United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Using Smart Growth Techniques as
Stormwater Best
Management Practices
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About the Image on the Cover
The cover illustration depicts development that might occur as a result of the recently updated West Hyattsville (Maryland) Transit Oriented
Development Overlay Zone. This area is served by the Metrorail (subway) and is home to the West Hyattsville Green Line station. The elements of the
plan include many common features of transit oriented development (TOD): a compact footprint, development intensity focused on the station area, a
rich mix of uses and housing types, and a variety of transportation options. These features, as illustrated in this publication, also have benefits related to
preventing and managing stormwater, in particular, when considered at the watershed, neighborhood, and site levels simultaneously. The compact
design can accommodate a higher intensity of development on a smaller footprint. This format, oriented toward transit and pedestrian travel, also
lessens the imperviousness related to automobile-only travel. By accommodating a higher intensity of development in this preferred area, demand that
might go elsewhere in the undeveloped parts of the watershed is absorbed.
The West Hyattsville TOD Plan goes further to address water and stormwater throughout the planning area. There is a heavy emphasis on open space,
active parks, and integrated stormwater management. In developing the plan, use of natural drainage patterns and habitat restoration were coupled with
development of parks, fields, and trails.
Image courtesy of PB PlaceMaking and the Maryland National Capital Parks and Planning Commission - Prince George's County Planning Department.
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Acknowledgements
The principal author, Lisa Nisenson from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's)
Development, Community and Environment Division, acknowledges the contributions and
insights of the following people: Barbara Yuhas, International City/County Managers
Association; Ben Stupka, Michigan Environmental Council; Bill Spikowski, Spikowski
Planning Associates; Cheryl Kollin, American Forests; Chet Arnold, the University of
Connecticut, Non-Point Source Education for Municipal Officials; Don Chen, Smart Growth
America; Dreux Watermolen, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; Frank Sagona,
Southeastern Watershed Forum; Dan Emerine, International City/County Managers
Association; Diana Keena, City of Emeryville (California); G.B. Arrington, PB Placemaking;
George Hawkins, New Jersey Future; Harry Dodson, Dodson Associates Limited; James
Hencke, PB Placemaking; Jeff Tumlin, Nelson/Nygaard Consulting; John Jacob, Texas Sea
Grant Program; Kathy Blaha, Trust for Public Land; Linda Domizio, Massachusetts
Department of Environmental Protection; Michael Bateman, Stormwater360; Milt Rhodes,
Dover-Kohl Partners; Rebecca Finn, City of Elm Grove (Wisconsin); Rob Stueteville, New
Urban News; Steve Tracy, Local Government Commission; Tom Davenport, EPA Region 5; and
Tom Low, Duany-Plater Zyberk.
In addition, contributors and reviewers from the EPA team: Geoff Anderson, Chris Forinash,
Kevin Nelson, Lee Sobel, Lynn Richards, Jamal Kadri, Jenny Molloy Kol Peterson, Rod
Frederick, Robert Goo, Nikos Singelis, Ryan Albert, and Sylvia Malm.
ICF Consulting produced an initial draft of this document under EPA contract 2W0921NBLX
for the Development, Community, and Environment Division; Office of Policy, Economics and
Innovation. Eastern Research Group edited and designed the report.
To request additional copies of this report, contact EPA's National Service Center for
Environmental Publications at (800) 490-9198 or e-mail at ncepimal@one.net and ask for
publication number EPA 231-B-05-002. To access this report online, visit or .
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Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7
SECTION 1: WHY STORMWATER? THE NEXUS BETWEEN LAND
DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS AND WATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY 11
Summary of How Stormwater Runoff Is Regulated 12
Connecting Stormwater Management and Smart Growth 15
Smart Growth Techniques as Best Management Practices 20
SECTION 2: SPECIFIC SMART GROWTH TECHNIQUES AS STORMWATER
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 25
1. Regional Planning 27
2. Infill Development 37
3. Redevelopment 48
4. Development Districts 51
5. Tree and Canopy Programs 61
6. Parking Policies to Reduce Number of Spaces Needed 64
7. "Fix It First" Infrastructure Policies 71
8. Smart Growth Street Designs 75
9. Stormwater Utilities 81
SECTION 3: RESOURCES 89
SECTION 4: NEW JERSEY—A CASE STUDY IN WEAVING STORMWATER AND
SMART GROWTH POLICIES TOGETHER 99
Goals for Smart Growth 99
Goals for Water and Stormwater 100
Specific Policies that Meet Both Water
and Smart Growth Goals 100
ACRONYMS & GLOSSARY 105
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>
*
Image: PB PlaceMaking, Stull and Lee
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
Communities around the country are
adopting smart growth strategies to
reach environmental, community,
and economic goals. The environmental
goals include water benefits that accrue
when development strategies use compact
development forms, a mix of uses, better use
of existing infrastructure, and preservation of
critical environmental areas. While the water
quality and Stormwater benefits of smart
growth are widely acknowledged, there has
been little explicit regulatory recognition of
these benefits to date.
Regulations under the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
Stormwater program offer a structure for
considering the water quality benefits associ-
ated with smart growth techniques.
Compliance with federal, state, and local
Stormwater programs revolves around the
use of "best management practices" (BMPs)
to manage Stormwater. Given the water
benefits of smart growth at the site,
neighborhood, and watershed levels, many
smart growth techniques and policies are
emerging as BMPs.
The goal of this document is to help commu-
nities that have adopted smart growth poli-
cies and plans recognize the water benefits of
those smart growth techniques and suggest
ways to integrate those policies into
Stormwater planning and compliance. Taking
credit for the work a community is already
doing can be a low-cost and practical
approach to meeting water quality goals and
regulatory commitments.
This document is related to a series of
primers on smart growth. In 1999 and 2001,
the International City/County Managers
Association (ICMA) and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
released two primers that each listed 100
smart growth policies. In 2004, EPA released
Protecting Water Resources with Smart Growth,
which presented 75 policies directly related
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Executive Summary
to water resources. This document also com-
plements the EPA's National Management
Measures to Control Nonpoint Source
Pollution from Urban Areas (2005).
Who Can Use This Report?
Stormwater and Water Quality
Professionals: This document is written to
help water professionals understand urban
planning documents to determine where
Stormwater improvements might already be
included. This document can also be helpful
to consultants who are helping communities
develop comprehensive Stormwater and
planning documents, outreach programs, and
compliance tracking.
Communities Regulated Under Phases I & II
of the NPDES Stormwater Program: More
than 6,000 communities are now required to
develop Stormwater management plans to
comply with the NPDES requirements. As
NPDES permits issued since f 990 under
Phase I come up for renewal, this document
offers innovative measures for further
improving Stormwater management through
redevelopment, infill, urban parks, and green
building techniques. Communities under
Phase II are likely to be developing their
Stormwater management plans, guidance
materials, and ordinances.
Local Land Use and Transportation
Planners: Just as Stormwater engineers are
taking on more of an urban planning role,
land use and transportation planners should
consider the practice of Stormwater control in
ways that go beyond pipes, ponds, and gut-
ters. This document introduces the concept
of joint land use, transportation, and water
planning as a way of providing water quality
protection and satisfying regulatory commit-
ments for compliance with local Stormwater
management plans and NPDES permits.
Zoning Administrators: Language in many
federal and state model Stormwater ordi-
nances call for the development of "ordi-
nances or other regulatory mechanisms" for
implementation of new Stormwater rules.
Most Stormwater that is
collected from curbs and
gutters flows untreated
into local waterways.
Smart growth seeks to
limit the number of out-
falls in a watershed with
compact development.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
The elements related to stormwater ordi-
nances are likely to address the same aspects
of project design as zoning codes, for exam-
ple, setbacks, street widths, landscaping and
parking requirements. Zoning administrators
should be involved in the development of
stormwater ordinances so that conflicts do
not arise among codes.
City and County Managers: The stormwater
requirements have focused attention on
improving communications across various
departments, from public works to trans-
portation to subdivision planning. As new
and revised stormwater rules are written at
the local level, NPDES implementation has
revealed the importance of pulling together
traditionally autonomous departments to
determine where separate departmental poli-
cies might pose barriers to efficient planning,
investment, and environmental protection.
City and county managers are often in a
unique position to bridge planning and
budgets and broker solutions where require-
ments developed by one department run
counter to new smart growth plans.
Developers: Developers, particularly those
building within urbanized areas affected by
NPDES stormwater rules, are facing new
requirements for water quality and quantity.
This document will help developers assess
their smart growth projects, improve the
stormwater handling on site, and define how
their projects meet stormwater goals and the
site, neighborhood, and regional level.
Smart Growth Practitioners: Whether you
are with a nonprofit organization, a local
government office, or in private practice,
your skills in reviewing and writing compre-
hensive environmental plans and policies can
play a role in shaping joint smart growth and
stormwater plans. Emerging stormwater pro-
grams offer a framework for constructive
involvement.
Talking About Compact Development - Homebuilders
In 2005, the National Association of Homebuilders (NAHB) released talking points on compact
development. They note that compact forms can include cluster development, higher-density
development, mixed-used projects and traditional neighborhood developments.The
Association encourages builders to review local ordinances to see where rules on set backs,
infrastructure, street widths and the approval processes pose barriers or opportunities for com-
pact development. In particular, the talking points mention alternative stormwater approaches
to help support a more compact development form.
See .
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Image: PB PlaceMaking, Stull and Lee
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
11
SECTION 1
Why Stormwater? The Nexus Between Land Development
Patterns and Water Quality and Quantity
Since 1972, implementation ol
the Clean Water Act (CWA) has shown
success in controlling water pollution
Irom point sources such as municipal waste-
water treatment plants and industrial dis-
charges. This progress is overshadowed,
however, by the emergence ol nonpoint
source pollution as a main contributor to
water quality problems.
Nonpoint source (NFS) pollution comes
Irom many diffuse sources. NFS pollution
originates when rainlall or snowmelt moves
over and through the ground. As the runoff
moves, it picks up and carries away natural
and human-made pollutants, finally
depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands,
coastal waters, and even underground
sources ol drinking water.
These pollutants include:
• Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecti-
cides from agricultural lands and resi-
dential areas.
• Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from
urban runoff.
• Sediment from improperly managed con-
struction sites, crop and forest lands,
and eroding stream banks.
• Bacteria and nutrients from livestock,
pet wastes, wildlife, and faulty septic
systems.
• A myriad ol other pollutants originating
with a side variety ol land based
activities.
• Atmospheric deposition and hydromodi-
lication are also sources ol nonpoint
source pollution.1
For urban and urbanizing areas, these prob-
lems can largely be traced to activities that
occur on the land. Whether the problem aris-
es from lawn care chemicals, or motor oil and
toxic metals from parking lots and streets,
Stormwater plays a large role in transporting
pollutants to streams, drinking water sources,
and other receiving water bodies.
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12
SECTION 1: Why Stormwater?
Preserving open
space, farmland
and critical envi-
ronmental areas
is one of the 10
smart growth
principals.
While land development necessarily involves
creation of impervious surfaces, how and
where development takes place can influence
the ultimate degree of environmental impact
from the streets, rooftops, and yards. Where
development has occurred on forest and
undeveloped land, critical areas for infiltra-
tion and aquifer recharge that soaked up rain-
water prior to development now export
runoff to lower lying areas and local receiving
water bodies. Water flowing over pavement
absorbs heat, which impacts waterways that
support cold water species. It also flows
faster, thus delivering water in pulses. The
faster flows can scour stream banks and
accelerate erosion, while increased tempera-
tures can spur excessive algal growth. The
higher rate of vegetative growth can interfere
with a variety of ecological, industrial and
water filtration processes. Conventional con-
struction practices have relied on mass clear-
ing and grading. This practice compacts the
soil surface and further prevents infiltration,
even on lots overlain with turf. Thus, the
generation of stormwater volume, as well as
the pollutant load carried in that volume, is
very much tied to how and where land is
developed.
Summary of How
Stormwater Runoff Is
Regulated
In 1972, Congress amended the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act (subsequently
referred to as the Clean Water Act) to control
the discharges of pollutants to waters of the
United States from point sources. Initial
efforts to improve water quality using the
National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) focused primarily on
reducing pollutants from industrial process
wastewater and municipal sewage discharges.
These sources were easily identified as
responsible for poor—often drastically
degraded—water quality conditions.
As pollution control measures for industrial
process wastewater and municipal sewage
were implemented and refined, it became
increasingly evident that more diffuse
sources of water pollution were also signifi-
cant causes of water quality impairment.
Specifically, stormwater runoff was found to
cause serious pollution problems. As a result
Congress added section 402 (p) of the Clean
Water Act, which established a comprehen-
sive, two-phase approach to stormwater con-
trol using the NPDES program.
In 1990 EPA issued the Phase I stormwater
rule (55 FR 47990; November 16, 1990)
requiring NPDES permits for operators of
municipal separate storm sewer systems
(MS4s) serving populations greater than
100,000 and for runoff associated with
industrial activity, including runoff from con-
struction sites 5 acres and larger. In 1999
EPA issued the Phase II stormwater rule (64
FR 68722; December 8, 1999) that expanded
the requirements to small MS4s in urban
areas and to construction sites between 1
and 5 acres in size.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
13
EPA has delegated NPDES permitting
authority to all but five states, several terri-
tories, the District of Columbia, federal facil-
ities in four states, and federal tribes.
NPDES permits are reissued every five years
to allow for modifications to meet changing
conditions both with the discharge and with
discharge standards and regulations. There
are two standard types of NPDES permits: 1)
An individual permit is issued to a single
discharger, with customized requirements
for that particular discharge. All Phase I
MS4 permits are individual permits.
2) General permits are usually statewide
permits with requirements that apply to all
discharges of a particular type or category.
Most Phase II MS4 permits are general per-
mits and require each permittee to develop a
stormwater management plan that details
how stormwater discharges from that
particular MS4 will be controlled. Though
they are not framed identically, the stormwa-
ter management requirements for Phase I
and Phase II MS4s are very similar. The rec-
ommendations in this publication are appli-
cable to all communities subject to the
stormwater regulations.
Evaluations of Phase I have shown that BMP
maintenance continues to be a problem.2
Both structural BMPs (e.g., sand filters) and
nonstructural BMPs (e.g., swales) require
periodic maintenance and care, which should
be budgeted for and scheduled. As you read
this document, think about the long-term
maintenance program for smart growth tech-
niques as BMPs to ensure that stormwater
benefits are supported over time.
To learn more, visit EPAs stormwater pro-
gram site at .
What Is an MS4?
A municipal separate storm sewer system (MS4) is a conveyance or system of conveyances (e.g.,
roads with drainage systems, municipal streets, catch basins, curbs, gutters, ditches, man-made
channels, storm drains) that are:
• Owned or operated by a state, city, town, borough, county, parish, district, association, or
other public body (created by or pursuant to state law) having jurisdiction over disposal of
sewage, industrial wastes, stormwater, or other wastes, including special districts under state
law such as a sewer district, flood control district, or drainage districts, or similar entity, or an
Indian tribe or an authorized Indian tribal organization, or a designated and approved man-
agement agency under section 208 of the Clean Water Act that discharges to waters of the
United States.
• Designed or used for collecting or conveying stormwater.
• Not a combined sewer.
• Not part of a publicly owned treatment works.
Though not explicit, many larger institutions, such as hospitals, universities, military bases,
and school districts fall under the definition, and thus must develop stormwater manage-
ment plans. If these institutions have been involved with local smart growth efforts, check
with them to see if there are smart growth elements in their stormwater management plan.
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14 | SECTION l:\VhyStormwater?
Elements of a NPDES Stormwater Permit - What Stakeholders Should Look For
States and municipalities are responsible for developing a suite
of information under the NPDES stormwater program. As you
look for the documents that will govern stormwater rules and
policies, be aware that there are several permit types within the
NPDES stormwater program, including industrial, multi-sector,
and construction permits. While these are important permits for
environmental protection, the MS4 NPDES stormwater permits
are the focus of this document. Section 2 includes guidance on
what to specifically look for within these materials.
At the Federal Level:
EPA has issued many guidance documents to assist states and
localities. These publications include:
• Sample and General Permits
• Fact Sheets and Outreach Materials
• Permit Applications and Forms
• Policy and Guidance Documents
• Program Status Reports
• A Menu of Best Management Practices
• Technical and Issue Papers
• Case Studies
• See lists links to each state's MS4
stormwater program. The elements to look for include the fol-
lowing:
• A state permit: Most states have developed a General MS4
permit, which establishes minimum requirements for per-
mit coverage. Some states have also developed alternatives
to the general permit, such as watershed permitting, to
allow for customization and innovation. The permit lists the
elements required to obtain permit coverage, which typical-
ly include: time tables; the minimum components of a
stormwater management plan; and legal language defining
responsibilities, enforcement, and penalties.
• Guidance documents: These documents are developed to
assist localities as they write their stormwater management
plans and develop menus of BMPs.
• State requirements: Many states have additional require-
ments to address special environmental needs; for example,
special resource waters, water quality control in cold climates,
or merging NPDES stormwater permitting with total maxi-
mum daily loads (TMDLs).
• Forms and maps
At the Local Level:
Check with your local environmental management or public
works department to see if your locality has obtained NPDES
permit coverage, or whether it is in the process of obtaining
coverage. Although state requirements vary, most MS4s are
required to submit the following documents:
• A Stormwater Management Plan (SWMP) or Stormwater
Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPP): For localities covered
under Phase II, there are six minimum control measures. The
SWMP should include strategies and BMPs for those
measures:
> Outreach
> Education
> Construction
> Post-Construction
> Illicit Discharges Elimination
> Pollution Prevention
Under the new rules, MS4s need to include measurable
goals, and show how the SWMP relates to water quality
goals. The minimum measures listed above were not part of
the original permit structure for Phase I permits, though the
general tasks were required. In reissuing stormwater per-
mits, many permitting authorities are modifying the per-
mits to more closely dovetail Phase I and Phase II
requirements to make it easier for these communities to
work together.
• Stormwater Ordinances: Most states require that MS4s
develop ordinances or other regulatory mechanisms to
implement stormwater management controls. As you read
draft language for ordinances, be prepared to compare the
proposed legal language with language in your local smart
growth codes and alert stormwater managers to
inconsistencies.
• Schedules for public meetings, regulation development,
milestones and training.
For more detailed information on water regulations and the
Clean Water Act, see the River Network's "Understanding the
Clean Water Act"at .
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
15
Connecting Stormwater
Management and Smart
Growth
Not so long ago, the predominant philoso-
phy of Stormwater control focused on flood
control and directing water off an individual
piece of property as quickly as possible. As
towns grew, curbs, gutters, trenches, and
pipes assisted the land use and Stormwater
planner alike in meeting this goal. While this
turned out to be a successful strategy for
individual properties, the additive effects of
runoff from these individual properties on a
watershed scale contributed to flooding and
water quality problems. This has led water
quality professionals to rethink Stormwater
control.
As a result, water professionals began to look
at development site plans for opportunities
to lessen the volume of Stormwater generated
from individual development projects. Better
site design practices, such as low impact
development, emerged as mechanisms to
retain a site's natural hydrology and infiltrate
Stormwater within the boundaries of the
development project. The conservation
development movement was established—in
particular, for new residential subdivisions.
These new subdivisions sparked debate over
the overall environmental attributes of con-
servation development projects, however.
Observers noted that, while these develop-
ments offer water-handling benefits on site,
they can contribute to wider land distur-
bance activities, transportation impacts, and
other quality problems related to the growth
that follows housing subdivisions. At the
same time, urban developers increasingly
encountered resistance to infill and redevel-
opment projects based on predictions of
additional stormwater-related impacts to
urban streams. These discussions revealed
the need for a more comprehensive view of
the water quality impacts related to develop-
ment, one that also considers a broader
watershed context.
This new view poses challenges to how states
and localities approach Stormwater control,
whether the topic is measuring performance
or issuing permits. Typically, the perform-
ance of Stormwater control is assessed site by
site, or project by project in the site plan
approval process for subdivisions or com-
mercial districts. Thus, a conservation subdi-
vision might rate high for Stormwater
management based on certain performance
criteria, even when it brings unanticipated
growth to sensitive reaches of a watershed.
Likewise, a new apartment building and
retail complex might get a low rating for cre-
ating impervious surface on an urban lot,
even though the project absorbed develop-
ment demand that would have gone to a
"greenfield" site on a much larger footprint.
In both these examples, a complex set of
environmental considerations relate to the
project's impact at the site, in the neighbor-
hood, and at the watershed level.
This supermarket in West
Palm Beach Florida was
part of a downtown rede-
velopment project. The
store, which brings every-
day uses closer to in-town
residential areas, is a
smaller format and is
accessible by several
modes of transportation.
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16
SECTION 1: Why Stormwater?
How Does Density Relate to Runoff? The Site Level
These three scenarios show how different housing densities on one acre can affect not only total runoff, but also runoff per house.
Although the higher-density scenarios generate more stormwater per acre, they generate less total stormwater runoff and less
stormwater runoff per house. Since most watershed growth is expected to be in the range of several thousand houses, not four or
eight, the estimation of runoff based on per unit of housing is important. In addition, this illustration looks only at the lot and
impervious cover related to the house footprint and driveway.
Total runoff (18,700 ft3/yr x
8 acres) = 149,600 fWyr
Runoff/house
18,700 ft3/yr
Impervious cover
20 percent
Total runoff (24,800 ft3/yr x
2 acres) = 49,600 ft3/yr
Runoff/house
6,200 ft3/yr
Impervious cover
38 percent
Runoff/house
4,950 ft3/yr
Impervious cover
65 percent
Total runoff = 39,600 ft3/yr
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
17
How Does Density Relate to Runoff? The Watershed Level
Housing density also affects the number of acres required to accommodate growth. At the site level, most regional
and watershed managers are facing household growth estimates of several thousand units. By limiting housing pro-
duction to one unit/acre, growth pressures do not cease, but rather growth goes elsewhere in the watershed, or
expands to additional watersheds. Here, the higher-density scenarios consume fewer watersheds to accommodate
the same number of houses. A fuller discussion of density and build-out is presented in EPA's 2005 document
Protecting Water Resources with Higher-Density Development.
Scenario A Scenario B Scenario C
At one house per acre,
80,000 houses require
80,000 acres, or 8 water-
sheds, translating to:
80,000 acres x 1 house x
18,700 ft3/yr of runoff
1.496 billion ft3/yr of
stormwater runoff
8 watersheds at 20
percent impervious
cover
At four houses per acre,
80,000 houses require
20,000 acres, or 2 wafer-
sheds, translating to:
20,000 acres x 4 houses x
6,200 ft3/yr of runoff
496 million ft? /yr of
stormwater runoff
2 watersheds at 38
percent impervious
cover
At eight houses per acre,
80,000 houses require
10,000 acres, or 7 water-
shed, translating to:
10,000 acres x 8 houses x
4,950 ft3 /yr of runoff
396 million ft? /yr of
stormwater runoff
1 watershed at 65
percent impervious cover
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18 I SECTION l:\VhyStormwater?
Many states and communities are using
smart growth planning as a way to deal with
the complex analysis for future growth and
development. Smart growth is best
described as a set of 10 principles, present-
ed in Table 1.
While better stormwater management is not
explicit in the 10 principles of smart growth,
the water quality benefits are, quite literally,
built in. These benefits typically emerge from
policies that integrate local and regional
decisions on transportation, housing, natural
resources, and jobs. The interrelated benefits
of smart growth are highlighted throughout
this document and include:
• Compact Project and Community
Design: One of the more powerful strate-
gies for reducing the footprint of develop-
ment, and hence the stormwater impacts,
is to focus on compact development. For
existing communities, policies to encour-
age infill and redevelopment can result in
a smaller development footprint within
the region. For new communities, com-
pact designs that mix uses and cluster
development help to accommodate devel-
opment demand in a smaller area.
Reducing the footprint of individual
buildings can also be a strategy, though
there are circumstances that call for
greater lot coverage in districts where a
higher development intensity is needed
(for example, near transit stations). The
compact form can also lend itself to more
environmentally friendly transportation
options, such as walking and biking.
Street Design and Transportation
Options: Well designed, compact commu-
nities are served by a highly connected
street and trail system designed for multi-
ple modes of transportation. The pattern
need not be a grid, and in some areas,
topography and environmentally sensitive
areas will influence where roads go.
Providing connections is the key to allow
walking or bike trips, or to or to allow a
"park once" trip for combining errands,
recreation, and/or commuting. A compact
district also provides for more efficient
use (and reuse) of existing infrastructure.
Mix of Uses: Another element that can
contribute to decreasing the amount of
stormwater generation lies in the develop-
ment mix. By pulling a mix of jobs, hous-
ing, and commercial activities closer
Tablel: Smart Growth Principles
1. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices.
2. Create walkable neighborhoods.
3. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration.
4. Foster distinctive, attractive places with a strong sense of place.
5. Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost effective.
6. Mix land use.
7. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas.
8. Provide a variety of transportation choices of smart growth.
9. Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities.
10. Take advantage of compact building design.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
19
together, not only do you increase the
transportation options for a community
but the requirements for transportation
and infrastructure also change. The need to
accommodate fewer auto trips supports a
reduction in standard parking require-
ments. A mix of daytime and nighttime
uses, or weekday and weekend uses,
increases the chance that parking spaces
can be shared among businesses.
Use of Already-Developed Land: Most lit-
erature on conservation development is
focused on clustered housing in greenfield
residential projects; however, reuse of
existing impervious surfaces can be
regarded as a powerful form of conserva-
tion development. First, redevelopment
conserves land by absorbing demand that
could go into undeveloped parts of the
watershed. Second, there is typically no
net increase in runoff since impervious
cover is essentially replaced by impervi-
ous cover. When low impact techniques
and creative landscape design accompany
a redevelopment project, the water quality
performance at the watershed and site
level is enhanced. Finally, there are less
obvious factors associated with redevelop-
ment that drive Stormwater outcomes. In
older parts of cities and towns, the devel-
opment standards used for the original
development were likely to have called for
fewer parking spaces, a zoning mix, less
roadway and less dispersed infrastructure.
Thus, a new 10-unit building on the
urban edge will likely have more related
impervious surface than a 10-unit redevel-
opment project, even if the two have the
same building footprint.
Better Models for New Development:
Where development continues to take
place in undeveloped areas, smart growth
designs can be used to improve the envi-
ronmental aspects of that new growth
compared to conventional, separated
designs. While conservation design princi-
ples are important, smart growth develop-
ment incorporates connections to jobs,
schools, and other existing economic cen-
ters. A mix of housing types can alleviate
the pressure to build affordable housing
on more distant parcels of land. New
town models such as Traditional
Neighborhood Design or New Urbanist
communities are advanced, in particular
for transportation improvements. When
combined with traditional water quality
BMPs, the connected, compact, and effi-
cient neighborhood designs can amplify
the water quality benefits.
This mixed use cen-
ter in Gainesville,
Florida is served by
a parking lot con-
structed of pavers,
which helps sup-
port the street
trees. The trees also
provide shade for
outdoor seating
nearby.
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20
SECTION 1: Why Stormwater?
