus in polluted waters was studied.
Parallel examinations of sewage effluents, shellfish
and shellfish growing waters for coliphage and enteric
virus indicated a wide dissemination of coliphage
throughout the estuary, generally occurring in the
absence of detectable enteric virus activity. A
majority of the enteric virus isolations were observed
in samples yielding no coliphage activity. Under
controlled conditions, oysters were observed to accumu-
late more coliphage than enteric virus. Replication
of coliphage in the estuary during the summer months
was shown to occur when proper host cell was present.
Two major coliphage types were observed in field
samples based on that reactivity with different
Escherichia coli strains. A shift in dominant coliphage
type was seen to occur during the study. Survival
times of coliphage and enteric virus in estuary
waters along with retention values in oysters were
shown to be similar with a slight advantage shown by
coliphage.
Inability to correlate accurately coliphage and enteric
virus occurrence in field samples along with the
potential for the presence of more than one dominant
coliphage type indicated the serious shortcomings of
the coliphage indicator system as a method of enteric
virus detection, leaving its overall use in the polluted
environment subject to grave doubt.
650
-------
Vela, G. R. and E. R. Eubanks.
Soil Microorganism Metabolism in Spray Irrigations.
JWPCF. 4£(8):1789-1794. August 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
This is the report of a systematic study of the microbial
activities in a spray irrigation wastewater treatment
plant. The following points were proven by the research
reported herein.
1. Although the process water contained great amounts
of raw animal and vegetable tissues, there was no
enzymatic activity in the water.
2. Although there were large numbers of viable
bacteria in the plant effluent, these contributed
little or nothing to the purification process.
3. Specific bacterial populations had developed in
the spray fields as a result of application of the
cannery wastewater and 1t was these bacteria that
brought about hydrolysis of polymers and oxidation of
monomers in the water.
4. Only a small fraction (16 of 100 species) of the
bacterial population contributed directly to the
purification process; the majority of the population
probably contributed indirectly.
5. There was no correlation between total numbers of
bacteria and oxidative capacity of the soils in the
spray field.
651
-------
Venosa, A.D,
Ozone as a Water and Wastewater Disinfectant: Literature Review0
In: Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment. F.L. Evans, ed.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1972. pp. 83-10C
Key Words: Escherichia co1i , Clostridium welchi, parasitic
worms, Clostridium botuli nium, ozonation.
Abstract:
It is evident that there exists much controversy,
contradiction, confusion, and nonfactual subjective
judgment concerning the use of ozone for disinfection
of water and wastewater. For example, it is often
quite difficult to discern whether the authors are
discussing ozone residual or applied ozone when
reporting data on concentrations necessary for a
certain microbicidal effect. In many instances, the
method of ozone analysis is subject to critical examina-
tion. The possibility of aftergrowth of microorganisms
in a receiving water was mentioned as an inherent
problem with chlorination practices. Since aftergrowth
phenomena are presumed by many to be caused by incom-
plete disinfection due to protective effects (such as
clumps or other factors rather than propagation of
chlorine-resistant organisms), then it follows that
this problem would still be present with ozonation
provided the same protective factors are working.
Clearly, ozone is an extremely powerful oxidizing agent,
at least as effective in all aspects as chlorine.
However, there is a great need for objective, controlled,
and reproducible data on ozone disinfection technology.
Numerous questions need to be answered. What is the most
reliable and precise method of ozone analysis? Does
ozone really impart an all-or-none germicidal effect,
or is the effect a typical exponential disinfection
pattern similar to chlorine? What is the effect of
ozone on industrial wastes? What effects do the ozon-
ated effluents have on fish and aquatic life? Some
comparative work has been done on this question by
Arthur and his associates at Duluth. However, more
studies with a variety of different effluents are
needed. Finally, what is the objective estimate of the
costs of both installation and operation of ozonating
equipment? These questions are vital to a true under-
standing of ozonation, and only through thorough
evaluation and experimentation, both on a bench-scale
and pilot-plant basis, will they be answered adequately.
652
-------
Venosa, A. D. and C. W. Chambers.
Bactericidal Effect of Various Combinations of Gamma Radiation
and Chloramineon Aqueous Suspensions of Escherichia colj.
Applied Microbiology. ^5:735-744. May 1973.
Key Words: Escheric h ia co1i, chlorination, radiation treatment.
Abstract:
Methods of combining gamma radiation with chloramine
to disinfect aqueous suspensions of Escherichia coli
were investigated. Logarithmically grown cells were
exposed to the bactericidal agents sequentially (i.e.,
radiation followed by chloramine, and chloramine followed
by radiation) and simultaneously. Regardless of which
combination was used, the bactericidal effect was
always less than additive. During the phase of work
involving the simultaneous addition of both agents, it
was observed that chloramine was destroyed more
rapidly by radiation than were the organisms. Since
an increase in the bactericidal effectiveness of either
disinfectant by prior or simultaneous treatment of the
cells with the other disinfectant was not achieved in
buffered distilled water, it was concluded that
disinfection of wastewater effluents by combining
ionizing radiation with chloramine would not be econom-
ically feasible.
653
-------
Versteeg, J. P. J. and K. W. Jager.
Long-term Occupational Exposure to the Insecticides Aldrin,
Dieldrin, Endrin, and Telodrin.
British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 3JD(2) :201 -202. 1973.
Key Words: aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, epidemiology.
Abstract:
A medical survey of 233 long-term insecticide workers
has previously been published. Fifty-two of them had
left employment at the time of the original publication.
All members of this group could be traced. No unexpected
adverse effects on health were found. Their disease
pattern and general well-being were not different from
those in the original group.
654
-------
Viets, F.G., Jr. and R.H. Hag eman.
Factors Affecting the Accumulation of Nitrate in Soil, Water,
and Plants.
Agricultural Handbook No. 413. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C., November 1971. 63p.
Key Words: nitrates, surface water (fresh), groundwater^
crops, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The authors' evaluation of available information on nitrate
in soil, water, foods and feeds is that the potential
for nitrate accumulation does not pose a threat of an
environmental crisis. There is no widespread upward trends
of nitrate concentrations in foods, feeds, surface or
ground water.
655
-------
Villa, 0., Or. and P. G. Johnson.
Distribution of Metals in Baltimore Harbor Sediments.
Environmental Protection Agency, Annapolis, Maryland,
Annapolis Field Office, January, 1974. 71p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-229 258).
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, manganese, mercury,
zinc, surface water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
In order to develop a current inventory of metals
contamination of Baltimore Harbor, sediment samples
were collected at 176 stations and analyzed for Pb,
Cu, Cr, Cd, Zn, Ni, Mn and Hg using atomic absorption
spectrophotometry. Concentration levels were compared
with levels found in another highly industrialized
harbor complex, other estuarine systems and in Chesapeake
Bay sediments geographically removed from the Harbor.
Distribution patterns of various metals were related
to industrial/municipal inputs.
656
-------
Viruses in Water.
JAWWA. 61(10) :491-494. October 1969.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh), chlorination.
Abstract:
There is no doubt that water can be treated so that
it is always free from infectious microorganisms--
it will be biologically safe. Adequate treatment
means clarification (coagulation, sedimentation, and
filtration), followed by effective disinfection.
Effective disinfection can be carried out only on
water free from suspended material. The importance
of this latter point has been vividly pointed out by
researchers who describe a situation in which coli-
forms were consistently Isolated from waters contain-
ing from 0.1-0.5 mg/1 free chlorine and between 0.7-
1.0 mg/1 total chlorine after 30-min contact time.
This water had turbidity values of from 3.8 to 84
units, contained iron rust, and occasionally had
biological organisms of 2,000 units. Viruses, be-
cause of their small size, would probably more
easily become enmeshed in a protective coating of
turbidity-contributing matter than bacteria would.
For most effective disinfection, turbidities should
be kept below 1 Jackson Unit; indeed, it would be
best to keep the turbidity as low as 0.1 unit, as
recommended by AWWA water quality goals. The limit
of 5 Jackson Units of turbidity specified in the
USPHS Drinking Water Standards. 1962. is meant to
apply to protected watersbeds and not to filtration
plant effluents. With turbidities as low as 0.1 to
1, a preplant chlorine feed need be only enough to
have a 1 mg/1 free chlorine residual after 30-min
contact time. Postchlorination practice would
depend upon the ability to maintain such residuals
throughout the distribution system.
In conclusion, there does not appear to be cause for
panic or overreaction to the problem of viruses in
water. Under certain conditions, infectious hepatitis
can be transmitted by treated water, but the evidence
indicates that in such cases treatment was inadequate.
The evidence for the transmission of other enteric
viruses by treated water is, for the most part,
speculative, with the possible exception of viral
gastroenteritis and diarrhea, and nothing much is
known about these viruses. These statements, however,
do not mean we can be smug or complacent. There is
still considerable room for research, both laboratory
and epidemiologic, to determine if there is a problem
657
-------
in virus disease transmission by water; to determine
if the coliform index is always adequate (positive
coliform tests certainly indicate possible virus
contamination, but a negative coliform test may
not indicate freedom from viruses); to devise better
techniques for measuring viruses in water; to
develop a laboratory method of detecting viruses
of infectious hepatitis; and to develop a sound
method of detecting small numbers of viruses in
large volumes of water.
658
-------
Voelkel, K.G., D.W. Martin, and R.W. Deerlng.
Joint Treatment of Municipal and Pulp Mill Effluents.
JWPCF. 46.(4):634-656. April 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, gravity separators, air
flotation, centrifugal thickeners, heat treat-
ment, vacuum filters, pressure filtration,
activated sludge.
Abstract:
A combination of weak pulping effluents from the
calcium-base sulfite, ammonia-base sulfite, de-inking,
and neutral semichemical pulping processes can be
treated successfully jointly with municipal waste-
water in an activated sludge treatment plant.
Activated sludge systems that incorporate reaeration
of the return activated sludge are more stable in
treating this particular combination of wastes. Of
the four activated sludge processes studied (conven-
tional, step aeration, contact stabilization, and
Kraus), the contact stabilization process proved to
be the most successful in treating this particular
combination of wastes.
Filamentous sulfide bacteria growth in the mixed
liquor was controlled successfully by the continuous
addition of 5 to 10 mg/1 of chlorine to the return
activated sludge. Low dissolved oxygen concentrations
were not successful in controlling the filamentous
sulfide bacteria. The addition of chlorine to the
return activated sludge did not control nonfilamen-
tous bulking.
Nitrogen and phosphorous additions were required to
achieve satisfactory biological operation. There was
no advantage to adding the nutrients 1n the reaera-
tion section as opposed to the contact section of the
activated sludge process.
Satisfactory operation was achieved at dissolved
oxygen levels between 0.5 and 1.5 mg/1.
It 1s more economically advantageous to bypass these
mill effluents directly to the secondary treatment
unit than to provide primary clarification for these
effluents.
659
-------
During a consecutive period of 4.5 months of contact
stabilization pilot plant operation, the BOD, TSS,
and color removal averaged 91, 78, and 10 percent,
respectively. Increased TSS removals are expected in
a full-scale final clarifier.
660
-------
Vogt, J.E.
Impact of Wastewater Discharges on Surface Water Sources.
JAWWA. 64(2):n3-117. February 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorides, cyanides, chromium,
phosphates, coliforms, groundwater, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
Water-pollution-control agencies and their activities
are essential to the protection of sources of com-
munity water supplies.
Wastewater treatment plants are an important line of
defense in the protection of the public's health as
they relate to the water people drink and use for
domestic purposes and water that is supplied to
industry through water utilities.
There must be a direct line of communication between
the wastewater utility and the water utility it may
affect. This has proved to be very important on
many occasions.
One must continue to sharpen the tools available in
both water- and wastewater-treatment plants to do a
more effective job.
The operators of both utilities play an extremely
vital role carrying out the mandate to protect the
public health.
661
-------
Von Rumker, R., E.W. Lawless, and A. F. Meiners.
Production, Distribution, Use and Environmental Impact
Potential of Selected Pesticides.
Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City, Missouri, March
1974. 453p. (Available from National Technical Infor-
mation Service (NTIS) as PB-238 795).
Key Words: aldrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons, herbicides,
air, direct contact, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The production, distribution, use patterns, and potential
for environmental impacts of pesticides are described,
with emphasis on 25 important pesticides that were selec-
ted by applying a priority rating system to 125 major pest'i'
cides. Information on environmental impact potential,
wasteful use practices, and alternative methods of pest
control are discussed in general and in particular for each
of the intensive-study pesticides,
662
-------
Vreeland, V.
Uptake of Chlorobiphenyls by Oysters.
Environmental Pollution. 6_(2): 1 35-140. February 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, shellfish.
Abstract:
Accumulation of individual chlorinated biphenyls in
small oysters was proportional to the degree to
chlorination of the isomer and to its concentration
in seawater at environmental levels. Equilibrium
was reached after one month, with concentration
factors of 1200 to 48,000 for isomers with 2 to 6
chlorine atoms/molecule. Partitioning of PCB be-
tween more hydrophobic lipids and ambient seawater
has been rejected as the uptake mechanism.
663
-------
Wachinski, A.M., V.D. Adams, and J.H. Reynolds.
Biological Treatment of the Phenoxy Herbicides 2,4-D and
2,4,5-T in a Closed System.
Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan,
March 1974. 25p.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The Air Force is evaluating the problem of ecologically
s.afe disposal of approximately 2.3 million gallons of
surplus stock of herbicide Orange. This report pro-
vides data and information on the feasibility of using
a closed aerobic/anaerobic system for the controlled
biological (microbial) degradation of the herbicide.
Research data have shown that even massive concentra-
tions (under less than optimum conditions) of 2,4-D
and 2,4,5-T can be degraded by microorganisms in an
frame. Moreover, indications are that
be accomplished in such a manner as
introduction of toxic materials into
Specific details are provided on the
approximate cost, capacity, and size
acceptable time
the process can
to preclude the
the biosphere.
configuration,
of a proposed closed treatment facility.
664
-------
Walker, J.M.
Trench Incorporation of Sewage Sludge.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the National
Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, June 11-13, 1974.
pp. 139-149.
Key Words: nitrates, salmonella, coliforms, chlorides,
groundwater.
Abstract:
Entrenchment seems a feasible method for simultaneously
disposing of sewage sludges and improving marginal agri-
cultural land, particularly for dewatered (20 percent
solids) raw-limed sludge. The primary problem will be to
avoid pollution of groundwater with nitrate-nitrogen, as
demonstrated in test with sewage sludge '(5 and 20 percent
solids) placed in 60-cm (two-foot) wide trenches of dif-
ferent depths and spacings. For dewatered sludge, appli-
cation rates were 800 and 1200 Mt/ha (350 and 500 tons/acre)
dry solids, respectively, in trenches 60-cm wide x 60-cm
deep x 60-cm apart and 60-cm wide x 120-cm deep x 120-cm
apart.
Entrenchment prevented contamination of surface water,
buried pathogens permitting their demise during sludge
decomposition, promoted slow nitrogen release, and
favored denitrification.
665
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Walker, J.M. and G.B. Wlllson.
Composting Sewage Sludge.
Compost Science. 14(4):10-12. July-August 1973.
Key Words: col iforms , salmonella, composting.
Abstract:
Data Indicates that composting will not be an ac-
ceptable method of disposal of sewage sludge from th«
standpoint of biological pathogens. During the com-
posting process it was found that salmonellae and
fecal conform experience a gain.
666
-------
Wallace, R.N. and D.E. Burns.
Factors Affecting Powdered Carbon Treatment of a Municipal
Wastewater.
JWPCF. 48(3):511-519. March 1976.
Key Words: suspended solids, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This is original research describing soluble organic
removal by a powdered carbon system, 50% by physical
adsorption, 50% by anaerobic biological activity.
667
-------
Waller, O.H.
Pollution from Combined Sewer Overflows.
In; Proceedings of the Conference on Pollution, St. Mary's
University, Halifax, August 1969. pp. 67-80.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, conforms, combined municipal
and/or storm systems.
Abstract:
This article is a fairly popular review of the nature and
extent of problems associated with combined sewers and
the work undertaken by the Atlantic Industrial Research
Institute that is intended to provide answers to some
of the questions that appear when attempts are made to
solve the problems.
668
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Wai 1i han , E.F.
Iron.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 203-212.
Key Words: iron, ponding/land application, land reclamation,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
The one widespread, and perhaps universal, symptom of
iron deficiency in green plants is a reduced concentration
of chlorophyll, a condition commonly known as "chlorosis".
The author describes confirmatory tests and indicator
plants for iron deficiency, tissue analysis values, soil
criteria useful in diagnosing iron status control and
methods of correcting iron deficiency.
669
-------
Wallihan, E.F.
Tin.
In; Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 476-477.
Key Words: tin, crops,
Abstract:
Tin occurs in all soils, primarily as resistant minerals
and is generally a biologically innocuous element. There
appears to be no substantial evidence that tin is essential
or beneficial to plants in any way, and it has not been
shown to be detrimental under field conditions.
670
-------
Walter, C.M., F.C. June, and H.G. Brown.
Mercury in Fish, Sediments, and Water in Lake Oahe, South
Dakota.
JWPCF. 4£( 10) .-2203-2210. October 1973.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
The primary finding of this study was that fish with
total mercury concentrations in excess of 0.5 mg/kg
occurred with higher frequency in samples collected
from the Cheyenne River arm than in samples from any
other location in Lake Oahe or its tailwaters. High-
est concentrations were found in northern pike and
walleye, although eight other species of game or com-
mercially caught food fishes showed concentrations
equal to or above 0.5 mg/kg. Thus, there is public
concern as well as scientific interest in the mer-
cury content of fish in this reservoir.
Because tailings and effluents containing mercury
from the Homestake Mining Company mill at Lead-
Deadwood have been deposited in Whitewood Creek
and have been positively identified in water, sedi-
ments, and fish samples collected downstream from
the discharge site, it seems that mercury from the
company sources enters the water and sediments and
is carried by tributaries into the Cheyenne River
arm. This conclusion is supported by the fact that
higher concentrations of mercury were found in mid-
channel sediment samples from the Cheyenne River arm
and by the decrease of concentrations in samples in
a downstream direction. Both the latter findings
might be expected because the sediment load from the
Cheyenne River moves through the old river channel
of the upper Cheyenne arm, and, except during periods
of heavy runoff, much of the sediment load settles
out in the upper reach. The mercury content of the
dredge samples, therefore, may not represent the
total amount of mercury present in the Lake Oahe
sediments, but it suggests a possible source of the
mercury found in fish.
Although Homestake Mining Company discontinued the
use of mercury in its gold recovery process in
December 1970, sampling in 1971 by EPA demonstrated
that effluents discharged into Whitewood Creek still
contained an estimated 1.1 kg of mercury/day. Thus,
a monitoring program to assess the incidence and
671
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concentration of mercury in fish in the future seems
desirable. Fish sampling for this type of program
might be limited to several indicator species includ-
ing northern pike and walleye. In view of the circum-
stances surrounding the incidence and distribution of
mercury in the Cheyenne River system and the absence
of other known industrial or agricultural sources of
mercury in the area, there is a unique opportunity to
make a thorough investigation of the cycling of mer-
cury in a freshwater ecosystem and the fate and ef-
fects of mercury in that ecosystem after the source
has been reduced or removed.
672
-------
Walter, M.F.
Nitrate Movement in Soil Under Early Spring Conditions.
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Water Resources Center,
1974. 161p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-240 094).
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, time of year,
land reclamation, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Physical transport mechanisms and chemical transfor-
mations of nitrogen were investigated and a quantita-
tive mathematical model was•developed of manure ni-
trogen movement through soil profiles under typical
early spring conditions. Nitrogen transformation
studies were conducted with batch systems of Plain-
field sand and anaerobic dairy waste. Laboratory
soil columns were used to investigate flow and
transport processes. The specific conditions stud-
ied were temperatures from 0° to 20°C soil moisture
from 5 to 20% by dry soil weight, soil pH from 6 to
8, and aerobic soil environment. The quantity of
nitrate in an incremental volume of soil depended
upon its movement in or out of the soil volume due
to mass flow of water and to the net production of
nitrate within the volume of soil due to mineraliza-
tion of organic nitrogen and nitrification of ammo-
nium. Nitrate accumulation as predicted by the com-
puter model was based on nitrification of added
manurial ammonium and soil nitrogen mineralization.
Estimates of solute dispersion were made based on
the movement of the soil water after infiltration.
673
-------
Wang, W.C.
Adsorption of Phosphate by River Particulate Matter.
Water Resources Bulletin. 10^:662-671. August 1974.
Key Words: phosphates, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The adsorption of phosphate on particulate matter
from the Illinois and Spoon Rivers was investigated
Adsorption reached equilibrium after 5 to 6 days
and adsorption isotherms were linear for both con-
stant and varying amounts of particular matter. Ad-
sorption was a maximum at pH 8.3 and a minimum at
6.0.
674
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Wang, W.L.L., S.G. Dunlop, and P.S. Muncon.
Factors Influencing the Survival of Shigella in Wastewater
and Irrigation Water.
JWPCF. 18(11) :1775-1781. November 1966.
Key Words: shigella, surface water (fresh), groundwater.
Abstract:
In fresh wastewater, the survival of Shi gel la
flexneri II is independent of the number of natural
phage particles present, but is significantly better
when the total plate counts are low and the natural
temperature low.
In Irrigation water, the survival of shigella is
also independent of natural phage, but is better
with lower total counts and lower temperatures.
A controlled study with wastewater using 2 tempera-
tures, 15° and 25°C, showed significantly better re-
covery of shigella at the lower temperature.
There is no simultaneous increase in bacteriophage
to correspond with the poor recovery of shigefla
added to wastewater or irrigation water.
675
-------
Ward, P.S.
Carcinogens Complicate Chlorine Question.
JWPCF. 46_(12):2638-2640. December 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination.
Abstract:
This paper discusses general safety concerns of
producing carcinogenic chemicals through chlorin-
ation .
676
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Warner, T.B.
Mixing Model Prediction of Fluoride Distribution in
Chesapeake Bay.
Journal of Geophysical Research. 72.: 27 28-27 37 . May 1972.
Key Words: fluorides, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
If estuarine waters are simple
and sea water, then amounts of
pected at a given location (if
or sink within the system) can
measured chlorinities and knowledge of the
tion of fresh- and sea-water inputs. This
mixtures of river water
trace constituents ex-
there is not a source
be predicted from
composi-
simple
model was tested by comparing measured and predicted
fluoride concentrations in Chesapeake Bay surface
water and was found to predict the distribution with-
in 2 to 3% depending on the variability of input
fresh-water sources. Thus there are no important
sinks for fluoride within the system. This approach
allows identification of non-conservative species
and can be useful for the quick identification of
the probable direction toward and magnitude of
sources of conservative polluting substances. Var-
iations in input waters can be reliably inferred
from measurements in the body of the estuary far
from the source.
677
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Wastewater Filtration: Design Considerations.
EPA Technology Transfer, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., July 1974. 36p.
Key Words: suspended solids, filtration.
Abstract:
The key questions involved in the proper design of
granular filters for the filtration of secondary
effluents have been discussed, and design recom-
mendations have been presented. These recommenda-
tions are summarized as follows:
The varia-ble hydraulic and suspended solids in sec-
ondary effluents must be considered in the design to
avoid short filter runs and excessive backwash-water
requirements.
A filter that allows penetration of suspended solids
(e.g., a coarse-to-flne filtration system) is essen-
tial to obtain reasonable filter run lengths. The
filter media on the influent side should be at least
1 to 1.2 mm.
The backwash-water flow rate should be large enough
to fluidize the coarser-sized grains of each compo-
nent of the filter media. More uniform media sizes
will reduce the backwash flow rate required and are
thus desired, even though the cost of the media will
be increased.
Auxiliary agitation of the media is essential to pro-
per backwashing. Either air scour or surface (and
possibly subsurface) washers should be installed.
The effect of recycling of used backwash water through
the plant on the filtration rate and filter operation
must be considered 1n predicting peak loads on the
filters and resulting run lengths,
The filtration rate and terminal headloss should be
selected to achieve a minimum filter run length of
6 to 8 hours during peak-load conditions. This re-
quirement will mean an average run length of about
24 hours if flow equalization 1s not provided. Esti-
mates of headloss development and filtrate quality
preferably should be based on pilot-scale observa-
tions at the particular Installation. If such stud-
ies are not feasible, headloss development should be
based on past experience on the suspended solids
capture per foot of headloss Increase from other
siml1ar Instal1atlons.
