United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Health Effects Research
Laboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-600- 1-79-016b
April 1979
Research and Development
Health Effects
Associated with
Wastewater
Treatment and
Disposal Systems
State-of-the-Art
Review
Volume II, Part 1
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7 Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8 "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS RE-
SEARCH series. This series describes projects and studies relating to the toler-
ances of man for unhealthful substances or conditions. This work is generally
assessed from a medical viewpoint, including physiological or psychological
studies. In addition to toxicology and other medical specialities, study areas in-
clude biomedical instrumentation and health research techniques utilizing ani-
mals — but always with intended application to human health measures.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/l-79-016b
April 1979
HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH WASTEWATER
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
STATE-OF-THE-ART REVIEW
VOLUME II
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
PART I: A THROUGH L
by
SCS Engineers
4014 Long Beach Boulevard
Long Beach, California 90807
(213) 426-9544
Contract No. 68-02-2257
Project Officer
Warren Galke
Health Effects Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH LABORATORY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, N.C. 27711
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Health Effects Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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FOREWORD
The many benefits of our modern, developing, industrial society are
accompanied by certain hazards. Careful assessment of the relative risk of
existing and new man-made environmental hazards is necessary for the estab-
lishment of sound regulatory policy. These regulations serve to enhance the
quality of our environment in order to promote the public health and welfare
and the productive capacity of our Nation's population.
The Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, conducts
a coordinated environmental health research program in toxicology, epidemio-
logy, and clinical studies using human volunteer subjects. These studies
address problems in air pollution, non-ionizing radiation, environmental
carcinogenesis and the toxicology of pesticides as well as other chemical
pollutants. The Laboratory participates in the development and revision
of air quality criteria documents on pollutants for which national ambient
air quality standards exist or are proposed, provides the data for registra-
tion of new pesticides or proposed suspension of those already in use,
conducts research on hazardous and toxic materials, and is primarily respon-
sible for providing the health basis for non-ionizing radiation standards.
Direct support to the regulatory function of the Agency is provided in the
form of expert testimony and preparation of affidavits as well as expert
advice to the Administrator to assure the adequacy of health care and
surveillance of persons having suffered imminent and substantial endanger-
ment of their health.
Pursuant to the overall mission of the laboratory to investigate the
human health effects of environmental pollution, this contract was let to
summarize the state of knowledge regarding the health effects associated
with various methods of handling wastewaters and sewage sludges. Subjects
of interest include biological as well as chemical pollutants. Pathways of
these agents from wastewater streams to man were delineated.
F. G. Hueter, Ph.D.
Director
Health Effects Research Laboratory
iii
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ABSTRACT
This annotated bibliography covers the source documents used in the main
text. For individual articles a brief summary of the major topics of dis-
cussion is presented. For major reports a short description of their content
is provided. A subject index to the bibliography is provided at the back of
Volume II, Part 2.
iv
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Aberg,
Snihs .
B., L. Ekman, R. Falk, U. Greitz, G. Persson, and J. 0.
Metabolism of Methyl Mercury
tion and Distribution.
(203 Hg) Compounds in Man: Excre-
Archives of Environmental Health. J_9(4}: 478-484. October 1969.
Key Words: epidemiology, mercury, environmental pathways.
Abstract:
The oral intake of 2.6uCi of methyl-mercuric nitrate
Hg 203 by three clinically healthy, white, male volunteers
aged 37 to 44 years resulted in an accumulation in the
liver and the head of the 203Hg. The main excretory
route was the feces, but the urinary excretion increased
with time up to 30 days after the intake. The biological
half-life was found with whole body measurements .to be
70 to 74 days. The decline of 2°3Hg in the head was less
rapid than in the rest of the body. No 203hlg was found
in the sperm. A very rapid uptake was found in the
erythrocytes. The main activity was localized in the
liver (about 50 percent of the contents of the body)
whereas the head contained about 10 percent of the
total body content.
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Adams, A.P. and J.C. Spendlove.
Coliform Aerosols Emitted by Sewage Treatment Plants.
Science. 169.(3951) :1218-1220. September 18, 1970.
Key Words: air, groundwater, coliforms, bacteria.
Abstract:
Development of the science of aerobiology has fur-
nished a tool for the investigation of potential
sources of microbial aerosols. An investigation
of aerosols emitted by trickling-fiIter sewage treat-
ment plants revealed that coliforms were indeed emit-
ted and have been sampled to a distance of 0.8 mi
(1.2 km) downwind. Factors affecting survival of
Escherichia coli are presented.
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Adams, B.J. and R.S. Grimmell.
Performance of Regionally Related Wastewater Treatment Plants.
JWPCF. 45.(10) :2088-2163. October 1973.
Key Words: suspended solids, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The analyses of Individual plant performance produced
several Interesting results. The analysis for trend
Indicated that there was little linear persistence in
the data records. The regression coefficients calculated
for effluent quality variables were very slightly negative,
while those calculated for influent quality variables were
positive with larger absolute values. Generally, the
recorded trend over one year was small.
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Adams, C.E.
Removing Nitrogen from Waste Water.
Environmental Science and Technology. .7(8) :696-701 .
August 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrification/denitrfica-
tion, activated sludge, trickling fi!ters4
anaerobi c lagoons .
Abstract:
The forms of nitrogen most prevalent in waste waters,
and which require treatment, are ammonia (as NH4+),
nitrate (as N03~), and organic nitrogen, for example,
in the amine form. Many industrial wastes also con-
tain nitrated organics which are extremely difficult
to remove. The most practical technology for re-
moving ammonia from waste waters includes biological
synthesis and nitrification, ion exchange, air and
steam stripping, and chlorination. Nitrates are
best treated by biological deni trification and ion
exchange. The organic forms of nitrogen may, in
some cases, be removed by carbon adsorption, although
generally biological synthesis and conversion to
other more readily removed forms are more practical.
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Adams, C.E., P.A. Krenkel, and E.G. Bingham.
Investigation into the Reduction of High Nitrogen Concen-
trati ons.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1970(1): 13/1-13.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrifi cation/denitri fi ca-
tion, trickling filters.
Abstract:
The overall objective of this investigation was to
evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of re-
ducing high concentrations of nitrogen by use of con-
ventional treatment techniques with appropriate vari-
ations. The waste in question evolved from a nitro-
genous fertilizer plant and contained appreciable
concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen and ammonia-nitro-
gen. The study was divided into a laboratory phase
and a full-scale field phase. The laboratory studies
are now complete; and the field studies, which are
expected to last for approximately two years, are
underway. The findings herein are inconclusive.
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Adams, V.D., E.J. Middlebrooks, and P.O. Nance.
Organic Residue in a Recycled Effluent. Part I.
Water and Sewage Works. 122(6) -.82-84. September 1975.
Key Words: synthetic/ organics, surface water, chemical
treatment, chlorination.
Abstract:
The accumulation of organic compounds in the recycled
effluents is discussed.
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Adams, W. H., J. R. Buchholz, C. W. Christenson, G. L. Johnson,
and E. B. Fowler.
Studies of Plutonium, Americium, and Uranium in
Environmental Matrices.
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory of the University of California,
Los Alamos, N. M. , January 1975. p. 24.
Key Words: uranium, groundwater, air, crops.
Abstract:
A nitric acid-hydrofluoric acid treatment for disso-
lution of plutonium oxides in soils has been developed;
its adaption to other biological matrices is discussed.
Plutonium recoveries of 94 to 99% from 1-g samples of
spiked and heated soils are reported. Adaptation of
the acid solution .to subsequent anion exchange separa-
tion of plutonium, followed by coupling to known
electroplating techniques, is described.
The uptake of plutonium, americium, and uranium from
spiked soils by alfalfa, beans, radishes, lettuce,
tomatoes, and barley is reported.
in
The "apparent" solubility of
measured; and the deposition of
algae, and snails in aquaria con
spheres is reported.
tap water was
plutonium in fish,
taining 23°PuC>2 mi
cro-
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Advances in
California.
Wastewater Treatment, Pilot Plant, Pomona,
Federal Water Quality Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio,
Advanced Wastewater Treatment Facility, February 1973. 19p.
(Available through National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-217 453).
Key Words: ammonia, phosphates, nitrification/denitrification ,
ozonation, chemical treatment, chlorination.
Abstract:
This publication provides an excellent background for
writing about activated carbon,nitrification-denitrifi-
cation, chlorination, ozonation, and physical-chemical
treatment. Basically, this article is a proposal on
research that is currently being conducted.
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Advisory Report on Health Effects of Nitrates in Water.
Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality, Chicago,
January 1974. 45p. (Available through National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-229 500).
Key Words: nitrates, combined municipal and storm systems,
surface water (fresh), drinking and recrea-
tional water.
Abstract:
Contamination of surface waters with nitrates may re-
sult from municipal or industrial (petroleum refin-
eries, food processing plants) wastewater effluents,
from surface runoff, from direct rainfall, from inter-
flow (percolating water intercepted by drainage systems
.before it has a chance to reach the ground water table),
from feedlot and plant residues, and from soils and
commercial fertilizers. It has been pointed out that
nitrogen usage 1n the U.S. increased from 378,543 tons
of N in 1940 to 6,912,706 tons In 1969. Furthermore,
fertilizer use, especially nitrogen, has increased
more rapidly in Illinois than in the nation as a
whole. In 1940, Illinois consumed 0.5% of the N used
in the U.S., but by 1969, this amount Increased to
9.1%.
Nitrogenous wastes from barnyards, feedlots, or septic
tank disposal fields may seep through the soil and
enter the ground water which feeds wells. Water per-
colating through decomposing peat soils or through
mineral soils which have received a heavy application
of nitrogen fertilizer or manure may also contaminate
ground water supplies.
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Agnew, R. W., C. A. Hansen, 0. F. Nelson, W. H. Richardson
and L. Holt.
A Biological Adsorption System for the Treatment of Combined
Sewer Overflow.
Presented at the 46th Water Pollution Control Federation
Annual Conference, Cleveland, Ohio , October 2, 1973.
Key Words: suspended solids, ammonia, BOD, nitrates,
phosphates, total organic carbon, combined
municipal and/or stormwater systems.
Abstract:
A 20 mgd modified contact stabilization process has
been designed, constructed, and operated for a two
year period for the treatment of potential combined
sewer overflows at Kenosha, Wisconsin. The system
shows significant promise as a technique for treat-
ing combined sewage.
Evaluation of the system during 46 separate events
shows that the process is capable of producing an
effluent well within the EPA guidelines for second-
ary wastewater treatment plants. In addition, it
provides standby capacity should the dry weather
plant be disabled. Multiple use of the demonstration
system equipment during dry weather has enabled a 15%
and 37% reduction in BOD5 and suspended solids from
the dry weather plant.
Because of the central location of the facility, it
can be operated and maintained by sewage treatment
plant personnel. The operation and maintenance costs
for the system are approximately equivalent to O&M
costs for conventional secondary wastewater treatment
plants.
10
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Akin, E. W., W. H. Benton, and W. F. Hill, Jr.
Enteric Viruses in Ground and Surface Waters: A Review
of Their Occurrence and Survival.
In: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality Conference;
TTrus and Water Quality: Occurrence and Control. University
of Illinois, February 1971. pp. 59-74.
Key Words: coxs ackie virus , polio virus, ECHO virus,
direct contact, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine), groundwater.
Abstract:
Enteric viruses have been isolated from surface water
samples collected throughout the world. Investiga-
tions reviewed in this paper indicate that enteric
viruses were isolated from an average of 36 percent
of the surface water samples examined. These viruses
are shed in the feces of infected men and animals and
may enter water systems by way of soil runoff and
sewage, both treated and untreated. The increased
frequency of water reuse for domestic purposes has
increased the probability of human contact with con-
taminated surface waters.
Laboratory studies indicate that viruses tend to ad-
sorb to soil particles and would therefore be removed
before they reach groundwater or soon after entering
the underground system. However, epi demi ol ogi cal
studies have implicated both contaminated surface and
groundwater as the transmission routes in a limited
number of infectious hepatitis outbreaks. Remarkably,
no widespread waterborne epidemics of viral disease
other than infectious hepatitis have been substanti-
ated. The amount of endemic disease caused by con-
tact with virus-contaminated surface waters is com-
pletely unknown. The transmission route of endemic
viral disease is difficult to determine due to the
large percentage of asymptomatic infections which
occur with these viruses.
Numerous workers have studied the survival of enteric
viruses in waters and have found them to survive for
a significant length of time to consider water a
potential route of viral disease transmission. They
have shown that 2 to 100 days are required for various
members of the enteric virus family to lose 99.9 per-
cent of their initial infectivity when suspended in
different surface waters at 20°C to 25°C.
11
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The flow-through experimental system has allowed
study of virus survival in estuarine water under quasi-
natural conditions. In these experiments, polio virus
1 infectivity was reduced by 99 percent in 4 hours at
30°C (summer conditions) and 5 to 15 hours at 22°C
(autumn conditions). By yielding survival data indica-
tive of that occurring in the natural setting, field
studies of this type may have a very practical appli-
cation. With this information and viral isolation
data, water treatment requirements and recycling-
frequency guidelines may be realistically determined.
12
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Alberts, J.J., J.E. Schindler, and D.E. Nutter.
Elemental Mercury Evolution Mediated by Humic Acid.
Science. 18^:895-897. May 1974.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh), surface water
(marine).
Abstract:
Elemental mercury is formed in aqueous
the chemical reduction of mercuric ion
of humic acid. The reduction proceeds
solution by
in the presence
with first
-1) and is
dependent on pH. The reaction mechanism involves
interaction of the ionic species with the free radical
electrons of the humic acid.
ith
order kinetics (rate constant 0.009 hr~')
13
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Albertson, O.E. and R.J. Sherwood.
Phosphate Extraction Process.
JWPCF. H(8):1467-1490. August 1969.
Key Words: phosphates, activated sludge, chemical treat-
ment.
Abstract:
1. Laboratory tests were conducted on a complementary
liquid and sludge handling treatment system which in-
volved chemical removal of phosphate and a greatly in-
creased BOD removal followed by activated sludge to
reduce the balance of phosphate and BOD to the desired
level. The phosphate removal system can reduce the
operating costs associated with phosphate removal to
a level equivalent to that required for conventional
treatment considering the overall operating cost for
waste treatment.
2. Both laboratory and commercial tests established
the fact that combustion of lime mud with waste-
water sludge is practical and that calcium oxide
can be recovered from the combustion ash. The com-
bustion of sludge must be conducted at a temperature
sufficient for calcination of the calcium carbonate.
The recovery of the calcium carbonate as calcium
oxide can be conducted at one-half the cost of pur-
chased lime and reduces the problem of disposing of
large quantities of chemical precipitate.
3. The phosphate removal system design is similar
to that of a conventional plant. Allowing for a 40
to 50 percent reduction in the aeration tank volume,
it is possible that the plant can be built for a cost
comparable to a conventional activated sludge plant
employing incineration for disposal of the waste
sludge.
4. Higher removal efficiency of phosphate combined
with ammonia nitrogen removal can be achieved with
the same basic approach. However, operating and
capital costs will exceed conventional treatment costs.
5. Because of the high pH 1n the raw waste an
additional benefit of the phosphate removal system will
be the elimination of sulfide odors commonly found in
the primary treatment portion of wastewater plants.
14
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6. The complementary approach of phosphate removal,
using the most economical combination of known
phosphorus removal mechanisms, now provides the
engineer with an important tool to achieve signifi-
cant levels of phosphate reduction without incurring
penalties of increased operating cost, capital cost,
and larger land requirements.
15
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Albone, E.S., G. Eglinton, N.C. Evans, J.M. Hunter, and
M.M. Rhead.
Fate of DDT in Severn Estuary Sediments.
Environmental Science and Technology. 6_( 10) :914-919.
October 1972.
Key Words: pesticides, DDT, surface water (fresh),
anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
The functions of estuarine sediments [as pollutant
sink and as pollutant bank]are assessed in relation
to the fate of DDT in the environment. p,p'-DDT
was degraded more slowly when incorporated in situ
in Severn estuary sediments than when incubated in
sediment samples maintained under hydrogen in the
laboratory. These transformations are compared with
the more extensive degradation of DDT on incubation
in anaerobic sewage sludge. In all incubations,
metabolites included p.p'-DDT. The wider applica-
tion of the techniques developed is discussed.
16
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Albone, E.S., G. Eglinton, N.C. Evans, and M.M. Rhead.
Formation of bis (p-Chlorophenyl)-acetonitrile (p,p'-DDCN)
from p,p'-DDT in Anaerobic Sewage Sludge.
Nature. 240:420-421. December 1972.
Key Words: pesticides, DDT, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
This paper discusses degradation of DDT in the
anaerobic sludge digestion process.
17
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Albrecht, A.E.
Disposal of Alum Sludges.
JAWWA. 6£(l):46-52. January 1972.
Key Words: COD, aluminum, gravity thickeners, drying beds
Abstract:
This article examines alternate means for disposing
of sewage sludge.
18
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Alexander, M.
Microbial Degradation of DDT.
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, Department of Agronomy,
July 1974. 35p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as AD/A 781-903).
Key Words: DDT, bacteria, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine), crops.
Abstract:
One-half of the marine bacteria tested converted DDT to
water-soluble products. Mucor alternans converted DDT to
water-soluble metabolites at a rate four times greater than
the most active marine bacterium. Techniques were developed
to isolate and purify these metabolites. The relationship
of chemical structure to biodegradability of DDT analogs
was investigated. Para substitution of one of the two
aromatic rings with chloro, nitro, hydroxyl, or amino
groups significantly reduced the rate of biodegradabi1ity.
The most resistant compounds were those with both rings
containing these substituents. Various environmental fac-
tors were examined for their effect on DDT metabolism in
marine waters.
19
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Alivisatos, G.P. and J.A. Papadalsis.
MacConkey and Glutamate Media in the Bacteriological
Examination of Seawater.
Journal of Applied Bacteriology. 39^:287-293. 1975.
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Confirmatory tests were made in 4807 positive tubes of
MacConkey broth. It was found that when an equal
volume of seawater was added to a double strength
MacConkey broth only 88% of the tubes contained coli-
form organisms C\2% false-positive reactions); when,
however, the ratio of the volume of seawater to broth
was 1/5 or less, coliform organisms were found in
93.5% of the positive tubes (6.5% false-positive re-
actions). Glutamate medium gives a higher rate of
false reactions than MacConkey broth when an equal
volume of seawater is added to double strength medium.
When the volume ratio of seawater to glutamate medium
is equal to or less than 1/5, then the minerals-modi-
fied lactose glutamate medium gives better results than
MacConkey broth in the coliform and especially in the
Escjierichia coli count. The difference is statistically
sign ificant.
It is thus concluded that for the bacteriological
examination of seawater the volume ratio of water to
medium should be 1/5 or less and also that glutamate
medium is the medium of choice.
20
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Allen, G.M. and L. Dennis.
Report on Pilot Aquaculture System Using Domestic Wastewaters
for Rearing Pacific Salmon Smolts.
In: Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber — Pro-
ceedings. EPA-660/2-74-041, U.S. Environmental Protection
Afjency, Washington D.C., Office of Research and Development,
June 1974. pp. 162-198.
Key Words: chromium, copper, iron, nickel, zinc, chemical
treatment, fish, air.
Abstract:
Coho fingerling and Chinook fry can be successfully reared
in advanced secondarily treated domestic wastewaters mixed
with saltwater. The best results in our studies were in
mixtures producing 10-15 percent salinity (roughly two parts
effluent to one part saltwater).
Experiments with coho fingerling reared in late fall to
winter have not carried these salmon to complete smelting
because of the need to have the ponds ready for chinook
salmon experiments, the primary target species. Results of
these rearing experiments suggest the management possibility
of enhancing estuarine survival through such an intermediate
period of brackish-water rearing. With completion of a
recirculation aquarium system next to our ponds for fish
holding and marking, we will begin to test this hypothesis
by marking all coho salmon reared, and by holding them for
release under the most favorable conditions possible.
Reliable aeration systems are essential in wastewater mari-
culture because of the rapidity of oxygen depletion which
can occur under certain environmental conditions (heavy
fog or cloud cover in particular). Forced-air aeration
appears most favorable, and probably will improve pond
conditions by stripping ammonia produced by salmon meta-
b o1 ism.
21
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Allen, M.J. and S.M. Morrison.
Bacterial Movement through Fractured Bedrock.
Ground Water. 1]_(2):6-10. March/April 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, air, direct contact, groundwater,
ponding/land application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
The movement of bacteria-laden waters percolating
through fractured crystalline bedrock in mountainous
terrain was examined to determine whether effluent
originating from domestic waste disposal systems could
contaminate shallow groundwater supplies. Inoculated
waters were injected into holes and/or wells at two
geologically different test sites (granitic, metamor-
phic) to evaluate the extent of microbial filtration
in or along bedrock fractures. Microbiological exam-
ination of tracer waters, sampled both above and be-
low the zone of saturation, was made.
Field studies showed that the direction and rate of
movement of contaminated ground waters were controlled
largely by the anisotropic nature of the geologic
stratum, vertically by the orientation of major bed-
rock fracture sets. Inoculated waters were found to
be readily transported by the groundwater gradient
into a downslope well. At one test site, a tracer
bacterium traversed a horizontal distance of 94 feet
in 24-30 hours. Continued bacteriological analysis
of the contaminated well found the organism to be
present for at least five days after inoculation of
the upslope wel1.
In the zone of aeration, bacteria-laden effluent was
found to percolate in or along fractures with in-
adequate filtration prior to entering the groundwater.
Studies conducted in metamorphic rock demonstrated
that while fecal-type bacteria decreased slightly
during percolation through bedrock fractures, total
bacterial densities were generally unchanged.
From the hydrogeologi cal and microbiological data
obtained at both test sites, it can be concluded
that moderate percolation rates and minimum distances
between water wells and leachfield type waste disposal
units are inadequate to protect potable groundwater
supplies from contamination in mountainous terrain.
22
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Al-Shahristani , H. and K.M. Shihab.
Variation of Biological Half-Life of Methy!mercury in Man.
Archives of Environmental Health. 2^8:342-344. June 1974,
Key Words: epidemiology, mercury.
Ab s t ra c t:
The variation of biological half-life (BHL) of methyl-
mercury in 48 patients who had ingested treated grains
is studied. The BHL was calculated from the distribu-
tion of mercury concentration along the head hair.
Instrumental neutron activation analysis was used for
mercury determination.
The BHL of methylmercury varied from 35-189 days with
an average of 72 days. The widespread BHLs indicated
that some persons may face a much higher risk than
others with the same body burden.
This abnormality was not related to age or diet.
23
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Ames, B.N.
Carcinogens Are Mutagens: A Simple System for Detection.
Presented at the American Cancer Society Seminar for
Science Writers, March 26-30, 1976.
Key Words: epidemiology, salmonella.
Abstract:
About 300 carcinogens and noncarcinogens of a wide
variety of chemical types have been tested for muta-
genicity in the simple salmonella/microsome test.
The test uses bacteria as sensitive indicators of DNA
damage, and mammalian liver extracts for metabolic
conversion of carcinogens to their active mutagenic
forms. There is a high correlation between carcino-
genicity and mutagenicity: 90% (157/175) of the
carcinogens were mutagenic in the test including
almost all of the known human carcinogens that were
tested. Damage to DNA by environmental chemicals
and radiation is likely to initiate most human cancer
and genetic defects. The salmonella test can play a
central role in a program of prevention: to identify
mutagenic chemicals in the environment (all indications
are there are many) and to aid in the development of
non-mutagenic products to further human exposure.
24
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Ames, B.N., J. McCann, and E. Yamasaki..
Methods for Detecting Carcinogens with Salmonella/Mammalian
Microsome Mutagenicity Test.
Mutation Research. 3J_:347-364. 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is a review article on the Ames Test applications
for detecting carcinogens and mutagens.
25
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Ames, L.L., Jr. and R.B. Dean.
Phosphorus Removal from Effluents in Alumina Columns.
JWPCF. 42(5) :R161-R172. May 1970.
Key Words: phosphates, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The effects of various compositional changes on phos-
phorus removal by alumina columns from a synthetic
secondary wastewater effluent were studied.
+? +2
1. The concentration of Mg and Ca showed marked
effects on alumina column phosphorus capacity, with
the phosphorus capacity about half for the solution
containing no Ca * or Ma as compared to solutions
containing Ca z and Mg z. Adsorption onto the alumina
occurs partly as a calcium- or magnesium-phosphorus
complex, rather than as a simple phosphorus anion.
2. Increasing the competing sulfate concentration in
the influent solution to 4,800 mg SO^ /I showed little
effect on phosphorus adsorption by alumina.
3. Raising the pH of the synthetic wastewater effluent
to greater than 8.0 led to precipitation of calcium
carbonate on the alumina grains, which progressively
lowered alumina phosphorus capacity. This problem
was not encountered when actual wastewater effluent
was used.
4. Alumina columns could be regenerated satisfactorily
with NaOH alone in about 1 hr. An acidic wash was not
required. Alumina dissolution in a 1 M NaOH elutlng
solution averaged 0.33 wt percent/hr.
26
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Amirhor, P. and R.S. Engelbrecht.
Virus Removal by Polyelectrolyte-Aided Filtration.
JAWWA. 6£(4):187-192. April 1975.
Key Words: viruses, filtration.
Abstract:
This article details the potential use of uncoated and
polyelectrolyte-aided diatomaceous-earth filtration
with respect to the removal of bacterial virus MS2 from
water and wastewater effluent. The effects of certain
operational parameters in removing virus by poly-
electrolyte-aided diatomaceous-earth filtration are
evaluated.
27
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Amrany, A.
Waste Treatment for Ground Water Recharge.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1964(2):
147-168.
Key Words: total dissolved solids, ammonia, BOD, COD,
chlorides, nitrates, nitrites, iron, manganese
ponding/land application, groundwater.
Abstract:
On the basis of the research carried out to
date, to be supplemented by further studies
now under way, it has been concluded that, for
Tel Aviv conditions, it is not necessary to
subject the waste water to conventional methods
of biological treatment in order to produce an
effluent suitable for ground water recharge by
spreading. Instead, the relatively cheaper
method of sewage treatment by lagoons, at much
heavier loadings than currently used as design
bases in the U.S.A., is sufficient for the pur-
pose.
An effluent from sewage stabilization lagoons,
containing suspended organic matter largely in
the form of live algae, can be applied to dune-
sand overlying suitable subsoil layers, without
the danger of clogging and without marked
diminution of the infiltration rate. The re-
charged water subsequently recovered from proper-
ly spaced wells can attain potable quality, pro-
vided the spreading basins are operated inter-
mittently, i.e. in alternating wetting and rest-
ing periods. This conclusion is believed to be
of particular importance to developing countries
where the need for sewage reclamation exists,
but the introduction of projects to this effect
is hampered by severe limitations on available
capital and by the lack of skilled personnel
necessary for the operation of the 'mechanical'
processes of waste treatment.
28
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Andelman, J.B.
The Effect of Water Treatment and Distribution on Trace
Element Concentrations.
In: Chemistry of Water Supply Treatment and Distribution.
A.J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975. pp. 423-440.
Key Words: chlorination, drinking and recreational water.
barium, boron, aluminum, copper, ir.on, maganese,
molybdenum, zinc.
Abstract:
There is some epidemiological evidence relating
the trace element content of municipal water
supplies to chronic disease, especially cardio-
vascular diseases. At this point the evidence
is quite inconclusive and the possible mechanisms
are generally uncertain. Acute illness from ex-
posure to high concentrations of these trace ele-
ments in the United States is negligible. How-
ever, a survey of community water supplies has
shown that for all those trace elements for which
there are mandatory U.S. Public Health Service
standards, only silver was not found in distribu-
tion system samples above the maximum permissible
concentrati ons.
In order to properly assess the concentration levels
of trace elements in municipal waters at the point
of human consumption, it is necessary to consider
geographic and time variabilities, as well as
changes with treatment and distribution. Large
variations in the concentration of many trace ele-
ments have been observed in different regions for
surface waters of the United States, as well as
on a mi crogeographi c scale, even for different
water sources serving the same municipality. In
addition, the time variabilities at a given water
intake have been found to be considerable.
Water treatment can have a significant effect
on trace element content. Although for many
elements concentrations are reduced in treatment,
in some cases increases occur. It has also been
shown that chemical state and physical form will
influence the extent of removal, as will adjust-
ing variables in the treatment operation. Con-
siderably more investigation is required in the
latter area.
29
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Finally, the distribution process Itself can affect
the concentration of trace elements, with both In-
creases and decreases having been observed. All
these variabilities and changes emphasize the need
for a carefully designed sampling scheme in attempt-
Ing to assess the levels of concentrations of trace
elements to which humans are exposed through their
drinking water. In particular, the need to sample
at the terminals of the distribution system, rather
than at the treatment plant, 1s especially Important.
30
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Andelman, J.B.
Incidence, Variability and Controlling Factors for Trace
Elements in Natural, Fresh Waters.
In: Trace Metals and Metals-Organic Interactions in Natural
Waters. P.C. Singer, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Ann Arbor, Michigan , T975. pp. 423-440.
Key Words: aluminum, barium, boron, copper, iron, man-
ganese, nickel, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
The variability of concentrations of trace
elements in natural fresh waters is great,
both on a macro and micro geographic scale,
as well as with time at a given location.
In most instances, it is difficult to correlate
their concentrations with such characteristics
as stream flow or lithologic environment.
In order to accurately characterize trace
elements and attempt to develop models for
predicting their behavior and cycling through
water and associated environments, it is neces-
sary to distinguish their various chemical and
physical states, such as particle size and in-
cidence and forms of complexes and chelates.
Such speciation probably plays an important
role in their movement in water, as well as
their availability to and uptake by aquatic
animals and plants. There is some evidence
that such biological interactions influence
the concentration levels of these trace ele-
ments, as well as their transport in natural
waters.
There are a variety of sources that contribute
trace elements to natural fresh waters, includ-
ing fallout and precipitation from air, human
activities, and flow of water over soils and
minerals. In some cases specific contributions
from these sources can be identified. However,
the status of knowledge in this regard in
general is quite primitive, and adequate models
for the movement of trace elements into and
through these waters have yet to be developed.
31
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Andelman, J.B. and M.J. Suess.
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Water Environment,
Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 43:479-508.
1970. ~~
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Many polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are
known to be carcinogenic to animals and probably
to man. This review is concerned with carcinogenic
and non-carcinogenic PAH in the water environment,
with emphasis on 3,4-benzpyrene (BP) because it
is ubiquitous, is one of the most potent of the
carcinogenic PAH, and has been widely studied.
Although PAH are formed 1n combustion and other
high-temperature processes, there is also evidence
for their endogenous formation in plants, which
may explain their ubiquity therein. Although
the solubility of these compounds in pure water
is very low, they may be solubillzed by such
materials as detergents, or they may otherwise
occur in aqueous solution associated with or
adsorbed on to a variety of colloidal materials
or biota, and thereby be transported through the
water environment. A notable characteristic of
PAH is their sensitivity to light.
PAHhavebeen found in industrial and municipal
waste effluents, and occur in soils, ground
waters and surface waters, and their sediments and
biota. With the exception of filtration or sorp-
tion by activated carbon, conventional water treat-
ment processes do not efficiently remove them, and
they have been found in domestic water supplies.
Because of the ubiquity of PAH in the environment,
it is impossible to prevent completely man's ex-
posure to them; nevertheless their surveillance
should be continued and their concentrations in
the environment should be reduced where practicable.
32
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Andre, D.A., H.H. Weiser, and 6.W. Malaney.
Survival of Bacterial Enteric Pathogens in Farm Pond Water
JAWWA. 59_(4).':5Q3-507. April 1967.
Key Words: salmonella, shigella, trickling filters.
Abstract:
The longevity of representative species of
bacterial enteric pathogens exposed to water
from Ohio farm ponds was studied. Salmonella
species survived about 16 days, while shigella
species survived about 12 days, indicating sur-
vival of enteric pathogens in pond water for a
significant time interval. These observations
emphasize the importance of preventive measures
to block entrance of such organisms into pond
waters, including such precautions as location
of the pond in a spot that will avoid polluting
drainage and exclusion of farm animals from the
pond watershed. The results also emphasize the
importance of an effective water treatment sys-
tem that is properly maintained.
33
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Andren, A.W. and D.H. Klein.
Selenium in Coal-Fired Steam Plant Emissions.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9^(9) :856-858.
September 1975.
Key Words: selenium, agriculture, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
The study states that Se in the range of from
0.04-2|JL g/g is required in the diet of animals
to prevent deficiency. At slightly higher levels
(4 or 5|o.. g/g), however, toxicity results. Selenium
is a protective agent against toxic effects of cad-
mi urn and mercury.
Selenium has not been shown to be an essential
element to plant growth, although several in-
vestigators have shown that different plants
concentrate Se in nature in varying amounts.
Results of a review of the variability in Se
uptake by plants by two different groups of
researchers indicate that the physical and chem-
ical form of Se in soils determines its availa-
bility to plants and subsequently to animals.
Factors that control the forms of Se are soil pH,
redox potentials, microbial activity, and soil
mineralogy. In acid soils any Se03^~ is sorbed
onto ferric oxides and made unavailable for
further oxidation. In alkaline soils, Se may be
oxidized to Se042~, which is readily available
for plant uptake. Researchers reported that 65%
of the forage crops in the industrial eastern U.S.
(acidic soils) contain insufficient Se for the
growth of healthy animals and subsequently it
has been suggested that the Se derived from fossil
fuel combustion might be desirable for the eastern
U.S. Results from this study, however, indicate
that Se is emitted as Se°, which is unavailable
for plant uptake. In areas of alkaline soils,
such as parts of the arid western U.S., Se may
be oxidized to Se042~. The potential for toxic
or beneficial effects in such areas must be
considered.
34
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Andrews, W ,H . and M.W. Presnell .
Rapid Recovery of Es.cher1 chi a coll from Estuarlne Water.
Applied Microbiology. 23_(3) :521-523. March 1972.
Key Words: Eschertchla coll., epidemiology.
Abstract:
The efficiencies of two 24-hr elevated-tempera-
ture tests to recover Escherlchla coll from
estaurlne water were compared simultaneously
with the 72-hr standard methods procedure of
the American Public Health Association (APHA).
From 1,710 tubes, £. coll was recovered 222
times in lauryl tryptose medium incubated at
44 +_ 0.2C for 24 hr, 261 times in an experi-
mental medium incubated at 44.5 +. 0.2C for 24
hr, and 257 times by the 72-hr APHA method.
The number of false positives enumerated was
similar in all three tests. The data indicated
that E. coli in raw seawater could be deter-
mined in 24 hr without a significant less of
accuracy.
35
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Antonie, R.L., D.L. Kluge, and J.H. Mulke.
Evaluation of a Rotating Disk Wastewater Treatment Plant
JWPCF. 46(3):499-511. March 1974.
Key Words: rotating biological discs, BOD, suspended
solids .
Abstract:
A 0.5 mgd (1.9-mil I/day) rotating disk munici-
pal wastewater treatment plant has undergone 9
months of a 12 month evaluation period. In that
time, it has demonstrated the capability of
achieving high degrees of BOD and SS removal
and nitrification. It has exhibited stable
operation under conditions of fluctuating hy-
draulic and organic loading and wastewater
temperature. The high density of the sludge
solids generated by the process indicates sig-
nigicant potential savings in overall treat-
ment plant construction and operating costs.
These factors, along with the low power con-
sumption and low maintenance requirements, make
the process attractive for application to a
variety of wastewater treatment problems and
a wide range of treatment plant sizes.
36
-------
Antom'e , R.L.
Evaluation of a Rotating Disk Wastewater Treatment Plant.
JWPCF. 46(12) :2792-2795. December 1974.
Key Words: rotating biological discs, BOD, suspended solids
Abstract:
This paper is a response by the manufacturer of
rotating disks to deficiencies in the system.
From the author's correspondence, he indicates
that the system can be adapted to a wide variety
of applications as can activated sludge.
37
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Antonucci, D.C. and F.D. Schaumburg.
Environmental Effects of Advanced Wastewater Treatment
at South Lake Tahoe.
JWPCF. 47(11}:2694-2701. November 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is an excellent ar-ticle on the South Lake Tahoe
Treatment Plant including discussions of treatment
effectiveness, energy consumption, general descriptions
of the treatment procedures and support industries, as
well as a flow sheet of the plant.
38
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Aoki, T., S. Eguso, T. Kimsura, and T. Watanabe.
Detection of R Factors in Naturally Occuring Aeromonas
Sal morn'ci da Strains.
Applied Microbiology. 2^(4) :716-717 . October 1971.
Key Words: epidemiology.
Abstract:
R factors were detected in Aeromonas- salmonicida
strains isolated from diseased salmonid fish.
One of such R+ strains was the one isolated in
the United States as early as 1959.
39
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Applequist, M.D., A. Katz, and K.K. Turekian.
Distribution of Mercury in the Sediments of New
Haven (Conn.) Harbor.
Environmental Science and Technology. 6^(13) : 1123-1124,
December 1972.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Distribution of mercury in sediments of
New Haven Harbor indicate that the primary
supply is from municipal sewer outfalls in
the harbor.
40
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Argo, D.G. and G.L. Culp.
Heavy Metals Removal in Wastewater Treatment Processes.
Part I.
Water and Sewage Works. 1_19^(8) :62-65 . August 1972.
Key Words: filtration, chemical treatment, adsorption/
ion exchange, cadmium, chromium, copper,
iron, manganese, nickel, selenium, zinc,
si Tver .
Abstract:
This paper gives a review of heavy metal re-
moval by various processes. The removal of
heavy metals during primary and secondary
treatment can proceed by two mechanisms:
1. Precipitation of metal hydroxides
2. Sorption of soluble trace metals by the
s 1 udges .
The precipitation of heavy metals is defined
by the solubility product.
[M++] [(OH-)2]
SP
41
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Argo, D.G. and G.L. Gulp.
Heavy Metals Removal in Wastewater Treatment Processes.
Part 2 - Pilot Plant Operation.
Water and Sewage Works. l_ljK9) -.128-133. September 1972.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
selenium, zinc, antimony, arsenic, berillium,
BOD, COD, suspended solids, total dissolved
solids, phosphates, filtration, chemical
treatment, adsorption/ion exchange, influent
characteristics, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The Orange County Water District's pilot plant
treatment system of lime coagulation and settling,
mixed media filtration, and activated carbon ad-
sorption was very effective in reducing the concen-
trations of cadmium, hexavalent chromium, zinc,
and copper. This advanced wastewater treatment
scheme also reduced the concentrations of the re-
maining heavy metals studied with varying degrees
of success. It was observed that removal effic-
iency appeared to be dependent on influent concen-
tration. The lower removals always occurred when
influent concentrations were very low.
The results of this investigation indicate that
certain heavy metals can be removed along with
organics, suspended solids, and other inorganics
by lime coagulation, mixed media fi1tration, and
activated carbon adsorption. Further research is
needed to more fully define the mechanism of these
removals. The advanced wastewater treatment process
selected for the Orange County Water District's
wastewater reclamation plant could effectively
reduce potentially hazardous concentrations of
heavy metals and produce an effluent compatible
with water quality discharge standards imposed
by the regulatory agencies.
42
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Armstrong, F.A.J, and A.L. Hamilton.
Pathways of Mercury in a Polluted Northwestern Ontario Lake.
JJK Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions in Natural
Waters. P.O. Singer, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1974. pp. 131-156.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The total quantity of mercury in sediments in the lake is
somewhat more than 2,000 kg, or about 20 percent of our
estimate of the total amount discharged during the first
eight years of operation of the chlorine-alkali plant in
Dryden. Deposition of mercury has been greatest at the
eastern end of the lake, although the water is shallower
and has more rapid circulation than in the central basin.
Deposition of mercury has also occurred in the arms of
the lake.
It seems that even with the present controls, there is
little hope of any rapid improvement in the degree of
pollution of the sediments. For any improvement it is
of course necessary that existing deposits should be
covered by material of low mercury content. Several
centimeters of depth may be required because of distur-
bance by animals, and such an accumulation might take
some centuries if our estimates of the sedimentation
rate in the lake are correct. Moreover, improvement is
dependent on the newly deposited material having a low
mercury content so that it is itself harmless, and this
can hardly be said to be the case when the material being
deposited in Clay Lake at present has a mercury content
of more than 2 ug/g.
43
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Arpa, S.S.
Nitrogen Removal Obtained through Heterotrophic Growth in
Trickling Filters.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., Office of
Water Research and Technology, August 1974. 57p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-239 925)
Key Words: ammonia, trickling filters.
Abstract:
Conventional biological treatment facilities are efficient
in removing carbonaceous materials, but most remove only
a small fraction of the biochemical oxygen demand exerted
by nitrogen. This study investigated the use of plastic
media trickling filters and the growth kinetics of the
heterotrophic bacteria on the filters for more complete
treatments. Mixed substrate environments were examined
with the help of a mathematical model. Laboratory results
are summarized on removal rates for glucose and ammonia-
nitrogen under various conditions. Kinetic constants are
tabulated.
44
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Assessing Potential Ocean Pollutants.
National Research Council, Washington D.C., Commission on
Natural Resources, Ocean Affairs Board, 1975. 438p.
Key Words: pesticides, synthetic/organics, antibiotics,
elemental contaminants.
Abstract:
Six groups of materials were studied: transuranic elements,
synthetic organic chemicals, ocean discharge, metallic
wastes, medicinal wastes, and marine litter. A method for
reviewing technologies with a potential impact on marine
systems was developed and tested and an effort was made
to determine whether the technologies clearly pose a
potential hazard, whether they are clearly unimportant
or whether they fall into an intermediate category and
need further study. Among conclusions reached were:
Release of transuranic elements to the marine environment
should be kept an absolute minimum.
Increased use of low molecular weight-chlorinated
hydrocarbons will result in increased levels of these
compounds in the environment.
Wastes should not be discharged into biologically
active areas.
45
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Atkins, P.P., Jr., D.A. Scherger, R.A. Barnes, and
F.L. Evans III.
Ammonia Removal by Physical-Chemical Treatment.
JWPCF. 45.(n): 2372-2388. November 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, filtration, chlorination.
Abstract:
1. Ammonia-nitrogen can be removed to any
desired level by the chlorination-dechlor-
ination system.
2. Complete removal of ammonia-nitrogen from
the wastewater would require a chlorine:ammonia-
nitrogen feed rate of approximately 9:1.
3. The chlorination-dechlorination system can
remove free chlorine and all forms of chlora-
mines applied to the system.
4. There is an initial ammonia-nitrogen break-
through during startup of the dechlorination
process that stops after a brief lag or acclima-
tion period.
5. The ammonia removal process tends to depress
the pH in nonbuffered systems and might necessi-
tate pH adjustments in the final effluent.
6. The chloride content of the -wastewater was
increased, on the average, from 193 mg/1 to
293 mg/1 when the ammonia-nitrogen removal pro-
cess was used.
7. Bacterial reductions in the ammonia-nitrogen
removal process exceeded the normal effluent re-
quirements as set forth by the state of Michigan
The chlorination-dechlorination process also
provided a dechlorinated effluent.
8. The dissolved oxygen level of the final
effluent varied between 1 and 2 mg/1. Re-
aeration facilities would have to be provided
if greater dissolved oxygen levels were re-
quired.
46
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9. The carbon dosage required in the organic
removal stage is approximately 500 Ib/mil gal
(60 kg/mil 1) of wastewater treated.
10. Low lime treatment [i50 to 175 mg/1 as
Ca(OH)2l - pH ranging between 8.8 and 9.4 -
will, with proper coagulation and sedimentation
reduce the phosphorus level of the wastewater
by over 80 percent.
47
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Aubert, M., P. Koch, and <3. Garancher,
The Diffusion of Bacterial Pollution in the Sea.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1969:793-809.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
From these studies it can be deduced that the
discharges of essentially domestic wastewater
into a reconstituted marine environment favor-
ably affect the growth of the planktonic bio-
mass, even when the sewage rate is very high
(20%). Furthermore, at high concentrations
these discharges tend to modify slightly the
biological equilibrium and to favor the ef 1 -
lorescence of protozoa. However, antibiotic
action caused by increased planktonic forms has
proved to be greater than the growth of bacteria
enriched with sewage, and this finally results
in their total destruction.
Thus it appears, in the light of these experi-
ments, that the discharge of wastewater into
the sea, excluding industrial wastewater, is
not likely to endanger marine life; although
modifications in this life are evident, they
are of a relatively localized nature.
Thus, an appreciation of the laws governing
bacteria diffusion opens the way to studies of
already existing or projected sea outfalls.
These studies, based on hydrological as well as
current measurement, will take into account the
sanitary requirements associated with the loca-
tion of the outlets. Systematic measurements
of the currents and the distribution of the
masses of water, the study of the temperature-
salinity relationships, and finally research on
the processes of diffusion with the help of
physical or biological tracers, will allow future
installations of sewage discharge pipes to be
selected with discernment, and the degree of
treatment necessary before discharge to be pre-
determined. Subsequently, it is necessary to
measure by direct observation the results of the
discharges made, so that in the course of time
adjustments may be made in the treatment require-
ments in accordance with future requirements.
48
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Aubert, M., H. Lebout, and J. Aubert.
Effect of Marine Plankton in Destruction of Enteric
Bacteria.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1964(3):308-
314.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
These experiments confirm the existence of anti-
biotic activity in a marine environment, and
demonstrate that this activity depends on the
bacteriostatic action of certain components of
the planktonic population, particularly the phyto-
plankton, which were the dominant components of
the plankton used in these tests.
The factor responsible for this activity is
thermolabile and appears to be biochemical in
nature, either a secretion or a component of
the plankton. However, the possibility cannot
be excluded that this factor may be due to the
presence of micro-organisms, specifically or
unspecif i cally related to the plankton. The
phytoplankton seems to be of particular impor-
tance, but some zoo-pianktonic forms may well be
endowed with a similar power, either specifically
or through the absorption of nutriments.
49
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Aulenbach, D.B., J.J. Ferris, N.L. Clesceri, and T.J. Tofflemire
Thirty-five Years of Use of a Natural Sand Bed for Polishing
Secondary Treated Effluent.
Presented at the Rural Environmental Engineering Conference,
University of Vermont, September 27, 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, nitrates, nitrites, germanium,
chlorides, coliforms, viruses .
Abstract:
There is insufficient information available as to the
effectiveness of discharging wastewaters, either treated
or untreated, directly into the soil to make use of the
characteristics of the soil which enable it to purify
wastes.
The treatment system at Lake George Village offers an
opportunity to study both the treatment efficiency of
sandy soils and the effect of relatively long (35) years
of us.e. Samples were secured from various locations;
results are summarized.
50
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Aulenbach, D.B., N.L. Clesceri, T.J. Tofflemire, S. Beyer,
and L. Hajas.
Water Renovation Using Deep Natural Sand Beds.
JAWWA. 6_7(9):510-515. September 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorides, nitrates, phosphates,
suspended solids, groundwater, surface
water (fresh), influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The Lake George Village sewage treatment plant
is doing an adequate job of purifying the
wastewater - providing an effluent that is safe
for drinking, satisfactorily removing essentially
all of the phosphorus from the wastewater, and
providing a nitrified effluent that at the present
time appears to have no obvious deleterious effects
upon the quality of Lake George.
51
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Axelson, 0., M. Rehn, and L. Sundell.
Herbicide Exposure - Mortality and Tumor Incidence;
An Epidemiological Survey of Swedish Railway Workers.
Pesticide Abstracts. 75-1886. 1975.
Key Words: epidemiology, pesticides, herbicides.
Abstract:
An epidemiological investigation was made of
tumor incidence and mortality in Swedish rail-
way workers exposed to various herbicides. A
slightly dose-response related and significantly
increased tumor incidence and mortality among
railway workers exposed to amitrole (3-amino-
1 ,2,4-triazole) was shown. Almost normal condi-
tions were found in those exposed to phenoxy
acids (2 ,4-di chl orophenoxyaceti c acid, 2,4-D;
and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4,5-T).
Animal experiments suggest that amitrole may
produce malignant tumors in several different
organs, but tumors of the thyroid and liver have
received the most attention. Exposure to amitrole
in this study is partly related to simultaneous
exposure to diuron (3-[3,4-dichlorophenyl]-1 ,1-
dimethylurea) and monuron (3-[p-chlorophenyl]- 1 ,1-
dimethylurea), which makes the assessment of a
definite correlation between tumor increase and
exposure to amitrole more difficult. This point
leaves the study open to criticism, but the close
agreement with data from animal experiments sup-
ports the recommendation that amitrole be used
with extreme caution.
52
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Bache, C.A., J.W. Serum, W.D. Youngs, and D.J. Lisk.
Polychlorinated Biphenyl
Lake Trout wi th Age.
Residues: Accumulation in Cayuga
Science. 177.:! 191 -1192. September 1972.
Key Words: pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Abstract:
The concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls
was shown to progressively increase with maturity
in a series of lake trout. The presence of
these compounds was determined by column chroma-
tographic isolation, specific detector gas chroma-
tography, and mass spectrometry. The relation
between fish age and the concentration of poly-
chlorinated biphenyls was highly significant.
53
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Baer, G.T., Jr.
Wastewater Skimmings Handling and Incineration.
Presented at the Annual Conference of the Water Pollution
Control Federation, October 1975.
Key Words: suspended solids, incineration.
Abstract:
The problems encountered in skimmings handling and incinera-
tion were due to our dewatering floatable matter in the same
way as settleable matter. Haying separated skimmings from
sludge handling, the great majority of difficulties have
been overcome and efficiencies improved. These specific
evaluations can now be made. The skimmings accumulated
and incinerated are approximately 19 Ibs. dry wt. per MG
of wastewater flow. The sludge incinerator design capacity
of 1,100 Ibs. per hr. dry solids is now 450 Ibs. per hr.
skimmings with 200 Ibs. per hr. sludge solids during the
skimmings procedures. Also, consumption of Auxiliary fuel
oil is 30 gallons per hour when applying the normal 2,500
SCFM of fluidizing air.
The incinerator capacity limits with skimmings are
approached by (a) minimum oxygen level of 2.0% due to
high fuel and/or dewatered sludge feed, of (b) low bed
temperature of 1,240° F due to insufficient dewatering,
or (c) delayed oxidation due to over-feed which can be
seen as a high freeboard temperature of 1,600° F. These
limits are identical in all respects to those of sludge
i ncineration.
Other than the cold weather congealing, two difficulties
are now encountered. One is an infrequent blockage of
the centrate line which is used to return scum well sub-
natant to sludge thickening. This is cleared by applying
plant effluent water pressure at 80 psi and has occurred
4 times per year. The second is blockage at the incinera-
tor bed feed points which requires manual rodding to clear.
This has occurred 9 times per year and did occur before the
procedure changes.
The equipment supplier, Dorr-Oliver; the Consulting Engi-
neers, Havens and Emerson; and the Authority Commission
encouraged the procedural and process changes. The plant
staff has adopted the new procedures to the end that it is
a standard operating procedure today.
54
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Baffa, J.J.
Artificial Groundwater Recharge and Wastewater Reclamation.
JAWWA. 69/9):471-476. September 1975.
Key Words: amn^nia, nitrates, nitrites, BOD, COD, suspended
solids, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The results of observations, made intermittently over a
three-year period of pilot-plant work, indicated that
water-quality parameters could be separated into two
basic categories:
1. Those of a soluble stable mineral character such as
chlorides and alkalinity.
2. Those having latent biological propensities such as
nitrogen compounds, sulfates, phosphates, carbon dioxide,
and organic solids.
Those in the latter group are capable of furnishing food
or nutrient for nitrogen bacteria and sulfur bacteria
and coliform organisms.
The concentrations measured were found to be affected by
the amount of water recharged, the amount of natural
ground-water flow affording dilution, the changes in
permeability of the aquifer brought about by clogging
effects and the biochemical effects of bacterial action.
The concentration of constituents in the ground water as
measured at the observation wells were studied with res-
pect to distance from the injection well and with respect
to variance during injection and during resting of the
injection we!1.
The removal of as much organic matter as possible will
limit adsorption of organic materials on sand grains and
thereby reduce soil clogging as well as prevent release
of additional nitrogenous compounds caused by deaminea-
tion resulting from bacterial action. The removal of
nitrogen and other nutrients furnishing energy to auto-
trophic bacteria is important from the standpoint of
public health since continued recycling would result in
buildup of nitrogen compound concentrations.
These requirements can be fulfilled by use of known methods
of advanced water treatment and in part by the use of
aerobic soil zone above the water table through recharge
55
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basins or in part by furnishing nutrients for crop irriga-
tion. Where the soil mantle above the water table is used
for treatment purposes, attention should be focused on
anion and cation exchange capabilities of the soil and the
teaching of soil salts.
56
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Baffa, J.J. and N.J. Bartilucci.
Wastewater Reclamation by Groundwater Recharge on
Long Island.
JWPCF. 3£(3):431-445. March 1967.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorides, nitrates, phosphates,
total dissolved solids, air, direct contact,
Abstract:
This paper explains mechanisms of groundwater
recharge but does not attack the problems of
contaminant transmission.
57
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Bahls, L.L.
Diatom Community Response to Primary Wastewater Effluent
JWPCF. 45.(1):134-144. January 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorides, fluorides, phosphates,
air, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Composite diatom collections and water chemistry
samples were taken monthly from six stations
on the East Gallatin River, (Mont.), one above
and five below the effluent from the former
BoZeman treatment plant.
Orthophosphate, ammonia, chloride, and fluoride
below the effluent all increased significantly
and eventually returned to pre-effluent levels
except for orthophosphate, which remained three
times more concentrated at the farthest down-
stream station than above the affluent.
The two dominant diatom taxa were Nitzschia
dissipata and N. epiphytica, togethereomprising
nearly 50 percent of the mean abundance of all
taxa in the river. N. dissipata ranked first
at all stations except just below the effluent
where N. epiphytica, a nitrogen heterotroph,
ranked fTrst. These and several other taxa
correlated significantly with orthophosphate,
ammonia, or nitrate concentrations.
On the basis of diatom pollution indicators,
diversity index values, and previous chemical
studies, the maximum impact of the effluent
on the diatom community was not felt until 5.3
km below the outfall. The stations with the
most dissimilar flora, however, were those
immediately above and below the effluent.
Diatom diversity below the effluent first rose
and then fell slightly, finally reaching maxi-
mum values at the two downstream stations. Di-
versity was negatively correlated with ammonia
and positively correlated with phosphate.
58
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Baler, D.C.
Dry and Irrigated Pasture Field Tests 'Physical and Chemical
Effects.
East Bay Municipal Utility District, Special District One,
San Francisco, 1974. 58p.
Key Words: chlorides, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
total dissolved solids, cadmium, copper,
nickel, zinc, agriculture, crops.
Abstract:
The findings are based on one-time application of
three rates of sludge to irrigated pasture plots and
similar treatment to dryland pasture plots. Visual
observations showed dramatic improvements in growth
which agreed with the statistical results reported.
59
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Baier, D.C.
1974 Row Crop Field Trials, Progress Report No. 3.
East Bay Municipal Utility District, Special District One,
San Francisco, 1975. 47p.
Key Words: chlorides, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
total dissolved solids, cadmium, copper,
nickel, zinc, agriculture, crops.
Abstract:
The findings are for two years (.1973-1974) of field
corn trials and are a combination of the findings
from two applications of sludge. The results of
the second year test (1974) were affected by a
significant volunteer corn growth due to problems
in harvesting the 1973 corn crop. The highest
yielding treatment was the pasteurized sludge. All
treated plots outyielded the control. Almost
all of the plants showed a nitrogen deficiency.
Cadmium seemed to be the most ominous of the trace
elements.
60
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Baier, D.C. and G.M. Wesner.
Reclaimed Waste Water for Groundwater Recharge.
Water Resources Bulletin. 7.(5) :991-1001. October 1971.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, ammonia, BOD, air, direct
contact.
Abstract:
The Orange County Water District has conducted
studies in waste water reclamation and ground-
water recharge since 1965. The work has been
done in three phases: (1) Study in both labora-
tory and pilot-scale units on the feasibility
of reclaiming trickling filter effluent for
injection through wells into confined aquifers;
(2) long-term injection study to determine the
fate of injected reclaimed water and to observe
the performance of a multi-casing injection well;
(3) testing alternative treatment methods in
a 25,000 gpd pilot plant to solve the water
quality problems which developed during the in-
jection study.
The reclaimed trickling filter effluent was
found to be injectable and did not cause excessive
well clogging. The multi-casing injection wells
performed very satisfactorily. The reclaimed
water would be acceptable for domestic use
after travel through 500 feet of a confined
aquifer in that bacteria, virus, and toxic
material were consistently absent. However,
the odor and taste which persisted in the injected
reclaimed water and the high concentration of
dissolved inorganics are undesirable characteris-
tics. Methods to eliminate the odor are being
tested at the present time. A cooperative project
with the Office of Saline Water is under way to
develop a source of desalted seawater to blend
with reclaimed waste water.
61
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Bailey, P.S.
Organic Groupings Reactive Toward Mechanisms in Aqueous
Media.
In: Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment. F..L. Evans,
ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
1972. pp. 29-59.
Key Words: synthetic/prganics, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The intent of this brief resume of the reactions
of ozone with organic compounds and of the mech-
anisms of these reactions has been to call atten-
tion to the great versatility and power of ozone
as an oxidizing agent. In the mind of this
author, it is the great hope of the future in
sewage and waste treatment and water purification.
62
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Balakrishnan, S. and W.W. Eckenfelder.
Nitrogen Removal by Modified Activated Sludge Process.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
9£(SA3):501-512. April 1970.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The nitrification studies in the activated sludge
units indicate that the degree of nitrification
decreased significantly with an increase in organic
loading; and that complete nitrification could be
obtained when the organic load factor did not ex-
ceed 0.3 to 0.4, providing all other optimum con-
ditions are satisfied. Also, a minimum sludge
age of 3 days or 4 days was found necessary for
achieving nitrification at about 23°C. Complete
nitrification of the final effluent from a con-
tact stabilization process containing low carbon
and high nitrogen is obtainable by feeding to
an aeration tank of 8 hr aeration and a MLSS
level of about 2000 mg per 1. Trickling filter
studies indicate that hydraulic loading has a
profound effect on the degree of nitrification .
There appears to be a very good correlation be-
tween the specific surface of the media and the
nitrification rate constant.
Batch runs on denitrification indicate a marked
increase in the rate of denitrification as the
organic matter added to the MLSS increased. A
good correlation (correlation coefficient, r = 0.72)
was obtained between the removal of organics and
the rate of dentrification. A fair correlation
(correlation coefficient, r = 0.5) was found be-
tween oxygen uptake and the denitrification rate.
In conclusion, it was observed from the results
of the contact-stabilization-denitrification
process studies that with a completely nitrified
mixed liquor containing 25 mg per 1 N03-N to 30 mg
per 1 N03-N, a period of anaerobiosis of 4 hrs
at about 25°C and MLSS at 2800 mg per 1 would
bring about an average total nitrogen removal of
80% to 90%.
63
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Balakrishnan, S., W.W. Eckenfelder, and C. Brown.
Organics Removed by a Selected Trickling Filter Media.
Water and Wastes Engineering. 6(1) :A22-A25 . January
1969.
Key Words: BOD, total organic carbon, coxsackie virus.
Abstract:
The studies reported here were made to evaluate
the organic removal characteristics of 1-1/2 in.
polypropylene flexirings. Mean residence times
were determined in tracer studies using sodium
chloride. Settled domestic sewage was treated
in an 8-ft. pilot plant trickling filter, and
the organic removal characteristics in terms
of BOD and TOC were measured.
A correlation was developed between the specific
surface of the media, applied BOD concentration,
and the removal rate coefficient. Based on this
correlation, it may be said that the flexiring
media exhibits a removal rate of the same order
of magnitude as other media having the same specific
surface in terms of organics removal.
64
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Balch, N., D. Ellis, 0. Littlepage, E. Maries, and R. Pym,
Monitoring a Deep Marine Wastewater Outfall.
JWPCF. 48^(3) :429-457. March 1976.
Key Words: coliforms, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites,
oil and grease, phosphates, surface water
(marine).
Abstract:
This report provides a complete study of parameters
(biological, chemical, and physical) resulting
from deep marine discharge of untreated waste.
65
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Bargman, R.B. and W.F. Garber.
Phosphate Removal by Activated Sludge Aeration.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
9J5(SAl):45-48. February 1970.
Key Words: phosphates, activated sludge.
Abstract:
This paper is a discussion of removal of phos-
phate by conventional means. During a four
month period, phosphate was reduced from 29
mg/1 in the primary effluent to .5 mg/1 in the
secondary effluent. This removal came about from
the stripping of CO? from the mixed liquor by
the increased aeration rate applied to produce
nitrification. A pH of 7 in the aeration tanks
was increased to 8.6 by stripping the CO? from
the mixed liquor. This pH allowed the phos-
phates to precipitate in proper mole ratios,
with ionic calcium, aluminum, zinc, iron, and
other di- and trivalent ions.
66
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Bargman, R.B., J.M. Betz, and W.F. Garber.
Nitrogen-Phosphate Relationships and Removals Obtained
by Treatment Processes at the Hyperion Treatment Plant.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1970(1):14/1-17.
Key Words: aluminum, iron, zinc.
Abstract:
The most important fact to be reported is that by
December 1969, the Hyperion Treatment Plant had
been removing more than 95% of the soluble phos-
phate from a flow of about 50 mgd over a 6Mmonth
period. That Is the secondary effluent phosphate
as P had been decreased from about 10 mg/1 to
less than 0.5. Knowledge of the process gained
during this period showed it to be both repeatable
and controllable; and indicated that greater re-
movals were possible if necessary or desired. We
have concluded that the most important factors
are substantial completion of carbonaceous oxida-
tion with some degree of nitrification and an air
rate sufficient to carry on both metabolic and
carbon dioxide scrubbing operations. This method
of phosphate removal is also consistent with
nitrogen removal by nitrate formation and subse-
quent anaerobic denitrification to nitrogen gas
by processes such as methanol feed for anaerobiasis
to an activated carbon column under use for
residual COD stripping.
Des i gn Imp!i cati ons
Because^pnospliate remova 1 , as well as overall
effluent quality requirements are becoming more
severe, secondary treatment design parameters
may well have to be considered in terms of find-
ings such as those reported in this paper. Thus,
it may very well be necessary to:
1} Provide much higher aeration rates and/or
efficiencies than now is usual.
2) Design for nitrification since completion of
the carbonaceous oxygen demand appears necessary.
Methods of nitrate reduction to nitrogen gas
are present so an increased removal of both nutri-
ents is possible.
3) Send all waste and raw primary sludge to solids
67
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treatment with no recycling of supernatant,
filtrate, centrate, decantate, or other nutrient
rich streams to the aeration process.
4) Consider solids treatment and handling in
terms of phosphate and other important ion re-
moval from the receiving waters.
5) Provide a tertiary filter at the end of
secondary sedimentation to insure that no in-
soluble phosphorous as well as organic or other
solid material leaves the facility.
6) Consider tank design in terms of the higher
air rates and the possibility that a given volume
may be able to handle a substantially larger flow
if air can be supplied.
68
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Barnard, J.L.
Cut P and N without Chemicals.
Water and Wastes Engineering. l_]_:33-36. July 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates.
Abstract:
This article discusses changes in the operating para-
meters of the modified activated sludge process to maxi-
mize removals of P and N.
69
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Barnes , G.E.
Disposal and Recovery of Electroplating Wastes.
JWPCF. 4_0(8):1459-1470. August 1968.
Key Words: cyanides, ch lorinati on .
Abstract:
The term "destruction" is particularly appropri-
ate to the chlorination of cyanide-bearing rinse
waters, wherein the oxidizing action of the chlorine
actually destroys the cyanide radical CN~ by break-
ing it down into its carbon and nitrogen components,
thus forming non-toxic compounds. The term also is
used to indicate the precipitation of metals carried
in solution in certain rinses, to form insoluble hy-
droxides which are removed readily by settling with
or without settling aids.
A diagram of a large waste treatment plant using
destruction methods for plating room wastewaters is
shown in the article. Its principal elements are
accumulation tanks and treatment tanks. The accumu-
lation tanks receive a day's flow, and each day's
flow is sent to the treatment tanks. Each batch
then is analyzed for chemical requirements and put
through the treatment cycle.
In the treatment cycle for the cyanide-bearing
wastes, the whole volume in the treatment tank
is cycled through the chlorinator to acquire
the necessary dosage. The destruction of the
cyanides takes place quickly, and the treated
liquor can be sent to the sewer. There is no
sludge disposal problem.
70
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Baroni, C. , G.J. Van Esch , and U. Saffiotti.
Carcinogenesis Tests of Two Inorganic Arsenicals.
Archives of Environmental Health. 7^668-674, 1963.
Key Words: epidemiology, arsenic.
Abstract:
Arsenic trioxide was tested by oral administra-
tion and sodium arsenate by skin application
on Swiss mice. Each compound was tested in
three ways: (1) alone (carcinogenesis test);
(2) in combination with skin applications of
the promoting agent croton oil (test for initi-
ating action); (3) after initiation with a
single skin application of 7,12-dimethylbenz
anthracene or with administration of urethan by
stomach tube (test for promoting action). Con-
trol groups were studied concurrently. All
tests failed to show any carcinogenic, initiating,
or promoting activity of the two arsenicals under
the experimental conditions used.
71
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Baross, J.A., F.J. Hanus, and R.Y. Morita.
Survival of Human Enteric and Other Sewage Micro-
organisms under Simulated Deep-Sea Conditions.
Applied Microbiology. 3£(2) :309-318. August 1975.
Key Words: epidemiology, surface water (marine),
E sdi e_r Ich ia coll, fecal streptococci,
bacteria, coliforms.
Abstract:
The survival of pure cultures of Escherichja coli,
Streptococcus faecal is, Clostridium perfringens.
and Vibri o parahaemolytiFus under simulated deep-
sea conditions of low temperature (4°C), seawater,
and hydrostatic pressures ranging from 1 to 1,000
atm was determined over a period exceeding 300 h.
The viability of E. coli and total aerobic bacteria
in seawater-diluted raw sewage subjected to these
deep-sea conditions was also measured. There was
a greater survival of both E. coli and S. faecalis
at 250 and 500 atm than a 1 atm at 4°C. S. faecafis
was quite insensitive to 1,000 atm, whereas with
E._co11 there was a 10-fold die-off per 50-h exposure
to 1tOOQ atm. In contrast, V. pa rahaemolyti cus
and C. perfringens were quite sensitive to pressures
exceeding 250 atm, and with both of these species
there wasfia total loss of viability of approxi-
mately 10 cells per ml within 100 h at 1,000 atm
and within 200 h at 500 atm. The viability of
the naturally occurring fecal coliforms in sewage
exposed to moderate pressures at 4°C was found
to be similar to the survival patterns demonstrated
with pure water.
72
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Barrow, N. J.
Effect of Previous Additions of Phosphate on Phosphate
Adsorption by Soils.
Soil Science. l_ljB:82-89. August 1974.
Key Words: phosphates, groundwater.
Abstract:
Phosphate, at several levels of application,
was incubated with four soils for 12 months or
was left in contact with soil in the field for
3 years. The capacity of the soils to adsorb
further phosphate and the proportion of the
phosphate remaining isotopically exchangable
were then measured. Previous additions of phos-
phate reduced the capacity of the soils to adsorb
further phosphate. The results indicated that
some of the phosphate had been converted into a
form which was occupying phosphate adsorption sites,
blocking thm from further reaction, and thus
reducing the buffering capacity for phosphate.
-------
Barth, E.F., J.N. English, B.V. Salotto, B.N. Jackson,
and M.B. Ettinger.
Field Survey of Four Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Plants Receiving Metallic Wastes.
JWPCF. 3^(8):1101-1117. August 1965.
Key Words: chromium, copper, nickel, zinc, activated
sludge, trickling filters.
Abstract:
A survey of four municipal wastewater treatment
plants concerning the receipt of heavy metals,
distribution of the metals in the various process
outlets, and effects of the metals on the treat-
ment efficiency, has shown satisfactory correla-
tion with pilot plant investigations.
The results show that the plants receive metallic
constituents on an almost continuous concentration
basis. Several slug discharges of metals to
each of the plants also were recorded. At two
of the plants digester supernatant accounted for
a considerable portion of the metal in the process.
The findings indicate that in the range of one
to nine mg/1 the heavy metals eause no serious
reduction in efficiency of the aerobic or anaerobic
treatment of sewage.
These studies at operating municipal plants en-
countered many uncontrollable variables, but the
pattern of response of the plants was similar to
the 100 gpd (378-1/day) pilot studies.
74
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Barth, E.F., B.N. Jackson, R.F. Lewis, and R.C. Brenner.
Phosphorus Removal from Wastewater by Direct Dosing of Aluminate
to a Trickling Filter.
JWPCF. 4JJ11 ) =1932-1942. November 1969.
Key Words: phosphates, trickling f i 1 ters , chemi cal treatment.
Abstract:
This study showed that a trickling filter containing rock
media can be dosed directly with sodium aluminate to
increase the efficiency of phosphorus removal. No adverse
effects were noted on the physical operation of the filter
or the biological slime attached to the rock media. The
efficiency of the dosed filter for COD, suspended solids,
and nitrogen removal was similar to that of the control
f11ter .
The data show that doses of aluminum to phosphorus above
a ratio of 1:1 did not increase the efficiency of phos-
phorus removal. Once the phosphorus has been insolubi-
lized, the overall efficiency of removal depends on the
particulate material being delivered to the final clari-
fication process in a settleable form.
This study fills a void in phosphorus removal technology
that existed between processes employing phosphorus
removal in primary sedimentation and processes employing
third-stage precipitation after the trickling filter
process .
75
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Barth, E.F., M.B. Ettinger, B.V. Salotto, and G.N. McDermott
Summary Report on the Effects of Heavy Metals on the
Biological Treatment Processes.
JWPCF. ^7(l):86-96. January 1965.
Key Words: chromium, copper, nickel, zinc, activated
sludge, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
These studies have dealt with the effects of
metals on the biological sewage treatment pro-
cesses; however, with the increasing reuse of
surface water the metal content of the final
effluent becomes important. Two researchers
have commented on this point. Each of the ions
considered in the metal studies has definite
maximum limits either for drinking water or
protection of game fish.
The importance of considering the metal content
of the final effluent is illustrated by chromium.
It is pointed out that 10 mg/1 would not interfere
with conventional activated sludge treatment or
anaerobic digestion of the sludges and that about
50 percent of the metal would reach the final ef-
fluent. Chromium at this concentration would be
acceptable from the standpoint of plant performance;
however, the low concentration of chromium allowable
in drinking water indicates that if downstream use
of the final effluent from a plant receiving a 10
mg/1 concentration of chromium was for this purpose,
considerable dilution would be required before the
supply would be acceptable.
76
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Barton, R.R., J.D. Zeff, B. Smiley, and E. Ahladeff.
UV-Ozone Water-Oxidation/Steri1ization Process.
Westgate Research Corporation, Marina del Rey, California,
September 1974. 89p. (Available from National Technical"
Information Service (NTIS) as AD-A004 205).
Key Words: bacteria, fecal streptococci, Escherichia c o1i,
ozonation, radiation treatment.
Abstract:
The purpose of this program was to determine the feasi-
bility of purifying water using the combination of ozone
and ultraviolet radiation. It was discovered from in-
house efforts that this combination of purifying agents
was an effective means of removing bacteria and organic
contaminants in water. The initial objective of this pro-
gram was to define the levels of ozone and UV radiation
required to destroy predetermined concentrations of micro-
bial contaminants and organic substances in water. These
contaminants were representative of those often found in
waste water effluents encountered by the Army and NASA.
The study was divided into two parallel efforts, a micro-
biological investigation has shown that the combination of
UV and ozone is more effective in destroying E. c o1i,
Streptococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pnumoniae and Acantha-
moeba caste!lani i than UV or ozone alone. In the organic
tests, the test organic compounds selected were hydro-
quinone, pyrogallol, xylenol, sodium acetate and urea.
77
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Bartsch, E.
Diazinon. II: Residues in Plants, Soil, and Water.
Residue Reviews. 5J_:37-65. 1974.
Key Words: pesticides, soil sterilants, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article presents a good review of soil sterilant
diazinon and its role in the ecosphere. Review of
diazinon in water is included.
78
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Barua, D.
Survival of Cholera Vibrios in Food, Water, and Fomites
Principals and Practice of Cholera Control. Chapter 4:
29-31. 1970.
Key Words: Vibrio cholera, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine), groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Survival of vibrios in water is dependent upon
pH as well as bacterial, salt, and organic con-
tent. Vibrios do not survive long (7-13 days)
in surface water, unless it is repeatedly contam-
inated.
79
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Bascom, W.
The Disposal of Waste in the Ocean.
Scientific American. 231 ;16-25. August 1974.
Key Words: silver, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
iron, lead, manganese, nickel, zinc.
Abstract:
This paper discusses generalities concerning
the ability of the ocean to assimilate waste.
80
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Bauer, R.C. and V,L. Snoeyink.
Reactions of Chloramines with Active Carbon.
JWPCF, 45,(11):2290-2301. November 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorination.
Abstract:
The results of this study indicate that chlorine dosages
below the breakpoint requirement can be used to oxidize
ammonia, if chlorination is followed by contact with
active carbon. Without the use of active carbon, dosages
below the breakpoint result in large concentrations of
total residual, whereas carbon serves to destroy both
combined and free chlorine residual.
81
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Bauer, S.B.
Heavy Metals in Lakes of the Coeur d'Alene River Valley,
Idaho.
Thesis, University of Idaho, MOSCOW,
November 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, copper, zinc, surface water (fresh),
fish.
Abstract:
The Coeur d'Alene River transports heavy metals
into the lateral lakes especially during high-
water in the spring. However, since dilution
is greatest during this time of year the con-
centration of dissolved metals is low. Zinc
concentrations may be toxic to trout at the lake
inlets, however, dissolved metals are below toxic
levels in the open water areas of the lakes.
Heavy metals have accumulated to high concentra-
tions in sediments of lakes in the Coeur d'Alene
River Valley. However, these metals are probably
strongly adsorbed to sediments and apparently have
little effect on the biota of the lakes.
Metal concentrations in fish from several of the
lakes were higher than values for fish from a
control area. However, in general, the levels
found were not excessive and illustrate that
fish are not accumulating these contaminants
from the lake environment. Determination of
zinc, copper, and cadmium in tissues of fish
then appears to be a poor indicator of heavy
metal pollution.
In order to clarify these points, further studies
should examine other species of fish in the drain-
age especially Salmonids which support the bulk
of the sport fishery. In addition, fish should
be analyzed for other metals which occur in the
mining wastes such as lead and antimony.
Many physiological changes in fish have been
demonstrated at concentrations that are well
below documented lethal limits. Such sublethal
effects need to be assessed before the impact
of metals on these fish populations can be
fully understood.
82
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Baughman, G.L., J.A. Gordon, N.L. Wolf, and R.G. Zepp.
Chemistry of Organomercurials in Aquatic Systems.
EPA-660/3-73-012, Southeast Environmental Research
Laboratory, Athens, Georgia, September 1973. 109p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-226 889).
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Studies are needed to elucidate the rates and
mechanisms of the release of dimethylmercury and
elemental mercury from sediments to overlying
water. Because these materials are non-ionic
and have a significant vapor pressure, they may
play an important role in mercury cycling through
loss at the air-water interface.
Calculations presented here indicate that ele-
mental mercury and dimethylmercury are likely to
volatilize from the aquatic environment. Be-
cause little is known about the behavior of gas-
eous mercury species in the atmosphere, research
should be undertaken to determine the fate of
these materials.
83
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Bausum, H.T., S.S. Schaub, M.J. Small, J.A. Highfill,
and C.A. Sorber.
Bacterial Aerosols Resulting from Spray Irrigation
with Wastewater.
U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Laboratory,
Fort Detrick, Md., June 1976. 140p.
Key Words: bacteria, virus, gravity separators,
activated sludge, trickling filters^
chemical treatment, ponding/land ap-
plication, chlorinati on, ozonation,
groundwater.
Abstract:
A model was developed to permit prediction of
pathogen concentration downwind from a spray
source. Considered in the model are the patho-
gen levels present in the effluent, the percent-
age of wastewater aerosolized, and meteorological
conditions. An excellent comprehensive literature
review is included. Field data was collected to
compare with the model.
84
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Baxter, S.S., C.F. Guarino, R.A. Erb, and C.T. Davey.
Philadelphia's Ocean Sludge Disposal Experience and
Studies.
Presented at the 44th Annual Conference of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 1971.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, nickel,
zi nc.
Abstract:
The results at the half-way mark of this investi-
gation are summarized below:
1. Sediment samples taken from the center of
the disposal site and the immediate vicinity
(including low spots) consist of clean sand,
along with gravel and shell fragments.
2. In all sediment samples taken in and around
the disposal area, no black sludge or h^S odor
emitting samples were found.
3. At the center of the sludge disposal area,
starfish, sand dollars, hermit crabs, and
snails were found in good health.
4. Fish specimens collected at the disposal site
included winter flounder, mackeral , stargazer,
long horned sculpin, and spiny dogfish.
5. Dissolved oxygen measurements of bottom,
middle, and surface waters at various points
within and surrounding the site show no signs
of oxygen depletion or sag.
6. Coliform levels in all bottom, mid, and
surface waters are zero.
7. There are no indications of significant
concentrations of heavy metals in surf clams
and other macrofauna collected in the area.
85
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Becker, E.R.
BOD, Solids and Nutrient Removal by Foam Flotation.
EPA-670/2-73-096, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio, June 1974. 71p.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, phosphates, foam flotation.
Abstract:
The results of a field demonstration project to investi-
gate the removal of BOD, suspended solids and nutrients
from a secondary effluent flowstream by the foam flotation
process are presented. Two major tasks were accomplished:
(1) operation of and the accumulation of data from a 0-10
gpm foam flotation pilot plant using secondary effluent
from the San Jose-Santa Clara Water Pollution Control Plant,
and (2) economic evaluation of the foam flotation process.
It was found that efficient phosphorus and suspended solids
removals and an improved effluent saturated with oxygen
could be effected by the foam flotation process. Based
on a 10 MGD plant, the projected costs for the foam flota-
tion process were shown to be 5.76 cents/1000 gallons for
chemicals and power.
86
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Beckman , W.J., R.J. Avendt, T.J. Mulligan, and G.J. Kehrberger,
Combined Carbon Oxidation-Nitrification.
JWPCF. 44(10):1916-1930. October 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, suspended solids.
Abstract:
The study's findings are summarized below:
1. Biological nitrification is attainable in
a combined carbon oxidation-nitrification
activated sludge facility.
2. The nitrification rate depends on tempera-
ture, and optimum temperature during the ex-
perimentation period was 65°F (18.3°C).
3. For nitrification with the mixed liquor at
50° to 65°F, F:M ratios of 0.25 or less are
optimum.
4. Sludge ages greater than 3 days are needed;
optimum age is greater than 6 days.
5. Removal of relatively small amounts of ammonia
nitrogen during periods of critical stream flow
is economically feasible with breakpoint chlorina-
t i on.
6. A preliminary study of the receiving stream
relative to its ability to assimilate BOD and
ammonia nitrogen at various temperatures, flows,
and other conditions is extremely important in
determining the extent of the application of
tertiary or advanced wastewater treatment.
7. Average BOD and SS removals greater than
95 percent through primary and secondary treat-
ment and microstraining were observed through-
out the study period.
8. Within the pH ranges studied (7.0 to 8.0),
the pH had no significant influence on the rate
of ammoni a removal.
9. Laboratory investigations of the effect of
heavy metals on nitrification indicated that
slug doses of copper and chromium at 1.0 mg/1
87
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or less did not retard the reaction. Slug
dosages of zinc and nickel, however, retarded
the rate of nitrification at concentrations
greater than 0.5 mg/1. Complete inhibition
was not observed with zinc and nickel con-
centrations as high as 3.0 mg/1.
10. Maintenance of a DO concentration of 2.0
or more in the aeration tank effluent did not
permit deni trif ication to occur in the final
settling tanks provided that an excessive sludge
blanket was not permitted to form.
11. Laboratory investigation showed that high
rates of denitrification could be obtained using
clarified nitrified effluent when detention times
of 5 hr, extremely low DO levels, and influent
COD values greater than 150 mg/1 (methanol supple-
mentation) were maintained.
88
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Beeckmans, J.M. and P.C. Ng.
Pyrolyzed Sewage Sludge: Its Production and
Possible Utility.
Environmental Science and Technology. 5_:69-71.
January 1971.
Key Words: COD, heat treatment.
Abstract:
Filtered sludge from a municipal activated sludge
plant was pyrolyzed in a continuous-feed, multiple-
hearth furnace. The carbon content of the pyroly-
sate under optimum operating conditions was 14.1%.
The pyrolysate was crushed 70 to 100 mesh, and
its ability to adsorb COD and the dye crystal
violet was measured. Parallel adsorption tests
were made with fly ash and activated coconut
charcoal. The pyrolysate was found to be inter-
mediate in its adsorbing capacity between fly
ash and activated coconut charcoal for both
adsorbates, suggesting that 1t could prove useful
as a tertiary treatment agent in wastewater reno-
vati on .
89
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Bellar, T.A., J.J. Lichtenberg, and R.C. Kroner.
The Occurrence of Organohalides in Chlorinated Drinking
Waters.
National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio,
November 1974. 21p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-238 589)
Key Words: synthetic/organics, drinking and recreational
water, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Chloroform and other trihalogenated methanes have been
detected in several municipal water supplies. The highest
concentrations (37 to 150yg/l) of these compounds were
found in finished waters having surface waters as their
source. These compounds form as a result of chlorination
processes during water treatment. The repeated addition
of chlorine at various stages of the treatment process
plays an important role in determining the ultimate con-
centrations of organohalogens that occur, since a primary
limiting factor is the presence of free chlorine in the
water.
Although the trihalogenated compounds resulting from
chlorination are not an acute hazard to man at the levels
detected [oral lethal dose of chloroform to mice is
120 mg/Kg (1)], their presence suggests the need to
monitor finished waters for these and other organohalogens
and to determine whether there may be chronic effects.
There is a need to develop analytical methodology so that
the chemistry of the chlorination process can be fully
studied and understood.
In addition to chloroform, several other halogenated
aliphatic and aromatic compounds were detected in a
sewage treatment plant influent and effluent waters.
90
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Bellar, T.A., J.J. Llchtenberg, and R.C. Kroner.
The Occurrence of Organohal1des 1n Chlorinated Drinking
Waters.
JAWWA. 166..-703-706. December 1974.
Key Words: synthetic /organics, chlorination.
Abstract:
This paper provides a general discussion on the
production of organics by the disinfection (halo-
gens) processes.
91
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Benarde, M.A.
Land Disposal and Sewage Effluent: Appraisal of
Health Effects of Pathogenic Organisms.
JAWWA. 65_(6):432-440. June 1973.
Key Words: polio virus, salmonella, shigella, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article provides geiaeral discussions on
the public health ramifications of land disposal
of sewage effluent.
92
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Bender, M.E. and D.L. Correll.
The Use of Wetlands as Nutrient Removal Systems.
Chesapeake Research Consortium, Baltimore, Maryl-and,
June 1974. 15p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-241 002K
Key Words
nitrates,
(marine).
nitrites, phosphates, surface water
Abstract:
Data derived from three wetland study sites in the Chesa-
peake Bay show that regularly flooded tidal marshes should
not be considered as sinks for available forms of the
nutrients -- nitrogen or phosphorus. Although transforma-
tion of the incoming or applied marsh and exported as
ammonia and dissolved organic nitrogen to the estuary,
there is little if any net loss of available nitrogen or
phosphorus to the marsh. Seasonally the highest exports
of dissolved inorganic phosphorus and ammonia occurred
during the summer. These results were arrived at utilizing
two different methodologies -- the first employed fertili-
zation or loading experiments in combination with tracers
while the other determined natural flux at two undisturbed
study sites. The important management implication of these
results is that the contention that marshes have consider-
able value as nutrient removal systems appears to be
unfounded, at least for the medium salinity marshes of
Chesapeake Bay.
93
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Bendixen, T.W., R.D. Hill, F.T. DuByne, and G.G. Robeck.
Cannery Waste Treatment by Spray Irrigation-Run-
off.
JWPCF. 4_U3):385-391 . March 1969.
Key Words: COD, phosphates, suspended solids,
crops .
Abstract:
Over a 12-yr period since 1954, a land disposal
system serving a cannery in northwest Ohio has been
developed gradually from a complete containment
spray irrigation system into a spray irrigation-
runoff system.
Over a 5-yr period, 1961 through 1965, when it
operated as a spray-runoff system, an average of
30 percent of the sprayed volume ran off and
contained only about 9 percent of the applied
COD. Runoff volume and quality decreased as the
hydraulic load increased.
During the 1964 and 1965 seasons, detailed monitor-
ing of 3 of 5 sub-watersheds indicated that 30
to 40 percent of the applied waste ran off, 30
percent was lost by evapo-transpiration, about 25
percent was stored in the soil or lost through
percolation, and about 5 percent evaporated
directly from the spray.
Infiltration rates tended to decrease during the
spray season but recovered between seasons.
The remnants of a tile drainage system in one water-
shed appeared to have a major influence in reducing
direct runoff volume and improving quality. Removals
of COD, nitrogen, phosphates, and suspended solids
were in the order of 95, 93, 84, and 97 percent,
respectively. Quality of runoff was uniform through-
out the season except for the influence of four
large rainstorms. Runoff during these rainstorms
contributed from 18 to 30 percent of the total
season runoff and from 8 to 55 percent of the
total season organic and nutrient load.
Average seasonal organic and nutrient load from
the spray system was of the same order of magni-
tude as the annual loads from agricultural water-
sheds .
94
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Bennett, G.W., D.L. Bailee, R.C. Hall, J.F. Fahey,
W.L. Butts, and J.V. Osmun.
Persistence and Distribution of Chlordane and Dieldrin
Applied as Termiticides.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
n_: 64-69. January 1974.
Key Words: pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons, dieldrin
groundwater, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Some chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds applied to
soil under and around buildings are very effective
for subterranean termite prevention and control.
This study reports the investigation of termiticides
which behaved in a similar manner in soil beneath
and around treated structures and determined to be
of no environmental concern.
95
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Benson, N.R.
Zinc Retention by Soils,
Soil Science. 191(3): 171-179. March 1966.
Key Words: zinc, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
It is not within the scope of this paper to interpret the
behavior of the various ions in exchange reactions. A few
observations, however, are worthy of note. In the Ritz-
vllle and Ephrata soils, K substituted for Zn, ion for ion,
an effect that was not expected. Those two soils had high
silt and low clay and organic matter contents. In the
Selah and Wenatchee soils K substituted for Zn more closely
on a chemical equivalent basis. These two soils had rela-
tively high clay and organic matter contents. In Hood soil
there was very little substitution of K for Zn. The pro-
minent feature of this soil was its high organic matter
content. From this limited data, it appears that the capa-
city for K to substitute for Zn is strongly affected by the
organic fraction.
The Hood and Lick soils were forest soils, whereas the
others were desert soils. The differences in behavior of
the Hood and Lick soils from the others could be due to
properties not determined. The fact that these soils do
not produce Zn-def1cient fruit trees may be significant,
at least in the extrapolation of these studies to field use.
The data presented has shown that the application of Zn
salts to soils results 1n high sol! Zn concentrations. Not
presented was data showing that apple seedlings quickly die
when planted in a soil having 20 percent or more of the
exchange capacity Zn»saturated. It was shown that apple
seed!ings survive and make root growth in a soil having up
to 12 percent of the CEC as Zn. In all of the noncalcareous
soils studied that produce Zn-deflcient fruit trees, toler-
able concentrations of Zn would result if treated with a
mixture of ZnSO^K^SO^ having a Zn per K ratio of 1/3. This
offers a firm basis to test a field treatment that promises
a long-lasting cure for Zn-deficient fruit trees.
A soil treatment that would result in a soil Zn concentra-
tion sufficiently dispersed for trees to absorb adequate
ZH might require an acidifying material such as S or H2SOj
in addition to, or instead of, part of the K^SC^. The acid
would prevent precipitation of the Zn and reduce the amount
of Zn retained in exchangeable form in the upper profile.
The subsequent leaching with CaSO^ formed by the action of
96
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the acid acting in the soil CaCOq would replace more Zn and
move it deeper into the soil. The effectiveness of such a
treatment needs further study.
97
-------
Benzie, W.J. and R.J. Courchaine.
Discharges from Separate Storm Sewers and Combined Sewers.
JWPCF. 3I3(3):410-421. March 1966,
Key Words: ammonia, phosphates, coliforms, fecal streptococci,
combined municipal and/or sewer systems.
Abstract:
A comparison of mean median values indicates that consider-
ably larger quantities of total coliforms, fecal coliforms
and fecal streptococci are found in the discharges from a
combined system rather than a separate storm sewer system.
Discharges from a separate storm sewer system contain sig-
nificant quantities of fecal organisms, presumably of
animal origin.
98
-------
Berg, E.L., C.A. Brunner, and R.T. Williams.
Single Stage Lime Clarification of Secondary Effluent.
Water and Wastes Engineering. 7^(3):42-46. March 1970
Key Words: BOD, COD, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
This study was undertaken to produce suitable
clarified water from secondary effluent for
an advanced waste treatment system which
includes granular activated carbon treatment
and electrodialysis. The clarifier was oper-
ated at various pH values to ascertain also the
effects upon those constituents normally present
in secondary effluent.
Results showed that a lime clarification system
can be an effective and economical tool for the
clarification of relatively hard wastewaters.
Water of high clarity, however, is obtainable
only during optimal operation of the biological
oxidation process. The system also removed
large amounts of phosphate, a major nutrient
that supports algal life. The economics of the
system are comparable with other forms of clari-
fi cation .
99
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Berg, G.
Integrated Approach to Problem of Viruses in Water.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
9£(SA6):867-882. December 1971.
Key Words: viruses, gravity separators, activated
sludge, chemical treatment, chlorination.
Abstract:
Primary settling removes little virus in 3 hr.
and only about 40 to 70% in 24 hrs. In theory,
activated sludge can remove 99% of virus present,
but field studies indicate the figure to be
somewhat less. Chemical coagulation has been
found to remove up to 90%. Hypochlorous acid
(HOC!) is one of the fastest virucides known.
100
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Berg, G.
Microbiology-Detection, Occurrence, and Removal of Viruses.
JWPCF. 4£(6):1408-1413. June 1974.
Key Words: epidemiology, viruses.
Abstract:
A review article on detection, occurrence, and
removal of viruses from wastewater, its findings
were developed during the period of 1973.
101
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Berg, G.
Reassessment of the Virus Problem in Sewage and in
Surface and Renovated Waters.
In; Advances in Wastewater Research. Pergamon Press,
New York. B/14/28/1-8. 1972.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This very general article sets standards and
delineates research needs in the field of
viruses in surface and renovated waters.
102
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Berg, G.
Removal of Viruses from Sewage, Effluents, and Waters. 1 : A
Review.
World Health Organization Bulletin. 49^451-460. May 1973.
Key Words: viruses, gravity separators, trickling filters,
activated sludge, ponding/land application,
filtration, chemical treatment, chlorination ,
ozonation, radiation treatment.
Abstract:
All sewage and water treatment processes remove
or destroy viruses. Some treatment methods are
better than others, but none is likely to remove
all of the viruses present in sewage or in raw
water. Primary settling of solids probably re-
moves a great many of the viruses in sewage be-
cause viruses are largely associated with the
solids. Long storage of effluents or water is
destructive to viruses. Activated sludge is
the best biological method for removing viruses
from sewage. Trickling filters and oxidation
ponds are erratic, the latter probably because
of short-circuiting. Coagulation with metal
ions is the most effective single treatment
method for removing viruses from sewage and from
raw waters, according to laboratory studies at
least. Lime is the best coagulant for these
purposes in the rapidly virucidal high pH range.
Polyelectrolytes also can sediment viruses.
Rapid filtration through clean sand does not re-
move viruses, but filtration of coagulated ef-
fluents does, probably because the layering floe
itself adsorbs viruses. Clays and carbon adsorb
viruses to some extent, but the process is not
efficient. Ultimately, disinfection should help
to produce virus-free waters for drinking and
virus-free effluents for discharge into waters
with which man may come into contact. Because
disinfection is not a simple matter, disinfectants
must be selected according to need. Effluents
and waters containing solids can probably be
disinfected only by heat or by penetrating radi-
ation; waters discharged into streams should not
be disinfected with anything that will injure
or kill aquatic life (unless the toxic products
can be neutralized); and drinking-waters should
carry a disinfecting residue.
This article provides a good review on the re-
movals of vi ruses.
103
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Berg, G.
Removal of Viruses from Sewage, Effluents and Waters. 2:
Present and Future Trends.
World Health Organization Bulletin. 4^:461-469. May 1973
Key Words: viruses* gravity separators, ponding/land
application, activated sludge, chemical
treatment, filtration, chlorination,
ozonation, radiation treatment, anaerobic
digesti on .
Abstract:
Because large variations occur in the concentrations
of viruses that enter treatment plants from season
to season and from place to place, and even during
a 24-hour period, field studies on the removal of
viruses by treatment processes require temporal
coordination of sampling. Quantitative methods
for concentrating viruses must be developed to
measure accurately the efficiency of virus removal
by treatment processes in field situations. Ex-
tended settling, and storage of sewage and raw
waters, reduce virus levels and deserve further
study. Oxidation ponds must be reevaluated with
regard to temporal matching of influent and ef-
fluent samples and with special care to prevent
short-circuiting. Conventional and modified ac-
tivated sludge plants must be reassessed with
temporal matching of samples. Coagulation of
viruses with metal ions requires field evaluation,
and virus removal by filtration through sand and
other media, under constant salt and organic
loadings, needs both laboratory and field evalua-
tion. A comparative study of water disinfectants
related to specific conditions is needed. The tox-
icity, carcinogeni ci ty , and teratogenicity of
products resulting from disinfection must also
be assessed. Other matters for investigation are:
methods for quantitatively detecting viruses ad-
sorbed on solids, the virus-removal capability
of soils, better virus indicators, virus concentra-
tion in shellfish, the frequency of infection in
man brought about by swallowing small numbers of
viruses in water, the epidemiology of virus in-
fection in man by the water route, the effect of
viruses of nonhuman origin on man, and the oc-
currence of tumour-inducing agents in water.
104
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Berg, G.
Removal of Viruses from Water and Wastewater.
In: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality Conference;
Virus and Water Quality: Occurrence and Control,
University of Illinois, February 1971. pp. 126-136-
Key Words: bacteria, gravity separators, activated
sludge, chemical treatment, trickling
filters, adsorption/ion exchange, ponding/
land application.
Abstract:
There is not yet available a single method that
completely recovers all viruses from sewage.
Primary settling, which is used in most communi-
ties, removes little virus. Several biological
treatment methods such as activated sludge, stabili-
zation ponds, and trickling filters may be used for
virus removal but with widely varying results. As
costs become a little less important, and the
quality of our watelrs a little more important, chem-
ical and physical treatment procedures may find
increasing application both in treating raw sewage
and secondary effluents when total renovation is
the goal .
105
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Berg, G.
Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route.
Interscience Publishers, New York, December 1965.
Key Words: epidemiology, viruses.
Abstract:
This book is based on a symposium held December 6-8,
1965, in Cincinnati, Ohio.
It deals with: epidemiology,
quantitative recovery of viruses from
dilute suspensions,
the minimal infective dose,
viruses in water, and
survival of viruses in waste and
wastewater.
The contents in this volume are summaries of the
knowledge available up to 1965.
106
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Berg, G.
Virus Transmission by the Water .Vehicle. I: Viruses.
Health Laboratory Science. 3,(2):86-88. April 1966.
Key Words: viruses, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
This volume is the introduction to a series of
arti cles.
This series includes only selected material.
Rather than a literature review, several of which
have been published recently, this series includes
only representative material from some of the more
cogent reports, and is directed towards the presen
tatlon of a concise comprehensive picture of the
present day knowledge of the effect of water and
sewage treatment processes on the removal and de-
struction of vi ruses.
107
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Berg, G.
Virus Transmission by the Water Vehicle. II: Virus
Removal by Sewage Treatment Procedures.
Health Laboratory Science. 3.(2):90-100. April 1966.
Key Words: viruses, gravity separation, activated sludge,
trickling filters, chlorination.
Abstract:
This is the second in a series of three articles.
What appears to be most important at the moment
is that sewage effluents after secondary treatment
and even after chlorination are not free of viruses.
While studies are needed for improvement of sewage
treatment procedures, immediate concern for pot-
able waters demands consideration of the ability
of water treatment processes to produce finished
waters free of viruses. This consideration is the
subject of the third paper of this series.
108
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Berg, G.
Virus Transmission by the Water Vehicle. Ill: Removal
of Viruses by Water Treatment Procedures.
Health Laboratory Science. 1(3): 170-181 . July 1966.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination , coliforms,
fi 1 trati on , ni trifi cat ion/den i trif icati on .
Abstract:
This is the third in a series of three articles
and reviews treatment systems being applied up
to 1966.
109
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Berg, G. and F. D. White.
Viruses in Waste, Renovated, and Other Waters; 1974
Literature Abstracts.
EPA-670/9-75-007, National Environmental Research Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio, Methods Development and Quality Assurance
Research Laboratory, June 1975. 40p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-245 957)
Key Words: epidemiology, viruses.
Abstract:
The bibliography contains abstracts of published
papers on viruses in water, wastewater systems, and
sewage for 1974. The abstracts cover the detection,
removal, and concentration of viruses from various
sources.
no
-------
Berg, G. , R.B. Dean, and D.R. Dahling.
Removal of Poliovirus 1 from Secondary Effluents by
Lime Flocculation and Rapid Sand Filtration.
JAWWA. 60J2): 193-1 98. February 1968.
Key Words: polio virus, filtration, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
About 98.6 - 99.995 percent of the virus was re-
moved followed by sand filtration following
flocculation. The extent of removal depended
upon the lime concentration, and consequently
on the pH to some extent.
Whether viruses not as sensitive to pH levels
above 10.8 would be destroyed as readily remains
to be determined.
The findings of this paper can be summarized
below:
1. Poliovirus 1 (LSc vaccine) inoculated into
secondary effluent was not rapidly adsorbed or in-
activated and could be recovered readily.
2. Flocculation of secondary effluent with 200-500
mg/1 of lime removed less than 70-99.86 percent of
polio virus 1 (LSc vaccine). The amount of removal
depended upon the concentration of lime and the
pH level attained.
3. Filtration through 8 in. of sand removed from
82 to greater than 99.8 percent of the virus.
4. Total removal of virus by lime flocculation and
sand filtration ranged from 98.6 to greater than
99.997 percent.
Ill
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Berg, J.W. and F. Burbank.
Correlations between Carcinogenic Trace Metals in Water
Supplies and Cancer Mortality.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 199:249-261.
June 28, 1972.
Key Words: epidemiology, heavy metals,
Abstract:
Concentrations of eight carcinogenic trace metals in
water supplies were compared with state cancer mortali-
ties for major water basins in the United States. No
significant correlations were found for iron, cobalt,
and chromium. Nickel concentrations correlated with
mouth and intestinal cancer death rates and arsenic
concentrations with mortality from larynx cancer, eye
cancer, and myeloid leukemia, but these cannot be
interpreted biologically. Beryllium which produces
bone cancer in animals, was correlated with bone
cancer mortality as well as with mortality from breast
and uterine cancers, but association was weak in sub-
groups. Lead, a renal carcinogen in animals and a
hematopoietic poison, was correlated with mortality
from kidney cancer, leukemias, and lymphonias as well
as stomach, intestinal, and ovarian cancers. Cadmium
concentrations were correlated most closely and most
frequently with cancer death rates, but the distribution
of the metal producing these results are not in agree-
ment with other reports.
112
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Berkihiser, E.