Supplying work-
force housing
closer to job and
activity centers
often helps relieve
development
pressure to build
more affordable
housing further
out.
Smart Growth Techniques as
Best Management Practices
What do states and localities need to do to
qualify smart growth policies as Stormwater
BMPs under Stormwater permitting pro-
grams? Permitting authorities around the
country are already introducing smart
growth concepts into their guidance docu-
ments and permits. Some of the general con-
cepts include:
• Coupling smart growth planning with site
design criteria to further improve the
watershed-wide benefits of the growth
and redevelopment plans.
• Implementing watershed-wide or regional
policies to consider simultaneously areas
for growth and those for conservation.
• Better designs for reducing the impervious
surfaces associated with development,
such as compact street designs and lower
parking requirements.
Notable examples include the following:
New Jersey has developed a successful strat-
egy for considering both smart growth and
Stormwater in its state water quality and
growth plans. In seeking to meet the dual
goals of reducing runoff and replenishing
aquifers, the state has developed policies to
encourage growth in targeted areas while
protecting environmentally sensitive areas
and open space. The state's regulations are
divided into requirements for runoff
control and requirements for infiltration.
Redevelopment and infill in designated
urban areas are exempt from the Stormwater
infiltration rules. The reasons supporting the
policy are: (1) recharge regulations can pose
a regulatory barrier to redevelopment, (2)
the regulations can be impractical in highly
urbanized areas and (3) recharge is not
always desirable in areas with environmen-
tally compromised soils.
In California, the Santa Clara Valley Urban
Runoff Pollution Prevention Program's
(SCVURPPP's) 2001 Phase I permit renewal
recognized that there could be cost-effective
opportunities to implement Stormwater con-
trol during the land use approval process. In
particular, SCVURPPP noted several smart
growth options, including neo-traditional
street design standards and more effective
use of existing parking spaces. The permit
goes further, noting that certain development
projects, such as transit villages, are likely to
be exempt from several requirements because
they are typically built in areas already cov-
ered with impervious surfaces.3
The SCVURPPP permit lists numerous criteria
for onsite Stormwater control requirements,
but also include flexibility by allowing its
permitees to document where standard crite-
ria would be impractical, where compensatory
mitigation would be allowed, and where local-
ities could use alternative strategies to better
match Stormwater control techniques to the
local condition.
Photo: EPA
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 21
San Jose, California, is one of the co-permi-
tees under the SCVURPPP program. The city
sought to incorporate the new guidance from
the 200 f permit into its local Stormwater
ordinance and into its smart growth initia-
tive, the San Jose 2020 Plan.
The two main areas that allow consideration
of smart growth include:
• Finding of Impracticality: San Jose struc-
tured its policy to take advantage of the
SCVURPPP permit's flexibility, as noted
above. Under the permit, deviations from
the standard requirements could be estab-
lished through a finding of impracticality
San Jose's policy includes some of the more
common reasons for a finding of impracti-
cality, such as soil type, but also recognized
that the natural onsite measures for infil-
tration and runoff control can be impracti-
cal in built-out, urban areas.
• Flexibility: If there is a finding of impracti-
cality, the San Jose policy allows several
alternatives to the permit's standards that
recognize the water benefits of smart
growth projects. The city established a cat-
egory of smart growth projects that exhibit
water benefits by virtue of the development
of the site itself, the nature of the site
design, and its location in the watershed.
Smart growth projects are defined by the city
to be:
a. Significant redevelopment within the
urban core;
b. Low-income, moderate income, or senior
housing development project, meeting
one of the criteria listed in other sections
of the city's code; and/or
c. Brownfields projects.
While affordable housing may seem like an
unconventional BMP, the city recognized the
demand for low-income and senior housing
would not go away, but likely relocate in
remote regions where jobs and services were
not as likely to be close at hand.
Incentivizing construction through redevel-
opment thus became not only a housing
strategy, but a watershed one as well.
Another California city, Poway, has defined
BMPs to include redevelopment and develop-
ment projects that improve Stormwater per-
formance as compared to conventional
designs. The ordinance reads:
"Site design BMP" means any project design
feature that reduces the creation or severity
of potential pollutant sources or reduces the
alteration of the project site's natural flow
regime. Redevelopment projects that are
undertaken to remove pollutant sources
(such as existing surface parking lots and
other impervious surfaces) or to reduce the
need for new roads and other impervious
surfaces (as compared to conventional or
low-density new development) by incorpo-
rating higher densities and/or mixed land
uses into the project design, are also consid-
ered site design BMPs.
(Ord. 569 § 2, 2002) See .
In Texas, the North Central Texas Council of
Governments (NCTCOG) is helping its local
MS4s by identifying useful techniques for
Stormwater control. NCTCOG's guidance
also directs readers to the various local regu-
lations or ordinances that control how and
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22
SECTION 1: Why Stormwater?
North Central Texas Council of Governments Guidance
Minimize Impervious Surfaces
Impervious surfaces are roads, parking lots, drive-
ways, and rooftops that do not allow infiltration
of stormwater into the ground. The increase in
stormwater runoff, along with the pollutants the
runoff picks up from impervious surfaces, cause
major problems for our waterways. Narrower
streets and smaller parking lots benefit the envi-
ronment and can make a development more
attractive as well.
• Develop residential street standards for the
minimum required pavement width needed
to support travel lanes, on-street parking, and
emergency vehicle access. Street
Specifications, Subdivision Ordinance
m Consider limiting on-street parking to one
side of the street. Street Specifications,
Subdivision Ordinance
m Incorporate sunken landscaped islands in the
middle of cul-de-sac turnarounds. Street
Specifications, Drainage Manual
m Minimize street length by concentrating
development in the least sensitive areas of
site. Zoning Ordinance
where impervious surfaces, such as parking
lots or driveways, are located. (See box.)
The NCTCOG examples show that many of
the most promising techniques for effectively
managing runoff are often included in existing
regulations and guidance traditionally associ-
ated with land development and transporta-
tion regulations, not stormwater control. In
addition, the examples show that flexibility is
needed, since not all regulations work equally
well in all contexts. The North Carolina Smart
Growth Alliance has pointed this out as well.
In comments to the North Carolina Division
of Water Quality on proposed stormwater
rules, the Alliance notes that language in the
Reduce parking lot size by lowering the num-
ber of parking spaces (minimum and maxi-
mum ratios) and by sharing parking among
adjacent businesses. Zoning Ordinance,
Developmen t/Engineering Standards
Reduce parking requirements for develop-
ments in proximity to public transportation.
Zoning Ordinance
Provide incentives or opportunities for struc-
tured parking rather than surface parking.
Zoning Ordinance
Use pavers or porous pavement in parking
overflow areas. Development/Engineering
Standards
Reduce frontage requirements in residential
areas to reduce road length. Zoning
Ordinance
Reduce the rooftop area of buildings by con-
structing multiple level structures where fea-
sible. Zoning Ordinance4
state's 2003 proposal to establish impervious
surface limitations on a site-by-site basis
would have the effect of making sprawl-type
developments easier to build, while making it
more difficult to develop compact, walkable
communities.5 Blanket regulations that appear
to make sense at the individual lot level can
often have the unintended outcome of pro-
moting development in areas of watersheds
unable to handle new growth.
So, how do stormwater managers and their
planning counterparts choose strategies and
BMPs that serve the interrelated goals of
watershed protection and successful growth
and development? Matching the BMP (or
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
23
Table 2: Best Management Practices and Development Context
BMP Strategies
Urban/High Density Settings Suburban/
Urbanizing Areas
Rural and
Conservation Areas
Strategies for individual buildings
and building sites
Low impact development (LID) or
better site design strategies
Infrastructure
Bio-infiltration cells, rooftop rain
capture and storage, green roofs,
downspout disconnection in
older residential neighborhoods,
programs to reduce lawn com-
paction, stormwater inlet
improvements
Ultra-urban LID strategies: high-
performing landscape areas,
retrofitting urban parks for
stormwater management, micro-
dentention areas, urban forestry
and tree canopy, green retrofits
for streets
Better use of gray infrastructure:
repair and expansion of existing
pipes, installation of stormwater
treatment, fix it first policies,
improve street and facilities
maintenance
Disconnecting downspouts,
green roofs, programs to reduce
lawn compaction, bio-infiltration
cells, rooftop rain capture and
storage
Swales, infiltration trenches,
micro-detention for infill projects,
some conservation design, retro-
fitting of parking lots for
stormwater control or infill, tree
canopy, green retrofits for streets.
Depending on location, larger
scale infiltration.
Priority funding areas to direct
development, better street
design, infrastructure planning to
incentivize smart growth devel-
opment, improve street and facil-
ities maintenance
Green roofs, housing and site
designs that minimize soil disrup-
tion
Large scale LID: forest protection,
source water protection, water
protection overlay zoning, con-
servation, aquifer protection,
stormwater wetlands
Smart growth planning for rural
communities using onsite sys-
tems
Structural BMPs
Commercially available stormwa-
ter control devices, urban
drainage basins, repair of tradi-
tional gray infrastructure
Rain barrels, bio-infiltration tech-
niques, constructed wetlands
Design strategies
Watershed-wide or regional
strategies
Transit districts, parking reduc-
tion, infill, improved use of curb-
side parking and rights of way,
brownfields, urban stream clean-
up and buffers, receiving areas for
transfer of development rights
Transfer of development rights,
waterfront restoration, participa-
tion in regional stormwater man-
agement planning/infrastructure
Infill, greyfields redevelopment,
parking reduction, policies to foster
a connected street system, open
space and conservation design and
rural planning, some impervious
surface restrictions, stream restora-
tion and buffers, targeted receiving
areas for transfer of development,
planned unit developments
Regional park and open space
planning, linking new transit
investments to regional system,
participation in regional stormwa-
ter management planning/infra-
structure
Regional planning, use of anti-
degradation provision of Clean
Water Act, sending areas for
transfer of development, water-
shed wide impervious surface
limits, water protection overlay
zoning districts
Regional planning, use of anti-
degradation provision of Clean
Water Act, sending areas for trans-
fer of development, watershed
wide impervious surface limits,
water protection overlay zoning
districts, water supply planning
and land acquisition
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24
SECTION 1: Why Stormwater?
combination of BMPs) to the development
context is important. Some BMPs, such as
green roofs, will work in almost any setting.
Infiltration requirements pose challenges in
urban areas, however, where legacy pollutants
remain and/or where land costs are high. They
also pose challenges in the development of
new town centers or other compact districts
that are constructed in greenfields.
Table 2 illustrates a breakdown of BMPs with
respect to setting. It is not intended to serve
as a fixed menu, but rather to provide a
framework for refining the match of conven-
tional Stormwater BMPs to the development
context. In fact, some of the measures that
seem most fitting in suburban and rural
areas, like Stormwater wetlands, often have a
role in ultra-urban settings. The Elizabeth
River Project in Virginia is working with
stakeholders to bring constructed wetlands
and riparian buffers to urban areas and mili-
tary facilities in the Portsmith/Norfolk area
of the Chesapeake Bay.
Finally, and most importantly, BMPs are
rarely used in isolation, but rather are strate-
gically combined to achieve water quality
goals and address target pollutants of con-
cern. For example, a city may install a first
line of BMPs to filter large debris, while a
series of infiltration and filtering techniques
are used to allow sediment to settle, improve
infiltration, and reduce runoff. For smart
growth techniques as BMPs, there are also
strategic combinations of policies that serve
to increase the environmental performance of
development projects. For example, a plan
for transit-oriented development may require
that the mix of uses and density be coupled
with better parking strategies so that walking
and automobile travel are equally attractive.
The ability to develop effective combinations
of BMPs is among the most important fea-
tures in developing joint Stormwater and
smart growth plans.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. EPA-841-F-
94-005. http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/qa.html
Kosco, John, Wes Gunter, and James Collins. Lessons
learned from in-field evaluations of Phase I Municipal
Stormwater Programs. Presentation prepared for the 2003
National Conference on Urban Stormwater. Chicago,
Illinois, February 17-20, 2003.
www.epa.gov/owow/nps/natlstormwater03/19Kosco.pdf
http ://www scvurppp-w2k.com/pdfs/other/
NPDES_Permit_C3New_Finalodrtransltr.PDF
Stormwater Management in North Central Texas. Post-con-
struction runoff control, EPA recommendations.
www.dfwstormwater.com/Storm_Water_BMPs/
post-cons tract.asp#rec
North Carolina Smart Growth Alliance. May 16, 2003.
Comments to the Division of Water Quality, Re: Proposed
NPDES Phase II Stormwater Rules.
www.ncsmartgrowth.org/archive/stormwa-
ter%205%2016%2003.html
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
25
SECTION 2
Specific Smart Growth Techniques as
Stormwater Best Management Practices
The purpose of this section is to pres-
ent common smart growth tech-
niques, their water quality attributes
and how to present them within local, state,
or federal Stormwater requirements. The
NPDES Stormwater requirements—in partic-
ular the Post-Construction Minimum
Measure—have focused attention on how
development projects, both individually and
collectively, impact a watershed after projects
are built. This section is geared toward the
post-construction measure under Phase II,
though any city or county renewing a permit
under Phase I can use them. Additionally,
cities, counties, and townships that are not
regulated, but that are proactively developing
Stormwater, flooding, or watershed plans,
can use the information to meet water quali-
ty goals.
The following list contains smart growth
techniques that have been adopted by state,
regional, and local governments for a variety
of benefits, including environmental quality.
This section will look at each of these tech-
niques in depth, though this list is not
exhaustive.
1. Regional planning
2. Infill development
3. Redevelopment policies
4. Special development districts (e.g., transit
oriented development and brownfields
redevelopment)
5. Tree and canopy programs
6. Parking policies to reduce the number of
spaces needed or the footprint of the lot
7. "Fix It First" policies
8. Smart growth street designs
9. Stormwater utilities
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26
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Each subsection provides information and
examples that:
• Define the smart growth technique.
• Give an overview of who to talk to about
the techniques and relating it to storm-
water.
• Define the stormwater benefits and pro-
vide tips on how to list the technique in
your plan.
• Provide, if available, estimates of the costs
associated with the technique.
Provide examples where the technique
has been adopted, or is in the develop-
ment stage.
Provide suggestions on "Measurable
Goals," a requirement for all BMPs.
Give "points to consider" in adopting the
technique as a stormwater management
strategy.
Outreach, Public Education, and Public Participation
Most smart growth initiatives include outreach to stakeholders, processes to integrate
comments on plans, and schedules for gathering input. Stormwater managers should
reach out to their counterparts in planning, zoning, transportation, and growth manage-
ment departments to see where their established processes can integrate successful
stormwater management. Ask the planning department or city/county manager if the fol-
lowing types of meetings are planned and whether they are open to a module or segment
on growth and stormwater:
• Planning charrettes
• Visioning exercises
• Planning sessions on alternative growth scenarios
• Smart growth training sessions
• Transportation alternatives meetings with the public
• Watershed meetings
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 27
1. Regional Planning
Definition
Regional planning is the process of consider-
ing community development options across a
particular area that can include several politi-
cal jurisdictions. For the purposes of
Stormwater quantity and quality, a watershed
can be thought of as a region. If smart
growth is a cornerstone of your Stormwater
planning efforts, regional planning is critical.
A watershed or regional effort can facilitate
discussions that reduce impacts by directing
growth while preserving critical areas. EPA
encourages watershed planning as a way to
comprehensively prevent and control water
quality and quantity impairments.
Local governments are encountering a com-
plex, and growing, array of requirements to
meet various state and federal rules, as well
as growing public demand for "quality of
life" benefits such as open space, transporta-
tion options, and amenities at the neighbor-
hood level. The planning requirements can
include transportation at a regional level,
growth management plans, source water pro-
tection plans, economic development plan-
ning, emergency response and evacuation
plans, and updated floodplain mapping.
Many elements of the various planning exer-
cises are similar and rely on the same data
sets, such as population projections and GIS
mapping of natural resources.
For water quality, regional cooperation and
planning is crucial for aligning smart growth
and water quality approaches such as:
• Minimizing imperviousness at the water-
shed level by targeting and redirecting
development
• Identifying and preserving critical ecologi-
cal areas and contiguous open space areas
• Making maximum use of existing infra-
structure and previously developed sites
Effective stakeholder partici-
pation is a cornerstone of
both Stormwater and
regional planning.
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28
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Regional Visioning and Scenario Planning
Illustration 1
Kane County/Gilberts Present Day
Illustration 2
Kane County/Gilberts Build Out Under
Conventional Planning and
Development
Illustration 3
Kane County/Gilberts Build Out Under
Smart Growth Planning and
Development
This series of illustrations was developed for the Chicago Regional Environmental Planning Project to
show development alternatives at the western edge of the Chicago suburbs in Kane County. This agricul-
tural area is characterized by poorly drained soils and the presence of the Fox River, which was once
viewed as a natural boundary for growth. Illustration 1 shows the emergence of some housing in the
background.
Kane County expects growth to emerge with the further expansion of housing, roadways and their use.
Office and research are the prime industries that are expected to expand into the area first. Housing and
retail are expected to follow. Illustration 2 shows that current planning trends would dictate separated
land uses, large set-backs, and individual parking lots. The stormwater runoff from the large parcels and
parking lots would eventually impact the streambed illustrated in the foreground.
Illustration 3 shows an alternative future using smart growth practices. The industrial uses are placed in
the background closer to existing infrastructure and development. Housing developments are connect-
ed to services and retail. Illustration 3 envisions a county plan where certain areas are preserved for agri-
culture and drainage while accommodating growth in village centers. For more information, see the
Environmental Law and Policy's "Visions" report at .
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
29
Who Do I Talk to About
Regional Plans?
If your state has developed smart growth
planning requirements, contact the state
department of planning or community
affairs. The Metropolitan Planning
Organization (MPO) has the responsibility to
develop master transportation plans.
Subsection 8 (Smart Growth Street Designs,
page 75) goes into more detail about plan-
ning for roads and transportation infrastruc-
ture. Your local Council of Governments
(sometimes referred to as a COG) might also
have information on planning efforts that
span several jurisdictions. Although these
may not be water plans per se, the popula-
tion forecasting, maps showing undevel-
opable parcels, and vacant properties can all
be helpful in developing a comprehensive
Stormwater management plan.
If your community is under the Phase II rules,
and you are located near larger cities and/or
counties covered by Phase I, determine if you
can team up with them in developing plans.
Since these communities are more than 10
years into planning and implementation, do
not hesitate to contact the Stormwater man-
agers or public works department to see where
you can share or expand upon plans and pro-
grams. Your area may also have other regional
agreements that can be used to initiate
Stormwater plans, such as agreements on infra-
structure or flooding prevention.
The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972
(CZMA) and subsequent amendments have
established a program for states and territo-
ries to voluntarily develop comprehensive
programs to protect and manage coastal
resources (including the Great Lakes). To
receive federal approval and implementation
funding, recipients are required to demon-
strate that they have programs, including
enforceable policies, that are sufficiently
comprehensive and specific to regulate and
resolve conflicts among land uses, water
uses, and coastal development. There are
currently 29 federally approved state and
territorial programs. These plans may have
elements and funding in place, and may
include smart growth practices that can help
develop elements of a Stormwater manage-
ment plan. For a link to state programs go
to .
EPAs Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and
Watersheds hosts a Web site called "Surf
Your Watershed." This site allows users to
enter their zip code, local stream name, or
locality to find information about their
watershed, as well as planning efforts and
relevant watershed organizations. Visit
< www. epa. gov/surf>.
Stormwater Benefits
Regional efforts to encourage development in
strategic areas are one of the strongest
approaches to coordinating growth and
resource protection in a watershed. Regional
efforts are often needed to effectively coordi-
nate local approaches to development and
achieve better watershed-wide results.
Communities should determine areas where
they want growth to occur and areas they
want to preserve. When such areas are clear-
ly defined and articulated within a region,
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30 | SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
New Jersey Highlands: Regional Planning for Water and
Growth
The 800,000+-acre New Jersey Highlands Region covers more than 1,250 square miles and 88 munici-
palities in seven counties (Bergen, Hunterdon, Morris, Passaic, Somerset, Sussex and Warren). The
Highlands Region is an essential source of drinking water for half of the residents of New Jersey. In
2004, the Highlands Water Preservation and Planning Act (The Act) was adopted to balance the man-
agement of water resources and growth.
The Highlands Act documents the geographical boundary of the Highlands region and establishes both
the Highlands preservation area and the Highlands planning area. The Highlands Act requires the New
Jersey Department of Environmental Protection to establish regulations to limit land disturbance in
preservation areas, while creating a regional master plan to direct growth to desired areas within the
region. To carry out the Act, the Highlands Water Protection and Planning Council was formed and
charged with preparing the regional master by June 2006. While the focus of the regional plan is seen
as land preservation for water quality and supply, the council was also charged with including elements
to encourage appropriate development, redevelopment and economic growth for areas so designated.
In the Planning Area, municipal compliance with the Plan is voluntary. The Act provides incentives for
conformance to the Regional Master Plan, however. The incentives include planning grants to assist in
preparing local master plans and land use ordinances, technical assistance, tax stabilization funding for
funding decreases accorded by participating in the plan, enforcement of the regional Master Plan and
legal assistance to meet challenges to new master plans and zoning.
The council established several categories for grants, including grants to participate in Municipal
Partnership Pilot Programs, Zoning and Parcel Analysis, Wastewater Capacity Analysis, and Affordable
Housing. In 2005, Washington Borough was awarded a Municipal Partnership Pilot Program grant,
which will be used to plan for three distinct areas: town center redevelopment, historic preservation,
and stream corridor preservation (to include stormwater management). For more information on the
New Jersey Highlands Council, visit .
For more information on the state of New Jersey's innovative state planning, see New Jersey's Web site
on the Highlands Act, .
development is encouraged on land with less ment in a watershed in the greater Houston
ecological value, such as previously devel- Texas area. The study tracked development
oped areas (as described in subsequent chap- trends over a 50-year period to evaluate
ters for redevelopment, brownfields, watershed performance—in particular, as it
greyfields, and vacant properties). Land with relates to flooding. The study evaluated corn-
higher ecological value, such as aquifer mon indicators of development (e.g., imper-
recharges areas, wetlands, marshes, and vious cover) and how various land
riparian corridors, is then preserved or other- development scenarios during that time
wise set aside for ecological services. period might have altered water flows and
flooding.
A 2004 study conducted by researchers at
Texas A&M University evaluated develop-
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
31
The study found that the impervious cover
alone was an inadequate indicator, but when
considered with other indicators, such as
indicators of development dispersal, these
measures together proved to be a better pre-
dictor of flooding. In assessing total devel-
oped area, the researchers looked not at
estimates of impervious surface area per lot,
but rather whether the lot had any develop-
ment at all.
The researchers also evaluated off-site devel-
opment features such as roads and highways.
Over a 50 year period, the researchers
mapped total developed areas, with special
attention to roadway lengths, and the ratio of
commercial and residential units. The risk of
flooding increased exponentially once the
percentage of developed properties in the
watershed reached 25 percent. From a
regional perspective, the authors suggest that
the percentage of impervious surface cannot
be used as an indicator independent of other
factors such as the configuration of infra-
structure, development form, and a total pro-
portion of properties that have been
developed.6
In evaluating the environmental performance
of successful smart growth planning on a
regional basis, some localities and states are
using build-out and capacity analyses to pre-
dict the condition of water resources once
developable parcels are developed. Build-out
analyses can be conducted based on existing
land use regulations, or according to conven-
tional development practices that could
shape future proposals. The goal is to com-
pare a smart growth development plan or
project to a conventional model under status
quo zoning, and compare the Stormwater
benefits.
For example, many communities are updat-
ing floodplain maps. Suppose a review identi-
fies 1,000 acres of sensitive land critical for
water filtration, absorption, and flood preven-
tion. As a result of the review, the local gov-
ernment alters scenarios in planning
documents to upzone land in the floodplain
for development. The city and county confer,
and as a result, the two jurisdictions revise
planning and zoning documents to redirect
growth to an area of the watershed that is
more appropriate for development. In this
case, the Stormwater benefits are not only
environmental in nature, but also avert the
costs associated with property damage from
flooding. Thus, the benefits extend beyond
typical environmental measures of water
quality and quantity to economic factors
as well.
Typical Costs
The costs of regional planning are related to
administration and research, and vary signifi-
cantly depending on the resources already
available in your community. Before estimat-
ing the costs of developing or fine-tuning an
existing plan, it is helpful to understand the
elements of the plan, the data needed to
develop the various plans, the shape of the
final product, and details on how the plan
will be implemented.
The costs associated with aligning multiple
plans are typically driven by staff or consult-
ant time. The Southeastern Watershed
Forum estimates, as a rule of thumb, that
analysis, review, and coordination takes two
to three staff working over one year to
18 months.
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32
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Once your community has decided to hire a
consultant, the next step involves developing
a Request for Proposals (RFP) or a Request
for Qualifications (RFQ). The University of
Wisconsin has developed a concise guidance
document on the process of hiring a consult-
ant. One step in the process can be issuing an
RFQ to get a manageable pool of the most
qualified consultants. As you draft your RFP
or RFQ, keep in mind some of the unique
challenges that will arise in drafting a joint
Stormwater and smart growth planning
process, a comprehensive plan, and an imple-
mentation course. For example, you might
want to have consultants review the compre-
hensive plan and NPDES permit (or permit
renewal) and ask where there are barriers and
flexibility. In addition, aligning multiple plans
might reveal conflicting land use, transporta-
tion, and resource protection scenarios. Ask
consultants how they would resolve these
issues—in particular, where several jurisdic-
tions are involved. Finally, ask them what ele-
ments of your strategic or smart growth plan
can be borrowed for water quality and
Stormwater planning. These additional steps
might add to the scope of work and budget;
however, reviews of existing plans might
reveal that work needed for comprehensive
Stormwater planning has already been com-
pleted. See for more information.
Measurable Goals
The NPDES municipal Stormwater program
requires Phase II MS4s to include measurable
goals in their program for each BMP.
Increasingly, cities covered under Phase I
MS4 permits are beginning to include meas-
urable goals to track their performance in
meeting water quality goals. Participation in
a regional planning effort can be one way to
track measurable goals, as can specific activi-
ties and steps outlined in a regional planning
process. Information on counting participa-
tion in a regional group for meeting the
requirements of the six minimum measures
is described in the rest of this subsection, as
are examples of specific activities that can
count in the post-construction minimum
measure.
Adoption of a regional master plan or water-
shed plan, as well as supporting policies and
ordinances, are good candidates by which to
measure progress in managing Stormwater.
These activities can also be documented to
meet requirements on public education and
outreach on Stormwater impacts, as well as
public involvement/participation. The key is
to make sure you can track progress and
relate the success back to the water quality
goals in your regional Stormwater manage-
ment plan. For example, if a parcel of land
identified for a regional park system is also
contained in your regional aquifer protection
plan, coordinate the acquisition and park
design to meet Stormwater and recreation
goals. Include the acquisition in your moni-
toring and BMP maintenance plans as well.
