5
\
a
/A newsletter about soil, sediment, and ground-water characterization and remediation technologies
Issue 26
October 2006
This issue of Technology News and Trends highlights the use of soil amendments in remediation, revitalization, and reuse of
disturbed land in diverse industrial, rural, and urban settings. Using various waste products to reclaim previously unusable or
devalued land, these soil-amendment applications illustrate that industrial residuals can provide a cost-effective means for in-situ
remediation. Such success stories reflect the Agency's growing efforts to identify innovative technology solutions for remediation
and revitalization, to remove obstacles impeding redevelopment, and to develop measures for evaluating the various stages of
ecological damage and repair.
Innovative Organic Amendments Continue to Stabilize
Slopes at Smelter Site
One of the largest revegetation projects
undertaken by the U.S. EPA's Superfund
Program used a mixture of sewage
sludge, fly ash, and lime, and most
recently, mushroom compost, lime, and
fertilizer, to reclaim 1,400 acres of a
former smelting site in Carbon County,
PA. This site, known as the Palmerton
Zinc Pile Superfund site, is located near
the confluence of the Leliigh River and
Aquashicola Creek. Primary smelting of
concentrated zinc sulfide ores over the
past century released large quantities of
zinc, lead, cadmium, and sulfur dioxide.
The smelting operation caused
deforestation of more than 2,000 acres
on the north slope of Blue Mountain.
By 1980, when all primary smelting
operations ended, elevated metal
concentrations had denuded the
mountainside and stopped microbial
decomposition of the dead trees. In
addition, soil erosion had washed away
12-24 inches of topsoil and exposed
underlying rock. Concentrations of
metals, such as zinc, cadmium, and lead,
in the upper 2 inches of remaining soil
were approximately 100-fold higher than
in ambient soil. Additionally, an estimated
33 million tons of slag had been dumped
over the years, creating a cinder bank 2.5
miles long, 200 feet high, and 1,000 feet
wide along the base of Blue Mountain.
Upon determining that removal of
contaminated soil and associated smelting
residue would cost more than $4 billion
and take up to 45 years, EPA and potentially
responsible parties began efforts in 1982
to stabilize the metals onsite through pH
management and revegetation. The work
area was designated as operable unit 1 (OU
1). Previous efforts to revegetate the site
were unsuccessful due to steep slopes,
eroded soil, and high winds as well as the
soil's metal toxicity, nutrient deficiencies,
and absence of microbial activity.
Soil analysis and greenhouse testing of
potential plants identified the most viable
seeds to be planted in large-scale field
plots. The selected soil amendment
consisted of limestone (10 tons/acre), fly
ash (132 pounds/acre), and municipal
sewage sludge (21 dry tons/acre). This
combination of materials provided
necessary nutrients in a physical form that
effectively adhered to the exposed rock
layers without washing or blowing away.
Full-scale application began in 1991 with
construction of a mixing area to blend
limestone, sewage sludge, and fly ash
[continued on page 2]
Contents
Innovative Organic
Amendments
Continue to
Stabilize Slopes
at Smelter Site page 1
EPA Convenes
Ecological
Restoration
Workshop
page 3
New Decision
Tool Uses
Vegetative Data
to Plan
Remediation
Strategies
Reclamation
Strategy for
Capped Landfill
Aims toward
Woodland
Restoration
Biosolid Compost
Reduces Lead
Bioavailability at
Inner-City Site
page 3
page 4
page 5
Recy cled/Recy cl able
Printed with Soy/Carrola Ink on paper that
contains at least 50% recycled fiber
-------
[continued from page 1]
simultaneously rather than through the
series of spreading steps used during an
earlier onsite pilot-scale application.
Suitable biosolids (containing at least 20%
solids) were obtained from municipal
wastewater treatment facilities in
Allentown, Warminster, and Philadelphia,
PA, and fly ash was obtained from the
Pennsylvania Power & Light's facility in
Montour, PA. Based on pilot-scale results,
a 2:1 biosolids/fly ash ratio was used to
provide initial grass cover for stabilizing
the site while attempting to allow trees
to germinate.