Decrease of DDT 1n Mussels.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Annual
Report. El Segundo, Ca. , June 30, 1974.' pp. 101-703.
Key Words: pesticides, DDT, shellfish.
Abstract:
Intertidal mussels are useful indicators of the
relative amounts of DDT and PCB contamination in
nearshore waters. The Coastal Water Projects'
1971 survey of these synthetic organies in Mytilus
californianus from stations throughout the Bight
revealed a distinct correlation between the con-
centrations of both total DDT and PCB 1254 in the
tissue of a mussel and the proximity of the station
from which the mussel was taken to the Palos Verdes
Peninsula, a region of major DDT and PCB inputs.
This study suggests that the mussel will rapidly
reflect changes in the seawater concentrations of
chlorinated hydrocarbons.
113
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Bernard, H.
Alternative Methods for Sludge Management.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the
National Conference on Municipal Sludge Management,
1974. pp. 11-19.
Key Words: anaerobic digestion, incineration, sanitary
landfill, agriculture.
Abstract:
There are many alternative methods of handling and
disposing of sludge materials from wastewater
treatment plants. No single system is capable of
solving all disposal problems. Various sludge
processing systems as well as incineration, land
disposal, composting, resource recovery, etc. are
discussed.
114
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BernarcHn, F.E.
Cyanide Detoxification Using Adsorption and Catalytic
Oxidation on Granular Activated Carbon.
JWPCF. £5(2):221-231. February 1973,
Key Words: cadmium, copper, zinc, cyanides, chemical
treatment, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
It has been demonstrated 1n laboratory and field
tests that catalytic oxidation of cyanide over
activated carbon 1s a feasible means for treatment
of cyanide-containing wastes. Further, 1t has
been shown that the addition of copper as cuprlc
ions has a beneficial effect on the reaction.
The process has been shown to work on copper,
zinc, and cadmium wastes and on coke plant wastes
when proper treatment is used. The proper treat-
ment is defined as removal of oils and tars, which
would foul the carbon surface, and removal or pre-
vention of excess iron contamination, which would
form oxidation-resistant complexes. In the treat-
ment of plating wastes, it was also found that
coagulation treatment could remove the plating
metal and produce a sludge which might be reused.
The major advantages to this system are the mild
conditions under which it works, the relatively
low operating cost, and the fact that the system
can be run unattended either through automation
or recycling.
115
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Bernhardt, H., J. Clasen, and H. Schell.
Phosphate and Turbidity Control by Flocculation and Filtration.
JAWWA. 63_(6) :355-368. June 1971.
Key Words: phosphates, suspended solids, filtration, chemical
treatment.
Abstract:
The Wahnbach Reservoir in the Federal Republic of Germany,
since its impoundment, gradually has developed heavy
deposits of algae -- most of which thrive on the phos-
phates from agricultural runoff. To stifle the algae,
tests were run to determine the best method for elimi-
nating their nourishment. This article relates findings
that, for this reservoir's particular problems, were
found to be the most efficient and economic methods.
116
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Berrow, M,L, and J. Webber,
Trace Elements in Sewage Sludges.
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2_3: 93-100. 1972.
Key Words: aluminum, boron, chromium, copper, cobalt, iron,
lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, tin, zinc.
Abstract:
The elements Cu, Sn and Zn are present in the sewage
sludges in amounts approximately 40 times as great as
in soils. For Ag, Bi and Pb the factor is probably
lower. Of these elements, Zn in particular is present
in sludges in a highly soluble form, the median figure
for soluble Zn being over 500 times that found in soil.
The only other element commonly present in a soluble form
in large amount relative to soil is Cu. Although the per-
centage solubility of Ni in sludges is generally high rela-
tive to that of Ni in soil, the sludge values are very high
only in a few cases. Manganese is the element showing the
highest mean percentage solubility but, as the median value
is only 6 times as great as the corresponding value for
soil, it appears unlikely that Mn toxicity in crops would
arise from the use of sewage sludges.
When both total and soluble figures are considered in rela-
tion to normal levels in soil, it appears that levels of Zn,
particularly available Zn, in the soil are likely to be
greatly increased by the addition of sewage sludge. The
same applies, but to a lesser extent, to Cu. Plant growth
problems are likely to arise when the acetic acid soluble
Zn level rises to greater than 100 parts/million in the
soil. Cases of copper toxicity in crops following the
repeated use of copper fungicidal sprays in vineyard and
orchard soils have been reported, these being summarized
by Delas. Nickel and Cu have been shown in pet experiments
(unpublished results) carried out by N.A.A.S. to be consi-
derably more toxic than Zn, confirming the finding of Hunter
and Vergnano in pet experiments with oats, that Ni was the
most toxic, followed by Cu and other heavy metals in the
series Ni, Cu, Co, Cr, Zn, Mo and Mn. Complete crop failure
in the field has been reported in Scottish soils containing
50-100 parts/million acetic acid-soluble Ni (Mitchell), and
in Ni-rich soils of ultrabasic origin from many other
sources.
A dressing of sewage sludge of 10 tons of dry matter per
acre, (25t/ha), with the median contents of trace elements
detailed in Table 1 is equivalent to adding approximately
33 parts/million Zn, 10 parts/million Cu, 8 parts/million
117
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Pb, 5 parts/million Mn, 3 parts/million Cr, 1 parts/million
Ni, 0.6 parts/million B and 0.1 parts/million Co. After
annual application for 7 years, such treatments would
raise the total Zn content of a typical soil to greater
than 300 parts/million, the top of the normal range for
total Zn in soils. The level of acetic acid-soluble Zn
could be increased by 12 parts/million with each dressing
of sludge and long-term field experiments (LeRiche)
suggest that soluble Zn added to soil as regular dres-
sings of sludge persists in this form, maintaining high
levels of soluble Zn in the soil for at least 8 years.
The same dressing of a sludge containing the highest
total levels found in the 42 sludges (Table 1) would
add each year approximately 560 parts/million Zn, 110
parts/million Cr and Cu, 56 parts/million Ni, 33 parts/
million Pb and 11 parts/million B to the soil. It can
be seen that the use of such materials as fertilizers
is not without serious hazards, particularly when used
at heavy rates of application over a number of years.
The wide variation in trace element contents of sludges
from different towns make it advisable that the composi-
tion of individual sludges should be known before their
use as a fertilizer.
118
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Bertrand, G.L.
Accumulation of Mercury of Fish and Turtles of the Little
Piney River.
University of Missouri-Rol1 a, Department of Chemistry, June
1974. 7p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-239 253).
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Trout that had been continuously frozen since they were
taken from Missouri streams in the 1946-50 period were
analyzed for mercury. These analyses (flameless atomic
absorption) were compared with those of the same species
collected recently from the same streams. The older fish
had a much higher mercury content (about 3 ppm mercury).
Mercury content of trout and turtles caught in 1974 ranged
from 0.2 to 0.4 ppm. Two explanations are suggested for
the higher mercury content of the older fish: fungicides,
containing mercury, formerly added as seed treatments are
no longer used, and most of the older fish were raised
under natural conditions, while most current catches are
now raised in hatcheries and regularly released in the
119
-------
Bertucci, J., D. Zenz, and C. Lue-H1ng.
Report
Evelyn
1973.
on the Virological Studies of Big Creek and
Reservior in Fulton County, Illinois, February,
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago,
September 1973. 6p.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This report presents a study of virus densities
in surface waters; the study is part of a larger
program to monitor possible virus pollution of
surface waters by land applied liquid fertilizer.
From the data obtained, it can be stated that
there is no evidence of viral pollution caused by
the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater
Chicago operations. The levels of viruses detected
at this time were no higher than background levels
detected previous to the MSDGC operations.
120
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Bertucci, J., C. Lue-Hing , D.R. Zenz, and S.J. Sedita.
Studies on the Inactivation Rates of Five Viruses
during Anaerobic Sludge Digestion.
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago,
September 1975. 34p.
Key Words:
coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, polio virus,
nitrates, phosphates, suspended solids,
viruses, iron, manganese, zinc, anaerobic
digestion.
Abstract:
The use of anaerobically digested municipal sludge
as a fertilizer and soil amendment is becoming a
widely accepted method of sludge disposal both
in Europe and the United States. The possibility
of increased virus burden to the environment due
to sludge application was a major concern of the
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago
at its Fulton County Land Reclamation Site in
Southern Illinois.
The viruses studied included coliphage MS-2,
polio virus-!, coxsackie viruses A-9 and B-4,
and ECHO virus-!]. Average individual virus
inactivation rates were found to range from 74.9
to 97.1 percent after 24 hours to 93.7 to 99.9
percent after 48 hours.
121
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Besik, F.K.
Renovating Domestic Sewage to Drinking Water Quality.
Water and Pollution Control. 1JJ.(4): 58-63 ,97. April 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, nitrates, phosphates, total
organic carbon, activated sludge, adsorption/
1on exchange.
Abstract:
The renovation of waste water using biological/
physical-chemical treatment is discussed.
122
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Besik, F.K.
Waste Water Reclamation in a Closed System.
Water and Sewage Works. 1_18!(7) :213-219. July 1971.
Key Words: chlorides, phosphates, total organic carbon
Abstract:
This report provides a good review of recycling
water. Mass balances are described.
123
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Bewers , J.M., I.D. Macaulay, and B. Sundby.
Trace Metals in the Waters of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. Vj_(7) :939-950. July 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, nickel,
zinc, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Concentrations of the trace elements iron, cobalt,
nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, and lead were
measured in samples collected from the waters of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Cobalt, cadmium, and
lead occurred at or below the detection limits of
the analytical method. The mean concentrations of
nickel, copper, and zinc were 0.4|o.gl-l, 0.6^1-1
and 1. 8|j.gl'^respecti vely , and there was no evidence
that local conditions influence their distribution.
The distribution of dissolved and colloidal iron is
related to dilution and precipitation processes which
occur as fresh and saline waters are mixed. The
particulate iron distribution is largely governed
by water circulation patterns and settling.
124
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Bingham, F.J.
Phosphorus.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. Homer D.
Chapman, ed. Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas,
1973. pp. 324-361.
Key Words: phosphates, ponding/land application, land
reclamation, groundwater, air, crops.
Abstract:
Visual symptoms characteristic of phosphorus deficiency
are not always definite enough to permit an accurate
appraisal. However, certain symptoms are recognized,
and can be confirmed by plant and soil analysis. The
author describes visual symptoms of phosphorus deficiency,
indicator plants for phosphorus deficiency and excess,
tissue analysis values, soils in which phosphorus
deficiency most commonly occurs, and soil management
and other practices which affect phosphorus availability,
soil analysis values of significance (the Jenny,
Vlamis, and Martin lettuce test, the Neubauer-Schneider
test, Thornton's technique, soil plague tests, "A" value
technique and chemical soil tests), and control of
phosphorus deficiency and excess.
125
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Birge, W.J., J.J. Just, A. Westerman, and A.D. Rose.
Sensitivity of Vertebrate Embryos to Heavy Metals as
a Criterion of Mater Quality. Phase I.
Kentucky Water Resources Institute, Lexington, June 1973.
38p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-232 075).
Key Words: iodides, total dissolved solids, surface water
(fresh).
Abstract:
Avian, amphibian, and fish embryos were given continuous
treatment with inorganic mercury, methyl mercury, cadmium
and lead, to determine the sensitivity of embryogenesis to
metallic poisoning. All metals produced substantial degrees
of lethality and/or gross anatomical anomalies at 10 ppb or
less. Treatment with inorganic mercury at 10 ppb produced
100% kill of frog embryos. Chick and rainbow trout embryos
suffered 10-20% lethality when exposed to 1 ppb of either
inorganic or methyl mercury. Lead and cadmium at 1 ppb
produced 24-32% lethality in chick embryos. No significant
differences were observed in the embryopathic effects of
inorganic or methyl mercury. Concerning the toxic effects
of mercury, cadmium and lead, the 'embryonic stage1 appears
to constitute the critical 'sensitive link' in the verte-
brate populations may be severely restricted (e.g., embry-
onic mortality) by such pollutants at trace levels which
may not prove hazardous to adult animals.
126
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Birge, W.J. and J.J. Just.
Sensitivity of Vertebrate Embryos to Heavy Metals as
a Criterion of Water Quality. Phase II. Bioassay
Procedures Using Developmental Stages as Test Organisms.
Kentucky water Kesources Institute, Lexington, March 1275.
41p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-240 978).
Key Words: arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, zinc, fish.
Abstract:
Chick, amphibian, and fish embryos were evaluated as bio-
assay and bioindicator organisms. Test procedures were
developed by which embryonic stages may be used in bio-
assay systems to evaluate the toxicity of particular
metallic or metal-containing trace contaminants, and as
bioindicators to monitor the quality of natural water
resources. A bioassay technique was devised in which
metallic toxicants were administered to chick embryos
by 'needle tract1 injection into the yolk sac. This
provided more uniform distribution of test metals through-
out the yolk mass than can be obtained by conventional
yolk sac injection methods, and gave more sensitivity and
uniformity of test results. Metals such as arsenic, cad-
mium, mercury, lead and zinc are easily detectable at a
level of 1 ppb. An in vitro culture technique was devel-
oped by which embryos of aquatic vertebrates may be
'maintained' for bioassay and bioindicator purposes.
Five test species were identified, suitable synthetic
culture water was formulated, and culture monitoring
procedures were determined.
127
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Bishop, D.F., T.P. O'Farrell, and J.B. Stamberg.
Physical-Chemical Treatment of Municipal Wastewater.
JWPCF. 4£(3):361-371. March 1972.
Key Words: BOD, COD, phosphates, suspended solids, total
organic carbon, chemical treatment, adsorption/ion
exchange.
Abstract:
Physical-chemical treatment consisting of two-stage lime
precipitation with intermediate recarbonation, filtration,
pH control, selective ion exchange, and carbon adsorption
removed approximately 95 percent of the TOC, BOD, and COD,
97 percent of the SS, 98 percent of the total phosphorus,
and 78 percent of the total nitrogen from the District of
Columbia raw wastewater. The pollutant residuals for 6
months of treatment averaged 6 mg/1 TOC, 5 mg/1 BOD, 13
mg/1 COD, 5 mg/1 SS, 0.15 mg/1 total phosphorus as P, and
4.6 mg/1 of total nitrogen.
128
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Bishop, D.F., T.P. O'Farrell, A.F. Cassel, and A.P. Pinto.
Physical-Chemical Treatment of Raw Municipal Wastewater.
EPA-670/2-73-070, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., Office of Research and Monitorirtg,
September 1973. 60p.
Key Words: BOD, COD, ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, suspended
solids, chemical treatment, adsorption/ion exchange,
chlorination.
Abstract:
Physical-chemical treatment of raw wastewater in a 50,000
to 100,000 gpd pilot plant consisted of two-stage lime
precipitation with intermediate recarbonation, filtration,
pH control, ion exchange or breakpoint chlorination for
nitrogen removal and carbon adsorption. The complete sys-
tem with ion exchange removed 98 percent of the phosphorus,
95 percent of the organics (COD) and 78 percent of the total
nitrogen. With breakpoint chlorination, the complete system
removed approximately 98 percent of the phosphorus, 94 per-
cent of the organics (COD) and 86 percent of the total
nitrogen.
129
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Bishop, D.F., J.A. Heidman, and J.B. Stamberg.
Single-Stage Nitrification-Denitrification.
EPA-670/2-75-051, National Environmental Research Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio. June 1975. 29p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, nitrification/
denitrification.
Abstract:
The removal of 75 to 84 percent of nitrogen from primary
wastewaters has recently been achieved in a single stage
activated sludge process (30,000 to 50,000 gpd) at the
EPA-DC pilot plant in Washington, D.C., without the use
of supplemental organic carbon. The removal was achieved
in a two pass biological reactor in which the dissolved
oxygen concentration was varied from 0 to 2 to 3 mg/1.
The air from the blower was applied on a 30-min cycle,
first to one reactor pass then to the other pass. Me-
chanical mixers suspended the mixed liquor solids when the
air was not applied to the pass. At an F/M ratio of 0.1
gm BODg/day/gm MLVSS, a mixed culture of carbonaceous
(BODc removal), nitrifying and denitrifying organisms
developed and essentially complete nitrification was
achieved. With the dissolved oxygen at 2 or above, the
nitrification readily occurred. When the dissolved
oxygen decreased to near zero, denitrification occurred.
Even if bulking limits winter operations, application of
the dissolved oxygen cycle to existing extended aeration
plants in warm weather reduce requirements to achieve
nitrification and 6005 removal. The reduced air require-
ment potentially lowers conventional operating costs.
130
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Bishop, D.F., J.A. Heidman, and J.B. Stamberg.
Single-Stage Nitrification-Denitrification.
JWPCF. 4_8(3) :520-532. March 1976.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrites, nitrification/denitri-
fication, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The removal of 75 to 84 percent of nitrogen from
primary wastewaters was achieved in a single-stage
activated sludge process (30,000 to 50,000 gpd) at
the EPA-DC pilot plant in Washington, D.C., with-
out the use of supplemental organic carbon. The
removal was achieved in a two-pass biological re-
actor in which the DO concentration varied from 0
to 2 to 3 mg/1. Even if bulking limits winter
operations (in the winter bulking occurred in the
reactor and required low overflow rates of 300 gpd/
sq ft (12.2 m/day) to capture the solids in the
clarifier) application of the DO cycle to existing
extended aeration plants in warm weather reduces
air requirements to achieve nitrification and BODs
removal. The reduced air requirement potentially
lowered conventional operating costs and sub-
stantially increased the total nitrogen removal.
131
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Bishop,D.F., L.S. Marshall, T.P. O'Farrell, R.B. Dean,
B.O'Connor, R.A. Dobbs, S.H. Griggs, and R.V. Villiers.
Studies on Activated Carbon Treatment.
JWPCF. '£9(2): 188-203. February 1967.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, adsorption/ion exchange,
Abstract:
The study of the effect of clarification on
column treatment with granular activated carbon
showed the following:
1. Intermittent operation of carbon columns
reduces soluble organic materials in clarified
bio-oxidized waste effluents to levels below
one milligram per liter.
2. Carbon columns do a relatively poor job of
removing turbidity and associated organic matter.
A column of approximately 11 ft (3.35 m) is re-
quired to remove half of the turbidity.
3. Carbon columns do not remove some highly
polar organic molecules.
4. Organic matter adsorbed on a carbon column
can go septic, a condition that produces a
breakthrough of turbidity and organic matter.
Predisinfection of the feed might insure against
such failure.
Studies on removal of organic material with pow-
dered activated carbon led to the following con-
clusions :
1. Powdered carbon is capable of reducing the
organic content of treated wastewater to two
milligrams per liter or less if used with adequate
clarification to remove colloids.
2. Carbons differ markedly in their ability to
remove organic matter from water.
3. There is no simple test, not even surface-
area determinations, that will predict accurately
the relative efficiencies of carbons.
4. The adsorption of methylene blue or ABS corre-
lates fairly well with the efficiency of carbon in
a typical secondary waste effluent.
132
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5. The phenol number is not a useful measure
of the ability of a carbon to remove total
organic matter from treated wastes.
133
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Black, A.'P., A.T. DuBose, and R.P. Vogh.
Physical-Chemical Treatment of Municipal Wastes by Recycled
Magnesium Carbonate.
EPA/660/2-74-055, Gainesville, Florida, June 1974. 125p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as PB-239 326 ).
Key Words: BOD, COD, phosphates, total organic carbon,
chemical treatment, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The applicability to municipal wastes of the recently
discovered magnesium carbonate-lime water treatment pro-
cess has been Investigated. A sixteen-month laboratory
study was conducted and was followed by an eight-month
pilot plant study. Four wastewaters with COD values vary-
ing from 200 to 1,500 mg/1 were examined. Bench-scale
coagulation studies designed to compare the effect of
added MgCOa with treatment by Hme only showed a 0%-30%
greater reduction 1n effluent COD residuals. Color and
turbidity reduction by the magnesium-pius-11me process
averaged 50%-85% greater when compared to treatment by
lime only. A series of 72-hour pilot plant runs was con-
ducted with the magnesium precipitated increased after
each three-day period. Effluent characteristics improved
as the amount of magnesium precipitated was increased.
Influent and filter effluent samples were collected every
four hours and analyzed for COD, TOC, total phosphorus,
alkalinity, hardness, calcium, and magnesium. Values for
BOD were determined from composited samples.
134
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Blanchard, D.C. and L. Syzdik.
Mechanism for the Water-to-Air Transfer and Concentration
of Bacteria.
Science. 170:626-628. November 6, 1970.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
Air bubbles breaking at the air-water interface
can remove bacteria that concentrate in the
surface microlayer and eject the bacteria into
the atmosphere. The bacterial concentrations
(numbers per milliliter) in the drops ejected
from the bubbles may, depending on drop size,
be from 10 to 1000 times that of the water in
which the bubbles burst.
135
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Blatter, P.X.
Wet A1r Oxidation at Levittown.
Water and Sewage Works. HZ(2):32-34. February 1970.
Key Words: suspended solids, Incineration.
Abstract:
Oxidized sludge is brown and has a uniform con-
sistency. After cooling, there is practically
no odor except when held close to the nose. The
liquid portion separating from the oxidized sludge
is a deep reddish brown and almost clear. There
is no odor from the liquid portion after it has
been cooled. We have not observed any detrimental
effects from the amount of filtrate returned to
the plant; conversely treatment plant performance
has improved since Zimpro filtrate has replaced
digested sludge filtrate returning to the treat-
ment plant.
Sulfur, oxidized to sulfate, remains in the wet
sludge and does not appear in the exhaust gas.
Fly ash is totally absent because the oxidized
sludge is in a water suspension. A catalyst
oxidizes any organics in the exit gas, thereby
eliminating the need for a wet scrubber; hence
air pollution has been prevented.
The filter cake finds use as a mulch material
having characteristics for this purpose superior
to the best peat moss. The cake has an earthy odor,
is non-toxic to plant growth and has been steri-
lized by the processing. The Lower Bucks County
Joint Municipal Authority plans to install a second
unit to replace existing diges-ters.
136
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Boardman, G. and O.J. Sproul.
Protection of Viruses during Disinfection by Adsorption
to Partlculate Matter.
Presented at the 48th Annual Conference, Water Pollution
Control Federation, Miami, Florida, October 1975.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination .
Abstract:
The objective of this work was to determine the
protection offered to viruses while undergoing
disinfection with chlorine by virtue of their
adsorption to particles.
137
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Booer , J.R.
The Behavior of Mercury Compounds in Soil.
Annals of Applied Biology. 3J_:340-359. May 1944.
Key Words: mercury, groundwater.
Abstract:
The uses of inorganic compounds of mercury for the
control of plant pests is reviewed, and a summary of the
relevant chemical and physical properties of the compounds
concerned is given. On chemical evidence a working hypothesis
is propounded showing that all compounds may be expected to
decompose into metallic mercury.
138
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Boring, J.R. Ill, W.T. Martin, and L.M. Elliot.
Isolation of Salmonell a Typhi-Murium from Municipal
Water, Riverside, California, 1965.
American Journal of Epidemiology. 9_3(1) :49-54. 1971.
Key Words: epidemiology, salmonella.
Abstract:
Salmone!!a typhi-murium phage type 2 was isolated
from six different samples of the municipal water
of Riverside, California, during an epidemic in-
volving over 16,000 persons. Five isolations
were made using the membrane filter technique
and large volumes of water. One additional iso-
lation was made by direct inoculation of water
in enrichment medium. A sample containing water
from all parts of the city was examined quanti-
tatively; salmonellae were 10 times as numerous
as E. coli.
139
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Bourquin, A.M.
Microbial-Malathion Interaction in Artifical Salt-Marsh
Ecosystems.
s
EPA-660/3-75-035, Gulf Breeze Environmental Research
Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, June 1975. 51p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-246 251 ) .
Key Words: pesticides, soil sterilants, surface water
(marine).
Abstract:
Malathion is rapidly degraded i_n_ v i t r o by salt-
marsh bacteria to malathion-monocarboxy1ic acid,
mal athion-dicarboxylic acid and various phospho-
thionates as a result of carboxyesterase cleavage.
In addition, some expected phosphatase activity
produces desmethyl-malathion, phosphomono- or
-dithionates, and various 4-carbon dicarboxylic
acids, as well as corresponding ethyl esters.
In a simulated salt-marsh environment, malathion
is degraded by the indigenous bacterial community.
Numbers of bacteria capable of degrading malathion
in the presence of additional nutrients increase
in the sediments with increasing frequency of appli-
cation and in the water column with the increasing
level of application. Numbers of bacteria which
degrade malathion as a sole carbon source appear to
be linked to the level of malathion treatment in
sediments and the frequency of malathion treatment
in the water column. Malathion sole-carbon-de-
grading bacteria do not appear to play a significant
role in the dissipation of malathion, comprising
only about 10% of the portion of bacteria which
degrades malathion. It is believed that due to
increased frequency of treatment, increased numbers
of malathion co-metabolizing bacteria catalyze a
more rapid dissipation of the compound, resulting
in less selection of the sole carbon degraders.
The disappearance of malathion in the salt-marsh
environment is influenced by both chemical and bio-
logical degradation. Chemical hydrolysis increases
with increasing temperature and salinity, but at
temperatures below 26°C and salinities below 20 °/oo
these mechanisms are of lesser importance than bio-
logical degradation.
140
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Bouwer, H.
Land Treatment of Liquid Waste: The Hydrologic System.
In: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land;
FFoceedings of the Joint Conference, July 9-13, 1973.
pp. 103-111.
Key Words: ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The hydrologic aspects of systems for applying
liquid waste to land are basically covered by
irrigation and drainage theory. Factors to be
considered include (a) the design application
or infiltration rates in relation to the hydraulic
acceptance of the soil, the desired quality improve-
ment of the water, and the intended longevity of
the system, (b) the most appropriate system for ap-
plying the wastewater, and (c) the groundwater manage-
ment below the receiving fields. While most irrigation
and drainage principles are generally known, there
is still need for additional research on many of these
aspects. Because the performance of a land treatment
system depends so much on the local conditions of soil,
climate, and groundwater geology, local research and
pilot systems should usually precede large-scale develop-
ments.
Additional research is needed to determine the
effect of the application system itself on the
hydraulic loading rate and the quality improve-
ment of the wastewater as it moves through the
soil. The loading rates and oxygen regimes for
flooded and sprinkled soils are not the same,
for example, and this may influence denitrifi-
cation, immobilization of heavy metals, and other
reactions. More research is needed on the op-
timum treatment of the wastewater before it
is applied to the land. If the water is to be
reused, the soil filtration process may not
yield renovated water of sufficient quality at
high loading rates. In that case, studies should
be made to determine the optimum combination of
treatment of the water before and after it has
moved through the soil.
141
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Bouwer, H.
Renovating Secondary Effluent by Groundwater Recharge with
Infiltration Basins.
In; Conference On Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
through Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and L.T. Kardos,
eds. EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp. 146-156.
Key Words: BOD, COD, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
fluorides, boron, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead,
conforms, ponding/land application, air, ground-
water.
Abstract:
The Salt River Valley in central Arizona is changing
from a predominantly agricultural to a predominantly
urban valley. Groundwater currently supplies about
one third of the municipal and agricultural needs in
the area. The resulting depletion of the groundwater
can be reduced if the sewage effluent produced by the
increasing population can be reused. The principal
contenders for the sewage effluent would be irrigated
agriculture and recreation; unrestricted use of sewage
effluent for such purposes requires tertiary treatment.
A pilot system in which effluent was treated with
groundwater recharge, with spreading basins in the
Salt River bed was installed in 1967. The studies
showed that a full-scale operational system could be
designed on the basis of a hydraulic loading of about
300 ft/yr. The effective transmissibi1ity of the
aquifer for recharge was evaluated by resistance
network analog and horizontal flowtheory. It was
concluded that a large-scale operational system should
yield renovated water that can be used for unrestricted
irrigation, primary contact recreations, and certain
industrial applications. Preliminary estimates indicate
the total cost of putting the sewage effluent into the
ground and pumping it up as renovated water with the
system in the Salt River bed will be around $5 per
acre foot.
142
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Bouwer, H.
Use of the Earth's Crust for Treatment or Storage of
Sewage Effluent and Other Waste Fluids.
CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control, pp. 111-130.
March 1976.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
COD, total organic carbon, coliforms, fluorides,
boron, viruses, groundwater, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
This paper provides a general review of means of
land disposal of either treated or untreated sewage
wastes.
143
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Bouwer, H., J.C. Lance, and M.S. Riggs.
High-Rate Land Treatment II: Water Quality and Economic
Aspects of the Flushing Meadows Project.
JWPCF. 4i(5):844-859. May 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, COD, nitrates, suspended solids,
total dissolved solids, total organic carbon,
boron, copper, zinc, coliforms, ponding/land
application, groundwater.
Abstract:
Five years of experimental work on renovating secondary
sewage effluent by groundwater recharge with rapid infil-
tration basins in the sandy and gravelly materials of
the Salt River bed west of Phoenix, Arizona demonstrated
that a high-quality renovated water suitable for unrestrict'
ed irrigation and recreation can be obtained with a rapid
infiltration system in the Salt River bed. The cost of
putting the effluent underground and pumping it up as
renovated water in a large-scale system consisting of in-
filtration basins along both sides of the riverbed and
wells in the center of the riverbed was estimated at
about $5.3/acre-ft ($4.3/1,000 cu m). This is much less
than the cost of equivalent in-plant tertiary treatment
to produce a renovated water of similar quality.
144
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Boyden, C.R.
Trace Element Content and Body Size 1n Mollusks.
Nature. J51:311-314. September 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, copper, iron, lead, nickel, zinc,
shellfish.
Abstract:
This article relates concentration of heavy metals
to body size in mollusks including uptake by the
various species.
145
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Boyden, C.R. and M.G. Romeril.
A Trace Metal Problem in Pond Oyster Culture.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 5j5):74-78. May 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
shellfish.
Abstract:
Analyses of waters, sediments, animals, and algae
collected from a number of sites on the foreshore,
at Hinkley Power Station, and the marine farm
have led these researchers to conclude that the
considerably elevated zinc and copper concentra-
tions in oysters grown in ponds at the farm were
due to accessories used within the ponds. Zinc,
obviously in a readily available form, was almost
certainly derived from the corrosion of galvanized
zinc trays upon which the oysters were suspended
within the pond. Increased copper on the other
hand was due to the corrosion of the phosphor-
bronze blades of the recirculating pump. This
second assumption appears to have been confirmed
since copper levels in fresh oysters placed in the
pond in August 1972, after the pump had been re-
moved, have remained normal. The pump blades also
showed signs of considerable corrosion. Zinc trays
are still in use, and this is reflected by the con-
tinuing high zinc content of the new oysters.
Furthermore, throughout the period of sampling, the
concentration of zinc within the oysters rose con-
siderably whereas their copper content decreased.
These trends are significant because prior to our
initial sampling in September 1972, the oysters had
been maintained within bags in the pond with the
recirculating pump operative. It was at this time
that the animals were transferred onto zinc trays
and placed in an adjacent pond where recirculation
was not taking place.
The metal loads in the water and sediments of the
Severn estuary and cooling water from the power
station would not appear to be the cause of high
metal concentrations in oysters reared at the farm.
Perhaps the most revealing aspect of this study is
the magnitude of metal accumulation resulting from
a seemingly small source of contamination. Bivalve
molluscs are notorious in their ability to concentrate
metals and this has been particularly apparent in
our study. Other groups of animals (e.g. the Japanese
prawn, Penaeus japonicus) which are also reared
at Hinkley, accumulate metals to a much lesser degree.
146
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It is obvious that considerable caution should be
exercised with accessories used in rearing marine
animals, especially molluscs. Even if concentra-
tions in the animals do not constitute a public
health hazard, there is always the risk of a direct
toxic effect upon particularly susceptible species.
Within the literature there are several instances
of poisoning of trout by metals derived from hatch-
ery accessories. Zinc in galvanized iron piping
may be leached by acid waters while cadmium orig-
inating from a screen can be equally lethal.
This feature is also of particular importance to
oyster hatcheries, where it is recognized that brass
and other copper-containing metals, as well as alloys
of stainless steel should be eliminated from culture
systems because of the susceptibility of bivalve
larvae to metals in solution.
It should be stressed that the oysters discussed
above were on-grown at Hinkley in a pilot study
assessing the suitability of power station cooling
water for oyster culture, and at no time were they
available for public consumption.
147
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Bradford, G.R.
Boron.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas , 1973. pp. 33-61.
Key Words: boron, ponding/land application, land reclamation,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
The author details plant criteria useful in diagnosing
boron status giving visual symptoms of boron deficiency or
excess, and lists boron-sensitive, boron-semitolerant, and
boron-tolerant plants, as well as describing tissue
analysis values. He also discusses soil criteria useful
in diagnosing boron status-deficiency and excess and soil
analysis values of significance, including total, water-
extractable, and microbiological1y available boron. He
concludes with a discussion of boron deficiency and excess.
148
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Bradford, R.R.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Losses from Agronomy Plots in
North Alabama.
EPA-660/2-74-003, Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical
College, Normal, April 1974. 49p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-235 931 ).
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates.
Abstract:
Nutrient relationships in agricultural situations
are discussed in this report which is only marginally
applicable to this study.
149
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Bradshaw, J.S., E.L. Loveridge, K
Peterson, D.A. White, J.R. Barton,
P. Rippee,- J .L.
and J3.K.. Fuhriman
Seasonal Variations in Residues of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon
Pesticides in the Water of the Utah Lake Drainage System -
1970 and 1971.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 6_(3) :166-170. December 1972
Key Words: pesticides, DDT, DDE, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
aldrin, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Definite surges of pesticides (1 ppb or more) enter
Utah Lake three times per year - early spring, late
spring, and fall, generally corresponding to the
application times of pesticides by farmers in the
area. The pesticides involved were mainly aldrin
and BHC in the early spring; heptachlor (plus
heptachlor epoxide) and methoxychlor in the late
spring; and aldrin, heptachlor, and methoxychlor
in the late fall. The fish samples collected from
Utah Lake contained only small amounts of pesticides,
the highest level being 956 ppb DDE.
150
-------
Brasfeild, H.
Environmental Factors Correlated with Size of Bacterial
Populations in a Polluted Stream.
Applied Microbiology. 24^:349-352. February 1972.
Key Words: bacteria, coliforms, fecal streptocci,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Samples of water were taken from a polluted zone of
the Gallinas River and analyzed as to numbers of
total bacteria, coliforms, and fecal streptococci.
Environmental factors measured were temperature,
pH and concentrations of detergent, nitrate plus
nitrite nitrogen, sulfate, chloride, bicarbonate
and phosphate. Thirty-two observations were made
from 12 March through 22 July, 1971. Stepwise
multiple linear regression analyses of the data
were carried out by computer to determine which
of the environmental factors were significantly
correlated with numbers of bacteria present. A
multiple linear regression equation was constructed
for each bacteriological parameter as a function
of significant variables only. Log total bacteria
was correlated positively with bicarbonate, phos-
phate, and detergent concentrations. Log coliforms
was correlated positively with phosphate and sulfate
concentrations and negatively with chloride concen-
tration. Log fecal streptococci was correlated
positively with bicarbonate and chloride concentra-
tions .
151
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Braswell, J.R. and A.W. Hoadley.
Recovery of Escherichia col 1 from Chlorinated Secondary
Sewage.
Applied Microbiology. 28.:328-329. August 1974.
Key Words: Escherichia coli. chlorination .
Abstract:
This publication discusses the destruction of
Escherichla coli by chlorination as a function
of residence time.
152
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Brewer , R.F.
Fluorine.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 180-196.
Key Words: fluorides, ponding/land application, land
reclamation, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
The element fluorine 1s widely distributed in nature
and the author lists visual symptoms of fluorine excess,
indicator plants for fluoride pollution and tissue analysis
values. He also discusses fluorine 1n soils and soil
minerals, the availability of soil fluorine to plants and
the control of fluoride toxldty.
153
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Brewer, R.F.
Lead.
J_n: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. Homer D. Chapman, ed.
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 213-217.
Key Words: lead, pondtng/land application, land reclamation,
groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Lead has not been shown to be essential to plant growth,
although a few workers have reported apparent benefits
from additions of lead in fertilizers. The author discusses
the effects of lead on plants, plant criteria useful in
diagnosing lead deficiencies and excesses and soil criteria
useful in diagnosing lead status.
154
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Brezenski, F.T. and R. Russomanno.
The Detection and Use of Salmonellae in Studying
Polluted Tidal Estuaries.
JWPCF. 41_(5):725-737. May 1969.
Key Words: epidemiology, salmonella, surface water(marine)
Abstract:
The article presents observations on the isolation,
occurrence of salmonellae, and estimated densities
of indicator bacteria in tidal waters and shellfish.
It also mentions the factors to be considered in
the interpretation of salmonella data.
In the polluted tidal estuaries, they found the
relatively low percentage recovery of salmonella
at the 1 to 200 fecal coliform on Staten Island.
155
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Brezenski, F.T., R. Russomanno, and P. DeFalco.
The Occurrence of Salmonella and Shigella in Post-
Chlorinated and Non-Chlorinated Sewage Effluents and
Receiving Waters.
Health Laboratory Science. 2_(l):40-47. January 1965.
Key Words: epidemiology, salmonella, shigella, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
The effect of effluent chlorination on bacterial
populations in Raritan Bay waters was studied.
The phase reported herein involved the effects of
post-chlorination on sewage treatment plant ef-
fluent with respect to salmonella and shigella
Four sewage treatment plant effluents and the tidal
portion of the Raritan River, affected by 3 of the
plants, were studied. The chlorinated effluents
and river samples did not show the presence of
salmonella or shigella during the 7-mo. study.
After post-chlorination of effluents was discon-
tinued, members of the salmonella group were iso-
lated from 2 of the 4 effluents. Salmonella was
also isolated from the Raritan River during the non-
chlorination period. After chlorination was re-
sumed, the effluents were analyzed for a period of
4 weeks and all of the samples were negative for
these pathogens. Samples taken from the Raritan
River for a period of 15 wk. also failed to show
the presence of these enteric organisms.
To demonstrate the occurrence of these pathogens in
untreated sewage, 6 outfalls emanating from Staten
Island and affecting Raritan Bay waters were studied
Salmonellae were isolated from 5 of the 6 outfalls.
156
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Brinska, G.A.
Sludge Disposal by Incineration at Alcosan.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the
National Conference on Municipal Sludge Management,
1974. pp. 157-161.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, activated sludge.
Abstract:
What to do with the solids from constantly
escalating treatment procedures is rapidly
becoming a major problem in operating a modern
wastewater treatment plant. Pittsburg elected
to incinerate and in doing so eliminated its
sludge disposal problems. To incinerate just
to reduce the overall quantity is not the answer,
Solid waste (garbage) is also a problem. The
answer may be the incineration of a mixture of
sewage solids and solid waste materials with
the generation of steam as a final product.
157
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Britton, J., J. Peterson, D. Zeng, and C. Lue-Hing.
Big Creek Coliform Study at Fulton County, Illinois.
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, 1973.
Key Words: Escherichia c o1i . fecal streptococci, coli-
forms, surface water (fresh), crops.
Abstract:
This paper reports on original research enumerating
coliform, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci
found entering Illinois water supply canals from
livestock grazing areas. Samples were taken from
six stations, three times per day, three days per
week for four weeks and analyzed for total coliform,
fecal coliform, and fecal streptococcus as indicators
of contamination. No evidence of high coliform
populations were found in the water basin serving
the area which received liquid fertilizer in 1972.
158
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Broadbent, F.E.
Factors Affecting Nitrification-Denitrification in Soils.
J_n_: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
through Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and L.T. Kardos,
eds. EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp. 204-214.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, land reclamation.
Abstract:
Disappearance of nitrate near the water table was
associated with decreases in redox potential oxygen
content of the soil solution, and oxygen levels in
the soil atmosphere. This paper is a good review of
nitrification-denitrification processes in soils.
159
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Brodsky, A., J. Procha'zka, and H. Vydrova".
Classification of Organic Pollution in Surface Waters.
JAWWA. 6_2.(6):386-390. June 1970.
Key Words: synthetics/organics, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Oden's classification of humic substances present
in natural waters was compared with the elution
patterns of these materials in Sephadex. The
elution patterns of humic groups in the sense of
Oden's systematics were shown using Sephadex G 75
grade.
Basic peat extracts were prepared using two different
manners of preparation in regard to duration of
extraction period, buffer capacity and ion strengths
of extraction agents. Both differed in the ratio
of the groups, but were identical regardless of
origin.
Different preparation procedures were examined to
obtain group standards. The characters of sub-
stances were preserved in the best way, since they
were used in concentrated solution gained by
vacuum evaporation. Isolation procedures, either
precipitation or dissolving of precipitate
followed by considerable changes in pH value or
alcohol extractions influenced the proportions
of fractions with smaller size particles. Drying
of samples had a still more disturbing effect.
As far as it was necessary to use a procedure
with a great change of pH in the isolation,
work proceeded with samples that "aged" during
12 days after the final neutralization. The
elution patterns of samples thus treated showed
the greatest similarity to elution patterns of
those samples, which had not been subjected to
any preparative procedure but vacuum evaporation.
The studies of gel filtration on Sephadex showed
that it is possible to separate several fractions
from humic substances using the G 75 grade with-
out having any substantial portions of substances
that were not displaced from the column. Under
standardized conditions the elution curves may be
160
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used for qualitative - and, to a certain extent
quantitative - estimation of individual groups
of hutnic substance participation in the sample.
Elution patterns that give the picture of organic
matter in natural water from the point of view of
particle size showed that the criteria for the
classification of humic matter fractions with
regard to their chemical properties (in the sense
of Oden's classification) coincide only to a
limited extent with the conception of particle
size distribution.
161
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Brown, J.R. and L.Y. Chow.
Comparative Study of DDT and Its Derivatives in Human
Blood Samples in Norfolk County and Holland Marsh,
Ontario.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
l_3(4):483-488. 1975.
Key Words: DDT, epidemiology.
Abstract:
DDT concentrations of adipose tissue and blood
from accident victims was studied. Blood samples
from 52 persons who had been engaged in the
agricultural application of DDT in Norfolk County,
and 315 samples of blood from residents of
Holland Marsh, Canada are also discussed.
162
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Brown, R.E.
Significance of Trace Metals and Nitrates in Sludge Soils.
JWPCF. 47.(12):2863-2875. December 1975.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
nickel, zinc, agriculture, groundwater,
surface water (fresh), crops.
Abstract:
The ability of a plant to absorb metal from a
compound depends on factors other than the solu-
biility of the metal compound in water.
Plant uptake of metals from soils depends on the
portion of soil metal called plant-available metal
rather than the total metal content of soils.
The potential for nitrate pollution of water in
a given year depends on the accumulated organic
nitrogen in the soil from previous sludge appli-
cations as well as the nitrogen in the sludge
application during the year under consideration.
These concepts and additional data will be used
to show that there is a substantial potential
for damage to the productivity of soils that
are fertilized with wastewater sludge iif no
restrictions are made on the metal accumulation
in the soil. Even more important, the voids
that now exist in the available knowledge of the
soil chemistry of metals such as zinc, copper,
and nickel will be outlined. The nitrogen
discussion centers on the selection of sludge
application rates that will not result in sig-
nificant nitrate pollution of ground or surface
waters.
163
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Brown, T.S., J.F. Malina, Jr., and B.D. Moore.
Virus Removal by Diatomaceous-Earth Filtration - Part 1
JAWWA. 66_(2):98-102. February 1974.
Key Words: viruses, filtration.
Abstract:
The removal of viruses by diatomaceous-earth
filtration is possible; however, greater than
99 percent removal was possible only with filter
aid D and with filter aid A and a pretreatment
consisting of 0.081 mg/1 of the polyelectrolyte 1.
These data are based on an operating period of
2 hr.
The inactiyation of the T2 bacteriophage was
initiated in the plastic feed tank. Therefore,
the removal efficiencies presented in the report
were calculated to represent only that removal
due to attachment to the diatomaceous earth and
filtration through the filter aid.
The technique with the insoluble polyelectrolyte
required a modification for use with dechlorinated
tap water. The optimal T2 recovery required at-
tachment at pH 6.25 and desorption at pH 9.55.
The' procedure for coating the filter aid with
inorganic coagulants affects the efficiency
of T2 virus removal.
No T2 virus was observed in the filtrate after
12 hr of operation of the filter aid A system
with a pretreatment of 0.07 mg/1 of polyelectro-
lyte 1 .
Polyelectrolyte 1 did not exhibit any viricidal
effects on T2 at a concentration of 0.081 mg/1
after 4 hr.
164
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Brown, T.S., J.F. Malina, Jr., and B.D. Moore.
Virus Removal by Diatomaceous Earth Filtration - Part 2.
JAWWA. £6:735-738. December 1974.
Key Words: coliphage 1^* Polio virus, filtration.
Abstract:
Removals of >98% were achieved here; in most
cases 100% removal was achieved.
165
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Brown, T.S., J.F. Malina, Jr., B.D. Moore, and B.P.
Sagik:
Virus Removal by Diatomaceous Earth Filtration.
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems.
J.F. Malina, Jr., and B.P. Sagik, eds. University
of Texas at Austin, Center for Research in Water
Resources, 1974. pp. 129-144.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination .
Abstract:
Greater than 98 percent removal of the model viruses,
phage T2, and poliovirus was obtained using Hyflo
coated with either ferric hydrate or C-31 polymer.
However, the procedure used to coat the diatomite
can significantly influence its ability to remove
viruses. Pretreatment of the feed with C-31 polymer
in conjunction with Hyflo resulted in reduction of
the virus titer to less than the detectable limits
of the analytical procedure used. Uncoated diatomite
removed greater than 90 percent initially, followed
by slowly diminishing efficiencies. Capacity for
removal of poliovirus with uncoated diatomite was
lower than for phage T2.
The insoluble polyelectrolyte technique using PE-60
required modification for use with dechlorinated tap-
water. The optimal phage T2 recovery occurred with
attachment at pH 6.25 and elution at Ph 9.55.
For polio virus, optimal recovery occurred with
attachment at pH ==— 6.0. The virus was eluted at
pH 9.0 to avoid inactivation problems.
Changing filtration parameters, flow rate and filter
aid grade did not significantly affect the removal
of viruses. However, pH significantly reduced re-
moval when the pH of the water system was lowered
from pH 9.5 to pH 6.5.
Virus removal appeared to occur during passage through
the filter cake of uncoated diatomite. The same virus
removals were obtained with or without body feed;
therefore, body feed requirements would thus be set
by requirements for maintenance of cake porosity as is
currently the practice.
The C-31 polymer did not exhibit virucidal effects
on either of the model viruses under conditions studied.
166
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Browning, G.E. and J.O. Mankin.
Gastroenteritis Epidemic Owing to Sewage Contamination
of Public Water Supply.
JAWWA. 81(11 ):1465-1470. November 1966.
Key Words: coliforms, crops, groundwater, drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
In August 1965, a waterborne epidemic of enteritis
occurred in Madera, Calif. There is considerable
evidence that the epidemic was a result of sewage
contamination of the city's water supply through
one of its wells. The exact evidence includes
the high coliform counts in the distribution
system and the water from Well 14. The inexact
evidence includes the demonstration that water
could flow from the sewage-irrigated field into
Well 14. Medical data supported the conclusions
regarding the contamination.
In recent years, waterborne epidemics have become
rare. This one seems to have occurred as a result
of the combination of several circumstances,
some of which are unusual:
1. Irrigation of the field with undisinfected
sewage.
2. Presence of a gopher hole leading in a par-
ticular direction.
3. Connection between the valve excavation and
the well pit.
4. Presence in the pit of openings into the
well casing.
Measures have been taken to prevent future recurrences
167
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Browning, J.E.
New Water Cleanup Roles for Powdered Activated Carbon.
Chemical Engineering. ^9:36-48. February 21, 1972.
Key Words: BOD, COD, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Removals of COD and BOD are discussed using
powdered activated carbon.
168
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Bruland, K.W., K. Bertine, M. Koide, and E.D. Goldberg.
History of Metal Pollution in Southern California
Coastal Zone.
Environmental Science and Technology. 8_:425-432. May 1974
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead,
zinc, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This paper investigates what elements are being
mobilized to coastal waters and subsequently
to the sediments. It was estimated that sewer
discharges have their least effect upon iron,
cobalt, and manganese. For these elements, the
natural concentrations appear to be several times
those associated with waste materials.
169
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Brungs, W.A.
Effects of Residual Chlorine on Aquatic Life.
JWPCF. £5(10):2180-2193. October 1973.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination.
Abstract:
1. Tests of residual chlorine toxicity should be con-
ducted with continuous-flow bioassay procedures and the
most precise, sensitive, and appropriate analytical method
for determining free and combined residual chlorine.
2. Environmental variables do not appear to affect resi-
dual chlorine toxicity significantly, although at low pH,
toxicity may be increased as the result of the greater pro-
portion of free chlorine present.
3. Trout, salmon, and some fish-food organisms are more
sensitive than warm-water fish, snails, and crayfish.
4. Chronic toxicity effects on growth and reproduction
occur at much lower concentrations than acutely lethal
concentrations.
5. Most of the lethal effects of residual chlorine occur
within 12 to 24 hr. Lethal effects of free chlorine are
more rapid and occur at lower concentrations than those of
chloramines.
6. Chlorination of wastewater results in a variety of
chlorinated compounds in addition to chloramines. This
aspect needs much greater research emphasis.
7. Residual chlorine persists for periods longer than the
few minutes or hours indicated by some authorities.
8. Dechlorination with sodium bisulfite, sodium thio-
sulfate, and sulfur dioxide, or certain other compounds,
greatly reduces or eliminates toxicity caused by residual
chlorine. The potential chronic toxicity resulting from
such additional treatment requires further research.
9. In areas receiving wastes treated continuously with
chlorine, total residual chlorine should not exceed 0.01
mg/1 for the protection of more resistant organisms only,
or exceed 0.002 mg/1 for the protection of most aquatic
organisms.
170
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10. In areas receiving intermittently chlorinated wastes,
total residual chlorine should not exceed 0.2 mg/1 for a
period of 2 hr/day for more resistant species of fish or
exceed 0.04 mg/1 for a period of 2 hr/day for trout and
salmon. If free chlorine persists, total residual chlorine
should not exceed 0.01 mg/1 for a period of 30 min/day for
areas with populations of trout and salmon.
11. Substitutes for chlorination of wastewaters or cooling
waters should be used whenever feasible, but only after
adequate, acute and chronic toxicity studies have been made
to determine the potential environmental impact of the
substitutes. Their efficacy as adequate disinfectants
must be verified.
171
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Brunner, D.R. and O.J. Sproul .
Virus Inactivation during Phosphate Precipitation.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
9£(SA2):365-379. April 1970.
Key Words: polio virus, viruses, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Several statements may be made based on the data
obtained in this study:
1. Virus particles are removed in great numbers
by precipitation of phosphate with either calcium
or aluminum in distilled water-phosphate media
or domestic wastewater treatment plant effluent.
2. In distilled water and domestic wastewater
treatment plant effluent solutions, precipitation
with aluminum at pH 5.0 at A1:P04 = 1-° effected
90% virus inactivation when 24 mg per 1 PO^ was
removed and 98% poliovirus inactivation when 30
mg per 1 P04 was precipitated.
3. In distilled water, treatment with calcium
at pH 11.0 effected a 97% virus inactivation
when 37 mg per 1 PO^ was precipitated and in
domestic wastewater treatment plant effluent
calcium treatment effected 94% virus inactivation
when 44 mg per 1 P04 was precipitated.
4. Removals of viruses by these two phosphate
reduction processes may be predicted by use of
a Freundlich isotherm.
5. Poliovirus removals are responsive to the
hydrogen ion concentration in each process.
6. The sludge from such phosphate reduction
processes presents potential health hazards.
7. Alum treatment of wastewaters for phosphate
removal will remove more viruses than lime treat-
ment of a comparable wastewater.
172
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Bryan, E.H.
Concentrations of Lead in Urban Stormwater.
JWPCF. 46(10) :2419-2421 . November 1974.
Key Words
lead,
systems
combined municipal and/or storm
Abstract:
Lead will reach the treatment plant through storm-
water runoff in combined systems. The lead concen-
tration in the Durham study ranged from an observed
minimum of less than 0.10 mg/1 (lower limit of
detection for the procedure used) to a maximum
value of 12.6 mg/1. The vast majority of all
lead concentrations observed did not exceed
1.5 mg/1 .
The earlier observation that resulted in this
originally unplanned study of lead in urban
Stormwater (apparent toxicity influencing the
BOD determination) was not supported by sub-
sequent observations. The lead was associated
with suspended solids and had no apparent
effect on BOD. The original observed toxicity
effect was attributed to possible presence of
some heavy metals in discharges to the Stormwater
drainage channels from industrial sources and
automobile service stations upstream from the
sampli ng 1ocation .
173
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Bryan, F.L.
Diseases Transmitted by Foods Contaminated by Wastewater.
In.: Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber--
Proceedings. EPA-660/2-74-041, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, Office of Research and Development,
June 1974. pp. 16-45.
Keywords: coxsackie virus, poliovirus, salmonella,
shigella. Vibrio cholerae, parasitic
worms, virus, coliforms, bacteria, grav-
ity separators, activated sludge, fil-
tration, crops, livestock, food processing,
groundwater, fish, shellfish, trickling
filters, ponding/land application, chlor-
ination, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
The routes of transmission of pathogenic organisms
in wastewater through food to man are discussed.
Past disease outbreaks are the agents listed.
The survival, in wastwater treatment processes,
of organisms is discussed.
174
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Bryan, G.W.
The Occurrence and Seasonal Variation of Trace Metals
in the Scallops Pecten maximus and Chlamys opercularis.
Marine Biological Association of the United King-
dom Journal. 53^:145-166. February 1973.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron,
lead, nickel, zinc, shellfish.
Abstract:
A comparison has been made between the concentra-
tions of eleven trace metals in the tissues of
two species of scallops, Pecten maximus (L.) and
Chi amys opercul aris (L .) , col lectecT from the
same area of the English Channel. Although
there was considerable variation between individual
animals, the mean concentrations of Ag, Co, Cr,
Cu, Mn, Ni , Pb and Zn were higher in the whole
body of chlamys than in pecten but concentrations
of A!, Cd and Fe were lower. In both species,
seasonal changes in the concentrations of Co,
Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn were observed and,
in general, the highest values were found in
the autumn and winter months. These changes
may be related to food supply, since concentra-
tions were generally highest when phytoplankton
productivity was low and tended to fall in the
spring as productivity increased rapidly to
its annual peak. Despite problems arising from
individual and seasonal variation, the kidneys
and digestive gland of scallops appear to have
potential as biological indicators of trace
metals.
The results obtained for pecten and chlamys
are compared with those in the literature
for species from the family Pectinidae.
175
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Bryan, J.A.
An Outbreak of Hepatitis-A Associated with Recreational
Lake Water.
American Journal of Epidemiology, 9_9_: 145-1 54. Feb-
ruary 1974.
Key Words: hepatitis virus, surface water (fresh), air
Abstract:
In a 15-day period in September 1969, 14 cases
of viral hepatitis type A developed in members
of a Boy Scout troop who had been camping on
an island in a lake recreation area approxi-
mately four weeks earlier. The clustering of
cases by onset date over a short time interval,
the appearance of cases only among those troop
members attending the campout, the absence of
known prior exposure to hepatitis-A and the
absence of hepatitis-B antigen in all but one
of the cases, suggested a common-source exposure
to hepatitis-A virus. Raw lake water, which was
grossly contaminated and inadvertently consumed
by many campers,was associated with a statisti-
cally significant risk of hepatitis-A. Since
use of recreational waters continues to be a
very popular pastime, physicians should be alert
to the possibilities that acquisition of hepa-
titis-A can occasionally result from such
activities.
176
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Buelow, R.W. and 6. Walton.
Bacteriological Quality vs. Residual Chlorine.
JAWWA. 63.(l):28-35. January 1971.
Key Words: coliforms, chlorination , effluent
characteristics.
Abstract:
From the data presented in this paper, the
following conclusions may be drawn:
1. A change from combined to free chlorine
residual in Cincinnati, Ohio, and an increase
in residual concentration in February 1969 greatly
reduced the monthly average coliform counts.
2. In general, the probability of finding coli-
form bacteria in a distribution system sample
decreases as the residual chlorine concentration
of the water increases. The results of the
National Community Water Supply Survey con-
ducted by the Cincinnati Bureau of Water
Hygiene specifically showed that in chlorinated
water supplies a chlorine residual must be
maintained throughout the distribution system
in order to have confidence that disinfection by
chlorination has been accomplished.
3. The finding of coliform organisms in some
distribution system samples, when none were
detected in the raw water, indicates the need
for continuous disinfection of all supplies
to ensure the delivery of the highest possible
bacteriological quality water to the consumer
at all times.
4. The data in this paper support the suggestion
that a majority of the bacteriological samples
should be taken in known problem areas, e.g.,
reservoirs, dead-ends, and the periphery of
the systems, etc., and that many of the bac-
teriological samples currently collected could
be eliminated provided chlorine residual can be
shown to be present throughout a distribution
system.
177
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Buelow, R.W., K.L. Kropp, J. Withered, and J.M. Symons.
Nitrate Removal by Am'on-Exchange Resins.
JAWWA. eT7_(9): 528-534. September 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, adsorption/
ion exchange, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Based on the data collected during this study,
the following conclusions can be made:
1. High concentrations of nitrates in water are
not necessarily associated with any other mineral
characteristic of the water.
2. The anion selectivity of ion-exchange resins
changes with substantial changes in the ion
concentrations in the water.
3. Typical strong-base anion-exchange resins
are more selective for sulfates than nitrates
under normal conditions.
4. Other anions in water compete with nitrates
for ion-exchange sites.
5. Other substances in water interfere with
nitrate removal using a strong anion-exchange resin.
a. Silica reduces the nitrate-removal capacity
of the resin but does not replace the nitrate
in large amounts as an exchanged ion.
b. Iron precipitates reduce nitrate re-
moval, cake the resin, and require special
treatment to be removed from the resin.
6.
for
can
The cost of salt to regenerate the resin used
nitrate removal by ion exchange is a signifi-
t part of the cost of the process.
7. To evaluate the nitrate removal efficiencies
of ion exchange accurately for a specific water,
trials should be run with the water to be treated
rather than with simulated water.
178
-------
8. If the need for nitrate removal from drinking
water becomes more urgent and widespread, better
regeneration processes must be developed. A
change in the regenerants used could lessen
both cost and waste disposal problems. Weak
anion-exchange resins are also worthy of study.
179
-------
Buhler, D.R., M.E. Rasmusson, and H.S. Nakave.
Occurrence of Hexachlorophene and Pentachlorophenol in Sewage
and Water.
Environmental Science and Technology. ]_(10) :929-934.
October 1973.
Key Words: drinking and recreational water, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
Concentrations of hexachlorophene (HCP) and pentachloro-
phenol (PCP) in sewage and water samples have been analyzed
by gas chromatography. HCP and PCP levels in 24-hr com-
posite samples of sewage influent collected simultaneously
from three Oregon cities ranged between 20-31 ppb and 1-5
ppb, respectively. Composite effluent values from these
same sewage treatment plants were 6-12 ppb HCP and 1-4 ppb
PCP, reflecting a 60-70% removal of HCP and a 4-28% removal
of PCP. Analyses of daily and hourly water samples from
the Willamette River collected just upstream from the city
of Corvallis, Oregon, showed that HCP and PCP were present
in river water in concentrations varying between 0.01-0.1
ppb and 0.10-0.70 ppb, respectively. Conventional proces-
sing of raw Willamette River water at the Corvallis Taylor
water treatment plant removed about 60% of the HCP and PCP
originally present in the water leaving about 40% of these
chlorophenols in the finished drinking water. Identifica-
tions of HCP and PCP in sewage effluent and influent,
Willamette River water and treated drinking water were
confirmed by mass spectrometry.
180
-------
Bunch, R.L., E.F. Barth, and M.B. Ettinger.
Organic Materials in Secondary Effluents.
JWPCF. 33.(2):122-126. February 1961 .
Key Words: COD, synthetic/organics, effluent characteristics
Abstract:
A sufficient number of samples has not been
examined to make firm conclusions concerning
the nature of the constituents. However, from
the data on hand, these studies on secondary
effluents indicate the following trends:
1. The suspended solids accounted for 20 to
30 percent of the total COD of the effluents.
2. More than one-half of the ether extractable
matter falls in the strong acid classification.
3. The majority of the constituents giving COD
are dialyzable, but about 40 percent of the
material is indicated to be of high molecular
weight because it resists dialysis.
4. The ratio of volatiles to COD, corrected for
chlorides, is approximately 1.5.
5. The ratio of constituents identified to
volatiles is approximately 0.20.
6. The ratio of COD, corrected for chlorides,
to constituents identified is approximately 3.0.
181
-------
Burn, R.J. and R.D. Vaughan.
Bacteriological Comparison between Combined and Separate Sewer
Discharges in Southeastern Michigan.
JWPCF. £8(3):400-409. March 1966.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, coliforms,
combined municipal/storm systems.
Abstract:
Total coliform densities in the overflow from combined
sewers many times approach densities found in raw waste-
water; those in the runoff from separate storm sewers are
approximately one tenth of those in combined sewers. Fecal
coliform densities in combined sewer overflows approach
100 percent of the total coliforms on individual samples
but rarely more than 20 percent of the total coliform den-
sities in a separate storm sewer installation. Fecal strep-
tococcus densities are at remarkably equal levels in both
types of sewer systems. Total coliform and fecal coliform
densities show significant increases in magnitude during
the warmer summer months, but the fecal streptococcus counts
fail to show this pattern. Fecal streptococcus densities
from a separate storm sewer system are generally equal to or
greater than the fecal coliform counts.
182
-------
Burnham, A.K., G.V. Calder, J.S. Fritz, G.A. Junk,
H.J. Svec, and R. Vick.
Trace Organics in Water: Their Isolation and Identi-
fication.
JAWWA. £5. (11 ):722-725. November 1973.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, groundwater, drinking
and recreational water.
Abstract:
Water from certain wells supplying the city of
Ames, Iowa,, has had a bad taste and odor for
many years. The probable source of contamination
is a pit used for the disposal of coal-tar
residues from a coal-gas plant that operated in
the city during the 1920's. Apparently, the
hydrocarbon residues were leached from the tar
and transported into the aquifer.
183
-------
Burns, D.E. and G.L. Shell.
Carbon Treatment of a Municipal Wastewater.
JWPCF. 46.(1): 148-164. January 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, adsorption / ion
exchange.
Abstract:
The results of this pilot plant study indicated
that a chemical-powdered carbon treatment system
can produce a high degree of treatment of a
municipal wastewater. Typical effluent quality
is graphically depicted. The run numbers in
these figures refer to the chemical used (such
as L for lime) and the carbon run associated
wi th that chemical .
Results of an economic analysis indicated that
alum treatment followed by two-stage, counter-
current carbon contacting with 75 mg/1 dosage
would cost $0.183/1,000 gal ($0.048/cu m) . This
includes $0.004/1,000 gal ($0.001/cu m) for chlor-
ination of plant effluent with 5 mg/1 C12. The
predicted plant effluent quality would be con-
siderably better than a secondary biological
treatment effluent for all parameters, but
especially with respect to phosphorus and ss.
It is doubtful whether secondary biological
treatment followed by tertiary treatment for
phosphorus removal could be accomplished for
less than $0.183/1,000 gal ($0-048/cu m).
As the technology of powdered carbon regeneration
develops to a fine degree, a more rigorous evalu-
ation of the economic applicability of powdered
carbon treatment systems will be possible.
When this occurs, it is strongly suggested that
powdered carbon systems will become a viable
economic alternative to currently available
treatment approaches for many wastes.
184
-------
Burns, R.W. and O.J. Sproul.
Virucidal Effects of Chlorine in Wastewater.
JWPCF. 39_(11):1834-1849. November 1967.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination.
Abstract:
The article concludes the following:
1. Amperometric chlorine residuals provided
a consistent indication of the virucidal capac-
ity of chlorinated settled wastewater and trick-
ling filter effluent samples. A 99-percent in-
activation of the T2 virus used was obtained with
2.7 mg/1 of amperometric residual.
2. Orthotolidine arsenite chlorine residuals
showed no direct correlation to the virus in-
activation produced in the samples tested.
3. The coliform test was found not to be a
reliable indication of the effectiveness of
virus chlorination.
4. Less stock chlorine was required to inacti-
vate the T2 phage in settled wastewater samples
than in trickling filter effluent samples.
5. The inactivation of virus in the effluents
tested did not follow Chick's Law of disinfection,
6. The time of contact was found to be more
important than chlorine dosage for virus in-
activation in excess of 90 percent for the
wastes tested.
185
-------
Burrows, W.D. and P.A. Krenkel.
Studies on Uptake and Loss of Methylmercury-20?
by Bluegills (Lepomls macrochirus Raf).
Environmental Science and Technology. 7_(13):1127-
1130. December 1973.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
The uptake of methylmercury-203 directly from
water by bluegills was found to be nearly constant
after five days at about 20% per gram of fish per
liter of water. Transferred to mercury-free water
at 24°C, bluegills exhibited a rapid loss of about
40% of the mercury, followed by a slow loss with a
half-time of about five months. Mercury levels in
the liver and kidneys were two to seven times higher
than whole fish levels, but there was no discernible
trend in this ratio with time. The proportion of
mercury present as methylmercury in the whole fish
remained at 73 ± 10% throughout the course of the
experiment. The proportion of methylmercury in the
liver and kidneys, however, fell rapidly in the
first few weeks after exposure, ultimately leveling
off at about 10%. This suggests that biochemical
demethylation is taking place in these organs.
186
-------
Butler, P.A.
Organochlorine Residues in Estuarine Mollusks,
1965-72 -- National Pesticide Monitoring Program.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 6_(4) :238-246. March 1973.
Key Words: DDT, endrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons, shellfish
Abstract:
This paper describes the development of the
national program for monitoring estuarine mollusks
in 15 coastal states and reports the findings for
the period 1965-72. The report is presented in
two parts: Part I. General Summary and Conclu-
sions, and Part II. Residue Data - Individual
Analyses of the 8,095 samples for 15 persistent
organo-chlorine compounds showed that DDT resi-
dues were ubiquitous; the maximum DDT residue
detected was 5.39 ppm. Dieldrin was the second
most commonly detected compound with a maximum
residue of 0.23 ppm. Endrin, mirex, toxaphene,
and polychlorinated biphenyls were found only
occasionally. Results indicate a clearly defined
trend towards decreased levels of DDT residues,
beginning in 1969-70. At no time were residues
observed of such a magnitude as to imply damage
to mollusks; however, residues were large enough
to pose a threat to other elements of the biota
through the processes of recycling and magnifi-
cation.
187
-------
Butler, R.G., G,T. Orlob, and P.M. McGaughey.
Underground Movement of Bacterial and Chemical Pollutants
JAWWA. 4£(2):98-m. February 1954.
Key Words: Escherichia co1i , bacteria, air, direct contact
groundwater.
Abstract:
The movement of bacterial and chemical pollutants with
water percolating through soil above the ground water
table has been studied somewhat more extensively than
the travel of pollution with ground water movement.
This article reports on the results of field and pilot
scale studies being conducted by the University of
California Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratories
on soils continuously spread with settled sewage or
sewage treatment plant final effluent, and on
underground recharge.
188
-------
Butterworth, J.„ P. Lester, and G. Nickless.
Distribution of Heavy Metals in the Severn Estuary.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 3j5):72-74. May 1972.
Key Words: zinc, lead, cadmium, air, surface water (marine)
Abstract:
There has been considerable agitation recently
about heavy metal pollution in the Bristol Channel
and Severn Estuary and on land around Bristol.
Concentrations of zinc, cadmium, and lead in
water, sediments, seaweeds, and shore animals
are recorded from a number of sites on the south-
ern shore of the estuary. Contamination is de-
tectable ninety miles downstream of Avonmonth
where the highest concentrations of these heavy
metals are found.
189
-------
Cabelli, V.J. and W.P. Heffernan.
Accumulation of Escherichia col i by the Northern Quahaug
Applied Microbiology. 19_(2) : 239-244 . February 1970.
Key Words: epidemiology, Escherichia coli , shellfish.
Abstract:
The uptake of Escherichia coli by the quahaug,
Mercenaria mercenaria, was studied to obtain
an insight into the environmental parameters
significant to the accumulation of bacterial
pathogens by shellfish growing in polluted waters
and into the kinetics of the uptake process.
Experimental uptake was achieved by placing
the animals in a flowing water system in which
the contamination level of the water and its
temperature and salinity could be controlled.
Data from periodic assays of individual animals
suggested that accumulation of the bacteria by
the quahaug proceeds to an equilibrium level which
is a function of E. co1i content of the water
and its overall particulate matter. Accumulation
takes place in the digestive gland and, to a
lesser extent, in the siphon of the animal.
190
-------
Cabelli, V.J. and W.P. Heffernan.
Elimination of Bacteria by the Soft Shell Clam,
Mya arenaria.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada.
27:1579-1586. 1970.
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, shellfish, fish.
Abstract:
Factors significant to the uptake and elimination
of coliform bacteria by the soft shell clam,
Mya arenaria, were investigated. Uptake kinetics
resembling those in the northern quahaug suggest
that a steady state exists in functioning animals
wherein the number of organisms taken in and
eliminated are in balance. In contrast to the
quahaug, most of the animals accumulate the organ-
isms very shortly after being placed in the en-
vironmental water. The lower limits on the
temperature, salinity, and flow rate of the en-
vironmental water for acceptable elimination
(depuration) were about 10 C, 20 o/oo, and
7 ml/min per animal respectively. In the feasi-
bility study for a flow-through depuration
system using naturally polluted animals, consis-
tently good elimination to very low elevated
temperature (ET) coliform levels was observed
if the initial level of contamination did not
exceed about 2000 ET coliforms per 100 g. Results
comparable with those in the flow-through system
were obtained in a recirculating depuration
system, thereby indicating the feasibility of
the recirculating depuration system for the
elimination of coliforms in marginally polluted
animals .
191
-------
CabeTH, V.J., M.A. Levin, A.P. Dufour, and L.J. McCabe
The Development of Criteria for Recreational Waters.
In: Discharge of Sewage from Sea Outfalls. A.L.H.
GTmeson, ed. Pergamon Press, London, 1975. pp. 63-73.
Key Words: salmonella, shigella, fecal streptococci,
coliforms, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Untoward effects on human health arising from
the pollution of estuarine and coastal waters
are obtained primarily through man's use of the
marine environment as a source of recreation and
food. Polluted shellfish as a potential route
of disease transmission will be discussed later
in this Symposium by Dr. Metcalf. The present
report considers water-quality criteria for marine
recreational waters, health-effects information
needed as the basis for such criteria, past
and present efforts to obtain this information,
and the impact of these criteria on the treat-
ment of domestic and industrial wastes discharged
into estuarine and coastal waters.
192
-------
Cabelli, V.J., A.P. Dufour, M.A. Levin, and P.M. Habermann
The Impact of Pollution on Marine Bathing Beaches:
An Epidemiological Study (Personal Communication).
Key Words: epidemiology, drinking and recreational water
Abstract:
Data on illness measured by symptomatology to
some potential microbial indicator of water
quality at the Coney Island and the Rockaways
Beach during 1973 and 1974 are presented.
This original work is an excellent article on
health effects criteria for marine recreational
waters.
193
-------
Cabelli, V.J., H. Kennedy, and M.A. Levin.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Fecal Coliform Relationships
in Estuarine and Fresh Recreational Waters.
JWPCF. 48J2):367-376. February 1976.
Key Words: Escherichia c o 1 i . fecal streptococci,
coliforms, surface water (fresh),
drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Comparisons are made between the use of Pseu-
dpmonas aeruginosa instead of fecal coliform for
the determi nation of fecal contamination in rec-
reational water.
194
-------
Caldwell, G.G., N.J. Lindsey, H. Wulff, D.P. Donnelly,
and F.N. Bohl.
Epidemic of Adenovirus Type 7 Acute Conjunctivitis
i n Swimmers.
American Journal of Epidemiology. 99_(3) :230-234. 1974
Key Words: adenovirus, epidemiology, drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
An epidemic of acute conjunctivitis occurred
in members of a Kansas community swimming
team during January 1973. The etiological
agent was adenovirus 7. Manifestations of
illness occurred mainly in the eye; other
systems were affected to a lesser degree.
The swimming team used a local junior high
school swimming pool in which adequate
chlorine levels were not maintained after
the pool filter and chlorinator had failed.
195
-------
California Morbidity.
Weekly Report from the Infectious Disease Section,
California State Dept. of Health. April 9, 1976.
Key Words: epidemiology, copper.
Abstract:
Copper poisoning through food (a birthday cake)
is discussed.
The dose of copper salts
gastroenteritis is about
for hemorrhagic
5 gm.
Last year, the Stanislaus City Health Dept.
reported acute and violent illness in a family
of four after drinking soda pop from a restau-
rant fountain. (The carbonated water was found
to be the blame.)
Also, the Mendocino City Health Dept. reported
that a soft drink vending machine caused copper
poisoning.
196
-------
California Morbidity.
Weekly Report from the Infectious Disease Section,
California State Dept. of Public Health. June 11,
1976.
Key Words: epidemiology, drinking and recreational water,
Abstract:
Several cases of swimmer's itch (schistosome
dermatitis) were reported in Alameda and
Los Angeles Counties.
Eleven Girl Scouts contracted the disease after
swimming in a lake in Shadow Cliffs Regional
Park in Alameda County (in mid-May).
In May, 1976, similar reports were made from
Castaic Lake After Bay, Los Angeles, County.
197
-------
California Morbidity.
Weekly Report from the Infectious Disease Section,
California State Dept. of Health. July 16, 1976.
Key Words: epidemiology, drinking and recreational water,
Abstract:
Waterborne outbreaks of a gastrointestinal ill-
ness were reported at Groves Hot Springs State
Park, Alpine County, California in 1976.
Sixty people became ill during Memorial Day
from water contamination.
198
-------
California Morbidity.
Weekly Report from the Infectious Disease Section,
California State Dept. of Public Health. September 3,
1976.
Key Words: epidemiology, hepatitis virus.
Abstract:
In the first week of August, four persons in a
group of 59 travelers returned from overseas
trips with hepatitis.
199
-------
California Morbidity.
Weekly Report No. 39 from the Infectious Disease Section,
California State Department of Health. October 8, 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This report describes an outbreak of waterborne
disease from a semi-private water system in Carmel
Valley, Monterey County, California.
200
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Canale, R.P.
Model of Coliform Bacteria in Grand Traverse Bay.
JWPCF. 45_(11) :2358-2371. November 1973.
Key Hords: coliforms, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
A predictive model for total coliform bacteria
has been developed by using continuity equations
with a simple fluid transport model and tempera-
ture-dependent first-order kinetics. The re-
sulting linear equations can be solved easily
and evaluated without the use of a computer.
The model has been verified over a wide range
of loadings during a period of several years
with data obtained during numerous field sur-
veys. The model has been applied to a number of
problems of interest to local planners and other
officials concerned with the control of water
quality in Grand Traverse Bay.
201
-------
Canale, R.p. , R.L. Patterson, J.J. Gannon, and W.F. Powers
Water Quality Modelsfor Total Coliforms.
JWPCF. 45_C2):325-336. February 1973.
Key Words: coliforms, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
First order kinetic formulations approximated
the death curve of total coliform bacteria
following an initial growth period in experi-
ments where domestic wastewater was added to Lake
Michigan water. Three separate studies using
water collected during different seasons have
demonstrated that the first-order rate coefficient
is temperature dependent and relatively independent
of illumination, prechlorination, and season of
the year. The rate coefficient exhibits a linear
variation with temperature. Equation 10 is the
result of a linear fit of data obtained from
these three studies and can be used to calculate
the seasonal change of total coliform death
rate caused by temperature changes in Lake
Michigan waters.
The seasonal changes in total coliform density
in the bay, as measured at the Traverse City
municipal water intake, can be approximated using
weighted sine and cosine series, auto-regression,
and multiple-regression statistical models. Al-
though it is possible to obtain a satisfactory
fit of the data with each of these approaches,
such models cannot be reliably used for long-
range predictions. Further, the models are
not based on an understanding of the mechanisms
operative in the system and should be replaced
in favor of models based on continuity equations
for planning and control applications.
Historical data collected in Grand Traverse Bay
demonstrate regular seasonal variations as well
as long-range trends for total coliform density
and turbidity. Additional data convey a consistent
spatial pattern of total coliform at beaches in
near-shore regions of the bay. These data and
data from more recent surveys along with circu-
lation patterns predicted from modeling studies
suggest that a deterministic approach based on
continuity equations may be possible. The veri-
fication and application of such models is the
goal of current work.
202
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Cancer and the Environment.
F.A.S. Public Interest Report. ^9.(5). May 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Discussed are cancer incidence and cure rates and
the Ames Test for carcinogens.
203
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Carlson, C.A., P.G. Hunt, and T.B. Delaney, Jr.
Overland Flow Treatment of Wastewater.
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Miss., August 1974. 119p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as AD/A-008-371 ).
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, nickel, lead, cadmium,
copper, manganese, mercury, zinc, ponding/
land application, groundwater, surface
water (fresh), crops.
Abstract:
Land application has been suggested as an effective,
low-cost method for advanced treatment of waste-
water from military reservation treatment plants.
This study is being conducted to determine the
mechanisms involved in wastewater treatment by
overland flow so that operational feasibility,
design, and performance criteria can be more
accurately evaluated. A model 5 ft wide and
20 ft long was prepared with grass sod and a
low-permeable Susquehanna clay to a 6-in. depth
at a 2 percent slope. Secondary effluent from
a model treatment plant was supplemented with 13.4
mg/1 of nitrogen as ammonium nitrate and 0.2 mg/1
each of cadmium, copper, lead, manganese, nickel,
and zinc to simulate average wastewater. The
study was conducted for 12 weeks with effluent
applied by flooding from the upper end of the slope
at 0.5 in./day (6-hr periods) for 4 days per week.
The wastewater was generally distributed into 20,
30, and 50 percent for subflow, evapotranspiration,
and runoff, respectively. Analyses showed that
100, 95, 91, and 75 percent of the ammonium,
nitrate, and organic nitrogen and phosphorus,
respectively, were retained in the model. The
balance of the nitrogen and phosphorus remained
in the runoff, with essentially none in the sub-
flow. The grass harvest removed 31 percent of
the nitrogen and 6 percent of the phosphorus.
The model retained from 98 to 100 percent of
the cadmium, copper, manganese, and nickel;
91 percent of the lead; and 72 percent of the
zinc. The balance was lost in runoff, except
for 2 percent manganese and 6 percent zinc that
were lost in the subflow. The grass removed
4 percent of the applied copper, lead, and nickel;
9 percent of the zinc; 13 percent of the manganese;
and none of the cadmium.
204
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Carlson, R.M., R-E. Carlson, H.L. Kopperman, and R. Caple
Facile Incorporation of Chlorine into Aromatic Systems
During Aqueous Chlorination Process.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9:674-675.
July 1975.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination.
Abstract:
It has been observed that chlorine is readily
incorporated into aromatic compounds under those
conditions utilized for water renovation. The
extent of chlorine incorporation varies with pH
and contact time.
205
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Carlucci, A.F. and D. Pramer.
Factors Affecting the Survival of Bacteria in Sea Water
Applied Microbiology. 7_[6]:388-392. November 1959.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Great numbers of bacteria enter the sea by way of
surface drainage and sewage outfalls but, as one
proceeds outward from land, an extremely rapid
decrease in the numbers of bacteria in the water
is observed. Numerous explanations for the de-
crease in numbers have been suggested. Dilution,
adsorption, and sedimentation are factors of im-
portance but they do not account fully for the
rapid disappearance of bacteria that enter the sea.
The significance of biological factors has been
emphasized by various investigators who observed
that the survival of bacteria is greater in
heat sterilized sea water than in untreated sea
water. Although it has been postulated that
predators, bacteriophages , and heat labile toxic
substances of biological origin (antibiotics)
contribute to the rapid death of bacteria in
natural water, the evidence is primarily indirect
and, therefore, not conclusive. Hydrostatic
pressure, solar radiation, temperature, salinity,
pH, oxidation-reduction potential, and nutrient
availability are physicochemical factors known
to influence the activities of microorganisms,
but their significance in maintaining the bac-
terial population of the sea at a reduced level
remains to be evaluated. Likewise, our present
knowledge of the interrelationships of micro-
organisms in marine environments must be extended
before the bactericidal action of sea water can
be explained.
206
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Carlucci, A.F. and D. Pramer.
Factors Influencing the Plate Method for Determining
Abundance of Bacteria in Sea Water.
Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine. 96^:392-394. 1957.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The nutritional requirements of marine bacteria
are so varied that no one nutrient medium can
suffice for the growth of all. The influence of
composition of the nutrient medium and plating
procedure on the plate method for determining
the number of bacteria in sea water was investi-
gated. Seven media were tested. Maximum and
reproducible plate counts were obtained with
medium containing 0.5% peptone, 0.01% yeast
extract, 0.01% FeP04 and 1.5% agar in 80% sea
water. The number of colonies that developed
on pour plates was 30-40% greater than the number
that developed on surface inoculated plates.
207
-------
Carlucci, A.F., P.V. Scarpino, ana D. Pramer.
Evaluation of Factors Affecting Survival of Escherichia
coli in Sea Water; V: Studies with Heat- and Filter-
Sterilized Sea Water.
Applied Microbiology. 9_( 5 ) : 400 - 404 . September 1961.
Key Words: epidemiology, ji s cj^e_r i_c h j;a_ £oJM_, surface
water (mari ne).
Abstract:
The bactericidal action of sea water was measured
as the difference in survival of cells of Escherichia
co1i in untreated and autoclaved portions of water
samples. The beneficial effect of sterilization
by heat on the survival of E. coli in sea water
varied with season and was most marked during
summer months, however, the magnitude of the effect
differed greatly from sample to sample. The
more obvious and commonly suggested explanations
for the bactericidal action of sea water were
tested experimentally. The pH and salinity of
sea water were changed by autoclaving, but the
direction of the former was detrimental rather
than beneficial and the significance of the
latter was not clarified. The survival of cells
°f E. co1i in filtered portions of some water
samples was greater than that in untreated por-
tions and equal to that in autoclaved portions,
indicating that predators and competitors re-
moved by filtration had contributed significantly
to the rapid death of the bacterium in the
untreated water. However, in the majority of
samples tested, survival of E. col i in auto-
claved water was considerably greater than sur-
vival in filtered water.
The possibility that the beneficial effect of
autoclaving over and above that of filtration
resulted from inactivation or destruction by heat
of bacteriophages and thermolabile toxic sub-
stances such as antibiotics was considered. More-
over, the suggestion was tested that the in-
creased survival of E. coli in autoclaved sea
water was due to the ability of heat to disrupt
and degrade microbial cells and thermolabile
compounds and, thereby, to cause an increase in
concentration of available nutrients in sea water.
208
-------
It was concluded that the bactericidal action of
sea water is not explicable in terms of the destruc-
tion or inactivation by heat of bacteriophages or
antibiotics. Although added organic matter in-
fluenced the survival of E. c o 1 i , the test organism
was not an effective competitor in sea water and
the nutrient levels required to offset the bacteri-
cidal action were excessive.
209
-------
Carries, B.A. and J.M. Eller.
Characterization of Wastewater Solids.
JWPCF. 44_(8):1498-1517. August 1972.
Key Words: suspended solids, effluent characteristics
Abstract:
This article provides a general discussion on
wastewater solids. There are no health effects
data given.
210
-------
Carnes, B.A., J.M. Eller and J.C. Martin.
Integrated Re-Use-Recycle Treatment Processes Applicable
to Refinery and Petrochemical Wastewaters.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. 1971. lip
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, total dissolved solids,
ammonia, phosphates, activated sludge, adsorp-
tion/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Estimated effluent quality for the activated sludge,
carbon, and combined treatment of refinery waste-
waters are discussed.
211
-------
Carney, J.F., C.E. Carty, and R.R. Colwell
Seasonal Occurrence and Distribution of Microbial Indi-
cators and Pathogens in the Rhode River of Chesapeake Bay.
Applied Microbiology. 3£(5):771-780. November 1975.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, coliforms, bacteria, sur-
face water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The seasonal incidence and occurrence of indicator
organisms and pathogens were studied at four sites
in the Rhode River, a subestuary of Chesapeake Bay.
The highest frequency of occurrence of total and fecal
coliforms and fecal streptococci was in Muddy Creek,
a marsh area receiving pasture land runoff. Second
highest frequency of occurrence of these bacteria was
in Cadle Creek, a populated area. Lowest measure-
ments of these parameters were obtained at stations
in the central portion of the Rhode River. No
Salmonella spp. were detected by the methods employed
in this study. However, it is concluded that if these
organisms are present, the concentrations are ^1
organism per liter. The presence of Clostridium
botulinum was detected in 12% of the samples tested.
212
-------
Carpenter, R.L., H.K. Malone, A.F. Roy, A.L. Mitchum,
H.E. Beauchamp, and M.S. Coleman.
The Evaluation of Microbial Pathogens in Sewage and
Sewage-Grown Fish.
In: Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber-
Proceedings. EPA-660/2-74-041, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., Office of Research
and Development, June 1974. pp. 46-55.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, aerated lagoons, fish,
col iforms.
Abstract:
It can be said that this study has confirmed the
previous observations of others that indicator
coliform organisms are efficiently removed in
a lagoon-method wastewater treatment system.
This study has shown that human pathogens are
rare in those wastewaters tested and in fish
grown in those wastewaters beyond the raw or
first two conventionally-operated cells.
213
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Carr, R.L., C.F. Finsterwalder, and M.J. Schibi.
Chemical Residues in Lake Erie Fish - 1970-71.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 6_(l):23-26. June 1972.
Key Words: pesticides, DDT, DDE, dieldrin, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, mercury, fish.
Abstract:
Yellow perch, coho salmon, carp, channel catfish,
freshwater drum, and white bass from the Ohio
shore of Lake Erie were analyzed during 1970-71
for residues of chlorinated pesticides (DDE, IDE,
DDT, and dieldrin), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's),
and mercury. All but 1 of the 80 samples analyzed
contained DDT and/or its metabolites; PCB's were
found in all samples. Fifty-three of the 80 sam-
ples were analyzed for mercury, and all were found
posi tive.
Average levels of residues for the species sampled
ranged from 0.06 to 0.42 ppm for DDE; 0.07 to 0.52
ppm, TDE; 0.03 to 0.25 ppm, DDT; 0.18 to 0.90 ppm,
total DDT; 0.01 to 0.07 ppm, dieldrin; 0.08 to
4.4 ppm, PCB's; and 0.12 to 0.64 ppm, mercury.
The highest average residue levels of total DDT
were in coho salmon and channel catfish. Average
levels of PCB's were significantly higher in
channel catfish, and levels of mercury were sig-
nificantly higher in white bass.
214
-------
Carroll, I.E., D.L. Maase, J.M. Gemco, and C.N. Ifeadi.
Review of Landspreading of Liquid Municipal Sewage Sludge.
EPA-670/2-75-059, Battel1e-Columbus Laboratories, Columbus,
Ohio, June 1975. 95p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), as PB-245 271).
Key Words: fecal streptococci, coliforms, Escherichia
c o 1 i, mycobacterium, salmonella, shigella,
leptospi rosis , Vibrio chplerae, parasitic
worms, ponding/land a p p1i c a t i on , agricul-
ture, crops, food processing, livestock.
Abstract:
This article gives a summary of the significant
literature on 1andspreading of liquid sludge
relative to: occurrence and movement of patho-
gens in the soil, survival of pathogens in the
soil, and health hazards posed to humans and
animals.
215
-------
Carry, D.W., R.P. Miele, and J.F. Stahl.
Sludge Dewatering.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the National
inference on Municipal Sludge Management, 1974. pp. 67-76.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, centrifugal thickeners,
vacuum filters, pressure filtration.
Abstract:
Commencing in April 1970, an extensive sludge dewatering
investigation was undertaken at the Los Angeles County
Sanitation Districts' 380 mgd Joint Water Pollution Con-
trol Plant. Discharge requirements set by the Los Angeles
Regional Water Quality Control Board necessitated that a
minimum of 95 percent of the suspended solids in the
digested sludge be removed. Various combinations of
sludge conditioning (polymer, chemical, thermal) and
sludge dewatering (centrifugation, pressure filtration,
vacuum filtration) were examined, the results of which
indicated that five conditioning-dewatering systems were
capable of meeting the required effluent quality. An
economic evaluation was made of each system, from which
a two stage centrifugation system was found to be the
alternative of lowest cost. The system consisted of the
existing hoizontal scroll centrifuges and imperforate
bowl basket centrifuges with polymer conditioning for the
second stage basket machines. The composite sludge cake
from the system will be hauled to a sanitary landfill for
ultimate disposal .
216
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Carter, C.D., R.D. Kimbrough, J.A. Liddle, R.E. Cline,
M.J. Zeck, Jr., and W.F. Barthel.
Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin: An Accidental Poisoning
Episode in Horse Arenas.
Science. V88(4189):738-740. May 16, 1975.
Key Words: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This report describes the first recognized incident
in which significant poisoning resulted from the
improper disposal of waste residues containing
tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD). A salvage oil
company sprayed an arena on a horse breeding farm
in eastern Missouri with waste oil sludge for
the purpose of controlling dust. Three days
later sparrows and other birds which normally
populated the barn rafters were found dead on
the arena floor. Hundreds of birds, several cats
and dogs, and numerous rodents died over the next
several weeks after exposure to the arena. Of the
125 horses en the farm, 85 were exercised for
varying periods within the arena and of these, 62
became ill and 48 died, The first horse death
occurred on ?n Jury?, arci although soil was re-
moved frcrn the a":"!?. -'••-, October 1971 and April 1972,
horses continued to die as late as January 1974.
All of those which died had been exposed to the
arena in the summer of 1971. Horses showed chronic
emaciating weight loss, loss of hair, skin lesions,
dependent edema, intestinal colic, dark urine,
gross hematuria. conjunctivitis, joint stiffness,
and laminitis. In addition to the laminae, the
soles and frogs of the horses' feet were particu-
larly inflamed. Similar results occurred after
the same company sprayed two additional arenas
and a farm dirt road. Human illness, though less
severe, included one case of hemorrhagic cystitis
in a 6 yr old girl who played in the arena. Analy-
sis of the soil in the arena revealed 2,4,5-tri-
chlorophenol (TCP), TCDD, and related chemicals.
Confirmation of the presence of TCDD was obtained
by tests in rabbits and by using an LKB 9000 gas
chromatograph-mass spectrometer. The horse arena
soil contained 31.8 to 33jj. c} of TCDD/g. As com-
mercial-grade products do not contain such high
concentrations of TCDDS an industrial waste by-
product of chlorinated aromatic compounds was sus-
pect. The sludge used to spray all 3 arenas came
-------
from a common storage tank at the salvage oil
company. Salvage oils in this tank had been
collected from a variety of sources in eastern
Missouri. A hexachlorophene producer in south-
western Missouri contracted disposal of an ac-
cumulated distillate residue to a chemical dis-
tributor. This distributor subcontracted this
disposal job to the salvage oil company which
sprayed the three affected arenas. The residue
of thehexachlorophene producer had been stored
for a time in the same tank from which the sludge
had been taken to spray the arenas. This investi-
gation demonstrates that the improper disposal of
toxic chemical wastes may have disastrous con-
sequences .
218
-------
Carter, L.J.
Cancer and the Environment (I): A Creaky System Grinds On.
Science. JjJ6j239-242. October 1974.
Key Words: pesticides, aldrin, dieldrin, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This article provides a general discussion on
the role of pesticides as carcinogens and the
bureaucratic red-tape in the cancellation of
the registration of known carcinogens.
219
-------
Case, O.P.
Metallic Recovery from Waste Waters Utilizing Cementation.
EPA-670/2-74-008, Anaconda American Brass Company, Westbury,
Conn., Engineered Environments Division. January 1974.
44p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-233 143 ) .
Key Words: 1eptospirosis, Francisella tularensis, chemical
treatment.
Abstract:
The report presents the results of a series of bench-scale
experiments using the so-called 'cementation1 reaction
(i.e., electrochemical reduction by contact with a metal
of higher oxidation potential) for the precipitation of
copper and the reduction of hexavalent chromium in indus-
trial waste streams such as brass mill and metal finishing
discharges. Reluctants studied included soft iron shot,
particulate iron, and silicon alloys in granular form. The
bulk of the work was done using the iron shot as a reduc-
tant. Studies were carried out by both a batch process and
a continuous process (black-mix reactor). Results were
evaluated in terms of percent reduction, dissolution of
excess iron and change in pH vs time.
220
-------
Cassel , A.F. and R.T. Mohr.
Sludge Handling and Disposal at Blue Plains.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the National
Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, 1974. pp. 171-176.
Key Words: SOD, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc,
anaerobic digestion, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Blue Plains Wastewater Treatment Plant is a regional
facility serving most of the Metropolitan Washington
Area. The plant is now undergoing expansion and the
addition of advanced wastewater treatment. In the past,
anaerobically digested sludge was all disposed on the
land. At the present time both raw and digested sludge
is undergoing disposal by a variety of techniques including
land spreading, burial, composting, and thermal dehydration
For future disposal of sludge, a combination of methods,
including land spreading, composting, thermal dehydration,
and incineration are now under evaluation. The District's
priorities are to work within all regulatory guidelines
and process the sludge into a reusable commodity.
221
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Catanzaro, E.J.
Some Relationships between Exchangeable Copper and Lead
and Particulate Matter in a Sample of Hudson River Water
Environmental Science and Technology. 10(4):386-388.
April 1976.
Key Words: copper, lead, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In any natural water system, copper and lead
occur in solution on the surface of particles
and inside particles. Most analyses of trace
metals in natural waters are concerned with
quantities in solution (i. e . , <0. 45fi) , within
solids (which are dissolved in the analysis),
or both. Some analyses are concerned with
"Teachable" quantities of these elements, usually
at various acid strengths.
In the present study an isotope dilution techni-
que was used which measured the "exchangeable"
copper and lead in slightly acidified aliquots
of a sample of Hudson River water from which
various sizes of particulate matter had been
removed.
In summary, it is rather difficult to propose
concrete conclusions on the basis of the small
amount of data presented here, but the results
do support the tentative conclusions reached
in the discussion and certainly suggest that
differential analysis of the components of river
water will prove fruitful for the study of trace
metal cycles.
222
-------
Cearley, J.E. and R.L. Coleman.
Cadmium Toxicity and Bioconcentration in Largemouth Bass
and Bluegi11.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
11:146-151. February 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, fish, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The exposure of juvenile largemouth and bluegill
to cadmium (0.0005 to 0.85 mg/liter) resulted in
accumulation of this metal in concentrations
greater than those of the water. The quantity
of metal accumulated increased as the exposure
concentration increased. An equilibrium developed
between the concentrations of the metal in the
water and in the tissues after approximately 2
months. Metal accumulations on the bass tissues
were higher in the internal organs, followed by
the gills and the remainder of the body.
The bass were more sensitive to cadmium than the
bluegill. Abnormal behavior patterns observed
in both species suggested that the nervous system
was the site of the damage.
223
-------
Chadwick, G.G. and R.W. Brocksen.
Accumulation of Dieldrin by Fish and Selected Fish-Food
Organisms.
Journal of Wildlife Management. 33^:693-700. July 1969.
Key Words: pesticides, dieldrin, fish.
Abstract:
The rate of uptake of 1 ,2 ,3 ,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,
7-epoxy-l, 4,4a,5,6,7,8, 8a-octahydro-l, 4-endo,
exo-5, 8-dimethanonaphthalene (a component of
dieldrin abbreviated HEOD) from contaminated
water or food by the reticulate sculpin (Cottus
perplexus) and fish-food organisms, tubificfd
worms CTub ifex SJK) and midge larvae (Chironomidae)
was determined. Fish were held in aquaria with
continuously renewed water that had concentrations
of HEOD ranging from 0.017 to 8.6 parts per billion
(ppb). Accumulation of HEOD by the fish was depen-
dent on its concentration in the water, and the
accumulation was nearly constant at each exposure
level during the 32-day test period. The satura-
tion level of HEOD in the fish apparently was never
reached.
Feeding experiments, using contaminated tubificid
worms as the food source, showed that the retention
of HEOD by fish was inversely related to the amount
of HEOD they consumed. Fish retained nearly all
of the HEOD they consumed when given small amounts
in their food, but they retained a much lower
proportion of the available HEOD when given large
amounts in food. Feeding duration (up to 30 days)
of the fish had little effect upon their retention
of HEOD.
It is evident that fish can accumulate HEOD both
from the surrounding water and from their food,
but accumulation of HEOD from the water does not
appear to be additive with the HEOD accumulated
from the food. Fish held in water having a con-
centration of 0.5 ppb HEOD, and fed worms con-
taining known amounts of HEOD, did not accumulate
more HEOD than fish held in the same concentration
of HEOD and fed uncontaminated worms.
224
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Chahal, K.S.
Microbial Activities during Sewage Treatment in Lagoons.
I. Changes in Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria, Actinomycetes,
and Fungi. II. Changes in Different Types of Fungi. III.
Changes in BOD and Dehydrogenase Activity.
Tuskegee Institute, Ala., Carver Research Foundation, 1974.
43p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-237 501).
Key Words: BOD, activated sludge, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Two domestic sewage lagoons were used to study biological
oxygen demand (BOD) and dehydrogenase activity changes
during one-year period. Both BOD and dehydrogenase acti-
vity were higher during summer months than winter. BOD
in the effluent followed the same pattern as BOD in the
influent. Dehydrogenase activity and BOD followed the
same trend during the one-year period of this study. It
is suggested that due to simplicity, fastness and accu-
racy of the method, dehydrogenase activity may be a better
method to determine the oxidation rate in sewage lagoons
and wastewaters.
225
-------
Chambers, D.W.
Chlorination for Control of Bacteria and Viruses in Treatment
Plant Effluents.
JWPCF. 43.(2):228-241. February 1971.
Key Words: bacteria, viruses, chlorination.
Abstract:
The main objective is to provide a basic understanding of
some of the important factors that affect the efficiency
of chlorination in controlling bacteria and viruses in
wastewater effluents. Research data and examples from
practical operation, along with reference material in the
literature, have been combined to provide a starting base,
This information should be evaluated for its relevance to
specific plant situations and, where appropriate and per-
tinent, can then be used to provide guidelines for prac-
tical disinfection applications in the plant.
226
-------
Chaney, R.L.
Crop and Food Chain Effects of Toxic Elements in Sludges
and Effluents.
In: Recycling
Proceedings of
pp. 129-141.
Municipal
the Joint
Sludges and
Conference,
Effluents
July 9-13
on Land
1973.
Key Words:
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
lead, mercury, nickel, zinc.
Abstract:
Sewage sludge and effluent are applied to soil with
the intent that toxic elements be retained by the
soil. These elements will accumulate and persist,
and are the long term environmental hazard in land
application. Elements in sludge and effluent that
are potential hazards to plants or food chain are:
B, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn. The direct
toxicities to plants from Zn, Cu and Ni are discussed
in detail. Hazard to the food chain from Cd, Cu,
Zn, Pb, and Hg in crops grown on sludge- and effluent-
treated soils is discussed, with emphasis on the
controllable hazard from Cd. Crop differences in
injury from, and accumulation of Cd, Cu, Zn, and
Ni are discussed in relation to the high phosphate
and organic matter contents of sludge and effluent.
Interim recommendations are made for permissible
levels of toxic metals added to agricultural soils.
Research needs to protect plants and the food chain
are presented.
227
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Chaney, R.L., S.B. Hornick, and P.M. Simon.
Heavy Metal Relationships during Land Utilization of
Sewage Sludge in the Northeast.
In: Land as a Waste Management Alternative; Proceedings of
We 1976 Cornell Waste Management Conference. R.C. Loehr, ed.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1977.
pp. 283-314.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
nickel, zinc, agriculture, crops, combined
municipal/industrial system.