678
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High filtration rates (3 gal/min/ft2 or higher at av-
erage load) and/or high influent suspended solids to
the filters (30 mg/1 or higher at average load) will
cause high terminal headlosses and may favor the use
of pressure filters over gravity filters, especially
for smaller plants with limited capital resources.
Lower filtration rates or lower influent suspended
solids may permit the economical use of gravity fil-
ters, especially in larger plants where multiple
filters will be needed. At least two, and prefer-
ably four, filters should be provided. If only two
filters are provided, each should be capable of
handling peak design flows to allow for one filter
to be out of service for backwashing or repair. If
four or more gravity filters are provided, the vari-
able declining-rate method of operation is strongly
recommended.
This publication does not attempt to present detailed
discussion of all elements of filter design that have
been well established in water-treatment practice and
are presented in various text books. Rather, the em-
phasis is on the differences between water-treatment
practice and wastewater-treatment practice, which
must be considered for successful design of waste-
water fiIters .
679
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Water Quality Criteria Data Book. Vol. II: Inorganic
Chemical Pollution of Freshwater.
Water Pollution Control Research Series. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, July 1971. 280p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-208 988}
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, ger-
manium, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum,
nickel, selenium, thorium, tin, uranium, zinc,
ammonia, nitrates, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This is an excellent reference giving levels of con-
taminants in all U.S. surface waters. In addition
there is a great deal of information on toxicologal
effects.
680
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Water Quality Criteria Data Book. Vol. Ill: Effects of
Chemicals on Aquatic Life.
Water Pollution Control Research Series. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, May 1971. 528p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-213 210).
Key Words: fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
This volume is not directly applicable to public health
considerations; however, it is a compendium of the effects
of various chemicals on aquatic life.
681
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Water Quality Criteria Data Book. Vol. IV: An Investiga-
tion into Recreational Water Quality.
Water Pollution Control Research Series. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, April 1972. 256p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-214 154)
Key Words: polio virus, coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, adeno
virus* coliforms, fecal streptococci, drinking
and recreational water, salmonella.
Abs tract:
The Envirogenics Co., under sponsorship of the EPA,
has developed a new technique for establishing firm
criteria for health risks associated with recrea-
tional water bodies. Initial analysis of data re-
quired in this methodology has demonstrated that
scientifically valid standards for recreational
water quality can be formulated that should replace
the present rather arbitrary standards.
The basis of the method is a mathematical treatment
of medical dose-response data in conjunction with the
probability of exposure over a period of time to a
given level of the potentially harmful "factor" such
that a quantitative risk can be assigned to the re-
creational activity. Once a public health jurisdic-
tion has established an acceptable level of risk
(perhaps in association with Federal quality guide-
lines), curves produced by electronic data processing
equipment can be used to ascertain whether a particu-
lar water should be open to the public.
While sufficient data have been found on both the
health effects and the distribution of key factors
to verify the effectiveness of the recommended pro-
cedure, informational gaps prevent the immediate
adoption of the system. The gathering of informa-
tion to establish realistic standards for key health-
oriented factors would be an undertaking that could
be accomplished in a relatively modest program. Once
the essential information is obtained, it will be
possible to put into practice the new Envirogenics-
developed criteria procedure with the most critical
factors. This„advancement would be of great signi-
ficance to the entire field of water quality stan-
dards .
682
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Water Quality Criteria Data Book. Vol V: Effects of Chemicals
on Aquatic Life.
Water Pollution Control Research Series., U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, September 1973. 537p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-234 435).
Key Words: other (general) elemental, other (general)
pesticides, fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
This article 1s not directly applicable to public health
considerations, however, the article 1s a compendium of
the effects of various chemicals on aquatic life.
683
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Water Scare May Boost Pollution Cleanup.
Chemical Engineering. 82(6):31-32. March 17, 1975,
Key Words: synthetic/organic?^ chlorinated hydrocarbons,
drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
EPA's search for the sources of drinking-water contaminants
could force reduction of some pollutants sooner and more
extensively than planned.
684
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Watkins, S.H.
Coliform Bacteria Growth and Control in Aerated
Stabilization Basins.
Crown Zellerbach Corporation, Camas, Washington, Environ-
mental Sciences Division, December 1973. 301p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-231 259).
Key Uords: coliforms, bacteria, BOD, chlorination, surface
water (fresh), fish, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The State of Oregon has a standard of 1000 coli-form bacteria
(coliforms) per 100 ml for recreational waters. Secondary
effluent from a sulfite mill in Lebanon, Oregon consi stently
had the potential to increase the coliform population in the
South Santiam River to concentrations greater than 1000
per 100 ml. This provided an opportunity to determine
factors responsible for high coliform levels in an industrial
waste and to develop methods for reducing their numbers.
The high concentrations of coliforms in Lebanon effluent
were not due to their growth during secondary treatment but
rather reflected development at earlier stages. In a small
scale system, coliforms were reduced to acceptable levels
in a secondary treatment unit by killing them in the
incoming wastes. Methods for accomplishing this on a full
scale were not found, therefore disinfection was investi-
gated as an alternative. A modified chlorination system
which employed caustic injection into the chlorinator's
water supply was the most effective treatment tested. The
ability of the process to reduce coliforms to acceptable
levels in the South Santiam River was demonstrated.
Chemical analyses and fish bioassays showed that the process
would not contribute toxic chlorine residuals to the
receiving waters. Rapid methods for estimating colicidal
activity are described. Factors which affect coliform
populations in mill systems and those which affect chlorine
activity are discussed.
685
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Watling, L., W. Leathern, P. Kinner, C. Wethe, and D. Maurer.
Evaluation of Sludge Dumping off Delaware Bay.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. £(3):39-42. March 1974.
Key Words: aluminum, iron, zinc, manganese, lead, cadmium,
chromium, copper, tin, cobalt, barium, beryl-
lium, boron, molybdenum, surface water (marine)
Abstract:
Sewage sludge from Philadelphia and Camden has been
dumped off the mouth of Delaware Bay since 1961. Lo-
cal residents have claimed that sludge is washed a-
shore, is a health hazard and has impoverished the
fauna of the seabed in the area. In the survey re-
ported here, an assessment has been made of the
composition and abundance of the benthic marine
fauna of the dumping grounds.
686
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Wauchope, R.D. and R. Haque.
Effects of.pH, Light and Temperature on Carbaryl in Aqueous
Media.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
9.(5):257-260. May 1973.
Key Words: synthetic/organlcs, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Carbaryl (N-methyl-1-naphthylcarbamate) has been shown to
degrade after estuarine application to products which are
toxic to some marine species, and solution pH, light and
temperature have been shown to be significant factors in
determining the rate and pathway of degradation. Light
irradiation of carbaryl solutions of various pH has shown
that it is the naphthoxide ion produced by carbaryl hydro-
lysis in basic solution which is particularly sensitive
to photo-oxidation.
687
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Weaver, P.O.
Phosphates In Surface Waters and Detergents.
JWPCF. 4U(9):1647-1653. September 1969.
Key Words: phosphates, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This is a brief description of the sources and control
of phosphates in water as well as their role in deter-
gents. While necessarily sketchy, it is hoped that
the complexities of the different aspects have been
emphasized. There has been no intention of taking an
argumentative position defending phosphates; if phos-
phates are truly the key to controlling eutrophica-
tion, then the detergent industry is as interested as
anyone else in finding ways to prevent them from get-
ting into surface waters. The industry's efforts in
trying to find answers exemplify its interest. Sup-
ported studies on removal of phosphorus, sources of
phosphorus, the basic causes of eutrophication , etc.,
at such institutions as the Universities of Califor-
nia, Cincinnati, Illinois, Texas, Penn State, and
others, testify to this. Also, in response to the
Secretary of the Interior, the industry has announced
that it will continue to seek suitable replacements
for phosphates in detergent products, although can-
didly it holds forth little hope for finding such new
materials since they have been sought for performance
reasons for over 20 yr, without success. Neverthe-
less, the industry will continue to do its part when-
ever possible, and will hope to make a real contribu-
tion toward solving the overall eutrophication problem.
688
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Webb, S.J.
Factors Affecting the Viability of Air-Borne Bacteria.
I: Bacteria Aerosolized from Distilled Water.
Journal of Canadian Microbiology. 5^:649-669. December 1959
Key Words: bacteria,air.
Abstract:
The death of bacterial cells aerosolized from dis-
tilled water suspensions has been studied over a
5-hour period. It was found that death occurred
in two stages, a rapid initial kill taking place
within the first second and a subsequent slower
death. First-order kinetics only applied to this
secondary death at low relative humidity ranges,
and this is taken to indicate that at least two re-
actions are responsible for viable decay. The death
rates of the air-borne cells have been correlated
with a mathematical function of both temperature and
humidity. Activation energies associated with aero-
sol death have been found to increase from 4000 cal/
mole to 12,000 cal/mole as the cells age in air. It
is suggested that the death of the cell results from
the movement of water molecules in and out of the
cell, in an equilibrium system, resulting in a col-
lapse of the natural structure of cellular protein.
689
-------
Webb, S.J.
Factors Affecting the Viability of Air-Borne Bacteria.
II: The Effect of Chemical Additives on the Behavior of
Air-Borne Cells.
Journal of Canadian Microbiology. 6_:71-88. January 1960.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
The effect on air-borne cells of single chemical com-
pounds added to a bacterial suspension prior to atomi-
zation has been studied. It has been found that some
amino acids, long chain protein degredates, some sugars
and polyhydroxycyclohexanes can enhance the survival
of air-borne cells. The ability of a compound to pre-
serve viability during periods of desiccation has been
found to be connected with the presence of an amino
and/or secondary alcohol group. For maximal protec-
tion these groups need to be substituted onto a six-
membered ring nucleus. The hydroxyl group has been
found toxic if present on a benzene ring, but pro-
tective on a pyrimidine ring. Inositol was found to
afford a large measure of stability to the air-borne
cells and its stabilizing ability could be destroyed
by urea and guanidine. It is suggested that com-
pounds enhance survival by replacing water molecules
in protein structure during desiccation through hy-
drogen bonding and so preserve the natural structure
of the cellular proteins. Peaks in death rates at
intermediate relative humidity levels have been
found to be due to the presence of the added com-
pounds .
690
-------
Webb, S.J.
Factors Affecting the Viability of Air-Borne Bacteria. Ill:
The Role of Bonded Water and Protein Structure in the Death of
Air-Borne Cells.
Journal of Canadian Microbiology. 6_:89-105. January 1960.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
The relationship between cellular water and the death of
air-borne cells, and the effect of added substances on
these relationships, has been studied. The rate of death
of air-stored cells has been correlated with the amount
of water bonded to the cellular proteins. Refractive
indices of cells, measured by light scatter and interfero-
metry, have suggested that cells suspended in solutions of
various compounds contain less water. With the exception
of urea, the more able a compound is in displacing water,
the less its protectiveness to air-borne cells. Inositol
produced the smallest change in the water content and
refractive index of cells. This is taken to indicate that,
in the absence of water, this compound can form hydrogen
bonds with cellular protein which are reversible with
water. There appears also to be some relationship between
the Gram stain reaction and aerosol stability of the cells.
Ribonuclease and lysozyme treatment of air-stable cells
rendered them air sensitive, whereas resistance to some
antibiotics, and suspension in some antibiotics, afforded
stability to air-sensitive cells. It is suggested that
the site of damage is the cellular "membranes" which break
down on desiccation and result in a loss of differentiation
within the eel 1.
691
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Weber, W.J. and J.C. Morris.
Equilibria and Capacities for Adsorption on Carbon.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division,
ASCE. 9£(SA3):79-107. June 1964.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Although rates of uptake of organic solutes by granular
carbon in nonflow systems previously have been shown to
be quite low, the research reported herein has demonstrated
that the ultimate capacity is great, on the order of 25
percent by weight for adsorption of materials such as nitro-
chlorobenzene and approximately 15 percent by weight for
adsorption of high molecular weight sulfonated alkylbenzenes
on the experimental carbon. Capacities on this order of
magnitude are considerably greater than normal capacities
realized for powdered carbon used presently (1964) for water
treatment, because a standard phenol value of 30 means
adsorption of 90 micrograms of phenol by 30 milligrams of
carbon, or approximately 0.3 percent by weight. Further-
more, high capacities have been observed for quite low con-
centrations of solute -- approximately 3 micromoles per
liter, or about 1 milligram per liter -- for surfactants
of high molecular weight.
692
-------
Weber, W.J., Jr. and L.H. Ketchum, Jr.
Activated Silica in Wastewater Coagulation.
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, College of Engineering,
June 1974. 168p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-232 454).
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The role of activated silica in coagulation of waste-
waters with lime was examined. Laboratory studies
were conducted on synthetic wastewaters to simulate
certain wastewater characteristics and verification
studies were conducted on samples of natural waters
and wastewaters. For high alkalinity wastewaters
activated silica provides no substantial benefit;
reasons for the loss of effectiveness are discussed.
For low alkalinity wastewaters however, significant
(3 to 10-fold) reduction in lime requirement is pos-
sible; the addition necessary to accomplish this lime
reduction is small, 2 to 4 mg/1 as Si02. In low al-
kalinity wastewaters high in phosphate concentration
(approximately 7 mg/1 as PO^) coagulation is accom-
plished with low lime addition only; multinuclear
silica is as effective and in most cases more effec-
tive than activated silica. This treatment scheme
may provide a convenient method of treating storm
and combined sewer discharges which are commonly
1 ow in a 1ka 1ini ty.
693
-------
Weber, W.J., Jr., C.B. Hopkins, and R. Bloom, Jr.
Physicochemical Treatment of Wastewater.
JWPCF. 42(l):83-99. January 1970.
Key Words: BOD, total organic carbon, chemical treatment,
adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
A physicochemical coagulation/adsorption process for
direct treatment of wastewater has been developed
and field tested for a 1-yr period in a pilot faci-
lity treating approximately 7,200 gpd (27.3 cu m) of
wastewater. The concept of applying physicochemical
treatment directly to a primary wastewater, rather
than to a water which has undergone biological second-
ary treatment, represents a signif-icantly different
concept in the application of advanced processes for
wastewater treatment.
Consistent TOC and BOD removals of 95 to 97 percent
have been maintained, despite variations in waste
strength and composition. Toxic substances which
adversely affect biological treatment processes
have little or no effect on the physicochemical
process. The effluent produced by the physico-
chemical process is essentially free of suspended
solids and contains only about 5 mg/1 or less of
TOC and BOD, compared with average TOC and BOD val-
ues of about 30 to 35 mg/1 for the same wastewater
when treated conventionally.
In addition, the physicochemical treatment process
generally achieves a high degree of removal of phos-
phate (about 90 percent) and nitrate (about 95 percent)
inorganic algal nutrients which normally are not re-
moved effectively by conventional biological waste-
water treatment.
Preliminary cost estimates, based on published cost
figures derived from statistics on actual plants,
have indicated that this high degree of treatment
is achieved at reasonable cost. Physicochemical
treatment of an average municipal wastewater to
produce an effluent quality sufficient to meet most
demands for reuse and for control of receiving water
pollution may cost about $0.16/1,000 gal (3.8 cu m),
including amortization of the capital. On a compa-
rable basis, conventional primary-secondary biological
694
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treatment, which can achieve only about 80 to 90 per-
cent organic removal and little or no nutrient removal,
costs about $0.11/1,000 gal (3.8 cu m). If tertiary
treatment is added to the latter to achieve the same
high degree of treatment achieved in the physico-
chemical process described here, the total cost is
estimated to be $0.26/1,000 gal (3.8 cu m). A fac-
tor which does not appear in these figures, but which
should be pointed out, is that the physicochemical
process would occupy only about 25 percent of the
land area required by a biological treatment plant
of the same capacity.
, •
Another significant advantage of the physicochemi cal
treatment system is flexibility afforded in plant
design, relative to both plant capacity and to de-
gree of treatment. The physicochemical process per-
mits plant design for modular additions to accommo-
date growth in size as well as to accommodate in-
creasing requirements for effluent quality. For
example, an effluent quality comparable to that ob-
tained from an activated sludge process can be a-
chieved with a carbon adsorption system providing
a relatively brief carbon contact period; as require-
ments for improved effluent quality develop, addi-
tional adsorption units simply can be added to pro-
vide more contact time, and more effective removal
of organic material. Similar flexibility is pro-
vided with respect to removal of suspended matter
by coagulation and filtration, and removal of phos-
phates by precipitation.
It is anticipated that results similar to those re-
ported here will be achieved readily in larger plants
scaled up from the pilot plant. It appears desirable
now to demonstrate the effectiveness of this type of
treatment on a scale of 0.5 to 1 mgd (1,892 to 3,785
cu m) to obtain final criteria for design of physico-
chemical treatment plants of any desired size.
695
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Wei, I.W. and C. Morris.
Dynamics of Breakout Chlorination.
j_n_; Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution.
J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975» pp. 297-332.
Key Words: chlorination.
Abstract:
In order to understand properly the dynamics and the
mechanism of the breakpoint process, it is essential
to have detailed information about its time course, that
is, about the rate of reduction of chlorine (loss of oxi-
dizing chlorine) and about the formation and reaction of
various chloramines.
In an attempt to elucidate major aspects of kinetics and
mechanism, this work focused on the dynamics of the pro-
cess during the first hour or so. No attempt was made to
cover the broad pH ranges and the chlorine to nitrogen
ratios dealt with by others. Only pH values near neu-
trality and the maximum rate of the breakpoint process,
and the chlorine to nitrogen ratios close to that of the
breakpoint itself were investigated.
696
-------
Wei, I.W., R.S. Engelbrecht, and J.H. Austin.
Removal of Nematodes by Rapid Sand Filtration.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
95.(SA1):1-16. February 1969 .
Key Words: parasitic worms, filtration.
Abstract:
From laboratory experiments on the removal of nema-
todes by rapid sand filtration, the following con-
clusions may be drawn:
1. The removal of nematodes was about 96% regard-
less of sand size when all the nematodes in the in-
fluent were dead or nonmotile.
2. When all the nematodes in the influent were dead
or nonmotile, the percent removal of nematodes was
constant over an entire filtration period of 16 hr
with a nematode concentration in the influent as high
as 50 nematodes per 1.
3. A breakthrough of nonmotile nematodes when only
nonmotile nematodes were present was not found at
concentrations less than 50 per 1.
4. The penetration of nonmotile nematodes increased
as the hydraulic resistance of the filter sand de-
creased ,
5. The motility of nematodes had a much more signi-
ficant effect than sand size upon the percent removal
of nematodes by rapid sand filtration.
6. Most motile nematodes could eventually penetrate
the filter bed although they were temporarily retained
in the filter bed during the early stages of filtration
7. Motile nematodes appeared to cause dislodgment of
a significant fraction of the nonmotile nematodes ini-
tially removed by the filter.
8. Sands with higher hydraulic resistance and the use
of chemical pre-treatment methods could reduce the dis-
lodging effect of motile nematodes providing the per-
centage of motile nematodes was low.
9. The predominant factor in determining the percent
of nematode removal was the percent motile nematodes
697
-------
in the influent, regardless of sand size.
10. The removal of nematodes decreased as filtra-
tion time increased until an equilibrium was reached.
This was due to the penetration of motile nematodes
and dislodging of nonmotile nematodes by motile
nematodes.
698
-------
Weibel, S.R., R.B. Weidner, A.G. Christiansen, and R.J. Anderson,
Characterization, Treatment, and Disposal of Urban
Stormwater.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1966(1): 329-352.
Key Words: suspended solids, COD, BOD, coliforms,
chlorides, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
1. Increasing population, urbanization, and demands
on water .resources require increased efforts to con-
serve, cleanse, and reuse available water and force
attention to pollution from land runoff and rainfall.
2. This study indicated that inorganic nitrogen and
hydrolyzable phosphate in rainfall average 0.69 mg/1.
and 0.24 mg/1., respectively; both exceed SAWYER'S
threshold levels for algal blooms. Organic chlorine
content in rainfall averaged 0.28 g/1. DDT, DDE,
and BHC have been identified in rainfall at Cincinnati.
3. Study of stormwater runoff from a 27-acre (11-ha)
residential and light-commercial urban area indica-
ted the following constituent averages: suspended
solids, 227 mg/1.; volatile suspended solids, 57 mg/1.;
COD, 111 mg/1.; BOD, 17 mg/1.; inorganic nitrogen,
1.0 mg/1.; total hydrolyzable phosphate, 1.1 mg/1.;
and organic chlorine, 1.70 g/1. Some or all of these
could be of significance, depending on the environment.
4. Constituent loads in the urban runoff mentioned
above, calculated both on an annual basis and on the
basis of daily discharges during storms, and compared
with sanitary sewage production at a 9-person/acre
(22-person/ha) population density, indicated that the
pounds (kg) of suspended solids discharged annually
in the runoff equal 160 percent of those produced as
sanitary sewage; COD, 33 percent; BOD, 7 percent;
total hydrolyzable phosphate, 5 percent; and total
nitrogen, 14 percent. During runoff, stormwater
runoff constituent discharge rates, expressed as
percentages of average raw sewage constituent pro-
duction rates at the same population density men-
tioned above, are: suspended solids, 2,400 percent;
COD, 520 percent; BOD, 110 percent; total hydrolyzable
phosphate, 70 percent; and total nitrogen, 200 percent.
699
-------
5. Coliforrrij fecal coliform, and fecal streptococcus
tests were made on the urban runoff samples. Coliform
densities were greater than 2,900/100 ml in 90 percent
of the samples, exceeding the 1,000/100 ml criterion
for swimming-water quality in use in many places in
the United States.
6. In a few exploratory laboratory tests on urban
runoff samples, settling only for 10 or 20, and more
minutes did not remove suspended solids and BOD ef-
fectively.
7. Results from laboratory concurrent 20-min
settling-chlorine-contact experiments on urban run-
off from one storm on the same watershed show that
kills of better than 99.999 percent for coliforms
and fecal coliforms and 99.99 for fecal strepto-
cocci were obtained at a 4.62-mg/l. chlorine dose.
There was after-growth of coliforms in dechlorinated
samples held 24, 48, and 72 hr at room temperature,
but substantially no growth of fecal coliforms and
fecal streptococci at and beyond the 4.62-mg/l. dose
(including 18.46 mg/1., the highest dose tried).
This work is being continued.
8. The sandy soils on Long Island, New York, are used
as recharge basins for stormwater disposal. These
basins, which are cheaper than long, artificial con-
duit systems in flat terrain, are used to dispose of
road drainage, dwelling project stormwater runoff,
industrial stormwater runoff, and treated wastewater.
9. Because of the increasing needs for conservation
and effective use of all available water resources,
urban stormwater, not necessarily "running off", must
play an important role as a readily available raw
water resource. This study indicates that in many
cases this water may require manipulation and modi-
fication in character before it is acceptable for
the many and varied beneficial uses to which it can
be put.
700
-------
Weibel, S.R., R.B. Weidner, A.G. Christiansen, and R.J. Anderson
Characterization, Treatment, and Disposal of Urban
Stormwater.
Munich Abstracts - Section I. 3JJ(3) :337-338. March 1966.
Key Words: BOD, COD, suspended solids, phosphates, com-
bined municipal and/or storm system.
Abstract:
Studies on stormwater runoff from a residential-1ight
commercial urban area in Cincinnati over a year's
time indicated BOD's ranging up to 84 mg/1 , COD's to
610 mg/1, suspended solids to 1,200 mg/1, total nitro-
gen to about 10 mg/1, and total soluble phosphate to
4.3 mg/1. Organic chlorides were as high as 2.7mg/l.
701
-------
Weibel, S.R., R.B. Weidner, J.M. Cohen, and A.G. Christiansen.
Pesticides and Other Contaminants in Rainfall and Runoff.
JAWWA. 58.(8):1075-1084. August 1966.
Key Words: pesticides, DDT, BOD, COD, ammonia, nitrates,
nitrites, phosphates, coliforms, groundwater.
