101F90501
A Study of the Relevant Incineration Technologies
and Air Pollution Control Devices
for the
Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill
Submitted by: Andrew Cllbanoff
NNEMS Project Control Number: U-913442-01-0
September 14, 1990
EP 101/F
90-501
"A';~ Printed on Recycled Paper
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A Study of the Relevant Incineration Technologies
and Air Pollution Control Devices
for the
Delaware sand and Gravel Landfill
Submitted by: Andrew Clibanoff
NNEMS Project Control Number: U-913442-01-0
Abstract
The Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill, located in New Castle
County, DE, is an NPL site in its remediation design phase. A
Record of Decision has mandated use of on-site incineration to
dispose of approximately 25,000 cu. yd. of contaminated soils and
wastes. This paper discusses the incineration technologies that
may be applicable to the project and recommends the selection of
a rotary kiln incinerator, based on the kiln's relative versatility
when compared to the other incineration technologies. A study of
air pollution control equipment was also included in the paper.
No special permits for PCB incineration are required for this
project, as PCB concentrations are below 50 ppm, the TSCA regulated
standard. Emission of dioxin and related organic compounds can be
prevented or minimized by maintaining a temperature above 1700°F in
the afterburner. There is a definite need for more sampling of the
wastes and soils that are going to be incinerated. The majority
of sampling to date has been on soils surrounding the suspected
highly contaminated areas. Further waste characterization must be
completed before the final design of the incinerator and air
pollution control equipment can be accomplished.
,'» .
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DISCLAIMER
This report was furnished to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency by the graduate student identified on the cover page, under
a National Network for Environmental Management Studies
fellowship.
The contents are essentially as received from the author. The
opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed are those of the author
and not necessarily those of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Mention, if any, of company, process, or product names is
not to be considered as an endorsement by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
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Table of Contents
Page
1.0 Introduction !
2.0 Background and Site History I
2.1 Disposal Areas 2
2.1 1 Drum Disposal Area 2
2.1.2 Ridge Area 3
2.1.3 inert Area 3
2.1 4 Grantham South Area A
2 2 Nature and Extent of Contamination A
22 1 Air 5
2.2.2 Water 5
2.2.2.1 Surface Water and Stream Sediments 5
2.2 2.2 Groundwater 6
2.2.3 Soil 7
2.2.3.1 Surficial Soils 7
2.2.3.2 Formation Soils 7
2.3 Components of the Record of Decision 7
3.0 Incineration Technology 8
3 1 General incineration Operation 9
3 2 Types of Hazardous Waste Incinerators 10
32.1 Rotary Kiln Incinerator 11
3.2.2 Infrared Furnace 12
3.2.3 Conventional Fluidized Bed 14
3.2.4 Circulating Fluidized Bed 15
3.2.5 Advanced Electric Reactor 16
3.2.6 Ptesma Arc 17
3.2.7 Liquid Injector 17
3.2.8 Molten Salt Incinerator 18
3.2.9 Oxygen Burner 18
3.3 Incinerator Selection 19
4.0 Incinerator Emissions 20
4.1 Types of Emissions 21
41.1 Particulate Matter 21
4.1 2 Gaseous Matter 22
4.1 3 PCBs 23
4.1.4 Dioxin 24
n
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Table of Contents (cont'd)
A 2 Air Pollution Control Devices (APCD) 25
42.1 Electrostatic Precipitator 26
42.2 Wet Electrostatic Precipitator 26
42.3 Fabric Filter 26
42 4 Quench Chamber 27
425 Wet/Dry Scrubber 27
42.6 Ventun Scrubber 27
43 APCD Efficiency 28
44 Selection of an APCD Series 28
5.0 Conclusion 29
References
Appendix A: Analytical Data of Water and Groundwater at
Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill
Appendix B: Analytical Data of Soils at
Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill
in
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List of Figures
No. Following Page No.
1 Delaware Sand & Gravel Site Location Map 1
2 Waste Disposal Area Locations 2
3 Upper Potomac Isochlor Map. 10/74 6
4 Upper Potomac Isochlor Map: 10/79 6
5 Upper Potomac Isochlor Map: 4/84 6
6 In Situ Waste Treatment Technology Matrix 8
7 Rotary Kiln Incinerator 11
8 Infrared Furnacer 12
9 Conventional Fluidized Bed 14
10 Circulating Fluidized Bed 15
11 Dioxin and Related Compound Chemical Structures 24
12 Electrostatic Precipitator 26
13 Wet Electrostatic Precipitator 26
14 Bag Filter 27
15 Quench Reactor 27
16 Venturi Scrubber 28
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List of Tables
No. Following Page No.
1 1984 Drum Removal Sampling Results A
2 Typical Incinerator Operating Ranges 19
3 incinerator Applicability 19
4 APCD Efficiencies 28
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1.0 Introduction
This paper is submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the
National Network for Environmental Management Studies (NNEM5) program
The scope of this NNEM5 project includes the assessment of the feasibility of
incineration technology as a viable alternative in the remediation effort
occurring at the Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill, New Castle County,
Delaware. The status of this site is that it is currently on the National
Priorities List (NPL) and is awaiting final remediation design. A remedial
investigation report and feasibility study were completed in early 1988. A
record of decision (ROD) has been written calling for the on-site incineration
of the contaminated materials (waste and soil) that have been linked to
groundwater degradation.
The paper will first present a site history and background, followed by a
section on the relevant incineration and emission control technologies
2.0 Background and Site History
The Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill was an industrial waste landfill
officially operating from 1968 through 1976. The landfill is approximately
27 acres in size and is located about two miles southwest of New Castle
County, Delaware. Directly west of the site across Army Creek lies the Army
Creek Landfill, another Superfund site. It is believed that the environmental
degradation occurring in the vicinity can be differentiated between the two
adjacent landfills. Figure 1 is a site location map for the Delaware Sand and
Gravel Landfill. The site, as suggested by its name, was once operated as a
sand and gravel quarry.
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Dobbinsville ^.
DELAWARE SAND AND GRAVEL SITE
REMEDIAL INVESTIGATION
CERCLA 85-1
__ "-: ^"New Castle - New Castle County, Delaware
«. U.S.G.S. 7.5 min. quad, Wilmington South
contour Interval 10 feet
Scale: 1" - 2,000'
Figure 1
Location map for the Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill
(DS&G)
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In 1968, the Delaware Water and Air Resources Commission granted
Delaware Sand and Gravel a Certificate of Approval for a sanitary landfill
One year later, an Air Pollution Control Permit allowed the disposal of
cardboard, wire, pallets, corkdust, and styrofoam. In 1970, the Delaware
State Board of Health issued a solid waste disposal permit to the facility. A
Solid Waste Disposal Permit was issued from 1971 through 1976 by the
Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control
(DNREC) in 1975, DNREC applied an enforcement action against the D5&G
Landfill upon observation of improper operating procedures including poor
cover and compaction
2 1. Disposal Areas
Disposal of wastes at Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill took place at
four smaller areas on the site. These areas are termed the Drum Disposal
Area, Ridge Area, Inert Area, and Grantham South Area. These areas, as well
as the locations of boreholes, monitoring wells, and drinking water wells are
depicted in figure 2. A further discussion of the individual waste disposal
areas is below.