The amendment was mixed directly with
tree forb and grass seeds such as
intermediate wheatgrass, Canada
bluegrass, perennial ryegrass, redtop, and
birdsfoot trefoil, and applied once across
approximately 850 acres (Figure 1). More
man 60 miles of switchback roads were
constructed on the mountain slopes to
accommodate the application truck's
need for a relatively level road surface.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
evaluated the restoration project in 1995.
They found mat the amendment reduced
soil erosion, decreased the amount of
metals dissolving into runoff, and
appeared to stabilize soil in the treatment
area. Reclamation of the site was
evidenced further by the return of
wildlife, such as kestrels, red-tailed
hawks, turkey, groundhogs, coyote, and
fox. Establishment of grass cover was
highly successful, but tree seedlings
were choked by dense grass cover.
Shading from grasses and predation by
deer and small mammals also hampered
tree establishment significantly.
Over the past 10 years, this acreage has
maintained more than 70% vegetative
cover with increasing emergence of
volunteertree species. Follow-on field tests
were initiated in 2003 to address 470
additional acres of OU 1. This portion of
Blue Mountain has similarly rugged terrain
and also suffered from denuding. To
preserve the site's topography and help
convert the site to a wildlife refuge,
private-property owners worked with EPA
to identify alternative methods for applying
amendments without construction of
additional roads. Field experiments
demonstrated that a caterpillar tractor with
a modified agricultural spreader would
allow materials to be applied effectively
from the back of the vehicle while
traversing rocky terrain.
This application method was used to add
a new amendment on 220 acres of OU 1
this past spring (Figure 2). The
amendment consisted of mushroom
compost obtained from local mushroom
farms, lime, and fertilizer mixed with
native warm-season grasses. Leaf and
grass-clipping compost from a local
municipality was used occasionally
when mushroom compost was
unavailable. To accomplish revegetation
of the remaining 250 acres with difficult
access and grades exceeding 25%, an
aerial crop duster applied a mixture of
seeds, fertilizer, and lime.
These enhanced application techniques
effectively preserved the natural
landscape of Blue Mountain. Visual
inspection of the acreage treated this year
indicates significant germination; in
August, germination counts and species
identification will be completed. The
compost-based amendment is expected
to achieve a vegetative cover equivalent
in percent to that obtained from a
biosolid amendment while avoiding
perceived negative impacts sometimes
associated with biosolids.
Implementation of this strategy at the
850 acres initially treated, including road
construction, was estimated to cost $9
million. Use of the modified equipment,
which required no road construction,
significantly reduced implementation
costs for the follow-on field tests.
Contributed by Charlie Root, U.S.
EPA Region 3 (root. charlie(a\epa. gov
or 215-814-3193)
-------
EPA Convenes Ecological Restoration Workshop
National experts gathered at the U.S. EPA's Region 5 office in Chicago, IL, in August to begin developing a white paper
promoting remediation, revitalization, and reuse of contaminated properties using soil amendments. The white paper will
address considerations for the use of a number of different amendments, and will include a decision matrix for identifying
technical performance measures for amended soil. Updates on this work will be posted on CLU-IN (http://cluin.org).
New Decision Tool Uses Vegetative Data to Plan Remediation Strategies
Private industry and academia
collaborated with the U.S. EPA in
developing a decision tool that uses data
on existing vegetation to identify
appropriate cleanup methods for distinct
portions of large waste sites.
Implementation of this new tool, known
as the Riparian Evaluation System
(RipES), began in August at Montana's
Clark Fork River OU, a 120-mile-long
stretch along the river with extensive
fluvial deposition of acid metalliferous
mining wastes. As part of the
comprehensive Milltown Reservoir/
Clark Fork River Superfund Site, the OU
record of decision (ROD) specifies
cleanup remedies such as removal of
some wastes from 170 acres, in-place
treatment of 700-1,700 acres of wastes
using lime and organic matter as
amendments, and stream-bank
stabilization using a soft engineering
approach. This approach involves use
of vegetation with deep and binding root
systems such as willow and water birch
to minimize streambank erosion.
RipES employs key indicators of
landscape stability and plant community
dysfunction to categorize clearly
delineated portions of the site as unique
"polygons." Each polygon is associated
with an exact location, surface area,
waste volume, and other attributes that
are displayed as geographic
information system layers over base
area photographs. Remedial design
teams can then link each polygon to one
or more of the ROD-specified remedial
actions and more precisely define
cleanup costs. The tool provides:
> Classification of stream-bank lengths
according to three stability types, and
descriptions of landscape polygons
with varying levels of contamination
and vegetation dysfunction,
> Numerical components segregating
stream-bank lengths into different
classes, and threshold scores distin-
guishing severity of vegetative dys-
function, and
> A process for identifying field data gaps
and needed information for remedial
designs of each landscape polygon and
stream-bank length.