Abstract:
Rain is an efficient means in the natural global cleaning
process by which gases and participates in the atmosphere
are brought to earth. As rainwater reaches surface either
as runoff or seepage, or directly, as on a lake, its
quality is significant in pollution control.
Although considerable reporting has been done on rainfall
analyses for minerals, very little appears to have been
done on pesticides.
Water quality control and conservation research should
generate answers to questions on the quality of rainfall
and runoff and the significance of contaminants contained
therein. Multiple benefits in water conservation, lower
stormwater peak flows, and water pollution control are
involved.
702
-------
Weidenkopf, S.J.
Inactivation of Type 1 Poliomyelitis Virus with Chlorine.
Virology. 5.(l):56-67. 1958.
Key Words: polio virus, chlorination.
Abstract:
The rate of inactivation of type 1 poliovirus was studied
as a function of free available chlorine and hydrogen
ion concentration at 0°. Highly purified poliovirus
suspensions were used to hold chlorine losses to insig-
nificant level. Results indicated that under the experi-
mental conditions employed, the same general theories
which are useful in explaining inactivation of other
microorganisms also apply to type 1 poliomyelitis and
the rate of inactivation is independent of the virus
concentrati on.
703
-------
Wei dner , C.W.
Degradation in Groundwater and Mobility of Herbicides.
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Department of Agronomy,
June 1974. 77p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-239 242).
Key Words: herbicides, direct contact, groundwater.
Abstract:
Laboratory studies were conducted to determine the de-
gradation rates for atrazine, alachlor, butylate and
picloram stored in groundwater. A significant amount
of herbicide degradation occurred over the duration of
the experiment. The rate of degradation was dependent
on chemical properties of the herbicide, concentration,
storage temperature and to a lesser extent the source
of the water samples. Butylate showed the largest
amount of degradation followed by alachlor, atrazine
and picloram respectively. The 0.072 and 0.72 ppmw
concentration samples result in more degradation than
the 10 ppmw concentration samples. The samples stored
resulted in more degradation than the samples stored at
IOC. Water samples from the Clay Center location
showed more herbicide degradation than the other three
water sources. While herbicide degradation in ground-
water did occur, the rate was much slower than would be
expected for the same herbicides in a soil medium.
704
-------
Weidner, R.B., A.G. Christiansen, S.R. Weibel, and G.G. Robeck,
Rural Runoff as a Factor in Stream Pollution.
JWPCF. 41(3):377-384. March 1969.
Key Words: BOD, COD, coliforms, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The results of this work indicate that rural runoff is
a factor in stream pollution and that it must be con-
sidered when one evaluates the quality of any stream or
receiving body of water. However, there also must be
an awareness that there are some means available for
reducing this pollutional load. This study showed that,
despite an increase in the amount of fertilizers and
manure applied under improved practices, there was a
marked decrease in the amount of pollutional load that
came from these watersheds as contrasted to the load from
watersheds using prevailing practice.
705
-------
Wellings, P.M., A.L. Lewis, and C.W. Mountain.
The Demonstration of Solids-Associated Virus in Wastewater
and Sludge.
Epidemiology Research Center, State of Florida Division
of Public Health, Tampa, Florida, 1975. 14p.
Key Words: viruses, effluent characteristics, anaerobic
digestion.
Abstract:
Data presented demonstrate the relatively high multi-
plicity of solids-associated virus in field samples,
i.e., wastewater, sludge and soils. Influent, effluent
and chlorinated effluent samples showed 16.1% to 100%
of the total virus demonstrated in samples to be solids-
associated. Three techniques for freeing solids-associ-
ated virus are described and compared. Utilizing soni-
cation of solids and polyethylene glycol concentration,
virus was demonstrated in fully digested sludge (60 days
at 34°C), sand at the site of a sewer leak, dried sludge
cake and mud 900 meters downstream from a sewage disposal
site. These data emphasize the inadequacy of virus con-
centration techniques which do not include the processing
of solids. In-situ elution failed to free solids-associ-
ated vi rus .
706
-------
WelHngs, P.M., A.L. Lewis, C.W. Mountain, and L.V. Pierce.
Demonstration of Virus in Groundwater after Effluent Discharge
onto Soi1.
Applied Microbiology. 4£(6) :751-757. June 1975.
Key Words: viruses, direct contact.
Abstract:
The survival of virus present in secondary effluents
discharged into a cypress dome was studied. Isolations
were made from concentrates of water drawn from 10-foot
(304.80 cm) deep wells. Data presented show vertical
and lateral virus movement as well as survival within
the dome for 28 days during a period of heavy rains
when no effluent was being applied. Due to the in-
efficiency of virus concentration procedures, it is
proposed that much of the virus present was probably
not demonstrated. A rapid, relatively Inexpensive con-
centration technique for sewage Influents and effluents
is discussed.
707
-------
Mailings, P.M., C.W. Mountain, A.L. Lewis, J.L. Nitzkin, M.S.
Sas.law, and R.A. Graves.
Isolation of an Enterovirus from Chlorinated Tap Water.
Personal Communication. 1975.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh), drinking and
•recreational water.
Abstract:
An outbreak of enterovirus disease occurred in a migrant
labor camp in Dade County, Florida, in March, 1975.
Epidemiological evidence amassed by Dade County Depart-
ment of Public Health personnel appeared to indicate
that cases resulted from a common source. One of the
ten 100 gallon samples of suspect potable water tested
for virus yielded an ECHO 22/23 complex. This agent
was also isolated in cell culture from two of 23 stools
tested. Three additional stool isolates, a Coxsackie A6
and two Coxsackie A2's, were made in newborn mice.
Six weeks later, a hepatitis outbreak occurred and
presented an epidemic curve which could be superimposed
on that of the shorter incubation period enterovirus
outbreak. None of the Coxsackie A's identified could
have been detected in the cell line used for assaying
all water samples, so their presence in the tested waters
would have gone undetected.
Water supplied by this private utility company is drawn
from wells located in the center of an area served by sep-
tic tanks and is chlorinated before entering the distri-
bution lines. Combined chlorine of the water tested
ranged from 0.4 to 0.6 ppm.
708
-------
We 11 ings, P.M., A.L. Lewis, and C.W. Mountain.
Pathogenic Viruses May Thwart Land Disposal.
Water and Wastes Engineering. l_2:70-74. March 1975.
Key Words: viruses, groundwater.
Aostract:
This article is a general write-up of viral problems
of land disposal; no data is presented.
709
-------
Wellings, P.M., A.L. Lewis, and C.W. Mountain.
Virus Survival Following Wastewater Spray Irrigation of Sandy
Soils.
Epidemiology Research Center, State of Florida, Tampa.
Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, 1974.
Key Words: viruses, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
An important aspect of this study is the use of PEG for
virus concentration. This method brings the monitoring of
effluents within the purview of any laboratory. No ex-
pensive equipment or particular expertise is required
for concentrating viruses by this method. The concentrate
could readily be shipped to a virus laboratory equipped
to isolate and identify viruses, extending to the sanitary
engineer the expertise of the limited number of virus
laboratories in the nation. At the moment, there is
on-going work on a design to permit the use of PEG for
concentrating up to 30-gallon samples which, based on the
percent efficiency demonstrated, would be comparable to
MA concentration of 50-100 gallons.
710
-------
Wellings, P.M., A.L. Lewis, and C.W. Mountain
Virus Survival Following Wastewater Spray Irrigation of Sandy
Soils .
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
MlTlina, Jr. and B.P. Sagik, ed. University of Texas at
Austin, Center for Research in Water Resources, 1974.
pp. 253-260.
Key Words: viruses, pon'di ng/1 and application.
Abstract:
These studies have confirmed the findings of others which
have shown that secondary wastewater treatment processes
including chlorination do not provide a virus free ef-
fluent. More importantly, these studies have shown that
virus does survive aeration and sunlight during spraying
and percolation through 10 to 20 feet of sandy soil.
Various possibilities have been considered in an attempt
to explain the positive deep well findings. The most
obvious would be the loss of integrity of the wells.
Major factors mitigating against this are the variation
in pH and buffering capacity of the well waters. The
pH of water in the 5-foot wells ranges from pH = 6.6 to
pH = 7.4, in 10-foot wells from pH = 3.5 to pH - 4.0 and
in the 20-foot wells from pH = 6.4 to pH = 6.8. Based on
these data, integrity of the 10-foot well could not be
questioned. The similarity between the pH of the 5-
and 20-foot wells is o-pen to speculation. However, when
the buffering capacity of the waters is considered, one
must assume that waters at 5- and 20-foot levels are not
comparable. To achieve pH = 3.5 necessary for membrane
filtration, the quantity of acid required in 50 gallons
of water from the 5-foot well is approximately 55 ml of
12N HC1 as opposed to 75 ml of 12N HC1 in 50 gallons from
the 20-foot we!1.
Secondly, if there were a communication between surface
and deep waters, one would anticipate frequent positive
findings as opposed to the burst of virus demonstrated.
Also, a mixed virus population such as is found in the
chlorinated specimens would be expected. As has been
shown, the virus burst in both the 10- and 20-foot wells
was all polio type 1, which suggests that this virus
may be more stable in the terrestrial environment or may
have been selectively desorbed.
It is generally accepted that the soil/water ratio is of
prime importance in virus adsorption to soil particles.
Following the heavy rains (28 inches) in July, August,
and September, the soil was saturated, resulting in an
exceedingly high soil/water ratio. It is proposed that
711
-------
this led to increased solubility of select portions of
the organic layer and probably additional desorption of
attached virus. As the waters began to recede these
solutes and the desorbed virus resulted in filtration
difficulties and the virus burst demonstrated in the
10-foot well. Once virus has passed the organic layer
there would be no reason to anticipate resorption since
they would then be in a high water/soil ratio zone. It
would be anticipated that the virus present would move
freely downward as the waters receded. This may explain
the decreasing virus contamination of the 20-foot well
noted six days after the virus burst in the 10-foot well.
If the same phenomenon is observed following another
period of heavy rainfall, our theory will be verified
and would necessitate a re-evaluation of the ultimate
dangers of aquifer contamination over time from waste-
water spray irrigation.
A second important aspect of this study is the use of PEG
for virus concentration. This method brings the monitor-
ing of effluents within the purview of any laboratory.
No expensive equipment or particular expertise is required
for concentrating viruses by this method. The concentrate
could readily be shipped to a virus laboratory equipped
to isolate and identify viruses, extending to the sanitary
engineer the expertise of the limited number of virus
laboratories in the nation. There is work .at the moment
on a design to permit the use of PEG for concentrating
up to 30-gallon samples which, based on the percent ef-
ficiency demonstrated, would be comparable to MA concen-
tration of 50-100 gallons.
712
-------
,, C. and A.H. Molof.
crification in the Biological Fixed-Film Rotating Disk System
IPCF. £6(7):1674-1685. July 1974.
ey Words: ammonia, nitrites, nitrification/denitrification,
rotating biological disk.
astract:
The BFFRD system is an efficient treatment unit for
ni tri fication.
Increasing flow rate at a constant influent concentration
decreased the nitrification efficiency of the BFFRD
reactors.
Decreasing detention time from 96 min to 24 min per stage,
by varying flow and influent concentration at a constant
organic and ammonia-nitrogen loading had no significant
effect on the nitrification efficiency of the BFFRD re-
actors .
Decreasing detention time from 48 min to 17 min per stage
by varying reactor volume at a constant organic and am*
monia-nitrogen loading had no significant effect on the
nitrification efficiency.
Increasing influent concentration ?t a constant flow
resulted in a decrease in nitrification efficiency.
Increasing the disk surface area increases the nitri-
fication efficiency.
Increasing liquid temperature from 20.7° to 29.3°C in-
creased the nitrification efficiency.
Increasing the rotational disk speed increased the
nitrification efficiency.
The rotational direction of the disks has some effect on
the nitrification efficiency; counter-current direction
gives somewhat higher efficiency than does co-current
di recti on.
The submerged disk depth had little if any effect on the
nitrification efficiency of the reactors, provided that
the whole disk surface was covered with a film of waste-
water.
713
-------
Wentink, G.R. and J.E. Etzel.
Removal of Metal Ions by Soil.
JWPCF. 44(8):1561-1574. August 1972.
Key Words: chromium, copper, zinc, land reclamation, ponding/
land application.
Abstract:
Exchange capacity of the three soils tested increased
as the clay mineral content increased and the particle
size decreased.
Complete removal of chrome was possible up to concentra-
tions of 300 mg/1 with any of the soil types tested.
Removal of copper was complete after an initial condition-
ing period for any of the three soil types tested.
Removal of zinc at application rates as high as 300 mg/1
can be accomplished with an efficiency of not less than
99.7 percent.
Mass-action effect was observable for all soil types
tested when the chrome, copper, or zinc was applied
indi vidually.
Removal of metal ions by the three soil types tested was
accomplished by an ion exchange mechanism.
Regeneration of the three soil types tested was found
to be possible.
Leachability of the exchanged ions in the soil types
tested was essentially non-existent when either tap
water or deionized water was used as the leachate.
714
-------
Wesner, G.M. and D.C. Baier.
Injection of Reclaimed Wastewater into Confined Aquifers.
JAWWA. 62_(3) :203-210. March 1970.
Key Words: chlorides, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
COD, iron, manganese, boron, lead, effluent
characteristics, groundwater, trickling filter,
ponding/land application.
Abstract:
One barrier against seawater intrusion into an aquifer is
a line of barrier injection wells several miles inland,
with pumping wells between them and the shoreline.
Treated wastewater offers a supply of injection water,
and research reveals how it flows, changes in composition,
and otherwise behaves in the aquifer surrounding the
injection we!1 .
715
-------
Westing, A.M.
Ecocide: Our Last Gift to Indochina.
Environmental Quality. 4L(5}:36-42, 62-65. May 1973.
Key Word: herbicides.
Abstract:
In this article the author describes the major programs
that he feels will make the Second Indochina War go
down in history as the first anti-environmental war:
the effects of bombing, the resulting craterization
as well as chemical warfare with herbicides, etc.
716
-------
Weston, R.F., J,E. Germain, and M.E. Fiore.
Solving the Combined Sewer Overflow Problem of a Major City
Public Works. 101(5):106-108 . May 1972.
Key Words: BOD, phosphates, ammonia, nitrates, suspended
solids, combined municipal and/or storm system.
Abstract:
This paper gives data on the parameters (general) in
combined and separate storm sewers.
717
-------
Whetstone, G.A.
Re-Use of Effluent in the FuturejWith an Annotated Bibliography
Texas Water Development Board, Austin, Texas, 1965. 187p.
Key Words: surface water (marine), drinking and recreational
water.
Abstract:
This report cautions about possible adverse health effects
from the future use of sewage effluent for recreational
uses.
718
-------
White, A.M., A.P. Barnett, B.C. Wright, and J.H. Holladay.
Atrazine Losses from Fallow Land Caused by Runoff and Erosion,
Environmental Science and Technology. 1_(9 ): 740-744.
September 1967.
Key Words: herbicides, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
From present information concerning toxicity levels of
this herbicide, concentrations of the above magnitude
probably would not constitute a serious pollution hazard
to fish or wildlife. Rats fed daily for 2 years with
food containing 200 ppm atrazine were comparable in
every respect to controls. Other tests have shown that
the minnow (P h o xi n u s phox in us.) is unharmed when exposed
to atrazine concentrations of 0.5 ppm for 48-hr periods.
On the other hand, the long-term impact of pesticide
residues upon biological systems is not well understood,
and the possibility exists that subtle effects not
readily apparent may exist. A detailed discussion of
this subject is beyond the scope of this paper.
In actual practice, a number of factors will influence
the amount of atrazine appearing in washoff, and losses
could vary from those reported in this paper. The
recommended application rate of atrazine (3 pounds per
acre) was used in this study. Greater losses would be
expected if higher rates were used. Storm size and
intensity and soil temperature conditions will influence
the degree of loss. Also, erosion and runoff will vary
with different soils and slopes.
The results from this study indicate that atrazine is
transported in small but significant amounts in washoff
from field plots of Cecil sandy loam. At recommended
application rates of this herbicide and under field and
rainfall situations most likely to be encountered,
atrazine losses in washoff from soils and slopes similar
to those of this study would be expected to occur most
commonly in amounts of less than 0.1 pound per acre in
the first storm after the herbicide application. Losses
in subsequent storms should be progressively less than
this amount.
719
-------
White, G.C.
Disinfecting Wastewater with Chlorination/Dechlorination.Part I
Water and Sewage Works. JJLL(8) :70-71 . August 1974.
Key Words: coliforms, chlorination.
Abstract:
This report discusses chlorination chemistry and mathe-
mati cs.
720
-------
White, G.C.
Disinfection Practices in the San Francisco Bay Area.
JWPCF. 16(1) :87-101 . January 1974.
Key Words: coliforms, chlorination.
Abstract:
Mixing is of major importance to good disinfection
performance, and because it is not adjustable, the
mixing device must be well planned.
Proper mixing allows maximum performance with a minimum
amount of chlorine.
The higher the chlorine demand, the more efficient must
be the mixing, other things being equal.
The data indicate that the optimum dosage for disinfection
of domestic wastewater not allowing for industrial waste
or other constituents causing abnormal chlorine demands
is usually between 10 and 15 mg/1. One plant with an ideal
system uses a dose between 3.5 and 4.5 of chlorine.
The optimum residual (measured amperometrical ly) with
adequate mixing such as in a hydraulic jump seems to be
between 3 to 4 mg/1 with not less than 30 min contact
time.
It seems not only possible but practical to disinfect
a primary effluent.
The quality of the effluent is not of paramount impor-
tance in achieving disinfection.
Contact time should not be less than 30 min for any
molecule of water passing through the contact chamber.
721
-------
White, R.L. and T.G. Cole.
Dissolved Air Flotation for Combined Sewer Overflows.
Public Works. 104:50-54. February 1973.
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, COD, ammonia, nitrates,
combined municipal and/or storm system.
Abstract:
The City and County of San Francisco developed a compre-
hensive program for control of wet weather flows. The
program consisted of design, construction, operation, and
evaluation of a demonstration dissolved air flotation
facility for the treatment of combined sewer overflows.
722
-------
Wiley, B.B. and S.C. Westerberg.
Survival of Human Pathogens in Composted Sewage.
Applied Microbiology. 1_8 :994-1001 . December 1969.
Key Words: salmonella, polio virus, fungal organism, com-
posting.
Abstract:
Studies were conducted to assess the effectiveness of an
aerobic composter in destroying pathogens that may
possibly be present in raw sewage sludge. Experiments
conducted in this study were designed to determine whether
or not selected indicator organisms (i.e., Salmonella new-
port, poliovirus type 1, Ascari s 1umbricoides ova, and
Ca n d i d a a1bjc an s) could survive the composting process.
The results of the assay showed that after 43 hr of com-
posting, no viable indicator organisms could be detected.
The poliovirus type I was the most sensitive, being in-
activated within the first hour, whereas C. albicans
was the most resistant, requiring more than 28 hr of
composting for its inactivation. The data from this
study indicated that aerobic composting of sewage sludge
would destroy the indicator pathogens when a temperature
of 60 to 70 C is maintained for a period of 3 days.
723
-------
Wilhelmi , A.R. and R.B. Ely.
A Two-Step Process for Toxic Wastewaters.
Chemical Engineering. 8^(4):105-109. February 16, 1976.
Key Words: DDT, antibiotics, BOD, COD, wet air oxidation,
trickling filter.
Abstract:
A combination of wet-air oxidation and biological
treatment in the presence of powdered carbon has
demonstrated an ability to handle chemical wastes.
724
-------
Wilhelmson, G.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Occurrence and Degradation.
Pesticide Abstracts . 7^5:1808. 1975.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, chlorination.
Abstract:
Studies and facts on the occurrence, migration, and
degradation of PCB's in the environment are reviewed.
The acute toxicity, being rather moderate, decreases
with the increase of the rate of chlorination in some
animal species, and increases in others. Contamination
of the atmosphere, soil, and water bodies by PCB's is
possible, while direct entrainment by animals is negli-
gible. Because of their 1iposolubi1ity PCB's, especially
those with high chlorine content, accumulate in the en-
vironment and through the trophic chain, especially in
aquatic organisms and ichthyophagous birds in which
cumulation factors of up to 1,000,000,000 may be reached.
While chemical degradation of PCB's in the environment
is negligible, photolysis, especially of compounds with
high chlorine contents, or dechlorination to compounds
with reduced chlorine contents are highly probable.
Excretion and metabolism of PCB's was observed in certain
higher animals. Compounds with low chlorine content are
subject to microbial degradation.
725
-------
Wilkinson, H.F.
Movement of Micronutrients to Plant Roots.
In: Micronutrients in Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer, ed.
Soil Science SociPtv of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972,
pp. 139-169.
Key Words: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, ponding/
land application, land reclamation, groundwater,
crops.
Abstract:
It can readily be seen that our present understanding
of the movement of micronutrients to roots is still rather
qualitative. We need to understand much more clearly
the boundary conditions and hopefully the concentrations
of ions at the root surface. It is increasingly evident
that the plant root itself provides H+, chelating agents,
reducing compounds, and substrates that build high con-
centrations of microorganisms and a whole host of their
by products, all of which drastically modify the chemistry
of the immediate rhizosphere. Many of these compounds
produced by the root are particularly effective in mobil-
izing the micronutrient ions and increasing their sub-
sequent flux to the root. The fact that exudation of
some of these mobilizing materials is closely associated
with deficiency concentration levels of particular micro-
nutrients mobilized by the exudate suggests that some
plant genotypes have developed response mechanisms that
allow them to more efficiently extract micronutrients
from soils deficient in these metals. This presents a
more complex and challenging model than the simple physical
models used in most past studies. Moreover, differences
in exudation and micronutrient uptake efficiencies noted
between varieties appear to offer a potential for solving
many of our problems of mobilizing micronutrients by plant
selection and breeding, as an alternative to chemical
treatment of the soil. While this alternative might at
first appear to be the exclusive domain of the crop
breeders, examination of the specific procedures involved
shows that a bsic understanding of plant soil interactions
will be necessary to develop the screening techniques
that are pre-requisites to efficient identification of
stress-adapted plants.
Most soils contain adequate quantities of the micro-
nutrients. The main limitation in micronutrient supply
is usually movement of these tightly bound elements to
the root surface. Fortunately, they may be mobilized by
several types of organic chemicals. It appears that these
chemicals may be supplied by direct addition to the soil,
or by selection and breeding of varieties that manufacture
these mobilizing agents.
726
-------
Willenbrink, R.
Wastewater Reuse and Inplant Treatment
AIChE Symposium Series. 69_(135) : 153-1 54. 1973.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, filtration, chemical
treatment, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Foul waters containing hydrogen sulfide, phenol and
ammonia, spent phenolic and sulfidic caustic, and other
soluble organic waste materials are generated within
refineries. The way to improve effluent quality is in-
plant reuse and recycling and treatment at the source.
Methods are described.
727
-------
Williams, J. and E.G. Bennett.
Blodegradation of Oleates.
JWPCF. 15(8):1671-1681. August 1973.
Key Words: oil and grease, manganese, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Oleates and hydroxyoleates, because of their uses 1n
many commercial products, are potential hazards to
environmental quality. The establishment of the de-
gradablHty or nondegradabl 11 ty of these compounds
Is Important because of their possible adverse effect
on both environment and public health should they persist
1n nature while resisting biological decomposition. Be-
cause most of these compounds were found to be utilized
by £_._ aeruglnosa 1n the concentrations found 1n waste-
water ."TTlssaTe to assume that in the near future the
consumption of them will increase. This increase in
usage will be a result of the fact that they do not cause
pollution problems in reasonable concentration and that
they are biodegradable substitutes for the non-oxidizable
synthetic detergents or phosphate-containing detergents.
The practicality of this research, then, lies in the
fact that the degradability of olelc and hydroxyoleic add
salts and esters, which were potential pollutants, has been
established, along with an efficient degrading soil organ-
ism, P. aeruginosa.
728
-------
Williams, J.H.
Use of Sewage Sludge on Agricultural Land and the Effects of
Metals on Crops.