2.1.1. Drum Disposal Area
This area, located in the northern portion of the property, as shown in
figure 2, accepted reportedly 7,000 drums containing industrial liquids and
sludges from perfume, paint, plastics and petroleum refining processes. The
Drum Disposal Area was reported to be a pit approximately 150 ft. x 70 ft. x
15 ft. or 0.23 acres in surface area. However, the areal extent of the Drum
Disposal Area proper was delineated by surface geophysical data and
measured to actually be 0.42 acres. This estimate does not include an
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DELAWARE SAND ft GRAVEL LANDFILL
AREAS OF WASTE DISPOSAL
ciosrn wi con*
IOOO
Figure 2: Areas of Waste disposal in the DS&G Landfill
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adjacent 0 25 acre area just west of the Drum Disposal Area proper where an
additional geophysical anomaly was detected
Soil quality analyses of samples from boring DGC-06 (just east of Drum
Disposal Area proper) indicates contamination of organics in the low parts
per million range over an approximate depth interval of 5 to 30 ft. (see
appendix B). If there truly is a 25 ft. depth of contaminated materials, tne
volume of materials requiring treatment may range from 20,000 cu yd to
over 27,000 cu. yd depending on whether the adjacent area is actually
contaminated However, boring DGC-04, west of the adjacent area shows
little to no sign of contamination. Boring DGC-05, north of the area adjacent
to the Drum Disposal Area proper also appears to be clean. It is quite clear
that more sampling is needed to determine more accurately the extent of
contamination in the soils of the Drum Disposal Area.
2.1.2. Ridge Area
This area, approximately 0.5 acres in size, is located on the western
portion of the property, just east of recovery well RW-13 (figure 2). The
Ridge Area contains scattered wastes (drums, large storage tanks, pallets,
etc.) on the slope surfaces and ridge top. This area has been labeled as a
limited drum and industrial waste disposal area.
2 1.3 Inert Area
This area, close to eleven acres in size, is located in the central
southern portion of the DS&G property. Wastes disposed of in this area are
assumed to be, as the name implies, relatively inert. The area is relatively
level with steep side slopes and high vegetative growth. The surface is
heavily littered with items such as junked cars, trucks, trailers, concrete
forms, gas cylinders, domestic trash, paper rolls and wire bundles. Waste can
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also be seen protruding from the sides of the slopes indicating that waste had
been buried
2.1 4. Grantham South Area
This area, approximately 1.3 acres in size is located immediately south
of Grantham Lane, directly across the street from the Inert Disposal Area
(figure 2). It was reported that when the sand cliff remaining from quarrying
behind the landfill owner's home began to erode, the owner backfilled the area
presumably with inert waste. Reports from the owner's ex-wife as well as
visual observations indicate that chemical wastes were disposed in this area
as well.
22 Nature and Extent of Contamination
As mentioned earlier, the Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill was
operated as a permitted facility from 1968 to 1976. It is believed that
dumping may have begun as early as 1961 and the dumping of household and
construction wastes has continued to the present. The wastes disposed of at
the site were mostly construction and industrial type wastes.
In 1984, a removal action was performed at the Drum Disposal Area.
Several hundred drums were sampled and removed from the landfill's surface
eliminating any immediate threat to human health and the environment. 576
drums were sampled with the results shown in table 1. It is believed that the
remaining 7,000 - 100,000 drums in the Drum Disposal Area contain similar
wastes. It is believed that the contamination at the Ridge Area is similar to
that found at the Drum Disposal Area. The Grantham South and the Inert
Disposal Areas are both believed to contain mainly inert wastes, such as
wood, wire, hose, cardboard, styrofoam, etc.
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TVDC * of Drums Estimated Volume
Organic Solids 206 7,700 gallons
Inorganic Solids 201 6,900
Base/Neutral Liquids 37* 690
Flammable Solids 97 3,700
Base/Neutral Liquids pH 12 2 69
Acids 2 27
Organic Liquids 19 400
Contaminated PCB Solids 6 200
Contaminated PCB Liquids 2 27
PCB Solids 2 55
PCB Liquid 2 40
* includes 2 drums of flammable base/neutral liquids
1 '. RB4 bryrvA iW«A/a)
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There has been evidence that the waste products disposed at the
Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill, particularly from the Drum Disposal and
Ridge Areas, are leaching and causing environmental degradation of the
surrounding area The groundwater in the Upper Potomac Hydrologic Zone and
on-site soils appear to be suffering the most. The predominant contaminants
are iron, manganese, benzene, toluene, xylene, NEK, and MIBK with maximum
concentrations of the organics in the low parts per million range. An
overview of the air, water and soil environmental quality at the site is given
below.
2.2.1 Air
The ambient air quality at the DS&G Landfill shows no evidence of air
contamination with respect to volatile organics above background levels. A
soil gas survey performed at the Grantham South Area did not detect any
significant areas of volatile organic contamination. Only one sample had
significant concentrations (2-9 ppm ) of volatile organics. This probably
indicates a small, isolated gasoline spill since the compounds detected
strongly resembled oil or gasoline components. Therefore, the air currently
poses no threat to the surrounding community. However, once remediation
begins to take place, efforts must be undertaken to minimize the hazards of
the potential air pollution problems associated with excavation and
incineration.
2.2.2 Water
2.2.2.1 Surface Water and Stream Sediments
No significant degradation attributed to the Delaware Sand and Gravel
Landfill could be found in the water and sediments from Army Creek, the
Gravel Pit pond, or the intermittent stream east of DS&G. In fact, the quality
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of water in Army Creek downstream of D5&G is actually better than it is
upstream However, even downstream, Army Creek is still polluted as there
is evidence of stress on aquatic life
22.2.2 Groundwater
As briefly mentioned earlier, groundwater quality within the Upper
Potomac Hydrologic Zone (UPHZ) has been degraded with respect to inorganic
and organic parameters in the D5&G vicinity A distinct plume of organics and
metals appears to be emanating from the Drum Disposal Area The
predominant contaminants identified in this plume are benzene, toluene,
xylenes, ethyl benzene, bis (2-chloroethyl) ether, MIBK, NEK, iron and
manganese All analytical data on water can be found in appendix A.
Groundwater quality degradation was first noticed in late 1971 when a
domestic well in the nearby Llangollen Estates became contaminated.
Evidence Indicated that the source of the contamination was coming from the
Army Creek Landfill. In response, New Castle County installed a system of
recovery wells in 1973 and 1974 to protect the Artesian Water Company's
drinking water wells for Llangollen Estates by intercepting contaminated
groundwater. As it turns out, these recovery wells are now intercepting the
wastes emanating from the D5&G Landfill. Figures 3,4, and 5 show the
reduction of size of the chloride ion contaminant plumes over time. Chloride
was chosen because it is generally regarded as a conservative ion which does
not readily degrade, adsorb onto aquifer materials, or precipitate under
normal groundwater conditions. It can be said with reasonable confidence
that the recovery well system is containing the contamination in the site
vicinity .
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2.2.3 Soil
2.23 1 Surficial Soils
The analytical results (appendix B) for the surficial soils indicate
isolated areas of contamination in both the Ridge and Grantham South Areas
One consideration that must be recognized is the fact that most of the
surficial soils on site have been reworked by man. Much of the soils
remaining on-site are the fines left over from the quarrying operation. These
fines were used as cover material for the Inert and the Drum Disposal Areas.
Therefore, any samples collected in these areas probably do not represent
waste disposal.
22.3.2 Formation Soils
Analytical data (appendix B) from split spooned samples have indicated a
plume of organics and metals emanating from the Drum Disposal Area and
possibly some metal contamination emanating from the Inert Disposal Area.
Organic compounds were detected in soil boring samples collected near the
Drum Disposal Area, the base of the Columbia Formation close to the Drum
Disposal Area, the uppermost Potomac silty clays beneath and adjacent to the
Drum Disposal Area, and the top portion of the upper Upper Potomac sands.
2.3 Components of the Record of Decision
In early 1989, a Record of Decision (ROD) was drafted calling for the
following measures to be taken in the remediation effort:
Excavation of wastes and contaminated soils from the Drum Disposal
and Ridge Areas. Treatment of these materials by on-site
incineration to alleviate the direct contact threat and leachate
generation from the major contamination sources on the site.
Capping of the Grantham South Area to remove the direct contact
threat and lessen leachate generation.
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Debris removal and capping of the Inert Disposal Area to remove the
potential direct contact threat and to meet the Delaware State Solid
Waste Regulations.
Continued operation of the in-place recovery well system to
eliminate potential groundwater ingestion risk.