Abstract:
A program was started in the Laboratory to: (1) locate
long-term sludge use sites with a wide range of soil
Cd contents, (2) grow and analyze a number of crops
representing a range of Cd accumulation characteristics
on these sites and matched control fields, and (3) char-
acterize existing sludge use practice regarding heavy
metals in sludges, soils, and crops. This paper is a
preliminary report of the results of these studies,
showing sludge composition, metal accumulation in treated
soils, and crop uptake of heavy metals from treated and
control soils. These studies have shown that use of high
Cd sludges leads to long-term increases in crop Cd, but
that proper soil pH management and crop selection can
minimize the impact of sludge use on farmland on Cd
movement into the food chain.
228
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Chang, P.W.
Effect of Ozonation on Human Enteric Viruses in Water from
Rhode Island Rivers.
Rhode Island University, Kingston, Dept. of Animal Pathology,
July 1974. 21p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-236 421 ).
Key Words: adenovirus, coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, polio
virus, ozonation.
Abstract:
Partially purified poliovirus type 1, 2 and 3, Coxsackie
virus type B3 and B5, echovirus type 12 and 29, and adeno-
virus type 7a were studied for their sensitivity to ozone
demand-free distilled water or Saugatucket River water.
An ozone sparging rate of one gram per hour was used.
Viruses were sampled at various intervals during ozonation
and assayed. The different viruses varied in their sensi-
tivity to ozone and ranged from one to 14 minutes for
their inactivation. The time required to inactiveate
viruses in river water was in most cases twice as long
as that required for the ozone demand-free distilled water.
229
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Chang, S.L.
Modern Concept of Disinfection.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
97(SA5):689-707. October 1971.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, ozonation.
Abstract:
In a critical review of the literature on disin-
fection as a chemical process the following con-
clusions are reached:
1. The knowledge of disinfection is founded on
physi co-chemistry of the disinfectant, the cyto-
chemical nature and physical state of the micro-
organisms, the reaction of the two as a rate pro-
cess, and the quantitative effects of factors,
such as pH, temperature, etc.
2. Disinfectants may be grouped into: oxidizing
agents, cations of heavy metals, quaternary ammon-
ium and pyridinium compounds, gaseous agents, and
physical agents. The mode of action is different
with each group of agents.
3. Microorganisms are grouped into amoebic cysts,
bacteria, and viruses (with spores omitted); their
difference in cyto-structure accounts for the
difference in resistance to disinfectants.
4. The presence of organisms in aggregates is
believed to be the main, if not only, cause for
aberrations in survival curves; such data should
be analyzed as complex phenomenon in order to
obtain the death rate constant, k, for the de-
struction of organisms as singles. Methods for
such analysis are presented.
5. Various constants and other quantitative
parameters obtained from analyses of existing
data on disinfection are tabulated; the table
reveals much information has yet to be obtained.
230
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Chapman, B.
Sponsors of Science Inc. on Safety of 2,4,5-T and Dioxin
Clinical Toxicology. 7_(4) :41 3-421. 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
The safety and toxicity of 2,4,5-T and DDT are
discussed in a letter written to Senator Gaylord
Nelson. Both compounds are rated in comparative
toxicity tables as among the least hazardous
pesticides for human use. The actual amount of
the technical (1,000,000 ppm) compound eaten
determines the toxicity. Based on the acute oral
toxicity expressed in mg/kg, a 125 Ib woman would
have to eat her body weight equivalent of material
containing 380 ppm of 2,4,5-T to receive a lethal
dose. Both 2,4,5-T and DDT in technical form are
relatively non-toxic on skin contact (3800 mg/kg
for 2,4,5-T and 2500 mg/kg for DDT). The toxicity
of the dioxins contained in 2,4,5-T has little,
if any, influence on the toxicity of the 2,4,5-T.
There have been no human deaths and remarkably
few human illnesses because of the agricultural
or public health uses of either of these chemicals.
There are no significant differences between the
health of workers in 2,4,5-T or DDT manufacturing
plants and the norm for the general population.
Many researchers believe it would be completely
erroneous to classify the 2,4,5-T currently manu-
factured as a teratogen. A no-effect level of
50 mg/kg/day of 2,4,5-T containing less than 1
ppm dioxins is proposed as providing ample pro-
tection for human embryos.
231
-------
Chapman, H .D. , ed.
Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils.
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1965. 794p.
Abstract:
All the pertinent articles herein are listed
individually with their own key words, abstracts,
etc.
232
-------
Chapman, H.D.
Zi nc .
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. Quality
Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 484-499.
Key Words: zinc, ponding/land application, land reclamation,
groundwater , crops .
Abstract:
The author discusses plant and soil criteria useful in
diagnosing zinc status, including visual symptoms of and
indicator plants for zinc deficiency or excess, tissue
and analysis values, kinds of soil in which zinc deficiency
or excess occur, soil management and other practices that
aggravate or reduce zinc deficiency or produce toxicity,
soil analysis values of significance and control or
methods of correcting zinc deficiency.
233
-------
Chapman, S.W. Jr., R.M. Sweazy, and D.M. Wells.
Nitrogen Mass Balance Determination for Simulated Waste-
Water Land Spreading Operations.
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Water Resources Center,
December 1974. 44p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-239 406).
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, ponding/land
application, groundwater.
Abstract:
Results of this research project have shown that
irrigation with a sewage effluent on the High Plains
of Texas is a potential source of groundwater pollu-
tion. Ammonia in a sewage effluent applied at normal
rates will be completely nitrified as it percolates
through the Amarillo soil. The nitrification pro-
cess will probably occur within the top three feet
of the soil profile, making the nitrates available
for plant uptake. The mass balance indicated that
appreciable amounts of nitrogen will not be fixed
in soils on the High Plains since more nitrogen
was leached from the bins than was applied. If
effluents are applied at the project's 3-inch per
week rate, an appreciable amount of this water
will percolate to the aquifer even during periods
of maximum evapotranspiration.
Selective crop production is probably the most
effective method of protecting High Plains ground-
water from sewage irrigation. Planting and har-
vesting of crops that have a high nitrogen uptake,
such as Bermuda grass and corn would remove large
amounts of nitrates. Since most irrigation projects
must dispose of wastewater all year, winter crops
such as oats, wheat, and barley should be planted.
Loading rates should be such that nitrogen uptake
by the crop approximates the nitrogen applied in
the sewage effluent.
234
-------
Chaudhuri, M. and R.S. Engelbrecht.
Removal of Viruses from Water by Chemical Coagulation
and Flocculation .
JAWWA. 62.(9):563-567. September 1970.
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Based on the laboratory investigation reported,
using bacterial virus, the following conclusions
may be drawn:
1. Chemical coagulation and flocculation is an
effective process in removing viruses from
water. Removals in the range of 98.0 to 99.9
percent can be expected.
2. The presence of bivalent cations like calcium
and magnesium up to a concentration of 50 mg/1
each does not interfere with the efficiency of
the process.
3. The efficiency of virus removal is reduced
when the raw water contains organic matter.
4. Intelligent use of commercially available
cationic polyelectrolytes with or without hy-
drolyzed metal ions most markedly increase the
efficiency of the coagulation and flocculation
process removing virus.
235
-------
Chaudhuri, M. and R.S. Engelbrecht.
Virus Removal in Wastewater Renovation by Chemical Coagu-
lation and Flocculation.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1970(1):II-20/1-22
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Based on the findings of this investigation, the
following conclusions may be drawn:
1. Removal of viruses by chemical coagulation and
flocculation with aluminum sulfate comprises of a
primary instantaneous interaction between virus coat
protein and aluminum which results possibly in the
formation of coordination complexes between aluminum
and the carboxyl groups of the virus coat protein.
This is followed by their incorporation into the
precipitating hydrated aluminum oxide species and
subsequent flocculation and sedimentation. Addi-
tional work is in progress in this area and the re-
sults will be reported in a later publication.
2. The process of chemical coagulation and floccu-
lation cannot be expected to operate with high
virus removal efficiency in wastewater renovation
as compared to water treatment because of the pres-
ence of organic matter in wastewater effluent.
3. Virus particles removed in the settled floe
are not inactivated but remain active. Therefore,
proper care should be taken in the disposal of
sludge from coagulation-f1occulation operation in
wastewater renovation.
236
-------
Chemistry of Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Water.
JAWWA. 62,(2): 127-1 40. February 1970.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
surface water (fresh), surface water (marine)
Abstract:
This paper is a general write-up of the role of
nitrogen and phosphorus in water.
237
-------
Chen, C., L.S. Directo, H.B. Ghan, M.W. Selna, and
D.L. Weisman.
Virus Study . . . Pomona.
County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles,
California.
Key Words: viruses, wastewater treatment.
Abstract:
This paper is a study proposal to rank the
alternative treatment schemes in terms of
virus removal effectiveness.
238
-------
Chen, C.L.
Virus Removal (Personal Communication). September
1975.
Key Words: polio virus, filtration, chemical treatment,
adsorption/ion exchange, chlorination,
ozonation.
Abstract:
This article discusses a treatment scheme used to
study virus removal.
239
-------
Chen, C. L. anfi R,P. M-;ele.
Wastewater Deminera!ization by Two-Stage Fixed-Bed Ion
Exchange Process.
EPA-600/2-77-146, Municipal Environmental Research Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio, September 1977. 83p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-272 591).
Key Words: total dissolved solids, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The ion exchange pilot plant has successfully demineralized
wastewater at Pomona, California for over 4 years. Various
studies have investigated particular aspects of the process
to the point where the most efficient mode of operation has
been concluded. Cost estimates for the ion exchange pro-
cess show that a blended water with one-third of the
influent TDS removed can be produced at a cost competitive
with alternative sources of water for Southern California,
and even further economics may be realized during more
extensive research on ion exchange. It is now possible
to speak of a demineralization process for wastewater
which has proven economic and technical applicability.
240
-------
Chen, C.W.
Effects of San Diego's Wastewater Discharge on the Ocean
Environment.
JWPCF. £2(8):1458-1467. August 1970.
Key Words: chlorides, nitrates, total organic carbon,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
A comprehensive interpretation of massive monitor-
ing data requires a close examination of the infor-
mation from various angles with different analyti-
cal techniques. These would normally take a for-
midable amount of computations. In this study, the
necessary analytical techniques were adapted for
computer operation to facilitate a rapid and system-
atic distillation of information from such a body
of data collected near the city of San Diego's
Wastewater Outfall. The objective is to obtain an
overall picture of what is taking place in the ocean
environment after the discharge of wastewater.
The methods of evaluation include variance and time
series analyses of physical, chemical, and biologi-
cal parameters. The population trend and composi-
tion of biota are also analyzed to detect the eco-
logical shift. Results indicate the following
general conclusions concerning the effects of San
Diego's waste discharge on the nearby ocean environ-
ment:
1. The outfall performed effectively in diffusing
wastes to the environment; only minimal changes in
quality parameters in the water column could be
detected by statistical analyses - most were corre-
latable with ambient Climatic conditions.
2. Quality changes that were detected indicated
that the environment was gradually reaching an
equilibrium state, somewhat stimulated but with
no definitely discernable adverse effects.
3. The marine eco-system was more or less stable
in composition both in planktonic and benthic
forms, but the benthic populations were stimulated
in total growth by the waste discharge and deposit
of organic matter.
241
-------
Chen , C.W. and G.T. Orlob.
The Accumulation and Significance of Sludge Near San Diego
Outfall.
JWPCF. 44_(7 ):1 362-1371 . July 1972.
Key Words: BOD, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Sludge accumulation around the San Diego marine
outfall was shown to be a function of (a) initial
mixing, (b) lateral dispersion, (c) sedimentation
rate, and (d) decay of organic particulates.
Theoretical computations predicted the development
of an elliptical sludge blanket. This was confirmed
by a monitoring program conducted by the city of
San Diego. Analysis of 6 yr of monitoring sediment
composition revealed that (a) contours of sediment
BOD before discharge were oriented parallel to the
shoreline, (b) oval-shaped BOD contours were formed
by sludge deposition following outfall installation,
and (c) changes in contour pattern and intensities
of organic accumulation were related to treatment
plant performance, and in particular to the dis-
charge of digested sludge through the outfall.
Analysis of benthic animal data disclosed that the
compositions of the communities stayed essentially
the same, predominant groups remained predominant,
and little change in diversity occurred. Biostim-
ulation of benthic animals was maximal at about
1.5 miles (2.42 km) from the diffuser. It was con-
cluded that sludge buildup causing an increase of
more than 3 mg/g of BOD in the sediments would
result in some depression in biological growth in
the benthos.
242
-------
Chen.K. and T. Hendricks.
Trace Metals on Suspended Particulates .
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.
Annual Report. El Segundo, Ca., June 30, 1974. pp. 147-152
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, manganese,
mercury, nickel, zinc, activated sludge,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
While secondary treatment removed 93% of suspended
solids, a corresponding reduction in heavy metals
did not exist. After drawing correlations between
particle size and trace metal concentrations, the
authors concluded that trace metals are more or
less uniformly distributed throughout the particu-
late rather than being absorbed on the Surface.
243
-------
Chen,K.Y.and R.A. Lockwood.
Evaluation Strategies of Metal Pollution in Oceans.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE,
XP_2(EE2):347-359. April 1976.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, manganese,
mercury, lead, nickel, gravity separators,
activated sludqe, anaerobic digestion, zinc,
surface water {marine).
Abstract:
A common practice of dilution and dispension of
sewage effluents in the ocean has an unknown effect
on particulates. We want to determine the final
sink of contaminants and level of exposure and
possible uptake through the food chain. The par-
tioning of trace metals between settleable and
soluble or colloidal phase following release into
ocean waters is of prime importance. Seven para-
meters are discussed which are important in eval-
uating ecological effects:
1. Association of heavy metals with settleable
solids ;
2. Settling characteristics of solids in waste
streams ;
3. Particle size correlation to metal content;
4. Chemical elutriation;
5. Release of trace metals upon mixing, dispersion,
and settling;
6. Bioassays; and
7. Chemical analyses to determine toxicities and
food-chain enrichment potentials of particular
waste streams or elutriates or specificial chemi-
cal solids .
244
-------
Chen, K.Y., C.S. Young, T.K. Jan, and N. Rohatgi.
Trace Metals in Wastewater Effluents.
JWPCF. 4£(12):2663-2675. December 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, iron,
nickel, zinc, effluent characteristics,
centrifugal thickeners.
Abstract:
The concentrations of trace metals in the particulate
fraction of wastewater effluents will reflect the
possible enrichment of the discharge areas. Con-
centrations of trace metals were found to be at a
distinctly higher level above natural coastal sedi-
ment concentrations in the vicinity of the major
wastewater outfalls in the Southern California
area; a possible mitigation is the reduction of
solid content in the effluent discharge.
245
-------
Cheng, M.H., J.W. Patterson, and R.A. Minear.
Heavy Metals Uptake by Activated Sludge.
JWPCF. 47(2):362-376. February 1975.
Key Words: cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, activated sludge,
Abstract:
Under aerobic conditions, metal uptake by the bio-
mass is characterized by a very rapid phase of 3 to
10 min followed by a long-term, slow-phase uptake.
At lower metal concentrations, metal is taken up
by the biofloc through the formation of metal-
organic complexes. At higher metal concentrations,
metal ion precipitation from solution may occur in
addition to sludge uptake. The high molecular weight
exocellular polymers of the biofloc, which include
polysaccharide, protein, ribonucleic acid, and
deoxyribonuclei c acid, provide many functional
groupings that may act as binding sites for the
metals .
Metal uptake by the biomass depends on several
factors, including pH and the concentration of
organic matter and metals present in the system.
Higher initial concentrations of metal ions or
sludge increase the overall uptake. In general ,
the uptake capacity increases with increasing pH,
up to a value at which metal hydroxide precipitation
occurs. Among the metals studied, the preferred
order of uptake by activated sludge was found to
be in the sequence of lead >copper>cadmium >nickel.
Although the affinity of the biomass for metal ions
is relatively less than for strong chelating agents,
it is much higher than that of competing organics
in the supernatant. The large-scale accumulation
of heavy metals by activated sludge, with its sub-
sequent removal in the secondary clarifier, explains
the significant reductions of these metals observed
in many plants.
The use of stability constants provides a rational
basis for predicting levels of metal accumulation
in the sludge and residual effluent metal concen-
trations .
246
-------
Cherry, W.B., J.B. Hanks, B.M. Thomason, A.M. Murlin,
J.W. Biddle, and J.M. Croom.
Salmonellae as an Index of Pollution of Surface Waters.
Applied Microbiology. 2£(2):334-340. 1972.
Key Words: salmonella, bacteria, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
The state-of-the-art in isolating salmonellae is
discussed.
247
-------
Chester, R. and J.H. Stoner.
The Distribution of Zinc, Nickel, Manganese, Cadmium,
Copper, and Iron in Some Surface Waters from the
World Ocean.
Marine Chemistry. 2_:17-32. May 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel,
zinc, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The article establishes levels of heavy metals
in the marine environment.
248
-------
Chow, T. and J.L. Earl.
Lead Aerosols in the Atmosphere: Increasing Concentrations
Science. 169:577-580. September 1970.
Key Words: lead.
Abstract:
The concentrations of atmospheric lead around
San Diego, California, are determined, and their
geographic and seasonal variations are explained.
The aerosol concentration at San Diego is increas-
ing at a rate of 5 percent annually. The isotopic
composition of lead aerosols is similar to that
of the lead isolated from gasoline, which is one
of the largest contributors to atmospheric pollu-
tion.
249
-------
Chow, T.J., C.C. Patterson, and D. Settle.
Occurrence of Lead In Tuna.
Nature. 251:159-161. September 1974.
Key Words: lead, fish.
Abstract:
Measurements of lead levels in tuna (including
canned) from various locations is discussed.
250
-------
CHRIS (Chemical Hazards Response Information System):
Hazardous Chemical Data.
U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. 1974.
Key Words: synthetic /organics, fish, drinking and recreational
water, surface water (fresh), surface water
(marine).
Abstract:
Hazardous substances which are transported by the
Coast Guard and which may accidentally be discharged
into water were tested for toxicity to fish and
wildfowl. The concentration in ppm at which the
chemical was tested is given; the time of exposure
in hours; the names of the aquatic species studies;
and the OLCso or TLm; and the kind of water used.
Hundreds of compounds from acetaldehyde to hexamethylene-
tetramine are included. We seem to have data only for
chemicals beginning with A-H. Information is in
summary form.
251
-------
Christensen, G.L.
Use of Ozone and Oxygen in Advanced Wastewater Treatment
OWPCF. 4£(8):2054-2055. August 1974.
Key Words: COD, ozonation.
Abstract:
This paper basically discusses costs of ozonation
and is of little health effects significance.
252
-------
Chromium: Medical and Biological Effects of Environ-
mental Pollutants.
Committee on Biologic Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants.
National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C. 1974.
Key Word: chromium.
Abstract:
This article provides an excellent reference on
chromium distribution, industrial uses, and bio-
Chromium in nutrition and
logical interactions.
its effects on health
etc. are discussed.
vegetation, aquatic species,
253
-------
Clark, C.S., E.J. Cleary, G.M. Schiff, C.C. Linnemann, Jr.,
J.P. Phair, and-T.M. Bn'ggs.
Disease Risks of Occupational Exposure to Sewage.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
102(EE2):375-387. April 1976.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria^ air, shellfish.
Abstract:
A review of the literature on the risks of disease
encountered by WWTP workers is provided. Relatively
few studies were available. Reliable information
regarding public health implications of exposure
to waste waters is contingent on the conduct of
more definitive studies. An appropriate epidemio-
logical-sociological study has been undertaken by
the authors.
254
-------
Clark, J.A.
The Detection of Various Bacteria Indicative of Water
Pollution by a Presence-Absence (P-A) Procedure.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology. ]_5J7 ) :771 -780. 1969.
Key Words: epidemiology, bacteria.
Abstract:
Results of a previously described presence-absence
(P-A) test were compared with those of the membrane
filter (MF) technique for detecting fecal coliforms,
coliforms, and anaerogenic coliforms in municipal
drinking water samples. The P-A test allowed more
frequent isolation of these organisms and, when
supplemented by simple confirmatory tests, could
also indicate the presence of fecal streptococci,
green fluorescent pseudomonads, Aeromonas species,
and Clostridi urn perfringens. In the absence of
coliform detection, the occurrence of these other
bacterial groups could give warning of unusual fecal
or organi c polluti on.
A comparison of coliform and non-coliform isolates
from MF and P-A tests indicated that similar
organisms were detected by both methods. The
finding of false-positive "sheen" colonies was
attributable to the presence of ethyl alcohol
in the MF Endo medium. Although organisms giving
rise to such colonies were non-coliforms , their
presence was suggestive of inadequate water treat-
ment.
255
-------
Clarke, N.A., E.W. Akin, O.G. Liu, J.C. Hoff, W.F. Hill, Jr.
D.A. Brashear, and W. Jakubowski.
Virus Study for Drinking Water Supplies.
JAWWA. 61(4}:192-197. April 1975.
Key Words: viruses, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
The article discusses the methodology for finding,
and the question of whether or not there are, signif-
icant numbers of viruses in treated drinking water.
It relates viral presence to treatment processes,
water source, coliform densities, and zoomicrobe
population. A literature review is included.
256
-------
Cleasby, O.L., D.W. Hubley, T.A. Ladd, and E.A. Schon.
Trickling Filtration of a Waste Containing NTA.
JWPCF. 46.(8):1873-1887. August 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, BOD, COD, total organic
carbon, trickling filters.
Abstract:
Reduction of NTA (phosphate substitute) by trickling
filter is discussed. The authors feel that the
variability in NTA biodegradation is more likely
caused by the susceptibility of the NTA-consuming
species to random changes in their environment,
possibly a change in pH or the addition of toxic
material. This latter idea would result in random
variations similar to the variations observed.
257
-------
Clegg, D.E.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticide Residues in Oysters
(Crassostrea commercial.!' s) in Moreton Bay, Queensland,
Australia, 1970-72.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 8_(3) :1 62-166. December 1974,
Key Words: pesticides, DDT, ODD, DDE, shellfish.
Abstract:
A 2-year survey was carried out to monitor levels
of DDT, ODD, DDE, and dieldrin in oysters (Crassostrea
commercial is) in Moreton Bay, Queensland, Austral ia^.
Samples were taken at quarterly intervals from eight
stations located at or near the mouths of streams
entering the bay.
Highest levels of 0.94 ppm DDT, 0.51 ppm ODD, 0.20
ppm DDE, and 0.34 ppm dieldrin were found in July
1970 at the sampling station on the Brisbane River
16 km downstream from the center of Brisbane, a city
of 700,000. Maximum values at other stations were
substantially lower.
Residue levels varied considerably throughout the
2-year period. Authors attribute this at least
in part to seasonal rainfall patterns in the
catchment areas.
258
-------
Oliver, D.O.
Virus Association with Wastewater Solids.
Environmental Letters. November 1975.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The solids produced at an urban wastewater treat-
ment plant, tested semiquantitatively, almost all
contained human intestinal viruses. Reoviruses
and five or more types of enterovi ruses were
present. Sludge, digested anaerobically at 30°to
32° C, and grit contained measurable levels of
viruses. Until reliable means of inactivating
the viruses have been developed and implemented,
great care should be taken in disposing of these
solids.
259
-------
Oliver, D.O.
Viruses in Water and Wastewater: Effects of Some Treatment
Methods.
In: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality Conference;
VTrus and Water Quality: Occurrence and Control, University
of Illinois, February 1971. pp. 149-158.
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment, adsorption/ion exchange,
Abstract:
Enteroviruses were used as models to determine
the effects of polycation coagulation and of acti-
vated carbon treatment of water and wastewater.
The model viruses were not removed significantly
by polycations used as primary coagulants. The
activated carbon did bind virus, but not to an
extent that would insure safe effluents. The
technique of labeling model viruses with radio-
active phosphorus was found to be useful in such
studies, especially for testing primary treat-
ment processes or in circumstances where scaling
down a procedure would not introduce significant
errors.
260
-------
Oliver, D.O. and J.E. Herrmann.
Proteolytic and Microbial Inactivation of Enteroviruses.
Water Research. 6.(7) :797-805 . July 1972.
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment,
disi nfection.
Abstract:
These results show that some human enteroviruses (most
notably CA-9, of those tested) are susceptible to
proteolytic enzymes from various sources, and that
others are not. One might try to explain the observed
inactivation as something other than hydrolysis of
the virus coat protein, but it hardly seems worth-
while.
Some of the bacteria tested were also capable of
inactivating CA-9, and perhaps other viruses as
well. This effect was not shown to be temperature-
dependent, beyond the requirment for temperatures
which permit microbial growth. Growth, in turn,
was necessary only to allow development of adequate
cell numbers. Once these had been attained, neither
continued growth, metabolism, nor the further pres-
ence of the intact cells themselves was necessary
for P_seudomonas aeruginosa to inactivate CA-9.
Two samp~Te"Jf~of natural water sustained sufficient
growth of P. aeruginosa to cause enterovirus in-
activation. The ecologic significance of this find-
ing is not yet certain.
It does seem clear that what we have been observing
is really inactivation. The possibility that it
might be an artefact resulting from some action
against the PMK host cells appears to have been
ruled out. Adsorption to microbial cells is not
the cause of the decrease in infectivity titer:
this effect can be caused with cell-free prepara-
tions, and 32P in virus does not become cell-assoc-
iated. The experiments using labeled viruses show
that at least some of the virus particle is being
dismantled and suggest that a portion of the pro-
tein serves as substrate for bacterial growth. In-
tuitively, one would expect such "virophagy" to
occur; however, it seems not to have been reported
previously.
261
-------
Part of the observed inactivation is not enzymatic:
some substances of<500 molecular weight are involved,
Some of this inactivation may not even be virolytic.
Still, it seems certain that there are bacteria in
nature which are capable of direct inactivation of
enteroviruses in one or more ways. We hope that some'
day this capability can be exploited in wastewater
treatment and reclamation.
262
-------
Cliver, D.O. , K.M. Green, and J. Bouma.
Viruses and Septic Tank Effluent.
Small Scale Waste Management Project, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1975. 12p.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Viruses and their effects in wastewater effluents
are discussed.
263
-------
Cobb, H;D., R. Atherton, and W. Olive.
An Ecological Approach to the Problem of Biogradation of
Phenolic Wastes.
Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas, Dept. of Biology,
July 1974. 8lp. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as AD-A004 517).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, activated sludge.
Abstract:
Nineteen new strains of bacteria capable of degrading
creso.l have been isolated and characterized. All are
capable of simultaneous metabolism of all three isomers
of cresol at concentrations of 900 ppm. Four of the most
promising organisms have been subjected to physiological
studies to determine optimal and extremes of sewage acti-
vity. The following can be stated: (1) Optimal pH 7.3 to
8.3, optimal temperature 35 degrees Centigrade, with some
activity at 45 degrees Centigrade, have ability to sur-
vive short periods of cresol starvation and upon re-expo-
sure again metabolize cresol as may be seen in field con-
ditions. (2) At least one strain can thrive on cresol
concentration of 1450 ppm, which is three times greater
than any published reports. (3) All strains appear able
to metabolize odichlorobenze, a toxic compound and a pro-
blem in treatment of industrial wastes.
264
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Colorado River Bacteriological
Lake Havasu, May 25-29, 1973.
Survey Parker Strip and
EPA-909/9-73-002, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, San
Francisco, Surveillance and Analysis Division, September
1973. 41p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-240 152).
Key Words:
coliforms, salmonella, drinking and recreational
water, surface water(fresh),
Abstract:
A bacteriological survey of the Parker Strip - Lake Havasu
areas of the Colorado River was conducted jointly by the
State of Arizona and the Environmental Protection Agency,
Region IX, during the Memorial Day weekend, May 25-29, 1973.
Results of the study showed that fecal coliform counts
exceeded the levels recommended for primary contact recrea-
tion water at Blue Water Marina and Buckskin Mountain State
Park. Disease-causing bacteria (Arizona qroup, Salmonel1ae)
were recovered from the Buckskin treatment plant. Included
is a photograph of people swimming and playing next to this
effluent pipe. Photographic evidence documents ponding of
liquid over the septic tank leach fields during a peak-use
period at Crazy Horse State Park.
265
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Colston, N.V., Jr.
Characterization and Treatment of Urban Land Runoff.
EPA-670/2-714-096, North Carolina Water Resources
Research Institute, Raleigh, December 1974. 170p.
(Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-240 987).
Key Words: COD, phosphates, suspended solids, total
organic carbon, aluminum, chromium, cobalt,
copper, iron, lead, manganese, zinc, coli-
forms, chemical treatment, effluent
characteristics.
Abstract:
The annual urban runoff pollutant yield during the
1972 calendar year from each acre drained was found
to be 938 pounds COD, 187 pounds TOC, 7700 pounds
total solids, 1458 pounds total volatile solids,
6691 pounds suspended solids, 797 pounds volatile
suspended solids, 6.1 pounds kjeldahl nitrogen,
4.7 pounds total phosphorus, 64 pounds aluminum,
52 pounds calcium, 1.9 pounds cobalt, 1.6 pounds
chromium, 1.6 pounds copper, 102 pounds iron,
71 pounds magnesium, 4.9 pounds manganese, 1.2
pounds ntckel, 2.9 pounds lead, and 2 pounds of
zinc.
During wet periods (approximately 20 percent of
the 1972 calendar year) the yield of organics
measured as COD in urban runoff was approximately
4 % times the organic yield of raw sewage while
the suspended solids yield in urban runoff was
approximately 100 times that in the raw sewage.
Alum, with or without coagulant aids, was judged
the most effective coagulant in COD, suspended solids,
and turbidity removal. Average removal efficiencies,
based on jar test results with alum, indicated 84,
97 and 94 percent of the COD, suspended solids,
and turbidity, respectively, could be removed with
an average dose resulting in an initial concentra-
tion of 50 to 60 mg/1 .
266
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Colwell, R.R.
Numerical Analysis in Microbial Identification and Classi-
fi cati on.
Developments in Industrial Microbiology. 1J_: 1 54-1 60 . 1969
Key Words: surface water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This paper presents microbial identification and
classification .
267
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Colwell, R.R.
Occurrence and Biology of Vibr io pa r ah a e m o 1 yt icus.
(Personal Communication).
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
V. parahaemolyticus is an estuarine bacterium which demonstrates
interesting biological associations with planktonic and
benthic organisms. The distribution of V. parahaemolyticus
in nature appears to be restricted by such environmental
parameters as temperature and salinity, with over-wintering
occurring in sediments and in or on benthic organisms.
V. parahaemolyticus appears to be commensal not only to
piankton but also to the blue crab, the latter situation
thus posing a potential public health hazard.
268
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Colwell, R.R. and P.M. Hetrick.
Survival of Human Pathogens in the Marine Environment.
University of Maryland, College Park, Dept. of Micro-
biology, July 1975. 26p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as AD-A012 489).
Key Words: coxsackie virus, ECHO viruses, polio virus,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
It is apparent from the results of the virus studies
that enteric viruses survive for relatively long
periods of time in estuarine and marine salinities
when the water temperature is 25 C or lower. Of
the three enterioviruses tested, Coxsackie B-5
virus has been the most stable one with ECHO-6
virus being intermediate and polio 1 the least stable
virus. This was true both in controlled laboratory
experiments and in si tu and is probably indicative
of the diversity in stability one would encounter
if all of the 100+ human enteroviruses were studied.
While the salinity of the water may have minor
effects on enterovirus stability, clearly the most
important factor affecting virus viability was the
temperature of the water.
Since the Navy is considering installation of some
type of on-shipboard sewage treatment facility, the
sensitivity of enteroviruses to higher temperatures
is an area that should be investigated more
thoroughly. Indeed, we plan to conduct studies
during the current and ensuing contract periods
into the kinetics of enterovirus inactivation at
pasteurization temperatures using selected viruses
and waters of various salinities. Also of interest
to us is the preliminary indication that seawater
may have an innate virucidal activity. By
necessity, all of our survival studies to date
have been conducted under conditions that are not
"natural" although our in situ studies do allow
direct exposure of the viruses to estuarine waters
and their components. We plan to conduct similar
i n s i t u studies on enterovirus survival using
free-flowing ocean water — indeed, these studies
have already been initiated in- July 1975 at the
University of Delaware laboratories at Lewes.
Also, ocean water samples will be directly seeded
with enteroviruses and held at 4, 15, and 25 C
269
-------
and virus inactivation rates studied. If viru-
cidal activity is detected we will attempt to
characterize the active principle.
During the first year of the contract, we made
numerous attempts to isolate enteroviruses
directly from estuarine and marine waters with-
out success. We did not expect to isolate
agents from most of the water samples since they
were taken from relatively clean areas, however,
two samples taken from polluted areas, one in
Baltimore Harbor and one near the outfall of the
Annapolis sewage treatment plant, were also nega-
tive. We will continue to use the Amicon dialysis
unit for processing estuarine water samples but
the concentrates will be used primarily for
bacteriological rather than virological studies.
The results obtained from our j_n_ situ survival
studies of selected bacteria have not been con-
sistent. Unlike viruses which do not multiply
outside of living cells and hence can be expected
to decrease in numbers with time, even when
nutrient levels are high, the bacteria are living
cells and thus are influenced directly by the
nutrient load in the waters to which they are
exposed. In contrast to the viruses, the bacteria
seem to survive better at high rather than low
water temperatures. For future bacterial survival
studies, we plan to change our experimental design
from suspension of the organisms in dialysis bags
to seeding of water in tanks which will have a
recirculation system. Hopefully, this approach
will more nearly approximate natural conditions
for these organisms.
270
-------
Colwell, R.R., T.C. Wicks, and H.S. Tubiash.
A Comparative Study of the Bacterial Flora of the Hemo-
lymph of Cal linectes s a p i d u s .
Marine Fisheries Review. 3_7(5-6) :29-33. May-June 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The bacterial flora of blue crabs (Callinectes
sapid us) from Chesapeake Bay was examined.
Hemolymph of normal, healthy blue crabs was found
non-sterile, with total bacterial counts ranging
from <100 to>3.0 x 105 on a seawater-based medium
and 0 to>105 on Standard Methods Agar. Counts of
0-103 were observed on TCBS agar. Vibrio spp.,
including Vibri o parahaemolyti cus , were the major
taxonomic groups found in the crab hemolymph. A
comparison of crab data with that of Chesapeake Bay
oysters revealed a qualitative difference in that
the crab hemolymph flora was almost entirely Vibrio
spp., whereas the oyster flora included species of
a variety of other genera.
271
-------
Col well, R.R., T. Kaneko and T. Staley,
Vibrio parahaemolyti cus - An Estuarine Bacterium
Resident In Chesapeake Bay .
In: Food-Drugs from the Sea; Proceedings of the 1972
Marine Technology Society Conference, pp. 87-94.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Microbial ecology studies of Chesapeake Bay were
initiated in our laboratory in 1964. Since that
time, analyses of seasonal and regional differences
in the microflora, specifically the bacteria, were
undertaken and, in the first three years of the
past nine years of research, two areas of Chesa-
peake Bay were studied intensively, with samples
of water, sediment and oysters collected at six-
week intervals. Bacteriological analyses were
done, in the earliest stages of the research, im-
mediately upon retrieval of the samples. However,
subsequent studies that were carried out showed
that the 3-6 hour delay from the time of sampling
until return to the laboratory for analysis did
not affect the results, provided the samples were
kept iced. The two areas of Chesapeake Bay,
Marumsco Bar, near Crisfield, Maryland, on the lower
Eastern Shore and Eastern Bay, on the upper Eastern
Shore of Maryland, were subjected to careful bacter-
iological analysis. Marumsco Bar suffers annual
mortalities of the shellfish population and is
no longer a highly commercially productive area
for oysters, whereas Eastern Bay remains a thriving
oyster harvesting area.
These two sites provided a useful comparative
study in microbial ecology. The results to date
indicate that, although the total microbial pop-
ulations in the water column, sediment, and oysters
are roughly the same, the genetic constitution of
the bacterial populations associated with the two
areas are very different. Vibrio spp. are found
in significantly greater numbers in the Marumsco
Bar sites.
272
-------
Colwell, R.R., T. Kaneko, T. Staley, M. Sochard, J. Pickar,
and L. Wan.
VI brio parahaemolyticus - Taxonomy, Ecology, and Patho-
gen i city.
In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Vibrio
parahaemolyticus. Tokyo, Japan, September 1973. pp. 169-176
Key Words: viruses, Vibrio cholerae, surface water (marine)
Abstract:
In 1969 Vibrio parahaemolyticus was discovered
in Chesapeake Bay by Krantz, Colwell and Love-
lace. Lovelace, Tubiash and Colwell established
that V i b ri o spp. are a dominant portion of the
natural microbial flora in Chesapeake Bay. Size-
more, Tubiash and Colwell found V. parahaemolyti cus
in the hemolymph of healthy blue crabs. Taxo-
nomic studies of V. parahaemolyticus reveal a very
close relationship of U.S. and Japanese strains
o f V_._ parahaemolyti cus but a lower relationship
of V_._ parahaemolyti cus strains with Vibrio cholerae.
At least three nodes of related strains have been
recognized within the genus Vibri p as presently
classified: V. cholerae; V. paraFaemolyticus; and
marine vibrios.
The incidence of Vib ri o parahaemolyti cus and re-
lated vibrios in Chesapeake Bay was correlated
with water temperature. Vibrios could not be
detected in the water column during the winter,
although they were present in the sediments.
Pathogenicity of V. parahaemolyticus was examined
Using LD5Q in Balb/c mice and ability to induce
fluid accumulation in ligated ileal loops of rabbit
intestine. Endotoxins were extracted and tested
in rabbits for reactivity in the dermal Shwartzman
test, pyrogenicity, tolerance induction, cross-
tolerance induction to endotoxin from Salmonel1 a
typhi , heat stability; induction of fluid accumu-
lation in ligated intestinal loops and permeabil-
ity factors. A fraction, which exhibited some
properties of an enterotoxin, was compared with
enterotoxin from V. cholerae. Hyperimmune refer-
ence antisera was prepared and immunologica1
cross-reaction determinations were done using agar
gel double diffusion and passive hemagglutination.
273
-------
Comer, S.W., o.C. Staiff, J.F. Armstrong, and H.R. Wolfe.
Exposure of Workers to Carbaryl.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
13(4):385-391. April 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
The article reports results of studies of potential
dermal and respiratory exposure of formulating
plant workers and spraymen to carbaryl, as well
as urinary excretion of 1-Naphthol by certain
formulating plant workers.
274
-------
Committee on Public Health Activities.
Coliform Organisms as an Index of Water Safety.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
87.(SA6) :41-58. November 1961.
Key Words: viruses, hepatitis virus, coxsackie virus.
Abstract:
In spite of questions and suggestions for a sub-
stitute test there is at present no justifiable
basis for changing the bacteriological criteria
for water supply safety and no need for serious
concern with the safety of a water supply which
fully meets USPHS Drinking Water Standards.
Experiences with infectious hepatitis outbreaks
and laboratory data lend support to the already
generally accepted principal there may be a ser-
ious health hazard created by accepting "marginal
treatment" of water supplies, especially those
subject to sewage contamination.
Because infectious hepatitis virus survive all
normal steps in water treatment except proper
free residual chlorination and since viruses
survive heavy doses of combined chlorine, the prac-
tice of providing free chlorine residual treat-
ment with adequate contact is important, especi-
ally when a water supply is known to have been
subject to fecal contamination.
275
-------
Congenital Malformations Surveillance.
Birth Defects Monitoring Program. Metropolitan Atlanta,
Nebraska, Florida. January-December 1975. U.S. Depart-
ment of Health ,Education, and Welfare. June 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
The article contains summarized data concerning
infants with congenital malformations as ascer-
tained by four surveillance programs.
276
-------
Cookson, J.T.
The Chemistry of Virus Concentration by Chemical Methods.
Developments in Industrial Microbiology. T_5_: 160-173 . 1973
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The concentration of viruses from dilute solution
depends on physical and/or chemical parameters.
Before any chemical interactions occur, a physical
or transfer step must take place. Since physical
transfer is easily optimized, efficiency of con-
centration is usually influenced greatly by the
chemical step. This paper attempts to provide a
better understanding of these chemical interactions.
Chemical methods for concentrating viruses from
water solutions include adsorption onto aluminum
hydroxide, aluminum phosphate, calcium hydrogen
phosphate, protamine sulfate, iron oxide, poly-
electrolytes, and liquid-liquid partitioning.
Understanding the basic chemical mechanisms in-
volved in each concentration procedure is impor-
tant for optimizing adsorption and release of
viruses. Available data from numerous studies
are analyzed for each method. This information
is interpreted in terms of the chemical character-
istics of the aqueous phase and the surface char-
acteristics of the virus and adsorbing solid. Al-
though more information is needed before the complete
chemical mechanisms of virus concentration can be
proposed, general conclusions are made and several
specific mechanisms are proposed.
277
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Cookson, J.T.
Mechanism of Virus Adsorption on Activated Carbon.
JAWWA. 6_l(l):52-56. January 1969.
Key Words: viruses, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This study was undertaken to provide a better
understanding of colloid removal in filter beds.
The influence of physical parameters is evaluated
and a model presented to correlate physical fil-
tration parameters to removal efficiency. Re-
moval of the virus Escherichia coli bacteri ophage
T4 is studied in packed beds of activated carbon.
The chemical characteristics of the system are
maintained at optimum conditions for virus attach-
ment, while the physical characteristics are varied
Virus removal is interpreted by a physical model
based on particle transport by diffusion in a flow-
ing fluid. Virus removal closely follows the
transfer model, which can be used to predict the
effects of flow rate, bed height, void volume, and
bed grain size on removal efficiency.
In summary, under optimum adsorption conditions,
virus removal in packed beds of activated carbon
closely followed mass transfer theory. Colburn
factor, j, varied with fractional void volume of
the bed, but was constant if the void fraction
corrections of Pfeffer and of 1/e were applied.
Colburn factor also varied with bed heights.
Greater deviation from theoretical equations oc-
curred with longer column heights. This phenom-
enon is probably due to improper representation
of the concentration profile through the column.
From this study, it appears that the particle
transport mechanism in filtration can be described
by application of the mass transfer theory when
diffusion is the limiting process for removal.
Application of mass transfer with information on
isothermal adsorption may eliminate the effect
of column height.
278
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Cookson, J.T.
Removal of Submicron Particles in Packed Beds.
Environmental Science and Technology. .4:128-134.
February 1970.
Key Words: bacteria, viruses, filtration.
Abstract:
Sites on activated carbon that adsorb bacteriophage
14 are probably a carboxyl group or lactone. Ad-
sorption on carbon can be completely blocked by
esterifying these groups.
It is proposed that amino groups on the virus
adsorb to carboxyl groups on the carbon by
electrostatic attraction. The pH range of
strong adsorption rules out participation by
ionized forms of sulfhydryl, guanidino, and
phenolic groups in the electrostatic binding.
Ionized imidazolyl groups are probably too few
to be significant.
As pH decreases from the optimum of 7, adsorption
rate decreases, probably as a result of viral tail
fibers being attached to the tail sheath, making
them unavailable for attachment to carbon sites.
At pH values higher than optimum, the tail fibers
of bacteriophage T^ are extended. The observed
decrease in adsorption rate presumably resulted
from an increase of negative charge on the virus
particles and carbon surface, causing greater
repulsive forces between viruses and carbon parti-
cles. The collision frequency, therefore, was re-
duced.
Electrostatic binding of virus and carbon, and
designation of viral tail fibers as the adsorbing
units, received support from the effect of ionic
strength on adsorption. With increasing ionic
strength, adsorption is aided as like charges on
the virus and carbon particles are masked; at
the same time, repulsive forces between the viral
tail fibers and tail sheath are reduced. With
increasing ionic strength, more and more tail
fibers adsorb on the tail sheath. Although high
ionic strengths cause a maximum collision fre-
quency between virus and carbon particles, the
adsorbing tail fibers become less available.
These mechanisms are suported by equilibrium
studies at high and low ionic strengths.
279
-------
Cookson, J.T. and W.J. North.
Adsorption of Viruses on Activated Carbon: Equilibria
and Kinetics of the Attachment of Escherichia Coli
Bacteriophage 14 on Activated Carbon.
Environmental Science and Technology. l_(l):46-52.
January 1967.
Key Words: Escherichia coli» viruses, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Information is needed about the removal of viruses
in waste treatment and water purification. Virus
removal has been described as adsorption in the
activated sludge, f1occulation , and filtration
processes. Adsorption of Escherichia coli bacter-
iophage 14 on activated carbon was studied in an
agitated solution containing virus and carbon under
controlled conditions of temperature, pH, ionic
composition, and reactant concentrations. Surface
area and particle size distribution were established
for the activated carbon. The kinetics of bacter-
iophage T4 adsorption on activated carbon can be
described by a reversible second-order equation,
first-order with respect to both virus and carbon
concentration. Adsorption obeys the Langmuir
isotherm and is reversible. Virus is not inacti-
vated by adsorption. Adsorption is unimolecul ar,
with very inefficient use of the available carbon
surface area, and is of a physical nature and in-
dependent of temperature. The virus is probably
completely excluded from pores because of its size.
280
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Cooper, B.S. and R.C. Harris.
Heavy Metals in Organic Phases of River and Estuarine Sediment.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 5_(2):24-26. February 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
nickel, zinc, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In the least polluted sediment (E), contents of metals in
organic fractions were quite high when compared with the
mineral fractions, although the metals seem to be restricted
to the total organic (which was 90% nonsoluble organic mat-
ter), the humic, and the asphalt fractions. There was an
association of Zn, Ni and Cu with asphalts, and Cu and Zn
with the humic acids but the low concentration of Zn in the
total organic fraction, compared with the soluble fractions,
shows that some loss of Zn by acid hydrolysis had occurred.
Further downstream at sample point (D), below the point at
which treated sewage effluent mixed with acid water from a
stream draining colliery waste, there was visible precipi-
tation of iron and aluminum hydroxides in the river, and
the heavy metal content of the sediment was generally much
increased. The total organic matter also showed increased
concentrations of Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr and Cd and among the
soluble organic fractions, the lipids had much increased
metal contents.
The effect of the oxide precipitation was much diminished
for the sample (C), indeed the total organic matter con-
tained rather depleted amounts of metal except for Fe and
Ni, but the Cu and Zn contents of the soluble organic
fractions showed that there may have been some acid hydro-
lysis of these metals during isolation of the total organic
fraction. Metal distributions in sample (B) were similar
to those of (E) and (C), although the Zn content of the
total organic matter was much higher than previously seen.
The sediment (A), taken at the most polluted site, again
contained high metal contents for the total organic matter,
although except for Ni in the humic acid fraction, the
soluble organic fractions were rather depleted in metal
content. This sediment had a high organic content (14%)
and the contributions by the organic matter of Zn (8%).
Pb (15%), Ni (22%) and Cd (60%) to the metal in the sedi-
ment must be of some significance. Under the microscope,
it could be seen that some of this organic matter was coal
dust, but an analysis of similar coal in lump form showed
that it was not itself a significant source of metals.
281
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The isolation of the actual organic complexing agents is
difficult, but during one chromatographic separation it
was possible to isolate a green pigment fraction (from Df)
which contained 700 ppm Cu, 340 ppm Mn and 1,000 ppm Fe.
Overall, it appears that the distribution of metals as
organic complexes in sediment is very sensitive to environ-
mental factors, but even in this lightly polluted river
the following concentrations can be reached: Fe (10,000
ppm); Mn (2,200 ppm); Zn (800 ppm); Cu (700 ppm); Ni (230
ppm); Pb (100 ppm); Cr (30 ppm); Cd (15 ppm).
282
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Cope!and, B.J .
Effects of Industrial Waste on the Marine Environment.
JWPCF. 31(6) :1000-1010. June 1966.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Water quality characteristics of St. Joseph's Bay,
Florida, a bay heavily polluted by industrial
effluents, were used to show the effects of indus-
trial pollution on a marine estuary. The effects
demonstrated are as follows:
1. Reducing-type environments were indicated by
both redox potentials and Ohle anomalies near the
industrial effluent outfall, with decreasing
effects as distance from the outfall increased.
2. Species diversity was less near the entrance
of the effluent and greater as distance increased.
3. Concentration of phosphorus near the effluent
entry point was more than 10 times that in normal
bay water.
4. Measurements of metabolic rates of fishes in
various industrial wastes indicated rates greater
than normal, even though the effluent was not
toxic to the fish.
5. Studies of community metabolism indicate that
holding the effluent a number of days for biochem-
ical action improves the quality of the aquatic
community receiving the effluent.
283
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Copenhaver, E.D. and B.K. Wilkinson.
Transport of Hazardous Substances through Soil Processes.
Vol. I: Arsenic, Beryllium, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper,
Cyanide, Lead, Mercury, Selenium, Zinc, and Others.
Vol. II: Pesticides.
ORNL-EIS-74-70, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
Tennessee,November 1974.
Key Word: bibliography.
Abstract:
These are bibliographies only.
284
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Cortinovis, D.
Activated Biofilter: A Modesto Invention Gains Acceptance
throughout North America.
The Bulletin (California Water Pollution Control Association)
Jl(2):38-41. October 1975.
Key Words: COD, trickling filters.
Abstract:
This paper discusses a process which is an offshoot
of the trickling filter process producing BOD
removals of 60 to 65%.
285
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Cottrell, N.M.
Disposal of Municipal Wastes on Sandy Soil: Effect on
Plant Nutrient Uptake.
Oregon State University, Corvallis , 1975. 201p.
Key Words: arsenic, barium, beryllium, boron, cadmium,
chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, man-
ganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel,
selenium, tin, zinc, ammonia, BOD, chlor-
ides, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, bac-
teria, agriculture, crops.
Abstract:
Solid municipal waste and sewage sludge were
applied to land, and three crops were planted.
Plant content of N, P, S, Ca, Mg, K, Fe, and Cu
were not affected by the waste treatments.
Mn and Zn uptake increased with waste addition
and with nitrogen fertilization.
286
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Counts, C.A., A.J. Shuckrow, and J.E. Smith.
Stabilization of Municipal Sewage Sludge by High Lime Dose.
In: Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids.
A. Freiberger, ed. EPA-902/9-74-002, Environmental Protection
Agency, New York, Region II, May 1974. pp. 73-125.
Key Words: salmonella, fecal streptococci, coliforms, lime
treatment.
Abstract:
A process for producing lime stabilized sludge was developed
and operated successfully at pilot scale. Significant
reductions in pathogen populations and obnoxious odors
resulted from lime treatment. Growth studies, both in a
greenhouse and on outdoor plots, indicate that disposal of
lime stabilized sludge on cropland would have no detri-
mental effects.
287
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Cranston, R.E., and D.E. Buckley.
Mercury Pathways in a River and Estuary.
Environmental Science and Technology. 6_:274-278. March
1972.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
A method for measuring total mercury in water,
suspended particulate matter, and bottom sedi-
ments has been evaluated. Some data have been
applied to a study of the geochemical pathways
of mercury in a rural river and estuary system.
Concentrations of mercury in the LaHaye River
(Nova Scotia) are related to the proximity of a
small rural town. The dissipation of mercury
in solution appears to be through dilution, as
well as by adsorption on suspended particulate
matter which raises the level in particulate
matter to the range of 2.04-34.4 ppm. Bottom
sediments in the LaHave River are affected by
sedimentation of particulate matter containing
high levels of mercury, but the mercury concen-
tration in the bottom sediments ranges from 0.09
to 1.06 ppm. Mercury released to the natural
environment from industrial waste effluents
appears to be discharged mostly in the dissolved
form but may be quite rapidly adsorbed as shown
by analyses of suspended particulate matter and
bottom sediments.
288
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Craun , G.F .
Microbiology - Waterborne Outbreaks.
JWPCF. 47(6) :1 566-1 581 . June 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is a review article on waterborne outbreaks
in the U.S. in 1973. There were 24 waterborne
disease outbreaks involving 1,720 cases of illness
in the U.S. in 1973 including: amoebic menin-
goencephalitis, cholera, dracontiasis, gastro-
enteritis, giordiasis, leptospirosis , schistosom-
iasis, shellfish poisoning, shigellosis, typhoid
fever, salmonel losis , and V _.__ par a h a e mo 1 y t i c u s
gastroenteriti s.
An extensive list of related literature pub-
lished in 1973-1974 is also included.
289
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Craun, 6.F. and L.J. McCabe.
Review of the Causes of Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks.
JAWWA. ^5(l):74-84. January 1973.
Key Words: epidemology, wastewater treatment processes.
Abstract:
The emphasis of this article is on deficiencies in water
supply systems and operational procedures that allow
disease outbreaks to occur.
290
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Crites, R.W.
Irrigation with Wastewater at Bakersfield, California.
In: Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber-
Proceedings. EPA-660/2-74-041, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington,D.C., Office of Research
and Development, June 1974. pp. 229-239.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, nitrates, chlorides, phos-
phates, total dissolved solids, salmonella,
groundwater,crops.
Abstract:
Merz reported that no diseases have been traced
to effluent use, although there have been problems
with flies and mosquitoes. The current superin-
tendent of the city's treatment plants reiterated
that no diseases have been associated with the
operation. Mosquitoes are a problem wherever water
is allowed to pond and stagnate, so that keeping
the excess water moving is a major management prob-
lem. The two equalizing reservoirs (5 and 10 acres
in size) and the storage pond for tailwater are
periodically sprayed to control mosquito propaga-
tion.
Current public health regulations for irrigation
of fodder, fiber, and seed crops are that the
quality of reclaimed water shall be equivalent
to primary effluent. No disinfection of the ef-
fluent is required, and none is provided at the
two plants. Dairy cows are not allowed to graze
pastures irrigated with nondisinfected effluent;
however, beef cattle are not restricted.
A complaint by the Regional Water Quality Control
Board that the irrigation operation was contamin-
ating the groundwater with nitrates led to an
investigation of the ground water quality. Six
shallow wells were drilled and sampled in late
1972. Perched water was found at the 11- to 12-
foot depth in 3 wells and not at all in the other
3 wells (drilled 30 feet deep). Nitrate concen-
trations ranged from 4 mg/1 as nitrate in the
center of the farm to more than 600 mg/1 nitrate
directly beneath the old site of the sludge dry-
ing beds at the Mount Vernon plant.
291
-------
The Regional Board conducted a sampling program in
September 1971 and found nitrate concentrations
ranging from 0.4 mg/1 to 68 mg/1 as nitrate. These
wells were along the western edge of the farm, which
is in the direction of flow of the unconfined acquifer.
These wells were sampled at depths of 80 to 170 feet.
No firm conclusions relating effluent irrigation
to groundwater nitrate levels could be drawn from
either investigation. The confined aquifer below
the farm (300 feet deep) has nitrate concentrations
of 50 to 60 mg/1 as nitrate. However, many wells, both
deep and shallow throughout the Bakersfield area have
high nitrate and TDS concentrations. The groundwater
hydrology of the area is complex and groundwater quality
is influenced not only by irrigation practices, but
also by oilfield well injections, natural occurrences
of salt, and cattle feedlots. A more detailed investi-
gation of groundwater quality is in the planning stage
for 1975.
292
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Cropper, J.B. and L.F. Welch.
Greenhouse Studies.
In: Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes Resulting
from the Use of Digested Sewage Sludge on Field Crops. T.D.
Hinesly, ed. pp. 13-14. 1971.
Key Words: copper, zinc, ammonia, nitrates, phosphates,
agri culture.
Abstract:
The following observations were made:
1. Sludge will provide adequate amounts of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium at the rate of 0.5 acre-inch
per week during the growing season.
2. Sludge at the rate of 6 inches annually perhaps
adds too much nitrogen.
3. Application of liquid digested sludge immediately
after planting should probably be avoided unless not
more than 0.5 acre-inches is applied.
4. Zinc and copper concentrations in corn are increased
substantially by sludge fertilization. These metals
could build up to toxic levels in the soils if sludge
is applied at high rates for many years.
5. Sludge does not seem to have much effect on soil
pH on a short-term basis.
6. Cation exchange capacity and buffering capacity of
sandy soils is increased considerably by sludge appli-
cati ons.
7. Liming of sludge treated acid soils would be desir-
able for many reasons. It would tend to keep the heavy
metals less soluble. Manganese, in particular, would
be reoxidized by the increased pH of the soil so that it
would not leach from the upper profile of the soil. Lime
would promote more rapid nitrification of the tremendous
amounts of ammonium nitrogen present in the soils after
sludge additions.
293
-------
Cross, F.A., L.H. Hardy, N.Y. Jones, and R.T. Barber.
Relation between Total Body Weight and Concentrations
of Manganese, Iron, Copper, Zinc, and Mercury in White
Muscle of Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) and a Bathyl-
Demersal Fish Antimora rostrata.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada.
10:1287-1291. September 1973.
Key Words: copper, iron, manganese, mercury, zinc, fish.
Abstract:
Concentrations of mercury (Hg) increased signifi-
cantly with size (P<0.001) in white muscle of
bluefish (PomatornUA sa 11atrix) and a bathyl-demersal
fish Antimora rostrata, but concentrations of man-
ganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn)
either remained constant or decreased. These re-
sults indicate that fish residing in two different
ecosystems in the Atlantic Ocean may be in a steady
state with their environment with respect to Mn ,
Fe, Cu, and Zn but not Hg. The observed variations
in accumulation patterns of trace metals in muscle
of these two species as a function of size are dis-
cussed.
294
-------
Oump-Wiesner, H.J., H.R. Feltz, and M.L. Yates.
A Study of the Distribution of Polychlorinated Biphenyls
in the Aquatic Environment.
U.S. Geological Survey Journal of Research. 1_:603-607.
September 1973.
Key Words: pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons, direct
contact (air), surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Data gathered from monitoring activities and pro-
ject studies indicate the ubiquitous occurrence
and distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's)
in the aquatic environment. By 1972 residues had
been detected in samples from 19 States representing
nearly every region of the country. These findings
permit a preliminary assessment of PCB contamination
across the nation: concentrations ranged from
0.1 to 4.On. g/liter in unfiltered water samples
and from 5.0 to 3,200[j. g/kg in bottom sediments.
PCB residues were also found in fish and aquatic
plants. Samples were prepared by the same tech-
niques used for general chlorinated insecticide
detection, with special attention to cleanup and
separation of PCB's from other compounds. Basic
identification and quantification were made by
dual-column electron-capture/gas-liquid chroma-
tography and confirmed by gas-liquid chromatography/
mass spectrometry whenever possible. In sediment
samples from a south Florida drainage ditch, poly-
chlorinated naphthalenes (PCN's) were observed.
This is possibly the first evidence of PCN's in
an environmental sample and illustrates the impor-
tance of developing analytical capability for the
surveillance of other organo-chlorine compounds
that may behave like chlorinated hydrocarbon pesti-
cides .
The sampling program is broadening geographically
and gradually increasing to more adequately define
the distribution of PCB residues in major drainage
basins of the United States.
295
-------
Cruver, O.E. and I. Nusbaum.
Application of Reverse Osmosis to Wastewater Treatment.
JWPCF. 46.(2):301-311 . February 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, COD, phosphates, total dis-
solved solids, activated sludge, chemical
treatment, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Reduction effects for the Los Angeles County
pilot plant at Pomona are described.
296
-------
Culbertson, C.G.
The Pathogenic!ty of Soil Amebas.
Annual Review of Microbiology. 2j>:231 . 1971.
Key Words: epidemiology, protozoa.
Abstract:
Investigations into the natural habitat and ecology of
amebas such as JL aerobia are just beginning, and as yet,
no solid information is at hand. Lakes and pools from
which infections appear to have come should be studied
carefully. The question of the effect of pollution by
sewage, nitrogen fertilizer, or pesticides, either
directly or by causing decay of vegetation is of concern.
These elements could influence the growth of amebas.
297
-------
Gulp, G.L. and A.J. Shuckrow.
Physical-Chemical Techniques for Treatment of Raw
Wastewaters.
Public Works. 103.(7) :56- 60 . July 1972.
Key Words: BOD, COD, suspended solids, chemical treat-
ment, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The reduction of basic parameters using physical-
chemical and carbon adsorption treatment is
described.
298
-------
Gulp, G.L., R.L. Gulp, and C.L. Haman.
Water Resource Preservation by Planned Recycling of
Treated Wastewater.
JAWWA. 65_(10) :641-647. October 1973.
Key Words: biological cotaminants, drinking and recreational
water.
Abstract:
The proposed AWT plant at Montgomery County, Md.,
and the AWT plant being designed for the Upper
Occoquan Sewage Authority will be outstanding
examples of water-resource preservation by planned
indirect recycling of treated wastewater. Both
plants will make maximum utilization of the best
available practical processes for biological,
physical, and chemical treatment plus subsequent
natural purification in an effluent reservoir
and in the receiving water.
The effluent from the AWT plants will be of better
quality in most respects than that of the Potomac
River or the Occoquan Reservoir. Effluent quality
is of paramount importance because both plans for
recycling involve drinking-water supplies. There-
fore, maximum assurance of safety is necessary in
treatment of the wastewater for reuse. Thus, the
treatment process must effectively remove heavy
metals, trace organics, and all pathogenic organ-
isms .
299
-------
Gulp, R.L.
Breakpoint Chlorination for Virus Inactivation.
JAWWA. 6^:699-703. December 1974.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination.
Abstract:
This paper discusses virus removal but does not
specify specific organisms beyond virus. Data
are sketchy but indicate complete virus removal
300
-------
Gulp, R.L.
Breakpoint Chiorination for Virus Inactivation .
l£: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems.
J7F. Malina, Jr. and B.P. Sagik, eds. University of
Texas at Austin, Center for Research in Water Resources,
1974. pp. 158-165.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination.
Abstract:
Chlorination is the major tool available to pre-
vent control of the spread of viral disease. Cer-
tain pathogenic virus may be present in wastewater.
In controlling public health problems from this
source, three barriers are available or can be
created, consisting of AWT, natural purification,
and water treatment. Chlorination can be a bul-
wark in two of these three lines of defense. As
already pointed out, conventional secondary treat-
ment of wastewaters even with Chlorination does
not assure complete removal of virus. However,
advanced wastewater treatment (AWT) methods, which
include Chlorination as a principal element, are
already developed, demonstrated, and proven at full
plant scale which can completely and consistently
inactivate all virus. There is no longer any need
to discharge virus in wastewater either to the land
or to the nations's water sources. Virus can be
removed before the water is released. This is
barrier number one. Even though AWT processes
are being installed at a much greater rate than
anyone anticipated 13 years ago when the research
and development of these methods were initiated,
it is not likely that AWT systems will ever be
applied to all wastewaters.
Undoubtedly, most wastewaters will continue to
be discharged to land or water with their virus
content only partially diminished. Fortunately,
anywhere outside the human body pathogenic viruses
are in a hostile environment. Prolonged storage
(30 days) of water, or percolation of water through
fine soil will effect substantial, but possibly not
complete, removal of virus from wastewater. Such
exposure provides a second line of defense against
waterborne virus disease.
301
-------
Gulp, R.L.
Disease Due to "NonPathogenic" Bacteria.
JAWWA. 6J_(3):157. March 1969.
Key Words: bacteria, epidemiology.
Abstract:
A commentary article on the water works practices
as they relate to the gram-negative bacteria
such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and E. coli_,
the article comments on the involvements of these
bacteria in a hospital nursery.
302
-------
Gulp, R.L.
Virus and Bacteria Removal in Advanced Wastewater Treatment
Public Works. JjO^:84-88. June 1971.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, adsorption/ion exchange,
chlorinati on .
Abstract:
Removal of virus and bacteria using carbon
adsorption and chlorination is discussed and
sampling results presented.
303
-------
Gulp, R,L.
Wastewater Reclamation at South Ta,hoe Public Utilities District,
3AWWA. 60(l):84-94. January 1968.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, COD, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
total organic carbon, viruses, coliforms, chemical
treatment.
Abstract:
There is an increasing need for more and better treatment
of wastewater. Wastewater treatment makes possible a
higher effluent quality, aesthetically and technically,
than can be obtained by conventional processes. It
removes suspended and colloidal matter, color, odor,
organic chemicals, and other substances that remain after
conventional treatment. Wastewater treatment is effective
against bacteria, viruses, toxic chemicals, and other
health hazards and reduces eutrophication of lakes and
ponds and other threats to the natural environment. Effi-
cient treatment of wastewater is the key to wastewater
reclamation, a promising, if still virtually unexploited
method of alleviating deficiencies in many types of water
utilization. Today, wastewater reclamation is economi-
cally and technologically practicable.
The Tahoe water reclamation process is one approach to
filling some of these needs. It is not the only approach,
but many of the unit processes employed can be applied
usefully elsewhere.
304
-------
Cunningham, P.A. and M.R. Tripp.
Accumulation and Depuration of Mercury in the American
Oyster Crassestrea virgini ca.
Marine Biology. 20_:14-19. May 1973.
Key Words: mercury, shellfish.
Abstract:
This paper discusses the accumulation of Hg
in oysters. Gains of 2800 times were found.
305
-------
Dahling, D.R., G. Berg, and D. Berman.
BGM, A Continuous Cell Line More Sensitive than Primary
Rhesus and African Green Kidney Cells for the Recovery
of Viruses from Water.
Health Laboratory Science. TJ_:275-282. 1974.
Key Words: epidemiology, viruses.
Abstract:
A continuous cell line, BGM, derived from primary
African green monkey kidney cells, was more sensi-
tive than primary rhesus or African green monkey
kidney cells to many enteroviruses and to reovirus 1.
Comparative tests in BGM cells and in primary rhesus
kidney cells showed that many enteroviruses and re-
ovirus 1 multiplied to higher titers in BGM cells
even after the viruses had been adapted to primary
monkey kidney cells or to Vero cells.
In comparative studies with sewage, sewage effluents,
and natural waters obtained from different parts of
the country and at different points in time, many
more viruses were usually recovered in BGM cells than
in primary rhesus or in African green kidney cells.
The availability of the BGM cell line for research
and clinical studies should considerably reduce the
need for monkey sacrifice and bring about large cost
savings to laboratories requiring such cells.
306
-------
Dahling, D.R., G. Berg, D. Berman, and R.S. Safferman.
BGM: A New Cell Line for Recovering Viruses from Water.
News of Environmental Research in Cincinnati. U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency. September 27, 1974.
Key Words: epidemiology., viruses.
Abstract:
The BGM continuous cell line showed superior
viral sensitivity and was far superior to common-
ly used primary monkey kidney cell cultures in
securing effective viral recovery in sewage, sew-
age effluents, and natural waters. The discovery
of this practical application of BGM exemplifies the
importance of basic research in bringing about in-
novations in monitoring technology and enforcement
activities.
307
-------
Dalton, F.E. and R.R. Murphy.
Land Disposal IV. Reclamation and Recycle.
JWPCF. £5(7):1489-1507. July 1973.
Key Words: ponding/land application.
Abstract:
This article provides a general discussion of
land disposal with little mention of health
effects.
308
-------
Daniel, J.W.
The Biotransformation of Organomercury Compounds.
Biochemical Journal. 130(2):64-65. November 1972.
Key Words: mercury, ponding/land application, land reclamation
Abstract:
Organomercury salts have been extensively employed as
fungicides in agriculture and in the paper industry, and
in human medicine as diuretics. There is ample evidence
that organomercuric materials are degraded to inorganic
mercury in mammals, soil, and micro-organisms, little is
known of the mechanism(s) of this transformation. The
author made a literature search of the subject and
discusses the efforts and conclusions of the research.
309
-------
Daniels, S.L. and D.G. Parker.
Removing Phosphorus from Waste Water.
Environmental Science and Technology. 7_(8) :690-694.
August 1973.
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
A general discussion on phosphorous in wastewater
and its removal by coagulation-flocculation is pro-
vided. Many species of aquatic photosyntheti c
organisms utilize water-soluble anions of phosphorus
as nutrient sources. Rampant growths of these organ-
isms produce undesirable tastes and odors in potable
waters, contaminate recreational areas, and restrict
populations of more desirable organisms such as fish
and man. Some legislatures have or are considering
bans on the sale of detergents containing phosphorus
builders to limit the input of phosphorus to receiv-
ing waters. Phosphorus removal must still be prac-
ticed in the treatment of municipal waste waters,
however, since other sources of phosphorus cannot
be controlled at their sources. Significant reduc-
tions of all phosphorus species regardless of source
are technically feasible in existing waste water
treatment plants. These reductions can be accomplish'
ed by modifying conventional primary or secondary
treatment to include chemical precipitation and floc-
culation processes. Phosphorus removal by chemical
means is currently practiced in the Great Lakes area
on a wide scale and is seriously being considered
in other areas.
310
-------
Dappen, G.
Pesticide Analysis from Urban Storm Runoff.
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, August 1974. 44p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-238 593)
Key Words: pesticides, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Urban storm runoff was analyzed for pesticide content.
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB),
heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, lindane, and dacthal
were identified and selected for monitoring. Lindane
and dacthal were primarily used in the determination of
the profile and runoff patterns during a rainstorm.
Although pesticide concentrations were higher near the
end of the runoff period, the largest amount of pesticide
flushing from an area occurred during the maximum runoff
period. Major rains, rains that followed periods of wet
weather, or rains of longer duration produced higher
quantities of pesticides running off than moderate rains
of high intensity following dry periods. Much variation
in the amount of pesticide running off was encountered.
311
-------
Davis, E.M. and S.R. Keen.
Municipal Wastewater Bacteria Capable of Surviving Chlor-
inati on.
Health Laboratory Science. TJ_:268-274. October 1974.
Key Words: salmonella, fecal streptococci, cojjiforms.
Abstract:
This paper discusses the growth of bacteria follow-
ing chlorination. A comparison is made between
chlorinated and unchlorinated wastewater.
312
-------
Davis, J.A. Ill and J. Jacknow.
Heavy Metals in Wastewater in Three Urban Areas.
JWPCF. 47_(9) :2292-2297. September 1975.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, zinc,
influent characteristics, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
In order to develop a broader perspective on the impact
of heavy metals on water quality, an examination was made
of the sources of heavy metals discharged into municipal
treatment systems and directly into receiving waters in
three urban areas: New York City; Pittsburgh, Pa.; and
M u n c i e , I n d .
The three case studies showed that in areas of high
industrial concentration, particularly of industries related
to the production of steel or metal fabrication, the
industrial sector contributes far more heavy metals to the
aquatic environment than does the residential sector. The
residential sector contribution may be significant in
large cities in which the industrial mix is relatively
low in the metals fabrication category, as was shown for
New York City.
The residential sector receives some background
concentration of heavy metals in its water before it is
used and passed on to the collection system. This back-
ground concentration may compose a significant portion
of the loading from the residential sector and ultimately
to the treatment plant. Thus, a comparison of absolute total
loadings of the industrial and residential sectors may not
be desirable. Perhaps a better comparison of loadings would
be based on the water quality depreciation caused by each
sector. For example, a comparison of the amount of heavy
metals added to water during use by the industrial and
residential sectors might be more useful.
313
-------
Davis, S.
Alternatives for Phosphate Removal.
Water and Sewage Works. H_7( 10) :336-338. October 1970
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The author discusses the removal of P0^= by lime
addition at Lake Tahoe.
314
-------
Davis , W.K.
Land Disposal III: Land Use Planning.
JWPCF. £5(7)=1485-1488. July 1973.
Key Words: ponding/land application.
Abstract:
This article provides a general discussion on
land use planning; very little mention of health
effects is made.
315
-------
Day, A.D., J.L. Stroehlein, and T.C. Tucker.
Effects of Treatment Plant Effluent on Soil Properties.
JWPCF. ^4(3):373-375. March 1972.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, direct contact.
Abstract:
The Ap horizon of soils irrigated with both waste-
water effluent and well water for 14 yr had a higher
concentration of soluble salts, nitrates, phosphates,
calcium plus magnesium, and organic matter than the
C horizon. The C horizon of soils irrigated with
both wastewater effluent and well water had a higher
pH than the Ap horizon.
Soil irrigated with treatment plant effluent had
a lower water infiltration rate, higher modulus
of rupture, and a higher concentration of soluble
salts, nitrates, and phosphates than soil irri-
gated with well water. The foregoing effects were
more evident for some soil properties in either
the surface or subsurface soil layers.
Irrigation with wastewater effluent for 14 yr
did not decrease field crop yields or result
in any adverse effects on Grabe silt loam that
could not be corrected with minor changes in
field crop culture.
316
-------
Dean, R.B. and J.E. Smith, Jr.
The Properties of Sludges.
In: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land; Pro-
ceedings of the Joint Conference, July 9-13, 1973. pp. 39-47
Key Words: BOD, nitrates, suspended solids, salmonella,
coliforms, cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, zinc.
Abstract:
The article discusses contaminant properties of sludges.
317
-------
Dean, R.D.
Disposal and Reuse of Sludge and Sewage - What Are the Options?
Compost Science. _H(5):12-14. September-October 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, zinc, land reclam-
ation.
Abstract:
This article is a general discussion on the recycling
of sludge on land.
318
-------
Deaner, D.G. and K.D. Kerri .
Regrowth of Fecal Coliforms.
JAWWA. 61(9):465-468. September 1969.
Key Words: coliforms, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Analysis of the results of this investigation pro-
vide the following conclusions:
1. Tracer studies, if possible, should be utilized
to the maximum extent in any bacteriological field
sampling program, to reveal the most suitable loca-
tions for obtaining representative samples.
2. No increase in numbers (regrowth) was found to
occur in fecal coliform organisms below the outfall
of a highly treated wastewater during the sampling
period of this investigation.
3. Significant inhibitory factors which may have
accounted for this lack of growth were the short
travel time of organisms within the study section,
a lack of bacterial nutrients available to the
organisms, and physiographic features of the river
which included shallowness, swiftness, and low tur-
bidities.
319
-------
Dean-Raymond, D. and R. Bartha.
Biodegradation of Some Polynuclear Aromatic Petroleum Components
by Marine Bacteria.
Rutgers-the State University, New Brunswick, February 1975.
Zip. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as AD/A-006 346).
Key Words: synthetic/organics , surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The metabolism of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons was
studied using gas chromatographic, thin-layer chromato-
graphic, infrared and mass spectrometric techniques. Of
six bacterial strains isolated from oil polluted estuarine
water, all grew on naphthalene, 2-methylnaphtha!ene and
2-ethylnaphthalene as sole sources of carbon and energy.
Several other alky! naphthalenes were metabolized by
various strains. Phenanthrene and anthracene were meta-
bolized by three out of six organisms. Only one naphtha-
lene-grown strain was able to metabolize other polyaro-
matic compounds, including acenaphthylene, biphenyl,
fluorene and tetralin. The specificity of salicylate
hydroxylase governs the utilization of several naphtha-
lene derivatives while inability to oxidize naphthoic
acids prevents growth on dimethynaphthalenes.
320
-------
DeBoise, J.N. and J.F. Thomas.
Chemical Treatment for Phosphate Control.
JWPCF. £7(9):2246-2255. September 1975.
Key Words: phosphates, chlorides, chemical treatment,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The objectives of this study were (1) to develop a
rational, comprehensive model of calcium phosphate
precipitation capable of evaluating chemical treat-
ment over the range of conditions occurring in waste-
water treatment systems; (2) to develop a computer
model, based on that mathematical model, of calcium
phosphate precipitation as it occurs in wastewater
treatment processes. This model would have the capa-
bilities of predicting the residual phosphate from any
given system, of determining the chemical dosage required
to minimize residual phosphate in any given system, and
of determining the effects of changes in any of the per-
tinent ions of the system on the results of the process;
and (3) to determine, by use of the computer model, the
general effects of variations in the components of the
precipitation system and the results to be expected from
application of chemical treatment to various wastes.
321
-------
DeFlora, S, G.P. DeRenzi and G. Badolati.
Detection of Animal Viruses in Coastal Seawater and Sediments
Applied Microbiology. 30.( 3) : 472-475 .
Key Words: viruses, surface water (marine), epidemiology.
Abstract:
Animal viruses, predominantly enteroviruses, were
detected in shallow waters at bottom depths and in
clastic marine sediments. Viruses accumulated in
sandy and slimy deposits of the sea bottom near the
shore and could be easily released into water by
means of simple mechanical shaking.
322
-------
de Goeij, J.J.M., V.P. Guinn, D.R. Young, and A.J. Mearns.
Neutron Activation Analysis Trace-Element Studies of Dover Sole
Liver and Marine Sediments.
In: Comparative Studies of Food and Environmental Contamination
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1974. pp. 189-200.
Key Words: arsenic, antimony, cadmium, cobalt, copper,
mercury, molybdenum, zinc, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine), fish.
Abstract:
This study has been aimed at determining the present
levels of trace elements in the liver of Dover sole,
collected from polluted as well as unpolluted areas
around and down-current of the major Los Angeles area
sewage outfalls in the Pacific Ocean. A radiochemical-
separation scheme was devised for the analysis of Dover
sole liver and some sediment samples. The post-irradia-
tion chemistry includes a destruction with sulphuric
acid and hydrogen peroxide, a distillation with hydro-
bromic acid, and an absorption of quite a few elements
of the distillate and residue, each on a Dowex anion
exchanger. In the residue resin the elements molybde-
num, cadmium, copper, zinc, iron and cobalt, and in
the distillate resin the elements mercury, selenium,
arsenic, and antimony were simultaneously measured
using a Ge(Li) detector. The ranges of concentrations
found in Dover sole liver (wet-weight basis) are:
0.050 - 0.39 ppm Hg, 0.23 - 1.9 ppm Se, 0.001 - 0.007
ppm Sb, 0.70 - 4.3 ppm As, 0.040 - 0.20 ppm Mo, 0.060 -
6.9 ppm Cd, 1.1 - 9.2 ppm Cu, 19-39 ppm Zn, 105-319 ppm
Fe, 0.017 - 0.10 ppm Co. Surprisingly, no significant
differences have been observed in these element levels
between sole caught in polluted and unpolluted areas,
even though sole is a "bottom-feeder" type of fish and
the ocean sediments in the polluted areas sometimes
contain concentrations of these elements 10 to 150 times
higher than in the unpolluted areas. The method has
also been applied 'to the analysis of a sediment core
taken near an outfall. The results show a strong de-
crease of the levels of mercury, arsenic, selenium,
and antimony with increasing depth of the sediment
1ayers.
323
-------
Degradation of Synthetic Organic Molecules in the Biosphere:
Natural, Pesticidal, and Various Other Man-Made Compounds.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 1972. 350p.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, bacteria, chlorinated hydro-
carbons, pesticides, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
The proceedings of a conference concerning degrada-
tion of synthetic organic molecules by the lower
phyta are presented.
324
-------
Dehlinger, P.; et al.
Investigations on Concentrations, Distributions, and Fates of
Heavy Metal Wastes in Parts of Long Island Sound.
University of Connecticut, Groton, Marine Sciences Institute,
October 1974. 127p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as COM-75-11Oil 9).
Key Words: copper, mercury, zinc, surface water (marine),
Abstract:
A two-year investigation was conducted on heavy metal
wastes in Long Island Sound, with emphasis on the
eastern Sound and the Connecticut coast. The program
consisted of five integrated projects with the ultimate
objective being to determine a preliminary budget of
these wastes. The projects were concerned with the
concentrations, distributions, and fates of heavy metals
in the water column, water circulation patterns and water
renewal times in the Sound, the structure and outflow of
the Connecticut River into the Sound, the transport of
suspended materials in the Sound, and the uptake of metals
in oysters at various locations along the Connecticut coast
325
-------
Delfino, J.J., G.C. Bortleson, and G.F. Lee.
Distribution of Mn, Fe, Mg, K, Na, and Ca in the Surface
Sediments of Lake Mendota, Wisconsin.
Environmental Science and Technology. 3:1189-1192.
1969.
Key Words: iron, manganese, surface water (fresh).
November
Abstract:
Analysis of 32 surface sediment samples from different
areas of Lake Mendota, Wis., indicated a high positive
statistical correlation between Mn, Fe, and P concen-
tration in the sample and the depth of water overlying
the point of sample recovery. An inverse correlation
was found for Mg and K. No statistical correlation
between concentration and depth of sample recovery
was found for Ca and Na.
326
-------
DeMichele, E.
Pathogenic Organisms in the Murderkill River Estuary.
JWPCF. 46.(4) :772-776. April 1974.
Key Words: salmonella, fecal streptococci, coliforms,
surface water (fresh), influent characteristics.
Abstract:
1. The FC concentrations ranged from 20 to 16,000/100 ml,
with 45 percent of the samples having concentrations
greater than 200/100 ml.
2. The FS concentration range was 10 to 11,300/100 ml,
with 90 percent of all samples having concentrations
greater than 200/100 ml.
3. Applying Geldreich's summary on the probability of
pathogenic organism isolation (salmonella), a 90-per-
cent FS count greater than 200/100 ml may indicate an
85-percent frequency of isolation of salmonella in the
Murderkill River.
4. The FC:FS ratio always was less than 4.0, with
almost 90 percent of all ratios less than 0.7. This
may indicate that animal wastes are the principal
sources of pollution in this estuary.
5. The FC and FS concentrations decreased logarithmi-
cally from station 4 to the river mouth. Although
domestic and industrial wastewater sources are absent
from the downstream river sections, the marshy areas
cause an increase in indicator counts between the mouth
of the river (Station 00) and Station 4.
327
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Demichele, E.
Water Reuse, Virus Removal and Public Health.
In; Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems.
J.F. Malina, Jr., and B/P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas
at Austin, Center for Research in Water Resources, 1974.
pp. 45-56.
Key Words: epidemiology, viruses.
Abstract:
Reused treated water represents an increasing fraction
of this nation's total water resources.
The number of waterborne disease outbreaks has not de-
clined since 1955. From 1946 to 1970, more than 358
outbreaks affected more than 72,000 people.
Enteric viruses can be transmitted by the water route;
standard analyses for bacteria cannot satisfactorily
predict the presence of viruses.
Lack of adequate virus detection methods and inefficient
disinfection processes mean that the degree of assurance
needed for potable reuse of treated waters presently
does not exist.
328
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DeMichele, E., G.W. Burke, Or. and M.S. Shane.
The Need for an Indicator Virus in Water Quality Testing
Water and Sewage Works. 121(4). April 1974.
Key Words: viruses, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The argument is made that an adequate biological
indicator for viruses in various waters is not now
available and should be sought.
329
-------
Deneke, C.F. and R.R. Colwell.
Lipopolysaccharide and Proteins of the Cell Envelope of
Vibrio marinus, a marine bacterium.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology. IjK 1 0) : 1 211 -1 21 7 . 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Lipopolysaccharides isolated from the marine bacterium
V i b r i o mari nus strain PS-207 were found to be similar to
the 1ipopolysaccharides of R mutants of enteric organisms,
with respect to extraction characteristics, percentage of
lipid A (61%), and sugars of the polysaccharide side chain
(glucose and heptose). A high ratio (2:1) of phosphate to
amino sugar was found in the lipid A. Hydroxy fatty acids
constituted only 14% of the total fatty acids of the lipid
A fraction, whereas branched and straight-chain fatty acids
were present in greater abundance. The major envelope pro-
teins of V_._ marinus strain PS-207 fell into three molecular
weight classes determined by SDS gel electrophoresis.
Numerous protein species were observed in urea-acetic poly-
acrylamide gel electrophoresis preparations.
330
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Deneke, C.F. and R.R. Colwell.
Studies of the Cell Envelope of Vibrio parahaemolytic us.
Journal of Microbiology. 19(2):241-245. 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, viruses, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Components of the cell envelope of Vibrio parahaemolyticus
were investigated. Vibrio parahaemolyticus is an estua-
rine microorganism associated with diseases of marine
and estuarine animals and seafood-borne enteritis in man.
Purified 1ipopolysaccharide (LPS), isolated using a 45%
phenol extraction procedure, was found to contain lipid
A fraction to 27% of the LPS by weight. In the lipid A
fraction, glucosamine was the only ami no sugar to be
present and a high molar ratio of phosphate to amino
sugar (2.5:1) was noted. Two hydroxy fatty acids,
hydroxydodecanoic and hydroxymyristic, were identified
among the fatty acids by gas-liquid chromatography. A
role of the 1ipopolysaccharides in the salt requirement
of marine bacteria is suggested.
331
-------
Denis, F.A., E. .Blanchoun, A. DeLignieres, and P. Flamen.
Coxsackie A^ Infection from Lake Water.
Journal of the American Medical Association. 228(11):1370-1371 .
1974.
Key Words: coxsackie virus, epidemiology, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
Coxsackie virus A-|5 was recovered from the rectal swabs
of two boys with gastrointestinal disease and from lake
water in which they had bathed a few days before onset
of illness.
332
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Dennis, J.M.
1955-1956 Infectious Hepatitis Epidemic in Delhi, India.
JAWWA. 5>J_: 1288-1296. October 1959.
Key Words: hepatitis virus, surface water (fresh), drinking
and recreational water.
Abstract:
This article reports on the cause and actual extent of
the infectious hepatitis epidemic in Delhi, India in 1955
This was the first we!1-documented epidemic of infectious
hepatitis involving a treated water supply. The author
concludes that it was probable that receding floods in
the Jumna River permitted heavy contamination at the
water treatment plants which did not have adequate
chlorination capacity.
333
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de Vries, J.
Soil Filtration of Wastewater Effluent and the Mechanism of
Pore Clogging.
JWPCF. 44(4) :565-573. April 1972.
Key Words: BOD, phosphates, filtration.
Abstract:
The physical condition of sand filters did not deterior-
ate as a result of daily applications of effluent from
a primary wastewater treatment plant for 240 days at a
rate of 20 cm/day, 5 days/wk, with a daily application
period of 2 hr. The filters were drained during the
rest periods to maintain aerobic conditions. Periodic
Q£ and C02 measurements after an effluent application
showed that the rest period between applications should
be at least 22 hr.
Effluent applications at the same rate, but at a temp-
erature of 4° + 3°C, allowing the same daily rest per-
iods, resulted in failure in 10 days because of pore
clogging. In situ pore size distribution and saturated
hydraulic conductivity measurements showed that the
clogged pores were on the soil surface, scaling off the
surface pores. The existence of a surface deposit of
sludge was confirmed visually.
Periodic 02 and C02 measurements showed that at room
temperature, the failed filters recovered in about 8
days. The hydraulic conductivity and relative soil
volume occupied by large pores in the surface layer of
the recovered filters was higher than that of the origi-
nal sand fractions, indicating disruption of the sludge
layer during the recovery period. It was speculated
that structural improvement of the dark surface layer
is related to accumulated organic matter.
Renovation of wastewater effluent with respect to BOD
and phosphate was close to 100 percent as a result of
treatment with the fine sand filter. The favorable
renovation with respect to phosphate was caused by the
coatings of Fe20-j and A^Oo on sand grains. Treatment
with the medium Ottawa sand at the sand loading rate
resulted in only partial renovation with respect to BOD
and phosphate. Treatment with both sand fractions re-
sulted in a renovation of about 25 percent with respect
to nitrate.
334
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DeWalle, F.B. and E.S.K. Chian.
Removal of Organic Matter by Activated Carbon Columns.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
ip_0(EE5) :1089-1104. October 1974.
Key Words: BOD, total organic carbon.
Abstract:
This study shows that the major organic fraction adsorbed
in activated carbon columns is a fulvic acid-like
material with a molecular weight ranging from approxi-
mately 100-10,000. Both the low molecular weight
fraction consisting of mostly polar organic compounds
and the high molecular weight humic carbohydrate-like
material, with a molecular weight above 50,000, are
poorly adsorbed in carbon columns. Previous studies
by the writers on the aerobic degradation of a naturally
occurring wastewater by activated sludge showed a de-
crease of the material smaller than 100 MW and an in-
crease in the fulvic and humic-like material during the
course of the biological degradation. Since the fulvic
acid-like compounds adsorb very well in activated carbon
columns, and since they represent a major fraction of the
organic matter, adsorption in activated carbon columns
is expected to increase with increasing degradation
of the wastewater. Such a result was indeed found in a
later study in which the TOC removal of the filtered
mixed liquor by activated carbon increased in the suc-
ceeding compartments of a plug-flow activated sludge
unit.
335
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Dewling, R.T., I. Seidenberg, and J. Kingery.
Effect of Seasonal Effluent Chiorination on Coliforms in
Jamaica Bay.
JWPCF. 42(7):1351-1362. July 1970.
Key Words: coliforms, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Analysis of the bacteriological data collected in
Jamaica Bay during this 8-month long effluent chlorin-
ation study, which involved six secondary treatment
plants discharging more than 160 mgd (606,000 cu m/day)
has shown that:
1. There was a significant decrease in the coliform
populations present in most parts of the Bay following
the start-up of post-chlorination of effluents at the
treatment plants.
2. There was a significant increase in coliform popu-
lations at most Bay stations following the cessation
of post-chlorination.
3. The estimated response time of most of the Bay
stations to this change in treatment at the plants -
start-up and cessation of chlorination - ranged from
24 to 48 hr.
4. The effect of the discharge of storm and combined
sewer overflows can be detected in most of the Bay for
2 to 3 days following a storm.
5. Post-chlorination of wastewater treatment plant
effluents, even when the daily volume of these dis-
charges represents less than 0.5 percent of the volume
of the receiving water,is an effective means for im-
proving the bacteriological quality of the receiving
water.
336
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Dewling, R.T., R.D. Spear, P.M. Anderson, and R.J. Braun.
EPA's Position on Ocean Disposal in the New York Bight.
Iin: Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids
AT Freiberger, ed. EPA-902/9-74-002, Environmental Protection
Agency, Region II, New York, 1974. pp. 283-330.
Key Words: coliforms , surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Based upon sampling in the surf and near shore waters
along the Long Island and New Jersey beaches, it is evi-
dent that water quality remains excellent with respect
to coliform density and is acceptable for contact recre-
ation. More important, there is no evidence of a trend
towards increased coliform density and thus, no indica-
tion of degradation. The occasional elevated coliform
counts noted appear randomly distributed in time and
location, and does not indicate a systematic change or
degradation of water quality.
Review of data from sampling in the Bight of the water
column and bottom sediments indicate the general location
of the sludge mass associated with the sewage sludge and
dredge spoil dump site. A "clean water-sediment" zone
of about 5Jg to 6 miles separates at the leading edge
of the sludge mass from the New Jersey and Long Island
coasts. Slightly elevated organic carbon content and
bacterial counts at selected near shore sampling sta-
tions can be related to inland occurrences, such as
runoff and wastewater discharges.
337
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Dexter, R.N. and S.P. Pavlou.
Characterization of Polychlorinated Biphenyl Distribution
in the Marine Environment.
University of Washington, Seattle.
Key Words: synthetic/organics , surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The paper describes a spectral analysis technique which
can be used to describe chlorobiphenyl phases and
distributions in the ocean.
338
-------
Dexter, R.N. and S.P. Pavlou.
Chemical Inhibition of Phytoplankton Growth Dynamics by
Synthetic-Organic Compounds.
Journees d'Etudes Pol 1utions, Athens, C.I.E.S.M., 1972. pp.155-157
Key Words: synthetic/organics, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine), fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
Batch and continuous culture techniques were used in the
lab to study inhibition of phytoplankton growth by syn-
thetic organic compounds, especially PCB's. Although
such predictions are not made in the article, the re-
sults should make it possible to predict the impacts
of these pollutants on the primary productivity of a
near shore environment.
339
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Diaper, E.W.J.
Practical Aspects of Water and Waste Water Treatment by Ozone.
JJT.: Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment. F.L. Evans, ed.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1972.
pp. 145-179.
Key Words: BOD, COD, synthetic/organics, viruses, bacteria,
ozonation.
Abstract:
Ozone cannot be bottled and must be generated on site,
which avoids the hazard present in carrying chlorine con-
tainers through municipal areas. In comparative tests
with chlorine, ozone has been found more effective in kill-
ing bacteria and viruses and in removing organic color,
taste, and odor. Its action is virtually instantaneous,
requiring no large contact tanks.
In the treatment of industrial effluents, ozone is used to
reduce BOD and COD and to destroy objectionable chemical
compounds such as phenols and cyanides.
The combination of Microstraining and Ozonation (Microzon)
has been tested on municipal sewage effluents in London
and Chicago. Microstraining will remove the majority of
suspended solids contained in the secondary effluent, and
ozone will kill the vast majority of organisms present,
including all bacteria and viruses. A noticeable effect
of ozone is to remove the color of the effluent. Other
beneficial effects include high dissolved oxygen and
removal of detergent residues.
When applying relatively large doses of ozone, special
systems must be used for contacting the water. Normally,
ozone is applied in parallel to several stages through
which the water flows in series. By this means, the
water receives successive increments of ozone which is
applied as soon as possible after generation to prevent
any reduction in its oxidizing power. A multicontactor
system of this type is at present under investigation on
sewage effluents in the Blue Plains Plant in Washington,
D.C.
In Philadelphia, a Microzon system is being tested on
storm water overflows from combined sewers.
Modern ozone generators employ electrode systems made up
of a series of tubes or plates equipped with insulators
and provided with cooling arrangements. Specially
designed transformers step up the normal mains voltage
340
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to 15,000 or 20,000 volts. Air preparation equipment
comprises filters and driers using refrigeration and
desiccation. The design of these units has been well
established over many years, and they incorporate high
quality materials completely protected by fail-safe
devices. Ozone costs approximately 8 cents per pound
when made from oxygen. Installation costs range from
$500 to $1,000 for each pound per day of ozone generating
capacity.
An outstanding advantage of ozone is its immediate and
effective attack on viruses in water supplies. Medical
evidence shows that dilutions of polio virus can be
rendered inactive in 2 minutes by a small dosage of ozone
whereas chlorine may take several hours and much higher
doses. This aspect of ozone will undoubtedly bring it
into more common use in this country as the search con-
tinues for higher quality water supplies.
341
-------
Diaper, E.W.J. and G.E. Glover.
Microstraining of Combined Sewer Overflows.
JWPCF. 43(10):2101-2113. October 1971.
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, ammonia, BOD, COD, suspended
solids, microstraining , chlorination , ozonation,
influent characteristics, effluent characteristics
Abstract:
Treatment of an actual overflow by microstraining in
a residential area of Philadelphia has produced solids
removal up to 98 percent. Limited data for a fine Mark
0 (23-|j.) screen under relatively high throughput con-
ditions show removal figures ranging from 78 to 98 per-
cent, with an average of 91 percent. Figures for a
larger number of tests made with lower throughputs
show a solids removal range of 62 to 96 percent, with
an average of 80 percent.
VSS removals have roughly paralleled the experience
with TSS. These removals for the Mark I (35-[i) screen
averaged 47 percent and for the three modes of operation
using the Mark 0 screen have averaged 68, 71, and 71 per-
cent.
Bacteriological results measured across the microstrainer
screen exhibit anomalies, both reductions and increases
in total and fecal coliform being measured. Further
major total coliform reductions can, of course, be
achieved with chlorine or ozone. The results presented
herein with both ozone and chlorine, although again
anomolous in some instances, indicate a slightly better
performance with chlorine at the concentrations used.
In some work, carried out near the end of the program,
15 mg/1 of chlorine with only 2 min of detention pro-
duced greater bacteriological kills than a lower con-
centration with longer detention.
BOD removals across the microstrainer have been diffi-
cult to measure. In those cases where reductions have
been recorded, the average reduction has been 65 percent
across the Mark 0 screen. However, in 8 of the 17 mea-
surements, increases in BOD are shown across the micro-
strai ner.
Hypotheses have been made for the observed increase in
BOD and bacteriological results.
342
-------
The special conditions of stormwater overflow make it
vastly different from other municipal wastewaters and
require a different treatment approach.
Perhaps foremost of these special conditions are the
high instantaneous flow rates and the fact that the
treatment facility must operate for only relatively
short time periods after relatively long idle periods
343
-------
DiGirolamo, R., L. Wiczynski, M. Daley, and F. Miranda.
Preliminary Observations on the Uptake of Poliovirus by West
Coast Shore Crabs .
Applied Microbiology. 2^:170-171. January 1972.
Key Words: polio virus, shellfish.
Abstract:
Crabs will uptake poliovirus when consuming contaminated
mussels. Data are provided.
344
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DiGirolamo, R., J. Listen, and J.R. Matches.
Survival of Virus in Chilled, Frozen, and Processed Oysters.
Applied Microbiology. 2£:58-63. July 1970.
Key Words: polio virus, shellfish.
Abstract:
Samples of whole and shucked Pacific and Olympia oysters,
contaminated with 104-plaque-forming units (PFU) of polio^
virus Lsc-2ab per ml, were held refrigerated at two temp-
eratures, 5 and -17.5 C. To study the survival of virus
in the oysters under these conditions, samples were
assayed for virus content at weekly intervals for as
long as 12 weeks. Results indicated that polioyirus
would survive in refrigerated oysters for a period vary-
ing from 30 to 90 days, depending upon temperature. The
survival rate varied from 10 to 13%. To study the extent
of the hazard presented by oysters contaminated with vi-
rus, samples of whole and shucked Pacific oysters con-
taminated with 104PFU of poliovirus Lsc-2ab per ml were
heat processed in four ways: by stewing, frying, baking,
and steaming. Results indicated that virus in oysters
withstood these methods of processing. The survival
rate varied from 7 to 10% and appeared dependent upon
the processing method used. Heat penetration studies
showed that the internal temperature in the oyster was
not sufficient to inactivate all of the virus present.
These results suggest that not only fresh but also re-
frigerated and cooked oysters can serve as vectors for
the dissemination of virus disease if the shellfish are
harvested from a polluted area.
345
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f
Dilling, W.L., N.B. Tefertiller, and G.J. Kallos.
Evaporation Rates and Reactivities of Methylene Chloride,
Chloroform, 1,1,1-Trichlorolthane , Trichlorolthylene, Tetra-
chlorolthylene, and Other Chlorinated Compounds in Dilute
Aqueous Solutions.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_(9):833-838. Sep-
tember 1975.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
To estimate the persistence of low-molecular-weight
chlorinated hydrocarbons in natural water bodies, we
carried out laboratory studies on the evaporation
and reaction rates of the title compounds at the 1-ppm
level in water under ambient conditions. All five com-
pounds had evaporated to the extent of 50% in less than
30 min and to 90% in less than 90 min when stirred
(200 rpm) in water at~25°C in an open container. Ad-
dition of various contaminants (clay, limestone, sand,
salt, peat moss, and kerosine) to the water had rela-
tively little effect on the chlorinated compounds'
evaporation or disappearance rates. The hydrolytic-
oxidative reaction half-lives for the title compounds
in sealed ampules were ~6-18 months. These data indi-
cate that 1-ppm concentrations of low-molecular-weight
chlorinated hydrocarbons would not persist in agitated
natural water bodies due to evaporation.
346
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Dimond, J.B., A.S. Getchell , and J.A. Blease.
Accumulation and Persistence of DDT in a Lotic Ecosystem.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada.
£8(12):1877-1882. December 1971.
Key Words: DDT, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
DDT persisted in streams of several small watersheds in
Maine for at least 10 years following light applications
to the forest. Residues declined sharply within 2 or 3
years after application but after 10 years were still
well above concentrations detected in untreated streams.
This was true of all components studied: muds, plants,
invertebrates, fish, and fish-eating birds. The pro-
longed persistence led to cumulative residue levels in
streams sprayed more than once. Concentration of resi-
dues through the food chain was evident.
347
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Directo, L.S. and C. Chen.
Pilot Plant Study of Physical-Chemical Treatment.
Presented at the 47th Annual Water Pollution Control Federation
Conference, Denver, Colorado, October 1974.
Key Words: BOD, phosphates, nitrates, suspended solids,
adsorption/ion exchange, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Reduction effects of physical-chemical treatment are
discussed .
348
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Directo, L.S., C. Chen, and R.P. Mlele.
Aerobic Stabilization by Denitrification Study.
EPA Contract No. 14-12-150, Los Angeles County Sanitation
Districts, Los Angeles, California. 48p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, aerobic digestion.