Water Pollution Control. .74:635-644. 1975.
Key Words: zinc, copper, nickel, lead, cadmium, chromium,
mercury, agricultural sludge disposal.
Abstract:
Care needs to be taken in the application of sewage
sludge containing industrial waste from metal industries,
as certain metals are toxic to crops. Those which are
likely to prove toxic to plant growth are zinc, copper
and nickel, and the high content of these metals in some
sewages renders them entirely unsuitable for agricultural
use. Once a harmful concentration of these toxic metals
is built up in soils, the effect can be permanent. Zinc
and nickel are absorbed by plant roots and are readily
translocated within the plant, whereas copper tends to
be concentrated in the roots. Crops vary greatly in
their sensitivity to these metals but when considering
safe threshold levels of metals for crop plants it is
advisable to err on the side of safety since future
cropping patterns may change.
There is little or no evidence that lead, cadmium or
mercury adversely affects plant growth; however, these
metals could be a health hazard if the crops consumed by
animals or man have accumulated abnormal amounts of these
metals. Lead is readily precipitated under neutral con-
ditions (pH 6.5} and only a very small proportion of the
total lead in soil is absorbed by plant roots. This
absorbed lead is almost entirely retained in the roots.
Cadmium is much more readily taken up by roots and dis-
tributed throughout the plant. Crops grown on soil
treated with cadmium-fortified sludge accumulate sub-
stantial amounts of cadmium, therefore this element
could constitute a health risk to animals which consume
crops grown on land treated with cadmium contaminated
sludge. Evidence is lacking on the behavior of mercury
in soils but it is probably adsorbed on to organic matter
and is not leached out very readily. It is taken up by
roots but is not readily translocated into the aerial
parts of the plant. The concentrations of mercury nor-
mally present in sewage sludge are not likely to give
rise to hazardous concentrations in crops grown on sludge
treated soil, but evidence is lacking on the behavior
of both mercury and cadmium, and further studies are
requi red.
729
-------
Williams, L.G., J.C. Joyce, and J.T. Monk, Jr.
Stream-Velocity Effects on the Heavy Metal Concentrations.
JAWWA. §1(4) :275-279. April 1973.
Key Words: copper, iron, mercury, zinc, cadmium,
effluent characteristics, chlorination.
Abstract:
The study shows that heavy metals most often are associated
with suspended and colloidal particles in significant
concentration and that the relative concentration increases
with bottom scours produced by heavy rains. These con-
ditions may have several implications fon the public
health: first, these metals are concentrated by phyto-
plankters and are further concentrated by zooplankters
feeding on phytoplankters. The latter are prey for
filter-feeding fish, such as the threadfin shad, which is
one of the principal food-chain organisms of bluegill and
bass fishes. First, bluegills (also known as bream) in
the Oliver and Warrior pools were found with mercury
concentrations in their muscle tissues as much as four
times the 5,000-ppb limit set by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration. Second, the decreased water quality
enhances the domination of aquatic communities by dense
nuisance populations of blue-green algae and slime bac-
teria. Third, the belief that dilution can be the
solution to pollution is no longer valid, as many indus-
trial concerns and their engineers have led the general
public to believe. Fourth, this condition has led to
the destruction of a favorable balance of microbes and
plankton at low trophic levels, of which the general
public has little or no comprehension.
730
-------
Williams. T.C. and S.K. Malhotra.
Phosphorus Removal for Aerated Lagoon Effluent.
JWPCF. 46(12):2696-2703. December 1974.
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment, ponding/land
application.
Abstract:
Pilot plant studies for phosphorus removal from aerated
lagoon effluent Indicated that a Urne (CaO) dose of 150
mg/1 with sludge recycle was as effective as a lime dose
of 250 to 300 mg/1 as CaO. The sludge obtained with a
150 mg/1 Hme dose had good settling characteristics and
was estimated to be about 2.5 tons of dry solids mil
gal (3.785 cu m) with above 15 percent volatile matter.
The effluent pH with this Hme did not warrant neutral-
ization of the effluent before Its discharge Into sur-
face waters.
The results of the pilot study have been used to design
a 2.5-mgd (9,470 cu m/day) tertiary wastewater treatment
facility with one shift operation. This facility can
also provide effective treatment for combined wastewater
flows up to 7.5 mgd (28,410 cu m/day) by the operation of
chemical precipitation units for more hours on days
following a rainfall.
The design requiring one shift operation has a number of
advantages. These are: lower labor costs for operation;
the ability to handle combined sewer flows, which reduces
the urgency of complete separation; the possibility for
future Increase 1n design load with minimum additional
capital expenditure; and the operation of chemical pre-
cipitation units at a uniform rate on any day, which
results 1n a final effluent of uniform quality.
731
-------
Wilson, I.E. and M.D.R. Rlddell.
Nitrogen Removal: Where Do We Stand?
Water and Wastes Engineering. TJ_:56-61. October 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, nitrification/
denitrification, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This is a review of what nitrogen processes are and
removal of nitrogen compounds thereof.
732
-------
Windom, H.L.
Geochemical Interactions of Heavy Metals in Southeastern Salt
Marsh Environments.
Skidaway Institute of Oceanography, Savannah, Georgia, March
1976. 46p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-252 250).
Key Words: iron, manganese, cadmium, mercury, surface
water (mari ne).
Abstract:
This report summarizes the results of a three year study
of the transport, fate, and geochemical interactions of
mercury, cadmium, and other inorganic pollutants in the
southeastern coastal littoral-salt marsh environment.
The general objectives of the study were to determine:
1) the rate of input of these materials to salt marsh
estuaries, 2) the geochemical interaction they experi-
ence there and, 3) their ultimate fate in coastal littoral
waters.
733
-------
Wlndom, H.L.
Mercury Distribution 1n Estuarlne-Nearshore Environment.
Journal of the Waterways, Harbors, and Coastal Engineering
Division, ASCE. 99^:257-265. May 1973.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This article discusses mercury transport through
estuaHne environment to open waters Including
diagramming an estuarlne system. Data Includes mer-
cury 1n nearshore waters, plant uptake, and sedimenta-
tion loss.
734
-------
Wing, R.E.
Corn Starch Compound Recovers Metals from Water.
Industrial Wastes. 21(l):26-27. January/February 1975.
Key Words: copper, nickel, cadmium, lead, chromium, zinc,
Iron, manganese, mercury, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
A corn starch compound, Insoluble starch xanthate, offers
Industry a new way to recover metals dissolved 1n water.
Recovering expensive metals at Industrial plants permits
their reuse, conserves them as limited natural resources,
and reduces dangers of toxic levels 1n public water supplies
and dty sewage sludge.
735
-------
Wing, R.E., C.L. Swanson, W.M. Doane, and C.R. Russell.
Heavy Metal Removal with Starch Xanthate-Cati oni c Polymer Complex
JWPCF. i6.(8) :2043-2047. August 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, iron, manganese,
mercury, nickel, zinc, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Wastewater containing
being discharged. Th
presented will remove
discharge limits witb
CjJ2+, Pb2+, Hg2+, Ni2
removed. Considerabl
are removed at large
levels exceed Illinoi
ables in the xanthate
heavy metal removal.
heavy metals must be treated before
e starch xanthate-PVBTMAC method
most heavy metals to below Illinois
a single treatment. Cdz , Cr3+,
+, and Ag+ are essentially completely
e amounts of Fe2+, Mn2+, and Zn2+
initial concentrations, but residual
s effluent limits. Several vari-
method may be changed to improve
736
-------
Wing, R.E., W.M. Doane, and C.R. Russell.
Insoluble Starch Xanthate: Use in Heavy Metal Removal.
Journal of Applied Polymer Science. Jj):847-854. 1975.
Key Words:
copper, nickel, cadmium, lead, chromium,
zinc, iron, manganese, mercury, chemical
silver,
treatment.
Abstract:
Water-insoluble starch xanthates were prepared by
xanthation of highly crosslinked starches under various
conditions. After isolation of the products by solvent
dehydration, freeze drying, or spray drying, their properties
were determined. These products were very effective in
removing heavy metals from water.
737
-------
Wlnton, E.F., R.G. Tardlff, and L.J. McCabe.
Nitrate 1n Drinking Water.
JAWWA. 63(2):95-98. February 1971.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrites, drinking and recreational
water, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This paper discusses methemoglobln, a nitrate disease
1n Infants; particulars of the disease; how 1t develops
and at what levels of nitrates.
738
-------
Wlxson, B.G., A. Aletl, N.L. Gale, J.G. Jennett, and J.D.
Morgan.
An Interdisciplinary Investigation of Environmental Pollution
by Lead and Other Heavy Metals from Industrial Development 1n
the New Lead Belt of Southeastern Missouri.
University of Missouri, Rolla, June 1972. 213p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-227 460).
Abstract:
The primary objective was to develop a comprehensive
Interdisciplinary team with the capability of studying
the Impact of trace metals on a unique field ecosystem.
This formerly undisturbed ecosystem had recently become
stressed by the Introduction of heavy metals caused by
the relatively recent advent to lead mining, milling,
and smelting operations 1n the area. A second objective
was the conception of a research proposal to explore the
techniques and collect the data required to develop an
applied environmental model which could be used to pre-
dict the effects of lead and other trace metals on the
ecosystem. This Information could then become a model
study to develop a national program of ecological pro-
tection from environmental pollution by lead and other
heavy metals.
739
-------
Wolf, H.W.
Biological Aspects of Water.
JAWWA. 6!(3):181-188. March 1971.
Key Words: coliforms, hepatitis virus, coxsackie virus,
Adeno virus, polio virus, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In the first article, Biological Problems with Reused
Water, the author explains that there are four types
of organisms that can pollute reused water: bacteria,
viruses, algae, and parasitic protozoa. He describes
what the dangers are from each, what methods are available
for detecting the pathogens, and what can be done to rid
the system of them, if such action is necessary.
740
-------
Wolf, H.W., R.S. Safferman, A.R. Mixson, and C.E. Stringer.
Virus Inacti vati on during Tertiary Treatment.
JAWWA. 66(9):526-553. September 1974.
Key Words: viruses, polio virus, BOD, COD, ammonia, nitrates,
nitrites, suspended solids, phosphates, chemical
treatment, activated sludge, influent character-
istics, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The large-scale pilot studies conducted herein demon-
strated that virus removals from secondary effluents
by alum coagulation-sedimentation and coagulation-
sedimentation-filtration processes are essentially the
same as described in the 1iterature using smaller-scale
processes. Removals of bacterial virus as high as 99.845
percent for coagulation-sedimentation and 99.985 percent
for coagulation-sedimentation-filtration processes were
observed at an A1:P ratio of 7:1.
At a lower alum dose there was a marked decrease in virus
removals. At an A1:P ratio of 0.44:1, removals of only
46 percent of f% coliphage and 63 percent of poliovirus
by the coagulation-sedimentation process per se were
observed.
High lime treatment of secondary effluents achieved very
high degrees of virus removal, but the percentage has not
yet been quantified. No viable poliovirus Type 1 particles
were recoverable from sludge samples taken at the optimum
viral dosage times. Since viruses added in these tests
were probably not imbedded in particulates that could
protect them from the adverse high pH environment, these
results must be interpreted with caution.
741
-------
Wolf/H.W., R.S. Safferman, A.R. Mlxson, and C.E Stringer.
Virus Inactivatlon during Tertiary Treatment.
In.: Virus Survival 1n Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
Mallna, Jr. and B. P. Saglk, eds. University of Texas at
Austin, Center for Research 1n Water Resources, 1974.
pp. 145-157.
Key Words: virus, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The rather large-scale pilot studies conducted herein.
demonstrated that virus removals from secondary effluents
by alum coagulation-sedimentation and coagulatlon-
sedimentation-filtration processes are essentially
as described 1n the literature using smaller scale
processes. Removals of bacterial virus as high as
99.845 percent for coagulation-sedimentation and 99.985
percent for coagulat1on-sed1mentat1on-f11tratlon processes
were observed at an A1:P ratio of 7:1.
At a lower alum dose, a marked decrease 1n virus removals
occurred. At an A1:P ratio of 0.44:1, removals of only
46 percent of f? collphage and 63 percent of pollovlrus
by the coagulation-sedimentation process per se were
observed .
High-lime treatment of secondary effluents achieved very
high degrees of virus removal, the percentage not yet
quantifiable. No viable pollovlrus 1 particles were
recoverable from sludge samples taken at the optimum
viral dosage times. Since viruses added 1n these tests
were not likely Imbedded 1n partlculates that could
protect them from the adverse h1gh-pH environment, these
results must be Interpreted with caution.
742
-------
Wolverton, B.C.
Aquatic Plants for Removal of Mevlnphos from the Aquatic
Environment.
N.A.S.A. National Space Technology Laboratories, Bay Saint
Louis, Mississippi, February 1975. 8p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as N75-16206).
Key Words: organophosporous pesticides, surface water
(fresh).
Abstract:
Fragrant waterllly (Nymphaea odorata. Alt.), joint-grass
(Paspalum dlstlchum L.). and rush (Juncu? repens . M1chx.)
were used to evaluate the effectiveness of vascular
aquatic plants 1n removing the Insecticide mevlnphos
(dimethyl-1-carbomethoxy-1 propen-2-yl phosphate) from
waters contaminated with this chemical. The emersed aqua-
tic plants fragrant waterllly and joint-grass removed 87
and 93 ppm of mevlnphos from water test systems 1n less than
2 weeks without apparent damage to the plants; whereas
rush, a submersed plant, removed less Insecticide than the
water-soil controls. Water-soil control still contained
toxic levels of this Insecticide, as demonstrated by fish
bloassay studies, after 35 days.
743
-------
Wolverton, B.C.
Water Hyacinths for Removal of Cadmium and Nickel from Polluted
Waters.
N.A.S.A. National Space Technology Laboratories, Bay Saint
Louis, Mississippi, February 1975. lip. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as N75-16129) .
Key Words: cadmium, nickel.
Abstract:
Removal of cadmium and nickel from static water systems
utilizing water hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.)
Solms) was investigated. This aquatic plant demonstrated
the ability to rapidly remove heavy metals'from aqueous
systems by root absorption and concentration. Water hya-
cinths demonstrated the ability to absorb and concentrate
up to 0.67 mg of cadmium and 0.50 mg of nickel per gram
of dry plant material when exposed for a 24-hour period to
waters polluted with from 0.578 to 2.00 ppm of these toxic
metals. It is found that one hectare of water hyacinths
has the potential of removing 300 g of cadmium or nickel
from 240,000 liters of water polluted with these metals
during a 24-hour period.
744
-------
Wolverton, B.C.
Water Hyacinths for Removal of Phenols from Polluted Waters.
N.A.S.A. National Space Technology Laboratories, Bay Saint
Louis, Mississippi, February 1975. 18p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as N75-16128) .
Key Words: synthetic/organics.
Abstract:
Removal of phenol by water hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes
(Mart.) Solms) in static water was inveTsTi gated.2.I1> g
dry weight of- this aquatic plant demonstrated the ability
to absorb 100 mg of phenol per plant per 72 hours from
distilled water, river water, and bayou water. One hectare
of water hyacinth plants is shown to be potentially capable
of removing 160 kg of phenol per 72 hours from waters
polluted with this chemical.
745
-------
Won, W.D. and H. Ross.
Persistence of Virus and Bacteria 1n Seawater.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE. 99(EE3):
205-211. June 1973.
Key Words: ECHO virus, Escherlch1a coll. surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Survival of Escher1ch1a coll and Echo 6 virus was studied
1n aerated seawater (shaking) under ambient conditions
at 38°F-40°F (3°C-5°C) and 72°F (22°C). The addition
of low concentrations of organic substances, Including
feces, enhanced bacterial survival at 38°F-40°F. At
72°F these organlcs became growth-promoting for EA coll,
sustaining a 40-fold population Increase, enabling v1a-
bH1ty to persist for 18 weeks. On the other hand, the
addition of organic substances did not enhance viral
survival. The Initial 1nact1vat1on rate for this virus
was greater at 72°F than at 39°F-40°F.
746
-------
Wood, O.K. and G.Tchobanoglous.
Trace Elements 1n Biological Waste Treatment.
JWPCF. 4_7(7):1933-1945. July 1975.
Key Words: cobalt, copper, Iron, manganese, molybdenum,
zinc, activated sludge, Influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Not all activated sludge operational problems are a
result of trace element deficiencies. In light of the
Importance of trace elements for growth, the variability
of their sources, and the removal mechanisms that may be
operative 1n a wastewater system, trace element defici-
encies should always be considered a possible cause for
the growth of filamentous organisms that often occur 1n
biological treatment processes.
When new treatment systems are to be built, special
attention should be given to the design of trunk
sewers. Adequate characterization of the waste will
ensure that the proper process 1s selected or that
appropriate modifications are Incorporated 1n the
design to treat the waste effectively.
747
-------
Wood, G.W., D.W. Simpson, and R.L. Dressier.
Deer and Rabbit Response to the Spray Irrigation of Chlorinated
Sewage Effluent on Wild Land.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
tfFrough Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and L.T. Kardos,
eds. EPA-66Q/2-74-003. Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp. 286-298.
Key Words: phosphates, land reclamation.
Abstract:
The spray irrigation of chlorinated sewage effluent
at the rate of two inches per week appears to have a
favorable influence on the nutritive value of rabbit
and deer forages. Generally, the crude protein, P, K,
and Mg can be expected to be raised in these forages
while the Ca is lowered. Reed canarygrass, the only
forage tested for changes in digestibility due to
treatment, showed no significant response with respect
to digestible dry matter and protein.
Studies using the lead deer technique to determine
preference for or avoidance of irrigated sites and
forage from these sites indicate that the deer use
treated sites at least as readily as untreated sites.
During the winter period wild deer do not avoid the
area but appear to use it quite readily for resting
and feeding.
748
-------
Woodbridge, D.D. and W.R. Garrett.
Relationship between Bacteria, Nutrients, and Rainfall in
Selected Bodies of Fresh Water.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
£:311-316. May 1969.
Key Words: coliforms, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Results of the study indicate that the relationship
between dissolved nutrients such as phosphate and
nitrate and the indicator bacteria (total coliform)
are not simple or direct. Under particular conditions
in specific bodies of water a direct relationship may
be shown. However, the variability in the data with
time and in different bodies of water raises doubts as
to the direct relationship between chemical and bacterial
pollutants.
749
-------
Woods, C. and K.W. Brown.
Fate of Metals Applied 1n Sewage to Land Wastewater Disposal
Sites.
USACRRfL Workshop Wastewater Management via Land Treatment,
Hanover, New Hampshire, 1973. lOp.
Key Words: copper, zinc, nickel, lead, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
This paper describes the goals and procedures of a study
which 1s planned to determine the fate of Cu, Zn, N1,
and Pb when applied 1n sewage to land wastewater disposal
sites.
750
-------
Woodward, W.W., N. Hlrschhorn, R.B. Sack, R.A. Cash, I.
Brownlee, G.H. Chlckadonz, L.K. Evans, R.H. Shepard, and
R.C. Wpodward.
Acute Diarrhea on an Apache Indian Reservation,
American Journal of Epidemiology. 99:281. 1974.
Key Words: epidemiology, Escher1ch1a coll,Vibrio cholerae.
Abstract:
Diarrhea continues to be a problem for the Apache child
and family due to varying conditions. E. coll. S. flexnerl .
and Vibrio cholerae are considered.
751
-------
Worrell, C.L.
Management of Organophosphate Intoxication.
Southern Medical Journal. 6£(3):335-339. March 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This review attempts to reiterate the problem of
organophosphate intoxication and the pathophysiologic
problems created by these compounds. A discussion of
management is included. The case reported of a two-
year-old child serves to illustrate the tremendously
high doses of atropine which may be required to block
the acetylcholine accumulated at cholinergic synapses
as a result of phosphorylation of acetylchol inesterase
by organophosphorus compounds.
752
-------
York, D.W. and W. A. Drewry.
Virus Removal by Chemical Coagulation.
JAWWA. £16:711-716. December 1974
Key Words: adeno virus, coxsackie virus,
ECHO virus, hepatitis virus, polio virus,
chemical treatment.
Abstract:
This paper discusses virus removal by physical
chemical methods. Most coagulants gave
removal efficiencies of 99% or better.
753
-------
Yost, K.J., W. Bruns, J.E. Christian, P.M. CUkeman, and
R.B. Jacobs.
The Environmental Flow of Cadmium and Other Trace Metals.
Vol. I.
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, June 30, 1973.
440p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-229 478).
Key Words: lead, cadmium, zinc, surface water (fresh),
agriculture.
Abstract:
The project 1s composed of two basic components:
a) collaborative research with Industrial and waste
processing facilities whose process streams contain
significant amounts of cadmium, zinc, lead and other
heavy metals, and b) environmental studies to Identify
translocatlon mechanisms, distribution and fate of
cadmium, lead and zinc 1n the urbanized, heavily
Industrialized Chicago-East Chicago-Gary area border-
Ing the southern r1m of Lake Michigan.
The objectives for the first year of the present study
with respect to (a) were to Identify, enlist the
cooperation of, and Initiate sampling programs 1n
pertinent Industrial and waste processing facilities.
Objectives for component (b) were to scope metal
contamination 1n the Chicago-East Chicago-Gary study
area and to choose specific ecosystems and metal
transport mechanisms for subsequent, more Intensive
study.
754
-------
Yost, K.J., W. Bruns, J.E. Christian, P.M. CUkeman, and
R.B. Jacobs.
The Environmental Flow of Cadmium and Other Trace Metals.
Vol. II.
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, June 1973. 189p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-229 479).
Key Words: cadmium, combined municipal/Industrial
systems.
Abstract:
The project was composed of two basic components; a)
collaborative research with Industrial and waste pro-
cessing facilities whose process streams contain sig-
nificant amounts of cadmium, zinc, lead and other
heavy metals, and b) environmental studies to Identify
translocatlon mechanisms, distribution and fate of
cadmium, lead and zinc 1n the urbanized, heavily In-
dustrialized Chicago-East Chicago-Gary area bordering
the southern r1m of Lake Michigan.
The objectives for the first year of the present study
with respect to (a) were to Identify, enlist the
cooperation of, and Initiate sampling programs 1n
pertinent Industrial and .waste processing facilities.
Objectives for component (b) were to scope metal
contamination 1n the Chicago-East Chicago-Gary study
area and to choose specific ecosystems and metal trans-
port mechanisms for subsequent, more Intensive study.
Volume II contains the last 5 of 10 chapters.
755
-------
Young, D.R.
Arsenic, Antimony, and Selenium in Outfall Sediments.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca. , June 30, 1974. pp. 133-134.
Key Words: arsenic, antimony, selenium, surface water
(marine).
Abstract:
The author measured values of metals in out-fall
sediments. Results indicate that concentrations
of arsenic and antimony remain relatively high,
even at some distance from the outfalls: at 12 km,
arsenic concentrations were still one-fourth the
values at the station closest to the outfalls, and
antimony values were still one-half the outfall
values .
756
-------
Young, D.R.
Cadmium and Mercury in the Southern California Bight.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.
El Segundo, Ca., October 1974. 16p.
Key Words: cadmium, mercury, suspended solids, surface
water (marine), effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
This report summarizes the Southern California Coastal
Water Research Project's findings on the trace metals
cadmium and mercury in the Southern California Bight.
757
-------
Young, O.R.
Mercury Concentrations 1n Dated Varved Marine Sediments Collected
off Southern California.
Nature. 2A±( 5415):273-275. August 3, 1974.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
It appears that, during approximately the past 100-150
years, human activities have resulted 1n a rather similar
pattern of Increased mercury Introduction to several
reservoirs 1n the northern hemisphere. The Santa Barbara
Basin dated varved sediments show higher concentrations
beginning about the turn of the century, suggesting that
Increased regional Inputs of mercury to the southern
California coastal waters occurred about the same time as
1n several other regions of economic growth 1n the
northern hemisphere. According to this Interpretation,
the anthropogenic Input rate of mercury to this coastal
marine reservoir seems roughly to have matched the natural
Input rate 1n recent years.
758
-------
Young, D.R. and I. Jan.
Chromium 1n Municipal Wastewater and Seawater.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1975. pp. 147-149.