Implementation of recovered contaminated groundwater treatment
system prior to discharge to Army Creek
3.0 Incineration Technology
Several recent laws or amendments make incineration one of the more
favorable applications for hazardous waste remediation The Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 placed new emphasis on
the treatment of Superfund site wastes. $8 5 billion has been authorized by
SARA for Superfund cleanup from October, 1986 through October, 1991
(Cudahy, 1989). The RCRA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984
(HSWA) placed a land ban on untreated hazardous wastes beyond certain dates.
The statute requires EPA to set levels or methods of treatment, if any, which
"substantially diminish the toxicity of the waste or substantially reduce the
likelihood of migration of hazardous constituents from the waste so that
short-term and long-term threats to human health and the environment are
minimized." (Esposito, 1988). Figure 6 is a summary of the suitability of the
various technologies available for in situ waste destruction. Incineration
technologies effectively address both of theses RCRA concerns.
Incineration technology offers several attractive features for the
treatment of hazardous wastes, it is immediate, requires a relatively small
area for set-up and operation, and is a proven means of destruction for many
organic wastes. When initially compared to other treatment methods,
incineration appears to be costly. However, incineration will permanently
destroy hazardous organics, removing the possibility of future liability for
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Figure £> In Situ Waste Treatment Technology Matrix.
(Adapted From Reference 1)
Aqueous Wastes:
Metals
Highly Toxic
Organics
Volatile
Organics
Toxic Organics
Radioactive
Corrosive
Cyanide
Pesticide
Asbestos
Explosive
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Organics
Volatile
Organics
Toxic Organics
Radioactive
Corrosive
Cyanide
Pesticide
Sludges/Soils:
Metals
Highly Toxic
Organics
Volatile
Organics
Toxic Organics
Radioactive
Corrosive
Cyanide
Pesticide
Asbestos
Explosive
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their disposal. Most of the other treatment methods do not completely
destroy the wastes, making future liability a distinct possibility (Brunner,
1988)
On-site incineration of hazardous wastes can be more appealing than
transporting material to a central processing facility. On-site incineration
avoids the high transportation costs as well as the NIMBY (not in my back
yard) philosophy that can surround a central facility On-site treatment is
provided by situating modular-constructed facilities within the confines of
the site.
3.1. General Incinerator Operation
Incineration is an engineered process using thermal oxidation of a waste
material to produce a less bulky, toxic, or noxious material. A waste must be
combustible to some extent in order for incineration to be considered as a
possible treatment method. In running an efficient incineration process, the
3 T's of combustion, temperature, residence time and turbulence, must be
controlled as closely as possible. The waste characteristics are likewise
important parameters, including chemical structure and physical form, in the
combustion process, the following reactions ideally take place.
All hydrogen present converts to water vapor, unless otherwise noted
below.
All chloride (or fluoride) converts to hydrogen chloride, HC1 (or
hydrogen fluoride, HF).
All carbon converts to carbon dioxide, C02.
All sulfur converts to sulfur dioxide, 502.
Alkali metals convert to hydroxides: sodium to sodium hydroxide (2Na
+ °2 * H2 ~-> 2 NaOH) and potassium to potassium hydroxide (2K + 02 +
H2 > KOH).
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Non-alkali metals convert to oxides copper to copper oxide (2Cu * 02
>2CuO), iron to iron oxide (4Fe * 302 ->2Fe203).
Al! nitrogen from the waste, the fuel, or air, will take the form of a
diatomic molecule, i e, nitrogen is present as N2
However, incinerators are not 100% efficient, and therefore may emit
products of incomplete combustion (PIC). These PICs may be as hazardous or
even more hazardous than the product in the waste feed. Therefore, some
type of air pollution control device is usually required prior to discharge to
the atmosphere.
3.2. Types of Hazardous Waste Incinerators
Currently in the marketplace, there are many different thermal
technologies that have been recognized as potential treatment alternatives
for hazardous wastes. The basic operation of each of these technologies is
the application of heat (thermal) energy to the medium (soil) and contaminant.
The increase in temperature causes the breakdown of the organic material. In
most cases, this breakdown occurs under the presence of excess oxygen, and
results in the combustion and destruction of the organic compounds.
The various incineration technologies may be classified as either high
temperature or low temperature processes. High temperature processes are
those which can heat soil to greater than 1000 T while low temperature
processes can heat soil to a maximum of 1000 °F. Examples of low
temperature processes would be in-situ radio frequency, low temperature
thermal aeration, and low temperature thermal stripping. There will be no
further discussion of the low temperature processes in this paper as these
processes are incapable of treating the more difficult compounds such as
PCBs and dioxins. PCB contamination has been found at the D5&G Landfill.
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The high temperature processes virtually guarantee the destruction of all
organic constituents.
The types of high temperature hazardous waste incinerators currently
available or soon to be available are : (1) Rotary Kiln, (2) Infrared,
(3) Conventional Fiuidized Bed, (4) Circulating Fluidized Bed, (5) Advanced
Electric Reactor, (6) Plasma Arc, (7) Liquid Injection, (8) Molten Salt, and (9)
Oxygen Burner Of the nine listed technologies, the first four are the most
applicable to the Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill remediation effort and
will be discussed in greater detail.
3.2.1. Rotary Kiln Incinerator
A rotary kiln is a cylindrical, refractory-lined shell mounted at an
incline from the horizontal plane. Figure 7 depicts a typical rotary kiln
incinerator A rotary kiln system includes provisions for feeding,
supplemental fuel injection, the kiln itself, an afterburner and an ash
collection system. This type of incinerator is capable of handling solids,
liquids, and sludges and would be applicable to the D5&G site.
When operating, the cylinder (primary combustion chamber) is rotated to
promote mixing of the wastes with the combustion air and to aid in moving
the waste through the reactor. Waste is deposited at one end and the waste
burns out to an ash by the time it reaches the other end. The constant
rotation also provides fresh surface exposure to oxidation which promotes
destruction. A typical range for rotation would be from 0.75 to A rpm.
The gas stream, upon exiting the primary combustion chamber, is
directed to an afterburner. The kiln will burn out solids and will volatize
organics. All the organics will generally not be incinerated in the kiln and a
high temperature must be maintained at a specific residence time for
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Emergency
Combustion
1 Waste Feed System
Solids
Secondary
Combustion
Chamber
Shredder
Gas
Cleaning
System
Temporary
Ash Storage
Bin
Water Treatment
Stack
Stack
Sampling
Gases
7!
I
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destruction This is the purpose of the secondary combustion chamber, or an
afterburner.
The rotary kiln incinerator typically operates at temperatures between
1500 *F and 2900'F, with residence times of 0.5 - 2.0 hours for solids and
two seconds for gases. Successful operation of rotary kilns have been
demonstrated to have a destruction and removal efficiency of 99.9999% for
wastes such as explosives, PCBs and dioxins. The rotary kiln is the most
commercially available type of incinerator on the market today.
Advantages
Not dependent on feed quality
Fuel requirement follows feed loading, the less feed, the less fuel
required
Minimal waste pre-processing required
Techniques exist for direct disposal of waste in metal drums
Able to incinerate variec "ids of waste at the same time
Many types of feed mechanisms available
Residence time of waste in kiln readily controlled
High turbulence and effective contact with air within kiln
Disadvantages
Relatively high particulate carryover to gas stream
Normally requires a separate afterburner for destruction of volatiles
Unable to control conditions along kiln length
Requires a relatively high amount of excess air ( 100-150 % of
stoichiometric amount)
Effective kiln seal is difficult to maintain
Operation in a slagging mode to process inorganic wastes or metal
drums increases kiln maintenance requirements
3.2.2. Infrared Furnace
The infrared furnace was developed and marketed by Shirco Infrared
Systems of Dallas, Texas. The furnace consists essentially of a conveyor belt
system passing through a long refractory lined chamber as shown in figure 8
Wastes are fed by gravity onto the belt and are immediately leveled to a depth
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-------
- 13-
of two to three inches. The waste must be sized to no more than two inches
in effective diameter. The belt speed and travel is chosen to provide burnout
of the waste with minimal agitation. This feature results in a relatively low
level of particulate emissions.