RipES was applied to multiple locations
at the OU during 2002 in order to calibrate
and validate the system, and was
demonstrated to project stakeholders in
the field the following year.
Each remedial area of the OU now will
be classified as one of four major types:
(1) stream-bank length classified by
stability type, (2) slicken areas (exposed
tailings), (3) impacted soils and
vegetation areas, or (4) slightly impacted
soil and vegetation areas. For each of
these areas, a RipES score will be
derived to determine the most
appropriate cleanup remedy allowed by
the site's record of decision.
Landscape and contaminant conditions
vary widely across the OU. For
example, field tests identified a
representative area comprising both a
stream bank and slickens area with
barren areas and little woody or
herbaceous vegetation (Figure 3).
Analytical sampling indicated that the
area contained metal salts, copper
concentrations in soil averaging 1,770
ppm, and a pH averaging only 4.5. A
low RipES score identified this as a
polygon with high priority during
remediation planning.
By early September, field teams had
classified 11 miles and identified
remedial polygons of the floodplain
streambank. Remediation planners for
the Clark Fork River OU anticipate the
use of RipES over the next several
years. The system also may be used at
this and other large sites to establish
treatment performance standards,
evaluate land reclamation designs, and
monitor ongoing reclamation projects.
[continued on page 4]
-------
[continued from page 4]
More information on the Milltown/Clark
Fork River application is available on EPA
Region 8's Superfund web site (http://
www.epa.gov/region8/superfund).
Contributed by Dennis Neuman,
Reclamation Research Group
(dneuman&reclamationresearch.netor
406-570-9274), Paul Hansen,
Ecological Solutions Group
(paul_hansen(q)ecologicalsolutionsgroup.com
or 406-777-1881), and Kristine
Knutson, U.S. EPA Region 8
(knutson.kristine&.epa.gov or 406-
457-5021)
Reclamation Strategy for Capped Landfill Aims toward Woodland Restoration
Revegetation of a portion of the Fresh
Kills capped landfill on Staten Island, NY,
illustrates an effective approach for urban
site restoration and brownfields
redevelopment. Revegetation relies on die
process of natural biological succession
to reclaim large-scale, self-sustaining
woodland areas and restore natural
habitats. Long-term field test results
demonstrate the benefits of re-
introducing native woody plants and
relying upon the remnant natural
landscape to accelerate reclamation at
Fresh Kills. Field monitoring shows no
evidence that roots of the woody plants
have penetrated or otherwise
compromised integrity of the landfill cap.
The 3,000-acre facility accepted all waste
generated by the City of New York from
the early 1940s to early 2001. It briefly
closed but soon partially reopened to
receive debris from the World Trade
Center. Before closure, the City installed
a conventional clay cap including a
standard geomembrane and 2 feet of
grass-covered soil. Routine maintenance
of the cap involves twice-yearly mowing
of the top grass to prevent growth of
woody plants with roots capable of cap
penetration.
Rutgers State University of New Jersey
examined historic ecosystems of the
Fresh Kills area and selected suitable
species for planting in a 20-acre test
section of the landfill cap. Tree saplings
averaged 8 feet in height when planted,
and shrub heights averaged 2 feet. In
1992, 700 individual plants representing
seven species of native trees and shrubs
were planted, including hackberry,
blueberry, blackberry, pasture rose,
beach plum, shadblow, and sumac. To
minimize project costs, plantings were
conducted in clusters rather than
throughout the entire test site.
Within one year, seed propagation and
viable root growth were observed in
approximately 20% of the plantings. Within
another year, more than 1,000 woody
seeds representing 29 species were found
onsite, of which 23 were native to North
America. Distribution patterns indicated
avian dispersal of 71% of the new seeds,
primarily near "parent" clusters. An
increased emergence of plants during the
third year corresponded to the recent
presence of 50 species of bees that visited
flowers and helped generate thousands of
new seeds enhancing future plant density.