Key Words: chromium, surface water (marine), Influent
characterlsties.
Abstract:
The authors observed that 90% of the dissolved chromium
1n Hyperion effluent occurred 1n the trlvalent form;
the levels found were 52 and 61 ppb, travalent and
trlvalent-hexavalent, respectively.
759
-------
Young, D.R. and T.C. Heesen.
Contaminants in Harbors.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1974. pp. 105-10,8.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, effluent
characteristics, shellfish.
Abstract:
Data here indicate that DDT and PCB levels in
municipal wastewater discharges are minimal when
compared to the input from surface runoff.
760
-------
Young, D.R. and D.J. McDermott.
DDT in Benthic Fishes.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1974. pp. 113-115.
Key Words: DDT, fish.
Abstract:
The major source of contamination of Dover sole trawled
between Redondo Canyon and the western entrance of Los
Angeles Harbor is the waste material generated during the
manufacture of DDT and subsequently discharged to the
marine environment via the Palos Verdes submarine outfalls,
Although the release of these wastes to the sewage collec-
tion system of the County Sanitation Districts of Los
Angeles County was discontinued and the marine inputs of
DDT via these outfalls decreased considerably, a substan-
tial percentage of the fish closely associated with the
benthic food web on the Palos Verdes Shelf two years later
still contained excessive concentrations of DDT in their
flesh. The enrichment of DDT concentrations in the resi-
dent fish may well be due to the large reservoir of total
DDT in the upper 12 cm of bottom sediments on the Palos
Verdes Shelf, much of this material near enough to the
sediment surface to be available to the benthic food web.
Thus, it is possible that these contaminated sediments are
an important (perhaps now the dominant) local source of
DDT compounds to the ecosystem of the shelf.
761
-------
Young, D.R. and I.S. Szplla.
Decreases of DOT and PCB 1n Mussels.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.
Annual Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1975. pp. 123-126
Key Works: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, shellfish.
Abstract:
Intertldal mussel appears to have accurately reflected
decreases 1n the Input of DDT and PCB's to the total
ecosystem. The study also Indicates that local
annual Inputs and biological concentrations of PCB
are decreasing less rapidly than those for DDT.
762
-------
Young, D.R. and T.C. Heesen.
Inputs and Distributions of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
1n Three Southern California Harbors.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 1974. pp. 101-104.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface
water (marine), shellfish, surface water
(fresh).
Abstract:
Chlorinated hydrocarbons such as the pesticide DDT
and Industrial polychloMnated blphenyls (PCS) are
major contaminants 1n southern California marine
waters. As a result of a predominant DDT Input
from the large submarine discharge of Los Angeles
County municipal wastewater, coastal mussels off
Los Angeles contain up to 30 times more p,p'-DDE
than do those off San Diego. Specimens of a bay
mussel collected from San Diego Bay, Newport Harbor,
and San Pedro Harbor also show this pattern of
Increasing DDT concentrations toward Los Angeles.
However, PCB 1254 concentrations are similar 1n
mussels from the three harbors and are several
times higher than 1n specimens collected from the
nearby coastal waters. Estimates for total annual
Inputs of PCB 1254 to these harbors from municipal
wastewater, Industrial wastewater, surface runoff,
aerial fallout, and vessel antlfouling paints range
from 1 kg/yr 1n Newport Bay to 150 kg/yr 1n
San Pedro Harbor, with surface runoff and Industrial
wastewater constituting virtually all of the latter
Input. Although antlfouling paints presently
constitute a completely Insignificant mode for PCB
Input to these harbors, occasional high PCB concen-
trations 1n old paint chips and the correlation
of mussel PCB concentrations with antlfoullrm paint
usage suggest that this may have been the predominant
source of PCB to southern California harbors 1n
recent years. It 1s not yet known how long these
harbors will exhibit PCB contamination levels higher
than those of the adjacent coastal waters.
763
-------
Young, D.R. and T.C. Heesen.
Inputs of Chlorinated Benzenes.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1976. pp. 31-38.
Key Words: aromatic acids, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This article is a discussion of the types and quan-
tities of various chlorobenzene compounds in municipal
effluent, surface runoff, and aerial fallout. It
concludes that effluent is the major source of
contamination, but gives njj concentrations in coastal
waters. There is a brief discussion of uses and
toxiciti es.
764
-------
Young, D.R. and T.C. Heesen.
Inputs of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, Annual
Report, El Segundo, Ca,, June 30, 1974, pp. 97-99,
Key Words: DDT, dieldrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
Discharges of DDT wastes from the Palos Verdes submarine
outfalls have resulted in unusually high levels of this
pesticide in our coastal waters. In addition, polychlo-
rinated biphenyls (PCB) released from several large muni-
cipal systems have caused local enhancements of this indus-
trial material near the points of discharge.
Because of the importance of these synthetic organics, we
need to relate their input rates via municipal wastewaters
to those from other sources. The authors conducted a sur-
vey (about 80 percent completed) of chlorinated hydro-
carbon inputs to our coastal waters from six possible
routes: municipal wastewater, direct industrial discharge,
surface runoff, antifouling points, aerial fallout, and
ocean currents.
765
-------
Young, D.R. and T.C. Heesen.
Inputs of DDT and PCB.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project,
Annual Report. El Segundo, Ca,» June 30, 1975. pp. 1Q5-1Q9.
Key Words:
DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The survey of approximately 40 industrial effluents
being discharged directly into San Pedro and
San Diego Harbors has produced no evidence that
such discharges presently constitute a significant
source of chlorinated hydrocarbons to the local
marine waters.
It appears that inputs of PCB compounds to the
Southern California Bight from the adjacent coastal
plain are several times larger than those of DDT
compounds. In contrast to DDT, the major PCB inputs
are broadly distributed along the coast; thus, it
may be considerably more difficult to obtain
significant reductions in the quantities of PCB
reaching the local marine ecosystem.
766
-------
Young, D.R. and T.C. Heesen.
Inputs of DDT and PCB.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.
Annual Report. El Segundo, Ca ., June 1976. pp. 23-30,
Key Words: DDT, dleldrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
In the past, submarine discharge of municipal
wastewater has been the dominant source of chlori-
nated hydrocarbons such as DDT, Dieldrin, and
1242 and 1254 PCB to the Southern California Bight.
Dieldrin inputs have been of only second-order
importance compared to those of DDT, and other
chlorinated pesticide inputs have been insignificant.
PCB contamination of these wastewaters is ubiquitous;
in contrast, DDT inputs have been completely domi-
nated by industrial wastes released by a single
pesticide manufacture to Los Angeles County's sewer
system.
Control of this input to JWPCP in 1970 has reduced the
submarine introduction of DDT-contaminated particu-
lates by more than 95 percent since 1971. PCB
emissions (mostly 1242) via submarine outfalls have
decreased by an order of magnitude since 1972, possibly
as a result of the 1971 restriction of PCB usage
to closed systems.
Neither direct industrial discharges nor antifouling
paints now appear to be significant sources of
chlorinated hydrocarbons to the Bight. However, past
use of PCB in the paints may have constituted a major
input to the marine ecosystem, which the 1971 restriction
apparently has now controlled.
Surface runoff has made only second-order contributions
of chlorinated hydrocarbons to the Bight, almost all
from storm flow. The Los Angeles Basin has been the
major source region, constituting approximately 85
to 95 percent of the individual inputs of total DDT,
Dieldrin, and total PCB via runoff.
767
-------
Since 1974, dry aerial fallout has been the dominant
route by which total DDT 1s transferred from southern
California to the coastal ecosystem; for 1254 PCB, this
situation may have existed even earlier. However,
1242 PCB, a relatively volatile mixture, appears to have
occurred at lower levels than 1254 PCB in aerial fallout
and recent surface runoff. During 1975, the greatest
inputs of 1242 PCB were still being carried via
municipal wastewater discharge.
The manufacture of DDT 1n Los Angeles County, and
losses from past landfill deposits of resultant wastes,
may be contributing significantly to coastal Inputs of
this contaminant via aerial fallout. In contrast, PCB
Inputs to the atmosphere appear to be much more diffuse.
Fallout rates of both contaminants in this region are
slowly decreasing.
768
-------
Young , D .R. and T. Jan.
Metals 1n Seal lops .
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1976. pp. 117-122.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, molybdenum, lead, nickel,
zinc, shellfish.
Abstract:
This was a study of analyses of tissue samples from
rock scallops collected near a Los Angeles County
wastewater outfall (Palos Verdes). Although the
scallops appeared to concentrate all of these metals
to one degree or another, no conclusions were drawn
other than to point out the existence of a potential
problem.
769
-------
Young, D.R. and T.R. Folsom.
Mussels and Barnacles as Indicators of the Variation of
Manganese-54, Cobalt-60, and Zinc-65 in the Marine En-
vironment.
Presented at the IAEA Symposium on the Interaction of Radio-
active Contaminants with the Constituents of the Marine
Environment, Seattle, Washington, July 10-14, 1972, 17p,
Key Words: manganese, cobalt, zinc, surface water (marine),
surface water (fresh), shellfish.
Abstract:
The intertidal byssal mussel Myti lus cali form'anus and
the oceanic gooseneck barnacle Lepas an at If era, are
efficient indicators of spatial and temporal changes in
levels of three radiometals (manganese-54, cobalt-60,
and zinc-65) in the marine environment.
770
-------
Young, D.R. and D. McDermott-Ehrlich.
Sediments as Sources of DDT and PCB.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project,
Annual Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1976. pp. 49-56.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water
(marine), fish.
Abstract:
These findings indicate that contamination of bottom
sediments by chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT
and PCB can cause these synthetic compounds to
persist in bottom-feeding fishes long after major
reductions have been made In the dominant inputs.
This conclusion is consistent with that of a
laboratory study performed at the SCCWRP,
which showed that Dover sole maintained in clean,
flowing seawater and fed clean food nevertheless
accumulated high levels of DDT and PCB when exposed
to outfall zone sediments contaminated with these
compounds.
It therefore appears that the relatively high levels
of DDT now found in bottom-feeding fishes around
the JWPCP submarine outfalls will decrease only as
rapidly as do corresponding levels in the bottom
sediments of this region. Based on studies reported
in this and past reports, we estimate that approximately
150 tons of total DDT are still contained 1n the upper
30 cm of these sediments in a 50-sq-km area off
Palos Verdes Peninsula. Thus, despite the recent major
reductions in JWPCP inputs, these highly contaminated
sediments may cause excessive DDT levels to persist
for many years in benthic fishes of the region.
771
-------
Young, D.R. and D.J. McDermott.
Trace Metals in Harbor Mussels.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1975. pp. 139-142.
Key Words: copper, chromium, lead, zinc, shellfish.
Abstract:
This article reports findings from limited survey of the bay
mussel (Myti1 us eduli s) from three major harbors -- San Pedro,
Newport, and San Diego. Of the four potentially toxic
trace metals considered in this study (copper, chromium,
nickel and zinc), copper values were most anomalous:
both San Diego and Newport harbor specimens had significantly
higher tissue levels of this metal than did the coastal
controls. The submarine discharges of municipal wastewater
off San Diego and Newport Beach do not appear to have caused
increased levels of these metals in the coastal specimens.
772
-------
Young, D.R. and T. Jan.
Trace Metals in Nearshore Seawater.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1975. pp. 143-156.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, suspended
solids, ammonia, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The results of the research indicate that, although
very large increases in particulate concentrations of
metals can occur in the wastewater plume near a major
municipal outfall, there are much smaller increases in the
dissolved fraction. The largest such concentration
measured in the plume was about 1 yg/1 for nickel, which is
probably the most soluble of any of the trace metals now
regulated. Furthermore, although the increases in plume
concentrations above control values for dissolved copper
and nickel were statistically significant, these levels
were less than those measured at the mouths of three major
harbors. Chromium and cadmium showed only slight increases
in the dissolved fraction of the plume; these increases, which
did not exceed a factor of 2, were not significant. Chromium
levels ranged from 0.2 to 0.5 yg/1; these values are within t
the range of reported seawater concentrations and also within
the range observed in our harbor mouth study.
Thus, as plume dilutions increase several times beyond
the factors of 100 to 350 that we found within 2 km of the
JWPCP submarine outfalls, levels of dissolved metals from
the effluent probably will become indistinguishable from
baseline values for the adjacent nearshore waters.
773
-------
Young, D.R., D.J.McDermott, T.C.-Heesen, and D.A. Hotchkiss
DDT Persists in Southern California Ocean Sediments and
Organisms Long After Industrial Source Stops.
Bulletin (California Water Pollution Control Association)
11:62-66. July 1975.
Key Words: DDT, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The major source of this contaminati
industrial-waste material generated
manufacture of this pesticide and su
discharged to the marine environment
Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles
via the Joint Water Pollution Contro
submarine outfalls off Whites Point,
Peninsula. Data indicates that DDT
persisting in sediments off Southern
on was the
during the
bsequently
by the County
County (SDLAC)
1 Plant (JWPCP)
Palos Verdes
1 eve!s are
Cali forni a.
774
-------
Young, D.R., D.O. McDermott, T.C. Heesen, and T.K. Jan.
Pollution Inputs and Distributions Off Southern California.
ACS Symposium Series. l_8:424-439. 1975.
Key Words: copper, mercury, DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
surface water (marine), surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Municipal wastewaters are the dominant known source of
numerous trace contaminants to the Southern California
Bight. Annual inputs of mercury, DDT, and PCB via this
route are an order of magnitude larger than those from
direct industrial discharges and storm runoff. Aerial
fallout is also a major source of chlorinated hydro-
carbons. Bottom sediments around the largest outfall
system are highly contaminated by various trace elements
and DDT residues. Corresponding contamination of benthic
organisms occurs for DDT but not the trace elements stu-
died. Seawater collected from the mouths of three impor-
tant harbors contained copper and the chlorinated hydro-
carbons at the part-per-bi11 ion and part-per-tri11ion
level , respecti vely.
775
-------
Young, D.R., C.S. Young, and G.E. Hlavka.
Sources of Trace Metals from Highly Urbanized Southern
California to the Adjacent Marine Ecosystem.
In: Cycling and Control of Metals. M.B. Curry and G.M.
GTgliotti, ed. National Environment Research Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio, February 1973. pp. 21-39.
Key Words: copper, mercury, zinc, lead, cobalt, iron,
manganese, cadmium, chromium, nickel, surface
water (marine), surface water (fresh),
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
This paper discusses trace metal emissions to the
Southern California Bight from municipal wastewater,
surface runoff, rainfall, vessel coating and ocean
dumping. It is difficult to draw any very reliable
conclusions from the comparison of local versus
advective inputs until more is known about the net
addition of metals to, or removal from, the Bight
due to bottom sediment interactions and to ocean
circulation.
776
-------
Young,'6.E. and G.A. Carlson.
Economic Analysis of Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters.
North Carolina Water Resources Resecrch Institute, Raleigh,
October 1974. H3p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-239 186).
Key Words: BOD, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The 1972 Water Pollution Control Act Amendments require
increased treatment of municipal wastewaters. One method
to obtain a high quality effluent at relatively low co-st
compared to other techniques is land treatment. This study
compares and evaluates conventional in-plant treatment and
land treatment in a cost framework and in a production
efficiency framework. The major objective is to explain
why more municipalities have not chosen land treatment in
the past. Regression analysis was used to estimate cost
functions for 125 municipal treatment plants across the
southern portion of the United States. Comparison of the
two types indicates that inclusion of land treatment per-
mits higher levels of treatment per dollar of expenditure.
The advantages of land treatment are greater for small
plants. A .5 million gallons per day (mgd) plant will save
$.07 per 1000 gallons treated to 85 percent removal of
five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) if it uses land
treatment, while a 10 mgd plant will save $.05 per 1000
gallons. Cost differentials are greater for treatment to
95 percent removal.
777
-------
Young, J.C., R.E. Baumann, and D.J. Wall.
Packed-Bed Reactors for Secondary Effluent BOD and Ammonia
Removal.
JWPCF. 47(1 ):46-56. January 1975.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, ammonia filtration, nitri-
fication/den itrifi cation, trickling filter.
Abstract:
The PBR and dual-media filter systems have been shown
to provide a high degree of polishing for low-quality
secondary effluents. Effluent BOD was reduced consis-
tently to below 10 mg/1 (90 percent of samples), and
SS concentrations were reduced to below 5 mg/1. Nitri-
fication was accomplished throughout a complete winter
operation period, and effluent ammonia nitrogen concen-
trations averaged less than 1 mg/1.
Three PBR media -- sand, crushed coal, and loosely-packed
plastic -- gave about the same BOD and SS removal per-
formance. Therefore, the selection of media seems to be
related more to design and operational simplicity and
cost rather than to media size and shape. Studies by
McHarness and McCarty and Seidel and Crites showed simi-
lar results for large granular media such as rock or
volcanic cinders in PBR systems used for biological
denitrification, In systems for which the rate of air
or gas flow through the unit was "small", plugging was
a problem. However, no plugging problems were expe-
rienced in more than 10 months of continuous operation
with the coal- and plastic-media PBR units used for
nitrification and in 4 months of operation of the sand-
medium PBR.
The series PBR system described in this paper provided
nitrification of trickling filter effluent when operated
at an influent flow rate of 0.5 gpm/sq ft (20 1/min/sq m)
without any chemical feed for pH control. At an influent
ammonia concentration of 15 mg/1, this represented an
ammonia loading of 6.9 Ib NH3~N/day/l,000 cu ft (0.11
kg/day/cu m) of media volume at a detention time of 3.25
hr on an empty-tank basis. These loading and detention
times represent an improvement over that indicated pre-
viously for activated sludge systems operating at 10°C,
particularly when it is recognized that no pH adjustment
was made in the PBR system.
778
-------
The operation of PBR's Is relatively simple compared with
the operation of activated sludge systems. Hydraulic sur-
ges do not cause an extreme loss of nitrifying organisms
from the PBR system. This is a notable problem with acti-
vated sludge systems, which are difficult to restart at
cold wastewater temperatures if appreciable quantities of
mixed liquor solids are lost because of hydraulic surges
or poor sludge settling characteristics.
Although comprehensive design criteria have not been
developed for PBR systems used for nitrification, the
studies and results reported in this paper do provide
guidelines for the design of full-scale plants with a
reasonable assurance of providing satisfactory treatment.
To improve performance over that indicated in the studies
reported, provision should be made for recirculating
solids removed on the filters back to the PBR units and
to add chemicals for pH control.
Pilot-plant studies are continuing to determine in more
detail design criteria for PBR-filter systems for biolo-
gical nitrification and for polishing effluents for
additional BOD and SS removal.
779
-------
Young, R.A., P.N. Cheremisinoff, and S.M. Feller.
Tertiary Treatment: Advanced Wastewater Techniques.
Pollution Engineering. £(4):26-33. April 1975.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, phosphates, COD, total
dissolved solids, ammonia, gravity separators,
chemical treatment, adsorption/ion exchange,
nitrification/denitrification.
Abstract:
This article is a general discussion of sedimentation,
chemical precipitation, activated carbon adsorption,
ion exchange, ammonia stripping, chlorination , and
ozonation.
780
-------
Young, R.H.F. and N.C. Burbank, Jr.
Virus Removal in Hawaiian Soils.
JAWWA. £5^:598-604. September 1973.
Key Words: viruses, groundwater.
Abstract:
Significant differences were observed between the bacterio-
phage studies and the work on animal viruses. Results
obtained with bacteriophage showed that 2 1/2- and 6-in.
soil columns of Wahiawa and Lahaina soil removed 100 per-
cent of the applied coliphage T4 at a feed concentration
of 1.5 x 10° pfu/ml. Several properties possessed by
soils may serve as possible removal mechanisms of bacterio-
phage 14, namely, the effects of surface straining (or
clogging), cation exchange, and physical adsorption.
Since the size of phage particles leaves them relatively
unaffected by surface training, and since the Wahiawa and
Lahaina soils are classified low humic latosols with low
cation-exchange capacity compared to other Hawaiian soils,
physical adsorption was probably the effective mechanism
in the phage removal by these soils.
The poliovirus experiment showed that even the 6-in.
columns of Wahiawa and Lahaina soils were unable to
effect 100 percent retention of poliovirus Type II with
an initial feed concentration of 1.5 x 10^ pfu/ml. The
removal obtained with Tantalus cinder was even less.
Therefore, if bacteriophage is used as a model in per-
colation studies similar to that conducted for animal
viruses, the limitations and basic differences must be
recognized and evaluated.
Adsorption of viruses by soils is influenced by many
factors. Physical adsorption of viruses is only slightly
affected by temperature variations, but pH plays a major
role. Although viruses exist in other forms, the only
unit of viral structure that has been isolated and sub-
jected to direct examination is virion. Since virions
are composed of either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or
rubonucleic acid (RNA), they possess the amphoteric
property of proteins. Therefore, as the pH decreases,
there is also a decrease in the ionization of the
hydroxyl groups and the virions behave like anions.
Soil is known to have a negative charge, hence adsorp-
tion takes place.
781
-------
Youngner, V.B. and I.E. Williams.
Ecological and Physiological Implications of Greenbelt
Irrigation. Progress Report of the Maloney Canyon
Project - 1973.
University of California at Riverside, Department of
Plant Sciences, 1973. I06p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-231 376).
Key Uords: nitrates, phosphates, air, direct contact,
ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The project was designed to examine the feasibility of
an effluent-irrigated chaparral ecosystem as a greenbelt
fuel-break for fire prevention, and to serve as a renova-
tion system for wastewater recycling. An expanded water
monitoring program encompassing analyses of surface and
ground waters was implemented as an indicator of areas
of wastewater contaminant accumulation. Soils and plants
were analyzed for nutrient removal characteristics and
patterns of native and introduced vegetation survival and
growth were correlated into a feasible design for an
effective greenbelt vegetation system. Results appear
to be favorable to the project objectives of wastewater
renovation and fire suppression through greenbelt esta-
blishment.
782
-------
Yu, C.C. and J.R. Sanborn.
The Fate of Parathion in a Model Ecosystem.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
13:543-550. May 1975.
Key Words: organophosphorus pesticides, surface water (fresh),
fish.
Abstract:
In this article the fate of parathion through a laboratory
system is traced; data presented show that parathion does
not accumulate to any appreciable extent in any of the
organisms studied.
783
-------
Yu, C.C., D.J. Hansen, and G.M. Booth.
Fate of Dicamba in a Model Ecosystem.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
]_3:280-283. March 1975.
Key Words: herbicides, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
Dicamba persisted in water in conjugated or in anionic
forms. It slowly transformed to 5-hydroxy dicamba in
water (about 10% after 32 days) and was very slowly
decarboxylated. Dicamba did not magnify in the food
chain organisms.
784
-------
Yu, W.C.
Selective Removal of Mixed Phosphates by Activated Alumina.
JAWUA. 5£!(2):239-247. February 1966.
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Activated alumina selectively removes OP, PP, TPP, and
HTP -- the forms of phosphate most commonly associated
with stream pollution. The cheapest material tested was
Type A alumina. The most efficient mode of operation is
by downflow through a packed bed of solid. More than 99
percent removal is accomplished in this fashion, using
tap water solutions initially containing 5 ppm and 25 ppm
of each type of phosphate. These concentration levels
are comparable to those in water streams and in secondary
waste treatment plant effluents, respectively. In both
cases, then, the process should be directly applicable,
providing solids in the waste solution do not clog the
packed bed of alumina.
Volume reduction factors are high enough to make the pro-
cess economically attractive, because only small amounts
of caustic and nitric acid are required to regenerate and
reuse the cheap Type A alumina. Columnar sorption of
phosphates using activated alumina does not alter the
chemical composition of the treated water in the pH
range tested. On the other hand, alum or iron floccu-
lation adds salt to the treated water and lime precipi-
tation increases the pH and calcium ion concentration.
The ever increasing consumption of both phosphate-contain-
ing fertilizers and organic detergents -- the main sources
of phosphate pollution of water streams -- makes this pro-
cess an increasingly important one.
785
-------
Zaloum, R. and K.L. Murphy.
Reduction of Oxygen Demand of Treated Wastewater by
Chlorination.
JWPCF. 46.(12) :2770-2777. December 1974.
Key Words: BOD, chlorination.