An induced draft fan maintains a negative pressure throughout the
system. Combustion air is introduced at the discharge end of the belt so that
waste and air travel countercurrently. Supplemental heat is provided by
electric infrared heating elements within the furnace above the belt. The
furnace is designed to provide and maintain a temperature of 1600 "F above
the traveling conveyor. An afterburner is provided for destruction of
volatiles.
The infrared furnace is capable of handling sludge cake, soil and other
wastes. This alternative may be applicable to the D5&G site.
Advantages
Not dependent on feed quality
Low level of agitation of the product on the conveyor belt results in a
smaller fraction of ash carryover to the gas stream
The use of ceramic fiber insulation allows furnace to heat to
operating temperature in less than two hours
Furnace is applicable for intermittent or infrequent loading
Heat generated by electric elements does not produce additional flue
gas, as the burning of fossil fuels would
The fuel requirement follows the feed loading rate
Electric power elements are variable within their range
Only 20-30% in excess of stoichiometric air requirements needed
Minimal waste processing required
Control of conditions along furnace length is readily available by
separate control of individual heating elements and by varying air
injection quality and location
-------
- 14-
Disadvantages
Electric power costs four times that of fossil fuel
When tied to existing power sources, installed kilowatt charges may
be substantial
An afterburner is normally required for the destruction of volatiles
The mixing of fuel oil with soil to decrease electrical costs will
generate additional flue gases
3.2 3 Conventional Fluidized Bed
The conventional fluid bed incinerator, figure 9, is a cylindrical
refractory lined shell with a supporting structure above its bottom surface to
hold a sand bed (f luidized bed). The structure has a series of tuyeres which
allow the passage of air upward into the bed while preventing the passage of
sand. Air, which is usually preheated, is introduced at the fluidizing air inlet
at pressures from 3.5 to 5 psig. A high degree of turbulence is created in the
sand bed by the passage of this air stream which creates motion on the top of
the bed with the appearance of a liquid.
Waste is normally introduced within or just above the sand bed. The
sizing of the furnace is a function of the moisture in the feed, the greater the
moisture content, the larger the bed surface. Fluidization provides maximum
contact of air with the waste surface to maximize the efficiency of the
burning process.
Maintenance of the bed integrity is a function of the waste being
combusted. The waste non-combustible content (ash) will either remain in
the bed or become airborne and exit the furnace within the flue gas stream.
Generally, sand has to be made up at the rate of approximately 5% of the bed
volume every 100 hours of operation.
Because of intimate mixing of air and sludge in the fluid bed, excess air
requirements are low, from 40% to 60%. The bed is maintained in the range of
-------
Solid Raw
Feed In '
Sizing Fluidizing Air
Equipment Blower
From
Atmosphere
Solids Feed
-Q
Auxilary
Fuel
Fluidized
Bed
Fluidizing Air
Heat
Exchanger
Preheated
Fluidizing
Air
I
To
Atmosphere
Wet Scrubber
1
Sand
Storage "~*"
Spent Scrubber
Water
Sand Supply In
Spent Sand
Out
Figure ^ Conventional Fluid Bed Incinerator System.
Source.:
-------
- 15-
1300 'F to 1500 'F, depending on the nature of the feed The temperature of
the freeboard (volume above the bed) is usually no more than 100 °F higher
than the bed temperature. The residence time of gases in the freeboard is
normally in the range of 3 to 6 seconds, usually enough time to alleviate the
need for an afterburner. For example, if an organic compound that requires
2200 'F at a residence time of 1 sec. for four nines destruction is subject to
a residence time of 5 sec., perhaps only 1600 CF may be required for the same
level of destruction
Advantages
Design simplicity, few moving parts
Excellent efficiency at rated load
Thermally secure, able to be taken off line to hot standby without
maintaining fuel feed
High residence time in freeboard, afterburner usually not required
appplicable to the incineration of solids, liquids, and gases
Disadvantages
Dependent on feed quality, test burns necessary to ascertain
possibility of bed seizure when burning the material
Poor efficiency at low loads
increase potential for air emissions compared to other systems
Sand make-up is required on a continual basis
Waste sizing is required
Ash is discharged wet, dry ash discharge requires additional
equipment
3.2.4 Circulating Fluidized Bed
The circulating fluid bed incineration system, developed by Ogden, Inc., is
distinct from conventional fluid beds. In this incinerator, shown in figure 10,
combustible waste is introduce into the bed along with recirculated bed
material from the hot cyclone. A high air/gas velocity (from 15 to 20 ft/sec
compared to 1.5 to 45 ft/sec in conventional systems) runs through the bed,
causing the bed to rise through the reaction zone to the top of the combustion
-------
STACK
Figure tO Circulating Fluid Bed Schematic.
j \°\BB
-------
- 16-
chamber (freeboard) and pass through a hot cyclonic collector. Hot gas rise
from the cyclone while the majority of solids drop to the bottom and are
re-injected into the furnace bed. Flue gas exiting the cyclone passes through
a conventional exhaust gas treatment system which removes particulate and
other undesirable constituents from the gas stream.
Feed is introduced in the leg between the cyclone and the bed of the
reactor. Solid or sludge waste is fed from a feeding bin using augers into the
feed leg Liquid or slurry wastes are pumped from a feed tank to the reactor
No atomizers or specialty nozzles are required for introduction of fluid
wastes into the sand bed.
The design operating temperature is normally 1600 °F although the
system can withstand temperatures up to 2000'F on a continuous basis. A
major feature of the circulating fluid bed system is its ability to control the
residence time of wastes to well over 15 seconds.
Advantages
Same as conventional fluid bed plus:
Can control residence time of wastes to over 15 seconds, thereby
decreasing the temperature required for destruction
Smaller particulate air emission potential than conventional fluid bed
incinerator
Disadvantages
Same as conventional fluid bed incinerator
3.2.5 Advanced Electric Reactor
The Advanced Electric Reactor (AER) uses intense thermal radiation to
heat wastes to between 4000 *F and 5000 "F. The AER consists of a vertical
tubular core of porous carbon which is heated by electric heating elements.
The waste is fed through the center of the core where the heated carbon
transfers energy to the waste. This technology is not applicable because it is
-------
- 17-
not available in a full-scale model and the company that developed the pilot
scale reactor, J. M. Huber Corp., has stated that their incineration services are
no longer commercially available.
3.26 Plasma Arc
Plasma systems use the extremely high temperatures developed within
the plasma stream to destroy hazardous organic wastes. The principle of
plasma arc technology is the breaking of the chemical bonds between the
elements of the organic constituents. This occurs in an atomization zone
where a series of co-1 inear electrodes generate an electric arc, or plasma,
which is stabilized by field coil magnets. As a low pressure air stream
passes through the arc, the electrical energy is converted to thermal energy
by the activation of the molecules of oxygen and nitrogen into their ionized
atomic states. The temperature of the plasma are will exceed 5,000 °F. When
the excited atoms and molecules relax to lower energy states intense
ultraviolet energy is emitted. This energy from the decaying plasma is
transferred to the injected waste stream.
3.2.7 Liquid Injector
Liquid injection incinerators are one of the most commonly used
incinerators for hazardous waste disposal. A liquid injection system
contains a refractory-lined cylinder as a combustion chamber and usually
another chamber for further combustion. Burners are normally located in the
chamber in such a manner that the flames do not impinge on the refractory
walls The liquid waste, which must be converted to the gas phase prior to
combustion, is initially atomized when it passes through the burner nozzles
while entering the combustor. As the name implies, the liquid injection
incinerator is confined to hazardous liquids, slurries and sludges with a
-------
- 18-
viscosity value of 10,000 S5U or less. Because the majority of wastes to be
treated at the D5&G Landfill are in soils, the liquid injection incinerator is
not applicable for this remediation effort.