Abstract:
A pilot-scale aerobic stabi1ization-denitrification study,
using six 55-gallon biological reactors, was conducted
under batch operating conditions for a period of about
4 months. During that period, various types of sludges,
such as waste activated sludge, raw sludge and sludge
mixtures, were aerobically stabilized and subsequently
denitrified. The objectives of the study were to evaluate
the feasibility of reducing the nitrogen level in the
various types of sludges by biological nitrification and
denitrification and to determine the effect of the nitri-
fication-denitrification process on the dewatering and
filtration properties of the sludges.
Operating data collected during the study has demonstrated
that the nitrogen content of the various types of sludges
could be reduced by the combined process of biological
nitrification-denitrification. The preliminary data,
however, indicate that the process is not a practical
choice as far as raw sewage is concerned because of the
excessively long detention times required and the pre-
sence of the unavoidable odor problems.
In the course of the nitrification-denitrification pro-
cess, significant amounts of mixed liquor COD and volatile
solids were removed, in addition to that of nitrogen.
The effect of aerobic stabilization and subsequent anaer-
obic treatment phase on sludge fi1terabi1ity and drain-
ability varied with the type of sludge. In addition, the
rate of aeration had an effect on sludge fi1terabi1ity and
drainabi1ity.
349
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Directo, L.S., R.P. Miele, and A.N. Masse.
Phosphate Removal by Mineral Addition to Secondary and
Tertiary Treatment Systems.
Presented at the 27th
University, May 1972.
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue
Key Words: phosphates, activated sludge, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
This study has demonstrated that it is possible to ob-
tain a high level of phosphate removal from wastewater
by the addition of either ferric chloride or alum to the
aeration system of an activated sludge plant. However,
to achieve good quality effluent in the combined chemical
biological system, a supplemental polishing treatment
would be required. The effectiveness of sand filtration
as a polishing step was demonstrated during the course
of the study.
The biological performance of the activated sludge
plant as measured by the COD removal efficiency was
not adversely affected by A1:P
as 1.9:1 and Fe:P molar ratios
at a Fe:P molar ratio of 3:1 a
of the activated sludge system
weight of the sludge produced
molar ratios as high
up to 2.2:1. However,
definite disruption
was observed. The
in the combined chemical-
the
biological system was approximately twice that of
biological process alone. However, the volume of
excess activated sludge wasted did not increase during
chemical addition periods.
The study also demonstrated that phosphate removal could
be accomplished in a combined secondary-tertiary system,
in which the ferric chloride dosage was divided between
the two systems, and by ferric chloride addition to a
tertiary system alone. The study demonstrated that the
most efficient utilization of chemicals was obtained
from the combined secondary-tertiary treatment system.
350
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Directo, L.S., C. Chen, and R.P. Miele.
Physical Chemical Treatment of Raw Sewage.
EPA Contract No. 14-12-150, Los Angeles County Sanitation
Districts, Los Angeles, California. 104p.
Key Words: COD, chemical treatment, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
A 3.17 I/sec (50gpm) pilot plant evaluation of the
physical-chemical treatment (PCT) process was conducted
for 27 months at Pomona, California; the pilot plant
consisted of chemical clarification with alum at 25 mg/1
as Al and an anionic polynier at 0.3 mg/1, followed by a
single-stage, pressurized downflow carbon column operated
at a hydraul ic-loading of 2,71 I/sec/cm2 (-4 gpm/ft2) and
an empty-bed contact time of 30 minutes. The main objec-
tives of the study were to evaluate various methods of
controlling sulfide generation in the carbon column and
to determine the effects of repeated thermal regeneration
cycles on the adsorption capacity, carbon loss and pres-
sure drop buildup of PCT carbon.
Performance data obtained demonstrated the stability of
the PCT system in producing affluent of excellent overall
quality. The suspended solids, total COD and total phos-
phate removals in the PCT system were 96,6%, 94% and 92%,
respectively.
In the course of the study, several methods of controlling
sulfide generation in the carbon column, such as oxygena-
tion, chlorination and sodium nitrate addition, were eva-
luated; continuous sodium nitrate addition to the carbon
column at an average dosage of 5.4 mg/1 N was found most
effective in preventing sulfide generation.
The addition of nitrate had another favorable effect in
that it permitted, through enhancement of biological acti-
vity, a very high organic loading on the carbon column. At
the end of the first cycle, the carbon capacity was 3.54
Ibs. total COD removed/lb carbon and 1.54 Ibs. dissolved
COD removed/lb carbon.
Although regeneration was not necessary, it was conducted
in an effort to obtain data on the effects of repeated
regenerations on the carbon characteristics. These were
the first large-scale regenerations of granular activated
carbon used in the PCT mode. In all respects, the regene-
rated carbon was found equal to or slightly better than
that of the virgin carbon.
351
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Directo, L.S., C. Chen, and R.P. Miele.
Two-Stage Granular Activated Carbon Treatment.
Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts for Advanced Waste
Treatment Research Center.
Key Words: COD, suspended solids, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Two 6.3 I/sec (0.15. mgd), two-stage, packed-bed, downflow
granular activated carbon pilot plants were operated con-
tinuously for'33 months using unfiltered and unchlorinated
activated sludge plant effluent. The main objective of
the study was to evaluate the effect of repeated thermal
regeneration cycles on the adsorption capacity, regenera-
tion loss and pressure drop buildup of carbon with dif-
ferent particle size. Performance data, collected during
the field study, has demonstrated the stability of the
two-stage carbon adsorptive system in consistently pro-
ducing effluents of excellent overall quality.
352
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Disinfection of Wastewater, Task Force Report.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C., Municipal
Construction Division, July 1975. 67p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-257 449).
Key Words: viruses, chlorination, ozonation, radiation
treatment.
Abstract:
The Task Force believes that the disinfection of waste-
water for pathogen destruction is of obvious public
health importance since these organisms, if not destroyed,
could be transmitted to man through sewage contamination
of water for drinking, food processing, irrigation,
shellfish culture or recreational purposes. However,
the application of disinfection regulations should be
periodically updated to take advantage of new findings
and technology in order that EPA make prudent and
efficient use of our nation's resources in administering
the secondary treatment regulations. There are a number
of conclusions that can be made from this Task Force
report that would help to support new policy decisions
on disinfection.
353
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Dismukes, W.E., A.L. Bisno, S. Katz, and R.F. Johnson.
An Outbreak of Gastroentiritis and Infectious Hepatitis
Attributed to Raw Clams.
American Journal of Epidemiology. 8_9_( 5) :555-561 . May 1969.
Key Words: epidemiology, hepatitis virus, shellfish.
Abstract:
An outbreak of 33 cases of gastroenteric illnesses of
unproven etiology and four cases of infectious hepatitis
occurred among 128 persons who attended a picnic in
August 1966. In general, the gastroenteric illnesses
developed 24 to 48 hours after the picnic, lasted one
to three days, and were characterized by diarrhea, nausea,
vomiting, and abdominal cramps. The illnesses were
related by food histories to ingestion of raw clams
(Mercenaria mercenaria) at the picnic. The four pic-
nickers who developed hepatitis 22, 26, 37, and 40 days
after the picnic had all eaten raw clams, and three
had experienced the gastroenteric illness. Contamin-
ation of the clams probably occurred in the waters from
which the clams were harvested. This outbreak of
shellfish-associated gastroenteritis and hepatitis pro-
vides additional evidence that clams serve as a poten-
tial vehicle for the transmission of those diseases.
354
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Disposal of Sewage Sludge into a Sanitary Landfill.
EPA/SW-71d, Ralph Stone and Company for City of Oceanside,
California, 1974. 462p. (Available fron, National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-258 680).
Key Words: BOD, virus, bacteria, land reclamation.
Abstract:
This report describes the results of a three-year demon-
stration study of the disposal of liquid sewage sludge
and septic tank pumpings into solid waste at a sanitary
landfill. Bench-scale laboratory studies were conducted
to determine the moisture-absorbing capacity of typical
solid waste constituents and to establish characteristics
of admixture with various sludges. The composition and
quantity of solid waste produced in the City of Oceanside
were determined by quarterly waste samplings and waste
collection vehicle weighings.
Pilot plant lysimeters were employed to investigate the
effects of sewage and septic tank sludges on solid waste
temperature, decomposition, leachate, settlement, insects,
odor and gas characteristics. Three large field lysimeters
were built at the City of Oceanside, California municipal
landfill, each holding one week's production of all muni-
cipal solid waste and sewage sludge. The field test cells
were lined with a 10-mil polyethylene membrane to collect
the leachate for measuring and sampling. Full-scale
demonstration landfill operations studies were conducted
at the City landfills -- initially with limited sludge
disposal one day per week, and with 100 percent sludge
disposal later in the study.
The large field lysimeters were monitored for leachate,
temperature, gas, compaction, settlement and waste decom-
position (as determined by core sampling). The full-scale
landfill disposal of sludge was monitored for runoff,
leachate, equipment operating efficiency (time and motion
studies), odor, vector problems, blowing litter, and
weather conditions (rainfall, temperature, wind and
evaporation).
Results of the study indicated that Oceanside solid waste
has sufficient ability to absorb moisture without pro-
ducing runoff. Full-scale sludge disposal at the Ocean-
side landfill produced no leachate and was economically
feasible. Benefits of full-scale disposal included
increased landfill compaction, greater density, and
reduced blowing of litter and dust; problems included
odors following raw sludge or septic tank pumpings dis-
posal (not recommended unless special protection measures
are provided), and bird foraging.
355
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The report describes the sanitary landfill operating and design
factors for disposing digested sludge and its effects on the
sanitary landfill and environment.
356
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Disposal of Wastes from Water Treatment Plants - Part I.
JAWWA. 61(10):541-566. October 1967.
Key Words: BOD, COD, suspended solids, aluminum, iron,
manganese, chemical treatment, effluent char-
acteristics.
Abstract:
Perhaps the most important parameter in discussing
wastewater sludge is the solids content. Reported
values for alum sludges range from 1,000 to 17,000
mg/1 dry solids, with suspended solids usually ac-
counting for 75 to 90 percent of the total. The
volatile content ranges from 20 to 35 percent of total
solids.
The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is relatively low,
approximately that of secondary sewage effluent.
In carrying the BOD test to its ultimate value, it
was found that a considerable amount of BOD was exerted
after the initial 5-day period. In one instance, the
5-day BOD was less than 30 percent of the ultimate
demand. Typical values of 5-day BOD range from 30 to
approximately 150 mg/1.
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is considerably
higher. It has been found to range anywhere from
500 to 15,000 mg/1, the higher value being due to
activated carbon present in the sample.
357
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Dixon, O.K. and M.W. Zielyk.
Control of the Bacterial Content of Water with Synthetic
Polymeric Flocculants.
Environmental Science and Technology. 3^:551-558. June 1969.
Key Words: bacteria, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
In a study of synthetic polymers for flocculation of
bacteria in water, filtration rates, electrophoretic
mobility, and light transmission were measured to eval-
uate flocculation. E. col i were studied at bacterial
concentrations of 50 to 2700 mg. per liter and at pH
4 to 9 with nonionic, anionic, and cationic polymers
as flocculants. Nonionic and anionic polyacrylamides
were studied with molecular weights from 7000 to
3,000,000, without evidence of flocculation at polymer
concentrations of 0.1 to 50 mg. per liter. Cationic
polyethyleneimines with molecular weights from 300 to
112,000 were effective at concentrations from 0.1 to
80 mg. per liter, but molecular weight had no effect
on the amount of p-.lymer required to initiate floccu-
lation. Low molecular weight polymers at concentrations
even in excess of 800 mg. per liter caused flocculation,
but above about 10 mg. per liter the high molecular
weight polymers caused redispersal of the bacteria. The
results for the polymer-bacteria systems are similar to
those obtained for flocculation of some inorganic and
bio-colloid systems. The cationic polyethyleneimines
should be of practical value for quality control of
water because of their ability to flocculate and settle
solids of various types at low dosage levels.
358
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Dixon, K.R. and J.A. Kadlec.
A Model for Predicting the Effects of Sewage Effluent on
Wetland Ecosystems.
University of Michigan, Wetlands Ecosystem Research Group
Ann Arbor, February 1975. 66p.
Key Word: surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
A mathematical model of the organic matter components
of a wetland ecosystem was developed, primarily from
data in the published literature. The biomass models
developed will be combined with model.s for nutrients
arH. -'ater to make actual forecasts of the effects of
sewage wastewater disposal on the marsh ecosystem.
359
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Doherty, R.A. and A.M. Gates.
Epidemic Human Methylmercury Poisoning - Application of a Mouse
Model System.
Pediatric Research. 7_(4): 31 9-391. 1974.
Key Words: epidemiology, mercury.
Abstract:
The largest known epidemic of methylmercury poisoning
occurred recently in Iraq during a 2-month period in
which 6,530 cases were hospitalized. There were 459
hospital deaths. The source was homemade bread pre-
pared from seed wheat treated with a methylmercurial
fungicide. Both sexes of all ages were affected.
Children (1-9 yr) constituted 34% of admissions. Of
31 pregnant women who were hospitalized, 14 died.
Follow-up studies of infants exposed in utero and by
suckling are currently in progress. A~~~mouse model
has been developed for evaluating the risk to the mam-
malian fetus and newborn. Thus far it has been shown
that: methylmercury passes freely from mother to fetus;
newborn mice ingest and absorb significant amounts of
mercury when suckled by mercury-dosed mothers; suckling
mice excreted mercury at rates less than 1% of adult
excretion rates. These observations have been useful
in designing and initiating human investigations and
treatment.
360
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Domenowske, R.S. and R.I. Matsuda.
Sludge Disposal and the Marine Environment.
JWPCF. 4J_(9):1613-1624. September 1969.
Key Words: BOD, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
No measurable sludge deposition was observed in the
vicinity of the West Point plant outfall and diffuser.
The biological fauna observed in the immediate vicinity
of the outfall appear normal in both numbers present
and reaction to effluent from the diffuser jets.
No effect of effluent or sludge disposal on primary
productivity can be demonstrated (with the Carbon-14
method) in Puget Sound because of the extreme daily
fluctuations in productivity values.
While it is possible that the effluent and sludge are
contributing to natural sedimentation in the deeper
portions of Puget Sound, such contributions are present-
ly undefinable since these areas have been receiving nat-
ural sediment since glacial times and probable sediment
from dredge spoils in recent years.
Minor variations in the benthic fauna have been ob-
served, but the numbers and areas involved are sporadic,
and caution must be used in subsequent interpretations.
In any event, no substantial change has been recorded
in benthic population examined to this time.
361
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Dotson, G.K.
Some Constraints of Spreading Sewage Sludge on Cropland.
Compost Science. T_^( 6) : 1 2-1 5 . November-December 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates,
chromium, cobalt, copper, lead
virus, bacteria, agriculture.
boron, cadmium,
nickel, zinc,
Abstract:
Zinc, copper, and nickel are most likely to build up
toxic levels as a result of sludge spreading. Other
metals that may be present in sludge in excess include
chromium, cadmium, lead, and mercury. The most impor-
tant factors influencing the survival time of intestinal
pathogens were type of organism, soil type, moisture,
temperature, pH, and the presence of antagonistic organ-
isms in the soil.
362
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Dowty, B.. D. Carlisle, and J.L. Lester.
Halogenated Hydrocarbons in New Orleans Drinking Water and
Blood Plasma.
Science. 187:75-77. January 1975.
Key Words: epidemiology, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Volatile organics from New Orleans drinking water and
pooled plasma were.col 1ected on a solid phenyl ether
polymer and analyzed by gas chromatographic and mass
spectrometric techniques. Thirteen halogenated hydro-
carbons were identified in the drinking water. Five
halogenated compounds were found in the plasma. Tetra-
chloroethylene and carbon tetrachloride were found
in both the plasma and the drinking water. Considerable
variation in the relative concentrations of the halo-
genated hydrocarbons was noted from day to day in the
drinking water.
363
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Draft Analytical Report: New Orleans Area Water Supply Study.
Lower Mississippi River Facility, Surveillance and Analysis
Division, Re.gion VI, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Dallas, Texas, 1974. 30p.
Key Word : drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
A sampling and analytical survey was performed to
determine the identities and concentrations of trace
organic compounds which might be present in the finished
water supply for New Orleans. The study did not en-
compass an evaluation of the public health significance
of the results. Trace organic compounds or organic
isomers of undetermined specific structure which were
identified are listed with their highest concentrations.
364
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Dredge Disposal Study San Francisco Bay and Estuary, Appendix H:
Pollutant Uptake Study.
U.S. Army Engineer District, San Francisco, September 1975. 157p
Key Words: arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, nickel, lead,
selenium, zinc.
Abstract:
This is a study on the uptake of heavy metals by marine
i nvertebrates .
365
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Dreisbach, R.H.
Handbook of Poisoning: Diagnosis and Treatment.
Lange Medical Publications, Los Altos, Calif. 1971.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This is a handbook on poisoning from and toxicity of
a variety of chemicals and heavy metals and includes
discussions on symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment.
366
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Drewry, W.A. and R. Eliassen.
Virus Movement in Groundwater.
JWPCF. 40(8) :R257-R271. August 1968.
Key Words: viruses, direct contact, groundwater.
Abs tract:
1. Bacterial viruses can serve as useful tools toward
understanding the mechanisms involved in the movement
of virus particles through porous media such as sub-
surface waste disposal systems. However, there are
limitations on the adequacy of bacterial viruses serv-
ing as models for animal viruses. These limitations
must be recognized and taken into consideration in the
interpretation of any work where bacterial viruses are
used as models for animal viruses.
2. Virus retention by soils is an adsorption process
and is affected to a greater or lesser extent by many
environmental conditions. The adsorption processes
observed in this study are characterized by linear ad-
sorption isotherms.
3. Virus adsorption by soils is greatly affected by the
pH of the water-soil system. This effect is due pri-
marily to the amphoteric nature of the protein shell
of the virus particles. At lower pH values, below 7.0
to 7.5, virus adsorption is rapid and effective to a
high degree. Higher pH values considerably decrease
the effectiveness of virus adsorption by soils because
of increased ionization of the carboxyl groups of the
virus protein and increasing negative charge on the soil
particles.
4. Virus adsorption by some soils is greatly enhanced
by increasing the cation concentration of the liquid
phase of a soil-water system. The cations present in
the water neutralize or reduce the repulsive electro-
static potential (the negative charge) on either the
virus particles or the soil particles or both and allow
adsorption to proceed,
5. The ability of a soil to adsorb virus particles
cannot be judged on the basis of the various tests which
normally are used to characterize a soil. In general,
this study indicates that adsorption of virus particles
by soils increases with increasing clay content, silt
content, ion-exchange capacity, and glycerol-retention
capaci ty.
367
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6. Radioisotope-tagged viruses provide a means for
determining almost instantaneous distribution patterns
in continuous-flow column experiments without disturb-
ing the column material or the flow patterns within the
column.
7. Virus movement through soils under saturated condi-
tions should present no great hazard with respect to
underground water supplies. This conclusion would, of
course, be limited to continuous strata of common soils
such as those used in this study. This conclusion
also is contingent on usual public health practices of
placing water wells at least 100 to 150 ft (30 to 46 m)
from septic tank or cesspool drain fields.
368
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Driver, C.H., B.F. Hrutfiord, D.E. Spyridakis, E.B. Welch,
and D.D. Wooldridge.
Assessment of the Effectiveness and Effects of Land Disposal
Methodologies of Waste Water Management.
University of Washington, Seattle for U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, January 1972. 166p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as AD-A019 847).
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, nitrates, phosphates,
elemental contaminants, synthetic/organics ,
viruses, bacteria, ponding/land applications.
Abstract:
This is a state-of-the-art evaluation of the environ-
mental impacts associated with secondary treated waste
water disposal by spray irrigation, rapid infiltration
ponds, and overland runoff.
369
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Drummond, R.A., G.F. Olson, and A.R. Batterman.
Cough Response and Uptake of Mercury by Brook Trout, Salveli nus
fonti nali s, Exposed to Mercuric Compounds at Different
Hydrogen-ion Concentrations.
Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 103:244-249 .
April 1974.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
The uptake of mercury by brook trout exposed to mercuric
chloride did not differ at pH 6.0 and 9.0.
370
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Dube, D.J., G.D. Veth, and G.F. Lee.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Treatment Plant Effluents.
JWPCF. 4Ji(5):966-972. May 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The results of this study indicate that 6 of the 11
wastewater treatment plants in the study had effluent
concentrations in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 ng/1 of a com-
pound whose chromatogram appeared to match the chroma-
togram of Aroclor 1254. Two sites had effluent concen-
trations greater than 1.0 M-g/1 of equivalent Aroclor 1254.
One city had a maximum concentration of 42 H-g/1 of
equivalent Aroclor 1248 in the effluent waters and
5.2 mg/1 of equivalent Aroclor 1248 in the digester
siudge.
Data from the Cedarburg treatment plant show that the time
of collection is important because the concentration
can vary greatly. The data show that the minimum con-
centrations of PCB's in the Cedarburg plant are prob-
ably 0.13 to 0.30 io.g/1 of equivalent Aroclor 1254, while
maximum concentrations range from 1.5 to 3.1 M-g/1.
Because of hourly fluctuations, it is difficult to
determine precisely the total amount of PCB's being
discharged into receiving waters without hourly sampling
of the effluent at a given site.
Of the various samples of waste effluents collected,
the estimated mass transport of PCB's varied from
<0.2 x ID3' to 142 x 103- Ib/day (0.9 x 10*- to 64.5 x
103' kg/day). At Racine, an equivalent of 41.1 Ib
PCB/yr (18.7 kg/yr) flowed into the near shore waters
of Lake Michigan.
Based on the study at the Cedarburg plant, it seems
that the treatment of domestic waters removes 70 per-
cent or more of the PCB's (Aroclor 1254) present in
incoming wastes. The fact that most of the PCB's are
removed by treatment is also evident in the compara-
tively high concentration of PCB's found in the digester
and primary settling sludges.
371
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Duboise, S.M., B.P. Sagik, and B.E.D. Moore.
Virus Migration through Soils.
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F. Malina,
Jr., and B. P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at Austin, Center
for Research in Water Resources, 1974. pp. 233-240.
Key Words: viruses, polio virus, ponding/land application,
land reclamation.
Abstract:
Both continuous and intermittent flow experiments
indicate that T7 and poliovirus I are not absorbed
rapidly enough to prevent breakthrough. Both viruses
have been found in the eluent in infectious form after
four days. A marked difference between continuous
and intermittent flow data with T7 was observed. Much
less T7 per volume unit passed through the columns under
intermittent flow conditions than with continuous flow.
Such a difference is not as marked with poliovirus I.
It cannot be said with confidence at this time that
such a difference exists at all using polio. The contin-
uous flow columns suggest that in this soil, more polio I
than T7 adsorbs in the initial period after virus appli-
cation. Considering that T7 is considerably larger than
polio I, the continuous flow data indicate that adsorp-
tion phenomena probably have more impact upon virus
migration through this soil than do any hindrances due
to size.
The implications of this data for terrestrial waste
disposal projects are rather limited since water was
used as eluent instead of treated sewage effluent and
much larger quantities of virus were used than would
be found under the conditions of irrigation projects.
The data should, however, give some indication of what
might happen to some viruses in relatively pure ground
water. The T7 data suggest that use of irrigation
systems spread over large areas and operating in a
very intermittent fashion might be highly advantageous
to maximize virus adsorption by the soil.
372
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Duddles, G.A., S.F. Richardson, and E.F. Barth.
Plastic-Medium Trickling Filters for Biological Nitrogen
Control.
JWPCF. 4.6(5):937-947. May 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, trickling filters.
Abstract:
An overview of this study indicates that the nitrifying
plastic-medium trickling filter is a stable unit process,
capable of producing a high-quality effluent, even
under adverse conditons. Because final clarification
may not be required after the trickling filter and
because of the ease and low cost of trickling filter
operation, the economics of this process compare favor-
ably with those of other biological or chemical-physical
systems for nitrogen control. Based on the actual per-
formance results of this study, the preliminary design
guidelines are summarized as follows. This information
is dependent on key variables such as temperature,
seasonal regulatory requirements, carbonaceous loadings,
and the absence of inhibiting toxicity.
373
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Duedall , I.W., H.B. O'Connors, and B. Irwin.
Fate of Wastewater Sludge in the New York Bight Apex.
JWPCF. £7_(n) :2702-2706. November 1975.
Key Words: adeno virus, Staphylococcu s aure us, Clostridi urn
botuli nurn, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The objectives of this report are (a) to report some
values for the total organic carbon (TOC), organic
nitrogen (ON), total carbohydrate (TCH) , and caloric
content of dried sludge, and (b) to make some inferences
as to the fate of ocean-dumped sludges based on the
sludge analyses, some preliminary carbon and nitrogen
analyses of sediment from the apex, and recently reported
iji situ oxygen utilization observations in sediments
underlying a sludge disposal area.
374
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Dugan, G.L., R.H.F. Young, P.C. Ekern, and P.C.S. Loh.
Land Disposal of Sewage in Hawaii a Reality?
Water and Sewage Works. 121(11) :64-65. November 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, total dissolved
solids, viruses.
Abstract:
The feasibility of sewage effluent application in irriga-
tion of grassland and sugarcane culture is under study on
Oahu, Hawaii. Facilities employed for the project included
the construction of several 5-ft. (1.5 m) deep field lysi-
meters with surface coverings of Bermuda grass, sugarcane,
and also bare soil; and the sampling of leachate collected
from sugarcane fields being irrigated with secondary
effluent and ditch water.
375
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Dugan, G.L., R.H.E Young, L.S. Lau, P.C. Ekern, and P.C.S. Loh.
Land Disposal of Wastewater in Hawaii.
JWPCF. 47(8):2067-2087. August 1975.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites,
phosphates, total dissolved solids, total organic
carbon, boron, viruses, 1eptospirosis, Escherichi a
coli , Vibrio cholerae, polio virus, fecal strepto-
cocci, activated sludge, chlorination, ponding/land
application, crops, effluent characteristics."
Abstract:
In order to consider seriously the use of land treatment
and disposal or the utilization of wastewater effluent and
to develop information to supplement a water quality
management plan for Oahu, the city and county of Honolulu
sponsored a study to determine the feasibility of waste-
water effluent application by the irrigation of grassland
and sugar cane culture and to ascertain the probable
effect on groundwater quality, particularly in terms of
dissolved solids and enteric virus transmission and
survival.
376
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Dugan, P. R.
Bioflocculation and the Accumulation of Chemicals by Floe-
Forming Organisms.
EPA -600/2-75-032, Ohio State University, Columbus, Dept. of
Microbiology, September 1975. 152p, (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-245 793).
Key Words: cobalt, iron, nickel, aldrin, activatjed sludge.
Abstract:
Several floe-forming bacteria were isolated from pol-
luted water by this and other laboratories. All
organisms studied produced extracellular polymer fibrils
that were related to f1occulation . The extracellular
polymers have high adsorption capacity for: soluble
metal and other mineral ions, soluble organic nutrients
(BOD), soluble toxic organics, insoluble mineral part-
icles and insoluble organic particulates. The bacteria
remove BOD by physical adsorption as well as by oxidative
metabolism and can convert oxygen demanding organics to
more extracellular polymer. Production of polymer can
be stimulated nutritionally to yield amounts that have
waste treatment-pollution abatement potential on a
commercial scale. The relationship of bioflocculation
to waste treatment and lake RUt^ophication is discussed
and the basic mechanism of bioflocculation is considered.
Biochemical activity of individual floe-forming cells
is examined because of its relevance to polymer syn-
thesis. Taxonomy of floe-formers is also considered
in relationship to biochemical activities.
377
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Dunbar, D.D. and J.G.F. Henry.
Pollution Control Measures for Stormwater and Combined Sewer
Overflows .
JWPCF. 38.(l):9-26. January 1966.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, bacteria, combined
municipal/Stormwater systems.
Abstract:
Studies of 5-day BOD, suspended solids, and coliform
concentrations in mixed Stormwater and raw sewage dis-
charges leave little doubt that combined sewer outfall
works are an important source of water pollution.
378
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Dunham, J., R.W. O'Gara, and F.B. Taylor.
Studies on Pollutants from Processed Water: Collection
from Three Stations and Biologic Testing for Toxicity and
Carci nogenesi s.
Public Health. 57.( 1 2) : 21 78-21 85 . December 1967.
Key Words: epidemiology, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Pollutants in drinking water, adsorbed on carbon
filters and eluted by chloroform and by alcohol, were
collected for one year from the supply of New Orleans,
La., which had a high bladder cancer incidence, and
from two stations supplying Birmingham, Ala., which
had a low bladder cancer incidence. The water from all
three sources had been processed for human consumption
before being passed through the carbon filters. The
toxicity of extracts of pollutants was studied by sub-
cutaneous injection in newborn albino mice. The
carcinogenicity of extracts, administered at tolerated
doses, was tested by the same method. Tumors attribut-
able to the pollutants were not induced in the tissues
examined, including the bladder, during the experimental
period of 78 weeks.
Pollution of drinking water by chemicals and some aspects
of detection of carcinogenic pollutants are briefly
discussed. The question of whether drinking water con-
tains agents that can produce cancer 1n man is still
undetermined and requires further study.
379
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Dunlap, W.J., R.L. Cosby, J.F. McNabb, B.D. Bledsoe, and
M. R. Scalf.
Investigations Concerning Probable Impact of Nitrilotriacetic
Acid on Ground Water.
Robert S. Kerr Water Research Center, Ada, Oklahoma, November
1971. 59p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-208 433).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, air, direct contact,
groundwater.
Abstract:
Laboratory studies were employed to investigate the fate
and effect of NTA both in ground waters and in soil pro-
files overlying ground waters.
Studies of the sorption of NTA by sand, loam, and clay-loam
soils indicated that sorption of NTA on soils could slow
its movement into and through ground waters. Sorption will
probably not be sufficient to prevent or greatly reduce
potential pollution of ground water by NTA used as a deter-
gent builder.
Soil column studies were employed to investigate the degra-
dation and effect on metals of NTA infiltrating through
soils. These studies indicated: NTA infiltrating through
most unsaturated soils likely would undergo rapid and
complete degradation and contribute only inorganic nitro-
gen compounds and carbonate to ground waters; NTA infil-
trating through saturated soils would probably experience
only very limited degradation, with a major portion enter-
ing ground water intact; any NTA which escaped degradation
during infiltration through soils could transport such
metals as iron, zinc, chromium, lead, cadmium, and mercury
from soils into ground waters.
Studies with model aquifers constructed from natural aquifer
sand indicated that NTA would likely undergo slow degrada-
tion in essentially anaerobic ground-water environments,
with production of C02. CH^, and possibly other organic
compounds.
380
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Dunlop, S.G.
Survival of Pathogens and Related Disease Hazards.
In; Municipal Sewage Effluent for Irrigation. C.W. Wilson
and F.E. Beckett, eds. Agricultural Engineering Department
Symposium, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, La., 1968
pp. 102-122.
Key Words: salmonella, shigella, parasitic worms, coliforms,
polio virus, coxsackie v i r u s , ECHO virus,
hepatitis virus, leptospirosis, crops.
Abstract:
This is an excellent review on the topic matter. Lit-
erature is very conveniently structured in chart form.
381
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Dunstan, W.M.
Problems of Measuring and Predicting Influence of Effluents
on Marine Phytoplankton.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_(7)-.635-638. July 1975
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, copper,
iron, nickel, zinc, surface water (marine),
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Concentrations of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in
sewage effluents are high enough to increase the
levels of these nutrients in coastal waters and thereby
to influence phytoplankton ecology. A variety of
algae cultured in several samples from one treatment
plant failed to grow to the levels that would be pre-
dicted based on the N and P concentrations. Effluents
from other treatment plants were even less predictable.
Furthermore, different groups of algae and species within
these groups varied in their response to different ef-
fluents which were matched in N and P concentrations.
Effluent from one plant which produced deficient growth,
based on the N and P concentrations, grew to expected
levels when trace metals were added to the effluent.
While N and P added to the coastal environment from
sewage effluent stimulates general phytoplankton growth,
the addition of effluents emphasizes the role of minor
growth substances which might otherwise not have been
important in the N-limited coastal region. These fac-
tors then become important in causing changes in the
pattern of phytoplankton production, distribution, and
population dynamics.
382
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Durston, W.E. and B.N. Ames.
A Simple Method for the Detection of Mutagens in Urine: Studies
with the Carcinogen 2-Acetylaminof1uorene .
Proceedings National Academy of Sciences. 71(3) .-737-741 .
March 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This article describes an application of the Ames test
for the detection of mutagenic metabolites in urine.
383
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Durum, W.H. and J.D. Hem.
An Overview of Trace Element Distribution Patterns in Water.
Annals New York Academy of Science. ]M3£:26-36. June 28, 1972,
Key Words: arsenic, cadmium, lead, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article gives levels of trace element distribu-
tion in surface water throughout the United States.
384
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Eastman, P.W.
Municipal Wastewater Reuse for Irrigation.
Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, ASCE.
93_(IR3):25-31. September 1967.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, groundwater.
Abstract:
In the arid and semi-arid part of the United States,
the reclamation of water from municipal sewage is
becoming increasingly recognized as an important
water conservation measure as well as a means of
preventing and abating pollution of streams and
other receiving waters. As the costs of water
supply development increase with the distance of
transport or other factors, renovation or upgrading
the quality of wastewater for direct reuse becomes
economically attractive and, in fact, almost impera-
tive. Land application of treated wastewater for
crop irrigation or other purposes is an increasingly
desirable pollution control alternative to discharge
of treated wastes to streams, etc. As waste loads
increase, the residual loads after present day con-
ventional complete treatment (85% to 90% removal of
suspended solids and oxygen demanding organics and
35% to 50% removal of nutrients) will in many cases
overtax the assimilative ability of streams and
other water bodies.
385
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Eaton, P.M.
Chlori ne.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.O. Chapman, ed,
Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp. 98-135.
Key Words: chlorides, ponding/land application, land
reclamation, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Chlorine is the most recent element to be confirmed as
essential to the growth of plants. The author gives
symptoms of chloride deficiency and excess and the use
of tissue analysis data in diagnosing chloride status.
He also discusses chloride in rain water and soils and the
control of chloride deficiency and excess with special
emphasis on the experience of the Netherlands with chloride
toxicity, as a result of the inundations of polders during
the Second World War. He concludes with remarks on the
chloride tolerance of plants as measured in sand and
water cultures as well as their tolerance to total salt.
386
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Eberhardt, W.A. and J.B. Nesbitt.
Chemical Precipitation of Phosphorus in a High-Rate
Activated Sludge System.
JWPCF. 4_0(7) :1239-1267. July 1968.
Key Words: phosphates, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
In view of the experimental findings of the present
study and of previous related work it can be con-
cluded that:
1. Essentially complete removals of soluble
phosphorus are attainable by the combined biological-
chemical process studied. The removal efficiency
depends on pH and the A1:P molar ratio. In this »
study an A1:P ratio of 1.5 to 2.1 was necessary to
effect almost complete removals.
2. Without filtration, the phosphorus content of
the combined process effluent depends on both
soluble levels and suspended solids concentrations.
For the domestic wastewater investigative con-
ditions an aluminum sulfate dosage greater than
that necessary to produce a low soluble residual
was required for satisfactory flocculation and
clari ficati on .
3. The biological performance of the activated
sludge as measured by soluble organic substrate
removal was not affected adversely by additions
of aluminum sulfate as high as 335 mg/1. More-
over, the aluminum sulfate itself did not effect
significant removals of soluble BODr or LAS.
4. The addition of aluminum sulfate favorably
decreased the SVI of the HRAS mixed liquor.
5. In addition to significantly increased
phosphorus removals, the biological-chemical
process investigated offers the advantages of
increased BODjj (unfiltered effluent) and
suspended solids removals over those of an
HRAS process operating under similar conditions
without aluminum sulfate addition. The former
process at optimum chemical dosage would pro-
duce more sludge by weight and less sludge by
volume .
387
-------
6. The 6005 (unfiltered effluent) and suspended
solids removals of the combined process under the
conditions of the present study and a typical
conventional activated sludge process would be
approximately the same. The volumes of sludge
produced by the two also would be similar, whereas
the former process would produce a greater weight
of sludge. The combined process, naturally, would
produce significantly lower phosphorus residuals.
7. The combined process does not require a
separate flocculation basin for effective per-
formance. With domestic wastewater, however, the
point of chemical application and time of floccu-
lation require consideration.
8. The theoretical aeration period required by
the biological-chemical process investigated
is from one third to one half that typically used
with conventional activated sludge. The savings
realized from the decreased detention time will
at least partially offset the costs of chemical
treatment.
9. The conventional MLVS parameter was not an
acceptable measure of biological mass in the
biological-chemical system investigated.
10. In both the HRAS and combined biological-
chemical systems studied, the LAS removals were
excellent and essentially equal to the associated
BODC removals.
b
388
-------
Eckenfelder, W .W. > Jr.
Wastewater Treatment Design: Economics and Techniques
Part I.
Water and Sewage Works. 122(6):62-65. September 1975
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, COD, nitrates, phosphates,
total dissolved solids, activated sludge,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article discusses the techniques and cost
of biological treatment plants.
389
-------
The Ecology of the Southern California Bight: Implica-
tion for Water Quality Management.
SCCWRP TR104. Southern California Coastal Water Research
Project, El Segundo, California, March 1973.
Key Words: iron, nickel, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
total organic carbon, zinc, manganese,
chromium, cadmium, copper, cobalt, lead,
mercury, surface water (marine),shellf1sh ,
fish.
Abstract:
Discussed are the distribution of metals and
chlorinated hydrocarbons in water, sediments,
and fauna of the Southern California Bight, and
characteristics of a wastewater treatment effluent
entering the area for general contaminants,
metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and PCB's.
390
-------
Ed mis ten, J.A.
Agricultural Utilization of Digested Sludges from the
City of Pensacola.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the National
Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, 1974. pp. 177-182
Key Words: aluminum, iron, manganese, copper, zinc,
chromium, lead, nickel, mercury, cadmium,
boron, arsenic, cobalt, molybdenum, selenium,
ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
crops, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
This article lists data on crops grown in sludge.
391
-------
Edwards, V.H. and P.P. Schubert.
Removal of 2, 4-D and Other Persistent Organic Mole-
cules from Water Supplies by Reverse Osmosis.
JAWWA. 66.(10:610-616). October 1974.
Key Words: pesticides, DDT, suspended solids,
viruses, bacteria, herbicides, tertiary
treatment.
Abstract:
Re :concentration of pesticides or other refractory
organics in water prior to analysis. As does
adsorption on active carbon and solvent extrac-
tion, reverse osmosis shows varying selectivity
for pesticide residues depending on the residue,
residue concentration, membrane, and the presence
of other solutes. Retentions are higher in some
cases and lower in others than those obtainable
with the competitive sample-concentration methods
of adsorption or of solvent extraction.
Pesticides such as DDT with very low aqueous
solubilities, which form colloidal particles,
aggregates, micelles, or macro-molecules, are
more efficiently removed than compounds such
as 2,4-D, which is sparingly soluble, or phenol,
which is highly soluble in the membrane. Vapor
pressure and many other variables also may be
correlating factors.
Reversible sorption of the solute by the mem-
brane appears to be important in a significant
number of instances tested for this report, as
well as a number of cases in the literature.
Very high membrane sorption and coupled solvent-
solute flow appear to account for the negative
rejections of organics such as phenol. Con-
versely, irreversible sorption of a pesticide
by a membrane has not been reported in the
1i terature.
Reverse osmosis remains a candidate for water-
sample concentration prior to pesticide
analysis, especially because 2,4-D is some-
what atypical in its aqueous solubility (and
perhaps also in its membrane permeability);
also, reverse osmosis is a method that con-
centrates both dissolved and suspended solids.
However, additional study of the removal of
392
-------
pesticides and other refractory organics by
reverse osmosis is needed.
Regarding the purification of natural or reuse water
reverse-osmosis membranes remove bacteria and
viruses quantitatively in the absence of
membrane defects. This could be a significant
advantage in schemes for reuse of treated
domestic wastes or the use of low-grade water
supplies. Conductivity measurements could be
used to detect membrane defects. Chlorination
of ozonation would still be required, but
quantity might be reduced by lower levels of
coliforms, organics, and ammonia in the water
to be treated.
393
-------
Eganhouse, R.P. Jr.
Mercury in Sediments.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.
Annual Report. El Segundo, Calif., June 30, 1976. pp.83-90
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Results show that levels of total mercury in the
surface sediments on the Palos Verdes shelf
dropped slightly between 1972 and 1975, although
the exact cause of this decrease is still un-
certain. Organic mercury, consituting up to
2.3 percent of the total mercury in Palos Verdes
sediments, appears to have been concentrated in
the regions where total mercury values were
highest, except for two stations near the out-
falls, where organic values dropped. The highest
level observed for total organic mercury was
0.021 M-g/dry g. Data on the relationship between
total volatile solids and total mercury showed
that mercury in the surface sediments is probably
trapped in the refractory component and is
largely unavailable to the benthic animals.
The Project's studies of mercury are reviewed
in a technical memorandum released this year
(Eganhouse e_t aJL 1976). Studies are now under-
way to determine how the metal is partitioned
among the various sediment phases.
394
-------
Eganhouse, R.P., Jr. and D.R. Young.
Mercury in Benthic Animals.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.
Annual Report. El Segundo, Calif., June 30, 1976. pp. 111-116
Key Words: mercury, air, direct contact, shellfish,
fish.
Abstract:
The survey involved collection and analysis of
tissues from Dover sole, crab, prawn, snail,
urchin, and sea slug. The levels of total
mercury are very low with none exceeding U.S.
FDA guidelines. Organic mercury constitutes
the major fraction of the total mercury in
muscle tissues of sole, crab, and prawn. The
tissue mercury content seemed to be independent
of sediment mercury values, suggesting that
the mercury in the sediments is largely un-
available to benthic organisms.
395
-------
Eganhouse, R.P., Jr. and D.R. Young.
Mercury in Mussels.
Southern California Coastal Research Project.Annual
Report. El Segundo, Calif., June 30, 1976. pp. 105-110.
Key Words: mercury, shellfish.
Abstract:
The results of these experiments demonstrate the
value of M. caiifornianus as an environmental
bioindicator. Our studies showed that, of the
three tissues analyzed, digestive gland con-
tained the highest levels of mercury and ex-
perienced the fastest uptake. Adductor muscle
and gonadal tissues had markedly slower accumu-
lation rates. These results tend to support the
idea that digestive gland analyses reflect
environmental mercury levels, but that adductor
muscle and gonadal tissues are more accurate
indicators of the extent of physiological in-
corporation. The digestive gland mercury con-
centrations appear to reflect relatively short-
term changes in the environment. The gradual
accumulation of mercury in adductor muscle and
gonadal tissues, however, appears to result
primarily from a chronic exposure to mercury.
396
-------
Egeland, D.R.
Land Disposal I: A Giant Step Backward.
JWPCF. 4_5(7)-.1465-1475. July 1973.
Key Words: tertiary water treatment, land disposal.
Abstract:
In the short span of four years, the practice
of land disposal has been raised from near ex-
tinction to a position of national eminence.
Enthusiasts for land disposal seemingly are un-
aware that past experience and current research
quite clearly indicate that continuous applica-
tion of modern wastev/ater to large areas of land
will ultimately work havoc on the fragile, thin
skin of soil that covers the earth and could
permanently contaminate critical groundwater
supplies. The danger posed by land disposal is
not so much the threat of devastating land and
water, however, for surely that will never come
to pass; the real danger is that enormous amounts
of limited funds, critical time, valuable human
resources, and irreplaceable energy resources
could be wasted on false starts into obsolete
technologies that at the outset did not hold
forth a complete or viable solution to the prob-
lem while far more promising programs are aborted
Fortunately, the wastewater technology pro-
fessionals continue to meet the crises of the
day and proceed methodically toward their goal
of selective separation and useful recycling of
wastewater resources. Demeaned by a Senate
committee, discredited by the Army, maligned by
youthful consumer advocates, ridiculed in pop-
ular journals, and hampered by a lack of
adequate research funds, these professionals
are nevertheless hammering out a standard pollu-
tion profile and seem to be on the verge of
dramatic breakthroughs in their quest for
methods of treatment that will be ecologically
beneficial and economically profitable, and
which will place minimum demands on the nation's
natural and energy resources.
397
-------
Ehrlich, G.G., T.A. Ehlke, and J. Vecchioli.
Microbiological Aspects of Ground-Water Recharge --
Injection of Purified Unchlorinated Sewage Effluent
at Bay Park, Long Island, New York.
U.S. Geological Survey Journal of Research. J_:341-344
May 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Unchlorinated, tertiary-treated sewage effluent
was injected through a well at Bay Park, Long
Island, N.Y., into a sand aquifer at a rate of
340 gpm for 10 days. Massive, biologically
produced slime deposits formed in the filter
pack immediately adjacent to the well screen.
Observed head buildup in the recharge well
was correlated with the formation of these
deposits. Comparison of results from this test
with results of earlier tests suggests that
formation of these deposits may be avoided by
addition of chlorine to the injectant.
398
-------
Eichelberger, J.W. and J.J. Lichtenberg.
Persistence of Pesticides in River Water.
Environmental Science and Technology. 5/.541-544.
June 1971.
Key Words: aldrin, dieldrin, DDE, ODD, DDT, endrin,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, organo-
phosphorous pesticides, surface water
(fresh).
Abstract:
The persistence of 28 common pesticides in raw
river water was studied over an eight-week period
Twelve organochlorine, nine organophosphorus,
and seven carbamate pesticides were studied at
a concentration of 10 Kg/liter. No measurable
degradation or chemical change was observed for
the following organochlorine compounds: BHC,
heptachlor epoxide, dieldrin, DDE, DDT, ODD,
and endrin. Azodrin was the only organo-
phosphorus compound that was stable through the
study. All carbamate compounds were signifi-
cantly changed after one week, and all but Bay-
gon were completely lost after eight weeks.
Where possible, the degradation or chemical
conversion products of the pesticides were
identified.
399
-------
Eliassen, R. and G. Tchobanoglous.
Chemical Processing of Wastewater for Nutrient
Removal .
JWPCF. 40.(5):R171-R180. May 1968.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, adsorption/
ion exchange, nitrification/denitrifica-
tion, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Nutrients are compounds capable of stimulating
the growth of algae and other aquatic plants.
Interest in these compounds and substances
stems from the adverse effects of their pre-
sence in water and wastewater.
Nutrient-removal methods may be classified as
biological, chemical, and physical. Chemical
methods for the removal of nitrogen include
ammonia stripping, ion exchange, and electro-
chemical treatment. Chemical methods for the
removal of phosphorus include chemical pre-
cipitation, ion exchange, sorption, and elecro-
chemical treatment. Typical removal efficien-
cies are 80-98 percent and 85-99 percent for
nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, respectively.
In planning and designing facilities to be used
for nutrient removal the key factors which must
be considered are: (a) the nutrient or
nutrients to be removed, (b) the use to be made
of the treated wastewater -- this will normally
govern the required nutrient-removal efficiency,
(c) the available means for disposing of the
ultimate contaminants, and (d) the economic
feasi bi1i ty.
400
-------
Eliassen, R. and G. Tchobanoglous.
Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus from Wastewater.
Environmental Science and Technology. 3^:536-541.
June 1969.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, trickling filter,
chemical treatment, adsorption/ion
exchange, nitrification/denitrification,
ponding/land application.
Abstract:
This article is a good overview on the removal
of nutrients from wastewater.
401
-------
Eliassen, R,, B.M. Wyckoff, and C.D. Tonkin.
Ion Exchange for Reclamation of Reusable Supplies.
JAWWA. 57(9):iii3-H22. September 1965.
Key Words: phosphates, chlorides, COD, adsorption/ion exchange,
Abstract:
Among the several treatment processes used at the Water
Reclamation Demonstration Plant at Stanford University,
the ion-exchange process appears to have the most poten-
tial for effective tertiary treatment to recover reusable
water from municipal waste waters. Inorganic material,
such as nitrogen and phosphorus compounds as well as
organic material can be removed in one operation providing
that filtration precedes the ion-exchange process.
Water suitable for many purposes, including surface sto-
rage, can be produced at a cost competitive with existing
supplies in high-cost areas. Diatomaceous-earth filtra-
tion, followed by anion exchange, can be accomplished at
a cost of about 21 cents per 1,000 gal, including all
plant costs for operation, maintenance, and capital
recovery. All work has been done at Palo Alto, where
treated sewage has a relatively high chloride content
resulting from infiltration. Results should be better
and costs should be lower under more favorable conditions.
Although water reclaimed with ion exchange will still con-
tain some phosphorus and nitrogen compounds, the problem
of algae growth in reservoirs will be greatly minimized.
A lesser degree of nutrient removal, and consequent
lower-cost treatment, would suffice for recharge of
reclaimed waters to the ground. Reusable water is an
added resource which the water utility profession must
consider in water-short areas.
402
-------
Ellis, E.G.
The Soil as a Chemical Filter.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Waste-
water Through Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and
L.T. Kardos, eds. EPA-660/274-003, Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, Institute for Research on
Land and Water Resources, March 1974. pp. 47-72.
Key Words': phosphates, boron, zinc, copper, iron,
manganese, ponding/land applications,
agricultural sludge disposal.
Abstract:
The soil has many times been referred to as
"the living filter." But it serves as a
chemical filter as well through the many
organic and inorganic chemical reactions which
occur when wastewater passes through the soil
profile. In addition, the soil may chemically
alter many of the materials which have been
introduced into the profile by the addition
of either wastewater or sludge. These altera-
tions may lessen the environmental impact (for
example, through conversion of organic materials
to carbon dioxide thereby reducing the biologi-
cal oxygen demand carried in the water) or may
increase the environmental hazard (for example,
through the conversion of organic nitrogen to
nitrate, a much more hazardous material).
Therefore, it is imperative that the soil
chemistry be thoroughly understood and the
various reactions used to optimize the "system"
when applying waste to land so that environ-
mental hazards will be at an absolute minimum.
In addition to purification of the wastewater
passing through the soil profile, the accumu-
lation of ions or compounds in the soil must
not leave a residue which is harmful to either
plant growth or to the animal or human consum-
ing the crop. Our soil is a very precious
resource. It must not be sacrificed 1n an
effort to clean up our water resources.
The areas of soil chemistry which are of most
importance for the soil to act as a chemical
filter are: (1) ion exchange, (2) adsorption
and precipitation, and (3) chemical alteration.
403
-------
Ellis, B.G. and B.D. Knezek.
Adsorption Reactions of Micronutrients in Soils.
In: Micronutrients in Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer,
ed. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin* 1972
pp. 59-78.
Key Words: copper, zinc, iron, aluminum, boron,
manganese, ponding/land application,
land reclamation.
Abstract:
Adsorption of micronutrients by soils and soil
materials has been described by Freundlich or
Langmuir equations. While both equations have
been shown to describe adsorption of micro-
nutrients under certain experimental conditions,
neither is satisfactory under widely varying
conditions. The need to relate quantity of
adsorption and desorption of nutrients to levels
in soil solution in order to control toxicities
and deficiencies of micronutrients is self-
evi dent.
Copper and Zn are known to exist as exchangeable
ions and also to be bound by organic matter.
The role of hydrolysis in their adsorption is
still unclear. It has been suggested that
hydrolysis of these cations near the clay sur-
face may occur to a greater degree than in the
bulk of the solution. But good evidence of this
is lacking. Once these cations are adsorbed they
may move into lattice positions in clay minerals.
Conclusive evidence of solid-state diffusion
is needed, and an evaluation of the rate of
solid-state diffusion of Cu and Zn is not avail-
able.
The role of the oxides and hydroxides of Fe and
Al in adsorption of B and Mo has been greatly
clarified in recent years. In addition, limited
data have been presented to substantiate the
theory that B can be incorporated into tetra-
hedral layers of silicate minerals by solid-
state diffusion. More investigations are needed
to establish the rate of such diffusion and
the influence of layer silicate species upon
this mechanism. The theory developed by Hing-
ston offers explanations for
404
-------
the change in adsorption maximum with pH for
weak acids. Although the data to verify this
theory are limited for adsorption of B and Mo
by a variety of adsorbing materials, it should
add to our understanding of the mechanisms of
adsorption of these ions.
Adsorption reactions of Fe and Mn have received
relatively little attention in the past because
precipitation reactions exert control of the
level of these nutrients in solutions in most
instances. Adsorption of Fe by montmori11onite
and kaolinite has been shown to occur under
acid conditions. It should also be expected that
adsorption of both Fe and Mn under reducing con-
ditions could occur. Limited data suggest that
adsorption of Mn by organic matter may form
complexes sufficiently stable to compete with
precipitation as the mechanism controlling Mn
levels in certain soils, particularly those high
in organic matter. Considerable effort is needed
to clarify the mechanisms of adsorption of
Mn under these conditions.
405
-------
Ember, L.
The Specter of Cancer.
Environmental Science and Technology. £(13): 1116-1121
December 1975.
Key Words: general contaminants, elemental contam-
inants, pesticides, synthetic /orgam'cs ,
drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
This article gives a general review of causes
and consequences of carcenogens, and possible
solutions for cure or arrestment of cancer.
406
-------
Engineering Evaluation of Virus Hazard in Water.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
!96.(SA1 )111-160. February 1970.
Key Words: viruses, hepatitis virus, polio virus, ECHO virus,
coxsackie virus, trickling filters,
surface water (fresh), shellfish, activated
sludge, filtration, chlorination.
Abstract:
There is no doubt that the virus of infectious hepatitis
can be transmitted by drinking water as can enteric viruses
and other possible causative agents of viral gastroenteritis
A risk of infectious hepatitis infection results from
consumption of raw or steamed underpurated shellfish taken
from sewage polluted waters.
Inadequacy of methods for detecting, identifying, and
enumerating viruses in samples of water still constitutes
an important gap in water quality control. Current United
States practice in the use of sewage effluent for irrigation
purposes is acceptable in reducing risks of virus disease
to an undetectable level.
407
-------
England, B.
Recovery of Viruses from Waste and Other Waters by Chemical
Methods
Developments in Industrial Microbiology. 1_5/. 174-183. 1973.
Key Words: viruses, chemical treatment, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Concentration of virus particles in water and sewage
samples before they are inoculated into cell cultures
permits the recovery of viruses that otherwise would
go undetected. Techniques currently available include
viral adsorption to various substances, followed by viral
desorption into a small volume of eluent. Early work
in 1953 made use of an ion-exchange resin for adsorption
of viruses, and subsequent years have seen methods devel-
oped for adsorption of viruses to, and elution from in-
soluble polyelectrolytes, iron oxide, and precipitate
salts such as aluminum hydroxide and calcium phosphate.
Eluents generally consist of alkaline buffers or solutions
containing serum or other proteinaceous substances.
Another technique that has found wide usage employs
separation by aqueous polymer two-phase systems such
as dextran and polyethylene glycol. Certain viruses
can be concentrated from albumin-supplemented samples
by treatment with protamine sulfate, the virus being
recovered by dissolving the resultant precipitate in a
small volume of sodium chloride. Most of these con-
centration methods are efficient and practical for
sample volumes of several liters or less, quantities
that suffice for testing raw sewage or grossly contam-
inated waters; few of the methods are applicable to the
many-gallon samples necessary for testing highly treated,
potable, or recreational waters.
408
-------
England, B., R.E. Leach, B. Adams, and R. Shiosaki.
Virologic Assessment of Sewage Treatment at Santee,
Cali fornia.
In: Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route. G. Berg, ed
Wiley, New York, 1965. pp. 401-417.
Key Words: viruses, gravity separators, activated sludge,
aerated lagoons, chlorination.
Abstract:
Recreational lakes for boating, fishing, and swimming
have been developed at Santee, California, from water
reclaimed from sewage. The series of processes employed
by the treatment plant was assessed for viral removal.
Primary settling was ineffective. Activated sludge
treatment significantly decreased virus concentrations,
but effected little reduction of the number of positive
specimens. Nineteen percent of the specimens contained
viruses after detention in an oxidation pond. Less
than 10% of the chlorinated effluents from the oxidation
pond yielded viruses. Percolation through a natural
sand and gravel layer removed attenuated poliovirus
fir'an experimental test. Over a 33-month period, no
viruses were recovered from recreational lake samples.
409
-------
Englebrecht, R.S., D.H. Foster, E .0 . -Greening, and
S.H. Lee.
New Microbial Indicators of Wastewater Chiorination
Efficiency.
EPA-670/2-73-082, University of 111inois-Urbana , Dept.
of Civil Engineering, February 1974. 71p.
Key Words; bacteria, viruses, protozoa, Escherichia
coli , chlorination.
Abstract:
The coliform group of indicator organisms has a
relatively low resistance to chlorine when com-
pared to pathogens such as enteric viruses and
protozoan cysts. Consequently, an effort has
been initiated to find a new chlorine resistant
bioindicator of wastewater chlorination efficien-
cy. A yeast and two different acid-fast bacilli
were found to be resistant to chlorination in
the range considered necessary for the inactiva-
tion of pathogens, including viruses. One acid-
fast bacillus survived 2.0 mg/1 free chlorine
for 67 min while the other survived 1.0 mg/1
free chlorine for 15 min. The yeast resisted
1.0 mg/1 free chlorine for 20 min. In compari-
son, a pure culture of £_._ c_pJJ_ fai 1 ed to survive
five min contact with 0.03 mg/1 free chlorine.
The chlorine resistance and other characteristics
of the yeasts and acid-fast bacilli under study
suggest that they show promise as bioindicators
for wastewater chlorination for the more chlorine
resistant pathogens.
410
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English, J.N., C.W.' Carry, A.N. Masse, J.B. Pitkin, and
F.D. Dryden.
Denitrification in Granular Carbon and Sand Columns.
JWPCF. 4_6(1) :28-42. January 1974.
Key Words: nitrates, filtration, adsorption/ion
exchange.
Abstract:
Efficient denitrification (85 percent removal)
of secondary effluent was promoted in small-
scale carbon and sand columns containing media
having a mean particle diameter of about 0.90 mm,
at empty-bed detention times of less than 10
min, and by the addition of methanol to the
column influent. Denitrification began in the
carbon or sand within five days after beginning
methanol feeding and was not adversely affected
by backwashing. As a result of these findings
and in an effort to capitalize on significant
economies that may be achieved by combining de-
nitrification with carbon adsorption, a large-
scale study was conducted in a 4-stage, fixed
bed, 0.3-mgd (1,140-cu m/day) granular activated
carbon pilot plant to determine the efficiency
of denitrification and its effect on column
operation, COD removal efficiency, and carbon
regenerati on.
Supplementary nitrate was added to secondary
effluent during two carbon column adsorption
sequences to obtain average concentrations of
25.8 and 21.8 mg/1 (NOa-N). Results showed
removals of 80 and 92 percent, respectively,
with most of the denitrification occurring in
the first stage (10-min detention time) and
3 to 4 mg/1 (N03-N) removed, without methanol,
in the subsequent stages. The methanol require-
ment was found to be 1.9 times the nitrate
nitrogen removed plus 1.1 times the DO removed.
Denitrification in the 4-stage column showed
no significant impairment of the carbon's ability
to remove COD in either adsorption sequence.
Removals of 72 percent of COD in the first
sequence and 66 percent in the second were with-
in the range of typical data developed during
the 4 yr prior to initiating denitrification
studies in the column.
411
-------
High headlosses occurred in the first stage and
were caused by increased biological growth.
Backwashing was necessary twice daily, and,
even with this frequency, headlosses averaged
30 to 50 psi (2.1 to 3.5 kg/sq cm) after less
than 12 hr of operation. The biological growths
also caused difficulties with dewatering the
carbon and conveying it into the regeneration
furnace. However, once the carbon entered the
furnace it regenerated normally.
The total cost of a 10 mgd (37,850 cu m/day)
denitrification plant using sand as the media
was estimated at $71/mil gal ($18.80/1,000 cu
m) . If denitrification is combined with
dissolved organic removal in an activated carbon
system, the additional cost for denitrification
was estimated to be $25/mil gal ($7/1,000 cu m) .
412
-------
English, J.N., K.D. Linstedt, and E.R. Bennett.
Research Required to Establish Confidence in the
Potable Reuse of Waste Water.
Presented at the Water Pollution Control Federation Meeting,
Miami Beach, Florida, October 9, 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, antibiotics, activated
sludge, filtration, nitrification/de-
nitrification , chemical treatment,
chlorination, ozonation, radiation treat-
ment, drinking and recreational water,
surface water (fresh).
Abstracts:
It is anticipated that a program undertaking the
research previously described will require a
minimum of 10 to 15 years of intensive work to
develop sufficient information to clearly define
meaningful standards that can be applied with
confidence to potable waters derived from a
polluted source. These standards will have to
be based on realistic public health considera-
tions and have the support of public health
officials at all government levels.
The goals of a direct or overt potable reuse
program are similar to those of the present
EPA Health Effects and Water Supply programs
which have recently identified organic materials
having potential health hazards in many of our
nation's drinking waters. Some of these
supplies contain appreciable quantities of
wastewaters, and their use for domestic pur-
poses can be classified as an indirect or
covert form of potable reuse.
There was a general consensus of the Workshop
attendees that the research identified must
be addressed by both water supply and waste-
water organizations. Even if direct reuse is
not implemented, all the same questions which
have been raised must be answered, and the
technology must be developed to remove poten-
tial health hazard constituents present in
our water supplies .
Any program of the magnitude required to
alleviate the health concerns of both overt
413
-------
and covert potable reuse is not a local or
even a national undertaking. International
coordination is necessary since other nations
such as South Africa, Israel, and some in the
European community are facing deteriorating
and unreliable water supplies, and are actively
researching the problems involved with covert
and overt potable reuse.
414
-------
Enright, J.T., J.L. Gainer, and D.J. Kirwan.
Disinfection of Liquid and Aerosol Viral Systems
Using Immobilized Enzymes.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_( 6) : 586-588 .
June 1975.
Key Words: viruses, groundwater.
Abstract:
Inactivation of viruses contained in liquid
and aerosol environments was achieved using
enzymes immobi1ized on porous glass particles
or ceramic supports. The viruses: Herpes
simplex, Type 1; Coxsackie, A£] ; and two
strains of influenza A were tested. The
nuclease corresponding to the nucleic acid
of the respective virus was found to be the most
effective immobilized enzyme for disinfection
purposes. While liquid phase disinfection was
considerably slower, disinfection of greater
than 95% of the infectious airborne virus was
attained with air contact times of 1 sec.
415
-------
Environmentalists Urge EPA Action Against PCB Discharges on
Hudson River,
Environment Reporter. Current Developments. 6_(19):765.
September 5, 1975.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
EPA should take emergency action to halt the discharge from
General Electric Company and other plants of PCB's into the
Hudson River.
416
-------
Epstein, E.
The Physical Processes in the Soil as Related to
Sewage Sludge Application.
In: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land; Pro-
ceedings of the Joint Conference, July 9-13, 1973. pp. 67-73
Key Words: total dissolved solids, land reclamation.
Abstract:
The physical processes in the soil are dis-
cussed with particular reference to sewage
sludge application.
Adding sewage sludge initially increases the hy-
draulic conductivity of a soil, but the con-
ductivity later decreases. This decrease appears
to be due to clogging of soil pores by micro-
bial decomposition products.
Soil structure affects soil water, soil air,
mechanical impedenceiand root distribution.
Organic matter, through the activity of micro-
organisms, increases soil aggregation. Sewage
sludge application increased the stable
aggregates 16 to 33 percent.
The low oxygen and high carbon dioxide con-
tents in the soil that result from high sludge
application can reduce root growth, nutrient
uptake,and plant growth. Other gas products
of decomposition, such as methane and etheylene,
can be detrimental to plants.
417
-------
Erickson, A.E.
Physical Changes to Soils Used for Land Application of
Municipal Waste -- What Do We Know? What Do We Need
to Know?
In: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land; Pro-
ceedings of the Joint Conference, July 9-13, 1973. pp. 75-77
Key Words: incineration, filtration.
Abstract:
This paper discusses generalities on what effects
sludge, effluent, and sewage have on land for
land disposal considerations; not greatly
applicable to health effects.
418
-------
Ericsson, B.
Nitrogen Removal in a Pilot Plant.
JWPCF. 47(4) :727-740. April 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, nitrification/
denitrification, chemical treatment.
Abstra ct:
The question of nitrogen removal has been discussed in
Sweden; the methods that attracted the most attention
are biological nitrification-denitrification and
ammonia stripping.
According to the experimental results, the adverse
temperature effect, except for chlorination, is most
marked for ammonia stripping. Because heating and
humidifying the air are expensive, it seems that
ammonia stripping will not be considered as a
practical method for nitrogen removal in Sweden. Hence,
the most promising method at present is biological
nitrification-denitrification. The conclusions drawn
from the pilot plant operation with this method
are summari zed .
419
-------
Esvelt, L.A., W.J. Kaufman, and R.E. Selleck.
Toxicity Assessment of Treated Municipal Waste-
waters .
JWPCF. 45.(7):1558-1572. July 1973.
Key Words: activated sludge, trickling filters,
chemical treatment, chlorination.
Abstract:
The principal objectives of this study were to
determine the effectiveness of toxicity removal
from municipal wastewaters by conventional and -
advanced waste treatment processes and to identify
the toxic constituents or to correlate toxicity
with various measurable constituents characterizing
the wastes. Several of the more significant con-
clusions are summarized as follows:
1. For assurance of compliance with toxicity
discharge requirements within a region, it is
desirable to specify standardized fish bioassay
procedures in greater detail than is currently
done in "Standard Methods." For example, it is
preferable to employ larger numbers of a
commercially available test fish giving estab-
lished and consistent test responses. The con-
tinuous-flow, on-line bioassay method is use-
ful for effluent monitoring, especially when a
volatile toxicant may be present or if waste
storage may cause changes in toxicity. However,
the static assay technique provides similar
results, is less costly, and should be accept-
able in many instances.
2. Toxicity concentrations of less than 1
TU, which result when greater than 50 percent
fish survival occurs in 100 percent effluent,
can be estimated from fish mortality data and
the mortality response-toxicity relationship
obtained during this study.
420
-------
Evaluation of Land Application Systems: Evaluation
Checklist and Supporting Commentary.
EPA-430/9-75-001 , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington D.C., Office of Water Program Operations,
March 1975. 182p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-257 440).
Key Words: agriculture, sanitary landfill, land
reelamation.
Abstract:
Procedures are set forth to assist EPA personnel
in evaluating treatment systems that employ land
application of municipal wastewater. In addition,
information and assistance is provided which may
be of value to other federal, state, and local
agencies, the wastewater industry, consultants
and designers.
421
-------
Evaluation of Municipal Sewage Treatment Alternatives.
Battelle Pacific Laboratories, Richland, Washington, February
1974. 428p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-233 489).
Key Words: ponding/land application, chemical treatment,
aerated lagoons, activated sludge, trickling
filters,land reelamation, .incineration, sanitary
landfill .
Abstract:
This is a general discussion of alternatives in the treat-
ment of municipal wastewater.
422
-------
Evans, F.L. Ill.
Ozone Technology: Current Status.
I_n: Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment. F.L. Evans, ed
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1972.
pp. 1-13.
Key Words: ozonation.
Abstract:
This is briefly where ozone now stands as it has
been and is being applied in water and waste-
water treatment. Continuing laboratory and
pilot plant studies will determine the treata-
bility of waste streams from domestic, municipal,
and industrial sources. While much has been
accomplished in the past, the full potential
has yet to be developed. The task in doing this
will not be easy because, aside from mere demon-
stration of treatment comparability or superior-
ity on a technical scale, an image tarnished by
misconception must be reestablished in proper
perspective. Ozonation technology has not been
dormant; and prior experiences with antiquated
hardware, frequent breakdowns, and faulty and
dangerous operation are just that -- experiences
of the past.
Contemporary ozonation hardware is the result
of not only the modernization of conventional
designs but also advanced conceptual design.
New equipment makes use of modern high-
temperature and acid-resistant materials, which
have, in some instances, eliminated the
necessity of incorporating the power- and
space-consuming demands of some air-pretreatment
and cooling-water devices. Advances in electronic
design have provided new circuitry that offers
advantages in power utilization and, of course,
favorably affects production and therefore
operating costs.
The realization of full benefits from ozone
treatment will be attained through the coopera-
tion of those advancing the science by
scientific investigation, and those advancing
the operational science. This cross-culturing
could serve as a catalyst in making great
strides to protect and improve the quality of
life.
423
-------
Evans, F.L. Ill, E.E. Geldreich, S.R. Weibel, and G.G. Robeck
Treatment of Urban Stormwater Runoff.
JWPCF. 40(5):R162-R170. May 1968.
Key Words: salmonella, coliforms, bacteria, chlorination,
combined municipal and/or stormwater systems.
Abstract:
The laboratory-scale treatment experiments with nine
storm-sewer runoffs indicate the following:
1. Fecal organisms in varying densities were found
in stormwater runoff. This implied health risk is
substantiated further by the recovery of Salmonel1 a
thompson from one highly contaminated sample.
2. Less than one hour of plain settling was not
helpful in reducing COD, BOD, nitrogen, phosphates,
solids, or the densities of the three bacterial
indicator systems.
3. Two to 6 mg/1 of chlorine applied for 20 min
were necessary to effect a 99.99 percent kill of the
total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci,
4. Despite high chlorine doses and the presence of
free residual chlorine at 20-min contact, an aftergrowth
of total coliforms occurred in 24 to 72 hr. There
was no significant aftergrowth of the fecal coliforms
or fecal streptococci.
5. The results of these studies emphasize the impor-
tance of fecal coliforms, rather than total coliforms,
as a more realistic indicator of pollution.
424
-------
Evans, J.0.
Soils as Sludge Assimi1ators.
Compost Science. 14(6):16-21. November-December 1973.
Key Words: ammonia, phosphates, zinc, boron, germanium,
aluminum, manganese, cadmium, copper, nickel,
lead, land reclamation.
Abstract:
This paper discusses general soi1-pollutant interactions
as well as giving data for various sludge types.
425
-------
Evans, S.
Nitrate Removal by Ion Exchange.
JWPCF. 45.(1) :632-636. April 1973.
Key Words: nitrates, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The strong acid/weak base ion exchange process is well
suited to the removal of nitrates. There was virtually
no leakage of nitrate ion during the demineralization
cycle and the subsequent softening cycle. This unusual
selectivity for nitrate ion, coupled with the use of
inexpensive regenerants such as lime, make the strong
acid/weak base ion exchange system particularly attrac-
tive for use in wastewater treatment. The preliminary
cost estimate for water containing 14.5 me/1 TDS with
70 mg/1 N03' is in the range of $0.10/1,000 gal ($3.60/
cu m). Because the TDS of the water studied is high
with respect to waters that usually contain nitrates,
application in practice should be more economical. Only
those costs related to the amount of regenerants needed
are directly proportional to the TDS. For example,
with a water containing about 7 me/1 TDS the costs assoc-
iated with lime and HC1 are halved. The capital costs
would be diminished to the extent that less resin is
required and, therefore, tanks of smaller volume may
be used.
The product water differs from that obtainable by a
softening process (for example, passing raw water through
a column of strong base resin in the chloride form) in
that the final TDS is lower, can be adjusted by blending,
and will not contain undesirable cations.
While the analysis presented did not deal with the prob-
lem of brine disposal, the importance of considering
the water balance is recognized. In addition to the
product water output of 0.53 mgd (2,000 cu m/day) ,
there is a waste output of (a) 0.024 mgd (90 cu m/day)
of 20,000 mg/1 (expressed as mg/1 CaCOo) for the process
of demineralization and blending, and (b) 0.016 mgd
(60 cu m/day) of 20,000 mg/1 (expressed as mg/1 CaC03)
for the process of demineralization, softening, and
blending. The wastewater salinity takes into account
what is regenerated from the resin, the excess HC1 used,
and the excess of lime solution. The wastewater volume
includes the contributions from the regenerants as well
as from the rinse requirements.
426
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Ewing, B.B. and R.I. Dick.
Disposal of Sludge on Land.
In: Water Quality Improvement by Physical and Chemical
Processes. E.F. Gloyna and W.W. Eckenfelder, eds. University
of Texas Press, Austin, 1970. pp. 394-408.
Key Words: bacteria, viruses, E s c h e r i c h i a c o 1 i . BOD, COD,
land reclamation.
Abstract:
This paper is a good review of sludge disposal to land.
Included are data on contaminant concentration
of digested sludge.
427
-------
Falk, L.L.
Bacterial Contamination of Tomatoes Grown in Polluted Soil.
American Journal of Public Health. 89_: 1 338-1 342 . October 1949
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
The results obtained on the concentration of coliform
bacteria on the surfaces of tomatoes grown in polluted
soil indicated no abnormal gross contamination. Even
when crops were sprayed with fecal suspensions, surface
coliform counts were no greater after one month than
on control tomatoes. The failure to find Salmonel 1 a
cerro 7 days after its application to growing tomatoes
upholds the contention that organisms of fecal origin
will not be present in sufficient numbers to cause
gross contamination.
On the basis of these results it is felt that the growth
of tomatoes on soil that had received nightsoil or
sewage sludge fertilization would yield crops which,
if eaten raw, would not be likely vectors for the trans-
mission of human bacterial enteric diseases.
428
-------
Fannin, K.F., J.J. Gannon, K.W. Cochran, and J.C. Spendlove.
Field Studies on Coliphages and Coliforms as Indicators of
Airborne Animal Viral Contamination from Wastewater
Treatment Facilities.
Water Research. ]_1(2): 181-188. 1977.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, activated sludge, trickling
filters, air.
Abstract:
The occurrence of animal viruses in the aerosol emissions
of wastewater treatment facilities was evaluated by
direct assay, and by the use of coliforms and coliphages
as indicator organisms. Coliforms and coliphages were
compared and evaluated with regard to their suitability
as indicators of airborne animal viral contamination.
Ratios of coliphages to animal viruses indicate that
wastewater treatment plants may be continuous sources
of low-level concentrations of animal virus aerosol.
Evidence shows coliforms to be much less stable than
coliphages in the airborne state. Coliphages may be
a more acceptable indicator of airborne animal viral
contamination than coliforms.
429
-------
Parrel 1 , J.B,
Overview of Sludge Handling and Disposal.
In: Municipal Sludge Management, Proceedings of the National
Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, 1974. pp. 5-10.
Key Words: cadmium, zinc, copper, nickel, mercury, coliforms,
salmonella, dieldrin, DDT, chlorinated hydro-
carbons, land reclamation, sanitary landfill,
incineration.
Abstract:
This paper is a general discussion of final disposal
methods. Passing note is made on the effect of the
methods on the contaminants.
430
-------
Farring ton, J.W. and J.G, Quinn.
Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Fatty Acids in Wastewater Effluents.
JWPCF. 45_(4) :704-712. April 1973.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, surface water (marine),
shellfish, influent characteristics.
Abstract:
Analyses of the concentration and composition of
fatty acids in effluents agree with previously
recorded data.
The results of the analyses of hydrocarbons in the
effluents sampled confirm that appreciable quantities
of petroleum hydrocarbons are being discharged to
coastal waters by wastewater effluents. Approximately
8 bil gal (30 bil 1) of municipal wastes are discharged
to the coastal waters of the U.S. each day. If the
concentrations of hydrocarbons in these effluents are
similar to those of the Field's Point effluent, then
28,000 to 140,000 metric tons of oil are discharged
each year to U.S. coasta'i waters by wastewater efflu-
ents. Treatment plants servicing small towns and cities
may have lower concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons, as
for example, the West Warwick effluent that was sampled.
On the othe" hand, treatment plants servicing large cities
and plants providing only primary treatment probably
have higher concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons.
From available data it can be calculated that 28,000
metric tons of oil were spilled into U.S. coastal
waters during 19 7 0. The estimated amount of oil
discharged by wastewater effluents is thus about the
same as the reported a m o j n t of oil spilled in coastal
areas, The an.ounts of oil entering U.S. coastal waters
from numerous small spoils and from c^l pollution at
sea (f c •( example, ballast tank flushing) are unknown
and cot'ld oe equal to or greater than large spill and
wastewater inputs of oil.
There is the obvious difference that oil spills are
acute inputs That have acute and chronic effects. The
discharge of petroleum hydrocarbons by wastewater
effluents is a chronic input. Little is known about
the effec'c of these discharges o.- the ability of coastal
ecosystems to degrade these inputs. The authors have
surveyed the sediments and clams from Narrangansett Bay
(R.I.) and have suggested that there is strong evidence
of chronic oil pollution from small spills and from the
wastewater effluents the authors sampled at Field's Point
and East Providence.
431
-------
Recycling of used oils, although apparently feasible,
has been declining while the use of petroleum has in-
creased. There is the danger of increasing oil discharges
to the coastal waters through treated and untreated
municipal wastewater and storm sewers. The amounts,
types, fate, and effect of these chronic oil inputs to
coastal waters should be assessed, and the technology
and administrative procedures to reduce these inputs
should be developed.
432
-------
Fate of Organic Pesticides in the Aquatic Environment.
Advances in Chemistry Series No. 111. American Chemical
Society, Washington, D.C., 1972.
Key Words: DDT, ODD, DDE, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This is a textbook on aquatic chemistry Of
pesticides.
433
-------
Feinstone, S.M., A. Z. Kapikian, and R.H. Purcell.
Hepatitis A: Detection by Immune Electron Microscopy of a
Viruslike Antigen Associated with Acute Illness.
Science. 1_82:1 026-1028. December 7, 1973.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Spherical 27-nanometer particles were visualized in
stools obtained from hepatitis A patients in the acute
phase of the disease. The particle was serologically
specific for this disease, and every hepatitis A
patient tested demonstrated a serologic response to this
antigen. The findings suggest that it is an etiologic
agent of hepatitis A.
434
-------
Felter, R.A., S.F. Kennedy, R.R. Colwell, and G.B. Chapman.
Intracytoplasmic Membrane Structures in Vibrio man' nus.
Journal of Bacteriology. lp_2.( 2) : 552-560 . May 1970.
Key Words: biological contaminants, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
An electron microscope study of Vibrio mari nus strains
MP-1, an obligate psychrophi1e, and PS-207, a moderate
psychrophile , revealed numerous intracel1ular membran-
ous structures. The structures were found to occur
more frequently in V_._ mari nus strain MP-1 than in strain
PS-207. The frequency of occurrence and complexity
of structure were related to age of the culture. In
early logarithmic phase, cells revealed invaginations
of the plasma membrane. More complex membrane forms,
found in late logarithmic and stationary phase, were
either myelin-like sheaths, for which the term
"myelemma" is proposed, or membranes randomly arranged
throughout the cells. The complex membrane forms were
not observed to be directly connected with the plasma
membrane. However, they were often found in approxi-
mation to the plasma membrane or associated with vac-
uoles and circular membrane profiles. Individual mem-
branes were of a tripartite structure and of dimensions
similar to the cell wall and plasma membrane.
435
-------
Ferens, M.C.
A Review of the Physiological Impact of Mercurials.
EPA-660/3-73-022, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Aiken,
South Carolina, February 1974. 62p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-234 644).
Key Words: epidemiology, mercury.
Abstract:
Studies of mercurial poisoning show that gross symptoms
can be related to tissue damage. In turn, investiga-
tions of cellular changes reveal that tissue damage
results from the morphological changes occurring in
cells. The changes at the cellular level are more subtle
in the early stages of damage, and early changes precede
evidence of tissue damage. Thus, cellular changes pro-
vide a more subtle index of damage due to mercurial ex-
posure. Relating morphological changes at the levels
of the organism, tissue, and cell to biochemical effects
is more difficult. Caution is stressed in trying to
understand mercurial poisoning in terms of biochemical
damage. The cell membrane, non-enzymatic cellular pro-
tein, and outer cell layers provide protection to the
inner cells or organs. Nevertheless, researchers have
theorized on probable biochemical effects which lead to
the more apparent symptoms of mercurialism. Damage
to Krebs1 cycle enzymes and thus to the energy obtain-
ing mechanism of the kidney, severely limits the kidney's
ability to actively resorb ions. In addition, possible
damage to both protein synthesis and Krebs' cycle enzymes
in the brain could result in the extensive tissue damage
observed in alkyl mercurial poisoning. Thus, biochemical
changes can be related to other levels of organization
and ultimately to the organism as the basis of the
morphological and behavioral changes which characterize
mercuri ali sm.
436
-------
Ferguson, J. and B. Bubela.
The Concentration of Cu(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) from
Aqueous Solution by Participate Algal Matter.
Chemical Geology. _1_3:163-186. July 1974.
Key Words: copper, lead, zinc, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Experimental studies of the reactions of Cu(II), Pb(II),
and Zn(II) in aqueous solutions with organic matter
derived from fresh samples of the green filamentous
algae Ulothrix spp. and the green unicellular algae
Chiamydomonas "spp. and Chi ore!la vulgaris show that,
under suitable conditions, a significant proportion
of the metals is removed from solution by sorption
onto the particulate organic matter of the algal suspen-
sion.
The metal sorption is strongly suppressed by H+ but is
only marginally influenced by the proportion of whole
cells in the suspension and by complex ing of metals
in solution by the soluble organic matter. The presence
of relatively small amounts of the cations Na+ and Mg2+
in solution reduces the sorption of Zn(II) to near zero,
but Pb(II) and Cu(II) sorption occurs to an appreciable
extent even in strong brines. This may be a means for
the selective precipitation of Pb(II) from brines rich
in Pb(II) and Zn(II).
Metal "saturation" values indicate that particulate algal
matter of the type used in these experiments could sorb
sufficient quantities of metal to form an ore deposit
if a weight of organic matter of similar order of mag-
nitude to that of the inorganic sediments in the de-
posits was available. However, the metal sorption
is an equilibrium reaction, and could be approached
only in solutions whose metal contents were initially
at least two orders of magnitude above those of normal
seawater.
437
-------
Ferguson, J.F. and M.A. Anderson.
Chemical Forms of Arsenic in Water Supplies and Their Removal.
In; Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution.
A.J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975. pp. 137-158.
Key Words: arsenic, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
It was found that arsenic species may be adsorbed in
large quantities onto the surfaces of amorphous ferric
and aluminum hydroxides. The adsorption varies greatly
with the oxidation state of the arsenic, but not with
the pH within the range of 5.5 to 7.5. This adsorption
evidently does not account for the high removals that
are sometimes found in arsenic removal studies. The
adsorption of arsenic species has posed many interesting
questions. These relate first to understanding inter-
actions between anions or neutral molecules and hydroxide
surfaces. It is not clear, for instance, whether arsenate
adsorption can be explained solely in terms of the mole-
cule-surface interaction or whether the charge, concen-
tration,and identity of the cation must also be considered
Also, the question remains as to why the same initial
removal of both As(III) and (V) is found on FeOOH(s),
and why saturation is not observed with As(III). At
the highest surface excesses, on the order of mmol/g,
the cation to arsenic ratio is between 10 and 2. At
these values, can there be a useful conceptual dis-
tinction between adsorption, occl usi on, and precipitation
for removal onto an amorphous solid?
A second set of questions concerning the mechanism of
arsenic removal in water treatment arises. Does the
surface area or the nature of the surface change enough
during precipitation so that adsorption, or occlusion,
may be the removal mechanism in contradiction to the
present results with aged precipitates? What is the role
of precipitation of arsenic solids in removal? To what
extent can removal be maximized by controlling mixing
and flocculation in a precipitation process?
A final set of issues is related to the speciation of
arsenic in water sources. The concentrations of arsenite
and arsenate can now be measured at environmental levels,
and information about the cycling of arsenic species is
rapidly accumulating. These advances can be utilized in
routine measurement of arsenic species and the establish-
ment of separate standards for arsenic (III) and (V).
438
-------
Relaxation of standards for arsenic (V) may allow use,
without removal processing, of many of the surface waters
that now equal or exceed the recommended limiting con-
centration of the U.S.P.H.S. Drinking Water Standards.
In other cases, water sources that present a true hazard
can be identified with certainty.
The relative abundance in the past of uncontaminated
water sources near metropolitan areas no longer exists.
Present understanding of arsenic removal mechanisms
is still not advanced; however, studies to date indicate
that removal processing seems to be approaching tech-
nological feasibility. Perhaps it is now reasonable to
rely on processing to remove arsenic. In any case, the
high levels of arsenic in surface waters and the demand
for increased quantities of water for municipal supply
indicate that careful consideration of standards and
policies with respect to treatment is in order.
439
-------
Ferguson, J.F. and J. Gavis.
A Review of the Arsenic Cycle in Natural Waters.
Water Research. 6.: 1 259-1 274 . 1972.
Key Words: arsenic, surface water (fresh), fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
A review of the occurrence and cycling of arsenic
in fresh waters is presented. The fate of arsenic
in natural waters has received little attention in
past years, in spite of the fact that arsenic is toxic
and may be carcinogenic through exposure by drinking
water.
The chemistry of arsenic in aqueous systems is reviewed.
Thermodynamic information is summarized in an Eh-pH
diagram for a system including sulfur. Mechanisms
for removal of arsenic from the solution phase to the
sediments are discussed. The possible microbially-
mediated reactions of arsenic, including oxidation of
arsenite, methylation of arsenic species, and reduction
of arsenate, are discussed with reference to the locale
of the reaction in the water column or in the sediments
and to the toxicological significance of the reaction
products and the rates of reaction.
A cycle of reactions for arsenic in a stratified lake
is proposed and evidence is summarized relating to
the occurrence and importance of particular reactions.
The potential pollution hazard of arsenic is from
ingestion of drinking water with high concentrations
of arsenic, rather than consuming arsenic-containing
aquatic organisms. Although arsenic is greatly concen-
trated in aquatic organisms, it is evidently not pro-
gressively concentrated along a food chain. In addition,
arsenic when consumed as an organically-bound species
in flesh evidently has low toxicity.
The global cycle of arsenic is discussed. While volcanic
activity is the original source of much of the arsenic
in sedimentary rocks, in recent times weathering of
arsenic has been approximately in balance with deposi-
tion of arsenic in sediments. Human activities, in-
cluding the use of arsenic, the burning of fossil fuels,
increased erosion of land and the mining and processing
of sulfide minerals, have increased the amount of arsenic
entering the oceans by at least a factor of 3. This
increase will have no effect on the concentration in the
oceans for many hundreds of years.
440
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However, these cultural contributions are the source of
high localized concentrations in many fresh waters.
Careful surveillance and increased knowledge of the fate
of arsenic in the aquatic environment are needed to
insure that there will be no public health hazard.
441
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Ferguson, J.F., D. Jenkins, and J. Eastman.
Calcium Phosphate Precipitation at Slightly Alkaline pH Values,
JWPCF. 45_(4) :620-631 . April 1973.
Key Words: phosphates, manganese, fluorides, chemical
treatment, activated sludge.
Abstract:
Calcium phosphate precipitation at wastewater concentra-
tions at all values near 8 was found characteristically
to have an induction period followed by crystal growth.
Phosphate removal during crystal growth behaved as if
the precipitation reaction were limited by a reaction
at the interface between solid and liquid. The effect
of bicarbonate on the kinetics of phosphate removal
during crystal growth can be described by an empirical
rate equation in which the rate of phosphate removal is
proportional to the available surface area (assumed to
remain constant during precipitation), and the phos-
phate concentration is raised to the 2.7 power and is
inversely proportional to the bicarbonate concentration.
The rate equation for the precipitation reaction was ap-
plied to predict phosphate removal for four continuous
reactor types. Three reactors - a CSTR, a CSTR with
solids recycle, and a tubular reactor with solids re-
cycle - have the advantages of eliminating the induction
period either by recycling precipitated solids or by
b a c k m i x i n g .
Reactors with solids recycle have the additional advan-
tage of increasing the concentration of solids and the
surface area available for crystal growth. Predictions
and limited experimental data show that calcium phosphate
precipitation at pH 8 can effectively remove 80 to 95
percent of the phosphate from wastewater in a solids re-
cycling reactor and that tubular reactors are much more
effective than completely stirred reactors.
It is feasible to use the low-pH calcium phosphate
precipitation process in combination with the activated
sludge process if the following wastewater characteris-
tics exist and operating design criteria are adhered to.
1. The upper limits for alkalinity and magnesium con-
centrations at which this process should be contemplated
are, respectively, 350 mg/1 as CaC03 and 24 mg/1 as Mg.
2. Solids recycle from the secondary sedimentation
basin should be rapid so that low pH conditions will
442
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not develop and cause redissolution of the precipitated
solids.
3. The optimum pH for the process should be between
7.5 and 8.5 and should be the highest value in this
range that is compatible with bacterial growth and at
which negligible calcium carbonate precipitation occurs
The process offers considerable hope for savings in the
chemical and capital costs associated with phosphate
removal because of the lower doses and the possibility
of utilization of existing basins by superimposition
on the activated sludge process flow scheme.
443
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Fertilizer Application Rates and Nitrate Concentrations in
Illinois Surface Waters.
Illinois Institute for Environmental Control, Chicago. 1974.
Key Words: nitrates, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article discusses nitrate concentrations in surface
water.
444
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Field, R. and J.A. lager.
Counter-measures for Pollution from Overflows: the-State-of-
the-Art.
EPA-670/2-74-090, Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Palo Alto, California,
December 1974. 40p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 498).
Key Words: combined municipal and/or storm systems.
Abstract:
Control and/or treatment of stormwater discharges and
combined sewage overflows from urban areas are prob-
lems of increasing importance in the field of water
quality management. Over the past decade much research
effort has been expended and a large amount of data has
been generated, primarily through the actions and support
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Storm
and Combined Sewer Research and Development Program.
Presented in this text are selected results of a compre-
hensive investigation and assessment of promising,
completed and ongoing projects, representative of the
state-of-the-art in abatement theory and technology;
a look at recent legislation; and the identification
of program needs and emphasis.
Combined sewer overflows are major sources of water
pollution problems, but even discharges of stormwater
alone can seriously affect water quality. Current
approaches involve control of overflows, treatment,
and combinations of the two. Control may involve maxi-
mizing treatment with existing facilities, control of
infiltration and extraneous inflows, surface sanitation
and management, as well as flow regulation and storage.
A number of treatment methods have been evaluated in-
cluding high rate screening and microstraining, ultra
high rate filtration, dissolved air flotation, physical/
chemical treatment, and modified biological processes.
A swirl flow regulator/solids separator of anular shape
construction with no moving parts has been developed.
High rate disinfection methods including new disinfec-
tants have been applied.
Promising approaches involve integrated use of controls
and treatment. The most disappointing have generally
lacked flexibility in their operation and design.
Mathematical models have been developed and successfully
applied at multiple levels of sophistication and complexity
445
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Filmer, R.H., M.Felton, Jr., and T. Yamamoto.
Virus-Sized Particle Adsorption on Soil - Part I: Rate of
Adsorption.
In: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality Conference:
Tirus and Water Quality: Occurrence and Control, University of
Illinois, February 1971. pp. 75-101.
Key Words: viruses, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
1. Under the conditions of this investigation, the
primary mechanism controlling the rate of adsorption
of albumin on silica was a diffusion process.
2. The theoretical analysis based on diffusion-adsorp-
tion models was developed and agreed with experimental
data fairly we!1 .
3. The theoretical model tells that the type of
adsorption isotherm is not critical to the rate of
adsorption.
4. Theory predicts that the rate of adsorption is
proportional to the square of the specific surface,
the square of the concentration of soil, and the dif-
fusivity of albumin molecules.
446
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F i n b e r g , L .
Interaction of the Chemical Environment with the Infant and
Young Child.
Pediatrics. 53^:831-837. 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Architecture, commerce, hygiene, recreation, and education
contribute to the child's physiochemical milieu. The
article discusses home, school, and hospital hazards,
commercial hazards, hazards of hygiene, dangerous toys,
special susceptibility of the child, delayed effects,
hexachlorophene, lead, air pol1ution,and asthmas.
447
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Fink, VLB., Jr. and D.B. Aulenbach.
Protracted Recharge of Treated Sewage into Sand, Part II:
Tracing the Flow of Contaminated Ground Water with a Resistivity
Survey.
Ground Water. 1_2(4) : 21 9-223 . July-August 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, groundwater.
Abstract:
To aid in determining the direction of groundwater flow
after the effluent from the Lake George Village sewage
treatment plant is discharged onto natural delta sand
beds, resistivity studies were made in the soil (sand)
in the vicinity of the recharge beds. Groundwater
having high dissolved solids is identified as producing
lower resistivity readings. The sewage effluent has a
higher dissolved solids content than the existing ground-
water in the area. The path of the recharged sewage
effluent, as identified by lower resistivity readings,
appears to flow in a northerly direction from the sewage
treatment plant along Gage Road toward West Brook. Due
to interferences, the resistivity studies could not
show whether the high conductivity groundwater flows into
or under West Brook.
448
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Finkel, A.J. and W.C. Duel, eds.
Clinical Implications of Air Pollution Research.
Presented at the American Medical Association Air Pollution
Research Conference, December 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
An excellent reference on effects of air pollution
on health:
respiratory diseases,
cardiovascular diseases,
immunology, hypersensitivity , and host defense,
central nervous system and sense organs,
illness of children.
449
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Fitzgerald, P.R. and W.R. Jolley.
The Use of Sewage Sludge in Pasture Reclamation: Parasito!ogy,
Nutrition and the Occurrence of Metals and Polychlorinated
Bi phenyls .
University of II1inois - Urbana , 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, protozoa, parasitic
worms, cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese,
mercury, nickel, lead, zinc, agricultural sludge
disposal , crops.
Abstract:
The effect of sludge application to pasture from August 1,
1973 through September 30, 1974 is reported. Bovine
parasitology, the occurrence of heavy metals and poly-
chlorinated biphenyls in soil and cattle field, and the
nutritional quality of feeds were the aspects examined
both in sludge-amended and control pastures. Monthly
pasture soil samples were examined for cadmium, chromium,
copper, manganese, mercury, nickel, lead and zinc to
determine whether or not sludge application caused an
accumulation in the soil of any of the metals. The levels
of the metals tested were not appreciably greater in the
test pastures than in the controls, and no accumulation
of the metals could be correlated with pasture sludge
applications. Continued analysis of the basic units of
the production system, i.e., soil, feed, and animals, for
a period of at least five years would be necessary to
adequately predict the hazards or safety of using sludge
in such a system.
450
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Flinn, J.E. and R.S. Reimers.
Development of Predictions of Future Pollution Problems.
EPA-600/5-74-005, Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, Columbus,
Ohio, March 1974. 222p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-233 117).
Key Words: cadmium, manganese, lead, mercury, zinc, copper,
barium, boron, arsenic, nickel, selenium,
beryllium, COD, phosphates, total dissolved solids,
coliforms, bacteria, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
organophosphorous pesticides, pesticides,
antibiotics, ammonia, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The report describes the results of a program to identify,
rank and project short- and intermediate-term future
pollution problems.
Identification was accomplished using three independent
search approaches based on industrial production, environ-
ment and societal trends and activity. Primary empha-
sis was placed on the environmental trends as gleaned
from EPA, Battelle, literature, and other sources.. An
initial list of problems was compiled with specific
stressors Identified with each.
Nine ranking factors were devised to select ten "most
serious" problems from the initial list. The factors
included: persistence; mobility/pervasiveness; environ-
mental, technological, social, and political complexity;
physiological risk; research needs, and bulk or volume
of the pollutant. The ten problems selected by this
method were further ranked 1n order of relative impor-
tance. The ten selected problems in rank order are as
fol1ows :
Impacts of New Energy Initiatives
Geophysical Modifications of the Earth
Trace Element (Metal) Contaminants
Proliferating Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals
Emissions from New Automobile Fuels, Additive, and
Control Devices
Disposal of Waste Sludges, Liquids, and Solid Residues
Critical Radiation Problems
Fine Particulates
Expanding Drinking Water Contamination
Irrigation (Impoundment) Practices.
Five to ten year projections were made of the ten problems
which resulted.
451
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Flinn, J.E., T.O. Thomas, and M.D. Bishop.
Identification Systems for Selecting Chemicals or Chemical
Classes as Candidates for Evaluation.
EPA-560/1-74-001, Battel1e-Columbus Laboratories, Columbus,
Ohio, November 1974. 153p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-238 196).
Key Words: heavy metals, copper, zinc, lead, cadmium, mercury,
chromium, synthetic/organics, pesticides, DDT,
DDD, DDE, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlorinated
hydrocarbons .
Abstract:
This report summarizes the state-of-the-art on systems,
either existing or conceptual, that can be used or adapted
for use to select, assess, and prioritize chemicals for
their health or environmental effects. It is found that,
while numerous systems can be identified, none have been
formulated with sufficient breadth to permit accomplishing
all the functions desired by EPA's Office of Toxic Substances
These functions include:
(1) Identification of chemical hazards to man
and his environment
(2) Selecting chemicals not already in use
(3) Assessing potentially hazardous degradation
products or synergistic effects
(4) Assessing hazards to plants, animals, and the
non-living environment.
Effective combinations of limited scope systems have been
assembled by Federal agencies to achieve the chemical
identification/assessment/prioritization functions needed
for such public concerns as the work-place environment;
human health (cancer, child poisoning, birth defects); air,
water, and land contamination; and consumer-product hazards.
Examination of the operational basis of a number of the
individual systems within these combinations suggests that
all are variations of a relatively few number of approaches
to chemical selection.
452
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Focht, D.D.
Microbial Degradation of DDT Metabolites to Carbon Dioxide,
Water, and Chloride.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
7.(1) :52-56. January 1972.
Key Words: DDT, surface water (fresh), surface water (marine)
Abstract:
Fungus is capable of converting chlorinated hydrocarbons
to H20, C02, and HC1 .
453
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Foehrenbach, J.
Chlorinated Pesticides in Estuarine Organisms.
JWPCF. 4,4(4)-.619-624. April 1972.
Key Words: DDT, ODD, DDE, dieldrin, fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
1. Of the chlorinated hydrocarbons analyzed for, only
DDT, ODD, DDE, and dieldrin were found.
2. The residues found in shellfish are well below the
limits set by the Food and Drug Administration.
3. The residues found were in such concentrations
that they should not have any adverse short-term
effects on organisms low in the food chain.
4. Organisms at the higher trophic levels of food
chains have larger concentrations of pesticides than
those at the lower levels. Because of this, the organ-
isms at the top of a food chain may be adversely affected
5. Because very little is known about the long-term
effect of low residue concentrations, all synthetic
chemicals should be used only with extreme caution in
the natural environment.
454
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Foehrenbach, J., G. Mahmood, and D. Sullivan.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Residues in Shellfish (Pelecypoda)
from Estuaries of Long Island, New York.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. S_(3):242-247 . December 1971
Key Words: DDT, ODD, DDE, dieldrin, shellfish.
Abstract:
Since October 1968, shellfish from 10 estuaries in
Long Island, N.Y., have been collected on a monthly
basis and examined for chlorinated hydrocarbons. This
study covers the period up to July 1970. The residues
found were DDT, ODD, DDE, and dieldrin: concentrations
were low, the highest being 0.146 mg/kg, wet weight.
The distribution of residues could at times be corre-
lated with agricultural use or type of community in
the watershed surrounding the various stations.
455
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Folk, G.
Phosphorus Removal with Liquid Alum.
WPCF Highlights, pp. 8-9. February 1976.
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Phosphorus removal efficiencies in a wastewater
treatment plant were compared using several different
chemical additives. A problem with using liquid
alum is the increased amount of sludge which is
generated.
456
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Folkman, Y. and A.M. Wachs.
Filtration of Chlorella through Dune-Sand.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
96_(SA3):675-689. June 1970.
Key Words: Vibrio cholerae, filtration.
Abstract:
In order to study processes occurring when effluents
of stabilization ponds are used in artificial ground-
water recharge, algae filtration experiments were
conducted using a long column filled with dune sand.
Under conditions of darkness, such as those prevailing
in the experimental setup, chlorella cells divide into
smaller dark cells, and their size distribution range
becomes narrower. Consequently, the efficiency of
filtration is decreased.