Abstract:
The chlorination of filtered final effluents does not
bring about a reduction of BOD, nor does it render the
soluble organics bioresistant or toxic to micro-organisms;
there was no significant difference in the extent of
carbon degradation. Chlorination does not effect a
reduction in the organic carbon content of filtered
wastewaters, as evidenced by the unchanged values of COD
and BOD. In these studies, with the exception of one
run, the 5-day BOD does not seem to represent the
carbonaceous demand of the filtered waste; there was
negligible carbon degradation and this degradation seems
to be mainly a result of microbial respiration. Because
of the presence of ammonia in wastewater, chlorine in
the firm of chloramines is not likely to oxidize the
soluble organics presents.
The seeding procedure used for the comparison of the
BOD of a chlorinated-dechlorinated and unchlorinated,
unfiltered wastewater is inadequate and does not
guarantee equal microbial concentrations even within the
accuracy of the test. At least a uniformly mixed
population will be present. The BOD reductions and the
observed lag phases or delays in the exertion of the
BOD that were reported by previous investigators might
have been caused by this unequal microbial concentration
and not by any qualitative and quantitative changes in
the constituents of wastewater.
The induced toxicity of chlorine, present as chloramines,
increased as the applied chlorine concentration is
increased. It is characterized by longer lag phases
and reduced BOD. A residual of 0.5 mg/1 of chlorine,
added to seeded, filtered effluent, might possibly have
induced a selective kill of micro-organisms; an increase
in the 5-day BOD values that cannot be attributed to the
inaccuracy of the test was observed. A reduction in BOD
will be observed if a residual chlorine is left in the
sample or if an unequal microbial concentration is
present as a result of chlorination. A lasting residual
786
-------
will effect a maximum reduction. Some micro-organisms
will survive chlorination, however, as evidenced by
the exertion of BOD at an applied residual of 0.8 mg/1
Cl, which lasted more than 45 min.
787
-------
Zanitsch, R.H. and J.M. Morand.
Tertiary Treatment of Combined Wastewater With Granular
Activated Carbon.
Water and Wastes Engineering. 7:58-60. September 1970.
Key Words: total organic carbon, BOD,
adsorption/ion exchange.
suspended solids,
Abstract:
This article describes a study to determine the feasi-
bility of removing refractory organic material and dyes
from an activated sludge effluent using granular acti-
vated carbon. A colorless effluent containing an
average of 3 mg per L BOD and 3 mg per L suspended
solids was produced in the 61-day trial.
788
-------
Zellich, J.A.
Toxicity of Combined Chlorine Residuals to Freshwater
Fish.
JWPCF. 4i(2):212-220. February 1972.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination.
Abstract:
Wastewater effluents are chlorinated to destroy in-
herent pathogenic organisms before the effluents are
discharged. The chlorine combines with a number of
materials, especially ammonia, to form extremely
toxic compounds.
Laboratory studies demonstrated that exceedingly
small amounts of chlorine (less than that required
to obtain any measurable residual chlorine) added
to nontoxic effluents containing thiocyanate pro-
duces a very toxic solution. It is believed that
cyanogen chloride is the toxicant formed and the
threshold concentration of this compound has been
reported as 0.08 mg/1 for rainbow trout.
Laboratory studies have shown that chloramine con-
centrations of a few tenths of a milligram per liter
are lethal to warmwater fish such as sunfish, bull-
heads, and minnows.
Chloramine concentrations of 0.06 to 0.08 mg/1 are
lethal to trout.
Life cycle studies have shown that chloramine concen-
trations of 0.085 mg/1 nearly eliminate the spawning
of the fathead minnow and that concentrations of
0.043 mg/1 significantly reduce reproduction.
Recent on-site continuous-flow bioassays at Michigan
treatment plants have shown that chlorinated effluents
were toxic after diluting them to 2.0 to 4.0 percent.
Furthermore, average concentrations of 0.16 to 0.21
mg/1 residual chlorine caused complete kills of fat-
head minnows. As low as 0.07 mg/1 caused a partial
kill of the test fish, and 0.04 to 0.05 mg/1 were
the threshold concentrations of these wastes.
An extensive field survey of fish populations in four
Maryland streams showed that chlorinated effluents
have a twofold effect on fish. First, the effluent
significantly reduces the species diversity and
789
-------
total number of fish below the outfall. After the
toxic effects have been eliminated and the organic
matter begins to decompose, the subsequent de-
oxygenation of the receiving stream causes a species
shift and many of the more sensitive fish may be
elimi nated.
The addition of thiosulfate to toxic chlorinated
compounds rendered them nontoxic. This has been
proven in laboratory and field conditions.
Discharges of chlorinated effluents render portions
of the receiving waters toxic to fish. The extent
of those waters that are unavailable to fish is
dependent on thedilution and stability of the
chloramines. Because the maximum safe concentration
of chloramines seems to be very low, the ultimate
impact of these compounds will be determined by their
stability. The stability of chloramines is presently
being studied by the Michigan Water Resources Commission
790
-------
Zenz, D., J. Peterson, D. Brooman, and C. L. Ming.
Digested Sludge Recycle to Strip-Mine and Farmlands -
Effects on Public Health, Environmental Quality and Row Crops.
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, October
1974. 47p.
Key Words: BOD, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, suspended
solids, ammonia, iron, zinc, copper, manganese,
chromium, nickel, cadmium, coliforms, viruses,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Since 1971, the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater
Chicago (District) has engaged in an extensive environ-
mental monitoring program at its Fulton County land
reclamation site. The monitoring program has included
monitoring of all streams and other surface water on the
site including all runoff water from the fields receiv-
ing digested sludge. The data indicates that digested
sludge application to the Fulton County site has no
adverse effect upon surface water quality. Discharges
from the fields receiving digested sludge have met
Illinois EPA standards for BOD, total suspended solids
(TSS), and fecal coliform (FC). Analysis of stream water
entering and leaving the site indicates an improvement
in water quality after passage through the Fulton
County Site in terms of NH3-N, N02+N03-N, fecal coliform
and virus levels.
Analysis of groundwater from 23 wells drilled on the
site indicates that the migration of constituents pre-
sent in digested sludge into the aquifer is not occurring,
Increases in N02+N03 nitrogen and iron has not occurred
in wells located in areas receiving digested sludge.
Analysis of corn grain grown with digested sludge shows
no significant increase in metal levels since the Fulton
County project began.
791
-------
Zenz, D.R., B.T. Lynam, C.L. H1ng, R.K. Rimkus, and T.D.
Hinesly.
USEPA Guidelines on Sludge Utilization and Disposal -
Review of Its Impact upon Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Agencies.
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, 1975. 72p.
Key Words: cadmium, copper, mercury, nickel, lead,
zinc, chromium, iron, agriculture, crops.
Abstract:
This paper describes a research project to determine
the effect of sludge application upon the' heavy metal
content of crops. The data indicate that, contrary
to EPA proposed guidelines, heavy metal levels are
not related to total sludge applications.
792
-------
Zepp, R.6., N.L. Wolfe, J.A. Gordon, and G.L. Baughman.
Dynamics of 2,4-D Esters In Surface Waters; Hydrolysis,
Photolysis, and Vaporization.
Environmental Science and Technology. £(13):1144-1150.
December 1975.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The chemical hydrolysis, photolysis, and volatiliza-
tion of several commonly used 2,4-D esters were studied.
The hydrolysis rates are strongly dependent upon ester
structure; esters possessing ether linkages near the
carboxyl group generally hydrolyze more rapidly than
hydrocarbon chain esters. The rapid hydrolysis rates
observed in basic water suggest that hydrolysis is
often the major pathway for transformation of 2,4-D
esters in natural waters. Photo-products of 2,4-D
esters are monochlorophenoxyacetic acid esters in
hydrocarbon media and in ester-water emulsions; in
aqueous solution, chlorohydroxyphenoxyacetic acid esters
and 2,4-dichlorophenol are formed. Direct photolysis
in water is a slow process; the minimum photolysis
half-life of the butoxyethyl ester under September
sunlight is about 14 days in the southern United States.
The photolysis rate is pH-independent, but it depends
strongly upon time of day, season, and latitude. Cal-
culations based upon solubilities and vapor pressures
of 2,4-D esters indicate that volatilization may be a
significant mechanism in the loss of hydrocarbon chain
esters from environmental waters.
793
-------
Zimansky, G.M.
Removal of Trace Metals during Conventional Water Treatment.
JAWWA. 6£(10):606-609. October 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
zinc, filtration.
Abstract:
It is apparent that the water-treatment plants studied
and probably other similar plants are capable of re-
moving iron, manganese, and zinc to a high degree as
well as copper and nickel to a lesser degree. At the
same time, it is evident that chromium and lead are
only slightly removed and molybdenum negligibly removed.
For all metals, percentage plant removals were greater
when source water influent to the plant had higher metal
concentrations. Frequently, if a metal was significantly
removed by the clarifiers, subsequent filter-removal
percentages were low. The reverse was also indicated.
This was not observed often for iron, manganese, or zinc.
For the same plant sampled at different times and under
varied loading conditions, percentage removals for all
metals decreased as hydraulic loading rates increased.
Because of other factors, there did not appear to be
a reliable correlation between loading rates and per-
centage removals of different plants. It is felt that
differences in efficiency of chemical addition, floccu-
lation, and type of filter media were most significant.
794
-------
Zimmerman, L.
Survival of Serratia marcescens after Freeze-Drying or
Aerosolization at Unfavorab 1e Humidity. I: Effects of
Sugars.
Journal of Bacteriology. 84_: 1297-1302. 1962.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
Suspensions of Serratia marcescens were subjected to
freeze-drying or to aerosolization at unfavorable
humidity levels. The survival of the cells during
one or the other of these treatments was markedly im-
proved in the presence of common sugars, but no one
sugar stabilized the cells against both stresses. The
protective effects of the sugars were correlated with
their penetrability into cells; minimally penetrable
sugars stabilized cells against aerosolization, and
freely penetrable sugars stabilized cells during
freeze-drying. These results were attributed to the
modifications of intracellular water content induced
by the presence of the sugars in the cell suspensions.
795
-------
Zitko, V.
Uptake of Chlorinated Paraffins and PCB from Suspended Solids
and Food by Juvenile Atlantic Salmon.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
j_2:406-412. April 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, fish.
Abstract:
In contrast to PCB, chlorinated paraffins are much less
accumulated, if at all, by juvenile Atlantic salmon.
796
-------
Zitko, V. and W.V. Carson.
Release of Heavy Metals from Sediments by Nitri1otriacetic
Acid (NTA).
Chemosphere. 1(3):113-118. May 1972.
Key Words: copper, zinc, iron, mercury, cadmium, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Cupric, zinc and ferric ions are released from aquatic
sediments by nitri1otriacetic acid (NTA). Model expert
ments indicate that cadmium and mercuric ions behave
similarly. Concentration of NTA as low as 1.0 mg/1
produces in some cases measurable release of these ions
The release of heavy-metal ions is somewhat depressed
by increased water hardness. In model experiments with
ion exchange resins NTA affects only ions bound to
carboxyls and has no effect on ions bound to sulfo
groups.
797
-------
Zitko, V. , B.J. Finlayson, D.O. Wildish, J.M. Anderson,
and A.C. Kohler.
Methylmercury in Freshwater and Marine Fishes in New
Brunswick, in the Bay of Fundy, and on the Nova Scotia
Banks.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 28(9):1285-
2191. September 1971 .
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
American eel (Angui1 la rostrata), chain pickerel (Esox
ni g e r ), white perch [Morone americana), yellow perch
(Perca f1avescens ), brook trout (Salve!i nus fonti nali s ) ,
and Atlantic salmon (Sal imp salar) contained 0.07-
2.08, 0.27-1.58, 0.75-1.07, 0.20-1.05, 0.08-0.13, and
0.09 ppm of methylmercury, expressed as mercury on wet
weight basis, respectively. With only two exceptions,
levels of methylmercury in marine fish were below 0.13
ppm. Some of the freshwater sampling locations could
be directly associated with an industrial activity in
the area, whereas others suggested pollution by airborne
mercury. However, the concentration of methylmercury
in eels from a lake in New Brunswick did not change over
period of 46 years, indicating that elevated levels of
mercury may in some instances reflect the natural
si tuation.
798
-------
ZoBell, C.E.
Carcinogenic Hydrocarbons as Marine Environmental Pollutants:
A Preliminary Report.
lr\_ Sources and Biodegradation of Carcinogenic Hydrocarbons.
API/EPA/USCG Conference on the Prevention and Control of
Oil Spills, La Jolla, California, 1971. pp. 441-451.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, groundwater, surface water
(marine), crops, food processing, fish, air,
direct contact, fish, shellfish, drinking and
recreational water, livestock.
Abstract:
The careinogenicity of chemical compounds depends upon
chemical structure, susceptibility of the organism to
cancer, size and periodicity of dosage, mode of ad-
ministration and several other factors.
Amont the most potent carcinogenic hydrocarbons are 3,4-
benzpyrene, 20-methylcholanthrene, 9,10-dimethyl-1 ,2 ,5 ,6'
dibenzanthracene, 1,2-benzanthracene , and 10-methy1-1,2-
benzanthracene. Several other polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAHs) are carcinogenic. Various synonyms and
abbreviations have been applied to many of these PAHs.
799
-------
ZoBell, C.E. and G.F. McEwen.
The Lethal Action of Sunlight upon Bacteria in Sea Water.
Biological Bulletin. 68. (1 ): 93-1 06 . February 1935.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Observations on the vertical, diurnal, and seasonal
distribution of bacteria in the sea fail to show evidence
of a lethal action of sunlight. While the seasonal
fluctuation in the bacterial population is more or
less inversely proportional to the intensity of sun-
light, it is recognized that there are multifarious
interlinked biological, physical, and chemical factors
which also influence the bacterial population of sea
water.
Controlled laboratory experiments reveal that at this
latitude sunlight has a feeble lethal action on
bacteria in the uppermost few millimeters of sea water,
but even shallow layers of sea water are not sterilized
by prolonged exposure.
Virtually no bactericidal radiations penetrate sea
water three meters, and the intensity is materially
reduced by passage through 10 cm of sea water.
800
-------
Zoltek, J., Jr.
Phosphorus Removal by Orthophosphate Nucleation.
JWPCF. 46^(11 ) .-2498-2520. November 1 974 .
Key Word: phosphates, filtration.
Abstract:
From batch experiments, it was found that nucleation
of orthophosphate on phosphate rock followed a rate
equation of the form
dc _ kA rn
dt V
When a second-order rate equation for steady-state
nucleation of orthophosphate in packed columns of
phosphate rock was used, it was found that the rate
constant increased with increasing temperature, pH,
and fluoride concentration, and decreased with increas-
ing concentrations of magnesium sulfate, ammonium
chloride, and bicarbonate ion.
The use of commercially available phosphate rock in a
packed column system seems to have some promise as a
phosphate removal system, when it is used as a polish-
ing process after lime treatment.
The surface area of phosphate rock ore must be increased
to at least 100 sq m/g before it may be considered for
removing phosphate from wastewater treatment plant
secondary effluents.
801
-------
INDEX
Activated Sludge - I, 3, 14, 64, 67, 75, 77, 85, 100, 103, 104,
105, 108, 122, T31, 157, 174, 211, 225, 243, 244, 246, 264,
296, 350, 376, 377, 389, 407, 409, 413, 420, 422, 429, 442,
461, 480, 487, 502, 505, 527, 548, 567, 592, 597, 606, 645,
658, 660, 665, 670, 671, 721, 747, 771, 800, 821, 826, 845,
861, 872, 877, 882, 888; II, 12, 17, 18, 44, 56, 57, 72, 75,
83, 84, 125, 154, 168, 16~9T 178, 190, 191, 253, 254, 277,
305, 313, 358, 417, 419, 437, 522, 546, 550, 556, 565, 567,
576, 627, 634, 659, 664, 741, 747.
Adenovirus - j_, 195, 229, 374, 814, 887; H_, 100, 682, 740, 753.
Adsorption/Ion Exchange - l_, 26, 41, 42, 105, 122, 128, 129, 132,
168, 178, 184, 211, 239, 240, 260, 278, 280, 296, 298, 303,
348, 351, 352, 387, 400, 401, 402, 408, 411, 426, 446, 481,
487, 496, 499, 500, 502, 514, 522, 527, 533, 534, 550, 551,
556, 558, 559, 567, 647, 668, 670, 677, 702, 721, 761, 784,
800, 809, 818, 820, 864, 873; H, 35, 42, 66, 81, 96, 213,
278, 280, 300, 330, 340, 342, 353, 357, 365, 370, 419, 427,
453, 471, 500, 502, 505, 508, 524, 525, 534, 601, 667, 692,
694, 727, 732, 780, 788.
Aerated Lagoons - I, 213, 409, 422, 487, 519, 567, 606, 670, 771,
800, 844; H_, 241 .
Aerobic Digestion - I, 349, 489, 567, 588, 589, 606, 744; H_, 322,
491.
Agricultural Sludge Disposal - 1^, 403, 450, 463, 492, 667, 734;
H_, 229, 313, 591, 640, 647, 729.
Agriculture - I_, 34, 60, 61, 114, 163, 215, 228, 286, 293, 362,
421, 564, 571, 588, 606, 619, 620, 622, 623, 624, 626, 627,
630, 699, 736, 743, 793, 810; _!!_, 26, 97, 102, 231, 294, 510,
513, 516, 533, 599, 754, 792.
Air - !_, 7, 21, 22, 57, 59, 62, 125, 135, 142, 176, 188, 189,
254, 380, 395, 429, 465, 495, 502, 516, 521, 574, 605, 672,
700, 824, 826, 854; I_I_, 95, 169, 256, 265, 295, 296, 330,
404, 425, 440, 507, 515, 516, 519, 543, 662, 689, 690, 691,
782, 795, 799.
Air Floatation Thickeners - I_, 588, 589, 670, 800; H., 79, 659.
Aldrin - I_, 150, 219, 377, 399, 433, 452, 508, 843; IJ_, 100, 350,
402, 445, 630, 641, 654, 662.
802
-------
Aluminum - j_, 18, 29, 31, 68, 117, 226, 357, 391, 404, 425, 472,
568, 684, 686, 707, 764, 765, 774, 836, 863, 877; H., 153,
181, 191, 225, 230, 272, 274, 282, 287, 294, 306, 319, 324,
328, 340, 360, 361, 420, 434, 460, 475, 554, 598, 601, 611,
630, 680, 686.
Ammonia - I_, 5, 28, 44, 46, 50, 51, 55, 57, 59, 62, 64, 66, 70,
82, 87, 98, 122, 129, 130, 142, 143, 144, 149, 159, 178, 211,
234, 237, 283, 286, 291, 293, 296, 304, 318, 342, 349, 362,
373, 375, 376, 382, 389, 391, 400, 413, 419, 425, 451, 480,
487, 504, 513, 523, 552, 564, 570, 585, 621, 625, 630, 645,
657, 658, 665, 694, 718, 719, 743, 757, 758, 762, 765, 772,
781, 782, 784, 800, 805, 811, 814, 836, 861, 863; H_, 5, 49,
51, 66, 74, 81, 85, 91, 104, 108, 109, 155, 172, 188, 189,
203, 241, 272, 277, 278, 292, 294, 304, 313, 314, 316, 317,
321, 324, 341, 342, 344, 349, 356, 366, 393, 402, 410, 433,
440, 447, 460, 462, 492, 499, 510, 511, 518, 522, 527, 534,
535, 541, 546, 563, 565, 567, 570, 593, 595, 606, 610, 620,
625, 626, 630, 634, 661, 673, 680, 702, 713, 715, 717, 722,
732, 741, 778, 780, 791.
Anaerobic Digestion - I, 16, 17, 77, 104, 114, 121, 174, 221,
244, 461, 532, 548, 567, 588, 589, 606, 621, 623, 625, 670,
671, 768, 771, 865; I_I_, 15> 5?> 92» 120> 160> 223> 225» 243>
244, 246, 254, 272, 322, 393, 398, 434, 476, 623, 706.
Anaerobic Lagoons - 1, 487, 567, 771, 800, 819; H_, 241.
Antibiotics - I_, 45, 413, 451, 487; n_, 518, 724.
Antimony - I_, 42, 323, 472, 686; H, 181, 287, 319, 328, 360,
361, 475, 518, 554, 598, 611, 631, 680, 756.
Aqua Cultures - I_, 523; !_!_, 649.
Arsenated Hydrocarbons - II, 445.
Arsenic - I_, 42, 72, 127, 286, 323, 365, 384, 391, 438, 440, 451,
472, 556, 686, 732, 741, 774, 838, 851, 863; H., 35, 51, 106,
108, 181, 229, 230, 231, 253, 277, 287, 309, 319, 328, 338,
360, 361, 410, 420, 423, 453, 475, 483, 518, 554, 598, 601,
611, 631, 642, 680, 756.
803
-------
Bacteria
174,
271,
358,
467,
541 ,
656,
730,
- I,
188,
272,
362,
473,
543,
667,
731,
19, 20, 2-
191,
279,
369,
477,
557,
700,
738,
206,
286,
378,
483,
577,
702,
743,
1, 48, 49,
207,
302,
392,
492,
578,
703,
746,
212,
303,
398,
503,
581 ,
709,
747,
62, ]
213,
324,
410,
511 ,
594,
718,
748,
n, 78, 85, 105, 135, 151
226,
330,
424,
516,
602,
719,
749,
230,
331 ,
427,
521 ,
605,
723,
760,
247,
340,
428,
526,
621 ,
727,
762,
254,
342,
429,
528,
629,
728,
771,
255,
355,
451 ,
531 ,
639,
729,
790,
793, 807, 824, 833, 846, 854, 861, 862, 878; H_, 19, 21, 40,
74, 97, 102, 111, 112, 120, 121, 123, 159, 173, 175, 198,
206, 207, 208, 219, 220, 236, 265, 281, 288, 291, 296, 305,
322, 327, 331, 334, 376, 380, 381, 404, 405, 413, 428, 429,
430, 431, 432, 442, 470, 478, 481, 491, 515, 516, 518, 519,
538, 543, 544, 560, 564, 572, 587, 608, 619, 622, 636, 642,
651, 685, 689, 690, 691, 795, 800.
Barium - I_, 29, 31, 286, 451, 472, 686, 707, 863; H_, 35, 153,
181, 229, 231, 253, 287, 319, 328, 360, 361, 475, 554, 598,
601, 611, 644, 680, 686.
Beryllium - I_, 42, 286, 451, 472, 564, 686, 707; H_, 181, 287,
309, 319, 328, 360, 361, 420, 475, 554, 598, 680, 686.
Bibliography - _!_, 284.
Biological Contaminants - I_, 299, 435, 466, 521, 719; II , 390,
452, 533, 630.
Bod - !_, 28, 36, 37, 42, 50, 55, 62, 65, 86, 99, 122, 128, 129,
134, 142, 143, 144, 157, 168, 184, 211, 216, 221, 225, 257,
286, 291, 296, 298, 304, 317, 334, 335, 340, 342, 348, 355,
357, 361, 369, 376, 378, 385, 389, 427, 511, 518, 519, 520,
522, 533, 552, 558, 569, 584, 597, 635, 646, 658, 668, 671,
800, 814, 815, 830, 844, 856, 861, 863, 875, 877; H_, 44, 48,
51, 56, 57, 59, 66, 83, 91, 100, 108, 109, 159, 171, 182,
190, 199, 200, 235, 240, 241, 255, 277, 302, 303, 322, 340,
341, 343, 344, 365, 402, 410, 419, 420, 433, 477, 518, 522,
532, 550, 552, 557, 562, 576, 591, 593, 595, 610, 613, 614,
620, 625, 626, 627, 628, 630, 634, 659, -685, 694, 699, 701,
702, 705, 717, 722, 724, 741, 777, 778, 780, 786, 788, 791.
Boron - I_, 29, 31, 117, 142, 143, 144, 148, 227, 286, 362, 376,
391, 403, 404, 425, 451, 472, 568, 686, 707, 762, 791, 792,
814, 859; I_I_, 83, 124, 181, 194, 211, 229, 230, 253, 272,
287, 311, 319, 328, 340, 360, 361, 398, 420, 475, 540, 554,
598, 601, 603, 611, 632, 680, 686, 715, 726.