3.2.8 Molten Salt Incinerator
The molten salt process is an oxidation and recombinant process where
wastes are oxidized and/or chemically altered to innocuous substances A
salt bed (made up of either sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, sodium
phosphate, sodium carbonate, or corresponding calcium salts) is heated to
fiuidization. Typical bed temperatures range from 1400 'F to 1600 *F. Waste
components dissolve within the melt, producing an off-gas containing carbon
dioxide, steam, oxygen, and nitrogen from the air supply. The off-gas will
also contain particulate matter, salt and other components generated within
the melt and elutriated into the stream. The molten salt acts as a dispersing
medium for both the waste being processed and the air used in the reaction.
The salt acts as a catalyst for oxidation reactions and accelerates the
destruction of organic materials while preventing the discharge of acidic
gases by neutralization. Ash generated, as well as other noncombustibles are
physically retained within the melt.
3.2.9 Oxygen Burners
Oxygen burners or oxygen-enriched incineration are a technology that is
essentially an improvement over existing burner designs wherein air enriched
with oxygen is used in place of ambient combustion air. As oxygen replaces
part of the combustion air, the nitrogen content of the gas stream through the
incinerator is reduced accordingly. The advantage to this is that NOX
emissions can be reduced substantially. Other advantages also include.
Incinerator throughput, normally limited by residence time
requirements, blower capacity, and capacities of the off-gas
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- 19-
treatment units, can be increased significantly.
Consumption of supplemental fuel (if required) is reduced because of
a decrease in the sensible heat lost to the flue
Improved ORE occurs as a result of longer residence times (in
retrofitted installations) and a richer mixture.
Off-gas treatment can be accomplished in smaller units and can be
more effective.
The only disadvantage to oxygen burners is the added cost of the oxygen.
I was unable to find any economic information regarding the cost of the
operation of an oxygen-enriched incineration process.
3.3 Incinerator Selection
Table 2 shows the typical operating ranges of various incineration
processes Table 3 shows the applicability of various incineration processes
to incineration of hazardous waste by type.
The best choice for the incineration of soils and wastes at the Delaware
Sand and Gravel Landfill would be the rotary kiln incinerator. It is the most
proven and commercially available incinerator on the market. The rotary kiln
incinerator has become known as the workhorse of the industry. The rotary
kiln can handle solids, sludges, and liquids all at the same time Kilns used
for incineration are batch fed with solids of varying shape, size, and heat
content. This provides flexibility not available in other incinerator systems
Little to no pre-treatment of the wastes is necessary. The afterburner can
reach temperatures up to 2900°F, more than high enough to completely
destroy the most stubborn organic compounds. A number of transportable
rotary kilns have been successfully operated throughout the United States.
The actual design of a rotary kiln system for the DS&G Landfill
application takes quite a bit of time. The preparation of a detailed cost
estimate of a complete incinerator facility takes about twelve
engineer-weeks. Incinerator combustion chambers are sized on the basis of
-------
TABLE 2. PERTINENT INCINERATION PROCESSES AND
THEIR TYPICAL OPERATING RANGES
Process
Rotar kiln
injection
ized ted
Ccmcmeraticn
Starved air cornbusticn/pyrolysis
Temperature
range, °F (8C)
1.500 to 2.900
(820 to 1,600)
1.200 to 2.900
(650 to 1.600)
840 to 1.800
(450 to 980)
Drying zone
600 to 1.COO
(320 to 540)
incineration
1.400 to 1.800
(760 to 980)
300 to 2.900
(150 to 1.600)
900 to 1.500
(480 to 820)
Residence time
Liquids and gases, seconds:
solids, hours
0 1 to 2 seconds
Liquids and gases, seconds:
solids, longer
0?5 to 1.5 hours
Seconds to hours
Tenth of a second to
several hours
TA8LE 3 APPLICABILITY OF AVAILABLE INCINERATION PROCESSES TO
INCINERATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE BY TYPE
Rotary Liquid Fluidized Multiple air
Waste type kiln' injection bed' hearin Coincmeration
So cs
j'j^jiar no-"'ogeneous X
ca >e'S e'C 1 X
Lc.v -r>eitinr) poni
cars esc l X
'jb'Die asn constituents X
Ui-p-epareo large DuiKy
mite'iai X
Gases
0-ganic vapor laden X°
nigr rrgantc strength
aqueous wastes otten
o.,c X'
O'fj.miC Mi|n«IS X*
''aiie contams f.aiogcnatrjo
? -CO ^ T'.ni'nijrni X
Aa-cous O'^arnc siLcges X'*
Surtdtle 'Of SyfOlys s opcfation
^"Handles large fiaieriji on j 'united b,isis
]l " .in -i.ii :.,ir '^ rri(.-it,.i) dno yum(.x.'fj
(|f yff,[ic''y p"- jC' 'IcU to tin.' incincfdicx
XX X
X
Xe X X
X X
X" Xa X" Xs
XX X
XX X
X' X
XX X
11 equipped *>nn auxiliary liquid miection
' II liquid
vivoviocd waste does not become sticky
Starved
combustion/
pyrolysis
X
X"
X
X
Xs
nozzles
upon drying
-------
- 20-
estimates of the flue gas volume generated by the burning of hazardous waste
and auxiliary fuel The costs of components downstream of the combustion
chambers are a function of flue gas volumetric flowrate. Sampling and
characterization of the actual wastes and soils to be incinerated is required
(rather than the sampling of surrounding areas which is all that is currently
available) before an effective design can be developed.
The cost for a rotary kiln incinerator may range from $ 150 to $350/ton
(Liddicoatt, 1990). Assuming that there is 25,000 yd3 (20,500 yd3 from the
Drum Disposal Area, 4,500 yd3 from the Ridge Area) of soil and wastes to be
incinerated, the total incineration cost may be expected to range from
$8.4 million to $195 million.
4.0 Incinerator Emissions
The use of hazardous waste incinerators has met a substantial amount of
public opposition because people are concerned about the potential risks to
human health and the ecosystem from stack emissions. This concern could be
avoided if the general public had a better understanding of incineration
emission potentials and available control techniques.
When hazardous wastes are burned with oxygen, they react to form
combustion products, such as C02, CO, H20, HC and particulate matter.
Significant amounts of other species are also normally released during
incineration, including SOX, NOX, acids, salts, halogenated organics, free
halogen gases, and amines. The stack gas may contain partially burned
hydrocarbons such as benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, benezene
hexachloride, benzo-a-pyrene, and dioxins in the stack gas. These compounds
are of concern because they are toxic and carcinogenic at low exposure levels.
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- 21-
Many metals are of concern in hazardous waste incineration because of the
possible adverse human health effects associated with exposure to emissions
of these elements and/or their compounds from incinerator stacks. Metals of
primary interest include arsenic, barium, beryllium, chromium, cadmium,
lead, mercury, antimony, silver and thallium.
4 1 Types of Emissions
41.1 Particulate Matter
The term particulate matter, comprises a complex category of materials,
both solid and liquid, that inhabit the atmosphere. The size range of
particulates (also known as aerosols) ranges from 0.1 micron (\i) to 500 u in
diameter. Particles larger than 10 u can be seen with the naked eye.
Particulate matter may originate from inorganic or organometallic
substances introduced with the waste, auxiliary fuel, combustion air, or some
combination of these materials. Inorganic matter, such as salts and trace
metals present in the waste and fuel, are known as ash and cannot be
destroyed by incineration. The ash content is usually much higher in solids
and sludges than in liquid wastes. Emissions of particulate matter are
influenced by the chemical composition of the waste and the auxiliary fuel
being incinerated, the type of incinerator and its operating parameters, and
the air pollution control system. Most of the pollutants of concern, such as
heavy metals and organic toxic byproducts, will condense either as fine
particles or on fine particles as the exhaust gas stream cools.