In addition, efforts to coalesce common
items among plans can be included in a
Stormwater management plan (e.g., merging
plans to repair streets and sidewalks to spur
redevelopment on a regional transportation
corridor can be coupled with installation of
microdetention areas between the curb and
sidewalk). This effort can also help align
capital spending decisions and be included
in meeting regional Stormwater goals to
direct development.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
33
Arlington, Virginia's high-density approach
around the Rosslyn and Court House sub-
way stations directs a large amount of
growth to a small footprint. The county
allows for high densities around stations,
with a formula that tapers development
intensity down to existing neighborhoods.
This area, which stretches three miles from
the Potomac River to the Ballston station,
will ultimately absorb 8 million square feet
of development on 2 square miles of land.
This smaller footprint not only has regional
stormwater benefits, but also has resulted
in higher transit use and traffic counts that
are far less than originally projected.
Many areas across the country have identi-
fied specific plots of land to acquire. Buying
parcels that have water-handling characteris-
tics can provide a region with specific, meas-
urable targets within a stormwater
management plan.
For post-construction measures, the build-
out analyses mentioned previously can be
used to establish a baseline for setting meas-
urable goals. Most states or regions develop
build-out scenarios to assess how much
developable land is available, whether the
existing or planned infrastructure is likely to
meet the needs of a built-out region, and to
develop alternative planning scenarios. Most
build-out analyses look at sewage capacity,
source water, and water supply. With slight
modifications, the build-out analysis can be
used to also assess impervious surface cover-
age within a watershed and areas with the
potential to effectively handle growth. If your
city or county (or a regional organization) is
developing build-out analyses, see if you can
add a stormwater component so that alterna-
tive scenarios chosen include stormwater
runoff parameters as well. EPA hosts a Web
site with information on build-out analyses
Photo: Arlington County, Virginia
and other tools at
.
For meeting the post-construction minimum
control measure, regional organizations
might be called upon to develop model ordi-
nances or individual policies to carry out
regional plans. For example, the transfer of
development rights is a tool used across the
country to direct development away from
environmentally sensitive lands while shift-
ing the development to areas targeted for
growth. This type of program might require
setting measurable goals in a series. For
example, in the first four years, the measura-
ble goals might include (1) a formal agree-
ment among participating jurisdictions, (2) a
final comprehensive plan for the receiving
area (3) a completed legal framework to
administer trades and (4) software to track
the number of trades. Given the complexity
of each component, there are likely to be
detailed sub-goals spelled out as well. To
have a long-term effect on stormwater, your
community should be prepared to count the
numbers of transfers, not just the existence
of a program.
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34 | SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Many regional organizations rely on volun-
tary participation in regional planning. As
such, regional growth and/or watershed
plans offer incentives (see the box on page
30, New Jersey Highlands, for more informa-
tion). In addition to taking advantage of the
incentives, make sure to also count the steps
taken for the regional plan into your Phase I
or Phase II municipal NPDES permit.
Examples
Within New Jersey, the Regional Planning
Partnership (RPP) has developed tools to
compare smart growth versus conventional
development impacts, including stormwater
runoff. The partnership has developed a
sketch tool called Goal Oriented Zoning. In
2003, RPP developed a comparison for
Delaware River Basin communities. This
analysis compared four scenarios and set an
overall watershed impervious cover goal at
10 percent. From there, RPP developed dif-
ferent development scenarios based on the
10 percent coverage goal to compare water-
shed-wide impacts. The exercise also served
to show graphically what build-out is
allowed under current zoning. While the use
of the tool was meant to focus on zoning and
transportation issues, RPP was able to
include several environmental indicators,
which could be further explored with air and
water quality-specific models on other scales.
For more information, visit .
The Association of New Jersey
Environmental Commissions (ANJEC) has
issued a series of reports to assist its member
communities with tools needed to comply
with New Jersey's planning laws. These
reports include information on conducting
build-out and capacity plans, increasing the
supply of affordable housing and implement-
ing master plans. Its "Smart Growth Survival
Kits" contain information on the data need-
ed, methods available, and additional con-
tacts. Though New Jersey-specific, the
information can be useful for other states.
Visit and click on "Smart
Growth Survival Kit."
In 2005, the Southwestern Regional Planning
Council, covering the southwest counties in
the state of Connecticut, released its regional
planning strategy. The goals of the regional
plan focus on transportation, housing, and
directing development to areas with existing
infrastructure and investment. For more
information on implementation and other
related objectives, visit .
To assist the regulated municipalities in the
Syracuse Urban Area in complying with
Phase II stormwater regulations, the Central
New York Regional Planning Board (CNY
RPDB) has launched a unified, regional assis-
tance program. Its Web site, which was
developed specifically for decisionmakers,
includes several layers of maps, including
MS4 boundaries, watershed boundaries, and
political boundaries. The CNY RPDB is also
providing unified assistance in the areas of
public education, outreach and participation,
municipal training, research assistance, and
efforts to secure funding for compliance. For
more information, visit
.
The 1996 Amendments to the Safe Drinking
Water Act resulted in a focus to protect
drinking water sources to complement the
original goal of removing contaminants from
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
35
drinking water. To meet the new require-
ments, states must ensure that each water
system has a Source Water Assessment. Once
the assessments are complete, states and
localities work on action plans to address
any issues found in the assessment. Source
Water Assessments must include four basic
elements:
• A delineation (or mapping) of the source
water assessment area.
• An inventory of actual and potential
sources of contamination in the delineated
area.
• An analysis of the susceptibility of the
water supply to those contamination
sources.
• A mechanism for sharing the results wide-
ly with the public.
While the traditional sources of contami-
nants arise from agriculture or industrial
uses, more and more communities are con-
cerned about the cumulative effects of devel-
opment and runoff on source water.
If you are developing a regional or compre-
hensive plan, check to see if there is a source
water protection plan or ordinance in your
area. A link to state programs can be found at
. In addition, the Trust for
Public Land has issued a report called
Protecting the Source, which contains informa-
tion on joint land and water planning. Visit
.
Points to Consider
In many parts of the country, local govern-
ment boundaries have served more to foster
competition than cooperation. Growth pres-
sures, economic conditions, and the underly-
ing structure for assessing taxes all put
pressure on the local funding base. In addi-
tion, there are few incentives to plan across
boundaries, much less develop interlocal
agreements involving tax sharing, growth, or
annexation laws. Nonetheless, some areas
faced with mounting water-related problems
are finding that shared solutions among
counties and cities offer efficient options.
Newspaper headlines on flooding, beach clo-
sures, and emergency water restrictions are
motivating discussions on how to analyze
problems and forge solutions that transcend
boundaries. EPA has recognized the impor-
tance of watersheds as an effective organizing
unit. A good resource for approaching inter-
local agreements is the Joint Center for
Sustainable Communities. The center repre-
sents an important collaboration between the
National Association of Counties (NACo)
and the U.S. Conference of Mayors (USCM).
Its web site is .
Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems (also
referred as septic systems, package plants, or
cluster systems) pose challenges to local gov-
ernments trying to manage growth in rural
counties, vacation areas with second homes, or
in fringe areas where water infrastructure can-
not be extended. In the past, soil percolation
rates, drainage fields, and overall perceptions
of septic tanks were limiting factors to wide-
spread use. New technologies, growing
demand for housing in rural areas, and chang-
ing perceptions have reduced barriers to their
use, however. According to EPAs 2002 Onsite
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36
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, nearly
one-third of new housing construction is
served by onsite wastewater treatment
systems.7 The University of Rhode Island's
Cooperative Extension Agency has released a
new handbook entitled A Creative
Combination: Merging Alternative Wastewater
Treatment with Smart Growth. The aim of the
handbook is to help local governments address
growth and wastewater handling at the same
time. In addition, the handbook addresses the
important role of management, oversight, and
enforcement in areas where a large percentage
of households use onsite systems to treat
wastewater. For more information, visit
.
As noted in this section, regional planning
can result in decisions that direct growth to
certain areas of the watershed. These identi-
fied growth centers might be in existing
communities, or in undeveloped areas.
Efficiently handling growth in these areas
eventually leads to discussions on density.
Commonly held views on density among
Stormwater engineers and environmental
advocates tend to equate density with imper-
viousness, which is then equated with poor
water quality outcomes. Stormwater ordi-
nances that discourage "connected impervi-
ous surfaces" might run counter to smart
growth plans that call for a compact, but
connected, street development form. Even
where localities understand the need to
direct density, there may be discussions
about requiring automatic "offsets" of open
space tied to redevelopment decisions. While
some communities will establish programs to
connect infill development with land conser-
vation, a blanket, inflexible requirement to
obtain land might, in the end, stifle a region's
ability to meet both growth and water goals.
To address the issue, EPA has issued a report
called Protecting Water Resources with Higher-
Density Development. 8
Comparing the environmental impacts of
various development options can require an
extensive amount of baseline data and
resources to analyze the various build-out
scenarios. The baseline data needed include
an inventory of natural resource lands, an
inventory of developable lands, an inventory
of undevelopable land in both private and
private hands, and comprehensive zoning
maps. Even where these data are available
and show opportunities for redevelopment
and reuse of vacant properties, further work
might be needed to determine which proper-
ties are market-ready and which are contami-
nated, or where ownership is uncertain. In
some communities, incomplete data may be
a huge constraint. In these situations, com-
munities might want to canvass state, univer-
sity, and conservation district offices to see
where GIS work has been conducted.
A community that does not have all of the
information listed above might want to begin
work in a targeted area. For example, if your
state is updating transportation plans, a city or
county may want to update local zoning maps
to support the redevelopment of parcels in
proximity to the study area. Information from
this type of review can be used to assess devel-
opment potential, transportation impacts, and
scenarios of how that same level of develop-
ment might look if built elsewhere in an unde-
veloped portion of the watershed. A carrying
capacity report can then evaluate the Stormwa-
ter generated by each scenario. The targeted
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 37
n Burden
Main Street Programs have been successful in direct-
ing development to older downtowns.
review can reveal not only environmental
information, but also economic barriers and
transportation investments that need to be
addressed before growth is redirected.
If you are a Phase II community and decide
to team up with Phase I community, keep in
mind that some of the requirements for
Phase I can be more restrictive than Phase II.
Some Phase I communities use numeric
goals for BMPs or might have implemented
rigorous water quality monitoring schedules.
The additional requirements may be offset by
the efficiencies of using an established pro-
gram, however.
Finally, regional or watershed plans, like any
other plan, are only meaningful if imple-
mented. When identifying measurable goals,
be sure to distinguish where development of
a plan is a suitable short-term outcome and
which actual policy changes are needed to
ensure the long-term environmental out-
comes desired.
2. Infill Development
Definition
For purposes of this document, infill is
defined as development that occurs on previ-
ously undeveloped lots within existing devel-
oped areas (the following section on
redevelopment covers development that
occurs on previously developed lots). Infill
development takes advantage of built-out
areas that are already served by a variety of
transportation modes and by infrastructure.
Infill development also accommodates devel-
opment that might otherwise occur on
greenfields sites. EPA's model permit for
Phase II states that communities can
use policies that promote infill development
and development in areas with existing infra-
structure to meet the post-construction mini-
mum control measure. This section describes
how infill development is typically regulated,
how infill is treated within smart growth
plans, and special points to consider for infill
and Stormwater control. Much of the infor-
mation presented here is also relevant for
Subsections 3 (Redevelopment) and 4
(Development Districts) as well.
Who Do I Talk to
About Infill Plans?
Decisions about where to develop are influ-
enced by numerous factors. While the final
decision nearly always is left to the local
jurisdiction, regions and states also influence
the decisions of both developers and the
localities through incentives and policies.
This subsection therefore addresses policies
at all three levels of government.
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38
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Green roofs can help
manage stormwater
for infill development ]
projects.
Photo: University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System
Local Jurisdictions: To understand who to
talk to and where to find the land use plans
that guide infill development, it is helpful
to understand the two ways that localities
manage development activities. The most
common method in urbanized and urbaniz-
ing areas is through zoning, which places
limits on the use, type, size, and design of
allowed development. Zoning can be either
"by-right," meaning that developers can
build any development provided it meets
zoning standards, or conditional, meaning
that developers must seek approval for spe-
cific proposals. Within zoning codes, there
are standards, called "bulk regulations,"
that govern the maximum size of structures
on a lot and how the building is located on
the site (e.g., lot coverage, setbacks, park-
ing, floor area ratio, and landscaping
requirements). Localities often use a vari-
ance process where deviations from the
standards are deemed acceptable.
A second method of steering development is
through use of incentives. Local jurisdictions
seeking specific types of development might
give financial or other incentives to develop-
ers willing to build within desired parameters.
Zoning and incentive programs are typically
drafted by the planning and/or building
departments of a city and codified in city land
use and zoning ordinances. If you are in a
smaller municipality without zoning, the city
or county engineer might be the best person
to explain development rules, since building
standards—not zoning—guide where devel-
opment can be located and how it is built.
Some larger cities have separate entities to
encourage redevelopment, so personnel in the
economic development division are likely to
have the best understanding of whether there
are special business development zones, spe-
cial tax zones, and maps showing the bound-
aries of these areas.
If you are unfamiliar with the terminology
used for zoning and comprehensive planning,
visit the Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources Web site, which posts a list of gen-
eral land use terms to help natural resource
professionals. See .
Regions: Metropolitan planning organizations
(MPOs) are inter-governmental institutions
formed to handle transportation planning in
areas with a population of 50,000 or more.
They also have the responsibility of allocating
transportation funding for areas with popula-
tions greater that 250,000. MPOs might seek
to better match development and transporta-
tion investments through educational tools;
for example, maps showing 20-year growth
projections. Some MPOs are involved in water
and stormwater planning. To find out if your
area is served by an MPO, contact your plan-
ning staff, or go to , which
lists member MPOs.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
39
States: A number of states have passed
statewide smart growth legislation, recogniz-
ing that, while development decisions are
made locally, state policies often guide the
decisionmaking process through financial
incentives and policy decisions.
Responsibility for statewide smart growth
policies generally lies in a statewide smart
growth office or planning office, or in a
department of consumer or environmental
affairs. In states that do not have a formal
statewide plan, there may be separate poli-
cies that seek to streamline policies on
growth. States that have embarked on growth
management efforts might also have devel-
oped baseline data on natural resource lands
and larger infrastructure programs. Contact
the state office to see if you can make use of
the GIS mapping or other data for making
decisions on directing growth and infill. If
your state has passed legislation, enabling
legislation or programs to promote infill as a
smart growth policy, but your locality has
not adopted them, you might want to work
with your zoning or economic development
director to take advantage of the program for
water and growth goals.
Stormwater Benefits
Infill can reduce potential runoff by ensuring
that growth does not create additional imper-
vious surfaces on the developed fringe and in
environmentally sensitive areas. The impacts
of such development can be considerable.
Growth on the undeveloped fringe results in
less groundwater flow into streams and less
aquifer recharge as water runs over the sur-
face. The 20 regions with the greatest
amounts of land development over the peri-
od 1982 to 1997 now lose between 300 bil-
Infill development can
help a community
grow over time. For
example, a row of "liner
shops"can be added to
surround a surface or
structured parking lot.
This adds development
intensity, reduces the
overall amount of park-
ing required for the dis-
Photo: www.pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden trJCt 3S a whole and
improves the pedestri-
an environment.
lions and 690 billion gallons of water annu-
ally that would otherwise have been captured
in groundwater supplies through natural per-
colation.9
A modeling study conducted by Purdue
University estimated that placing a hypothet-
ical low-density development at the Chicago
fringe area would produce 10 times more
runoff than a mixed-use development in the
urban core.10 In Virginia, a Chesapeake Bay
Foundation study found that clustered devel-
opment across the state would convert 75
percent less land, create 42 percent less
impervious cover, and produce 41 percent
less runoff.11
In addition, infill development can make use
of existing infrastructure. Guiding develop-
ment to existing areas also increases the eco-
nomic activity and tax base needed to
support the maintenance, repair, and/or
expansion of the water infrastructure in
place. This investment can help repair areas
prone to sewer overflows, or enhance treat-
ment facilities in order to meet more strin-
gent water quality standards.
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40
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
The following measures are the types of reg-
ulations and programs that are used to pro-
mote infill, and thus facilitate Stormwater
improvements. In your permit application or
plan for Post-Construction Minimum
Control Measures, you can list these out sep-
arately, or include them under a general
measure such as "infill policies."
Setbacks: Setback requirements can be one of
the most important factors shaping the built
environment—and hence impervious cover—
in your community. Conventional codes often
call for minimum setbacks: for example,
requiring a building to be at least 50 feet from
the street or adjacent properties. Smart growth
codes often use maximum setbacks, which
stipulate a maximum distance a building may
be situated from the street or sidewalk. A
maximum setback brings the building closer
to the street and sidewalk, promoting a more
interesting and efficient pedestrian environ-
ment. Alternatively, your smart growth code
may stipulate a "build to" line. This requires
that the building footprint meet a certain line
along or within the property, such as up to the
edge of a sidewalk. Check with your zoning,
planning, or public works office to see if your
community has minimum setbacks, or if it
has made modifications to allow for maxi-
mum setbacks. The convention of setting
minimum distances from the roadway can
result in excess impervious cover and be ripe
for reform to obtain Stormwater benefits.
Setback requirements can be found under
individual zoning codes or apply to entire
districts.
Mixed Use Zoning: Mixed use zoning allows
(or sometimes requires) buildings with dif-
ferent uses (e.g., residential, office, retail) in
the same area or in the same building. This
mix allows for a greater intensity of develop-
ment on a more compact scale, which
reduces the amount of land needed on a per
unit basis. Mixing uses also supports a range
of transportation options and facilitates
shared parking, thereby reducing the amount
of surface needed for roads and parking lots.
Smart Growth Lot Sizes: In some areas, zon-
ing codes and subdivision standards have
been rewritten to allow for greater density and
more efficient use of the land. Instead of
requiring a minimum of a quarter acre per res-
idential lot, as many current codes do, new
smart growth codes allow smaller lots. This
practice consumes less land per unit. The
smaller lot sizes can also be instrumental to
drawing development to smaller or oddly
shaped infill lots within an older city. Large
lots not only consume more land, but the
lawns covering those lots handle less
Stormwater than undisturbed land. Under
typical subdivision construction practices, sod
is laid over highly compacted soil, so that
water does not percolate. Where mass grading
is a typical practice, the compaction of the
underlying soil further reduces the potential
for infiltration. Lawns treated with fertilizers
and chemicals further add to Stormwater
problems, particularly if treatment occurs
right before a rain event. Smart growth can
minimize some of these impacts. When look-
ing for language governing lot sizes, the zon-
ing code may refer to "maximum lot sizes," or
be presented as zoning categories, such as R-8
(or eight residential units per acre).
Density Bonuses: Density bonuses are used to
provide incentives for developers who agree to
integrate desired features into development
projects. There can be Stormwater benefits to
increasing the development density in existing
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
41
communities (e.g., less land consumption,
more efficient use of existing impervious sur-
faces such as roads and sidewalks). One can
also provide density bonuses to developers
who agree to treat stormwater on site or who
agree to replace older infrastructure serving
the project. A density bonus may be used to
reduce the footprint of the building by allow-
ing the development intensity to be expressed
through height. Density bonuses are typically
part of a larger planning process that deter-
mines how much incentive is needed, what
the amount of the bonus will be, enforcement
to ensure both parties adhere to the arrange-
ment, and other planning needs that accom-
pany the added density (e.g. parking, fire
protection). Density bonuses are typically list-
ed in the zoning code or plans, or in footnotes
to the plan.
Financial Incentives: Common incentives
include the use of tax-increment financing,
tax and economic incentives for redevelop-
ment, and promotion of cost-of-service utility
fees (instead of average cost pricing, which
can subsidize dispersed development at a cost
to higher density development). Tax incre-
ment financing (TIP) is a system whereby
property taxes in a particular district are
frozen at a certain level; when property val-
ues rise, the additional tax that would have
been paid is instead directed back into rede-
velopment projects in the district. TIFs are
built on the concept that new value will be
created, and that the future value can be used
to finance the initial investment.
Typical Costs
Both conventional development and infill
involve costs to the public sector, because
any new development requires public servic-
es or upgrades. Most research, however, finds
that in the long run, there are fewer public
costs to provide services to infill and redevel-
opment, because existing infrastructure is
used or repairs or upgrades were needed
whether infill took place or not.12
Measurable Goals
An initial goal might be to direct some per-
centage of growth into areas that are already
developed, or to initiate a selected number of
policies to encourage infill development. To
ensure measurability your community can
establish a system to track building permits
within an area designated for infill. In addi-
tion, your community can institute a priority
system for infill and redevelopment projects
that further improves stormwater manage-
ment with features such as green building
techniques. A longer-term goal might be to
increase the overall density of developed
areas and preserve open spaces from devel-
opment. A locality may want to do a "code
checkup" every so often to make sure that
Landscaping can be
used to handle
stormwater in tight
infill projects. While
native plants are
often recommended,
there may be other
factors to include in
plant selection, such
as maintenance,
canopy, root depth,
and water uptake.
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42
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
the requirements for infill are not more -
onerous than those established for new
development on greenfields sites.
Examples
The state of Washington has developed a
Phase II application that explicitly lists infill
development as an option for fulfilling the
post-construction minimum control measure.
To view the Department of Ecology's permit
application, go to: (see page
14 within the document for the language on
infill development).
Clark County, Washington, adopted an
infill ordinance in fall 2002. Its infill guide-
lines are applicable only in certain residen-
tial zoning districts for lots under 2.5 acres
that adjoin existing development and can be
served by existing infrastructure. The ordi-
nance allows for two tiers of infill develop-
ment. Tier 1 allows only detached
single-family housing, but lot sizes can be
smaller than existing zoning. Tier 2 allows
attached and detached single-family hous-
ing, as well as duplexes and multi-family
housing. Developers may also receive densi-
ty bonuses. Infill projects are exempt from
stormwater regulations if they create less
than 5,000 square feet of new impervious
surface. For more information on the infill
ordinance and Clark County's comprehen-
sive plan, visit and go to the
Tier A model permit.
Austin, Texas, has established a variety of
water policies for its Desired Development
Zones (DDZs) and Water Protection Zones
(DWPZs). In the past, the city provided reim-
bursement for certain water and wastewater
facilities over a three-year period. Under
updated smart growth policies, major water
and wastewater facilities located in the DDZ
will be reimbursed in a single payment.
Within the DWPZ, reimbursement for waste-
water facilities will be discontinued, and the
reimbursement schedule for water facilities
will increase from three years to four. For
more information on Austin's smart growth
incentives page, see .
Some states have adopted priority funding
areas (PFAs), which are areas designated for
growth and, as such, gain priority for grants,
infrastructure, and transportation invest-
ments. In creating these zones, the states
typically inventory how funding is allocated,
and create (or adjust) the funding formulas
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 43
Incorporating Infill into Stormwater Regulations:
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources has
developed technical materials and guidance for the
post-construction minimum measure under Phase II,
which address new development, redevelopment, and
infill separately.
Definitions
The definitions help establish the development and
regulatory context.
• "New development"occurs on undeveloped area
including cropland and other vegetated areas.
• "Redevelopment"describes an area where imper-
vious surfaces (e.g., buildings, parking lots, and
roads) already exist.
• "Infill area"describes undeveloped land in existing
sewer service areas that is surrounded by devel-
oped land or man-made features where develop-
ment cannot occur.
The Post-Construction Rules
The rules focus on three aspects of stormwater-related
impacts: 1) total suspended solids (TSS), 2) infiltration,
and 3) peak runoff rates.
TSS refers to a measure of the amount of solids in
the wastewater—in this case Stormwater. TSS is a
way to determine water "cloudiness," which has
implications for the biological functions of aquatic
species. To assess TSS, water samples are passed
through a filter, and the amount of material cap-
tured is measured relative to the amount of water
filtered.
Wisconsin's requirements for the percent reduction of
TSS are measured from a "typical development pattern
with no controls" or "no BMP" baseline and are tiered
as follows. For new development, an 80 percent reduc-
tion from "no control." For redevelopment, a 40 per-
cent reduction from "no control."
For infill, the requirements are:
• Less than 5 acres and developed prior to October
2014, a 40 percent reduction from "no control"
• Otherwise an 80 percent reduction from "no
control"
• The 5-acre in-fill threshold is based on undeveloped
area available (not amount of land disturbed).
For the infiltration standards, redevelopment sites are
exempt. Otherwise, new residential development proj-
ects are required to infiltrate at least 90 percent of the
water falling on the site and non-residential develop-
ment infiltration volumes are required to be at least
60 percent.
Peak runoff rates (or peak discharge rates) refer to the
maximum volume flow rate passing a particular loca-
tion during a storm event. Peak discharge is typically
increased with increased development as more water
is collected and conveyed across impervious surfaces.
For example water from two adjacent parking lots is
collected and flows to a common gutter. This additive
volume gathers energy as it flows downhill toward a
discharge pipe. This increased volume can scour river-
banks and increase the risk for flooding. Peak dis-
charge is typically expressed in units of volume/time
(e.g., ft3/sec). Within Wisconsin's rules, the peak dis-
charge for post-construction conditions are to be
reduced to the pre-development conditions for the
two-year, 24-hour storm (though some local ordi-
nances may vary).
The peak discharge standards do not apply to:
• Sites classified as redevelopment
• Infill development less than 5 acres
For more information on Wisconsin's post-construction
requirements, presented as PowerPoint presentations,
visit .
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44
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Courtyards and landscaped areas are
common features of site plans. Small
modifications in drainage and plant
selection can improve the water han-
dling performance of infill projects.
to support development in these targeted
areas. Maryland's Smart Growth Initiative,
passed in 1997, directs state infrastructure
funds into PFAs. The initiative identified
areas automatically included, and also
allowed counties to designate certain areas
within their boundaries as PFAs. Under this
policy, local jurisdictions may allow develop-
ment in non-PFAs, but must fund all infra-
structure improvements locally. Phase II
communities located in a PFA should make
sure local stormwater policies complement
the state plan. For example, a complemen-
tary plan would make sure that (1) compre-
hensive plans, zoning codes, and standards
are in place to foster infill, (2) local funding
investments match the state's commitment,
including sewers, stormwater, and trans-
portation, and (3) permitting processes do
not pose barriers to infill.
Rather than require stormwater handling for
each individual project, the city of San Diego
adopted a policy in 2002 to allow infill
developers to share in the cost of stormwater
abatement. The Standard Urban Stormwater
Photo: City of Portland, Washington
Mitigation Plan allows developers to con-
tribute to stormwater mitigation that serves
the entire drainage basin. Engineers estimate
that individual developments projects can
achieve savings of up to $40,000 by partici-
pating in a shared stormwater control pro-
gram. For more detailed information on the
Localized Equivalent Area Drainage program,
(LEAD) visit
and type "Localized Equivalent Area
Drainage" into the site's search engine.
Some of the best advocates for infill are
developers themselves. The Center for
Watershed Protection has two programs,
Builders for the Bay and the Site Design
Roundtable, which gather information from
developers on the best ways to build
stormwater-friendly developments. For more
information, visit .