Bromide - I_I_, 495.
Bromine Disinfection - I, 703; II, 581.
804
-------
Chlorination - I, 29, 46, 71, 82, 85, 91, 100, 103, 104, 108,
109, 129, 117, 152, 166, 170, 174, 177, 185, 205, 226, 239,
300, 301, 303, 342, 353, 376, 407, 409, 410, 413, 420, 424,
461, 487, 502, 517, 518, 527, 544, 567, 588, 589, 604, 629,
635, 656, 660, 702, 707, 737, 781, 782, 794, 800, 879, 880;
II, 65, 72, 84, 122, 155, 156, 215, 235, 277, 278, 285, 286,
2TO, 314, 377, 383, 391, 409, 420, 452, 458, 463, 467, 468,
498, 499, 505, 516, 524, 535, 545, 548, 562, 573, 610, 614,
648, 653, 657, 676, 685, 696, 703, 720, 721, 730, 786.
Chromium - I_, 21, 41, 42, 58, 75, 77, 81, 117, 163, 169, 175, 227,
228, 243, 244, 245, 253, 266, 281, 286, 313, 362, 390, 391,
450, 452, 469, 472, 484, 507, 537, 552, 568, 610, 619, 620,
621, 624, 625, 647, 671, 678, 682, 686, 707, 751, 752, 753,
767, 774, 787, 788, 801, 809, 836, 838, 860, 863, 864; II, 4,
7, 26, 33, 34, 35, 39, 51, 54, 108, 109, 125, 152, 154,T68,
170, 181, 215, 229, 230, 231, 253, 272, 274, 277, 282, 287,
307, 309, 319, 323, 324, 328, 337, 341, 343, 357, 360, 361,
370, 372, 373, 398, 402, 410, 411, 413, 420, 460, 475, 513,
518, 519, 554, 598, 601, 611, 623, 630, 631, 642, 647, 656,
661, 680, 686, 714, 729, 735, 736, 737, 759, 769, 772, 773,
776, 791, 792, 794.
Clostridium Botulinium - I_, 374, 660; H, 599, 652.
Clostridium Welchi - I_, 660; ]_!» 38, 331, 652.
Cobalt - !_, 81, 117, 124, 169, 175, 227, 266, 286, 323, 362, 377,
390, 391, 472, 478, 507, 568, 643, 684, 698, 707, 741, 795,
801, 809, 842, 860, 863; II, 39, 152, 153, 168, 181, 229, 230,
231, 247, 266, 267, 274, 23"?, 294, 315, 319, 324, 328, 360,
361, 398, 420, 460, 475, 554, 598, 601, 611, 623, 645, 680,
686, 747, 770, 776.
CoD - I, 18, 29, 42, 55, 89, 94, 99, 128, 129, 134, 142, 143,
14?, 168, 181, 252, 257, 266, 285, 296, 298, 304, 340, 342,
351, 352, 357, 389, 402, 427, 451, 468, 504, 518, 519, 533,
542, 570, 597, 645, 662, 671, 697, 721, 760, 765, 814, 815,
830, 856, 861, $63, 864; II, 51, 57, 66, 74, 79, 83, 85, 91,
104, 108, 109, 166, 167, TTl , 271, 277, 285, 286, 302, 322,
341, 348, 358, 365, 366, 402, 419, 452, 462, 477, 518, 532,
546, 552, 562, 593, 595, 610, 617, 625, 699, 701, 702, 705,
715, 722, 724, 741, 780.
805
-------
Coliforms - I_, 20, 50, 66, 73, 98, 109, 142, 143, 144, 151, 158,
167, 174, 177, 182, 191, 192, 194, 201, 202, 212, 213, 215,
265, 266, 287, 304, 312, 317, 319, 327, 336, 337, 342, 381,
424, 428, 430, 451, 473, 477, 490, 493, 504, 510, 518, 521,
529, 530, 531, 605, 606, 621, 623, 639, 652, 657, 660, 664,
672, 680, 691, 706, 709, 716, 718, 719, 738, 760, 771, 776,
777, 781, 782, 800, 807, 814, 825, 833, 836, 861, 863, 881;
II, 28, 29, 79, 83, 88, 97, 99, 100, 112, 122, 123, 158, 159,
TT6, 169, 193, 198, 220, 236, 241, 255, 271, 277, 302, 303,
331, 340, 344, 384, 387, 390, 402, 403, 405, 438, 442, 464,
472, 477, 478, 481, 485, 487, 488, 493, 516, 518, 519, 538,
583, 610, 614, 619, 626, 633, 661, 665, 666, 668, 682, 685,
699, 702, 705, 720, 721, 740, 749, 791.
Coliphage T2 - l_, 165, 739.
Combined Municipal/Industrial Systems - I, 228, 472, 754, 767;
H, 117, 302, 755.
Combined Municipal/Storm Systems - I, 9, 98, 173, 182, 378, 424,
445, 772, 798, 830; II, 180, 20F, 240, 252, 271, 402, 558,
668, 701, 717, 722.
Composting - 1, 463, 473, 567, 641; I_I_> 322, 516, 666, 723.
Copper - I, 21, 29, 31, 41, 42, 60, 61, 75, 77, 81, 83, 115, 117,
124, T42, 144, 145, 146, 163, 169, 175, 196, 204, 221, 222,
227, 228, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 266, 281, 286, 293, 294,
313, 317, 323, 325, 362, 365, 382, 390, 391, 403, 404, 425,
430, 437, 450, 451, 452, 472, 476, 478, 484, 507, 537, 539,
540, 552, 564, 568, 610, 619, 620, 622, 624, 625, 655, 667,
668, 671, 678, 684, 686, 707, 741, 743, 751, 752, 764, 766,
767, 774, 787, 788, 791, 792, 795, 801, 819, 836, 838, 842,
859, 860, 863; II, 4, 23, 26, 33, 34, 35, 39, 51, 54, 56, 67,
77, 100, 106, 1W, 109, 124, 152, 153, 160, 168, 181, 191,
194,
272,
335,
402,
540,
647,
21 1 ,
274,
337,
410,
547,
656,
215,
277,
341,
411,
554,
680,
227,
282,
343,
413,
571,
686,
229,
287,
344,
420,
598,
714,
230,
294,
354,
435,
601,
726,
233,
303,
359,
450,
603,
729,
253,
319,
360,
460,
611 ,
730,
254,
322,
361 ,
475,
623,
735,
257 ,
323,
372,
513,
630,
736,
266,
324,
373,
518,
631 ,
737,
267,
328,
398,
532,
632,
747,
750, 772, 773, 775, 776, 791, 792, 794, 797.
Coxsackie Virus - 1, 11, 65, 121, 174, 229, 269, 275, 332, 381,
407, 473, 601, 613, 614, 629, 745, 814, 886, 887; H_, 72,
89, 243, 409, 421, 513, 583, 682, 740, 753.
806
-------
Crops - I, 7, 19, 34, 60, 61, 80, 94, 125, 148, 153, 154, 158,
163, 167, 174, 204, 215, 228, 233, 286, 291, 376, 381, 386,
391, 428, 450, 482, 484, 492, 535, 588, 589, 627, 638, 684,
718, 719, 737, 742, 750, 764, 765, 792, 793, 811, 851; II, 33,
34, 97, 102, 119, 124, 185, 193, 217, 227, 229, 231, 26*7294,
303, 306, 307, 308, 311, 312, 323, 340, 354, 387, 388, 389,
391, 392, 420, 435, 442, 464, 507, 511, 563, 572, 577, 632,
644, 645, 646, 647, 655, 669, 670, 726, 791, 792, 799.
Cyanides - I, 71, 115, 671, 814, 863, 888; II, 51, 106, 108, 179,
235, 251, 410, 518, 661. ~
ODD - 1, 258, 399, 433, 452, 454, 455, 462, 617, 814, 817; II.
25, 324, 402.
DDE - I, 150, 214, 258, 399, 433, 452, 454, 455, 462, 497, 565,
617, 817; H_, 31, 157, 163, 209, 324, 333, 350, 490.
DDT - I, 16, 17, 19, 113, 150, 162, 187, 214, 258, 347, 392, 399,
430", 433, 452, 453, 454, 455, 462, 486, 497, 508, 555, 590,
591, 648, 649, 741, 814, 817; II, 1, 22, 25, 31, 52, 53, 55,
77, 86, 100, 108, 109, 157, 1637 209, 210, 250, 324, 333, 347,
350, 382, 401, 402, 410, 426, 490, 506, 518, 519, 630, 641,
702, 724, 760, 761, 762, 763, 766, 767, 771, 774, 775.
Dieldrin - I, 95, 214, 219, 224, 399, 430, 433, 452, 454, 455,
462, 472~, 508, 559, 590, 648, 649, 720; II, 100, 108, 157,
273, 324, 350, 355, 400, 445, 490, 518, 53"0, 641, 654, 765,
767.
Diffused Aeration - II. 527.
Direct Contact - I_, 11, 22, 57, 62, 188, 316, 367, 380, 395, 495,
502, 684, 741, 768, 803, 804, 806, 833, 867, 870; II, 19, 32,
60, 67, 189, 214, 221, 230, 251, 311, 312, 387, 46T7509, 516,
555, 593, 642, 662, 704, 707, 782, 799.
Direct Contact (air) - I_, 295; U_, 331, 350.
Disinfection - ]_, 261; H_, 65, 155, 390, 391.
Drinking and Recreational Water - I, 9, 90, 167, 180, 183, 192,
193, 194, 195, 197, 198, 251, 256, 265, 299, 333, 363, 364,
379, 406, 413, 438, 467, 475, 477, 483, 494, 510, 528, 529,
530, 538, 543, 544, 549, 566, 610, 611, 770, 778, 828, 833,
846, 858, 862, 884; II, 3, 7, 8, 58, 69, 71, 83, 84, 105,
161, 218, 288, 309, JTO, 311, 312, 318, 331, 334, 363, 381,
420, 422, 463, 503, 507, 557, 573, 579, 582, 682, 684, 708,
718, 738, 799.
Drying Beds - I, 18, 567, 588, 589, 606, 670, 684, 690; H_, 243,
249.
807
-------
Cadmium - I, 41, 42, 58, 60, 61, 81, 83, 115, 124, 127, 142, 145,
146, 163, 169, 175, 189, 204, 221, 223, 227, 228, 243, 244,
245, 246, 248, 281, 286, 313, 317, 323, 362, 365, 384, 390,
391, 425, 430, 450, 451, 452, 466, 472, 474, 476, 484, 495,
537, 552, 560, 568, 575, 595, 600, 621, 622, 625, 627, 634,
667, 678, 686, 707, 711, 741, 743, 751, 752, 764, 767, 774,
778, 787, 788, 792, 795, 814, 836, 860, 863, 864; II, 4, 10,
26, 33, 34, 35, 39, 51, 54, 106, 107, 108, 109, 152, 153,
160, 164, 168, 178, 181, 191, 229, 230, 253, 254, 266, 267,
272, 274, 277, 282, 287, 300, 303, 315, 319, 322, 323, 324,
328, 335, 341, 344, 360, 361, 372, 373, 398, 410, 411, 420,
449, 460, 475, 518, 547, 554, 571, 598, 601, 611, 623, 630,
631, 632, 647, 656, 680, 686, 729, 730, 733, 735, 736, 737,
744, 754, 755, 757, 769, 773, 776, 791, 792, 794, 797.
Carcinogenisis - ]_, 24, 25.
Centrifugal Thickeners - I, 216, 245, 553, 567, 588, 589; U_, 202,
244, 246, 249, 659.
Cesium - !_, 698.
Chemical Treatment - I, 14, 21, 41, 42, 76, 85, 99, 100, 103, 104,
105, 111, 115, 116, 128, 129, 134, 172, 220, 235, 236, 239,
260, 261, 266, 277, 296, 298, 304, 310, 314, 321, 350, 351,
357, 358, 400, 401, 408, 413, 419, 420, 422, 442, 456, 502,
533, 534, 548, 567, 645, 658, 670, 701, 723, 754, 761, 765,
818, 821, 835, 856, 861, 864, 873, 875, 877; II, 14, 27, 35,
45, 59, 61, 66, 74, 79, 106, 179, 182, 199, 20Cs 225, 248,
263, 269, 329, 368, 385, 417, 420, 452, 462, 474, 483, 505,
523, 524, 525, 534, 550, 552, 556, 565, 569, 601, 610, 614,
625, 693, 694, 727, 731, 735, 736, 737, 741, 742, 753, 780,
785.
Chlorides - I_, 28, 50, 51, 57, 59, 60, 61, 123, 241, 286, 291,
321, 386, 402, 460, 535, 718, 719, 735, 737, 814, 860, 882;
II, 66, 83, 85, 91, 205, 213, 230, 239, 253, 264, 271, 272,
277, 282, 292, 310, 324, 341, 344, 378, 500, 510, 532, 584,
593, 620, 621, 630, 642, 661, 665, 699, 715.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons - I, 53, 95, 150, 187, 214, 219, 295,
324, 346, 371, 390, 3997416, 430, 433, 450, 451, 452, 465,
497, 536, 547, 573, 591, 617, 648, 649, 741, 759, 761, 769,
797, 814, 817, 820, 832, 837, 850, 866; H, 3, 25, 31, 52,
76, 102, 108, 109, 163, 184, 185, 186, 209, 210, 256, 257,
259, 275, 310, 324, 332, 346, 362, 363, 371, 400, 401, 410,
426, 427, 438, 445, 449, 490, 506, 519, 630, 635, 662, 663,
684, 725, 760, 762, 763, 765, 766, 767, 771, 775.
808
-------
Echo Virus - I, 11, 121, 229, 269, 381, 407, 613, 614, 629, 814,
887; 11, B~9, 384, 468, 513, 583, 682, 746, 753.
Effluent Characteristics - 1, 42, 51, 55, 90, 115, 134, 177, 178,
181, 210, 221, 245, 266, 313, 321, 342, 357, 371, 376, 382,
391, 491, 552, 556, 570, 646, 650, 657, 660, 697, 707, 725,
765, 800, 811, 821, 856, 864, 887, 888; H, 24, 51, 57, 62,
75, 83, 91, 103, 108, 167, 168, 205, 241, 277, 339, 341, 373,
384, 420, 460, 471, 493, 532, 538, 610, 625, 626, 634, 685,
706, 715, 730, 741, 747, 757, 760, 776.
Elemental Contaminants - 1, 45, 369, 406, 472, 478, 520, 713;
11, 410.
Endrin - 1, 187, 399, 433, 452, 497, 720; IJ_, 350> 630« 641 > 654-
Environmental Pathways -1,1.
Epidemiol
112,
200,
302,
383,
562,
742,
II, 8
T2~8,
140,
176,
423,
542,
ogy
139,
203,
306,
434,
580,
745,
, 37
129,
141,
192,
443,
574,
- I, 1
155,
208,
307,
436,
586,
749,
, 43,
130,
142,
226,
456,
589,
, 23
156,
217,
322,
447,
587,
755,
46,
131,
143,
270,
457,
607,
, 32,
162,
219,
328,
449,
598,
777,
47, 68
132,
144,
333,
479,
616,
35,
190,
231 ,
329,
458,
599,
783,
, 78
133,
145,
352,
504,
619,
38, 39
193,
255,
332,
459,
637,
797,
, 93,
134,
146,
395,
512,
624,
, 72
195,
274,
354,
493,
642,
826,
94,
135,
147,
396,
517,
638,
, 73,
196,
276,
360,
508,
653,
841,
98, 1
136,
148,
397,
521,
639,
101 ,
197,
289,
363,
529,
704,
847,
16, 1
137,
149,
407,
536,
654,
106,
198,
290,
366,
538,
732,
885,
26, 1
138,
150,
416,
537,
738,
110,
199,
297,
379,
544,
733,
886;
27,
139,
151 ,
421 ,
539,
751 ,
752.
Escherichia Colt - 1, 35, 73, 78, 152, 158, 188, 190, 194, 208,
215, 280, 376, 410, 427, 461, 541, 562, 606, 619, 623, 629,
632, 660, 706, 739, 740, 760, 776; II, 29, 61, 95, 97, 112,
113, 114, 115, 159, 237, 241, 272, 295, 322, 385, 387, 392,
408, 409, 485, 518, 538, 560, 600, 633, 637, 650, 652, 653,
746, 751.
Fecal Streptococci - 1, 73, 78, 98, 151, 158, 182, 192, 194, 212,
215, 287, 312, 327, 376, 473, 490, 491, 606, 656, 660, 709,
760, 776, 833, 861, 863; H, 28, 29, 83, 97, 99, 241, 277,
331, 384, 405, 413, 472, 485, 486, 487, 488, 493, 519, 572,
599, 620, 637, 668, 682.
Filtration - 1, 27, 41, 42, 46, 103, 104, 109, 111, 116, 164,
165, 174, 239, 279, 334, 407, 411, 413, 418, 457, 487, 502,
527, 534, 567, 585, 652, 664, 670, 685, 710, 750, 830, 864;
H, 66, 253, 254, 278, 368, 384, 448, 453, 505, 546, 584,
614, 678, 697, 727, 794, 801.
809
-------
Fish - 1, 21, 83, 127, 174, 186, 191, 213, 214, 223, 224, 250,
251, 294, 323, 339, 347, 370, 390, 395, 416, 440, 454, 462,
464, 468, 488, 539, 540, 547, 563, 572, 575, 593, 633, 643,
673, 675, 692, 695, 698, 726, 766, 775, 804, 832, 838, 850;
II, 1, 3, 4, 22, 31, 39, 52, 54, 55, 76, 157, 181, 185, 186,
2T2, 232, 234, 256, 291, 311, 312, 319, 328, 347, 363, 364,
400, 401, 455, 459, 473, 480, 489, 490, 506, 507, 519, 568,
575, 598, 611, 620, 621, 631, 671, 681, 683, 685, 761, 771,
783, 784, 796, 798, 799.
Fluorides - 1, 59, 142, 143, 153, 442, 460, 610, 737, 863; I_I_,
253, 294, 374, 483, 534, 677.
Foam Flotation - I_, 86.
Food Poisoning - 11, 459.
Food Processing - I_, 174, 215; j_I_, 311, 312., 363, 620, 799.
Francisella Tularensis - l_> 220.
Freezing - !_, 874.
Fungal Organism - II, 723.
Germanium - I_, 50, 425, 472, 686, 698, 732; II, 181, 272, 287,
319, 328, 360, 361, 475, 554, 598, 611, 6T4, 680.
Gravity Separators - I, 85, 100, 103, 104, 105, 108, 174, 244,
409, 461, 502, 567, 670, 771, 872; II, 254, 312, 464, 470,
659, 780.
Gravity Thickeners - I, 18, 553, 567, 583, 588, 589, 670; II, 195,
244, 330, 520.
Groundwater - 1, 7, 11, 22, 28, 34, 51, 74, 80, 85, 95, 125, 138,
142, 143, 144, 148, 153, 154, 163, 167, 174, 183, 188, 204,
233, 234, 291, 367, 380, 385, 386, 415, 428, 448, 466, 482,
486, 492, 502, 513, 520, 564, 579, 588, 590, 602, 606, 632,
684, 699, 708, 713, 738, 741, 743, 756, 757, 758, 768, 778,
793, 799, 803, 806, 811, 825, 833, 851, 870; JJ_, 19, 32, 40,
67, 75, 100, 119, 121, 124, 176, 185, 187, 193, 201, 205, 217,
221, 230, 231, 251, 275, 282, 294, 306, 307, 308, 311, 312,
316, 317, 323, 331, 334, 340, 344, 348, 351, 354, 367, 374,
376, 387, 388, 389, 391, 392, 413, 435, 440, 442, 461, 464,
495, 496, 507, 516, 541, 559, 594, 595, 602, 608, 640, 642,
644, 645, 646, 655, 661, 665, 669, 675, 702, 704, 709, 715,
726, 781, 791, 799.
Heat Treatment - I_, 89, 567, 589, 852; II, 44, 204, 269, 322,
491, 538, 570, 659.
810
-------
Heavy Metals - 1, 112, 452, 807; U_t 419, 322, 544.
Hepatitis Virus - I, 176, 199, 275, 333, 354, 381, 407, 527, 598,
599, 660; H.» 37, 72, 100, 102, 161, 270, 336, 351, 470, 583,
740, 753.
Herbicides - I, 392, 550, 551, 571, 579, 640, 642, 676, 704, 868,
100, 201, 324, 400, 426, 427, 464, 559, 589, 635, 640, 662,
704, 716, 719, 784.
Incineration - I_, 54, 114, 136, 418, 422, 430, 469, 542, 588,
589, 848; H_, 204, 244, 322, 404, 444.
Influent Characteristics - I, 42, 51, 134, 178, 221, 313, 327,
342, 431, 461, 491, 5187 552, 646, 662, 669, 725, 800, 863,
864, 865; II, 62, 91, 154, 168, 170, 241, 277, 302, 340, 384,
462, 610, 575, 626, 741, 747, 759.
Iodides - J_, 126, 475, 698; I_I_, 316, 435.
Iodine Treatment - II, 548, 549.
Iron - 21, 28, 29, 31, 41, 68, 81, 117, 121, 124, 145, 146, 175,
228, 224, 245, 248, 266, 281, 286, 294, 326, 357, 377, 382,
390, 391, 403, 404, 470, 471, 472, 507, 552, 564, 568, 610,
621, 622, 624, 655, 668, 684, 686, 698, 707, 718, 719, 741,
764, 774, 781, 782, 788, 791, 809, 812, 819, 821, 836, 842,
859; II, 23, 32, 51, 85, 91, 100, 108, 124, 160, 168, 181,
191, T9~4, 211, 215, 227, 230, 235, 253, 266, 267, 282, 287,
294, 303, 315, 319, 324, 328, 329, 340, 360, 361, 372, 373,
413, 420, 434, 435, 460, 475, 476, 496, 518, 540, 544, 571,
588, 598, 601, 603, 611, 630, 632, 669, 686, 715, 726, 730,
733, 735, 736, 737, 747, 776, 791, 792, 794, 797.
Land Disposal - j_, 397.
Land Reclamation - I_, 22, 125, 148, 153, 154, 159, 233, 309, 318,
355, 372, 386, 404, 417, 421, 422, 425, 427, 430, 482, 588,
589, 616, 621, 708, 711, 743, 791, 799, 801, 807, 834, 836,
851, 859, 860; II, 99, 119, 124, 194, 211, 306, 307, 341,
354, 393, 540, F0~3, 629, 644, 645, 646, 669, 673, 714, 726,
748.
811
-------
Lead - I, 42, 58, 81, 117, 124, 127, 142, 145, 146, 154, 163,
169, 173, 175, 189, 204, 221, 222, 227, 228, 243, 244, 249,
250, 266, 281, 286, 317, 362, 365, 384, 390, 391, 425, 437,
450, 451, 452, 472, 474, 478, 484, 495, 537, 546, 560, 575,
595, 600, 610, 619, 620, 621, 622, 624, 625, 655, 678, 684,
686, 707, 711, 741, 751, 752, 753, 764, 774, 778, 787, 788,
792, 795, 801, 803, 804, 809, 814, 836, 838, 842, 860, 863;
II, 4, 33, 34, 35, 39, 51, 54, 106, 107, 108, 152, 153, 168,
T30, 181, 191, 205, 215, 229, 230, 232, 234, 251, 253, 254,
257, 266, 267, 272, 274, 277, 287, 294, 315, 319, 328, 341,
344, 360, 361, 372, 373, 375, 398, 402, 410, 411, 413, 420,
449, 450, 460, 475, 513, 518, 532, 547, 571, 580, 598, 601,
611, 612, 623, 631, 632, 647, 656, 680, 686, 715, 729, 735,
736, 737, 739, 750, 754, 769, 772, 776, 794.
Leptospirosis - J_, 215, 220, 376, 381, 473; !_!_, 599.
Lime Treatment - !_, 287, 567, 588, 589, 743, 765; H_, 177.
Listeria Monocytogens - II, 599.