As the quantity of metallic constituents in the feed increases, the
quantity of metallic oxides also increases. These particulates are mostly
less than one micron in size, and they may include oxides of silicon, sodium,
calcium, zinc, magnesium, iron and aluminum with lower percentages of trace
-------
- 22-
metals. The oxide particles reflect light and produce highly visible emissions
wnich appear worse than stack test results would indicate
The technology for particulate control is well developed. Selection of
control equipment depends on several factors such as the inlet grain loading,
particle size distribution, acid removal devices and regulatory requirements.
Scrubbers, baghouses and wet electrostatic precipitators are currently used
on hazardous waste incinerators. Many engineers use quenchers, which serve
both to cool the gases and to permit particulate growth, followed by medium
to high energy venturi scrubbers for ultimate capture. Alternate designs
involve precipitators (either wet or dry) followed by absorbers for the gas
components.
41.2 Gaseous Matter
Flue gas will normally have components classified as either organic or
inorganic. Inorganic gases produced from the burning process normally
include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and oxides of
sulfur (if present). Emission of carbon monoxide is normally very low due to
the high-level combustion and destruction efficiencies achieved in the
hazardous waste incinerators, but emissions of nitrogen oxides are usually
high due to thermal fixation of oxygen and nitrogen in the combustion air at
high temperatures. Depending on the waste, emission of oxides of sulfur and
other various acid gases may also result from hazardous waste incineration.
The acid gases emitted may include sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride,
hydrogen fluoride, and hydrogen bromide. Various scrubbing technologies are
available to control all of the above acid gases. Carbon dioxide is currently
not considered an air pollutant.
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- 23-
Possible organic gas emissions may include oxygenated hydrocarbons,
halogenated hydrocarbons, olef ms, and aromatics Emissions of any type of
hydrocarbon are normally very low because of the destruction efficiency of
the high-temperature combustion process. Incineration of chlorinated
hydrocarbons results in the formation of hydrochloric acid and free chlorine
The chlorine results from an inadequate supply of hydrogen to convert the
chlorine in the compounds to hydrochloric acid Since many chlorinated
organics often require an auxiliary fuel for their proper destruction, it is
advisable to use natural gas as this will aid in the conversion of the chlorine
toHCl
4 1.3 PCBs
Incineration of substances containing PCBs (polychlonnated biphenyls) is
covered by the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). Permitting under T5CA
is reserved for EPA. Under TSCA a material containing less than 50 ppm PCBs
is not controlled. TSCA mandates tha for destruction of PCBs, combustion at
1200 "C with a 2 second retention time and 3% oxygen in the exhaust gas or
1600 °C with a 1.5 second retention time and 2% oxygen in the exhaust is
required Additionally there must be a combustion efficiency of at least
99.9%
However, at NPL sites, such as the DS&G Landfill, RCRA and TSCA
incineration permits are not required. At these sites, the EPA Regional
Administrator sets the applicable standards, which may include compliance
with the provisions of incinerator permitting under TSCA without the
necessity of obtaining an actual permit.
From the analytical data currently available for the DS&G Landfill, the
PCB contamination is below the 50 ppm level. However, the need for further
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- 24-
sampling and waste characterization is evident before any final incineration
design is implemented.
41.4 Dioxm
Trace quantities of dioxins have been reported to have been found in the
emissions of hazardous waste incinerators. The term dioxin is a
generalization of a family of chlorinated organic compounds consisting of two
benzene rings connected by two oxygen bridges. When chlorine atoms occupy
two or more of the eight available locations on the two benzene rings, the
resulting molecule is known as a polychlormated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD), or
dioxin for short. Of the 73 different possible varieties of dioxins,
2,3,7,8-TCDD is the most toxic found to date. PCDDs are thermally stable up
through 1300°F and have an extremely low vapor pressure. Figure 11 shows
dioxin and some related compound chemical structures.
Although no cases of human death or even long-term disability have been
attributed to dioxins in the United States or elsewhere, 2,3,7,8-TCDD was
found to be extremely toxic to small animals. It is the most toxic synthetic
chemical known, 500 times more potent than strychnine and 10,000 times
more potent than cyanide as determined by laboratory analysis. Some
observations pertaining to dioxin's human health effects are:
In each case of exposure a skin disorder, chloracne, has occurred.
Chloracne is a severe facial eruption and is a severe irritant.
Liver damage has been reported a number of months after exposure.
However, in each case, signs of this damage have disappeared within a
period of two to five years.
No human symptoms or reactions have been found to be permanently
injurious to well-being
Although no relationship to malignancies has been found between
dioxins and human life, this is a fear, particularly as a long-term
effect.
-------
2,3,7,8-TCDD is one compound in a family
All dibenzo-p-dioxins have a three-ring
structure consisting of two benzene
rings connected by oxygen atoms:
And 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
is one of the 75 possible chlorinated
dioxins:
Related are chlorinated dibenzofurans:
Dioxin precursors combine
to form dioxin in the general
reaction:
For example, 2,3,7,8-TCDD is the most
likely result from the reaction of
2,4,5-trichlorophenol:
Cl
-NaCI
/
Source.'
oi
^fe.
-------
- 25-
There are many theories of how dioxin may form during incineration
including the following:
Burning of wastes which contain trace levels of PCDD will
necessarily produce PCDD in the exhaust stream.
The presence of two or more chlorinated organics act as precursors in
the formation of PCDD. By a process termed dimerization these
compounds will combine, under appropriate conditions of temperature
and oxygen availability, to form PCDD.
PCDD may be formed by partial oxidation of single-molecule precursor
compounds, such as the partial oxidation of PCBs.
The presence of chlorine and the chlorine (chloride) attack of basic
aromatic hydrocarbon structures associated with lignin, such as
wood, vegetable residues, etc., encourage PCDD formatio
Dioxins, as it turns out, are not very difficult to destroy. There is no
unique thermal or kinetic stability attributable to dioxins that would prohibit
its efficient destruction at high temperatures. The use of an auxiliary fuel
and the availability of molecular oxygen reduce dioxin levels substantially.
The probability of gas-phase formation of dioxin is very low at high
temperatures, i1700°F, if mixing between fuel and air is efficient. More
sampling and further waste characterization is required to estimate whether
dioxin may be a problem at DS&G.
4.2 Air Pollution Control Devices
There are numerous types and sizes of air pollution control devices
(APCDs) on the market today. They range from the unsophisticated, a series
of baffles, to the relatively complex high-energy water scrubbing devices,
utilizing alkali, to clean gas streams of solid, liquid, and gaseous pollutants.
Below is a description of a few of the APCDs currently available.
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- 26-
42.1 Electrostatic Precipitator
In an electrostatic precipitator (ESP), a negative electrical charge is
imparted on the particles in the flue gas. The negatively charged particles
are then attracted and retained by positively charged collection electrodes.
The particles are removed from the electrodes into collection hoppers by
rapping. The process is carried out within an enclosed chamber made of metal
or Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic. The grounded collecting electrodes (plates)
are suspended within the chamber. Power input is provided by a high-voltage
transformer and a rectifier. Discharge electrodes suspended between the
plates are negatively charged with voltages ranging from 20 to 100 Kvolts.
Figure 12 shows a typical electrostatic precipitator.
42.2 Wet Electrostatic Precipitator
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators (WESPs) are a relatively new technology
and are generally used for applications where the potential for explosion is
high or where particulates are very sticky. Figure 13 is a cross section
through a wet ESP They are basically the same technology as dry ESPs with
the following two important distinctions:
A wet spray is included in the inlet section for cooling, gas
adsorption, and coarse particle collection
The collection electrode is wetted to flush away the collected
particles.