Points to Consider
Lots slated for infill can be the last open
spaces in a built-out community. In some
instances, they may be the remaining open
lots that handle urban stormwater. There is
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Protecting Water Resources with Smart Growth
45
no one method for determining whether
these lots should be kept open for stormwa-
ter control or developed. The local develop-
ment context is a critical consideration that
comes into play. Green spaces and parks
serve a multitude of purposes in urban areas
for aesthetic purposes, recreation, and
environmental benefits.
Some lots may not be critical for natural
handling of stormwater, but may be in an
area with waterways that are already com-
promised by development-related stormwa-
ter runoff. In this case, there are an
increasing number of green building tech-
niques and low impact development (LID)
options for onsite stormwater control.
Developers and their landscape architects
should look at common urban development
features, such as courtyards, small water fea-
tures, and tree planting areas for stormwater
control. Since these features are likely to
already be included in site plans, small
design modifications to handle runoff can
improve your project's performance. The
Center for Watershed Protection has devel-
oped several documents under its "Smart
Sites" initiative, which can be found at
.
As discussed elsewhere in this subsection,
investments from infill development may be
able to support improved stormwater han-
dling by way of gray infrastructure.
Localities should look at infrastructure
financing plans, and how they can be used
to attract infill investments. A mitigation
plan for development projects can lessen
stormwater impacts related to infill.
Maryland's Guide to BMP Selection and
Location includes tables of BMPs and in
which setting they perform best. See
.
Finally, even where there is strong consen-
sus among the stormwater engineer and
other planning departments on strategies
for infill, local residents may oppose any
new development project in their communi-
ty. In a growing number of circumstances,
the arguments are based on increased
stormwater runoff. Several organizations
have developed tools to help design better
infill projects and develop community con-
sensus early on. In addition, the low impact
and site design options listed in this docu-
ment may help developers, community
members, and zoning officials understand
the options for handling infill development
in a way that also protects the local envi-
ronment. The Greenbelt Alliance in
California has pro-
duced Smarter Infill and Smart Growth
America
has released Choosing Our Community's
Future.
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46
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Language to Look for in Ordinances
It is important to keep in mind that the language
in your city or county's stormwater ordinances
and guidance will be part of a regulatory and
legal framework in the same manner that zoning
ordinances are. Thus, the particular wording can
have implications for whether the stormwater
policies will work in concert with, or against, your
smart growth policies. Most communities will
have to balance the need for language that is
legally binding, flexible, and designed to deliver
stormwater benefits to the maximum extent
practicable.
Language Fostering Creation
of Joint Smart Growth and
Stormwater Policies
Language specifying that post-development
hydrology match the pre-development
hydrology: Language to this effect may foster
redevelopment. Because the pre-development
state of the parcel was already developed, a rede-
velopment project with the same lot coverage
will essentially have no effect. When you write
your ordinance, however, you may want to avoid
confusion by specifying that the pre-develop-
ment condition refers to the site immediately
prior to redevelopment.
Language classifying a smart growth tech-
nique as a BMP: This language will verify that
your smart growth policies are recognized as
stormwater practices. Note that your guidance or
ordinance may also require maintenance and
operation for the BMPs. For example, if your "Fix It
First" policy is adopted by reference as a stormwa-
ter BMP, the BMP maintenance requirements are
also likely to apply. If you have established a BMP
maintenance fund, this could establish a new
source of funding for priority repairs.
Adding "prevention" of stormwater to your
ordinance's purpose or goals section:
Stormwater BMPs have traditionally been
designed for mitigation; that is, to lessen
stormwater once it is generated. Adding
stormwater prevention to your goals, however,
can help support the prioritization of redevelop-
ment, compact development plans, and "Fix It
First" prog rams.
Language that includes smart growth policy
techniques in the definitions: The "Definitions"
section of your ordinance is an important feature.
The legal definition will establish how narrow or
broad your options can be, or even what meas-
ures can be classified as BMPs. In addition, having
smart growth policy terms in the definition can
assist you in cross-referencing other plans, which
can save time and resources. For example, many
cities are exempting projects in dense, urban
areas from infiltration requirements. Rather than
delineate new areas, some cities are using estab-
lished districts, such as "Business Improvement
Districts" or "core downtown" or boundaries set in
economic development plans. Adopting these
districts into the "Definitions" section of your
stormwater plan automatically delineates where
policies apply. Even if the policy is not fully used
in the ordinance or guidance during the first five-
year permit, establishing the definition can serve
as a placeholder as your community works out
the full details.
Language that refers to design manuals:
Because the stormwater management aspects of a
development project can be comprised of many
interrelated elements, ordinances often refer to
design manuals. The reference to a manual will
allow localities to develop and maintain manuals
that reflect their smart growth programs. You may
want to see where a local manual and/or ordi-
nance on "traditional neighborhood design"or
"Main Street Redevelopment District"can be cus-
tomized to add stormwater management criteria
for hydraulic sizing and performance standards.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
47
Language Hindering Creation of
Joint Smart Growth and
Stormwater Policies
Language specifying that post-development
hydrology match the pre-development hydro-
logy: This language, which can help incentivize
redevelopment as noted above, can block infill on
undeveloped sites or smart growth on greenfields
sites. Make sure there is flexibility within your
Stormwater and urban design plans so that the
requirement for maintaining natural hydrology
delivers projects that work in all contexts within a
watershed.
Language requiring that BMPs replicate natural
systems or non-structural natural BMPs:This
might be a desired strategy in rural areas or those
with pristine water resources. If this is a strict state-
ment that covers all development projects in your
city, county, or township, however, your communi-
ty might face difficulties in directing growth to
areas specifically targeted for a higher intensity of
development. In addition, some strategies for repli-
cating natural systems require large areas of land
for infiltration or filtration of pollutants, which
might consume land needed in a traditional town
center or new urbanist plan to create a compact,
walkable town center. Make sure there is flexibility
so that there are options for Stormwater manage-
ment that are context-sensitive.
Language that classifies the intensity of control
based on "housing units per acre": Most land use
plans classify the intensity of residential develop-
ment based on housing units per acre. This system
is based on zoning conventions that tend to sepa-
rate uses, and hence, can disperse development.
Stormwater regulations based on units per acre
will not only reinforce this system, but are likely to
miss the importance of looking at water impacts
on a "per unit" basis. Many watershed managers
are faced with growth estimates over the next
decade that range from several hundred house-
holds, to thousands of new households. Looking
solely at "housing units per acre" on given acreage
within a watershed may produce an unrealistically
low picture of the planning and investment need-
ed. Looking at impacts on a "per unit" basis may
help communities—in particular, growing commu-
nities—fully assess water impacts of expected
growth in total number of households in the
watershed.
Language to tie priority funding to adoption
of a model ordinance: Many states are develop-
ing model ordinances for local communities as a
way to reduce the resources needed to develop
and implement NPDES permit programs. These
model ordinances are, by their nature, written to
a minimum level of compliance, and written
broadly as to be applicable in many different
environmental settings. As an alternative to a
model ordinance, states are also allowing com-
munities to develop innovative alternative plans.
When priority funding is given for adoption of the
model ordinance, there is less incentive for a com-
munity to choose options for developing innova-
tive and multi-objective plans. In addition, many
communities will likely choose an option that is
as simple and spelled-out as possible. By develop-
ing specialized manuals for Traditional
Neighborhood Design and redevelopment areas,
localities have a ready-to-use option for smart
growth. Localities and state should look for ways
to make a variety of options attractive through
technical assistance and/or funding priorities.
Impervious coverage limitations: Many state and
local permits have incorporated impervious sur-
face limitations (or lot coverage limitations) based
on studies that show that a watershed begins to
deteriorate when 7 to 10 percent of the watershed
is covered by impervious surface. This concept has
been translated to the site level through ordi-
nances that limit coverage of rooftops and parking
to no more than 10 to 20 percent of the site. While
this may be an effective strategy in some circum-
stances (for example, to protect pristine waters), in
others, this type of ordinance serves to spread out
development even more. Larger lots are needed
for all development projects, which serves to
extend the distances among uses. This, in turn,
requires longer stretches of roadway and more
water and sewer infrastructure per unit of develop-
ment.
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48
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
3. Redevelopment
Definition
Redevelopment is development of a site that
has been previously developed and is typical-
ly covered with impervious or compacted
surface. For purposes of this subsection, the
reader can assume that the lot is covered
with compacted or impervious surface and
has minimal to no value in handling
stormwater. These projects can include
development of vacant buildings, lots where
a building has been torn down and replaced
with gravel parking lots, or older malls.
Who Do I Talk to About
Redevelopment Plans?
In most instances, redevelopment is left to
market forces. Developers and real estate
investors seek out available property and
either redevelop by-right or petition for a
variance or rezoning. In other jurisdictions,
special entities are formed to foster redevel-
opment. There are often barriers to redevel-
opment, including complex approval
processes and the perception from lenders
that the deal will pose more risk than new
development projects.
Thus the best resources for learning about
redevelopment plans can be private sector
organizations, or public/private partnerships.
Economic entities, such as redevelopment
authorities, "Main Street" programs and
brownfields offices, often work to line up
financing, zoning reforms, shared parking
arrangements, and other incentives to over-
come the barriers and perceptions that sup-
press market interest. Talk to your economic
development director, chamber of commerce,
or city manager to see if there are established
redevelopment districts that can be added to
your stormwater management plans. If you
are the head of a redevelopment agency, talk
to local experts on land development to
develop scenarios of watershed growth. In
this way, you can present not only the eco-
nomic benefits of redevelopment, but also
the regional water benefits that can accrue
from successful implementation of your
Main Street or brownfields program.
As a stakeholder in the stormwater process,
you may also want to consult with commer-
cial real estate brokers to investigate why a
commercial district, mall, or older downtown
is underperforming, and what steps are likely
to revive interest.
Examples of programs that you can ask
about include:
Vacant Property Reform: According to the
National Vacant Properties Campaign, vacant
and abandoned properties occupy about 15
percent of the area of a typical large city—
more than 12,000 acres on average. Vacant
property reforms are designed to encourage
the redevelopment of vacant properties,
allowing the utilization of existing buildings
in potentially desirable urban and suburban
locations. For more information, see
. The
International City/County Managers
Association has researched and reported on
successful local efforts to bring vacant com-
mercial and residential properties back into
use. For more information, see
.
Greyfields: Greyfields are a subcategory of
vacant or underperforming properties.
Greyfields are large, previously developed
properties, such as older shopping malls and
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
49
warehouses. These sites tend to be large and
well-served by transportation and stormwa-
ter infrastructure. These properties differ
from brownfields in that they are not con-
taminated or perceived to be contaminated.
To see if your community is working on a
redevelopment strategy for old malls or other
greyfield sites, contact the department of
economic development or the local chamber
of commerce. This strategy may include
mixed-use rezoning, enhancing transporta-
tion on the site, and/or redevelopment incen-
tives. Because these sites are so large and are
not contaminated, you may be able to nego-
tiate for better control of Stormwater on site,
and thus increase the Stormwater benefits of
the redevelopment project. The Congress for
the New Urbanism published Greyfidds into
Goldfidds, which presents information on
common reasons behind the decline in malls
and large properties and development
options for reusing the sites. See
.
Renovation Codes: Renovation, or rehabilita-
tion, codes are commonly developed to
replace inflexible building codes with a set of
coordinated standards for renovation and
rehabilitation in older areas. For example,
renovation of an old downtown might be
prohibitively expensive, or impossible under
building codes created for new development.
Renovation codes meet safety objectives
while setting workable standards for renova-
tion. Renovation codes also help towns revi-
talize the economy of their downtowns,
while relieving development pressure on
greenfield sites (and thus retaining the
Stormwater benefits of open space). The
United States Department of Housing and
Urban Development published a report,
Smart Codes in Your Community: A Guide to
Building Rehabilitation Codes, describing vari-
ous redevelopment codes and examples of
rehabilitation codes from across the country.
See .
For developers, redevelopment projects in
already-developed areas are typically more
complex, and thus can be more expensive.
These developers must work with existing
street and circulation patterns, building con-
figurations, and zoning and regulatory codes,
many of which are decades or even centuries
old. Developers look at the time and cost
involved to see if projects "pencil out" eco-
nomically. Local incentives and regulations
play into cost, including Stormwater manage-
ment. Review your smart growth plan (and
state programs) to see if funding mecha-
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50
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
nisms, open space and park funds, tax incen-
tives, or permit review incentives are avail-
able. When packaged strategically, these
incentives may serve not only as economic
development incentives, but Stormwater pro-
gram incentives as well.
Measurable Goals
Since redevelopment projects are discrete
and are typically tracked through permits,
Stormwater managers may be able to use
databases that are already in use. Since many
Stormwater consultants are establishing
tracking software, work with them to estab-
lish new fields to track the impervious sur-
face reused through redevelopment. One
example of a measurable goal would be to
create an inventory of vacant properties and
set goals for redeveloping them.
As noted in the previous section, you may
also be able to track the amount of impervi-
ous surface avoided through your redevelop-
ment programs. This approach would
translate how the square footage, building
footprint, parking and associated infrastruc-
ture would compare under conventional
development standards elsewhere in the
watershed. As a first step, the Stormwater or
planning office would need to estimate (1)
where the development might go were it not
for redevelopment programs, (2) the average
parameters for conventional development
(e.g., likely number of parking spaces, new
road and access designs), and (3) any other
secondary impacts that might come from
new growth.
Examples
Comparing build-out scenarios was used to
assess the transportation and water and air
quality impacts of Atlantic Station, a brown-
fields redevelopment project in Atlanta.13
The site design for Atlantic Station, located
on a former steel factory, includes several
Stormwater improvements. The developer,
Jacoby Development Inc., built Stormwater
handling features on the site, upgraded the
storm and sanitary sewer network for the
project, and addressed groundwater contami-
nation.
As part of EPAs analysis, the Agency com-
pared how the same intensity of develop-
ment would perform if built according to
conventional development standards in
other parts of the Atlantic metropolitan
region farther from the urban core.
This lake, located in the central part of
the Atlantic Station redevelopment
project in Atlanta, Georgia, is a develop-
ment amenity, but also assists in
Stormwater management.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
51
Compared to a greenfields site, the redevel-
opment scenario had lower total phospho-
rous and nitrogen loadings, as well as
reduced volume. In some cases, the compar-
ative reductions were orders of magnitude
lower. To learn more about this project, visit
.
Points to Consider
Most of the "Points to Consider" listed
under the previous section on "Infill
Development" also apply. As noted above,
many cities and counties are adding onsite
water handling requirements to all develop-
ment and redevelopment projects. Even
where there is flexibility in stormwater ordi-
nances, cities and counties should make
sure that the BMP requirements for all proj-
ects are established on a "level playing
field." Stormwater engineers and planners
should compare the costs, the permitting
process, and predictability of the BMPs
required for development and redevelop-
ment projects. For example, stormwater
management programs that rely heavily on
infiltration techniques might tilt the playing
field in favor of large, dispersed projects on
less expensive land. Typically, this land is
located farther out in undeveloped reaches
of the watershed, where infiltration on a
larger scale is already taking place. Even
with requirements for infiltration on site,
the disturbance that takes place can be a net
loss for the watershed. Thus, stormwater
and watershed managers may want to assess
the balance of requirements and incentives
to make sure stormwater rules are not inad-
vertently pushing development to undevel-
oped land.
4. Development Districts
Definition
Development districts (or in some cases spe-
cial zoning districts) are created to achieve
comprehensive planning and urban design
objectives in a specified area. While the pre-
vious subsections reviewed policies for indi-
vidual sites and smaller projects,
development districts are characterized by a
larger site area and the need for complex and
coordinated rezoning, transportation, and
planning efforts. Examples of special zoning
districts include transit oriented zoning dis-
tricts (TOD), business improvement districts
(BIDs), new urbanist projects, traditional
neighborhood development (TNDs), brown-
fields redevelopment, and "Main Street" revi-
talization districts.
Who Do I Talk to About District
Plans?
If an area is incorporated, any such district
would be found in the city's zoning ordinance.
If an area is unincorporated, county zoning
applies. In some cases, the zoning regulations
carefully delineate the sub-area plans or spe-
cial districts and show them on a map.
If you are in a county that does not have zon-
ing, or has not yet reviewed zoning codes for
redevelopment areas, your locality may have
developed special plans for certain areas, for
example a BID or "Main Street" redevelop-
ment plan. Check to see if there is a docu-
ment listing specific policies or planned
zoning changes related to development or
redevelopment in the district. Many of the
policies listed in Subsection 2 (Infill
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52
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Development) might be listed and can be
included in your SWME
Innovations in zoning and building codes
have emerged under a variety of names. The
Smart Code, TND codes, form-based codes,
unified development ordinances (UDOs),
and model development codes are examples.
These codes may apply to the entire munici-
pality, to new development only, or in the
form of an overlay zone. The Congress for
New Urbanism has collected examples of
various code innovations at .
In reviewing codes with your local planning
office or economic development department,
make sure that the all pieces are in place to
deliver on the smart growth benefits. For
example a unified development ordinance
might require sidewalks on both sides of the
street; however, if state transportation and
local zoning policies result in highly separat-
ed uses with mandated turning lanes and
wide intersections, pedestrian trips may be
reduced, if not eliminated. The stormwater
benefits are likewise diminished. Thus, you
may need to consult with the zoning and
planning office, together with a transporta-
tion engineer. If one set of codes supercedes
another, you may want to consult with the
city or county manager to find flexibility and
list all the benefits, including stormwater,
that come from a smart growth development
district.
Subdivision codes are a common method
incorporated and unincorporated communi-
ties use to control development. Most subdi-
vision codes establish how many housing
units can be built by-right on undeveloped
land. Over time, subdivision codes have
This path allows safe
pedestrian and bike
passage, but is also
designed for access
by emergency and
service vehicles.
Photo: www.pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden
evolved to control development-related
aspects such as street widths, septic require-
ments, and/or infrastructure planning. Some
subdivisions may also be governed under
drainage districts, which place limits on
impervious surface coverage and map devel-
opment restrictions in areas of significant
drainage flows. In some cases, subdivision
requirements will govern the street network
and control the number of connections
required between the subdivision and sur-
rounding parcels (see Subsection 8, Smart
Growth Street Designs for more informa-
tion). Consult your city or county's engineer
or planning office to see if smart growth
policies have been added to your subdivision
codes.
Check to see if your community has formed
public/private partnerships or alliances to
facilitate planning and implementation for
these districts. Also check with a local histor-
ical society, the downtown business associa-
tion, or the local chamber of commerce to
see if they are aware of special planning or
economic development districts.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
53
Brownfields are properties with real or per-
ceived contamination from prior uses and, in
some cases, are classified as districts for the
purposes of cleanup, financial incentives, and
coordinated redevelopment. Larger brown-
fields can include former military bases, trans-
portation facilities, and institutions. These
large properties are often located in areas near
existing transportation and infrastructure. The
larger parcels pose opportunities to redesign a
development program that includes smart
growth features, like multi-modal street
design, advantageous use of existing trans-
portation routes, and open space. EPA esti-
mates that for every acre of brownfields
redevelopment, 4.5 acres of greenfields can be
preserved.14 Check to see if your community
has developed plans for brownfields identifi-
cation, cleanup and/or development plans.
There may be opportunities to design large
scale, onsite stormwater handling in areas
where the contamination will not be trans-
ported after redevelopment has taken place.
Stormwater Benefits
As noted in the previous subsections, special
zoning districts can limit overall stormwater
runoff by directing development away from
greenfields at the urban fringe into existing
urban areas. (See Subsections 2, Infill
Development, and 3, Redevelopment, for fur-
ther information on the impacts of encourag-
ing infill.) Coordination of planning, invest-
ment, and infrastructure for a district can
also result in a more efficient site plan.
Development decisions are made at a larger
coordinated scale, which can facilitate effi-
cient street layouts, a smaller footprint for
parking facilities, and less expensive options
for collecting and handling stormwater for
the district.
In addition, mixed-use districts can support
a wider variety of transportation options,
which lessens the impacts of transportation
on water quality. Auto emissions have delete-
rious effects through deposition of exhaust
and accumulation of automotive related
materials (brake linings and tire tread wear)
that are carried into waterways through
stormwater runoff.
A 2004 study conducted by Asad J. Khattak
and Daniel Rodriguez of the University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, suggests that
households in the neo-traditional develop-
ment substitute driving trips with walking
trips. The study examined differences in
travel behavior in a matched pair of neigh-
borhoods (one conventional and one neo-tra-
ditional) in Chapel Hill and Carrboro, North
Carolina. The survey and study of 453
households suggest that single-family house-
holds in the neo-traditional development
make a similar number of total trips, but sig-
nificantly fewer automobile trips, fewer
external trips, and shorter trips than house-
holds in the conventional neighborhood,
even after controlling for demographic char-
acteristics of the households and for resident
self-selection.15 One term that transportation
professionals often use to describe trip-mak-
ing within a set district is "internal capture
rate." When urban planners talk about a
high internal capture rate for a proposed dis-
trict, this forecast relates to a higher percent-
age of multi-modal and/or combined trips
within the district. This is something
stormwater professionals should look for
when evaluating plans.
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54 | SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Paved Area per Dwelling Unit - a Comparison
Q
s"
Conventional Residential Subdivision
Mixed Use,Traditional Neighborhood Design
Vermillion is a traditional neighborhood outside Huntersville, North Carolina. The town enacted a TND ordinance to
coordinate the approval process for TNDs. The two maps were drawn to compare the TND design and a more conven-
tional, residential-only design.
In the new urbanist street plan, the greater part of the paved areas is taken up by narrow 18 feet roadway widths,
whereas the conventional plan relies on wider 30 feet streets. Although the roadway area is higher in the TND plan, the
street component per dwelling unit is far less, as indicated in the following tables.
Conventional Design
• 38 single family homes
Street Width (feet) Street Length (feet) Street Imperviousness (ft2)
18
24
30
275
350
2111
4,950
8,400
63,330
76,680
76,680/38 dwellings = 2,018 square feet street imperviousness/dwelling unit
Traditional Neighborhood Design
• 40 single family homes
• 16 studio a pa rtments
• 16 live/work dwellings
• 74 townhouses
Total 146 residential dwelling units
One office building (4,400 square feet)
Two medium sized office buildings (30,000 square feet total)
Three smaller commercial buildings (15,000 square feet total)
One restaurant (5,000 square feet)
One church (10,000 square feet)
Street Width (feet) (Street Length (feet) I Street Imperviousness (ft2)
18
24
30
3,270
750
525
58,860
18,000
15,750
92,610
92,610/146 dwellings = 634 square feet street imperviousness/dwelling unit
The analysis did not look at sidewalk lengths, or the street imperviousness related to commercial buildings.16
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
55
Development and redevelopment plans that
are based on districts might also allow
Stormwater officials to meet requirements
under the Illicit Connection Minimum
Control under Phase II. Many large redevel-
opment parcels are near waterways and offer
the potential to correct Stormwater and infra-
structure problems. Many illicit connections
are found in older manufacturing districts, so
you may be able to also meet requirements to
find and eliminate illicit discharges.
Finally, the Stormwater performance of a site
is the result of, or enhanced by, the additive
effect of several redevelopment policies. For
example, in a TOD district, policies to
require higher density development are com-
bined with maximum setback rules and
reduced parking requirements. All three of
these policies work together to support tran-
sit use and higher density projects on a
smaller development footprint. It is worth
noting that under current practice, develop-
ment districts such as office and industrial
parks do not carry these advantages. The dis-
persed arrangement, large surface parking
lots and predominance of a single use (e.g.,
office only) serve to spread development—
and the associated impervious surfaces—out
further.
Typical Costs
For the public sector, the cost of planning a
special district and setting or revising zoning
is the staff time required to research, adopt,
and implement the new codes. Some com-
munities hire consultants to help gather and
coordinate stakeholder input, draft design
alternatives, and create final plans. The range
of costs varies. You may be able to tap the
expertise of a local university or nonprofit at
a lower cost for gathering input and narrow-
ing the scope of items that need the special-
ized skills of a consultant.
While brownfields redevelopment can be
costly, new regulations and programs are in
place to assist localities and developers. The
variety of activities related to financing and
redeveloping brownfields sites is beyond the
scope of this publication, but you may have
brownfields redevelopment activity under-
way which you can cite in your Stormwater
guidance materials. EPA has a comprehensive
site on how to remediate, market, and devel-
op brownfields sites at .
Some communities may already have design
manuals in place for transit districts, TNDs,
or new urbanist communities. These can
serve as a starting point for developing a
joint smart growth/storm water BMP manual.
These manuals typically include detailed
information on streets, building envelopes,
the use mix, and transportation connections.
Stormwater, zoning, and planning depart-
ments may be able to cost-effectively create a
BMP manual for development districts from
work that has already been completed. For
example, a Stormwater engineer could take
the city's manual on TND and insert infor-
mation on siting Stormwater handling facili-
ties within the TND, on using water features
for Stormwater control, and sizing criteria for
various BMPs and performance criteria at the
site and neighborhood scales.
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56
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Measurable Goals
For a jurisdiction without comprehensive
zoning for development districts, a short-
term goal could include adoption of a special
district ordinance. For a jurisdiction that
already has special zoning districts in place,
goals would depend on the type of ordinance
adopted. For jurisdictions with TOD zoning,
a goal might be to raise the percentage of
new development built in already-developed
areas by a certain percent over a specified
time period. If detailed information is avail-
able on transit use, one can estimate the
reduction in automobile-related deposition
and runoff pollution.
As listed above, communities may also want
to estimate Stormwater performance of smart
growth projects not only on the site level,
but on the watershed or regional level as
well. Redevelopment of an entirely devel-
oped site basically results in no net increase
in Stormwater at the local level, but also
absorbs development demand that would
otherwise result in the addition of impervi-
ous cover in an undeveloped portion of the
watershed. Subsection 1, Regional Planning
gives information on the methods for com-
paring smart growth and conventional devel-
opment plans.
Examples
San Diego has launched a "City of Villages"
plan to direct development via infill and
redevelopment to certain neighborhoods.
The planning update and the Stormwater
management cross-reference the City of
Villages infill plan as a water strategy. To see
more on the planning efforts, visit
. For more
on the Urban Runoff Management Plan, visit
.
LEED Neighborhood
Design
Check with your zoning or environmental
works department to see if your locality has
adopted the U.S. Green Building Council's
(USGBC's) scorecards. These scorecards, called
LEED (for Leadership in Environmental and
Energy Design), contain rating systems for
development and redevelopment projects.
USGBC is developing a new scorecard called
LEED Neighborhood Design - or LEED ND.
This scorecard includes not only green
aspects of individual buildings, but of their
location as well. Thus, the scorecard takes
into consideration the smart growth princi-
ples based on transportation options, a mix
of housing types, and connections to the
broader community. LEED scorecards, includ-
ing LEED ND, include rating points for how
the project or district handles Stormwater,
and might provide a template for measuring
your locality's performance under NPDES. For
more information on the LEED scorecards,
visit .
An example of creative Stormwater financing
comes from Elm Grove, Wisconsin.