Manganese - _!_, 28, 29, 31, 41, 58, 81, 117, 121, 146, 204, 228,
243, 244, 245, 248, 266, 281, 286, 294, 326, 357, 390, 391,
403, 404, 425, 442, 450, 451, 470, 471, 472, 484, 507, 537,
552, 564, 568, 619, 620, 621, 622, 624, 625, 643, 655, 684,
685, 686, 698, 707, 756, 764, 774, 781, 782, 791, 799, 801,
809, 812, 836, 859, 863; n_, 4, 23, 35, 51, 91, 100, 108,
124, 152, 168, 181, 194, 211, 229, 231, 253, 266, 267,272, 282,
287, 294, 303, 315, 319, 323, 324, 328, 341, 360, 361, 372,
373, 383, 398, 420, 435, 460, 475, 513, 518, 532, 540, 554,
571, 598, 601, 603, 623, 630, 631, 632, 656, 680, 686, 715,
726, 728, 733, 735, 736, 737, 747, 770, 776, 791, 794.
Mercury - I, 1, 13, 23, 40, 42, 43, 84, 119, 127, 138, 163, 186,
204,
360,
452,
600,
726,
818,
106,
212,
287,
411,
571,
680,
2T4,
365,
464,
633,
735,
838,
108,
229,
319,
459,
575,
729,
227,
370,
472,
651,
741,
840,
109,
230,
324,
473,
596,
730,
243,
390,
484,
654,
773,
857,
152,
231,
328,
475,
597,
733,
244,
391,
485,
673,
775,
860,
153,
235,
345,
480,
598,
734,
286,
394,
488,
679,
779,
865,
168,
252,
347,
489,
601,
735,
288,
395,
495,
686,
780,
871,
173,
253,
360,
490,
624,
736,
294,
396,
505,
688,
786,
873;
174,
269,
361,
507,
630,
737,
305,
430,
547,
695,
796,
II,
TT5,
274,
364,
518,
631 ,
757,
309,
436,
560,
696,
808,
35, 4
178,
277,
398,
554,
636,
758,
323,
450,
572,
705,
809,
1, 51
181,
282,
402,
568,
656,
775,
325,
451 ,
593,
707,
814,
, 96,
191,
283,
410,
569,
671,
776,
792, 797, 798.
Microstaining - I_, 342.
812
-------
Molybdenum - I, 29, 117, 286, 323, 391, 472, 686, 699, 835, 860,
863; 11, T81, 229, 231, 287, 294, 319, 328, 360, 361, 435,
475, 554, 598, 611, 680, 686, 747, 769.
Mycobacterium - I_, 215, 461, 606, 660; H_, 97, 100, 442, 513,
518, 538, 577.
Nickel - I, 21, 31, 41, 58, 60, 61, 75, 77, 81, 117, 124, 145,
163, 175, 204, 221, 227, 228, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 281,
286, 313, 317, 362, 365, 377, 382, 390, 391, 425, 430, 450,
451, 472, 478, 507, 552, 568, 619, 620, 622, 624, 625, 667,
671, 678, 684, 686, 707, 741, 743, 751, 752, 764, 767, 774,
801, 809, 819, 842, 860, 863; II, 4, 26, 35, 39, 57, 106,
108, 109, 152, 153, 168, 181, 2T5, 229, 230, 231, 253, 254,
266, 272, 282, 287, 294, 309, 315, 319, 322, 323, 324, 328,
341, 343, 344, 360, 361, 372, 373, 398, 410, 411, 420, 460,
475, 518, 547, 554, 571, 598, 601, 611, 623, 630, 631, 646,
647, 680, 729, 735, 736, 737, 744, 750, 769, 773, 776, 791,
792.
Nitrates - I, 5, 9, 28, 50, 51, 55, 57, 60, 61, 64, 66, 70, 87,
93, 121, 122, 129, 130, 131, 142, 143, 144, 149, 159, 178,
204, 234, 237, 241, 283, 286, 291, 293, 304, 316, 317, 318,
348, 349, 362, 369, 373, 375, 376, 382, 389, 391, 400, 401,
411, 419, 426, 444, 476, 479, 480, 487, 494, 504, 513, 523,
524, 525, 535, 552, 564, 568, 569, 570, 584, 610, 611, 616,
619, 620, 621, 625, 627, 630, 643, 645, 657, 693, 694, 697,
708, 716, 718, 719, 734, 736, 737, 741, 743, 757, 758, 765,
772, 800, 805, 814, 828, 836, 848, 855, 860; II, 5, 49, 51,
63, 64, 66, 74, 91, 99, 100, 108, 171, 172, 1ST, 188, 189,
214, 228, 230, 231, 239, 241, 264, 268, 271, 277, 278, 282,
292, 294, 303, 304, 309, 316, 317, 323, 324, 342, 344, 356,
366, 367, 394, 398, 402, 433, 440, 447, 460, 462, 464, 491,
492, 509, 510, 511, 513, 518, 532, 534, 535, 541, 544, 546,
557, 559, 563, 566, 567, 584, 595, 599, 606, 610, 625, 626,
629, 630, 634, 642, 647, 655, 665, 673, 680, 702, 715, 717,
722, 732, 738, 741, 782, 791.
Nitrification/Denitrification - }_, 5, 109, 130, 131, 400, 401,
413, 419, 487, 524, 525, 567, 670, 693, 694, 697, 716, 750,
800, 882; _!!_, 49, 66, 172, 188, 203, 228, 304, 321, 342, 492,
564, 565, 566, 567, 713, 732, 778, 780.
Nitrites - I, 28, 55, 60, 61, 66, 93, 142, 143, 149, 178, 234,
237, 28T, 286, 304, 373, 376, 382, 391, 400, 419, 487, 504,
513, 552, 576, 610, 625, 630, 645, 657, 694, 697, 716, 758,
762, 765, 814, 828, 855, 863; II, 5, 49, 74, 91, 104, 172,
188, 241, 277, 278, 294, 303, 3T3, 324, 356, 366, 433, 440,
447, 460, 462, 495, 511, 513, 516, 534, 546, 566, 567, 610,
625, 630, 634, 673, 702, 713, 715, 732, 738, 741, 791.
813
-------
Oil and Grease - I, 66, 514, 814, 856, 872; II, 51, 108, 109,
253, 302, 4107 438, 518, 626, 728. ~~
Organonitrogenous Pesticides - I_, 310.
Organophosphorous Pesticides - I, 399, 451, 603, 759; II, 25,
310, 399, 454, 518, 521, 57?, 638, 783. ~
Ozonation - I, 78, 85, 103, 104, 229, 230, 239, 252, 340, 342,
353, 4137423, 470, 471, 502, 503, 504, 527, 567, 578, 604,
629, 739, 740, 760, 762, 879, 881; H_, 11, 48, 80, 171, 260,
261, 366, 380, 383, 471, 516, 545, 652.
Parasitic Worms - I, 174, 215, 381, 450, 461, 660, 718, 753, 852;
H_, 80, 97, 10?, 303, 391, 392, 442, 513, 538, 652, 697.
Pesticides - I, 16, 17, 45, 53, 79, 95, 113, 140, 150, 214, 219,
224, 295, 311, 324, 392, 406, 451, 452, 512, 534, 574, 677,
692, 720, 820, 862, 868; II, 3, 36, 238, 284, 291, 309, 324,
350, 374, 400, 419, 559,
Phosphates - I, 14, 26, 42, 51, 57, 59, 60, 61, 66, 67, 70, 74,
76, 86, 93", 94, 98, 116, 121, 122, 123, 125, 128, 129, 134,
142, 143, 149, 204, 211, 237, 266, 283, 286, 291, 293, 296,
304, 310, 314, 316, 318, 321, 334, 348, 350, 362, 369, 375,
376, 382, 387, 389, 391, 401, 402, 403, 425, 442, 451, 456,
460, 479, 481, 487, 496, 545, 548, 552, 563, 564, 568, 569,
570, 584, 592, 621, 625, 627, 638, 643, 645, 650, 657, 658,
683, 701, 716, 734, 736, 737, 743, 765, 772, 800, 811, 814,
821, 844, 845, 861, 863, 875, 877; I_I_, 5, 15, 45, 51, 63, 64,
66, 74, 79, 83, 85, 91, 100, 103, 108, 109, 159, 171, 199,
200, 223, 225, 228, 230, 231, 264, 272, 277, 282, 294, 297,
303, 340, 341, 356, 398, 402, 410, 417, 434, 437, 460, 462,
474, 476, 509, 510, 518, 523, 526, 534, 544, 550, 556, 557,
563, 565, 570, 584, 599, 606, 610, 614, 625, 629, 630, 632,
642, 647, 661, 674, 688, 693, 701, 702, 715, 717, 731, 741,
748, 780, 782, 785, 791 , 801 .
Polio Virus - I, 11, 92, 111, 121, 165, 172, 174, 229, 239, 269,
344, 345, 3~72, 376, 381, 407, 473, 499, 527, 534, 601, 612,
613, 614, 637, 739, 740, 745, 806, 810, 834, 880, 887; I_I_,
11, 14, 17, 18, 69, 71, 72, 89, 303, 368, 384, 409, 412, 421,
468, 505, 513, 525, 583, 600, 648, 682, 703, 723, 740, 741,
753.
814
-------
Ponding/Land Application - I, 22, 28, 85, 96, 103, 104, 105, 125,
141, 142, 144, 148, 1537 154, 174, 204, 215, 225, 233, 234,
308, 309, 315, 348, 369, 372, 376, 386, 401, 403, 404, 422,
460, 461, 479, 482, 502, 509, 511, 520, 561, 567, 571, 616,
630, 638, 699, 700, 708, 711, 722, 735, 738, 768, 769, 789,
791, 799, 801, 805, 807, 810, 815, 834, 851, 859; II, 21, 28,
29, 100, 119, 124, 194, 211, 237, 239, 303, 306, 3ff7, 341,
344, 354, 368, 374, 376, 394, 413, 439, 488, 508, 509, 512,
514, 515, 516, 533, 540, 563, 590, 591, 595, 603, 606, 644,
645, 646, 651, 655, 669, 673, 710, 711, 714, 715, 726, 731,
750, 777, 782.
Pressure Filtration - I_, 216, 567, 589; U_, 585, 659.
Primary Water Treatment Processes - I_, 476.
Protozoa - I, 297, 410, 450, 461, 473, 660, 706, 743; U_, 97,
272, 301, 387, 388, 392, 442, 538, 548, 549, 617.
Radiation Treatment - I_, 78, 103, 104, 353, 413, 612, 613, 614,
761, 839; JJU 166, 327, 478, 617, 637, 653.
Reverse Osmosis - ]_, 584, 812; I_I_, 85.
Rotating Biological Discs - !_, 36, 37; ^I_, 613, 713.
Salmonella - ]_, 24, 33, 92, 139, 155, 156, 174, 192, 215, 247,
265, 287, 291, 312, 317, 327, 381, 424, 430, 461, 473, 477,
490, 492, 541, 562, 606, 623, 629, 660, 722, 723, 724, 725,
749, 760, 771, 783; II, 46, 47, 88, 97, 100, 102, 105, 193,
272, 275, 303, 322, 3B"7, 392, 395, 396, 397, 442, 449, 470,
487, 488, 493, 518, 538, 620, 637, 665, 666, 682, 723.
Sanitary Landfill - j_, 114, 421, 422, 430, 502, 588, 589; II, 322,
323.
Screening Operations - ^, 487, 518, 800.
Selenium - 1, 34, 41, 42, 286, 365, 391, 451, 472, 482, 568, 686,
779, 860, 863, 864; U_, 51, 108, 181, 229, 231, 253, 287, 309,
312, 319, 328, 360, 361, 410, 475, 518, 554, 598, 601, 631,
680, 756.
Shellfish - 1, 113, 145, 146, 174, 175, 187, 190, 191, 254, 258,
305, 325, 339, 344, 345, 353, 390, 395, 396, 407, 431, 440,
454, 455, 464, 465, 502, 537, 555, 573, 574, 575, 591, 598,
606, 643, 655, 673, 691, 698, 751, 752, 786, 787, 868; II, 31,
37, 39, 55, 88, 89, 90, 158, 181, 184, 273, 311, 312, 32"8~,
331, 335, 336, 337, 346, 363, 415, 449, 459, 473, 487, 507,
519, 598, 650, 663, 681, 683, 760, 762, 763, 769, 770, 772,
799.
815
-------
Shigella - ]_, 33, 92, 156, 174, 192, 215, 381, 461, 473, 541,
562, 606, 629, 660, 858; II, 97, 100, 193, 303, 387, 392,
442, 456, 457, 470, 513, BT8, 599, 620, 675.
Silver - j_, 41 , 81 ; H.» 737.
Soil Sterilants - 1, 79, 140; H,, 63°-
Stabilization - ^, 743, 765.
Staphylococcul Aureus - 1, 374, 606; II, 331, 406, 518, 519.
Strontium - I , 698.
Surface
63,
151 ,
222,
288,
347,
451,
486,
536,
574,
639,
706,
788,
837,
871,
64,
187,
266,
325,
378,
454,
499,
588,
656,
699,
770,
Water
79, 80
156,
223,
295,
359,
453,
487,
539,
576,
640,
713,
789,
838,
878;
72, 86
205,
267,
329,
382,
461 ,
507,
596,
657,
705,
775,
(fresh) -
, 83
158,
237,
311,
384,
462,
488,
540,
588,
643,
716,
795,
840,
II,
, 89
209,
268,
331 ,
384,
463,
518,
597,
661 ,
708,
776,
, 84,
160,
247,
319,
389,
465,
490,
541 ,
589,
651,
717,
796,
841,
2, 3,
, 104
210,
274,
332,
399,
465,
522,
598,
662,
719,
783,
I, 9
, 11,
13,
92, 95, 102, 1
163,
251 ,
323,
398,
466,
491,
546,
592,
656,
720,
806,
842,
5, 9
, 115
214,
283,
338,
400,
466,
526,
612,
671 ,
728,
784,
176,
259,
324,
399,
467,
495,
547,
594,
676,
724,
808,
843,
, 23,
, 123
216,
284,
350,
405,
472,
544,
622,
674,
734,
793,
180,
263,
326,
407,
470,
497,
549,
603,
678,
746,
814,
844,
32,
, 153
233,
287,
356,
412,
475,
554,
628,
675,
739,
797.
16, 1
19, 1
194,
265,
327,
413,
471,
502,
557,
611 ,
679,
750,
817,
846,
36, 3
, 157
238,
291 ,
367,
415,
477,
555,
630,
677,
740,
9, 31
, 40,
43,
20, 126, 143, 1
201,
267,
332,
416,
474,
507,
560,
617,
684,
759,
818,
854,
9, 41
, 170
247,
311 ,
371 ,
426,
481 ,
571 ,
641 ,
680,
743,
202,
268,
333,
433,
476,
512,
565,
628,
686,
776,
829,
855,
, 55,
, 174
251 ,
312,
373,
445,
485,
573,
643,
685,
749,
204,
281 ,
339,
440,
478,
527,
568,
629,
692,
778,
832,
867,
58,
, 185
255,
319,
375,
446,
493,
583,
650,
687,
754,
51 , 59,
50,
212,
283,
346,
444,
483,
535,
569,
633,
696,
780,
833,
870,
60, 63,
, 186,
259,
324,
377 ,
448,
497,
587,
655,
688,
763,
816
-------
Surface Water (marine) - I_, 11* 13, 19, 20, 31, 48, 49, 63, 66,
73, 80, 93, 124, 140, 155, 160, 169, 189, 206, 207, 208, 212,
237, 241, 242, 243, 244, 248, 251, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272,
273, 320, 322, 323, 324, 325, 330, 331, 336, 337, 338, 339,
346, 361, 374, 382, 390, 394, 431, 433, 435, 437, 453, 466,
474, 478, 485, 495, 498, 502, 512, 543, 560, 577, 588, 589,
595, 596, 601, 634, 648, 649, 654, 655, 656, 657, 673, 675,
680, 682, 686, 688, 705, 709, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 748,
753, 774, 790, 818, 827, 829, 840, 842, 857, 866, 868, 869,
870, 871; I_I_, 3, 5, 23, 38, 53, 55, 58, 60, 63, 64, 76, 77,
87, 89, 90, 97, 107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 123, 152, 153, 154,
158, 163, 164, 165, 173, 174, 175, 185, 186, 198, 206, 207,
208, 209, 210, 216, 219, 220, 236, 238, 250, 251, 256, 257,
258, 259, 281, 297, 299, 311, 312, 315, 319, 324, 325, 328,
333, 337, 345, 346, 349, 355, 359, 361, 362, 371, 373, 399,
403, 405, 406, 408, 410, 411, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 438,
445, 447, 450, 455, 475, 477, 482, 485, 486, 487, 507, 518,
519, 529, 530, 539, 554, 560, 580, 588, 598, 633, 635, 636,
641, 650, 656, 662, 677, 686, 718, 733, 734, 746, 756, 757,
758, 759, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 770, 771, 773, 774, 775,
776, 797, 799, 800.
Suspended Solids - I, 3, 36, 37, 42, 51, 54, 55, 86, 87, 94, 116,
121, 128, 129, 136, 144, 157, 184, 210, 211, 216, 266, 298,
317, 342, 348, 352, 357, 369, 376, 378, 385, 392, 448, 460,
487, 489, 504, 518, 519, 520, 532, 533, 553, 597, 645, 662,
671, 690, 697, 710, 721, 754, 800, 814, 830, 861, 863, 874;
II, 15, 51, 79, 104, 108, 109, 182, 195, 199, 200, 202, 240,
M4, 246, 249, 255, 277, 302, 303, 324, 340, 341, 365, 373,
420, 433, 462, 513, 518, 520, 522, 552, 566, 585, 586, 593,
595, 608, 610, 614, 625, 626, 630, 659, 667, 678, 699, 701,
717, 722, 741, 757, 773, 778, 780, 788, 791.
Synthetic/Organics - I, 45, 63, 90, 91, 132, 160, 170, 181, 183,
205, 251, 257, 264, 320, 324, 338, 339, 340, 369, 380, 406,
431, 452, 472, 514, 517, 559, 566, 604, 606, 628, 660, 669,
677, 702, 707, 767, 770, 820, 827, 829, 848, 862, 869, 870;
II, 12, 24, 36, 42, 51, 60, 62, 76, 87, 100, 108, 117, 119,
T5"6, 167, 218, 221, 253, 309, 310, 325, 330, 339, 353, 425,
443, 458, 464, 498, 502, 544, 545, 555, 579, 602; 620, 621,
643, 664, 676, b84, 687, 692, 727, 745, 789, 793, 796, 799.
Tertiary Treatment - I_, 392, 397, 545.
Thorium - I, 472, 686, 836; II, 181, 287, 328, 360, 361, 475,
554, 3"98, 680.
Tin - I, 117, 286, 472, 568, 686, 732, 863; H_, 181, 274, 287,
32~8, 360, 361, 475, 554, 598, 611, 631, 670, 680, 686.
Titanium Dioxide - J_, 867.
817
-------
Total Dissolved Solids - I, 28, 42, 57, 60, 61, 126, 144, 211,
240, 291, 296, 375, 3~76, 389, 417, 451, 487, 518, 558, 570,
814, 862; II, 85, 230, 253, 378, 420, 464, 513, 518, 534,
610, 630, 78~0.
Total Organic Carbon - I, 65, 122, 123, 128, 134, 143, 144, 241,
257, 266, 304, 335, 376, 390, 570, 596, 660, 662, 774, 848;
II, 9, 165, 166, 171, 277, 280, 324, 344, 358, 365, 367, 413,
4T1, 477, 518, 546, 610, 647, 694, 788.
Trickling Filters - I, 5, 33, 44, 75, 76, 85, 103, 105, 108, 174,
257, 285, 373, 4~01 , 407, 420, 422, 429, 461, 521, 527, 533,
567, 606, 646, 660, 670, 683, 771, 789, 800, 877; II, 74,
91, 169, 182, 200, 343, 419, 488, 576, 626, 627, 63T, 715,
724, 778.
Uranium - I, 7, 472, 686; H., 181, 287, 319, 328, 360, 361, 475,
554, S98, 631, 680.
Vaccuum Filters - 1, 216, 567, 589, 723, 823; H_, 272, 586, 659.
Vanadium - H_, 308, 639.
Vibrio Cholerae - I, 80, 174, 215, 273, 376, 457, 771; I_I_, 100,
207, 331, 513, 518, 529, 751.
Viruses - I, 27, 50, 62, 85, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107,
108, T09, 110, 120, 121, 137, 143, 164, 166, 172, 174, 185,
213, 226, 230, 235, 236, 238, 254, 256, 259, 260, 261, 263,
268, 273, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 300, 301, 303, 304, 306,
307, 322, 328, 329, 331, 340, 353, 355, 362, 367, 369, 372,
375, 376, 392, 407, 408, 409, 410, 415, 427, 429, 446, 461,
473, 487, 498, 500, 502, 508, 520, 549, 621, 629, 652, 672,
700, 703, 731, 743, 748, 789, 790, 793, 794, 806, 807, 810,
814, 833, 834, 839, 854, 862, 878, 879, 880, 881, 884, 885,
886, 887; II, 1, 19, 27, 58, 69, 71, 72, 84, 88, 90, 92, 97,
99, 102, 1TO, 123, 155, 158, 248, 260, 261, 263, 275, 290,
303, 322, 327, 336, 376, 384, 407, 412, 413, 421, 446, 447,
448, 463, 464, 465, 467, 468, 482, 491, 503, 504, 514, 516,
517, 518, 519, 524, 525, 529, 530, 538, 542, 544, 549, 557,
559, 581, 583, 607, 617, 649, 650, 657, 706, 707, 708, 709,
710, 711, 741, 742, 781, 791.
Wastewater Treatment - 1, 238, 290.
Wet Air Oxidation - I, 588, 589; H_, 204, 724.
Yeasts - I, 639, 660.
818
-------
Zinc - I,
117,
221,
294,
404,
537,
625,
707,
792,
23,
153,
253,
315,
372,
532,
632,
747,
21, 29, 41
121, 124,
227, 228,
313, 317,
425, 430,
539, 540,
627, 634,
743, 751,
795, 801,
26, 33, 34,
160, 168,
254, 257,
319, 322,
373, 398,
540, 547,
647, 656,
750, 754,
, 42
127,
233,
318,
437,
560,
641,
752,
819,
35,
178,
266,
323,
402,
554,
680,
769,
, 58
142
243
323
450
564
655
756
836
39,
181
267
324
410
571
686
770
, 60,
, 144
, 244
, 325
, 451
, 568
, 667
, 764
, 838
51,
, 191
, 272
, 328
, 434
, 598
, 714
, 772
61,
, 145
, 245
, 362
, 452
, 575
, 668
, 767
, 842
54, 1
, 194
, 274
, 335
, 435
, 601
, 726
, 776
68
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
00
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
, 75,
163,
248,
365,
469,
610,
671 ,
774,
859,
, 106
211,
277,
341 ,
450,
603,
729,
791,
77
169
266
382
472
619
678
778
860
, 1
215
282
343
460
611
730
792
,
,
,
9
,
9
,
,
,
08
f
9
9
9
9
9
9
81,
175
281
390
474
620
684
787
863
, 1
227
287
344
475
623
735
794
83, 96
,
9
9
9
9
9
9
•
9
09
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
189,
286,
391,
478,
621,
686,
788,
II, 4
, 124
229,
294,
360,
513,
630,
736,
797.
, 115,
204,
293,
403,
484,
622,
698,
791,
, 10,
, 152,
230,
303,
361,
518,
631,
737,
819
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA-600/1-79-016C
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Health Effects Associated with Wastewater Treatment
and Disposal Systems State-of-the-Art Review,
Volume II, Part 2
7. AUTHOR(S)
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
SCS Engineers
4014 Long Beach Boulevard
Long Beach, CA 90807
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Health Effects Research Laboratory RTF, NC
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Trianale Park. NC 27711
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
April 1979
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2257
13. TYP'-'^-TPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Fi nal
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/11
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
See also Volume I, Volume H, Part 1
16. ABSTRACT
This annotated bibliography covers the source documents used in the main text.
For individual articles a brief summary of the major topics of discussion is
.presented. For major reports a short description of th
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