42.3 Fabric Filter (Baghouse)
Fabric filters remove dust and particles from the flue gas by passing the
gas through a fabric bag. The cleaned gas exits from one side of the filter
while the dust is collected on the other side. Baghouses are very efficient for
gases containing small particles. The collected dust may be removed from
the filter bag by any of three methods: mechanical shaking, reverse flow
back-flushing at low pressure (reverse air), or reverse flow back-flushing at
-------
Figure 52 Typical electrostatic preapitator
-------
t/U IhLtT
CAS OUTLtT
HIGH-VOL TACt
CONDUCTOR
INSULATOR COMPARTMENT
MICH-VOLTAGE SYSTEM
SUPPORT INSULATOR
ELECTRIC HEATER
ATf « SPRATS
DISCHAICt ELECTROOt
SUPPORT FRAME
I« fOWOJ
DISCHARGE ELECTR008S
TUMJLA* COLLECTING
SURfACES
CASING
EIGHTS
DISCHARGE SEAL
Figure
Co.)
Tubular wet Electrostatic precipttator. (Source; Joy Manufacturing
^ 118G
-------
- 27-
slightly higher pressure (pulsed air) Figure 14 is a schematic of a bag filter
with a shaker mechanism.
424 Quench Chamber
The quench chamber operates by passing the hot gases through a water
spray Quench chambers usually precede scrubber equipment in the pollution
control treatment sequence, and are used to reduce the temperature of hot
gases leaving the incinerator. The chamber also serves to protect the
downstream equipment from high temperature damage and it reduces water
evaporation in downstream scrubbing equipment. Figure 15 depicts an upflow
quench reactor.
4.2 5 Wet/Dry Scrubber (Spray Dryer)
In the wet/dry scrubber, hot gases are passed through a fine mist of a
dilute alkali slurry. The water in the slurry absorbs acids from the flue gas
and the acids react with the alkali solids in the slurry to form salts. Water
is lost through evaporation, leaving the salts and any unreacted alkali behind
as a dry powder. This particle-laden flow then goes to a fabric filter or an
ESP to remove the particulates. Wet/dry scrubbers are considered cleaner
control systems than wet scrubbers, mainly because the waste material is
dry particulates and no further liquid treatment is required, which
significantly reduces the waste volume.
4.2.6 Venturi Scrubber
In the venturi scrubber, a liquid is introduced into a constricted area.
High velocity gas, from 200 to 600 ft/sec at the throat, is also introduced to
shear the liquid into fine droplets and to allow large surface area for mass
transfer From the expansion section of the venturi throat the gas enters a
-------
Figure 14 Upflow quench reactor.
SHAKER ECCErfTHIC BAG SUSPENSION
MOTOR ROD ,. BAR
REVERSE-AIR \ | /' ^.PARTITION
DAMPER IN
NORMAL \
POSITION '
TO EXHAUST FAN
COMPARTMENT
IN SERVICE
LEVEL INDICATOR
FOR OUST -
TOP OF SILO
REVERSE-AIR
CAMPER IN
CLEANING
POSITION
> TO EXHAUST FAN
'-FRESH-AIR QAMPER
COMPARTMENT
BEIK3 CLEANED
MATERIAL
IN
Flgur* IS Bag fitter with shaker mechanism.
-------
Figure )& Venturi scrubber.
-------
- 28-
large chamber for separation of particles or for further scrubbing. Figure 16
illustrates a venturi scrubber where water is injected at its throat
43 Air Pollution Control Device Efficiency
Table A shows conservative estimated efficiencies of APCDs for
controlling toxic metals emissions. Most toxic metals will condense as
solids if incinerator combustion gases are cooled. As seen in the table,
mercury is the least apt to condense prior to emission from the system stack
as its degree of recovery above 400°F is generally slight. Quench chambers
are frequently employed to cool flue gas prior to further treatment. Venturi
scrubbers are frequently used while ESPs and WESPs are not widely used in
hazardous waste incineration applications. Fabric filters have not been
commonly used on hazardous waste incinerators as they are bulky and
expensive, and require careful operation At most facilities where data
indicate high gas and particulate removal efficiencies, there are usually two
to four APCDs in series. The particular series will depend on the type of
incinerator and the characteristics of the wastes incinerated. A number of
typical APC series are listed below:
Quench/wet scrubber
Quench/spray dryer/cyclone/ESP
Quench/spray dryer/cyclone/fabric filter
Quench/wet scrubber/ionizing wet scrubber/mist eliminator
Quench/WESP/venturi scrubber/packed tower scrubbers
Quench/venturi scrubber/packed tower scrubbers; and
Fabric filter/wet scrubber
4.4 Selection of an Air Pollution Control Device Series
Further waste characterization studies and more sampling is required
before the proper selection of an APCD series can be made. However, high
levels of lead have been found in the sampling to date and it does not appear
that mercury will be a problem. Therefore, the combination of a venturi
-------
TABLE 4
Air Pollution Control Devices (APCDs) and Their Conservatively
Estimated Efficiencies for Controlling Toxic Metals
APCD
POLLUTANT
ws
VS-20
VS-60
ESP-1
ESP-2
ESP-4
WESP
FF
PS
SD/FF; SD/C/FF
DS/FF
FF/WS
ESP-1AVS; ESP-1/PS
ESP-4/WS1 ESP-4/PS
VS-20/WS
"WS/IWS
WESP/VS-20/IWS
C/DS/ESP/FF; C/DS/GESP/FF
SD/C/ESP-1
Ba,Be
50
90
98
95
97
99
97
95
95
99
98
95
96
99
97
95
99
99
99
Ag
50
90
93
95
97
99
97
95
95
99
98
95
96
99
97
95
99
99
99
Cr
50
90
93
95
97
99
96
95
95
99
98
95
96
99
97
95
98
99
98
As.Sb.Cd,
Pb. TI
40
20
40
80
85
90
95
90
95
95
98
90
90
95
96
95
97
99
95
Hg
30
20
40
0
0
0
60
50
80
90
50
50
80
85
80
85
90
98
85
It is assumed that flu* gases have been preceded in quench. If gases are not cooled adequately,
mercury recoveries will diminish, as will cadmium and arsenic to, a lesser extent.
' An IWS is nearly always used with an upstream quench and packed horizontal scrubber
C Cydcne
WS - Wet Scrubber including: Sieve Tray Tower
Packed Tower
Bubble Cap Tower
PS Proprietary Wet Scrubber Deetgn
(A number of proprietary wet scrubbers have come on the market in recent years that are highly
efficient on both paniculate* and corrosive gases. Two such units are offered by Carvert Environmental
Equipment Co. and by Hydro-Sonic Systems, Inc.).
VS-20 - Verfluri Scrubber, cm. 20-30 in W. G. Ap
VS-60 - Venturi Scrubber, ca. > 60 in W. G. Ap
ESP-1 - Electrostatic Preciprtaton 1 stage
ESP-2 Electrostatic Prectpdator, 2 stages
ESP-4 - Electrostatic Precipitaton 4 stages
IWS Ionizing Wet Scrubber
DS « Dry Scrubber
FF Fabnc Filter (Baghouse)
SO » Spray Dryer (Wet/Dry Scrubber)
-------
- 29-
scrubber in series with a wet scrubber would appear to be adequate air
pollution control for this application Further examination of the regulatory
requirements and the waste characteristics is needed before any official
selection and design of air pollution control equipment is implemented
5.0 Conclusion
The Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill, an NPL site, is currently in the
design phase of the remedial action Wastes and soils from two areas, the
Drum Disposal and Ridge Areas, are to be disposed by incineration The total
volume of material to be incinerated is expected to be between 25,000 yd3
and 30,000 yd3 depending on the actual boundaries and depths of wastes in the
two disposal areas The estimated range of costs for the incineration portion
of the project is between $8.4 million and $19.5 million. These figures do not
include excavation and handling and storage costs.
Much more sampling and waste characterization is required before the
f inai design of the incinerator and any air pollution control equipment is
begun. The best incinerator for the job right now appears to be the rotary
kiln Tnis incinerator offers the most versatility of any of the incinerators
currently on the market. It can handle solids, sludge and liquids at the same
time with little or no pretreatment of the waste feed necessary It is the
only incinerator that can operate in a slagging mode in which it can reduce
steel drums to a molten slag, a glass-like substance, when cooled.