For all filtration velocities used in the work reported
herein, ranging from 1 m per day to 6 m per day, the
retention of algae occurred mostly at the upper part
of the sand column, where the increments of head losses
were observed. The hydraulic gradient remained prac-
tically constant in the rest of the column.
Results of the algae filtration experiments showed that
changes of the relative concentration of algae as a
function of depth closely corresponded with a filtra-
tion equation proposed by Ives, when a coefficient B
was introduced to account for algae multiplication.
In comparison with river bank sand generally used as
a filter medium, dune sand, being of maritime origin,
contains a much higher proportion of calcium carbonate.
As a consequence of algae respiration COg is evolved,
which transforms the calcium into soluble bicarbonate.
This changes the characterization of the medium and
increases the hardness of the percolating water.
The effect of cation concentration in the water on the
efficiency of filtration was clearly shown. The addi-
tion of cations to filtrating water produced significant
increases in that efficiency.
Results of the experiments showed that when lower veloci-
ties were used, larger quantities of water could be fil-
tered and the filtration efficiency was better. With
other conditions equal, higher filtration was obtained
with lower initial concentrations of the suspension.
457
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Foodborne and Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Annual Summary 1973
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
rAbstract:
This report summarizes information about foodborne and
waterborne disease outbreaks in 1973.
458
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Foodborne and Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Annual Summary 1975.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. September 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This report summarizes information about foodborne and
waterborne disease outbreaks in 1975.
459
-------
Possum, GoO.
Water Balance in Sewage Stabilization Lagoons.
North Dakota University, Grand Forks, Civil Engineering
Department, August 1971. 38p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-233 482).
Key Words: suspended solids, fluorides, phosphates, chlorides,
ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Site selections and construction details have often ignored
seepage beyond the requirements that the lagoon bottom
should be a relatively impervious material, such as clay,
and no seepage into wells or groundwater supplies should
be permitted,, Enforcement of Water Quality Standards
makes it necessary to retain high water levels in sewage
lagoons for longer periods of time than has been done in
the past. There have been complaints from adjacent land
owners that lagoon seepage was damaging crop land, and
damage claims have been filed through legal channels.
This paper proposes a value of the coefficient, N, of
.000271 in the mass-transfer equation. Use of this
coefficient, the wind speed, and the humidity gradient
permits calculation of evaporation. Also proposed is
a seepage rate of .0032 feet per day which permits deter-
mination of seepage los.s. Limitations on their usage are
discussed.
Evidence is presented showing definite effects on ground-
water tables for distances of approximately 400 feet. Con-
ditions which create serious damage to productivity of
adjacent land for distances of 300 feet or more are dis-
cussed. Effects on groundwater quality as indicated by
total solids, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates and
fluorides are presented and related to natural and
artificial topographic features.
460
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Foster, D.H. and R.S. Engelbrecht.
Microbial Hazards in Disposing of Wastewater on Soil.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
through Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and L.T. Kardos
eds. EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp. 217-241.
Key Words:
salmonella, shigella, mycobacteriurn, protozoa,
parasitic worms, vi rus, Escherichia coli,
influent characteristics, gravity separators,
activated sludge, trickling filter, anaerobic
digestion, chlorination, ponding/land applications.
Abstract:
This paper provides an excellent background for biological
pathogens in soil disposal considerations. It also
discusses pathogen occurrence in wastewater. In addi-
tion, the bibliography may be useful for further informa-
ti on.
461
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Frank, R., A.E. Armstrong, R.G. Boelens, H.E. Braun, and
C.W. Douglas.
Organochlorine Insecticide Residues in Sediment and Fish
Tissues, Ontario, Canada.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 7^:165-180. March 1974.
Key Words: DDT, ODD, DDE, dieldrin, surface water (fresh),
fish.
Abstract:
River and lake sediments and several species of fish
were collected from four study areas in the Province
of Ontario. These consisted of one agricultural, two
mixed agricultural-recreational , and one recreational
study area. Large volumes of DDT and dieldrin were used
in the first area, small quantities were used in the
mixed areas, and insignificant quantities were used
in the recreational area. The agricultural and mixed
areas were located on deep alluvial soils; the recrea-
tional area was located on bare-to-thinly-covered
Precambrian rock. Residue levels in sediments were
similar in all four areas, but slightly higher in the
recreational area. The ratios of DDT to its metabolites,
DDE and TDE, were similar in all areas in that the
metabolites predominated over the parent DDT. Residues
of DDT and dieldrin in fish tissues tended to depend
on feeding habits, fat content, and age of the fish.
Residues in the sediment (dry weight) were almost the
same as residues found in the low-fat benthic inverte-
brate and plankton feeders.
Residues increased in the low-fat piscivores, were
slightly higher in the high-fat feeders, and were
highest in the high-fat piscivores. The concentration
of DDT and dieldrin in the tissues and extractable
fat and the actual quantity accumulated per fish increased
as size and weight of any one species increased. The
increase in total DDT or dieldrin concentration from
lowest to highest tissue residues of all fish species
was of the order of 100 to 500 times; the increase in
body load was of the order of 105 to 106. Higher con-
centrations in fish tissue were correlated with the
higher sediment levels of the Precambrian recreational
area. Data demonstrate that the use of even minute
quantities of persistent chlorinated hydrocarbons in rocky
Precambrian watersheds has a profound effect on sediment
and biota contaminants. Use on deep rich soils has a
similar effect, but not in the same proportion to the
quantity used.
462
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Franz , M.
Developing A Safe Way to Recycle Sewage Sludge on the Land
Compost Science. l_5_(1):6-7. January-February 1974.
Key Words: agricultural sludge disposal, composting,
Abstract:
This is a general discussion on agricultural disposal
of si udge.
463
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Freeman, H.C., D.A. Home, B. McTague, and M. McMenemy.
Mercury in Some Canadian Atlantic Coast Fish and Shellfish.
Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 31(3): 369-372.
March 1974.
Key Words: mercury, fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
All species of North Atlantic fishes studied, with the
exception of tv/o groups of off-shore lobsters, had total
mercury levels less than the 0.5 ppm limit allowed for
fish of commerce in Canada and the United States. There
appeared to be no relationship between mercury levels.
and the sex and/or weight of fish of any one species.
that mercury was a threat to public
Japanese mercury poisoning epidemics
This initiated many studies.
Apparently increased industrial and agricultural use
and the broad dissemination of mercury compounds had
caused mercury contamination in fish.
The first indication
health came from the
in the early 1950's
464
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Freudenthal, J. and P.A. Greve.
Polychlorinated Terphenyls in the Environment.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 10:108-
111. August 1973.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, air, surface water (fresh),
shellfish.
Abstract:
This article establishes levels of PCT in river water,
oysters, eel, and human fat. Comparisons are made
between PCT and PCB levels.
465
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Friberg, L., T. Kjellstrom, G. Nordberg, and M. Piscator.
Cadmium in the Environment - III: A Toxicological and
Epidemiological Appraisal.
Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1975. 218p.
Key Words: cadmium, biological contaminants, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine), livestock,
groundwater.
Abstract:
This is a review of the recent biomedical literature
on cadmium and its toxicological and epidemiological
effects on the environment as well as on human welfare.
466
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Fuhs, G.
A Probabilistic Model of Bathing Beach Safety.
The Science of the Total Environment. 4^165-175. 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, drinking and recreational water,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
An improved mathematical model for bathing beach safety
is proposed. It is derived by joining the probability
of infection from a given dose (Poisson distribution)
and the probability of acquiring such a dose (lognormal
distribution).
Even in the absence of better clinical and epidemiologi-
cal data, the model permits an assessment of relative
risk from certain hazards and the design of more mean-
ingful bacteriological standards for individual beaches
467
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Fujiya, M.
Physiological Estimation on the Effects of Pollutants Upon
Aquatic Organisms.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1964(3 ) :315-331 .
Key Words : COD, fish.
Abstract:
The most serious effects, such as the histopathological
changes of tissues in visceral organs, necrosis and
desquamation , etc., were caused by water of more than
50 mg/1 in COD value, and more slight symptoms, cyto-
chemical changes such as the decrease of RNA in pancreas
and the accelerative secretion of mucous gland, etc.,
were caused by water more than 10 mg/1 in COD value.
Also, the most minor symptom observed through hemato-
logic investigations was caused by water less than
5 mg/1 in COD value.
Therefore, the physiologically effective dose of the
pulp mill waste to the organisms is estimated to be
the concentration of 5 to 50 mg/1 in COD value. It
is notable that the effective dose is quite low in
comparison with the TLm value (about 400 mg/1 in COD).
468
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Fukaya, H.
Treatment of Sludges Containing Heavy Metals.
Chemical Abstracts. £2:47432a. 1975.
Key Words: zinc, chromium, incineration.
Abstract:
Wastewater sludge from Cr, Zn, or hard Cr plating pro-
cesses, with or without additives such as clay and kaolin,
was sintered at 800-1300° to fix heavy metals in the
sintered product. The sludges, except that from the
hard Cr platin process, had excellent sinterabi1ity,
and this method reduced the destruction of treating
containers and degradation of contained material. The
addition of clay or kaolin and also sintering at
higher temperatures improved the fixation of heavy
metals in the sintered product.
469
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Furgason, R.R. and R.O. Day.
Iron and Manganese Removal with Ozone. Part I.
Water and Sewage Works. 1_22.(6):42, 45-47. June 1975.
Key Words: iron, manganese, surface water (fresh), ozonation
Abstract:
Manganese and iron can be effectively and economically
oxidized by ozone to an insoluble form that can be
filtered from water.
470
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Furgason, R.R. and R.O. Day.
Iron and Manganese Removal with Ozone. Part II.
Water and Sewage Works. 122(7) :61-63. July 1975.
Key Words: iron, manganese, surface water (fresh), ozonation
Abstract:
Manganese and iron can be effectively and economically
oxidized by ozone to an insoluble form that can be
filtered from water.
471
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Furr, A.K., A.M. Lawrence,. S.S.C. long, M.C. Grandolfo,
R.A. Hofstader, C. A. Bache, W.H. Gutenmann, and D.J. Lisk.
Multielement and Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Analysis of Municipal
Sewage Sludges of American Cities.
Environmental Science and Technology. 11(7):683-687. July 1976.
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, germanium,
iron, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel,
selenium, thorium, tin, uranium, zinc, elemental
contaminants, synthetic/organics, dieldrin, combined
municipal and/or industrial systems.
Abstract:
An analytical survey of 68 elements, dieldrin, and poly-
chlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) was conducted in municipal
sewage sludges sampled during 1972-73 from 16 American
cities using several instrumental methods. Unusually
elevated concentrations of certain toxic elements were
found in sludges from specific cities. Relatively
high levels of gold and mercury in sludge from San
Francisco possibly derived from geo-chemical sources.
Fluorine was high in several cities which fluoridate
their water. PCB's were highest in sludge from
Schenectady.
472
-------
Gaby, tf.L.
Evaluation of Health Hazards Associated With Solid
Waste/Sewage Mixtures.
EPA-670/2-75-023. East Tennessee State University, Johnson
City, Dept. of Health Sciences, April 1975. 56p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-241
810).
Key Words: fecal streptocci, viruses, coliforms, bacteria,
salmonella, shigella, 1eptospirosis , protozoa,
coxsackie virus, polio virus, composting.
Abstract:
The composting of refuse-sewage sludge by the windrow
process results in the aerobic biodegradation of organic
solids and liquids to a relatively stable end product
which may be used as a soil conditioner without creating
health hazards or pollution of water, land or air.
Composting is a rapid and natural process by which all
organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms to
inorganic compounds or elements which are utilized by
other plants and animals. This cyclic transformation
is an essential process without which all plant and
animal life would cease. Anaerobic biodegradation also
occurs in such processes as landfills, but at a much
slower rate. The microbial ecology of compost is directly
related to the internal temperature of the windrow. These
studies indicate that large numbers of microorganism present
in refuse and sewage sludge utilize the nutrients available,
releasing excessive energy which increases the temperature
of the windrow to a maximum of approximately 167°F (74°C)
within 7 days. The disappearance of inserted selected
pathogenic microorganisms from compost is directly related
to this temperature increase and not to any type of
antagonistic action resulting from antibiotic activity
or other metabolic products of microorganisms in compost.
Proper processing, such as aeration and moisture is
required for the windrow to reach a temperature of 120 F
to 167°F (49°C to 74°C) or greater for a period of 4 to 7
days. If the windrow temperature does not reach 120°F (or
falls below 120°F), the microbial flora and pathogens
remain viable at a high level and may increase in numbers.
Temperatures observed in the top and bottom 2-4 in layers
of the windrows were extremely variable and could not ensure
the destruction of pathogens unless the windrows were
properly turned .
The handling and disposal of refuse and refuse-sewage
sludge should be considered a health hazard and a potential
source of many microbial infections.
473
-------
Gadde, R.R. and H.A. Laitinen.
Studies of Heavy Metal Adsorption of Hydrous Iron and Manganese
Oxides,
"Analytical Chemistry. £6:2022-2026. November 1974.
Key Words: lead, cadmium, zinc, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Individual adsorption studies of Pb2+, Cd , and TI+ on
hydrous iron and manganese oxides are reported. Using
pulse polarography to determine the heavy metal ion con-
centrations before and after adsorption, their effects of
hydrogen ion and metal ion concentrations on the adsorption
divalent ions, the ratio
ion adsorbed was greater
•2 +
*
r) J.
'-
on
H
than
hydrous
were evaluated. For the
released per heavy metal
Specific adsorption of P b ^ "*", Z n £ T\ and
manganese oxide (HMO) and also Pb2+ and Cd
ferric oxide (HFO) was observed. Except for
which is complicated by a redox process,
on HFO and HMO followed the order Pb^+> Zn^"1"^ Cd<::"r> TI
The adsorption processes are reversible with respect to
H+ and other absorbing ions. Adsorption capacities of
the order of 0.2 mole heavy metal ion/mole HMO were
observed except in the case od lead, which showed much
higher adsorption (0.56 mole/mole HMO).
one
the adso
n *- •> r d
on hydrous
TI+ on HMO,
adsorption
>
474
-------
Gaitan, E.
Water-Borne Goitrogens and Their Role in the Etiology
of Endemic Goiter.
World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics. 17:53-90. 1973.
Key Words: iodides, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Endemic goiter in the Cauca Valley of Columbia is not
due to dietary iodine deficiency, but it can be cor-
related with the source of drinking water.
475
-------
Gales, M.E., Or, and R.L. Booth.
A Copper-Cadmium Column for Manually Determining Nitrate.
News of Environmental Research in Cincinnati: Methods
Development and Quality Assurance Research. February 28, 1975,
Key Words: nitrates, cadmium, copper, surface water (fresh),
primary water treatment processes.
Abstract:
Because of standard methods inaccuracies in determining
nitrate concentration in water, a copper-cadmium column
is investigated for possible use with >95% recovery
ef fi ciency.
476
-------
Gallagher, T.P. and D.F. Spino.
The Significance of Numbers of Coliform Bacteria as an Indi-
cation of Enteric Pathogens.
Water Research. 2.:169-175. 1968.
Key Words: bacteria, coliforms, drinking and recreational
water, salmonella.
Abstract:
To ascertain whether there is any level of total and fecal
coliform densities below which the probability of iso-
lating salmonel1ae, a pathogenic bacteria, would be neg-
ligible, a comparison of coliform data with salmonellae
data gathered in stream surveys throughout the United
States has been made. Since one of the premises for
using coliform as an indicator organism is that it is
presumably indicative of the probable presence of patho-
genic organisms, any relationship between numbers of coli-
form and isolation of pathogens would be valuable in
determining permissible bacteriological water quality
standards. A comparison of Salmonel1 a typhimurium and
fecal coliform survival time conducted under laboratory
conditions is also presented. A summary of data shows
little apparent correlation between levels of total or
fecal coliform and the isolation of salmonella. Some
observations are made as to why this may be so, and
the implications of using only coliform densities to
describe bacteriological acceptability for recreational
and fishing uses are discussed.
477
-------
Gamble, D.S. and M. Schnitzer.
The Chemistry of Fulvic Acid and Its Reactions with Metal Ions.
In: Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions in Natural
Waters. P.C. Singer, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann
Arbor, Michigan, 1974. pp, 265-302.
Key Words: copper, nickel, cobalt, lead, zinc, elemental contam-
inants, surface water (fresh), surface water (marine)
Abstract:
It must be remembered that fulvic acid is primarily
a polyelectrolyte, and that it is even more a mixture
than are most polymers. Since, in fact, one cannot
assume that any two of the ionizable functional groups
are chemically identical, it follows necessarily that
an experimentally observed equilibrium function is a
weighted average function. This has certain practical
consequences for the study of water chemistry.
The experimentally measured equilibrium function for
the reaction of fulvic acid with a cation is a variable.
This variable is a function of the weighting factors
of the participating functional groups, and of the electro-
static charge accumulated on the polymer molecules.
Any attempt to describe such an equilibrium with a simple
numerical constant is therefore a fundamental flaw in
logic. This mistake may lead to wrong conclusions
about the chemistry of natural waters.
478
-------
Gambrelli R.P. and S.B. Weed.
The Fate of Fertilizer Nutrients as Related to Water Quality
in the North Carolina Coastal Plain.
North Carolina Water Resources Research Institute, Raleigh,
August 1974. 167p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-238 001).
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus moving into surface
and subsurface waters from cultivated soils of the North
Carolina Co.astal Plain, as affected by internal drainage,
were determined. In a moderately well-drained soil, little
denitrification was found; in a poorly-drained soil with a
high water table, much of the unutilized fertilizer nitro-
gen was lost from the field through denitrification. Little
phosphorus was lost from either location studied except by
surface movement with eroded sediments. Application of
fertilizer nitrogen (224 kg/ha) resulted in an increase in
loss of total nitrogen by surface runoff from both soils.
Values were 29 percent for the moderately well-drained
soil and 10 percent for the poorly-drained soil. Nitrogen
lost in surface runoff was almost exclusively organically
bound, indicating that fertilizer applications serve to
maintain the level of soil organic nitrogen.
479
-------
Ganczarczyk, J.
Nitrogen Transformation in Activated Sludge Treatment.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE. 98(SA5)
783. October 1972. ~~~
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, activated sludge.
Abstract:
This paper discusses inhibiting factors in the
nitrification process.
480
-------
Gangoli, N. and G. Thodos.
Phosphate Adsorption Studies.
JWPCF. 45.(5):842-849. May 1973.
Key Words: phosphates, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The experimental results obtained from the different
treatments associated with AHB alumina, Fl alumina, and
fly ash indicated that the adsorptlve capacity for
phosphates was greatest when these adsorbents were
used without any treatment. It should be noted that
these results differ from those reported by Yee,
who pointed out that activation with nitric acid brought
an increase in the adsorptlve capacity of Fl alumina.
Fl alumina and fly ash possessed a higher adsorptlve
capacity than AHB alumina. Economic considerations
would dictate the final selection between Fl alumina
and fly ash, and, because fly ash is available as a
waste product, it seems that this substance may prove
to be the most promising adsorbent for the removal
of phosphates.
481
-------
Ganje, T.J.
Seleniurn.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils.
Homer D. Chapman, ed. Quality Printing Company, Abilene,
Texas , 1973. pp. 394-404.
Key Words: selenium, ponding/land application,
land reclamation, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
While selenium seems to have no beneficial effect on the
nutrition of cultivated crops and native grasses,
stimulation of plant growth at low concentrations of
selenium has been shown. The author describes1 plant
criteria useful in diagnosing selenium excess, indicator
plants for selenium content, tissue analysis values,
kinds of soils and places in which selenium excess
occurs, conditions which lead to selenium accumulation
in soils, selenium content of soils, plant uptake
experiments, and control of selenium excess.
482
-------
Garber, W.F.
Bacteriological Standards for Bathing Waters.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 2Q(6):795-807. June 1956.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (fresh), drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
This article presents a concept of the attitude an agency
operating a sewage treatment plant or other source of
waste discharge might properly take toward the bacterial
standards required for the receiving waters used.
483
-------
Garcia, W.J., C.W. Blessln, G.E. Inglett, and R.O. Carlson.
Physical-Chemical Characteristics and Heavy Metal Content
of Corn Grown on Sludge Treated Strip-Mine Soil.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 22(5):810-315.
September-October 1974.
Key Words: zinc, manganese, copper, lead, chromium, cadmium,
mercury, crops.
Abstract:
Corn crop on strip-mine soil, where anaerobically
digested liquid sludge had been applied, yielded a
four fold increase over untreated corn. Furthermore,
protein enhancement and heavy metal concentration
were also found to have increased.
484
-------
Gardner, D. and J.P. Riley.
Distribution of Dissolved Mercury in the Irish Sea.
Nature. 24]_:526-527. February 1973.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
In measured concentrations of mercury in seawater near
the British Isles, authors found concentrations of
~900 mg/1 near area where dried sewage sludge was being
dumped. The range of mercury normally was 25-50 mg/1.
485
-------
Gaufin, A.R.
The Fate and Effects of Pesticides in the Aquatic Environ-
ment of the Flathead Lake Drainage Area.
Montana State University, Bozeman, Water Resources Center,
January 1974. 50p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-232 252).
Key Words: DDT, surface water (fresh), groundwater.
Abstract:
A one-year preliminary sampling of pesticide practices
on the Flathead Indian Reservation was conducted, with
later work concentrating on the effects of DDT on
osprey survival and nesting on Flathead Lake, Montana.
The first year's sampling program indicated that
major surface, underground and culinary waters were
contaminated with Tordon and probably other pesticides
and/or herbicides. The phenomenon was believed
responsible for the catastrophic decline of the
populations of many predatory birds, with evidence
that it might also be responsible for the decline of
the Flathead Lake osprey population. The later work
provided additional confirmation of the osprey pop-
ulation decline and delineated possible reasons.
486
-------
Gavis, J.
Wastewater Reuse.
National Water Commission, Arlington, Virginia, 1971. 164p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as PB-201 535).
Key Words: suspended solids, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites,
phosphates, antibiotics, total dissolved solids,
viruses, surface water (fresh), screening opera-
tions, filtration, ni tri f i cati on/deni.tri f i cati on ,
aerated lagoons, activated sludge, anaerobic
lagoons, adsorption/ion exchange, chl orinati on .
Abstract:
The report evaluates the potential for wastewater reuse
through reclamation of effluents from advanced waste-
water treatment plants. Brief descriptions and references
indicate the extent of such practice at the present time
and likely possibilities for future developments. Emphasis
is on the resource value of wastewater. Potential for
reclamation of used municipal and industrial water are
discussed in terms of direct reuse (recirculating) and
indirect reuse (effluent from upstream use mixes with
streamflow and is withdrawn downstream). Advanced
treatment technology is described by processes for the
removal of constituents in the effluents, with cost
data and a review of major problems. Comparison with
desalination and interbasin transfer costs is suggested.
Need for research in evaluation and control of virological
hazards is stressed. Relationship of advanced treatment
processes to secondary treatment processes is included.
An optimistic view is presented for the growth of the
practice of water reuse, concluding that it will con-
tinue with growth of population and industry in the
United States.
487
-------
Gavis, J. and J.F. Ferguson.
The Cycling of Mercury through the Environment,
Water Research. 6.:989-1008. 1972.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
This paper reviews what is now known about the mercury
cycle in the aquatic environment and indicates where
the gaps in our knowledge lie. It described the aquatic
chemistry of mercury in the presence of chloride ions
and the sulfate-sul fide system, the affinity of mercury
for the sulfhydryl group in proteinaceous matter, the
formation of methylated mercury compounds by microbial
mediation, and the tendency for mercury in solution to
adsorb on suspended solids. The paper then describes
how mercury behaves in a typical local aquatic system
based on facts known from its chemistry. It presents,
finally, an estimate of the global cycle of mercury,
and concludes that although man has created serious
local problems by his indiscriminate discharge of
mercury into the environment, he has had but negligible
effect on a global scale.
488
-------
Gay, D.W., R-F- Drnevich, E.J. Breider, and K.W. Young.
High Purity Oxygen Aerobic Digestion Experiences at Speedway,
Indiana.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the National
Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, 1974. pp. 55-65.
Key Words: suspended solids, aerobic digestion.
Abstract:
A full scale aerobic digestion study utilizing high
purity oxygen was performed at the Speedway, Indiana
Water Pollution Control Plant. The major purpose
of this study was to investigate the possibility of
attaining and operating at elevated temperatures with-
out an external heat source. The existing UNOX System
was modified so that the entire wastewater flow from
the primary clarifier could be handled by one of the
two available reactor trains while the other train
served as an aerobic digestion unit. The oxygen aero-
bic digestion process showed the capability of sustain-
ing high temperatures ( 31°C) during winter operation
through the conservation of energy produced by endogenous
decay. Volatile suspended solids reductions in excess
of 43 percent were obtained with retention times as
short as 11.6 days.
Utilizing the data obtained from these tests, a full
scale aerobic digestion system using high purity oxygen
was designed for Speedway, Indiana. The economic
evaluation of the design indicates that the annual
cost for aerobically digesting Speedway waste sludge
is $53,400 which represents a cost of $34.00 per ton
of dry solids treated.
489
-------
Geldreich, E.E.
Applying Bacteriological Parameters to Recreational Water Quality.
JAWWA. 62.(2):113-120. February 1970.
Key Words: coliforms, salmonella, fecal streptococci, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
Bacteriological measurements of recreational water quality
must be based on the detection of fecal contamination by
all warm-blooded animals. The fecal coliform test is the
most accurate test now available for detecting warm-blooded
animal feces in polluted water. Field data from numerous
fresh water and estuarine pollution studies indicate a
sharp increase in the frequency of salmonella detection
when fecal coliform densities are above 200 organisms/100
ml. The inability to detect salmonella in some instances
of fecal pollution does not imply poor correlation of the
fecal coliform test. It does demonstrate, however, that
the occurrence of salmonella is highly variable. Negative
results by any salmonella detection methods currently
available do not insure the absence of all known salmonella
strains nor the absence of other bacterial and viral
pathogens.
The fecal streptococcus group encompasses a wide spectrum
of strains that have diverse survival rates, specific
fecal origins and also includes two biotypes of limited
sanitary significance. The S. bovi s and S. e q u i n u s sub-
group is more sensitive to environmental change than any
of the other bacterial indicator systems, Their occurrence
in water generally indicates that fecal contamination from
livestock, ducks, or wild animals has occurred within 24
hr. However, the ubiquitous S. faecali s var. 1i qui faci ens
may frequently represent a substantial portion of any fecal
streptococcus density in natural waters of good quality.
Until better methodology is available which will exclude
this streptococcus strain of limited sanitary significance,
the use of fecal streptococcus limits below 100 organisms/
100 ml of recreational water may be unrealistic unless con-
firmed by parallel fecal coliform examinations. Fecal coli-
form bacteria should be used as a baseline indicator system
for evaluating the microbiological suitability of recrea-
tional waters. The recommended limit of 200 fecal coliforms/
100 ml for primary contact recreational water use is both
realistic and consistent with research findings and field
i nvestigations.
490
-------
Geldreich, E.E. and A. Kenner.
Concepts of Fecal Streptococci in Stream Pollution.
JWPCF. il(8):R336-R352. August 1969.
Key Words: fecal streptococci, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article is an excellent discussion on fecal
streptococci and their role in environmental pathways.
491
-------
Geldreich, E.E. and R.H. Bordner.
Fecal Contamination of Fruits and Vegetables during Cultivation
and Processing for Market; a Review.
Journal of Milk and Food Technology. 14(4):184-195. April
Key Words: salmonella, bacteria, groundwater, crops, livestock,
agricultural sludge disposal.
Abstract:
Microbiological data from a wide variety of field
studies, including fruits, vegetables, related crops,
the soils in which they were grown, and the water with
which they were irrigated or processed, have been
correlated to demonstrate the magnitude of fecal contam-
ination on raw food products. Additional studies point
to the many different sources of this contamination
in the field and during handling and marketing.
Fecal coliform measurements proved to be the most
practical and useful method for determining the degree
of disease hazard caused by pathogen occurrence on
fruits and vegetables that may be eaten raw. The cor-
relation of fecal coliform densities with the occurrence
of salmonella in various stream waters was demonstrated.
For values under 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml
salmonella occurrence in these streams was 53.5% above
this fecal coliform value, the occurrence was 96.4%.
This high percentage of salmonella occurrence in water
in which there are more than 1,000 fecal coliforms per
100 ml serves to substantiate the validity of the water
quality standard recommended by the National Technical
Advisory Committee. No quantitative procedure is current-
ly available to measure the pathogen densities that could
be present.
In addition to the fecal coliform standard, a series of
multiple safeguards against disease infection to be
applied during cultivation, irrigation, handling, and
processing of salad-type vegetables and fruits are pro-
posed for the protection of public health.
492
-------
Geldreich, E.E., H.F. Clark, C.B. Huff, and L.C. Best.
Fecal-Coliform-Organism Medium for the Membrane Filter Technique
JAWWA. 57.(2) :208-214. February 1965.
Key Words: coliforms, epidemiology.
Abstract:
A medium for fecal coliform organisms (MFC) is recommended
that contains no inhibitory substances for coliform bac-
teria and that depends on an incubation temperature of
44.5°C (-6.5°) for 24 hrs (± 2 hrs) for its selectivity.
493
-------
Gelperln, A.
Health Effects of Nitrates in Water (Panel Discussion),
Key Words: nitrates, drinking and recreational water,
groundwater.
Abstract:
A general discussion of several different investigations
into the deleterious effects of "excess" nitrates, especi-
ally effects such as methemoglobinemia in infants, is
given. One investigation Involves two sets of Illinois
counties in an effort to compare the physiological effects
to residents using high nitrate or low nitrate water
supplies. An additional investigation is concerned
with methemoglobin tests on newborn babies and their
mothers. Data from the hospital test as well as speci-
mens of well water and also a third set of data corre-
lating cancer-related statistics with nitrate levels
are submitted to the Department of Preventive Medicine
at the University of Chicago. These studies have not
only health Implications but also economic ramifications.
494
-------
Geochemica1 Cycles for Heavy Metals. II. Flow, Geochemical
Regulation and Fate of Cadmium in the Environment: an
Example of Present Knowledge and Research Needs in the Area of
Metal Pollutants (Draft).
April 12, 1976.
Key Words: mercury, lead, cadmium, air, direct contact,
surface water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The case of mercury pollution has clearly demonstrated the
profound importance of gaining a fundamental understanding
of biologically mediated transformation reactions which
lead to meta1-organic compounds with high bioaccumulation
potential and toxicity. In extrapolating our experience
with the mercury cycle to other metals, cadmium is
not capable of forming stable metal alkyls. It is useful
to consider the environmental behavior of cadmium from the
perspective of similarities and differences with mercury,
as a way of illustrating the gaps in our knowledge which
make it difficult at present to pass beyond a qualitative
understanding of the factors which determine biological
hazard, human exposure, and fate of cadmium as a function
of source strengths on a regional or global basis.
495
-------
George, A, and O.T.. Zajicek.
Ion Exchange Equilibria. Chloride-Phosphate Exchange with a
Strong Base Anion Exchanger.
Environmental Science and Technology. 2J7) :540-542. July 1968.
Key Words: phosphates, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
From the results obtained in this work it seems that the
electroselectivity principle is applicable to the removal
of phosphates from water using ion exchange techniques,
when the competing ions behave as does chloride. An
important question relating to the success of phosphate
removal from water is whether the exchanger will be
sufficiently selective toward phosphate to enable its
exchange, even in the presence of large amounts of com-
peting ions. The results of this study indicate that
the resin becomes more selective for phosphate as either
the relative or the absolute amount of phosphate decreases
This is particularly important for the removal of pol-
lutant phosphate from a water supply, for example. If
the phosphate concentration is high, an ion exchanger
will probably remove phosphate; however, as the phos-
phate concentation decreases, its concentration relative
to other ions present becomes small. These results
indicate that the selectivity of the exchanger for phos-
phate should increase, rather than decrease, as phosphate
is removed.
While the ultimate test of the efficacy of ion exchangers
in removing phosphates from natural waters should require
a field test, this study strongly suggests that such a
test could be made with a reasonable chance of success.
In the solution with Xp = 0.1 and a total normality of
0.0075, the phosphate was reduced from about 12 p.p.m.
of P to less than 0.01 p.p.m. even in the presence of
a ninefold excess of chloride initially.
496
-------
Gerakis, P.A. and A.G. Sficas.
The Presence and Cycling of Pesticides in the Ecosphere.
Residue Reviews. 5_2:69-87. 1974.
Key Words: DDE, DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, endrin,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This is a good review of the mobility of pesticides
in the environment. It provides a useful background
to pesticides .
497
-------
Gerba, C.P. and G.E. Schaiberger.
Effect of Particulates on Virus Survival in Seawater.
JWPCF. 4^(1)-.93-103. January 1975.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Because seawater is a solution composed of an abundance
of ionic forms, it seemed conceivable that the virus
might behave differently in this type of environment
toward the kaolinite. Also, hydrogen ion concentration
has been shown to influence the adsorption of viruses,
and the high pH of seawater could alter the ability of
the viruses to attach to the surfaces of the clay.
Previous experiments had made it conceivable that viral
survival could be prompted by the direct adsorption of
virions to clay particles; thus, viral adsorption to
kaolinite in natural and artificial seawater was next
studied.
498
-------
Gerba, C.P., M.D. Sobsey, C. Wallis, and J.L. Melnlck.
Adsorption of Poliovirus onto Activated Carbon in Wastewater.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_:727-731. August 1975.
Key Words: polio virus, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The effect of pH and soluble organic matter on virus
adsorption to activated carbon in treated sewage was
determined. Poliovirus removal from wastewater ef-
fluent was greatly improved by lowering the pH to 3.5-
4.5 or by reducing the amount of organics by lime coagu-
lation. Batch studies indicated that virus adsorption
to activated carbon in wastewater could be described
by Freundlich isotherms. In column experiments virus
removal was found to be dependent on column length
as well as hydraulic loading. Virus and soluble
organics adsorbed at low pH could become readsorbed
by a rise in pH.
499
-------
Gerba , C.P., e_t al .
Enhancement of Poliovirus Adsorption in Wastewater on Acti-
vated Carbon.
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems, J.F. Malina
Jr. and B,P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at Austin, Center
for Research in Water Resources, 1974. pp. 115-126.
Key Words: viruses, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Batch studies showed that virus adsorption to activated
carbon in wastewater could be described by Freundlich
isotherms. The isotherms afforded a convenient means
of studying the effects of pH and different sewage
treatment methods on the efficiency of virus adsorption
by activated carbon. The Freundlich plots for the ad-
sorption data of replicate experiments conducted with
different batches of sewage had different slopes and
y-intercepts. These differences were attributed to dif-
ferences in the amount and/or the type of organic matter
present which competes with the virus for adsorption
sites on the activated carbon. This competition was
borne out with batch studies which indicated that the
amount of virus adsorbed to a given amount of carbon
was reciprocally related to the concentration of sewage
organics. This conclusion was also supported by the
greater degree of virus adsorption in lime-treated
sewage than in filtered sewage. Lime clarification of
secondary effluent resulted in 25 to 50 percent reduc-
tions in absorbance values, indicating appreciable
reductions in the amount of organics.
In column studies efficiency of virus removal was found
to be dependent on hydraulic loading, with greater
removals achieved at a lower loading. No apparent over-
all increase in virus removal efficiency was achieved
by an increase in column length, but the time for the
virus exhaustion point to be reached in terms of bed
volumes was greater. The 56-inch column was operated
over a period of three days as compared with 12 to 24
hours for the 18-inch column.
The adsorption of virus was found to be dependent on pH
with the greatest removal being achieved below a pH = 4.5.
The pH of the sewage used in this study was found to
vary from pH = 7.5 to pH = 8.5. In this pH range, viral
adsorption was found to be minimal. Poliovirus has been
found to have two isoelectric points at about pH = 7 and
pH = 4.5, with the virus becoming positively charged and
exhibiting positive mobilities below pH = 4.5. Activated
500
-------
carbon particles have negative mobilities above pH = 2.4.
A positive charge on the poliovirus particle below pH = 4.5
may act to enhance electrostatic attraction onto the
negatively charged groups of the activated carbon. Be-
cause other enteroviruses also are known to adsorb more
readily to surfaces at a low pH in the presence of organic
matter, their enhanced adsorption onto activated carbon
would also be expected at a low pH.
In summary, the results of the studies suggest that virus
removal from wastewater effluent by activated carbon
is greatly improved by maintaining a pH = 3.5 to pH = 4.5
or by reducing the amount of wastewater organics by lime
coagulation. In the studies, activated carbon adsorption
of organic pollutants from wastewater at pH = 4.5 or below
was comparable to that at pH = 8. In addition, Weber
has shown that activated carbon adsorption of certain
organic water pollutants may actually be enhanced at
acidic pH levels. Therefore, pH adjustments to below
a pH = 4.5 could be applied to a final polishing column
of activated carbon to ensure maximum virus removal
as well as removal of other organic pollutants. Addi-
tional studies would be required to determine if carbon
column operation under acidic conditions is both prac-
tical and economically feasible.
501
-------
Gerba.C.P., C. Wallis, and J.L. Melnick.
Viruses in Water: The Problem, Some Solutions.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_(13) -.1122-1126 .
December 1975.
Key Words: viruses., shellfish, groundwater, sanitary land-
fill, surface water (fresh), surface water (marine),
air, direct contact, ponding/land application,
gravity separators, filtration, activated sludge,
chemical treatment, adsorption/ion exchange,
chl orinati on , ozonation.
Abstract:
This is an excellent review, although general. It
discusses both treatment, method, and environmental
pathways.
502
-------
Ghan, H.B., C. Chen, and R.P. Miele.
Disinfection and Color Removal with Ozone (Draft Report).
EPA Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory.
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Key Words: bacteria, ozonation.
Abstract:
The attempts made in this study to reveal the technical
and economic virtues of the ozonation process for tertiary
treatment, particularly for disinfection and color removal,
have been fairly successful.
503
-------
Ghan, H. B., C. Chen, R.P. Miele, and I.J. Kugelman.
Wastewater Disinfection with Ozone Works Best with a Clean
Effluent and Multiple, Low-Dosage Injection Points.
The Bulletin (California Water Pollution Control Association).
12_(2):47-53. October 1975.
Key Words: conforms, suspended solids, COD, ammonia,
nitrates, nitrites, ozonation.
Abstract:
Good ozone dissolution can be obtained with spargers,
a positive-pressure Injector and a sliding vane mixing
pump.
Dissolution efficiencies of 90% or greater were observed
with all these systems.
Although the high efficiency of the sparger 1s limited
to an ozone dosage of 5 mg/1, it 1s believed to be the
most practical device for adding ozone.
The ozone dosage required to meet a disinfection cri-
terion of total conform equal to or less than 2.2/100
ml was observed to be a function of effluent quality.
Effluents with low concentrations of color-producing
substances, suspended solids, turbidity and COD required
10 mg/1 of ozone to meet the requirement; while an
effluent with high concentrations of these substances
met the criterion only at ozone dosages 1n excess of
50 mg/1.
The most effective time for disinfection with ozone
was 1n the Initial 120 seconds.
Ozone 1s an effective color-removal agent. The removal
of color occurred within the first 120 seconds after
ozone addition.
Some removal of total and dissolved COD, suspended solids
and turbidity was accomplished in all the process ef-
fluents .
A wide variation of results was obtained for these re-
movals, and no correlation with the ozone dosages could
be established.
The NH3-N in all the process effluents was not affected
by the ozone, but N02-N was easily oxidized to N03-N.
The ozonation cost was estimated at 1,6 cents/kl for
a good-quality effluent.
504
-------
Ghosh, M.M. and P.O. Zugger.
Toxic Effects of Mercury on the Activated Sludge Process.
JWPCF. _45(3):424-433. March 1973.
Key Words: mercury, activated sludge.
Abstract:
A preliminary study was conducted to determine the effect
of mercury dosed as HgClg on a batch-fed system of
microorganisms similar to that found in the activated
sludge process. The experimental batch units had an
initial MLVSS concentration of 2,000 mg/1 and F:M ratio
of 1.0. The results of this Investigation indicate that
mercury at concentrations less than 2.5 mg/1 as Hg**
has little effect on the activity of a mixed aerobic
biomass. However, at a dosage of 5.0 mg/1 or higher,
aerobic biological processes are definitely inhibited.
After 1 hr, the COD removal in the system dosed with
5.0 mg/1 of Hg2 + was 55 percent of that for the control;
the values of oxygen uptake rate and MLVSS growth were
50 and 25 percent of the respective values for the control
At a dosage of 10.0 mg/1 of Hg2+, the COD removal after
1 hr was 33 percent, cx;/ger, uptake rate 15 percent, and
MLVSS growth 19 percent c* the respective values for the
control. In the present, study, the thresnold toxic i ty
level of mercury seemed to lie between 2.5 and 5.0 mg/1
as Hg2+.
The inhibitory effect of mercury is temporary. It is
possible for an aerobic oiological process to acclimate
to a moderately high dosage of mercury. The time required
for acclimation increases with the dosage of mercury
applied to the system. At a dosage of 5.0 mg/1, a maximum
COD removal of 86 percent was accomplished within 5 hr,
and that at a dosage of 10.0 mg/1 was 32 percent,
accomplished in 9 hr. The maximum COD removal in the
control was 93 percent^ occurring within 3 hr.
505
-------
Gibbs, R.H,, Jr., E. Jarosewich, and H.L. Windom.
Heavy Metal Concentrations in Museum Fish Specimens: Effects
of Preservatives and Time.
Science. 184(4135):475-477. April 26, 1974.
Key Words: mercury, cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, fish.
Abstract:
Specimens of myctophid fish preserved for 1 month in
formalin, ethyl alcohol, and isopropyl alcohol had higher
concentrations of cadmium, copper, zinc, and sometimes
lead, and lower concentrations of mercury and sometimes
lead, than did unpreserved frozen specimens. Properties
of the preservatives and species differences in fish
tissues both influence these metal concentrations. Max-
imum concentrations of some metals in preserved speci-
mens appear to be attained within a month, while con-
centrations of others may continue to increase for years.
Metal tags or other materials in the preservative may
cause higher maximum concentrations than the preserva-
tives alone. Comparisons of concentrations of metals
between museum specimens and unpreserved (frozen) speci-
mens must be considered unreliable until the changes
from preservation are understood.
506
-------
Gibbs, R.J.
Mechanisms of Trace Metal Transport in Rivers.
Science. l_8£:71-73. April 1973.
Key Words: copper, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel,
cobalt, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Trace metals transported by the Amazon and Yukon Rivers
were analytically partitioned among the transport phases
in solutions, ion exchange, organic materials, metallic
coatings, and crystalline solids. The distribution for
both rivers is similarly proportioned, with copper and
chromium transported mainly in the crystalline solids,
manganese in coatings, and iron, nickel, and cobalt
distributed equally between precipitated metallic coat-
ings and crystalline solids.
507
-------
Gibney, L.
EPA Seeks Substitutes for Banned Pesticides.
Chemical and Engineering News. 5^(23):15-16. June 9, 1975.
Key Words: DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The Environmental Protection Agency is well under way
with a program to identify pesticides that can act as
substitutes for other pesticides that have either been
banned or face the threat of being banned. Thus far,
40 products have been identified as probable substi-
tutes for problem pesticides. The review of possible
substitutes takes into account both scientific and eco-
nomic factors, Scientific considerations include the
chemistry, toxicology, pharmacology, and environmental
fate of the product. Economic considerations include
the costs and benefits to the user and to society of
increased use of the substitute. To date, the agency
has studied substitutes for aldrin, dieldrin, and DDT
which have been banned; for chlordane and heptachlor
which are in litigation; for 2,4,5-T; and for ethylene-
bisdithiocarbamate. It has been confirmed that methyl
parathion, parathion, malathion, phorate, and demeton
are fully suitable to act as substitutes for certain
uses of DDT, and bromacil for certain uses of 2,4,5-T.
For each substitute a report is issued giving the sci-
entific data base for the chemical and also a position
paper on the pesticides safety and efficiency. The
research effort backing up the substitute chemicals
program, besides providing the scientific and economic
bases for the program, also provides data with respect
to analytical methods, environmental monitoring tech-
niques, and human effect testing procedures. There are
4 major subject areas: toxicological methodologies
and evaluation research; screening techniques for
"genesis" problems; acceptable and usable alternative
methods of pest control; and movement and fate of pesti-
cides in the environment.
508
-------
Gilbert, R.G., R.C. Rice, H. Bouwer, C.P. Gerba, C. Wallace,
and J.L. Melnick.
Wastewater Renovation and Reuse: Virus Removal by Soil
Fi1trati on.
Science. 192:1004-1005. June 4, 1976.
Key Words: viruses, ponding/.land application.
Abstract :
Secondary sewage effluent and renovated water from
four wells at the Flushing Meadows Wastewater Renovation
Project, in operation since 1967, were assayed bimonthly
in 1974 for viruses during flooding periods. Viruses,
regularly found in the secondary effluent, were not
detected in any renovated water samples. Results in-
dicated that human viral pathogens do not move through
soil into the groundwater, but are apparently absorbed
and degraded by the soil and reduced in numbers by a
factor of at least 4 logs (99.99 percent removal).
509
-------
Gilcreas, F.W. and S.M. Kelly.
Relation of Coliform-Organism Test to Enteric-Virus Pollution.
JAWWA. 47(7):683-694. July 1955.
Key Words: coliforms, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Although the experiments presented yield additional data
concerning the.problem under discussion, they are not
directly applicable to water works practice, as they
were carried out under laboratory conditions rather
than on a plant scale. The results suggest that the
coliform index is, in general, a valid measure of
pollution, both bacterial and viral, and that it is
also a reliable indication of the efficiency of treat-
ment processes when the limitations of marginal treat-
ments in the removal of pollution - particularly by
enteric viruses - are understood. The coliform index
should be interpreted with discretion and regard for
the information available concerning the relative
survival rates of the agents in question under conditions
of water treatment. The experiments indicate that
effective and complete treatment of water is necessary
to insure safety from potential pollution by enteric vi-
ruses. Marginal treatments are not sufficient, even
though they may reduce the density of the coliform
group to conform closely with established water quality
standards. Much further investigative work on the prob-
lem is needed to determine the fundamental significance
of the coliform group - compared with viruses and other
pathogenic agents - an an indicator of pollution. Epi-
demiologic studies are also necessary for determining
infective densities of viruses in water as compared with
coliform microorganisms. It is possible that, although
enteric pathogenic viruses are not completely destroyed
by present-day water supply treatment, they may be so
reduced in numbers that they would not be infective
to consumers. Pending further investigation of the
problem, it seems safe to state that the coliform
index is still a reliable indicator of significant
pollution and of the effectiveness of standard water
supply treatment.
510
-------
Glide, L.C., A.S. Kester, J.P. Law, C.H. Neeley, and D.M. Parmelee
A Spray Irrigation System for Treatment of Cannery Wastes.
JWPCF. £3(10):2011-2025. October 1971.
Kew Words: BOD, bacteria, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The 12-month cooperative research program was initiated
to learn more about the microbiology, microclimate,
forage quality, yield, and treatment efficiency of a
unique spray irrigation system. Hydraulic measurements
were made to account for the liquid applied. Chemical
analysis of the wastewater surface runoff, soil percolate,
and final effluent as well as the hydraulic data provided
the means to account for removal efficiencies on a mass
balance basis. Particular attention was given to the fate
of the nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. The treated
effluent released to the surface stream leaving the farm
consistently had a BOD content of less than 10 mg/1 with
about half the data being less than 6 mg/1.
The studies have shown that much of the plant nutrient
material that is released during the decomposition of
organic matter contained in the wastewater is reabsorbed
by the soil complex. The capacity of an arable soil for
the retention of vast quantities of plant nutrients is a
well-established agricultural fact. Nonetheless, it is
not reasonable to suppose that this storage capacity is
infinite. One way of prolonging the plant nutrient
storage capacity is to remove the nutrients by harvesting
the hay.
511
-------
Gillet, J.W., J. Hill IV, A.M. Jarvinen, and W. P. Schoor.
A Conceptual Model for the Movement of Pesticides Through
the Environment: A Contribution of the EPA Alternative
Chemicals Program.
EPA/660/3-74/024s National Ecological Research Laboratory,
Corvallis, Ore., December 1974. 89p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-238 653).
Key Words: pesticides, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
The report presents a conceptual model of the movement
and disposition of pesticides in the environment.
A multi-media model is built up from simple modules
representing basic processes and components of air,
soil, and water. More specific models are exposited for
the atmospheric/terrestrial, freshwater aquatic, and estu
arine/marine environments. Ultimately systems analysis
and mathematical simulation techniques can be employed
to evaluate the fate of a specific chemical in a partic-
ular environment. The conceptual model is thus a first
step in organizing facts, assumptions, and hypotheses
into a graphic and logical arm capable of exploitation
in further experimentation of pesticide disposition and
effects. A multi-media approach to disposition studies
is made explicit even in the absence of a single all-
media global model.
512
-------
Gilliam, J.W., R.B. Daniels, and J.F. Lutz.
Nitrogen Content of Shallow Ground Water in the North
Carolina Coastal Plain.
Journal of Environmental Quality. _3:^47-151. April 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, groundwater.
Abstract:
The N03-N and NH4-N concentrations in shallow (< 3 m)
groundwater under a range of soil types, drainage
conditions, and type of crop grown were monitored. The
N03-N levels were always low (1 ppm or less) in ground-
water under wooded areas. The concentrations were some-
what higher under cultivated fields with the levels
usually being 1 to 5 ppm although several values in the
range of 10 to 20 ppm were recorded. The concentrations
in all wells were always higher during the winter months.
There seemed to be no relationship between cultivated
crop and N03-N in the groundwater. The NOs-N concentration
was almost always higher in the middle of the field than
on the edge of the field even though the direction of
water flow was toward the edge of the field. It is
suggested that denitrification is responsible for this
decrease.
There was little difference in NH4-N concentration in
water under cultivated fields and under unfertilized woods
or pasture. The NH4-N concentrations were normally in
the range of 0.1 to 1 ppm with the higher levels
being found under poorly-drained soils.
Based upon the characteristics of the surface sediments,
it is concluded that very little of the N 0 3 - N present in the
shallow groundwater moves into deep aquifers in any area
of the North Carolina Coastal Plain. However, the amount of
N03~N that moves through the surficial sediments to the
streams probably varies with location and characteristics
of the confining beds.
513
-------
Giusti, D.M., R.A. Conway, and C.T. Lawson.
Activated Carbon Adsorption of Petrochemicals.
JWPCF. 4£(5):947-965. May 1974.
Key Words: oil and grease, synthetic/organics,
adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Studies with 93 petrochemicals dosed singly with activated
carbon show that as molecular weight increases and polarity,
solubility, and branching decrease, the degree to which
pure components are adsorbed by activated carbon increases
somewhat predictably.
Of the classes of compounds studied, the aromatics exhibited
the greatest amenability to activated carbon adsorption
because of their relatively low solubilities in aqueous
solution and bonding to the aromatic surface of the acti-
vated carbon.
Functionality was seen to have a substantial effect, which
was interrelated with solubility and polarity. For the
straight-chain compounds, the relative amenabilities to
carbon adsorption for compounds of less than four carbons
were: undissociated organic acids > aldehydes > esters
ketones > alcohols > glycols. For compounds above four
carbons, the alcohols moved ahead of the esters.
For representative compounds from the five functional
groupings studied in isotherm tests, the amenability to
adsorption increased with decreasing total surface acidity
of the carbon. Consequently, for compounds of this type,
a carbon of low surface acidity is indicated. Also, the
method of regeneration of the carbon should prevent addi-
tion or rearrangement of surface oxides. The possibility
exists that other compounds show a reverse of this effect,
such as urea in Coughlin's findings. With this in mind,
a mixture of carbons, each suitable for a specific com-
pound, conceivably could be used on a waste stream of known
and relatively consistent make-up.
An increased adsorptive capacity was noted for the test com-
pounds at high pH levels, apparently because of the opening
of micropores blocked by surface oxide structures and at
times by the formation of higher molecular-weight conden-
sation products.
Pretreatment of carbons for isotherm testing did not mani-
fest itself as being solely responsible for the relatively
high ultimate capacities found for carbons in batch-type
514
-------
equilibrium tests as opposed to the lower capacities
observed in continuous systems. This tentative conclusion
is based on data for only two compounds. Such factors as
channeling, variation in flow rate, and insufficient resi-
dence time are probably the main contributors to the appa-
rently lower capacities in continuous systems.
Adsorption from certain 2-component systems was found in
isotherm tests to be fairly predictable from single-compo-
nent data; however, data with a four-component system indi-
cate that only about 60 percent of the anticipated adsorp-
tion was realized, probably because competition for adsorp-
tion sites and mutual solubility effects are not negligible
at this 1evel.
Adsorption results with three continuous systems indicated
greater than 80 percent attainment of the ultimate equili-
brium capacities measured in isotherm tests with the pure
compounds and mixtures.
515
-------
Glaser, J.R. and J.O. Ledbetter.
Sizes and Numbers of Aerosols Generated by Activated Sludge
Aeration.
Water and Sewage Works. 1_V4(6) :219-221 . June 1967.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
More
1 ess
tank
size
than 15,000 particles (without considering those
than 1 micron in size) are emitted by an aeration
in an activated sludge system. While the average
is 11.8 microns and the large particles would
present little health hazard to the plant operators
and others in the vicinity, some 40 percent of these
particles have diameters less than 10 microns and cer-
tainly are respirable and could cause respiratory in-
fections and disorders.
516
-------
Glaze, W.H. and J.E. Henderson IV.
Formation of Organochlorine Compounds From the Chlorination
of a Municipal Secondary Effluent.
JWPCF. 47(10):2511-2515. October 1975.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination.
Abstract:
Whereas most wastewater treatment processes currently
utilize terminal chlorination at rather moderate dosages,
there is some interest in using much larger dosages for
various specialty applications that are required in plant
operation.
In retrospect, it is not surprising to find that chlorina-
tion under aqueous conditions produces new chlorinated
compounds from the organics found as residues in waste-
water effluents. Recently, attention has been focused on
the possible deleterious effects of such compounds on
receiving streams and on the possible chronic health
effects of such compounds should they enter drinking
water supplies.
While the "superchlorination" conditions used in the pre-
sent work do not accurately represent the conditions used
in waste treatment plant operation, the new compounds
formed thereby will presumably be the same in many cases
as those formed in smaller quantities during terminal
chlorination. Thus, the identification of 36 new chlo-
rinated organic compounds that were formed by "superchlo-
rination" of a typical secondary effluent is reported
herei n.
517
-------
Glover, G.E. and G. R. Herbert.
Microstraining and Disinfection of Combined Sewer Overflows -
Phase II.
EPA-R2-73-124, Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory, N.J.,
January 1973. 119p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-219 879).
Key Words: COD, total dissolved solids, coliforms, suspended
solids, BOD, screening operations, influent
characteristics, chl ori nation.
Abstract:
Suspended solids removal performance tends to confirm
previous work. The microstrainer operated at flow
rates of 35-45 gpm/ft2 with differentials of 24 inches
of water. At these rates, the suspended solids in
combined sewer overflow were reduced from 50-700 mg/1
to 40-50 mg/1 and below. At the higher influent levels
of suspended solids, removal performance was enhanced,
yielding effluent concentrations of approximately 10
mg/1. The conventionally used, percentage removal
performance criteria are not valid for microstralning
of combined sewer overflow.
Volatile suspended solids reduction paralleled the
reduction of total suspended solids.
The highest concentration of suspended solids fre-
quently occurs when the overflow rate is highest.
The concurrence of high suspended solids concentration
and high overflow rate results in a very high potential
contaminant loading per unit time t,o the receiving
stream.
518
-------
Gloyna, E.F., S.O. Brady, and H. Lyles.
Use of Aerated Lagoons and Ponds in Refinery and Chemical
Waste Treatment.
JWPCF. 4JJ 3):429-439. March 1969.
Key Words: BOD, COD, suspended solids, aerated lagoons.
Abstract:
This article gives wastewater characteristics of
refinery waste.
519
-------
Godfrey , K.A. , Jr.
Land Treatment of Municipal Sewage.
Civil Engineering. 4^3 ( 9) : 1 03-1 09 . September 1973.
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, viruses, elemental con-
taminants, ponding/land application, groundwater.
Abstract:
Engineers and ecologists are debating the pros and cons
of applying treated sewage effluents to land, as a
treatment process and to recycle nutrients. Instead of
polluting streams, most of the organic matter and nutrients
in sewage would be recycled to the land, boosting growth
of grass, crops, or forests. Certain types of land
treatment demand huge land areas. To date the approach
has often been used in the arid Southwest - primarily for
water reclamation rather than pollution control. But
with the new, stricter pollution-control laws, the process
may now see increased use in humid areas.
Good as land treatment is, caution is needed in designing
and operating a facility.
Study each case with great care. In each
situation there will be a different combination of climate,
sewage character, soil, water and plant life.
Monitor land-treated effluent quality. Nitrate
levels in leachate are of particular concern.
Do more research. Particularly in the humid
eastern U.S., land treatment has not been tried in a
sizeable city. There are unknowns, for example whether
nitrate levels in treated leachate will always be
acceptably low, what will be the long-term effects of heavy
metals applied to the soil, and the fate of viruses.
Earlier land treatment systems were inadequate -
no continuous effluent quality monitoring, no performance
reporting on a standardized basis, often no underdrains to
prevent soil salination and to permit holding the occasional
effluent that is of unacceptable quality. But designed
with necessary safeguards, land treatment is today a
viable method of tertiary treatment.
520
-------
Goff, G.D., J.C. Spendlove, A.P. Adams, and P.S. Nicholes.
Emission of Microbial Aerosols from Sewage Treatment Plants
That Use Trickling Filters.
Health Service Reports. 8!3( 7 ) :640-651 . August-September 1973
Key Words: biological contaminants, coliforms, bacteria,
trickling filters, air.
Abstract:
This paper discusses emission of microbial aerosols
from sewage treatment plants using trickling filters.
521
-------
Gold, H. and A. Todisco.
Wastewater Reuse by Continuous Ion Exchange.
In: Complete WateReuse. L.K. Cecil, ed. American Institute
of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1973. pp. 96-103.
Key Words: BOD, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This paper describes an attempt to run a reuse system by
ion exchange.
522
-------
Goldman, J.C. and J.H. Ryther.
Nutrient Transformations in Mass Cultures of Marine Algae.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
T_0]_(EE3):351-364. June 1975.
Key Words: nitrates, ammonia, aqua cultures.
Abstract:
The feasibility of growing marine algae in mass culture
using wastewater-seawater mixtures as the nutrient
source has been demonstrated. Operational control of
algal yields and nitrogen removal may be effected
through manipulation of the wastewater-seawater mixture
or the dilution rate, or both, although geographical
location will control ultimate yields through sunlight
anijj temperature effects. In addition, by maintaining
NH4 - N as the dominant N form in the wastewater,
nitrogen removal can be enhanced significantly by NH3
evolution to the atmosphere at the high pH values
attained in the ponds.
Utilization of the algae for stripping nutrients from
wastewater or as a food for shellfish growth in an
aquaculture system, or both, may by the desired end
result of such a process. Algal yields of 6 g PC m~2
day~' were achieved in this study, which may be close
to the maximum attainable yields in mass cultures on
a sustained basis. Future research in different
locales will be required to determine accurately the
practical limit to algal production.
523
-------
Goldman, J.C., K.R. Tenore, J.H. Ryther, and N. Corwin.
Inorganic Nitrogen Removal in a Combined Tertiary Treatment
Marine Aquaculture System - I: Removal Efficiencies.
Water Research. 8_:45-54. 1974.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrification/denitrification.
Abstract:
The increasing awareness that nitrogen is often a key
nutrient controlling algal growth in coastal marine
waters has led to a concerted effort to find ways to
remove ammonia and nitrate from wastewaters. A novel
approach to this problem involves the combining of
algal and seaweed nutrient stripping processes with
a marine aquaculture. Not only is nitrogen removed
from wastewater, but important commercial shellfish
and seaweeds are produced.
A prototype process consisting of growth systems for
marine algae, oysters and seaweed, joined in series,
was fed secondarily treated wastewater, diluted 1:4
with seawater, for 11 weeks during the Summer of 1972.
During this time 95 percent of the influent inorganic
nitrogen was removed by algal assimilation. The oysters
in turn removed 85 percent of the algae, but regenerated
as soluble ammonia 16 18 percent of the nitrogen
originally bound in the algal cells. All of the re-
generated nitrogen was removed in the seaweed system
so that the total inorganic nitrogen removal efficiency
of the system was 95 percent. Phosphorus removal on
the other hand was not nearly as complete as only 45-
60 percent was removed.
The process has the capability of being expanded to
include additional trophic levels in an integrated
and highly controlled food chain system to serve the
dual function of tertiary wastewater treatment and
waste recycling through the production of shellfish
and seaweeds.
524
-------
Goldman, J.C..K.R. Tenore, and H.I. Stanley.
Inorganic Nitrogen Removal in a Combined Tertiary Treatment
Marine Aquaculture System - II: Algal Biomass.
Water Research. 8^:55-59. 1974.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrification/denitrification .
Abstract:
Algal bioassays were conducted on samples from various
components of the combined tertiary treatment marine
aquaculture process, described in Parti of this study.
These assays demonstrated that nitrogen removal is
necessary to prevent increasing the algal growth po-
tential of coastal marine waters receiving wastewater
discharges. When nitrogen was removed from secondarily
treated domestic wastewater, the wastewater in varying
dilutions with seawater could not support more algal
growth than the seawater alone. By adding nitrogen
back to the treated wastewater the algal growth po-
tential was increased to that of the untreated waste-
water. This was demonstrated by assaying samples con-
taining both artifically added nitrogen, and nitrogen
regenerated by oysters. Assays of the effluent from
the seaweed system showed that the removal of regen-
erated nitrogen reduced the algal growth potential to
that of natural seawater.
525
-------
Gossllng, 0. and J.M. Slack.
Predominant Gram-Positive Bacteria
Variety, and Persistence.
in Human Feces: Numbers
Infection and Immunity. £:719-729. April 1974.
Key Words: bacteria.
Abstract:
The predominant gram-positive bacteria in 47 fecal speci-
mens from 10 healthy men were studied by microscopic and
cultural counts, by the characterization and tentative
Identification of isolates, and by the use of fluorescein
isothiocyanite (FITC)-conjugated globulins prepared using
some of the isolates. Gram-positive bacteria averaged
approximately 101(Vg (wet weight) of feces with significant
variation from host to host. Characterization of 865 iso-
lates, all strict anaerobes and carbohydrate fermenters,
showed 12 to 39 distinguishable strains from each host and
indicated that some strains were present the full period
of about 18 months. Sixty percent of the isolates belonged
to one of five types, all of which had distinct host idio-
syncracy in estimated counts.
526
-------
Grabow, W.O.K.
The Virology of Waste Water Treatment.
Water Research. 2_( 10 ) :675-701. November 1968.
Key Words: viruses, polio virus, hepatitis virus, activated
sludge, surface water (fresh), trickling filters,
filtration, adsorption/ion exchange, ch lor i na-
tion, ozonation.
Abstract:
This literature survey shows that we do know that
pathogenic viruses may survive undetected under
conditions that result in the elimination of coliform
organisms; that conventional sewage purification and
water treatment procedures merely reduce the numbers
of these viruses and that they can be isolated from
water supplies even after conventional chlorination
that is regarded as satisfactory for removing bacterial
contamination. Evidence has furthermore been presented
to suggest that a single tissue culture dose (TClDso)
may be sufficient to infect man if it is placed in
contact with susceptible cells. Thus, although there
are divergent views on the likelihood that water.is
an important route in the transmission of viruses,
there is general agreement that water could be impor-
tant as a vehicle of disease transmission. These
uncertainties have to be clarified, and our water
purification and disinfection methods have to be im-
proved to ensure virus-free drinking water now and
in the future.
527
-------
Grabow, W.O.K, and E.M. Nupen,
The Load of Infectious Microorganisms in the Waste Water of
Two South African Hospitals.
Water Research. 6_: 1 557-1 563 . 1972.
Key Words: bacteria, drinking and recreational water..
Abstract:
Counts of micro-organisms including infectious
bacteria, viruses and parasite ova in the waste
water of two hospitals were compared with those in
city sewage. One of these is an isolation hospital
with stringent disinfection procedures. Counts of
all the organisms tested, except Ps eudomonas aerugi nosa,
were lower in the waste water of this hospital than
in the sewage effluent of the town in which it is
located. The other hospital is a general hospital
with less stringent disinfection procedures. Counts
of some organisms were slightly higher in the waste
water of this hospital than in the sewage effluent
of the city in which it is located. The results
obtained indicated that under normal conditions the
waste water of hospitals needs no treatment before
disposal into city sewers. The disposal of primary
treated hospital effluents into streams or their
use for irrigation should, however, be considered
with care.
528
-------
Grabow, W.O.K., O.W. Prozesky, and L.S. Smith.
Drug Resistant Coliforms Call for Re-evaluation of Water
Quality Standards.
Water Pollution Control. 7±(2) :217-222. 1975.
Key Words; colifortns, drinking and recreational water,
epi demi ology.
Abstract:
The therapeutic value of antimicrobial drugs is dimin-
ishing due to the rapid increase of resistant bacteria,
A current prominent type of resistance is mediated by
R factors (extrachromosomal nucleic acid elements)
which may cause high level resistance to many drugs.
These factors may also provide resistance to other
antibacterial agents such as u.v. light, heavy metals,
bacteriocins and phages, and may enhance the viru-
lence and infectivity of pathogens. Intestinal Gram-
negative bacteria like coliforms may act as reservoirs
of R factors and transfer them to pathogens. Evidence
is presented that sewage polluted water may play an
important role in the spread of coliform and other
bacteria carrying R factors. Since coliforms have
joined forces with bacteria increasingly involved in
disease, they can no longer be regarded as harmless
indicators of faecal pollution. This calls for a re-
evaluation of water quality standards and for more
advanced purification of sewage prior to discharge in-
to the environment.
529
-------
Grabow, W.O.K., O.W. Prozesky, and L.S. Smith.
Drug Resistant Coliforms Call for Review of Water Quality
Standards.
Water Research. £:l-9, 1974.
Key Words: coliforms, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Two factors are involved in the spread of R+ bacteria:
drug therapy which does not create but selects for resis-
tance plasmids (in patients who had acquired R+ bacteria,
antimicrobial therapy is followed by a rapid increase of
these organisms which are discharged into sewage via feces
and other excreta) and the transmission of the organisms
from excretors to the population at large (sewage seems
to be of prime importance in this regard). Two percent
of coliforms in sewage and in sewage-polluted water can
be expected to carry R factors (maximum 26 percent in a
hospital effluent).
530
-------
Grabow, W.O.K., I.G. Middendorff, and O.W. Prozesky.
Survival in Maturation Ponds of Coliform Bacteria with Trans
ferable Drug Resistance.
Water Research. 7/1589-1597. 1973.
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria.
Abstract:
The behavior of drug-resistant coliform bacteria in a
series of sewage maturation ponds was investigated.
The average reduction through the ponds of coliforms
resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, kanamycin,
streptomycin or tetracycline was 6.83 percent lower
than that of drug-sensitive bacteria. This difference
was mainly due to coliforms with transferable resis-
tance (R* conforms) which increased from 0.86 percent
to 2.45 percent through the ponds. The spectrum of
transferable resistance of coliforms in the effluent
did not differ notably from that of coliforms in the
influent. The average incidence of Escherichia coli I
among R coliforms decreased from 66.08 percent Fo
62.09 percent. This indicates that low-level transfer
of R factors may occur in ponds. Possible mechanisms
and the epidemiological significance of the increased
survival of R+ coliforms in maturation ponds are dis-
cussed.
531
-------
Graef, S.P.
Anaerobic Digester Operation at the Metropolitan Sanitary
Districts of Greater Chicago.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the National
Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, 1974. pp. 29-35.
Key Words: suspended solids, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
The practice of anaerobic sludge digestion by the
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago
is rummarized. Topics discussed include capacities
of five digestion facilities, digester construction
costs, operation and maintenance costs, sludge
conditioning and digester flow regimes, heat transfer,
loading intensity, gas production, digested sludge
characteristics, sludge disposal, digester problems
and future improvements in digester operation.
532
-------
Graeser, H.J.
Dallas' Wastewater-Reclamation Studies.
JAWWA. 61(10):634-640. October 1971.
Key Words: BOD, COD, suspended solids, trickling filters,
adsorption/ion exchange, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
This article is a general discussion of water reuse.
533
-------
Graeser, H.J.
Water Reuse: Resource of the Future.
JAWWA. 66.(10) :575-578. October 1974.
Key Words: polio virus, pesticides, chemical treatment,
filtration, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This article discusses Dallas/EPA research on polio
virus, organics, and heavy metals.
534
-------
Graetz, D.A., L.C. Hammond, and O.M. Davidson.
Nitrate Movement in a Eustis Fine Sand Planted to Millet.
Soil and Crop Science Society of Florida. Proceedings.
33:157-160. November 27-29, 1973.
Key Words
ni trates
crops.
chlorides, surface water (fresh),
Abstract:
Movement of N, added as N^NC^, was measured in a
Eustis fine sand planted to millet. Significant
NOs leaching occurred from fertilizer applied at
planting as well as from fertilizer applied 6 weeks
after planting when the millet was in its rapid
growth phase. Nitrification was sufficiently rapid
that most of the added NH4 was converted to N03
during the time of this investigation. Water deple-
tion data indicated two periods of drainage from
the 150-cm soil profile. This drainage was sufficient
to remove essentially all of the Cl and all of the
NOo not utilized by the soil-plant system. Approxi-
mately 42% of the added N was assimilated by the har-
vested portion of the millet. Another 13% was esti-
mated to remain in the soil in plant roots. Most
of the remaining 45% was leached below 150 cm under
the climatic conditions encountered during this
investigation.
535
-------
Graetz, D.A., G. Chesters, T.C. Daniel, L.W. Newland, and
G.B. Lee.
Parathion Degradation in Lake Sediments.
JWPCF. 42.(2) :R76-R94. February 1970.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The persistence of parathion in the natural aquatic
environment is affected markedly by microbial activity.
Without microbial activity, parathion would remain in
the environment for several months while in biologically
active aerobic or anaerobic environments, it would be
degraded In a matter of weeks.
536
-------
Graham, D.L.
Trace Metal Levels in Intertidal Mollusks of California.
The Vellger. ]_4(4) :365-372. April 1, 1972.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, lead,
zinc, shellfish.
Abstract:
Determinations of silver, cadmium, chromium, copper,
manganese, lead and zinc were made by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry on 7 species of mollusks from 11
locations along the California coast from San Francisco
Bay to Los Angeles. Separate analyses were performed on
shells and soft portions of whole bodies. Highest levels,
above 900 ppm lead, 570 ppm copper, and 1700 ppm zinc
have raised the question of causes for these concentrations
537
-------
Granata, A., L. De Angelis, M. Piscaglia, et al.
Relationship between Cancer Mortality and Urban Drinking
Water Metal Ion Content.
Minerva Medica. 61_:1941. May 1970.
Key Words: epidemiology, drinking and recreational water
Abstract:
A relationship between cancer mortality and drinking
water metal ion content appears to exist.
538
-------
Grande , M.
Effect of Copper and Zinc on Salmonid Fishes.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1966(1):97-111.
Key Words: copper, zinc, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
This paper is a valuable contribution to the literature
on the complex problem of the effect of copper and
zinc on salmonid fishes.
539
-------
Grande, M.
Effect of Copper and Zinc on Salmonid Fishes.
Munich Abstracts - Section I. 38.(3) :317-318. March 1966.
Key Words: copper, zinc, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
The experiments with eggs showed that copper inhibited
their development in about the same concentrations
that were toxic to fry. Zinc, on the other hand,
was found to have a more specific effect on the devel-
opment of eggs, in concentrations less than 1/10 of
those toxic to fry, i.e., less than 0.05 rng/1.
540
-------
Graves, J .0., Jr.
Enteric Bacteriophages in Saint Louis Bay, Mississippi.
University of Mississippi, University, Dept. of Biology,
May 1972. 34p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as COM-75-10028/9WP).
Key Words: bacteria, Escheri chia coli , salmonella, shigella,
surface water(fresh).
Abstract:
Samples from four stations in Saint Louis Bay, Mississippi
were examined monthly for the presence of enteric bac-
teriophages over the period from July 1971 to March 1972.
The samples were of surface and bottom water, bottom
sediment, and surface and gut of fish and oysters.
Host bacteria tested were Escheri chia coli, Enterobacter
aerogenes, Salmonella schottmuel1eri and Shi gel 1 a
alkalescens. No bacteriophages for Salmonella schot-
tmuelleri or Shi gel la alkalescens were detected"(Tacter-
iophages of Escherichia coli and Enterobacter aeroqenes
were isolated regularly, most commonly from surface
water samples. MPN estimations of _§_. coj i bacteriophage
concentrations in surface water samples were determined
over the period from December to March. Wide variations
^n Li coli bacteriophage concentrations were encountered.
The data indi cated a pattern of seasonal variation. This
method provided a rapid and simple means for estimation
of coliphage concentrations in water.
541
-------
Gray, D.H. and C. Penessis.
Engineering Properties of Sludge Ash.
JWPCF. 4,4(5) :847-858. May 1972.
Key Words: COD, incineration.
Abstract:
This is a general discussion of residue remaining
from sludge incineration.
542
-------
Greenberg, A. E.
Survival of Enteric Organic Organisms in Sea Water.
Public Health Reports. 71(1):77-86. January 1956.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine), drinking
and recreational water.
Abstract:
From a review of the literature on the survival of
enteric organisms in seawater, it is apparent that
these organisms can create a health hazard in
estuaries, bays, and especially beaches. The rate of
disappearance of the fecal bacteria is greater than
that which would be expected from dilution alone.
A number of factors are implicated. These include the
production by marine bacteria of unidentified, heat
labile antibiotic substances; and adsorption and sed-
imentation, predation, and competition for the limited
food supply. The net result is a partial or complete
disinfection or self-purification of seawater. Never-
theless, this bacterial destruction should not be relied
on as the sole protection offered to users of seawater.
543
-------
Greenberg, A.E. and E. Kupka.
Tuberculosis Transmission by Waste Waters - A Review.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 29_(5) :524-537. May 1957.
Key Words: epidemiology, chl orination , drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
From a review of the literature on sewage, tubercle
bacilli, and tuberculosis as a clinical disease,
it is apparent that health hazards may exist in the
disposal of tuberculous material.
An attempt was made to answer several questions re-
garding tuberculosis and sewage. The following
conclusions appear justified:
1. The wastes from institutions treating tubercu-
losis patients will almost always contain large
numbers of tubercle bacilli. Disinfection of sputum
and of other discharges from patients will reduce
the numbers of tubercle bacilli found in sewage, but
will not eliminate them.
2. Industries, such as dairies and slaughter houses,
handling tuberculous animals, may be expected to dis-
charge tubercle bacilli with their wastes.
3. Conventional sewage treatment is inadequate to
significantly reduce the number of tubercle bacilli
in the sewage. In order to provide adequate disin-
fection, complete treatment plus chlorination is
necessary. The chlorine dose for a we!1-oxidized
effluent should be at least 20 p.p.m. and the chlorine
contact time should be at least 2 hr.
4. Contaminated sewage or water can produce typical
tuberculosis in humans. The danger is most marked
with swimming and near-drowning, but the danger
associated with other uses should not be minimized,
nor neglected and, at the very least, it should be
kept in mind.
544
-------
Greer, D.E. and C.D. Ziebell.
Biological Removal of Phosphates from Water.
JWPCF. 44(12):2342-2348. December 1972.
Key Words: phosphates, tertiary treatment.
Abstract:
The removal of excess phosphates by precipitation
in the form of hydroxyl-apatile without the addi-
tion of any reagents is a feasible technique in
areas possessing alkaline waters. This precipi-
tation process is implemented by elevation of the
OH~ ion concentration through the removal of CO?
from the water by algae. The resulting hydroxyi-
apatite-algae suspension can be removed from the
water by beds of clams. The clams used in this
research, C o rb i c u 1 a f1 urn1n e a . can live in eutrophic
water if the water is circulated continuously and
the water temperature is maintained below 30°C.
This tertiary treatment technique is capable of
removing phosphorus from 15.0 mg/1 PO/^" solution
at the rate of 0.930 mg/day without the addition
of any reagents. Further research and engineering
planning may enhance this removal rate appreciably.
545
-------
Gregor, C.D.
Solubi1ization of Lead in Lakes and Reservoir Sediments by NTA.
Environmental Science and Technology. 6^(3) :278-279. March 1972
Key Words: lead, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The proposed replacement of phosphate by nitrilotriacetic
acid (NTA) in detergent formulations could result in
the latter compound finding its way into public water
supplies. Reservoir bottom sediments frequently con-
tain insoluble lead deposited from automobile exhausts.
The possibility of NTA solubilizing significant amounts
of lead into drinking water was investigated by shaking
suburban reservoir and lake sediments with water con-
taining NTA. A concentration of soluble lead 12 times
the maximum permitted level was observed in certain
experiments.
546
-------
Greichus, Y.A., A. Greichus, and R.J. Emerick.
Insecticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Mercury in Wild
Cormorants, Pelicans, Their Eggs, Food, and Environment.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
£:321-328. June 1973.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, mercury, fish,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In this article, levels of organochlorine insecticides,
PCB's, and mercury in bottom sediments, fish, and
birds in a freshwater ecosystem are examined.
547
-------
Grigoropoulos , S.G., R.C. Vidder, and D.W. Max.
Fate of Aluminum-Precipitated Phosphorus in Activated Sludge
and Anaerobic Digestion.
JWPCF. 43^(12) :2366-2382. December 1971 .
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment, anaerobic di-
gestion, activated sludge.
Abstract:
On the basis of the findings of this study, the follow-
ing conclusions may be drawn:
1. Sodium aluminate and alum added directly to the
activated sludge aeration chamber were capable of
precipitating phosphorus and effecting a sizable re-
duction in the phosphorus content of the influent
wastewater; the degree of phosphorus removal depended
primarily on the type of precipitant and the A1:P
ratio used and the influent phosphorus concentration.
2. Aluminum to phosphorus molar ratios in excess of
the stoi chiometri c 1:1 ratio for the formation of
aluminum phosphate were needed in order to obtain a
low residual total phosphorus concentration in the
effluent; ratios of 1.3 and 1.9 were found optimum
with alum and sodium aluminate, respectively.
3. The presence of sodium aluminate and alum did
not adversely affect the treatment efficiency of the
activated sludge process; the removal of COD averaged
approximately 90 percent throughout the study, the
sludge had better settling characteristics, and the
overall stability of the system was improved.
4. The addition of sodium aluminate and alum greatly
increased the amount of MLSS and MLVSS produced by
the system; however, the volatile fraction decreased
from 80 to about 50 percent.
5. Aluminum-precipitated phosphorus was concentrated
in the sludge of the anaerobic digester and was not
released during the digestion process; on the con-
trary, the supernatants from the digesters which had
been fed with sludge containing chemically precipi-
tated phosphorus had less phosphorus than the super-
natant from the control digester.
6. An increase in the aluminum content of the digester
sludge (up to 1,700 mg/1) exerted no toxic effects on
the anaerobic digestion process, as evidenced by the
volatile acids and gas production characteristics of the
test digesters compared to those of the control digester
548
-------
Grinstein, S., J.L. Mel nick, and C. Wall is.
Virus Isolations from Sewage and from a Stream Receiving
Effluents of Sewage Treatment Plants.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 4^:291-296. 1970,
Key Words: viruses, drinking and recreational water,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In order to detect viruses in sewage or streams, it
is first necessary to concentrate the virus present
in the fluid sample. Available methods are not
readily manageable for concentrating virus from large
volumes of fluid, and have not always yielded high
recovery rates. In the study described in this paper,
a method for concentration of viruses by adsorption
on insoluble cross-linked maleic anhydride polyelectro-
lytes has been utilized to survey the viral flora of
sewage and of a stream receiving sewage effluents, in
a residential area of Houston, Texas. On a single
day the virus flow at different points along the
stream varied from 304,000 to 6,014,000 PFU/min.
From 84 samples each of 1 US gal, 14,520 isolates
were obtained, chiefly echovirus type 7 and polioviruses
of all 3 types, some of them with characteristics of
virulent wild strains. With virus isolation rates
as high as those achieved, it is now possible to monitor
virus in natural waters more effectively.
549
-------
Grover, R.
Adsorption and Desorption of Trifluralin, Triallate, and
Diallate by Various Adsorbents.
Weed Science. 2J.:405-408. July 1974.
Key Words: herbicides, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This herbicide will be removed by adsorption. The
relative adsorption of trifluralin, triallate, and
diallate was studied on several adsorptiye surfaces.
The herbicides were strongly adsorbed, with the general
trend: activated charcoal >peatmoss, wheat straw
cellulose triacetate cation exchange resin >anion
exchange resin>silica gel "> cellulose powder. Triflu-
ralin and triallate were readily desorbed from mont-
morillonite by water, with minimal desorption for
peatmoss, cellulose triacetate, and wheat straw.
550
-------
Grover, R. and A.E. Smith.
Adsorption Studies with the Acid and Dimethylamine Forms
of 2,4-D and Dicambra.
Canadian Journal of Soil Science. 54:179-186. May 1974,
Key Words: herbicides, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The amount of adsorption of both the acid and di-
methylamine forms of the two herbicides was minimal
in prairie soils. Both forms of both herbicides
were strongly adsorbed to activated charcoal and
an ion-exchange resin.
551
-------
Gruenwald, A.
Drinking Water from Sewage?
The American City. 82_(3) :92-93. March 1967.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, BOD,
chromium, iron, copper, manganese, cadmium,
nickel, influent characteristics, effluent
characteristi cs.
Abstract:
This is a general discussion on renovation of waste-
water for direct use.
552
-------
Grunniger, R.M.
Disposal of Waste Alum Sludge from Water Treatment Plants.
JWPCF. 47_(3):543-552. March 1975.
Key Words: suspended solids, gravity thickeners,
centrifugal thickeners.
Abstract:
Basic data that would enable rapid advancement in
the technology of treating water treatment plant
sludges are not readily available. Experience
in treating alum sludges at four water treatment
plants in western New York indicates that the char-
acteristics of the sludges are affected by the sub-
stances used in the water treatment process and may
be highly variable. At the three plants of similar
design in Monroe County, similar raw water sources
produce sludges of similar quality. Sludges that
were investigated could readily be thickened by
gravity to about 2 percent solids and then dewatered
mechanically to concentrations suitable for land
disposal of the residue.
The alternative mechanical dewatering systems that
seem to be most practicable and that are able to
achieve consistently at least 20 percent solids
concentration are pressure filters, vacuum filters, and
scroll centrifuges. Vacuum filters and centrifuges
produce solids concentrations of about 20 to 30 per-
cent, while pressure filters consistently produce
concentrations of 40 to 50 percent.
The studies at the four plants showed that no single
system could economically dewater dilute alum sludge
to the minimum acceptable concentration for landfill
disposal. Several alternatives were investigated
at each plant, and it was concluded that separation
of the solids from alum sludge is best accomplished
in a two-stage system:
1. Primary thickening - A gravity liquid-solids
separation to achieve a solids concentration com-
patible with the second-stage separation (usually
2 to 6 percent total solids by weight).
2. Mechanical dewatering - A further liquid-solids
separation to achieve a solids concentration com-
patible with the ultimate intended disposal of the
solids (usually 20 percent or more total solids by
weight).
553
-------
A typical two-stage alum sludge de-watering process is
shown schematically in this report. This is a closed
system with no wastewater discharge from the plant.
Filter backwash is fed into a surge tank where, after
complete or partial liquid-solids separation, the liquid
portion is recycled back to the raw water supply for
the plant. At any particular treatment plant, studies
to determine the suitability of this liquid portion for
recycle are necessary. The underflow containing most
of the solids is mixed with the waste stream from the
settling basins. The mixed stream, generally contain-
ing less than 0.5 percent solids, is fed at nearly a
constant rate to a gravity thickening system.
Concentration of solids to 2 to 6 percent is accomplished
in the thickener before mechanical dewatering. The
concentration achieved in the thickener has a signifi-
cant effect on the economics of the mechanical dewater-
ing system. In some systems, it may be feasible to
include a secondary thickening step, such as a centri-
fuge, ahead of the mechanical dewatering system in
order to achieve a solids concentration up to 12 percent.
From these studies, it may be concluded that treatment
and disposal of water treatment plant wastes in a two-
stage system are feasible. Therefore, the practice
of discharging such wastes as pollutants may be elim-
inated .
554
-------
Guarino, A.M., J.B. Pritchard, J.B. Anderson, and D.P. Rail.
Tissue Distribution of Carbon-14 Labelled DDT in the Lobster After
Administration via Intravascular or Oral Routes or
After Exposure from Ambient Sea Water.
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 29_(2) -.277-288. August
1974.
Key Words: DDT, shellfish.
Abstract:
A pharmacokinetic aoproach to studying the fate and
distribution of ['^cl DDT was employed using the
lobster, a species of obvious economic importance.
The radioactive pesticide was administered by 3
different routes; intravascular, oral and by exposure
from the ambient water. After intravascular admini-
stration there was very rapid removal of ['^Cl DDT from
the plasma accompanied by a strikingly persistent
increase in the amount of radioactivity in the hepato-
pancreas. Most (>90%) of the radioactivity in this
organ was shown by TLC to be the parent pesticide.
Seven days after injection of U^c] DDT approximately
90% of the administered radioactivity was found in the
hepatopancreas and the concentrations in this organ
decreased with a t^ of 46 days. One month after treat-
ment with 0.1 mg/kg of ['4CJ DDT, the only other
organs which contained more than ~\% of the administered
dose were egg masses and muscle. When the pesticide
was administered to the lobster from ambient water
or from food, the hepatopancreatic compartment again
dominated, with more than 90% of the absorbed dose
occurring in this organ 7 days after treatment. Studies
conducted of residue levels in untreated lobsters in-
dicated that the egg masses contained the largest
concentration of total DDT metabolites (1 ppm). The
hepatopancreas contained about 0.4 ppm while the car-
cass (muscle) contained about 0.1 ppm. These distri-
bution studies suggest that while the lobster may pro-
tect itself from DDT toxicity by sequestering the
pesticide in the hepatopancreas and in egg masses,
bioconcentration in these tissues could be hazardous
to species consuming these parts of the lobster.
555
-------
Gulledge, J.H. and J.T. O'Connor.
Removal of Arsenic (V) from Water by Adsorption on Aluminum
and Ferric Hydroxides.
JAWWA. 61(8):548-552. August 1973.
Key Words: arsenic, adsorption/ion exchange, effluent
characteristics, livestock.
Abstract:
A study of the removal of arsenic (V) from water by
adsorption on aluminum and ferric hydroxides was
undertaken to simulate the removal of arsenic (V) by
conventional water-treatment processes. To follow this
removal, a radioactive isotope, AS?^ added in the form
of sodium arsenate, Na2HAs04, was used as a tracer. A
carrier solution of sodium arsenate was added to bring
the arsenic concentration in the test solutions to the
USPHS limit of 0.05 mg/1. The conventional watertreatment
practices simulated in the study included coagulation with
aluminum or ferric sulfate, rapid mix, slow mix, sedimenta-
tion, and fi1trati on.
The use of conventional watertreatment practices as simulated
in jar-test studies shows a substantial removal of the
arsenic (V). The removal of the arsenic (V) was accomplished
by the adsorption of the arsenic (V) on aluminum and ferric
hydroxi de.
The main variables affecting the adsorption process as
determined in this experiment were the pH and coagulant
dosage. With increasing coagulant dosage there was a constant
consistent increase in the removal of arsenic (V) at all pH
levels. It appears that the pH became important because of
the change in the ionic form of the arsenic (V).
556
-------
Gyllenberg, H. , S. Niemela, and T. Sormunen.
Survival of Bifid Bacteria in Water as Compared with that
of Coliform Bacteria and Enterococci.
Applied Microbiology. £:20-22. 1960.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In this article, various bacteria of intestinal origin
were compared with regard to their survival in water
under different conditions, and the data thus acquired
may provide information for the evaluation of the
suitability of Lad obaci 11 us bi f i dus as an indicator
of fecal pollution in water. Bifid bacteria occur
in the feces of man in much greater numbers (10 x to
100 x) than coliform bacteria or enterococci.
557
-------
Hager, D.G. and P.B. Reilly.
Clarification-Adsorption in the Treatment of Municipal and In-
dustrial Wastewater.
JWPCF. 4£(5):794-800. May 1970.
Key Words: BOD, total dissolved solids, adsorption/ion ex-
change.
Abstract:
This paper discusses the uses of activated carbon in munici
pal wastewater systems.
558
-------
Hager, D.G. and M.E. Flentje.
Removal of Organic Contaminants by Granular-Carbon
Filtration.
JAWWA. 5_7(11 ): 1440-1450. November 1965.
Key Words: dieldrin, synthetic/organics, adsorption/ion
exchange.
Abstract:
Granular-activated-carbon adsorption is a reliable and
effective means of removing most organic impurities
found in potable water supplies. Plant operations and
pilot column studies have shown carbon filtration to
be an effective process for removing detergents,
insecticides, viruses, specific chemical pollutants,
and taste and odor pollutants. These results confirm
postulations that carbon bed filtration would remove
a high percentage of undesirable organic contaminants
from water efficiently over a wide range of impurity
concentration conditions.
559
-------
Hahne, H.C.H. and W. Kroontje.
Significance of pH and Chloride Concentration on Behaviour
of Heavy Metal Pollutants: Mercury (II), Cadmium (II),
Zinc (II) , and Lead (II).
Journal of Environmental Quality. j!/.444-450. October 1973.
Key Words: mercury, cadmium, zinc, lead, surface water (fresh),
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Calculations were performed (1) to assess the degree to which
Hg (II), Cd (II), Zn (II), and Pb (II) complex with
hydroxyl and chloride ions and (2) to evaluate the significance
of such complexation in natural systems. Results indicate
that both the hydroxy and chloride complexes may contribute
to the mobilization of these heavy metal ions in the
environment.
560
-------
Hajek, B.F.
Chemical Interact!'ons of Wastewater in a Soil Environment.
JWPCF. ^1_(10):1775-1786. October 1969.
Key words: ponding/land application.
Abstract:
The effects of wastewater disposal to soil will be
scrutinized increasingly to predict the assimilative
capacity of soil. One phase of wastewater disposal to
soil, that of chemically contaminated wastewater, has
been discussed to acquaint environmental engineers
and scientists with experimental methods presently
available for making such a prediction. These methods
are summarized below:
1. Wastewater chemical characterization:
(a) pH,
(b) pollutant form and concentration,
(c) complimentary or accompanying ion
concentrations,
(d) disposal variations and temperature.
2. Soil characterization:
(a) physical ,
(b) mineralogical and chemical.
3. Chemical interactions of soil waste systems:
(a) laboratory studies,
i . equilibrium techniques, and
ii. soil column techniques.
(b) field prediction,
i. dynamic column analysis, and
ii. hydrodynamic disperson analysis.
561
-------
Hall, H.E. and G.H. Hauser.
Examination of Feces from Food Handlers for Salmonellae,
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, and Clostridum Perfringens.
Applied Microbiology. 1_4(6): 928-932. November 1966.
Key Words: salmonella, shigella, Escherichia coli , epi-
demiology.
Abstract:
Duplicate fecal specimens from food handlers were
collected in Louisiana. One set of specimens was
examined immediately for salmonellae and shigellae by
the Central Laboratory of the Louisiana State Board of
Health in New Orleans; the other set was shipped to
the Food Microbiology Unit at the Robert A. Taft Sani-
tary Engineering Center in Cincinnati, Ohio, where it
was examined for enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EEC)
and Clostridum perfringens. A total of 219 specimens
were examined by both laboratories. None yielded
E. coli; and 14 (6.4%) yielded EEC. The 14 isolates of
EEC were distributed among eight serotypes; one speciman
yielded two serotypes. Multiple isolations of C. perfrin-
gens strains (two to four) were made from 64 (3774%)
of the specimens, and a total of 244 strains were iso-
lated and studied for identifying characteristics. Of
the total, only 87 (35.5%) could be identified sero-
logically by a battery of 67 antisera; only 4 (1.6%)
possessed the characteristics of the English "food-
poisoning type." The hemolytic activity on agar con-
taining horse, ox, or sheep blood showed that 140 (57.1%)
were "hemolytic," 81 (33.1%) were "nonhemolytic," and
23 (9.8%) gave varied results. Only 12 (4.9%) of the
strains produced spores that resisted boiling for 30
min. or more.
562
-------
Hallock, R.J. and C.D. Ziebell.
Feasibility of a Sport Fishery in Tertiary Treated Waste-
water .
JWPCF. 4£(9):1656-1665. September 1970.
Key words: phosphates, fish
Abstract:
This study represents an effort to test the feasibility
of a sport fishery in a unique but reproducible environ-
ment, tertiary treated domestic wastewater. The find-
ings were generally optimistic.
1. Primary and benthic productivity were out-
standingly high when compared to that of
natural waters A short efficient food chain
existed.
2. Fish growth and net fish production were excep-
tional. In this country, the only comparable
yields known to the authors involve supple-
mental feeding.
3. Both channel catfish and tilapia were success-
ful. With improved water quality, they should
be capable of supporting an intensive fishery
in this area.
4. Rainbow trout were unsuccessful in the waters
provided, but they could be considered in the
future with more stringent water quality con-
trol. Phosphate removal is the key to success-
ful fisheries of this type. Limiting phos-
pate concentrations to sufficiently low levels
will curtail primary productivity and help
insure the stable oxygen conditions necessary
for fish survival.
6. With proper management, reclaimed wastewater
should help meet projected demands for sport
fisheries near urban centers.
563
-------
Halvorsen , G.A.
Movement of Elemental Constituents in Sagehill Loamy Sand
Treated with Municipal Waste.
Master's Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, 1975. 222p,
Key Words: iron, manganese, copper, zinc, beryllium, phos-
phates, ammonia, nitrates, agriculture, ground-
water .
Abstract:
Shredded metropolitan waste and sludge were applied
to plots in a field study and to laboratory lysimeters.
Concentration of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn , B, P,
and organic N were measured throughout the columns and
in leachate. Unless strong reducing conditions appear-
ed in the profile, N03-N was the only ion studied which
posed an apparent threat to groundwater quality.
564
-------
Hamelink, J.L. and R.C. Waybrant
Factors Controlling the Dynamics of Non-Ionic Synthetic Org-
anic Chemicals in Aquatic Environments.
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., Water Research Center,
December 1973. 76p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-232 267).
Key Words: DDE, surface water (fresh).
Ab s t ra c t:
The distribution and peristence of DDE and lindane added
to the epilimnion of a thermally stratified, ultra-oligo-
trophic flooded limestone quarry were studied. The quarry
was treated with a single sub-lethal dose of each compound
at a concentration of 200 pptr in the epilimnion or 50
pptr based on the entire water mass. An adjacent quarry
was used as a control. Water, bottom sediments, limestone
rock slabs, zooplankton, and fish were periodically analy-
zed. Dissolved oxygen and temperature profiles were also
monitored. Results indicated that persistence of the
pesticides may be primarily controlled by adsorption onto
suspended particles.
565
-------
Hamilton, C.E.
Organic Contaminants of Water.
ASTM Standardization News. 4.(l):34-36. January 1976.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, drinking and recreational water
Abstract:
The methodology discussed is not applicable to this
report except that it indicates what organics may be
present in water.
566
-------
Hammer , M.J.
Water and Waste-Water Technology.
Wiley, New York. 1975. 502p.
Key Words: gravity separators, activated sludge, trickling
filters, aerated lagoons, anaerobic lagoons,
nitificat1on/den1tr1fication, filtration, chemical
treatment, adsorption/ion exchange, ponding/land
application, chlorination, ozonation, gravity
thickeners, centrifugal thickeners, vacuum filters,
drying beds, pressure filtration, anaerobic
digestion, aerobic digestion, heat treatment,
lime treatment, composting.
Abstract:
This book provides background on various unit pro-
cesses, dealing with water and wastewater technology.
567
-------
Hammond, L.C.
Processed Sewage Sludge as a Fertilizer in Florida,
Soil and Crop Society of Florida.Proceedings. 33:185-187.
November 27-29, 1973.
Key Words: aluminum, boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
iron, manganese, nickel, selenium, tin, zinc,
nitrates, phosphates, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Processed sewage sludge has been handled largely as a
waste product in the U.S. with disposal by incineration
or dumping in sanitary landfills or in the ocean. Some
has been heat-dried for use as a fertilizer either alone
or in mixed goods. In a study of processed sewage sludge
use in Florida, it was found that the heat-dried product
was imported in quantities equal to about 2.6% of the
N fertilizer used. Further, no heat-dried sludge has
been produced in Florida. Review of studies in other
parts of the U.S. showed that liquid digested sludge
from local sources could be applied successfully to crop-
lands, rather than being wasted in disposal methods
which may not be acceptable from a pollution standpoint.
568
-------
Hammond, L.C. and R.S. Mansell.
Soil Hydraulics and Waste Water Renovation.
Department of Soil Science, University of Florida, May-June
1972.
Key Words: BOD, phosphates, nitrates, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
This paper discusses inexpensive methods to dispose of
large volumes of secondary municipal sewage effluents
without detrimental pollution of surface water.
569
-------
Hamoda, H.F., K.T. Brodersen, and S. Sourirajan.
Organics Removal by Low-Pressure Reverse Osmosis.
JWPCF. £5(10): 2146-2154. October 1973.
Key Words: total organic carbon, COD, total dissolved solids,
ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, effluent character-
istics.
Abstract:
The practical demonstration of the applicability of
reverse osmosis process to wastewater treatment was under-
taken using the six films considered throughout this work
and the chlorinated primary-treated municipal wastewater
feed. The results obtained showed that greater than 96
percent separation of organics (measured as TOC and COD)
could be obtained by the reverse osmosis treatment of
these wastewaters using Batch 316-type membranes under
the operating conditions stated. This illustrates the
capability of the type of membranes used for efficient
removal of organics. The agreement of the above results
with those obtained with the single organic compounds
solutions indicates that the presence of some organic
compounds other than those considered in this study,
which might not be highly separated by reverse osmosis
process, would not significantly affect the overall effi-
ciency of organic removal.
570
-------
Hance, R.J.
Soil Organic Matter and the Adsorption and Decomposition of the
Herbicides Atrazine and Linuron
Soil Biology and Biochemistry.
-------
Hannan, P.J., P.E. Wilkniss, C. Patoiullet, and R.A. Carr.
Measurements of Mercury Sorption by Algae.
Naval Research Laboratory, Washington,D.C. , December 1973.
32p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as AD-774 694).
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
The report describes the results of laboratory experi-
ments concerning mercury sorption by two marine algae,
Phaeodactylurn tricornutum and Chaetoceros galvestonesi s .
Measurements of mercury uptake have been made wi th the
use of isotopes (carried-free 197 Hg, and 203 Hg incor-
porated in mg mercury/liter concentrations). Significant
mercury concentrations were found in cells grown in
media prepared from chemically pure reagents; concentra-
tions of 14 to 116 mg/kg were present in cells harvested
from 10% and 100% concentrations of culture medium.
Phaeodactylurn cells grown in a 10% culture medium in the
presence of 0.05 mg mercury/liter contained 2400 mg
mercury/kg but their growth was inhibited only 55% in a
4-day period. Chaetoceros cells had a greater affinity
for mercury and contained over 7400 mg mercury/kg when
cultured for the same time period in a 25% culture medi-
um containing 0.10 mg mercury/liter. They had not
grown, as determined by fluorescence analysis.
572
-------
Hansen, D.J., P.R. Parrish, and 0. Forester.
Aroclor 1016: Toxicity to and Uptake by Estuarine Animals.
Environmental Research. 7_:363-373. June 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, shellfish.