Flooding has been a significant problem for
the city—in particular, for the downtown
area. In 2001, the city developed an econom-
ic development plan for the downtown, with
a focus on reducing the flooding. To address
the flooding issue, the city has developed a
Stormwater mitigation plan with many ele-
ments, including restoration of concrete-
lined creeks to their natural state, improving
Stormwater retention areas and redesigning
the city's park with water control in mind.
Because the flood management plan is
expected to reduce the size of the 100-year
floodplain, properties that are no longer in
the floodplain as a result of the improve-
ments will increase in value. The town is
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 57
creating a TIP district to capture this value,
and invest in the targeted stormwater
improvements. The town is also creating a
stormwater utility because the monies raised
through the TIP are not expected to cover the
costs of all of the needed improvements. The
town is coordinating the water planning with
the revised Master Plan for its downtown,
which will include retaining a small town
feel, creating a pedestrian friendly environ-
ment, and incentivizing redevelopment in the
downtown area. For more information, visit
< www. elmgrovewi. org>.
The Trust for Historic Preservation sponsors
the Main Street Program to spur investment
in older downtowns. Pnterprise Zones and
Plm Street Programs are other programs
established to attract investment to older
downtowns. These programs are evidence of
growing interest in historic areas and what
they offer, such as unique older buildings, a
walkable layout, and economic potential.
Stormwater professionals should look to
these programs in their communities as a way
to manage stormwater runoff within their
watersheds. To learn about the specific poli-
cies and programs, visit
< www. mains treet. org>.
The Mountain View, California, transit sta-
tion, called The Crossings, is an example of
how redevelopment of a greyfields site into a
transit district can include better stormwater
management. Prior to redevelopment, the 16-
acre site was 98 percent impervious cover
and home to an underperforming shopping
mall. Because the California Department of
Transportation planned to build a commuter
rail station immediately adjacent to the site,
the city of Mountain View envisioned making
the station a success through a higher density
and mixed-use development program. As
redevelopment occurred, planners were able
to build in onsite handling of stormwater for
more than 45 percent of the site. Open spaces
designed to absorb water are complemented
by compact building sites, a grid of narrow
streets and a space-efficient parking plan. For
this and other case studies, visit the Natural
Resources Defense Council's "Stormwater
Strategies" at ;
follow the links to "The Crossings."
Points to Consider
One type of special district that requires par-
ticular attention is the use of impervious sur-
face coverage districts. Impervious surface
zoning districts generally set maximum ratios
on the amount of impervious surface within a
zone or, more commonly, on a parcel. For
example, an ordinance might state that no
more than 20 percent of a lot may be covered
with impervious surfaces such as rooftops,
driveways, or accessory buildings. Often, the
purpose behind impervious surface districts
A mixed-use district is used at The
Crossings, in Mountain View, California.
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58
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
is based on studies that show watershed
decline begins once impervious surface cover-
age exceeds 10 percent.17 The 10-percent fig-
ure has been applied to the individual site
level within the watershed, suggesting that
limiting development to lower densities that
only cover a portion of the site will translate
across the watershed to more pervious sur-
faces for stormwater control and preserved
ecological function.
However, application of an impervious sur-
face district on a parcel-by-parcel basis, might
not help meet stormwater objectives, and in
fact, might result in worsened water quality,
particularly on a watershed scale. The follow-
ing are points to consider regarding impervi-
ous surface districts that apply only to the
site level:
Impervious surface ordinances consider
only site cover, not the ultimate goal of
reducing stormwater runoff volumes: For
example, suppose a homeowner would like to
build an addition to his/her house, which is
located in an older urban area that the city
has designated for economic redevelopment.
The homeowner also would like to discon-
nect the downspouts and develop a rain gar-
den and other features to handle all of the
stormwater on site. An impervious surface
code, read strictly, would prohibit that home-
owner from building the addition, even
though the homeowner would improve
stormwater management on the lot. The
impervious surface district has the effect of
creating a low-density district, which may run
counter to a community's wish to accommo-
date more density in certain neighborhoods
to make use of transit, foster redevelopment,
or respond to market demand.
Much of the "pervious" surface in low-densi-
ty development acts like impervious surface
for handling stormwater: Development prac-
tices can involve wholesale grading of a site,
removal of topsoil, severe erosion during con-
struction, compaction by heavy equipment,
and filling of depressions. Research now
shows that the runoff from highly compacted
lawns is almost as high as runoff from paved
surfaces.18 The turfgrass planted in a typical
new residential project does little to reverse
the impacts to the soil by construction.
Further, turfgrasses have shallow roots that
do not provide the same soil anchoring, water
uptake, and other ecological processes as
deep-rooted native grasses and plants.
Low-density developments tend to be
accompanied by more offsite impervious
infrastructure: Development in a watershed is
not simply the sum of the parcels within it.
Rather, total impervious area in a watershed
is the sum of site developments plus all of the
infrastructure (e.g., water utility, transporta-
tion) supporting those sites. For example, the
hard cover of a parking space with dimen-
sions of f 8 feet by 9 feet is not the only
imperviousness associated with that space.
Drive or access aisles are also typically coded
into parking standards; a parking lot with 90-
degree parking typically is served by a 24-foot
drive aisle that spans the length of the park-
ing lot and ties into other access lanes.
Additionally, many modern street codes
require additional lanes for turning, decelera-
tion, and service lanes. An impervious surface
coverage district that considers only develop-
ment of individual sites might miss much of
the impervious surface that is leading to
degradation of water quality in the entire
watershed.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
59
Growth is coming to the region; limiting
density on a given site doesn't eliminate that
growth. Density limits are responses to—
and attempts to manage—growth: Yet these
limits do not, in fact, manage growth; they
only manage the growth on the density-limit-
ed area. The rest of the growth that was going
to come to the region still comes, but spreads
throughout or across the watershed.
From a water resource protection perspective,
defining the balance of developed areas and
open space requires a broader look at water-
shed management, rather than limits on a par-
cel-by-parcel basis. A first step is to plan for
strategic preservation of continuous tracts of
open space. Second, preservation of critical
ecological areas such as riparian corridors,
stream buffers, flood plains, and wetlands is
needed. These parcels are of critical impor-
tance in developed areas to absorb and filter
stormwater. Third, for land that is to be devel-
oped, smart growth strategies such as higher
density and more compact development serve
to disturb less land and accommodate more
development. As mentioned elsewhere in this
publication, redevelopment sites are particu-
larly attractive when considering development
and stormwater mitigation options since they
use already-developed sites and are likely to
use existing infrastructure.
There is a spirited debate about the perform-
ance of impervious surface limitations and
how they should be structured to achieve the
intended water quality goals. One result of the
debate is a better focus on comprehensive
strategies needed in a watershed.
Organizations like the Center for Watershed
Protection and Project
NEMO's research division are fine-
tuning the mapping, measurement, and char-
acterization of impervious surface coverage
and the relationship to water quality.
If an impervious surface special district is in
your plan, one suggestion is to make sure the
program looks at a watershed scale and the
individual parcel, and includes all supporting
impervious surfaces in the watershed.
Another strategy involves modifying or elimi-
nating the coverage limitations for certain dis-
tricts to which you want to direct growth. You
may want to conduct a survey of impervious-
ness per unit of development for conventional
and smart growth plans. Impervious surface
limitations may make sense in one part of the
watershed (for example in headwater areas)
or when applied watershed wide, but only
when carefully reviewed with other subwater-
shed and subareas plans where redevelopment
and development is desired.
If your locality has a smart growth plan, make
sure your impervious surface zoning does not
act as a barrier to that plan. If your plan calls
for higher density in certain districts, such as
TOD districts and downtown redevelopment
areas, then your impervious surface district
should have enough flexibility to allow such
density. Many areas are exploring the possibil-
ity of trading systems that coordinate develop-
ment and preservation efforts. Trading
programs might be found within a total maxi-
mum daily load (TMDL) program, for trading
of impervious surfaces on a watershed-wide
basis, or through a "payment in lieu of" pro-
gram for installing BMPs. EPA has launched
efforts to facilitate trading as a way to improve
water quality. To learn more about EPA policy
and the steps involved in establishing a trad-
ing program, visit .
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60
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
TMDLs, Stormwater, and Smart Growth
Across the country, more than 40 percent of
waterways are impaired by pollutants, sediment,
temperature (typically heat), and nutrients. These
waterways can be stream segments, bays, estuar-
ies, and lakes. Once a waterway is listed as an
impaired waterbody, localities are responsible for
developing a "budget" for how much of a pollu-
tant load the waterbody can experience. This
budget is referred to as a TMDL, or total maximum
daily load. A process typically follows to identify
major sources (e.g., agriculture, urban runoff) and
allocate a portion of the pollutant load to each
source. The goal of a TMDL program is to restore a
waterway by reducing pollutant sources. Thus,
sources often face reductions in how much pollu-
tant they contribute.
Stormwater can be a major contributor to impair-
ments due to the heat, nutrients, metals, and
other pollutants carried in runoff. Thus, reducing
Stormwater runoff in areas with impaired water-
bodies is often at the center of the TMDL process.
As discussed throughout this document, smart
growth techniques can help prevent and/or
reduce Stormwater volume and the pollutants
carried within the runoff. In other words, smart
growth can offer load reductions. By encourag-
ing designs with lower impacts, the locality has
taken steps not only to lessen development's
effect related to transportation and infiltration,
but also to provide an incremental reduction in
the pollutant load from Stormwater discharges.
Though not required, some states and localities
are including budgets within TMDLs for future
growth. Communities that adopt growth man-
agement strategies that encourage smart growth
and discourage sprawl are in a better position to
control pollutant loadings from Stormwater dis-
charges, soil erosion, wastewater treatment sys-
tems, and many other sources of pollutants.
Some states have expressed concern that imple-
mentation of TMDLs could impede smart growth
strategies because TMDLs will prohibit additional
sources, which is assumed to be a prohibition on
redevelopment and infill for urban areas. The fear
is that developers will be inclined to focus their
proposals on "greenfields"on the urban fringe,
where TMDLs are not in place. Consider, however,
that (1) many vacant and unused properties in
urban cores already are largely impervious as a
result of paving and soil compaction, so putting
new buildings on these sites is unlikely to make
runoff outcomes worse, (2) as described else-
where in this publication, green building and site
design options present the potential for actually
reducing runoff volume and pollutant loadings
from infill and redevelopment sites, and (3) green-
fields development projects commonly have their
own Stormwater requirements so that a develop-
er of any site will need to think about appropriate
controls.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
61
5. Tree and Canopy Programs
Definition
Urban forestry programs are not typically
considered stand-alone smart growth poli-
cies; however, tree programs are increasingly
appearing as elements of larger urban design
plans for landscaping or aesthetic purposes.
In addition, tree policies are evolving to
include abatement of urban heat island
effects, or as part of transportation plans to
improve the pedestrian environment. There
are different types of plans and ordinances,
from those that protect historically signifi-
cant trees to tree planting programs. Street
tree ordinances generally cover the planting
and removal of trees within the public right-
of-way.
These new urban forestry policies are also
evolving to target tree canopy and shade
cover, rather than policies that focus on
numbers of individual trees. In other com-
munities, trees are becoming part of the
"public utility" as new methods are devel-
oped to measure and account for the envi-
ronmental attributes of mature trees. The
"utility" approach also recognizes that trees,
like power lines and pipes, require mainte-
nance and have costs associated with that
maintenance. Whether it's the pedestrian
environment, aesthetics, or air quality, the
result of an effective urban forestry policy
translates into stormwater benefits.
Who Do I Talk to About Tree and
Canopy Programs?
Tree ordinances are typically overseen by
public works departments or departments of
environmental quality; however, also check
with your local extension agent. The
International Society of Arboriculture has a
Web site describing the development, imple-
mentation, and evaluation of tree ordinances;
go to and type "ordi-
nances" into the site's search engine. Scenic
America also lists a model tree ordinance, at
. American Forests' Web
site at tracks tree
policies and ordinances, as well as innova-
tions in technology, research, and non-regu-
latory methods for supporting urban forestry.
Stormwater Benefits
A well maintained tree canopy can provide a
variety of environmental benefits. Trees pro-
vide erosion control and help reduce the
costs of structural stormwater management,
including land acquisition costs and con-
struction of stormwater retention facilities.
Strategically preserving or planting trees
along urban rivers, streams, and creeks can
reduce water temperatures. Increased tem-
peratures affect certain native aquatic
species, can increase nuisance algae popula-
tions, and impact commercial activities that
rely on stable water temperatures for recre-
ation, industrial use, or aesthetics. Tree
canopy intercepts rainwater, which provides
for gradual release of rainwater into streams,
thereby preventing flooding, filtering toxins
and impurities, and extending water avail-
ability into dry months when it is most
needed.
Examples from selected cities include:
• At a south Miami residential study site
the existing tree canopy reduces
stormwater runoff by 15 percent.19
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62
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
On-street parking can be coupled with tree wells in a
downtown setting.
• In Milwaukee, the existing tree canopy
cover reduces stormwater flow by up to
22 percent and provides the city an esti-
mated $15.4 million in benefits. On aver-
age, trees in Milwaukee sample sites
reduced total stormwater runoff volume
by 5.5 percent and reduce peak flow by
9.4 percent. At the residential study site,
the 42 percent existing tree canopy
reduces stormwater runoff by 22 percent.
If all trees in the Milwaukee study were
removed, the additional stormwater flow
would be enough to require the construc-
tion of an estimated 357,083 cubic feet of
retention capacity valued at approximately
$15.4 million.
For information on other environ-
mental benefits from trees, visit
.
Typical Costs
Tree programs and ordinances have costs
mainly associated with development, imple-
mentation, and enforcement. Maintenance of
older trees can be expensive, particularly
since the goal of your program is to nurture
trees to maturity for maximum stormwater
benefit. When these costs are considered as
part of a community's stormwater infrastruc-
ture, however, they may prove worthwhile
when compared to other water control
expenses. Garland, Texas, used American
Forests' software package CITYGreen to
measure the cost savings associated with its
tree canopy. Garland's trees provide 19 mil-
lion cubic feet in avoided storage (for the
average maximum two-year 24-hour storm
event). The city estimated that it saves $2.8
million annually, calculating the cost of con-
struction funding over the 30-year life of a
facility20
Measurable Goals
Short-term goals can include the establish-
ment of a tree program that tracks the num-
ber of trees that have been saved or the
number of trees planted in your jurisdiction.
As noted previously, maximum stormwater
benefits come from tree canopy cover. Urban
forest groups have established the environ-
mental performance of tree cover. Software
programs can help establish your baseline
tree canopy and estimate the dollar value of
the services provided to a community by its
tree cover. Establishing a baseline and track-
ing cover with a software package can trans-
late into numeric expressions of stormwater
performance. For more information on one
such program CITYGreen, visit
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
63
Examples
The U.S. Department of Agriculture's U.S.
Forest Service-Southern Region maintains
information on trees and tree cover, includ-
ing research, PowerPoint presentations, and
model tree programs at
.
The City of Roanoke, Virginia, used
CITYGreen to measure cost savings associat-
ed with its tree canopy. Roanoke's 32 percent
tree canopy provides 64 million cubic feet in
stormwater retention capacity, valued at $f28
million (based on construction costs estimate
at $2 per cubic foot). Based on the study
results, the city council passed a 40 percent
tree canopy goal as part of the city's compre-
hensive plan.
Points to Consider
Different trees have different absorption
rates, growing condition needs, growth rates
and life spans. Consult an arborist to deter-
mine which trees will suit the needs of your
community. In the Pacific Northwest, Metro
(Portland Oregon's regional government) has
published a guide to the stormwater benefits
associated with different trees. For specific
interception rates for different types of trees
and analysis of the benefits of different tree
species, see Trees for Green Streets: An
Illustrated Guide, (order from ). Note
that many climates in the United States are
too arid to support a full canopy; these areas
can use xeriscaping and other landscaping
means to control runoff. Additionally, decid-
uous trees are far less effective at capturing
stormwater once they shed their leaves in the
winter.
When developing a tree ordinance, clearly
outline your goals, methods of coordination
and enforcement, and evaluation procedures.
At least one tree ordinance has been success-
fully challenged in court as unenforceable by
a developer because the language was too
vague. In 1999, a Fulton County Superior
Court Judge ruled in favor of developer
against the city of Atlanta because a section
of the city's tree ordinance lacked "sufficient"
objective standards.
If you include urban forestry in your
stormwater program as a BMP, think long
term about maintenance requirements and be
creative in finding funds for maintenance. If
there are funds dedicated to funding all types
of stormwater BMP maintenance, consider
using these funds for tree pruning, tree care,
and replacement programs. The state of
Pennsylvania has proposed a BMP mainte-
nance program that allows developers to pay
a fee to cover maintenance for 10 years. For
urban forestry programs, this can be an effec-
tive funding mechanism for getting a tree
program started.
Ill
Students at an ele-
mentary school in
Des Moines, Iowa,
plant a tree during
Arbor Day celebra-
tions.
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64
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
6. Parking Policies to Reduce
Number of Spaces Needed
Definition
Parking lots are one of the more visible
aspects of imperviousness within the built
landscape, and managing stormwater
through better parking lot design is con-
tained in many of EPA's guidance documents
on improving water quality. Retrofitting
parking lots is emerging as a popular BMP;
however, an equally effective approach is to
reduce the footprint associated with parking
spaces before they are actually built. Thus a
parking policy that updates land develop-
ment standards and zoning codes to reduce
the parking footprint is a BMP.
This subsection looks at two broad techniques
for reducing the amount of imperviousness
associated with parking:
This streetscape design ties together retail activity, land-
scaping and parking. Tree grates were designed to cap-
ture water and provide shade while also providing easy
access for pedestrians and motorists as they exit the
parking area along the street.
• Structured parking: Instead of surface
lots, parking can be provided in garages.
The same number of spaces can thus be
provided on considerably less land. While
parking can also be provided below grade,
for most areas this is prohibitively expen-
sive. Therefore, this subsection will dis-
cuss items mainly related to structured
parking.
• Reductions in number of spaces:
Reducing the number of parking spaces
involves two main techniques:
f) Reduce parking requirements which
mandate a certain amount of parking.
These requirements often require too
many spaces but can be retooled to
reduce spaces, provide flexibility for
TOD, or change from minimum to
maximum ratios.
2) Encourage shared parking, by which
users of two nearby facilities can share
the same parking spaces at different
times. For example, a church, which
generally needs parking on Sunday
mornings could share parking spaces
with a movie theater, which needs
parking spaces in the evenings. Shared
parking can also apply to better use of
on-street parking spaces.
This section does not include information on
retrofitting parking lots with infiltration
strips and landscaping since the focus is on
the sizing and footprints for parking. There
are links in the "Resources" section to more
information on using infiltration techniques
on new and existing parking lots.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
65
Who Do I Talk to About Parking
Plans and Requirements?
In general, parking requirements are con-
tained in land use and zoning documents,
and are typically expressed as minimum
numbers of spaces per unit of development.
They may be in plans held in the depart-
ment of public works or in the office of
planning. On-street parking is typically gov-
erned within the local traffic engineering
office or in the department of public works.
There are various types of parking and poli-
cies related to parking as discussed below.
Parking Requirements: Most zoning codes
have detailed specifications of parking
requirements by use (e.g., a commercial dis-
trict may specify four parking spaces per
1000 ft2 of office space). A residential dis-
trict may require two off-street spaces per
unit. Within a district, there may be further
parking specification by use; for example, for
a church or for fast food restaurants.
Localities enacting smart growth plans are
changing their parking standards in recogni-
tion that fewer spaces are needed when there
are transportation options and a mix of uses.
They are also changing policies to permit
more flexible programs. For example, some
jurisdictions are beginning to use maximum
parking requirements instead of minimums.
Review the parking requirements in your
zoning codes, within special use permits, and
in parking guidelines and Stormwater ordi-
nances that may serve as a barrier to flexibil-
ity. For example, language might require a
business to satisfy its parking requirements
within 400 feet and reserve parking only for
that business. This could prohibit shared
parking, as discussed below.
Transforming parallel spaces to diagonal
ones on this wide retail street increases
the amount of parking without adding
impervious surface.
Parking Overlay Districts: Overlay districts
introduce new requirements. Parking over-
lays are good for transit districts, where
policies are needed to support several
modes of travel. For example, a TOD dis-
trict may have a parking overlay that
reduces the number of spaces needed based
on proximity to a transit stop. Combining a
parking overlay district with complimentary
policies, such as shared parking agreements
among several building owners, can help to
balance demand for spaces throughout the
day in a parking overlay district. In this
case of TOD districts, you may need to also
consult the transit agency.
On-Street Parking: One of the most over-
looked resources for parking is one that
already exists—use of the street. There are a
variety of management techniques to help
use this resource, such as meters, permit
parking and angled parking. These spaces
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SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
In Boulder, Colorado, downtown devel-
opers are discouraged from building
parking for individual projects. Instead,
they pay a parking and transportation
in-lieu fee. These fees are then used to
build public garages, as well as to fund
transit, bicycle, and pedestrian
improvements.
can be governed by the Public Works depart-
ments, or by a special parking office.
Site Plan Conditions or Proffers: If your
jurisdiction negotiates site-specific develop-
ment requirements, check the office that
oversees site plan conditions or proffers.
Often the number and location of parking
spaces is a negotiated element on a project-
by-project basis.
Structured parking: Structured parking can
either be a multi-level lot or underground
parking. Because of the expense involved,
structured parking typically occurs in down-
town areas, districts with higher densities, or
near arenas and stadiums.
Shared parking: Some shared parking plans
may be drawn by local redevelopment organ-
izations or business improvement districts,
or by large institutions like universities or
hospitals. In larger cities, private parking
companies may also exist, so check with
them as you gather information on opportu-
nities to improve parking policies.
Parking Pricing: Parking pricing introduces a
fee for parking. Pricing typically serves as a
transportation demand strategy (to reduce
vehicle use), a parking management strategy
(to reduce problems in specific locations),
and/or as a means to raise money for parking
and other projects.
Determining how much parking to provide
for retail, offices and residential areas is a
balancing act to make sure there is enough
parking to support the range of intended
uses, but not so much as to undermine good
community design and Stormwater improve-
ments. As shown in Table 3, the decision on
how many spaces to provide is more often
than not tilted toward an oversupply
Stormwater Benefits
Reducing the amount of surface parking
reduces the quantity, speed, and impurities of
the runoff. For example, one researcher calcu-
lated that a one-inch rainstorm on a one-acre
meadow would produce 218 cubic feet of
runoff, while a parking lot the same size
would produce 3,460 cubic feet.21 Among the
pollutants that accumulate on parking lots are
cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt,
and iron, which are found in gasoline, grease
and oils, antifreeze, brake linings, and rubber.
Under most parking standards, the number
of spaces required is often dictated by times
of "peak use," such as holiday shopping,
which tends to be heavier than at other times
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 67
Table 3: Conventional Minimum Parking Ratios
Land Use
Single family homes
Shopping center
Convenience store
Industrial
Medical/dental office
Parking Requirement
Parking Ratio
2 spaces per
dwelling unit
5 spaces per
1000ft2GFA
3.3 spaces per
1000ft2GFA
1 space per
1000ft2GFA
5.7 spaces per
1000ft2GFA
Typical Range
1 .5 - 2.5
4.0 - 6.5
2.0-10.0
0.5 - 2.0
4.5-10.0
Actual Average
Parking Demand
1.1 1 spaces per
dwelling unit
3.97 per
1000ft2GFA
-
1.48 per
1000ft2GFA
4.11 per
1000ft2GFA
GFA: Gross floor area of a building without storage or utility spaces
Source: Parking Generation, 2nd edition. Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, DC. 1987; Smith, Thomas. Flexible
Parking Requirements. Planning Advisory Service Report No. 377. American Planning Association, Chicago, IL. 40 pp. 1984:
Wells, Cedar. Impervious Surface Reduction Technical Study. Draft Report. City of Olympia Public Works Department.
Washington Department of Ecology, Olympia, WA. 1994.
of year. By reducing the number of spaces
and integrating flexibility to handle peaks,
there can be an overall reduction in the
amount of impervious surface.
In 1993, the city of Olympia, Washington,
launched its impervious surface reduction
study to simultaneously address water quality
concerns and a growing population. As part
of this larger study, the city conducted a com-
prehensive study of parking. The city found
that, on average, 53 percent of commercial
sites were taken up by parking lots. As part of
the impervious surface reduction study, the
researchers studied the feasibility of reducing
commercial parking. They found that, while
business owners did not think they provided
too much parking, the typical occupancy rate
in parking lots was only 46 to 67 percent.
Eighteen of 31 representative sites had less
than 75 percent occupancy rates during the
busiest peak hours surveyed. The city also
calculated that during a two-year rain event
(2.8 inches in 24 hours), approximately 38
cubic feet of runoff would be generated by a
9-foot by 18.5-foot surface parking space (not
including drive aisles and turn lanes).22
Typical Costs
Surface vs. structured parking: For a given
parcel of land, structured parking is always
more expensive than surface parking.
According to one industry estimate, con-
struction costs for parking spaces range from
$1,500 to $1,800 per space for surface park-
ing, and from $12,000 to $20,000 for struc-
tured parking (costs in 2000 dollars).23
Parking requirements: Although there is no
hard cost to changing parking requirements,
municipalities will need to devote staff time or
resources to hire a consultant to write new
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68
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
In Saint Louis, Missouri, rush hour lanes along a main arterial are
converted to diagonal parking on Sunday for nearby churches.
This system allows many more cars to use on-street parking for
the limited hours on Sunday when demand for spaces is high
and traffic volumes are less than that generated on weekdays
during rush hour.
parking ordinances. If a locality wants to add
more on-street metered parking, there are
supply and administrative costs, though these
can be offset by meter revenue. Note that
some localities are using meter revenue to
support the costs of planning and supporting
parking for downtown and retail districts.
Shared parking: In situations that lend
themselves to shared parking, there are two
main costs to making it happen. First, the
parties involved generally draw up an agree-
ment, which may present costs in terms of
researching what to include and legal fees.
Second, ongoing maintenance costs must be
divided. Providing on-street parking makes
use of an asset that is technically paid for
and shared, and thus adds no additional cost
to the developer or user. In addition, supply-
ing parking in a lot requires more impervi-
ous surface to provide drive aisles, entrances
and ramps. On-street parking does not
require this extra infrastructure, thus lower-
ing the amount of land, and thus cost, to
provide parking.
Measurable Goals
One quantifiable goal could be reducing the
amount of parking in new developments or
redevelopment projects; for example, reduc-
ing the percentage of surface parking in new
developments' footprints by 5 percent.
Another measurable goal could include
changing ordinances to require maximum
parking ratios instead of minimum ratios,
adjusting downward the number of spaces
used in a locality's standards for parking, and
encouraging the use of shared parking.
Another measurable goal could be a surface
lot replacement program. Where excess capac-
ity is identified, the city can assess which lots
are candidates for infill and which lots could
be retrofitted with infiltration techniques. The
decisions will likely be based on development
trends, water quality goals and the availability
of incentives. As with the discussion on infill
and redevelopment, characterizing the per-
formance should be conducted on a site,
neighborhood, and watershed scale.