Transportable rotary kilns have been proven to be effective in similar
applications throughout the country.
-------
- 30-
There are many types of air pollution control devices currently on the
market that will bring the stack emissions within any applicable regulations.
Venturi scrubbers, quench chambers and wet scrubbers are the most common
pieces of equipment used today For more complex applications, filter
baghouses and electrostatic precipitators are available.
incineration offers a permanent solution to the contamination problem
occurring at the Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill. It provides for the
destruction of the hazardous or toxic components in the waste matrix and it
reduces or eliminates the liabilities and risks pertaining to hazardous
wastes
-------
References
Bonner, T s Cornell, C., Desai, B , Fullenkamp, J., Hugnes, T., Johnson, M.,
Kennedy, E , McCormick, R., Pelers, J and Zanders, D Engineering
Handbook for Hazardous Wasle Incineralion Nalional Technical
Informalion Service, Springfield, VA. June, 1981
Brunner, Calvin R Hazardous Air Emissions From Incineralion. Chapman and
Hall, New York, 1986
Brunner, Calvin R. incmeralion Syslems Van Noslrand Reinhold Company,
New York, 1984
Brunner, Calvin R Site Cleanup by Incineralion. The Hazardous Malerials
Conlrol Research Institute, Silver Springs, Maryland, 1988.
Cudahy, James, and Eicher, Anthony. "Thermal Remedialion Industry-
Markets, Technologies, Companies," Pollution Engineering. November,
1989.
Devinny, J., Everetl, L, Lu, J., and Stellar, R. Subsurface Migration of
Hazardous Wastes, Van Noslrand Reinhold, New York, 1990.
Dunn Geoscience Corporalion, "Feasibilily Sludy for the Delaware Sand £
Gravel Landfill - Final Report" February, !988.
Dunn Geoscience Corporation, "Remedial Investigation Report on the
Delaware Sand & Gravel Landfill." December, 1987
EPA Report * 530/SW-90-04la. Guidance on Metals and Hydrogen Chloride
Controls for Hazardous Wasle Incinerators: Volume IV of the Hazardous
Wasle Incineration Guidance Series. 1990.
Esposito, M., Taylor, M., Bruffey, C, and Thurnau, R. "Incineralion of a
Surrogate Superfund Soil Using a Pilol-Scale Rolary Kiln Incineralor,"
Unpublished draft report, 1988.
Ives, Jim and Young, Derrell. "Hazardous Waste Incineration System Used on
Alaskan Site," Oil and Gas Journal. Ocl. 30, 1989.
-------
Johnson, L, Midgett, R, James, R., Thomason, M , and Manier, M. "Screening
Approach for Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents and Products of
Incomplete Combustion," JAPCA. vol. 39, 1989
Johnson, Nancy, and Cosmos, Michael. "Thermal Treatment Technologies for
Haz Waste Remediation," Pollution Engineering. October, 1989.
Kinkhabwala, Minesh, and Mehta, Ronald. "Case Study: Transportable
Incineration Technologies for Permanent Superfund Remediations,"
Hazardous Waste Management Magazine. Jan.-Feb.. 1988.
Liddicoatt, Carol. Review of Alternative Incineration Technologies for the
Southern Maryland Wood Preservers Superfund Site. Hollywood.
Maryland, Unpublished Report by Dames & Moore, 1990.
Rawis, Rebecca. "Dioxin's Human Toxicity is Most Difficult Problem," C&EN.
June 6, 1983
Santoleri, J "Rotary Kiln Incineration Systems: Operating Techniques for
Improved Performance," Hazardous and Industrial Wastes - Proceedings
of the Twenty-Second Mid-Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference. Drexel
University, Philadelphia, PA, July 24-27, 1990.
Shacklette, H. and Boerngen, J. Element Concentrations in Soils and Other
Surf icial Materials of the Conterminous United States. U.S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 1270. United States Government Printing
Office, Washington, 1984
Shaub, Water and Tsang, Wing. "Dioxin Formation in Incinerators,"
Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 17, no. 12, 1983.
Shen, Thomas. "Hazardous Waste Incineration: Emissions and Their Control/'
Pollution Engineering. July. 1986.
Star, Alvin. "Cost Estimating for Hazardous Waste Incineration," Pollution
Engineering. April, 1985
Timmons, D., Fitzpatrick, V., and Liikala, S. "Vitrification Tested on
Hazardous Wastes," Pollution Engineering. June, 1990
-------
Travis, C., Holton, 6., Etnier, E., Cook, 5., O'Donnell, F., Hetrick, D , and Dixon,
E. "Potential Health Risk of Hazardous Waste incineration," Journal of
Hazardous Materials, vol 14,1987.
Trenholm, Andrew, Lapp, Thomas, Scheil, George, Cootes, John, Klamm,
Scott, and Cassady, Carolyn "Total Mass Emissions from a Hazardous
Waste Incinerator," Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 18, 1988.
Vogel, Gregory, and Martin, Edward "Cost File - Waste Incineration Part 1-
Equipment Sizes and Intergrated-Facility Costs," Chemical
Engineering. September 5, 1983.
Vogel, Gregory, and Martin, Edward. "Cost File - Waste Incineration Part 2-
Estimating Costs of Equipment and Accessories," Chemical
Engineering. October 17, 1983.
Vogel, Gregory, and Martin, Edward. "Cost File - Waste Incineration Part 3:
Estimating Capital Costs of Facility Components," Chemical
Engineering. November 28, 1983
Worthy, Ward "Both Incidence, Control of Dioxin Are Highly Complex,"
C&EN, June 6. 1983.
-------
Appendix A
Analytical Data of Water and Groundwater at
Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill
-------
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-------
Table 5.20
DNREC Organic Analytical Results of Harch 1965
Delaware Sand and Gravel Landfill RI/FS Broundnater Sampling
(icrograis per liter)
Kill I
3a *
3a »
23
24
25
26
33
34
45
49
SB *
58 t
61
62
AHC-2 «
A«C-2 *
AKC-7
AKC-63
B-4
B-5
DEC -Old
DSC-Ols
D6C-02d
DSC-025
D6C-03d
DSC-03S
Rl-1
RK-10
flW-11
RW-12
RH-13
RW-14 t
RIM 4 *
27
28
29
31
PK-2 »
PN-2 *
TIM
1.2-
dichloro
ethane
<5.0
(5.0
<5.0
(5.0
(5.0
3.0
<5.0
<5.0
(5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
11.0
<5.0
<5.0
20.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
23.0
<5.0
93.0
<5.0
51.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
(5.0
(3.0
<5.0
(5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
Ifl-
dichloro
ethene
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
<5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
benzene
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
<5.0
(3.0
(3.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
<5.0
3100.0
(3.0
1700.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
30.0
<3.0
(5.0
<5.0
(5.0
(5.0
130.0
(5.0
(5.0
<5.0
toluene
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
7300.0
(5.0
8000.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
83.0
<5.0
(3.0
(3.0
(3.0
16.0
360.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
ethyl
benzene
(3.0
<3.0
<5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(3.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
390.0
(5,0
1400.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
<5.0
<3.0
(5.0
(5.0
59.0
24.0
(3.0
<5.0
<5.0
M-
dichloro
ethane
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
<5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
<5.0
8.2
(5.0
11.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
chlorofon
(3.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(3.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(3.0
(1.0
(5.0
5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
tri
chloro
ethene
(3.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
180.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
28.0
(5.0
320.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(3.0
(3.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
chloro
benzene
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(3.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
14.0
(5.0
33.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
(5.0
<5.0
(5.0
(3.0
24.0
(5.0
(5.0
<5.0
(5.0
1.2-
dichloro
ethene
(3.0
(3.0
(5.0
(3.0
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Appendix B
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Table (continued)
Organic Analytical Results of February/March 1986
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