Abstract:
Bioassays were conducted to determine the acute toxicities
of the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) Aroclor 1016 in flow-
ing sea water to American oysters (Crassostrea virginica),
brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus), grass shrimp (Palaemonetes
pugio), and pinf ish Q-agodon rhomboides), and to determine
its chronic toxicity to, and uptake and retention by pin-
fish. Acute 96-hour EC50's or LC50's were: oysters, 10.2
jj/liter; brown shrimp, 10.5 ug/liter; grass shrimp, 12.5
jug/liter. The PCB was not toxic to pinfish at 100 jug/liter
for 96 hours, but significant mortality occurred when pin-
fish were exposed to 32 ug/liter of Aroclor 1016 for 42
days. Pinfish exposed to 1 ug/liter for 56 days accumulated
the chemical with maximum concentrations attained in whole-
fish by 21 to 28 days. Maximum whole-body residue (net
weight) was 17,000 x the nominal concentration in test water.
Tissue alterations, such as severe vacuolation in the pan-
creatic exocrine tissue surrounding the portal veins,
occurred in pinfish exposed to 32 ,ug/liter of Aroclor 1016
for 42 days.
573
-------
Haque, K. and V.H, Freed.
Behavior of Pesticides in the Environment: "Environmental
Chemodynamics".
Residue Reviews. 5_2:89-116. 1974.
Key Words: pesticides, surface water (fresh), shellfish,
air.
Abstract:
This review describes the important factors responsible
for the behavior of pesticides in air, water, soils, and
biota. Emphasis was given to the importance of some of
the physico-chemical properties of pesticides such as
water solubility, enthalpy of solution, vapor pressure,
heat of vaporization, kinetics and thermodynamics of
adsorption, leaching, diffusion, photochemical decom-
position, microbial decomposition, chemical decomposition,
and partitioning of chemicals in biopolymers in describing
pesticide behavior in the environment. These physical-
chemical parameters may be used to describe the persis-
tence as well as the overall environmental impact of a
chemi cal.
574
-------
Hardisty, M.W., S. Kartar, and M. Sainsbury.
Dietary Habits and Heavy Metal Concentrations in Fish from
the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. _5_(4):61-63. April 1974.
Key Words: zinc, cadmium, lead, fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
Until more is known of the biology of the flounder in the
area of the Bristol Channel and the estuary, particularly
in relation to time of spawning and the movements of
populations to and from the estuarine regions, it is
impossible to do more than speculate as to the factors
which may be responsible for the marked differences in
body size between the populations from the North Devon
coast and those of the middle estuary. However, in view
of the similarities in growth rates beyond the first year
or so of the life cycle, it seems unlikely that such
differences could be attributed to the significantly
greater concentrations of cadmium and lead in the tissues
of the Oldbury flounders, although it is possible that
conditions for the growth of the young of the year could
be much less favorable within the estuarine region.
The observations that have been made on the relation
between diet and lead and cadmium concentrations in
several teleost species, point to the need for much more
detailed studies of the circulation of heavy metals
within the estuarine ecosystem, and in particular for
further studies on the heavy metal levels within the
main groups of food organisms.
575
-------
Harmeson, R.H.
The Nitrate Situation in Illinois.
JAWUA. 631(5) :303-310. May 1971.
Key Nords: nitrites, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Recent studies by the Illinois State Water Survey indicate
that nitrate concentrations in surface waters within the
state are 1ncreasi ng .
576
-------
Harremoes, P.
Field Determination of Bacterial Disappearance in Seawater.
Water Research. 4_:737-749. 1970.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The article presents two approaches to field determina-
tion of disappearance of viable, fecal bacteria after
discharge with sewage into a marine environment. The
first approach is based on simultaneous sampling for
bacterial counting and monitoring of dilution using a
conservative tracer, which is released continuously
with the sewage. The second approach uses an abrupt
release of tracer for determination of both dilution and
residence time in the sewage field. In both cases, the
disappearance rate is best determined by comparison of
fluxes of bacteria and of tracer through cross-sections
of the field. The approaches are exemplified with two
case reports, which show that the disappearance rate can
be determined to less than 10 per cent Inaccuracy.
577
-------
Harris, W.
Ozone Disinfection.
JAWWA. 64(3):182-183. March 1972.
Key Words: bacteria, ozonation
Abstract:
For disinfection of water, the following ozone concentr-
tions are used as a guide:
1. Good bacterial quality ground water, low in turbid-
ity and mineral content: 1/2-1 mg/liter
2. Good bacterial quality surface water with ozone
applied after filtration: 2-3 mg/lUer
3. Poor bacterial quality surface water with ozone
applied after filtration: 2.5-5 mg/liter
578
-------
Harvey, R.G.
Soil Adsorption and Volatility of Dinitroani1ine Herbicides.
Weed Science. ££:120-124. March 1974.
Key Words: herbicides, groundwater.
Abstract:
Studies were conducted to determine both the extent and
relative strengths of adsorption of twelve dinitroani1ine
herbicides to a Plamo silt loam soil. Extrapolation of
laboratory results to a Plamo silt loam soil under field
conditions suggests that field application of .32 kg/ha
of the respective herbicides might result in herbicide
concentrations between 0.00062 to 0.026 ppmw in the soil
solution.
579
-------
Hasenclever, H.F. and R. M. Kocan.
Candlda A1b i c a n s Associated with the Gastrointestinal
Tract of the Common Pigeon (Cplumba 1i v i a ) .
Sabouraudia. 11:116-120. 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Candida albicans was cultured from the upper gastrointes
tinal tract of 44% and from the lower alimentary tract
in 6% of 50 common pigeons (Col umba 1 i vi a ) . Thirty per-
cent of the samples of pigeon droppings collected from
different locations were positive for the yeast. The
col ony,,formi ng units for positive samples ranged from
2x10 -2.8 x 10^ per g dry feces. The percentage of
antigenic Groups A and B for the strains of C. albicans
isolated was approximately the same as for strains iso-
lated from human sources.
580
-------
Hatch, M.J. and H. Wolochow.
Bacterial Survival: Consequences of the Airborne State.
In: An Introduction to Experimental Aerobiology. R.L. Dimmick
and A.B. Akers, eds. Wiley, New York, 1969. pp. 267-295.
Key Word: bacteria.
Abstract:
We can summarize observations that lead us to believe
that dynamic, physiological phenomena, whether directly
or indirectly controlled by genetic mechanisms, are
involved in survival processes of bacteria:
1. Nonlogarithmic survival curves; nonhomogeneous
populations; enhanced survival rates when humid-
ity is shifted.
2. Survival curves differ when different sampling
methods or media are employed.
a. Differences not constant as a function of
age of culture, or humidity.
b. "Best" medium not always best as a function
of cell age or aerosol age,
c. "Best" medium for uninjured cell not always
best for stressed cell.
3. Frequent lack of agreement between numbers of
colonies arising from one dilution compared to
the number from one above or below that dilution
(dissonance) .
4. Frequent observation of petite colonies arising
from airborne cells, a characteristic that is
apparently not transmissible.
5. Differences in numbers of colonies on duplicate
samples as a function of pre-incubation treat-
ment (cooling for example).
6. Observations of occasional intervals where the
apparent number of survivors increases (recu-
peration) as a function of aerosol age.
7. Instances where more than one maximal sensitivi-
ty to humidity occurs.
581
-------
8. Influence of oxygen on the apparent reaction
of airborne cells to humidity.
9. Effects of age of culture, or cultural pre-
treatment, on survival.
10. Differences between rates of loss of ability
to support phage lysis and loss of ability to
form coloni es .
Any unified hypothesis for the mechanism of death of air-
borne bacteria must consider all of these phenomena; any
unified hypothesis for a mechanism of death must show all
were considered, and did not contradict the data upon
which the hypothesis is built. The problem is not just
an academic one, for if we know these many factors oper-
ate in the laboratory, then they must certainly operate
under field conditions. In studies of survival of bac-
teria, one can, at present, correlate laboratory and
field data only within broad limits. Perhaps the crea-
tion of new approaches to experimental design and execu-
tion are needed for both the laboratory and field.
582
-------
Hathaway, S.W. and J. B. Farrell.
Thickening Characteristics of Aluminimum and Iron Primary
Sewage Sludges.
In: Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids.
A~rnold Freiberger, ed. EPA-902/9-74-002 , U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, New York, Region II, May 1974. pp. 197-236.
Key Words: gravity thickeners.
Abstract:
The experiments demonstrate that Al-primary and Fe-
primary sludges do not gravity thicken as well as conven-
tional primary sludges. Al- and" Fe-primary sludges pro-
duced from wastewater at Lebanon, Ohio, gravity thicken
to about 4-5 percent solids. Bench-scale experiments
have shown that rates can be greatly improved by dilu-
tion with effluent or polymer conditioning or both.
Demonstration that dilution and/or polymer conditioning
improves thickening in continuously operated equipment
is needed.
Air flotation is a satisfactory means for thickening
•Al- and Fe-primary sludges. Performance is not as good
as with conventional primary sludge, but solids content
of 5-8 percent can be achieved, with solids recovery in
excess of 90 percent. An ionic polymer doses of 4-8 lb/
ton dry solids improves performance. Poorer results are
obtained at higher doses of metal to the wastewater.
Only a limited number of polymeric flocculants were ex-
amined in this study. There is good likelihood that a
more comprehensive screening would uncover polymers
which produce higher solids content sludges at higher
thickening rates.
Preliminary filtration experiments carried out at
Lebanon have shown that filtration of Al- and Fe-primary
sludges can be carried out at reasonable rates, provided
the sludge solids content is 4 percent or above. This
solids content can be achieved by gravity or flotation
thickening. Consequently, this investigation has demon-
strated that Al- and Fe-primary sludges can be thickened
to concentrations that make subsequent dewatering steps
practicable.
Thickening rates are sufficiently high so that capital
costs for equipment need not be excessive. When polymeric
conditioning was needed, dose levels were not excessive,
so chemical costs would be reasonable.
583
-------
Hauck, A.R. and S. SouriraJan.
Performance of Porous Cellulose Acetate Membranes for the
Reverse Osmosis Treatment of Hard and Waste Waters.
Environmental Science and Technology. 3_( 1 2) : 1 269-1 275 .
December 1969.
Key Words: BOD, nitrates, phosphates, reverse osmosis.
Abstract:
The present primary and secondary sewage treatment facil-
ities have as their main objectives the removal of BOD
and suspended solids. These treatments are not designed
to remove nitrates, phosophates, or the nonbiodegradable
surfactants. The removal of the latter would be the ob-
jective of tertiary sewage treatment facilities which are
not in extensive use today. Reverse osmosis can effec-
tively take the place of tertiary treatment, and some-
times both secondary and tertiary treatments, and offers
an effective means of upgrading sewage water to a quality
practically suitable for all water uses. Some pilot
plant results of sewage water treatment by reverse osmo-
sis have been reported; the report gives the results
obtained with a typical film and a number of samples of
raw sewage water obtained from the Ottawa City primary
sewage treatment plant. Experiments were made at two
operating pressures, 1000 and 500 p.s.i.g. with particu-
lar reference to the removal of BOD nitrates, phospate,
ABS, and total dissolved solids. The performance of the
membrane was found to be very good with respect to the
removal of all the above contaminants. The average BOD
removals were 85.8 and 80.8% at 1000 and 500 p.s.i.g.,
respectively. Under the conditions of the experiments
made, the average separations of nitrates, ABS, and phos-
phates were 50.3, 93, and 99%, respectively. The average
product rates were 32.7 and 18.3 gallons per day per sq.
foot at 1000 and 5000 p.s.i.g., respectively. The above
results indicate that the reverse osmosis process using
the type of porous cellulose acetate membranes used in
this work has the potentialities of becoming an economic
means of renovation of wastewaters.
584
-------
Haug, R.T. and P.L. McCarty.
Nitrification with Submerged Filters.
JWPCF. 44(11)=2086-2102. November 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, filtration.
Abstract:
The submerged filter provides an upward flow of waste
through a bed of fixed media. Nitrifying bacteria
attach to the surfaces of the media, and long solids
retention times are possible. Nitrification is stable
at temperatures as low as 1°C. With an influent con-
centration of 20 mg/1 NHo-N, oxidation was about 90
percent complete with detention times of 30 min at
25oc, 60 min at 10°CS and-between 90 and 120 min at
5°C. Equivalent performance was observed with recycle
using preoxygenation of waste and with bubble oxygena-
t i o n .
Unreasonably long detention times are required to
achieve effluent NH3-N concentrations below about 1
to 2 mg/1. Where very low NHo-N concentrations are
required, a more economical system may be nitrification
with the submerged filter followed by breakpoint chlor-
ination to remove the NH3-N residuals.
The rate of NhU-N oxidation and the degree of bio-film
development were observed to be functions of the
NH3-N concentration. With high ammonium concentrations
at the bottom of the filter, oxidation rates and bio-
film development were greatest at that point, decreas-
ing along the height of the filter. This suggests
that increased efficiencies might be realized by per-
iodically reversing the direction of flow through the
filter. This would put high ammonium concentrations
at both ends and tend to promote a more uniform develop-
ment of biological film.
With preoxygenation of waste, influent SS together with
biological solids produced within the filter can lead
to clogging and short-circuiting. Periodic backflushing
is required to prevent the buildup and compaction of
these solids in the void spaces of the media. This
problem is not encountered with bubble oxygenation
because the rising bubbles keep the pore spaces free
of excess solids. Nitrification in the submerged
filter should produce a polished water for reclamation.
585
-------
Health Information for International Travel, Including
United States Yellow Fever Vaccination Centers.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Supplement. 23. U.S.
Center for Disease Control, HEW. September 1974.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This booklet includes vaccination information,
vaccination certificate requirements, and U.S.
Public Health Service recommendations.
586
-------
Health Information for International Travel 1975.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Supplement. 24.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. December 1975.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This booklet includes vaccination information, health
hints for the traveler, U.S. Public Health Service
recommendations, vaccination certificate requirements
and maps showing the yellow fever endemic zones.
587
-------
Hecht, N .L. and D.S. Duvall .
Characterization and Utilization of Municipal and Utility
Sludges and Ashes. Vol. I: Summary.
EPA-670/2-75-033a, Dayton University, Dayton, Ohio, Research
Institute, May 1975. 40p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-244 310).
Key Words: gravity thickeners, drying beds, air flotation
thickeners, centrifugal thickeners, anaerobic
digestion, aerobic digestion, chlorination,
lime treatment, incineration, wet air oxidation,
sanitary landfill, agriculture, land reclamation,
groundwater, crops, surface water (fresh), sur-
face water (marine).
Abstract:
The nature and disposal practices for municipal and
utility sludges and ashes were studied. The study
was primarily concerned with the sludges from municipal
wastewater and water treatment plants, coal ash from
power stations, and grate residue from municipal
incinerators. Each of these subject areas is presented
in a separate report. Volume I presents the summary
for the results and conclusions developed from each of the
subject areas.
588
-------
Hecht, N.L., D.S. Uuvall , and A.S. Rashidi.
Characterization and Utilization of Municipal and Utility
Sludges and Ashes. Vol. II: Municipal Sludges.
EPA-670/2-75-0335, Dayton University, Dayton, Ohio, Research
Institute, May 1975. 241p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-244 311).
Key Words: gravity thickeners, drying beds, air flotation
thickeners, centrifugal thickeners, vacuum
filters, pressure filtration, anaerobic digestion,
aerobic digestion, chlorination, lime treatment,
heat treatment, incineration, wet air oxidation,
sanitary landfill, land reclamation, surface water
(fresh), surface water (marine), crops.
Abstract:
A comprehensive characterization and evaluation was per-
formed of disposal and utilization practices for sludges
from municipal wastewater and water treatment plants.
The nature and quantities of the sludges are discussed.
Various sludge handling and treatment techniques are
detailed. There is little information on health effects.
589
-------
Hee, S.S.Q..R.G. Sutherland, K.S. McKinlay, and J.G. Saha.
Factors Affecting the Volatility of DDT, Dieldrin, and
Dimethylamine Salt of (2,4-dichlorophenoxy) Acetic Acid
(2,4-D) from Leaf and Glass Surfaces.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
1_3:284-290. March 1975.
Key Words: DDT, dieldrin, groundwater.
Abstract:
This article discusses the general effect of variables
(wind, rain, and sunlight) on the mobilization of the
various pesticides into the atmosphere. This paper
will bear particular significance to the area of
spray irrigation of sewage sludge and wastewater.
590
-------
Heesen, W.C. and D.J. McDermott.
DDT and PCB in Benthic Crabs.
Southern California Coastal Waters Research Project.Annual
Report. El Segundo, Calif. , June 30, 1974. pp. 109-111.
Key Words: DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, shellfish.
Abstract:
This article discusses PCB and DDT measured in the
flesh of crabs off the coast of Southern California.
591
-------
Heinke, G. and J.D. Norman.
Condensed Phosphates in Lake Water and Wastewater.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1970 (2):111-24/1-6.
Key Words: phosphates, activated sludge, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
Condensed phosphates from detergents are the largest
contributor of phosphorus to wastewater, about twice
as much as the human waste contribution in the U.S.
and about equal to it in Canada. Condensed phosphates
hydrolyze extensively during activated sludge treatment,
with about 15% condensed phosphates remaining in the
effluent. They hydrolyze in wastewater three times
faster in summer than in winter. Once discharged to
surface waters, hydrolysis proceeds at a much slower
rate, depending on the extent of microbial activity
in the surface water. Studies on the effect of pH
changes show fastest rates of hydrolysis to occur at
the natural pH of wastewater or lake water. Experi-
mental data at low levels of concentration, below 15
rog/1 PO^. are best fitted by a zero-order model. A
graphical presentation allows an order of magnitude
prediction of rate of hydrolysis to be expected in a
particular situation. Results of this work should be
of value to research on phosphorus removal methods
and eutrophication studies.
592
-------
Henderson, C., A. Inglis, and W.L. Johnson.
Mercury Residues in Fish, 1969-1970 - National Pesticide
Monitoring Program.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 6_( 3) : 1 44-1 59 . December 1972.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
As part of the fish monitoring program conducted by
the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife since
1967, composite fish samples collected during the fall
of 1969 and 1970 were analyzed for mercury. Three
composite samples, each of a different species and
consisting of 3-5 adult fish, were collected at each
of 50 monitoring stations in 1969; similarly, three
composite samples and in most cases a replicate sample
of one of the species were collected at each of 100
stations in 1970. Stations were located on major rivers
and lakes throughout the United States. Total mercury
residues equal to or exceeding the sensitivity level of
0.05 ppm were found in 129 of the 145 samples in 1969
and 373 of the 393 samples in 1970. Values ranged from
<0.05 to 1.25 ppm in 1969 samples and from <0.05 to 1.80
ppm in 1970 samples. Analyses by two different labora-
tories of 40 selected samples from the 1970 collection
gave comparable results. Analyses of 24 selected 1970
samples indicated that 90% or more of the mercury in
fish was in the form of methyl mercury.
593
-------
Hendricks, C. W.
Enteric Bacterial Growth Rates in River Water.
Applied Microbiology. 2A( 2):168-174 . August 1972.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Enteric bacteria, including stocked strains of pathogenic
species and organisms naturally present in the stream,
were capable of growth in a chemostat with autoclaved
river water taken 750 m below a sewage outfall. Maximal
specific growth rates for all organisms occurred at
30 C whereas culture generation times ranged between
33.3 and 116 hr. Of the six laboratory strains of
enteric species used, Escheri chia c o 11 i and Enterobacter
aerogenes grew at generation times of 34.5 and 33.3 hr,
respectively, while the remaining Proteus, Arizona.
Salmonel1 a, and Shi gel 1 a spp. reproduced at a rate
two to three times slower than the coliforms. Little
or no growth occurred in the water at incubation temp-
eratures of 20°and 5°C and death was observed for
Salmonel1 a senftenberg at 20°and 5°C and for E. aerogenes
and Proteus rettgeri at 5°C. When enteric bacteria
naturally present in the river water were employed in
similar experiments, coliform bacteria demonstrated a
generation time of approximately 116 hr, whereas fecal
coliforms failed to grow. Growth of the bacteria from
the river demonstrated a periodicity of approximately
100 hr which suggests that much of the growth of these
organisms in the chemostat may be on the glass surfaces.
This phenomenon, however, was not observed with any of
the stocked enteric species. Neither the stock cultures
nor the aquatic strains were capable of growth in auto-
claved river water taken above the sewage outfall at the
three temperatures tested.
594
-------
Hendricks, T.
The Fates of Trace Metals and Particulates.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project,Annual
Report. El Segundo, Calif., June 30, 1974. pp. 141-145.
Key Words: lead, cadmium, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The author develops a simulation model that predicts
that the sedimentation rate of effluent particles at
a distance of 3 km from the sewerage outfall is about
10 to 15 times the natural rate and that approximately
20 to 50 percent of the discharged particulates will
settle within 10 km of the outfall.
595
-------
Hendricks, T.
A Model of the Dispersion of Wastewater Constituents.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.Annual
Report. El Segundo, Calif., June 30, 1975. pp. 173-177.
Key Words: total organic carbon, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
At the present time.it is not possible to predict the
offshore-onshore distribution of materials. Studies
are underway which, if successful, will enable the
proper outfall stations to be selected based on disper-
si on.
596
-------
Hentschel, M.L. and T.L. Cox.
Effluent Water Treating at Charter International Oil Company's
Houston Refinery.
AIChE Symposium Series. 6£(135):151 -1 53. 1973.
Key Words: BOD, COD, suspended solids, activated sludge.
Abstract:
Refinery wastewater was treated by a specially-
constructed biological unit. Effluent quality is
described.
597
-------
Hepatitis Surveillance.
Center for Disease Control Report 37. U.S.
Public Health Service, HEW. June 1975.
Key Words: hepatitis virus, shellfish, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This pamphlet provides summaries on hepatitis out-
breaks which occurred in 1973, along with its current
morbidity trends. A summary of morbidity trends in
the U.S. for the 8-year period (1966-1973) and dis-
cussions of shellfish-associated hepatitis and Hepatitis
B antigens are also provided.
598
-------
Hepatitis Surveillance.
Center for Disease Control Report 38. U.S. Public Health
Service, HEW. September 1976.
Key words: hepatitis virus, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Information concerning viral hepatitis received from
state health departments, university investigations,
virology laboratories, and other sources, domestic and
foreign is summarized.
599
-------
Heppleston, P.B. and M.C. French.
Mercury and Other Metals in British Seals.
Nature. .243.: 302-304. June 1974.
Key Words: cadmium, lead, mercury.
Abstract:
This article examines levels of lead and cadmium in
seals. While seals are not in the food chain of most
Americans, they are mammals and will exhibit similar
uptake and concentration mechanisms.
600
-------
Herrmann, J.E., K.D. Kostenbader, and D.O. Oliver.
Persistence of Enteroviruses in Lake Water.
Applied Microbiology. 28.:895-896. November 1974.
Key Words: coxsackie virus, polio virus, surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
This article discusses two enteroviruses which were
inactivated more rapidly in a lake than in sterile lake
water; their coat proteins were degraded and,
perhaps, used by microorganisms.
601
-------
Hess, G.E.
Effects of Oxygen on Aerosolized Serratia marcescens.
Applied Microbiology. j_3_(5) :781-787 . September 1965.
Key Words: bacteria, groundwater.
Abstract:
Suspensions of Serratia mar c escens (ATCC strain 14041) in
water were aerosolized in a rotating drum in the presence
of various concentrations of oxygen. The colony-forming
ability of aerosolized organisms was rapidly destroyed
by contact with 0.25% or more oxygen at 40% relative
humidity (RH) and 25 C, but was almost unimpaired for
at least 5 hr in nitrogen containing not more than 10
ppm of oxygen. Completely hydrated organisms were in-
sensitive to oxygen at pressures up to 100 psi for 4 hr.
No loss in viability occurred in aerosols of washed cells
in air at 97% RH . It is proposed that dehydration of
the aerosolized cell results in sensitization to lethal
effects of oxygen, but is not the primary cause of death.
Mn++, Co++, glycerol , and thiourea enhanced the biological
stability of aerosols in air. Numerous similarities
between the effects of oxygen in this system and in
systems using freeze-dried or irradiated organisms or
cell-free enzymes support the hypothesis that closely
related mechanisms are involved.
602
-------
Heuer, B., B. Yaron, and Y. Birk.
Guthion Half-life in Aqueous Solutions and on Glass Surfaces.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
11:532-537. November 1974.
Key Words: organophosphorus pesticides, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
This article develops an equation for Guthion degradation
as affected by pH and temperature:
603
-------
Hewes, C.G. Ill, H.W. Prengle, Jr., C.E. Mauk, and O.D.
Sparkman.
Oxidation of Refractory Organic Materials by Ozone and
Ultraviolet Light.
Houston Research Inc., Texas, November 1974. 117p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as AD/A-003 091 ).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, chlorination , ozonation.
Abstract:
An experimental study of an advanced chemical oxidation
system was carried out to determine the rates of oxida-
tion of difficult to oxidize, 'refractory,1 chemical
species which are not removed by conventional secondary
treatment plus carbon absorption. One representative
was chosen for this investigation from each of the five
types of refractories in municipal wastewater: alcohol,
acid, amino acid, fatty acid, and polyhydroxyT alcohol.
A refractory index scale was established to provide a
means of comparing the resistance to oxidation of re- .
fractory compounds. All of the refractories investi-
gated benefited by at least an order of magnitude increase
in reaction rate when UV and ozone are used over that ob-
tained when ozone alone is used. The work proves the
technical feasibility of the process concept and provides
preliminary data on mass transfer, reaction rate, and
ozone autodecomposition for pilot scale work.
604
-------
Hie key, J.L.S. and P.C. Re 1st.
Health Significance of Airborne Microorganisms from Wastewater
Treatment Processes. Part I: Summary of Investigations.
JWPCF. 47(12) .-2741-2757. December 1975.
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, air.
Abstract:
Because of the current interest in the possible health
effects from viable aerosols from wastewater, particularly
from land-spraying operations, it seemed appropriate to
summarize and evaluate the results of investigations to
date. This review is in two parts. Part I summarizes in
detail the results of field investigations and related
literature on the subject. Part II evaluates these
findings in terms of health significance to wastewater
plant workers and others exposed to wastewater aerosols
and directions for future investigations.
605
-------
Mickey, J.L.S. and P.C. Reist.
Health Significance of Airborne Microorganisms from Waste-
water Treatment Processes. Part II: Health Significance
and Alternatives for Action.
JWPCF. 47(12):2758-2773. December 1975.
Key Words: Escherichia coli , coliforms, shigella, salmonella,
Staphylococcus aureus, fecal streptococci,
mycobacterium, groundwater, activated sludge,
trickling filter, aerated lagoons, anaerobic
digestion, aerobic digestion, drying beds, ag-
riculture.
Abstract:
The matters described below are discussed in this
report:
1. The emission and spread of viable bacterial aerosols
from aerated wastewater processes to areas where plant
workers and nearby residents may be located has been
adequately demonstrated.
2. These aerosols contain a variety of virulent, path-
ogenic, bacterial genera and species in particles
within the human respirable size range for both upper
and lower respiratory tract deposition.
3. Present evidence does not conclusively confirm or
negate the existence of a health risk from viable
wastewater aerosols.
4, The demonstrated potential for human exposure to
viable wastewater aerosols justifies further investi-
gation of the health effects of the aerosols.
5. This search should emphasize examination by
epidemiological studies and other means of the exposed
groups with due consideration of possible immunity
among chronically exposed persons.
6. Potential effects include not only bacterial and
viral respiratory and intestinal diseases but also
allergenic response.
7. Further environmental monitoring of wastewater
processes for viable aerosol production in the absence
of indicated health effects is of doubtful value, an
exception being the spray land application of waste-
water, for which viable aerosol evaluation is needed.
606
-------
8. Concurrent development and evaluation of viable
aerosol control measures in anticipation of finding
health effects may be valuable.
9. Wastewater works practitioners and health professionals
should be made aware of the potential hazards of viable
wastewater aerosols.
10. The aeration of wastewater, wind, speed, and aerosol
die-off are the primary factors shown to affect viable
aerosol generation, survival, and dispersion from waste-
water. The effects of other environmental factors have
not yet been fully evaluated and may lack health sig-
nificance.
11. For further environmental aerosol monitoring that
may be needed, either to evaluate the need for aerosol
control or the degree of control achieved by various
measures, the development of a suitable index agent
for assaying viable wastewater aerosols and the use of
sampling procedures capable of distinguishing viable
aerosol particle size spectra are recommended.
607
-------
Hidu, H.
Effects of Synthetic Surfactants on the Larvae of Clams
(M. mercenaria) and Oysters (C . v i_r g_1 n i ca) .
JWPCF. 57_(2) :262-270. February 1965.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, shellfish.
Abstract:
The results of these experiments on the effect of eight
synthetic surfactive agents on clam and oyster larvae
indicate the following:
1. Development of fertilized eggs and growth and
survival of fully-formed veliger larvae of clams and
oysters was reduced by concentrations of surfactants
between 0.01 and 5.00 mg/1 of active ingredient, depend-
ing on the surfactant used. The mean concentration
producing such a reduction was 1.23 mg/1;
2. The cationic surfactants, lauryl pyridinium chloride
(C-2) and a quarternary ammonium compound (C-l), were
the most toxic. The mean of the minimum concentrations
causing a significant reduction in development of fertil-
ized eggs and survival and growth of veliger larvae was
0.30 mg/1. The range of minimum test concentrations
causing these reductions was 0.01 to 1.00 mg/1;
3. The anionic surfactants, three alkyl aryl sulfonates
(AAS-1, AAS-2, and AAS-3) and one alkyl sulfate (AS-1)
were intermediate in toxicity. The mean minimum concen-
tration causing a reduction in growth and survival was
1.15 mg/1 and the range was 0.14 to 3.00 mg/1;
4. The nonionic surfactants, two alkyl polyether
alcohols (N-l and N-2), were least toxic. The mean
minimum concentrations causing a reduction in growth
and survival was 2.33 mg/1 and the range was 1.00 to 5.00
mg/1 ;
5. Clam larvae were less sensitive to surfactants than
were oyster larvae. The mean minimum concentration for
all detergents required to reduce significantly growth
and survival of clam larvae was 1.44 mg/1, while that
for oyster larvae was 1.02 mg/1;
6. Reduction in the growth of larvae of clams and
oysters occurred at lower concentrations, in most cases,
than those required to produce mortality. In acute
toxicity tests development of fertilized eggs was always
halted at lower surfactant concentrations than those
producing mortality of f ul ly-f ormed veliger larvae within
48 hr; and
608
-------
7. Concentrations of surfactant detrimental to clam and
oyster larvae may be reached in certain commercial shell
fish habitats. This study should be augmented by deter-
mination of surfactant levels encountered over shellfish
beds. Bioassay methods could be used to determine
possible modification of the effect of these compounds
by the widely variant ecological factors found in nature
609
-------
Hileman, L.H.
Inorganic Minerals in Water...How Do They Pertain to Human
Health? (Personal Communication).
Key Words: iron, copper, chromium, lead, fluorides, zinc,
nitrates, nitrites, drinking and recreational
water.
Abstract:
The reference system is somewhat inadequate, making the
article less useful. The article reviews literature
about the optimum levels and harmful levels of trace
elements in the human diet, and whether the levels in
drinking water cause beneficial or adverse health
effects.
610
-------
Hileman, L.H. and W.E. Sabbe.
Nitrate-Nitrogen in Domestic Water Supplies.
Arkansas Farm Research. 17(3). May-June 1968.
Key Words: nitrates, surface water (fresh), drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
A survey of the N03-N levels in the domestic water
supplies in Arkansas was begun in 1964. Only 2.2%
had a NOg-N level above 10 ppm, the maximum recommended
level for human consumption.
611
-------
Hill, W.F., F.E. Hamblet, and W.H. Benton.
Inactivation of Poliovirus Type I by the Kelly-Purdy
Ultraviolet Seawater Treatment Unit.
Applied Microbiology. l_7_:l-6. January 1969.
Key Words: polio virus, radiation treatment.
Abstract:
Three experiments were conducted to determine the effect
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on poliovirus-contaminated
seawater. In two of the experiments, the effectiveness
of the Kelly-Purdy UV Seawater Treatment Unit to in-
actiyage poliovirus type 1 (T-j) suspended in continuously
flowing seawater was determined. In experiment 1, the
observed survival ratio of poliovirus T-j was 2.3 x 10-4
(99.98% reduction) in 15.7 sec. No virus was detected
(<0.2 plaque-forming unit/ml) in 20.6 seconds. The
calculated half-life value was 1.29 sec. In experiment 2,
the observed survival ratio of poliovirus T] was 5.9 x 10~4
(99.94% reduction) in 11.7 sec. No virus was detected
in 15.7 sec. The calculated half-life value was 1.37
sec. In experiment 3, a laboratory-controlled UV experi-
ment designed to closely simulate the geometry of the con-
tinuously flowing seawater system, the observed survival
ratios of poliovirus T-, were 9.7 x 10~3 (99.03% reduction)
and 3.6 x 10-4 (99.96% reduction) in 15 and 30 sec,
respectively; the calculated half-life value was 2.38
sec. A statistically significant difference was found
between the inactivation rates of poliovirus T-j in the
two test systems. This rate difference was attributed
primarily to UV dosage and stirring effects. The data
indicated that UV radiation effectively inactivated
poliovirus T-j in flowing seawater. These results vali-
date the efficacy of the Kelly-Purdy UV Seawater Treat-
ment Unit for use in commercial depuration systems.
612
-------
Hill, W.F.,Jr., F.E. Hamblet, W.H. Benton, and E.W. Akin.
Ultraviolet Devitalization of Eight Selected Enteric Viruses
in Estuarine Water.
Applied Microbiology. 19:805-812. May 1970.
Key Words: polio virus, ECHO virus, coxsackie virus,
radiation treatment.
Abstract:
The effect of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the devitali-
zation of eight selected enteric viruses suspended in
estuarine water was determined. The surviving fractions
of each virus were calculated and then plotted against
the UV exposure time for purposes of comparison. Analyti-
cal assessment of the survival data for each virus con-
sisted of least squares regression analysis for deter-
mination of intercepts and slope functions. All data
were examined for statistical significance. When the
slope function of each virus was compared against the
slope function of polio virus type 1, the analytical
findings indicated that polio virus types 2 and 3, ECHO
virus types 1 and 11, and Coxsackie virus A-9 exhibited
similar devitalization characteristics in that no statis-
tically significant difference was found (P>0.05).
Conversely, the devitalization characteristics of Cox-
sackie virus B-l and reovirus type 1 were dissimilar
from those of poliovirus type 1 in that a statistically
significant difference was found between the slope
functions (p<0.05). This observed difference in de-
vitalization of Coxsackie virus B-l and reovirus type 1
was attributed primarily to the frequency distribution
of single and aggregate virions, the geometric configura-
tion, the size of the aggregates, and the severity of
aggregation. The devitalization curve of Coxsackie virus
B-l was characteristic of a retardant die-away curve. The
devitalization curve of reovirus type 1 was characteristic
of a multihit-type curve. The calculated devitalization
half-life values for poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3;
ECHO virus types 1 and 11; Coxsackie types A-9 and B-l;
and reovirus type 1 were 2.8, 3.1, 2.7, 2.8, 3.2, 3.1, 4.0,
4.0 sec, respectively. These basic data should facilitate
an operative extrapolation of the findings to the applied
situation. It was concluded that UV can be highly
effective and provide a reliable safety factor in treat-
ing estuarine water.
613
-------
Hill, W.F., Jr., E.W. Akin, W.H. Benton, and F.E. Hamblet.
Viral Disinfection of Estuarine Waters.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
9_7_(SA5) -.601-615. October 1971.
Key Words: polio virus, ECHO virus, coxsackie virus,
radiation treatment.
Abstract:
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is presently the treatment
of choice for disinfecting seawater for shellfish
depuration systems. The ability of UV to disinfect
virus-contaminated seawater had not been previously
tested. Consequently, experiments were undertaken to
determine the effect of UV on virus-contaminated sea-
water under static and continuously flowing conditions.
In the static UV experiments, the effect of UV on the
devitalization characteristics of eight selected enteric
viruses suspended in seawater under unstirred conditions
was determined. In the flowing seawater UV experiments,
the effectiveness of the Kelly-Purdy UV Seawater Treat-
ment Unit to devitalize poliovirus type 1 (vaccine strain)
suspended in continuously flowing seawater was determined.
Under the static seawater conditions (lab-control UV
experiments), the devitalization characteristics (slope)
of each virus was compared against that of polio virus
type 1. The analytical findings indicated that polio
virus types 2 and 3, ECHO virus types 1 and 11, and Cox-
sackie virus A-9 exhibited similar devitalization char-
acteristics to polio virus type 1 in that no statistically
significant difference was found between the slope
functions (P>0.05). Conversely, a statistically sig-
nificant difference was found (P<0.05) between the slope
functions of polio virus type 1 and those of Coxsackie virus
B-l and reovirus type 1. This observed difference in
devitalization of Coxsackie virusB-l and reovirus type 1
was attributed primarily to the frequency distribution
of single and aggregate virions. The devitalization
curves of the enteroviruses were characteristic of re-
tardant die-away curves. The devitalization curve of
reovirus type 1 was characteristic of a multihit-type
curve. The loss of infectivity of all the viruses
examined was 99% or greater after 30 sec of UV exposure to
116 ergs per sq mm per sec.
Under the continuously flowing seawater conditions (Kelly-
Purdy UV experiments), the analytical findings indicated
614
-------
that the devitalization rate of polio virus type 1 was
significantly different (P\.'0.05) than the devitali-
zation rate of the same virus under the conditions of
the lab-control UV experiments. The most noticeable
difference was the fact that the exponential rate of
devitalization was significantly increased (steeper
slope function) in the flowing seawater system. This
difference was attributed primarily to UV dosage and
stirring effects. The loss of infectivity of polio
virus type 1 exceeded 99.9% after 15.7 sec of UV
exposure in the Kelly-Purdy UV Seawater Treatment Unit.
Based on the findings herein, it could be expected
that the percent reduction times of the viruses studied
under static conditions would be considerably reduced
under the continuously flowing conditions. This would
provide then an added safety factor in the actual
effectiveness of the prototype UV treatment unit to
disinfect virus-contaminated seawater when effective
exposure time is based on static studies. Therefore,
based on the data reported herein, it is advanced that
UV radiation can be highly effective and if properly
applied it will provide a reliable safety factor in
disinfecting (treating) flowing seawater for use in
artificial shellfish purification systems.
615
-------
Hiltbold, A.E., B.F. Hajek, G.A. Buchanan, and C.E. Scarsbrook.
Leaching of Picloram and Nitrate in Two Alabama Soils.
Auburn University, Alabama, Dept. of Agronomyand Soils,
July 1974. 21p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-236 856),
Key Words: nitrates, ponding/land application , land reclama-
tion.
Abstract:
The following observations were made:
1. Nitrate moved downward in Dothan loamy sand and in
Hartsells fine sandy loam at the rate of about 1 inch per
1 inch of rainfall received.
2. Some picloram was retained in surface soil whereas
all nitrates were eventually leached below the surface
soil .
3. The picloram that was leached below the surface soil
moved downward at about the same rate as nitrate.
4. The rates of leaching 200- and 800-lb N/A applica-
tions are essentially equal.
5. A mathematical model of nttrate leaching was developed
that fit the observed leaching in these soils within
the range of field sampling precision.
616
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Hindin, E. and P.J. Bennett.
Transport of Organic Insecticides to the Aquatic Environment.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1970(2):III-l9/1-16.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDE, ODD, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
This study has verified the observation made by others,
i.e., that persistent insecticides, such as DDT residing
in the soil, can be carried over in the soil from one
growing season to the next. This quantity is greatly
diminished over the quantity found in the soil immediately
after application. As a result of this carryover, once
an area has received insecticide treatment, the more
persistent chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides will be
present for an indefinite number of years. This con-
clusion is based on observations reported herein and that
of Taschenberg et al., and the work of Rodenheser.
Inconclusive evidence was found concerning the carryover
of ethion - an organic phosphorus insecticide - in the
soil. This investigation found that trace quantities
(about 5 milligrams of ethion per cubic meter of soil
core) may be carried over from one season to the next.
However, the evidence is not as conclusive as that
found for DDT.
The chemical characteristics of the water that drains
land surfaces are influenced by the type, form, and
quantity of substances residing on the soil surface,
in addition to the physical character of the soil.
Surface drainage - in this case irrigation runoff water -
has the ability to dissolve and/or carry in suspension
insecticides and to carry silt particles on which
insecticides are adsorbed. It can be expected that the
insecticides and their metabolites will be transported
from the once-treated area to a natural body of water as
long as there are insecticides still residing in the
soil of the drainage area.
The exact quantity of insecticides (and their metabolites)
carried off by the drainage water at any one time should
be determinable if the quantity of the insecticide residue
in the soil is known. This relationship is not a simple
proportionality, mathematically. Rather such factors
enter into the relationship as rate of solution or de-
adsorption of the insecticide from the soil by the water,
quantity of insecticide-bearing colloidal silt, and re-
adsorption of the insecticide by the soil particles re-
617
-------
maining on the land surface. All these variables are in
turn dependent on the rate of surface water runoff,
compactness of the soil, the number of times runoff has
occurred after application, and the ability of water
molecules to displace insecticides in or on the soil
matrix. It was outside the realm of this study to in-
vestigate these variables in detail. Rather the purpose
was to establish an experimental plan with procedures to
determine which variables must be investigated to con-
struct such a model.
The quantity of insecticides and their metabolites
transported away via the surface drainage and water-borne
settleable silt was extremely small compared to the
amount of each insecticide and their metabolites residing
in the soil. However, concentrations generally at the
nanogram to microgram per liter range are extremely
significant owing to the ability of aquatic life inhabit-
ing such waters to remove and concentrate the insecti-
cides in their tissues. Thus it is of great importance
if there is a sufficiently high concentration of insecti-
cides in the settleable silt to cause the benthos organ-
isms to contain high sublethal concentrations in their
tissues, as the benthos organisms comprise an important
food source for many aquatic predators.
It would be naive to think that once application of the
persistent chlorinated organic insecticides to a land
area ceases, the insecticides in the surface drainage
will disappear. Rather, insecticides will be transported
from the once treated area by surface drainage for many
years. For DDT at the beginning of the 1970 season,the
fraction left after one year's decay was 0.64 of that ap-
plied the previous season. This would correspond to a
half life of about 1.8 years for DDT. In Rodenheser's
study, a fraction left after six years' decay was 0.74,
corresponding to a half life for DDT of about 10 years.
It is believed that if this study were continued as long
as Rodenheser's, the half life of DDT in the soil would
be much longer. Whichever half life value for DDT is
considered valid, it is apparent that DDT will remain
in the soil for a long time after discontinuation of
DDT application. Hence it will be in the surface drain-
age for many many years.
618
-------
Hinesly, T.D.
Agricultural Application of Digested Sewage Sludge; Municipal
Sewage Effluents for Irrigation.
In: Municipal Sewage Effluent for Irrigation. C.W. Wilson
and F.E. Beckett, eds. Agricultural Engineering Department
Symposium, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, La., 1968
pp. 45-48.
Key Words: zinc, chromium, copper, lead, manganese, nickel,
nitrates, Escherichia c o1 i , agriculture.
Abstract:
This paper is a discussion of the results of a test
lysimeter program. In and Mn are present in greater
quantities in soil treated with sewage sludge than with-
out. Nitrate levels were also high. It was shown that
E,. col i rapidly disappears when incubated in sludge, or
autoclaved sludge. However, it persists and even grows
when added to aerobic sludge. It can be inferred that
the destruction of E_. col i is not caused by competition
with another organism.
619
-------
Hinesly, T.D. and B. Sosewitz.
Digested Sludge Disposal on Crop Land.
JWPCF. 41:822-830. May 1969.
Key Words:
chromium, copper, lead, manganese, nickel, zinc,
nitrates, agriculture.
Abstract:
While all the results are not in for the first year
research and demonstration projects, some observations
may be summarized as follows:
1. Using good cultural practices, all crops tested
responded favorably to digested sludge, even though
most applications were made late in the growing season.
2. Offensive odors from we!1-digested sludge applica-
tions have not been a problem.
3. Flies were never a problem, even where application
rates exceeded the soil infiltration capacity.
4. From the standpoint of aesthetics, furrow irrigation
is preferred over sprinkler irrigation, although no
burning of crops was observed where sprinkler systems
were used.
5. Digested sludge application rates which supply
nitrogen in amounts greater than those needed for crop
production will increase nitrate levels in drainage
water. Thus, further research will be directed toward
determining soil and water management practices to
deplete the soil of excessive nitrogen contents by de-
nitrification processes.
620
-------
Hinesly, T.D., O.C. Braids, and J.E. Molina.
Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes Resulting
from the Use of Digested Sewage Sludge on Field Crops.
(SW-30d) Environmental
1971. 62p.
Protection Agency, Washington D.C
Key Words: zinc, manganese, iron, cadmium, chromium, lead,
ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, viruses, coliforms,
bacteria, anaerobic digestion, land reclamation.
Abstract:
Included in this report is data which includes fecal
coliform die-off, along with a discussion on the advantages
and disadvantages of applying sludge to agricultural lands.
621
-------
Hlnesly, T.D., R.L. Jones, and E.L. Ziegler.
Effects on Corn by Applications of Heated Anaerobical1y Digested
Sludge.
Compost Science. 1_3(4) :26-30. July-August 1972.
Key Words: iron, manganese, chromium, copper, cadmium,
nickel, lead, zinc, agriculture.
Abstract:
To summarize, a favorable corn yield response can be
expected from relatively large sludge applications in
a year of normal weather conditions. Also, yields were
not decreased by sludge applications during a very wet
growing season. Indeed, yields on sludge-treated
plots were never lower than those obtained on control
plots maintained at a high level of fertility. Trace
elements added as constituents of sludge have not
presented a toxicity problem detectable either by tissue
analysis or pathological symptom, even though Blount
silt loam is a poorly drained soil and soil pH was per-
mitted to decrease to a low value with respect to usual
standards of field crop production. Since trace elements
would be most mobile or available to plants in poorly
drained, acid soils, the concentrations of trace elements
in corn tissue samples are higher than would be expected
where internal soil drainage is better and soil pH is
maintained at a value of 6 or greater. Thus, corn plants
did not accumulate toxic levels of trace elements, even
under soil conditions which should favor such detrimental
conditions to the plant.
622
-------
Hinesly, T.D., O.C. Braids, and J.E. Molina.
Hygienic Aspects of Liquid Digested Sludge Disposal on Cropped
Land .
In: Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes Resulting
from the Use of Digested Sewage Sludge on Field Crops. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1971. pp. 47-53
Key Words: Escheri chi a co1i , coliforms, salmonella, anaerobic
digestion, agriculture.
Abstract:
This article discusses the danger from infection that
is controlled by the ability of pathogens to survive the
soil-air interface.
623
-------
Hinesly, T.D., O.C. Braids, and J.E. Molina.
Plant Chemistry.
In: Agricultural Benefits and Envfronmental Changes Resulting
from the Use of Digested Sewage Sludge on Field Crops. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1971. pp. 19-33
Key Words: copper, manganese, nickel, lead, chromium,
iron, agriculture.
Abstract:
This article gives pertinent data on the uptake of
heavy metals by plants.
624
-------
Hinesly, T.D., O.C. Braids, and J.E. Molina.
Properties of Liquid Digested Sludge with Respect to Land
Disposal.
In: Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes Resulting
from the Use of Digested Sewage Sludge on Field Crops. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1971. pp.3-12,
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates,
chromium, cadmium, copper, lead, manganese,
nickel, zinc, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
The chemistry of liquid digested sludge is discussed as
are seed germination in and volatilization of ammonia
from liquid sludge. The paper also describes the
effect of digested sludge application on soil atmosphere
and the rate at which digested sludge dewaters after
application on crop land.
625
-------
Hinesly, T.D., O.C. Braids, and J.E. Molina.
South Farm Lysimeter Research.
In: Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes Resulting
from the Use of Digested Sewage Sludge on Field Crops. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1971. pp.15-18,
Key Word: agriculture.
Abstract:
This article discusses yields of farmland applied
with sludge. No health effect data are included.
626
-------
Hinesly, T.D., R.L. Jones, J.J. Tyler, and E.L. Ziegler.
Soybean Yield Responses and Assimilation of Zn and Cd from
Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil.
JWPCF. 4£(9): 2137-2151. September 1976.
Key Words: zinc, cadmium, nitrates, phosphates, agriculture,
crops .
Abstract:
Soybeans were brown each year on field plots irrigated
annually with three rates of digested sludge. Applica-
tions of digested sludge significantly increased soil
levels of Zn and Cd which were reflected by increased
concentrations of these elements in plant tissues.
However, there were no indications that the absorption
and translocation of relatively large amounts of Zn and
Cd into leaf and petiole and into seeds had caused a
phytotoxic condition. Only the large amounts of P
applied as a constituent of sludge on maximum sludge-
treated plots caused a yield depression during one grow-
ing season. But, the P phytotoxic condition was rapidly
dissipated after sludge applications were suspended and
during the following growing season soybean yields were
significantly higher on maximum sludge-treated plots
than on fertile control plots. Thus, when sludges con-
taining relatively high concentrations of P are applied
on crop land where plants susceptible to P toxicity are
grown, the P content of sludges per se may limit sludge
loading rates than than sludge-borne Zn and Cd.
Considering the rate at which sludge-applied organic
matter was mineralized in soil and the types of organic
materials accumulated in soil as a result of sludge
applications, the organic constituents of sludge provide
very little protection to plants against Zn and Cd con-
centrations in the soil. It seems more likely that Zn
and Cd ions were being rapidly incorporated into spar-
ingly soluble compounds by inorganic precipitation
reactions in the soil from several years of continuous
sludge applications, it will occur during the time sludge
is being applied rather than after applications have
been terminated as suggested by others.
627
-------
Hites, R.A. and K. Biemann.
Water Pollution: Organic Compounds in the Charles River,
Boston.
Science. 1_7_8:1 58-1 60 . October 13, 1972.
Key Words: synthetic/organics , surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The major lipophilic organic compounds present in water
collected during November and December 1971 from the
Charles River Basin (Boston) are as follows: normal
alkanes (C-jg to C31), alkyl naphthalenes, alkyl anthra-
cenes or phenanthrenes, pyrene, f1uoranthene, dibutyl
phthalate, and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. The concen-
tration of the naphthalenes (determined by liquid
chromatography) correlates with the effective storm-
water runoff content of the river. These data suggest
a multiplicity of sources ranging from indigenous bio-
logical materials to automobile exhaust condensate.
628
-------
Hoadley, A.W. and S.M. Goyal .
Public Health Implications of the Application of Wastewaters
to the Land.
School of Civil Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, Georgia. 50p.
Key Words: salmonella, shigella, coxsackie virus,
ECHO virus, Escherichia coli. viruses, bacteria,
surface water (freshj, chlorination, ozonation.
Abstract:
In this article, factors affecting exposure of man
and animals to pathogens applied to the land with waste-
water and sludges have been examined.
629
-------
Hoeppel , R.E.
Nitrogen Transformations in Wetland Soils.
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., Environmental Effects Laboratory, September 1974.
Zip. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as AD/A-000-610).
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, ponding/land appli-
cation , agriculture.
Abstract:
Based on the literature review conducted in this study,
it is concluded that:
1. Biologically mediated nitrogen transformations
are of prime importance in wetland soils.
2. Reduced conditions generally favor loss of nitrogen
from the soil, but these conditions also favor the bio-
logical fixation of gaseous nitrogen from the atmosphere
in special situations.
3. In order for ammonium or organic nitrogen to be lost
as nitrogen or nitrous oxide gas, both the presence and
absence of oxygen are needed in the system. The oxida-
tion of ammonium to nitrate is initially required in
order to obtain gaseous loss via denitrification.
4. Acidic soil conditions favor loss of nitrogen,
probably from the interaction of nitrogen cycle inter-
mediates, but this loss is of secondary importance to
the denitrification pathways.
5. Many biologically mediated nitrogen transformations
are complex, often requiring the interactions of more
than one species of organism.
6. Although nitrogen transformation pathways in different
organisms may be comparable, many findings indicate that
a given end product may not always result from any single
pathway or identical enzyme system in either the same
or different species.
7. Microbial populations are primarily responsible
for the gaseous loss from or gain by the soil. However,
these populations are often very much dependent on the
higher plants for proper function.
8. Nitrogen reactions in the soil are highly pH-dependent
630
-------
9. Nitrogen reactions in the soil are largely controlled
by its physical and chemical (nutritional) properties.
10. Nitrogen transformations in a soil system tend to
be cyclical. For instance, an excessive loss of nitrogen
or of a given nitrogen form would tend to favor a net
gain of nitrogen or of a given nitrogen form by some
other pathway.
631
-------
Hollaender, A., G.E. Stapleton, and F.L. Martin.
X-Ray Sensitivity of £_.. Col 1 as Modified by Oxygen Tension.
Nature. 167.:103-104. January 20, 1951.
Key Words: Escherichia col i , groundwater.
Abstract:
These experiments show, among other things, the impor-
tance of (a) oxygen tension in the suspensions, (b) the
state of oxidation or reduction inside the organism
during exposure to X-radiation, and (c) the possible
modifying effect of the types of metabol ism .carried out
by the organism before irradiation. Most of the results
are consistent with the idea that radio-decomposition
products of water are contributing toxic agents, for
example, hydrogen ions, hydroxyl, H02, hydrogen peroxide,
some of which are produced only in the presence of oxygen
during irradiation. However, it is felt that not all
the findings in regard to oxygen concentration can be
explained on this basis, as the production of such
products has been demonstrated only with pure water.
We know very little of the modifications which might
take place inside living cells, where there exists a
very complicated medium containing enzymes and amino-
acids, as well as many other organic and inorganic com-
ponents .
632
-------
Holm, H.W. and M.F. Cox.
Mercury in Aquatic Systems: Methylation, Oxidation-Reduction,
and Bioaccumulation.
EPA/660/3-74-021, Environmental Protection Agency, Athens,
Georgia, Southeast Environmental Research Laboratory,
August 1974. 47p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-229 329).
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
The role of organisms on the fate of mercury
environments was evaluated. Objectives were
transformations of mercury in water-sediment
to investigate the fate of elemental mercury
growth systems, and to measure the concentration of total
and methylmercury in food chain organisms. In anaerobic
water-sediment systems spiked with calcium acetate and
mercuric chloride, elemental mercury was produced in
larger quantities than methylmercury
systems, added elemental mercury was
in the sediments where small amounts
in aquatic
to quantitate
systems,
in microbial
In water-sediment
oxidized and deposited
of methylmercury
were formed. Six pure cultures of bacteria oxidized
elemental mercury, but none formed methylmercury. In
a stream receiving mercuric ion, mosquito fish
more methylmercury than did
aquatic insects. Algae did
contained
tadpoles, snails, and
not contain methylmercury,
even though their total mercury levels were high
633
-------
Holimes, C.W., E.A. Slade, and C.J. Mclerran.
Migration and Redistribution of Zinc and Cadmium in Marine
Estuarine Systems.
Environmental Science and Technology. 8^:255-257. March 1974
Key Words: cadmium, zinc, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This is an excellent paper on the mobilization of zinc
and cadmium in an estuarine system. The paper also
discusses seasonal variations.
634
-------
Horn, L.W.
Kinetics of Chlorine Disinfection in an Ecosystem.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE. 98(SA1 );
183-193. February 1972.
Key Words: BOD, chlorination.
Abstract:
The influence, methodology, and prediciton of performance
of chlorine disinfection of waste pond effluents com-
prising algal-bacterial systems are investigated in both
pure cultures and mixed cultures from samples of actual
pond effluents. Based on the results, the following
conclusions may be drawn:
1. Disinfection of waste pond effluents is frequently
essential to meet the usual disinfection criteria es-
tablished for wastewater discharges to streams which
have multiple beneficial uses and relatively high di-
lution.
2. The influence of chlorine treatment in samples of
pond effluents indicates that selective chlorinatlon
which affects bacteria and algae differently can be
achieved under controlled conditions in which indicator
coliform bacterial organisms are destroyed while leaving
the algae essentially intact. However, excessive
chlorine results in degradation of algae, release of
their cellular contents, and thereby a major increase
in effluent BOD, defeating several of the purposes of
the ponding process.
3. Reaction kinetics of chlorine disinfection in algal-
bacterial systems is a complex m and n order reaction,
which depends on reaction time, residual chlorine con-
centration, and number of surviving organisms for chlor-
ine residuals from 0.25 mg per 1 to 2.0 mg per 1.
4. At chlorine doses greater than 2.0 mg per 1, residual
effluent BOD increases significantly from 20 mg per 1
to a high of 129 mg per 1 at a chlorine dose of 64 mg per 1
in algal-bacterial systems. The increase in BOD was
evidently caused by the presence of high concentration
of algal cell contents in such effluents, as the phe-
nomenon is not observed in other waste effluents.
5. Inasmuch as the production of BOD is opposed to the
purposes of the ponding process, it is expected that the
degradable organics produced would be available to
635
-------
microorganisms, and thus microbial proliferation of un-
controlled and unpredictable magnitude may ensue.
6. The influence, methodology, and prediction of
performance of chlorination in algal-bacterial systems
development herein should lead to more rational designs
for disinfection of effluents containing mixtures of
unicellular algae and coliform bacteria.
636
-------
Homma, A., M.D. Sobsey, C. Wallis, and J.L. Melnick.
Virus Concentration from Sewage.
Water Research. _7:945-950. 1973.
Key Words: polio virus, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Optimal conditions for concentrating poliovirus from
large volumes of raw sewage were established. Solids
1 M-m or larger, present in the raw sewage, were re-
moved by textile clarifying filters without significant
retention of virus. By acidification of the clarified
sewage and addition of salts to enhance virus attachment
to the adsorbent, virus in the sewage was concentrated
on a fibre glass depth filter, with subsequent elution
of virus into small volumes suitable for assay. An
80-95 percent efficiency of virus concentration was
effected.
637
-------
Hook, J.E., L.T. Kardos, and VI.E. Sopper.
Effects of Land Disposal of Wastewaters on Soil Phosphorus
Relations .
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
TFTrough Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and L. Kardos, eds.
EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources,
March 1974. pp. 179-195.
Key Words: phosphate, ponding/land application, crops.
Abstract:
Soils and soil plant systems may be effectively used
to renovate wastewaters. Applications must be managed
so that the constituents of the wastewater remain at
the disposal site or leave in harmless or beneficial
forms. The water which leaves the disposal site should
have concentrations below USPHS recommended limits for
drinking water and below stream standards where applicable
In the case of phosphorus, a major constituent'of
municipal wastewaters, the soil-plant system proves
to be an excellent renovating media. When the system
is properly managed most of the added phosphorus remains
in the soil at the disposal site or leaves as a nutrient
in harvested crops. Soils differ in their ability to
hold phosphorus. In a heavy textured soil high in
sesquioxides, phosphorus from effluent irrigation did
not increase in the soil below a depth of one foot after
7 years of irrigation. In a light textured soil with
half as much sesquioxides phosphorus content of soils
increased to a depth of 3 feet after 6 years of treat-
ment. The Bray test for available phosphorus was suit-
able for determining zones of accumulation of added
phosphorus. The fractionation of total soil phosphorus
enabled a rough mass balance to be made for the phos-
phorus within the disposal system.
638
-------
Hornor, S.G.
The Effect of a Municipal Effluent on the Microbial Populations
of the Wi11imantic/Shetucket Rivers.
Master's Thesis, Connecticut University, Storrs, Institute
of Water Resources, 1974. 128p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 029).
Key Words: yeasts, bacteria, coliforms, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The distribution and relative numbers of bacteria, yeast,
and algae in a river system in central Connecticut
receiving primarily treated municipal effluent was exam-
ined over a 15 month period. With respect to selected
chemical and microbial variables, including total coliform/
fecal coliform ratios, the impact of the municipal
effluent was minimal a short distance downstream from
the study area. Rather, the single most important
factor determining the annual distribution of river
microflora was river flow. A high correlation was found
between the yeast populations and other microbial and
environmental variables, suggesting that these organisms
may be significant indicators of water quality.
639
-------
Horvath, R.S.
Cometabolism of the Herbicide, 2,3,6-Trichlorobenzoate by
Natural Microbial Populations.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
7.(5) :273-276. May 1972.
Key Words: herbicides, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This study states that in the absence of microbial life,
oxidation of the herbicide did not occur. This study
does indicate that natural microbial populations are
capable of degrading pesticides.
640
-------
Hovsem'us, G.
Composting and Use of Compost in Sweden.
JWPCF. 47.(4):741-747. April 1975.
Key Words: zinc, composting.
Abstract:
This is a very general article discussing composting
in Sweden.
641
-------
How Paraquat Gets into the Lung.
New Science. 64(927) :791. 1974.
Key Words: herbicides, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Paraquat, a widely used bipyridyl herbicide, causes
severe lung damage leading to death days or even
weeks after it has been swallowed. It has been sug-
gested that paraquat is accumulated in the lung via an
energy-dependent mechanism which acts like a pump to
remove paraquat from the blood plasma and store it in
the lung. Once paraquat gets to the lung, the way in
which it is retained is still unknown, although this
also appears to be energy dependent. The major gross
effect on the lung is scar formation which causes the
lung to lose its respiratory efficiency. Paraquat
uptake in lung slices has been inhibited by the addi-
tion to the medium of iodo-acetate and potassium
cyanide (preventing glycolysis and pyruvate metabolism,
respectively), or by the addition of rotenone, the
specific inhibitor of mitochondria! respiration. Thus,
the uptake of paraquat by the lung depends on the lung's
ability to manufacture ATP. Following paraquat admini-
stration, rats were given a saline stomach wash, followed
by doses of castor oil, magnesium sulfate, and bentonite,
all designed to prevent the absorption of paraquat into
the plasma. The rats were treated between 4 and 10 hr
after herbicide administration and an 80% recovery rate
was achieved at each time interval. This may be useful
in cases of human paraquat poisoning. Hemoperfusion
and hemdoialysis, as methods which act directly to
reduce plasma paraquat concentrations, may also prove
useful.
642
-------
Howells, G.P., T.J. Kneips, and M. Eisenbud.
Water Quality in Industrial Areas: Profile of a River.
Environmental Science and Technology. 4_(l):26-35. January
1970.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, cobalt, manganese, surface
water (fresh), fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
It is not difficult to predict an increased use of the
Hudson River for the disposal of sewage wastes, industrial
effluents, and cooling water, and for augmenting exist-
ing water supplies. At the same time, the burgeoning
population of the area has a need and a right to use
the river for recreation. How can further development
be controlled, so that the water resources can be ex-
ploited, but still provide for that refreshment of the
spirit so necessary for the urban inhabitant? Changes
that might be expected from increased use are:
First, an increasing nutrient load from domestic
sewage and some industrial processes,
Second, an increasing heat load.
Third, an increased demand for industrial and domestic
water.
Our studies have made clear that potential eutrophic
nuisance species of algae are present in the river,
and that the shores are populated by animals indicative
of sewage pollution. Yet, serious fouling and deoxy-
genation have so far been avoided for most of the river.
From this it could be deduced that the present situation
need cause no concern; however, examples of other
eutrophic water bodies give us warning of the potential
rapidity of changes, and should encourage effective
sewage treatment and the control of nutrient sources.
Heat additions to the aquatic environment are a major
concern. In the Hudson, the volume of tidal flow can
be utilized to disperse such heat; at the same time,
it is clear that the capacity of the river as a heat
sink is severely limited during the peak summer demand
by a low net flow and high ambient air temperatures.
If significant overall temperature rise in the river
were allowed, it is highly probable that the species
composition of the fauna and flora would be unbalanced.
This interacting with the high nutrient levels in the
river could easily tip the balance between nuisance
643
-------
conditions and the relatively healthy biological situation
seen today. The effects of a temperature rise restricted
to localized sites on the river have yet to be evaluated.
There is a great need for more detailed hydrological and
thermal studies of the river to evaluate the capacity
of the Hudson to receive heat addition. There is also
need for studies of species endemic to the river to deter-
mine their response, singly and together, to changes in
temperatures.
The extraction of additional water for any purpose -
pumped storage schemes, industrial use, or domestic use -
is also of great importance, and is closely related to
the other uses of the river. Almost any increased
water extraction, except industrial cooling intakes,
will make a volume of water unavailable at least for
limited periods or limited stretches of the river. The
effects of this on the present hydrological pattern in
the river remain largely unknown. It seems probable,
however, that the extent and duration of salt water
intrusion up the river will increase. This will limit
the sites for drinking water extraction and reduce the
capacity for exchange of effluent discharges with the
ocean which depends largely on the net fresh water flow.
How can the situation be controlled? We need more infor-
mation about all aspects of the hydrology of the estuary,
about the fauna and flora of the river and their response
to existing and predicted conditions. We need strictly
controlled use of the river for all purposes and at all
levels. And, finally, we need to know how to alleviate
pollution problems when they have arisen and how to chan-
nel waste materials, including heat, to other outlets.
644
-------
Hsu, D.Y. and W.O. Pipes.
Aluminum Hydroxide Effects on Wastewater Treatment Processes.
JWPCF. 45^(4)-.681-697. April 1973.
Key Words: COD, phosphates, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites,
suspended solids, activated sludge, chemical
treatment.
Abstract:
In the secondary treatment process it was found that
the most important effect was the increase in sludge
production. The treatment efficiency measured by COD
removal and total phosphate removal would be improved.
The compactabi1ity of bulking sludge was improved sig-
nificantly with the addition of aluminum hydroxide to
the mixed liquor. No effect was found on nitrification.
Total gas production during anaerobic sludge digestion
would be decreased by the addition of aluminum hydroxide
Sludge dewatering, either before or after digestion,
was improved.
645
-------
Huang, C.H., D.L. Feuerstein, and E.L. Miller.
Demonstration of a High-Rate Activated Sludge System.
EPA/670/2-75-037, Engineering-Science, Inc., Berkeley,
California, March 1975. 151p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 005).
Key Words: BOD, trickling filter, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
A high-rate activated sludge system was designed, con-
structed and operated at the City of Chino as a bio-
logical treatment system utilizing the maximum growth-
rate potential of activated sludge as a means of re-
moving organic, and possibly inorganic, materials from
domestic wastewater. Operating results indicate that
full-scale systems can be operated at high growth rates
and high substrate loading rates with concomitant high
substrate removal velocities and high quality effluent.
Substrate loading rates as high as 3.6 (mg BOD)/(mg MLVSS)
(day) and effluent '100 as low as 5 mg/1 were achieved.
A kinetic description indicated a yield coefficient of
0.92 (mg MLVSS produced)/(mg BOD removed), a decay con-
stant of 0.027/day and a half-saturation constant of
26 (mg BOD)/1. The significance of these kinetic char-
acteristics in process design and operational control
1s presented. Four solids separation systems - vibra-
tory screens, enhanced gravity separation, dissolved
air flotation and hydro-centrifugal cleaned screens -
were tested for activated sludge solids separation.
646
-------
Huang, C.P. and M.H. Wu.
Chromium Removal by Carbon Adsorption.
JWPCF. 47_(10) :2437-2446. October 1975.
Key Words: chromium, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
Data obtained from this study led to the following
cone!us ions :
1. Maximum removal efficiency may be achieved by using
both sizes of calcinated coke and operating at all
levels of total chromium concentration and at low pH
values (pH<2.0). However, efficiency of chromium
removal increases with decreasing chromium concentration
For instance, at pH 2, 100 percent of the chromium may
be removed if the concentration is less than 10"^ M
(5.2 mg/1 as Cr).
2. Calcinated cokes may be economically feasible only
for acidic wastewater, which requires minimum effort
in pH adjustment. One great attraction of using
calcinated coke for chromium-containing wastewater, or
probably, other heavy metal-containing wastewater, is
its 1ow cost.
647
-------
Huang, 0. C.
Effect of Selected Factors on Pesticide Sorption and Desorption
in the Aquatic System.
JWPCF. 43.(8):1739-1748. August 1971 .
Key Words: dieldrin, DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
From the results of this study, the following conclusions
may be drawn :
1. At the test pH range of 6.0 to 10.0, the adsorption
of dieldrin by montmori11onite was slightly increased
with a decreasing pH.
o n
2. At the normal temperature range of 10 to 30 C, the
adsorption and desorption of dieldrin by the montmoril-
lonite sediment was not significantly affected by
changes in water temperature.
3. The effect of the salt (NaCl) concentration of
water on the dieldrin adsorption and desorption by
montmori1lonite was not conclusive. Slightly more
pesticide was adsorbed and retained more strongly by
the clay at a salt content of 3 percent than at 0.3 or
0.03 percent; however, the same pesticide was adsorbed
slightly more and retained more strongly at a salt
content of 0.03 than at 0.3 percent.
4. Several representative organic pollutants such as
glucose, alanine, and stearic acid were found to exert
no effect at all on the rates and equilibria of the
adsorptions of dieldrin, heptachlor, and DDT by mont-
mori llonite and illite.
5. The dieldrin adsorption by montmori11onite was not
influenced by the soluble organic matter contained in
the filtered domestic wastewater.
648
-------
Huang, J.C. and C.S. Liao.
Adsorption of Pesticides by Clay Minerals.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE. 96(SA5):
1057-1078. October 1970.
Key Words: DDT, dieldrin, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface
water (mari ne).
Abstract:
Because clay minerals were found to adsorb chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides very rapidly and to have a great
potential for retaining these chemicals, it may be
desirable to use these clays as carriers or diluents
of pesticide in agricultural application. However,
before this practice can be permitted, additional studies
must be carried out to determine if there is any sig-
nificant reduction in the residual pesticidal bioactiv-
ities for the pesticides already adsorbed on clays.
Also, certain efficient ways must be developed to pre-
vent the pesticide-coated clay particles from being
flushed into natural waters by runoff; otherwise, the
gradual desorption of some pesticides, even at very
slow rates, will still provide a continuous supply of
toxic chemicals to the overlying water and cause serious
pollution problems.
649
-------
Huang, P.M. and C.P. Hwang.
Inorganic and Organic Phosphorus Distribution in Domestic
and Municipal Sewage.
Water and Sewage Works. V20(6) : 82-83. June 1973.
Key Words: phosphates, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
This paper discusses the various forms of phosphorus
in wastewater streams.
650
-------
Huckabee, J.W., C. Feldman, and Y. Talmi.
Mercury Concentrations in Fish from the Great Smoky Mountains
National Park.
Analytica Chimica Acta. 7£:41-47. May 1974.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article establishes natural levels of mercury
in fish.
651
-------
Hudson, H.E.
High-Quality Water Production and Viral Disease.
JAWWA. 54(10) :1265-1274. October 1962.
Key Words: coliforms, viruses, filtration.
Abstract:
Filtration plants operated to attain a high degree of
removal of one impurity tend to accomplish high re-
movals of other suspended materials. Examples of
parallelism in removal of turbidity, manganese, micro-
organisms, and bacteria are cited.
Speed and simplicity make the turbidity measurement
a valuable index of removal of other materials.
Plants producing very clear water also tend to secure
low bacterial counts accompanied by low incidence of
viral disease.
The production of high-quality water requires striving
toward high goals as measured by several - not just one
or two - quality criteria. These criteria include
fi1tered-water turbidity, bacteria as indicated by plate
counts and by presumptive- and confirmed-coliform deter-
minations, and thorough chlorination.
The operating data for plants treating polluted water
indicate that low virus disease rates occur in cities
where the water treatment operators aim to produce a
superior product rather than a tolerable water.
652
-------
Hueper, W.C. and W.W. Payne.
Carcinogenic Effects of Adsorbates of Raw and Finished Water
Supplies.
American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 39(5):475-481.
May 1963.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
Chloroform eluates made from adsorbates of raw and
finished water of a river heavily polluted with industrial
chemical pollutants, when subcutaneously injected into
mice, elicited the development of spindle-cell sarcomas
at.the site of injection. Chloroform eluates, as well
as alcohol eluates of such adsorbates on activated carbon
prepared from raw and finished water, when subcutaneously
injected or cutaneously applied, were probably the cause
of leukemia reactions in some mice. The presence of
bladder papilloma in one mouse injected with a chloroform
eluate of raw water points to the probable contamination
of the water with chemical carcinogens acting on the
bladder that were released from rubber manufacturing
plants. The rapidly growing contamination of sources
of supplies of drinking water with carcinogenic agents
demonstrates the urgent need for comprehensive chemical,
experimental, and epidemSologic investigations on water
pollutants for ascertaining whether or not such ex-
posures of the general population may represent sig-
nificant environmental career hazards.
653
-------
Huggett, R.J., M.E. Bender, and H.D. Slone.
Mercury in Sediments from Three Virginia Estuaries.
Chesapeake Science. H(4):280-282. December 1971.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
A survey of mercury levels in sediments (<63fO from
Virginia's three main estuaries was conducted. Results
indicated that the mercury was associated with the
organic fraction of the bottom material. Statistical
analyses showed no differences (5% significance level)
within rivers with respect to distance from the mouth
or between rivers.
Comparison of the estuarine levels to those of
oceanic and freshwater sediments show the oceanic to
be more closely related to the estuarine with respect
to mercury concentrations.
654
-------
Huggett, R.J., O.P. Bricker, G.R. Helz, and S.E. Sommer.
A Report on the Concentration, Distribution, and Impact of
Certain Trace Metals from Sewage Treatment Plants on the
Chesapeake Bay.
Chesapeake Research Consortium, Baltimore, Maryland,
June 1974. 20p. (Avilable from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 735).
Key Words: zinc, lead, manganese, iron, copper, surface
water (marine), shellfish.
Abstract:
From detailed analyses of sewage effluents for metals
and utilization of existing published data from other
areas in the United States, we conclude that: For
the metals cadmium, copper, zinc, and lead, the supply
contributed to the Chesapeake Bay by sewage treatment
plants is probably within one order of magnitude of
the fluvial supply. On the other hand, for manganese,
iron and nickel, the supply from rivers exceeds that
from waste water.
For at least one sewage treatment plant, most of the
metals released by the effluent are deposited within
a few miles of the outfall. Comparison of the sediment
metal concentrations near the outfall with data from
other areas of the bay showed that zinc, lead, chromium,
cadmium and copper were one to two orders of magnitude
higher in these sediments than in uncontaminated areas.
Such large concentrations could have an adverse effect
on the biota. This may have occurred since the bottom
of this river is essentially a biological desert with
a biomass of much less than "00 mg/m^.
The oyster, Grassestrea V i rg.i n 1 ca, can concentrate
metals from sewage effluent in a very short time period.
Oysters were subjected to varying concentrations of
sewage effluent in a controlled laboratory environment
and their metal body burdens were ascertained at the
end of the experiment. It was found that the magnitude
of uptake varied depending on the metal in question
but that in the case of zinc, for instance, levels in-
creased from an average of 1000 ppm to 1500 ppm in
only 13 days at an effluent concentrations of 0.6%.
This Is extremely important in light of the fact that
between 1 and 2% of the fresh water entering the bay
is now sewage effluent and the amounts will undoubtedly
increase.
655
-------
Hulka, S.C., S.R. Keen, and E.M. Davis.
Sediment Coliform Populations and Post Chlorination Behavior
of Wastewater Bacteria.
Water and Sewage Works. J_20_( 10) : 79-81 . October 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, fecal streptococci, surface water
(fresh), surface water (marineK chlorination.
Abstract:
Coliform existence in bay sediments was reported.
In an extensive survey of central Texas bays, concen-
trations up to 17,000 MPN/100 ml were reported. Total
coliform counts of up to 198,000/100 ml in bay waters
far removed from any wastewater influence was also
reported. Elevated fecal coliform and fecal strepto-
cocci concentrations were also recovered. Additional
work conducted on resuspension of sediment borne coli-
forms by turbulence was carried out, also. Fecal
coliform colonies failed to develop in that series.
However, it cannot be stated with any degree of cer-
tainty that no fecal coliform bacteria existed in the
sediment or water column under investigation.
Apparently saline waters naturally contain enough
nutrient materials to support some regeneration of
enterococci populations. This bacterial characteristic
was demonstrated at a storage temperature of 4°C. One
consideration which must be given this phenomenon is
that if bacterial populations are allowed storage beyond
the recommended limit for bacterial analysis, they
cannot be judged to have decreased in numbers in 100
percent of the cases. It is improbable that factors
could be applied to correct for die-off in transport
and/or storage as no two samples and their bacterial
populations react exactly the same. After-growth of
typical groups of municipal wastewater bacteria in
saline receiving waters was demonstrated. Coliforms,
fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci increased to
about 900 percent, 600 percent and 60-70 percent of
their initial densities, respectively, within the
first day. Similar responses were demonstrated for
E. coli and Salmonella ap. These responses indicate
a definite need for more rapid and precise generic
identification methodology in the area of pollution
surveillance. What may appear to be pollution levels
of bacteria may actually represent aftergrowth from
numbers far below established standards or, by the
same token, may represent the naturally occurring pop-
ulation.
656
-------
Hume, N.B. and W.F. Garber.
Marine Disposal of Digested Screened Wastewater Solids.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1966(3) :243-262.
Key Words: coliforms, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, phos-
phates, surface water (marine), effluent
characteristics .
Abstract:
Circumstances inherent in the development of the Los
Angeles metropolitan area have made ocean disposal of
wastewater and treated solids the most logical alter-
native. Realizing its responsibility to the citizens
in preserving all beneficial uses, the City of Los
Angeles has carried on a comprehensive oceanographic
program for the past 10 yr. Careful study of the sub-
stantial amounts of data obtained indicate that the pub-
lic health, aesthetic, and ecological values of the
receiving waters have been little affected by the dis-
charge from a complex carefully engineered to prevent
degradation of these values. The City fully intends
to continue its surveillance program and is committed
to engineering plant improvements as required by flow
increases or changed wastewater characteristics. As
levels of information and knowledge increase the areas
of investigation will be modified to encompass them.
657
-------
Humenick, M.J. and W.J. Kaufman.
An Integrated Biological-Chemical Process for Municipal
Wastewater Treatment.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1970(1):1-19/1-18.
Key Words: BOD, phosphates, ammonia, chemical treatment,
activated sludge.
Abstract:
The results of the investigation may be summarized in
several specific conclusions:
1. Removals of BOD in excess of 90% and COD in excess
of 80% may be achieved from domestic sewage in a chemi-
cally aided activated sludge process at volumetric
BOD loadings of 400 to 500 Ibs per day per 1000 cu ft of
aeration basin capacity (0.64 to 0.80 kg BOD/day-cu m).
Under these conditions of loading the residence time of
the aeration basin may be reduced to 1 hour, and good
performance may be expected with as little as 20 minutes
of aeration.
2. Control of the settleabi1ity of activated sludge
solids may be achieved by the maintenance of inorganic
solids in the aeration basin at a concentration approxi-
mately equal to that of the organic solids. Nearly
equally satisfactory results were obtained with both
lime precipitation and alum coagulation sludges formed
in a second-stage reactor and recycled to the first-
stage aeration basin. Sludge volume indices of less
than 100 were achieved by this method over an 8-month
period of pilot plant operation. During this period,
successful operation was achieved at suspended solids
concentrations exceeding 9000 mg/1 and it is quite
likely that higher concentrations could have been used
provided an adequate supply of oxygen was maintained.
3. It is probable that the chemical sludges serve more
as weighting agents than flocculants in improving the
separation of the active biological solids. A short
investigation of several inorganic particulates demon-
strated their function to be independent of surface
charge and related more to the increased density imparted
to the organic suspension in which they were enmeshed.
4. Kinetic description of the biological stage appeared
to follow the Monod relationship. Data were represented
by first-order substrate kinetics at performance levels
658
-------
required for practical design. With increasing substrate
concentrations, the saturation effect predicted by the
kinetic model was observed for BOD data whereas a first
order relationship only was obtained for performance
based on COD measurements.
5. Phosphorus removals of at least 95% were demonstrated
with both lime and alum additions to a second-stage
precipitation-flocculation unit. It is likely that simi-
lar performance could be achieved with ferric salts.
6. The second-stage clarifier was operated as a sludge
blanket unit with the overall suspended solids removal
generally exceeding 95%. The effluent turbidity was
generally less than 20 JTU and less than 10 for extended
periods. The high pH maintained in the slurry with
lime operation precluded biological activity, but even
with alum at near-neutral pH this did not interfere with
clarif icati on.
The integrated biological-chemical process offers eco-
nomics 1n the removal of phosphorus and BOD from munici-
pal wastewaters and should be considered in the design
of new facilities intended for this purpose. Lime is
the chemical to be preferred in such installations
because of its lower cost and the potential for its re-
use. As 1t is most effective in removing phosphorus
at high pH, it is preferably added after biological
treatment, On the other hand, aluminum and Iron salts
may be added directly to the aeration basin thus reduc-
ing the advantages of the two-stage system. This
approach 1s likely to be an economic one for existing
biological treatment plants. However, It is doubtful
that effluent clarities will equal those achieved 1n
a two-stage process. The problem of ammonia remains to
be resolved, although where economics and benefits
warrant, processes currently being demonstrated may be
successfully added to the system described herein,
As the objectives of wastewater treatment change, it 1s
desirable to re-examine the treatment system as a whole
seeking new processes that meet the new objective at
minimum costs, Soluble organic compounds, especially
those of low molecular weight, are readily assimilated
by biological suspensions and are less easily separated
by coagulatlve or sorptlve reactions. On the other
hand, chemical coagulants have been shown under many
circumstances to be effective in removing suspended
and colloidal matter, The proposed process seeks to
take advantage of the properties of both biological
and chemical-physical processes in an Integrated system.
659
-------
Hunter, J.V. and T.A. Kotalik.
Chemical and Biological Quality of Sewage Effluents.
In : Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
throuah Forest and Cropland. W.E. Sopper and L. Kardos , eds.
EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources,
March 1974. pp. 6-27.
Key Words: total organic carbon, synthetic/organics,
salmonella, coliforms, fecal streptococci,
shige11 a, Clostridi urn botulinium, Clostridi urn
we!chi, mycobacterium, yeasts, parasitic worms,
protozoa, hepatitis virus, E s c h e r i c h i a cp1.i_,
activated sludge, trickling filters, chlorination,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The chemical and biological composition of effluents
reflects the quality of the wastewater entering the
plant and the changes that occur during the physical,
chemical, and biological processes in the plant. The
chemical changes that occur during treatment reflect
the biological removal of 80-90% of the organic matter
and the production of more oxidized organics. Thus,
effluents will contain such materials as proteins,
carbohydrates and soluble organic acids which either
persist through the plant or are formed in it, such
organics as Alkyl Benzene Sulfanates which have persisted
through it, or such organics as Fulvic, Humic and
Hyathomelanic Acids which are probably formed during
treatment.
Interest in the removals of microorganisms during treat-
ment lies mainly in the area involving the efficiency
of pathogen removal. Sedimentation and biological
oxidation do markedly reduce pathogens, but as removals
will depend (among other things) on the concentration
of the pathogen in the wastewater, their presence in
the effluent from biological treatment units can be
expected and demonstrated. In addition to wastewater
bacteria, viruses, etc. that have persisted through
the plant, large numbers of protozoa and nematodes can
be developed during biological treatment. Interest
here has centered on the nematodes, which can ingest
pathogens and thus have public health significance.
Effluent ch lori riati on is largely for disinfection. There
is little question but that the correct combinations
of time and concentration (residual) can be achieved to
obtain effective disinfection. However, actual practice
may not always achieve this end, and excessive chlorina-
660
-------
tion without dechlorination may lead to toxicity prob-
lems in receiving waters. Although chlorine can remove
nitrogen (as ammonia) from solution, it also reacts
with as well as oxidizes organic materials. The sig-
nificance of these chlorine containing organics in
effluents has not yet been definitely established.
661
-------
Hunter, J.V. and H. Heukelekian .
The Composition of Domestic Sewage Fractions.
JWPCF. 37.(8) :1142-1163. August 1965.
Key Words: suspended solids, total organic carbon, COD,
influent characteristics.
Abstract:
The results obtained by this study indicate the following
1. An adequate sampling and compositing procedure
can give wastewaters of a truly average composition.
2. The particulate-fraction solids are approximately
80 percent organic matter, while the soluble-fraction
solids are approximately 30 percent organic matter.
3. The particulate-fraction solids contained from four
to seven percent organic nitrogen, while the soluble-
fraction solids contained less than one percent organic
nitrogen.
4. Approximately 64 percent of the total wastewater
Solids is contributed by the soluble fraction, but
only 40 percent of the total organic matter is contri-
buted by this fraction.
5. The particulate fractions were similar in percent
volatile solids and COD, but the supracol1oidal fraction
had the highest percent organic nitrogen.
6. The settleable fraction usually contributed most
and the colloidal fraction least to the constituent
content of the total particulate solids.
7. Based on currently available data there seems to
be some pattern in the general distribution of organic
matter among the sewage fractions. However, there does
not appear to be any notable pattern as to the distri-
bution of nitrogenous matter.
8. Chemical coagulation did not prove to be a simple
alternate method for separating wastewater fractions.
Organ i c Com p o n e n t s
1. The particulate fractions were composed largely of
grease (17 percent), amino acids (19 percent), and
carbohydrates (21 percent). The grease was found to
662
-------
be principally esterified fatty acids and unsaponifiable
matter. Free fatty acids were present only in small
amounts. The amino acid nitrogen content of the particu-
late fractions averaged only about 50 percent of the
particulate organic nitrogen.
2. The organic compositions of the three particulate
fractions were somewhat similar. The main difference
was found in the considerably higher amino acid and
hemieel 1ulose contents of the supracol1oidal fraction
and the considerably higher cellulose content of the
settleable solids.
3. The soluble organic matter was found to be composed
largely of ethylether-extractable matter, of which the
organic acids were the primary constituent (56 percent).
The other organic constituents present in significant
quantities were the amino acids and sugars. ABS,
volatile acids, phenols, cholesterol, uric acid, and
creatine-creatinine were found to be minor constituents.
4. Comparisons of some of the results obtained by this
study with those already reported in the literature indi-
cate that there is little agreement in the relative
quantities of constituents of the specific groups, al-
though the general compositions may not vary too greatly
This could be due to the analytical procedures used, or
the actual composition of the sewages analyzed.
5. There was remarkably little variation in either the
general character or specific composition of the waste-
waters from the two collection periods. Since both
collection periods included the winter months, it is
difficult to assess the effect of the season on the
composition of the sewage. It is doubtful, however,
that this effect is too significant.
663
-------
Hunter, O.V., G.R. Bell, and C.N. Henderson.
Coliform Organism Removals by Dlatomite Filtration.
JAWWA. 513(9) :1160-1169. September 1966.
Key Words: coliforms, filtration.
Abstract:
Most of the recent work reported on diatomite filtration
of water has been concerned with either the theoretic
and practical considerations of the process itself, or Its
use 1n the removal of turbidity, iron, and manganese.
Thus, though the origins of dlatomite filtration in the
United States involved the removal of microbiologic
pollutants, namely cysts of Entamoeba histolytica, little
has been reported recently on this aspect of dlatomite
filtration. In view of the small particle size of the
dlatomite filter media, it might be expected that
significant coliform organism reductions would occur
following the filtration of a polluted water, and
perhaps this process could yield a water that would meet
the accepted coliform standards for potable water.
Investigating this possibility, preliminary work on the
removal of coliform organisms in Raritan River water
indicated that substantial coliform reductions could be
achieved, and that this reduction could be improved by
using filter aids of low permeability, or which had been
coated with aluminum hydroxide. Unfortunately, interpre-
tation of the results of this preliminary work was made
difficult by the considerable and independent variations
of such determining factors as turbidity and coliform
organism concentrations. The results were sufficiently
encouraging, however, to allow further investigation of
the removal of coliform organisms under more controlled
laboratory conditions.
For this purpose, a diatomite filtration unit was installed
in the laboratory and used to study the factors that
influence coliform removals, such as rawwater coliform
level, filter aid permeability, flow rate, and body feed
concentrations. In addition, the use of coated filter aids
was investigated, as well as the use of small iron dosages
to the raw water, by which removal of coliform organisms
could be greatly improved.
664.
-------
Mutton, W.D. and S.A. LaRocca.
Biological Treatment of Concentrated Ammonia Wastewaters.
JWPCF. 47_(5):989-997. May 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The design of a proposed treatment system is dictated by
the results of the wastewater characterization and by
laboratory and pilot plant studies.
The design aeration detention time and oxygen requirements
were determined from process performance data at tempera-
tures of 60° to 70° F (16° to 21° C) and a pH range of
7,8 to 8.4.
Design oxygen requirements were determined to be 4.7 Ib
02/day/lb NhL.N transformed.
O
The SRT is very critical in achieving effective ammonia
transformation. The data support the fact that the nitri-
fying bacteria have significantly lower growth rates than
the majority of the heterotrophic bacteria associated with
degradation of carbon ir- an organic activated sludge pro-
cess. As a result, the importance of maintaining a popu-
lation of bacteria of an adequate age in the aeration basin
cannot be overemphasized. Process design loadings may be
established if an adequate SRT is maintained, but a shift
in the SRT may significantly change the design base. At
the design SRT of 30 days, removal efficiencies of 85 to
90 percent are predicted,
The control of pH is very important to the nitrification
process. Uncontrolled, the nitrification will reduce the
alkalinity and cause the pM to drop to levels that will
inhibit the process. Theoretically, one-half of the pH
drop is caused by the reduction in ammonia, and the
remainder results from the destruction of the natural
alkalinity.
The raw wastewater alka1inities were relatively high, about
1,000 mg/1, and the pH ranged from 8.0 to 8.4. Soda ash
provides more alkalinity at lower pH ranges than lime and
provides an excess of inorganic carbon, which is needed for
cell synthesis of the nitrifying bacteria. Based on the
test results, 6.0 Ib of soda ash/lb of MHo_N transformed
would be required for treatment of the wastewater that was
studied.
665
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The bacterial mass was very disperse and settled poorly.
From these data, an overflow rate of 250 gpd/sq ft (10.2
cu m/day/sq m) was selected to achieve the desired settling.
For the industrial wastewater studied, having a design total
ammonia concentration of 725 mg/1, a biological treatment
system should achieve about a 90 percent reduction of
NhU_N and would produce an effluent quality having 75 mg/1
NH^-N, 75 mg/1 N03_N, 575 mg/1 N02-N, and 70 mg/1 ss.
666
-------
Hyde, H.C.
Sewage Sludge Utilization for Agricultural Soil Enrichment.
Presented at 7th Annual Western Regional Solid Waste
Symposium, April 7-8, 1975.
Key Words: copper, zinc, nickel, cadmium,
bacteria, agricultural sludge
di sposal .
Abstract:
This report presents the study methodology, summary of the
findings, and conclusion based on a two year field study
determine the feasibility of utilizing liquid digested
sewage sludge for agricultural soil enrichment. Public
health considerations, environmental effects, agricultural
and engineering concepts and economics, and public
acceptance were evaluated.
The most significant technical question was the long-term
effects of heavy metals on the human food chain and the
environment. The heavy metal of major concern was
cadmium. Local public acceptance and regulatory require-
ments were the most important non-technical questions.
667
-------
Hyndshaw, A.Y.
Activated Carbon to Remove Organic Contaminants from Water.
JAWWA. 6£(5) :309-311 . May 1972.
Key Words: BOD, copper, iron, zinc, adsorption/ion exchange
Abstract:
This article contains rather general information on
carbon adsorption.
668
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Identification of Organic Compounds in Effluents from
Industrial Sources.
EPA-68-01-2926, Versar, Inc., Springfield, Va., General
Technologies Division, April 1975. 211p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-241 641).
Key Words: synthetic/organics, influent characteristics.
Abstract:
This report is an initial assessment of the possible
sources of 154 organic compounds which have been
identified in drinking water supplies. It lists
those chemicals which may be formed by chlorination
of sewage treatment or water treatment, from leachates
from natural sources, and those which may be from
industrial effluents.
669
-------
Imhoff, K., W.J. Muller, and D.K.B. Thistlethwayte.
Disposal of Sewage and Other Water-Borne Wastes.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1974. 405p
Key Words: gravity separators, activated sludge,
trick!ing filters, aerated lagoons, filtra-
tion, nitrification/denitrification, chemical
treatment, adsorption/ion exchange, gravity
thickeners, drying beds, air flotation
thickeners, anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
This is a textbook on treatment processes.
670
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Interaction of Heavy Metals and Biological Sewage Treatment.
Processes,
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio,
May 1965. 208p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-168 840).
Key Words: chromium, BOD, COD, suspended solids, copper,
cyanides, zinc, nickel, activated sludge,
anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
A combination of four metals, with a total concentration
of 8.9 milligrams per liter, had no great effect on the
overall efficiency of a pilot-scale activated-sludge
plant. No synergistic action was noted. No difficulty
with the anaerobic digestion of the sludges produced by
the plant was encountered. Approximately 90 percent of
the zinc, 54 percent of the copper, 37 percent of the
chromium, and 31 percent of the nickel were removed from
the influent sewage. The metals, in combination, behaved
independently in their distribution throughout the process.
Nitrification in the experimental units was almost com-
pletely inhibited. This was shown to be a general symptom
of heavy-metal toxicity. The ramifications of this inhibi-
tion are discussed.
With the exception of zinc, the metals passing through the
activated-sludge process and discharged with the final
effluent are predominantly in a soluble form. The effects
of the metals discharged to the receiving stream were not
considered in this study.
671
-------
An Introduction to Experimental Aerobiology.
R.L. Dimmick and A.B. Akers, eds. Wiley, New York, 1969. 494p
Key Words: viruses, coliforms, air.
Abstract:
There is nothing directly applicable to aerosols from
activated sludges though there is a great amount of
experimental work on aerosols in general available.
672
-------
Irukayama, K.
The Pollution of Minamata Bay and Minamata Disease.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1 966(3 ): 1 53-180.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine), fish, shellfish.
Abstract:
CH3HgCl was administered pet o& in 12 cases of cats with
approximately 1 mg of Hg/kg/day, and various nervous
symptoms similar to Minamata disease of cats, i.e.,
clumsiness in walking, unsteady movements, dullness,
ataxic gait, tremor, blindness, paroxysmal fits, and
other abnormal movements, appeared several weeks after
the first administration. The difficulty of postural
reflect was observed in the early stage and then ataxic
gait of hind limbs appeared. All the cats did not
exhibit identical symptoms; some of the cats revealed
marked ataxia, and the others showed intensive paroxysmal
fits. When a paroxysmal fit appeared, the stooped cat's
forelimbs began to tremble, and it bent its ears back-
ward and mewed. Then trembling of the head and a chew-
ing movement with intensive salivation appeared. Dilated
pupils showed no light reflex. Then the cat ran straight
or in circles, and also exhibited a jumping motion.
Sometimes a somersault-like movement and severe tonic
and clonic cramp were seen. The duration of a fit was
about one minute. Pathological disintegration and loss
of the granule cells in the cerebellum and of the nerve
cells in cerebral cortices were observed, with loss of
Purkinje cells in the cerebellum in severe cases. These
symptoms and findings were the same as those seen in
spontaneously suffering cats. The lethal dose of
in cats was 10-50 mg of Hg/kg and most often was 20 mg
of Hg/kg.
Other methylmercury compounds such as
CHsHgSCHs, Cf^HgQH, etc., were administered pe.fi 04 in
cats; similar symptoms and findings of those seen in
spontaneously suffering cats were observed, and the
lethal dose of these methylmercury compounds in cats
was most frequently about 20 mg of Hg/kg. The lethal
dose of the mercury compound in the shellfish from
Minamata Bay in cats was calculated as 40-50 mg of
Hg/kg.
and (CHoHgloS were administered to rats daily
in the amount of 1-2 mg of Hg/100 g. After the rats
had taken 6-13 mg of Hg/100 g, body weight began to
decrease, and their action became slow, with disabled
673
-------
gait and extending hind limbs. Occasionally clonic cramps
were seen. When the rats were held by the tail, strong
flexion of limbs was observed. These symptoms were quite
the same as in the spontaneously affected rats. The
lethal dose of the mercury compound in the shellfish from
Minamata Bay in rats was about 20 mg of Hg/100 g.
674
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Isaacs , J.D.
Mutagenic Compounds and Mitotic Poisons.
Letter to Distribution of Institute of Marine Resources.
August 4, 1976.
Key Words: surface water (marine), fish.
Abstract:
This letter discusses the possibilities of develop-
ing tests for mutagenic compounds in seawater,
determining the possibilities of a strong synergistic
relationship between mutagens and mitotic poisons,
and the possible entries into examining field
specimens of microorganisms and fish for the
effects of such material, etc.
675
-------
Isensee, A.R. and G.E. Jones.
Distribution of 2 ,3 ,7 ,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD) in Aquatic Model Ecosystem.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9:688-672.
July 1975.
Key Words: herbicides, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Several organisms in a model ecosystem were ex-
posed to 14 C-labeled TCDD for up to 31 days to
determine the distribution of bioaccumulation
potential in the aquatic environment. TCDD
accumulation by all organisms was directly re-
lated to water concentration (0.05-1330 ppt) and
averaged 2.0-21.6 x 10^ (snail, Gambusia, and
daphnid) and 4-9 x 103 (duckweed, algae, and
catfish) times the water concentration. No
metabolites of TCDD were found in submerged soil
water, snails, Gambusia, or catfish.
676
-------
I s h i z a k i , C. and J.J. Cookson, Jr.
Influence of Surface Oxides on Adsorption and Catalysis
with Activated Carbon.
In: Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution
A.J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan , 1975. pp. 201-231.
Key Words: pesticides, synthetic/organics , adsorption/ion
exchange.
Abstract:
As a general conclusion it should be stated that
an examination of the adsorption equilibrium alone
does not provide enough information on the
influence of carbon-surface chemistry on adsorption.
In several cases, the equilibrium conditions are only
slightly affected by surface oxides, but the rate
of adsorption is reduced by more than 2 logs. A
magnitude of this size can have appreciable in-
fluence on the contact time required for efficient
treatment. Thus, the activation and regeneration
procedure can have a significant influence on the
efficiency of carbon for adsorption.
This study indicates that adsorption of these
adsorbates on carbon is non-specific in that the
surface coverage on an area basis varied little
with surface chemistry. Acidic oxides hinder the
equilibrium capacity to a small degree as a result
of greater hydrogen bonding of water with the
carbon's surface. Of a greater significance is the
effect of acidic oxides and surface metals on the
rate of adsorption.
677
-------
Iskander, I.K. and D.R. Kesney.
Concentration of Heavy Metals in Sediment Cores from Selected
Wisconsin Lakes.
Environmental Science and Technology. 8J2): 165-170.
February 1974. """
Key Words: copper, zinc, cadmium, lead, chromium, nickel,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article identified heavy metal levels in sediment
from precultural times to present and provides a basis
for composing natural backgrounds to what sewage and
other sources are inputting into the system.
678
-------
Jacobs, L.W. and D.R. Keeney.
Methylmercury Formation in Mercury Treated River Sediments
During in situ Equilibration.
Journal of Environmental Quality. 3^:121-125. April 1974.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
An in situ experiment was established at two environmental-
ly different river sites (one each on the Wisconsin and Fox
rivers) to evaluate the extent of methylmercury (MeHg)
production in and Hg loss from sediments treated with mer-
curic chloride (HgCl2) or phenylmercuric acetate (PhHgAc).
Bulk sediment was collected from each river site,
treated with approximately 1, 10, or 100 ppm Hg (oven-dry
basis) as HgCl£ or PhHgAc, and returned to the river site
with untreated controls for 2, 4, or 12 weeks of equilibra-
tion with the aquatic environment. After each sample
retrieval, the sediments were analyzed for total Hg using
an aqua regia digest and flameless atomic absorption
spectrophotometry and for MeHg by gas chromatography using
a modified extraction procedure which is described.