Examples
Surface vs. structured parking: Montgomery
County, Maryland, contains four parking
districts around rail stations. Special taxes
are levied on development within the dis-
tricts, and the zoning ordinance encourages
structured parking by exempting parking
garages from those taxes.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
69
On-street Parking: In Arlington County,
Virginia, the redevelopment plan for
Columbia Pike places minimum require-
ments for providing public parking and
maximums for the provision of private park-
ing. A developer may pay an "in lieu of fee"
if the parcel is too small to meet the stan-
dards. One innovative aspect of the plan is
the ability to count adjacent on-street public
spaces toward the parking requirement. The
parking plan also includes a focus on cen-
tralized, shared parking that will create a
"park once; then walk" environment for visi-
tors who choose to drive.
Santa Rosa, California, is conducting a park-
ing project in its downtown area with "back-
in" diagonal parking. In the pilot phase, 22
spaces replaced 15 parallel on-street spaces.
With these spaces, motorists traveling along
a street would drive past a diagonal parking
space and then back into it. This layout
makes easing back into traffic safer, since the
motorist can see oncoming traffic and
bicyclists.
Parking requirements: A number of
California jurisdictions have innovative
parking requirements that effectively reduce
the number of spaces required for residential
development. For example, San Diego allows
housing built in a transit-intensive area or
designated for low-income residents to have
0.25 fewer spaces per unit. Sunnyvale allows
0.3 or 0.4 fewer spaces per unit if parking is
unassigned (as opposed to available in pri-
vate garages). Concord allows developers to
request a variance from existing codes if
housing will be occupied by seniors or dis-
abled persons.
San Antonio, Texas, has both minimum and
maximum parking requirements. For exam-
ple, most retail uses must provide at least
one space for each 300 square feet of gross
floor area, but no more than one space per
200 square feet. In addition, structured park-
ing and lots paved with pervious materials
are exempted from maximums, providing an
incentive for developers to reduce parking
impacts.
The University of Washington has initiated
a pay-per-use parking program that replaces
monthly parking passes with a per-hour fee.
University employees are electronically
charged each time they park rather than pay-
ing a flat monthly fee. Users also receive a
free bus pass and Flexcar membership.
Shared parking: The city of Tualatin,
Oregon, granted a 25-percent reduction in
parking spaces required by mixed-use devel-
opment Tualatin Commons in return for
shared parking.
Points to Consider
Once you have decided on new parking
strategies like the ones outlined in this sub-
section, an important consideration is what
to do with the land that is no longer dedicat-
ed to parking spaces. Water quality special-
ists might think the most obvious choice is
to dedicate the land to absorbent open space.
However, this open space may serve to scat-
ter development and result in unwalkable
"office parks." From a redevelopment posi-
tion, the obvious answer might be to fill it
up with development, though this action
could eliminate options for handling more
water on site. The answer will depend on
your community's goals and site constraints.
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SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Good urban planning will consider a com-
pact form that addresses stormwater, a walk-
able and viable development program, and
how people move in and around the site.
Surface vs. structured parking: Structured
parking incentives can be coupled with park-
ing regulations that allow a maximum park-
ing footprint (or impervious area) per
residential unit.
Parking requirements: Many neighborhoods
oppose reducing parking requirements under
the assumption that this will result in more
commercial "spillover" parking in the neigh-
borhoods. Some jurisdictions have adopted
"zone" parking that only allows residents to
park on streets in the affected neighborhood.
These zones can be limited to rush hours or
24 hours if the neighborhoods are experienc-
ing severe spillover pressure for parking. In
addition, developers might wish to reduce the
number of spaces they are required to supply,
but feel pressure from their financial backers
to oversupply parking. An ample supply of
parking is often viewed as a necessity for
financial success or the ability to sell the prop-
erty in the future. As the Washington State
study shows, this view may overlook the
financial penalty that comes with building
spaces that ultimately are rarely (or ever) used.
Shared parking: Although there are many
potential instances in which shared parking
can be used, there are several reasons why it is
not as common as it might be. First, if the uses
do not share a common property manager,
they need formal or informal agreements to
share parking. Second, they may not agree on
whose responsibility it will be to maintain
parking lots. Third, many business owners
worry that their customers will stop patroniz-
ing them if they do not perceive that parking is
adequate. Fourth, developers may fear that
businesses will be less likely to lease their
space or residents less likely to live there if
they perceive the parking supply to be
inadequate.
To overcome these problems, local jurisdic-
tions can draw up shared parking guidelines
to get the business community behind such
plans. To see what a model shared parking
agreement looks like, go to Metro-Portland's
Shared Parking Handbook at
.
Car sharing: Car sharing has emerged as a
viable transportation option in many areas.
Car sharing works best in urban environ-
ments that have a fairly high density of resi-
dential units (so that there are enough
potential members to use the service) and
other transportation options, such as transit
and the ability to make pedestrian trips.
Most of these cities were covered under
Phase I of NPDES, but university towns
developing plans and ordinances under
Phase II might be good candidates for intro-
ducing a car sharing program. The Car
Sharing Network publishes an updated list of
all cities where car sharing is underway at
.
The company Flexcar has studied the issue
and estimates one shared car can take up to
six cars off of the road (see ). The stormwater benefits
are achieved when one car can be used to
meet the needs of several drivers. These bene-
fits include reduced demand for parking and
car storage, as well as a reduction in automo-
bile-related deposition on roads that can pol-
lute runoff.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
71
"Green Parking:" New technologies for per-
vious pavers and porous pavement are
advancing rapidly. This technology is partic-
ularly attractive for low traffic areas and for
spillover parking needed for athletic events,
churches, fairs, and episodic activities.
Replacing existing impervious cover for
parking with pervious pavers has appeal and
can provide water quality improvements
where urban runoff is a main contributor to
water quality problems. Replacing existing
parking spaces with green technology and
materials can help abate stormwater runoff
and the pollutants carried in that runoff.
Green parking materials may not, however,
lessen all of the environmental effects related
to excess parking. Decisions on the total trans-
portation system will be made to consider road
design, number of turning lanes, drive aisles,
and parking. In areas where your local trans-
portation department is trying to balance
transportation choices, the addition of new
spaces, no matter the material, may work at
cross purposes with smart growth plans aimed
at making pedestrian trips as attractive as driv-
ing. In addition, green pavers require periodic
maintenance. Fine debris and dirt accumulate
in the drainage openings and reduce the pave-
ment's flow capacity. It is natural for settling
and clogging to occur over time, so mainte-
nance schedules require vacuum sweeping sev-
eral times per year.24 When adopting policies
for green pavement and materials, review the
overall development design and transportation
goals to find the right incentives or program
for emerging technologies related to parking.
7. "Fix It First"
Infrastructure Policies
Definition
"Fix It First" infrastructure policies place
spending priorities on repair of existing infra-
structure over installation of new infrastruc-
ture. Generally these refer to transportation
infrastructure (e.g., roads, bridges, and rail
systems) and water infrastructure (e.g., sewers
and drinking water treatment/distribution),
but may also apply to use of existing schools
or other public buildings.
Who Do I Talk to About "Fix It
First" Policies?
The first stop in any discussion about infra-
structure is typically the public works
department or city/county engineer, though
your inquiries may be specific to a certain
type of infrastructure.
Transportation: Your local public works
department generally has a division devoted
to streets, which would have information on
projects underway or that are in the last
stages of planning. The public works director
or city/county manager might also know
Reducing the
amount of
stormwater that
enter curbs and
gutters can be an
effective means
of lessening the
effects of urban
form on local
waterways.
': ••
Photo: Dan Burden
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SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
whether your locality has a framework for
how transportation budgets are allocated for
new construction and repair. On a regional
level, the MPO or regional planning agency
has knowledge of large-scale transportation
planning and projects. MPOs are regional
multi-jurisdictional organizations created for
areas with a population greater than 50,000.
They are mandated to make transportation
spending decisions for metropolitan areas
over 250,000 in population and would have
information on any regional or state policies
that prescribe funding priorities and alloca-
tion. At the state level, the department of
transportation would have information on
any such policies, though departments of
community affairs or smart growth offices
may have the most comprehensive informa-
tion on statewide "Fix It First" policies.
Water: On a local level, the responsibility
over water infrastructure (e.g., drinking
water and sewer service) is typically shared
by the local government and water utilities.
New infrastructure, increases in capacity, and
larger repairs are typically included in
Capital Improvement budgets. Once
installed, water utilities cover operation and
maintenance for treatment plants and con-
veyance systems. Local and county govern-
ments often have the most control over the
extension of water and sewer service into
new development areas. These extensions
can be governed by annexation rules, inter-
local agreements among cities and counties,
planning documents, or can be made on a
case-by-case basis. You may need to talk to
someone in the planning office to see how
extensions and prioritization of repair deci-
sions are governed.
Increasingly, infrastructure specific to han-
dling stormwater is handled through a
Stormwater utility, though most funding lies
within local capital improvement or operat-
ing budgets. Stormwater utilities are dis-
cussed in Subsection 9.
Because water infrastructure investments are
large, funding might include state and feder-
al money. How those funds are spent can rely
on requirements established through a state
revolving fund, a state capital improvement
project or other programs. Thus, your local
water infrastructure manager is likely to refer
you to state offices and other Web sites.
Further explanations may also be available
through the city/county attorney, since the
funding requirements are often established in
regulations.
In some areas, large water projects may be
planned and funded as part of large state and
federal projects such as dams, canals and
reservoirs. Though not a widespread prac-
tice, there are also some private water suppli-
ers and engineering firms that could have
control over capital and repair decisions.
Stormwater Benefits
"Fix It First" policies have long-term effects
on stormwater management and can be a
smart growth technique to encourage infill
construction and redevelopment. In addition,
"Fix It First" policies encourage replacement
of older infrastructure, which can be a signif-
icant source of stormwater-related problems,
particularly in older urban and suburban
areas. In particular, sewer overflows during
wet weather events can have severe environ-
mental impacts. Inadequate or degraded sys-
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
73
terns can also increase the chances or severi-
ty of property damage from flooding.
"Fix It First" programs also can include new
treatment technologies to improve the per-
formance of existing systems. Many people
are unaware that most Stormwater runoff
entering storm drains is not filtered and flows
untreated into waterbodies. Oil/grit separa-
tors and in-pipe systems can be incorporated
into the repair or routine maintenance of
storm drains and pipes. For even stronger
results, "Fix It First" policies can be coupled
with techniques listed in Table 2 on page 23
to handle and filter as much Stormwater as
possible on individual properties.
Typical Costs
"Fix It First" policies are built on the
assumption that funds for infrastructure are
limited and thus rely on shifting spending
rather than increasing available funds. The
costs are therefore measured in both short-
term and long-term impacts, since they shift
spending from new infrastructure (new capi-
tal spending) to existing infrastructure
(repair, operations, and maintenance).
Even in cases where cities are developing
strong programs to attract redevelopment,
the poor condition of pipes and water han-
dling facilities can be a barrier. The cost to
repair water infrastructure around the coun-
try has been the subject of discussion and
review—in particular, the funding needs to
replace aging infrastructure. EPA recently
launched a Sustainable Water Infrastructure
initiative to complement the traditional
funding programs with management tech-
niques to lower costs, add efficiencies to
water distribution and treatment systems and
As part of Portland's "Green Streets Program," the city
launched the Siskiyou project to add water-absorbing
curb extensions. These vegetated extensions intercept
some of the Stormwater flow before it enters storm
sewers. This type of feature can be added as part of a
street repair program in older parts of town where a
reduction in Stormwater flow is needed.
use a watershed approach for managing
water infrastructure. Localities that are devel-
oping or fine-tuning smart growth plans will
recognize parallels in this sustainable
approach. Common themes include efficient
use of land and water resources, a focus on
existing infrastructure and investments, and
the use of a regional approach to manage
resources. See
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74 | SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Examples
Beaufort County, North Carolina, is part of a
multi-county program to reduce nitrogen
and phosphorous loadings to the Tar and
Pamlico Rivers. The county has submitted a
stormwater management plan to the state to
meet both state laws governing nutrient
reductions and Phase II. Its August 2004
draft stormwater plan includes the opportu-
nity to allow an exemption from nutrient
reduction requirements for projects included
in redevelopment areas with a "Fix It First"
policy. For more information, see
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
75
redevelopment are complicated by the fact
that workable infrastructure is sometimes
not in place. This highlights the importance
of having infrastructure in place as you
implement plans for redevelopment and
infill. Implementing a "Fix It First" policy
before other policies are in place may help
your community realize redevelopment on a
more predictable track. Likewise, a strict
"Fix It First" policy may have the unintend-
ed consequence of prohibiting development
in "greenfields" that are desired growth
areas. New Jersey recently included language
in infrastructure grants to give priority to
infrastructure funding in preferred growth
areas. A successful joint policy may include
the pairing of redevelopment and "Fix It
First" programs in order to synchronize pub-
lic and private smart growth investments.
The redrawing of funding allocations creates
redistribution of existing funds (or has the
appearance of doing so). Communities might
find it helpful to consider the economic and
environmental goals of infrastructure policy
on a watershed wide basis.
Finally, much of the evolution in thinking on
water and stormwater has turned to green
infrastructure, or using natural systems to
handle stormwater. Green infrastructure
need not be isolated to rural or suburban
areas, as pointed out in Subsection 5 (Tree
and Canopy Programs). States and localities
should recognize, however, that policies to
prioritize green infrastructure should not
come at the expense of fixing aging pipes in
areas served by gray infrastructure.
Communities may want to seek out where
the green and gray infrastructure support
each other, or better, where green infrastruc-
ture can alleviate stormwater flow into both
combined and separated systems.
8. Smart Growth
Street Designs
Definition
Smart growth street designs are based on a
network of well-connected streets that sup-
port multiple modes of transportation. Some
smart growth approaches to street design
include multiple route choices, alternative
street and sidewalk designs, adjusting the
vehicular level of service (LOS) and/or creat-
ing LOS for other modes of transportation,
and designing connected street networks and
sidewalks to support multiple uses.
Increasingly, stormwater guidance manuals
list "green" techniques to mitigate the runoff
from existing streets or those in the prelimi-
nary design phase, such as swales and elimi-
nation of curbs and gutters. The main
emphasis in this section is the underlying
street patterns, the connecting of transporta-
tion networks and the retrofitting of existing
streets for multiple uses. The "Resources"
section lists green techniques for streets
which may be used to complement your
smart growth street plans.
Street and curb designs can be modified so
stormwater flows into natural areas for treat-
ment. Grates to handle overflow can reduce
the chances of street flooding during heavy
wet weather events.
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SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Who Do I Talk to About Street
Designs?
The rules that govern local street designs are
most likely to be found at the local level in
the public works department or in subdivi-
sion guidelines. Check with your department
of transportation or planning to find out
what policies are in place. In addition, indi-
vidual developers may develop their own
street networks for planned unit develop-
ments (PUDs).
For streets that are already in place, there
may be opportunities to improve connectivi-
ty and make better use of the existing street
right-of-way. These may be included in long
range comprehensive plans or redevelopment
plans. Some of the improvements were listed
in the previous subsection on parking. Other
plans for streets may also be housed in the
department that governs environmental
improvements.
Subdivision codes may also have require-
ments about street design. Where the codes
are not explicit about street design, check to
see if there are requirements regarding con-
nections to surrounding parcels, streets, or
developments. Some jurisdictions require
multiple connections, while others may limit
the number of connections. For example, a
code may require no more than two connec-
tions from the subdivision.
State departments of transportation play a
role in building or improving state-controlled
roads. In many growing areas, smaller high-
ways and rural state roads are the main thor-
oughfares identified to serve new housing
and commercial growth.
Stormwater Benefits
Because streets constitute the largest share of
impervious cover in residential developments
(about 40 to 50 percent), a shift to narrower
streets can result in a 5- to 20-percent overall
reduction in impervious area for a typical
residential subdivision.25 As nearly all the
pollutants deposited on street surfaces or
trapped along curbs are delivered to the
storm drain system during storm events, this
reduced imperviousness translates into a
lower volume of Stormwater runoff and pol-
lutant loadings from the development. For
Stormwater quality factors, residential streets
rank as a major source for many pollutants,
including sediment, bacteria, nutrients,
hydrocarbons, and metals.26
Understanding how a connected street net-
work works to control Stormwater on a
watershed basis requires a review of how
roadway design has evolved. Beginning in the
1960s, typical roadway design practices
favored a less networked, "hierarchical" street
design. This design begins at the lot level,
with numerous unconnected streets, in par-
ticular for residential areas. Aerial photo-
graphs of subdivisions reveal common
unconnected layouts, such as "lollipop"
designs with cul de sacs, or communities
with only one entrance. Within housing sub-
divisions, the individual, smaller streets feed
into collector roads, which then lead, often
through only one intersection, to arterials.
The arterials (which in some cases are high-
ways) link large, centralized trip generators,
such as shopping centers, office parks, and
subdivisions. Because there are few alterna-
tive routes of travel, the road system is
designed to handle the collective flow of trav-
el through key intersections onto other large
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 77
arterials. This road and intersection system
features multiple turning lanes, wide intersec-
tions, and access lanes designed to minimize
congestion with the collected and concentrat-
ed flow of traffic. This type of system increas-
es the amount of land needed to handle
collected traffic, concentrates traffic onto
fewer roads, increases the pressure to widen
the roads that handle collected traffic, and
creates barriers to travel options, such as
pedestrian trips.
Communities developing alternatives for
multi-modal networks often turn to the 10
smart growth principles (see page 18) for
guidance. The principles of creating walkable
neighborhoods, mixing land uses, providing
transportation options, directing development
to existing communities and taking advantage
of compact building design all come into
play. The street systems that make this com-
bination of features possible are characterized
by multiple connections, as well as appropri-
ately sized streets and intersections to sup-
port safe travel for vehicle drivers, bicyclists,
and pedestrians. These street patterns can be
in grids, but may also include paths and
other connections. Although cul-de-sacs and
dead-end streets are discouraged, there are a
variety of street designs that can provide the
slower traffic and privacy that homebuyers
prefer, with the connections that help avoid
the chokepoints and large feeder routes built
into a hierarchical system. For stormwater
engineers, the most beneficial point for a
watershed lies in the compact form, which
facilitates a higher intensity of development
and mix of uses on less land.
The stormwater performance of smart
growth street systems can be further
enhanced by policies to reduce the amount
of runoff entering the curbs and gutters,
mentioned throughout this document.
Likewise, developers and landscape archi-
tects can plan for intermittent retention areas
to collect and treat some of the road runoff
prior to discharge into a storm sewer system.
Finally, the notion of better stormwater man-
agement related to a tighter, connected net-
work of streets with sidewalks may seem
counterintuitive. Most literature on water
quality highlights the detrimental effect of
"connected impervious surfaces." Most effi-
cient urban layouts are just that—highly
connected streets and blocks. Thus, when
making the case for the stormwater benefits
of smart growth street designs, urban plan-
ning and water resource professionals should
establish the framework for considering the
site, neighborhood, and region simultaneous-
ly, in the same way that has been presented
for development districts. For most regions,
the question of growth—and underlying road
design—is not whether there will be growth
or no growth, but rather what the growth
(and roadway system) will look like and
where it is located.
Typical Costs
Cost estimates vary widely. When building
new street networks, narrower streets may
cost less to build than wider streets.
Considering that the cost of paving a road
averages $15 per square yard, shaving even
4 feet from existing street widths can yield
cost savings of more than $35,000 per mile
of residential street. In addition, because nar-
rower streets produce less impervious cover
and runoff than wider streets, additional
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78
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
savings can be realized in the reduced size
and cost of downstream stormwater manage-
ment facilities.27
The costs will not necessarily always be
lower, because specialized features like side-
walks, curb and gutter, street tree areas, and
pavers are often included in the overall street
design. These amenities, however, carry ben-
efits for stormwater, transportation and com-
munity design, so a raw assessment of costs
per mile or per trip might not capture the
full range of benefits.
Installation of stormwater-friendly streets can
also involve additional costs over streets con-
structed according to standard practices.
Portland, Oregon, estimated a higher cost
due to planting and maintaining landscaped
buffers.28 Where permeable or porous pave-
ment is used, the site preparation for water
storage involves additional costs. The cost
savings these techniques bring for handling
stormwater from streets can be hidden, how-
ever, because the budget for transportation
and stormwater can be in separate accounts
in different departments' budgets. In deliber-
ations over stormwater utility rates, Portland
estimated that 70 percent of its runoff could
be attributed to transportation-related sur-
faces.29 City and county managers should
look to see where the higher costs of better
street design are offset by lower demands on
stormwater infrastructure.
Measurable Goals
Appropriate measurable goals for street design
modifications are emerging. Like earlier dis-
cussions on development districts, local build-
out analyses can help compare a "business as
usual" scenario of build-out with one that
contains more compact villages or districts.
The streets component may be included with
estimates of parking lanes, turning lanes, and
other impervious surface coverage associated
with roads and streets.
Another measurable goal might be the
reuse—or new uses—of existing streets. For
example, adding bike lanes, adding on-street
parking, or adding medians could be includ-
ed in your stormwater management plan.
Examples
The Institute for Transportation Engineers
has developed two recommended practice
guidelines: Traditional Neighborhood
Sidewalks on One Side of the Street - or Both?
Some states and localities are recommending that sidewalks be limited to one side of the street
to reduce impervious cover, however, most smart growth plans endorse a network of sidewalks.
Which is correct?
The answer lies not so much in stormwater control as it does in transportation. If sidewalks are
designed as a prominent feature for handling a variety of trips (e.g., commuting, shopping,
school travel, and recreation) and providing connections throughout the neighborhood, then
placing them on both sides makes sense. If your project or plan envisions only recreational trips,
however, then sidewalks on one side of the road makes sense. If you choose to only place side-
walks on one side, review the plan to make sure that future plans for growth and a mix of uses
are taken into consideration so that sidewalks might be added later to meet the demand for
pedestrian trips.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
79
Photo: Local Government Commission.
Development Street Design Guidelines (1999)
and Neighborhood Street Design Guidelines
(2003). These are available through ITE's
bookstore at .
The metropolitan region around Portland,
Oregon (Metro), has a regional street design
manual, specifying stream treatments, street
width, and associated water quality benefits.
See and type "street
design" into the site's search engine.
North Carolina's Department ol
Transportation (NCDOT) approved street
design guidelines to make it easier lor local
governments to implement traditional neigh-
borhood street networks in new develop-
ments. The guidelines specify street width
and the provision of bicycle and pedestrian
facilities. See for more information
and a link to the NCDOT Traditional
Neighborhood Development Guidelines. The
town of Gary, North Carolina, has adopted
policies requiring street connections.
This street and sidewalk in
Hercules, California, shows
how multiple objectives
can be met at once. The
streets are narrow; howev-
er, the rounded curb allows
extra width in case emer-
gency response vehicles
need extra room. The side-
walk is constructed of
pavers, and slopes toward
the grassy areas on the
straightaway.
The Congress for New Urbanism (CNU),
EPA, the Federal Highways Administration
(FHWA) and the Institute of Transportation
Engineers (ITE) are developing Context
Sensitive Solutions for the Design of Major
Urban Thoroughfares, which will provide
alternatives for communities seeking smart
growth street standards. Publication is
expected in 2006. In the meantime, a litera-
ture review was developed in 2005 and is
available at .
Dane County, Wisconsin, has established
Street Standards for its Traditional
Neighborhood Design Ordinance. See
.
Points to Consider
Street designs have traditionally been estab-
lished through sets of commonly recognized
standards. Standard-setting organizations,
such as the Institute of Transportation
Engineers and the American Association of
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80
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
State Highway and Transportation Officials
have issued standards that govern street
designs, recommended road widths and
design for turn lanes and access roads. These
organizations are aware that the standards do
not fit all situations, and are developing
alternative standards and guidelines for com-
munities that have smart growth plans.
Because the alternative standards are new or
in draft form, local transportation officials
might be reluctant to adopt them.
Stormwater and planning officials may want
to meet with their transportation counter-
parts in developing a streets plan for joint
Stormwater and smart growth efforts.
Building green streets, narrower streets, and
multi-purpose streets can cause citizen con-
cern and raise objections from emergency
service providers. In Portland, Oregon, engi-
neers, planners, and emergency response
providers made test runs of various street
widths to come to a decision on a street
width that meets both smart growth and
emergency response needs. The Local
Government Commission has developed fact
Traditional
Conventional
This diagram compares a traditional street layout
with the unconnected streets associated with
conventional subdivisions.
sheets on designing multi-use streets, avail-
able at (look under "Free
Resources" for the fact sheets).
As noted earlier, a denser network of narrower
streets can involve as much or more impervi-
ous surface within a concentrated district.
This is where evaluating imperviousness on a
"per unit" basis of development is helpful.
This might be per unit of housing, or per
square foot of development footprint. In rede-
veloping districts, smart growth designs often
call for the addition of streets to break up
larger blocks or connect centers of activity
and the addition of sidewalks to promote
walking. While these measures add impervi-
ous surface coverage, evaluating the environ-
mental performance of this design requires a
broader approach, as mentioned above.
Finally, street design and construction is
increasingly delegated to the developer and
his or her site planners. For conventional resi-
dential or commercial development projects,
the main requirements for connecting the
development project deal with access to state
highways or local roads. As noted above this
access point is typically the only point of
ingress and egress for the project. Local gov-
ernments might experience resistance from
developers who are not used to planning mul-
tiple connections to neighboring develop-
ments, or providing connections to
commercial areas. Communities with smart
growth street plans that require multiple con-
nections will find that early and constant out-
reach is necessary so builders, developers, and
land owners are aware of the requirements. In
addition, local governments and real estate
agents need to make potential homebuyers
aware of streets that will be connected to
future development projects to avoid conflicts.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
81
9. Stormwater Utilities
Definition
Like urban forestry programs, Stormwater
utilities are not typically listed as smart
growth policies. Many states and localities,
however, have investigated where the rate
structure of other utility programs, such as
electricity, cable, and gas service, might be
unintentionally subsidizing new growth at
the expense of more cost-efficient service
areas. A Stormwater utility, like other utili-
ties, establishes an organization where a user
pays for municipal services, such as water,
trash pick-up and sewer. This subsection
includes suggestions for communities that
have already made the decision to establish a
utility to finance Stormwater improvements.
Stormwater regulations have spurred interest
in Stormwater utility creation as localities
seek new ways to fund drainage and flooding
projects. The legal structure and rate system
for Stormwater utilities vary around the
country, and can depend on state legislative
or enabling language. The legal aspects of
establishing a Stormwater utility are beyond
the scope of this publication, but there are
Photo: University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System
—
several things to look for in setting up a util-
ity in coordination with smart growth goals.
The mission statement, rate structure, and
planning can all have influence over a locali-
ty's ability to shape a comprehensive
approach to handling Stormwater.
Who Do I Talk to About
Stormwater Utilities?