Additional onsite testing was conducted
to determine whether optimal revegetation
results are achieved through numerous
small clusters or fewer large clusters of
plantings. Fast-growing native woody
species were planted in clusters of 7, 21,
42, and 70 seedlings among a total of 20
clusters, including five clusters of each
size category. Using one-meter-square
seed traps, seed dispersal was quantified
at various distances from parent clusters.
Results showed that plantings of fewer
but larger patch sizes (70 plants)
propagated at higher rates than small
clusters, though all clusters spread
outward to eventually join one another.
Seed distribution analysis also showed
higher dispersal rates near forest
remnants; over 30% of the seed "rain"
from the nearby native woodland landed
in the four nearest clusters.
Investigations were conducted over three
years on woodland species growing over
caps at other northeastern U.S. landfills,
such as the former New Jersey
Meadowiands municipal landfill. Analysis
of uprooted woody plants indicated that
their roots generally remain in the upper
soil horizon, in the presence of water and
air, and rarely extend more than 25
centimeters below the surface. In
addition, currently available
geomembranes were found to be
stronger than woody plant roots, which
tend to "pancake" outward when
[continued on page 5]
4
-------
[continued from page 4]
encountering a cap rather than
penetrating it.
Climatic factors, such as precipitation,
volume, and wind velocity, did not appear
to negatively impact the use of woody
plants for revegetation above caps. As
anticipated, poor germination rates were
observed in landfill areas with low
microbial and earthworm activity.
Multiple-site studies complemented the
Fresh Kills findings regarding the positive
influences of proximate forest remnants;
destruction of 50% of nearby natural
woodland vegetation generally leads to a
significant decline in seed rain.
General unit costs are estimated at $3,0007
acre for grass and $12,000/acre for
woodland planting, excluding the costs for
soil preparation and the recommended two
years of watering. Monitoring of the Fresh
Kills landfill test area is conducted every
1-1.5 years through funding from the
National Science Foundation. Inspection
of the site in late 2005 indicated continued
growth of woodland areas (Figure 4) and
increasing populations of avian and
small mammal communities. Complete
reclamation of this area, including an
extensive public park, is anticipated by
2025.
Contributed by Steven Handel, Ph.D.,
Rutgers State University
(handel&aesop. rutgers. edu or
732-932-4516) and John Mclaughlin,
State of New York/Department of
Environmental Consen>ation
(jm claughlin (q).dep. nyc. gov or
718-595-4458)
Biosolid Compost Reduces Lead Bioavailability at Inner-City Site
The U.S. EPA and Department of
Agriculture's Natural Resources
Conservation Service demonstrated an
alternative, cost-effective approach for
stabilizing lead contaminants in soil of
inner-city sites. The demonstration was
conducted in East St. Louis, IL, a region
formerly supporting heavy industries,
such as paint production and lead
smelting, that released a range of
contaminants.
In 1999, the State of Illinois determined
that an extremely high incidence of lead
poisoning among youth in East St. Louis
was associated with proximity to several
of these sites. The demonstrated
stabilization approach uses municipal
biosolids, fertilizers, and other modifiers
to physically bind the lead to soil
particles, thereby reducing bioavailability
of the lead and preventing it from
leaching into neighboring properties.
Goals of the demonstration focused on
establishing field processes, equipment,
and evaluation methods and identifying
material suppliers. The demonstration
occurred at a 2-acre site formerly used
for metal forging and housing but more
recently hosting only concrete rubble
and a 75% mixed vegetative cover. The
site's close proximity to a school and
community center encouraged its use
as a school access route and playground
for neighborhood children. Onsite x-ray
fluorescence screening confirmed by
laboratory analysis showed that lead
concentrations in soil exceeded the
project's 400 mg/kg remediation goal at
17 of the site's 34 screening points.
Prior to active treatment, the
demonstration area was cleared and
enclosed by a 4-foot construction fence,
and restricted-access signs were posted
at the school yard interface. The primary
soil amendment consisted of non-acidic
phosphorous, calcium carbonate, and
"class A" biosolids containing 60% yard
waste and 40% solid waste. Earlier studies
suggested an application rate of 2:1 moles
of phosphorous to lead, and sufficient
calcium carbonate for raising and
maintaining the soil pH from an average
of 6.7 to a minimum of 7.0. A total of
250 pounds of "0-45-0" triple-phosphate
fertilizer and 4,000 pounds of pelletized
limestone were blended onsite and applied
to each acre during a single pass using a
standard tractor and chisel plow.