Results suggest that Hg losses from stationary sediments
are minimal and that sediment transport is probably the
major source of Hg movement in a river system. In both
sediments, more MeHg was produced from PhHgAc than from
similar concentration of HgCl2> and MeHg concentration
increased as the Hg treatment with either compound was
increased. The HeHg concentrations found in the Wisconsin
River sediments were substantially higher than in the Fox
River sediments with a similar Hg treatment. The large
differences in MeHg production between these two sediments
may be partially attributed to their chemical dissimilari-
ties. The Wisconsin River sediment is acidic and contains
more organic materials compared to the Fox River sediment
which is more alkaline and contains larger amounts of
sulfide sulfur.
679
-------
Jamieson, W.
Candida albicans as an Indicator of Pollution in Estuarine
Water.
Ph. D. Thesis, New York University, 1974.
Key Words: coliforms, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Investigations were carried out to ascertain the
suitability of Candida albicans, a yeast-like
fungus known to occur and survive in the marine
environment, as an indicator organism of pollution
in estuaries derived from human body wastes.
Differential filtration and the membrane filter --
fluorescent antibody technique permitted the rapid
concentration, identification,and quantification
of the fungus from twenty weekly samples collected
at three stations on the North Shore of Great South
Bay, Long Island. Conventional indices of
pollution such as total coliform and fecal coliform
counts and total organic carbon determinations
did not correlate well with the numbers of fungal
cells present. Candida was shown to be a superior
and more sensitive indicator of pollution originating
from either fecal matter or from the skin and
mucous membranes of man than the other methods
tested.
Investigations of the die-off periods of several
water-borne pathogens (Candida albicans,
Escherichia coli , Leptospira interrpgans, My co-
fa'act er Turn tuberculosis, Salmonel1 a typhi , Shi gel 1 a
dysenteriajs, Vibrio cTolerae, and Yersinia entero-
col i ti c"a") ihowed that when exposed to sea waters
of three salinities (5, 20, and 35%) at three
temperatures (4, 25, and 37°C) none of them sur-
vived longer than seven days, with the exceptions
of C. albicans and Mycobacteri urn tuberculos i s .
Even this latter species, however, lost its via-
bility by the eleventh day of exposure. C. a 1b i cans,
on the other hand, after an initial drop in con-
centration, leveled off after day six at a more
or less constant density, which was dependent only
on termperature, and remained the same until the
termination of the experiment on day thirteen.
It is concluded that with use of the membrane
filter -- fluorescent antibody technique, the
determination of C. albicans cell counts can serve
680
-------
as a rapid, reliable, and practical method for
defining the pollutional load of estuarine waters
originating from human sources.
681
-------
Jan, T. and D.R. Young.
Chromium Speciation in Municipal Wastewater and Seawater.
Southern California Coastal Water Research. Annual Report.
El Segundo, Calif., June 20, 1976. pp. 15-22.
Key Words: chromium, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Chromium compounds occur principally in the particu-
late state in municipal wastewaters of southern
California. Of the fraction that is dissolved, 97
to 99 percent is in the trivalent form; the measured
concentrations of dissolved trivalent chromium agree
quite well with those predicted from equilibrium
calculations. In contrast, hexavalent chromium --
by far the most toxic form -- generally constitutes
less than 1 percent of the total chromium found in
these wastewaters. Chlorination does not significant-
ly increase these hexavalent chromium concentrations.
The majority of dissolved chromium found in clean
coastal seawater off southern California is hexa-
valent chromium. The sums of the concentrations
of dissolved trivalent and hexavalent chromium
measured in our samples are in good agreement with
the values for total dissolved chromium measured
by an independent process.
Subsurface seawater samples, known by their high
levels of turbidity, ammonium-nitrogen, and
particulate metals to have come from within the
JWPCF wastewater plume, contained concentrations
of particulate chromium up to 50 times control
levels. In contrast, the concentrations of dis-
solved trivalent chromium in the plume samples were
only 2 to 4 times background values, and those of
dissolved hexavalent chromium showed no significant
enhancements. There appears to be a relatively
high natural background of dissolved hexavalent
chromium in coastal seawater. The low percentage
of municipal wastewater chromium that occurs in
this toxic form (plus the apparent lack of con-
version of other forms of chromium to it) indicate
that significant increases in seawater concentra-
tions of hexavalent chromium do not result from
ocean discharge of these wastewaters.
682
-------
Jebens, H.J. and W.C. Boyle.
Enhanced Phosphorus Removal in Trickling Filters.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
9£(SA3):547-560. June 1972.
Key Words: phosphates, trickling filters.
Abstract:
Phosphorus removals obtained during a four month
experimental design period for a synthetic media
trickling filter pilot plant were not related to
the operational parameters of hydraulic load,
depth, recirculation, or waste strength; however,
consistently greater removals of phosphorus than
could be attributed to biological removal were
measured. This bonus-removal of phosphorus was
attributed to a chemical precipitation of phos-
phorus with cations present in the hard water
wastewater. Slime samples from the pilot filters
were found to contain crystalline aluminum
phosphate as demonstrated by x-ray diffraction.
Preserved slime samples released calcium and
phosphorus in molar ratios compatible with an
apatite precipitate. Release of phosphate
from nonpreserved samples of filter slime
suggested that precipitates of iron (III) phos-
phate were present.
The study reported herein supports the concept
of enhanced-removal of phosphates in activated
sludge as a means of obtaining phosphorus re-
movals greater than that required for microbial
growth. The synthetic filter media of this study
supplied the high rates of oxygen transfer, and
thus stripping of carbon dioxide, to raise the
pH of the waste stream to the point where phos-
phates will precipitate naturally in hard water
wastewaters. As in the activated sludge plants
which exhibit bonus-removal of phosphates, this
phosphate is trapped in the biological sludge
produced.
683
-------
Jellinek, H.H.G.
Soil Organics. I: Complexation of Heavy Metals; II:
Bound Water.
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
N.H., September 1974. 57p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as AD-A008 868).
Key Words: iron, groundwater, surface water (fresh),
crops, direct contact, aluminum, copper,
nickel, lead, cobalt, zinc, manganese.
Abstract:
This paper is a very good summary of the complexation
between humic and fulvic acids and heavy metals.
Very strong, pH sensitive bond improves as compounds
age. Humic and fulvic acids are shown to be poly-
mer polyelectrolyte. Good theoretical develop-
ment is included which could be combined with
mass transfer kinetics analysis.
684
-------
Jenkins, S.R., J. Engeset, and V.R. Hasfurther.
Model Sand Filters for the Removal of Colloidal Manganese
Oxides Using Selected Cations as Filter Aids.
In.: Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution
A.J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975. pp. 181-199.
Key Words: manganese, filtration.
Abstract: 2+
The concentration of Ca necessary to produce
maximum removal effectiveness of 6-Mnd2 particles
by model sand filters has been shown to be stoichio-
metric with the concentration of s-MnOg, thus in-
dicating a specific chemical interaction between
the Ca2* and the manganese dioxide. These maximum
effectiveness concentrations (mec) were similar to
those concentrations of Ca2 + reported earlier
as necessary to produce both aggregation of
6-Mn02 and deposition of this oxide on a rotating
disc surface. The mathematical-chemical relation-
ship, derived to predict the most effective
concentration of Ca2+ for coagulation of manganese
oxide particles and deposition on silica surfaces,
can be used to predict effective concentrations
of Ca2+ forremoval of 6-Mn02 by model sand
fi1ters.
Differences in pH affect the mec of Ca2+ only
slightly. However, precoating the sand with
calcium ion causes considerable change in the
effectiveness of Caz+ in aiding 6 -Mn02 removal.
It is most likely that the Ca2+ reacts with
the negative -Si-0~ surface sites reducing the
number of sites available for a bonding with the
-Mn-O-Ca surface sites.
+ 2+
If Na is used as a filter aid instead of Ca ,
the mec required indicates that sodium ion com-
presses the diffuse part of the double layer. No
stoichiometry exists between the mec of Na+ and
the 6-MnOo concentration. Thus, the destabiliza-
tion of Mn02 by Na+ does not occur by a specific
chemical interaction.
685
-------
Jenne, E.A. and s.N. Luoma.
Forms of Trace Elements in Soils, Sediments, and
Associated Waters: An Overview of Their Determination
and Biological Availability.
In.: Biological Implications of Metals in the Environment,
Proceedings of the 15th Annual Hanford Life Sciences
Symposium. U.S. Energy Research and Development Ad-
ministration, Washington, D.C., 1977. pp. 110-143.
Key Words: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium,
beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, copper,
germanium, iron, lead, manganese, mercury,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, thorium, tin,
uranium, zinc, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
Recent investigations reviewed herein indicate
thatthe particular physiochemical forms of trace
elements in waters and sediments are of major
importance in determining the biological avail-
ability of trace elements to biota. The thermo-
dynamic activity of the uncomplexed ion is
probably the single most important factor affect-
ing the biological availability of solute trace
elements. Most of the data showing a decrease in
trace element assimilation, by freshwater organisms,
with increasing water hardness can be interpreted
in terms of a decrease in activity of the element
due to precipitation and to formation of carbonate,
hydroxide, and other complexes. With some ex-
ceptions, complexation of solute trace elements by
organic ligands also decreases their biological
availability.
Experimental evidence indicates that trace element
assimilation from solid forms (sediment) by detritus
ingesting aquatic organisms is dependent upon
trace element form, but occurs much slower than the
assimilation rate from solute forms. The bio-
logical importance of solid forms of trace elements
may be principally due to their regulation of
equilibrium solute concentrations in the associated
waters via sorption-desorption and dissolution-
precipitation reactions.
Estimation of the quantity of trace elements pre-
sent in the various solid forms, such as sulfides
or carbonates, is rather qualitative. Most of the
extractants used to estimate solid forms extract
trace elements simultaneously from several sinks.
686
-------
Thermodynamic data are missing for some trace
element inorganic complexes and are only approxi-
mately known for other complexes. However,
speciation with regard to common inorganic ligands
is possible for several trace elements. Lack of
information on complexes of naturally occurring
organic ligands with trace elements is the major
limitation in calculating overall trace element
speciation in natural waters. The potential
importance of these complexes is indicated by the
similar molar concentrations of trace elements
and dissolved organic substances and the high
stability constants of the organic complexes of
many such elements.
687
-------
Jenne, E.A. and W. Sanders.
Literature on Mercury: Availability of English Trans^
lations.
JWPCF. i9(9):1952-1971 . September 1 971 ,
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This paper is simply a listing of available
mercury papers on a worldwide basis up to 1971.
688
-------
Jennett, J.C. and I.W. Santry, Or.
Characteristics of Sludge Drying.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
96.(SA5):849-863. October 1969.
Key Words: drying beds.
Abstract:
While this article does not deal with health
effects, it provides background on sludge drying
689
-------
Jennett, J.C. and D.J. Harris.
Environmental Effects on Sludge Drying Bed Dewatering.
JWPCF. 45(3):449-461. March 1973.
Key Words: suspended solids, drying beds.
Abstract:
Within the range of environmental conditions
studied in this investigation, the following
conclusions can be made:
1. A relationship exists between sludge drainage
and evaporation which is affected by the viscosity
of the entrapped water. The importance of this
effect is largely a function of sludge dry-bulb
temperature.
2. Changes in sludge moisture content were not
found to be related directly to relative humidity;
however, a relationship was found to exist between
the sludge drying rate and the operational
variables AT (the difference between wet- and dry-
bulb temperature) and AH (the difference between
saturation and absolute humidity).
3. A relationship exists between the moisture
gradient which developed within the sludge layer,
AT, AH, and time. This relationship needs to
be investigated more fully if sludge dewatering
mechanisms are ever to be understood.
4, Laboratory investigations should study drainage
and evaporation simultaneously if they are to
describe sludge behavior on drying beds in field
situations adequately. Additional operational
variables that the authors feel would be desirable
to include in future research include initial
moisture content, radiant energy, and wind
velocity. Specific resistance should be included
as both an additional sludge characteristic and
as a measure of viscosity, with the test being
performed at the same dry-bulb temperature as the
particular sludge dewatering experiment or run.
690
-------
Jensen, E.T.
Sanitation of the Harvesting and Processing of Shellfish,
1965 Revision.
National Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Operations,
Part 2. U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D.C.,
Division of Environmental Engineering and Food Protection,
Shellfish Sanitation Branch, 1965.
Key Words: shellfish, coliforms.
Abstract:
This paper has articles on harvesting and handling
shell-stock, shucking and packing shellfish, packing
and shipping shell-stock, repacking of shellfish,
inspection, and coliform counts of stored oysters.
691
-------
Jensen, L.D. and A.R. Gaufin.
Acute and Long-Term Effects of Organic Insecticides
on Two Species of Stonefly Naiads.
JWPCF. 38.(8) :1273-1286. August 1966.
Key Words: pesticides, surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
The results of this work indicate that synthetic
organic insecticides have a cumulative effect,
and that a relatively large application factor would
be necessary when using static four-day bioassay
results for estimating safe concentrations of
these insecticides over extended periods. More-
over, concentrations of insecticides which kill
some of the test organsisms inevitably produce subtle
sublethal effects on survivors. These effects
constantly are overlooked and yet they may alter
the ecological interrelationships of entire popu-
lations of aquatic animals. Changes in the normal
behavior of affected animals frequently lead to the
exposure of these animals to predation. Changes in
the length of time between developmental stages of
aquatic insects may prevent emergence during
favorable climatic conditions and ultimately lead to
the extinction of a species from affected streams.
The aquatic biologist must evaluate these influences
and interrelationships in terms of population-wide
exposures to sublethal concentrations of pesticides.
692
-------
Jen's, J.S. and R.W. Owens.
Pilot-Scale High-Rate Biological Denitrification .
JWPCF. 47(8) .-2043-2057. August 1975.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrification/denitrification .
Abstract:
High-rate denitrification in a fluidized bed of
sand covered with denitrifying biomass has been
demonstrated successfully at a moderate-sized pilot
installation treating 36,000 gpd (136,000 I/day).
The system consistently produced greater than 99
percent removal of the influent nitrogen in less
than 6.5 min at a flux rate of 15 gpm/sq ft (620
1/mi n/sq m).
The full potential of this system still remains to
be investigated. Although the average removal was
335 Ib of N03-N/day/l ,000 cu ft (5,450 kg/day/cu
m) of reactor volume, the system demonstrated that
it could remove up to 1,275 Ib N/day/1,000 cu ft
(20,700 kg/day/cu m).
Nitrogen removal efficiency was not affected by
diurnal flow variation and a 17-hr shutdown.
The operational routine was simple and trouble-
free and required very little time.
Concentrations of nitrate nitrogen much greater
than would be expected in typical municipal plants
can be removed .
693
-------
Jeris, J.S., C. Beer, and J.A. Mueller.
High Rate Biological Denitrification Using a Granular
Fluidized Bed.
JWPCF. 4_i(9):2118-2128. September 1974.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, nitrification/
denitrification.
Abstract:
The authors believe that the fluidized biological
bed concept has excellent potential for treatment
of nitrified secondary effluents and for water
and wastewater containing objectionable concentra-
tions of nitrate or nitrite nitrogen. The fluidized
biological bed has demonstrated the capacity to
handle extremely high hydraulic and nitrogen load-
ings with correspondingly low detention times.
Additional research is desirable to refine and
improve the techniques employed. The technique
for control of solids growth -in t>Jitu. or external
to the reactor can be refined. Based on the high
removal rates obtained in the laboratory scale
studies, upscaling the work to a larger reactor
and using nitrified wastewater effluent seems to
be i n order now.
694
-------
Jernelov, A. and S. Jensen.
Biological Methylation of Mercury in Aquatic Organisms.
Nature. 213:753-754. August 1969.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
This article shows that both mono and dimethyl forms of
mercury can be produced in bottom sediments and in fish,
695
-------
Jernelov, A., L. Landner, and T. Larsson.
Swedish Perspectives on Mercury Pollution.
JWPCF. 47_(4) :810-822. April 1975.
Key,Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article gives data on time change functions in
methylation of mercury, as well as a brief historical
review of the research on mercury in the aquatic
environment and an outline of the present state-of-
the-art from a Swedish point of view.
696
-------
Jewell, W.J. and R.J. Cummings.
Denitrification of Concentrated Nitrate Wastewaters.
JWPCF. 45.(9) :2281-2291 . September 1975.
Key Words: COD, nitrates, suspended solids, nitrites,
nitrification/denitrification, effluent
characteristics.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were made:
1. Two biological denitrification processes, SFC
and CMSGR, efficiently removed concentrations of
nitrate nitrogen and COD as high as 4,000 and
14,600 mg/1 , respectively.
2. At comparable loadings and 80 percent re-
moval efficiency, the SFC units could remove 30
times as much nitrate nitrogen as the CMSGR units
at half the hydraulic detention period.
3. The sludge developed in both processes was
very dense (30 percent volatile) and adhesive.
Its physical nature produced maximum effective
sludge (VSS) concentrations of 300,000 and
15,000 mg/1 for the SFC and CMSGR, respectively.
4. At high feed concentrations of N03-N, large
volumes of nitrogen gas tended to lift SS and
caused high concentrations in the effluent from
the CMSGR but not from the SFC units, although
the latter lacked a clarifier. The average con-
centration of SS in the effluent from the SFC
was one-fifth to one-sixth that from the CMSGR.
5. No significant nitrite concentrations were
observed in the effluent.
6. At high concentrations and loading rates,
a significant increase in removal rates was
observed with the SFC units.
7. The maximum unit mass removal rates were 0.38 and 0.45/
day for the CMSGR and the SFC units, respectively.
The average ratio of COD removed: N03-N removed was 2.80
for the CMSGR units and 3.20 for the SFC units. However,
there always seemed to be an excess of COD because the
amount removed was always significantly less than the
amount supplied.
697
-------
Jinks, S.M. and M. Eisenbud.
Concentration Factors In the Aquatic Environment.
Radiation Data and Reports. 5^:243-247. May 1972.
Key Words: germanium, cobalt, zinc, iron, iodides,
manganese, fish, shellfish, strontium,
cesium.
Abstract:
Concentration factors for various freshwater and
marine organisms as gathered from the literature
are presented. Attention is called to the
existence of considerable variability in the
reported values, and the reasons for this varia-
bility are briefly discussed. In addition to
the difference in concentration factors for the
marine and freshwater environments and because
of differences in concentrations of stable elements
in the two systems, other sources of variability
include errors in sampling and analysis, physio-
logical factors, and ecological disequi1ibria.
698
-------
Johnson, C.M.
Molybdenum.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman,
ed. Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973.
pp . 286-301.
Key Words: molybdenum, ponding/land application, agriculture,
groundwater.
Abstract:
The author describes plant criteria useful in diagnosing
molybdenum deficiency, indicator plants for molybdenum
deficiency, indications of molybdenum excess in plants
and animals, tissue analysis values, soil criteria
useful in diagnosing molybdenum status, forms of
molybdenum suitable for control and methods of correct-
ing molybdenum deficiency.
699
-------
Johnson, D.E., R.J. Provost and S.S. Kalter.
A Proposal for Evaluation of the Health Effects
Associated with the Application of Wastewater to Land.
U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command,
Washington, D.C. , 1975.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, ponding/land application,
air.
Abstract:
A literature survey accompanies this proposal to
examine aerosols from spray irrigation of
secondarily-treated effluent for pathogenic
bacterial and viral microorganisms.
700
-------
Johnson, E.L., J.H. Beeghly, and R.F. Wukasch.
Phosphorus Removal With Iron and Polyelectrolytes .
Public Works. l_00:66-68, 142. November 1969.
Key Words: phosphates, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Total phosphorus removal of 90.9 percent with a
residual of 0.70 mg/1 in the final effluent was
attained by feeding approximately 20 mg/1 Fe
as FeCla and 0.3 mg/1 Purifloc A-23 to the raw
wastewater. Soluble, ortho, and total phosphorus
removals during the entire trial averaged between
87.2 and 90.9 percent.respectively. The concen-
tration of ortho and soluble phosphorus was less
than 0.6 mg/1 in the final effluent.
Suspended solids removal in the primary clarifica-
tion tank was greatly improved. As much as 92
percent removal was attained. Final suspended
solids removal was increased from 85.8 to 92.5
percent.
Sludge volumes from the plant were decreased due
to increased sludge solids concentration. The
aeration system benefited by higher dissolved
oxygen levels and the activated sludge settling
improved. Sludge volume index was reduced from
85 to 64. There were no indications of "phosphorus
starvation" in the aeration system.
Digester operation was not altered due to chemical
feeding. Gas production increased. Soluble
phosphates were not released.
The plant scale trial results were closely
predicted by the laboratory and plant feasibility
study.
701
-------
Johnson, O.D.
Disinfection: Water and Wastewater.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1975. 418p.
Key Words: bacteria, synthetic organics, chlorination,
adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This book describes the chemical and microbiological
treatment of drinking, swimming and wastewater with
bromine, iodine and ozone as well as chlorine. It
explains the "why" of water and wastewater disinfection;
it shows how competition between the chemical, physical
and microbiological processes results in overall dis-
infection efficiency, observed for the classical old
and soon-to-be-tried new disinfectants.
Edited by a leading disinfection authority, each of the
18 chapters is written by an expert in his field. Topics
include physical and analytical chemistry of the halogens
and ozone and the kinetics of their application to water
and wastewater disinfection processes, techniques of
application of water disinfectants to waste and waste-
water, the importance of mixing and disinfection pro-
cesses, proposed new water and wastewater disinfectants
and their economics as well as advanced water and waste-
water disinfection processes. Further chapters delve into
disinfection kinetics and the processes affecting the rate
of microbial disinfection, such as lumping and chemical
speciat ion, especially on viruses, cysts and spores.
Finally, it presents the chemistry of water and wastewater
disinfection and its effect on the efficiency of practical
disinfection systems.
702
-------
Johnson, J.D. and R. Overby.
Bromine and Bromamine Disinfection Chemistry.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE.
97_(SA5):617-628. October 1971.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, bromine disinfection.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. Bromination offers promise as a method for
disinfection and chemical purification for small
water supplies and swimming pools where water
quality is low.
2. Bromine unlike chlorine is an effective
disinfectant in the HOBr form at high pH values
near 9.
3. Bromine unlike iodine is an effective dis-
infectant in the Br2 form at high bromide con-
centration and low pH.
4. Bromine and the bromamines unlike the
chloramines are good disinfectants especially
against virus and spores. Previous poor results
were probably due to a loss of bromine through
breakpoint reduction reactions.
5. Rapid breakpoint reduction of bromine occurs
at a 2:3 ammonia to bromine mole ratio, but in
excess bromine reduction nearly stops with the
formation of tribromamine. Chlorine breakpoint
reduction by ammonia, however, requires more
chlorine and continues beyond breakpoint.
6. Bromine reacts rapidly with ammonia while
chlorine reacts slowly at the extremes of pH.
7. Bromine disinfection results like chlorine
must be interpreted on the basis of chemical
and residual concentrations while dosage interpre^
tations are, in general, meaningless.
703
-------
Johnson , J.E.
The Public Health Implications of Widespread Use of the
Phenoxy Herbicides and Picloram.
BioScience. 21_(1 7) -.899-905 . September 1971 .
Key Words: herbicides, epidemiology.
Abstract:
This article discusses the toxicity of: 2,4-D and
2,4,5,-T, silvex, picloram, and dioxine.
704
-------
Johnson , J.N.
Mercury in Bottom Sediments of Palos Verdes.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. Annual
Report. El Segundo, Calif., June 30, 1974. pp. 129-132.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
This article presents a comparison of mercury
levels in sediment from 1972 and 1973. Some
sampling stations increased; some decreased.
705
-------
Johnstone, D.L.
Survival of Escherichia coli in Oligotropic Waters.
Washington State University, Pullman, Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, June 1974. 75p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-234 461).
Key Words: Escherichia coli', coliforms, protozoa,
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The effects of the indigenous microflora and
microfauna of oligotrophic high-mountain waters
upon the survival of fecal coliforms have been
studied. Surface water and periphytic (aufwuchs)
populations were examined for their anti-coliform
activity at OC, 5.5C, and 11C. The most pro-
nounced coliform die-off occured at 11C. At this
temperature, the indigenous bacterial and protozoan
populations increased in density most readily.
Periphytic populations were more effective in
coliform eradication than surface water populations
at all tested temperatures. In both surface water
and periphytic samples, a peritrichously flagellated
protozoan, tentatively identified as Colpidium
sp., was observed actively feeding on the coliform
populations following repeated exposure of coliforms
to the indigenous microorganisms. Several genera
of psychrophi1ic bacteria were isolated from these
waters. Of these, 13 isolates of Cvtophaqa sp.
have been shown to be facul tative psychrophiles.
706
-------
Jolley, R.L.
Chlorine-Containing Organic Constituents 1n Chlorinated
Effluents.
JWPCF. 47(3) :601-618. March 1975.
Key Words: aluminum, barium, beryllium, boron, cadmium,
chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese,
mercury, nickel, lead, zinc, synthetic/organics,
effluent characteristics, chlorination.
Abstract:
In the initial radioactive tracer experiment (RT-1)
that was used to evaluate the coupled 3°C"\ tracer,
high resolution chromatographic technique for its
usefulness in examining chlorination effects on
effluents, it was determined that chlorine-containing
constituents are formed when primary effluent is
chlorinated.
-------
Jones, W.W.
Ni trogen.
In; Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. Homer D. Chapman
ed. Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas , 1973.
pp. 310-232.
Key Words: nitrates, ponding/land application,
land reclamation, groundwater.
Abstract:
Nitrogen as a plant nutrient is treated in a great number
of publications indicating not only the importance of
nitrogen in the physiology of plants, but also the
difficulty of establishing critical levels for its use.
The author discusses visual symptoms of and indicator
plants for nitrogen deficiency or excess, tissue
analysis values, kinds of soil in which nitrogen
deficiency or excess most commonly occurs, soil management
and other practices which influence soil nitrogen, soil
analysis values of significance and control of nitrogen
deficiency and excess.
708
-------
Johnstone, D.L. and A.M. Kubinski.
Survival of Intestinal Bacteria in Oligotrophic Waters.
Washington State Research Center, Pullman, July 1973.
37p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-232 156).
Key Words: fecal streptococci, coliforms, bacteria,
surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Direct predator-prey relationships involving a few
species of ciliated and flagellated protozoans
from the periphyton of oligotrophic waters appear
to be the major mechanism in such environments
responsible for removal of fecal bacteria. Other
factors, such as the indigenous bacterial flora
and the physicochemical properties of these waters,
are relegated to a more indirect role. The
lengthy lag period (4-5 days) required for initial
predatory responses indicated the delicate nature
of high-quality waters and the need for strict
sanitary guidelines to ensure their future safety
and quality. The sanitary quality of oligo-
trophic waters can best be determined by the
enumeration of fecal streptococci in conjunction
with fecal coliforms.
709
-------
Jordan, T.A., M.M. Ghosh, and R.H. Boyd, Jr.
Physlco-Chemical Aspects of Deep-Bed Filtration.
JWPCF. 4_6(12)-.2745-2754. December 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, filtration.
Abstract:
A conceptual model has been developed to predict
the capture efficiency of suspended particles
in granular filters for systems exhibiting
negligible double-layer forces. This model is
an extension of that proposed by Spielman and
Fitzpatrick for the filtration of non-Brownian
particles. It considers simultaneously the
effects of Brownian diffusion, hydrodynamic forces,
London forces of attraction, and direct inter-
ception as major mechanisms. For most common
water and wastewater filtration systems, gravity
seems to play a minor role.
The collection of particles with sizes larger
than 1.0 m and with N/\n < 1 is almost quanti-
tatively described by the model proposed by
Spielman and Fitzpatrick, even for systems where
r« 1. This indicates that in the removal of
large particles double-layer repulsion plays only
a minor role compared with other mechanisms.
The capture of Brownian-sized particles for systems
in which r« 0.1 is well described by the model
developed in this study, which includes the effect
of Brownian diffusion in the model proposed by
Spielman and Fitzpatrick. The present model
describes removal of suspended particles from
secondary effluents satisfactorily.
The removal of colloidal particles from waste-
waters may be greatly improved by proper design
and control of the filtration process, Pre-
conditioning of filter Influents by using
electrolytes may enhance the performance of
granular filters.
710
-------
Jurinak, J.J., and J. Santi1lan-Medrano.
The Chemistry and Transport of Lead and Cadmium in Soils.
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, June 1974.
121p. (Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-237 497).
Key Words: lead, cadmium, ponding/land application,
land reclamation.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. A predictive model of heavy metal ion trans-
port in soil systems can be developed based on
the thermodynamic and exchange data.
2. Extractable phosphate and pH in soil systems
are of importance in the reduction of heavy
metal concentration in soil solutions.
3. The main mechanism of lead retention in
noncalcareous soil systems is precipitation
as lead hydroxides and/or lead pyromorphites.
Lead carbonate can possibly also form in cal-
careous soils at about pH 8.
4. Cadmium concentrations in soil solutions
cannot be reduced to low levels by precipitation.
Exchange or adsorption is the important mechanism
involved in the retention of cadmium especially
at low Cd concentrations.
5. Lead reacted with soil systems
rate than did cadmium.
at a greater
6. Cadmium is more mobile in soil systems than
lead because of its higher solubility and slower
rate of reaction.
7. Cadmium reactions and stable phases in
natural systems have not been studied as
thoroughly as their lead counterparts. There is
a paucity of thermodynamic data.
8. In heavy metal reaction with soil, the most
stable precipitate is not formed instantaneously
or necessarily in a direct reaction path. Pre-
cipitation occurs in steps from metastable to
more stable compounds.
711
-------
9. Basic soils of arid and semi-arid regions
constitute essentially an infinite sink for lead.
The movement of lead in percolating water in
these soils is essentially nil even in the
presence of large amounts of excess salt. In
this respect, arid zone soils are an excellent
medium for scavenging for lead and other
chemically similar heavy metals from industrial
waste with minimal danger of groundwater pollution
Cadmium relative to lead is less efficiently
removed from percolating waters by these soils.
712
-------
Jurinak, J.J., S.H. Lai, and J.J. Hassett.
Cation Transport in Soils and Factors Affecting Soil
Carbonate Solubility.
EPA-R2-73-235, Utah State University, Logan, May 1973. 90p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as PB-222 006).
Key Words: elemental contaminants, groundwater, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
A predictive model of cation transport in soils was
developed and tested. This model involved the definition
of the cation exchange process in soil columns during the
miscible displacement of cation solutions. A mass balance
equation was formulated which included a general nonlinear
exchange function. The solution of the equation was
accomplished by numerical methods. The method was applied
to the transport of cations through an exchanger using
five different types of exchange functions. The model was
further tested by conducting soil column studies where
both homovalent and heterovalent exchange occurred. The
agreement between predicted cation transport in soils
and experimental data was good.
Laboratory studies were also conducted, using the carbonate
saturometer, to assess the effect of Mg+2 ion on the
solubility of calcareous materials. Carbonate solubility
in the presence of Mg+z ion was found to vary with the
surface area of the solid phase, the mineralogy of the
carbonate material, and the degree of saturation of the
water with respect to a given carbonate mineral. Calcite
generally increased in solubility, when Mg+2 was present,
in waters which were unsaturated with respect to calcite.
Carbonate material which contained magnesium as a consti-
tuent ion, e.g., dolomite, decreased solubility as Mg+2
concentration increased in waters which were near satura-
tion with respect to dolomite.
713
-------
Kadlec, J.A., R.H. Kadlec, and C.J. Richardson.
The Effects of Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems.
Semi-Annual Report No. 1 to Research Applied to National Needs
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1974.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, coliforms,
surface water (fresh), nitrification/denitri-
fication.
Abstract:
One of the principal effects of discharging effluent
from the secondary sewage treatment plants into
natural waters is to increase the concentration of
certain ions in those waters. These ions are nutri-
ents which stimulate plant growth, especially algae,
which may be objectionable in lakes and streams.
Plant growth, particularly of non-algal species, is
not objectionable in wetland-marshes and bogs-and
discharge into such areas may be an alternative to
lake or stream discharge. Thus, one important
phase of this study is the monitoring of a select
set of these ions under natural and perturbed con-
di ti ons.
714
-------
Kadlec, R.li.
Feasibility of Utilization of Wetland Ecosystems for Nutrient
Removal from Secondary Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant
Eff1uents.
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1976.
Key Words: surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
A major environmental problem is the cleansing and safe
disposal of human wastes. Staff members at the University
of Michigan believe they have found a natural system which
minimizes the damage caused by human waste at a consider-
able saving to the communities Involved.
Primary treatment provided by the stabilization lagoons at
every sewage plant removes solid material from wastewater;
further treatment is necessary to remove the high level of
nutrients that remain in the flow.
It was proposed that a marsh might act as a natural clean-
ser by trapping the nutrients in the water before they
reach lakes and streams. By using the natural marsh,
construction costs and dependence on advanced technology
would be reduced, and there might even be benefits to the
marsh in the form of improved wildlife habitat and in-
creased growth.
A limited irrigation test program was conducted using arti-
ficial wastewater 1n a small representative area of the
marsh; plant and insect studies were conducted and, on the
basis of the small-scale program, 1t was determined that
irrigation would have no short-term adverse effect on the
marsh and the marsh was quite efficient at nutrient
removal.
A full-scale test system was completed and approximately
2.5 million gal of treated wastewater were pumped Into the
swamp over a period of 3 mos. So far, the data obtained
Indicates that the Impact of the Irrigation project 1s
minimal and that nutrients were removed from the water
from the treatment plant.
715
-------
Kadlec, R.H., C.J. Richardson, and J.A, Kadlec.
The Effects of Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems.
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, iron, chlorides, coliforms,
bacteria, parasitic worms, crops.
Abstract:
A two year decomposition study was set up using four
plant groups (Cardex, Salix, Chamaedaphne and Betula)
representing the majority of the vegetation on the
Porter Ranch peatland beginning August 1973.
Decomposition bags made of nylon meshing were used
to retain the vegetation. In addition the bags were
placed in treatment plots and received fertilizer
simulating sewage effluents. Preliminary results
show weight losses and nitrogen levels appear to
increase during the first year. Further data
analyses is necessary before any final conclusions
can be made.
716
-------
Kadlec, R.:H., C.J. Richardson, and J.A. Kadlec.
The Effects of Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems.
Semi-Annual Report No. 4 to Research Applied to National
Needs. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, chlorides, nitrates, iron,
biological contaminants, coliforms, bacteria,
crops.
Abstract:
The impact of the use of wetland ecosystems for the ter-
tiary treatment of sewage effluents has not been investi-
gated in detail. More specifically, the effects of
effluents on the growth and productivity of vascular
plants in wetlands has not been studied. This study was
conducted on a north-central Michigan peatland to deter-
mine the effects of sewage effluents on the growth and
productivity of several common peatland plants. Emphasis
throughout the experiments was on practical application
and the consequences of using the peatland as a disposal
site0
Although some changes in plant species composition and
productivity are possible, it is unlikely that rapid or
extensive degradation of the peatland will occur. It is
possible that denitrification and phosphate adsorption
onto the peat will have significant effects on the avail-
ability of plant nutrients. Assuming that sewage effluent
will add nutrients at a rate approximately the same as that
tested, it appears that the effluents will have no direct
detrimental effects on most of the plants now present on
the site.
717
-------
Kahanovitch, Y. and N. Lahav.
Occurrence of Pesticides in Selected Water Sources In Israel.
Environmental Science and Technology. 13(8) .-762-765. August 1974.
Key Words: pesticides, dieldrin, endrin, surface water (fresh)
Abstract:
Gas chromatography was used to determine the concen-
trations of 12 organic pesticides in selected water
samples taken from various parts of Israel during the
period 1972-73. The only samples which did not con-
tain pesticides were those from the Dan River and
the drainage water from the Dan River and the drain-
age water from agricultural fields. In most of the
samples, pesticide concentrations on the order of
several nanograms per liter were found. The most
widespread compounds were lindane and a-BHC, with
o.p'-DDD (TDE), p.p'-DDT, dieldrin, and endrin being
found in small quantities in some samples. The
relatively high concentrations of lindane in munici-
pal sewage samples indicate that this is an important
source of BHC in the water bodies under investigation.
The relatively low and constant pesticide levels in
'Lake Klnneret and the other water reservoirs prob-
ably reflects the buffering action of the bottom
sediment of these bodies.
718
-------
Kalinske , A.A.
Enhancement of Biological Oxidation of Organic Wastes Using
Activated Carbon in Microbial Suspensions.
Water and Sewage Works. Hi(6):62-64. June 1972.
Key Words: COD, suspended solids, activated sludge, adsorp
tion/ion exchange.
Abstract:
These studies indicate that the extremely versatile
and economical activated sludge process for degra-
dation of soluble organic wastes can be very signifi-
cantly improved, with a minor additional expenditure,
by maintaining in the aerated microbial suspension
granular activated carbon which provided extensive
"concentration sites" for the soluble organics,
bacteria, and oxygen.
719
-------
Kampelmacher, E.H. and L.M. Van Noorle Jansen.
Occurrence of Salmonella in Oxidation Ditches.
JWPCF. 45.(2):348-352. February 1973.
Key Words: salmonella, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Pilot studies have shown that, in contrast to conven-
tional wastewater treatment plants, exact measure-
ment of salmonella reduction in oxidation ditches
was not feasible. However, it was possible to
determine the MPN of salmonella bacteria in the
influent, circuit liquid, and effluent during cer-
tain periods. In this way the biosystem of the instal-
lation with regard to salmonella could be evaluated.
Results indicated that the capacity of the oxidation
ditch to remove salmonella was not inferior to that
of conventional treatment plants. Salmonella con-
tamination occurring naturally in one of the treat-
ment plants could be traced to its source. These
investigations support the theory about the circula-
tion of salmonella bacteria through the natural system,
720
-------
Kampelmacher, E.H. and L.M. van Noorle Jansen.
Reduction of Bacteria in Sludge Treatment.
OWPCF. 44(2):309-313. February 1972
Key Words: salmonella, bacteria, chemical treatment, vacuum
fi Iters.
Abstract:
The filtration of sludge, carried out with the aid of
ferric chloride or ferrous sulfate and lime and with
the aid of vacuum filters, yields an end product in
which the number of bacteria is considerably reduced.
In the sludge treatment plants at Apeldoorn and
Mierlo, a reduction of the order of two decimals was
found for the aerobic bacteria and of the order of
two to three decimals for the content of entero-
bacteriaceae. In the plant in Maastricht, the
reduction in the number of aerobic bacteria was of
the order of three decimals and that of entero-
bacteriaceae of four decimals. In all three plants,
salmonella contamination of the dry sludge was sig-
nificantly less than that of the wet sludge.
721
-------
Kampelmacher, E.H. and L.M. Van Noorle Jansen.
Reduction of Salmonella in Compost on a Hog-Fattening Farm.
JWPCF. 4_3.(7):1541-1545. July 1971
Key Words: salmonella, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The reduction of salmonella in compost in an experi-
mental oxidation vat on a liog-fattening farm was
shown to be approximately 100-fold. As long as the
excretion of salmonella in the feces of the hogs
remains low, only small numbers of salmonella bac-
teria will be sluiced out with the effluent; thus,
the possibility of human and/or animal infection in
surface water may be regarded as very slight. As
soon as either the number of hogs or the number of
excreted bacteria, or both, increases, the plant can
no longer adequately reduce the number of salmonellae
to the extent that the effluent can be sluiced out
into open water without the danger of human or
animal infection. Therefore, it is recommended that
adequate chlorination of the effluent of such plants
be considered.
722
-------
Kampelmacher, E.H. and L.M. van Noorle Jansen.
Salmonella - Its Presence In and Removal from a Wastewater
System.
JWPCF, 42_(12):2069-2073. December 1970.
Key Words: salmonella, Influent characteristics, effluent
characteristics.
Abstract:
When 3 x 10" S. utrecht germs were added to influent,
an average of~lfO germs/100 ml effluent were recovered
in 10.5 hr. If this is compared with the amounts
of salmonella germs normally found in the effluent
(100 germs/100 ml), it can be maintained that some
10'° salmonella germs continuously enter the plant
per hour, while some 10* salmonella germs are released
from the plant every hour with the effluent (in 1,500
cu m) into publicly accessible water. In view of
this situation, the feasibility of disinfection of
effluent merits consideration.
723
-------
Kamps, L.R., R. Carr, and H. Miller.
Total Mercury-Monomethylmercury Content of Several Species of
Fish.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 8^(5)
273-279. November 1972.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
Comparative data from samples show that mercury in the
edible portion of swordfish, tuna fish, northern pike,
white bass, and perch is essentially all monomethyl
mercury.
724
-------
Kaneko, T. and R.R. Colwell.
Adsorption of Vibrio parahaemolyticus on to Chitin and Copepods
Applied Microbiology. 29^(2) : 269-274. February 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Vibrio parahaemolyticus was observed to adsorb onto
chitin particles and copepods. The efficiency of
adsorption was found to be deoendent on pH and on
the concentration of NaCl and other ions found in
seawater. Highest efficiency was observed in water
samples collected from Chesapeake Bay and lowest in
water from the open sea. V. parahaemolyticus was
found to adsorb onto chitin with the highest effi-
ciency of the several bacterial strains tested.
Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas fluorescens did not
adsorb onto chitin. The adsorption effect is con-
sidered to be one of the major factors determining
the distribution of this species and affecting the
annual cycle of V. parahaemolyti cus in the estuarine
system.
725
-------
Kaneko, T. and R.R. Colwell.
Distribution of Vibrio parahaemolytlcus and Related Organisms
1n the Atlantic Ocean off South Carolina and Georgia.
Applied Microbiology. 2jB(6) :1009-1017. December 1974
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The distribution of Vibrio parahaemolytlcus and
related organisms 1n the Atlantic Ocean was determined
during the summer of 1971 from samples collected at
stations along four transects on the continental
shelf off the South Carolina and Georgia coasts.
No V. parahaemolyticus strains were isolated from
any of the samples of seawater (surface and bottom),
sediment, and plankton which were collected. A numeri-
cal taxonomy analysis of data on substrate utili-
zation, including 154 organic compounds serving as
single carbon sources, was carried out, and four
groups of strains were observed. Each group showed
well-separated distribution profiles from shore out
to the continental shelf. That is, the groupings
were observed to correspond to coastal , off-shore
and intermediate distribution patterns for the strains.
This study provides a useful example of the kind of
ecological distributional analysis of bacteria which
can be accomplished with numerical taxonomy.
726
-------
Kaneko, T. and R.R. Colwell.
Ecology of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Chesapeake Bay.
Journal of Bacteriology. 113(1) :24-32. January 1973.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
A study of the ecology of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and
related vibrios in the Rhode River area of Chesapeake
Bay was carried out over the period December 1970
through August 1971. The incidence of V. parahaemoly-
ticus and related vibrios was found to be correlated
with water temperature. The vibrios could not be
detected in the water column during the winter months,
although they were present in sediment. From late
spring to early summer, when water temperatures were
14 + 1 C. vibrios over-wintering in sediment were
released from the bottom communities and attached to
zooplankton, proliferating as the temperature rose.
The number of vibrios in and on plankton was reflected
in the water column bacterial population densities
at water temperatures of ca. 19 C. Thus, temperature
of the water column in the range of 14 to 19 C was
found to be critical in the annual cycle of the vibrios
Interaction between sediment, water, and zooplankton
was found to be essential in the natural estuarine
ecosystem. Bacterial counts of zooplankton were
found to be temperature dependent. The bacterial popu-
lation associated with zooplankton was found to be pre-
dominantly on external surfaces and was specific,
differing from that of the sediment. Vibrio spp. and
related organisms comprised the total bacterial popu-
lation associated with zooplankton in summer months.
The ecological role of Vjbrio spp., including V-..para-
haemolyticus, was found to be significant with respect
to their property of chitin digestion and in relation
to the population dynamics of zooplankton in Chesapeake
Bay.
727
-------
Kaneko, T. and R.R. Colwell.
Incidence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Chesapeake Bay.
Applied Microbiology. 30(2) :251-257. August 1975.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
A Bay-wide survey of the distribution of Vibrio para-
h.HM'l.ytJcuj was carried out in Chesapeake Bay during
May" T97~2 ,""to determine whether the annual cycle of V.
.p..ar.ahaje.mol.yticus which was observed to occur in the
Rhode River subestuary of Chesapeake Bay took place in
other parts of Chesapeake Bay. In an earlier study,
April to early June, when the water temperature rises
from 14 to 19 C, was found to be a critical period in
the annual cycle of the organism in the Rhode River,
since this is the time period when the annual cycle
is initiated. Results of this study, however, re-
vealed that V.__paraJia,ernolyticus could not be found in
the water column during May 1972. Nevertheless,
several samples of sediment and plankton yielded V_.
parahaemolyticus isolates. Comparison of data with
those for the Rhode River area examined in the earlier
studies of the annual cycle of V. parahaemolyticus
suggests that the time of initiation of the annual
cycle of V.._ parahaemolyticus in the open Bay proper
may be influenced by various factors such as tempera-
ture and salinity, i.e., deeper water locations may
show initiation of the V. parahaemolyticus annual
cycle later than shallow areas. Confirmation of the
presence of the organism in the samples studied was
accomplished using numerical taxonomy with 19 refer-
ence strains also included in the analyses.
728
-------
Kaneko, T., R.R. Colwell, and F. Hamons.
Bacteriological Studies of Wicomico River Soft-Shell Clam (Mya
arenaria) Mortalities.
Chesapeake Science. 1_6_(1 ) :3-13. March 1975.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Bacteriological studies were carried out to determine
a causative agent of soft-shell clam mortalities occur-
ring in Chesapeake Bay, i.e., Eastern Bay to the
Wicomico River, in midwinter, 1970 and through 1971.
Several screening tests were performed in preliminary
experiments designed to detect the presence of poten-
tial pathogens. Growth of 57 cultures isolated
from count plates was tested at cold temperatures over
long periods of time. Sixteen strains grew under
the conditions employed in this screening and of these,
eight strains were found to cause death of all animals
within 48 hours and to show good growth at 4 C within
one week. Numerical taxonomy was employed to identify
and classify the isolates. Two of the eight strains,
one identified as a member of the Enterobacteriaceae
and the other as a V iJ>rig jp. , were considered to
be potential pathogens for the soft-shell clam. Direct
evidence of the pathogenicity of these strains is
not yet conclusive, although pathogenicity is strongly
indicated from the results of experiments carried out
in this study.
729
-------
Kanisawa, M. and H.A. Schroeder.
Life Term Studies on the Effects of Arsenic, Germanium, Tin
and Vanadium on Spontaneous Tumors in Mice.
Cancer Research. 27:1192-1195. July 1967.
Key Words: arsenic, germanium, tin, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Mice fed a diet low in many trace elements and raised
in an environment where contamination from extraneous
trace elements was controlled were given small amounts
(5 |j.g/ml) of arsenite, germanate, stannous, or vanadyl
ions in drinking water for their life times. Animals
receiving arsenite had a significantly decreased inci-
dence of all tumors, and of tumors of the lung, com-
pared to those receiving tin, vanadium, and to con-
trols. Fewer spontaneous tumors were also found in
animals given germanium. Significant differences in
the incidences of malignant tumors did not appear.
None of the elements was carcinogenic in the doses
given.
730
-------
Kapiklan, A.Z., R.G. Wyatt, R. Dol1n, T.S. Thornhm, A.R.
Kal 1ca, and R.M. Chanock.
Visualization by Immune Electron Microscopy of a 27-nm
Particle Associated with Acute Infectious NonbacteMal
Gastroenterlti s.
Journal of Virology. 10(5):1075-1081. November 1972.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
A 27-nm particle was observed by immune electron micros'
copy in an infectious stool filtrate derived from an
outbreak in Norwalk, Ohio, of acute infectious non-
bacterial gastroenteritis. Both experimentally and
naturally infected individuals developed serological
evidence of infection; this along with other evidence
suggested that the particle was the etiological agent
of Norwalk gastroenteritis.
731
-------
Kardos, L.T.
Crop Response to Sewage Effluent.
Ini: Municipal Sewage Effluent for Irrigation. C.W. Wilson
and F.E. Beckett, eds. Agricultural Engineering Department
Symposium, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, Louisiana,
1968. pp. 21-29.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, agricultural sludge disposal
Abstract:
This paper is not directly applicable to health effects,
but sets constraints on applying sewage sludge at the
rate of two inches in weekly intervals which trans-
lates into 129 acres required for every million gallons
of effluent per day.
732
-------
Kardos, L.T. and W.E. Sopper.
Effect of Land Disposal of Wastewater on Exchangeable Cations
and Other Chemical Elements in the Soil.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
Through Forest and Croplands. W.E. Sopper and L.T. Kardos
eds. EPA-660/2-74-005, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp. 196-203.
Key Words: chlorides, mercury, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Changes in soil chemical quality have occurred as a
result of the wastewater treatments, but these changes
have been relatively small and do not appear to pose
any problems for the future.
733
-------
Kardos, L.T. and W. E. Sopper.
Renovation of Municipal Wastewater Through Land Disposal by
Spray Irrigation.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewatsr
Through Forest and Croplands. W.E. Sopper and L.T. Kardos
eds. EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp.131-145.
Key Words: nitrates, phosphates, agriculture.
Abstract:
This paper does not discuss heavy metal uptake by
plants but discusses rates at which applications will
not permit nitrates to percolate into the groundwater.
Corn rotation held nitrate levels below PHS levels
for drinking water. When an entire site was occupied
by corn for a period of 2 years, levels of nitrates
exceeded PHS levels.
734
-------
Kardos, L.T., W.E. Sopper, E.A. Myers, R.R. Parizek, and
J.B. Nesbitt.
Renovation of Secondary Effluent for Reuse as a Water
Resource.
EPA-660/2-74-016, Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, Dept. of Agronomy, February 1974. 514 p. (Avail-
able from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-234 176.
Key Words: phosphates, chlorides, nitrates, fluorides, chlor-
ination, crops.
Abstract:
Sprinkler application of clorinated secondary sewage
effluent at levels of 1 or 2 in/wk during the growing
season of year-round increased crop yields and forest
tree growth except for red pine at the 2 in/wk rate.
Harvested crops removed large amounts of nitrogen and
phosphorus, the two key eutrophication nutrients.
N and P content of forest foliage was increased but
the nutrients were recycled through the litter. Only
one deep monitoring well showed higher N03 and Cl(-)
concentration definitely ascribable to the effluent
irrigation but still met U.S.P.H.S. drinking water
standards. Recharge within one 43.5 acre site was
estimated at 65 million gallons per year and resulted
in lower pumping costs in two nearby University water
supply wells. Data are also reported on hydrologic
studies, boron studies, aeration studies, phosphorus
adsorption studies and soil chemical changes.
735
-------
Katzenelson, E. and B. Teltch.
Dispersion of Enteric Bacteria by Spray Irrigation.
JWPCF. i8(4):710-716. April 1976,
Key Words: coliforms, bacteria, ponding/land application,
groundwater.
Abstract:
A study was undertaken to obtain data about the number
and types of enteric bacteria dispersed into the air
during spray irrigation with wastewater. Coliform
bacteria were found in the air at a distance of 350 m
downwind from the irrigation line. In one case, a
Salmonella bacterium was isolated 60 m from the source
of irrigation.
One of the main objectives of this work was to try to
evaluate the level of danger inherent in the use of
wastewater spray irrigation. Based on the findings
and taking into account the rate and volume of breath-
ing, it is possible to calculate that an individual
working at a distance of 100 m from a wastewater sprink'
ler line will inhale approximately 36 coliform bacteria
in 10 min. The longer the exposure time, the higher
is the risk to the worker.
736
-------
Katzenelson, E. , B. Kletter, and H.I. Shuval.
Inactivation Kinetics of Viruses and Bacteria in Water by Use
of Ozone.
JAWWA. 6^:725-729. December 1974.
Key Words: polio virus, Escherichia col 1 , coliphage T2,
ozonation.
Abstract:
This paper discusses bacteria and virus kills by ozone.
In all cases kills were greater than 99%.
737
-------
Katzenelson, E., B. Kletter, H. Schachter, and H. I. Shuval.
Inactivation of Viruses and Bacteria by Ozone.
In: Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment, and Distribution.
A.J. Rubin, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975. pp. 409-421.
Key Words: Escherichia col j , polio virus, ozonation.
Abstract:
The inactivation kinetics of various microorganisms,
which serve as indicators for water pollution, against
ozone were studied. The inactivation reactor system
and experimental protocol that enable ozone concentra-
tions to remain stable in water, and reproducibi1ity of
the results, are described. Inactivation kinetics
curves of poliovirus type 1, coliphage T2, and E. coli,
by various concentrations of ozone and at two different
temperatures, are presented. The results clearly
show the effectiveness of ozone in inactivating micro-
organisms. Lower concentrations of ozone and shorter
contact times are required than are needed when using
chlorine or any other agent presently utilized for the
disinfection of water.
738
-------
Kaufman, W.J.
Chemical Pollution of Ground Waters.
JAWWA. 66^152-159. March 1974.
Key Words: nitrates, DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbons, iron,
nickel, cobalt, arsenic, cadmium, lead, copper,
mercury, direct contact, groundwater.
Abstract:
This article reviews the movement of various contami-
nants in groundwater. The movement of pesticides and
heavy metals appears to be related to solubilities.
-------
Kay, K.
Inorganic Particles of Agricultural Origin.
Environmental Health Perspectives. £:193-195. 1974.
Key Words: epidemiology, crops.
Abstract:
Speculation is offered regarding the potential health
impact of the substantial quantities of inorganic
particles disseminated into the environment by agricul-
tural pest control with dry carriers. It is the talc,
soapstone, and pyrophyl1ite, which can contain asbestos
in the form of anthophyl1ite, tremolite, and chrysotile,
which hold the potential cancer risk. Approximately 85%
of all pesticides are applied by air dissemination,
either dry or as a droplet spray. Pulmonary and gastric
deposition of the mineral carrier will thus occur widely
among pesticide application personnel, as well as among
an as yet unknown fraction of the nonoccupationally
exposed population in the general area around pest con-
trol operations. Ingest ion of particulates deposited on
food crops may be expected, as well as mineral finding
its way into drinking water supplies. Studies have also
shown that experimental animals exposed to both fibrous
glass and nemalite (fibrous magnesium hydroxide)
developed abdominal tumors: Thus, the pulmonary load
and perhaps the gastrointestinal load produced by pest
control with fibrous but non-asbestos-containing min-
erals may turn out to be carcinogenic or cocarcinogenic.
740
-------
Keeney, D.R., K.W. Lee, and L.M. Walsh.
Guidelines for the Application of Wastewater Sludge to Agricul-
tural Land in Wisconsin.
Technical Bulletin No. 88, Department of Natural Resources,
Madison, Wisconsin, 1975. 36p.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, copper, nickel, zinc,
cadmium, protozoa, viruses, bacteria, agriculture,
land reclamation, groundwater, lime treatment,
stabilization.
Abstract :
In general, it appears that there is little evidence
for the dissemination of disease to humans or animals
by land spreading of digested sewage sludge. To insure
surface water and groundwater protection from patho-
genic organisms which might survive the digestion and
storage period, conservation practices of avoiding
runoff are recommended for the management of sludge
disposal sites.
From the available data, we recommend:
1. Raw sludge should not be applied to agri-
cultural land.
2. At least 2 feet, and preferably greater than
4 feet of soil exist between the sludge
application zone and bedrock, any impermeable
layer, or the water table.
3. Sludge should not be applied to soil in the
year the soil is used for any root vegetables,
or other vegetables that are consumed uncooked.
4. If sludge is surface applied, runoff should be
minimized by use of contour strips, terraces,
and border areas. Also, runoff can be reduced
by injection or immediate incorporation of the
siudge.
741
-------
Kehr, D.
Aerobic Sludge Stabilization in Sewage Treatment Plants.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1966(2):143-163.
Key Words: aerobic digestion.
Abstract:
Stabilization of sludge has been carried out up to now
mainly by anaerobic sludge digestion; it can also be
realized by aerobic treatment. The author gives a report
on the development of aerobic sludge stabilization in the
German Federal Republic. There follows formal discussions
of the report with additional figures and references.
742
-------
Kelly, $., J. Winsser, and W. Winkelstein, Jr.
Poliomyelitis and Other Enteric Viruses in Sewage.
American Journal of Public Health. 4^7:72-77. January 1957.
Key Words: polio virus, coxsackie virus, epidemiology.
Abstract:
Samples of sewage from two areas in New York State were
examined for viruses in parallel tests in newborn mice
and tissue cultures. Poliomyelitis and Coxsackie
viruses were frequently isolated during the summer and
fall from both untreated and treated sewage. No cor-
relation was noted between poliomyelitis viruses in
sewage, reported paralytic cases, and socioeconomic
status of the community.
The number and types of agents isolated differed
according to the isolation method used. Coxsackie A
viruses were isolated in mice only, poliomyelitis vi-
ruses in tissue culture only, and Coxsackie B viruses
in both tissue culture and mice. Coxsackie B isola-
tions were made as frequently in mice as in tissue
cultures and they were isolated more frequently in
monkey kidney tissue than in HeLa cell cultures.
Many mixtures of types were encountered and a few
agents were unidentified.
743
-------
Kenard, R.P. and R.S. Valentine.
Rapid Determination of the Presence of Enteric Bacteria in
Water.
Applied Microbiology. 2_7_(3) :484-487. 1974.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
A high degree of correlation between fecal coliforms
and coliphage occurred in more than 150 water samples
taken over a period of several years from several
different geographical areas.
With such high correlations between fecal coliform
and coliphage counts, fecal coliform counts are pre-
dictable from the phage counts.
When large numbers of sensitive bacteria were added to
test waters, virulent phage could be demonstrated in
six to eight hours.
744
-------
Kenline, P.A. and P.V. Scarpino.
Bacterial Air Pollution from Sewage Treatment Plants.
American Industrial Hygiene Association. Journal. 33:346-352
May 1972.
Key Words: bacteria, activated sludge.
Abstract:
The research reported here was undertaken to obtain
data on the numbers and types of bacteria emitted into
the air from activated sludge and extended aeration
sewage treatment plants and to evaluate the fate of
these airborne bacteria in the air. The mean bacter-
ial emission rate was 440 bacteria per square meter per
second. Volumetric concentration of the airborne
bacteria was depleted primarily by atmospheric
diffusion and by die-off. Deposition of the bacteria
to the ground was less important. The average half-
life of the bacteria was 14 seconds. Under average
conditions the initial bacterial concentration was
reduced by 90% at 100 feet downward at the source. Of
the bacteria collected and cultured on trypticase soy
agar, only 5% belonged to the Enterobacteriaceae,
and these were primarily Klebsiella, Aerobacter, and
Escherichia.
745
-------
Kennedy, S.F., R.R. Col well, and G.B. Chapman.
Ultrastructure of a Marine Psychrophi1ic Vibrio.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology. J_6(l 1 ): 1 027-1 031 . May 19,
1970.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The structure of Vibrio marinus strain PS-207 was
studied by both phase and electron microscopy. It
was found to possess a trilaminar plasma membrane
and cell wall. Membrand-bounded subunits containing
DNA-like material were found dispersed throughout the
cytoplasin. Giant round forms or "macrospheres"
were observed in all growth stages. The size, shape,
and construction of the "macrospheres" showed some
variation, but could not be related to culture age.
Studies of cell division in V. marinus strain PS-207
indicate the primary mechanism to be a synthesis and
centripetal deposition of plasma membrane with a
concomitant or subsequent synthesis and centripetal
deposition of cross wall material.
746
-------
Kenner, B.A. and H.P. Clark.
Detection and Enumeration of Salmonella and Pseudomonas aeru-
gi nosa.
JWPCF. 4_6(9) .-2163-2171 . September 1974.
Key Words: salmonella, bacteria, epidemiology.
Abstract:
A practical laboratory method is presented for the
simultaneous isolation and enumeration of Salmonel1 a
sp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa from all classes of
waters, including potable water supplies, with a
minimum of interfering false positive isolations.
The method allows for the testing of large volumes
of high quality waters, wherein the absence of indi-
cator bacteria (that is, total coliforms, fecal coli-
forms, and fecal streptococci), may give a false
sense of security because of the low volumes of water
usually tested. Justification for each step of the
procedural method is presented.
747
-------
Kerfoot, W.B. and B.T. Ketchum.
Cape Cod Waste Water Renovation and Retrieval System, a Study
of Water Treatment and Conservation.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts,
February 1974. 67p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-229 589).
Key Words: filtration, nitrification/denitrification, surface
water (fresh ) , crops.
Abstract:
The Cape Cod Wastewater Renovation and Retrieval System
strives to evaluate alternative means of wastewater treat-
ment and develop design criteria for the recharge of water
of potable quality to the groundwater reservoir of the
coastal outwash plains of Cape Cod and the Islands. The
three-year plan involves investigation of the in si tu
performance of (1) the existing sand filter bed at Otis
Air Force Base, (2) a rapid infiltration system designed
to enhance biological denitrification, and (3) a spray
irrigation-cropping program. The quantity and quality of
the treated water, the receiving water, and the character
of the soil is being carefully examined to project even-
tual water condition after many years of operation.
743'
-------
Kerfoot, W.B. and S.A. Jacobs.
Permissible Levels of Heavy Metals in Secondary Effluent for
Use in a Combined Sewage Treatment-Marine Aquaculture System.
I: Monitoring During Pi lot Operation.
j_nj Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber -
Proceedings. EPA-660/2-74-41, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., Office of Research and Development,
June 1974. pp. 65-78.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc,
shellfish.
Abstract:
The 102-day study indicates that oysters can be cul-
tured with the use of secondary effluent as a substi-
tute fertilizer without raising the danger of metal
contamination. While other potential contaminants,
including pathogens and organic compounds, need
further investigation to evaluate the advisability
of substituting secondary effluent for artificial
media in aquaculture, the initial results suggest
that the inherent elevated metal concentrations in
domestic wastewater do not appear to pose a threat
to shellfish culture if effluent of a principally
domestic source is used.
749
-------
Kerfoot, W.B. and G.A. Redmann.
Permissible Levels of Heavy Metals in Secondary Effluent for
Use in a Combined Sewage Treatment-Marine Aquaculture System.
II: Development of Guidelines by Method of Additions.
Inj_ Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber -
Proceedings. EPA-660/2-74-041, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., Office of Research and Development,
June 1974. pp. 79-99.
Key Words: copper, cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel, zinc,
shellfish.
Abstract:
The final permissible level suggested as a guideline
was taken .to be the lowest value occurring in the col-
umn for each metal. 'Effluent containing a concen-
tration of metal in s.olution above or at this level
is not recommended for aquacultural purposes. In
three cases, Cr, Pb, and Zn, the suggested level
represented the concentration toxic to algae. For
copper, the level was based on acute toxicity to hu-
mans. Oddly, nickel was the only element whose
recommended concentration in the effluent was based
on alert >evels, representing a level three standard
deviations above that normally found.
Even though the levels of metal in the effluent for
use in the aquaculture system were calculated against
standards suggested for food regulations, many
questions are left unanswered as to whether consump-
tion of the shellfish is completely safe from a
public health point of view, considering only metals.
Total metal content may be misleading since the
structure of the compound is not elucidated. Organ-
ometallic species of metals may be present in effluent
due to industrial discharge or possi-ble reactions
encountered during the sewage treatment process.
These compounds, if present, may have toxic effects
not commonly associated with their inorganic counter-
parts. Also, the possible carcinogenic, mutagenic,
and teratogenic effects were not considered here and
should be investigated.
750
-------
Ketchum, B.H.
Ecological Effects of Sewage Sludge Disposal at Sea.
Moods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
Key Words: chromium, lead, parasitic worms, surface water
(mari ne) .
Abstract:
This is a good general discussion on sewage sludge
disposal to sea due to industrial discharge or
possible reactions.
751
-------
Ketchum, L.H., Jr. and W.J. Weber, Jr.
Coagulation of Stormwaters and Low Alkalinity Wastewaters.
JWPCF. £6(l):53-62. January 1974.
Key Words: suspended solids, chemical treatment, combined
municipal and/or industrial systems.
Abstract:
The chemical combination of lime and activated silica
proved effective in clarifying low alkalinity wastewaters.
The upper limit of alkalinity where activated silica
demonstrates up to 10-fold lime reduction is about 50 mg/1
as CaCOs. Natural waters low in alkalinity are also
usually low in hardness. In the synthetic systems studied,
alkalinity was added in the form of sodium bicarbonate;
therefore, even the high alkalinity systems contained
essentially no hardness. Hardness, therefore, is not the
cause of the loss of effectiveness of activated silica in
reducing lime requirements for treating high alkalinity
wastes.
752
-------
Kier, L.D., E. Yamasaki , and B.N. Ames.
Detection of Mutagenlc Activity in Cigarette Smoke Condensates
Proceedings National Academy of Sciences. 7J (10):4159-4163.
October 1974.
Key Words: epidemiology.
Abstract:
This article describes the application of the Ames
Test for the detection of the presence of mutagenic
compounds in the smoke condensates of cigarettes.
753
-------
King, L.D. and H.D. Morris.
Land Disposal of Liquid Sewage Sludge. II. The Effect of Soil
pH, Manganese, Zinc, and Growth and Chemical Composition of Rye
(S e c a 1 e c a e e aj el.)
Journal of Environmental Quality. J_:425-429. April 1972.
Key Words: manganese, zinc, groundwater.
Abstract:
Rye was seeded in October 1969 and 1970 in a Coastal
bermudagrass (tyjTOjdcm dacjt^Jon L. Pers_. ) sod on Cecil
sandy clay loam to determine the residual effect of
four rates of liquid sewage sludge and one chemical
fertilizer treatment applied the previous summer.
Sludge rates of 0.63, 1.25, 2.5, and 5.0 cm were
applied in such a manner as to supply 4.4, 8.8, 10,
and 20 cm of sludge, respectively, in 1969 and 2.5,
5.0, 10 and 20 cm, respectively, in 1970. Chemical
fertilizer supplied 224-37-93 kg/ha of NPK in 1969
and 358-112-224 in 1970. The chemical fertilizer
plots also received 56-25-47 kg/ha of NPK in October
when the rye was planted and 84 kg/ha of N the fol-
lowing February. Soil and the accumulated sludge
crust were sampled and lime (6.7 metric tons/ha)applied
as a split plot treatment just prior to planting
rye in 1970.
Sludge treatments decreased soil pH and increased
exchangeable and water-soluble Mn and exchangeable Zn
in the soil. Up to 29 kg/ha of exchangeable and 12.7
kg/ha of water-soluble Zn was found in the sludge
crust. In 1969-70 and at the zero lime rate in 1970-
71 maximum rye yields were obtained with chemical
fertilizer and the 1.25- and 2,5-cm rate. With lime
there were no significant differences among the 0.63-,
1.25-, and 2.5-cm rates and chemical fertilizer. In
1969-70 and at both lime rates in 1970-71 yields were
reduced by the 5-cm rate as compared to the 1.25- and
2.5-cm rates. Significant yield increases due to
liming occurred at the 5-cm rate only. Reduced yields
at the 5-cm rate were probably due to high forage
levels of Zn and possibly Cu rather than deficiencies
of N, P, K, Ca, or Mg or high levels of Mn, B, Mo, or AT.
754
-------
King, L.D. and H.D. Morris.
Land Disposal of Liquid Sewage Sludge. Ill, The Effect on
Soil Nitrate.
Journal of Environmental Quality. J^:442-446. April 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, groundwater.
Abstract:
A field experiment was conducted over a 2-year period to
determine the effect of liquid sewage sludge on soil
nitrate content of a Cecil sandy clay loam (Typic Hap-
ludults) to a 120 cm depth. Periodic appl icati ons "of
four rates of sludge to coastal bermudagrass (Cynodon
dactvlon L. Pers.) supplied a total of 4.4, 8.8, 10.0
and 20.0 cm of sfudge in 1969 and 2.5, 5.0, 10.0 and
20.0 cm in 1970. Respective amounts of N applied by the
four rates were 1,037,'2,074, 2,580, and 5,160 kg/ha in
1969 and 492, 984, 1,970, and 3,940 kg/ha in 1970. A
chemical fertilizer treatment supplied 364 kg/ha of N in
1969 and 489 kg/ha In 1970. The two highest sludge
rates affected significant increases in soil nitrate in
the 0 to 120 cm profile. The other two sludge rates and
the chemical fertilizer treatment did not increase soil
nitrate and were deemed safe from the standpoint of
potential groundwater pollution. At the 20 cm rate 40%
(287 kg/ha) of the NOo-N present in the 0 to 120 cm
profile in October 19/0 could not be accounted for the
following May. Of the N supplied by the 10 and 20 cm
applications, 17 and 9%, respectively, was recovered through
crop uptake while 56 and 54% remained in the sludge crust
that had accumulated on the soil surface.
755
-------
King, L.D. and H.D. Morris.
Nitrogen Movement Resulting from Surface Application of
Liquid Sewage Sludge.
Journal of Environmental Quality. 3(3 ) : 238-242. July 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, groundwater.
Abstract:
One of the factors limiting the rate at which sewage sludge
can be applied to soil is the speed at which inorganic N
is formed and the fate of that inorganic N. A greenhouse
lysimeter study was initiated in order to quantify some
of the sinks into which N from sludge applications might
move. For 12 weeks soil columns were treated at 3-week
intervals with a surface application of 2.5 cm of liquid
sewage sludge. During each 3-day interval 2.5 cm of water
was applied to: (i) soil receiving no sludge (Soil-2.5),
(ii) soil receiving sludge (Sludge-2.5), and (iii) soil
planted to Coastal Bermudagrass (Cynodon d_a_ctylon L. P_e_rs_
receiving sludge (Grass-2.5). Five centimeters"of water"
was added to soil + grass + sludge (Sludge-5) during each
3-day interval. Another treatment was used to encourage
a nitrification-denitrification cycle. This treatment
(Grass-F) was identical to Grass-2.5 except that during
each third week sufficient water was added to bring the
3-week total to the same as that in Grass-5. Provisions
were made to collect the leachate for N03-N analysis and
to measure NH3 volatilization from the sludge.
The average loss of N as NH3 was 36% of the applied
NH4-N in the Soil-2.5 treatment and 24% in the three grass
treatments. This represented 4,9 and 3.3%, respectively,
of the total N applied. The Grass-5 treatment resulted
in the maximum N03-N leaching loss (5.4% of the applied
N). The Grass-F treatment did not result in reduced
N03-N leaching. Grass removed 10.3% of the applied N.
From 52 to 64% of the applied N remained in the sludge
crust on the soil surface.
756
-------
King, P.M., H.H. Yeh, P.S. Warren, and C.W. Randall.
Distribution of Pesticides in Surface Waters.
JAWWA. H(9):483-486. September 1969.
Key Words: organophosphorus pesticides, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The range of distribution data noted from the reported
studies is summarized in this article. In general, a
high-clay soil was shown to adsorb about twice the amount
of pesticide per unit weight of soil as a sandy soil.
The uptake by the algal systems was approximately one
order of magnitude greater than by the soils. This up-
take was also noteworthy in that, in contrast to the
soil systems, it did not decrease proportionately with
increasing pesticide concentrations. The uptake by the
algae illustrates one possible means by which pesticides
may be introduced into the food chain and thus eventually
be concentrated in higher animals, such as fish.
The use of controlled algae ponds for nutrient removal
from irrigation return water has been suggested as a
possibility for solution of problems leading to eutrophi-
cation. If such waters contain significant amounts of
synthetic organic pesticides, the uptake of these pesti-
cides by the algae, as indicated by the reported data,
may be sufficient to negate the use of the harvested
algae for animal feed.
The data for sorption of pesticides by coal and by
activated carbon illustrate possible means of removing
these pesticides from solution. Coal is 2-2% order
of magnitude superior to soil in adsorbing parathion.
However, it is ineffective relative to activated carbon.
Activated carbon is about 4 orders of magnitude greater
in ability to sorb parathion than is soil. Coal used
as one component in a multimedia filter may, however,
significantly increase pesticide removal, especially if
the grade of coal is selected that will result in maxi-
mum uptake. Activated carbon remains as a superior
adsorbent for pesticides. Its ability to remove trace
quantities of these materials is well known and is con-
firmed by the reported data.
757
-------
Kinman, R.N.
Ozone in Water Disinfection.
In.: Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment. F.I. Evans,
ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
1972. pp. 123-143.
Key Words: Escheri chia col i , salmonella, coliforms, COD,
bacteria, fecal streptococci, ozonation.
Abstract:
Ozone has been shown to be a powerful disinfecting agent
for either water or wastewater applications. A signifi-
cant residual ozone concentration does not guarantee
that a water is safe to drink. Organic solids may
protect organisms from the disinfecting action of ozone
and increase the demand for ozone. Ozone residuals
cannot be maintained in metallic distribution systems
for very long. The inability to maintain an ozone resid-
ual in water distribution systems is the principal reason
ozone is not more widely used for water disinfection
in this country and the principal reason for its use
as a pretreatment in those water treatment plants where
it is in use.
-------
KlnosMta, S. and T. Sunada.
On the Treatment of Polychlorinated Biphenyl in Water by Ion-
izing Radiation.
Advances in Wastewater Research. Pergamon Press, New York.
C/13/26/1-6. 1972.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, chemical treatment,
adsorption/ion exchange,
Abstract:
PCB in aqueous microparticulate colloidal solution is
destroyed by ionizing radiation, but its resistance
to radiation is far more than other chlorinated hydro-
carbons such as pentachlorophenol (3) or DDT (7) and
other pesticides such as parathion (2). This may seem
to be a weakness in using radiation treatment for pol-
luted water, but the proposed radiation treatment gener-
ally consists of several procedures such as irradiation,
sedimentation by coagulation, filtration and postchlorin-
ation. Conventional treatment by sedimentation with
coagulation can so effectively treat PCB in water that
the proposed radiation treatment would result in thorough
removal. Acute toxicity of irradiated PCB solution is
found to be far less than the non-irradiated solution
for striped shrimps, and the products of irradiation
show reduced toxicity.
759
-------
Kirk, B.S., R. McNabney, and C.S. Wynn.
Pilot Plant Studies of Tertiary Wastewater Treatment With Ozone.
In; Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment, F.L. Evans, e-.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1972.
pp. 61-82.
Key Words: BOD, ammonia, nitrites, bacteria, ozonation.
Abstract:
All of the results presented in this article are pre-
liminary and are subject to revision. Because of the in-
terim nature of the material presented, it is inappropri-
ate to present firm conclusions since they, likewise,
could be subject to revision. Instead, a simple summary
and a present estimate of this study is given.
A pilot plant for the tertiary treatment of wastewater
with ozone has been described here. It has been operated
on feed water subjected to a variety of secondary and
tertiary pretreatments.
The COD reduction rate is rapid in the first stages of
treatment but slows down drastically in the latter
stages after 50-70% of the COD has been removed. How-
ever, if treatment is continued long enough, practically
all of the COD can be oxidized by ozone.
The pH of the wastewater changes toward neutrality during
ozone treatment. Generally the higher pH feed waters
show a faster COD reduction.
At least for the IPC pretreated feed water, the ozone
consumption in the first stage is less than the expected
3 Ib 03/lb COD removed. In the latter stages, the ozone
consumption is substantially greater. However, because
most of the COD is removed in the first stage, the aver-
age ozone consumption is still less than 3 Ib 03/lb COD
removed.
For the limited cases correlated so far, the log of both
the first order and second order reaction rate constants
appear linear with per'cent COD removal, and both decrease
by roughly a factor of ten during treatment.
The oxidation of nitrogenous material to nitrates during
ozone treatment is significant only at high pH.
Major reductions of turbidity have been realized on all
plant feeds, and the ozone tertiary treatment, as expected,
produces complete bacteria kills.
760
-------
It is evident that pump and compressor power requirements
are not insignificant compared to ozone generation power
requi rements.
In overall summary, the pilot plant has generally met
design expectation in its operations.
761
-------
Kirkham, M.B.
Trace Elements in Corn Grown on Long-Term Sludge Disposal Site.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_:765-768. August 1975.
Key Words: aluminum, cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel,
lead , zinc, crops .
Abstract:
Corn plants (Zea mays L.) grown on soil treated with
municipal s 1 ucfge (28 metri c tons/ha/yr) for 35 years were
analyzed for Al , Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni , Pb , and Zn. Soil
was ^analyzed to the 91 cm (36 in) depth for total and
dilute acid extractable concentrations of the trace
elements. Total concentrations of the trace elements in
the 0 to 30 cm (0 to 12 in) depth of soil were increased
by sludge additions by the following factors: Al , 1.1;
Cd, 35; Cu, 16.5; Fe , 1.1; Mn, 1.2; Ni, 2; Pb, 16.5; Zn,
13. The results indicated that, even though large amounts
of trace elements accumulated in the soil, these elements
did not accumulate appreciably in the grain of the corn
plants when compared with the accumulation in the control
crop and normal levels reported in the literature. The
roots, however, contained large amounts of the elements.
Concentrations of Cd and Cu in the leaves were higher
than normal concentration ranges.
762
-------
Kirkham, M.B. and G.K. Dotson.
Growth of Barley Irrigated with Wastewater Sludge Containing
Phosphate Precipitants.
In: Municipal Sludge Management; Proceedings of the National
Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, 1974. pp. 97-106.
Key Words: phosphates, COD, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites,
aluminum, stabilization, crops, chemical treat-
ment, lime treatment, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Barley (Horde urn vulgare L ., var. Bearde,d), grown for
16 weeks in pots of loam soil, was irrigated for seven
weeks with wet sludges containing precipitated phos-
phates to see if chemically-treated sludges could be used
agriculturally. Raw primary sludge and primary sludges
from alum and ferric chloride addition to raw wastewater,
each either limed or unlimed, were added at two different
rates, corresponding to a total application of 23 or 46
m tons/ha/yr. The elemental composition of the plants
and the total and extractable phosphorus in the soil were
determined. The results showed that barley plants irri-
gated with the three types of sludges grew as well as
those supplied with inorganic fertilizer. Fertilized
plants, however, yielded more grain than sludge-treated
plants. Slight variations in nutrient content of the
sludge-treated plants appear to be due to differences
in the concentration and availability of the elements in
the soil. Differences in total soil phosphorus among
the treatments were not significant. The limed and un-
limed alum-treated soils and the unlimed iron-treated
soil had significantly more extractable phosphorus.
Liming significantly decreased extractable phosphorus only
in the iron-treated soil. Ninety-two percent of the
phosphorus added by the sludges was still in the sludge
crust at the end of the experiment. The results demon-
strated that the presence of phosphate precipitated by Al
or Fe did not limit growth, and that sludges containing
phosphate precipitants can be used, at least on a short-
term basis, to grow barley.
763
-------
Kleerekoper, H.
Effects of Copper on the Locomotor Orientation of Fish.
EPA-R3-73-045, Texas A & M University, College Station,
Dept. of Biology, June 1973. 97p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-222 596).
Key Words: copper, fish.
Abs tract:
In some species of fish the locomotor response to subacute
concentrations of copper ions results in changes in
orientation. The net result of these changes may be
"attraction" or "avoidance", orientation towards copper-
containing zones of water. The evidence indicates that
the direction of the orientation is relatively independent
of the maximum concentration of the metal but is deter-
minded particularly by the gradient of copper ions as the
fish pass from laboratory water to copper ion containing
water. A shallow gradient leading to the zones of maxi-
mum copper concentration elicits a clear "attraction",
a medium steep gradient decreases that response somewhat,
and a steep gradient results in significant "avoidance".
However, in the latter condition, highly significant
"attraction" is again obtained when a temperature rise
of . 4C is associated with the copper ion. Copper and
temperature interact to elicit orientation response not
produced by either copper alone or temperature alone.
Responses of this type can only be assessed through de-
tailed monitoring of locomotor characteristics and care-
ful data analysi s.
764
-------
Klein, L.A., M. Lang, N. Nash, and S.L. Kirschner.
Sources of Metal in New York City Wastewater.
Metal Finishing. 72.:34-35. juiy 1974.
Key Words: copper, chromium, nickel, zinc, cadmium,
combined municipal and/or industrial systems.
Abstract:
This paper discusses heavy metal sources for municipal
wastewater.
765
-------
Klein , S.A.
NTA Removal in Septic Tank and Oxidation Pond Systems.
JWPCF. 4iS(l):78-88. January 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, anaerobic digestion, ponding/
land application, direct contact, groundwater.
Abstract:
1. Removal of NTA averaged 21.8, 23.3, and 23.1 percent
in three septic tanks during the nine months of operation.
2. In the percolation fields, 5 to 7 wk were required
for biological slimes to develop and become acclimated
to NTA.
3. Aerobic percolation fields (normal operation) degraded
essentially all of the NTA from influents containing
concentrations up to 60 mg/1.
4. Totally anaerobic fields degraded only 10 percent
NTA, but under nearly anaerobic conditions (DO concen-
tration of less than 0.5 mg/1) NTA degradation was vir-
tually 100 percent.
5. The presence of NTA had no noticeable effect on
performance of septic tank percolation fields or sewage
treatment systems .
6. In aerobic soil columns, NTA was nearly 95 percent
degraded from influent concentrations of 40 and 100 mg/1.
7. In anaerobic (saturated) soil columns, degradation
ranged from 10 to 15 percent for the three influent
NTA concentrations examined (10, 40, and 100 mg/1).
8. In oxidation ponds, after a 2-month acclimation
period, steady state removal of NTA was in excess
of 90 percent when influent concentrations were in
the range normally expected in wastewater (up to 30 mg/1).
* 9. A't NTA concentrations up to 75 mg/1 in wastewater fed
to oxidation ponds, bio-degradation remained in excess
of 80 percent, but at 100 mg/1 NTA removal declined to
about 50 percent.
10. Degradation of NTA in anaerobic digestion ranged
from 8.0 to 13.6 percent in digesters fed concentrations
of 15 to 60 mg/1 NTA.
766
-------
Klein, S.A., D. Jenkins, R.J. Wagenet, J.W. Biggar, and M.S.
Yang.
An Evaluation of the Accumulation, Trans!ocation, and
Degradation of Pesticides at Land Wastewater Disposal Sites.
University of California, Berkeley, Sanitary Engineering
Research Laboratory, November 1974. 235p. (Available from
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as AD.-A006 551).
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, ponding/land application
Abs tract:
No significant accumulation of biocides throughout the
depths of the lysimeters was detected during the study.
The pesticide Diazinon was present usually at soil con-
centrations of on the order of up to several a^/kg
(dry soil basis) in some soils. Soil concentrations of
biocides appeared to be greatest in the very surface
zones. No evidence of biocide transport as a result
of any of the imposed operational changes was detected.
Travel of biocides with soil water was generally
sporadic and low concentrations on the order of several
v-g/t. were observed on occasion in the soil column ef-
fluents and at various depths in the soil columns. Quite
rare instances of high concentrations of biocide movement
were noted, but could not be correlated to any imposed
operational change or existing operational mode.
The mineral quality of the effluents from the lysimeters
in general appeared to be more a function of the soil
type and the conditions existing in the soil column
(especially the moisture content) rather than a function
of the nature of the applied wastewater.
767
-------
Kleopfer, R.D. and B.J. Fairless.
Characterization of Organic Components in a Municipal Water
Supply.
Environmental Science and Technology. 6_(12) :1036-1037.
November 1972.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, drinking and recreational water,
Abstract:
The Evanaville, Ind., municipal drinking water, which is
taken from the Ohio River, was analyzed for organic com-
ponents using carbon filter techniques. Over 40 organic
compounds were detected using flame ionization gas
chromatography. Thirteen of those compounds were identi-
fied with the aid of a gas chromatograph coupled with a
mass spectrometer. The probable source of a major
organic contaminant - bis (2-chloroisopropyl )-ether -
was found to be an industrial outfall located about 150
river miles upstream from the Evansville water intake.
The concentration of bis(2-chloroisopropyl)-ether in
the Ohio River at Evansville was about twice that found
in the municipal drinking water.
768
-------
Klock, J.W.
Survival of Coliform Bacteria in Wastewater Treatment Lagoons,
JWPCF. 13(10) :2071-2083. October 1971.
Key Words: bacteria, salmonella, Vibrio cholerae, coliforms,
aerated lagoons, anaerobic lagoons, trickling
filter, activated sludge, gravity separators,
anaerobic digestion.
Abstract:
An experimental lagoon was used as a field laboratory to
examine the sequence of biochemical events that normally
occur in the treatment of raw wastewater. Coliform most
probable number determinations were performed using the
dilution tube technique described in "Standard Methods."
An Arrhenius plot is presented of coliform survival rate
constants as a function of Eh and temperature for
various natural waters and nonsedimentary wastewater
treatment processes at a constant pH of 7.5.
769
-------
Kluesener, O.W. and G.F. Lee.
Nutrient Loading from a Separate Storm Sewer in Madison,
Wisconsin.
JWPCF. 46.( 5 ):9 20-936. May 1974.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, combined municipal
and/or storm systems.
Abstract:
1. In general, approximately 15 percent of the rainfall
on the Manitou Way basin appears as Surface runoff from
the basin. The percent runoff was approximately equiva-
lent to the area of the basin covered by streets. For
any particular storm, percent runoff varied as a function
of rainfall amount.
2. Nutrient and SS concentrations were usually greatest
during the early stages of the runoff event, decreasing
with time. Phosphorus concentrations were greatest in
spring and fall, whereas nitrogen concentrations were
greatest in the spring.
3. Rainfall seemed to be the major source of inorganic-N
in runoff from the urban area. Phosphorus generally
resulted from accumulated litter and possible automotive
exhaust discharged to the streets.
4. Barring the availability of a suitable flow-proportion-
ed sampler, the next most appropriate sampling procedure
would be to characterize the particular basin by collect-
ing flow and chemical data over fairly short time inter-
vals for several storms. Samples should continue to be
collected over the same short time intervals, but the
flow data and historical relationship between flow and
concentration should be used judiciously to select an
appropriate number of samples for chemical analyses.
5. Urban runoff data from the Manitou Way basin as
extrapolated to the entire Lake Wingra basin indicated
that approximately 80 percent of the total phosphorus
and about 35 to 40 percent of the total nitrogen in-
fluent to Lake Wingra arises from urban runoff.
770
-------
Knapp , C.E.
Mercury in the Environment.
Environmental Science and Technology. 4(11):890-892.
November 1970.
Key Word : mercury.
Abstract:
Both man and nature share the responsibility for mercury
production. In the natural environment mercury is found
in soil, air, and water. Monitoring and analysis through-
out the country now show that mercury is present in amounts
deemed excessive in all realms of the environment.
Mercury is cumulative and, once it is in the system, it is
only slowly discharged. Accumulation of excess mercury
can result in disastrous situations.
Mercury is more serious than DDT and less serious than
nuclear testing. Although an increasing amount of mercury
has been discovered in foods, there is no reason to declare
a public health crisis; the situation is potentially dangerous
and requires study.
The articles go into some detail about forms of mercury,
methylation, hazards, sources and analysis.
771
-------
Knezevic, M.V. and K.Y. Chen.
Organo-Metall i c Interactions in Recent Marine Sediments.
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1975.
Key Words: aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper,
iron, manganese, nickel, lead, zinc, total
organic carbon, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Availability of trace metals to biota at the interfaces
between seawater and solid sediments is affected by
organo-metallic interactions; the organic substances
and seawater may solubilize the insoluble forms of trace
metals attached to the solid surfaces through chelation.
In the case of soils, the migration and accumulation of
trace metals has been found to be associated with the
Pri6SJ*Pce °f humic substances. The different functional
groups present in humic substances appear to be responsible
for the organo-metallic complexing phenomena. In this
study, efforts were made to determine whether such re-
lationships also exist in nearshore recent marine sedi=
ments. (Humic substances have been shown to be a major
component of the organic material in recent marine
sediments).
772
-------
Knight, H.T. and L.J. 01 sen.
Mercury Distribution in American Smelt from Lake Michigan.
American Midland Naturalist. £l_(2 ): 451 -452. April 1974.
Key Words: mercury, fish.
Abstract:
This article establishes mercurial levels for freshwater
fish.
773
-------
Knittel, M.D.
Occurrence of K1ebs1 el la pneumoni ae in Surface Waters.
Applied Microbiology. 29.(5): 595-597 . May 1975.
Key Words: coliforms, fecal streptococci, Escherichia coli.
surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The occurrence of Klebsiella pneumonl ae in surface
waters was not f o un d to be u b 1 q u 1 to us'. When it was
isolated, Escherichia coli could also be found. The
fecal coliform to fecal streptococci ratio suggest that
its origin could be human, animal, or mixed sources.
774
-------
Knittel, M.D.
Taxonomy of Klebsiella Pneumoniae Isolated from Pulp/Paper Mill
Wastewaters.
EPA-660/2-75-024, Pacific Northwest Environmental Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, June 1975. 39p. (Available
from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as
PB-244 405).
Key Words: coliforms, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The coliforms in the wastewater from pulp and paper mills
are composed of as much as 80 percent K. pneumoniae.
775
-------
Kobayashi , J .
Relation Between the "Ita1-Ita1" Disease and the Pollution
of River Water by Cadmium from a Mine.
Advances an Water Pollution Research. 1970. (1):1-25/1-8.
Key Words: cadmium, lead, zinc, surface water (fresh),
groundwater.
Abstract:
As a consequence of the discovery of a high content
of Cd, Zn, and Pb in the tissues of the patients
suffering from the itai-itai disease, which appeared
in a restricted district along the Jintsu River in
Toyama Prefecture, Japan, there was a strong presumption
that the cause of the disease was chronic poisoning
by the heavy metals found in the wastewater from a mine.
The following observations were made: (1) The itai-itai
disease and damage to rice plants by the wastewater
appeared in the-same place along the banks of the river
during the same period, and decreased at the same timej
(2) A heavy accumulation of Cd and other metals was
found in the patients' bones, internal organs, soil,
and plants; (3) In animal experiments each of the rats
was kept in a metabolism test cage, excrement and urine
were collected weekly, and Ca was quantitatively deter-
mined. The group of rats which was fed Cd excreted more Ca
than that assimilated from the feed, while the control
group showed the contrary phenomenon. Thus, the loss
of mineral components from the bones was ascertained
to be caused by Cdi (4) Research on the existence of a
similar disease was conducted on Tsushima Island of
Nagasaki Prefecture.
From these results, it was made clear that the itai-itai
disease was induced by cadmium in the wastewater from
a mi ne.
776
-------
Koeman, J.H., W.H.M. Peeters, C.H.M. Koudstaal-Hoi, P.S
Tijoe, and J.J.M. de Goeij.
Mercury-Selenium Correlations in Marine Mammals.
Nature. 2.45:385-386. October 1973.
Key Words: mercury, selenium.
Abstract:
This paper draws a correlation between m'ercurial
selenial uptake in the liver of marine mammals.
There may be a similar correlation in man.
777
-------
Koirtyohann, S.R., R. Meers, and L.K. Graham.
Mercury Levels In Fishes from Some Missouri Lakes with and
without Known Mercury Pollution.
Environmental Research. 8/.1-11. August 1974.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Mercurial fungicides used in golf greens maintenance can
lead to elevated levels of mercury in fish, from lakes
receiving greens drainage. Of the species tested, the
largemouth bass was the most sensitive indicator with
levels ranging from 1 to 7 M.Q Hg/g of wet tissue in fish
taken from lakes which receive drainage from treated
greens. Background mercury levels in largemouth bass
from impoundments in central Missouri are 0.1-1.2 ppm
depending on size and other factors. Many lakes with
no known source of mercury contamination produce bass
which contain significantly more than 0.5 ppm of mercury
778
-------
Kokoropoulos, P.
Designing Post-Chlorination by Chemical Reactor Approach.
JWPCF. £5(10) :2155-2165. October 1973.
Key Words: manganese, iron, ammonia, nitrites, coliforms,
chlorination,
detergents
But the
since these
Abstract:
The article is concerned with the rates of the reactions
of HOC1 with ammonia, organic nitrogenous and aromatic
compounds, inorganic reducing species and
as they affect the disinfection process.
information in the article may be useful,
rates determine the amounts of the contaminants re-
maining in wastewater. This article also mentions
the formation of toxic chlorinated compounds and says
there is no information on potential long-term health
effects induced by continuous low-level injection of
chlorinated nitrogenous compounds.
779
-------
Kokoropoulos, P. and G.P. Manos.
Kinetics as Design Criteria for Post Chlorinati on.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE.
9i(EEl):73-88. February 1973.
Key Words: manganese, iron, ammonia, nitrites, coliforms,
chlorination.
Abstract:
Post chlorination is a series of chemical reactions in
solution under flow conditions. It is controlled by the
rates of reactions of the various impurities of an ef-
fluent, including microorganisms, with hypochlorous acid
and hypochlorite ion. Aquisition of adequate kinetic
data and their application, as design criteria, to the
design of postchlorination facilities, will lead to the
development of facilities with improved efficiency
and lower cost. Proper interpretation and application
of kinetic data indicate that adequate free chlorine
residuals may exist without reaching to extreme situations
such as break point chlorination. Along with the volume
of effluent to be treated and the desired or required
chlorine residual, the composition of the effluent with
respect to components capable of reacting with chlorine
and their respective reaction rate constants should be
considered as primary design criteria for post chlorina-
ti on.
Specific rate
with effluent
form bacteria
detergents).
ki, on the ra
components to
experimental
at Akron and
cant amount o
agents.
constants, k^, of the reactions of chlorine
components are derived (for ammonia, coli-
, amoebic cysts, nitrite, manganese, iron,
The effect of the reaction rate constants,
tio of the initial concentration of these
the final concentration is given for an
situation. Examination of the effluents
Barberton, Ohio, indicated that a signifi-
f chlorine reacted with an ionic surface
780
-------
Kolata, G.B.
Chemical Carcinogens: Industry Adopts Controversial "Quick"
Tests.
Science. J9_2:1215-1217. June 18, 1976.
Key Words: salmonella, epidemiology.
Abs tract:
This article discusses the Ames Test and is based on the
presumption that many cancers are related to mutations
or some sort of damage to the DNA of a cell and, therefore,
that agents that are mutagenic are likely to be carcino-
genic. Sa 1 mone11 a typhimuri um were used.
781
-------
Koon, J.H. and W.O. Kaufman.
Ammonia Removal from Municipal Wastewaters by Ion Exchange.
JWPCF. 47.(3): 448-465. March 1975.
Key Words: ammonia, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The principal objective of this investigation was to
optimize the application of the zeolite ion exchanger
clinopti1ol1te to the removal of ammonia from waste-
waters and to relate the findings to the design and cost
of this process. The major conclusions of the investi-
gation are summarized below:
1. The ammonium exchange capacity of clinoptilolite
in treating domestic wastewaters may be estimated from
the cationic strength (similar to total ionic strength)
of the column influent. The ammonium exchange capacity
was observed to decrease sharply with increasing competing
cation concentrations to a cationic strength of about
0.01 moles/1. Increases of cationic strength above this
value continued to decrease the exchange capacity, but
to a much lesser degree. The results of these tests
may be used to estimate the ammonium exchange capacity
of clinopti1olite for wastewaters containing cation con-
centrations that are not unusually different from con-
centrations used in these tests.
2. While the total ammonium exchange capacity was identi-
cal for Na- and Ca- clinoptilolite, the breakthrough
capacity was more than twice as great for Na-clinoptilolite
This observation was explained by the greater mobility
of the smaller sodium ion in the zeolite pores. In
addition, regeneration with calcium salts was much less
efficient than with sodium salts. Approximately three
times as much regenerant, on an equivalent basis, was re-
quired for complete ammonia elution with CaCl2 and Ca(OH)2
in comparison with NaCl and NaOH. Operation of clinoptilo-
lite by using sodium salts for regeneration resulted in a
greater throughput per cycle to ammonia breakthrough and
led to economies of regeneration.
3. Optimum conditions for ammonia exchange exist between
pH 4.0 and 8.0, with little variation in ammonium exchange
capacities between these values. However, the ammonium
exchange capacity decreased rapidly outside this range.
782
-------
4. The pH at which clinopti1olite was regenerated
affected both the volume of regenerant required and
regeneration efficiency, regeneration at pH 12.5 being
more effective and more efficient than regeneration
at pH 11.5 or 12.0. However, the results of attrition
studies showed that the strength of caustic used for
regeneration will be limited by the instability of
clinoptilolite in caustic solutions.
5. Increasing the regenerant NaCl concentration beyond
a certain value at a particular pH had no effect on the
volume of regenerant required. For regeneration at pH
12.0 and 12.5, no benefit was realized by using a salt
concentration greater than 12 g MaCl/1. Likewise,
increasing the salt concentration beyond 20 g NaC1/l
at pH 11.5 produced no improvement in regeneration per-
formance .
6. Process demonstration studies conducted at three test
locations showed that an average effluent ammonia con-
centration of 0.75 mg/1 NH3-N could be achieved for runs
of 120 to 180 BV duration at flows of 10 to 15 BV/hr.
7. The total cost of ammonia removal with clinoptilolite
for a 10 mgd (38,000 cu m/day) plant was estimated to be
$0.163/1,000 gal ($0.042/cu m) for cases in which regen-
erant is used only once and $0.101/1,000 gal ($0.027/cu m)
when regenerant is reused. Costs for disposal of spent
regenerant solutions were not included in the cost esti-
mate for the case in which regentrant would be wasted
after one use. These costs indicate that the reuse of
regenerant by air stripping ammonia from the spent
regenerant .solution will be the most feasible method of
operation. However, in areas in which transportation
charges for chemicals are minimal and disposal of re-
generant solutions may be easily accomplished, wasting
of regenerant solutions after one use might be competitive
with treatment costs when regenerant is reused.
783
-------
Kopfler, F.C.
The Accumulation of Organic and Inorganic Mercury? Compounds
by the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica).
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
11:275-280. March 1974.
Key Words: mercury, shellfish.
Abstract:
This article investigates uptake by oysters of the various
forms of mercury (inorganic, phenyl- and methyl-mercury).
784
-------
Kopfler, F.C. and J. Mayer.
Concentrations of Five Trace Metals in the Waters and Oysters
(Crass os trea Vi rgini ca) of Mobile Bay, Alabama.
Proceedings National She!1fisheries Association. 63:27-34.
June 1973.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, shellfish.
Abs tract:
From January 1968 through June 1969, samples of water
and oysters were collected at monthly intervals from
eight locations in Mobile Bay, Alabama. These samples
were analyzed for cadmium, chromium, copper, lead and
zinc by atomic absorption spectrophotometry and the re-
sults analyzed statistically.
Oysters from Mobile Bay contained less cadmium, copper,
-and zinc than the average concentrations reported for
Atlantic Coast oysters. The concentration of chromium
was approximately the same while the lead concentration
was about two times that of the average value for Atlantic
Coast oysters.
Oysters collected from the western side of the Bay were
found to contain a significantly greater concentration
of copper and zinc than oysters collected from the
eastern side. These differences were attributed to dif-
ferences in river systems that contribute the fresh water
discharge and runoff to opposite sides of the Bay.
Although concentrations of the trace metals investigated
were 10^ - 10^ higher in oysters than the concentrations
in the environmental water samples, poor correlation was
observed between the two sets of data.
785
-------
Kopp , J.F.
The Occurrence of Trace Elements in Water.
In: Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Sub-
stances in Environmental Health. D.D. Hemphill, ed. Univer-
sity of Missouri, Columbia, 1969. pp.59-73.
Key Words: zinc, iron, copper, manganese, chromium, lead,
cadmium, surface water (fresh), drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
Samples of raw river waters and finished drinking waters
have been analyzed for the past 11 years through a sur-
veillance and monitoring program of the Federal govern-
ment. Composited as well as grab samples from all over
the United States were examined for nineteen trace ele-
ments using a direct-reading emission spectrograph. A
study of the results from over 1500 raw and 380 finished
waters shows that zinc occurred with the same frequency
in both types of samples; however, the mean concentration
was higher in finished water. For iron, both the fre-
quency of detection as well as the mean value were higher
in finished water. Although copper was observed with a
lower frequency in finished water, the mean value was al-
most three times that of raw water. Manganese occurred
with a greater frequency in finished water, but the mean
was only one-half that of the raw water. Chromium and
lead were observed at measurable levels between 15 and
18% of the time in finished waters with mean values of
7.5 and 33.9 ^g/1, respectively. The corresponding
figures for these elements in raw water were 24 and 19%
with means of 10 and 23 H-g/1. Cadmium and silver were
seldom observed, either in raw or finished water.