Stormwater utilities are typically set up by a
local government (as mentioned above, most
states must first pass enabling legislation
allowing localities to establish these utili-
ties). Thus, the first step is to make sure that
the legal framework exists for the creation of
a utility. For ease of billing, Stormwater utili-
ty fees typically appear on the same bill
issued for water and sewer, so you might
find contact information there or in your
local government directory. The Stormwater
utility may also be located in the public
works department. The local government
will typically post information on how the
Stormwater utility is organized, the billing
structure and the Stormwater master plan on
a Web site.
Stormwater utility rates can be adjusted to add incen-
tives for homeowners who collect and handle rainwater
on their properties. Municipalities that have impaired
waterways and are experiencing high rates of infill can
use this approach to reduce Stormwater volumes.
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SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Typical Costs
While costs vary, rates are typically in the $2
to $5 per month per household range. The
main consideration for a Stormwater utility is
that all costs collected for the utility only be
spent on Stormwater projects. The costs of
establishing a utility also vary. Most commu-
nities have created the Stormwater utility
within water and sewer departments for ease
of administration. Where localities decide to
introduce variable pricing and incentives
within the rate system, resources will be
needed to establish baseline rates and create
maps and verification systems so that incen-
tives are properly instituted. The "Resources"
section includes several Web sites with more
details on the costs associated with establish-
ing and operating a Stormwater utility.
Stormwater Benefits
Stormwater utilities have been established to
provide a fair and predictable source of fund-
ing for Stormwater projects. As towns experi-
ence growth, they need to fund systems to
handle the Stormwater that flows from newly
developed parcels, as well as from older
areas. Larger cities may need to repair and/or
expand sewer and water systems to support
redevelopment. Some older cities are also
separating their old combined sewer pipes
into two systems: one that handles Stormwa-
ter from the streets and a second system to
deliver sanitary sewerage to a wastewater
treatment plant. A Stormwater utility can
provide stable funding to address the runoff
problems associated with development and
redevelopment.
Stormwater utilities also recognize that all
properties within the utility district have a
role in both producing and mitigating
Stormwater. For most municipalities affected
by Phases I and II of the NPDES Stormwater
permitting program, improvements are tied
to project approvals for development and
redevelopment projects. Thus, the improve-
ments for controlling post-construction
runoff are made only when a building permit
is issued for a site.
For many watersheds, however, the negative
impacts of Stormwater runoff arise from
existing development that was constructed
prior to adoption of improved site designs
and construction practices. Where existing
properties are the main source of Stormwater
volume and/or pollutants, the improvements
enacted through Phases I and II are not like-
ly to bring immediate relief to stressed or
impaired waterways. However, when there is
a program and/or dedicated source of rev-
enue for improvements, Stormwater prob-
lems for the entire community can be
accomplished in a predictable fashion. Keep
in mind a community need not have a
Stormwater utility to begin making improve-
ments on existing properties.
Examples
Maturing Stormwater utilities are experi-
menting with ways to structure rates to rec-
ognize property owners' actions that result in
less burden on the public Stormwater system.
This can include reduced rates or tradable
credits where the property owner (or manag-
er) demonstrates that a BMP has been added
and handles Stormwater on site.
Many municipalities with Stormwater utili-
ties are developing credit manuals. The man-
uals assist property owners in assessing
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
83
(1) the types of activities that can receive a
credit (2) how to apply for the credit, and
(3) other factors, such as continuing mainte-
nance. The most common activities that
qualify for credits include onsite retention
and detention and small scale BMPs, such as
rain barrels.
The recently approved Stormwater Utility
Credit Manual for non-residential users from
Lake County, Ohio, recognizes that some
non-traditional approaches can have
Stormwater benefits. In their manual, the
county notes there are creative ways to
reduce the pressure for additional impervi-
ous surfaces:
"Non-residential customers seeking a credit
may request unique opportunities or
approaches to improving water quality. For
instance, a non-residential customer may
also be an NPDES MS4 permitee that must
implement a Stormwater Management Plan
for its facility. Another example might be a
retail outlet that provides "Park and Ride"
space to encourage use of the transit system,
thereby minimizing the growth of impervi-
ous area by reducing the need for additional
parking lots and travel lanes on roadways.
The LCSMD will review and evaluate these
types of unique requests on a case-by-case
basis to determine the credit value for a site
to which the BMP is being applied. "30
The city of Maryville, Tennessee, allows
smaller homes to qualify where total imper-
viousness on the site is less than 1,800
square feet. To view Maryville's manual, see
.
Variations on this type of credit can be used
for higher density development projects
where the footprint of buildings is smaller in
a district.
To recognize the site level and watershed
level impacts that come with development,
Eugene, Oregon, has split its Stormwater
utility rate into three components: impervi-
ous surface, administrative, and street-relat-
ed. Homeowners can claim a credit only on
the impervious surface portion of the fee
when they adopt beneficial practices such as
use of rain barrels or installation of rain
gardens.
Points to Consider
At a basic level, the purpose of a Stormwater
utility is clear: to assess a charge for handling
the Stormwater runoff generated from a
given piece of property. Measuring the exact
volume of runoff from distinct properties is
time and resource intensive, however. In
addition, some properties are more vulnera-
ble to the impacts of Stormwater than others;
even if the utility applies a rate evenly, the
benefits can vary across the landscape. And
third, much of the runoff (up to 40 percent)
comes from publicly owned impervious sur-
faces such as roads and schools. So, what
should you look for in a Stormwater utility?
Residential properties: Most localities use
some sort of simplified system for assessing
rates. The easiest is a flat fee. This, however,
would not provide homeowners with an
incentive to handle more Stormwater on
their lots. For administrative ease, some
localities have allowed homeowners to
appeal for a rate reduction if they have
installed rain gardens, added rain barrels, or
disconnected downspouts.
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SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
Of particular smart growth interest is the
method of charging based on the percent of
impervious surface coverage. A fee based on
the percent of impervious surface coverage
might not recognize the benefits of smaller
lots in a compact district. Where densities
are higher, the individual plots are likely to
have a greater percent of impervious surface
coverage. As explained in Subsections 3
(Redevelopment, page 48) and Subsection 4
(Development Districts, page 51), this design
has a lowered impact overall when one con-
siders the per unit impact in a watershed. A
rate that recognizes the overall water benefits
of higher density housing can help recognize
the lowered impact on a per unit basis. An
alternative to charges based on percent
impervious surface is to develop a charge
based for the development district which rec-
ognizes the lowered impact for the water-
shed. Fees can then be assessed per house
within the district.
The redevelopment
of older commercial
corridors often
begins with
streetscape improve-
ments, which can be
designed to capture
stormwater, provide
tree canopy and
complement the
redevelopment
goals of more walka-
bleand economical-
ly vibrant districts.
Commercial properties: Assessing rates for
commercial properties is a bit more pre-
dictable and straightforward, but it is impor-
tant to examine for any barriers to
developement projects that have benefits for
the watershed. Commercial properties are
generally assessed a fee based on impervious
surface coverage. One of the more important
smart growth considerations is accounting
for the stormwater impacts of redevelopment
of vacant or underperforming commercial
properties. As these parcels are redeveloped,
they often generate the same amount of
runoff as before, but as noted elsewhere in
this report, they take on development
demand that could go to undeveloped areas
elsewhere in the watershed. To further
improve the performance of these sites, look
for opportunities to handle water on site or
disconnect the impervious surfaces with
neighboring parcels. In addition, a locality
may want to introduce a stormwater fee
credit for improving "gray" infrastructure,
particularly when a developer agrees to fix
combined sewer pipes that overflow. With
these modifications in the rate structure, a
property is fairly assessed its contribution to
local impacts, but gets a credit based on the
watershed benefits.
Depending on specific legal requirements, a
utility may be able to split the rate into other
types of categories to recognize smart growth
benefits. This is where it is important, in the
development of your utility's charter and
planning, to develop a "purpose" statement
to describe the adverse impacts of stormwa-
ter and establish a framework for recognizing
better practices within the utility and its rate
structure.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
85
Summary and Conclusion
Cities, counties, towns and campuses around
the country are well on their way developing
stormwater plans under the Clean Water Act.
What many local water quality managers
might not realize is that their colleagues in the
transportation and zoning departments are
engaged in planning and development activi-
ties that parallel—and often overlap with—
watershed and stormwater planning.
Embedded in land use and comprehensive
plans are features at the site, neighborhood,
and even regional level that have a great
impact on the quantity and quality of
stormwater. Where the locality is pursuing
smart growth development strategies and tech-
niques, they are often unknowingly developing
"best management practices" (BMPs) for
Phases I and II.
This document was developed to help water
quality practitioners, developers, smart
growth advocates, and local/state govern-
ment officials think in new ways about the
overlapping demands of water planning and
local comprehensive planning.
The Clean Water Act's stormwater permitting
program offers opportunities to meet these
overlapping demands. The water quality fea-
tures of smart growth have not traditionally
appeared in BMP menus or lists of stormwater
performance measures. This document has
taken common smart growth techniques,
explained their water and stormwater benefits,
and provided examples. Understanding the
benefits, though, requires a new view of
stormwater—one that considers multiple levels
of environmental and development context.
Thus, development projects must be evaluated
at the site, neighborhood, and watershed levels
to fully assess environmental performance.
In conclusion, the stormwater permitting
program is designed to foster innovation and
adaptive management. Over the next five
years, your community is likely to observe
opportunities for improvement. As your
town engages in planning for transportation,
regional planning, and development, pay
attention to areas that are amenable to better
water quality and stormwater management.
You may find that you can gain water quality
improvement while addressing transporta-
tion, housing, economic development, and
community goals all in the same community.
Next Steps - Guidance and Technical Assistance for Municipalities
EPA also expects to improve its guidance and technical assistance on implementation of the NPDES
stormwater permitting program for MS4s. For communities developing smart growth programs and
stormwater management plans, the Agency is exploring activites that:
• Provide more information and assistance on watershed permitting for communities that want to integrate
their smart growth plans.
• Support development of BMP manuals for common smart growth techniques and development districts,
suchasTNDs.
• Develop model codes, stormwater ordinances, and permit language that recognize the stormwater performance of
smart growth and/or offer flexibility for redevelopment, infill, and smart growth site design for new development.
• Develop decision support tools to help localities and developers estimate the amount of stormwater pollu-
tion prevented through compact development and redevelopment.
• Develop information on strategic combinations of BMPs for urban infill and redevelopment that include
smart growth and traditional stormwater BMPs
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86
SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
EPA's Guidance on Post-Construction Stormwater Controls -
Through a Smart Growth Lens
On Decembers, 1999, EPA published the Phase II
rules in the Federal Register, along with model lan-
guage that could be adopted. EPA's language,
presented below, was adopted in part or whole
by many states and permitting authorities. The
examples listed in the notice include a combina-
tion of traditional Stormwater control techniques,
as well as several smart growth techniques and
concepts. If your state or locality has adopted
some or all of the model language, here are some
tips for integrating your existing smart growth
plan with this guidance.
From the 1999 Federal Register Notice:
Post-construction storm water management in
new development and redevelopment.
(i) You must develop, implement, and enforce a
program to address Stormwater runoff from new
development and redevelopment projects that
disturb greater than or equal to one acre, includ-
ing projects less than one acre that are part of a
larger common plan of development or sale, that
discharge into your small MS4. Your program
must ensure that controls are in place that would
prevent or minimize water quality impacts.
(ii) You must:
(A) Develop and implement strategies which
include a combination of structural and/or non-
structural best management practices (BMPs)
appropriate for your community;
(B) Use an ordinance or other regulatory mecha-
nism to address postconstruction runoff from
new development and redevelopment projects to
the extent allowable under state, tribal or local
law; and
(C) Ensure adequate long-term operation and
maintenance of BMPs.
(iii) Guidance: If water quality impacts are consid-
ered from the beginning stages of a project, new
development and potentially redevelopment pro-
vide more opportunities for water quality protec-
tion. EPA recommends that the BMPs chosen: be
appropriate for the local community; minimize
water quality impacts; and attempt to maintain
pre-development runoff conditions. In choosing
appropriate BMPs, EPA encourages you to partici-
pate in locally based watershed planning efforts
which attempt to involve a diverse group of
stakeholders including interested citizens. When
developing a program that is consistent with this
measure's intent, EPA recommends that you
adopt a planning process that identifies the
municipality's program goals (e.g., minimize
water quality impacts resulting from post-con-
struction runoff from new development and rede-
velopment), implementation strategies (e.g.,
adopt a combination of structural and/or non-
structural BMPs), operation and maintenance
policies and procedures, and enforcement proce-
dures. In developing your program, you should
consider assessing existing ordinances, policies,
programs, and studies that address Stormwater
runoff quality. In addition to assessing these exist-
ing documents and programs, you should pro-
vide opportunities to the public to participate in
the development of the program. Non-structural
BMPs are preventative actions that involve man-
agement and source controls such as: policies
and ordinances that provide requirements and
standards to direct growth to identified areas,
protect sensitive areas such as wetlands and
riparian areas, maintain and/or increase open
space (including a dedicated funding source for
open space acquisition), provide buffers along
sensitive water bodies, minimize impervious sur-
faces, and minimize disturbance of soils and veg-
etation; policies or ordinances that encourage
infill development in higher density urban areas,
and areas with existing infrastructure; education
programs for developers and the public about
project designs that minimize water quality
impacts; and measures such as minimization of
percent impervious area after development and
minimization of directly connected impervious
areas. Structural BMPs include: storage practices
such as wet ponds and extended-detention out-
let structures; filtration practices such as grassed
swales, sand filters and filter strips; and infiltration
practices such as infiltration basins and infiltration
trenches. EPA recommends that you ensure the
appropriate implementation of the structural
BMPs by considering some or all of the following:
preconstruction review of BMP designs; inspec-
tions during construction to verify BMPs are built
as designed; postconstruction inspection and
maintenance of BMPs; and penalty provisions for
the noncompliance with design, construction, or
operation and maintenance. Stormwater tech-
nologies are constantly being improved, and EPA
recommends that your requirements be respon-
sive to these changes, developments, or improve-
ments in control technologies. (Citation: 64 FR
68843, Decembers, 1999).
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
87
For communities that have embarked on smart
growth planning, there are several overlapping
themes:
"EPA recommends that the BMPs chosen: be appro-
priate for the local community; minimize water
quality impacts; and attempt to maintain pre-devel-
opment runoff conditions."
Listing your smart growth accomplishments and
their water quality impacts is one way that your
BMPs can be appropriately chosen. As mentioned
in this document, maintaining pre-development
runoff conditions for redevelopment projects is
typically neutral since impervious cover replaces
existing impervious cover. In some areas, locali-
ties have defined pre-development conditions as
the undeveloped state. There may be water qual-
ity imperatives that call for this increased stan-
dard. The key is to ensure that all development
projects in the watershed are held to standards
that lead to increased protection so that redevel-
opment rules do not unintentionally penalize
redevelopment compared to new development.
property may meet impervious surface caps, the
development "footprint" becomes enlarged as
individual development sites grow to include the
required land set-aside. This, in turn disperses
uses and the infrastructure needed to serve it,
including roads and other impervious surfaces.
Thus, while the narrow objective of minimizing
impervious surface coverage on the development
site level is met, the watershed can actually see
an increase in land disturbance and impervious
surface coverage. Water quality practitioners
should recognize that while land development
approvals are made on a site-by-site basis, the
impact of the individual development project
transcends boundaries. This is not to say that
impervious surface caps do not have a place in
protecting water quality. In some places, water-
shed-wide caps have been put into place, fol-
lowed by assessments of the land
conservation/development balance. Like other
aspects of development decisions, the scale, loca-
tion, and interrelationship with other policies are
important.
".. implementation strategies (e.g., adopt a combi-
nation of structural and/or non-structural BMPs)... "
For smart growth and stormwater goals, the most
effective BMPs will be strategic combinations of
mutually supportive policies. For example, poli-
cies to create better sidewalks might lead to
pedestrian improvements at intersections, which
in turn are supported by plans for a more com-
pact town center to bring uses within walking
distance of each other. These policies act to sup-
port each other and are synergistic, so that the
end result is the cumulative benefits of the indi-
vidual policies. Many comprehensive plans recog-
nize the combinations or urban design policies;
make sure that your stormwater plan reflects the
same links among policies.
"..Non-structural BMPs arepreventative actions..."
Note that prevention of stormwater-related prob-
lems is integral to EPA's guidance. As noted in this
document, reusing existing developed areas and
compact building forms prevent much of the
stormwater generated from development activity.
"...minimization of directly connected
impervious areas..."
Communities that are seeking to add a street to
connect an older downtown to new residential
areas might find that strict policies to reduce con-
nected, impervious surfaces prohibit the connec-
tions that are needed for economic development
and transportation improvements. Screen your
impervious surface policies to see where
improvements to make compact development
work might be prohibited.
"EPA recommends...preconstruction review of
BMP designs."
Preconstruction reviews can identify where there
is disagreement among details in various land
development policies. The preconstruction review
should include several departments to identify
where a city or county's smart growth policies
and stormwater regulations run counter to each
other, and to develop alternative site designs to
accomplish the goals of all programs.
".. and measures such as minimization of percent
impervious area after development..."
EPA's guidance does emphasize reducing impervi-
ous area. When considering reductions, however,
the development context for smart growth and
stormwater are important. While each individual
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SECTION 2: Specific Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater BMPs
6 Rogers, George O. and Buren B. DeFee II. 2005. Long-
term impact of development on a watershed: Early indica-
tors of future problems. Landscape and Urban Planning
Volume 73, Issues 2-3, 15 October 2005, Pages 215-233.
7 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Onsite
wastewater treatment systems manual. EPA625/R-00/008.
Cincinnati, OH: Office of Research and Development.
8 Richards, Lynn, Geoffrey Anderson, and Mary Kay Bailey,
January 2006. Protecting Water Resources with Higher
Density Developments. Washington, DC: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/
smartgrowth
9 American Rivers. 2002. Paving our way to water short-
ages: How sprawl aggravates the effects of drought.
Washington, DC. http://www.americanrivers.org/
site/DocServer/sprawlreportfinall.pdf?docID=595
10 Harbor,J., Engel, B., Jones, D., Pandey S., Lim, K. and
Muthukrishnan, S., A Comparison of the Long-Term
Hydrological Impacts of Urban Renewal versus Urban
Sprawl. National Conference on Tools for Urban Water
Resource Management & Protection, Environmental
Protection Agency, Conference Proceedings. 2000.
11 Pollard, Trip. October 2001. Greening the American
dream. Planning Magazine, American Planning
Association.
12 Center for Urban Policy Research. September 2000. The
costs and benefits of alternative growth patterns. New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University.
13 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September 1999.
Project XL and Atlantic Steel: Supporting environmental
excellence and smart growth, www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/
pdf/atlantic_steel_xl. pdf
14 Deason, Jonathan, Gary A. Carroll, George William
Sherk,. September 2001. Public policies and private deci-
sions affecting the redevelopment of brownfields: An
analysis of critical factors, relative weights and areal dif-
ferentials. Washington D.C.: The George Washington
University. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
www.gwu.edu/~eem/Bro wnfields/project_report/
report.htm
15 Khattak, Asad and Daniel Rodriguez. July 2005. Travel
behavior in neo-traditional neighborhood developments:
A case study in USA. Transportation Research Part A:
Policy and Practice. Volume 39, Issue 6, Pages 481-500.
16 New Urbanism. Comprehensive Report and Best Practices
Guide, 2003-2004 edition. Pages 14-6 and 14-7. New
Urban News.
17 Montgomery County Department of Environmental
Protection. 2000; Center for Watershed Protection. 1998;
Schueler, 1994; Arnold, C. L. Jr. and C. J. Gibbons. 1996.
Impervious surface coverage: The emergence of a key
environmental indicator. Journal of the American
Planning Association 62.
18 Schueler, T 2000. The Compaction of Urban Soil.
Techniques for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD:
Center for Watershed Protection.
19 Examples in this section from Citizens for a Scenic
Florida. American Forests' urban ecological analysis.
www.scenicflorida.org/lscurbanecolog.html
20 International City/County Management Association.
November 2002. Trees: The green infrastructure. Item
#42791. www.icma.org
21 Schueler, Tom. December 1995. Site planning for urban
stream protection. Washington Metropolitan Council of
Governments.
22 Washington Department of Ecology. 2002. City of Olympia's
impervious surface reduction study.
http://depts.washington.edu/cwws/Research/Reports/ipds.pdf
23 "Determining the Cost of an Above-Grade Parking
Structure," Parking Today (www.parkingtoday.com), May
2000, pp. 27-28.
24 Low-Impact Development Center, Inc. Permeable pavers
maintenance. www. lid-storm water. net/permeable_pavers/
permpaversjnaintain. htm
25 Schueler, T.R. 1995. Site planning for urban stream protec-
tion. Ellicott City, MD: Center for Watershed Protection.
26 Bannerman, R. 1994. Sources of pollutants in Wisconsin
Stormwater. . Milwaukee, WI: Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources.
27 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. . Post-construction
Stormwater management in new development and rede-
velopment. . cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuof-
bmps/post_l 8. cfm
28 Portland Metro, 2002. Green streets: Innovative solutions
for Stormwater and stream crossings. . http://www.metro-
region. org/article.cfm?ArticleID=262
29 Bureau of Environmental Services, Portland, Oregon .
January 6, 2000. Report to Mayor Vera Katz memo.
30 County of Lake, Ohio. January 26, 2005. Lake County
Stormwater utility fee: Credit manual for non-residential
users. . www2.lakecountyohio.org/smd/Credit
%20Manual%20Level%202%20%20Advisory%20
Board%20Approved.pdf
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 89
SECTION 3
Resources
This section lists resources for general smart growth, for water resources by smart
growth technique (as listed in the document for easy reference) and by state. A
listing of these sites is not an EPA endorsement, and as materials are finalized and
updated, links may change. Many stormwater programs at the state and local levels are
being revised, so keep these keywords in mind if you need to use a search engine to find
updated links:
"ordinance"
"NPDES" «, . ,„
design manual
"Phase I" or "Phase II" « . „
post construction
"MS4" « , ,
redevelopment
"stormwater" "infill"
"BMP"
These terms used singly or in various combinations, coupled with the name of your state
and/or municipality, should take you to Web sites that contain information on the progress of
stormwater programs, schedules for public meetings, drafts for review, opportunities for
incorporation of smart growth techniques, and other information.
Many of these links cite regulatory documents, and thus are necessarily long; an electronic
version can be found at to copy and paste Web addresses to
your internet browser.
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90 SECTION 3: Resources
Smart Growth
For more information on making the integrated smart growth and water case, visit
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth or www.smartgrowth.org.
A good introductory primer is "Why Smart Growth: A Primer"
wwwepa.gov/smartgrowth/pdf/WhySmartGrowth_bk.pdf
"Our Built and Natural Environments: A Technical Review of the Interactions between Land
Use, Transportation and Environmental Quality"
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/pdf/built.pdf
Planetizen, a planning and smart growth Web site, lists 50 good Web sites:
www.planetizen.com/websites
The Congress for New Urbanism has a compendium of model codes on a variety of subjects,
including street design, rehabilitation, and urban design. The compendium also includes
place-specific codes.
www. cnu. org/pdf/code_catalog_8-1 -01. pdf
Water and Smart Growth
EPA has issued several helpful resources on growth and water resources:
"Protecting Water resources with Smart Growth"
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/water_resource.htm
EPAs Watershed Academy hosts an online training course.
www.epa.gov/watertrain/smartgrowth
EPAs Region 6 has compiled an exhaustive list of water resources that are applicable
throughout the country. The site also lists the Web sites of state stormwater offices for each
of the 50 states and U.S. territories.
www.epa.gov/region6/water/npdes/sw/resources.pdf
The Met Council has released a series of documents on controlling stormwater in
cold climates.
www.metrocouncil.org/environment/watershed/bmp/manual.htm
Stormwater Sites
EPAs main site for NPDES permits:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/index.cfm
EPAs stormwater program home page
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=6
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 91
EPA Fact Sheet on Phase II
www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/fact2-0.pdf
State Stormwater programs
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/linkresult.cfm?program_id=6&link_category=2&view=link
Resource List for Stormwater Management Programs and Phase II
www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sw_resource_list.pdf
Menu of Best Management Practices (BMPs)
http://cfpub. epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/menu. cfm
The Stormwater Authority lists state programs, news, white papers, and articles
www. stormwaterauthority. org/
The Natural Resources Defense Council's "Stormwater Strategies"
www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/storm/stoinx.asp
Project NEMO (Non-point Education for Municipal Officials)
http://nemo.uconn.edu
EPAs National Management Measures to Control NonPoint Source Pollution from Urban
Areas
www.epa.gov/nps/urbanmm/
Innovations in Phase II Guidance and Permits to Include Smart
Growth
EPAs model permit for Phase II includes language on specific smart growth techniques
(e.g. infill), as well as flexibility to custom design ordinances and guidance.
www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/modpermit.pdf
The Michigan Environmental Council is developing materials on smart growth and
Michigan's innovative Stormwater and watershed permitting.
www.michiganenvironmentalcouncil.org
The Santa Clara Valley Urban Runoff Pollution Prevention Program has developed a new
Phase I permit to include many smart growth innovations. Under the reissued permit, the
city of San Jose revised local ordinances to incentivize smart growth projects, such as afford-
able housing and redevelopment.
• The regional permit:
www.scvurpppw2k.com/pdfs/other/NPDES_Permit_C3New_Finalodrtransltr.PDF
• The San Jose Policy changes:
www.sanjoseca.gov/planning/stormwater/pol_stormwater.pdf
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92 SECTION 3: Resources
The city of Poway, California, has defined BMP to include redevelopment and development
projects that improve stormwater performance as compared to conventional designs.
www.codepublishing.com/ca/poway/Powayl6/Powayl6101 .html#16.101.200
Resources by Smart Growth Technique
Regional Planning
EPA's Surf Your Watershed
www.epa.gov/surf
EPA hosts a page on build-out tools
www.epa.gov/greenkit/2tools.htm
EPA link to source water protection plans
www.epa.gov/safewater/protect.html
The Trust for Public Land published "Protecting the Source" on regional source water
protection efforts.
www.tpl.org
wwwtpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=1337&folder_id=195
New Jersey's program for regional and integrated planning
www. smartgrowthgateway.org
For information on the Highlands (New Jersey) water protection plan
www.highlands.state.nj .us/index.html and
www. state, nj. us/dep/highlands/faq_info. htm
New Jersey's Regional Plan Association hosts research and position papers.
www. planningpartners. org
RPA developed a paper on goal oriented zoning using smart growth techniques.
www.planningpartners.org/projects/wmal l/sg_alt/smartgrowthalt_text.pdf
The Association of New Jersey Environmental Commissions' Smart Growth Survival Kit
www.anjec.org
The Central New York Regional Planning Board's regional assistance program for Phase II
communities
www. cnyrpdb.org/stormwater-phase2/
The University of Rhode Island's Cooperative Extension's A Creative Combination: Merging
Alternative Wastewater Treatment with Smart Growth
http://www.uri.edu/ce/wq/mtp/PDFs/manuals/Creative%20Combination%203-10.pdf
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 93
The Planning Commissioners Journal hosts a page on transfer of development rights pro-
grams, including examples, common challenges, and resources.
www. plannersweb. com/wfiles/w3 70. html
Appalachian Regional Commission's site on strategic planning and best practices.
www.arc.gov/index.do?nodeld=44
Infill
The Washington State Phase II permit application
www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/stormwater/phase_2/Phase%20II%20Application.pdf
(see page 14 for the language on infill development).