Application rates were doubled in one
corner of the site to address a lead hotspot.
After mixing in the phosphorous/calcium
carbonate, secondary debris removal was
required to address a larger volume of
rubble than anticipated.
Biosolids were obtained from the nearby
City of St. Peters landfill and municipal
treatment facility at no material cost. A
tractor, conventional "beater" spreader,
and more innovative "slinger" spreader
were used to apply biosolids at a rate of
400 cubic yards (100 dry tons or 500
wet tons) per acre, producing a 3- to 4-
inch layer of compost mat across the
entire site. The material was mixed
directly into the soil through two rounds
of disking at perpendicular angles. This
[continued on page 6]
Contact Us
Technology News and Trends
is on the NET!
View, download, subscribe,
and unsubscribe at:
http://www.epa.gov/tio
http://cluin.org/newsletters
Technology News and Trends
welcomes readers' comments
and contributions. Address
correspondence to:
John Quander
Office of Superfund Remediation
and Technology Innovation
(5102P)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Ave, NW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 703-603-7198
Fax: 703-603-9135
-------
Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
(5203P)
EPA 542-N-06-005
October 2006
Issue No. 26
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
National Service Center for Environmental Publications
P.O. Box 42419
Cincinnati, OH 45242
Presorted Standard
Postage and Fees Paid
EPA
Permit No. G-35
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300
[continued from page 5]
was followed by soil leveling with a
harrow, and dispersion of "12-12-12"
standard grass fertilizer at a rate of 150
pounds/acre. Fescue and winter wheat
seeds then were broadcast at rates of
425 pounds and 2 bushels per acre,
respectively, and mixed into the soil with
the harrow. Following several days of
precipitation, 15 tons of finely chopped
straw were manually distributed.
Within one month, a 2- to 3-inch stand
of fescue and winter wheat existed
across 100% of the site. Five analytical
samples were collected at each of five
locations in December 2001, two
months after treatment concluded.
Results indicated that average lead
concentrations in soil decreased from
776 mg/kg before treatment to 365
mg/kg after treatment. Using EPA's SW-
846 Method 3050A, leadbioaccessibility
values were estimated to decrease 14%,
from 75.6 to 64.7 mg/kg. The initial
reductions are attributed to physical
bonding of lead to soil particles as well as
soil dilution factors. More recent reductions
are attributed to ongoing biological
processes enhanced by the presence of
organic compost. Follow-up sample
analysis in 2005 indicated that lead
concentrations in soil remained below the
target 400 mg/kg.
These demonstration results are consistent
with earlier studies at the Oronogo Mining
Belt Superfund site in Joplin, MO, which
suggested a 69% reduction inbioavailability
to humans may be achieved through this
stabilization approach. Several steps are
being taken to maintain the dense turf
barrier: mowing on a weekly basis during
growing seasons, applying four rounds of
balanced fertilizer each year, adding more
lime when annual tests indicate pH levels
are below 6.5, and periodically adding non-
acid phosphorous to ensure continued
bonding between lead and soil particles.
Southwestern Illinois Resource
Conservation and Development, Inc., a
non-profit organization working with
East St. Louis communities to address
environmental concerns, reported a
demonstration cost of $50,000 (excluding
ongoing maintenance). This stabilization
approach is suitable at commercial or
industrial redevelopment sites where the
turf barrier will not be disrupted and
where regular mowing and other
maintenance can occur; it is not intended
for residential or recreational properties.
Some communities and state agencies
regulate the field application rates and
location of biosolids. Since municipal
waste treatment facilities produce
biosolids daily, additional work is needed
to promote use of this natural product
as a remediation tool.
Contributed by Kevin Turner, U.S. EPA
Region 5 (turner.kevin&epa.gov or
618-997-0115) and Dave Eustis,
Southwestern Illinois RC&D, Inc.
(dave. eustis&rcdnet. net or 618-566-
4451)
EPA is publishing this newsletter as a means of disseminating useful information regarding innovative and alternative treatment techniques and
technologies. The Agency does not endorse specific technology vendors.
------- |