Investigations as to the source of trace metals in fin^-
ished water supplies suggest that trace elements are not
generally removed from the raw water during the treatment
process and that it is possible for some metals to be
added to the fi ni shed^ water from the distribution system
or by the household plumbing.
786
-------
Kott, Y., N. Roze, S. Sperber, and N. Betzer.
Bacterlophages as Viral Pollution Indicators.
Water Research. 8(3):165-171 . 1974.
Key Words: viruses, surface water (fresh), trickling filters,
ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Ratios of collphages to human enteric viruses in flood
waters ranged from 1:1 to 103:1; in wastewaters in dif-
ferent seasons the ratio was 105;1; in trickling filter
effluents the ratios were 10^:1 in winter, 105:1 in
spring, and 104:1 in summer and fall; in oxidation pond
effluents the ratios were 103:1 in winter, 104:1 in spring,
and 10^:1 in summer and fall.
Both coliphages and enteric viruses were found in water
supplies where treatment procedures had broken down.
In oxidation pond effluents coliphages were at least
as resistant to chlorine as human enteric viruses.
Poliovirus 1 (LSc) and coliphage f 2, introduced daily
into a 350-liter experimental oxidation pond, did not
decrease in numbers.
787
-------
Kott, Y., H. Ben Ari, and N. Buras.
The Fate of Viruses in a Marine Environment.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1969:823-835.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Many techniques exist to estimate bacterial indicators
found in polluted water but marine health aspects are
far behind those established in water pollution.
Referring to virus detection in polluted water it is quite
difficult to evaluate definite criteria as for viral number
or rate of death. It is therefore evident that only few
studies have been carried out on the fate of viruses in
the marine environment, and it seems extremely difficult
for the time being to enumerate viruses in sea water
quantitatively. This study was performed using coli
bacteri ophages as indicators for other enteric viruses
and thus enable the fate of these particles in marine
environment to be followed. The serological study has
proved that E. coli bacteri ophages attack the specific
bacteria, and that Aerobacter phages present in sea water
do not cause any false positive results, and vice versa.
Various studies have emphasized that some of the enteric
viruses are very stable and therefore survive long in
unnatural conditions. The results of studies show that
bacteriophages were affected by the natural killing prop-
erties of the sea water, but in contrast to the rapid
killing of bacteria, these results were obtained after
a relatively long detention period. The results obtained
so far enable us to assume that coliphages are as resis-
tant to the environment as the other enterovi ruses. Thus
using coliphage as a model to evaluate the fate of viruses
in marine environment becomes easier.
788
-------
Krauskopf, K.B.
Geochemistry of Micronutrients.
ljt±: Micronutrients in Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer, ed. Soil
Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972. pp. 7-40.
Key Words: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, ponding/land
application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
The contribution that geochemistry can make to the study
of micronutrient elements in soils is far from impressive.
By and large, geochemists have focused attention on aspects
of the behavior of elements not closely related to soil
formation, and their results are applicable to soil pro-
blems only in a disappointingly general way. The distri-
bution in geologic materials is known to a fair degree of
accuracy for the four elements Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn, but
even this basic kind of information is poorly documented
for B and Mo. Much geochemical effort is devoted to
working out the mechanisms by which accumulations of
definite minerals of the various elements have originated,
but the more indefinite forms of the elements often encoun-
tered in soils have been less attractive as a field of
study. From a geochemical point of view, soils seem a
particularly difficult kind of material, about which pre-
cise conclusions are impossible to draw, and which there-
fore should be left for some future time when we may hope
to have a better fund of knowledge about simpler and more
tractable substances. This is hardly a commendable atti-
tude, as becomes glaringly apparent when one is called
upon to review possible applications of geochemistry to
soil problems.
789
-------
Kreutner, S. and A. Lambeth.
Heavy Metal Uptake in Pasture Grass. Personal communication,
May 1975.
Key Words: zinc, copper, boron, cadmium, lead, crops, livestock,
Abstract:
The authors describe the procedure and tabulate the
results of an analysis of the concentration of heavy
metals in pasture grain after sewage sludge had been
applied for fifteen years.
790
-------
Krone, R.B.
The Movement of Disease Producing Organisms through Soils.
In: Municipal Sewage Effluent for Irrigation. C.W. Wilson and
F.E. Beckett, eds. Agricultural Engineering Department
Symposium, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, Louisiana,
1968. pp. 75-195.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, groundwater, crops, agriculture.
Abstract:
The character of disease organisms, the processes of
filtration, and the experiences described above lead to
the following conclusions:
1. Pathogens have a wide variety of physical and bio-
logical characteristics, including wide ranges of
size, shape, surface properties, and die-away rates.
2. The processes of filtration by soil include straining
at the soil surface, straining at intergrain contacts,
sedimentation, and sorption by soil particles.
3. Straining of pathogens at the soil surface and sorp-
tion of viruses near the soil surface is desirable
because it limits travel of pathogens most, and it is
subject to wide variations in temperature and moisture,
and it will assure aerobic conditions. A soil con-
taining clay should therefore be used for irrigation
with treated sewage.
4. Wide experience in irrigation with treated sewage
indicates that it is safe provided that at least
primary treatment is used, and provided that the crops
are not consumed directly by humans. Secondary treat-
ment and chlorination is recommended for aesthetic
reasons.
The utilization of waste waters is a desirable method of
conserving our water resources. Its practice has been
demonstrated to be feasible, and reasonable safeguards
are easily achieved. It is anticipated that as our
knowledge of filtration and die-away processes increase,
techniques will be developed that will make the possi-
bility of disease transmissions even more remote.
791
-------
Kruse, C.W., V.P. Oliveri, and K. Kawata.
The Enhancement of Viral Inacti vation of Halogens.
In: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Water Quality Conference; .
Virus and Water Quality: Occurrence and Control, University
of Illinois, February 1971. pp. 197-209.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination.
Abstract:
Several old concepts must be unlearned in improving viral
disinfection with halogens. A major misconception is
the belief that the mode of action of halogens on bacteria
and virus is similar. This has led to the concept, still
believed by many, that a long contact time with sufficient-
ly high combined chlorine residuals will be virucidal.
Furthermore, it is misleading to assume that the virucidal
properties of ammonia haloamine are representative of
combined halogens especially in regard to sewage. How-
ever, for all practical purposes, all free halogens have
good virucidal properties in the pH range of natural
waters.
Therefore, the halogen in water supply disinfection must
be applied beyond the breakpoint to give free halogen
residuals, if all the viruses are to be inactivated. For
best virucidal results chlorine and bromine might be ap-
plied to water at the low pH point of treatment, such as
prechlorination of coagulated surface waters. Iodine may
be the virucide of choice in very alkaline water requiring
disinfection such as the water in some softening works.
The provision of flash mixing is of greater importance
only when combined chlorine residuals are used.
In wastewater treatment, halogenation to a level of free
residual is not economically feasible and the assumption
that the disinfection obtained comes from the combined
halogen is incorrect. Viral disinfection in sewage is
accomplished in the first moments when bacteria and virus
contact the uncombined free halogen. The longer the free
halogen persists in uncombined form, the more complete
will be the inactivation. To gain the advantage of uncom-
bined free halogen, it is imperative to provide flash
mixing, an operation seldom provided in wastewater dis-
infection. In addition, laboratory evidence points to a
significant reduction in chlorine required, depending
upon the pH of the flash mix reaction. A study of cost
optimization in the field will be required to determine
whether the cost of pH adjustment of the sewage with acid
will be justified by the reduction in chlorine and greater
virucidal efficiency.
792
-------
Kubota, 0., E.L. Mills, and R.T. Oglesby.
Lead, Cd, Zn, Cu, and Co in Streams and Lake Waters of Cayuga
Lake Basin, New York.
Environmental Science and Technology. 8^:243-248. March 1974.
Key Words: lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, cobalt, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
Waters of 12 tributary streams of Cayuga Lake were studied
to determine the levels and seasonal and geographic
patterns of trace elements in the Cayuga Lake basin, a
primary rural area. Trace elements in soluble form and
in suspended particulates were studied. The trace
element concentrations were generally low, but a seasonal
pattern reflecting higher concentrations with high stream
flow were noted for Pb. Values for streams of rural areas
reflect levels associated with normal geochemical processes
and soil weathering. An impact of urbanization was re-
flected in higher levels of trace elements in suspended
matter in streams through urban areas.
793
-------
Kudo, A. and J.S. Hart.
Uptake of Inorganic Mercury by Bed Sediments.
Journal of Envi ronmental Quality. 3_:273-278. March 1974.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The kinetics of uptake of inorganic mercury as mercuric
chloride by a variety of freshwater river sediment types
typical of Ottowa River sediments were studied to deter-
mine the influence of mercury concentration in water,
hydrodynamic effects, sediment depth, aerobic or anaerobic
conditions, and two types of water. Uptake appears to
depend strongly on concentration of mercury in water and
water velocity, and not on sediment depth or water type.
No significant difference in uptake rates was observed
between aerobic and anaerobic conditions during the
10 days studied.
794
-------
Kutz, F.W., A.R. Yobs, W.6. Johnson, and G.B. Wiersma.
Mi rex Residues in Human Adipose Tissue.
Environmental Entomology. 3:(5) :882-884. October 1974.
Key Words: epidemiology, chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Abstract:
This article reports the discovery of mirex residues
in human adipose tissue in 1971-1972,. from 4 males and
2 females. Mirex is an organochlorine insecticide
used for control of the imported fire ant.
795
-------
Labadie, J.W.
Optimization Technique for Minimization of Combined Sewer
Overflow.
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Dept. of Civil
Engineering, June 1973. 89p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-234 331).
Key Words: combined municipal and/or storm systems.
Abstract:
Methods of developing control logic for automated opera-
tion of ambient and/or auxiliary storage capabilities
within combined sewer systems, with the objective of mini-
mizing overflows to receiving waters, are analyzed and
evaluated.. The enormous number of control opportunities
requires that the control problem be formulated as an opti*
mization problem. The problem is defined as one of mini-
mizing total weighted overflows, subject to an assumed
hydraulic model describing flow and storage dynamics, as
well as other physical constraints. The optimization
problem tends to increase in complexity and degree of
nonlinearity as more realistic flow models are utilized.
796
-------
Labanauskas, C.K.
Manganese.
I n: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. Homer D.
Chapman, ed. Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973.
pp. 264-285.
Key Words: manganese, ponding/land application,
land reclamation, groundwater.
Abstract:
The diagnosis and control of manganese deficiency and
excess in plants and soils is summarized in this chapter.
The author discusses visual symptoms of and indicator
plants for manganese deficiency or excess, kinds of
soil in which manganese deficiency or excess most commonly
occur, soil management and other practices which aggravate
or reduce manganese deficiency or may produce manganese
toxicity, soil analysis values of significance and
methods of correcting manganese deficiency.
797
-------
Lager, O.A. and W.G. Smith.
Urban Stormwater Management and Technology: an Assessment.
EPA-670/2-74-040, Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, December 1974. 465p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-240 687).
Key Words: BOD, suspended solids, coliforms, ammonia,
nitrates, phosphates, influent characteristics,
effluent characteristics, chlorination, air
flotation, screening operations, other primary
wastewater treatment procedures, nitrification/
denitrification, adsorption/ion exchange,
activated sludge, trickling filters, aerated
lagoons, anaerobic lagoons.
Abstract:
Control and/or treatment of storm sewer discharges and
combined sewer overflows is a major problem in the
field of water quality management. A comprehensive
investigation and assessment of promising, completed,
and ongoing projects, respresentative of the state-of-
the-art in abatement theory and technology, has been
accomplished in this study. The results are presented
as a compendium of project information on management
and technology alternatives within a framework of
problem identification, evaluation procedures, and
program assessment, and selection.
798
-------
Lagerwerff, J.V.
Heavy Metal Contamination of Soils.
Soil and Water Conservation Research Divisi on, Agricultural
Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture.
Beltsville, Maryland.
Key Words: copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, zinc, manganese,
lead, ponding/land application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
The majority of the metals discussed in this presentation
appear to have a number of properties in common.
1. The equilibrium between the more mobile, lower-valency
forms and less mobile, higher-valency forms depends on
oxidation-reduction conditions, on pH, and occasionally
on microbial activity. These factors may all be inter-
related .
2. To some extent, the metals occur as chelates, either
by accumulating biologically in living systems or by re-
acting with soil organic matter.
3. To different degrees the metals are competitive with
Fe. The general order of decreasing competition seems to
be :
Cu > Co > Ni > Cr >2n > Mr\ >Pb
The order given here is approximate, and the transposition
of any two adjoining metals should be considered possible.
The toxicity of these metals to plants does not necessarily
follow the same order.
4. The phosphates of the metals are rather insoluble,
especially under alkaline conditions.
It thus follows that unfavorable effects of heavy metals
on plants generally can be alleviated by one or more of
the following operations:
1. Increasing the pH of the soil to above 6.5 by liming.
2. Organic-matter treatment of soil (stubble mulching,
green manuring), the pH being near or above 6.5.
3. Application of Fe, particularly as the EDTA-chelate
either foliarly or to the soil.
4. Application of phosphates, provided the soil pH is
managed properly,
799
-------
Absolute values for the different treatments depend
entirely upon the species of plants involved and ecological
conditions in topo.
800
-------
Lagerwerff, J.V. and D.L. Brower.
Exchange Adsorption or Precipitation of Lead in Soils Treated with
Chlorides of Aluminum, Calcium, and Sodium.
Soil Science Proceedings. _37_: 11-13. January 1973.
Key Words: lead, direct contact, groundwater.
Abstract: „
The exchange behavior of Pb^ present in small concentra-
tions in kaolinitic, montmori1lonitic, and Illitic soils
pretreated with A13+ or Ca2-, and kept at a number of salt
(Cl) levels, was in agreement with mass-action law prin-
ciples. The mean values of the Gapon exchange coefficient
describing the distribution of ions between the adsorbed
and solution phases in Cecil, Winsum, and Yolo soils were
0.31, 0.11, and 0.24 for Pb-Al systems, and 4.13, 4.97, and
11.1 for Pb-Ca systems. In Na treated, alkalized soils,
Pb precipitated. The solubility of the precipitate in-
creased with decreasing pH and concentration of salt (NaCl).
The solubility in solutions used for suspending the soil
was less in the presence than in the absence of soil. This
may indicate that the Pb-soil complex is less soluble than
the precipitate formed in solution, so that when soil is
present the composition of the precipitate shifts toward
a less soluble form. This would imply a tnul ti-component
nature of the precipitate.
801
-------
Lambou, V. and B. Lim.
Hazards of Lead in the Environment with Particular Reference
to the Aquatic Environment.
Federal Water Quality Administration, Washington, D.C.,
August 1970. 44p.
Key Words: lead, direct contact, fish.
Abstract:
This article discusses lead, its toxicity and effects
on man, fish and wildlife and the environment, and lead
consumption and industrial uses.
802
-------
Lance, J .C .
Nitrogen Removal by Soil Mechanisms.
JWPCF, £4(7) :1352-1361. July 1972.
Key Words: ammonia, nitrates, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
Nitrogen may be removed from a soil system in gaseous form
by volatilization of ammonia or by deni tri fi cati on . The
amount of ammonia volatilized in a land disposal system
is small, but large amounts of nitrogen could be removed
during travel through a long stream or channel to the dis-
posal area. Deni tri fi cati on is perhaps the most desirable
removal process because large amounts of nitrogen can be
removed and transferred to the atmosphere as Ng. The
nitrogen is thus completely removed from the system without
causing air pollution. Additional research will be needed
to determine whether denitrification can be sustained in a
groundwater recharge system without prior oxidation of
ammonium and/or additional sources of carbon.
The removal of plant tissue from the land is the only other
means of completely removing nitrogen from the system.
This is an effective method which would be unsuitable for
large urban areas because it requires large areas of land.
It could be attractive for small towns and cities because
of availability of cheap land and the economic return from
the crop harvested.
Large quantities of ammonium ion can be adsorbed by clays,
but such immobilization is not permanent because it can be
replaced by other cations or removed by nitrifying organ-
isms. This mechanism can be important in concentrating
most of the nitrogen into smaller volumes of water which
could be treated again or used for its fertilizer value.
Large quantities of nitrogen can be immobilized by soil
organic matter, but a high-rate recharge system would be
saturated with nitrogen within a few years. Some nitrogen
can be immobilized in microbial cells and converted to
soil organic matter1 as the microbes die.
The natural chemical and biological processes occurring
in soils offer tremendous potential for the reclamation
of municipal wastewater without eutrophication hazards
when a proper management system is developed and followed.
803
-------
Lance, J.C., C.P'. Gerba, and J.L. Melnick.
Virus Movement in Soil Columns Flooded with Secondary Sewage
Effluent.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 32(4):520-526,
October 1976.
Key Words: polio virus, viruses, groundwater, surface water
(fresh), direct contact.
Abstract:
This article describes original research on tne virus
absorptive properties of a soil column (calcareous sand)
when secondary sewage effluent is passed through.
Deionized water can cause virus desorption.
804
-------
Land Application of Sewage Effluents and Sludges: Select
Abstracts.
EPA-660/2-74-042, Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Labor-
atory, Ada, Oklahoma, Water Quality Control Board, June 1974.
(Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as PB-235 386).
Key Words: virus, coliforms, bacteria, ponding/land applica-
tion, land reclamation, heavy metals.
Abstract:
This book is a compilation of selected abstracts on
sewage and effluent application to land.
805
-------
Langley, D.G.
Mercury Methylation in an Aquatic Environment,
JWPCF. 45_(1):44-51. January 1973.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
The results show that laboratory-controlled methylation
studies are an excellent scientific tool that can be
utilized successfully to monitor methylmercury accumu-
lation in one important aquatic community. The results
also indicate that mercury methylation depends on a num-
ber of parameters. These include temperature, pH, redox
potential, microbial activity, mercury concentration, and
organic concentration (OSI).
Methylation of existing mercury contamination in aquatic
environments is a serious hazard because under certain
favorable conditions methylation can occur in sediments
with fairly low mercury concentrations. This study indi-
cates that, for practical purposes, environmental mercury
methylation is too slow a process to permit a natural
rehabilitation through purging of contaminated sediments.
It would seem that mercury-contaminated sediments would
require many decades to purge themselves to natural levels.
Apart from mercury removal by dredging, which has not yet
been proven successful, the approach of sealing off mercury-
contaminated sediments shows promise as a rehabilitation
measure and warrants further investigation.
806
-------
Lanouette, K.H.
Removing Heavy Metals from Waste Water.
Environmental Science and Technology. 6^(6): 518-522.
June 1972.
Key Words: chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel,
mercury, lead, adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
This is an early discussion on the removal of metals
from wastewater.
807
-------
Larkin, E.P..J.T. Tierney.and R. Sullivan.
Persistence of Virus on Sewage Irrigated Vegetables.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE. 102
(EEl): 29-35. January 1976.
Key Words: polio virus, viruses, agriculture, ponding/land
application.
Abstract:
Presently operating treating systems do not completely remove
viruses from sewage sludge or effluent. Viruses have been
recovered from crops irrigated or fertilized,, or both, with
sewage wastes. Poliovirus 1 has been shown to persist on
lettuce and radishes, plants normally consumed raw, for up
to 36 days.
Land disposal of sewage on soils of proper consistency re-
sults in the production of an acceptable water and helps
reduce pollution of rivers and streams. Expansion of such
an effective process should be encouraged where feasible.
However, care should be taken to carefully evaluate land
disposal from the viewpoint of groundwater pollution and
contamination of food crops by pathogenic organisms.
Viruses, have been shown to pass through sewage treatment
plants sometimes with little or no reduction in titer
or infectivity. Contamination of the food supply could
result in the seeding of infection into the population,
with a subsequent increase in contact infection and a
resulting higher input of organisms to the sewage system.
If the cycle persists, an endemic, and possibly epidemic,
disease environment could develop. Municipalities con-
templating sewage disposal on land should investigate
the use of crops other than those in the food chain until
treatment and monitoring methods are in use that would
preclude the seeding of food crops with human pathogens.
808
-------
Larsen, V., J.H. Axley, and G.L. Miller.
Agricultural Waste Water Accommodation and Utilization of
Various Forages.
University of Maryland, College Park, Water Resources Research
Center, 1974. 102p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-234 631).
Key Words: ammonia , phosphates , groundv/ater crops , effluent
characteri sties.
Abstract:
The influence of poultry processing plant sewage upon
forages, soil , and the groundv/ater was studied. Harvest-
ing the forages resulted in removal of about 200 to 300 kg
N/ha/year from the system. Ammonia volatilization from
plant leaves and soil after sprinkler irrigation of the
sewage was 35 to 110 kg N/ha/year. It never exceeded 10%
of the applied nitrogen. Denitrification within the soil
accounted for 20 to 70% of the applied nitrogen. Denit-
rification was more important in removal of nitrogen than
harvesting of the crop, when more than 970 kg N/ha/year
was applied annually as sewage. Soil water dilution of
the effluent acted as nitrogen sink. Two and a half ppm
N03-N was found in the groundwater at a depth of 6 m when
547 kg N/ha/year was applied. If the nitrogen application
was increased to 3219 kg N/ha/year 11.2 ppm N03-N was
found in the groundwater at a dept!i of 9 m. This is
slightly above the safe limit of 10 ppm N03-N assigned by
the U.S. Public Health Service. Ninety-five to 99% of
the applied phosphorus was removed from the sewage by the
first 30 cm of the soil.
809
-------
Larson, T.O.
Purification of Subsurface Waters by Reverse Osmosis.
JAWWA. 75(12): 1527-1848. December 1967.
Key Words: iron, manganese, reverse osmosis.
Abstract:
The conclusions to be drawn from this article are as
fol1ows :
1. Reverse osmosis is capable of purifying brackish
water to produce a high-quality product at reasonable
recovery ratio..
2. When operating upon waters high in bicarbonate, or
at recovery ratios that produce high concentrations of
bicarbonates in the feed-brine stream, a tenacious car-
bonate scale will tend to precipitate on the membrane
to reduce product water flow and increase brine side
pressure drop.
3. The formation of carbonate scale can be inhibited
greatly by adjusting the pH of the feed water to a value
below 6. Once formed4 carbonate scale can be removed
by the combined effect of acid addition to the feed to
loosen and dissolve the scale, and flushing.
4. When operating on waters high in sulfate, or at recovery
ratios that produce high concentrations of sulfates in
the feed-brine stream , calcium sulfate will tend to pre-
cipitate on the membrane and the brine channel spacers.
This will result in some reduction in product water flow
but will cause a marked increase in brine side pressure
drop.
5. The formation of sulfate scale within the modules can
be inhibited greatly by the introduction of chemical
additives, such as polyphosphates, to the feed. The use
of such techniques has allowed operation at recovery
ratios resulting in a concentration of a factor of four
or more above saturation in the feed-brine stream without
precipitation of sulfates within the modules.
6. Once formed, sulfate scale is more susceptible to re-
moval by mechanical means , such as flushing> than carbonate
scale and less susceptible to removal by chemical means,
such as acid addition.
7. Precipitation of iron and manganese compounds within
reverse osmosis systems can be inhibited greatly by reduc-
810
-------
ing the pH of the feed to a value less than 6 and employing
relatively straightforward measures to minimize aeration of
the feed.
8. Additional work is necessary to study the long-term
economics of reverse osmosis systems on brackish water.
811
-------
Lau, L.S.
Water Recycling of Sewage Effluent by Irrigation: A Field
Study on Oahu.
University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Water Resources Research
Center, 1974. HOp.
Key Words: ammonia, BOD, COD, chlorides, cyanides, nitrates,
nitrites, oil and grease, phosphates, suspended
solids, total dissolved solids, boron, coliforms,
adeno virus, coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, viruses,
cadmium, lead, mercury, DDT, surface water (fresh),
ODD, chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Abstract:
The primary objective of the project is to determine the
feasibility of wastewater application to the soil and its
probable effects on the quantity of groundwater in terms
of dissolved materials and viruses.
812
-------
Law, J.P., Jr., R.E. Thomas, and L.H. Myers.
Cannery Wastewater Treatment by High Rate Spray on Grassland.
JWPCF. _42(9): 1621-1631 . September 1970.
Key Words: BOD, COD, ponding/land application.
Abstract:
A 12-month study was conducted to determine the treatment
efficiency of a spray-runoff treatment system for cannery
wastes. A total of 133 in (338 cm) of wastewater was
applied to each of four experimental areas. Hydrological
measurements, mass removal efficiencies, and soil water
quality were evaluated in relation to age of system, soil
type, and spray scheduling.
Hydrological measurements showed that 18 percent of the
applied water was lost through evaporative prftteesses;
61 percent returned to surface streams as runWf; and the
remaining 21 percent percolated through the soil.
The quality of the wastewater varied regularly according
to routine changes in cannery processing operations. The
soil system provided a buffering capacity which eliminated
most of this variability from the quality of the stream
leaving the farm.
The normal once-a-day spray schedule resulted in 92 to 99
percent removal of the volatile solids and oxygen-demanding
organics, 83 to 90 percent removal of total nitrogen, and
50-to 63 percent removal of total phosphorus. System age
had no consistent effect on treatment efficiency, while
the sandy loam soil showed a slight advantage over the
loam to clay loam soil.
Changing the spray schedule from once a day to three times
a week improved the phosphorus removal on one of the
experimental areas from about 50 percent to 88 percent.
Spreading the organic load over more land area had little
effect on treatment efficiency.
Data from three farm effluent stations verified the ability
of the spray-runoff treatment system to produce a highly
treated effluent throughout the year. Soil water showed
a marked increase in total dissolved salts in the older
areas, but nitrogen and phosphorus remained low. The soil
water should be monitored again in a few years to determine
if the conditions under the older area are approaching a
stable state. Similar attention s:hould be given to the
sodium buildup in the soil water to determine if stable
conditions occur before the problem becomes serious.
813
-------
Simple concentration reduction does not give a true picture
of the treatment efficiency of the system. Treatment
efficiencies were computed on a mass removal basis for a
better evaluation of the system. Five key parameters were
selected for this evaluation and the data are summarized
in this report. The values are quarterly means for each
of the four experimental areas along with the 6-month means.
The effects of soil type and system age were evaluated dur-
ing the first 6 months of the study. Although the dif-
ferences were not great, examination of the data for each
of the study areas indicated that experimental lines G-4
and G-ll, which were on the sandy loam soil „ had greater
treatment efficiencies than their respective counterparts,
Y-l and B-ll, on the loam to clay loam soil. Mass removals
for BOD, COD. and VSS were consistently high for all areas.
The effects clue to age were not as consistent. A comparison
of 5-yr-old line G-4 with 3-yr-old line G-ll showed the
effect of age on the sandy loam soil. A similar comparison
ofjfc-yr-old line Y-l with 3-yr-old line B-ll showed the
effect of age on the heavier soils. There was a tendency
for the older lines to show better removals, but the effect
was not consistent for any of the five parameters. The
results of this comparison showed no consistent effect due
to age, Nitrogen and phosphorus removals were not as high
as were BOD, COD, and VSS removals, but were still better
than the concentrations that conventional treatment methods
normally achieve. Phosphorus removals were substantially
less than those of the other four constituents.
814
-------
Law ^ L.M. and D.F. Goerlitz.
Selected Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Bottom Material from Streams
Tributary to San Francisco Bay.
Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 8^:33-36. June 1974.
Key Words: DDT, DDE , ODD, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
As part of a study of the environmental quality of San
Francisco Bay4 bottom material from 26 streams tributary
to the Bay were analyzed for chlordane, ODD, DDE, DDT, and
PCB residues. These compounds were present in essentially
all streams tested. Chlordane proved to be ubiquitous,
with a concentration range similar to that of the other
compounds. Noteworthy was the occurrence in one stream of
polychlorinated naphthalene residues. Compounds occurring
in concentrations above 20 Kg/kg were identified in most
instances by combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.
815
-------
Lawrence, A.W.
Kinetics of Microbiological ly Mediated Transformations of
Heavy Metals in Aquatic Environments.
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, Dept. of Environmental
Engineering, June 1974. 21p. (Available from National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) as PB-239 148).
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh), surface water
(marine), chemical treatment, adsorption/ion
exchange.
Abstract:
This is a discussion of methylation of mercury and a
review of metals removal.
816
-------
Lawrence, A.W. and P.L. McCarty.
The Role of Sulfides in Preventing Heavy Metal Toxicity in
Anaerobic Treatment.
JWPCF. 3^(3):392-406. March 1965.
Key Words: copper, iron, nickel, zinc, anaerobic lagoons.
Abstract:
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
1. Soluble copper, zinc, and nickel heavy-metal salts
are toxic to anaerobic treatment.
2. Exceptionally high concentrations of iron can be
tolerated in anaerobic treatment, if the iron is added
daily along with the feed.
3. Under anaerobic treatment, toxic heavy metals can be
precipitated and rendered non toxic in the presence
of an equivalent concentration of sulfides.
4. The total concentration of toxic heavy metals which
can be tolerated is related directly to the quantity of
sulfides present for their precipitation.
5. The addition of sulfide or sulfide precursors has
allowed the presence of more than 10 percent of heavy
metals on a dried volatile solids basis without inhibiting
the digestion process.
6. The addition of sulfides or sulfide precursors to
relieve heavy-metal toxicity is a sound control pro-
cedure.
817
-------
Lawrence, J. and H.M. Tosine.
Adsorption of Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Aqueous Solutions
and Sewage.
Environmental Science and Technology. 10(4):381-383.
April 1976.
Key Words: synthetics, chlorinated hydrocarbons, pesticides,
adsorption/ion exchange.
Abstract:
The purpose of this work was to study the feasibility
of extracting PCB's from raw sewage by adsorption onto
various media. However, because of the varying nature
of raw sewage, the adsorption was first studied using
synthetic aqueous solutions of Aroclor 1254 and 1242.
The adsorption of PCB's from synthetic aqueous solutions
and raw sewage has been studied on a variety of adsor-
bents, including activated carbons, polymeric resins,
polyvinyl chloride, and polyurethane foams. The carbons,
foams, and XAD-2 strongly adsorbed the PCB's from aqueous
solutions but were much less effective in raw sewage.
The PVC, however, was very effective in raw sewage. A
small-scale treatment unit was designed to demonstrate
the feasibility of removing PCB's from sewage by this
method.
818
-------
Leary, R.D., L.A. Ernest, R.S. Powell, and R.M. Mathe.
Two-hundred MGD Activated Sludge Plant Removes Phosphorus by
Pick!e Liquor.
EPA-670/2-73-050, Milwaukee Sewerage Commission, Wisconsin,
.September 1973. 137p. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-228 561).
Key Words: phosphates, iron, activated sludge, effluent char-
acteristics, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
1. Waste pickle liquor (ferrous sulfate) as an iron source
has been continuously and successfully added to precipi-
tate phosphorus since January 1970 in the 115 MGD East
Plant at the Milwaukee Sewerage Commission's Jones Island
Activated Sludge Waste Water Treatment Plant. The 85 MGD
West Plant receiving the same raw screened sewage was
operated as a control for the first 15 months after which
time, East Plant waste sludge was added to the West Plant
return sludge as an iron source.
2. Based on an average 1971 screened sewage total phos-
phorus concentration of 7.1 mg/1 Pv the East Plant with
Iron addition, removed 90.3% (0.69 mg/1 P effluent residual)
while the West Plant removed 81.7% (1.3 mg/1 P effluent
residual). After the mixing of the East Plant waste
sludge in the West Plant, the total phosphorus removal
from May 1971 to April 1972 in the East and West Plants
averaged 90.4 and 79.5% (0.70 and 1.5 mg/1 P effluent
residual) respectively. During certain months, the total
phosphorus concentration was high because mixed liquor
suspended solids were discharged into the effluent, there-
fore, the total soluble phosphorus concentrations are a
better indication of the effectiveness of the iron addition.
3. Based on an average 1971 screened sewage total soluble
phosphorus concentration of 2.3 mg/1 P, the East Plant
effluent had a residual concentration of 0.22 mg/1 P, while
the West Plant effluent concentration averaged 0.58 mg/1 P.
During the May 1971 to April 1972 period when the East
Plant waste sludge was added to the West Plant return
sludge, the total soluble phosphorus values for the East
and West Plant effluents averaged 0.22 and 0.64 mg/1 P.
4. An average of 8.0 mg/1 Iron was added to the East Plant
mixed liquor (11,546 gallons/day at 0.74 pounds/gallon)
to remove phosphorus. No minimum iron dose testing was
conducted, but obviously, the 1971 minimum was below 8.0
mg/1 iron at the Jones Island East Plant.
819
-------
5. The pickle liquor addition increased the return sludge
phosphorus concentration in 1970 from 2.29% as P in the
control West Plant to 2.61% as P in the East Plant, and
also increased the iron content from 1.86% as Fe in the
West Plant to 5.08% as Fe in the East Plant.
6. The addition of iron to the East Plant mixed liquor
increased the effluent iron concentration slightly. Dur-
ing the 1970 demonstration period, the West and East Plant
effluent total iron concentration ions averaged 0.51 to
1.2 mg/1 Fe and the total soluble iron concentrations
averaged 0.21 and 0.24 mg/1 Fe, respectively. The dif-
ference in total iron concentrations was attributed to
the increased concentration of iron in the East Plant
suspended solids. In 1971, soluble iron concentrations
averaged 0.18 and 0.13 mg/1 Fe, respectively, in the
West and East Plant effluents.
7. Comparison of the efficiencies of the West and East
Plant in removing BOD, COD, and suspended solids as well
as microscopic examination of the mixed liquors indicated
that the addition of unneutralized pickle liquor apparently
did not affect purification.
The major objective of the iron addition was to maintain
an East Plant effluent total phosphorus concentration
of 0.50 mg/1 P and obtain a total plant phosphorus removal
of 85% as required by the Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources by December 1972. The West and East Plant ef-
fluent total phosphorus concentrations during 1971 averaged
1.3 and 0.69 mg/1 P respectively, representing an average
overall 86.6% removal. The effluent total soluble phos-
phorus concentrations for the West and East Plants averaged
0.58 and 0.22 mg/1 P.
820
-------
Leary, R.D., L.A. Ernest, G.R. Douglas, A. Geinopolos, and
D.G. Mason.
Top-Feed Vacuum Filtration of Activated Sludge.
JWPCF. £6(7):1761-1768. July 1974.
Key Words: vacuum filters.
Abstract:
The following conclusions can be drawn from the data
presented in this report:
1. A side-by-side comparison demonstrated that higher
filter yields at improved filter cake solids were obtained
on the top-feed filter as compared with bottom-feed
filters operating under nearly the same conditions.
2. Cake discharge from the top-feed filter is excellent
and requires no blow-off. This maximizes cake solids by
eliminating filtrate blowback and minimixes blinding by
cutting down in sludge cake and scraper contact.
3. More work is required on hopper seal design.
821
-------
Ledbetter, J.O.
Air Pollution from Aerobic Waste Treatment.
Water and Sewage Works. 111(1):62-63. January 1964.
Key Words: bacteria, air.
Abstract:
Aerosols are air suspensions of particulates usually
less than 50 microns (approximately l/500th in ) in size.
Aerosols are given off by all types of aerobic waste
treatment. These particulates emerge as mists or drop-
lets that come out of the main body of liquid waste being
treated by emerging bubbles or by mechanical spattering.
Under most atmospheric conditions, the droplets quickly
evaporate, leaving the nuclei of solid wastes that were
dissolved or suspended in the droplet. At best the
nuclei are dusts that are added to the burden of pollu-
tants in the air, but they may contain material that is
hazardous to the health. It has been documented by com-
petent people in the field that bacteria are often trans-
ported by aerosols from liquids, that pathogenic bacteria
survive the waste treatment processes, and that other
Irritating materials may be carried in this manner. That
the risk of infection or disease caused or transmitted 1n
this manner is small, 1s readily admitted.
822
-------
Ledbetter, J.O. and C.W. Randall.
Bacterial Emissions from Activated Sludge Units.
Industrial Medicine and Surgery. 3_4:130-133. February 1965.
Key Words: coliforms , groundwater.
Abstract:
The airborne bacterial counts made on 35 different days
exhibit conclusive evidence that the bacterial population
of air is increased by passage over an activated sludge
waste treatment unit.
Despite a rapid die-off of bacteria, an increase in the
bacterial population persists for a considerable distance
and time. The distance is strongly dependent upon
wind velocity.
No effects of relative humidity and temperature could
be noted in this study.
The investigation is continuing with future plans to
identify serotypes in an effort to evaluate the
health hazard involved.
823
-------
Ledbetter, J.O., L.M. Hauck, and R. Reynolds.
Health Hazards from Wastewater Treatment Practices.
Environmental Letters. £(3) :225-232. 1973.
Key Words: epidemiology, activated sludge, air.
Abstract:
The added hazards for respiratory disease from working
at a wastewater treatment plant are quite small;
tentatively, it may be said that they are insignificant.
There is a logical and theoretical increase in the
probability of pneumonia but the firm data which we
have do not indicate that any increase occurs. There
are considerably more colds among employees of waste-
water treatment plants than among those of water treat-
ment plants. Also, the incidence of flu is higher in
the same order.
Efforts will continue to categorize the doubtful cases
of all three diseases. When the data are firmed up,
statistical significance tests will be applied to the
differences. A survey of much larger populations will
be attempted in order to define more narrowly the prob-
able risk associated with the wastewater treatment
practice of bubbling air through microbial cultures in
the wastewaters.
824
-------
Ledet, E.J. and J,L.-Laseter.
Alkanes at the Air-Sea Interface from Offshore Louisiana and
Florida .
Science. 1861:261-262. October 1974.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Alkanes at the air-sea interface were analyzed in 118
surface samples collected at five different intervals
over a 12-month period. Unexpectedly, methyl branched
alkanes ranging in chain length from GIS to 635 and
cycloalkanes were frequently the predominant components
This suggested that the alkanes are produced by natural
biological sources as well as human activities.
825
-------
Lee, D.H.K.
Nitrates, Nitrites, and Methemoglobinemia .
Environmental Research. 3^:484-511. 1970.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrites, drinking and recreational
water.
Abstract:
This is an excellent review article on the clinical
picture, toxicology, and ecology of nitrates and
nitrites in food and drinking water.
826
-------
Lee, G.F. and G.D. Veith.
Water Chemistry of Toxaphene - Role of Lake Sediments.
Environmental Science and Technology. 5_:230-239. March 1971.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, surface water (fresh), surface
water (marine).
Abstract:
The role of lake sediments in the detoxification of lakes
which were treated with toxaphene was evaluated under
environmental and laboratory conditions. The extent of
toxaphene accumulation in sediments of three Wisconsin
lakes was determined by electron capture gas chromato-
graphic analysis of core sections and Ekman dredge samples.
The toxaphene concentration in the 0 to 5-cm level of the
sediment increased for 190 days following the treatment
of the lakes and then began decreasing by a factor of 2
every 120 days. Toxaphene was transported vertically to
the 5 to 10-cm and the 10 to 15-cm level of the sediment
at rates varying from 0.4 to 1.1 cm per day in the three
lakes. Toxaphene was not detected below the 20-cra level
of the sediments. Toxaphene which was sorbed onto the
sediment in the lake could not be leached from the sedi-
ment by lake water under laboratory conditions.
Toxaphene accumulated to concentrations as great as 90.0
H-9/g (dry weight) and the transport to the sediments was
attributed to direct sorption onto the sediment and to
co-deposition with toxaphene-ladened algal blooms and other
particulate matter. Toxaphene concentrations in the sedi-
ment decreased from observed maxima by a factor of 2 every
four months 1n the three Wisconsin lakes. Toxaphene was
transported vertically in the sediments at rates of 0.4
to 1.1 cm per day to the 10 to 15-cm level and was at-
tributed to physical mixing of the sediments. Laboratory
studies demonstrated that the sorption of toxaphene on
sediment was irreversible in aqueous solution and that
leaching of appreciable amounts of toxaphene by water is
highly improbable.
827
-------
Lee, J.A., C.S. Shih, and J.A. De Fillppi.
Filtering Combined Sewer Overflows.
JWPCF, 4£(7):1317-1333. July 1972.
Key Words: suspended solids, BOD, COD, filtration, combined
municipal and/or storm systems.
Abstract:
The laboratory studies confirm that ultra-high-rate
filtration is a technically feasible process for the
removal of ss and associated nonsoluble BOD from combined
wastewater. Of the three filter systems tested, the fiber
glass filter performed the best by achieving at least 90
percent removal of ss and 70 percent removal of non-soluble
6005. These results were achieved at filtration rates
ranging from 15 to 30 gpm/sq ft (610.5 to 1,221 1/min/sq m)
and with filter runs of 1- to 3-hr duration. Comparable
effluent quality was not obtained in the trimedia filter
runs at rates in excess of 10 gpm/sq ft (407 1/min/sq m) .
Up-flow filtration through a garnet bed was unsatisfactory
because of very poor effluent quality. Soluble BOD re-
moval was negligible in all three filter systems even
with the addition of activated sludge to the influent
wastewater. However, low dosages of about 50 mg/1 of
activated sludge were imposed by the limitations of the
apparatus; greater dosages might have been effective. The
nonsoluble organic content of the influent wastewater
seemed to have a greater impact on head loss than did the
inorganic ss content.
From the results of these observations, it can be con-
cluded that an improved effluent quality (lower concen-
trations of ss, BODc and COD) could be obtained from the
fiber glass filter by (a) increasing total bed depth,
(b) increasing media density in the bottom layer, or
(c) optimizing density gradation.
A multi- or graded-density fiber glass bed is needed to
retain large solids and to permit the passage of smaller
solids through shallow media depths to make the most
efficient use of pore space and avoid premature clogging
at the shallower depths of the bed. Turbidity of effluent
from the fiber glass filter was caused by very fine partic-
ulates, and it is believed that a bottom density in excess
of 15 Ib/cu ft (240 kg/cu m) could reduce effluent con-
centrations of ss to less than 40 mg/1.
Pretreatment would be required in a full-scale application
of the process under study. Large suspended and floatable
solid particles could be removed from the wastewater by a
828
-------
grit chamber and a series of coarse screens. The waste-
water collection and storage facility could be designed
to function as a grit removal chamber. Field sampling
experience acquired during this study indicates screening
through 1-in (2.54-cm) mesh effectively removes large
particles which might interfere with efficient filter
operation.
Meaningful cost estimates for a full-scale filtration
plant utilizing the fiber glass medium are not obtainable
without further study of the FRP cartridge service life.
The economic feasibility of ultra-high-rate filtration
may depend on extending the useful life of the fiber
glass medium beyond the limits indicated by the laboratory
tests. Improvement of the backwash operation through
modification of underdrain design, staged removal of
backwash effluent, the use of air scouring during backwash,
and development of improved fiber glass bed designs and
fiber glass media regeneration techniques seem to be
promising approaches to the extension of filter life.
829
-------
Lee, J.H., C.E. Nash, and J.R. Sylvester.
Effects of Mirex and Methoxychlor on Striped Mullet, Mug 11
cephalus L.
EPA-660/3-75-015, Oceanic Institute, Waimanalo, Hawaii, May
1975. 26p. (Available from National Technical Information
Service (NTIS) as PB-241 635).
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh),
fish.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were made:
1. Young juvenile mullet (20-43 mm standard length) were
apparently more susceptible to mi rex exposure than older
juveniles (70-150 mm standard length) or adults (260-380 mm
standard length).
2. Mirex was accumulated by mullet, and body concentra-
tions in whole fish (wet weight) increased with increased
concentration in test water, which indicates that the
insecticide is stable in striped mullet.
3. Mirex was accumulated most (21.5 M-g/g) in visceral
organs and least (1.4 M-g/g) in skin and muscle of adult
mullet for a 96-hour exposure period. Gills and hearts
accumulated 2.0 p.g/g for the same exposure time.
4. Methoxychlor was more toxic to mullet than mi rex at
concentrations of 0.1, 1.0 and 10.1 mg/1 over a 96-hour
period. However, mortalities of young juveniles in 0.1-
and 1.0-mg/l mi rex-treated water were 27 and 32 percent
respectively, by far the highest among mi rex-exposed fish
or controls. No mortality occurred among older juveniles
and adults exposed to mirex over the same experimental
pe ri od .
5. Relative to mirex, small amounts of methoxychlor
were accumulated in whole juvenile and adult mullet. Test
fish exposed to 10.0 mg/1 methoxychlor contained 1.7 M-9/g
for juveniles and 11.1 ug/g for adults over a 96-hour period,
6. Results with eggs and larvae were inconclusive because
of the natural high mortality of both stages in culture
conditions. Eggs and larvae from the same broodstock
had a better survival rate in mirex than in methoxychlor.
830
-------
Lee, R.D., J.M. Symons, and G.G. Robeck.
Watershed Human Use Level and Water Quality.
JAWWA. 62.(7) :412-422. July 1970.
Key Words: coliforms, fecal streptococci, viruses, bacteria,
direct contact, groundwater, surface water (fresh),
drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
Conclusions based on the results of this study are as
fol1ows :
1. By present techniques, no measurable influence could
be determined on bacterial indicator population densities
because of the increase in human use level among the
Cedar River, the Green River, and the Clackamas River
watersheds.
2. The animal population on all three watersheds was
much higher than the human use level and generally similar
among watersheds .
3. Enteric pathogens were recovered with a special flow-
through sampler from the most downstream station on all
three watersheds.
4. Fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and enteric
pathogens were recovered from some of the remote sampling
stations with low human use levels.
5. Viruses were not isolated by culturing methods used
on the samples taken with thfe flowthrough sample.
6. The turbidity of the water flowing from these three
watersheds as measured by grab samples was generally low.
7. Peak turbidities occurred during times of high stream-
flow, but the indicator organism densities were low at
this time.
8. The chemical quality of the water flowing from all
three watersheds was good and was similar among the water-
sheds, showing that the level of human use existing during
this study had no measurable effect on chemical water
quality by present techniques.
831
-------
Lefler, E. and Y. Kott.
Virus Retention and Survival in Sand.
In: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
Malina, Jr. and B.P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at
Austin, Center for Research in Water Resources, 1974.
pp. 84-91.
Key Words: polio virus, virus, ponding/land application,
1 and reel amati on .
Abstract:
In any wastewater reclamation project in which percolation
of treated effluents through sand will be used, all the
known and foreseen parameters should be investigated before-
hand. The extent of treatment, and precautions required
prior to sand infiltration depends very much on the ef-
ficiency of the sand in retaining the viruses on one hand,
and viral survival under such conditions on the other.
The current study was aimed to investigate the retention
capacity of the sand and follow the die-away of the viruses
under these conditions. The results that were recorded
showed that viral particles behave very closely from
chemical-physical point of view to what is known in litera-
ture on bacterial sorption to sand.
A method which simplified test procedures was to withdraw
sand samples from the experimental columns and to inoculate
them directly to tissue culture bottles. This method in--
creased the viability of results achieved. The use of the
Most Probable Number (MPN) in evaluation concentration of
f£ bacteriophage enabled counts to be performed as low as
less than two particles in one hundred ml volume. The
various experiments have demonstrated that when viruses
were suspended in distilled water, very poor retention
was achieved. If these theoretical results are compared
to those achieved under field conditions, it should be
analogically considered to rain conditions. In many
countries such rains come in wintertime when temperatures
are fairly low, causing a double effect: a deeper pene-
tration of the viruses in the sand, and longer survivals.
This was found when the viruses were kept in 4 to 8° C.
832
-------
LeGendre, 6.R. and D.D. Runnells.
Removal of Dissolved Molybdenum from Wastewaters by Precipitates
of Iron.
Environmental Science and Technology. 9_:744-749. August 1975.
Key Words: molybdenum, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
Molybdenum is an important industrial element. It is also
an essential metallic cofactor in several enzymes. At
high concentrations in forage it can be toxic to ruminant
animals. High concentrations of Mo are in the aqeuous,
solid, and airborne effluents from many industrial opera-
tions. In the laboratory it can be removed from aqueous
effluent by adsorption or coprecipitation with solid ferric
oxyhydroxide at low pH. A field example is given, taking
place today in a stream in Colorado that receives dissolved
molybdenum from a mining and milling operation. The pre-
cipitate in the stream is a mixture of iron compounds,
including natro jaros i te , NaFe3 (SO^gfOH )g , goethite,
FeO(OH), and amorphous material enriched in molybdenum.
From this study we conclude that removal of dissolved
molybdenum by precipitates of ferric iron is an effective
process in the laboratory and in at least one field situa-
tion. Under the proper conditions of low pH and high iron
content, it appears that essentially all dissolved molybde-
num can be removed.
In the stream waters which we studied, with the exception
of one sample, the molybdenum was not removed by filtration
through a O.Olfj. filter. We conclude that molybdenum in
natural waters is essentially all dissolved and that only
under extraordinary conditions of low pH and high iron can
simple filtration be used for removal. However, at least
some molybdenum-rich waters can be effectively purified
by removal of precipitated ferric compounds at low pH.
This promising procedure is now being bench tested by two
engineers as a possible economic method to purify certain
industrial effluents and to recover the molybdenum values.
833
-------
lejcher, T.R. and S.H. Kunkle.
Restoration of Acid Spoil Banks with Treated Sewage Sludge.
In: Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater
through Forest and Cropland . w . E.Sopper and L.T. Kardos,
ads. EPA-660/2-74-003, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Institute for Research on Land and Water
Resources, March 1974. pp. 165-178.
Key Words: aluminum, iron, cadmium, chromium, zinc, manganese,
ammonia, nitrates, coliforms, copper, lead,
thorium, land reclamation.
Abstract:
This report details the preliminary results of a strip
mined reclamation demonstration project in southern
Illinois. The initial observations indicate that treated
municipal sludge, when applied to the spoil in sufficient
amounts, improves spoil pH, allows establishment of vege-
tation and reduces acidity and concentrations of some of
the chemicals in the runoff issuing from the tract.
The proposed application of sludge to a larger 77 hectare
area should provide some insight into the practicality
of sludge treatment on strip mined areas. If such treat-
ment is practical, three main advantages could possibly
result: (1) reclamation of useless stripped areas, (2) re-
duction of water pollution associated with these areas,
and (3) the disposal of municipal sludge.
834
-------
Leland, H.V., W.N. Bruce, and N.F. Shimp.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides in Sediments of Southern '
Lake Michigan.
Environmental Science and Technology. 7_(9) :833-838. September
1973.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Past usage of organochlorine insecticides in states
bordering southern Lake Michigan has resulted in the
presence in the lake sediments of large reservoirs of
DDT, DDE, ODD, and dieldrin. Analysis of surficial sedi-
ments from different areas of southern Lake Michigan in-
dicated high positive statistical correlations between
t-DDT (DDT, DDE, ODD) and dieldrin concentrations in
the sample and organic carbon content. The amount of
organic carbon in surficial sediments was directly pro-
portional to the clay-size fraction of sediment. De-
chlorination of DDT to form ODD apparently predominates
under the reducing conditions of sediments on the eastern
side of the south basin of Lake Michigan. In other areas,
DDT is the principal component of the t-DDT complex in
sediments and DDE and ODD are major degradative products.
835
-------
Leland, H.V. , S.S. Shukla, and N.F. Shimp.
Factors Affecting Distribution of Lead and Other Trace Elements
in Sediments of Southern Lake Michigan,
In: Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions in Natural
ffiTters. P.C. Singer, ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1974. pp. 89-129.
Key Words: arsenic, chromium, copper, mercury, lead, zinc,
surface water (fresh), fish.
Abstract:
Surface enrichment of arsenic, bromine, chromium, copper,
mercury, lead and zinc, attributable in part to man's
activities, exists in modern surficial sediments of
southern Lake Michigan. These trace elements are appa-
rently sorbed, either directly or through biological
processes, to suspended particles, which are transported
by water and deposited eventually in geographic areas of
active sedimentation. The relative influences of specific
sediment components on sorption and retention of the above
elements are unknown, but regression analysis indicates a
relationship between trace element content and amounts of
organic matter and iron oxide in the sediments. Recent
literature on heavy metal transport emphasizes the impor-
tance of metal interactions with organic matter and
hydrous oxides of iron and manganese.
836
-------
Lemke, H.S. and A.T. Slnskey.
Viruses and Ionizing Radiation in Respect to Wastewater Treat-
ment.
Contribution No. 2630 of the Department of Nutrition and Food
Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge.
Key Words: viruses, radiation treatment.
Abstract:
After a short survey of viruses and the diseases they can
cause in man the effects of ionizing radiation on viruses
are discussed. Ionizing radiation inactivates viruses
by direct and indirect effects, and it is well established
that the radiosensitive target is the nucleic acid.
Factors affecting the radiosensi ti vi ty are temperature
and suspending menstruum. The possible influence of
oxygen on viral radiosensitization remains unclear. For
the effective application of radiation treatment on waste
waters information is required concerning the concentra-
tion of viruses in waste waters in order that treatment
doses may be determined.
837
-------
Leong, L., B. Olson, and R. Cooper.
Me thy! mercury and Environmental Health.
Journal of Environmental Health. 35(5):436-441. March/April
1973. ~
Key Words: mercury, surface water (fresh), surface water
(marine).
Abstract:
This is a good general (slightly technical) review of
methylated form of mercury; it discusses microbial
transformation and bioaccumulation.
838
-------
Leptospirosis Annual Summary 1975.
U.S. Center for Disease Control, HEW. July 1976.
Key Words: epidemiology, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
This article discusses 119 cases of human leptospiros is
with onset in 1975, and the most common probable sources
of infection were surface water and dogs.
839
-------
Lerman, A. and C.W. ChUds.
Metal-Organic Complexes in Natural Waters: Control of Distri-
bution by Thermodynamic, Kinetic and Physical Factors.
In: Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions in Natural Waters
PTC. Singer, ed. Ann, Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1974. pp. 201-235.
Key Words: copper, lead, iron, nickel, cobalt, zinc, surface
water (fresh), surface water (marine).
Abstract:
Two organic compounds, n1tr1lotriacetate (NTA) and
citrate, which may conceivably appear 1n natural waters
affected by Industrial societies, have a potential to
modify the existing distributions of ionic species in
waters. The two compounds form strong complexes with
such metal-ions as Cu, Pb, Fe, N1, Co, and Zn, and some-
what weaker complexes with such major constituents of
natural waters as Ca and Mg.
A study of thermodynamic equilibria in a model fresh water
(similar 1n composition to an average river and lake water)
shows that NTA and citrate complex virtually all available
Cu, Fe, Pb, N1, Co, and Zn. When no more of these metal-
ions are available for complexation but the ligand concen-
tration continues to rise owing to input from outside,
then NTA and citrate form complexes with Ca and, to a lesser
extent, Mg. In fresh waters, such concentrations of NTA
or citrate can significantly affect the concentration of
Ca in ionic form, and they may therefore be potentially
damaging to many fresh water environments.
840
-------
Leshniowsky, W.Q., P.R. Dugan, R.M. Pfister, O.I. Frea,
and C.I. Randies.
Aldrin: Removal from Lake Water by Flocculent Bacteria.
Science. 161(3949 )-.993-995 . September 4, 1970.
Key Words: aldrin, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Floe-forming bacteria isolated from Lake Erie adsorb
and concentrate aldrin from colloidal dispersion so that
the settling of the bacterial floes removes aldrin from
the water phase. Contemporary sediments forming in Lake
Erie contain aldrin and could adsorb more. The sediments
consist of a conglomerate floe of bacteria, diatoms, and
inorganic and detrital particles. Flocculent bacteria
also adsorb microparticulates, and this adsorption capa-
city represents a mechanism for sediment formation and
for the removal of suspended particles including aldrin
from the water column.
841
-------
Leven, G,V. and J. Shapiro.
Metabolic Uptake of Phosphorus by Wastewater Organisms.
JWPCF. 3_7_(6): 800-818. June 1965.
Key Words: phosphates, BOD, surface water (fresh), aerated
1agoons.
Abstract:
The research reported in this paper was directed toward
the removal of phosphorus from effluents and thus from
natural bodies of water. The specific aim was to modify
aeration wastewater treatment processes to produce
effluents low in phosphorus.
842
-------
Leven, G.V., G.J. Topol , A.G. Tarnay, and R.B. Samworth.
Pilot-Plant Tests of a Phosphate Removal Process.
JWPCF. 44(10) :1940-1954. October 1972.
Key Words: phosphates, activated sludge.
Abs tract:
Analysis of the data and review of the operating experience
presented permit the following conclusions:
1. The new process removed approximately 90 percent
of the total phosphorus present in domestic wastewater
and produced an effluent containing 0.69 mg/1 total P.
Orthophosphate was reduced to 0.07 mg/1 as P.
2. The addition of a filtration step may increase total
phosphorus removal to approximately 95 percent, producing
an effluent containing 0.28 mg/1 total P.
3. The method is compatible with the conventional activated
sludge process and appears to be compatible with modifi-
cations of it.
4. The process produces less chemical sludge than phos-
phorus removal processes treating the entire wastewater
f 1 ow.
5. Tendencies to reduce bulking, improve settling, and
improve shock resilience are indicated for the process.
6. The method provides a sludge reservoir to control MLSS.
7. Principally, through drastic reductions in chemical
dosage, the method promises to offer a high degree of
phosphorus removal considerably cheaper than other avail-
able methods.
8. Sufficient data have now been obtained in the field
and the laboratory to warrant full-scale application of
the biological process for phosphorus removal.
843
-------
Levin, M.A. and V.J. Cabelli.
Membrane Filter Technique for Enumeration of Pseudemonas
aeruginosa.
Applied Microbiology. 2jl(6):864-870 . December 1972.
Key Words: bacteria, surface water (fresh), drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
This article is mainly methodology, but has some data
on numbers of pseudomona in water and sewage samples.
844
-------
Lewin, R.
Cancer Hazards in the Environment.
New Scientist. 6£(984):168-170. January 22, 1976.
Key Word: epidemiology.
Abstract:
There is an increasing demand for a reliable test for
detecting cancer-causing substances in the environment
to enable us to avoid future catastrophe. This article
discusses this situation.
845
-------
L1ao, P.B. and M.J. PHat.
A1r Pollutant Emissions from Fluldized Bed Sewage Sludge Incin-
erators .
Water and Sewage Works. Hi(2) :68-74. February 1972.
Key Words: nitrates, synthetlc /organics, total organic carbon,
Incineration.
Abstract:
The amounts of gaseous pollutants (except water vapor)
emitted from a fluid bed sewage sludge incinerator are
quite small: 2.79 Ib S02, 0.022 Ib CO, and 1.14 Ib N04
per ton dry sewage sludge burned. Thus, with the present
emission standards, controls for these pollutants are not
requi red.
Field test results indicate that more than 95 percent
of the exhaust solids has particle sizes greater than
30«microns and that particle density is about 1.5 grams/
cm . Under normal operating conditions the suspended
particulates emitted are of 1 grain or less per standard
cubic foot mass concentration and of size distribution
with a mean diameter of 123 microns with a geometric
standard deviation of 2.82. The uncontrolled particulate
emission rate is about 94.5 Ib particulate per ton dry
sludge burned. Therefore, control of particulate matter
emissions is necessary. However, test results indicate
that a water scrubber or equivalent is adequate for partic-
ulate removal. All the pollutant concentrations in samples
collected downstream of the control facility-water scrub-
ber met the local air pollution control codes which are
S02<.2,000 mg/1 and particulate mass concentration <.02
grain/scf (0.10 grain/scf for new installation).
Water vapor emitted from a fluidized bed sewage sludge
reactor may be objectionable, although the State of Wash-
ington currently does not consider it as a pollutant and
requires no control. Sewage sludges injected into the
reactor contain more than 65 percent of water by weight
resulting in a white plume from the exhaust stack. When
the local meteorological conditions are not favorable for
plume dispersion and the relative humidity is high - water
vapor plume may sweep residential or business areas near
the plant. Complaints against the plume have been received
by the cities operating this type of incinerator. Should
water vapor control become necessary a demister in the ex-
haust pipe will remove water from the gas stream. If dilu-
tion is acceptable as a pollution control method, a taller
stack could be installed. Another method involves conden-
sing the water vapor from the gas stream.
846
-------
The amounts of S02 and water vapor emitted from a fluidized
bed sewage sludge incinerator increase slightly with an
increase in the sludge loading rates.
847
-------
Liebj A.J., O.B. Bills, and R.O. Sinnhuber.
Accumulation of Dietary Polychlorinated Biphenyls (Aroclor 1254)
by Rainbow Trout (Sal mo g a i r d n e r i) .
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 22(4}:638-642.
July/August 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, fish.
Abstract:
The accumulation of PCB's (Aroclor 1254) by a Mt. Shasta
strain of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) from a dietary
level of 15 ppm was determined using a gas chromatograph
equipped with an electron capture detector. The relative
concentration (parts per million) of PCB's in the fish
stabilized while absolute quantities (micrograms of PCB/
fish) increased as the fish grew. The total retention
of PCB's from the diet was 68% for a 32-week feeding period.
The distribution of PCB's was fairly constant in the lipid
portion of various tissues. PCB's did not appear to be
eliminated from the trout after PCB exposure ceased even
when the fish were starved. The fish did not appear to be
adversely affected by the PCB's and no mortalities were
attributed to PCB toxicity.
848
-------
Lieblg, G.F., Jr.
Arsenic.
In: Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H. D. Chapman,
eH". Quality Printing Company, Abilene, Texas, 1973. pp.13-
23.
Key Words: arsenic, ponding/land application, land reclama-
tion, groundwater, crops.
Abstract:
Plant and soil criteria useful in diagnosing arsenic
status are described. Control of arsenic toxicity is
di scussed.
849
-------
Liebmann, H.
Parasites in Sewage and the Possibilities of Their Extinction.
Advances in Water Pollution Research. 1964(2):269-288.
Key Words: parasitic worms, heat treatment.
Abstract:
In overcrowded Central European cities, unpurified
sewage usually carries more than one million worm eggs
into filter plants each day. In waste water of cities
in Southern Europe, in Africa, Near and Far East, the
number of worm eggs is even larger.
Chiefly, these worm eggs are spread by livestock. About
10 percent of worm eggs found in sewage originate in
human feces. In Southern Europe and subtropical regions,
the share of worm eggs spread by humans may reach more
than 30
ces. In Southern Europe and subtropical regioi
e of worm eggs spread by humans may reach more
percent in sewage.
Extinction of worm eggs by means of chemicals has proven
impossible.
The mechanical-biological method of destroying worm eggs
in a purification plant is the only way to chose.
The entering phase in the extinction of worm eggs in the
mechanical section of a filter plant is distinguished
by a period of 2 hr for sedimentation, while the pro-
cedure of settling may be activated by flocking agents.
The second phase in destroying worm eggs 1n the mechani-
cal section of a purification plant 1s stated In the
process of sludge digestion. This period of digestion
has to be of at least 3 months' duration 1n unheated
digesters, while 1n heated ones a period of at least
2 months will succeed 1n the destruction of worm eggs.
Biological treatment will never destroy worm eggs.
In purification plants, cleaning sewage 1n the so-called
way of complete mineralization, mature worm eggs get
into the receiving water if intermediate installments
for sedimentation, activated by flocking agents, before
sewage will flow off are missing.
In methods of draining raw sludge, worm eggs will sur-
vive either in the sludge cake or 1n the straining
water. As a matter of fact, drained raw sludge has to
be burnt just as the straining water has to be sub-
jected to the common mechanical purification.
850
-------
In the process of draining sludge over sludge jolting
sieves, a minor number of worm eggs are left in the
sludge, while the major amount will invade the sludge
water. This latter method raises considerable doubt
as to hygiene if the sludge remaining in the jolting
sieves is not burnt in turn, just as sludge waters
released have to be subjected to the common mechanical
process of purification.
Preliminary heating of digestant sludge will not kill
worm eggs.
Interference on the development of worm eggs making use
of rushes of alternating current must be omitted.
A short period of heating sludge to temperatures of
more than 144°F will be successful in the extinction
of worm eggs.
851
-------
Lighthart, B. and A.S. Trisch.
Estimation of Viable Airborne Microbes Downwind from a Point
Source.
EPA-600/2-76/020, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Corvallis, Ore., Ecological Effects Research Division,
November 1975. 7p.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, air, surface water (fre?h).
Abstract:
Modification of the Pasquill atmospheric diffusion
equations for estimating viable microbial airborne
cell concentrations downwind from a continuous point
source is presented. A graphical method is given to
estimate the ground level cell concentration given
(a) microbial death rate.,(b) mean wind speed, (c)
atmospheric stability class, (d) downwind sample
distance from the source, and (e) source height.
852
-------
Lijinsky, W. and S.S. Epstein.
Nitrosamines as Environmental Carcinogens.
Nature. 22jK 5227 ): 21-23 . January 3, 1970.
Key Words: nitrates, nitrites, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
In summary, nitrosamines seem to be a major candidate
class of carcinogens that are likely to be causally
related to human cancer in industralized society.
Nitrosamines act systemically and produce cancer in
a wide variety of organs of many species. Additionally,
individual nitrosamines exhibit marked organ speci-
ficity. Although methods for detection of nitrosamines
lack sensitivity, their widespread environmental dis-
tribution has been demonstrated recently. Even more
widespread and of possibly greater significance are the
precursors of nitrosamines -- nitrites and secondary
amines. These precursors react in defined conditions
in vitro and probably also in vivo to form nitrosamines.
Reduction of human exposure to nitrites and certain
secondary amines, particularly in foods, may result
in a decrease in the incidence of human cancer.
853
-------
Lin, S.S. and D.A. Carlson.
Phosphorus Removal by the Addition of Aluminum (.III) to the
Activated Sludge Process.
JWPCF. 47_(7):1978-1986. July 1975.
Key Words: oil and grease, BOD, COD, chemical treatment,
effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
Domestic wastewater is a major contributor of phosphorus
to receiving water bodies. Therefore, the removal of
phosphorus from domestic wastewater is an essential step
in abating nutrient enrichment of receiving waters.
Because removal of the major portion of the phosphorus
in domestic wastewater does not occur in the process
of normal cellular growth of the sludge organisms during
passage through activated sludge processes, it is not
possible to use such biological treatment systems to
remove large amounts of phosphorus from doemstic waste-
water. The inability of the normal biological treat-
ment system to remove phosphorus consistently from
domestic wastewater has led to advanced wastewater
renovation methods and modifications of the existing
process .
Various processes for removing phosphorus from waste-
water have been introduced. This paper emphasizes the
addition of aluminum to the aeration tank of the
activated sludge process. Aluminum salts were chosen
rather than ferric or calcium salts, because the pH
of minimum A1P04 solubility, about 6, is within the pH
ranges for optimal microbial activity of activated
sludge microorganisms.
854
-------
Lindberg, S.E. and R.C. Harriss.
Mercury-Organic Matter Association inEstuarine Sediments
and Interstitial Water.
Environmental Science and Technology. 8^:459-462. May 1974.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
A sediment from the Florida Everglades and Mobile Bay
Estuary reveal significant associations between Hg
and organic matter and between dissolved Hg and dissolved
organic carbon. Interstitial dissolved mercury is en-
riched from 2.6 to 36 times over the associated surface
water values. Enrichment may be due to formation of
organic and polysulfide complexes with mercury.
855
-------
Llndell, S.S. and P. Quinn.
Shigella sonnel Isolated from Well Water.
Applied Microbiology. 26_(3) :424-425. September 1973.
Key Words: shigella, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
A method is described which led to the isolation of
Shi gel la sonnei from well water suspected of being
the primary focus in a school-associated shigellosis
outbreak.
856
-------
Lindsay, W.L.
Inorganic Phase Equilibria of Micronutrients in Soils.
In: Micronutrients in Agriculture. R.C. Dinauer, ed.
5"b~i 1 Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972.
pp. .41-57.
Key Words: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, ponding/land
application, land reclamation.
Abstract:
Inorganic solid phases containing micronutrients in soils
establish solubility limits for these nutrients. If the
solution level of a nutrient drops below its equilibrium
level, the solid can dissolve. Conversely, when the solu-
tion level exceeds the equilibrium level of a solid phase,
it can precipitate. Thus, solid phases participate in
the dynamic equilibria involving soil solution, soil
exchange complex, adsorption surfaces, uptake and release
of nutrients by microorganisms., and removal of nutrients
by plants.
Unfortunately, many of the solid phases in soils contain-
ing micronutrients have not been well characterized.
Rather than discrete crystalline minerals, these phases
often consist of all gradations of amorphous solids with
mixed matrices into which various micronutrients are in-
corporated. It is difficult to apply thermodynamic solu-
bility relationships to solids of such variable composi-
tion. The difficulties are not insurmountable, however,
and considerable progress is being made.
857
-------
Lindsay, W.L.
Inorganic Reactions of Sewage Wastes with Soils.
In: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land;
Proceedings of the Joint Conference, July 9-13, 1973. pp. 91-96,
Key Words: chlorides, nitrates, zinc, cadmium, lead,
copper, nickel, chromium, mercury, cobalt,
selenium, molybdenum, land reclamation.
Abstract:
Sewage wastes decompose in soils to CC^, water, residual
soil organic matter, and inorganic constituents. The
more soluble elements, which are generally present as
Na+, K+, Ca2 + , CT, S02 » N03", and ^863, either remain
in solution or exchange with ions on exchange sites on
soil surfaces. Considerable technology is available on
salt problems, ion exchange reactions, and movement of
soluble salts through soils that can be applied to the
application of sewage wastes to soils.
Another group of elements, which include Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu,
Ni, Cr, Hg, Mn, Co, P, As, Se, and Mo, form compounds
and reaction products of intermediate solubility. Under
many soil conditions these elements are sufficiently
soluble that they are taken up by plants and cycled into
the food chain of animals and man. Recent developments
in soil chemistry in the areas of mineralogy, chemical
equilibria, and metal chelation offer many opportunities
for critically and quantitatively studying the solid
phase-soil solution equilibria. Such basic studies are
needed to predict the long-term fate of potentially toxic
heavy metals and other inorganic constituents that are
added to- soils by the addition of sewage wastes. Even-
tually these elements will find a new home in the mineral
matrix of soils that will govern their availability to
plants and their movement in soils.
858
-------
Lindstedt, K.D. and E.R. Bennett.
Evaluation of Treatment for Urban Waste Water Reuse.
EPA-R2-73-122, University of .Colorado, Boulder, Dept. of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, July 1973. 146p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service
(NTIS) as PB-223 726).
Key Words: BOD, COD, ammonia, suspended solids, phosphates,
bacteria, fecal streptococci, coliforms,
activated sludge, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The effectiveness of lime in reducing the concentration
of bacterial organisms increases with dose and pH.
At lime doses of 400 mg/1 , fecal coif form, fecal strep-
tococcus, and total coliform concentrations can be
reduced by two orders of magnitude utilizing con-
ventional clarification without chlorination.
Bacterial removals of about 90% can be achieved
through alum clarification, irrespective of the alum
dose.
859
-------
lindstedt, K.D. and E.R. Bennett.
Research Needs for the Potable Reuse of Municipal Wastewater.
EPA-600/9-75-007, University of Colorado, Boulder, Dept. of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, December 1975. 203p.
(Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
as PB-249 138).
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, total dissolved solids,
synthetic/orgam'cs, pesticides, drinking and
recreational water.
Abstract:
The objective of the workshop was to define and estab-
lish priorities for research needed to establish con-
fidence in the reuse of wastewater for potable purposes.
This objective was accomplished by bringing together
92 select persons concerned with wastewater reuse to
discuss and identify research gaps in the areas of health
effects, treatment technology, and the socio-economic
considerations of potable reuse.
860
-------
Lindstedt, K.D., E.R. Bennett, and S.W. Work.
Quality Considerations in Successive Water Use.
JWPCF. £3(8):1681-1694. August 1971.
Key Words: suspended solids, coliforms, arsenic, fecal
streptococci, BOD, COD, phosphates, nitrites,
ammonia, barium, cadmium, chromium, cyanides,
fluorides, lead, selenium, aluminum, cobalt,
copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, tin,
zinc, influent characteristics.
Abstract:
This paper discusses generalities concerning reuse
of wastewater. A tertial treatment system is pro-
posed for potable water reuse. Constituent limitations
are given for irrigation and potable water.
861
-------
Lindstedt, K.D., C.P. Houck, and J.T. O'Connor.
Trace Element Removals in Advanced Wastewater Treatment
Processes.
JWPCF. 43l(7):1507-1513. July 1971.
Key Words: cadmium, chromium, selenium, COD, filtration,
chemical treatment, adsorption/ion exchange,
influent characteristics, effluent characteristics
Abstract:
The system of lime coagulation and settling, sand fil-
tration, activated carbon adsorption, and a cation-
anion exchange sequence was very effective in reducing
the concentrations of cadmium, chromium, selenium, and
silver in secondary effluent. Of particular note was
the high efficiency of activated carbon for reducing
the concentrations of these elements.
The following conclusions
investigation:
may be drawn from this
1. Efficient removals of the trace metals cadmium,
chromium, selenium, and silver, can be achieved with a
strong acid — weak base ion exchange system.
2. Effective separation of the cationic-form trace
elements studied may be realized with a lime coagulation'
settling process.
862
-------
Lingle, J.W. and E.R. Hermann.
Mercury in Anaerobic Sludge Digestion.
JWPCF. 47(3) :466-471. March 1975.
Key Words: mercury, anaerobic digestion, influent
characteristics.
Abstract:
Ten batch-operated digesters were inoculated with
various quantities of phenyl mercuric chloride and
mercuric chloride. Two concentration ranges were
studied; digesters in the low range contained from
0.08 to 43 mg/1 mercury (as Hg), and digesters in
the high range contained from 1,451 to 2,200 mg/1
mercury.
In all cases, the mercury was bound to or was associated
with the solid matter in the digesters. Most of the
mercury (96 percent) could be separated from the sludge
by centrifugation and removal of the solids. The
remainder of the mercury in the supernatant was almost
entirely removed by filtration through a 0.45- m pore
diam cellulose membrane filter.
Other filtration studies on centrifuged sludge super-
natant showed that the mercury concentration in the
supernatant was a linear function of the total solids
concentrations, including concentrations that were non-
inhibitory (1,560 mg/1) and inhibitory (2,200 mg/1) to
the gas production of the digester.
The digester contents were analyzed for methyl mercury
by a thin layer chromatography method. No methyl
mercury was detected in any of the digesters.
863
-------
Linko, R.R., P. Rantamaki, and K. Urpo.
PCB Residues in Plankton and Sediment in the Southwestern
Coast of Finland.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
J_2:733-738. June 1974.
Key Words: chlorinated hydrocarbons, surface water (marine)
Abstract:
In this article PCB residues (possibly from sewage
sludge) are studied off the Finnish coast.
864
-------
Literature Study of Selected Potential Environmental Con-
taminants, Titanium Dioxide.
EPA-560/2-75-001, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass.,
May 1975. 131p. (Available from National Technical Infor-
mation Service (NTIS) as PB-242 293).
Key Words: titanium dioxide, direct contact, surface water
(fresh).
Abstract:
A comprehensive review of the literature published
since 1 January 1954 was conducted to prepare this
preliminary report on the physical and chemical proper-
ties of titanium dioxide (Ti02) on the environmental ex-
posure factors related to its consumption and use, on
the health and environmental effects resulting from
exposure to TiOg, and on the regulations and standards
governing its use. Current problems include concern
about the future availability of rutile ore to supply
the increasing number of facilities using this ore in
the chloride manufacturing process, and the disposal
of the high volume of TiO? manufacturing wastes,
particularly the spent suffuric acid and ferrous sulfate
from the sulfate manufacturing process. On the basis
of reported information, Ti02 does not pose substantial
environmental hazard.
865
-------
Liu, D.H.W. and J.M. Lee.
Toxicity of Selected Pesticides to the Bay Mussel (Myt i1us
edulies.
EPA-660/3-75-016, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park,
Calif., May 1975. lllp. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-243 221).
Key Words:
herbicides,
shellfish.
pesticides, surface water (marine),
Abstract:
1. The insecticide Sevin is toxic to the bay mussel at
concentrations lower than its estimated solubility
in seawater. Toxic effects were observed in adults as
we!1 as i n 1arvae.
2. Although adult mussels can tolerate exposure to a
saturated solution of Treflan, they appear to be able to
detect extremely low levels of this herbicide. Embryo
shell development is not affected by Treflan at a con-
centration half that of its estimated solubility in sea-
water; however, larval growth and metamorphosis are
reduced .
3. Adult mussels can tolerate and do not appear to
detect methoxychlor concentrations approaching twice the
estimated solubility of this insecticide in seawater.
Mussel eggs incubated in a saturated solution of
methoxychlor develop normally; however, larval growth
is depressed, and metamorphosis is inhibited.
866
-------
Liu, D.L. and B.J. Dutka.
Biological Oxidation of Hydrocarbons in Aqueous Phase.
JWPCF. £5(2):232-239. February 1973.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, surface water (marine).
Abstract:
The cell-free extracts prepared from the n-decane-Indulin
C grown cells were more active in the oxidation of
n-decane than the corresponding cells that had grown
on n-decane alone. The hydrocarbon oxidizing enzyme dis-
played its greatest activity at pH 7.0 and could be
precipitated by 30 percent ammonium sulfate. It also
required a heat-stable, dialyzable 60 percent super-
natant fraction and NAD for maximum enzyme activity.
Ferrous, manganous, and calcium ions did not stimulate
the enzyme activity.
Manometric and gas chromatographic analyses indicated
that cell-free extracts of Culture S]] oxidized n-decane
to n-decanol and n-decanoic acid, whereas partially
purified enzyme preparations oxidized only n-decane to
n-decanol. The n-decanol, n-decanal, and n-decanoic
acid supported good growth for Pseudomonas desmolytica
SIT, suggesting that they could be the intermediates
in the n-decane oxidation. All the above findings indi-
cated that the initial oxidative attack of hydrocarbon
occurred at the terminal methyl carbon and required
both oxygen and NAD.
It is suggested from these studies that the thiolignin,
Indulin C, or other nontoxic surfactant may be used
in the biological treatment of petroleum wastewater
to accelerate the degradation of hydrocarbon and its
derivatives by microorganisms. The biochemical engineer-
ing aspects of the utilization of Indulin C in the
treatment of hydrocarbon water have been discussed pre-
viously.
867
-------
Lockart, H.B., Jr. and R.V. Blakeley.
Aerobic Photodegradation of Fe (III) - (Ethylenedinitri1o)
Tetraacetate (Ferric EDTA): Implications for Natural
Waters.
Environmental Science and Technology. ^02):1035-1038.
November 1975.
Key Words: synthetic/organics, direct contact, surface water
(fresh), surface water (marine), groundwater.
Abstract:
To determine the extent of ferric EDTA removal from
the environment by interaction with sunlight -- i.e.,
photodegradation -- the behavior of aqueous solutions
of ferric-1 C-EDTA at pH 4.5, pH 6.9, and pH 8.5
under irradiation from a wide spectrum 5500-W xenon
arc lamp has been studied. Carbon dioxide, formaldehyde,
N -carboxymethyl-N, N'-ethylenediglycine (ED3A), N,N'-
ethylenediglycine (EDDA-N.N1), iminodiacetic acid
(IMDA), N-carboxymethyl-N-aminoethyleneglycine (EDDA-N.N),
N-aminoethyleneglycine (EDMA), and glycine have been
identified as the major photodegradation products. No
nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) was detected during photo-
degradation. The rate of photodegradation was pH
dependent, being most rapid at pH 4.5. At a light
intensity of 4000-ft candles and an initial concentra-
tion of 0.0016M, Fe(III)-EDTA removal was complete
after 24 hr of irradiation at either pH 4.5 or pH
6.9, and after 32 hr at pH 8.5.
868
-------
Lockwood, R.A. and K.Y. Chen.
Adsorption of Hg(II) by Hydrous Manganese Oxides.
Environmental Science and Technology. 7_( 11 ): 1028-1 034 .
November 1973.
Key Words: mercury, surface water (marine), surface
water (fresh).
Abstract:
The adsorption of Hg(II) by hydrous manganese oxides
suspended in solutions with wide ranges of pH, chloride
concentration, and ionic strength was studied to eval-
uate the possible importance of manganese oxides in
mercury scavenging in natural waters. Manganese
dioxide and possibly other oxides were precipitated with
the addition of MnS04 solution to KMn04 solution. Low
crystal 1inity was verified by X-ray. Hg(II) was adsorbed
rapidly when added to aged suspensions of MnO£ with low
ionic strength. The equilibrium values in the pH range
6-8 fit a Freundlich isotherm:
[Hg(II)ads]/LMn02] = 1.9 x 1010 [ Hg(11)solnJ] ' 73 .
0.6M NaCl repressed adsorption below pH 9, but not
above pH 10. Apparently 0.6 M NaC104 changed equilibri-
um values only slightly, but adsorption rates were many
orders of magnitude lower, particularly above pH 8.
The uncharged Hg(OH)2 is the adsorbed species.
HgCl2 was also adsorbed, but not so strongly as
Hg(OH)2- It is concluded that Mn02 may be important
as a mercury scavenger in fresh or brackish water,
either in the natural environment or in the treatment
of water and wastewater.
869
-------
Loehr, R.C. and C.T. deNavarra, Jr.
Grease Removal at a Municipal Treatment Facility,
JWPCF. 41_(5):R142-R154. May 1969.
Key Words: oil and grease, gravity separators, activated
sludge.
Abstract:
Twenty-four-hour composite samples over a six-month
period, and hourly samples during a day were collected
and analyzed to obtain information on (a) the removal
of grease in specific units of a municipal treatment
facility, (b) the overall removal of grease at such a
facility, and (c) the relationships between the removal
of grease, BOD, COD, and suspended solids.
The average influent grease concentration was 147 mg/1 ,
which amounted to approximately 0.11 Ib (0.05 kg)/
day/cap. High grease concentrations were observed
during periods of high wastewater flow.
The suspended solids in the effluent exerted about 0.43
mg/1 5-day BOD and 1.46 mg/1 COD/mg/1 of supsended solids
in the effluent exerted 0.65 mg/1 5-day BOD and 2.2
mg/1 COD/mg/1 of volatile suspended solids.
No correlation was observed between the grease and sus-
pended solids concentrations in the influent waste-
water, plant effluent, and/or contact tank samples.
A relationship was observed between the grease, 5-day
BOD or COD of the influent wastewater, and plant
effluent samples.
870
-------
Logsdon, G.S. and J.M. Symons.
Mercury Removal by Conventional Water-Treatment Techniques.
JAWWA. 6_5(8) :554-562. August 1973.
Key Words: mercury, adsorption/ion exchange, chemical
treatment.
Abstract:
1. Mercury removal during coagulation was related main
ly to adsorption of mercury onto the turbid-causing
agents in the water.
2. In raw waters with low turbidity, ferric sulfate
was more effective than alum for removal of inorganic
mercury .
3. Removal by coagulation or adsorption on turbid-
causing agents was less for methyl mercury than for
inorganic mercury.
4, Inorganic mercury removal by softening was most
effective in the pH range of 10.7-11.4 and is thought
to be related to adsorption on magnesium hydroxide floe
5. Methyl mercury was not removed by softening.
6. Removal by coagulation and softening showed little
dependence on mercury concentration in the range of
3-16
7. Methyl mercury and inorganic mercury could be re-
moved by both granular activated carbon columns and
powdered activated carbon slurries.
8. Removal by activated carbon adsorption was a
function of powdered carbon dose. To achieve adsorp-
tion for both inorganic and methyl mercury to a resi-
dual level of 2 n.g/1 Hg, 1 rng/1 of powdered carbon
was needed for each 0.1 i^g/1 Hg to be removed.
9. As long as environmental levels of mercury in raw
water remain low (near the drinking water standards)
extremely high removal percentages will not be necessary,
and existing technology should be adequate for re-
moving mercury.
871
-------
Logsdon, G.S. and E. Edgerley, Jr.
Sludge Dewatering by Freezing.
JAWWA. 63.(11):734-740. November 1971.
Key Words: suspended solids.
Abstract:
A beginning has been made in defining how fast sludge
can be frozen with effective dewatering, and initial
results indicate that a freezing speed of 60min/hr
may be effective. This possibility also lends en-
couragement to development of a continuous, mechanized
freezing process.
Second, because compressive freezing is not needed for
sludge dewatering, sludge could be frozen in thin
layers on a flat surface. Freezing in this manner
might be adaptable to mechanization and development
of a continuous process.
Third, the studies suggest that sludges could be
dewatered more effectively at higher freezing speeds
when treated with a polymer that substantially lowers
specific resistance. High concentrations of dissolved
solids, on the other hand, could inhibit good dewater-
ing.
Finally, natural freezing of sludge in lagoons in cold
regions might be made more effective by spraying
sludge through a nozzle about the size of a fire hose
nozzle. Withdrawing sludge from a lagoon and spraying
it back onto the lagoon surface could: (1) melt snow
cover, (2) cool the sludge to freezing temperature
as it travels through the cold atmosphere, and (3)
distribute sludge in a thin layer on already frozen
sludge, where it would freeze more readily. This pro-
cedure should substantially increase the dewatering
capabilities of natural sludge freezing in some areas
where it is now a marginal process.
872
-------
Long, D.A. and J.8. Nesbitt.
Removal of Soluble Phosphorus in an Activated Sludge
Plant.
JWPCF. IK1 ): 170-184. January 1975.
Key Words: phosphates, BOD, chemical treatment.
Abstract:
The foregoing results indicate that the chemical-
biological process is capable of achieving low effluent
phosphorus residuals concurrently with excellent BOD
removals. Alum proved to be a more efficient precipi-
tant than sodium aluminate in the system studied, and
the best results were obtained when the alum was added
at the effluent end of the aeration tank. Hydraulic
overload was a chronic problem throughout much of the
study. In addition to creating problems with loss of
solids from the system, the variation in flow made it
difficult to adjust chemical feed. It is recommended
that automatic regulation of chemical feeders by flow
meters be incorporated into plant design. Table VI shows
the excellent phosphorus removals that were observed
in the chemical-biological system under low flow
conditions.
No greater differences in costs are apparent among the
various process schemes using chemical precipitation
for phosphorus removal that have been reported by
others and the chemical-biological process represented
herein. This similarity occurs because the chemical
costs are virtually the same regardless of which process
scheme is selected,and they represent the major portion
of phosphorus removal costs. Costs are affected by the
choice of chemical to be used. Generally, the least
costly chemical that will give the required degree of
removal should be chosen. Some cost advantage may be
realized from the use of aluminum or ferric compounds
as the precipitating agents rather than lime, because
the dosages of the former are directly related to the
phosphorus concentration, whereas those of the latter
are not. There seems to be a definite cost advantage
for the chemical-biological system when it is compared
with a tertiary treatment system. Most of this
advantage results from the lower capital costs for the
chemical-biological process.
The problem of determining just what degree of phosphorus
removal is necessary to control eutrophication in a
particular instance still has not been resolved. The
873
-------
stream standards that are now being established show
widely varying requirements for phosphorus removal by
specifying different levels for the various forms of
phosphorus (such as filtered or unfiltered, ortho
or total) for different situations. This makes it
necessary to match unit process performance to a
specific standard that may well change in the near
future as the results of more research become available
A distinct advantage of the chemical-biological pro-
cess is that varying phosphorus removal requirements
can be easily met by controlling the amount of precipi-
tating chemical added while still maintaining a high
degree of organic removal.
874
-------
Long, D.A., O.R. Nesbltt, and R.R. Kountz.
Soluble Phosphorus Removal in the Activated Sludge Process.
Part I. Chemical-Biological Process Performance.
EPA-17010-EIP-05/71, Soap and Detergent Association, New York
May 1971. 122. (Available from National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) as PB-211 563).
Key Words: phosphates, aluminum, BOD, chemical treatment,
activated sludge, trickling filters.
Abstract:
It was the objective of this research to develop and
evaluate, at full plant scale, the combined chemical-
biological process of phosphorus removal. The research
was conducted in two major investigative phases using
the final aeration and settling ranks of that portion
of the Pennsylvania State University Wastewater Treat-
ment Plant which treats wastewater from the PSU campus.
The Phase I investigations indicated an Al/P (filt.
ortho) weight ratio of 2.25/1 was necessary to reduce
the influent phosphorus of approximately 10 mg P/l
to approximately 0.3 mg P/l in the filtered effluent.
Alum proved to be a more effective precipitant than
sodium aluminate in the moderately alkaline wastewater
available for this study. The best results were
obtained when the chemical was added at or near the
effluent end of the aeration tank.
875
-------
Long, W.N. and F.A. Bell, Jr.
Health Factors and Reused Waters.
JAWWA. 64.(4):220-225. April 1972.
Key Words: viruses, bacteria, surface water (fresh).
Abstract:
Much work remains to be done regarding the determination
of viral and bacterial disinfection of waters and the
effects of "agent X" before direct consumptive reuse of
waste waters can be sanctioned.
876
-------
Longley, K.E., V.P. Olivieri, C.W. Kruse, and K, Kawata.
Enhancement of Terminal Disinfection of a Treatment
System.
In: Virus Survival by Water and Wastewater Systems. J.F.
Malina, Jr. and B. P. Sagik, eds. University of Texas at
Austin, Center for Research in Water Resources, 1974.
pp. 166-179.
Key Words: viruses, chlorination , ozonation.
Abstract:
The following conclusions were reached:
1. Conventional disinfection practices using chlorine
not produce substantial virus removal in wastewater
at the doses reported.
2. Ozone, while being an excellent viricide in waste-
water, does not yield significant bacterial removal at
the doses reported.
3. At the same dose, chlorine gas, when applied under
controlled mixing conditions to wastewater, appears
to be a better disinfectant than a chlorine solution.
4. Excellent viral and bacterial removals can be
achieved quickly in wastewater with chlorine by reducin
the reaction pH. However, in many instances the
effluent pH then must be raised to meet receiving strea
standards.
5. Substantial viral and bacterial removals may be
achieved by chlorination of wastewater under highly
turbulent, plug flow conditions.
6. The pH of the aqueous chlorine stream and the mixed
stream are critical disinfection parameters.
877
-------
Lothrop, T.L, and O.J. Sproul.
High-level Inactivation of Viruses in Wastewater by Chlorination.
JWPCF. £l(4):567-575. April 1969.
Key Words: polio virus, viruses, chlorination.
Abstract:
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
1. High-level inactivation of viruses can be obtained in
treated and untreated domestic wastewaters. Present chlo-
rination practices (one mg/1 of residual), however, are
totally inadequate for a high level of virus inactivation.
2. A combined chlorine residual of 28 mg/1 (measured
amperometrically) was required to produce a 99.99-percent
inactivation of the T2 bacteriophage in settled raw waste-
water after a 30-min contact time.
3. A combined chlorine residual of 40 mg/1 (measured
amperometrically) was required to provide a 99.99-percent
destruction of the Type 1 poliovirus in settled wastewater
(30-min contact time).
4. Free chlorine residuals of 0.2 to 0.4 mg/1, after 30
min, produced a complete inactivation of the poliovirus and
T2 phage in the secondary effluent.
5. In the experimental runs with the synthesized storm-
water overflow samples 100-percent inactivation of the
Type 1 poliovirus was obtained by providing a tree chlorine
residual.
6. The T2 bacteriophage was much less sensitive to combined
chlorine residuals than is the coliform organism and some-
what more sensitive than the poliovirus to combined chlorine
residuals.
7. The use of ORP measurements as an indication of the
viracidal activity of chlorine was of limited value in
disinfection programs which utilize combined chlorine
residuals.
878
-------
Lowndes, M.R.
Ozone for Water and Effluent Treatment.
Chemistry and Industry. 3_4:951-956. August 21, 1971.
Key Words: viruses, coliforms, ozonatlon.
Abstract:
The conclusions that can be drawn by water engineers and
chemists from experience at recent full-scale ozonization
plants can be summarized as follows:
1. The objection to the use of ozone on account of the
rather poor performance of mechanical equipment for its
production has now been entirely overcome, mainly by the
use of materials and techniques that were not available
twenty years ago.
2. Costs for producing ozone have been greatly reduced
over the last decade and should be reduced further during
coming years as efficiencies of production are increased.
3. The effectiveness of ozone as a bactericidal agent
cannot be doubted provided application techniques are
followed which ensure that the "threshold" value for any
particular water has been exceeded,
4. The effect of ozone on viruses is striking and often its
germicidal power is found to be more pronounced against
those organisms that seem to be more resistant to conven-
tional disinfection techniques.
5. The efficiency of ozone is not greatly affected by the
presence of ammonia or changing pH value.
6. Ozone has been effectively used in many cases for the
elimination of tastes and odors, especially those derived
from phenolic wastes and algal contamination.
7. Consumers have often been quick to notice the improve-
ment in water after the start-up of ozonization plants on
account of the noticeable "freshness" and the removal of
color of the supply.
8. Ozone treatment leaves water with no residual other
than an almost complete dissolved oxygen content.
879
-------
Ludzack, F.J. and O.K. Noran.
Tolerance of High Salinities by Conventional Wastewater
Treatment Processes.
JWPCF. 17_(10):1404-1416. October 1965.
Key Words: chlorides, activated sludge, nitrification/
d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n .
Abstract:
1. Detectable changes in sustained performance of
activated sludge were not observed below chloride
concentrations of 5,000 to 8,000 mg/1. Temporary
clarification problems were observed.
2. Low load ratios and high unit solids increased
activated-sludge tolerance to chloride changes and
high-chloride concentrations.
3. A given change in activated-sludge chlorides
resulted in a better overall performance when the
change was made abruptly rather than incrementally.
4. Chloride changes disrupted clarification until sub-
strate density stabilized.
5. Initial respiratory activity after a chloride
change was equal to or greater than that of a
reference sludge. Significant population variety and
activity changes occurred later. Sustained high
chlorides generally depressed respiration.
6. Periodic operation at low chlorides improved the
tolerance of activated sludge to high chlorides.
7. High-chloride operation was characterized by
poor flocculation, higher effluent solids, and about
10 percent loss in oxygen demand removal efficiency.
8. Nitrification during high-chloride operation was
about 10 percent of that expected for the same opera-
tion at low chlorides. It required several hours of
high-chloride operation to inhibit nitrification and
several days to reestablish good nitrification after
reducing chlorides.
Anaerobic Digestion
1. Anaerobic digesters were much more sensitive to
chlorides than activated sludge units were.
880
-------
2. Digester performance losses at a given chloride
concentration were greater with a more rapid increase in
chloride concentration.
3. A given chloride increase frequently exerted de-
layed effects, with performance decreases occurring
after steady-state performance normally would have been
established.
4. Chloride effects on digestion were greater at
higher load ratios.
5. Biota adaptation to chloride changes required more
time and were more limited in scope than similar changes
in activated sludge.
6. Aerobic digestion is likely to be more effective
than anaerobic digestion for excess sludge stabilization
when operating on high or varying salinities.
881
-------
L u nd , E .
Inactivation of Viruses.
Progress in Water Technology. 3_:95-97. 1973.
Key Words: viruses, drinking and recreational water.
Abstract:
There are a number of natural or man-made ways
of rendering viruses innocuous, but the reactions
are often much slower than would be desirable and
the actual reactions in most cases virtually un-
known. In all those situations where waste-water
is the raw material for drinking water this is poten-
tially a very difficult situation and work on virus
inactivation should be encouraged.
882
-------
Lund, E. and C.E. Hddstrom.
The Use of an Aqueous Polymer Phase System for Enterovirus
Isolations from Sewage.
American Journal of Epidemiology. 8_4(2): 287-291 . 1966.
Key Words: viruses, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The Albertsson two phase system of aqueous polymers
was used for concentration of virus from sewage. This
concentration procedure proved as efficient in a simple
one step procedure as a combined ammonium sulfate-
ultra-centrifugation procedure for the concentration
of enterovirus. From June to December virus was detected
in 40 samples. In 15 cases the virus was demonstrated
in unconcentrated material. If both bottom-phase and
inter-phase were tested the number of virus isolations
was 38. In 6 cases different types of virus was found
in the two phases.
883
-------
Lund, E., C.E. Hedstrom, and 0. Strannegard.
A Comparison between Virus Isolations from Sewage and
from Fecal Specimens from Patients.
American Journal of Epidemiology. 84J2): 282-286. 1966.
Key Words: viruses, coxsackie virus, epidemiology.
Abstract:
The Albertsson two phase system of aqueous polymers
proved a useful tool in the detection of virus in
sewage samples.
In spite of an accumulation of cases of echovirus 9
infections only a single isolation was made from
sewage, and a number of cases of adenovirus 7 infec-
tions were not paralleled by isolations from the
sewage system. Coxsackieviruses B were abundantly
found in the sewage in the autumn of 1964. The same
types of viruses were also isolated from clinical
cases of aseptic meningitis. By means of 24 hour
swab samples it was possible to detect the Coxsackie-
viruses B in the sewage system before any clinical
cases of coxsackie B infections were reported.
884
-------
Lund, E.L., C.E. Hedstrom, and N. Jantzen.
Occurrence of Enteric Viruses in Wastewater After Activated
SIudge Treatment
JWPCF. 4J_(2):169-174. February 1969.
Key Words: viruses, polio virus, coxsackie virus, ECHO
virus, adeno virus, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
By improving the methods for isolations of virus, the
presence of enteric viruses has been demonstrated all
year round in raw wastewater.
The activated sludge process removed about 1.5 log
units of virus from the wastewater, but the efficiency
decreased at the end of the year. No effect of in-
plant chlorination on the virus contents of the
effluent was demonstrated.
885
-------
Lutin, P.A.
Removal of Organic Nitriles from Wastewater Systems.
JWPCF. 42(9):1632-1642. September 1970.
Key words:
cyanides, activated sludge, effluent characteristics.
Abstract:
The purpose of this investigation was to study the
efficiency of activated sludge treatment in removing
organic nitriles from wastewater by the oxidative
mechanism.
Mononitriles are toxic or very resistant to biological
Oxidation at 6 and 24 hr. This refractory nature seems
to decrease with increasing chain length.
Dinitriles are toxic or extremely resistant to bio-
logical oxidation for detention times up to 72 hr.
The molecules having a carboxyl terminal group are
oxidized more significantly than the corresponding
alkane or mononitrile.
Aromatic nitriles exhibited a toxic effect on all three
sludges and, therefore, strongly resisted biological
oxidation.
In general, presence of the cyanide group greatly
reduces the susceptibility of a molecule to biological
oxidation by an activated sludge.
The experimental results show that the Franklin sludge
is able to oxidize mononitriles with four carbons or
more to a significant extent in 72 hr. The Bordeaux
sludge was very weak in its ability to oxidize organic
nitriles below 11 carbons in chain length. Nashville
sludge was able to oxidize only undecanenitrile.
886
-------
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/1-79-0165
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Health Effects Associated with Wastewater Treatment
and Disposal Systems State-of-the-Art Review,
Volume II. Part 1
AUTHOR(S)
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
SCS Engineers
gti Boulevard
|3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
APRIL 1979
(6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
0. PROGRAM ELEMENT
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-79-016b
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Health Effects Associated with Wastewater Treatment
and Disposal Systems State-of-the-Art Review,
Volume II, Part 1
5. REPORT DATE „„„_
APRIL 1979
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
SCS Engineers
4014 Long Beach Boulevard
Long Beach, CA 90807
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2257
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Health Effects Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT
RTP,NC
TftTfT
IOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/H
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
See also Volume I, Volume II, Part 2
16. ABSTRACT
This annotated bibliography covers the source documents used in the main text.
For individual articles a brief summary of the major topics of discussion is
presented. For major reports a short description of their content is provided.
A subject index to the bibliography is provided at the back of Volume II, Part 2.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Public Health
Disease Vectors
Infectious Diseases
Epidemiology
Toxic Diseases
Sewage Treatment
Sludge Disposal
Water Pollution
Toxicology
Health Effects
Spray Irrigation
Land Application
Sludge Incineration
061
06 F
06E
06T
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
IS (This Report)
21. NO. Of PAGES
891
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (R«v. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
887
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