The Greenbelt Alliance published "Smart Infill" with information on zoning codes, design,
and public participation
www.greenbelt.org (go to "Resource Center" and "Reports")
The Metro Council published the Urban Small Sites Best Management Practice (BMP)
Manual.
www.metrocouncil.org/environmentAVatershed/bmp/manual.htm
Association of Metropolitan Planning Organizations
www.ampo.org
The Local Government Commission, the REALTORS, and EPA co-published "Creating Great
Neighborhoods: Density in Your Community"
www.lgc.org/freepub/PDF/Land_Use/reports/density_manual.pdf
Smart Growth America produced "Choosing Our Community's Future" to assist neighbor-
hood leaders in shaping growth in their neighborhoods.
www.smartgrowthamerica.org
Wisconsin developed post-construction standards that vary for development type
(i.e., new development, redevelopment, infill).
www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/water/wm/nps/stormwater/post-constr/
Clark County's (Washington) comprehensive plan
www. co. clark.wa.us/longrangeplan/review/index. html
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources' list of general land use terms
dnr.wi.gov/org/es/science/landuse/education/GPZ.htm.
New Jersey's two-tiered permit system for infiltration requirements
www. nj stormwater.org
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94 SECTION 3: Resources
Austin, Texas, smart growth incentives for infill
www. ci. aus tin. tx. us/smartgrowth/incentives. htm
San Diego's Localized Equivalent Area Drainage program (LEAD) for sharing stormwater
costs across projects
www.sannet.gov/stormwater
The Center for Watershed Protection sponsors Builders for the Bay, "Smart Site," and the Site
Design Roundtable
www.cwp.org
Maryland's Guide to BMP Selection
www.mde.state.md.us/assets/document/chapter4.pdf
Redevelopment
The National Vacant Properties Campaign has information on the most common conditions
leading to vacated properties, and ways to develop programs that can bring unproductive
property back.
www.vacantproperties.org/
The Congress for the New Urbanism's Greyfields into Goldfields
www. cnu. org/cnu_reports/Execu tive_summary.pdf
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's Smart Codes in Your
Community: A Guide to Building Rehabilitation Codes
http://www.huduser.org/publications/destech/smartcodes.html
The Smart Growth Leadership Institute has a Web site devoted to code audits to identify bar-
riers to redevelopment.
www. sgli. org/implementation. html
The U.S. Green Building Council's (USGBC's) scorecards, called LEED (for Leadership in
Environmental and Energy Design), contain rating systems for development and redevelop-
ment projects. USGBC has a new scorecard under development call LEED Neighborhood
Design (LEED ND).
wwwusgbc.org/leed/leed_main.asp
EPA's case study of the Atlantic Steel redevelopment project
www. epa.gov/proj ectxl/atlantic/index. htm
Development Districts
The state of Oregon created a design manual for development districts, which can serve as a
base example for developing a joint smart growth and stormwater design manual.
egov.oregon.gov/LCD/docs/publications/wqgbchapter4dsnstan.PDF
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 95
Emeryville, California, developed design guidelines for highly urbanized areas with limited
opportunities for infiltration - Design Guidelines for Green, Dense Redevelopment. The final
document will be released in 2006.
www.ci.emeryville.ca.us/planning
Elm Grove, Wisconsin, has developed plans to include downtown revitalization, stormwater
control, and open space planning.
www.elmgrovewi.org
Chesterfield, Burlington County, in New Jersey has a code for transfer of development rights,
including a "Planned Village Development" district ordinance for receiving areas.
www.smartgrowthgateway.org/ordinances/chesterfield.pdf
EPA Brownfields site
www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/index.html
San Diego's "City of Villages" planning initiative
www. sandiego. gov/cityofvillages
San Diego's Urban Runoff Program
www. sandiego .gov/storm water
The Trust for Historic Preservation sponsors the Main Street Program
www.mainstreet.org/
Caltrans has a site dedicated to transit oriented development. This site describes each project,
giving information on land use plans, transportation performance, and project details.
transitorienteddevelopment.dot.ca.gov
The Congress for New Urbanism's compilation of code innovations
www. cnu. org/pdf/code_catalog_8-1 -01. pdf.
New Urban News developed New Urbanism: Comprehensive Report & Best Practices Guide,
which contains analyses, best practices, and examples. To order, go to
www. newurbannews. com.
Tree Programs
Treelink has a page with links to tree preservation, urban forestry, and urban
design ordinances.
www. treelink.org/linx/? navSubCatRef=25
Casey Trees is developing detailed information on the amount of stormwater that can be
intercepted by tree cover and green roofs.
www.greenroofs.org/resources/greenroofvisionfordc.pdf
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96 SECTION 3: Resources
American Forests has information on research, ordinances, and CITYGreen software.
www.americanforests.org
International Society of Arboriculture
www.isa-arbor.com
Scenic America has a model tree ordinance and supporting information
www.scenic.org/portals/0/trees%20-%20ordinance.doc
Trees Atlanta's assessment of the benefits of tree canopy
www. treesatlanta. org
The USDA Forest Service Southern Region
www.urbanforestrysouth.org
Metro's Trees for Green Streets: An Illustrated Guide
www.metro-region.org/article. cfm?articleid=263
Parking Reduction Strategies
Parking Spaces/Community Spaces is set for release in 2006 from EPA.
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth.
The Stormwater Center has a fact sheet on planning, designing and retrofitting parking lots.
www.stormwatercenter.net/Assorted%20Fact%20Sheets/Tool4_Site_Design/
GreenParking. htm
Olympia, Washington's Impervious Surface Reduction Study
depts.washington.edu/cwws/Research/Reports/ipds.pdf
Model agreement for shared parking
www.metro-region.org/article. cfm?articleid=435
The North Central Texas Council of Governments developed guidance, which includes park-
ing reduction strategies.
www.dfwstormwater.com/Storm_Water_BMPs/post-construct.asp#rec
Information on car-sharing
www.carsharing.net/where.html
"Fix It First"
The National Governors Association issued an Issue Brief on "Fix it First."
www.nga.org/cda/files/0408FIXINGFIRST.pdf
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 97
EPA's Sustainable Water
www.epa.gov/water/infrastructure.
Smart Growth Street Design
The Institute for Transportation Engineers developed two recommended practice guidelines:
"Traditional Neighborhood Development Street Design Guidelines" (1999) and
"Neighborhood Street Design Guidelines" (2003).
www.ite.org
The Victoria Transport Policy Institute hosts an online transportation encyclopedia. This fre-
quently updated site includes many details on transportation and street networks and
includes examples from across the country, as well as international examples.
www.vtpi.org/tdm/index.php
The American Planning Association has issued a report, Planning for Connectivity: Getting
from Here to There, Report PAS #515, written by Susan Handy, Robert Paterson, and Kentt
Butler.
www.planning.org.
The metropolitan region around Portland, Oregon (Metro) developed a regional street design
manual, specifying stream treatments, street width, and associated water quality benefits.
www.metro-region.org (type "street design" into the site's search engine)
North Carolina's Department of Transportation (NCDOT) approved street design guidelines
for Traditional Neighborhood Development Design.
www.doh.dot.state.nc.us/operations/tnd.pdf
The Local Government Commission developed fact sheets on designing multi-use streets.
www.lgc.org (under "Free Resources")
The Congress for New Urbanism published a literature review of street designs for traditional
neighborhood design and smart growth projects. This literature review will be used to sup-
port further work with the Institute of Transportation Engineers on the subject.
cnu.org/pdf/lit_review_assigned.pdf
Dane County, Wisconsin, adopted traditional street standards.
www.co.dane.wi.us/plandev/build/pdf/tnd/20040225_append_C.pdf
Seattle launched the Siskiyou Green Street Project to add vegetated curb extensions. These
extensions handle some of the stormwater that would otherwise enter the storm sewer.
www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.cfm?c=dhfjc
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98 SECTION 3: Resources
Stormwater Utilities
The Center for Urban Policy and the Environment at Indiana University-Purdue University
Indianapolis (IUPUI), in cooperation with EPA, hosts a page dedicated to stormwater
finance. Some of the case studies provide examples on how to creatively match the rate
structure with impacts.
http ://s tormwaterfinance. urbancenter. iupui. edu/
Lake County (Ohio) Credit Manual for Tier 2 Cities, Lake County Stormwater Management
Department.
www2.lakecountyohio.org/smd/Credit%20Manual%20Level%202%20%20Advisory
%20Board%20Approved.pdf
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
99
SECTION 4
New Jersey - A Case Study in Weaving
Stormwater and Smart Growth Policies Together
The state of New Jersey has one of the
most fully developed smart growth
programs of any state. In 1985, the
state adopted the State Planning Act, which
led to the creation of a State Development
and Redevelopment Plan (the State Plan).
This plan was created through a statewide
planning process called cross-acceptance,
which ensures that governments at all levels,
as well as stakeholders and the public, par-
ticipate in deciding the future of New Jersey's
growth. Early accomplishments included
farmland protection, a land acquisition pro-
gram, and comprehensive brownfields rede-
velopment policies.
In the early 1980s New Jersey passed its
Stormwater management rules. As attention to
smart growth and the awareness of the envi-
ronmental impacts of development increased,
so did interest in updating Stormwater rules.
In the 1990s, with the new Phase II require-
ments on the horizon, the state developed
rules with both growth and Stormwater goals
in mind. In 2003, the state passed two com-
panion laws, one called the "MS4 Law" to
establish a statewide permitting system, and
the other called the "Stormwater Management
Rule," which modernized the state's original
Stormwater laws and forged closer links
between Stormwater and other growth man-
agement plans.
Goals for Smart Growth
The purpose of the State Plan is to coordi-
nate planning activities and establish
statewide planning objectives in the follow-
ing areas: land use, housing, economic devel-
opment, transportation, natural resource
conservation, agriculture and farmland reten-
tion, recreation, urban and suburban redevel-
opment, historic preservation, public
facilities and services, and intergovernmental
coordination
New Jersey uses the goals in the State Plan as
a guide. The state is divided into five regions,
with different goals based on the existing
development profile, as well as plans for
growth in that area. The accompanying State
Plan Policy Map serves as the underlying
land use-planning and management frame-
work that directs funding, infrastructure
improvements, and preservation for pro-
grams throughout New Jersey.
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100 I SECTION 4: New Jersey - A Case Study
Goals for Water and
Stormwater
The new Stormwater rules are meant to com-
plement other environmental and economic
goals. The new rules place an emphasis on
ground water recharge, though that require-
ment would be waived for urban areas. In
urbanizing areas, LID techniques are to be
used to maintain existing vegetation and
drainage patterns. In all areas of the state,
BMPs would be chosen to achieve an 80 per-
cent reduction in certain pollutant loads.
Areas along waterways designated as
Category One (Cl) water resources have spe-
cial protections, such as the Highlands area
of the state.
Specific Policies that Meet
Both Water and Smart
Growth Goals
This section describes policy areas that have
both water and smart growth goals.
Tiered Stormwater Requirements:
Instead of creating blanket requirements for
all areas of the state, New Jersey adopted two
tiers to administer Stormwater requirements.
Municipalities within the state are assigned
to either Tier A or Tier B. Tier A municipali-
ties are generally located within the more
densely populated regions of the state or
along the coast. Tier B municipalities are
generally more rural and in non-coastal
regions. The Tier B Permit includes basic
requirements and concentrates on new devel-
opment and redevelopment projects and
public education. The Tier A Permit includes
the requirements found in the Tier B Permit,
plus BMPs aimed at controlling Stormwater
pollutants from existing development.
Meeting Smart Growth Goals: By establish-
ing tiers instead of general requirements, the
state recognizes that the requirements based
on development context can help create a
level playing field so that greenfields devel-
opment is not unintentionally favored due to
less strict requirements.
Meeting Stormwater Goals: Tier A rules
address Stormwater problems found in
urbanized areas, such as pet waste and litter.
The infiltration requirements are tied to areas
of the state critical for recharge, but are not
required in urbanized areas where legacy
pollutants may enter underground water
systems.
"Fix It First:"
The New Jersey State Development and
Redevelopment Plan and Infrastructure
Needs Assessment, both adopted in March
2001, are used to encourage smart infrastruc-
ture investments. The "Fix It First" rules are
particularly strong for transportation invest-
ments. For water and sewer infrastructure,
the rules are not as explicit, but there are
other policies that help direct funds for
repair and replacements of water infrastruc-
ture. The State Planning Act links the state's
annual capital budget recommendations to
the State Development and Redevelopment
Plan, and makes the Infrastructure Needs
Assessment an integral part of the State Plan.
One concern voiced by developers is the
poor condition of infrastructure in many of
the designated growth areas. The state has
responded through its "Water Quality
Management Planning and Smart Growth
Implementation Process" grant.
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 101
Meeting Smart Growth Goals: By focusing
infrastructure investments in existing cities,
towns, and suburbs, New Jersey can encour-
age downtown revitalization, decrease devel-
opment pressures on farmland and other
open space, and conserve limited funds by
taking advantage of past infrastructure
investments.
Meeting Stormwater Goals: Combined sewer
overflows account for much of the pollution
in New Jersey's waterways and harbors. Fixing
aging infrastructure can mitigate —or elimi-
nate—this source of pollution. Over a third of
Newark's 170-mile collection system is brick.
Fixing the infrastructure not only helps with
overflows, but also decreases the strain on the
system caused by inflow and infiltration (I/I).
In addition, upgrades to infrastructure in des-
ignated growth areas can attract development
that may go elsewhere in sensitive watersheds.
Utility Policies:
The New Jersey Board of Public Utilities
(NJBPU) is the state's utility regulatory
authority with oversight over the state's ener-
gy, telecommunications, water/wastewater,
and cable television industries. Following the
creation of a board-wide Smart Growth
Policy Team, the NJBPU looked at its infra-
structure extension formula and the extent
to which developers will be required to pay
for the necessary infrastructure. The formula
was established to accommodate growth
based on where development is occurring
and how infrastructure improvements can
best be financed to support increased devel-
opment in designated growth areas. As stated
in the 2005 strategic plan, NJBPU wants to
make developers constructing on greenfield
sites bear the full cost of gas, electric, and
water line extensions, while reimbursing
older communities and designated growth
areas for laying utilities on their own.
Meeting Smart Growth Goals: Currently,
builders negotiate the amount they contribute
to gas, electrical, and water line extension on
a case-by-case basis often with large reim-
bursements, while the total cost of service
expansion to new subdivisions is subsidized
by ratepayers in cities and older suburbs.
Adjusting the formulae for rates and exten-
sions to reflect actual costs brings transparen-
cy to the costs of various development
patterns. Denser, older communities are more
efficiently served per unit that dispersed
development, thus holding down both instal-
lation and long term maintenance costs.
Meeting Stormwater Goals: The BPU's
adjustments to extension and rate policies
complement "Fix It First" policies and those
geared to directing growth to designated
growth areas. Funds can be targeted to
repair, replacement, and capacity upgrades
rather than installation to serve new, dis-
persed development. Holding down utility
costs in urban areas can attract residents and
commercial entities.
Infill and Redevelopment
Districts:
New Jersey has several programs and policies
geared toward redevelopment and revitaliz-
ing existing neighborhoods. The list is long,
and the accompanying policies, grant pro-
grams and incentives are too long to list
here. Among the programs are:
• New Jersey's Office of Brownfield Reuse
www.state.nj.us/dep/srp/brownfields/obr/
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102 | SECTION 4: New Jersey - A Case Study
• Rehabilitation Subcode
www.nj.gov/dca/codes/rehab/index.shtml
• Transit Village Initiative
www.state.nj .us/transportation/
community/village
Meeting Smart Growth Goals: The recycling
of brownfields and vacant sites allows the
state to meet its smart growth goals of pro-
tecting open space by clustering develop-
ment on existing sites, already served by
infrastructure. In addition, the state has
taken strides to provide affordable housing
and save historic buildings through redevel-
opment. The transit villages and older areas
that are served by multiple modes of transit
offers options and reduces the amount of
infrastructure needed to support automobile
dependent types of development.
Meeting Stormwater Goals: Both public and
private sector investment in older areas pro-
vides funding for infrastructure upgrades.
The focus on larger sites (brownfields, transit
station areas) allows localities to better plan
for handling stormwater on site.
Agricultural Smart Growth Plan:
New Jersey's 2003 Agricultural Smart Growth
Plan provides a roadmap for the future of agri-
culture across the state. The plan consists of
five components: 1) farmland preservation, 2)
innovative conservation planning, 3) economic
development, 4) natural resource conservation,
and 5) agricultural industry sustainability
Other components of the plan aim to preserve
20,000 acres of farmland per year through
2009 and integrate economic development and
smart growth into the agricultural industry.
The future of agriculture in an expanding,
global market also depends upon innovative
planning techniques, economic development,
natural resource conservation, and programs
and policies which keep the industry viable.
For more information visit .
Meeting Smart Growth Goals: The
Agricultural Smart Growth Plan primarily
strives to achieve the goal of preserving
farmland, but the plan also involves commu-
nity and stakeholder participation in the
decisionmaking process and encourages a
sense of place in rural communities by
strengthening their economies.
Meeting Stormwater Goals: The Agricultural
Smart Growth Plan brings innovative conser-
vation goals to protect stream buffers and
target land best suited for infiltration and
forestry. In addition the agricultural smart
growth plan provides better tools to design
commercial and residential growth. Targeting
commercial entities to existing downtowns
and encouraging rural housing development
designs can help minimize the development
footprint overall.
Transfer of Development Rights:
The transfer of development rights (TDR) is a
tool used to encourage a shift in growth away
from agricultural, environmentally sensitive,
or historic open space to designated areas
where new development is desired. By incor-
porating TDR provisions in their land-use reg-
ulations, municipalities can encourage the
protection of open space at a far lower cost
than outright purchase. In a TDR program, a
community identifies a conservation area
within its boundaries where it would like to
see protected from development (the sending
zone) and another area where the community
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 103
desires more growth (the receiving zone) as
identified in the municipality's land-use plan.
Landowners in the sending zone are allocated
a number of development credits, which can
be sold to developers, speculators, or the com-
munity itself. In return for selling his or her
development credits, the landowner in the
sending zone agrees to place a permanent
conservation easement on his or her land.
Meanwhile, the purchaser of the development
credits can apply them to develop at a higher
density than otherwise allowed on property
under the base zoning.
On March 29, 2004, then-Governor
McGreevey signed a bill authorizing all
municipalities in New Jersey to adopt TDR
programs, making New Jersey the first state in
the nation to make TDR available statewide.
TDRs typically work best when they are used
in combination with other policies. Receiving
areas must be ready to accept the density
being sent, which means the zoning and infra-
structure must be in place.
Meeting Smart Growth Goals: New Jersey's
TDR program meets several of the state's
smart growth principles, most notably the
protection of open space, farmland, and sce-
nic resources; compact, clustered community
design; and locating future growth in com-
munities with existing infrastructure. The
state has a well-developed program in the
Pinelands. To see more on the details of how
the TDR program has been established, see
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 105
Acronyms & Glossary
Acronyms
BID—Business Improvement District
BMP—Best Management Practices
COG—Council of Governments
CWA—Clean Water Act
CZMA—Coastal Zone Management Act
ICMA—International City/County Managers
Association
LID—Low Impact Development
LOS—Level of Service
MPO—Metropolitan Planning Organization
NACO—National Association of Counties
NAHB—National Association of
Homebuilders
NPDES—National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System
NPS—Nonpoint Source Pollution
NRCS—Natural Resource Conservation
Services
PFA—Priority Funding Area
SWMP—Stormwater Management Plan
SWPP—Stormwater Prevention Plan or
Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan
TIP—Tax Increment Financing
TDR—Transfer of Development Rights
TMDL—Total Maximum Daily Load
TND—Traditional Neighborhood
Development
TOD—Transit Oriented Development
UDO—Unified Development Ordinance
USEPA—United States Environmental
Protection Agency
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106
GLOSSARY
Glossary
BMPs (Best Management Practices):
Methods that have been determined to be
the most effective, practical means of pre-
venting or reducing pollution from non-
point sources, such as pollutants carried by
urban runoff. These methods can be struc-
tural (e.g., devices, ponds) or non-structural
(e.g., policies to reduce imperviousness).
BMPs classified as "non-structural" are those
that rely predominantly on behavioral
changes rather than construction in order to
be effective. "Structural" BMPs are engi-
neered or constructed to prevent or manage
stormwater.
Biofiltration: The use of vegetation such as
grasses and wetland plants to filter and treat
stormwater runoff as it is conveyed through
an open channel or swale.
Buffer Zone: A designed transitional area
around a stream lake or wetland left in a nat-
ural, usually vegetated, state so as to protect
the waterbed from runoff-related pollution.
Development is typically prohibited or
restricted in a buffer zone.
Charrette: A French word meaning "cart";
often used to describe the final, intense work
effort expended by art and architecture stu-
dents to meet a project deadline. In modern
terms, a charrette is an intense community
workshop, typically held over several con-
secutive days, conducted to gather ideas and
develop feasible community design options.
Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs) and
Sanitary Sewer Overflow (SSOs):
Overflows occur when pipes carrying sewage
and/or stormwater are overwhelmed by a
high volume of water, typically during rain-
storms. Older cities tend to have combined
sewers (stormwater and sewage are carried
in the same pipe); however, sanitary sewers
can overflow as well.
Detention: The storage and slow release of
stormwater following a precipitation event
by means of an excavated pond, enclosed
depression, or tank. Detention is used both
for pollutant removal, stormwater storage,
and peak flow attenuation.
Exfiltration: The downward flow of water
into the soil.
Floodplain: A natural or statistically derived
area adjacent to a stream or river where
water overflows its banks at some frequency
during extreme weather events.
General Permit: A permit issued under the
NPDES program to cover a certain class or
category of stormwater discharges. These
permits reduce the administrative burden of
permitting stormwater discharges. Most per-
mitting authorities also allow for individual
permits, which are tailored to meet unique
needs.
Hydrology: The science dealing with the
properties, distribution, and circulation of
water on and below the Earth's surface and
in the atmosphere.
Impervious Surface: A hard surface area that
either prevents or retards the entry of water
into the soil mantle as occurs under natural
conditions (prior to development), and from
which water runs off at an increased rate of
flow or in increased volumes. Common
impervious surfaces include but are not
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Using Smart Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices | 107
limited to rooftops, walkways, patios, drive-
ways, parking lots, compacted soil, and road-
ways. "Effective impervious surface" is
commonly used to describe impervious sur-
faces connected to receiving water directly or
with a conveyance device (e.g., curbs, pipes,
gutters).
Infiltration: The process or rate at which
water percolates from the land surface into
the ground. Infiltration is also a general cate-
gory of BMPs designed to collect runoff and
allow it to flow through the ground for
treatment.
Infiltration/Inflow (I/I): Clean storm and/or
groundwater that enters the sewer system
through cracked pipes, leaky manholes, or
improperly connected storm drains, down
spouts and sump pumps. Most inflow comes
from stormwater and most infiltration comes
from groundwater. I/I affects the size of con-
veyance and treatment systems and, ulti-
mately, the rate businesses and residents pay
to operate and maintain them.
Maximum Extent Practicable (MEP):
A standard that applies to all MS4 operators
under NPDES permits. The standard has no
exact definition, as it was intended to be
flexible to allow operators to tailor their
stormwater programs to their particular site
MS4 (Municipal Separate Storm Sewer
System): A publicly owned conveyance or
system of conveyances that discharges to
waters of the United States or waters of the
state, and is designed or used for collecting
or conveying storm water. Conveyances can
include any pipe; ditch or gully; or system of
pipes, ditches, or gullies, that is owned or
operated by a governmental entity and used
for collecting and conveying storm water.
For purposes of implementing NPDES, regu-
lated communities have been divided into
small, medium and large MS4s:
• Large MS4: all municipal separate storm
sewers that are located in an incorporated
place with a population of 250,000 or
more according to the latest Census.
• Medium MS4: all municipal separate
storm sewers that are located in an incor-
porated place with a population of more
than 100,000 but less than 250,000.
• Small MS4: any municipal separate storm
sewer that is not defined as being "large"
or "medium," but which meets certain cri-
teria on density or other factors used
locally for designation.
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES): A provision of the Clean
Water Act that prohibits the discharge of pol-
lutants into waters of the United States
unless a special permit is issued by EPA, a
state (where designated), a tribal government
or Indian reservation.
Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution:
Pollution that is caused by or attributable to
diffuse sources. Typically, NPS pollution
results from land runoff, precipitation,
atmospheric deposition, or percolation.
Notice of Intent (NOI): An application to
notify the permitting authority of a facility's
intention to be covered by a general permit;
exempts a facility from having to submit an
individual or group application.
Permitting Authority: The NPDES-author-
ized state agency or EPA regional office that
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108
Smart Growth Stormwater
administers the NPDES program, issuing
permits, providing compliance assistance,
conducting inspections, and enforcing the
program.
Pollution-generating pervious surfaces: A
non-impervious surface with vegetative
ground cover subject to use of pesticides and
fertilizers. Such surfaces include, but are not
limited to, the lawn and landscaped areas of
residential or commercial sites, golf courses,
parks, and sports fields.
Post-Construction BMPs: A subset of BMPs
including source control and structural treat-
ment BMPs that detain, retain, filter, or edu-
cate to prevent the release of pollutants to
surface waters during the final functional life
of development.
Retention: The process of collecting and
holding surface and Stormwater runoff with
no surface outflow.
Runoff: Any drainage that leaves an area as
surface flow.
Sanitary Sewer: An underground pipe sys-
tem that carries sanitary waste and other
wastewater to a treatment plant
Stormwater Sewer System: A system of
pipes and channels that carry Stormwater
runoff from surfaces of building, paved sur-
faces, and the land to discharge areas
Stormwater Management: The prevention,
control, and mitigation of the effects of
Stormwater runoff. Management programs
include regulatory and non-regulatory
aspects, but are typically integrated with
other water quality programs.
Stormwater Management Plan (SWMP):
A plan, which may be integrated with other
land development plans or regulations, that
spells out how a regulated entity intends to
prevent and treat Stormwater runoff.
Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan
(SWPPP): A plan to describe a process
though which a facility thoroughly evaluates
potential pollutant sources at a site and
selects and implements appropriate measures
designed to prevent or control the discharge
of pollutants in Stormwater runoff.
Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL):
A regulatory limit of the greatest amount of
pollutants that can be released into a body
of water without adversely affecting water
quality.
Water Quality Standards: State-adopted and
EPA-approved ambient standards for water-
bodies. The standards cover the use of the
waterbody and the water quality criteria that
must be met to protect the designated use or
uses.
Watershed: A geographic area in which
water flowing across the surface will drain
into a certain stream or river and flow out of
the area via that stream or river. All of the
land that drains to a particular body of water.
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